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an alternate route of DE 10 between Willow Grove and Lebanon . The route heads east from DE 10 on two @-@ lane undivided Henry Cowgill Road , passing through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes . DE 10 Alt. reaches Woodside and intersects DE 15 , with that route becoming concurrent with DE 10 Alt on Main Street . The road crosses Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line and becomes lined with homes . At an intersection with US 13 Alt . , DE 15 splits from DE 10 Alt. by heading south of US 13 Alt . DE 10 Alt. leaves Woodside and becomes Walnut Shade Road , coming to an intersection with US 13 . Past this intersection the route passes to the south of Polytech High School and enters a mix of farms , woods , and residential development , curving to the northeast . DE 10 Alt. reaches the community of Rising Sun , becoming Sorghum Mill Road at the Rising Sun Road intersection before turning north onto South State Street . The route passes through woods and runs through residential development before ending at another intersection with DE 10 , with South State Street continuing north toward Dover .
The road was constructed as a state highway between Woodside and Rising Sun in 1931 and between Willow Grove and Woodside the following year . DE 10 Alt. was designated by 1988 onto its current alignment . Prior to 2004 the South State Street portion of DE 10 Alt. was concurrent with US 113 Alt . , which was decommissioned when US 113 was truncated from Dover to Milford .
Major intersections
The entire route is in Kent County .
= Thillana Mohanambal =
Thillana Mohanambal ( English : The Dance Queen Mohanambal ) is a 1968 Indian Tamil @-@ language musical drama film written , directed , distributed and produced by A. P. Nagarajan . The film stars Sivaji Ganesan , Padmini and T. S. Balaiah in the lead roles , with A. V. M. Rajan , Nagesh and Manorama in supporting roles . It tells the story of about Shanmugasundaram , a Nadaswaram player who falls in love with Mohanambal , a Bharatanatyam dancer who reciprocates his feelings , but unfortunate circumstances and their egoistic nature prevents them from confessing their love for one another . How they overcome their self @-@ created obstacles and those created by the people around them forms the rest of the story .
The film was adapted from Kothamangalam Subbu 's novel of the same name , which was published as a series of weekly chapters in the Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan in 1956 . The film was mostly shot in Thanjavur , Thiruvarur and Madurai . Its original soundtrack was composed by K. V. Mahadevan , and songs like " Nalandhana " , " Maraindhirundhu " and " Pandian Naanirukka " became immensely popular among the Tamil diaspora .
Thillana Mohanambal was released on 27 July 1968 . Critically acclaimed for subtly portraying the socio @-@ cultural environment and the Thanjavur culture of dance and music prevailing at that time , it was also a commercial success , running for over 100 days in theatres . The film won two National Film Awards — Best Feature Film in Tamil ( President 's Silver Medal ) and Best Cinematography — and five Tamil Nadu State Film Awards . Thillana Mohanambal has since acquired cult status in Tamil cinema , and inspired several later films with similar themes of music and dance . It was dubbed and released in Telugu as Raja Narthaki .
= = Plot = =
" Sikkal " Shanmugasundaram ( Sundaram ) ( Sivaji Ganesan ) is a devoted Nadaswaram player , but is short @-@ tempered and sensitive . He meets Mohanambal ( Mohana ) ( Padmini ) , a Bharatnatyam dancer , and they fall in love with each other . Sundaram 's ego prevents him from developing his relationship with Mohanambal , who asks him to play a Thillana on his Nadaswaram while she dances . Mohanambal 's mother Vadivambal ( C. K. Saraswathi ) , an influential and mercenary woman , wants her daughter to marry a wealthy man so that she can settle down in life properly . Blinded by love , she disobeys her mother , creating a rift between them . Unaware of her feelings , Sundaram decides to leave the country along with Karuppayi ( Manorama ) , a folk dancer whom he considers to be his sister . Mohana calls him a coward and challenges him to stay , which he readily accepts . In a temple , Sundaram plays the Thillana and Mohana dances . Sundaram , impressed with Mohana 's performance , crowns her the title " Thillana Mohanambal " . Suddenly Nagalingam ( E. R. Sahadevan ) , a landlord who wanted to marry Mohana , turns up to stab Sundaram with a poisoned knife out of jealousy . He came to the temple to kill Mohana .
Sundaram is admitted to hospital but recovers from the incident . Later , he and Mohana meet in a concert programme where they perform , against Mohana 's mother 's wishes . For his personal gains , " Savadal " Vaithi ( Nagesh ) , a cunning man , befriends the Maharaja of Madhanpur ( M. N. Nambiar ) , who is the programme 's chief guest . Vaithi promises to make Mohana the Maharaja 's mistress . Vaithi traps Mohana by telling her that the Maharaja has invited Nadhaswaram and Bharatanatyam performers to perform in his palace , and that Sundaram has also decided to attend . Mohana immediately accepts the offer and the two visit Madhanpur . Vaithi treats Sundaram 's group badly and Sundaram decides to leave . He sees Mohana visiting the Maharaja 's room . The Maharaja asks Mohana to be his mistress. but she rejects his advances and is rescued by the Maharaja 's wife , the Maharani . Sundaram decides that Mohana does not love him , despite her repeated denial of the Maharaja 's offer . Depressed , Mohana runs away . The Maharaja reveals the truth to Sundaram that Mohana had refused his offer and she only loves Sundaram . Sundaram realises his mistake , and rushes to apologise to Mohana , but sees her trying to hang herself from the ceiling of a room in which she had locked herself . He screams to her to stop and promises he will never doubt her love again . Sundaram breaks the door and saves Mohana . They then get married with the approval of her mother . Vaithi is arrested for his crimes .
= = Cast = =
Lead actors
Sivaji Ganesan as " Sikkal " Shanmugasundaram ( Sundaram ) , a Nadaswaram player
Padmini as Mohanambal ( Mohana ) , a Bharatnatyam dancer
T. S. Balaiah as Muthurakku , a Thavil player in Sundaram 's troupe
Male supporting actors
A. V. M. Rajan as Thangarathnam , the brother of Sundaram and Nadaswaram player in his troupe
K. A. Thangavelu as Nattuvanar Muthukumara Swamy
M. N. Nambiar as the Maharaja of Madhanpur
Chittor V. Nagaiah as Sundaram 's Nadaswaram teacher
K. Sarangkapani as Sakthivel , another Thavil player in Sundaram 's troupe
A. Karunanithi as an Ottu player in Sundaram 's troupe
K. Balaji as " Singapuram Minor " Chellathurai , a landlord and womaniser
Nagesh as " Savadal " Vaithi , a cunning man who plans to ruin Sundaram and Mohana
T. R. Ramachandran as Varathan , a Mridangam player in Mohana 's troupe
S. V. Sahasranamam as a Saint living in Thiruvarur
E. R. Sahadevan as Nagalingam , a landlord
P. D. Sambandam as Thaalam player in Sundaram 's troupe
Female supporting actors
Manorama as Karuppayi / " Jil Jil " Ramamani / Roja Rani
C. K. Saraswathi as Vadivambal , Mohana 's mother
Shanmugasundari as Veena player in Mohana 's troupe
M. Saroja as Vethalai Petti , Mohana 's mother 's maid
M. L. Bhanumathi as a nurse
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Thillana Mohanambal is based on the novel of the same name , written by Kothamangalam Subbu under the pseudonym of " Kalaimani " . It was published as a series of weekly chapters in the Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan . The story portrayed the relationship between Mohanambal ( Mohana ) , a celebrated dancer , and Shanmugasundaram , a Nadaswaram musician . The novel was popular in 1956 when it was publicised . The illustrations for the novel were done by sketch artist and cartoonist , Gopulu .
S. S. Vasan , who held the rights to the book , initially refused to allow director Nagarajan to make the film because Vasan wanted to make a film adaptation himself . When Nagarajan approached him later , Vasan gave him the rights without any consideration . Nagarajan paid Vasan ₹ 25 @,@ 000 ( about US $ 3 @,@ 300 in 1968 ) , but also went to visit Subbu with an additional ₹ 10 @,@ 000 ( about US $ 1 @,@ 300 in 1968 ) . Subbu declined the money , saying that Vasan had forwarded him the money that Nagarajan had paid earlier .
Nagarajan produced the film under his production company , Sri Vijayalakshmi Pictures . K. S. Prasad was in charge of the film 's cinematography , M. N. Rajan and T. R. Natarajan jointly handled the editing , and Ganga was the film 's art director . R. Rangasamy was Sivaji Ganesan 's make @-@ up artist .
= = = Casting = = =
Because the protagonist of the film is a dancer , Nagarajan wanted Padmini to play the role . Padmini had retired from films and had settled in the United States with her husband Ramachandran at that time . Nagarajan included her in the film after seeking Ramachandran 's permission . A younger artist was suggested instead of Padmini for the film , but Nagarajan refused the suggestion . Padmini 's character , Mohanambal , competed with Ganesan 's character professionally . Ganesan 's character is a Nadaswaram player named Shanmugasundaram , who earned the suffix " Sikkal " due to his place of birth being in Sikkal and also because of his tendency to get into trouble . Ganesan attended Carnatic music concerts , and consulted Carnatic musicians in preparation for his role . T. S. Balaiah portrayed Muthurakku , the Thavil player . Tiruvidaimarudur Venkatesan played the instrument Thavil off @-@ screen for Balaiah . Balaiah had additional training for playing the instrument . Madurai T. Srinivasan played the Mridangam off @-@ screen for the song " Maraindhirundhe Paarkum " .
A. V. M. Rajan portrayed Shanmugasundaram 's brother Thangarathnam . According to playwright Crazy Mohan , Gopulu 's caricature of the character Vaithi in Subbu 's novel was similar to Nagesh , who portrayed Vaithi in the film . Manorama played the wildly expressive , loud @-@ talking but tender @-@ hearted folk dancer Karuppayi , who has to contend with living under the shadows of landlords ; she changes her identity every now and then to escape from them . In an interview with Maalai Malar , Manorama stated that she was initially nervous acting in front of Ganesan and Balaiah , but Nagarajan assured her that whenever her character appeared she would be the centre of attention , which gave her the confidence to play her role . Serial and theatre artist M. L. Bhanumathi played the nurse who treats Shanmugasundaram . Other supporting actors included K. Sarangkapani , S. Ramarao , M. K. Murthy , Balusundaram , T. N. Sivadhanu , S. R. Dasarathan , Sivasooriyan , Senthamarai , Kallapart Natarajan , Gundu Karuppaiah , Chandranbabu , S. V. Rajagopal , A. M. Maruthappa , Udayachandrika , Ambika and Kalpalatha .
The Nadaswaram played by Ganesan and Rajan was played off @-@ screen by the brothers , M. P. N. Sethuraman and M. P. N. Ponnusamy . Nagarajan had seen the duo performing at a wedding reception in Karaikudi and asked them to come to Chennai . Their rehearsals took place over 15 days in Mahadevan 's recording studio in Chennai . Nagarajan then listened to a radio recital by the duo , and was impressed with their rendition of Thyagaraja 's Keerthana , " Nagumomu Ganaleni " . The Keerthana was later selected as one of the soundtrack instrumentals in the film . After Thillana Mohanambal 's release , a Russian delegation met Ganesan in person . They were surprised to hear that he was only acting and not actually playing the Nadaswaram .
= = = Filming = = =
Thillana Mohanambal , shot in Eastmancolor , was filmed in Thanjavur , Thiruvarur and Madurai , in the Cauvery delta . Many of the film 's aesthetics were borrowed from Indian theatre , of which Nagarajan was an artist . The competition sequence between Ganesan and Padmini took about nine takes to be filmed . The film presented a mise @-@ en @-@ scène feel , mostly using frontal shots . The actors were lined up to face the camera and deliver their dialogue . Nagarajan , a former employee of the T. K. S. drama company , paid tribute to Shankardas Swamigal — from whom the company had its ancestral roots — by naming a drama company in the film after the company 's name . Snippets of the film 's behind @-@ the @-@ scenes production were filmed by French film director Louis Malle as a part of his 378 @-@ minute , seven @-@ part documentary series , L 'Inde fantôme : Reflexions sur un voyage ( 1969 ) , when he visited Madras .
The film shows the traditions exhibited by courtesans , zamindars in coaches drawn by horses , and palaces that resembled 19th century architecture . The contemporary areas of Madurai and Thanjavur , especially their railway junctions , gave the film a sense of ambiguity that was then very common in Tamil cinema . The film recreated the manner in which the Devadasis were portrayed in the early 20th century , and also depicts the social conditions and the upper class milieu in Thanjavur . Real locations were mixed with the fictional town of Madhanpur , which was ruled by a king portrayed by Nambiar . The song " Pandian Naanirukken " was inspired from a stage play named Sadharam . The film also had undertones of the Chithirai festival .
= = Music = =
The film 's soundtrack and score were composed by K. V. Mahadevan , while the lyrics were written by Kannadasan . Ganesan did not have a playback singer for any of the songs in the film . The instrumental pieces " English Notes " and " Nadaswaram Bit " were originally composed by Muthiah Bhagavathar . After performing them at Ganesan 's 42nd birthday celebrations , Ponnusamy and Seetharaman were asked to play them in the film . " Maraindhirundhu " was based on Shanmukhapriya raga . " Nalandhana " was based on Nilamani raga , which closely resembles Shivaranjani raga . The first line of " Nalandhana " was later used in the film Silambattam ( 2008 ) . Under Mahadevan 's supervision , Pugazhendi set the Sangatis for the film 's soundtrack and score . The soundtrack was released by the record label Saregama .
The soundtrack received positive reviews from critics . Singer Charulatha Mani wrote for the The Hindu on " Nalandhana " that , " ... one can feel the proximity in musicality . The Thavil beats , Nadaswara refrains and the honeyed voice all blend into an inviting melody composed by K.V. Mahadevan . " For " Maraindhirundhu " she said , " The nadaswaram and thavil back @-@ ups for this song and the jathi @-@ s give it its typical classical flavour . ' Thooyane mayavaa mayane velava ennai aalum Shanmuga vaa ' – these lines represent the ideal confluence of raga , bhava and lyric , a perfect foil to each other . " G. Dhananjayan said in his book The Best of Tamil Cinema that the songs contributed to the film 's success , and the songs " Maraindhirundhu " , " Nalandhana " and " Thilladongri Dappankuthu ( Pandian Naanirukka ) " remain popular till date . Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen in their Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema , referred to " Nalandhana " as " [ a ] major song hit " . According to film critic Randor Guy , " Nalandhana " became " one of the memorable song sequences with Sivaji Ganesan and AVM Rajan , playing the [ Nadaswaram ] on screen " . P. K. Ajith Kumar of The Hindu stated , " Just as [ Susheela ] does not need to know the language to sing a song perfectly , we need not know Tamil to enjoy her songs like ... Nalandaana ... ( Thillana Mohanambal ) " .
= = = Track listing = = =
= = Release and reception = =
Thillana Mohanambal was released on 27 July 1968 . It was released with English subtitles in overseas countries . The film 's release prints were 4 @,@ 825 m ( 15 @,@ 830 ft ) long and were contained on 19 reels . The film was also dubbed in Telugu as Raja Narthaki . The film was shown for six weeks at theatres in Pondicherry , and ran for 100 days in Ganesan 's family @-@ owned Shanthi theatre in Chennai . It also completed 100 @-@ day runs in theatres in Kovai , Madurai and Trichy , and was eventually shown for 25 weeks .
Thillana Mohanambal was screened in Chennai on 21 April 2010 at the South Indian Film Chamber Theatre for the Dignity Film Festival . In November 2011 , it was shown at the International Tamil Film Festival held in Uglich , Russia , alongside Chandramukhi ( 2005 ) , Sivaji ( 2007 ) , Angadi Theru ( 2010 ) , Boss Engira Bhaskaran ( 2010 ) , Thenmerku Paruvakaatru ( 2010 ) and Ko ( 2011 ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received critical acclaim in India and abroad for its song and dance sequences , humour and portrayal of the prevailing socio @-@ cultural milieu at that time . The performances of the actors were praised . The Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan carried an 11 @-@ page review of Thillana Mohanambal with a discussion among several prominent people , which included IAS officers , professors and actors who unanimously appreciated the film and the people associated with it . The review 's conclusion was , " The director should be given a prize for making such a film " . G. Dhananjayan , in his book The Best of Tamil Cinema , said , " Dance and music were beautifully used as an integral part of the story and not as add @-@ ons . " He cited Padmini 's Bharatanatyam dances as one of the film 's major highlights .
In its original review , The Hindu said , " Thillana Mohanambal encumasses [ sic ] all the traditional wealth of the culture of [ Tamil Nadu ] . " Subha J. Rao and K. Jeshi of The Hindu , in their article " Laughter lines " , praised the train scene and the performances of Balaiah and Manorama . The Hindu in its Cinema Plus feature called the film " a perfect combination of music , dance and humour , " while also stating that the film can be enjoyed even today . Randor Guy praised Balaiah 's acting in the film , saying , " In one song , the famous Tyagaraja kriti in Abheri , ‘ Nagumomu Kanaleni ’ , Balaiah played the thavil in excellent sync with the background song that was recorded earlier in the studio , revealing how adept he really was with the instrument " . C. V. Aravind of The News Minute was also positive towards Balaiah 's performance , in addition to those of Thangavelu , T. R. Ramachandran and Sarangkapani . On Manorama 's performance , N. Kesavan of The Hindu wrote , " One can never forget her role as ' Jil Jil Ramamani ' in " Thillana Mohanambal . " She was on a par with Sivaji Ganesan and Padmini in the film with her acting . "
The magazine Screen called the film " a brilliantly made entertainer " . Dina Thanthi wrote " Not one would not have been mesmerized by the " Thillana " dance sequence " . The British newspaper Daily Mail said Thillana Mohanambal is " a feast to the eyes and ears " . Subhashini Pathmanathan of Daily News Sri Lanka praised the film 's dance and music sequences . D. B. S Jeyaraj of Daily FT called Sivaji 's " ... duel over artistic superiority with Padmini , particularly during the ' Nalanthaana ? ' song sequence " is a scene that " remains etched in [ his ] memory " .
In 2011 , film historian S. Theodore Baskaran criticised Thillana Mohanambal for its historical inaccuracies , saying that in the film , a Tamil king was seen wearing a Marathi costume , " The film @-@ makers completely neglect the aspects of dress , jewels and weapons that are depicted in our sculptures . They do not even do basic research . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Thillana Mohanambal won two National Film Awards and five Tamil Nadu State Film Awards .
= = Legacy = =
Thillana Mohanambal became a cult film for bringing the traditional arts of South India into prominence and achieving more popularity than the novel . It became a landmark film for Sivaji Ganesan . Padmini 's titular role become so iconic that the film was identified as her pièce de résistance . She considered Thillana Mohanambal to be the best film of her career . The film is notable for catapulting Manorama to stardom . A dialogue , " Enakku anga oru beeda kadai kaarana theriyum ( I know a paan shop owner there ) " , which was spoken by Balaiah , became popular . According to the 2010 book Anna : The Life and Times of C.N. Annadurai by R. Kannan , C. N. Annadurai sister 's granddaughter , Kanmani , would enquire about his well @-@ being during his last days by singing the song , " Nalamdhana " .
The film became a trendsetter and inspired several later films with similar themes of music and dance – including Karagattakaran ( 1989 ) , Sangamam ( 1999 ) , and Kaaviya Thalaivan ( 2014 ) . In July 2007 , S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu asked eight Tamil film directors to list their all @-@ time favourite Tamil films ; four of them – C. V. Sridhar , K. Balachander , J. Mahendran and K. Bhagyaraj – named Thillana Mohanambal . In May 2014 , C. V. Raghavan , writing for The Hindu , listed Thillana Mohanambal among his top five films . Actress Kavitha Nair , who made her debut with Mudhal Idam ( 2011 ) , changed her screen name to Mohana because she liked the character . Actor Jayaprakash referred to the film as " beautifully made " , considering it to be a period film . Tamil comedy actor and writer Crazy Mohan stated that the film made his top ten list , and that there was " excellence in all aspects — screenplay , dialogue , comedy , casting , music and direction . A winning combination , indeed . This gives Thillana Mohanambal its timeless appeal " . Scriptwriter @-@ Director Viji of Velli Thirai ( 2008 ) fame noted how the film showcased the culture of Thanjavur and that the acting performances and film formed a " complete package " . In September 2014 , Vijay Sethupathi , in an interview with Sudhir Srinivasan of The Hindu , listed Thillana Mohanambal among his favourite films alongside Ratha Kanneer ( 1954 ) , Puthiya Paravai ( 1964 ) and Rajapart Rangadurai ( 1973 ) .
The prints of the film in 16 mm format were acquired by the American Cultural Association for their archives to represent quintessential old @-@ world Thanjavur culture , and by universities in the United States for the study of Bharatanatyam and Nadaswaram arts in particular . Thillana Mohanambal is included with other Sivaji Ganesan @-@ starrers in 8th Ulaga Adhisayam Sivaji , a compilation DVD featuring Ganesan 's " iconic performances in the form of scenes , songs and stunts " which was released in May 2012 . Although film distributor Shanthi Chokkalingam stated in February 2012 that Thillana Mohanambal 's remaining prints were " totally damaged " , Pradeep Sebastian of Deccan Herald stated in April 2015 that he " recently " saw the film through a restored print . In its obituary for Manorama , The Hindu noted Jil Jil Ramamani " probably bore the closest resemblance to Manorama " in terms of being able to perform Karakattam and Poikkal Kuthirai .
= = In popular culture = =
Thillana Mohanambal has been parodied and referenced many times . In a comedy scene from Karagattakaran , Senthil dances with Kovai Sarala and an onlooker compares them to Ganesan and Padmini 's characters from the film , resulting in Goundamani becoming irked by the comment . The Times of India compared Karagattakaran to Thillana Mohanambal because in both films , the male and female lead characters are in love with each other , despite being professional rivals . In the film Villu Pattukaran ( 1992 ) , Goundamani asks Senthil to play " Nalandhana " on his thavil , resulting in a comical argument between the two . In Muthu ( 1995 ) , Muthuvel ( Rajinikanth ) , in a conversation with Malayasimman ( Sarath Babu ) , says that Ambalarathar 's ( Radha Ravi ) daughter , Padmini ( Subhashri ) looks like actress Padmini 's character , Mohana , in the film .
When Vadivelu 's character Kuzhandaivelu is injured in Middle Class Madhavan ( 2001 ) , Revathi Sankaran , who plays his in @-@ law in the film , sings " Nalandhana " while enquiring about his health . In Perazhagan ( 2004 ) , when hunchback Chinna ( Suriya ) talks about improving his looks , Kuzhandaisamy ( Vivek ) jokes that if Chinna was given a party horn to play with , he would look like ' Sikkal ' Shanmugasundaram . Scenes from Thillana Mohanambal were parodied in Thamizh Padam ( 2010 ) . The film 's poster depicts lead actor Shiva as Ganesan 's character , Shanmugasundaram and M. S. Bhaskar as Balaiah 's character , Muthurakku .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Chrysler 180 =
The Chrysler 180 was the base name for a series of large saloon cars produced by Chrysler Europe . Resulting from joining development efforts of Rootes Group and Simca , the car was produced from 1970 to 1975 in Poissy , France , and later in Chrysler 's subsidiary Barreiros ' factory in Spain . The Chrysler 180 was also the base for the medium @-@ sized model built by Chrysler Australia , the Chrysler Centura .
Depending on engine employed , the cars were marketed as Chrysler 160 / 180 / 2 litre , and since 1977 in France and rest of continental Europe as Chrysler @-@ Simca 1609 / 1610 / 2 litres . After the takeover of Chrysler Europe by PSA Peugeot Citroën , the continental Europe models were renamed Talbot 1610 / 2 litres for 1979 and 1980 model years , after which the model was discontinued in Europe save for Spain , where a diesel model was sold until 1982 .
The large Chrysler fared quite poorly in the principal European markets . The replacement for the car was developed by Chrysler Europe under the codename C9 and was finally launched by PSA as the even more ill @-@ fated Talbot Tagora .
= = Development = =
Although Chrysler gradually took financial control of both Simca and Rootes Group during the 1960s , there was little effort to coordinate the operations of both automakers . Therefore , the first " common " European Chrysler car was actually a result of two separate development programmes .
= = = Rootes Group C Car = = =
In 1966 , under the direction of Roy Axe , the Head of Design , Rootes Group team started working on what was internally named the " C Car " ( in reference to the smaller " B car " , which became the Hillman Avenger ) , a new large car for Rootes to replace the Humber Hawk ( and the imported Australian Chrysler Valiant , which served as a placeholder in Rootes ' lineup after the Hawk 's demise in 1967 , without much success ) . In typical Rootes fashion , the plan was to market the car under three brands - the base version as Hillman , a 2 @.@ 0 @-@ litre one as Sunbeam 2000 , and atop the range a Humber Hawk with a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ litre engine . A further development of the C Car with a stretched platform was planned , a " D Car " , which was to replace the Humber Super Snipe .
The Rootes development programme also comprised the development of a brand @-@ new V6 engine , with a 60 ° vee angle , with two versions of the abovementioned displacements of 2 @.@ 0 and 2 @.@ 5 litres . There were four ( Series IV , presumably ) Humber Hawk- and some Hillman Avenger @-@ bodied prototypes built to test the new engine . Some other design propositions included the use of De Dion tubes for rear suspension ( like in the competing Rover P6 ) , as well as a five @-@ speed gearbox ( which would still be a rather daring proposition at that time ) .
One of the engineers who worked on the design of the C Car was Tony Wheeler , who was later the founder of the Lonely Planet travel guides .
= = = Simca Projet 929 = = =
At the same time , in France , Simca was working on Projet 929 , which would be Simca 's first large car since the Vedette was cancelled in 1961 , and also partially replace the Simca 1501 in its role of the range @-@ topping Simca . The car would not use a V6 engine , as the displacement @-@ based puissance fiscale tax system in France would make the costs prohibitive , but rather four @-@ cylinder units of more modest specifications . There were three styling propositions prepared for the new car . The 929 XA was styled by Simca 's design team , featuring angular design and rather top @-@ heavy proportions . Bertone designed the 929 XB , which was much more rounded and somewhat reminiscent of contemporary BMWs . Finally , the 929 XC was sent straight from Chrysler 's Detroit design studios , and was very American in style , resembling a smaller version of what then became the Australian VE Series Chrysler Valiant .
= = = The decision = = =
In early 1969 , Chrysler realized that there were actually two potentially competing cars being developed and called for both the British and the French proposition to be presented before the general management of Chrysler Europe . The decision was taken to go ahead with the British C Car programme , but to develop two versions for both the UK and the French part of the concern . Chrysler funded a new plant along with a development centre for the Rootes Group at the Whitley plant , Coventry , where the development was continued . Roy Axe employed former Chrysler USA designer Curt Gwinn as project designer , and the C Car took a shape very similar to an enlarged version of Hillman Avenger . Initial designs were inspired by contemporary American Chryslers , with twin headlamps and a light bar in the rear .
In 1970 , however , Chrysler reviewed the programme once again and decided to trim it down to just one version , to be built in Simca 's Poissy factory in France , for all markets . The responsibility for the programme was then passed in turn to Simca ( where it became known internally as " Simca 1800 " ) , who gave the car a different front end with rectangular single front lamps , as well as stripped the interior of some features proposed by the Rootes Group team , such as genuine wood and leather and air conditioning . Much to the shock of the British engineers , the entire V6 engine programme was scrapped , even despite allegedly £ 31 million of the £ 38 million of the programme budget was already spent , and the tooling for the new engine was already being installed in the Rootes ' Humber Road factory . The car also ended up with more conventional coil sprung rear live axle and MacPherson struts in the front and a four @-@ speed manual transmission ( with an option of a three @-@ speed automatic ) .
= = Marketing = =
= = = Launch = = =
Following the renaming of Simca as " Chrysler France " and Rootes Group as " Chrysler UK " ( which combined formed Chrysler Europe ) , the new large car was the first one to spearhead the concept of unifying the offerings from both sides of the Channel under the common brand . Thus , the vehicle was launched as Chrysler 160 , 160 GT and 180 . In a fashion similar to Simca models , the designations referred to the displacement of the engines employed by the given version . The 160 employed the 1632 cc unit , while the 180 came with the 1812 cc one . A bit confusingly , the 160 GT came equipped with the larger engine . The 160 has 80 PS ( 59 kW ) while the 160 GT and 180 have 97 PS ( 71 kW ) .
The three models were introduced to the public at the 1970 Salon International d 'Automobile under the slogan " An American from Paris " . The British launch took place in 1971 , with only the 180 on offer . The 2 @.@ 0 @-@ litre model ( marketed simply as " Chrysler 2 litre " ) joined the lineup for 1973 , unveiled at the Amsterdam Auto Show in 1972 for the first time . The 1981 cc unit was available solely with Chrysler 's TorqueFlite automatic transmission ( which was an option on the 180 model ) , and the model came with a host of features that distinguished it from the lesser versions , including a full @-@ length vinyl roof ( which became an option for the 160 and 180 ) , bumper @-@ mounted auxiliary driving lights and a small " 2L " badge adorning the C @-@ pillar . The 160 and 180 also gained some chrome and metal trim on the outside in 1972 , and since the advent of the 2 @.@ 0 @-@ litre , all models featured 14 @-@ inch ( rather than previous 13 @-@ inch ) wheels and new hubcaps . The 160 GT was cancelled at the same time .
= = = Press reaction = = =
A Chrysler 180 saloon tested by the British Motor magazine in April 1971 , a few months after the model 's UK launch , had a top speed of 101 @.@ 0 mph ( 162 @.@ 5 km / h ) and could accelerate from 0 @-@ 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) in 12 @.@ 4 seconds . An overall fuel consumption of 21 @.@ 7 miles per imperial gallon ( 13 @.@ 0 L / 100 km ; 18 @.@ 1 mpg @-@ US ) was recorded . The test car was offered at £ 1498 including taxes . For all three of these measurements , the car was ranked third out of five UK market competitor vehicles : competitors identified by the journal , included the Ford Cortina Mk III 2000 GXL and the Vauxhall VX 4 / 90 . The overall tone of the road test , written at a time when new models were generally greeted with uncritical enthusiasm by UK motoring journalists , is summed up in its description of the Chrysler 180 as a " very pleasing car that only just falls short of being a luxury sporting saloon " .
= = = Barreiros = = =
When it became apparent that the model was far less than a market hit , Chrysler decided to move the assembly lines from the Poissy factory to the Villaverde plant of its Spanish subsidiary , Barreiros . Barreiros had been assembling many Simca and Chrysler models previously for the protected Spanish market , but for the first time it would become the sole supplier of the entire model line for all markets . The vehicle became reasonably popular in its new home market , and local coachbuilders even created estate and stretched versions of the car . The lineup remained for the most part unchanged in most markets , although the 160 was not offered in Spain , which in turn received a new diesel model , powered by the Barreiros 2 @.@ 0 @-@ litre diesel engine ( not offered in other European markets ) .
= = = = Chrysler 180 Diesel = = = =
The engine was a traditional four cylinders diesel with indirect injection . It was mated to the four @-@ speed manual transmission and delivered 48 kilowatts ( 65 hp ) . The diesel model was fitted with the most basic 160 dashboard . An important change to the Spanish lineup was forced by the November 1977 change of the Spanish taxation system , similar to France 's puissance fiscale - a new 13 CV tax band was introduced , which attracted the very high rate of 35 % , and encompassed both the petroleum and diesel 2 @.@ 0 @-@ litre models . While the petroleum 2 @.@ 0 Litre model was simply replaced by a 180 automatic , the diesel engine had to be modified for 1978 to avoid increased taxation . The displacement was decreased from 2007 cc to 1917 cc ( without a drop in actual maximum power or speed ) , just below the border of the 13 CV tax band , which stood at 1920 cc .
= = = Later model life = = =
In 1977 , the car was for the first time officially badged as Chrysler @-@ Simca in continental Europe ( the Simca badge appeared on the bootlid , while the stylized Chrysler plate continued to adorn the front end ) . The individual models were renamed to be in line with the newly launched Simca 1307 / 1308 series . While the first two digits in this model naming system stood for the base engine 's displacement ( 1 @.@ 6 in case of the Chrysler 160 ) , the latter two represented the French fiscal class in which the car slotted . Thus , the 1 @.@ 6 @-@ powered model became the Chrysler @-@ Simca 1609 , as it fitted in the French 9 CV tax band ( even though this model actually was cancelled from the French market lineup ) , and the 1 @.@ 8 , slotting one class higher , became the Chrysler @-@ Simca 1610 , and was fitted with the vinyl roof and extra driving lamps from the 2 @.@ 0 @-@ litre model . However , in the UK , where only the 180 was on offer , it retained its name . To add to the confusion , the 2 @.@ 0 @-@ litre retained its name in all markets .
= = = = PSA takeover = = = =
In 1979 , the large Chrysler saw the sale of its parent company , Chrysler Europe , to the French PSA concern , due to Chrysler 's financial difficulties . Some minor reshuffles in the range were made . The 1 @.@ 8 @-@ litre engine was cancelled — in France , the 1610 got the 2 @.@ 0 @-@ litre engine ( which made it technically a " 11 CV " car , but the name was not changed ) , while in Britain the 180 model was simply dropped , with the 2 @.@ 0 @-@ litre now being offered with either the manual or automatic transmission to mirror the continental lineup . A minor rehash of the exterior decals also occurred . From 1 August 1979 , PSA decided to rename all previous Chrysler Europe cars as Talbots ( and Talbot @-@ Simcas in case of the French models , to capitalize on the established brand ) , and hence the Chrysler @-@ Simca 1609 and 1610 became the Talbot Simca 1609 and 1610 , and in Britain , the car became the Talbot 2 litre . The range was sold for only one year with the new names , as for 1981 PSA presented a replacement , the brand @-@ new Talbot Tagora . Peugeot had originally intended to replace it with the Solara , the saloon version of the Alpine , which was launched in April 1980 .
The production of petrol @-@ engine Talbot 1610 stopped at the Barreriros plant , but diesel versions continued under the Talbot badge until 1982 for the Spanish market .
= = Lack of market success = =
The Chrysler 180 / 2 @-@ litre probably found its best market in Spain , albeit only after production had been transferred there in the later 1970s : Spain was effectively closed off to any competitor product not assembled in Spain . The only significant locally assembled competitor here was the Seat 132 .
The car was not received too well either in France or in the UK . Its mixed pedigree and exotic brand did not fit in well with the expectations of more nationalistic buyers and reviewers , and there was little that would make the car stand out among the crowd of similar cars , many of which already had an established position in the class . By 1976 , with the number of cars sold in the UK not yet up to 10 @,@ 000 , British sales had settled down at the annual rate of about 2 @,@ 000 which was seen to be below the company 's expectations , but UK sales were more impressive than those in France . In France , the sales of the Chrysler were so disappointing that the old Simca 1501 was offered again for 1974 ( it remained in production sometime after the Chrysler 's launch for export markets mostly , in order to use up the remaining parts ) .
The German Auto Katalog remarked that the car bore resemblance to the Opel Rekord ( which can perhaps be said not only of its styling , but also of almost identical dimensions and similar engine selection ) , yet it also pointed out that the Rekord in question was a four @-@ year @-@ old car at that time ( and was subsequently replaced by a new model in 1971 ) . In the British market the car 's chances against rivals , such as the successful Rover SD1 , were also hampered by the lack of engines larger than the 2 @.@ 0 @-@ litre , as the competitors offered six- or even eight @-@ cylinder units , being unhampered by the French tax regulations .
Moreover , Chrysler seemed not to support the model after the launch . Advertising was scanty and updates scarce and rather limited in scope . Chrysler did not bother to fit the supposedly upmarket model with such features as power windows , central locking , ( though a then @-@ unusual fitment was a low fuel warning lamp which would come on when a couple of gallons of fuel was left in the tank ) , even though they were all available in the smaller Simca 1307 , launched around the time when the 180 was in mid @-@ life .
= = Chrysler Centura = =
A variant of the Chrysler 180 was produced in Australia from 1975 to 1978 by Chrysler Australia as the Chrysler Centura . The Centura was offered with a choice of 4 @-@ cylinder and 6 @-@ cylinder engines mated to a manual or automatic transmission and was fitted with a modified front radiator grille to allow more airflow to the radiator , and four round headlamps to complete the makeover . The Centura had limited market success in Australia .
= Helicoverpa zea =
Helicoverpa zea , commonly known as the corn earworm , is a species ( formerly in the genus Heliothis ) in the family Noctuidae . The larva of the moth Helicoverpa zea is a major agricultural pest . Since it is polyphagous ( feeds on many different plants ) during the larval stage , the species has been given many different common names , including the cotton bollworm and the tomato fruitworm . It also consumes a wide variety of other crops .
The species is widely distributed across the Americas with the exception of northern Canada and Alaska . It has become resistant to many pesticides , but can be controlled with integrated pest management techniques including deep ploughing , trap crops , chemical control using mineral oil , and biological controls .
The species migrates seasonally , at night , and can be carried downwind up to 400 km . Pupae can make use of diapause to wait out adverse environmental conditions , especially at high latitudes and in drought .
= = Distribution = =
The corn earworm is found in temperate and tropical regions of North America , with the exception of northern Canada and Alaska as it cannot overwinter in these areas . Helicoverpa zea found in the eastern United States also do not overwinter successfully . They live in Kansas , Ohio , Virginia , and southern New Jersey , but survival rate is mainly affected by the severity of the winter . Corn earworm moths regularly migrate from southern regions to northern regions depending on winter conditions . They are also found in Hawaii , the Caribbean islands , and most of South America , including Peru , Argentina , and Brazil .
Cotton earworms have also been reported from China in 2002 .
= = Life cycle and Description = =
= = = Eggs = = =
Eggs are individually deposited on leaf hairs and corn silks ( not in reference given ) . The eggs are initially pale green in color , but over time they turn yellowish and then grey . Eggs are 0 @.@ 5 mm in height and average about 0 @.@ 55 mm in diameter . They hatch after 66 to 72 hours of development . Once larvae have breached the chorion , they spend up to 85 % of their time emerging from their shell . In this eclosion process , the larvae work to make the exit hole larger than their head . Larvae spend the rest of the time making a silk meshwork around the exit hole ; this both helps them escape the shell and helps them find the shell afterwards so they can feed on it . After feeding on their shell , larvae rest for approximately 3 minutes before they begin feeding on the plant material around them .
= = = Larvae = = =
Following hatching , larvae feed on the reproductive structures of the plant and usually develop through four to six instars . Initially , the young larva feed together , and this stage is their most destructive stage . Through maturation , older larvae become aggressive and cannibalistic , leaving one or two larvae per feeding site ( See Interfamilial Predation ) . They usually have orange heads , black thorax plates , and a body color that is primarily black . Their bodies can also be brown , pink , green , and yellow with many thorny microspines . Mature larvae migrate to the soil , where they pupate for 12 to 16 days .
= = = Pupae = = =
Larvae pupate 5 to 10 cm below the soil surface . Pupae are brown in color ; they measure 5 @.@ 5 mm wide and 17 to 22 mm long . The biggest environmental factor that affects the pupal developmental rate is temperature , primarily soil temperature . This is because proper insulation facilitates development , and soil temperatures below 0 degrees Celsius correlate to higher pupal mortality . Another factor that influences pupal development is soil moisture . Pupal mortality is high in wet soil , where the moisture level is between 18 and 25 percent . Dehydration can also lead to high death rates among pupae , if soil moisture is as low as 1 to 2 percent .
= = = Adults = = =
Adults have forewings that are yellowish brown in color and have a dark spot located in the center of their body . The moths have a wingspan ranging from 32 to 45mm , and live over thirty days in optimal conditions . However , the life span ranges from five to fifteen days on average . They are nocturnal and hide in vegetation during the day . Adult moths collect nectar or other plant exudates from a large number of plants , and live for 12 to 16 days . Females can lay up to 2 @,@ 500 eggs in their lifetime .
= = Economic impact = =
= = = Damage = = =
The corn earworm is a major agricultural pest , with a large host range encompassing corn and many other crop plants . Helicoverpa zea is the second most important economic pest species in North America , next to the codling moth . The estimated annual cost of the damage is more than 100 million US dollars , even though expenditure on insecticide application has reached up to 250 million dollars . The moth ’ s high fecundity , ability to lay between 500 to 3 @,@ 000 eggs , polyphagous larval feeding habits , high mobility during migration , and a facultative pupal diapause have led to the success of this pest .
= = = Control = = =
Two kinds of control measures have been advocated since the 19th century . One aims at total pest population reduction , while the other is aimed at protection of the particular crop . As of 2013 integrated pest management ( IPM ) , an array of techniques and approaches to control pests , was recommended . Practices such as deep ploughing , mechanical destruction , and trap crops are also used to kill different instars . Chemical control is widely successful , and includes the use of applying mineral oil inside the tip of each corn ear , which suffocates the young larvae . Pesticides are one method by which corn earworm populations are controlled ; however , since they have been widely used , the insects have become resistant to many pesticides . The use of biological controls , such as the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis and various forms of nematodes , is also common , although not without its own problems . Corn earworm moths are not always vulnerable to the bacterium , and they are only afflicted by nematodes once the larvae have pupated and dropped to the ground .
= = Survival = =
= = = Natural Enemies = = =
More than one hundred insect species prey on Helicoverpa zea , usually feeding on eggs and larvae . The insidious flower bug ( Orius insidiosus ) , a pirate bug , feeds on the eggs of H. zea , thus acting as a biological control agent . Some plants emit a blend of chemicals in response to damage from H. zea , which attract parasitic insects . Cardiochiles nigriceps , a solitary endoparasitoid wasp , makes use of these volatile plant compounds to identify the presence of H. zea . When the wasp finds a damaged host plant , they hover around and then search for the host with their antennae . When the females find their prey , they use their antennae to position themselves and deposits eggs into the host . The braconid wasp Microplitis croceipes , which deposits its eggs inside a living caterpillar , is also an important parasitoid of both H. zea and the related species Heliothis virescens . When larval densities are high , a fungal pathogen , Nomuraea rileyi , can cause an outbreak of disease . However , pupal mortality is high not because of predators , but because of harsh weather conditions , collapsing pupal chambers , and disease .
= = = Larval predation = = =
As the larvae mature , they become increasingly aggressive . Although they have host plants surrounding them , Helicoverpa zea attack and eat other insects . When presented with a second instar larva of Urbanus proteus , the corn earworm larvae grasps the insect , rolls onto its side to form a semicircle , and begins feeding on the insect 's posterior end . If the U. proteus begins to bite out of defense , Helicoverpa zea rotates the larva 180 degrees and uses its mandibles to puncture the head capsule , killing the insect . Then , the H. zea larva rotates the U. proteus back to its original position and continues feeding until the insect is entirely consumed . Even when presented with up to 5 U. proteus larvae , the Helicoverpa zea engages in the unique behavior , as the larvae have a higher affinity for Lepidopterous prey over plant material . Helicoverpa zea raised in a low moisture environment have lower pupal weight and a longer developmental time than those raised in environments of high moisture , so there is a nutritional benefit to such aggressive feeding behavior under such conditions .
= = Movement = =
= = = Migration = = =
Helicoverpa zea is a seasonal , nocturnal migrant , and adults disperse , weather permitting , when there are poor reproductive conditions . In short @-@ range dispersal , the moths move within the crop and low over the foliage . This type of dispersal is mostly independent of wind currents . Long @-@ range dispersal involves adults flying up to 10 meters above the ground and moving downwind from crop to crop . Migratory flights occur up to 1 – 2 km above the ground and can last for hours . Migration of 400 km is
common for such flights as moths are carried downwind . Helicoverpa zea caterpillars are usually intercepted on produce transported by air @-@ freight transportation . Most activity is restricted to the night @-@ time . Some moths display vertical take @-@ off flight , which carries them above the flight boundary layer and allows them to undertake migratory movement in upper wind systems . During mating , males engage in high @-@ speed directed flight in search of pheromone plumes ( See Pheromone Production ) .
= = = Diapause = = =
Pupae have the ability to enter facultative diapause , the state of arrested development and growth in response to a change in the environment . By preparing themselves for a major change in environmental conditions , they can increase reproductive success . Diapause increases with increasing latitude . In tropical conditions , populations breed continuously , and only 2 @-@ 4 % of pupae diapause . In subtropical and temperate regions , most individuals diapause . Individuals who don 't enter diapause in these areas emerge in late fall and die without reproducing . Drought @-@ responsive diapause has also been observed in the summer .
= = Feeding = =
= = = Host plants = = =
Helicoverpa zea has a wide host range , attacking vegetables that include corn , tomato , artichoke , asparagus , cabbage , cantaloupe , collards , cowpea , cucumber , eggplant , lettuce , lima bean , melon , okra , pea , pepper , potato , pumpkin , snap bean , spinach , squash , sweet potato , and watermelon . However , not all of these are good hosts . While corn and lettuce are shown to be great hosts , tomatoes are less beneficial , and broccoli and cantaloupe are poor hosts . Corn and sorghum are most favored by corn earworms . Various signs reveal the presence of these moths . Young maize crops have holes in their leaves , following whorl @-@ feeding on the apical leaf . Eggs can be found on silks on larger plants , and silks display grazing evidence . The soft , milky grains in the top few centimeters of corn cobs are eaten as the corn ears develop . One larva per cob can be observed . Bore holes are observed in cabbage and lettuce hearts , flower heads , cotton bolls , and tomato fruits . Sorghum heads are grazed , and legume pod seeds are eaten .
= = = Corn = = =
Helicoverpa zea earns its nickname the corn earworm for its widely known destruction of cornfields . The corn earworm feeds on every part of corn , including the kernels . Severe feeding at the tip of kernels allows entry for diseases and mold growth . Larvae begin feeding on the kernels once they have reached third instar . Larvae penetrate 9 to 15 cm into the ear , with deeper penetration occurring as the kernels harden . Larvae do not eat the hard kernels , but take bites out of many kernels , lowering the quality of the corn for processing .
= = = Soybeans = = =
Helicoverpa zea is the most common and destructive pest of soybean growth in Virginia . About one @-@ third of Virginia acreage is treated annually with pounds of insecticide , costing farmers around 2 million dollars . The degree of damage varies on the size of the pest infestation , the timing , and the stage of the plant . However , soybean plants are capable of withstanding a large amount of damage without substantial yield loss depending on soil moisture , planting date , and weather . If the damage is early in the plants life , then damage will mostly be to the leaves . Plants compensate for the damage by processes such as increasing seed size in remaining pods . Most damage happens in August , when the plants are flowering . Attacks that happen after August do much less damage because many pods have developed tougher walls that H. zea can 't penetrate . Infestations that affect pod formation and seed filling have the potential to reduce yields , and because this happens in the later stages of plants , they have less time to compensate .
Female moths are attracted to flowering soybean fields . The most severe infestations occur between flowering and when pods become fully developed . Large @-@ scale outbreak is associated with time of peak flowering , when most pods are developed , and peak moth flight , for giant . Moths are also attracted to drought stressed soybeans or fields with poor growth . Dry weather leads to quick drying of corn plants , compelling moths to leave and seek other hosts . Heavy rainfall also decreases corn earworm populations because it drowns pupae in their soil chambers , limits moth flight , washes eggs from leaves , and creates favorable conditions for fungal diseases that kill caterpillars .
= = Mating = =
= = = Pheromone production = = =
A hormone produced in the brain of the female moths controls sex pheromones . The hormone is released into the hemolymph to stimulate pheromone production . Pheromone biosynthesis @-@ activating neuropeptide ( PBAN ) is a peptide that regulates pheromone production in moths . It acts on the pheromone gland cells using calcium and cyclic AMP . Although the photoperiod regulates the release of PBAN to some extent , the chemical signals from the host plant supersede the effect from the time of day . Female Helicoverpa zea in corn fields do not produce pheromones during the night until they encounter corn . Several natural corn silk volatiles like the plant hormone ethylene induce H. zea pheromone production . The presence of the silk from an ear of corn is enough to cause pheromone production , and physical contact between females and corn is unnecessary . This evolutionary mechanism enables the moths to coordinate their reproductive behavior with the availability of food . Female moths often become depleted of sex pheromone after mating within 2 hours of separation from the male . The pheromonostatic peptide ( PSP ) , a protein 57 amino acids long found in the male accessory gland , is what causes depletion of the female ’ s sex pheromone . This capability in males has been selected for because it increases the reproductive fitness of those that carry it , since other males will not be attracted to a female without a sex pheromone ; thus , the female will bear only the first male 's offspring . The transfer of a spermatophore without accessory gland products does not stop female pheromone production , but does stop the female 's calling behavior . Intense selection acting on males to manipulate female reproductive physiology promotes rapid evolution of specific molecules , and male @-@ derived pheromone suppressing factors exhibit positive selection .
= = = Mortality = = =
Sperm competition and chemicals introduced to females through mating have a negative effect on females and their lifespan . In males , production of the spermatophore , sperm , and secondary chemicals reduces their lifespan . As the number of copulations increase , the rate of mortality also increases in both sexes .
= = = Flight behavior = = =
Males must first wait to sense a female ’ s pheromones before they can locate her . Before males engage in flight to find a female , they warm @-@ up by shivering the major flight muscles to reach thoracic temperature optimal to sustain flight , around 26 degrees Celsius . The thermoregulatory shivering activities of males were measured as they were exposed to different sex @-@ related olfactory cues . Males are found to heat up more quickly in the presence of a female pheromone and take @-@ off at a lower thoracic temperature than males who are exposed to other chemical scents . Since heating up to the right temperature leads to better flight performance than flying immediately , there is a trade @-@ off between sub @-@ optimal flight performance and rapid onset of directed flight . Helicoverpa zea males exposed to an attractive pheromone blend thus spend less time shivering and increase their heating rate . Thermoregulatory behavior of unrestrained moths is associated with competition for access to females , showing the ecological trade @-@ off .
= = Gallery = =
= = Literature = =
Capinera , J.P. [ 1 ] . Corn Earworm , Helicoverpa ( = Heliothis ) zea ( Boddie ) ( Lepidoptera : Noctuidae ) , 2008 .
Cooke , K.A. , Weinzier , R. [ 2 ] IPM : Field Crops : Corn Earworm ( Heliothis Zea ) , 2004 .
Coxwell , V.C. ( 1984 ) Eastern Moths . Peterson Field Guides . 141pp .
Hagerman , P. [ 3 ] , Corn Earworm Factsheet , 2008 .
Hill , D.S. [ 4 ] , Heliothis zea ( Boddie ) , 1983 .
= Felipe Camiroaga =
Felipe Humberto Camiroaga Fernández ( 8 October 1966 – 2 September 2011 ) was a Chilean television presenter , one of the most popular in his country .
Camiroaga hosted many shows for Chilean television station TVN , including the morning talk show Buenos Días a Todos and a late @-@ night talk show Animal Nocturno . He also acted in several TV series , such as Jaque Mate and Rojo y Miel , and in two films . Camiroaga twice hosted the Viña del Mar International Song Festival in 2009 and 2010 . He was nicknamed " Halcón de Chicureo " ( " Falcon of Chicureo " ) because he bred falcons in his residence in Chicureo , a rural area north of Santiago .
Camiroaga died on 2 September 2011 after the military plane which was taking him and twenty others to Juan Fernández Archipelago crashed in the sea . Camiroaga 's death was officially announced seven days later , and after a funeral oration at TVN 's headquarters , he was buried in Santiago . He has been posthumously awarded several prizes , including the " Social Communicator Special Award " by the National Council of Television in 2011 .
= = Early life and studies = =
Camiroaga was born in Santiago , Chile . His parents were Jorge Camiroaga Puch and María de la Luz Fernández Sternan ; he was the second of three brothers . Camiroaga and Fernández separated when Felipe was four years old . His mother moved to the Canary Islands in Spain , leaving her children with their father . In the Canaries , Fernández married Fernando Bontempi , with whom she had three children , including Spanish actress Paola Bontempi . Camiroaga was of Basque , German , and Peruvian descent . His paternal grandfather was Carabineros de Chile colonel Humberto Camiroaga , Director of the Escuela de Carabineros de Chile .
During his childhood , Camiroaga regularly visited rural places such as Villa Alegre , where his aunt Lavinia " Mirnia " Camiroaga lived , and Robinson Crusoe Island , marking his love for animals and the countryside . In 1981 , while spending his vacations at the Juan Fernández Archipelago , Camiroaga offered to work as a camera assistant for a TV crew from Televisión Nacional de Chile that was in the location , his first ever interaction with TV . Camiroaga was named an " Illustrious Son " of Villa Alegre in May 2011 .
Camiroaga completed his primary studies at Colegio San Ignacio de El Bosque , and his secondary studies at Colegio Marshall . In 1987 he completed studies of TV Production and Direction at Instituto Incacea . He also studied journalism at Las Condes University , but did not complete the course , and theater at Academia de Actuación Fernando González Mardones .
= = Career in television = =
Felipe Camiroaga started working as a camera assistant at the press department of television channel Red de Televisión Universidad de Chile ( RTU , now Chilevisión ) in 1988 , and later as a production assistant at the channel 's production department . But he quickly went from off to on @-@ camera ; his first job was as a host in a music video programme called Videotop , that was previously hosted by Pablo Aguilera and Justus Liebig . Later , he presented Extra Jóvenes , RTU 's teenage @-@ oriented show , which he co @-@ hosted with Katherine Salosny . His chemistry with Salosny proved successful and he became her co @-@ host a few months later . In 1991 he declined an offer to become a news anchor and continued at Extra Jóvenes , now co @-@ presenting with Claudia Conserva .
Camiroaga was hired by Televisión Nacional de Chile ( TVN ) in 1992 to co @-@ host Buenos Días a Todos with Tati Penna , a breakfast programme first transmitted that year ; however , the couple were later replaced by Margot Kahl and Jorge Hevia . Later , he had a brief television acting career , debuting in Jaque Mate , and later he portrayed an antagonistic character in Rojo y Miel . Despite being advised by actress Ana Reeves , Camiroaga did not receive good reviews for his acting performances .
At the same time , he hosted some unsuccessful programmes , such as La Gran Apuesta and El Chapuzón , and others with mixed results , such as Motín a Bordo and Contigo en Verano . However , at the end of the 1990s , he achieved success with prime time programme La Noche del Mundial , which was broadcast during the 1998 FIFA World Cup , and Pase lo que Pase , a miscellaneous evening programme which he co @-@ hosted with Karen Doggenweiler .
Camiroaga also hosted prime time programmes during the 2000s such as Con Mucho Cariño and Ciudad Gótica , both of which did not complete a full season for their " controversial contents " , and the first two seasons of the reality show Pelotón . In 2004 he co @-@ hosted Pasiones with Bárbara Rebolledo , but he left the programme later that year and was replaced by Martín Cárcamo . He returned to Buenos Días a Todos in 2005 , sharing duties with Tonka Tomicic , then with Katherine Salosny , and finally Carolina de Moras . The replacement of Salosny by de Moras was not well received and the local entertainment media blamed Camiroaga for it , which later resulted in a mass booing while Camiroaga was being awarded a Premio Copihue de Oro for " Best TV presenter " at the Teatro Caupolicán in Santiago , in 2010 . In 2006 , he began hosting his own talk show , Animal Nocturno . In February 2009 he co @-@ presented the Viña del Mar International Song Festival with Soledad Onetto , and also co @-@ presented the 2010 edition .
In 2010 , Camiroaga co @-@ hosted Halcón y Camaleón with comedian Stefan Kramer . That same year , he received an offer from US television network Univisión to present a breakfast programme . Camiroaga rejected this offer and renewed his contract with TVN for three years .
= = = Characters = = =
Camiroaga proved to be versatile in his TV programmes , where he created characters such as El Washington , a poor man who lives on the street and survives on leftover food , distinguished by his humble origin . El Washington was created in Buenos Días a Todos , and subsequently developed in Pase lo que Pase , where it became popular in sketch comedies with Karen Doggenweiler , the Señorita Andrea . Camiroaga hosted a radio programme called El Almacén del Washington in Corazón FM , dedicated to the trading of articles .
One of Camiroaga 's most recognized characters is Luciano Bello , a TV presenter native to Maracaibo , Venezuela . He is characterized by his large teeth and is coquettish with women . His typical phrase was : " You 're rich and intelligent . " ( " Eres rica e inteligente . " ) His name parodies Chilean @-@ Venezuelan humanist Andrés Bello , and some of his moves parody those of the singer of same nationality José Luis Rodríguez . Luciano Bello appeared for the first time in La Noche del Mundial in 1998 . The character was strongly criticized by deputy Enrique Krauss , who called him vulgar . ( " chabacano . " )
= = Other projects = =
As well as acting in TV series , Camiroaga was active in theatre and cinema . In 2000 , he participated in the theatrical work Venecia , directed by Boris Quercia , starring Gabriela Medina , Carmen Barros , Tichi Lobos and Javiera Contador ; Camiroaga was the only male actor . In 2006 he had a secondary role in the film Pretendiendo , directed by Claudio Dabed and starred by Uruguayan @-@ Mexican actress Bárbara Mori . The night before his death , on 1 September 2011 , Camiroaga participated in the recording of the comedy film Stefan vs. Kramer with comedian Stefan Kramer and TV presenter Martín Cárcamo . At first it was not known whether Camiroaga 's scenes would appear in the film , whose release was scheduled for 2012 . In late October 2011 , Kramer said he would include the scenes in the film , as Camiroaga " wanted to be in it . "
In 2001 , the programme Pase lo que Pase released the album La Banda del Pase lo que Pase , in which Camiroaga debuted as a singer . The album was produced by Warner Music , and reached gold album status in Chile .
Camiroaga also worked in advertising for Falabella and Ripley . At the time of his death , he still had an active contract with Ripley , who decided to remove all advertising in which Camiroaga appeared .
= = Death = =
Camiroaga was travelling with a team from Buenos Días a Todos , personnel from Desafío Levantemos Chile and the National Council of Culture and the Arts to Robinson Crusoe Island in the Juan Fernández Archipelago , when the Chilean Air Force ( FACh ) CASA C @-@ 212 Aviocar plane which was carrying them crashed into the sea and disintegrated while it was trying to land at the Robinson Crusoe Aerodrome , on 2 September 2011 . The aircraft tried to touch down twice unsuccessfully before it disappeared . It was piloted by Lieutenant Carolina Fernández , one of the first female pilots in FACh 's history , and Lieutenant Juan Pablo Mallea . Journalist Roberto Bruce — also part of Buenos Días a Todos — and businessman Felipe Cubillos , were also aboard the plane .
On 3 September 2011 , Defense Minister Andrés Allamand said it was unlikely anyone survived the accident ; they may have died instantly on impact . President Sebastián Piñera decreed national mourning for the days of 5 and 6 September 2011 . Seven days after the crash , Secretary General of Government Andrés Chadwick announced that body remains rescued from the sea were identified by DNA tests as Camiroaga , Felipe Cubillos and three other passengers .
Camiroaga 's remains were cremated in a private ceremony on 12 September 2011 , and the next day a funeral oration was conducted at the Televisión Nacional de Chile 's headquarters , which was broadcast live by the station . It was attended by five hundred people invited by his family and the TV channel . After the service , the amphora containing the presenter 's ashes was moved in a hearse under a police escort , which was followed by his relatives . A crowd of around five thousand people accompanied the hearse from Barrio Bellavista to the Pérgola de las Flores , in Recoleta . After this , his remains were taken to the Parque del Recuerdo cemetery , where a private ceremony was conducted , attended by relatives and Camiroaga 's closest friends . On 16 November 2011 , Camiroaga 's ashes were taken to the Lugar de Los Hombres Ilustres of Villa Alegre 's churchyard .
= = Posthumous homages and reactions = =
After the announcement of Camiroaga 's death in the crash , thousands of people went to the façade of the Televisión Nacional de Chile ( TVN ) headquarters , in the commune of Providencia , to express their love and affection for Camiroaga , the rest of the team from Buenos Días a Todos and the other plane passengers . Such expressions of support were repeated in regional headquarters of the TV channel , where they placed some condolence books for the public .
On 5 September 2011 , Julián Elfenbein , Carolina de Moras , Jorge Hevia , Karen Doggenweiler and emblematic staff of Buenos Días a Todos , friends , TVN personalities and from other channels — including competitors of the programme — joined to pay tribute to Camiroaga in his program . In that episode of Buenos Días a Todos , the first since Camiroaga 's death , his friend and TV director Daniel Sagüés commented that Felipe once told him that he wanted Silvio Rodríguez 's song " Ángel para un Final " to be played in his funeral . As soon as Rodríguez was informed of this , he commented on his blog it would be a " high honour " for him that his song was played at Camiroaga 's funeral . Other international personalities , such as Lucero , Yuri , Ricardo Montaner , Alejandro Sanz , Ricky Martin , Luis Fonsi , amid others , expressed their sadness and consternation at Camiroaga 's death , through the social networks Facebook , Twitter and YouTube .
The plane crash was extensively covered by the press , nationally and internationally , emphasizing the figure of the TV presenter , including BBC News from the United Kingdom . Qatari news channel Al Jazeera covered the news on the plane crash immediately after it occurred and also emphasized the deaths of Camiroaga and Felipe Cubillos . In Argentina , various media outlets referred to Camiroaga as " the Chilean Tinelli " , in reference to Argentinean presenter Marcelo Tinelli . An Argentinean TV programme called Duro de Domar mocked the Juan Fernández tragedy , focusing on Camiroaga and his relationships with Rocío Marengo and Cecilia Bolocco , provoking harsh attacks from Chileans in social networks .
Chilean newspaper Las Últimas Noticias caused controversy on 2 September 2011 ; its digital edition cover was headlined " The last flight of the Falcon " ( " El último vuelo del halcón " ) , which generated outrage from Internet users , as Camiroaga 's whereabouts were unknown at the time . The cover was replaced and the next day the newspaper said the public had misinterpreted the intention of the headline .
Televisión Nacional de Chile decided to name the studio from which Buenos Días a Todos is transmitted " Felipe Camiroaga Fernández " , and kept free the TV presenter 's parking space to remember him . The municipality of Colina , where Camiroaga lived in Chicureo , announced they would name him posthumously " Illustrious Son " of the community. and the Lo Arcaya Avenue would be renamed after him . Additionally , the Chilean Telethon ( Teletón ) paid homage to Camiroaga and the twenty other passengers of the aircraft in its opening and at the Julio Martínez National Stadium in the fundraising 's 2011 edition .
On 26 September 2011 , the National Council of Television ( Consejo Nacional de Televisión ; CNTV ) awarded posthumously Camiroaga with the " Special Award in Communications . " The Sala Felipe Camiroaga ( Felipe Camiroaga Room ) in the Museum of Villa Alegre was inaugurated on 3 May 2012 ; personal belongings , public and private photographs and a bust of Camiroaga made by Galavarino Ponce are exhibited . His father , siblings , his partner Fernanda Hansen , close friends and followers were present at the ceremony .
In 2013 , and as part of the student movement which started in 2011 demanding higher quality and free education in Chile — movement which Camiroaga supported — , students of the Law School of the University of Valparaíso created the Juventud Rebelde Felipe Camiroaga ( Felipe Camiroaga Rebel Youth ) political group , which describes itself as " [ a group of ] left @-@ wing students with no defined party , who believe that organization and participation are the necessary tools to make the changes we want , " specifying also that " revolution is made by parts " , satirizing Camiroaga 's death . The group , according to Publimetro Chile , is " partly satire , partly real facts " , and is not supposed to use Camiroaga 's image as a " martyr " , but as " a person who puts them into a crucial movilization frame . " The Juventud Rebelde Felipe Camiroaga group has been replicated in other universities , including the University of Chile and the Metropolitan University of Educational Sciences .
= = Personal life = =
Although Camiroaga had several romantic relationships within the media industry , Camiroaga never married , and was considered " one of the most coveted bachelors " by the Chilean tabloid press .
Camiroaga was linked romantically with several Chilean TV personalities , such as Katherine Salosny , Angélica Castro , Karen Doggenweiler , Bárbara Rebolledo , Paz Bascuñán and Fernanda Hansen , with whom he was in a relationship at the time of his death . He was also linked to Rocío Marengo , Francini Amaral , Krishna Navas , amid others . In 1992 , he had a short @-@ lived relationship with Mexican singer and actress Lucero while they were jurers at the 1992 edition of the Viña del Mar International Song Festival ; the relationship later developed into friendship .
Camiroaga lived in a land lot near Chicureo . He lives as a huaso @-@ style farm owner dedicated to the breeding of horses , dogs and birds . In February 2011 , his house was totally destroyed by a fire . Although it was first reported the fire was caused by an electrical failure , the possibility that it arson was later considered . Felipe Camiroaga practiced polo ; he also was an aviation enthusiast and completed his pilot training in 1996 .
= = Political views = =
In his later years , Camiroaga openly demonstrated his political preferences , something uncommon in Chilean television presenters .
It 's hard to break the patterns in my workspace , where the TV presenters need to be direct , and neutral in some topics . It surprises me when [ people ] say we are opinion leaders , but actually [ we ] the opinion leaders can 't say anything but sillinesses , unrelated to deeper issues which interest the country . I have not rebelled , I just think that [ as a presenter ] I have to change my mind .
Although he grew up in a right @-@ wing family , supportive of the Pinochet military regime , Camiroaga supported the Concertación coalition of left @-@ wing parties since Chile became a democracy ; in 2008 he said he was a " Bacheletist " ( " bacheletista " ) — supporter of President of Chile Michelle Bachelet — in the Caras magazine , and in 2009 he said Chile was admired for the governments of such a coalition . In 2010 he joined the runoff campaign of Eduardo Frei Ruiz @-@ Tagle , the Concertación candidate for the Chilean presidential election . Frei said Camiroaga was a " very brave man " for publicly expressing his political views .
Camiroaga also participated in campaigns by Greenpeace ; he openly asked Chile 's Interior Minister Rodrigo Hinzpeter on Buenos Días a Todos for the government , led by Sebastián Piñera , to halt the installation of a thermoelectric plant in Caleta Punta Choros — which was later reversed — and supported the 2011 student movement in Chile .
= = Filmography = =
As a television presenter
As an actor in movies
As an actor in TV series
As an actor ( other appearances )
= = Discography = =
2003 : La Banda del Pase lo que Pase ( with Karen Doggenweiler ; gold in Chile )
= = Awards and recognitions = =
2006 : Great Compipa of the Guachacas ; Guachaca King .
2006 – 2011 ( posthumously ) : Copihue de Oro Award to " Best TV Presenter " .
2009 :
APES Award to " Best TV presenter " .
( and 2011 , posthumously ) TV Grama Award to " Best TV Presenter " .
2011 : Social Communicator Special Award , given by the National Council of Television .
= Bahrain health worker trials =
The Bahrain health worker trials were a series of legal cases in which forty @-@ eight doctors , nurses , and dentists faced charges for their actions during the 2011 @-@ 2012 Bahraini uprising . In September 2011 , twenty of the health workers were convicted by a military court of felonies including " stockpiling weapons " and " plotting to overthrow the government " . The remaining twenty @-@ eight were charged with misdemeanors and tried separately . The following month , the felony sentences were overturned , and it was announced that the defendants would be retried by a civilian court . Retrials began in March 2012 , but were postponed until June 14 . Convictions against nine of the defendants were quashed and reduced against another nine . The Court of Cassation upheld the sentences against the remaining nine on 1 October .
The case drew international attention and criticism , with organizations including the United Nations , the World Medical Association , Médecins Sans Frontières , the International Council of Nurses , Amnesty International , and Human Rights Watch expressing their concern over the health workers ' military trials and sentences . An independent commission organized by the King of Bahrain concluded in November 2011 that many of the detained health workers had been subject to torture and abuse while in police detention .
= = Role of health workers in the Bahrain uprising = =
Beginning in February 2011 , Bahrain saw sustained pro @-@ democracy protests , centered at Pearl Roundabout in the capital of Manama , as part of the wider Arab Spring . Authorities responded with a night raid on 17 February ( later referred to by protesters as Bloody Thursday ) , which left four protesters dead and more than 300 injured .
Health workers played an important role in documenting the injuries , which were at the time downplayed or denied by the government of Bahrain . Rheumatologist Fatima Haji , for example , appeared on Al Jazeera television news in a " hysterical " state , describing Isa Abdul Hasan , a man in his 60s who died in her hospital of a head wound he had received from police : " I just started shouting : ' What the hell did this guy do , he was an old man . What did he do to deserve this ? ' " She later stated that following her arrest , her interrogations were centered on this television appearance .
At Salmaniya Medical Complex , doctors joined the protests themselves , speaking to protesters and media from the hospital stairs , after authorities blocked ambulances from bringing injured protesters there for care . The military responded by naming the hospital an opposition stronghold , taking it over on March 16 .
= = Arrests and charges = =
In March and April 2011 , twenty health workers were arrested on a variety of felony charges for their actions during the protests , while an additional twenty @-@ eight were arrested for misdemeanors . The total number of arrested health workers exceeded seventy . Dr. Ali Al @-@ Ekri was arrested while performing surgery at Salmaniya Medical Complex .
Charges against the doctors included " occupying a hospital , stockpiling weapons , spreading lies and false news , inciting hatred of Bahrain 's rulers and calling for their overthrow , and withholding treatment of Sunnis " . The government additionally alleged that blood from hospital blood banks had been used to exaggerate wounds , that health workers had transported weapons to the protesters by ambulance , and that AK @-@ 47s had been confiscated inside the hospital on a police raid . State media described the defendants as having " a terrorist aim " .
According to the prosecutor 's case , al @-@ Ekri acted as the group 's ringleader , organizing staff at Salmaniya to oppose the Bahraini government . Al @-@ Ekri was well known in Bahrain previous to the uprising for a January 2009 trip to the Gaza Strip to provide aid to Palestinians during the Gaza War . On his return , he received a number of awards , including one from the king . After his arrest , Al @-@ Ekri stated that he was being persecuted for his comments to the media about police violence : " They know we witnessed all the crimes of the regime and we stood strong by injured people and we talked to the media ... Anywhere , like in Gaza and in Yemen now , doctors speak about what they see . "
The defendants denied all charges and maintained that the accusations were politically motivated . In a joint statement , they held that " our only crime was that during the unrest earlier this year , we were outspoken witnesses to the bloodshed and the brutal treatment by the security forces . " Bahraini MP Jamal Fakhro responded that Bahrain jails only " people who prefer to play politics rather than be doctors " , not " doctors who treat people " . A spokesman for Bahrain 's Information Affairs Authority stated that the health workers were fabricating their stories and that they were " collaborating with the hard liners " in " an attempted coup d 'etat " .
British journalist Robert Fisk , who had been present at the protests , accused the Bahraini government of dishonesty : " Doctors I saw , drenched in their patients ' blood , desperately trying to staunch the bullet wounds of pro @-@ democracy demonstrators shot in cold blood by Bahraini soldiers and police , are now on trial ... How could these fine medical men and women have been trying to " topple " the monarchy ? The idea that these 48 defendants are guilty of such a vicious charge is not just preposterous . It is insane , a total perversion – no , the total opposite – of the truth . " In response , Bahrain 's Information Affairs Authority threatened him with libel action .
The BICI supported the government account that medics occupied the first floor of Salmaniya hospital . However , it rejected the claim that medics had supplied protesters with weapons and stated that evidence supporting allegations that medics denied health care to patients was " hardly conclusive , " as paraphrased by Al Jazeera English .
= = Trials = =
= = = Felony trials = = =
The twenty health workers facing felony charges were found guilty and sentenced on 29 September 2011 by the military National Safety Court of First Instance . According to the International Federation for Human Rights , the trial lasted only a few minutes . Thirteen of the twenty received sentences of fifteen years ' imprisonment , while five were sentenced to five years and two were sentenced to ten years . The sentences were a blow to the hopes of human rights groups lobbying on the health workers ' behalf , which had predicted authorities would ease their stance after releasing some defendants on bail .
The defendants were scheduled to be retried by civilian courts after widespread international criticism . The prosecutor 's office stated that the defendants ' confessions , which had allegedly been given under torture , would not be used as evidence .
On 10 March 2012 , Bahrain 's Information Affairs Authority announced that the criminal charges against fifteen of the twenty would be dropped , and referred to a review board . Their decision was reversed without explanation the following week . The trials were postponed to 14 June .
On 14 June the court acquitted nine medics and downgraded sentences against nine others . Ali Al @-@ Ekri was sentenced to five years imprisonment , another doctor to three years and seven were given from one month to one year . Two other doctors did not appeal their sentences of 15 years ' imprisonment , instead fleeing the country . On 1 October , the Court of Cassation , the country 's highest court , closed the first case involving twenty medics by upholding jail sentences on the remaining nine . Although the verdict is final , activist Mohamed al @-@ Maskati said that they could still be pardoned by the king .
= = = Misdemeanor trials = = =
Of the 28 health workers charged with misdemeanors , 23 were convicted and five acquitted on 21 November 2012 . Those convicted were sentenced to either serve three months in prison or pay 200 dinars ( US $ 530 ) . On 28 March 2013 , 21 of the 23 convictions were overturned by an appeals court . The remaining two health workers had chosen not to appeal their sentences .
= = Torture of health workers = =
Many of the detained health workers stated that they were ill @-@ treated or tortured while in custody , leading Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International to call for independent investigations . Authorities reportedly forced detainees to stand for long periods , beat them with boards and rubber hoses , and deprived them of sleep in an effort to force confessions . In one case , a prisoner alleged that he had been forced to sign papers while blindfolded . Dr. Fatima Haji alleged that she was blindfolded and beaten in an effort to make her confess to faking the injuries to protesters during her Al Jazeera interview ; she later identified her interrogator as a distant relative of the king . Ibrahim al @-@ Demastani , head of the Bahrain Nurse 's Society , alleged that he was deliberately kicked and kneed by guards in his back at a spot where he had told them he had a prolapsed disc ; he was then denied medical care until he happened to meet a police officer to whom he had once taught first aid .
In an investigation by Human Rights Watch , Dr. Rula al @-@ Saffar stated that she had been given electric shocks in the hands and face , and threatened with rape . Al @-@ Ekri described being " constantly beaten by cables , hoses , and fists " , as well as being forced to stand for a full day . Dr. Ghassan Dhaif stated that he remained handcuffed and blindfolded for 21 days , and " was beaten every hour " . Dr. Basim Dhaif alleged that he was beaten in front of his children at his home at the time of his arrest , and eventually signed a false confession while in custody after authorities threatened to harm his family . Dr. Nader Dawani , a pediatrician , stated that he was forced to stand for seven days while being beaten by a female officer , and that other officers had tried to force a bottle into his anus .
The BICI verified that " many detainees were subjected to torture and other forms of physical and psychological abuse " . The report stated that medics were among the tortured .
= = Reactions = =
= = = Domestic = = =
Many Sunnis supporting the government of Bahrain stood against the doctors , accusing them of " deliberately worsening patient injuries for cameras " as well as " causing the deaths of protesters in order to discredit security personnel " . The BICI report said that some of the Shia health workers refused to treat Sunni patients and instead used their positions to support activists by promoting their causes .
= = = International = = =
The trials drew sustained international attention , with governments , medical professional organizations , and human rights organizations issuing statements on behalf of the health workers .
= = = = Governments = = = =
The U.S. State Department stated that it was " deeply disturbed " by the sentences and urged the Bahraini government " to abide by its commitment to transparent judicial proceedings , including a fair trial , access to attorneys , and verdicts based on credible evidence " . Following the conviction of nine medics on the retrials , the department said it was " deeply disappointed " that not all medics were acquitted and that " convictions appear to be based , at least in part , on the defendants ' criticisms of government actions and policies " . United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki @-@ moon also expressed concern at the legality of the military trials , calling on the Bahraini government " to ensure the application of due process and respect for international human rights norms " . A spokesman for the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights noted the office 's " severe concerns " over " serious due process irregularities " in the trials .
= = = = Health worker organizations = = = =
In a letter published in The Guardian , the British Medical Association expressed its " deep concern " over the twenty felony convictions , stating that " all the independent evidence points to a politically motivated trial which has demonstrated a disregard for proper judicial process and fundamental principles of medical neutrality . " The Australian Medical Association condemned the prosecutions , describing the defendants as " simply doing their jobs in places of conflict " . Doctors Without Borders criticized doctors at Salmaniya Hospital for joining the protests , but described the military response as " exponentially more damaging " to medical neutrality . In May 2011 , the group issued a statement on behalf of the health workers , urging that " doctors and nurses must be allowed to provide healthcare in line with medical ethics , without the fear of reprisal . " The World Health Organization expressed similar concerns , stating that " health @-@ care workers must be able to carry out their duty to treat injured people , regardless of their political affiliation , and even in times of conflict . "
The International Council of Nurses and World Medical Association issued a joint statement objecting to the closed military trial and stated its belief that " Doctors and nurses have an ethical duty to care for patients irrespective of their race , colour , creed and political affiliation . No health professional should be put on trial for looking after injured and dying people . " The U.K.-based Royal College of Nursing wrote to the Bahraini government on the health workers ' behalf , as well as sending them a direct video message of support in which General Secretary Peter Carter said , " All you were doing was your job . You were trying to care for people . " Despite “ past and ongoing ” human rights violations by the regime , the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland programme in Bahrain has been accredited by the Irish Medical Council , led by CEO Dr Caroline Spillane .
= = = = Human rights organizations = = = =
International human rights groups said the accusations against doctors were " reprisals for treating injured protesters " . Amnesty International described the charges as " ludicrous " and a " travesty of justice " . The organization called for a letter @-@ writing campaign on behalf of the convicted health workers , stating its belief " that the charges were politically motivated , that the proceedings did not meet international fair trial standards and that [ the health workers ] may be prisoners of conscience " . Following the conviction of nine medics in the retrials , Amnesty said it was a " dark day for justice " and named them prisoners of conscience .
Freedom House called the trials part of " a pattern of repression that belies any promises of reform and honest political discourse by the government or the ruling family " . Front Line Defenders also described the arrests as part of a " widespread pattern of repression " . Human Rights Watch protested the alleged torture of the medics , condemned what it called the " fundamental unfairness " of the trials , and urged the appeals court to overturn the " flawed convictions " . The Gulf Centre for Human Rights called on Bahrain 's king to " intervene personally and immediately " to have the charges against the health workers dropped . The U.S.-based Physicians for Human Rights also called for the health workers ' immediate release .
= U Smile =
" U Smile " is a song performed by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber . It was written by Jerry Duplessis , Arden Altino , and Dan August Rigo , and produced by Duplessis and Altino . According to Bieber , the song is dedicated to his special fans . The song was released as the second digital @-@ only single from the latter half of Bieber 's debut album on March 16 , 2010 . It was released to mainstream radio in Canada on August 9 , 2010 , followed by a mainstream and rhythmic release on August 24 , 2010 , in the United States as the album 's third single there .
The song , a piano and instrument driven blue @-@ eyed soul ballad , garnered acclaim from critics as a standout track from the album . The song charted at seventeen and twenty @-@ seven respectively in the United States and Canada , and later charted in the United Kingdom . Bieber performed the song as an intro to " Baby " on the ninth season of American Idol and on Saturday Night Live .
= = Background = =
In an interview with MTV News , Bieber said , " ' U Smile ' is one of the best songs I have ever recorded , " he wrote , " It really is a throwback to the great records I listened to growing up . ... I wrote it for all my fans who got me here . " Bieber explained on his Twitter that his fans " took him from a small town in Canada " to the " amazing opportunity " he is living now , and feels " grateful for everything " and " blessed " for the support . Bieber confirmed he co @-@ wrote the track with August Rigo . He also told his fans to enjoy it as they are the ones who give him his strength in this .
In August 2010 , Nick Pittsinger , a Florida @-@ based sound artist , slowed down Bieber 's song 800 % to produce a 35 minute long track . It was compared to ambient music , including the works of Sigur Rós . The track became an internet meme in mid to late 2010 .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
" U Smile " is a blue @-@ eyed soul ballad , driven by piano and other instruments . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly said the song is " the best by far " of My World 2 @.@ 0 , calling it " a shimmery slice of Hall & Oates @-@ style blue @-@ eyed soul " . The song has a " bluesy " feel , and makes use of metaphors such as " You are my ends and my means / With you there ’ s no in between . " The song composed in the key E ♭ Mixolydian and it set in time signature of compound time with twelve eighth note in a bar , with the tempo of 75 beats per minute . Bieber 's vocal range span two music from the lowest note A ♭ 3 and the highest note E ♭ 5 . It follows the chord progression E ♭ -D ♭ -A ♭ .
Bill Lamb of About.com noted the song as a track on My World 2 @.@ 0 and said it " lets Justin Bieber sway and croon . It is guaranteed to generate warm and fuzzy emotions in millions of young fans " and that it " should not disappoint adults either " . Monica Herrera of Billboard commended the song and said that it " should appeal to some older listeners . " For Billboard ' s cover story on Bieber , Herrera said , " Bieber croons , his voice straining as much from puberty as emotion . It 's the closest he 's come to fulfilling Braun 's wish , by sounding like a certain young Motown star . " This is as unconditional as it 'll ever get / You ain 't seen nothing yet " .
= = Chart performance = =
Originally released as a digital @-@ only single , the song debuted at number twenty @-@ seven on the Billboard Hot 100 , selling 83 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week . It also debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at seventeen . " U Smile " was the highest debut on the week on both charts . The song initially stayed on both charts for a weeks ' length . Following an official release to mainstream and rhythmic radio , the song re @-@ entered the US Hot 100 at ninety @-@ five on the week ending October 2 , 2010 . Due to digital sales , the song also reached ninety @-@ eight in the United Kingdom .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and reception = = =
On September 30 , 2010 , the music video for " U Smile " premiered online , it was directed by Colin Tilley , with a cameo appearance by Sandra Bullock . Bieber had stated that the video for " U Smile " was about " letting fans experience the ultimate fantasy for any hard @-@ core Belieber : being Justin 's girlfriend " , further explaining in a tweet , " I took the opportunity 2 make a video 4 the fans , about a fan , and how we could fall IN LOVE . " Mawuse Ziegbe from MTV met the video with a positive review . Ziegbe felt that the video suggested " a more mature Bieber , who appears to relish the quiet moments with his gal pal away from the nonstop fan hysteria . " Ziegbe also felt that the video " displayed [ Bieber 's ] skills as an instrumentalist , as he belts out the lyrics from behind a grand piano throughout much of the vid . "
= = = Synopsis = = =
Starting out in a black and white frame ( and later incorporating scenes of color ) , a group of girls are seen standing outside on the street while Bieber is seen exiting a building while trying to walk away without getting noticed . This however , is unsuccessful as the girls run up to Bieber ; he then takes pictures and signs autographs with the girls . While this is happening Bieber takes an interest with one particular girl asking her to meet him later on , to which she agrees . As the song starts playing Bieber is seen sitting in an empty auditorium playing the piano and singing . When Bieber 's date shows up they sneak into an empty theater where they are seen ; holding hands , horsing around on the theater 's seats , and sliding down banisters . At the ending of the video they are seen engaging in a playful back @-@ alley water fight and eventually collapse into each other 's arms while Bieber is playing the piano back inside the theater .
= = Live performances = =
Bieber performed the song along with " Baby " on the eighteenth episode of season thirty five of Saturday Night Live . He also performed the song in American Idol along with " Baby " on May 19 , 2010.It was also released as a single video of the live performance , along with " Baby " . Bieber performed the song at the 2010 Teen Choice Awards on August 9 , 2010 . The performance was pre @-@ recorded because Bieber could not attend the event . The performance was filmed in Los Angeles on his My World Tour .
= = Slowed Version = =
In August 2010 , music producer Nick Pittsinger used the sound processing software PaulStretch to create an 800 % slower version of the album
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for his troops on the front line and utterly defeated the Venetian army , capturing three generals . Caravaggio fell , and despite rejoicing in Milan , little gratitude was given by the government to the architect of the victory , and the Republic sent him on to Lodi , determined to end the war . It was here , when a satisfactory end to the war seemed imminent , that the Milanese took a fatal misstep .
= = = Sforza 's defection and the Guelph @-@ Ghibelline feud = = =
In Milan , Sforza 's enemies worked continually against him . The Piccinino brothers , sons of famous condottiere Niccolò Piccinino and former Captains @-@ General before being replaced as supreme military commanders by Sforza , convinced the suspicious Republic to work secretly against Sforza . Rumors were spread among the troops about not receiving payment at the end of the war if they remained with Sforza , and Sforza himself was ordered back from the siege of Brescia , the city promised to him , while the citizens were secretly told to hold out until peace , already in the works , was signed . Sforza learned of this treachery and defected to the Venetians for 13 @,@ 000 ducats and the Duchy of Milan in return for the Ghiaradadda , Crema , and his service . The treaty was signed on 18 October 1448 , and Sforza now undid everything he had labored for over the past year . With such a powerful man on the Venetian side , it was the beginning of the end of the Golden Ambrosian Republic . Public opinion , despite the government 's position , was generally pro @-@ Sforza , and only an impassioned , patriotic speech from Giorgio Lampugnano subdued it at last . The Piccinino brothers became Captains @-@ General once more , but were not as capable as the brilliant Sforza .
This was reinforced by the internal dissention that was prominent in Milan . Crime and mob violence were rampant , and the harsh but empty measures against it only served to further divide the populace . Members of the government were filled with suspicion against one another . In an attempt to resolve the situation , the podestà was given absolute power . Financial problems were also grave ; fines , confiscations , and a state lottery were instituted to try to alleviate the deficit . Moreover , Guelph aristocrats continued to be regularly elected over the Ghibellines , and began to make the Republic far less democratic . Carlo Gonzaga , Captain of the People , lived luxuriously as an autocrat with his will as law . He was supported by Giovanni Appiani and Giovanni Ossona , tradesmen @-@ turned @-@ politicians , who were prominent in government affairs . Gonzaga began replacing his officials with his unambitious supporters , and the Ghibellines saw the ideals of their Republic crumbling before their eyes . Lampugnano and his Ghibelline friends conspired against Gonzaga and the Guelph regime , but were exposed by a letter intercepted by Gonzaga from Lampugnano to his friend Bossi . Gonzaga kept this knowledge secret , knowing that Lampugnano and Bossi were two of the most influential citizens since the formation of the Republic , but with the support of the vengeful Guelph Captains and Defenders conspired to have them slain . Lampugnano and Bossi were sent as envoys to Frederick III in February 1449 , but on the road were caught and imprisoned . Lampugnano was beheaded without a trial , and Bossi was tortured until he gave the names of his fellow conspirators . Following the execution of the leaders there was a massacre of leading Ghibellines within the city , from which only a few , such as Vitaliano Borromeo , escaped to safety in Arona , Piedmont and elsewhere . The heads of the slain were placed upon pikes in the Piazza of the Broletto .
Meanwhile , the other claimants to the Duchy began to see that Sforza would be a greater threat than the Ambrosian Republic . Louis of Savoy invaded in spring of 1449 , and Sforza sent Colleoni ( who had earlier defected ) to defeat him at Borgomanero , leading to an uneasy peace . Sforza also faced treachery within his own ranks , added with the fact that he rashly accepted the defection of his great enemies the Piccinino brothers , who , upon gaining access to Monza , promptly returned it to Milan .
Lampugnano , unfortunately for the Guelphs , was considered a martyr for the Republic . This was made worse by the fact that the Guelphs in leadership refused to run elections in April , until in June they were forced by the populace . Ghibelline families took the reins of Milan in this election , and the Guelphs were defeated . However , the reprisals against the Guelphs , including the imprisonment of Appiani and Ossona who had been blamed ( probably unjustly ) for the massacre , led the populace to violently depose the Ghibellines and reinstall the extremist Guelphs . Gonzaga , however , whose friend Galeotto Toscano was killed in the uprising , departed Milan to Crema , hoping to make peace with Sforza .
= = = End of the Republic = = =
Sforza was coming close to Milan itself in his conquests , and decided that since it was too powerful to be taken by force , he would surround it and starve the populace into surrender . With the loss of the outer cities by conquest or defection , Milan underwent famine . Gonzaga offered Crema to Sforza , hoping he would be tempted to take it himself and betray the Venetians . But Sforza remained staunch , and instead offered Gonzaga the city of Tortona if he would abandon Crema . This was accepted , and Crema , without support , quickly capitulated .
To the Milanese , Sforza 's victory now seemed certain , but he found his Venetian allies beginning to have doubts about their Captain @-@ General . They decided that Milan run by Sforza would be far more dangerous and detrimental to their interests than if it were run by a weak Republic . The last of the territory claimed by Venice , namely Crema , was now captured . Venice went behind Sforza 's back and signed a peace treaty with the Republic . They conceded conquered land to the Republic in return for peace , and let Sforza keep only Pavia , Cremona , Piacenza , and a narrow strip of land . They ordered him to accept the treaty or find Venice his enemy . The Republic rejoiced , and the citizens were confident the war was over and their future was secured . But Sforza could not accept the conditions of the treaty , and decided to persevere in the struggle . He was already very powerful , and moreover was close to Milan . The Milanese in their assurance of peace had nearly exhausted their resources to plant crops and return to the old way of life . He was confident that Milan would quickly fall to him . After reinforcing his peace with Savoy with the concession of a few unimportant castles , he defeated the Venetians under his rival Sigismondo Malatesta and continued the siege .
Sforza chose for his headquarters the Borromeo castle of Peschiera , south @-@ east of the city . Starvation and suffering were rampant in Milan . At last Gaspare da Vimercate engineered a coup on 24 February 1450 . The next day the citizens met , but the suggestions and opinions were of great variety , save that all condemned Venice for its apparent apathy . Da Vimercate convinced the people to surrender to Sforza . Sforza had made himself very popular for his generosity while fighting for Milan . He had abstained from ravaging the countryside as was so common among commanders of his day , and after some debate the public was convinced . The following day terms were offered to Sforza , who accepted them . Sforza earned the city 's devotion by distributing food to the starving people . On 22 March 1450 , he had himself declared capitano del popolo , and by right of his wife , the Duke of Milan . He secured his popular support by letting many office @-@ holders keep their positions and being very lenient in his reprisals . The leaders were briefly imprisoned or relegated to their estates , but were generally pardoned soon after , even knighting some of his old enemies at his coronation . Ghibellines were allowed to return in safety and were restored to favor .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Sforza remained at war with Venice for years after the downfall of the Ambrosian Republic . Venice allied herself with the kingdom of Naples , previously a contender for the succession of Milan . Sforza , however , allied himself with his friend , Cosimo de ' Medici of Florence against Venice and Aragonese Naples . The continued war was finally closed by the peace of Lodi in 1454 with the House of Sforza as the established rulers of the Duchy of Milan
During its three @-@ year existence , the Ambrosian Republic won two major battles . The Lombards defeated the French at the Battle of Bosco Marengo in 1447 and the Venetians at the Battle of Caravaggio in 1448 . It was those victories that ensured the Republic all the territory of the former Duchy .
Of the Republic , Niccolò Machiavelli remarked
In order to create a Republic in Milan it would be necessary to exterminate all the nobility . . . . For there are , among the nobles , so many exalted personages that the laws do not suffice to repress them , and they must needs be kept under by a living voice and a royal power .
= = First capitani e defensori = =
The leading magistrates of the city , the capitani e defensori ( " Captains and Defenders " ) , were in charge of the government , elected every six months beginning in August 1447 . They were originally numbered twenty @-@ four but were eventually reduced to twelve .
= = = Porta Orientale = = =
Giovanni Marliani
Giovanni Moresini
Rolando or Oldrado Lampugnani
Giovanni Olgiati
= = = = Porta Romana = = = =
Bartolomeo Visconti
Giovanni Omodei
Giacomello Trivulzio
Antonio Visconti , perhaps Antonio Trivulzi
= = = = Porta Ticinese = = = =
Giorgio Piatti
Giovanni Crotti
Ambrogio Lomazzo
Giovanni Caimi
= = = = Porta Vercellina = = = =
Vitaliano Borromeo
Guarnerio Castiglione
Giacomo Coiro
Simone Meraviglia
= = = = Porta Comasina = = = =
Giacomo Dugnani
Giorgio Lampugnani
Luisino or Luigi Bossi
Francesco Casati
= = = = Porta Nuova = = = =
Bartolomeo Morone
Pietro Cotta
Dionigi Biglia
Galeotto Toscani
= Mangalorean Catholics =
Mangalorean Catholics ( Konkani : Kodialchein Katholik ) are an ethno @-@ religious community of Roman Catholics following the Latin Rite from the Mangalore Diocese ( erstwhile South Canara district ) on the southwestern coast of Karnataka , India . They are a Konkani people and speak the Konkani language and Kannada language too .
Contemporary Mangalorean Catholics are descended mainly from Goan Catholics who migrated to South Canara between 1560 and 1763 , throughout the course of the Goa Inquisition , Portuguese – Adil Shahi wars , and the Portuguese – Maratha wars . They learned the languages of South Canara , Tulu , and Kannada , but retained Konkani as their mother tongue and preserved their lifestyle . Their 15 @-@ year captivity at Seringapatam imposed by Tipu Sultan , the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore , from 24 February 1784 to 4 May 1799 led to the near extinction of the community . After Tipu 's defeat and subsequent killing by the British in 1799 , the community resettled in South Canara , and later prospered under British rule .
Although early assertions of a distinct Mangalorean Catholic identity date from the migration period , a developed Mangalorean Catholic cultural identity only emerged following the captivity . The culture of Mangalorean Catholics is a blend of Mangalorean and Goan cultures . After migration , they adopted some aspects of the local Mangalorean culture , but retained many of their Goan customs and traditions , and like their Goan ancestors , modern Mangalorean Catholic culture can be best described as an increasingly Anglicised Indo @-@ Latin culture . The Mangalorean Catholic diaspora is mostly concentrated in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf and the Anglosphere .
= = Ethnic identity = =
The Roman Catholics from the Mangalore Diocese and the newly formed Udupi Diocese ( erstwhile South Canara district ) and their descendents are generally known as Mangalorean Catholics . The diocese is located on the southwestern coast of India . It comprises the civil districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi in Karnataka state , and Kasaragod in Kerala state . This region was collectively referred to as South Canara during the British Raj and then from the partition of India until the States Reorganisation Act of 1956 .
In 1526 , Portuguese ships arrived in Mangalore , and the number of local converts to Christianity slowly increased . However , a sizeable Christian population did not exist there until the second half of the 16th century , when there was a large @-@ scale immigration of Christians from Goa to South Canara . They were reluctant to learn the local languages of South Canara and continued to speak Konkani , the language they brought from Goa , so that local Christians had to learn Konkani to converse with them . After this migration , the skilled Goan Catholic agriculturists were offered various land grants by the native Bednore rulers of South Canara . They observed their traditional Hindu customs in conjunction with the newfound Catholic practices , and preserved their lifestyle .
Most migrants were people from the lower economic strata who had been left out of government and economic jobs ; their lands had been confiscated due to heavy taxation under the Portuguese in Goa . As a consequence of the wealth and privileges which these Goan migrants enjoyed in Mangalore , they began feeling superior to their landless kindred in Goa . Their captivity at Seringapatam ( 1784 – 1799 ) , where many died , were killed , or were forcibly converted to Islam , led to the formation of a separate and common Mangalorean Catholic cultural identity among members of the group , who hitherto had considered themselves an extension of the larger Goan Catholic community . They no longer self @-@ identified as Goan Catholics . After their years of captivity , prosperity under the British and under Italian Jesuits , followed by migration for employment to Bombay , Calcutta , Poona , the Persian Gulf Arab states , and the Anglosphere , enabled the community to restore their identity . The overwhelming majority of Mangalorean Catholics are of Goud Saraswat Brahmin lineage . Historian Alan Machado Prabhu estimates that almost 95 per cent of Mangalorean Catholics have Goan origins .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ migration era = = =
All records of an early existence of Christians in South Canara were lost at the time of their deportation by Tipu Sultan in 1784 . Hence , it is not known exactly when Christianity was introduced in South Canara , although it is possible that Syrian Christians settled in South Canara , just as they did in Kerala , a state south of Canara . The Italian traveller Marco Polo recorded that there were considerable trading activities between the Red Sea and the Canara coast in the 13th century . It can be surmised that foreign Christian merchants were visiting the coastal towns of South Canara during that period for commerce ; it is possible some Christian priests might have accompanied them for evangelistic work .
In April 1321 the French Dominican friar Jordanus Catalani of Severac ( in south @-@ western France ) landed at Thana with four other friars . He then travelled to Bhatkal in North Canara , a port town on the coastal route from Thana to Quilon . Being the first bishop of India and the Quilon Diocese , he was entrusted the spiritual nourishment of Christian community in Mangalore and other parts of India by Pope John XXII . According to historian Severine Silva , no concrete evidence has yet been found that there were any permanent settlements of Christians in South Canara before the 16th century . It was only after the advent of the Portuguese in the region that Christianity began to spread .
In 1498 the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed on a group of islands in South Canara on his voyage from Portugal to India . He named the islands El Padron de Santa Maria ; they later came to be known as St Mary 's Islands . In 1500 Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral arrived at Anjediva in North Canara with eight Franciscan missionaries . Under the leadership of Frei Henrique Soares de Coimbra , the missionaries converted 22 or 23 natives to Christianity in the Mangalore region . During the early part of the 16th century , Krishnadevaraya ( 1509 – 1529 ) , the ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire of Deccan , granted commercial privileges to the Portuguese on the Canara coast . There was complete freedom of worship , belief , and propagation of religious tenets in the Vijaynagara Empire . In 1526 , under the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio , the Portuguese took possession of Mangalore .
The Portuguese Franciscans slowly started propagating Christianity in Mangalore . The most prominent local convert was the Brahmin mahant Shankarayya , who in 1751 travelled with his wife from Kallianpur to Goa and was baptised , with the Portuguese viceroy assuming the role of his godfather . The honoured mahant took the name of Francisco de Távora , after the Viceroy Marques de Távora . Their properties were subsequently taken over by their Hindu relatives , but the viceroy instructed his factor of Mangalore to get their property restored . In 1534 Canara was placed under the ecclesiastic jurisdiction of the Bishop of Goa , where the Portuguese had a strong presence . Missionaries soon arrived and gained converts . The number of local converts in South Canara continually increased until 1546 . During the mid @-@ 16th century , the Portuguese faced resistance from Abbakka Rani of Ullal , the Queen of the Bednore dynasty . This put a halt to conversions . The first battle between Abbakka Rani and the Portuguese was fought in 1546 ; she emerged victorious and drove the Portuguese out of South Canara .
= = = Migration era = = =
In 1510 , a Portuguese fleet under Afonso de Albuquerque , sent by King Manuel I of Portugal , wrested the state of Goa from Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah of Bijapur . In 1534 , the Diocese of Goa was established . Soon missionaries were sent to Goa , which led to conversion of a sizeable population to Roman Catholicism . The bulk of Christian settlers came in three major migration waves towards South Canara . These migrations occurred in periods of great unrest : the Goa Inquisition occurred from 1560 onwards ; the Portuguese – Adil Shahi wars were between 1570 – 79 ; and the Portuguese – Maratha wars occurred between 1667 – 83 and 1737 – 40 . Other factors that led to mass migrations were disease epidemics , famines , natural calamities , overpopulation , poor living conditions , heavy tax burdens , and social discrimination by the Portuguese .
In 1542 , the Navarrese Jesuit Francis Xavier , co @-@ founder of the Society of Jesus ; arrived in Goa . He discovered that the newly converted Christians were practising their old Hindu customs and traditions . He requested the Portuguese king João III to install an Inquisition in Goa in 1545 . Many of the Goan ancestors of the present Mangalorean Catholics fled Goa when the Inquisition began in 1560 . King Sebastião I decreed that every trace of Indian customs should be eradicated through the Inquisition . Many Christians of Goa were tenaciously attached to some of their ancient Indian customs , especially their traditional Hindu marriage costumes , and refused to abandon them . Those who refused to comply were forced to leave Goa and to settle outside the Portuguese dominion , which resulted in the first major wave of migrations towards South Canara .
The Christians who left Goa were for the most part skilled agriculturists who abandoned their irrigated fields in Goa to achieve freedom . The remainder were skilled carpenters , goldsmiths , artisans , and merchants . At the time of migration , Canara was ruled by the Keladi king Shivappa Nayaka ( 1540 – 60 ) . He evinced great interest in the development of agriculture in his empire and welcomed these agriculturists to his kingdom , giving them fertile lands to cultivate . They were recruited into the armies of the Bednore dynasty . This was confirmed by Francis Buchanan , a Scottish physician , when he visited Canara in 1801 . In his book A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore , Canara and Malabar ( 1807 ) , he stated that " The princes of the house of Ikkeri had given great encouragement to the Christians , and had induced 80 @,@ 000 of them to settle in Tuluva . " Later , this was identified as a probable mistake and should have read " 8 @,@ 000 " . This figure included the second emigration of Christians from Goa . The taxation policies of the Keladi Nayakas during 1598 – 1763 enabled the Goan Catholic migrants to emerge as prominent landowning gentry in South Canara . These migrants usually brought their own capital from Goa , which they invested in their new lands , thereby indirectly contributing to the prosperity of the Keladi kingdom .
Under the provisional treaties between the Portuguese and the Bednore rulers , and the Padroado , the Christians were allowed to build churches and help foster the growth of Christianity in South Canara . The arrival of the British and the Dutch halted the activity of the Portuguese , and they were gradually unable to send the required number of missionaries to Mangalore . Shivappa Nayaka had previously expelled the Portuguese from their forts a little before 1660 , which brought about considerable changes in the ecclesiastical situation . The appointment of the Vicar Apostolic of Mangalore was felt by the Holy See to be of critical importance . Nayaka pressured the church authorities to appoint a native priest as the Vicar Apostolic , which resulted in the appointment of Fr . Andrew Gomez to the post ; however , he died before the nomination papers could reach Mangalore .
At the recommendation of the Vicar General of Verapoly , Mons . Joseph Sebastiani , Pope Clement X appointed Bishop Thomas de Castro , a Goan Theatine and Bishop of Fulsivelem , as the Vicar Apostolic of Propaganda Fide in the Vicariate of Canara on 30 August 1675 , for the purpose of providing spiritual leadership to the Canara Christians . After his consecration , he first went to Calicut and then moved to Mangalore , where he served from 1677 to 1684 . In 1677 , Bishop de Castro entered into a conflict with the Archbishop of Goa , Dom Frei António Brandão , for disregarding the Padroado . Consequently , they did not cede the jurisdiction to him despite the Pope 's letter of appointment . The Padroado – Propaganda conflict which ensued divided the Catholics of Canara into two sides — those who recognised the authority of the Padroado Archbishop in Goa versus those who supported de Castro .
The Portuguese refused to recognise Bishop de Castro 's appointment and vigorously opposed his activities . Archbishop Brandão 's sudden death on 6 July 1678 further complicated matters , and the Cathedral chapter administering the Archdiocese of Goa following the vacancy created by his death , forbade the Canara Catholics from receiving the sacraments from the bishop or from priests appointed by him . In his turn , Bishop de Castro excommunicated those Catholics who were obedient to the Padroado authorities in Goa and their priests . In 1681 , the Holy See appointed another Goan priest Fr . Joseph Vaz , as the Vicar Forane of Canara ; he was asked not to submit to Bishop de Castro unless he showed the letter of appointment . However , after being convinced of its legitimacy , Fr . Vaz submitted to Bishop de Castro and brought about a truce . He further managed to persuade the bishop to delegate his jurisdiction to him while retaining the post . In 1700 , the Catholics of Canara were again brought under the jurisdiction of the Padroado Archbishop of Goa .
The Milagres Church , one of the oldest churches in South Canara , was built in 1680 by Bishop Thomas de Castro . In 1568 , the Church of Nossa Senhora do Rosário de Mangalore ( Our Lady of the Rosary of Mangalore ) was erected by the Portuguese at Bolar in Mangalore . The Churches of Nossa Senhora de Mercês de Velala ( Our Lady of Mercy of Ullal ) and São Francisco de Assis ( St. Francis of Assisi ) at Farangipet were erected by the Portuguese in South Canara at around the same time . These three churches were mentioned by the Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle , who visited Mangalore in 1623 .
In 1570 , the Sultan of Bijapur , Ali Adil Shah I , entered into an alliance with the Sultan of Ahmadnagar , Murtaza Nizam Shah , and the Zamorin of Calicut for a simultaneous attack on the Portuguese territories of Goa , Chaul , and Mangalore . He attacked Goa in 1571 and ended Portuguese influence in the region . The Bijapur Sultans were especially renowned for their loathing of Christianity . Fearing persecution , many Goan Catholics fled to South Canara during this second wave of migrations , and settled in Barcoor , Kallianpur , Cundapore , and Basroor . For the next century , there was continual migration of Goan Catholics southwards , so that by 1650 , a considerable number of Catholics were settled around Mangalore , Moolki , Shirva , Pezar , Bantval , Cundapore , Kallianpur , and Kirem . The Christian Goud Saraswat Brahmins who came during this wave belonged mostly to the Shenvi subcaste .
The attacks of the Maratha Empire on Goa during the mid @-@ 16th century precipitated the third major wave of migrations . In 1664 Shivaji , the founder of the Maratha empire , attacked Kudal , a town north of Goa , and began his campaign for Goa . After Shivaji 's death on 3 April 1680 , his son Sambhaji ascended to the throne . The onslaught of Sambahji along the northern territories of Goa drove nearly all the Christians from their homelands , and most of them migrated to South Canara . Migration increased with the fall of the Portuguese " Province of the North " ( which included Bassein , Chaul and Salsette ) and a direct threat to the very existence of Goa in 1738 – 40 .
According to one estimate , emigrations from the Salcete district of Goa were around the rate of 2 @,@ 000 annually . Jesuit priests estimated that 12 @,@ 000 Christians emigrated from the Bardez district of Goa between 1710 – 12 , most of them going southward . A Goa government report of 1747 presently in the Panjim archives records that around 5 @,@ 000 Christians fled from the Bardez and Tiswadi districts of Goa during the Maratha invasion . During the Maratha raids on Goa , about 60 @,@ 000 Christians migrated to South Canara . These new migrants were given lands at Shirva , Kirem , Mundkur , Pezar , and Hosabettu by the Chowta kings of Moodbidri and at Milagres , Bondel , and Cordel by the Banghel kings of Mangalore . During later years , migration slowed because of the Maratha – Mughal wars , and some 10 @,@ 000 Christians returned to Goa . According to Alan Machado Prabhu , Mangalorean Catholics numbered about 58 @,@ 000 by 1765 .
Subsequent to this steady rise in South Canara 's Catholic population , the Portuguese took advantage of every opportunity to extend their control over the Mangalorean Catholics , who came to be identified with Portuguese interests . The Portuguese sought to expand the power of the priests , as from the beginning of their empire , priests had accompanied Portuguese delegations on diplomatic missions and on occasion were the principal negotiatiors . Treaties they signed with the Keladi Nayakas progressively incorporated clauses which increased the authority of the priests over the local Catholic population , making them obedient to the priests in matters of Christian laws as well as granting priests the authority to punish violations . The Portuguese promised to refrain from slaughtering cows and to halt forcible conversions in their factories . The terms of these treaties were not always honoured by the Portuguese , with the result that whenever hostilities broke out between the Keladis and the Portuguese , the Catholic settlers were often harassed or arrested by the Nayakas .
= = = Post @-@ migration era and captivity = = =
In 1686 , Seringapatam , the capital of the Kingdom of Mysore , had a community of more than 400 Catholics . The community was severely harassed in the following two decades , with the churches destroyed and the priest 's house confiscated . The destruction was undertaken under the name of the Wodeyar king , Kanthirava Narasaraja I , by his finance minister . The priest 's house was returned to the church in 1709 . Relations between the Wodeyars and the Mangalorean Catholics improved until 1717 , when there was an anti @-@ Christian outburst . The resident priest was expelled and forbidden to preach . Several more anti @-@ Christian outbursts followed . By 1736 , there were better relations between the two groups .
From 1761 onwards , Hyder Ali , a distinguished soldier in the Mysore army , took de facto control of the throne of the Kingdom of Mysore through the Wodeyar dynasty . Hyder occupied Mangalore in 1763 . The Mangalorean Catholics numbered 80 @,@ 000 in 1767 . In February 1768 the British captured Mangalore from Hyder . Toward the end of 1768 , Hyder and his son Tipu Sultan defeated the British and recaptured Mangalore fort . After the conquest , Hyder was informed that the Mangalorean Catholics had helped the British in their conquest of Mangalore . Hyder believed that this behaviour of the Christians amounted to treachery against the sovereign .
The Christians were alleged to have helped General Mathews with a sum of Rs . 3 @,@ 30 @,@ 000 / - . Hyder summoned a Portuguese officer and several Christian priests from Mangalore to suggest the punishment for the Mangalorean Catholics for treachery . The Portuguese officer suggested the death penalty for those Catholics who helped the British , because it was a fitting punishment for people who betrayed the sovereign . But Hyder exhibited a diplomatic stance and imprisoned the Christians , rather than killing them .
Later , he opened negotiations with the Portuguese . As a result of the agreement , the suspicion against the clergy and the Christians was removed . During Hyder 's regime , the Mangalorean Catholic community continued to flourish . After Hyder 's death in the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War on 7 December 1782 , the British captured the fort again . Hyder was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan . Tipu laid several assaults on the Mangalore fort until January 1784 , all of which resulted in failure . The fort was finally delivered to Tipu when the British capitulated on 30 January 1784 .
Tipu received highly exaggerated reports about the role of the Mangalorean Catholics and their help to the British in the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War . To minimise the British threat to his kingdom and in the Sultan @-@ ul @-@ Tawarikh , due to " the rage of Islam that began to boil in his breast " , Tipu banished the Mangalorean Catholic community from their lands , and imprisoned them at Seringapatam , the capital of his empire . The captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam , which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May 1799 , remains the most disconsolate memory in their history .
Soon after the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784 , Tipu gained control of Canara . He issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara , confiscate their estates , and deport them to Seringapatam , through the Jamalabad fort route . All this was accomplished in a secret and well @-@ planned move on Ash Wednesday ( 24 February 1784 ) . Accounts of the number of captives differ , ranging from 30 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 . The generally accepted figure is 60 @,@ 000 , as per Tipu 's own records . They were forced to climb nearly 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) through the dense jungles and gorges of the Western Ghat mountain ranges along two routes ; one group travelled along the Bantwal @-@ Belthangadi @-@ Kulshekar @-@ Virajpet @-@ Coorg @-@ Mysore route , and the other along the Gersoppa falls ( Shimoga ) route . It was 200 miles ( 320 km ) from Mangalore to Seringapatam , and the journey took six weeks .
According to the Barcoor Manuscript , written in Kannada by a Mangalorean Catholic from Barcoor after his return from Seringapatam , 20 @,@ 000 of them ( one @-@ third ) died on the march to Seringapatam due to hunger , disease , and ill treatment by the soldiers . At the camp at Jamalabad fort , Mangalorean Catholic leaders were thrown down from the fort . All Christian churches in South Canara , except the Hospet Church at Hospet and the Monte Mariano Church at Farangipet , were razed to the ground and all land owned by the captured Christians was taken over by Tipu and distributed among his favourites . After they were freed , all their belongings had disappeared and their deserted lands were cultivated by the Bunts .
After arriving at Seringapatam , the Christian captives were made to forcibly embrace Islam , were tortured , or sentenced to death . The young men who refused to embrace Islam were disfigured by cutting their noses , upper lips , and ears . They were seated on asses , paraded through the city , and thrown into the dungeons of Seringapatam . Historian Praxy Fernandes , author of Storm over Seringapatam : The Incredible Story of Hyder Ali & Tippu Sultan , states that contrary to popular belief , 40 @,@ 000 Christians were not kept manacled in the dungeons of Seringapatam .
Ludwig von Pastor , a German historian , author of The History of the Popes , from the Close of the Middle Ages . Volume 39 emphasises saying " countless " Mangalorean Catholics were hanged , including women with their children clinging around their necks . Others were trampled or dragged by elephants . The able @-@ bodied young men were drafted into the army after being circumcised and converted to Islam . The young women and girls were distributed as wives to Muslim officers and favourites living in Seringapatam . According to Mr. Silva of Gangollim , a survivor of the captivity , if a person who had escaped from Seringapatam was found , Tipu had ordered the cutting off of the ears , nose , the feet , and one hand as punishment . The persecutions continued until 1792 . This was followed by a brief relaxation period from 1792 – 1797 , during which a few Catholic families managed to escape to Coorg , Cannanore , and Tellicherry . The persecutions resumed in 1797 .
= = = British and modern era = = =
In the Battle of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799 , the British army under officers George Harris , David Baird , and Arthur Wellesley stormed the fortress , breached the town of Seringapatam , and killed Tipu . After his death in the Fourth Anglo @-@ Mysore War , the Mangalorean Catholics were freed from his captivity . Of the 60 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 Mangalorean Catholics taken captive , only 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 made it out as Christians .
Historian Alan Machado Prabhu mentions that only 11 @,@ 000 survived the captivity as Christians . British general Arthur Wellesley helped 10 @,@ 000 of them return to South Canara and resettle on their lands . Of the remaining Christians freed , about a thousand went to Malabar , and some hundreds settled in Coorg . According to Francis Buchanan , 15 @,@ 000 of them returned to Mangalore and its vicinity , while 10 @,@ 000 of them migrated to Malabar . The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency ( 1883 ) mentions that 15 @,@ 000 persons returned , of which 12 @,@ 000 were from South Canara and 3 @,@ 000 from North Canara . According to genealogist Michael Lobo , the present Mangalorean Catholic community is descended almost entirely from this small group of survivors .
Later , the British took over South Canara . In 1800 , they took a census of the region . Of the 396 @,@ 672 ( 396 @,@ 672 ) people living in South Canara , 10 @,@ 877 were Christians . Thomas Munro was appointed the first collector of Canara in June 1799 . He passed three orders in respect of the estates of the Christians , which were taken over by non @-@ Christians during the captivity . Through the assistance of the church and with the support of Munro , the Christians were able to recover their lands and estates . Fr . José Miguel Luis de Mendes , a Goan Catholic priest , was appointed Vicar of Our Lady of Rosary at Mangalore on 7 December 1799 . He took interest in the re @-@ establishment of the community from 1799 to 1808 . Later , British general John Goldsborough Ravenshaw was appointed collector of South Canara . He took an active part in the restoration of the Catholic community 's former possessions and the recovery of its estates . He constructed a church for them , which was completed in 1806 .
In 1800 , there were 2 @,@ 545 Catholic households with a population of 10 @,@ 877 . Their population almost doubled by 1818 . According to various parish books , Mangalorean Catholics numbered 19 @,@ 068 in South Canara ( 12 @,@ 877 in Mangalore and Bantval , 3 @,@ 918 in Moolki , 2 @,@ 273 in Cundapore and Barcoor ) . Most of the churches which were earlier destroyed by Tipu were rebuilt by 1815 . The community prospered under the British , and the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa recommenced .
The opening of the Protestant German Basel Mission of 1834 in Mangalore brought many handicraft industries , such as cotton weaving and tile @-@ manufacturing , to the region and led to a large @-@ scale rise in employment . In 1836 – 37 , the political situation in Portugal was in turmoil . Antonio Feliciano de Santa Rita Carvalho , a Portuguese priest , was appointed Archbishop @-@ elect of Goa in September 1836 without authorisation from the then Pope , Gregory XVI . Many Mangalorean Catholics did not accept the leadership of Carvalho but instead submitted to the Vicar Apostolic of Verapoly in Travancore , while some of them continued to be under the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Goa and Daman . The parishes in South Canara were divided into two groups — one under Goa and the other under Verapoly .
Under the leadership of Joachim Pius Noronha , a Mangalorean Catholic priest , and John Joseph Saldanha , a Mangalorean Catholic judge , the Mangalorean Catholics sent a petition to the Holy See in 1840 to establish Mangalore as a separate Vicariate . Conceding to their request , Pope Gregory XVI established Mangalore as a separate Vicariate on 17 February 1845 under the Verapoly Carmelites . The Mangalore Mission was transferred to the French Carmelites by a bull dated 3 January 1870 . During the regime of Carmelites , the Mangalorean Catholics constantly sent memorandums to the Holy See to send Jesuits to Mangalore to start institutions for higher education , since students frequently had to go to Bombay and Madras for educational purposes . Pope Leo XIII , by the Brief of 27 September 1878 , handed over the Mangalore mission to the Italian Jesuit of Naples , who reached Mangalore on 31 December 1878 .
The Italian Jesuits played an important role in education , health , and social welfare of the community . They built St. Aloysius College in 1880 , St Aloysius Chapel in 1884 , St. Joseph 's Seminary and many other institutions and churches . On 25 January 1887 , Pope Leo XIII established the Diocese of Mangalore , which is considered to be an important landmark in the community 's history . By the later half of the 19th century , many Mangalorean Catholics were involved in the Mangalore tile industry , coffee plantations , and trade in plantation products . They prospered under the British and competed with the local Brahmins for offices in the service of the British . The overwhelming majority of Mangalorean Catholics continued to remain agriculturists .
During the later 19th century , they started migrating to other urban areas , especially Bombay , Bangalore , Calcutta , Karachi , Madras , Mysore and Poona . The Mangalorean Catholics came to Bombay out of economic necessity . The first permanent settlement of Mangalorean Catholics in Bombay was recorded in the 1890s . The first Mangalorean Catholic settlement in Madras was recorded in the 1940s . Joachim Alva , a Mangalorean Catholic politician , actively participated in uniting the Mangalorean Catholic community against the British during the Indian Independence Movement .
In 1901 , Mangalorean Catholics accounted for 76 @,@ 000 of the total 84 @,@ 103 Christians in South Canara . , while in 1962 , they numbered 186 @,@ 741 ( 186 @,@ 741 ) . During the mid @-@ 20th century , Victor Fernandes , Bishop of Mangalore from 1931 to 1955 , erected a large cross at Nanthoor , near Padav hills , on the former outskirts of Mangalore , in honour of the memory of Mangalorean Catholic martyrs who died on the march and during their 15 @-@ year captivity at Seringapatam . During the 1970s , coastal communication increased between Bombay and Mangalore with the introduction of ships by the London @-@ based trade firm Shepherd . These ships facilitated the entry of Mangalorean Catholics to Bombay . In 1993 , the Mangalore Diocese estimated the population of Mangalorean Catholics to be 325 @,@ 510 ( 325 @,@ 510 ) out of a total South Canara population of 3 @,@ 528 @,@ 540 ( 3 @,@ 528 @,@ 540 ) . This amounts to 9 @.@ 23 per cent of the population . A notable post @-@ independence era event pertaining to the Mangalorean Catholics that occurred in southern Karnataka , and made national headlines , were the attacks on Christian religious institutions in September 2008 .
= = Geographical distribution = =
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore estimates the population of Mangalorean Catholics in the areas that comprise historical South Canara to be 360 @,@ 000 ( 360 @,@ 000 ) out of a total population of 3 @,@ 957 @,@ 071 ( 3 @,@ 957 @,@ 071 ) , or approximately 9 @.@ 5 per cent of the population . Other regions of India having a significant proportion of Mangalorean Catholics , characterised by the presence of Mangalorean Catholic organisations or celebration of the unique Mangalorean Catholic Monti Fest festival , are Bangalore , Chennai , Delhi , Kolkata , Mumbai , Pune , Hyderabad , Chikkamagaluru , Hassan , and Ranchi . A few Mangalorean Catholics are found in Kodagu and Kerala , where there are tiny pockets concentrated in Thalassery , Kasargod , Kannur and Kochi . They are mainly descended from those Catholics who fled the persecution and roundup by Tipu Sultan . The Mangalorean Catholic diaspora is scattered across the globe . Many Mangalorean Catholics are found in Persian Gulf Arab states in the Middle East . The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney ( MCAS ) has estimated that around 300 Mangalorean Catholic families live in Sydney , Australia , with a lot of second generation families . Many of these are multi @-@ racial , being married into Anglo @-@ Saxon , Spanish , Italian , Greek , and other ethnicities . Mangalorean genealogist Michael Lobo has estimated that approximately half of the Mangalorean Catholics still reside in Mangalore and the other towns in the South Canara district . As for the remaining half , about 15 per cent reside in other parts of Karnataka ( mostly Bangalore ) , 15 per cent reside in Mumbai and its neighbouring areas , 10 per cent reside in the Persian Gulf countries , 5 per cent reside in other parts of India , and the remaining 5 per cent reside in other parts of the world .
= = Culture = =
= = = Architecture = = =
The German missionary Plebot set up the first tile factory at Mangalore in 1860 . It was called the Basel Mission tile factory . Mangalorean Catholics learnt the technique of preparing Mangalore tiles . The Albuquerque tile factory , the first Indian Mangalore tile factory , was started in South Canara by Pascal Albuquerque at Pane mangalore in 1868 . Since then , Mangalorean Catholics have been actively involved in manufacturing the tiles . The Alvares tile factory was established in Mangalore by Simon Alvares , a Mangalorean Catholic from Bombay , in 1878 . In 1991 – 1992 , out of twelve Mangalore tile manufacturing factories in Mangalore , six were owned by Christians . These tiles , prepared from hard clay , were in great demand throughout India , Myanmar , and Sri Lanka , and were even shipped to East Africa , the Middle East , Europe , and Australia . These were the only tiles to be recommended for Government buildings in India , and still define Mangalore 's skyline and characterise its urban setting . Urban and rural housing follows the traditional variety of laterite brick structures with Mangalore tile roofing on steeply sloped roofs . Inside the house , a spacious hall is present while a large verandah is present in front of the house . The traditional houses tend to have spacious porticos , red cement or terracotta floors , and have fruit trees outside the house . The old Catholic houses of South Canara bear traces of Portuguese influence . The tall windows , pointed roofs , and verandahs are some of the Portuguese influenced architectural features of the century @-@ old houses .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Historically , the Mangalorean Catholic diet was completely vegetarian . This changed during the 20th century , when with the advent of Westernisation , meat came to be consumed increasingly in the community , especially amongst the elite . Coconut and curry leaves are common ingredients to most curries . Sanna @-@ Dukra Maas ( Sanna is idli fluffed with toddy or yeast ; Dukra Maas is pork ) is one of the most popular dishes of the Mangalorean Catholic community . Rosachi Kadi ( Ros Curry ) , a fish curry made with coconut milk ( ros ) , is a traditional curry served during the Ros ceremony . Patrode , a dish of colocasia leaves stuffed with rice , dal , jaggery , coconut , and spices is popular . Kuswar are sweet delicacies prepared during Christmas and include around 22 varieties of sweets . Fish and rice form the staple diet of most Mangalorean Catholics . Par @-@ boiled rice , known as red rice , is the traditional rice eaten and is preferred over raw rice .
= = = Names and surnames = = =
Bilingual names , having variants in both Konkani and English , like Zuãuñ ( from Portuguese João , meaning John ) and Mornel ( Magdalene ) are common among Mangalorean Catholics . Most Mangalorean Catholic names for males follow the second declension . Among women , the names follow the first declension , while among young girls , the names follow the second declension . Portuguese surnames like D 'Souza , Coelho , and Pinto are common among Mangalorean Catholics , and generally follow the second declension . Other European surnames are found . Mangalorean Catholics use their native language Konkani forms of their surnames in Konkani @-@ language contexts , along with their English forms in English @-@ language contexts , such as Soz , Kuel , and Pint , instead of Sousa , Coelho , and Pinto . Some families use their original Konkani Brahmin surnames such as Prabhu , Kamath , Naik , Shenoy and Shet . These original surnames are actually the names of five classes of persons : lord , cultivator , merchant , warrior , and writer . Four of these are Goud Saraswat Brahmin surnames , with the exception of Shet , which is used by a few who trace their origins to the Daivadnya Brahmins of Goa . These ancestral pre @-@ conversion surnames of the Mangalorean Catholics are called paik in Konkani . To capture their tradition , many have reverted to their paik surnames , or use hyphenated names consisting of their post @-@ conversion surnames in conjunction with their ancestral ones . Mudartha is a unique Mangalorean Catholic surname to be found among some Catholics that hail from Udupi .
= = = Language and literature = = =
Mangalorean Catholics speak the Konkani language , which they have retained as their mother tongue despite the migration ; the language is central to the community 's identity . They speak a dialect known as Mangalorean Catholic Konkani , which the Ethnologue broadly identifies as the Mangalore dialect .
The Mangalorean Catholic dialect has Sanskrit influences , and preserves many features of the Maharashtri , Shauraseni , and Magadhi dialects of Prakrit . It also liberally uses loanwords from the Tulu and Kannada languages . It is written in the Kannada script . The dialect does not distinguish between the nouns of Kannada and Konkani and has developed into a language that is very practical for business . Some Kannada rootwords which have disappeared from the Goan dialects due to the influence of Portuguese have re @-@ entered the Mangalorean lexicon . 350 – 400 Portuguese lexical items are found in the Mangalorean Catholic dialect , of which more than half are related to religious terminology . The influence of Portuguese syntax is only found in some sets of phrases and prayers which have come down from the pre @-@ migration era .
The Mangalorean Catholic dialect is largely derived from the Bardeskaar ( North Goan ) dialect and bears a good degree of intelligibility with the modern Bardeskaar dialect ( spoken by North Goan Christians , North Goan Hindus , and South Goan Hindus ) and to a slightly lesser extent with the standard Konkani dialect . It consequently differs from the dialect spoken by the Goud Saraswat Brahmins in South Canara , which is copiously derived and bears a good degree of intelligibility with the modern Sashtikaar ( South Goan ) dialect spoken by South Goan Christians and North Canara Konkani Hindus . It is much closer to the dialects of the Goan Hindus than to that of the Goan Catholics .
The Italian Jesuits who arrived in Mangalore in 1878 , devoted themselves to the study and development of Konkani , and were thus responsible for the revival of the Konkani language in Mangalore . The origin of their literature dates to 1883 , when Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei , an Italian Jesuit , published the first An English – Konkani Dictionary in Mangalore . He published a book on Konkani grammar in 1882 , with a revised version in 1893 . In 1912 the first Konkani periodical , Konknni Dirvem ( Konkani Treasure ) , was published in Mangalore by Louis Mascarenhas . Popular Konkani periodicals published in Mangalore include Raknno ( Guardian ) ( 1938 ) by Mons . Sylvester Menezes , Konkan Daiz ( Heritage of Konkani ) ( 1958 ) , and Kannik ( Donation ) ( 1965 ) by Raymond Miranda . The twentieth @-@ century literature focused on themes like the suffering of the Mangalorean Catholics during their 15 @-@ year captivity at Seringapatam and the oppression of Goan Catholics during the Goa Inquisition . The first Konkani novel in Karnataka Aangel ( 1915 ) , was written in the Kannada script by Joachim Santan Alvares . In Bombay — which had a small Mangalorean Catholic community — periodicals like Sukh @-@ Dukh ( Ups and Downs ) ( 1948 ) by G.M.B. Rodrigues , Konknni Yuvak ( Konkani Youth ) ( 1949 ) by George Fernandes , Poinnari ( Traveller ) ( 1950 ) by V.J.P. Saldanha , and Divo ( Lamp ) ( 1995 ) by J.B. Moraes were published .
Modern literature is diverse and includes themes such as Indian politics in books like What Ails the Socialists by George Fernandes , historical awakening , in books such as Sarasvati 's Children : A History of the Mangalorean Christians by Alan Machado Prabhu , and sexual desires , in The Revised Kama Sutra : A Novel of Colonialism and Desire by Richard Crasta . Genealogist Michael Lobo published the first genealogical Encyclopedia of the Mangalorean Catholic community in 1999 . This genealogical encyclopaedia , which exceeds 6 @,@ 000 pages , covers over a thousand families , each of which is researched as far as its ancestry can be traced . Three offshoots have thus far been launched , which include Mangaloreans Worldwide – An International Directory ( 1999 ) , Distinguished Mangalorean Catholics ( 2000 ) , and The Mangalorean Catholic Community – A Professional History / Directory ( 2002 ) . William Robert da Silva translated the first complete Bible from English into Konkani . The work entitled Baibol ( Bible ) was written in the Kannada script , and published by the Mangalore @-@ based Konkani Bible committee in 1997 . In 2000 , the Mangalore Diocese also released a Konkani Bible in Kannada script entitled Pavitr Pustak ( Holy Book ) , which was made available online on 26 July 2007 .
= = = Traditions and festivals = = =
Mangalorean Catholics have retained many Indian customs and traditions ; these are especially visible during the celebration of a marriage . Their culture is more traditional and Indian . Though the Portuguese traded quite frequently in Mangalore , and most of the priests arriving in the region were Portuguese , there did not develop a community identified with Portugal and Portuguese culture . The Mangalorean Catholics have no uniform rituals since they belong to both the patrilineal Brahmin stock and to the matrilineal non @-@ Brahmin stock . Their marriage rites share many similarities with the Shenvi sub @-@ caste of the Goud Saraswat Brahmins . It was mainly these pre @-@ Christian marriage rites that the Portuguese found objectionable and prohibited during the Goan Inquisition .
The Roce ( anointing ) ceremony , conducted one or two days before a wedding , celebrates the last day of virginity of the bride and bridegroom and involves the parents ' blessing of the bride and groom , who are anointed with roce , a mixture of coconut milk and coconut oil , while a cross is inscribed on the bride 's forehead . The marriage traditions include Soirik ( betrothal ) , exchange of Paan Pod ( betel leaves ) during the marriage ceremony , which known as Badalchen ( changing hands ; formal acceptance of the promise made by the bride 's father to the bridegroom 's father that he will give his daughter in marriage ) . The bride is adorned with the Sado ( wedding sari ) and Pirduk ( wedding necklace ) . Other rites include the Onpnni ( giving away the bride formally by the father or the guardian of the bride ) , Porthoponn ( re @-@ invitation to the bride 's house ) , and singing of Honvious ( hymns ) . Some non @-@ marriage traditions include Novemjeevon ( partaking of the food prepared from new corn ) and Novem ( blessing of new harvests ) .
In addition to common Christian festivals like Christmas , Good Friday , and Easter , the community celebrates many other festivals of religious and historical significance . Monti Fest is one of the major festivals , celebrated on 8 September . It combines the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary and blessing of Novem ( new crops ) . The festival derives its name from the Monte Mariano Church at Farangipet in South Canara , and was initiated by Fr . Joachim Miranda , a Goan Catholic priest at Farangipet , in 1763 . Although Tipu Sultan destroyed the churches of Canara , he spared Monte Mariano Church in deference to the friendship of his father Hyder Ali with Fr . Miranda . Attur Jatre or Attur Fest ( Attur festival ) is the feast of St. Lawrence , celebrated in the St. Lawrence Shrine on the outskirts of Karkala in South Canara . This shrine , in existence since 1759 , is said to have a history of miracles . Evkaristik Purshanv ( Eucharistic Procession ) is an annual religious procession led by the Bishop of Mangalore from Milagres Church to Rosario Cathedral . The procession , held on the first Sunday of the New Year of the Gregorian calendar , seeks blessings for the new year .
= = = Costumes and ornaments = = =
Mangalorean Catholic men traditionally wore long , loose @-@ frilled , white or black coats known as Kutanv ( similar to the Maratha loose coats with buttons ) , over a Zibbo ( loose shirt ) , while the Pudvem ( dhoti ) , a piece of unstitched cloth , usually around 7 yards ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) long , was wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist . The turban called Mundaas or Urmal , were usually flattened like the Coorgi turbans . It was a long white piece of cloth with a Todop ( golden hem ) tied around the head like a turban in a particular manner by which they could be easily identified as Catholics . In modern times however , this mode has changed . Only a few older people can be seen wearing this traditional dress on church @-@ going occasions .
Before marriage , women used to wear a Kirgi ( sari ) and Baju ( blouse ) . The Kirgi is a piece of cloth not longer than four feet , and about three feet wide . It was wrapped around the body from the waist down . A jacket with long sleeves called a Baju , was used to cover the upper part of the body . This dress was a sign of the bride 's virginity and was worn during the Ros ceremony . The Kirgi was wrapped around the waist , but the end of the sari is not thrown over the shoulder . To wear the sari with its end thrown over the shoulder , known as Worl , is the exclusive right of a married woman . Married women used to wear sarees the general way . The Salwar kameez is another form of popular dress for females . The Mangalorean Catholic bride 's wedding sari is known as a Sado . It is usually a red @-@ coloured Banarasi sari which is made of finely woven silk and is decorated with elaborate engravings . In olden days , the bride wore on her head a red cloth , three feet square . Gold ornaments were absent in those days : the bride went to the church dressed as a virgin girl . In modern times , the bride wears ( in place of the Kirgi ) a red sari , but the end of the sari is not thrown over the shoulder ; it is wrapped around the waist . The bride wears a few gold ornaments , some rings on the fingers , earrings , and at least two of the Dantoni ( golden combs ) . Other ornaments worn by the bride in the olden days included Kanti , Chakrasar , Kap , Karap , Mugud , Kanto , and Dantoni .
Dantoni consist of two ordinary combs with the upper part of each one plated with gold ; they are worn in the hair on both sides of the head over the ears . On the way to church the bride wears some white and red flowers stuck in the hair . In the centre of the forehead , a Bang ( gold chain ) was placed with a pendant . The Pirduk ( Mangalsutra ) is a necklace made of black beads strung on gold wire as either as a single chain or double chain , with a connecting pendant . This necklace is worn as long as the husband is alive ; a widow is expected to take it off . It is highly prized by women as the symbol of their married state . A widow is expected to wear a black sari for the remainder of her life , and is not allowed to wear ornaments . The bridegroom 's dress in early times consisted of a short loincloth of hand @-@ woven cloth ( Dhoti ) , a shawl to cover his shoulders , and a red handkerchief on the head ( Leis ) . Later , his dress consisted of a white loincloth with a red and gold hem ( todop ) , a shirt with gold buttons and a coat ( Kutanv ) , a shawl on the shoulders , and a towel ( Urmal ) on the head . The bridegroom wore a Chakrasar ( neck chain ) around his neck . He wore a pair of sandals or at least a pair of socks . At present , most Mangalorean Catholic couples opt for a White wedding , where the bridegroom wears a suit , while the bride wears a white wedding gown . The traditional style of wedding is becoming exceedingly rare .
= = = Historical society = = =
Mangalorean Catholics retained the same caste system as their ancestors in Goa . They were mainly divided into four castes : Bamonns , Charodis , Sudirs , and Gaudis .
The biggest group were the Bamonns , who were converts from the priestly Brahmin class . All Brahmin sub @-@ castes such as the Goud Saraswat Brahmins , Padyes , and Daivadnyas , especially the goldsmiths and a few merchants , were lumped into the Christian caste of Bamonn . The descendants of Goud Saraswat converts comprised the majority of this caste . The Bamonns were further divided into other castes according to rank . In Mangalore , they were sub @-@ divided into Sirudhegars ( the highest class ) , Alhdhengars , Cutdhnangars , Dhivodegars , Nathnolegars , Sashragars , Puruvargars , and Maidhegars . These names are taken from the villages to which they once belonged . This group constituted the landed gentry . In accordance with traditional Hindu law that allowed a Brahmin to practice any occupation except cultivation , the Bamonns refrained from cultivating their lands , and leased them to tenants .
The Charodis , the second @-@ largest group , were converts from the Kshatriya ( warrior class ) and Vaishya ( merchant class ) castes . They were generally engaged in trade and commercial vocations . The artisan converts formed the third @-@ biggest group and were known as Sudirs ( the Konkani word for Shudras , which were the labour class ) . They were workers and agricultural labourers engaged in service professions . The converts from the fisher caste residing around Ullal , Kuloor , and other places around the seacoast were called Gaudis , and formed the fourth group . They cultivated the lands of the Bamonns and the high @-@ caste Hindus . Other minor castes included the Padvals , whom historian Severine Silva assumes to be local Jain converts .
The Mangalorean Catholics constituted a small community widely scattered across the South Canara district . Rather than being a closely knit and united group , the Goan Catholic immigrants and their progeny did not associate with the native Catholics on account of caste , origin , and language , and even among themselves were strongly divided by caste . The Hindus , including the indigenous Brahmins ( mostly belonging to the Shivalli , Havyaka , and Kota sub @-@ groups ) and Bunts did not associate with the Catholics and would not admit them into their houses on account of their religion . However , a close contact was kept by the Catholics with the Hindus of the same caste who were refugees from Goa . Catholics would invite their Hindu cousins to festivities such as birth celebrations , weddings , and funeral feasts . The Hindus accepted such invitations . Unlike his Hindu counterpart , a high @-@ caste Mangalorean Catholic did not consider himself polluted upon physical contact with a member of the lower caste , but members of different castes did not fraternise or invite each other home for dinner .
Marriage between members of the various castes was not permitted , and such matches were strictly discouraged by the elders . For instance , a Bamonn boy would only marry a Bamonn girl and a Charodi boy would only marry a Charodi girl . The Bamonns and Charodis would invite neighbours and friends belonging to the Sudir and Gaudi castes to special occasions such as weddings and baptisms , although the latter would have to observe certain restrictions with regards to sitting and eating . The lower castes felt honoured if they were invited and usually accepted such invitations . The upper castes usually did not attend the ceremonies of the lower castes , even if expressly invited . The caste system continues to persist among Mangalorean Catholics , and as in former times , caste distinctions still figure prominently during the formation of marriage alliances .
It was difficult for the few priests who had accompanied the Christian emigrants to South Canara to look after them properly . Thus , the Gurkar system came into existence . Gurkars were Mangalorean Catholic men of good moral character who were selected as headmen in Christian settlements . They were entrusted with the social and religious supervision of the community . After migration , the only possible occupation of a Mangalorean Catholic was agriculture , since they were skilled farmers . Every farmer practised carpentry , but it was quite primitive and unskilled , and other crafts and industries were non @-@ existent . The mass was celebrated in Latin ; but the sermon , the catechism , and the explication of the mysteries were delivered to the congregation in Konkani .
The parishes were grouped into deaneries called Varados . Every parish was divided into wards , while Parish Councils were present in most parishes . About 15 percent of the households in the parishes were literate . A widow had to remain indoors , practically for the rest of her life . Since high @-@ caste Hindu widows cannot remarry after the death of their husbands , the high @-@ caste Christians too considered the remarriage of a widow as something unnatural . Canon law did allow remarriage for widows and therefore there was no direct prohibition for widows to remarry in the society of the Christians of South Canara . Few women had the courage to go against the strict conventions of their community . A widow who remarried was looked down upon , pitied , and shunned as unlucky . But she was not ill @-@ treated or made an outcast , and no stigma was attached to her husband . Succession to property was practised as per the Hindu laws .
= = = Songs and music = = =
On 26 and 27 January 2008 , a Konkani cultural event , Konkani Nirantari , held in Mangalore by the Mangalorean Catholic organisation Mandd Sobhann ; entered the Guinness Book of World Records for non @-@ stop singing of Konkani hymns . Mandd Sobhann members sang for 40 hours , surpassing the old record of 36 hours held by a Brazilian musical troupe , Communidade Evangelica Luterana São Paulo ( Lutheran Evangelical Community of São Paulo ) of Universidade Luterana do Brasil ( Lutheran University of Brazil ) . The Silver Band , started in 1906 by Lawrence D 'Souza in Mangalore , is one of the oldest and most popular brass bands in Mangalore . The well @-@ known Konkani hymn Riglo Jezu Molliant ( Jesus entered the Garden of Gethsemene ) was written by Fr . Joachim Miranda , an 18th @-@ century Goan Catholic priest , when he was held captive by Tipu Sultan on his Canara mission . Mons . Minguel Placid Colaco wrote the devotional hymn Jezucho Mog ( Jesus ' Love ) in 1905 , and translated the Latin hymn Stabat Mater into Konkani under the title Khursa Mullim ( Bottom of the Holy Cross ) . Joseph Saldanha 's Shembor Cantigo ( 100 Hymns ) and Raimundo Mascarenhas ' Deva Daia Kakultichea ( O Compassionate Master ) were popular . Other popular Konkani hymns composed by Mangalorean Catholics are Aika Cristanv Jana ( Listen , O ' Christian People ) , Utha Utha Praniya ( Wake up , Creatures ) , and Sorgim Thaun ( From Heaven ) .
Konkani pop music became popular after Indian Independence in 1947 . Henry D 'Souza and Helen D 'Cruz are known for the Konkani love duet Kathrina in 1971 and the love Ballad Garacho Divo ( Lamp of the House ) in the 1970s , while Wilfy Rebimbus ' sonnet Mog Tuzo Kithlo Axelom ( How I Have Loved Thee ) from 1977 is popular . Konkani plays , especially religious ones , were written and staged in Mangalore in the 20th century by prominent playwrights such as Pedru John D 'Souza , Pascal Sequeira and Bonaventure Tauro . The Ghumat was a popular musical instrument played especially during weddings . The instrument has the form of an earthen pot but is open at both sides . One end is covered with the skin of some wild animal , and the other is left open . The traditional theatre form is called Gumat , and is performed on the eve of the marriage or in connection with the marriage celebrations in the decorated pandal ( stage ) . The play is conducted by males belonging to both the brides ' and bridegrooms ' parties , and usually takes place for two or three nights . The plays performed are usually those of Biblical stories , and their morals are presented with the purpose of educating the bride and bridegroom . This tradition has almost completely died out among the present generation .
The tradition of Voviyo ( wedding songs ) , sung by women during a Ros , is important to this community . The procedure is that an elderly lady , usually the yejman ( wife of the master of ceremonies , who is known as yejmani ) who knows the voviyos , leads the song while the rest of the women sing along . Only women whose husbands are still living may sing . In ancient times , the wedding songs expressed very lofty sentiments and gave vent to the feelings of the people about the marriage partners and their families , invoking the blessing of God on them .
= = Organisations = =
Many organisations cater to the community in South Canara . The most notable are Mandd Sobhann , which broke the Guinness record for non @-@ stop singing , and the Catholic Association of South Kanara ( CASK ) . The first session of the Canara Konkani Catholic World Convention took place on 26 December 2004 in Mangalore . The convention aimed to establish institutions to conduct research on the history of Mangalorean Catholics . In India , the Kanara Catholic Association , Bangalore ( KCA Bangalore ) ( established in 1955 ) and Mangalore Catholic Association ( MCA ) ( established on 10 February 1996 in Pune ) are well known . In the United Kingdom , Mangalorean United Konkani Association ( MUKA ) in Nottingham is popular . The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Victoria ( MCAV ) established in Melbourne was the first organisation for the community in Australia . In 2006 the Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney ( MCAS ) was established in Australia . In North America , the Mangalorean Association of Canada and the Mangalorean Konkan Christian Association ( MKCA ) in Chicago are well known . In the Middle East , the Mangalore Cultural Association ( MCA ) in Doha , Qatar ; was established on March 2008 .
= Characters of Carnivàle =
There are several main characters in Carnivàle , an American television serial drama set in the United States Depression @-@ era Dust Bowl between 1934 and 1935 . It aired on HBO between 2003 and 2005 . The show traces the disparate storylines of an ensemble of fictional characters revolving around two main characters : young Ben Hawkins working in a traveling carnival , and a California preacher named Brother Justin Crowe .
Carnivàle has a large cast , amounting to eighteen main cast actors over its two @-@ season run . Most characters are introduced in Ben 's storyline : Samson , a dwarf co @-@ running the carnival with Management ; Jonesy , Samson 's right @-@ hand man with a crippling knee injury ; Apollonia and Sofie , two fortunetellers working a mother @-@ daughter act ; Lodz , a blind mentalist , and his lover , Lila the Bearded Lady ; the cootch ( striptease ) Dreifuss family ; snake charmer Ruthie and her son Gabriel , a strongman ; and many other sideshow performers . The supporting characters of Brother Justin 's storyline are his sister Iris , his mentor Reverend Norman Balthus , radio show host Tommy Dolan , and convict Varlyn Stroud . Several characters appear in mysterious dreams and visions connecting the slowly converging storylines .
Show creator Daniel Knauf 's original story pitch to HBO included elaborate character biographies , which he gave to the actors , the writers and the studio as an overview over the series ' intended plot . These biographies were rewritten before the filming of the first season began . Receiving little to no mention in the series afterwards , the original character backgrounds were summarized on the official HBO website . After the show 's cancellation , the writers revealed future character arcs and forwarded all original biographies to fans as part of the show 's so @-@ called " Pitch Document " . Due to their nature , these sources do not offer canon information per se , but provide a frame for the characters ' motivation throughout the series .
The thematic and period setting of Carnivàle required an unusual casting approach . While some actors were hired for their genetic disabilities , most actors were specifically cast for their unique and distinct looks to fit the 1930s period . Award @-@ winning costumes and make @-@ up enhanced the illusion . Reviews generally lauded the actors and characters , and several actors received award recognition for their performances .
= = Character conception = =
Conceiving the initial script for Carnivàle between 1990 and 1992 , Daniel Knauff set its plot in a carnival environment in the 1930s Dust Bowl , which he felt had not been dramatized as a series yet . He had grown up with a disabled father who was not commonly accepted as a normal human being . Freaks of the 1930s , however , who might not have found another place offering a future than a carnival , tended to be celebrities in the period . Daniel Knauf expanded the plot with a complex fictional universe based on a good versus evil theme , led by carnival healer Ben Hawkins and Brother Justin Crowe , a California preacher . In his story pitch to HBO , Knauf presented Carnivàle as a collection of media samples from the perspective of a fictional author trying to uncover Ben 's mysterious story . These fictional samples consisted of interviews , diary entries , and various newspaper clippings , photos and book references forming the character biographies of all major Carnivàle characters . The character backgrounds were further developed before the filming of Carnivàle began , but were not made part of the show 's visible structure . The audience would therefore only get to know the characters as a natural aspect in the story . The characters themselves are confronted with " self @-@ realization and becoming aware of these [ supernatural ] powers and learning to harness them , and the implications of this battle between good and evil . " Seventeen actors received star billing in the first season ; fifteen of whom were part of the carnival storyline . The second season amounted to thirteen main cast members , supplemented by several actors in recurring roles . Although such large casts make shows more expensive to produce , the writers have more flexibility in story decisions .
= = Ben Hawkins = =
Played by Nick Stahl , Ryan Hanson Bradford ( as child ) – Further information : Genealogy , and season 2 finale and character fates
Ben Krohn Hawkins is the protagonist in Carnivàle . He begins the story as a young Oklahoma farmer and chain gang fugitive who is picked up by a traveling carnival when his mother dies . Ben has displayed inexplicable healing powers since childhood , and with the beginning of the series , he has begun to suffer dreams and visions of people unknown to him . As Ben learns from staying with the carnival , he seems to be related to Henry Scudder , a man who once worked at the carnival . He also learns that his powers come with a price – to give life , he must take life ; to raise the dead , he has to deliberately kill someone else . When the beginning of season 2 makes the mysterious happenings in the carnival clearer , Ben is told to find the preacher of his dreams to prevent an unfolding chain of catastrophic events . Henry Scudder , at this point revealed to be Ben 's father , allegedly knows the preacher 's name , and after a number of near misses and harrowing encounters , Ben is able to bring Scudder before the carnival 's Management . A fight ensues in which Ben is forced to kill Management , leaving him a full understanding of his powers . Season 2 concludes with Ben 's setting out to confront Brother Justin in California , where they finally meet in battle in a cornfield . The carnies find Brother Justin slain and Ben passed out from his own grievous wounds . They take Ben back to their camp and leave New Canaan .
= = = Background and development = = =
As his powers and use of powers already suggest in the series , Ben is an Avataric Creature of Light . An early draft of Carnivàle , which consisted of diary entries by Benjamin " Ben " Hawkins , summarized his childhood as growing up on a run @-@ down farm with his mother and grandfather in the belief that his father had died in World War I. After both his grandfather and mother had died from cancer , he was " shanghaied by a group of carnies " in 1930 . In a later version closer to the actual series , Ben left his mother 's farm at age sixteen and fell into a criminal life in Texas . After receiving a twenty @-@ year sentence in a state prison @-@ farm for a failed bank robbery , Ben planned his escape to return home to his sick mother , but he accidentally killed a prison guard who drew a gun on him . Show creator Daniel Knauf gave the latter as Ben 's chain gang background in the series .
The writers always intended Ben to be the leading man and hero of the series , and were looking for an actor to showcase a youthful , innocent and anti @-@ hero quality . Of the many actors auditioning , the producers found that Nick Stahl brought a " particular introspection " to the character , " project [ ing ] a great deal of sensitivity , of quiet intelligence , of pain . " They also felt that his seemingly little @-@ trained physique worked well for the 1930s period . Nick Stahl , who interpreted Ben as " very stoic " , " very quiet " , with a " dual nature " and a " real internal struggle going on " , embraced this role as a personal challenge .
= = = Reception = = =
In reviewing the first three episodes , The New York Times commented that " Ben is a taciturn hero , and Mr. Stahl does a remarkable job of wordlessly conveying his character 's moods and yearnings , as well as his ungainly grace . " The Boston Globe regarded " Stahl , with his watchful eyes , [ as ] one of the show 's strengths . He has a boyish face , but the grim expression of a worn @-@ out elder " , and the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer said Stahl " speaks volumes with his eyes and weary frown , so much so that his understated portrayal almost carries the series . " In a season 1 DVD review , DVD Talk thought that " as the two leads , Nick Stahl and Clancy Brown are nothing short of brilliant . Ben Hawkins is a very isolated and quiet character , and yet he carries a significant part of the series on his shoulders . Without the right actor it could be disastrous , but Stahl brings a level of thoughtful emotion to the character such that a glance or a stare speaks volumes . " DVDverdict felt in a season 2 review that " both Nick Stahl and Clancy Brown deliver perfect performances . Stahl 's gradual acceptance of his own power , and his subsequent struggle , are fascinating . "
For his portrayal of Ben Hawkins , Nick Stahl was nominated for a 2003 Saturn Award in the category " Best Supporting Actor in a Television Series " . He was also nominated for a 2003 Golden Satellite Award in the category " Best Performance by an Actor in a Series , Drama " .
= = Brother Justin Crowe = =
Played by Clancy Brown , Jamie Kaler ( as young man ) , Jordan Orr ( as child , Alexei Belyakov ) , Don Swayze ( Tattooed Man ) – Further information : Genealogy , and season 2 finale and character fates
Brother Justin Crowe is the antagonist in Carnivàle ; reviewers also saw in him a possible alternate protagonist . Brother Justin is introduced as a Methodist minister who resides with his sister Iris in the small town of Mintern , California . As the series reveals in later episodes , Justin 's birth name is Alexei Belyakov . He and his sister Iris are orphaned immigrant children in the wilderness , who were found and raised by Reverend Norman Balthus . Following strange visions and supernatural abilities in the pilot episode , Brother Justin erects a church in his God 's name . But after a fire in his new ministry leads him almost to suicide , Brother Justin is hospitalized in a sanatarium and discovers his ability to manipulate and control those around him through sheer force of will . Shortly after Brother Justin 's return to Mintern , Norman suspects his foster son to be possessed by a demon and confronts him , but Brother Justin is not disturbed by his true nature for long . In the beginning of season 2 , Brother Justin has begun to gather a huge flock of worshippers of mostly migrants and Okies outside Mintern via his nightly radio sermons and newfound abilities of persuasion . A scholar named Wilfred Talbot Smith identifies him as the Usher and tells him that , in order to gain his full measure of power and fulfill his destiny , he must find and kill a man named Henry Scudder . While escaped convict Varlyn Stroud helps Brother Justin , the Crowes find a new chambermaid in ex @-@ carny Sofie , not knowing that she is Brother Justin 's daughter . Brother Justin at long last meets his adversary , Ben , in the final episode of the series . Brother Justin is killed in a battle in a cornfield near his home , but Sofie as the Omega arrives and places her hands on his chest , causing the corn stalks around them to wither and fall away .
= = = Background and development = = =
Besides being the Usher , Brother Justin is also an Avataric Creature of Dark . His spiritual presentation in the series , the Tattooed Man , was portrayed by Don Swayze . Show creator Daniel Knauf saw in Brother Justin " one of the most complex devils " , and envisioned Christopher Walken to play him when he wrote the first draft of the show . Knauf originally designed Brother Justin as a preacher far along in his career as well as a recurring instead of a regular character , " much more evolved towards the dark side . " An early draft of Carnivàle gave Brother Justin 's real name as Lucius Crowe , a radio preacher who advocated ethnic hatred , especially for Gypsies and carnival folk . It also mentioned Brother Justin joining " The Order of the Knights of Jericho " between 1921 and 1923 and becoming its head in 1926 . The completion of the construction of his " Temple of Jericho " was set in Nebraska in 1928 . At the series ' start initially projected to occur in 1930 , the character had already gathered a great army of followers through his " Church of the Air " radio sermons .
After seeing the preliminary pilot episode , however , Knauf and the producers realized there was no room for the character to grow in a television series . They demoted Brother Justin to an ordinary Christian minister in a little town , but when Brother Justin 's affiliation needed to be decided , Knauf contested plans to make him a Catholic priest ; he rather settled on the Methodist denomination , which he perceived as significantly less suspicious and controversial . Although Brother Justin shares traits with Father Coughlin , an Irish Catholic priest who broadcast his sermons over the radio in the 1930s , the writers never tried to retell that particular story .
The producers added Justin 's sister Iris as a supporting character in the revised series , and established a sexual tension between the two characters early on . While reviewers were unsure what to make of it , Daniel Knauf advertised the relationship as " just as warped and incestuous as ever " in the new season . Clancy Brown ( Brother Justin ) and Amy Madigan ( Iris ) acknowledged the lust between their characters but assumed their relationship had not been consummated in the first season . They were not in favor of their characters getting together like HBO had wanted , as " that 's really not what they 're about . " Per Brown , the sibling relationship informs Brother Justin 's and Iris 's character and motives , and continued tension frightens the audience more if it is never resolved . Although Brown and Madigan wanted to leave the status of their characters ' relationship as lovers open , they deliberately played their kisses more intimate and familiar than most people would consider comfortable . Several characters intervene the siblings ' relationship during the show 's run . The writers had planned a sexual innuendo between Iris and Tommy Dolan , a news reporter who investigates in the arson case , but Robert Knepper ( Dolan ) later felt his character might just have been a pawn between Brother Justin and Iris as siblings , making Brother Justin jealous . The Crowes also regularly hire new maids , which Knauf explained as Iris lining up surrogate women to relieve Brother Justin 's sexual pressure .
= = = Reception = = =
In reviewing the first three episodes , The New York Times saw in " prim , righteous Brother Justin [ ... ] more of a caricature , but Clancy Brown finds ways to bring some subtle glints of personality to the role . " Time commented , " Brother Justin comes across as a typical whited sepulcher – if there 's one thing more trite than a dwarf in a surreal drama , it 's a preacher with a dark side – and Brown 's campy performance largely involves shouting ' Enough ! ' and ' No @-@ o @-@ o @-@ o ! ' with horror @-@ flick pathos . " Entertainment Weekly considered Brown 's Brother Justin " delightfully unsettling as the creepy evangelist taking his orders from the wrong superpower " , and Variety thought Brown was doing " a superb job straddling the line between stoic and menacing , and there are hints about his weaknesses , conveyed quickly with subtlety . " A season 1 DVD review by DVD Talk saw Clancy Brown 's performance as " nothing short of brilliant . [ ... ] Brown also has a difficult task capturing the duality of Brother Justin , a man who presents a physically intimidating presence but who wants little more than to be a subdued and loyal servant of his Lord , and he succeeds on every level . " DVDverdict stated in a season 2 review that " Brown 's presence and charisma is dazzling ; he is both likable and frightening . He is an actor with a great deal of range , and he uses all of it in this series . " Referring to Brown 's portrayal as " a man of God in Carnivale " , the Los Angeles Times saw Brown 's " eyes always betray [ ing ] him as someone who , all things considered , would probably be happier caving in your skull and smoking a cigarette afterward than talking to you for another minute . " Time Magazine 's James Poniewozik depicted the Boardwalk Empire character Nelson Van Alden ( played by Michael Shannon ) as " such a histrionic , guilt @-@ wracked , damnation @-@ obsessed monster that he reminds me of Brother Justin " .
= = Characters affiliated with Ben Hawkins = =
= = = Samson = = =
Played by Michael J. Anderson ( seasons 1 – 2 main cast )
Samson , in earlier drafts also called Edgar Leiber or Edgar Leonhardt , is the dwarf co @-@ manager of the Carnivàle . His original biography gave his background as a dwarf strongman who started his career in 1904 . Eight years later , he started working on traveling carnivals , including the Hyde & Teller Company . Samson 's wit elevated him from performer to general manager until another character , Management , purchased the carnival ( to be renamed Carnivàle ) and briefly gave Samson 's job to Lodz , a blind mentalist . The beginning of the series shows Samson delegating Management 's orders to the carnies . Samson temporarily loses his position to Lodz for a second time near the end of the first season but retains Management 's trust . The death of Management in season 2 leads to Samson 's secret deal with Ben to make the boy the new commander of the carnival .
= = = Jonesy = = =
Played by Tim DeKay ( seasons 1 – 2 main cast ) – Further information : Season 2 finale and character fates
Clayton " Jonesy " Jones is an ex @-@ baseball player who suffers from a crippling knee injury . He is Samson 's right @-@ hand man , operator of the Ferris wheel , and the leader of the roustabouts . Jonesy 's original biography reveals his past as a star pitcher in the major league whose knee was injured in revenge when he refused to throw a game for the mob . Slipping to the edge of society , Jonesy joined the Carnivàle and found redemption in the eyes of young Sofie . The two became inseparable until Sofie grew into a woman , making their relationship awkward . At the beginning of the series , Jonesy is faced with Sofie avoiding his advances . While she retreats into a friendship with cootch dancer Libby Dreifuss , Jonesy finds sexual relief with Libby 's mother Rita Sue . When Sofie begins to show interest in him , he breaks off his relationship with Rita Sue ; however , the fact that he was sleeping with her ( and that Libby knew about it ) causes Sofie to break both of their hearts as pay back . After this Jonesy remains cold towards her yet finds new affection in Libby . The two eventually elope . Jonesy is kidnapped , tortured and left for dead by a man who had lost his wife in a Ferris wheel accident . Ben is able to heal Jonesy including his crippled knee , and Jonesy joins Ben on his last mission . In the series ' final minutes , Jonesy and Sofie meet again , and she shoots him in cold blood .
= = = Sofie and Apollonia = = =
Sofie played by Clea DuVall , Lilli Babb ( as child ) ( seasons 1 – 2 main cast ) – Further information : Genealogy · Season 2 finale and character fates
Apollonia played by Diane Salinger , Elizabeth Kate ( as young woman ) ( season 1 main cast , season 2 recurring ) – Further information : Genealogy
Apollonia and Sofie Agnesh Bojakshiya are fortunetellers in a mother @-@ daughter act at the carnival . Although Apollonia is catatonic , she and Sofie can communicate telepathically . Their original biographies declare Apollonia a " once renowned seer who read cards for the rich and famous " and " the only psychic Houdini was unable to debunk . " A series of seizures during Sofie 's birth in 1913 was given as reason for Apollonia 's state . Apollonia 's sister cared for her until Sofie was old enough to take over , and they began working the traveling circuits shortly afterwards . It remains unknown until late in season that 2 Sofie is the Omega , although the character 's importance for the show 's mythology is suggested much earlier . When the series starts with Ben joining the carnival , Apollonia can no longer shield Sofie from her own true self . Sofie begins to evade and rebel against her mother 's mental control , but Apollonia counters by first trying to drive Sofie to suicide , then by attempting to kill her in a trailer fire at the end of the first season . Jonesy rescues Sofie , but Apollonia dies . Nevertheless , season 2 shows Apollonia repeatedly appearing to Sofie and snake charmer Ruthie . Sofie tries to leave her fortuneteller life behind by becoming a roustabout . After a short @-@ lived relationship with Ben , Sofie leaves the carnival altogether and becomes the Crowes ' maid in California . Brother Justin introduces her to the world of religion , but several signs suggest the preacher is not the good man Sofie thought . After berating Brother Justin in the final episode , Sofie is locked in a barn where visions insinuate her as the Omega and Brother Justin as her father . She later shoots Jonesy , and her eyes have taken on the coal black appearance of Brother Justin 's eyes . The final minutes of the series show Sofie finding Brother Justin dead in a cornfield . She lays her hands on his chest , and the corn around them dies .
= = = Lodz = = =
Played by Patrick Bauchau ( season 1 main cast , season 2 recurring )
Professor Ernst Lodz is a blind mentalist . As revealed both in the show and in his original biography , he has a long history with the Carnivàle . Lodz 's character arc starts with Ben joining the carnival . Lodz unsuccessfully hassles the boy to work with him and to listen to his dreams . He later initiates Ruthie 's death with Management 's blessing to get his sight back . Upon finding out these circumstances , Ben strangles Lodz to death , reviving Ruthie in the process . Nevertheless , Lodz repeatedly appears to Ruthie and leaves her the message " Sofie is the Omega " on a mirror . Using Ruthie 's body , Lodz also visits his lover Lila and informs her about the events leading to his death and " you 'll be seeing me soon [ ... ] in the flesh . " Lodz 's final appearance as Ruthie was not supposed to be his last . According to Clancy Brown ( Brother Justin ) , the writers had originally planned Lodz 's return as a mummy after a man sold his desiccated body to the carnies . Lodz 's demise in season 1 however was planned from the beginning . Besides serving a purpose to the story , it should indicate all bets are off for the other characters .
= = = Lila = = =
Played by Debra Christofferson ( seasons 1 – 2 main cast )
Lila Villanueva , also known as the Bearded Lady of Brussels , is the lover of Lodz and the dressmaker of the carnival . Lila 's original biography states she was born into the Villanueva circus family in Terrebonne Parish , Louisiana in 1890 . The family traveled the international circuit as the " Flying Villalobos " until misfortune struck . One of Lila 's two older brothers died in Copenhagen in 1905 , and her father committed suicide in 1908 . At age sixteen , Lila already sported a beard and married for the first time . The marriage did not last long , and Lila would marry over nineteen more times in her life . Lodz would be her only true love . Lila 's arc of the first season is limited to being with Lodz until she notices his growing contact with Management . His sudden disappearance at the beginning of season 2 however makes her suspicious . Samson 's subsequent evasive behavior suggests external forces , but Lila finds herself unable to obtain proof . Ruthie repeatedly approaches Lila at night , seemingly possessed by Lodz , and leaves her clues . When Lila finally learns of the circumstances surrounding Lodz 's death , she suborns the carnival crew to a mutiny that almost prevents the troupe from meeting with Brother Justin in California .
= = = The Dreifuss family = = =
Felix " Stumpy " Dreifuss played by Toby Huss ( seasons 1 – 2 main cast )
Rita Sue Dreifuss played by Cynthia Ettinger ( seasons 1 – 2 main cast )
Libby Dreifuss played by Carla Gallo ( seasons 1 – 2 main cast ) – Further information : Season 2 finale and character fates
Dora Mae Dreifuss played by Amanda Aday ( season 1 recurring )
Felix " Stumpy " Dreifuss is the manager of the cootch ( striptease ) show . He is married to Rita Sue , and has two daughters , Libby and Dora Mae . Their original biographies state Rita Sue was born in Michigan in 1895 as the only child of Thomas and Emma Menninger . Her parents invested in her education at the finest Eastern boarding schools , but the family 's financial fortunes declined with Thomas 's death in 1903 . Rita Sue left her home in 1908 and started vaudeville work . She joined several traveling companies and strip @-@ shows , where she met Stumpy , a barker who had begun his career in 1910 . They married in 1914 , two months before the birth of their first child , Libby . In 1916 , their second daughter , Dora Mae , was born . When their company 's owner died , Stumpy and Rita Sue began traveling with various carnival companies and were eventually joined by their two daughters in the late 1920s . Their fortunes steadily declined in the 1930s when more cootch family acts spawned in the difficult times . The series mentions Stumpy and Rita Sue had three more children , one of whom was stillborn and two of whom died of influenza . The Dreifuss family continues to face many personal and economic problems during the show 's run . Dora Mae is murdered by an inhabitant of a haunted ghost town , the sexual relationships between Jonesy and Rita Sue , then Jonesy and Libby , cause much heartbreak , and Stumpy 's affection for gambling almost ruins the family .
= = = Ruthie and Gabriel = = =
Ruthie played by Adrienne Barbeau ( seasons 1 – 2 main cast )
Gabriel played by Brian Turk ( seasons 1 – 2 main cast )
Ruthie is a snake charmer and barker for the strongman acts of her son Gabriel . Their arc in the story reveals Ruthie as a former lover of the mysterious Henry Scudder . Gabriel , a big and powerful person but with a low IQ , is the first carny to experience Ben 's healing powers . Shortly after Ruthie and Ben grow close , Ruthie dies from a snake bite . Ben first tries unsuccessfully to resurrect Ruthie , but succeeds later when he strangles Lodz , the carnival 's blind mentalist . In season 2 , Ruthie starts to encounter people who have died a long time ago . Being possessed by Lodz at night , Ruthie repeatedly approaches Lila , leading to Lila turning into a major obstacle for the carnival 's success .
= = = Minor characters = = =
Gecko played by John Fleck ( season 1 main cast ) – Gecko is the Lizard Man at the carnival . While his disappearance in @-@ between seasons is not directly addressed , Bert mentions hearing about some acts having abandoned Samson ( The Road to Damascus ) .
Alexandria and Caladonia Potter played by Karyne and Sarah Steben ( season 1 main cast ) – Alexandria and Caladonia are twins conjoined at the hip . While their disappearance in @-@ between seasons is not directly addressed , Bert mentions hearing about some acts having abandoned Samson ( The Road to Damascus ) .
Burley played by Scott MacDonald ( season 1 – 2 recurring ) – Burley is a roustabout at the carnival .
Osgood played by Blake Shields ( season 1 – 2 recurring ) – Osgood is a roustabout at the carnival .
Possum played by Bill Moseley ( season 1 – 2 recurring ) – Possum is the cook of the carnival .
Jasper played by Frank Collison ( season 1 – 2 recurring ) – Jasper is a barker at the carnival .
Giant played by Matthew McGrory ( season 1 – 2 recurring ) – The giant demonstrates his size in the Ten @-@ in @-@ One .
Sabina Engstrom played by Bree Walker ( season 2 recurring ) – Sabina the Scorpion Lady worked at the Daily Brothers Show until its closure and joins the Carnivàle in season 2 . She was married to Samson for nine years .
Bert / Bertha Hagenbeck played by Paul Hipp ( season 2 recurring ) – Bert / Bertha is the current husband of Sabina . He dresses as half a man , half a woman .
Rollo the Rubberboy / Boneless Billy Benson played by Daniel Browning Smith ( season 2 recurring ) – Rollo is a contortionist .
Stangler played by John Hannah ( season 1 ) – Stangler is a bartender and resident of Babylon ; he is executed after a round of " Carnival Justice " due to admitting to the murder of Dora Mae .
= = Characters affiliated with Brother Justin = =
= = = Iris Crowe = = =
Played by Amy Madigan ( seasons 1 – 2 main cast ) , Erin Sanders ( as child , Irina Belyakov ) ( seasons 1 recurring cast ) – Further information : Genealogy
Iris Crowe is the older sister of Brother Justin and a devoted supporter of his ministry duties in California . Iris ' significance in the series starts when Brother Justin informs her about the church board 's plan to take away his new ministry . Shortly after , a fire in the church kills several orphans , but it remains unknown until the end of the first season that Iris was the arsonist . Radio show host Tommy Dolan , who arrived to help with the arson investigation , develops feelings for Iris , but a romance is hindered by Brother Justin 's return from a week @-@ long self @-@ discovery trip . Dolan starts to uncover evidence pointing to Iris 's guilt , but a strange twist at Iris 's planned public confession results in Dolan 's arrest as the culprit . To prevent the revelation of Brother Justin 's true nature , Iris murders an innocent Okie , Eleanor . Late in the second season , Iris joins her foster father Norman in an ultimately unsuccessful plot against Brother Justin .
= = = Tommy Dolan = = =
Played by Robert Knepper ( seasons 1 – 2 recurring )
Tommy Dolan is a radio show host and news reporter from Los Angeles , who regularly travels incognito into the wilderness to collect strangers ' stories for his show Tommy Dolan on the Road . His first appearance in the series occurs when he meets Brother Justin around a campfire . After retelling Brother Justin 's story of the burned @-@ down ministry in his radio show , Dolan approaches Brother Justin 's sister Iris and helps her with receiving funds for a new church . Dolan is seemingly attracted to Iris , but Brother Justin 's return prevents further advances . By the beginning of season 2 , Dolan has fulfilled Brother Justin 's wish to become a radio preacher , yet police evidence surfaces first hinting at Brother Justin 's , then Iris ' guilt in the arson . Trying to further his career , Dolan collects evidence until Brother Justin accepts the arrangement of a special confession announcement for Iris . The confession backfires and Dolan is arrested , with Iris 's guilt never proven .
= = = Reverend Norman Balthus = = =
Played by Ralph Waite ( season 1 recurring , season 2 main cast ) – Further information : Genealogy
Reverend Norman Balthus is Brother Justin 's mentor . He rescued and raised young Justin and Iris after he had found them alone in the wilderness . Late in the first season , Norman grows suspicious of Brother Justin 's inner motivations . He confronts his foster son but does not carry out Brother Justin 's plea to kill him . At the beginning of season 2 , Norman suffers a stroke leaving him unable to move or speak . He remains in the care of Brother Justin and Iris until the carnival sets up near Brother Justin 's home at the end of the series . Ben heals Norman , but the reverend is fatally lacerated by Brother Justin seconds later .
= = = Varlyn Stroud = = =
Played by John Carroll Lynch ( season 2 recurring )
Varlyn Stroud is a convict . His original biography gives insight into his criminal past and names Stroud 's sister Clara as his first murder . When Clara was nine years old , Stroud deliberately upset a Ferris wheel car so Clara fell to her death . Stroud 's second murder was his grandfather three years later , which he covered as a hunting accident . Having possibly committed over a dozen contract @-@ killings , Stroud was never convicted of murder , yet still spent most of his life in prison on a variety of charges . Stroud 's story arc in the series begins in season 2 when he hears Brother Justin 's radio sermon . Made Brother Justin 's apostle in a subliminal message , Stroud escapes prison to find and bring Henry Scudder to Brother Justin . Stroud first tracks Scudder 's old life and later follows the route of the carnival . With Ben 's unintentional aid , Stroud finally finds the man he is looking for . After delivering Scudder to Brother Justin , Stroud becomes his security manager , which significantly hinders the carnival 's aim to kill Brother Justin .
= = = Minor characters = = =
Eleanor McGill played by K Callan ( seasons 1 – 2 recurring ) – Eleanor McGill is an Okie who becomes a devoted follower of Brother Justin .
Val Templeton played by Glenn Shadix ( seasons 1 – 2 recurring ) – Val Templeton , cousin of Chin 's owner Carroll Templeton , is a councilman in Mintern .
Ned Munson played by Matt McCoy ( seasons 1 – 2 recurring ) – Ned Munson is a councilman in Mintern California , assisting Val Templeton .
Wilfred Talbot Smith played by Time Winters ( season 2 recurring ) – Wilfred Talbot Smith advises Brother Justin in occult matters in relation to the Usher .
Bishop McNaughton played by John Aylward ( season 2 recurring ) – Bishop McNaughton oversees the church of Reverend Norman Balthus and Brother Justin .
Garrett played by Dennis W. Hall ( Season 1 – 2 , recurring ) – Garrett is married and has children with Maggie , the niece of Eleanor McGill .
Carroll Templeton played by Ron Perkins ( season 1 ) – Carroll Templeton , cousin of Val Templeton , is the owner of Chin 's . Brother Justin reveals his sins , which leads to his suicide .
= = Characters affiliated with the past = =
Since the first episodes of Carnivàle , Ben 's parentage is one of the big puzzles . As a man named Henry Scudder seems connected to everything and everyone , it is Ben 's job to piece together the mystery of his own past . The progressing series indicates many characters are more closely interrelated than what both the characters and the audience would imagine at first . Although these links rarely receive plot attention , the immediate genealogy of the main characters is cleared up by the end of the second season . Other character links that were largely unanswered after Carnivàle 's cancellation concern the trench war and the Hyde & Teller Company in relation to the emergence of the Carnivàle . Show creator Daniel Knauf , character biographies on the HBO website and the Pitch Document later provided detail for what was originally envisioned . Although the nature of these sources does not qualify them for canon status , they provide a framework for hints dropped in the series .
= = = Henry Scudder = = =
Played by John Savage ( seasons 1 – 2 recurring )
Henry " Hack " Scudder is a mysterious man who appears in Ben 's and Brother Justin 's dreams wearing a tuxedo . Scudder is mentioned several times in the first season , revealing he once worked at the carnival 's geek show and was Ruthie 's lover . Scudder also had a relationship with Ben 's mother once ; Samson later confirms Scudder as Ben 's father . Season 2 forces both Ben and Brother Justin to find Scudder for their own purposes . It is confirmed that he is the previous generation 's Creature of Darkness , and just as Management , the previous Avatar of Light , knew Ben 's identity , he knows Brother Justin 's , the current Avatar of Darkness . He had repeatedly tried to flee from his destiny , and when he sensed Management approaching he fled to protect Ben and his mother . After a long journey , Ben finds Scudder in Damascus , Nebraska and brings him to the carnival 's Management and reveals that Management 's son is the Avatar of Darkness . Management attacks Scudder , leading to Ben killing Management to protect him . Scudder flees and moments later , escaped convict Stroud kidnaps him and brings him to Brother Justin . Brother Justin anticipates Scudder 's renewed escape and decapitates him .
= = = Lucius Belyakov = = =
Played by Michael Massee and Vladislav Kozlov ( Russian soldier ) , Cameron Clapp ( body ) , Linda Hunt ( voice ) ( seasons 1 – 2 recurring )
Lucius Belyakov is a mysterious man who appears in Ben 's and Brother Justin 's dreams as a Russian soldier . He is also revealed to be the previous generation 's Creature of Light . Unknown at first , he is also the carnival 's Management , hiding in his trailer and communicating with his carny workers solely through Samson . He is also the father of Iris and Justin Crowe . As Management remains unseen during the first season , it is unclear at first whether Management exists at all . Late in the season however , Management is shown to have a conversation with Lodz . In the second season , Management reveals himself to Ben as Lucius Belyakov , the soldier of his dreams who was once badly injured by a bear . Management wants Ben to break an unfolding chain of catastrophic events , which will lead to the death of millions . Management urges Ben to find and bring Scudder to him , as he will know the identity of the current generation 's Avatar of Darkness . After Ben accomplishes his mission , Management attacks Scudder and is stabbed by Ben to protect the latter . Ben reveals to Samson that Management had planned for Ben to kill him so all of his powers would pass to Ben . With his last breath , Management tells Ben how to defeat the Usher , Ben 's ultimate nemesis .
= = = Emergence of the Carnivàle = = =
Although Carnivàle is set in the mid @-@ 1930s , Ben and Brother Justin have visions and dreams suggesting the story began much earlier . Samson summarizes the backstory in a monologue at the beginning of season 2 , without mentioning names . The Pitch Document , which served as the source for the character biographies on the HBO website , provides context for all clues .
The carnival 's backstory begins at the end of the nineteenth century when Lucius Belyakov , a Russian aristocrat from Minsk and officer in the Tsar 's army , became aware of his Avataric powers . The birth of his son Alexei evoked dark visions in him . After Belyakov 's attempt to kill two @-@ year @-@ old Alexei , his wife fled with their two children to America , but news spread they perished in a train accident soon thereafter . Resuming his duties in Lemberg in 1914 , Belyakov was again afflicted by dark visions . Henry Scudder , an American who had escaped prosecution for criminal activities in his home country by joining foreign armies , had had psychokinetic powers since childhood . At the time of Belyakov 's visions , Scudder was stationed in Lemberg as an observer for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army . Belyakov became obsessed with killing his spiritual enemy ( Scudder ) and deserted his post , but an escaped circus bear feeding on the dead nearby surprised him in an attack . Belyakov was so gravely injured he would lose an arm and both legs .
Scudder escaped and encountered carnival performer Lodz on the battlefield , searching for his bear Bruno . When Scudder joined Lodz 's troupe , Lodz recognized and cultivated Scudder 's supernatural abilities , and they started to perform in the salons of war @-@ torn Europe . Meanwhile , Belyakov slowly recovered from his wounds and learned about his true nature and destiny through devoted study of ancient manuscripts . Scudder could feel Belyakov tracking his movements and never stayed long in one area . Growing impatient , Lodz got into a fight with Scudder about his skills and was gifted with mindreading in exchange for his sense of sight . Scudder returned to America in 1915 to flee his nightmares . Several months later , Belyakov located the broken @-@ down Lodz in Venice . Belyakov noticed the mental bond between Lodz and Scudder the power transfer had caused , and promised to restore Lodz 's sight if he helped in finding Scudder .
Scudder fell in love and married a local girl named Flora Hawkins from Milfay , Oklahoma , with whom he had a son , Ben . When Scudder felt his pursuing enemy again , he left his family and traveled aimlessly throughout the country . After narrowly surviving a cave @-@ in in Babylon , he joined the Hyde & Teller Company , a small carnival working the southeastern circuit . Scudder worked as a sideshow geek for nearly a year and got to know Samson , Jonesy , Possum , Lila , Ruthie and Gabriel . Meanwhile , Belyakov used Lodz 's tracking skills and purchased the Hyde & Teller Company , scantily missing Scudder . To remain undercover , Belyakov renamed the troupe " Carnivàle " , assumed the name " Management " , and replaced Samson with Lodz as the new co @-@ manager . Lodz finally located Scudder in St. Louis , but when Lodz failed in preventing Scudder from going into hiding again ( with the Order Templar ) , Samson regained his old job . Over the years , the Carnivàle took on new acts such as the fortunetellers Apollonia and Sofie , the conjoined twins , Gecko the Lizard Man , and the Dreifuss family . While Lodz embitteredly waited for Management to fulfill his earlier promise of restoring his sight , Samson ran the show , counseled by Management and assisted by Jonesy . Eighteen years went by until Management felt Ben Hawkins , whom he had sensed as his Ascendant since birth , was old enough to be approached . At this point , the first season of Carnivàle resumes the story .
= = = Genealogy = = =
The pilot episode begins with Ben Hawkins waking up from a dream of a tattooed man , a man in a tuxedo , and a Russian soldier . Ben 's childhood is revealed in flashbacks and dialogue ; Ben 's father had left the family 's farm when Ben was an infant , leaving him in the care of Flora , Ben 's mother . Late season 1 confirms what early episodes had already suggested – the man in the tuxedo , Henry Scudder , is Ben 's father . In the second season , Ben meets his paternal grandmother , Emma Krohn , and learns she killed her husband Hilton Scudder on the night of Henry 's birth , along with Henry 's older brothers Owen , Gilbert , and Alvin Sr. ( According to Knauf and the HBO website , Emma 's other sons were from a previous marriage to Clarke " C.W. " Powell , who had died by natural causes . ) Emma introduces the people living with her as her grandchildren and Ben 's cousins .
Brother Justin Crowe is introduced as a devoted Methodist minister , who is supported by his sister Iris . On a self @-@ discovery trip in the middle of the first season , Brother Justin has an elaborate vision of two Russian immigrant children , Irina and her younger brother Alexei ; Irina talks of her evil father . As revealed shortly afterwards , this vision is a repressed memory of Brother Justin of him and Iris as the only survivors of a train accident which also cost their mother 's life . Reverend Norman Balthus later saved Irina and Alexei and raised them in a church orphanage . A vision prompts Brother Justin to get his chest tattooed early in the second season .
Some people of the Carnivàle are closely related . Apollonia and Sofie are introduced as mother and daughter working as fortunetellers . Sofie grew up not knowing her father , but has a vision of the Tattooed Man raping her mother later in the first season . In the season 2 opening episode , Management , the mysterious leader of the carnival , reveals himself as Lucius Belyakov , the Russian soldier of Ben 's dreams . Moments before his death several episodes later , Belyakov learns that his son Alexei ( Brother Justin ) did not die in a train accident , as he had previously believed . In the meantime , Sofie has become the Crowes ' maid . When she has a chat with Iris about her childhood , Iris has a vision of Brother Justin as a young man raping Apollonia during his seminary studies in Saint Paul . Although Iris only informs Norman of her suspicions , Sofie sees Brother Justin 's tattooed chest in the final episode of season 2 and has implicit visions insinuating Brother Justin as her father . Future seasons of Carnivàle would have expanded the Belyakov genealogy , making a fusion with the Scudder genealogy possible .
= = Casting = =
The casting approach for Carnivàle was to find the best available actors and to show the characters ' realness as opposed to depending on freak illusions too much . Carnivàle 's casting directors John Papsodera and Wendy O 'Brien already had experience in casting freaks from previous projects . They attended theater showcases , approached smaller agents or hired some actors directly to find people with unique and distinct looks , which was trying as Los Angeles is a stronghold of good @-@ looking actors . The producers generally preferred actors who were not strongly identified with other projects , but were willing to make exceptions for established actors such as Adrienne Barbeau ( Ruthie ) .
The script for the pilot episode was the basis for the casting procedure , with little indication where the show would go afterwards . This resulted in some preliminary casting disagreements between the creators and producers , especially for leading characters . Nick Stahl had the strongest consensus among the producers to portray the leading man and hero of the series with a youthful , innocent and anti @-@ hero quality . The character of Sofie was originally written as more of an exotic gypsy girl , but Clea DuVall , a movie actress trying to become involved in regular television , got the part after four auditions . Tim DeKay , who had previously worked with Daniel Knauf on a pilot episode of a different project , was cast as Jonesy because the producers felt he best portrayed a " very American " looking baseball player of the 1930s period . Debra Christofferson impressed the producers with her first and only audition , playing Lila as Lodz 's lover instead of his best friend as the script had implied . Adrienne Barbeau ( Ruthie ) was cast after her first audition as well , although she had originally expected to be cast as Apollonia . She learned to snake @-@ dance afterwards . Brian Turk 's role as Gabriel was originally intended to be a mute character described as " a mildly retarded strongman with the face of an angel " , but the writers later gave Turk a speaking part to not have another mute character like Management and Apollonia . One of the only actors who never had any real competition was Michael J. Anderson as Samson , whom Daniel Knauf had wanted as early as the initial casting meeting ; Samson , Knauf 's favorite character , was inspired by Knauf 's father .
The filmed pilot episode served as basis for additional tweaking of intended story lines . The expanded role of Brother Justin encouraged the creation of his sister Iris in a supporting role , for which Amy Madigan was cast . Little was changed on Ben Hawkins ' side except for the addition of the cootch ( striptease ) Dreifuss family ; a Carnivàle consultant had elated the producers by calling attention to his research about families managing cootch shows in the 1930s . Cynthia Ettinger ( Rita Sue Dreifuss ) had lost her role as Martha Kent in the pilot episode of Smallville before the opportunity for Carnivàle came up and had turned to theater jobs ; she chose Carnivàle because of the theater @-@ like experience . Amanda Aday ( Dora Mae Dreifuss ) knew she would join the cast for only a few episodes , but was not told the story reasons at that point . The writers prolonged the character arcs of recurring John Carroll Lynch ( Stroud ) and K Callan ( Eleanor ) considerably beyond their original intention . Similarly , Robert Knepper 's role as Tommy Dolan was extended from a few episodes to half of both seasons because the writers had liked his performance as an " ambitious man [ who uses ] Brother Justin to further his career . "
Genetic disorders or unusual body features are not uncommon among Carnivàle actors . Michael J. Anderson ( Samson ) has osteogenesis imperfecta , a genetic bone disorder that leaves him at a size of 3 ft 7 ( 109 cm ) , while Matthew McGrory ( Giant ) stood at 7 ft 6 ( 228 cm ) because of hyperpituitarism . Bree Walker ( Sabina ) has ectrodactyly , a rare genetic disorder that results in fused fingers and toes ; she approached the producers in the second season to let her play a " lobster gal " . Several actors for one @-@ time characters like the lobster gal in " Hot and Bothered " and Percy The Praying Mantis in " The Road to Damascus " were also cast for their respective real @-@ life disabilities . Cameron Clapp ( Management ) had lost an arm and both legs in a train accident at the age of 15 . Daniel Browning Smith ( Rollo the Rubberboy ) holds two Guinness World Records for his body @-@ bending abilities . The actors playing the roles of the conjoined twins ( Karyne and Sarah Steben , identical twins and real @-@ life trapezists ) , Lila the Bearded Lady ( Debra Christofferson ) and Gecko the Lizard Man ( John Fleck ) are performers without genetic aberrances whose appearances were altered through makeup and prosthetics .
= = Make @-@ up and costumes = =
To give the illusion of being freaks , the appearance of several actors was modified by make @-@ up elements . John Fleck ( Gecko ) spent over ten hours in makeup each day to transform into and out of his character . The skin , which needed to look like alligator hide , consisted of seven or eight separate pieces and needed to be glued to Fleck 's face . Patrick Bauchau ( Lodz ) had several contact lenses pairs of different opaqueness . While one pair enabled him to see shapes , another pair made him basically blind and he had to be led around the set . Debra Christofferson ( Lila ) had a fake beard applied to her chin ; the beard was custom @-@ made by hand @-@ tying human hair onto lace that would disappear when the beard was glued onto the skin . The beard of the early episodes was so heavy that the chemicals caused Christofferson 's skin to be raw at the end of the shooting day , and was later split into three pieces . Christofferson still needed to be careful with mouth movements . According to the actress , " the beard actually determined Lila 's voice . "
Establishing the characters ' background rather than prettiness was the main goal of costumes . Ben wore the same clothes in both seasons , and to make them look identical , around twenty multiples of his coveralls were made by hand . It took over six weeks to apply all stitches , patches and the roughly fifty holes , plus the aging process . Brother Justin 's clothes were made period @-@ correct from the beginning , but the character 's foreboding presence was enhanced by fitting his frock on the waist and making the shoulders look bigger than usual for that time period . Sofie 's clothes had a strong Bohemian Eastern influence to portray her mother 's origin and sensibilities . Stumpy 's wardrobe consisted of baggy pants and an Italian bowler hat that gave him a 1920s look instead of the 1930s , showing his clothes were second @-@ hand . The stripper clothes of Rita Sue and Libby were influenced by Mae West , harlot movies and silent films of the 1920s and 1930s , with additional research put into Asian harlots , Latin dancers and Hawaiian dancers . The costume designers chose the costumes of the Daily Brothers Show , a rival carnival , to have a new color tone to set them apart from the Carnivàle . The dress of Sabina the Scorpion Lady underwent several die @-@ bleaching cycles to achieve a red @-@ orange @-@ purple color that would work well when filming outside . Bert / Bertha 's costume was made in a hurry from a vintage tuxedo and an old feathered dress , which helped to give it a " made @-@ it @-@ on @-@ the @-@ road " feeling .
In 2004 , Carnivàle won a Hollywood Makeup Artist and Hair Stylist Guild Award and two Emmys in the categories " Outstanding Costumes for a Series " and " Outstanding Hairstyling for a Series " . The show was also nominated in the Emmy category " Outstanding Makeup for a Series ( Non @-@ Prosthetic ) " both in 2004 and 2005 , and in the categories " Outstanding Costumes for a Series " , " Outstanding Hairstyling for a Series " , and " Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series , Miniseries , Movie or a Special " in 2005 . In the same year , Carnivàle was nominated for two Costume Designers Guild Awards in the categories " Outstanding Costume Design for Television Series – Period / Fantasy " and " Excellence in Costume Design for Television – Period / Fantasy " , winning the latter .
= = Reception of supporting characters = =
As early reviews focused on Ben Hawkins , Brother Justin Crowe and the meaning of Carnivàle , the show 's supporting characters received little to no attention other than having their freak appearances mentioned , according to Variety 's Phil Gallo because " they don 't play significant parts in the first few episodes . " Critics who reviewed full seasons gave more credit . Wendy Tuohy of the Australian newspaper The Age stated that show creator Daniel Knauf " sprinkled enough magical gifts over the carnival 's cast of mind readers , fortunetellers , snake charmers , catatonic psychics , conjoined twins , bearded ladies and lizard men to make the bizarre and the macabre appear just about routine . " Matt Casamassina of IGN added that " from the opening sequence to the fade out on episode 12 [ of season 1 ] , Carnivàle successfully draws you into the Depression @-@ engulfed world of its many oddly likeable characters . And sure enough , odd best describes these people [ ... ] The show prominently features all manners of freaks , but each is well @-@ crafted , layered , and believable , rather than comical , as easily could have been the case under amateur direction . " MSNBC acknowledged the characters " speak [ ing ] in a dialogue that feels authentic , even if that authenticity is a modern interpretation [ ... ] Carnivàle manager
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attended on her " . It claimed that the Pig @-@ faced Lady was Irish and aged about 20 , from a wealthy family , and that " on her life and issue by marriage a very large property depends " . She was alleged to eat from a silver trough , and to speak only in grunts . It claimed that her attendant , although paid an annual salary of 1 @,@ 000 guineas ( about £ 70 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , had been too frightened to continue working for her and had resigned , giving her story to the press .
The Pig @-@ faced Lady of Manchester Square became a leading topic of conversation in London . She soon began to be reported in newspapers as fact , and thousands of people believed in her existence . On 9 February 1815 an advertisement appeared in the Times from a self @-@ described " young Gentlewoman " , offering to be the Pig @-@ faced Lady 's companion in return for " a handsome income yearly , and a premium for residing with her 7 years " . The advertisement was published , but a week later a prospective advertisement from a young man wishing to propose marriage to the Pig @-@ faced Lady prompted the Times to denounce the rumour , comparing believers in the Pig @-@ faced Lady to the followers of the ( recently deceased ) self @-@ proclaimed prophet Joanna Southcott .
There is at present a report , in London , of a woman , with a strangely deformed face , resembling that of a pig , who is possessed of a large fortune , and we suppose wants all the comforts and conveniences incident toward her sex and station . We , ourselves , unwittingly put in an advertisement from a young woman , offering herself to be her companion ; and yesterday morning , a fellow ( with a calf 's head , we suppose ) transmitted to us another advertisement , attended by a one pound note , offering himself to be her husband . We have put his offer in the fire , and shall send his money to some charity , thinking it a pity that such a fool should have any . Our rural friends hardly know what idiots London contains . The pig 's face is as firmly believed in by many as Joanna Southcot 's [ sic ] pregnancy , to which folly it has succeeded . Though no Parson Tozer has as yet mounted the rostrum to preach in support of the face , there is hardly a company in which this swinish female is not talked of ; and thousands believe in her existence . The story , however , is an old one . About 50 years ago , it is well recollected by several elderly people , there was exactly the same rumour . It was revived with but slight effect about 30 years since ; and now comes forth again in its pristine vigour . On the original invention of the pig @-@ faced woman , about the year 1764 , a man offered himself to make her an ivory trough to feed out of ; which can only be considered as a feeble type of the silver cradle actually presented in our day . Besides , there was but one actor in the first folly , and there have been twenty in the latter .
The Times refused to print the advertisement from the Pig @-@ faced Lady 's would @-@ be suitor , and donated his £ 1 fee to The Marine Society . An anonymous letter @-@ writer to the Times continued the comparison with Joanna Southcott , who had claimed that she would give birth to the Messiah in October 1814 , speculating that " the present miss piggy " was perhaps Southcott 's child , " brought [ ... ] into the world in a state of complete puberty " . The letter @-@ writer also ridiculed the " swinish Lothario " who hoped to marry the Pig @-@ faced Lady , suggesting that " if he means to have her , he must woo her in grunts " .
With the Times ridiculing belief in the Pig @-@ faced Lady , rival newspapers set out to defend her honour and that of the man who wished to marry her . The Morning Herald and Morning Chronicle both published the advertisement from her prospective suitor . The editor of the Morning Chronicle announced that , in his opinion , the advertisement from the " desperate fortune @-@ hunter " had not been immoral or indecent , and thus in his opinion there was no reason to decline to publish it . He went on to say that while deformities of this nature were unknown to doctors , it was certainly possible that a facially disfigured woman existed and that her deformities had been exaggerated in accounts ; he also chided the Times for not returning the payment for the rejected advertisement . The Morning Herald , meanwhile , speculated that the Pig @-@ faced Lady 's deformities may have been caused by her mother 's " force of imagination , in consequence of a dog having suddenly leaped on her " .
Despite the pleas of the Times for scepticism , belief in the Pig @-@ faced Lady of Manchester Square continued to spread in 1815 . During illuminations celebrating the end of the Napoleonic Wars a huge crowd gathered around Piccadilly , bringing traffic to a standstill . Eyewitnesses recounted that in a stopped landau a woman with a fashionable bonnet and a pig 's snout was visible . The crowd tried to stop the carriage , but the coachman drove through the crowd at high speed . It was later claimed that the coach had been seen to stop in Grosvenor Square ; it was presumed that the Pig @-@ faced Lady was the daughter of " a well @-@ known lady of fashion " who lived there .
It was also reported that William Elliot , a young baronet , called to visit a " great lady " at the house in Grosvenor Square in which the Pig @-@ faced Lady was believed to be staying . Taken into the drawing room , he was confronted by a fashionably dressed woman with the face of a pig . Elliot " could not refrain from uttering a shout of horror , and rushed to the door in a manner the reverse of polite " . The Pig @-@ faced Lady rushed at Elliot as he left and bit him on the back of the neck ; it was claimed that he was badly injured in the attack , requiring treatment by eminent surgeon Sir Cæsar Hawkins . A popular print entitled Beware the pig @-@ sty ! depicted the supposed attack on Elliot .
In April 1861 , a man signing himself " M. A. " wrote to Notes and Queries magazine , asking :
Could you or any of your readers kindly inform me whether there exists any account , medical or biographical , of this person ? She lived , I believe , about forty years ago ; and I am acquainted with two authentic instances of her having been seen , in one of the two , by a gentleman still living . In spite of the natural horror of the phenomenon , its interest , both physiological and psychological , is so considerable that I am surprised to find so little information afloat upon the subject . May I further ask whether any more recent case of the kind has occurred ? There are one or two earlier cases . "
In a reply published on 22 June 1861 , a Mr F. FitzHenry claimed to have known the Pig @-@ faced Lady 's sister , stating that " Lady C. B. lived in Chelsea : her sister , Lady H. W. , was much admired as a beauty . I was at a dinner @-@ party forty years ago with Lady H. W. , when all the party were cautioned previously not to say a word about pigs , out of delicacy to Lady H. W. " In the same issue , a George Lloyd claimed to have seen the Pig @-@ faced Lady in Wakefield in around 1828 – 29 " but was too young to take a note further than a mental one , which has haunted me ever since " .
= = = The Pig @-@ faced Lady of Manchester Square in art = = =
On 21 March 1815 The Pig Faced Lady of Manchester Square and the Spanish Mule of Madrid , a coloured print by George Cruikshank , was published . Captioned " Ah ! Sure a pair was never seen so justly form 'd to meet by nature ! " , it contrasts the Pig @-@ faced Lady with the unpopular Ferdinand VII of Spain . The Pig @-@ faced Lady wears a transparent veil and plays " Air Swinish Multitude , set to music by Grunt Esq " on a piano . Her silver trough lies on a table behind her , and on her wall is a picture of " Lord Bacon " , also shown with a pig 's head . Her image is captioned :
This extraordinary Female is about 18 years of age – of High rank & great fortune . Her body & limbs are of the most perfect & Beautiful Shape , but , her head & Face resembles that of a Pig – she eats her Victuals out of a Silver Trough in the same manner as Pigs do , & when spoken to she can only answer by Grunting ! her cheif Amusement is the Piano which she plays most delightfully .
Facing her in another panel is Ferdinand VII , shown with a mule 's head . Ferdinand sits on a wooden throne , with a chamber pot filled with holy water at his feet . On the wall behind him , a painting shows Ferdinand ( again with a mule 's head ) watching a mass execution ; a monk says " Here 's some more patriots " , and Ferdinand replies " O ! That 's right kill ' em kill ' em " . The caption to Ferdinand 's image reads :
This wonderful monster ( to the great greif of his subjects ) is a King ! ! ! He was caught about 7 years ago by Buonaparte , & during his confinement in France , amused himself by singing anthems & Working a Robe in Tambour for the Holy Virgin ! but since his liberation , he has amused himself , by Hanging his best Friends ! ! ! ! !
Cruikshank returned to the theme of the Pig @-@ faced Lady with Suitors to the Pig @-@ faced Lady , published shortly after The Pig Faced Lady and the Spanish Mule . This shows a number of men wooing the lady , who rejects them all in term with " If you think to gammon me , you 'll find you 've got the wrong sow by the ear – I 'm meat for your masters , so go along , I 'll not be plagued by any of you " .
At the height of the Pig @-@ faced Lady mania of 1814 – 15 , it was rumoured that Sholto Henry Maclellan , 9th Lord Kirkcudbright had made enquiries about the whereabouts of the Pig @-@ faced Lady of Manchester Square , possibly with a view to becoming one of her suitors . Waltzing a Courtship , an anonymous drawing , was widely circulated in various publications . It shows an elegantly dressed Pig @-@ faced Lady dancing with a hunchbacked and extremely short man bearing a strong resemblance to Kirkcudbright .
Another popular print , The Wonderful Mrs Atkinson , was published anonymously in around 1815 , based on an earlier drawing by George Morland . ( Morland had died in 1804 , so his drawing cannot have been inspired by the 1814 – 15 reports . ) Morland 's original drawing stated that the Pig @-@ faced Lady was " born in Ireland , has £ 20 @,@ 000 fortune , and is fed out of a silver trough " . The caption to the later , published print goes into more detail , claiming that :
The Wonderful Mrs Atkinson is Born and Married to a Gentleman in Ireland of that name , having 20 @,@ 000 fortune . She is fed out of a Silver Hog @-@ Trough , and is called to her Meals by Pig .. Pig .. Pig . This wonderful account was told me by George Simpson who will swear to the truth of it , having heard it on board the Vesuvius Gun Boat , from some Irish Sailors who he says cannot tell lies . The above G. Simpson is my Servant and can tell several curious Stories as good as this all of which he will swear to the truth .
= = = Paris Pig @-@ faced woman hoax = = =
Shortly after the London pig @-@ faced lady craze of 1814 – 15 , a similar story began to circulate in Paris . In this version , the woman was " gifted with every accomplishment in the most transcendant [ sic ] degree " , and was seeking a man who would love her for her talents despite her appearance . Unlike the pig @-@ faced woman reports in London , the woman 's address was given . Large crowds gathered in the street outside , and a large number of letters were delivered to the address .
She was eventually revealed as a hoax . A young man , his advances rebuffed by a woman , had started the story as a means of revenge . It was reported that the stream of visitors wishing to meet the Pig @-@ faced Lady became so annoying , the young woman in question was forced to move house .
= = Fair exhibits in the 19th century = =
In the wake of the Pig @-@ faced Lady scare of 1814 – 15 , exhibits on the subject of pig @-@ faced women became popular at fairs . William Wilde records that a print of The Wonderful Mrs Atkinson was a popular exhibit at an early 19th century Irish fair , while larger fairs included exhibits of pig @-@ faced women moulded in papier @-@ mâché or wax . There is some evidence that a living pig @-@ faced woman was exhibited at Bartholomew Fair in 1828 , and possibly also in previous years . ( The pig @-@ faced woman exhibited in Wakefield in 1828 – 29 , recalled by George Lloyd in 1861 , may have been the same one shown at Bartholomew Fair in 1828 . ) At an 1843 fair in Hyde Park , " Madam Steevens , the Wonderful Pig @-@ faced Lady " was exhibited , and would grunt to give replies to questions from the audience .
The pig @-@ faced women exhibited at fairs were not genuine . Showmen would drug a bear into a stupor by feeding it large amounts of strong beer , and then shave it . Once shaved , the drunken bear would be fitted with padded artificial breasts , and dressed in women 's clothing and a wig . Shoes would be attached to the bear 's hind paws , and stuffed gloves to the front paws . The bear would then be placed in a chair with a hole in the back , and securely tied to the chair .
Once the bear was dressed and in the chair , the audience would be allowed into the tent . The showman would tell the audience that the Pig @-@ faced Lady could not speak , but would answer questions put to her , with one grunt for " yes " and two for " no " . The audience would ask her questions , and a member of the crew would poke the bear with a stick to make it grunt in reply . The Pig @-@ faced Lady would then eat a meal of gruel , beer and apples , served in a silver trough . The display of " pig @-@ faced ladies " became extremely popular , to the extent that by 1861 Charles Dickens remarked that " no fair was complete without one " . Exhibitions of this type were particularly popular in Dublin ; an exhibition in Plymouth in the 1880s was less successful , and a disbelieving mob pulled the wig and hat from a " Pig @-@ faced Lady " in her tent and proceeded to attack the showmen . The fate of the bear is not recorded .
= = Uncle Silas = =
The legend of the pig @-@ faced woman was revived once more in 1865 , in Sheridan Le Fanu 's novel Uncle Silas . Uncle Silas tells the story of Maud Ruthyn , a wealthy heiress in her late teens who lives in a secluded house , whom a number of scheming men aim to marry to secure her money . The book includes a " Bretagne ballad " about the pig @-@ faced woman , sung to Maud by her scheming governess Madame de la Rougierre as Rougierre leads her to a secret meeting with her cousin Dudley , who also has designs on her fortune . ( No other record of the " Bretagne ballad " exists , and it was almost certainly written by Le Fanu himself . )
This lady was neither pig nor maid ,
And so she was not of human mould ;
Not of the living nor the dead .
Her left hand and foot were warm to touch ;
Her right as cold as a corpse 's flesh !
And she would sing like a funeral bell , with a ding @-@ dong tune .
The pigs were afraid , and viewed her aloof ;
And women feared her and stood afar .
She could do without sleep for a year and a day ;
She could sleep like a corpse , for a month and more .
No one knew how this lady fed —
On acorns or on flesh .
Some say that she 's one of the swine @-@ possessed ,
That swam over the sea of Gennesaret .
A mongrel body and demon soul .
Some say she 's the wife of the Wandering Jew ,
And broke the law for the sake of pork ;
And a swinish face for a token doth bear ,
That her shame is now , and her punishment coming .
While Maud is described in the book as an attractive young woman , not a deformed monster , Uncle Silas is carefully written and plotted , and it is almost certain that Le Fanu explicitly intended a comparison between Maud 's situation and the legend of the wealthy woman living in isolation and desired only for her money . Le Fanu spent his entire life in Dublin and was editor and proprietor of the Dublin University Magazine , and would certainly have been familiar with the legends of the pig @-@ faced woman , and in particular the case of Griselda Steevens .
= = Decline of the legend = =
The 1814 – 15 Pig @-@ faced Lady craze in London and the subsequent hoax in Paris were the last occasions in which the mainstream press reported the existence of pig @-@ faced women as fact . By the 1860s the fad for exhibiting " pig @-@ faced women " at fairs was losing popularity , although they continued to be exhibited until at least the 1880s . Today the legend is almost forgotten .
While Dr Steevens ' Hospital still exists , albeit now as the head office of the Health Service Executive ( Feidhmeannacht na Seirbhíse Sláinte ) rather than as a working hospital , the display of Pig @-@ faced Lady memorabilia at the hospital had ceased by the mid @-@ 19th century . The portrait commissioned by Griselda Steevens to refute the rumours about her appearance still hangs in the hospital 's main hall .
The last significant work to treat the existence of pig @-@ faced women as fact was Ghosts , Helpful and Harmful by ghost hunter and supernatural researcher Elliott O 'Donnell , published in 1924 . O 'Donnell alleged that the ghost of a pig @-@ faced lady haunted a house in Chelsea . O 'Donnell claimed that the ghost was a " Vice Elemental , the most harmful of all the denizens of the Spirit World " . He describes how a clergyman , " The Rev. Mr H. " and his family , who resided in the house , were tempted by the ghost . The ghost , keeping her face concealed , led " The Rev. Mr H. " into drunkenness , and his children into cruelty towards animals , until they themselves behaved like pigs . She then revealed her face to the shocked family , who moved out of the house immediately .
The body , beautifully formed , and gleaming like polished ivory in the moonbeams , resembled that of a woman , but the face was the face of some very grotesque and repulsive animal . In the place of human cheeks were huge collops of white , unwholesome fat ; the nose was snoutlike , the mouth a great slit , full of hideous crooked tusks ; and whilst the whole conformity of the features suggested the face of a distorted and horrible @-@ looking pig , the animal , in contrast to the human , was made all the more poignant by the hair – unmistakably a woman 's – which fell in a bright mass of rippling gold around the neck and shoulders . The children were still staring at it , in speechless horror , when their father opened the door of his room ; and as he did so , the figure slowly faded away and vanished .
= Hard Justice ( 2008 ) =
Hard Justice ( 2008 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion that took place on August 10 , 2008 at the Sovereign Bank Arena in Trenton , New Jersey . It was the fourth event under the Hard Justice name and the eighth event in the 2008 TNA PPV schedule . Seven professional wrestling matches were featured on the event 's card , three of which were for championships .
The main event was a Six Sides of Steel Weapons match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , in which the champion Samoa Joe defeated the challenger Booker T to retain the title . Another heavily promoted bout was a Last Man Standing match between Kurt Angle and A.J. Styles , which the latter won . The card also featured a match for the TNA World Tag Team Championship , which saw Beer Money , Inc . ( James Storm and Robert Roode ) defeat The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ) to become the new champions . A New Jersey Street Fight was also held pitting the team of Christian Cage and Rhino against Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) . Cage and Rhino were the victors in the contest .
Hard Justice featured the start of a storyline between veteran wrestlers and younger wrestlers in TNA along with marking the beginning of Jeff Jarrett 's return to active competition . 35 @,@ 000 was the reported figure of purchasers for the event by The Wrestling Observer Newsletter . Hard Justice had a reported attendance between 2 @,@ 300 and 3 @,@ 500 people . Canadian Online Explorer writer John Pollock reviewed the show and felt it featured the " usual assortment of wacky finishes and outside interference " but that " all in all it was a solid show . " Wade Keller and James Caldwell of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter both reviewed the event , praising the Last Man Standing match saying it was a " superb " and " epic match . "
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
The fourth installment under the Hard Justice name was announced in January 2008 with an August 10th date attached . In May , TNA hoped to host a PPV event in the Northeastern United States sometime before the end of the year . Hard Justice was the PPV under consideration . TNA issued a press release in late @-@ June revealing that Hard Justice would be held at the Sovereign Bank Arena in Trenton , New Jersey . Tickets for the show went on @-@ sale on June 27 . TNA released a poster to promote the event featuring the The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ; LAX ) and Samoa Joe ; the poster also promoted a musical appearance by rap artists Filthee , Grandmaster Caz , and Ice @-@ T. The official theme for the show was " AyAyAya " by Filthee .
= = = Storylines = = =
Hard Justice featured seven professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event at Hard Justice was a Six Sides of Steel Weapons match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship between the champion Samoa Joe and the challenger Booker T. Joe and Booker T previously fought at TNA 's Slammiversary PPV event on June 8 in a King of the Mountain match for the title , which Joe won to remain champion . The duo also fought at TNA 's previous PPV event Victory Road on July 13 , which ended in a no contest after interference from Sting allowed Booker T to gain an unofficial pinfall counted by his legitimate wife Sharmell instead of an official referee . On the July 17 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! , Booker T proclaimed that he was the new TNA World Heavyweight Champion before Management Director Jim Cornette announced that Booker T did not win the match and that Joe was still the TNA World Heavyweight Champion , despite Booker T having taken possession of the title belt . Cornette then scheduled a rematch between the two for the title at Hard Justice ; Joe did not retrieve physical possession of the title belt after this , instead chose to reclaim the physical belt after he beat Booker T at the event . On the July 24 episode of Impact ! , Joe and Booker T made the contest a Six Sides of Steel Weapons match .
The predominate storyline heading into the event was the rivalry between A.J. Styles and Kurt Angle , both members of The Angle Alliance . On the February 14 episode of Impact ! , TNA held the scripted wedding of Angle 's real @-@ life wife Karen Angle and Styles despite Angle and Karen still being married on @-@ screen . Afterwards , Karen and Angle separated in the storyline on the March 13 episode of Impact ! . TNA continued to build the situation with Angle attempting to reconcile with Karen on the May 15 episode of Impact ! ; TNA began to phase out the marriage between Styles and Karen also . Karen refused Angle 's request on the May 22 episode of Impact ! , leading to Angle turning on and assaulting Styles later in the episode due to his jealousy of the affection Karen showed for Styles . This led to a match between the two at Slammiversary which Styles won after a distraction by Karen . The two faced in a Lumberjack match on the June 12 episode of Impact ! , which Angle won before it ended in a brawl between Styles , Angle , Tomko , Christian Cage , Rhino , Abyss , and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) . Afterwards , Team 3D and the team of Cage and Rhino became involved in the feud with Team 3D joining Angle , while Cage and Rhino sided with Styles . The two teams then fought in a Full Metal Mayhem at Victory Road , which the team of Angle and Team 3D won . The teams fought again on the July 24 episode of Impact ! , this time in a Six Man Tag Team Elimination Tables match , which Angle and Team 3D also won . On the July 31 episode of Impact ! , while Styles stood in a ring surrounded by a steel cage , Angle attacked Styles from behind and slammed him back @-@ first into the mat , rendering him unconscious . As a result of this action , Styles challenged Angle to a Last Man Standing match at Hard Justice ; Angle accepted the challenge .
The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended at Hard Justice by LAX against Beer Money , Inc . ( James Storm and Robert Roode ) . On the June 12 episode of Impact ! , Roode and Storm teamed to face LAX for the World Tag Team Championship . The match was originally won by Roode and Storm before being restarted due to interference . LAX won the restart to retain the championship . After the bout , Roode and Storm assaulted LAX and their manager Héctor Guerrero . Management Director Jim Cornette scheduled a title defense at Victory Road between LAX and Roode and Storm under " Fan 's Revenge " Lumberjack rules on the June 19 episode of Impact ! . At Victory Road , LAX defeated the newly renamed Beer Money Incorporated to retain the World Tag Team Championship . On the July 17 episode of Impact ! , Roode and Storm began assaulting various wrestlers , crew members , and fans in retaliation for their loss at Victory Road . Later in the program , Roode and Storm once again attacked Guerrero , prompting LAX to come to his rescue . On the July 31 episode of Impact ! , Roode and Storm defeated the team of Christian Cage and Rhino for a World Tag Team Championship match at Hard Justice . On the August 7 episode of Impact ! , the team of Cage , Rhino , and LAX fought the team of Roode , Storm , and Team 3D in an Eight Man Tag Team match , which the latter lost . After the contest , Roode and Storm slammed Homicide through a glass table , injuring his right eye in the storyline .
Team 3D fought the team of Christian Cage and Rhino in a New Jersey Street Fight at Hard Justice . This match was a break @-@ off from the rivalry between A.J. Styles and Kurt Angle . After Team 3D , Cage , and Rhino became involved in the rivalry , Team 3D injured both Cage and Rhino in the narrative leading into Victory Road . Rhino was knocked out on the June 19 episode of Impact ! , while on the June 26 episode of Impact ! Cage was slammed through a glass table by Brother Ray . After the match at Victory Road and a Six Man Tag Team Elimination Tables match on Impact ! , Team 3D cost Cage and Rhino a shot at the World Tag Team Championship on the July 31 episode of Impact ! . Afterwards , Cage challenged Team 3D to a New Jersey Street Fight at Hard Justice , which Team 3D accepted .
= = Event = =
The telecast began with a live performance of the event theme song " AyAyAya " by Filthee along with Grandmaster Caz and Melle Mel . Ice @-@ T was advertised to perform but was absent with no reason given and was replaced by Mel . It later came to light that Ice @-@ T was unable to attend as a result of " travel problems . "
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Hard Justice featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast . Jeremy Borash and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Earl Hebner , Rudy Charles , Mark " Slick " Johnson , and Traci Brooks participated as referees for the encounters . Lauren Thompson and Borash were used as interviewers during the event . Besides employees who appeared in a wrestling role , Rhaka Khan , Sheik Abdul Bashir , Raisha Saeed , Jacqueline , Héctor Guerrero , Salinas , Johnny Devine , Abyss , Sting , and Kevin Nash all appeared on camera , either in backstage or in ringside segments .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The opening bout was for the TNA X Division Championship between the champion Petey Williams and the challenger Consequences Creed . The duration of the match was 12 minutes and 30 seconds . Williams was accompanied to the ring by Rhaka Khan , who interfered in the contest trying to aid Williams to no avail . Near the end of the match , Sheik Abdul Bashir walked out to the ring and bashed Creed across the back with a steel chair , which allowed Williams to force Creed 's head into the mat with his signature Canadian Destroyer maneuver . Williams followed with the pin to win the match and retain the TNA X Division Championship . After the bout , Bashir continued to attack Creed .
The second contest of the show was a Six Woman Tag Team match pitting the team of Gail Kim , ODB , and Taylor Wilde against the team of Awesome Kong and The Beautiful People ( Angelina Love and Velvet Sky ) . Kong was accompanied to the ring by Raisha Saeed . Wilde won the match for her team with a pinning maneuver on Love at 11 minutes and 27 seconds .
The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended by LAX against Beer Money , Inc. in the next encounter . Jacqueline accompanied Beer Money to the ring , while Salinas and Héctor Guerrero accompanied LAX . The duration of the encounter was 14 minutes and 15 seconds . Filthee , Grandmaster Caz , and Melle Mel performed LAX 's theme during their entrance . Near the end of the contest , Jacqueline and Salinas both interfered in the match . This led to Roode smacking Homicide in his injured right eye with a beer bottle while the referee was not looking . Storm then gained the pinfall to win the TNA World Tag Team Championship for his team .
TNA held a Black Tie Brawl and Chain match between Jay Lethal and Sonjay Dutt , which lasted 11 minutes and 14 seconds . In this match , both competitors were tied together via a chain and dressed in tuxedos . The only way to win was to strip their opponent of the tuxedo and either make them submit or pin them afterwards . Lethal won the encounter after jumping off of a turnbuckle to drive his elbow into Dutt 's chest and followed with the pin .
= = = Heavily promoted matches = = =
The fifth match on the card was a New Jersey Street Fight pitting the team of Christian Cage and Rhino against Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) . In this match , weapons were legal to use and there were no count @-@ outs or disqualifications . Early in the match , both teams fought throughout the crowd , at which time they both used weapons against eachother . The match ended when Cage performed a frog splash aerial maneuver onto Ray from atop a ladder , followed up by Rhino performing his signature Gore maneuver into Ray against a table placed up in the ring corner . Rhino then pinned Ray to win the contest at 15 minutes and 22 seconds . After the match , Team 3D 's associate Johnny Devine came out to help attack Cage and Rhino , however , Abyss came to their rescue and slammed Devine back @-@ first onto the mat with his trademark Black Hole Slam maneuver while Team 3D made their retreat .
A.J. Styles fought Kurt Angle in a Last Man Standing match next . In a Last Man Standing match , there are no disqualifications or count outs , instead to win the match the competitor has to force their opponent to not be able to reach a standing position by the count of 10 . However , this match was only promoted as a Last Man Standing match , instead it was held under Texas Death match rules where a wrestler must pin or submit their opponent and then have them fail to respond to a count of 10 . Styles got the first fall of the night , when he forced Angle to tap out to Angle 's own signature submission maneuver the Ankle lock . Angle made it to his feet before the count concluded . Angle gained a pinfall later on in the match after slamming Styles off the top of a padded turnbuckle with a suplex . Before Styles could reach his feet to beat the count , Angle slammed Styles onto the mat back @-@ first with his signature Olympic slam maneuver and gained another pinfall to start the count over . Styles beat that count as well , with Angle trying for the Olympic Slam again before Styles ' countered it into his signature Styles ' Clash maneuver and pinned Angle . After Angle reached his feet , Styles and Angle fought up a padded turnbuckle with Styles gaining the advantage . At this time , Styles grabbed Angle by the neck and fell backwards from the turnbuckle and drove Angle head @-@ first into the mat . Angle failed to reach the 10 count afterwards , with Styles being declared the winner of the contest at 24 minutes and 50 seconds . Following the encounter , the referee called for medical attention for Angle who was scripted to appear as if he had suffered a neck injury . Styles then entered the ring once Angle reached his feet and lifted Angle up and dropped him on his head . As Styles walked up the ramp , he was attacked by Sting , who drove Styles ' head into the ramp with his signature Scorpion Death Drop maneuver , as Kevin Nash looked on .
The main event was a Six Sides of Steel Weapons match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , pitting the champion Samoa Joe against the challenger Booker T , who was accompanied by Sharmell . The duration of the contest was 12 minutes and 44 seconds . Early in the bout , Booker T hit Joe in the face with a steel chair , resulting in Joe bleeding from the forehead . Later on , Booker T slammed Joe back @-@ first onto two chairs with his signature Book End maneuver , however , Joe kicked out of a pinfall attempt . Joe gained the pinfall victory to retain the TNA World Heavyweight Championship after bashing Booker T over the head with a guitar that had appeared in the ring after the lights had suddenly went off and back on .
= = Reception = =
A total of 3 @,@ 500 people attended Hard Justice , while the The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that 35 @,@ 000 people bought the event . However , the attendance number has been disputed , with it also being reported that Hard Justice drew an attendance of 2 @,@ 300 people .
Canadian Online Explorer writer John Pollock reviewed the show and felt it featured the " usual assortment of wacky finishes and outside interference " but that " all in all it was a solid show . " Pollock commented on the musical performance shown at the beginning of the telecast , stating the " crowd is silent in appreciation . " " Crowd is very hot for this opener and the atmosphere should hopefully add to this show , " stated Pollock when covering the TNA X Division Championship match . Pollock discussed the Street Fight in his review , commenting that the " crowd was really hot for this match . " As for the Last Man Standing match , Pollock said it " was an outstanding match . " Pollock also felt that the main event got " zero time . " Pollock noted that the fans in attendance started chanting " Fire Russo " during the Black Tie Brawl and Chain match in his review , which was a reference to TNA writer Vince Russo .
Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter rated the matches out of five stars in his review of the event . He gave the main event 2 3 / 4 stars and discussed the amount of time it was given , stating it was " just enough time for a suitable main event " but that it did not " leave much flex time for things to run past the bare minimum for a PPV main event title match in a cage much less do whatever they 're going to do with Sting and Nash . " Keller also disapproved of unprotected use of weapons in the bout , commenting that TNA management needed to start fining " wrestlers for taking unprotected chairshots to the skull " because it was " just not worth the long @-@ term cumulative risks associated with blunt trauma to the skull over years of wrestling . " He gave the Last Man Standing bout 4 stars and said it was a " superb match " with a " scaring finish " since the " potential for something going wrong given Angle 's legit neck problems was substantial " even if " everything was planned " to work out that way . Keller rated the Street Fight 1 1 / 2 stars and stated it " was pretty clunky late and early on the crowd brawling got a little repetitive " and that it felt " like yet another weapons match . " " The match was okay , but nothing more . The tuxedos and chain served as more of a circus @-@ like distraction than a valuable prop for the match , " said Keller in his coverage of the Black Tie Brawl and Chain match , which he gave 1 1 / 4 stars . Keller gave the World Tag Team Championship match 2 stars , but did not give his opinion outside the rating on the contest . He did comment on the X Division Championship match , saying it was a " very good match " and gave it 3 stars .
James Caldwell , also of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter , published a review of the show in which he also gave ratings out of 5 stars and some comments on the top matches on the card . He considered the main event " underwhelming " due to the " audience having sat through every possible gimmick match combination prior to another Joe @-@ Booker bout that everyone knew was going to end with some sort of gimmicky finish " and that it was " not memorable " but that it would " generate talk about Jarrett . " He gave the bout 2 stars . " That was an epic match , " said Caldwell when discussing the Last Man Standing match . However , he felt the bout had a " silly pin @-@ and @-@ count- ' em stipulation " and that the " all @-@ too @-@ real neck injury angle , followed by some post @-@ match activity that took away from Styles 's win . " Caldwell felt the match made Styles look " like a star when he won , then he came across like a punk attacking Angle , then a fool being in position for Sting to take him out " but that he had a " memorable , star @-@ making victory over Angle . " He disapproved of Styles being " used a means to the end of explaining Sting 's purpose @-@ driven TNA life . " Caldwell rated the encounter 4 stars . As for the Street Fight , he said it was a " fun brawl for the audience " and gave it 2 1 / 2 stars . Caldwell believed that the World Tag Team Championship match had " good heat " that " over @-@ rode the stream of outside interference , referee incompetence , and overall over @-@ booking " and that it was " refreshing to see TNA use an injury angle from TV to set @-@ up the finish of an important PPV match . " He gave the match 3 stars . The X Division Championship match was given 3 stars and he said it would have been " great " if it had avoided involving " outside interference . "
= = Aftermath = =
The feud between Samoa Joe and Booker T ended after Hard Justice . On the August 14 episode of TNA Impact ! , Management Director Jim Cornette announced that Joe would defend the championship at TNA 's next PPV event No Surrender on September 14 in a Four Ways to Glory match . Cornette stated that over the weeks leading to the show three qualification matches would take place to determine the challengers to Joe . Booker T won the first qualifying match was on the August 21 episode of Impact ! by defeating Rhino . Kurt Angle defeated Kevin Nash on the August 28 episode of Impact ! to qualify for the contest . The final qualifier was Christian Cage , who defeated A.J. Styles on the September 4 episode of Impact ! . Booker T could not attend the event due to Hurricane Ike , making the bout a Three Ways to Glory match instead . Joe retained the championship at the show .
The finish to the main event and the segment after the Last Man Standing match led to several matches and segments following Hard Justice . Sting was announced at No Surrender to be the challenger for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship at TNA 's Bound for Glory IV PPV event on October 12 . Sting ended up defeating Joe for the title at the event due to Nash betraying and hitting Joe with a baseball bat . Styles went on to challenge Sting at TNA 's Turning Point and Final Resolution PPV events for the title , failing to win on both occasions . These matches were part of a storyline between veterans wrestlers , which made up The Main Event Mafia , and younger wrestlers , called The TNA Front Line , in TNA . Meanwhile , the finish of the main event led to the return of Jeff Jarrett at No Surrender , when he aided Joe in retaining the TNA World Heavyweight Championship by hitting Angle with a guitar .
The rivalry between A.J. Styles and Kurt Angle continued after Hard Justice leading into No Surrender . On the August 14 episode of Impact ! , Styles fought Angle in an Olympic Wrestling match for Angle 's 1996 Summer Olympics gold medal in freestyle wrestling . Styles defeated Angle to win the medal on the telecast . Styles and Angle fought a week later on the August 21 episode of Impact ! in a ladder match for the medal , with Styles retaining the medal . Styles then went on to feud with Angle 's on @-@ screen bestfriend Frank Trigg , who attacked Styles with a kendo stick during Styles ' Four Ways to Glory qualification match with Cage , costing Styles to bout in the process . This led to Styles challenging Trigg to a bout at No Surrender , which Trigg agreed to but only if it was contested under Mixed Martial Arts rules on the September 11 episode of Impact ! . Styles and Trigg fought to a no contest at No Surrender due to Styles accidentally hitting Trigg in the groin . Afterwards , Styles beat Trigg with a kendo stick to end their feud . On the September 25 episode of Impact ! , Styles was ordered to return Angle 's gold medal by Jeff Jarrett , who had taken a role as a TNA management authority figure . The medal was returned to Angle on the October 9 episode of Impact ! by Jarrett .
Sonjay Dutt and Jay Lethal ended their rivalry at No Surrender . Dutt attacked Lethal after he was defeated by Sheik Abdul Bashir on the August 14 episode of Impact ! . On the September 11 episode of Impact ! , TNA promoted a Ladder of Love match at No Surrender with the winner becoming engaged to SoCal Val . Dutt won the contest at No Surrender when Val betrayed Lethal and aided Dutt . Beer Money , Inc ( James Storm and Robert Roode ) went on to defend the TNA World Tag Team Championship against The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ) at No Surrender in a rematch . Beer Money , Inc retained the title at the show . Petey Williams defended the X Division Championship against Consequences Creed in a rematch on the August 21 episode of Impact ! , with Bashir once again interfering by attacking Creed , resulting in Creed winning by disqualification and Williams retaining the X Division Championship . TNA promoted a Three Way match between the three for the X Division Championship for No Surrender , which Bashir ended up winning to become the new champion on the telecast . Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) and the team of Christian Cage and Rhino ended their conflict after Hard Justice . Team 3D instead went on to fight the team of Abyss and Matt Morgan at No Surrender , which the latter won .
= = Results = =
= Theodore Komnenos Doukas =
Theodore Komnenos Doukas ( Greek : Θεόδωρος Κομνηνός Δούκας , Theodōros Komnēnos Doukas , Latinized as Theodore Comnenus Ducas , died ca . 1253 ) , was ruler of Epirus and Thessaly from 1215 to 1230 and of Thessalonica and most of the rest of Macedonia and western Thrace from 1224 to 1230 . He was also the power behind the rule of his sons John and Demetrios over Thessalonica in 1237 – 46 .
Theodore was the scion of a distinguished Byzantine aristocratic family related to the imperial Komnenos , Doukas , and Angelos dynasties . Nevertheless , nothing is known about Theodore 's life before the conquest of Constantinople and dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 . Following the fall of Constantinople , he served Theodore I Laskaris , founder of the Empire of Nicaea , for a few years , before being called to Epirus , where his bastard half @-@ brother Michael I Komnenos Doukas had founded an independent principality . When Michael died in 1215 , Theodore sidelined his brother 's underage and illegitimate son Michael II and assumed the governance of the Epirote state . Theodore continued his brother 's policy of territorial expansion . Allied with Serbia , he expanded into Macedonia , threatening the Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica . The capture of the Latin Emperor Peter II of Courtenay in 1217 opened the way to the gradual envelopment of Thessalonica , culminating in the city 's fall in 1224 .
As ruler of Thessalonica , Theodore quickly declared himself emperor , challenging the Nicaean emperor John III Vatatzes 's claims on the Byzantine imperial throne . In 1225 , he advanced to the outskirts of Constantinople , but his final attack against the seat of the much @-@ reduced Latin Empire was delayed until 1230 . In that year , Theodore amassed an army to besiege Constantinople , but then diverted it against Bulgaria , an ambivalent ally which threatened his northern flank . Theodore was defeated and captured at the Battle of Klokotnitsa , and spent the next seven years in captivity . In the meantime , he was succeeded by his brother Manuel . Manuel quickly lost Thrace , most of Macedonia , and Albania to the Bulgarian Tsar John II Asen . Thessalonica itself became a Bulgarian vassal , while in Epirus proper power was seized by Michael II , returning from exile .
Theodore was released in 1237 when his daughter Irene married John Asen , and quickly managed to regain control of Thessalonica , ousting Manuel . Having been blinded during his captivity and thus disqualified from occupying the throne again , he installed his eldest son John as emperor , but remained the de facto regent of the state . Manuel tried to regain Thessalonica with Nicaean support , but a negotiated settlement was reached which gave him Thessaly and left Thessalonica and its environs to Theodore and John . In 1241 , John III Vatatzes invited Theodore to visit Nicaea . He was welcomed and treated with great honour , but was effectively detained there until the spring of next year , when Vatatzes marched on Thessalonica with Theodore in tow . Theodore was sent in to negotiate with his son and convince him to accept demotion to the rank of Despot and to recognize the suzerainty of Nicaea . John died in 1244 and was succeeded by Theodore 's younger son Demetrios . In 1246 Vatatzes overthrew the unpopular Demetrios and annexed Thessalonica . Theodore influenced his nephew Michael II to launch an attack on Thessalonica in 1251 , but in 1252 , Vatatzes campaigned against them and forced Michael to come to terms . Theodore was taken prisoner and sent into exile in Nicaea , where he died around 1253 .
= = Early life and career = =
Born between 1180 and 1185 , Theodore was a son of the sebastokrator John Doukas and of Zoe Doukaina . His paternal grandparents were Constantine Angelos and Theodora , a daughter of the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( reigned 1081 – 1118 ) . Theodore 's uncle , Andronikos , was the father of the emperors Isaac II Angelos ( r . 1185 – 95 and 1203 – 04 ) and Alexios III Angelos ( r . 1195 – 1203 ) , who were Theodore 's first cousins . As with most members of his family , he preferred to use the surname of " Doukas " or " Komnenos Doukas " ( Κομνηνός ὁ Δούκας ) ; contemporaries variously called him " Doukas " , " Komnenos " , or even " Grand Komnenos " ( μέγας Κομνηνός ) , an appellation more usually found among the ruling family of the Empire of Trebizond . Theodore evidently preferred to be associated with the more successful dynasties of the Doukai and the Komnenoi , rather than the disastrous reign of the Angeloi ; indeed the only medieval writers to call him " Angelos " were the later , hostile pro @-@ Palaiologos historians Nikephoros Gregoras and Theodore Skoutariotes , while George Akropolites refers to him as " Komnenos " until his defeat at Klokotnitsa in 1230 and as " Angelos " after .
Theodore 's early life is obscure . He followed Theodore Laskaris to Asia Minor after the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople in 1204 , where Laskaris founded the Empire of Nicaea . Theodore 's service under Laskaris is relatively unknown except for a brief reference in a letter written by the Metropolitan of Corfu , George Bardanes , one of Theodore 's apologists . Bardanes writes that Theodore " took many dangers for his sake and wrested many fortresses from the enemies and subdued them to Laskaris ' rule " , distinguishing himself through his valour and receiving many rewards from the Nicaean ruler . Some modern scholars , such as Karl Hopf and Antoine Bon , have identified a certain Theodore , who appears as " lord of Argos " and the successor of Leo Sgouros in leading the resistance against the Crusaders in the northwestern Peloponnese after Sgouros ' death in 1208 , with Theodore Komnenos Doukas . This view has been questioned by Raymond @-@ Joseph Loenertz , who argues that there is no evidence for such an assumption , an conversely it is well established that Theodore was in Nicaean service at the time .
Around 1210 , Theodore was invited by his half @-@ brother Michael I Komnenos Doukas to Epirus , where Michael had founded an independent Greek principality . Michael wanted Theodore 's aid , as his only son , the future Michael II Komnenos Doukas , was underage and illegitimate , while Michael 's other half @-@ brothers were considered to lack the ability to rule . Laskaris allowed Theodore to leave , but bound him with an oath of allegiance to himself and his heirs . Before going to Epirus , Theodore had married Maria Petraliphaina , with whom he had four children .
= = Ruler of Epirus = =
From 1210 on , Michael I Komnenos Doukas was engaged in a campaign of expansion , chiefly at the expense of the Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica to his east ; after initial reverses , much of Thessaly was conquered . By 1214 , Dyrrhachium and Corfu had been recovered from the Latins as well . The traditional view of historians is that these events marked Michael I 's repudiation of the allegiance he had sworn to the Latin Empire , but historian Philip Van Tricht argues that both Michael and later Theodore remained , at least in theory , vassals of the Latin Empire until 1217 . Michael was assassinated by a servant in late 1214 or in 1215 . As Michael II was illegitimate and too young , Theodore had no trouble in sidelining the boy . According to the hagiography of St. Theodora of Arta , the boy and his mother spent the duration of his reign exiled in the Peloponnese .
= = = Relations with Serbia and Nicaea = = =
Theodore was capable and extremely ambitious . Notwithstanding his oath to Laskaris , he aspired not only to expand his state at the expense of Thessalonica , but to eventually recover Constantinople and revive the Byzantine Empire . To secure his northern flank , Theodore allied himself with Serbia and the Albanian clans . The Principality of Arbanon was already in the Epirote political orbit under Michael I , and closer ties developed when its ruler Demetrios died in 1215 , leaving his principality to his widow , who promptly remarried the next year to a Greek magnate , Gregory Kamonas . Against the Serbs , Theodore abandoned Michael I 's attempt to pursue a northward expansion into Zeta , and instead pursued an alliance with the Serbian prince Stefan II Nemanjić ( r . 1196 – 1228 ) that was directed towards keeping the Bulgarians in check . The ties between Epirus and Serbia were solidified by the marriage of Theodore 's brother Manuel Komnenos Doukas to one of Stefan II 's sisters ca . 1216 . Stefan II then sought to wed one of his sons — in all likelihood his eldest son and heir , Stefan Radoslav — to Michael I 's second daughter Theodora . The Archbishop of Ohrid , Demetrios Chomatianos , refused to sanction the marriage due to consanguinity — Theodora was a second cousin of Stefan Radoslav 's mother , Eudokia Angelina , a daughter of Alexios III Angelos . In 1217 , Stefan II tried to circumvent this by suggesting himself as the groom to Theodora 's half @-@ sister Maria , but Chomatianos vetoed this proposal as well on similar grounds . Finally , Stefan Radoslav married Theodore 's firstborn daughter Anna in winter 1219 / 20 .
With his position thus strengthened , Theodore expanded his territory into northern Macedonia , although it is possible that at least part of this region had already been captured by Michael I after the death of the local Bulgarian ruler Strez in 1214 . It is unclear to what extent Theodore 's expansion involved direct conflict with the Bulgarian Tsar Boril ( r . 1207 – 18 ) , but by 1217 he held Ohrid , Prilep , and most of the plain of Pelagonia , at least up to Strez 's old capital at Prosek , and likely beyond , approaching the Strymon River . As the Greek historian Konstantinos Varzos has noted , the capture of Ohrid , seat of the eponymous archbishopric , was particularly important for the standing of the Epirote state and Theodore 's aspirations . Theodore sponsored the election of the distinguished canonist Chomatianos to the archiepiscopal throne in 1217 , and Chomatianos would repay that support with his steadfast championing of Epirote claims to the Byzantine imperial inheritance vis @-@ à @-@ vis the rival claims of Nicaea .
Following the Fourth Crusade , the Orthodox clergy in the two main Greek states , Epirus and Nicaea , had effectively become separated . In 1208 , the Nicaeans had convened a synod and elected Michael Autoreianos as successor to the vacant see of the Patriarch of Constantinople . The election was uncanonical and therefore of questionable legitimacy . This in turn meant that Laskaris ' imperial title was also open to challenge , as he had been crowned by the same Michael Autoreianos . Already under Michael I , two local synods of bishops had emerged in the Epirote domains to carry on administration of the Church , largely independent of the Patriarch , one at Naupaktos under John Apokaukos , and one at Ohrid under Chomatianos . The more ambitious Chomatianos soon became the pre @-@ eminent " western " bishop , and sought to strengthen the de facto Epirote autonomy in ecclesiastical affairs , including the appointment of bishops for the local sees without the Patriarch 's interference . This policy , which dovetailed with Theodore 's own ambitions of independence from and rivalry towards Nicaea , brought the two branches of the Greek Church to an open quarrel , as the Nicaea @-@ based patriarch Manuel I Sarantenos began appointing bishops of his own to Epirote sees , whom the Epirotes refused to accept . Despite his close ties to Epirus , Stefan II Nemanjić exploited the Epirote – Nicaean rivalry to his advantage to secure autocephaly for the Serbian Church , which traditionally had been under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Ohrid . Brushing aside Chomatianos ' vehement objections , Stefan managed to have his brother Rastko , renamed Sava , consecrated by Manuel Sarantenos as autocephalous archbishop of Serbia in 1219 . Theodore took care not to let the quarrels of the churchmen affect his cordial relations with the Serbian ruler .
Theodore 's drive into Macedonia disquieted another local strongman , Alexius Slav , ruler of Melnik . A sworn enemy of Boril , Alexius had been abandoned by his erstwhile ally , the Latin Emperor , Henry of Flanders ( r . 1205 – 16 ) , who in 1213 allied himself with Bulgaria . Facing a possible attack by Theodore as well , Alexius now preferred to make common cause with him , and married a niece of Theodore 's wife .
= = = Capture of Peter of Courtenay = = =
The Epirote successes in Macedonia worried the Latins , as they opened the way to another attack on Thessalonica . The Kingdom of Thessalonica had been much weakened after the death of its founder , Boniface of Montferrat , in 1207 , since which it had been ruled by a regency for his underage son Demetrius ( r . 1207 – 24 ) . Interrupting a campaign against the Nicaeans in Asia Minor , Henry of Flanders hastened to Thessalonica . He took up contact with Boril and was preparing to march against Theodore when he suddenly died on 11 June 1216 , probably of malaria , although poisoning by his second wife Maria of Bulgaria has also been suggested . The death of the warlike Henry , followed by that of Pope Innocent III , the instigator of the Fourth Crusade , a month later , was a major stroke of good fortune for Theodore as it removed two of his most eminent and capable opponents .
The barons of the Latin Empire then elected Peter II of Courtenay , a cousin of King Philip II Augustus of France , as the new Latin Emperor . Receiving news of his election , Peter assembled a small army of 160 knights and 5 @,@ 500 foot and horse , and set out from France . After being crowned by Pope Honorius III in Rome , he set sail from Brindisi in April 1217 . Peter landed at Dyrrhachium , which he had promised to conquer and return to Venice , while his wife Yolanda of Flanders sailed on to Constantinople . As in the Norman invasion of William II of Sicily ( r . 1166 – 89 ) in 1185 , Peter intended ( after capturing Dyrrhachium ) to follow the ancient Via Egnatia to Thessalonica , wresting Albania and Macedonia from Epirote control in the process .
The commonly accepted version of events is that Dyrrhachium resisted with success , and as his casualties mounted Peter was forced to raise the siege and start his march towards Thessalonica . The march proved difficult , due to both the harsh terrain and the open hostility of the local population — the Western sources ( the Annales Ceccanenses , Richard of San Germano , Philippe Mouskes , and the continuator of Robert of Auxerre ) also stress the loyalty of the local Albanian population to Theodore . After a few days , Theodore with his army confronted Peter . Theodore requested talks with the papal legate , Giovanni Colonna , whom he assured of his goodwill and support . Western sources claim that Theodore offered to recognize the primacy of the Catholic Church and the suzerainty of the Latin Empire — as well as to support Peter in his planned participation in the Fifth Crusade — and offered the Latins food and guides through the mountains . Peter was glad to receive this unexpected help , and an agreement between the two was concluded . As soon as the Latins let their guard down , Theodore fell upon them . Peter of Courtenay , Colonna , the Latin Archbishop of Salona , Count William I of Sancerre , and many Latin nobles were taken captive , while Peter 's army scattered into small roving bands trying to survive . Akropolites , the chronicler Ephraim , and some Western sources on the other hand claim that Dyrrhachium was captured , and are followed by some modern scholars , including the Greek I. D. Romanos and the French Alain Ducellier . According to this view , Theodore offered to acknowledge Peter 's suzerainty after the city 's fall , only to treacherously ambush and defeat him . As the historian John Van Antwerp Fine remarks , " it is not important which version is correct " ; the outcome was the same , and if lost , Dyrrhachium was quickly retaken after Peter 's capture .
According to Philip Van Tricht , Theodore 's actions were motivated by several factors , which led him to regard Peter as a threat to himself and his principality . Peter 's attempt to return Dyrrhachium to Venice , even if it had failed for the moment , boded ill for the future . Peter 's recognition of the rights of Demetrius ' half @-@ brother William VI of Montferrat over Thessalonica opened the way for William to take power there , and Theodore was loath to see Thessalonica — whose rulers still claimed suzerainty over Epirus — strengthened , particularly given the presence of his exiled nephew Michael II in the court of the Latin Principality of Achaea . At the same time , Theodore and his court resented the increased papal interference in Greek affairs , especially in the aftermath of the mission of Cardinal Pelagius , the previous papal legate to Constantinople , whose actions had deepened the rift between Greeks and Latins further .
= = = Wars with the Latins and the capture of Thessalonica = = =
Whatever the true course of events , Theodore 's unexpected victory echoed throughout the Greek world , and greatly enhanced his standing ; even the usually hostile Akropolites was forced to admit in his history that this feat was " of great help to the Romans " . Conversely it dismayed Pope Honorius , who sent letters to the Latin princes of Greece as well as the Doge of Venice and Peter of Courtenay 's son @-@ in @-@ law King Andrew II of Hungary ( r . 1205 – 35 ) , urging them to engage themselves to secure the release of Peter and Colonna . He even wrote to Andrew and the French bishops to call for a crusade against Theodore , with which he also threatened Theodore in a letter . With the first contingents for the crusade assembling at Ancona in late 1217 , and the Venetians eager to profit from the crusade to recover Dyrrhachium , the pressure bore fruit : in March 1218 , Colonna was released , with Theodore offering his apologies and assurances of loyalty to the Pope . Honorius then changed his policy to the point of forbidding the Doge of Venice to harm Theodore in the slightest , hoping thereby to secure the release of more prisoners . Although some of the lesser barons were freed , Peter and many of the most senior lords remained in captivity until their death . It is unknown when Peter of Courtenay died , but this was probably before September 1219 .
The capture of Peter of Courtenay left both major Latin states in Greece , Thessalonica and Constantinople , in the hands of female regents . Before arriving in Constantinople , where she gave birth to Peter 's posthumous son , Baldwin II ( r . 1228 – 73 ) , Yolanda had stopped at the Peloponnese . There she quickly came to appreciate the wealth and strength of the Principality of Achaea , and arranged the marriage of her daughter Agnes to the principality 's heir , Geoffrey II of Villehardouin ( r. ca . 1229 – 46 ) . A politically astute ruler , Yolanda also secured her eastern border by offering her daughter Maria of Courtenay in marriage to Theodore Laskaris , who had just been widowed for the second time .
Before launching his final stroke against Thessalonica , Theodore also took care to secure his southern flank , by appointing his brother Constantine Komnenos Doukas as governor in Aetolia and Acarnania . An energetic governor , Constantine not only effectively shielded the Epirote domains from the threat of the Duchy of Athens , but soon recovered Neopatras and Lamia as well . Theodore himself turned his attention to clearing Thessaly of any remaining Latin presence , culminating in the surrender of the great Platamon Castle in 1218 . Over the next few years , one by one , Theodore captured the fortresses around Thessalonica itself . Platamon controlled the entrance to the Thermaic Gulf , and with the surrender of Serres in late 1221 , Theodore cut the land connection between Constantinople and Thessalonica as well . Thessalonica was left thereby , in the words of John Fine , " more or less an island in the midst of Theodore 's possessions " .
As the fall of Thessalonica appeared imminent , Pope Honorius excommunicated Theodore , ordered an embargo on horses , troops , and supplies from the Adriatic ports , and sent letters to Constantinople urging assistance to Demetrius . Demetrius himself went to Italy to seek aid , being received by the Pope in Rome in March 1222 and by Emperor Frederick II ( r . 1220 – 50 ) soon after . A crusade was proclaimed against Theodore , and troops began to gather in Italy . In the meantime , the Latin Empire , now under Robert of Courtenay ( r . 1221 – 28 ) , was once more embroiled in warfare with Nicaea as it supported Laskaris ' brothers in their challenge against the new Nicaean emperor , John III Doukas Vatatzes ( r . 1222 – 54 ) . The first detachments of the assembling crusade , under Count Oberto II of Biandrate , arrived at Thessalonica in summer 1222 and joined the de facto regent , Guy Pallavicini . Theodore now hastened his move against Thessalonica . After preliminary operations in late 1222 , in early 1223 he laid siege to the city . Honorius excommunicated him again , and redoubled his effort to promote the crusade , which had come to a standstill in the meantime . At the Pope 's urging , Venice and Emperor Frederick promised aid . Robert of Courtenay also pledged to assist , while Honorius called upon the Latin princes of southern Greece to join in the effort . The crusade finally assembled at Brindisi in March 1224 . In his instructions to his legate , however , Honorius did not rule out the possibility of Theodore coming to terms with the Crusaders . True to his word , in April 1224 Robert of Courtenay sent an army to besiege Serres . During the siege , the Latin generals learned of the disastrous defeat of the main Latin army at the hands of John III Doukas Vatatzes at the Battle of Poimanenon . They lifted the siege and hastened back to Constantinople , only to be intercepted by Theodore 's men ; most of the Latin army were killed or taken prisoner .
This double disaster destroyed the Pope 's plans for the crusade , as he had envisaged it to land in Theodore 's rear while he was engaged with Robert 's army . At the same time , the prospective leader of the crusade , William VI of Montferrat , fell ill . In November , the Pope was forced to postpone the crusade 's departure for the next spring . With news of the Latin defeats and the postponement of the crusade , the exhausted defenders of Thessalonica surrendered the city to Theodore sometime in December 1224 . The crusade to relieve it sailed in March 1225 , and landed in Thessaly at Halmyros . The Crusader army was soon decimated by dysentery , allegedly because the Greeks had poisoned the local water supply . William of Montferrat himself succumbed to it , and the remnants of the army left Greece . Demetrius of Montferrat still hoped to recover his realm with the help of Frederick II , but died in 1227 .
= = Emperor of Thessalonica = =
The capture of Thessalonica , traditionally the second city of the Byzantine Empire after Constantinople , was a major stroke against the Latins and greatly boosted Theodore 's standing , so much that he now regarded himself as superior to Vatatzes , and openly claimed the Byzantine imperial title by putting on the purple boots reserved to the emperor . Indeed , one of his major supporters , the eminent Metropolitan of Naupaktos , John Apokaukos , in a letter to the Patriarch in 1222 declared that the Epirotes already regarded Theodore as their " God @-@ sent regent and emperor " , and later wrote to Theodore 's wife expressing the hope that he might be able to assist at their imperial coronation at Thessalonica .
= = = Coronation controversy with Nicaea = = =
According to Byzantine custom , the coronation of an emperor could only take place in Constantinople and be performed by the Patriarch ; yet Constantinople was still in Latin hands , and the Patriarch ( now Germanus II , 1223 – 40 ) resided in Nicaea . Theodore thus turned to the Metropolitan of Thessalonica , Constantine Mesopotamites , whom he had just restored to his see after removing the Latin prelate . Mesopotamites however recognized the Patriarch at Nicaea as legitimate , and steadfastly refused to perform the rite , despite pressure from Theodore , his brother Constantine , and John Apokaukos . Rather than submit , he preferred to return to exile . In response , in March 1225 Theodore convened a council of the bishops of his domains at Arta , chaired by Apokaukos . The council approved a declaration , composed by Apokaukos , which extolled Theodore 's achievements against the Latins and Bulgarians , his liberation of Greek lands , eviction of Catholic priests and restoration of Orthodox bishops , and his imperial descent , and declared that the council recognized only him as emperor . Armed with this declaration , Theodore had the loyal Archbishop of Ohrid , Demetrios Chomatianos , perform the coronation instead .
Although Theodore appears to have assumed , and was addressed by , the imperial title almost immediately after the capture of Thessalonica , the date of his actual coronation is unknown . The French scholar Lucien Stiernon places it in the period between June 1227 and April 1228 , but the Greek Apostolos D. Karpozilos rejects this , reasoning that Theodore had no obvious reason to delay his coronation for so long , and suggested that he was crowned in 1225 , immediately after the council of Arta . Eleni Bees @-@ Seferli on the other hand , based on the letters of Apokaukos , suggests a date between 3 April and August 1227 , while Alkmini Stavridou @-@ Zafraka has narrowed the date down to 29 May 1227 .
As befitted an emperor , Theodore began setting up a court at his new capital , and dispensed court titles to his relatives and followers . His brothers Manuel and Constantine were raised to the rank of Despot , the long @-@ serving John Plytos became panhypersebastos and mesazon ( chief minister ) , and a number of scions of old Byzantine aristocratic families , who had sought refuge in Epirus , were appointed as provincial governors alongside members of the local aristocracy . The title of doux was used , but unlike earlier times these were mostly civilian governors with little military authority . Theodore awarded titles with such largesse that formerly exclusive titles such as pansebastos sebastos or megalodoxotatos were devalued and came to be held by city notables . To secure his new capital , Theodore instituted a guard of " Tzakones " under a kastrophylax .
John Vatatzes initially reacted to Theodore 's proclamation as emperor by offering to recognize him as a sort of viceroy in his lands , but Theodore rejected this and publicly assumed the full titulature of the Byzantine emperors , as " basileus and autokrator of the Romans " . Theodore 's coronation deepened the rift between the western Greeks and Nicaea , which once again was expressed in the ecclesiastic sphere . At first , the Nicaeans tried to limit the blame to Chomatianos : though writing respectfully of Theodore himself , Patriarch Germanus II expressed his indignation at the presumption of Chomatianos in usurping the patriarchal privilege of crowning an emperor , while Chomatianos claimed that , as the successor of the ancient see of Justiniana Prima , he was an independent prelate and had the authority to do so .
In 1227 , a synod of Epirote bishops in Arta tried to find a compromise , acknowledging the overall authority of the Patriarch at Nicaea but requesting administrative autonomy , i.e. the right for Theodore to appoint bishops in his domains . They gave the Patriarch three months to reply , and suggested that if he did not heed their proposals , they might be forced to recognize the supremacy of the Pope instead . Germanus replied by having the patriarchal synod condemn Theodore 's assumption of the imperial title . The conflict escalated when Germanus appointed his own candidate to the vacant see of Dyrrhachium . Theodore expelled the bishop , and the Epirote synod instead elected a friend of Chomatianos , Constantine Kabasilas , as the bishop . Germanus now attacked Theodore directly . In response , George Bardanes composed a letter to Germanus , which insisted on Epirote ecclesiastical autonomy and challenged the very legality of Germanus ' claims to the patriarchate . The result was a full schism between the Nicaean and Epirote churches that lasted until 1232 / 3 .
= = = Expansion into Thrace = = =
Following Theodore 's coronation , there were four rulers who claimed the imperial title and vied for control of Constantinople : Theodore , the Latin Emperor , Robert of Courtenay , John III Doukas Vatatzes of Nicaea , and the young but ambitious John II Asen ( r . 1218 – 41 ) of Bulgaria . The Latin Empire was a shadow of its former strength : following Poimanenon , the Latins had lost most of their territories in Asia , while in Europe , it was soon reduced to the environs of Constantinople itself . Already in 1224 , or at least in 1225 , Theodore captured Chalcidice with Mount Athos , and in spring 1225 , he advanced through eastern Macedonia and western Thrace , seizing Christopolis , Xanthi , Gratianopolis , Mosynopolis and Didymoteicho . In an attempt to pre @-@ empt him and block his advance onto Constantinople , the Nicaeans had answered the summons of the inhabitants of Adrianople and taken over the city from the Latins . Theodore however crossed the Evros River and blockaded the city , until it agreed to surrender . The Nicaean army , under the protostrator John Ises and John Kamytzes Komnenos , was allowed to withdraw unmolested to Asia with ships provided by Theodore .
The capture of Adrianople opened the path to Constantinople for Theodore . In order to secure his northern flank , he concluded an alliance with John Asen , sealed by the ( second ) marriage of his brother Manuel to Maria , an illegitimate daughter of Asen . At the same time , the Latins turned to Nicaea and concluded a peace treaty in exchange for further territorial concessions . This pact too was sealed by a marriage , of Theodore Laskaris ' daughter Eudokia to the Latin baron Anseau de Cayeux . In the same summer of 1225 , Theodore led his army to the environs of Constantinople , reaching the towns of Bizye and Vrysis . Anseau de Cayeux , leading the Latin army , was heavily wounded in the clashes , but Constantinople itself was not attacked . Not only was Theodore unprepared for a siege against the mighty Theodosian Walls , but news of William of Montferrat 's landing at Thessaly forced him to break off operations and return west .
For reasons that are unknown , Theodore did not renew his attack on Constantinople in 1226 or the years thereafter . Instead , he seems to have occupied himself with domestic affairs , as well as taking care to improve relations with Frederick II during the latter 's stop @-@ over at Corfu and Cephallonia to lead the Sixth Crusade in 1228 . In 1229 , he even sent a company of Greek troops to serve under Frederick in Italy . At the same time , Theodore presided over a rupture in relations with Venice , after his governor in Corfu sequestered the cargo of a shipwrecked Venetian ship . Theodore issued an edict on 19 August 1228 prohibiting Venetian merchants from practising commerce in his realm . In January of the same year , Robert of Courtenay died , leaving the throne of the Latin Empire to his eleven @-@ year @-@ old brother , Baldwin II . With a regency taking over the governance of the state , the Latin Empire stood further enfeebled . At this moment , John Asen offered an alliance . Baldwin II would marry his daughter Helena , while John Asen would take over the regency and lend his assistance at repelling Theodore 's attacks . The Latin barons viewed the offer with mistrust , as it would offer John Asen every opportunity to take over Constantinople himself ; instead , they strung out negotiations , and eventually chose the 80 @-@ year @-@ old but energetic John of Brienne ( r . 1229 – 37 ) as regent . Although the Bulgarian offer failed , it served to open a rift between Theodore and his nominal ally . In a move clearly directed against John Asen , in September 1228 , Theodore agreed to a one @-@ year truce with the Latin Empire 's regent , Narjot of Toucy , with the border between the two empires running along a line from Ainos to Vrysis .
= = Klokotnitsa and Bulgarian captivity = =
Finally , in late 1229 , Theodore began assembling his forces at Thessalonica — including a contingent of troops sent by Frederick II — for the projected final attack on Constantinople . As his troops marched east in spring 1230 , he unexpectedly turned his army north and followed the Evros valley into Bulgaria . Theodore 's motives for this sudden change are debated . Contemporary and later historians like Akropolites denounced this as a sign of Theodore 's duplicity and treachery . A more likely suggestion is that Theodore , hitherto undefeated in battle , desired to check Bulgarian power and avoid the possibility of the Bulgarians striking in his rear while he was engaged in besieging Constantinople . Although caught by surprise , John Asen reacted rapidly . Allegedly affixing the text of the broken treaty to one of his spears as a flag , he rallied his troops and met Theodore in battle in April 1230 . The ensuing Battle of Klokotnitsa was a crushing victory for the Bulgarian ruler , who took Theodore and many of his officers captive .
In the aftermath of Klokotnitsa , Bulgaria emerged as the mightiest power in the Balkans . Deprived of its energetic ruler , Theodore 's empire collapsed : within a few months Thrace , most of Macedonia , and Albania , fell under Bulgarian rule . As John Asen boasted in an inscription in the Holy Forty Martyrs Church at his capital of Tarnovo , he " occupied all the land from Adrianople to Dyrrhachium , Greek , Serbian , and Albanian alike " , although Dyrrhachium itself apparently remained in Greek hands . The Latin Duchy of Philippopolis was also annexed , and Alexius Slav 's principality in the Rhodope Mountains was extinguished in the process , with Alexius spending the rest of his life at Asen 's court .
Theodore 's brother Manuel , who managed to escape from Klokotnitsa , now took over the throne in Thessalonica . His domain was reduced to the environs of the city and his family 's core territories in Epirus and Thessaly , as well as Dyrrhachium and Corfu , while his brother Constantine in Aetolia and Acarnania recognized his suzerainty . As a son @-@ in @-@ law of John Asen , Manuel was allowed to maintain internal autonomy , but to all intents and purposes he was a client of the Bulgarian Tsar . At about the same time , Michael I 's bastard son Michael II returned from exile and quickly succeeded , apparently with the support of the local population , in taking over control of Epirus . Manuel was forced to recognize the fait accompli under the pretense that Michael recognized his suzerainty , in token of which Manuel conferred him the title of Despot . In reality Michael was fully independent , and very quickly ceased to acknowledge Manuel 's suzerainty ; by 1236 , he had seized Corfu . In order to preserve some freedom of manoeuvre and counter Asen 's attempts to subordinate the Epirote Church to the Bulgarian Church of Tarnovo , Manuel turned to his brother 's erstwhile rivals in Nicaea and brought an end to the ecclesiastical schism by acknowledging the legitimacy and superiority of the Nicaea @-@ based Patriarch .
Theodore himself remained in captivity at Tarnovo for seven years . Initially he was treated with honour , but at some point during his captivity he was accused of plotting against John Asen and blinded as a result . This was the customary Byzantine punishment for treason and means of sidelining potential political rivals . According to a contemporary letter written in Hebrew , Asen initially ordered two Jews to carry out the deed , for Theodore had been persecuting the Jews in his territory and confiscating their wealth to fund his campaigns . Theodore begged to be spared , and they refused to carry out the blinding , whereupon the enraged Tsar had them thrown from a cliff . Finally , in 1237 Theodore was released when Asen , recently widowed , fell in love with Theodore 's sole unmarried daughter , Irene . Immediately after the marriage , Theodore was released and allowed to depart Tarnovo to wherever he wished .
= = Return to Thessalonica and final years = =
= = = Recovery of Thessalonica = = =
As soon as he was set free , Theodore returned to Thessalonica . Lacking any escort or followers , he disguised himself as a beggar in order to enter the city in secret . There he contacted old supporters and favourites , and organized a conspiracy that soon ousted Manuel and took over the city . As Byzantine custom barred him from re @-@ assuming the imperial office due to his blinding , Theodore installed his son John Komnenos Doukas ( r . 1237 – 44 ) as emperor ( without a coronation ceremony ) , but remained the real ruler of the empire in his son 's name . John himself appears to have been mostly interested in religion , and more inclined to enter a monastery than to become emperor . Theodore had to persuade him that being named emperor was a God @-@ given gift , and that he was indeed the rightful Emperor of the Romans due to his imperial descent .
The deposed Manuel was sent to exile at Attaleia in Asia Minor , while his wife Maria was allowed to return to her father . Despite Theodore 's actions and the overthrow of his daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law , Akropolites reports that John Asen remained favourably disposed towards Theodore due to his passionate love for Irene . Manuel did not remain quiescent in exile ; determined to avenge himself , from Attaleia he secured passage through Turkish lands to Nicaea . There John Vatatzes welcomed him and agreed to support him , but not before he secured from Manuel oaths of loyalty to himself . Thus in early 1239 Manuel with six Nicaean ships set sail for Greece , landing near Demetrias in Thessaly . He received widespread support in the province , perhaps even from the local governor , Michael I 's son @-@ in @-@ law Constantine Maliasenos , allowing him to raise an army and in a short time occupy Farsala , Larissa , and Platamon . Faced with the option of open civil war , Manuel and Theodore eventually came to terms by dividing the territories of Thessalonica among themselves . Manuel renounced his allegiance to Vatatzes and received Thessaly , John and Theodore kept Thessalonica and the remaining parts of Macedonia as far west as Vodena and Ostrovo , and Constantine was confirmed in his appanage of Aetolia and Acarnania . To further secure their position , both Theodore and Michael concluded treaties with the powerful Prince of Achaea , Geoffrey II of Villehardouin .
= = = Submission of Thessalonica to Nicaea = = =
Michael II in Epirus was not part of the brothers ' agreement , and continued to pursue his own policies independently of his uncles . In 1241 , when Manuel died , Michael moved quickly to occupy Thessaly . In June of the same year , John Asen died , leaving the throne to his seven @-@ year @-@ old son Kaliman ( r . 1241 – 46 ) . Coupled with the increasingly deteriorating situation of the Latin Empire , this development left John Vatatzes of Nicaea as the pre @-@ eminent ruler of the region , and the obvious candidate for the capture of Constantinople .
Before undertaking any moves against Constantinople , Vatatzes realized the need to settle affairs with Thessalonica , and in particular with Theodore , whose ambition , capability , and machinations he feared . In 1240 or 1241 he therefore issued an invitation , with assurances of safe @-@ conduct , to Theodore to visit Nicaea . Theodore accepted , and was treated with great honours by Vatatzes , who deferred to him as his " uncle " and dined with him at the same table . In reality , Theodore was a prisoner in Nicaea ; he was not allowed to leave , and throughout his sojourn in the Nicaean court , preparations were in full swing for a campaign against Thessalonica . In spring 1242 , Vatatzes crossed over into Europe at the head of his army , with Theodore accompanying him as an honorary prisoner . Facing no resistance , the Nicaean army and fleet arrived before Thessalonica . The city 's garrison and inhabitants resisted with success and the Nicaean army , lacking heavy siege equipment , had to settle for a drawn @-@ out blockade . Soon , however , news arrived of a Mongol invasion of Asia Minor , which forced Vatatzes to break off the campaign and return to Nicaea . Nevertheless , the Nicaean emperor kept this news a secret , and sent Theodore to his son to negotiate . John himself reportedly was willing to surrender the city outright , but his father convinced him to hold out for better terms . In the end , after 40 days of negotiations , John was allowed to keep control of Thessalonica , but renounced his imperial title and accepted Nicaean suzerainty and the title of Despot . Theodore was also allowed to remain at Thessalonica at his son 's side .
John ruled as Despot in Thessalonica for two years , until his death in 1244 . Theodore himself retired to Vodena , from where he supervised the affairs of state . On John 's death he raised his younger son Demetrios Komnenos Doukas ( r . 1244 – 46 ) in his place , and sent an embassy to Nicaea to announce the succession , as befitted the terms of vassalage agreed in 1242 . If John was a religious ascetic , Demetrios was a dissolute youngster who enjoyed partying with his favourites and seducing married women . Although Theodore remained in charge of governance , Demetrios quickly became so unpopular that many leading citizens began viewing direct Nicaean rule with favour .
Things came to a head in autumn 1246 , when Kaliman of Bulgaria died , leaving the country in the hands of a regency for his younger brother Michael Asen ( r . 1246 – 57 ) . Vatatzes quickly attacked Bulgaria , and within three months captured most of Thrace and all of eastern and northern Macedonia , while Michael II of Epirus also took advantage of the opportunity to expand into Albania and northwestern Macedonia . At the close of this campaign in November , as Vatatzes was encamped at Melnik , he was informed of a conspiracy to depose Demetrios and deliver Thessalonica to him in exchange for a chrysobull guaranteeing the traditional rights and privileges of the city . Vatatzes readily granted this , and sent envoys to Demetrios calling for him to appear in person at his camp . Demetrios , suspicious of Vatatzes ' intentions , refused , and the Nicaeans marched on Thessalonica . After a few days , the conspirators opened one of the gates to the Nicaean army , and the city was quickly captured . Demetrios was captured and exiled to Lentiana in Bithynia , while Thessalonica and all of Macedonia were placed under the governance of the Grand Domestic Andronikos Palaiologos . Theodore himself , isolated and without power in his refuge at Vodena , apparently remained uninvolved in these events .
= = = Final throw of the dice and death = = =
With Thessalonica secured , Vatatzes turned to Epirus , offering Michael II a marriage alliance between Michael 's eldest son Nikephoros and his own granddaughter Maria . The offer was enthusiastically accepted by Michael 's wife , Theodora Petraliphaina , and the young couple were engaged at Pegae . Michael , who had not abandoned his family 's ambitions , remained ambivalent about the Nicaean alliance , and Theodore used his influence over his nephew to turn him against it . Thus , in spring 1251 , Michael launched a sudden attack on Thessalonica . The city resisted successfully , and in spring of the next year Vatatzes once more crossed into Europe to campaign against the Komnenoi Doukai . Theodore with Michael had turned to the north , capturing Prilep and Veles , and when they received news of Vatatzes ' arrival , they withdrew to Epirus via Kastoria . Vatatzes besieged and captured Theodore 's stronghold of Vodena , but soon became bogged down in skirmishing in the area of Kastoria . The stalemate was broken when two Epirote generals , John Glabas and Theodore Petraliphas , defected to the Nicaeans , followed shortly after by the ruler of Kruja , Golem . This forced Michael to come to terms with Vatatzes , ceding the fortresses he had captured as well as his remaining holdings in Macedonia , and reconfirming the marriage alliance with Nicaea . Furthermore , Vatatzes explicitly demanded the handing over of Theodore . The Epirote ambassadors met Vatatzes at Vodena , where they offered Theodore and the young Nikephoros as hostages . The latter was granted the title of Despot and soon allowed to return to Epirus , but Theodore was moved as a prisoner to Asia Minor . He died shortly after , around 1253 .
= = Assessment = =
The modern biographer of the Komnenoi , Konstantinos Varzos , described Theodore as an " energetic , resourceful , and exceedingly ambitious statesman , who inherited from his ancestor Alexios I Komnenos his endurance and persistence , but not the latter 's intelligence , diplomacy , and ability to adapt " . Varzos furthermore points out that despite his great ability , Theodore 's ambition to be the one to recover Constantinople and his irreconcilable rivalry with Nicaea actually hampered and delayed the restoration of the Byzantine Empire by several decades .
Theodore 's legacy left a lasting mark on the political worldview of the western Greeks : Byzantinist Donald Nicol remarks that " the memory of Theodore Doukas 's victories and of his title to the Byzantine crown lived on in northern Greece and in the hearts of his descendants for many years to come " . Michael II continued his uncle 's rivalry with Nicaea , further delaying the recovery of Constantinople , and even after the restoration of the Byzantine Empire by Nicaea in 1261 , the rulers of Epirus would continue to challenge the revived empire and uphold their own claim to the Byzantine throne .
= = Family = =
By his wife Maria Petraliphaina , Theodore had four children :
Anna Angelina Komnene Doukaina , who married King Stefan Radoslav of Serbia
John Komnenos Doukas , who became Emperor of Thessalonica in 1237
Irene Komnene Doukaina , who married John Asen
Demetrios Komnenos Doukas , who succeeded as ruler of Thessalonica in 1244
= Tropical Storm Ignacio ( 1997 ) =
Tropical Storm Ignacio was a weak tropical cyclone affected parts of the western United States in August 1997 . The 12th tropical cyclone and 9th named storm of the 1997 Pacific hurricane season , Ignacio formed west of Mexico from a weather disturbance embedded within a more broad system . It was classified as a tropical depression on August 17 , and although it quickly intensified into a tropical storm , harsher environmental conditions caused it to begin weakening as the cyclone moved northward . On August 19 , Ignacio transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it approached California , where its remnants produced unprecedented August rainfall , numerous traffic accidents , and 78 @,@ 000 power outages .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Ignacio originated in a broad region of active weather that persisted west of Mexico during the middle of August 1997 . Among multiple other disturbances , the precursor to Ignacio developed on August 16 , well to the southwest of the Baja California Peninsula . Later that day , banding features formed and convection began turning counterclockwise around a nascent area of low pressure in the middle levels of the atmosphere . It continued to become better organized , and at 0000 UTC on August 17 , the National Hurricane Center classified it a tropical depression . At the time , the storm was situated approximately 520 mi ( 840 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas , outside of the area in which tropical cyclones usually form in the Eastern Pacific ocean basin .
The depression moved northwestward at 11 to 17 mph ( 18 to 27 km / h ) under the steering currents of mid- to upper @-@ level trough of low pressure off the coast of California . A burst of deep convection formed near the cyclone 's center early on August 17 , and its estimated maximum sustained winds subsequently increased to 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . As such , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Ignacio at 1200 UTC . At the same time , the storm reached its lowest recorded barometric pressure of 1005 millibars . However , due to increasingly colder waters and the presence of inhibiting southwesterly wind shear , it immediately stopped intensifying . Ignacio maintained tropical storm status for a short time , and early on August 18 , it weakened back into a depression .
During its weakening stage , deep convection existed only in the northwestern quadrant of the circulation . On August 19 , cold cloud tops reappeared , although this brief revival has been attributed to non @-@ tropical baroclinic instability . At 1200 UTC , the depression was declared extratropical , and it continued northward until dissipating near California a day later . Moisture from the system persisted as it passed through the state and the Pacific Northwest , ultimately merging with a larger extratropical cyclone involving the remnants of Hurricane Guillermo .
= = Impact = =
As a tropical cyclone , Ignacio had little or no effect on land . However , its remnants produced unprecedented precipitation in parts of coastal California . Rainfall accumulations reached record levels in some areas , amounting to as much as 2 @.@ 17 in ( 55 mm ) . San Francisco received about 1 in ( 25 mm ) of precipitation , leading to its wettest August on record , and also constituting the city 's first ever recorded rainfall on the date of August 19 . In contrast , the area usually receives just trace of moisture during August . By the estimation of one meteorologist , the atypical rainfall represented a 1 @-@ in @-@ 50 @-@ year event . A Major League Baseball game at O.co Coliseum on August 19 was canceled due to the inclement weather . The atypical rainfall triggered isolated flash flooding in some locations and a debris flow about 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) deep . Wine grape were adversely impacted by the heavy rainfall from Ignacio , which ruined about 10 % of the year 's Chardonnay and Sauvignon grapes . The unfavorable growing conditions were compounded by further rains from Hurricane Linda in September , creating what was described as a " tumultuous " year for the crops .
The storm contributed to numerous weather @-@ related traffic accidents , at least one of them classified as major . Around 20 collisions occurred on the night of August 19 across the San Francisco Peninsula . Two crashes on Interstate 80 forced the closure of four lanes for 30 minutes , while California State Route 9 was blocked in Saratoga by a large tree which fell due to saturated soil . It is unclear how many injuries resulted from the various incidents . Thunderstorms associated with the storm system left about 78 @,@ 000 electric customers in Sonoma County without power after lightning struck a power substation . The outages lasted up to a few hours . Lightning also knocked three workers unconscious in a vineyard near Lodi ; they were in good condition after hospitalization .
Rainfall extended as far north as the northwestern United States , ending an unusually long , 35 @-@ day dry spell at Astoria , Oregon . It remains the most significant rainfall from a tropical cyclone in the states of Washington and Oregon .
= German destroyer Z1 Leberecht Maass =
The German destroyer Z1 Leberecht Maass was a Type 1934 destroyer built for the Kriegsmarine during the 1930s . The ship was named after Rear Admiral Leberecht Maass who commanded German forces in the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914 . Several days after the start of World War II , she unsuccessfully attacked , together with another destroyer , Polish ships anchored at the naval base on the Hel Peninsula . Leberecht Maass was lightly damaged during the action . In mid @-@ February 1940 , while proceeding into the North Sea to search for British fishing trawlers , the ship was bombed by a patrolling German bomber that damaged her steering . She either drifted into a newly laid British minefield or was again hit by bombs and broke in half with the loss of the bulk of her crew .
= = Design and description = =
Leberecht Maass had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 223 long tons ( 2 @,@ 259 t ) at standard load and 3 @,@ 156 long tons ( 3 @,@ 207 t ) at deep load . The two Wagner geared steam turbine sets , each driving one propeller shaft , were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 PS ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) using steam provided by six high @-@ pressure Wagner boilers . The ship had a designed speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) , but her maximum speed was 38 @.@ 7 knots ( 71 @.@ 7 km / h ; 44 @.@ 5 mph ) . Leberecht Maass carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots .
The ship carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the aft superstructure . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . A system of passive hydrophones designated as ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) was fitted to detect submarines . The crew numbered 10 officers and 315 enlisted men , plus an additional four officers and 19 enlisted men if serving as a flotilla flagship .
= = Service history = =
Leberecht Maass was the first destroyer to be built in Germany since World War I. The ship was ordered on 7 July 1934 and laid down at Deutsche Werke , Kiel , on 10 October 1934 as yard number K232 . She was launched on 18 August 1935 and completed on 14 January 1937 . She became the flagship of the Führer der Torpedoboote ( Chief of Torpedo Boats ) upon commissioning . Leberecht Maass spent most of her first year training and made a port visit to Gothenburg in April 1938 . Upon her return she was taken in hand by Deutsche Werke to have her bow rebuilt to reduce the amount of water that came over the bow in head seas . The ship participated in the August 1938 Fleet Review and the following fleet exercise . In December , Leberecht Maass , together with her sisters Z2 Georg Thiele , Z3 Max Schultz , and Z4 Richard Beitzen , sailed to the area of Iceland to evaluate her seaworthiness in a North Atlantic winter with her new bow . On 23 – 24 March 1939 , the ship was one of the destroyers that escorted Adolf Hitler aboard the pocket battleship Deutschland to occupy Memel . She participated in the Spring fleet exercise in the western Mediterranean , as the flagship of Rear Admiral Günther Lütjens , and made several visits to Spanish and Moroccan ports in April and May .
On 3 September 1939 , Z1 Leberecht Maass and Z9 Wolfgang Zenker took part in an attack on the Polish ships Gryf and Wicher in Gdynia harbour . The Poles replied effectively and forced the German destroyers to make evasive maneuvers and to lay a smoke screen to throw off the aim of the Polish gunners . Leberecht Maass was hit in the superstructure by a 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) shell from the coast defense battery at Hel that killed four crewmen and wounded another four men . Lütjens ordered the action broken off 40 minutes later as the German fire was ineffective . The following day , she sailed to Swinemünde to have her damage repaired , a process that took until 10 September . After its completion , Leberecht Maass helped to lay defensive minefields in the North Sea . The ship began a scheduled refit in Swinemünde on 29 September and Lutjens transferred his flag to Z21 Wilhelm Heidkamp . She was attached to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla on 22 December .
On 22 February 1940 , Leberecht Ma
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ass and five other destroyers , Z3 Max Schultz , Z4 Richard Beitzen , Z6 Theodor Riedel , Z13 Erich Koellner and Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt , sailed for the Dogger Bank to intercept British fishing vessels in " Operation Wikinger " . En route , the flotilla was erroneously attacked by a Heinkel He 111 bomber from KG 26 . Leberecht Maass was hit by at least one bomb , lost steering , and broke in half , sinking with the loss of 280 of her crew , among them the ship 's commanding officer , Korvettenkapitän Fritz Bassenge . Only 60 men were saved . During the rescue effort , Z3 Max Schultz hit a mine and sank with the loss of her entire crew . Hitler ordered a Court of Inquiry to be convened to investigate the cause of the losses and it concluded that both ships that been sunk by bombs from the He 111 . The Kriegsmarine had failed to notify its destroyers that the Luftwaffe was making anti @-@ shipping patrols at that time and had also failed to inform the Luftwaffe that its destroyers would be at sea . Postwar evidence revealed that one or both ships struck a British minefield laid by the destroyers Ivanhoe and Intrepid .
= Morgan horse =
The Morgan horse is one of the earliest horse breeds developed in the United States . Tracing back to the foundation sire Figure , later named Justin Morgan after his best @-@ known owner , Morgans served many roles in 19th @-@ century American history , being used as coach horses and for harness racing , as general riding animals , and as cavalry horses during the American Civil War on both sides of the conflict . Morgans have influenced other major American breeds , including the American Quarter Horse , Tennessee Walking Horse and the Standardbred . During the 19th and 20th centuries , they were exported to other countries , including England , where a Morgan stallion influenced the breeding of the Hackney horse . In 1907 , the US Department of Agriculture established the US Morgan Horse Farm in Middlebury , Vermont for the purpose of perpetuating and improving the Morgan breed ; the farm was later transferred to the University of Vermont . The first breed registry was established in 1909 , and since then many organizations in the US , Europe and Oceania have developed . There were estimated to be over 175 @,@ 000 Morgan horses worldwide in 2005 .
The Morgan is a compact , refined breed , generally bay , black or chestnut in color , although they come in many colors , including several variations of pinto . Used in both English and Western disciplines , the breed is known for its versatility . The Morgan is the state animal of Vermont and the state horse of Massachusetts . Popular children 's authors , including Marguerite Henry and Ellen Feld , have portrayed the breed in their books ; Henry 's Justin Morgan Had a Horse was later made into a Disney movie .
= = Breed characteristics = =
There is officially one breed standard for Morgan type , regardless of the discipline or bloodline of the individual horse . Compact and refined in build , the Morgan has strong legs , an expressive head with a straight or slightly convex profile and broad forehead ; large , prominent eyes ; well @-@ defined withers , laid back shoulders , and an upright , well arched neck . The back is short , and hindquarters are strongly muscled , with a long and well @-@ muscled croup . The tail is attached high and carried gracefully and straight . Morgans appear to be a strong powerful horse , and the breed is well known as an easy keeper . The breed standard for height ranges from 14 @.@ 1 to 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 57 to 62 inches , 145 to 157 cm ) , with some individuals over and under .
Gaits , particularly the trot are " animated , elastic , square , and collected , " with the front and rear legs balanced . A few Morgans are gaited , meaning they can perform an intermediate speed gait other than the trot such as the rack , fox trot , or pace . The United States Equestrian Federation states , " a Morgan is distinctive for its stamina and vigor , personality and eagerness and strong natural way of moving . " The breed has a reputation for intelligence , courage and a good disposition . Registered Morgans come in a variety of colors although they are most commonly bay , black , and chestnut . Less common colors include gray , roan , dun , silver dapple , and cream dilutions such as palomino , buckskin , cremello and perlino . In addition , three pinto color patterns are also recognized : sabino , frame overo , and splashed white . The tobiano pattern has not been noted in Morgans .
One genetic disease has been identified within the Morgan breed . This is Type 1 polysaccharide storage myopathy , an autosomal dominant muscle disease found mainly in stock horse and draft horse breeds caused by a missense mutation in the GYS1 gene . Morgans are one of over a dozen breeds found to have the allele for the condition , though its prevalence in Morgans appears to be quite low compared to stock and draft breeds . In one study , less than one percent of randomly tested Morgans carried the allele for this condition , one of the lowest percentages amongst breeds in that study .
Two coat color genes found in Morgans have also been linked to genetic disorders . One is the genetic ocular syndrome multiple congenital ocular anomalies ( MCOA ) , originally called equine anterior segment dysgenesis ( ASD ) . MCOA is characterized by the abnormal development of some ocular tissues , which causes compromised vision , although generally of a mild form ; the disease is non @-@ progressive . Genetic studies have shown that it is closely tied to the silver dapple gene . A small number of Morgans carry the silver dapple allele , which causes cysts but no apparent vision problems if heterozygous , but when homozygous can cause vision problems . There is also the possibility of lethal white syndrome , a fatal disease seen in foals who are homozygous for the frame overo gene . At present , there is one mare line in the Morgan breed that has produced healthy heterozygous frame overo individuals . The American Morgan Horse Association advocates genetic testing to identify carriers of these genetics , and advises owners to avoid breeding horses that are heterozygous for frame overo to each other .
= = Breed history = =
= = = Justin Morgan = = =
All Morgans trace back to a single foundation sire , a stallion named Figure , who was born in West Springfield , Massachusetts in 1789 . In 1792 , he was given to a man named Justin Morgan as a debt payment . The horse later came to be identified by the name of this particular owner , and " the Justin Morgan horse " evolved into the name of the breed . Figure is thought to have stood about 14 hands ( 56 inches , 142 cm ) , and to have weighed about 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) . He was known for his prepotency , passing on his distinctive looks , conformation , temperament , and athleticism . His exact pedigree is unknown , although extensive efforts have been made to discover his parentage . One historian notes that the writings on the possibility of his sire being a Thoroughbred named Beautiful Bay would " fill 41 detective novels and a membership application for the Liars ' Club . " In 1821 , Figure was kicked by another horse and later died of his injuries . He was buried in Tunbridge , Vermont .
Although Figure was used extensively as a breeding stallion , records are known to exist for only six of his sons , three of whom became notable as foundation bloodstock for the Morgan breed . Woodbury , a chestnut , stood 14 @.@ 3 hands ( 59 inches , 150 cm ) high and stood for many years at stud in New England . Bulrush , a dark bay the same size as Figure , was known for his endurance and speed in harness . Best known was Sherman , another chestnut stallion , slightly shorter than Figure , who in turn was the sire and grandsire of Black Hawk and Ethan Allen . Black Hawk , born in 1833 , went on to become a foundation stallion for the Standardbred , American Saddlebred and Tennessee Walking Horse breeds , and was known for his unbeaten harness racing record . Ethan Allen , sired by Black Hawk in 1849 , is another important sire in the history of the Morgan breed , and was known for his speed in trotting races .
= = = Breed development = = =
In the 19th century , Morgans were used extensively for harness racing , as well as for pulling coaches , due to the breed 's speed and endurance in harness . They were also used as stock horses and for general riding , as well as light driving work . Miners in the California Gold Rush ( 1848 – 1855 ) used the breed , as did the Army during and after the American Civil War for both riding and harness horses . The Morgan trotting stallion Shepherd F. Knapp was exported to England in the 1860s , where his trotting ability influenced the breeding of Hackney horses . During this period , numerous Morgan mares may have been brought west and integrated into Texan horse herds , which influenced the development of the American Quarter Horse breed . The Morgan horse also was an ancestor of the Missouri Fox Trotter . By the 1870s , however , longer @-@ legged horses came into fashion , and Morgan horses were crossed with those of other breeds . This resulted in the virtual disappearance of the original style Morgan , although a few remained in isolated areas .
Daniel C. Lindley , a native of Middlebury , Vermont , compiled a book of Morgan breeding stallions , published in 1857 . Colonel Joseph Battell , also a Middlebury , Vermont native , published the first volume of the Morgan Horse Register in 1894 , marking the beginning of a formal breed registry . In 1907 , the US Department of Agriculture established the US Morgan Horse Farm in Middlebury , Vermont on land donated by Battell for the purpose of perpetuating and improving the Morgan breed . The breeding program aimed to produce horses that were sound , sturdy , well @-@ mannered , and capable of performing well either under saddle or in harness . In 1951 , the Morgan Horse Farm was transferred from the USDA to the Vermont Agricultural College ( now the University of Vermont ) .
= = = Military use = = =
Morgans were used as cavalry mounts by both sides in the American Civil War . Horses with Morgan roots included Sheridan 's Winchester , also known as Rienzi , ( a descendent of Black Hawk ) . Stonewall Jackson 's " Little Sorrel " has alternately been described as a Morgan or an American Saddlebred , a breed heavily influenced by the Morgan . While Morgan enthusiasts have stated that the horse Comanche , the only survivor of the Custer regiment after the Battle of the Little Big Horn , was either a Morgan or a Mustang / Morgan mix , records of the U.S. Army and other early sources do not support this . Most accounts state that Comanche was either of " Mustang lineage " or a mix of " American " and " Spanish " blood . The University of Kansas Natural History Museum , which has the stuffed body of Comanche on display , makes no statement as to his breed . All sources agree that Comanche originated in the Oklahoma or Texas area , making his Mustang background more likely .
= = = Families = = =
There are four main bloodlines groups within the Morgan breed today , known as the Brunk , Government , Lippitt , and Western Working " families . " There are also smaller subfamilies . The Brunk Family , particularly noted for soundness and athleticism , traces to the Illinois breeding program of Joseph Brunk . The Lippitt Family or " Lippitts " trace to the breeding program of Robert Lippitt Knight , grandson of industrialist Robert Knight and maternal great @-@ great grandson of Revolutionary War officer Christopher Lippitt , founder of the Lippitt Mill . Robert Lippitt Knight focused on preservation breeding of horses descended from Ethan Allen II and this line is considered the " purest " of the four lines , with the most lines tracing back to Figure and no outcrosses to other breeds in the 20th or 21st centuries . The Government Family is the largest , tracing to Morgans bred by the US Morgan Horse Farm between 1905 and 1951 . The foundation sire of this line was General Gates . When USDA involvement ended , the University of Vermont purchased not only the farm , but much of its breeding stock and carries on the program today . The Working Western Family , abbreviated 2WF , have no common breeder or ancestor , but are the horses bred to be stock horses and work cattle , some descended from Government farm stallions shipped west .
= = Organizations = =
In 1909 , the Morgan Horse Club was founded , later changing its name to the American Morgan Horse Association . During the 1930s and 1940s , there was controversy within the registry membership as to whether the stud book should be open or closed ; this mirrored similar controversies in other US breed registries . The result of these discussions was that the stud book was declared closed to outside blood as of January 1 , 1948 . In 1985 , the US and Canadian registries signed a reciprocity agreement regarding the registration of horses , and a similar agreement was made between the US and Great Britain registries in 1990 . As of 2012 , approximately 179 @,@ 000 horses had been registered over the life of the association , with over 3 @,@ 000 new foals registered annually . It is estimated that between 175 @,@ 000 and 180 @,@ 000 Morgans exist worldwide , and although they are most popular in the United States , there are populations in Great Britain , Sweden and other countries .
The American Morgan Horse Association ( AMHA ) is the largest association for the breed . In addition to the AMHA , since 1996 , there has also been a National Morgan Pony Registry , which specializes in horses under 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 58 inches , 147 cm ) . There are several other organizations that focus on specific bloodlines within the Morgan breed . These include the Rainbow Morgan Horse Association , begun in 1990 , which works with the AMHA to develop and promote unusually @-@ colored Morgans , such as those with the silver dapple and cream genes . The Foundation Morgan Horse Association registers those horses bred to resemble the stockier type seen in the late 1800s and early 1900s , before crossbreeding with the American Saddlebred became common . Two other membership based organizations , both devoted to preserving the old @-@ time Vermont or " Lippitt " strain of Morgans , also exist . The first , the Lippitt Club , was started in 1973 , and the second , the Lippitt Morgan Breeders Association , was founded in 1995 . The Lippitt Morgan Horse Registry , Inc . , was formed in 2011 . It registers and maintains a dna data base with pedigrees of Lippitt Morgans . There are also associations for Morgans in several countries besides the US , including Canada , Australia , New Zealand , Great Britain , Sweden , Austria and Germany . In Middlebury , Vermont there is a museum dedicated to the history of the breed .
= = Uses = =
The Morgan breed is known for its versatility , and is used for a number of English and Western events . They have been successfully shown in many disciplines , including dressage , show jumping , Western pleasure , cutting and endurance riding . They are also used as stock horses and for pleasure riding and driving . They are frequently seen in driving competitions , including combined driving and carriage driving . Morgans were the first American breed to compete in the World Pairs Driving competition , representing the US . They can been seen as mounts for 4 @-@ H and Pony Club participants and therapeutic riding programs , due to their gentle disposition and steady movement .
There are Morgan @-@ only shows held throughout the US , as well as an " open competition " program run by the AMHA that gives points based on competition success at all @-@ breed shows . The first annual Grand National and World Championship Morgan Horse Show was held in 1973 in Detroit , Michigan and in 1975 moved to its current home in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma . Over 1 @,@ 000 horses compete in the show each year . In 1961 , the Morgan horse was named the official state animal of Vermont , and in 1970 , the official state horse of Massachusetts .
= = = In literature and film = = =
The children 's book , Justin Morgan Had a Horse by Marguerite Henry , published in 1945 , was a fictional account of Figure and Justin Morgan . It was a Newbery Honor Book in 1946 . A movie based on the book was made by Walt Disney Studios in 1972 . Both the book and the movie have been criticized for containing a number of historical inaccuracies and for creating or perpetuating some myths about both Justin Morgan and Figure . One equine historian stated , " these should be looked upon not as true happenings but as entertainment vehicles . "
Ellen Feld , a children 's author , is also known for her " Morgan Horse " series . Blackjack : Dreaming of a Morgan Horse , won a Children 's Choice Award in 2005 , following the 2004 award for its sequel , Frosty : The Adventures of a Morgan Horse . These awards were given by the International Reading Association and the Children ’ s Book Council .
A Morgan horse is the subject of the poem , The Runaway by Robert Frost . In the poem , the speaker observes " A little Morgan " colt who has been left out in a mountain pasture during winter and seems to be afraid of the falling snow .
= Metis ( moon ) =
Metis ( / ˈmiːtᵻs / ; Greek : Μήτις ) , also known as Jupiter XVI , is the innermost moon of Jupiter . It was discovered in 1979 in images taken by Voyager 1 , and was named in 1983 after the first wife of Zeus , Metis . Additional observations made between early 1996 and September 2003 by the Galileo spacecraft allowed its surface to be imaged .
Metis is tidally locked to Jupiter , and its shape is strongly asymmetrical , with one of the diameters being almost twice as large as the smallest one . It is also one of the two moons known to orbit Jupiter in less than the length of Jupiter 's day , the other being Adrastea . It orbits within the main ring of Jupiter , and is thought to be a major contributor of material to the rings .
= = Discovery and observations = =
Metis was discovered in 1979 by Stephen P. Synnott in images taken by the Voyager 1 probe and was provisionally designated as S / 1979 J 3 . In 1983 it was officially named after the mythological Metis , a Titaness who was the first wife of Zeus ( the Greek equivalent of Jupiter ) . The photographs taken by Voyager 1 showed Metis only as a dot , and hence knowledge about Metis was very limited until the arrival of the Galileo spacecraft . Galileo imaged almost all of the surface of Metis and put constraints on its composition by 1998 .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Metis has an irregular shape and measures 60 × 40 × 34 km across , which makes it the second smallest of the four inner satellites of Jupiter . Therefore , a very rough estimate of its surface area could be placed between 5 @,@ 800 and 11 @,@ 600 square kilometers ( approx . 8 @,@ 700 ) . The bulk composition and mass of Metis are not known , but assuming that its mean density is like that of Amalthea ( ~ 0 @.@ 86 g / cm3 ) , its mass can be estimated as ~ 3 @.@ 6 × 1016 kg . This density would imply that it is composed of water ice with a porosity of 10 – 15 % .
The surface of Metis is heavily cratered , dark , and appears to be reddish in color . There is a substantial asymmetry between leading and trailing hemispheres : the leading hemisphere is 1 @.@ 3 times brighter than the trailing one . The asymmetry is probably caused by the higher velocity and frequency of impacts on the leading hemisphere , which excavate a bright material ( presumably ice ) from its interior .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
Metis is the innermost of Jupiter 's four small inner moons . It orbits Jupiter at a distance of ~ 128 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @.@ 79 Jupiter radii ) within Jupiter 's main ring . Metis 's orbit has very small eccentricity ( ~ 0 @.@ 0002 ) and inclination ( ~ 0 @.@ 06 ° ) relative to the equator of Jupiter .
Due to tidal locking , Metis rotates synchronously with its orbital period , with its longest axis aligned towards Jupiter .
Metis lies inside Jupiter 's synchronous orbit radius ( as does Adrastea ) , and as a result , tidal forces slowly cause its orbit to decay . If its density is similar to Amalthea 's , Metis 's orbit lies within the fluid Roche limit ; however , because it has not broken up , it must lie outside its rigid Roche limit .
Because Metis orbits very close to Jupiter , Jupiter appears as a gigantic sphere about 67 @.@ 9 ° in diameter from Metis , the largest angular diameter as viewed from any of Jupiter 's moons . For the same reason only 31 % of Jupiter 's surface is visible from Metis at any one time , the most limited view of Jupiter from any of its moons .
Metis is the fastest @-@ moving of Jupiter 's moons . It orbits Jupiter at 31 @.@ 5 km / s .
= = Relationship with Jupiter 's rings = =
Metis 's orbit lies ~ 1000 km within the main ring of Jupiter . It orbits within a ~ 500 km wide " gap " or " notch " in the ring . The gap is clearly somehow related to the moon but the origin of this connection has not been established . Metis supplies a significant part of the main ring 's dust . This material appears to consist primarily of material that is ejected from the surfaces of Jupiter 's four small inner satellites by meteorite impacts . It is easy for the impact ejecta to be lost from the satellites into space because the satellites ' surfaces lie fairly close to the edge of their Roche spheres due to their low density .
= Break Your Heart =
" Break Your Heart " is a song by English singer @-@ songwriter Taio Cruz . The song serves as the lead single from his second studio album , Rokstarr ( 2009 ) . It was written by Cruz and Fraser T Smith and produced by Smith . It was first released in the United Kingdom on 20 September 2009 , followed by a release in the United States and other markets on 2 February 2010 . The official remix version features American rapper Ludacris ; that version was the single released in North American countries . The song , originally penned for Cheryl Cole , is an uptempo R & B song with synthpop and dance @-@ pop elements , accompanied by Cruz 's Auto @-@ Tuned vocals . The song is lyrically a warning to someone about being a heartbreaker .
The song received mixed to positive reviews , critics commending its infectious sound , but noting that it was generic . The song peaked at number one in Canada , Switzerland , the United Kingdom and the United States , and also within the top ten of many other countries . The accompanying music video features several scenes of Cruz on escapades with different women , including a speedboat compared to classic Diddy and a club scene with Ludacris in the American version .
= = Background = =
" Break Your Heart " was one of two songs penned by Cruz for Cheryl Cole for her debut solo album , 3 Words . After Cruz did not hear back from Cole 's label about the song , he reworked the song for a male and made it the first song off his second album , Rokstarr . Cruz told MTV News UK that after he released the song , Cole 's people would have liked the song for her after all . The latter track by Cruz , " Stand Up " made it onto the final tracklist on Cole 's album .
However , according to the song 's other co @-@ writer Fraser T Smith in an interview with HitQuarters , " Break Your Heart " was rejected by Cole 's Polydor label boss Ferdy Unger @-@ Hamilton felt it was too similar to " Heartbreaker " by will.i.am , the executive producer of 3 Words . Smith also told This Must Be Pop : " Taio felt the lyric was a bit cocky for him to carry off – I told him he sounded great on it . "
Speaking of the song 's lyrical background , Cruz told Pete Lewis of Blues & Soul :
" Its about breaking a girl 's heart , but in a way that 's kinda not on purpose . It 's more that I 'm just a single guy , trying to be single and trying to remain single . And sometimes , when you are in that place , you get girls who wanna be a part of what you 're about – but , because you 're not really ready for a relationship , those girls can end up being heartbroken . So what I 'm basically saying is ' I might just break your heart . But I 'm only gonna break your heart if you come through this way right now ' . "
Cruz also has called his song " catchy " with a " good melody " and " fun topic " , stating that " both girls and guys can get into this character " . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Cruz elaborated and said the song was partially based on a personal situation , and rather an " exaggeration of an experience " .
The success of the song in the United Kingdom attracted the attention of David Massey and Daniel Werner from Mercury / Island Def Jam who were excited and aggressive about releasing " Break Your Heart " in the United States on their label . According to Cruz 's manager Jamie Binns , the relationship with Monte Lipman at Universal Republic had " gone a bit quiet " by this point and as Taio wanted to be with the label that was most enthusiastic about his music , a move from Universal Republic to Mercury / Island Def Jam was engineered . Massey and Werner 's belief in the single 's potential within the United States and relentless promotional push they gave it helped the song reach the Billboard Hot 100 top spot .
= = = Ludacris remix = = =
In addition to re @-@ working his album for an American release , Cruz tapped American rapper Ludacris on a remix for the American version of " Break Your Heart " . According to Cruz 's manager Jamie Binns , Mercury Records president David Massey had suggested that to introduce Cruz to the American market , the single should feature an American rapper with chart credibility . Massey and Mercury A & R manager Daniel Werner engineered an introduction with Ludacris ' manager Jeff Dixon , who then played the song to Ludacris , who loved the track and within a week his contribution was complete .
On collaborating with Ludacris , Cruz said , " With Ludacris , pretty much every track he 's ever featured on sounds amazing . I gave him a quick call and asked him if he could get on the record , and he recorded it and sent it over . As I expected , there was nothing I needed to change . It sounded perfect . He put my name in there , which is great – so people know to pronounce it now properly , hopefully . " The version featuring Ludacris was originally released digitally as the b @-@ side to " No Other One " in November 2009 , before in the United States in February 2010 .
= = Composition = =
" Break Your Heart " is an electropop song featuring a " surging dance @-@ pop " sound , accompanied with Cruz 's Auto @-@ Tuned R & B vocals . It is written in the key of E ♭ major described as a " medium dance groove " , and Cruz 's vocals span from B ♭ 4 to B ♭ 5 . According to Jason Draper of Yahoo ! Music UK , the song is a mix of European and American urban music . It includes several tempo changes , which have been compared to that of Jay Sean 's " Down " . The song is filled with boasting lyrics about being a heartbreaker rather than being heartbroken .
= = Critical reception = =
Although BBC Music called the song a " cheese @-@ fest " , the reviewer said " in a weird way it 's kind of beautiful " , investing in the " Ibiza @-@ inspired R & B trend " . The review also compared the song to Dizzee Rascal and Cruz 's " layered vocals " and " slick production " to OneRepublic and Timbaland 's " Apologize " . Michael Menachem of Billboard said that the " stateside version " turns up the heat with Ludacris ' feature as " Cruz 's breezy vocals on this electro @-@ pop number have all the warmth of smooth R & B , while producer Fraser T Smith sets up the right ratio of catchy vocals and tempo changes to make a hit " . Ash Dosanjh of New Musical Express said that Cruz 's downfall was when he acts the player , as on " Break Your Heart " and " Dirty Picture " . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian said Cruz was " proficient but generic " in the song , but his " autotuned vocals could have been anyone 's , and this facelessness is a problem Cruz rarely surmounts . " Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy said that the song " perfectly embodies Cruz 's infectious , dancefloor @-@ friendly sound and sleek , immaculate production " , and compares it to Jason Derülo and Akon .
= = Chart performance = =
" Break Your Heart " debuted at number one in the United Kingdom becoming Cruz 's first song to reach the pole position in that territory . The song remained at the top of the chart for three weeks . The song also peaked at number one in Switzerland , and in the top ten in several other countries across Europe .
The song also charted at number two in Australia , while peaking at number one in the United States . With the jump from 53 to one on the Billboard Hot 100 , Cruz also set the record for largest jump to the top of the chart by a debut act . The record was previously held by American singer Kelly Clarkson , who jumped 52 to one with her American Idol coronation song , " A Moment Like This " , and who also holds the record for the biggest non @-@ debut jump on the chart , moving from 97 to one with " My Life Would Suck Without You " . It originally moved 31 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States for a partial sales week prompting its original Hot 100 entry , and shifted 273 @,@ 000 downloads in its first full week of availability , claiming the top debut on Hot Digital Songs . It also marked Ludacris ' fifth number one song .
The song eventually dominated American airplay also , peaking at number one on the Mainstream Top 40 chart . Cruz became the twelfth male artist to have his first solo single peak at the top of the chart , and was the third since October 2008 , following Jay Sean and Jason Derulo . By August 2012 , " Break Your Heart " had sold 3 @,@ 712 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States .
= = Music video = =
The original music video was filmed in Sotogrande , Spain in July 2009 , with new parts filmed in Miami , United States in February 2010 to include Ludacris , resulting in two versions of the video .
The video begins with Cruz and his girlfriend , played by Uzbekistan @-@ born supermodel Nadya Nepomnyashaya , sitting together in a sports car near a pier . She tells him " You know I 'm just gonna hurt you . " Cruz responds by saying " You know I 'm only gonna break your heart , right ? " She says " You want a bet ? " and he says " Bring It On . " They then exit the car , walk down the pier and enter a nearby speedboat . Scenes are then shown in several different venues , including a club , a boat , a beachfront party , the speedboat and a hotel room . Throughout the video , Cruz is on escapades with different women . The video ends with Cruz 's girlfriend laughing at his attempts to break her heart and then the two get off the boat they are on and go back onto the speedboat . For the version with Ludacris , there are scenes with him and Cruz in a white concrete backdrop with a flashing light , as well as the two of them together with a large group of people in another club .
When asked if an old school Diddy was an influence on the video , Cruz said " Probably on some kind of subconscious level . I just love supermodels , I love sunshine , and I love sports cars . And this time we also added a speedboat . So you got the four S 's in there . " In an interview with Rap @-@ Up , when talking about the video portraying him as a heartbreaker , Cruz said " No , not really . I suppose maybe 20 % . It was more of just playing a character and having fun , just going out there and making a real cool , fun , cocky video . Not everyone has seen the whole plot of the video , but it 's actually myself and my girlfriend both going out with the intention of breaking everyone 's hearts . "
= = Covers and other uses = =
" Weird Al " Yankovic included the chorus in his polka medley " Polka Face " from his 2011 album Alpocalypse . Violinist Lindsey Stirling used the song to perform to in America 's Got Talent
= = Track listing = =
German CD single
" Break Your Heart " ( featuring Ludacris ) – 3 : 05
" Break Your Heart " ( The Wideboys Remix Radio Edit ) – 3 : 46
UK CD single
" Break Your Heart " – 3 : 23
" Break Your Heart " ( Vito Benito FF Radio Remix ) – 3 : 22
" Break Your Heart " ( Paul Thomas Remix ) – 7 : 41
" Break Your Heart " ( Cassette Club Remix ) – 7 : 22
Digital download
" Break Your Heart " – 3 : 23
" Break Your Heart " ( Paul Thomas Remix ) – 7 : 41
Digital download – EP
" Break Your Heart " ( Vito Benito FF Radio Remix ) – 3 : 22
" Break Your Heart " ( Cassette Club Remix ) – 7 : 22
" Break Your Heart " ( Agent X Remix ) – 4 : 27
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Taio Cruz Fraser T Smith , Chris Bridges
Producing – Taio Cruz , Fraser T Smith
Engineering – Beatriz Artola
Mixing – Fraser T Smith
Mastering – Dick Beetham
Credits adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Max Pirkis =
Max Pirkis ( born 6 January 1989 ) is an English actor . Appearing in two productions during the mid @-@ 2000s , Pirkis made his film debut in Master and Commander : The Far Side of the World ( 2003 ) after the film crew recruited him at his school , Eton College . In a critically praised performance , he won the Evening Standard British Film Award for Most Promising Newcomer and the Young Artist Award for Best Young Actor in an International Film . Two years later , Pirkis was cast in the BBC / HBO television series Rome as Gaius Octavian , a role he held until 2007 .
= = Personal life = =
Pirkis was born in London on 6 January 1989 . His mother is a publisher , and he has a sister . After being educated at Eton College , Pirkis began attending St Catharine 's College , Cambridge , where he read Theology . There , he was captain of the college 's football team in 2009 .
= = Career = =
= = = Master and Commander = = =
Pirkis started his acting in school plays while attending Eton , though he never took them seriously . Although unsure what he wanted to do with his life , Pirkis was cast for his first professional role in 2003 , when he appeared in the successful film , Master and Commander : The Far Side of the World . The hire occurred after production staff visited Eton to hire boys for the ship 's teenage crew . Pirkis attended a workshop and auditions as " a joke " , ultimately securing the part of the 13 @-@ year @-@ old , eventually one @-@ armed midshipman Lord Blakeney of HMS Surprise . Director Peter Weir thought Pirkis " stood out very early on , but not to the extent that you see in the film . That was a complete surprise . " According to Pirkis , he was at first " nervous " about acting with Russell Crowe , but changed his mind when he realised that Crowe was " a pretty normal guy . "
One of four teenage actors chosen for the film , Pirkis began researching the history of the Royal Navy and the Napoleonic Wars to prepare himself for the role , before ultimately spending six months shooting the film . Weir soon discovered that Pirkis had " an old actor 's soul in his body , " and consequently gave him more acting challenges . Because his character loses an arm , Pirkis wore a prosthetic stump on set ; tucking his real arm to the side , he practised how to write and eat using only his left arm . Pirkis completed the amputation scene in two takes , thinking of the death of a family friend for inspiration .
Soon after being cast in Master and Commander , Pirkis was contracted to be represented by Hollywood talent agency ICM . The income he earned for the film was placed into a bank , making him wait until he turned eighteen . For his role , Pirkis received critical acclaim and won the Evening Standard British Film Award for Most Promising Newcomer and the Young Artist Award for Best International Performance by a Young Actor at the 25th Young Artist Awards . Pirkis was also nominated for Best Performance by a Youth in a Lead or Supporting Role – Male at the 4th Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards . Jeremiah Kipp of Slant Magazine praised Pirkis , writing that he " makes a winning impression as midshipman Lord Blakeney , a pugnacious one @-@ armed lad who imitates the masculine bravado of Crowe and the bookish reserve of Bettany . "
= = = Rome = = =
In 2005 , Pirkis made his television debut . Until 2007 , Pirkis played Gaius Octavian ( later to become Caesar Augustus ) in the BBC / HBO television series Rome . Many critics highlighted Pirkis and his character for praise . At the beginning of the first season , The Washington Post columnist Tom Shales remarked : " Played both knowingly and innocently by Max Pirkis , he gives the audience something it desperately needs ... a character to root for , or at least care about . " During the second series , Pirkis was replaced by Simon Woods in order for the show to depict an older version of the character .
= = Filmography = =
= Yasui v. United States =
Yasui v. United States , 320 U.S. 115 ( 1943 ) [ 1 ] was a United States Supreme Court case regarding the constitutionality of curfews used during World War II when they were applied to citizens of the United States . The case arose out of the implementation of Executive Order 9066 by the U.S. military to create zones of exclusion along the West Coast of the United States where Japanese @-@ Americans were subjected to curfews and eventual removal to relocation centers . This Presidential order followed the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 that brought America into World War II and inflamed the existing anti @-@ Japanese sentiment in the country .
In their decision , the Supreme Court held that the application of curfews against citizens is constitutional . As a companion case to Hirabayashi v. United States , both decided on June 21 , 1943 , the court affirmed the conviction of U.S.-born Minoru Yasui . The court remanded the case to the district court for sentencing as the lower court had determined the curfew was not valid against citizens , but Yasui had forfeited his citizenship by working for the Japanese consulate . The Yasui and Hirabayashi decisions , along with the later Ex parte Endo and Korematsu v. United States decisions , determined the legality of the curfews and relocations during the war . In the 1980s , new information was used to vacate the conviction of Yasui .
= = Background = =
On September 1 , 1939 , Germany invaded neighboring Poland , starting World War II . After two years of combat neutrality , the United States was drawn into the war as an active participant after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 . U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt responded to fears of a fifth column composed of Japanese @-@ Americans by issuing Executive Order 9066 on February 19 , 1942 . This executive order authorized the military to create zones of exclusion , which were then used to relocate predominantly those of Japanese heritage from the West Coast to internment camps inland . On March 23 , 1942 , General John L. DeWitt , commander of the Western Defense Command , set restrictions on aliens and Japanese @-@ Americans including a curfew from 8 : 00 pm to 6 : 00 am .
Minoru Yasui was born in 1916 in Hood River , Oregon , where he graduated from high school in 1933 . He then graduated from the University of Oregon in 1937 , and that college ’ s law school in 1939 . Yasui , U.S. Army reservist , then began working at the Japanese Consulate in Chicago , Illinois , in 1940 , remaining there until December 8 , 1941 , when he then resigned and returned to Hood River . On March 28 , 1942 , he deliberately broke the military implemented curfew in Portland , Oregon , by walking around the downtown area and then presenting himself at a police station after 11 : 00 pm in order to test the curfew ’ s constitutionality .
On June 12 , 1942 , Judge James Alger Fee of the United States District Court for the District of Oregon began presiding over the non @-@ jury trial of Yasui , the first case challenging the curfew to make it to court . The trial was held at the Federal Courthouse in Portland . Fee determined in his ruling issued on November 16 , 1942 , that the curfew could only apply to aliens , as martial law had not been imposed by the government . However , he also ruled that because Yasui had worked for the Japanese government he had forfeited his citizenship , so that the curfew did apply to him . Fee sentenced Yasui to one year in jail , which was served at the Multnomah County Jail , and $ 5 @,@ 000 fine . This federal court decision with constitutional and war power issues made news around the country .
Yasui then appealed his conviction to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit . After arguments in the case were filed , the court certified two question to the Supreme Court of the United States . The Supreme Court then ordered the entire case be decided by that court , removing the case from further consideration by the Ninth Circuit .
= = Decision = =
The Supreme Court heard arguments in the case on May 10 and May 11 , 1943 , with Charles Fahy arguing the case for the United States as Solicitor General . Min ’ s defense team included E. F. Bernard from Portland and A. L. Wirin from Los Angeles . On June 21 , 1943 , the court issued its decision in the case along with the Hirabayashi v. United States case .
Citing Hirabayashi , Chief Justice Stone wrote the opinion of the court , and determined that the curfew and exclusion orders were valid , even as applied to citizens of the United States . Stone ’ s opinion was three pages and did not contain any concurring opinions or dissents , while the Hirabayashi decision had thirty @-@ four pages and two concurring opinions . In Yasui the court affirmed his conviction of the misdemeanor , but ordered re @-@ sentencing since the lower court had determined that the curfew was not valid , and that Yasui had forfeited his citizenship . The Supreme Court remanded ( returned ) the case back to the district court to determine a sentence in light of these circumstances .
= = Aftermath = =
Once the case returned to Judge Fee , he revised his earlier opinion to strike out the ruling that Yasui was no longer a United States citizen . Fee also removed the fine and reduced the sentence to 15 days , with the time already served . Yasui was released and moved into the Japanese internment camps .
Korematsu v. United States was decided the next year and overshadowed both the Yasui and Hirabayashi cases . None of these cases have ever been overturned by the Supreme Court . The decisions were questioned by legal scholars even before the war had ended . Criticism has included the racist aspects of the cases and the later discovery that officials in the United States Department of Justice lied to the court at the time of the trial .
On February 1 , 1983 , Yasui petitioned the Oregon federal district court for a writ of error coram nobis due to the discovery of the falsehoods promulgated by the Department of Justice . This writ is only available to people who have already completed their imprisonment , and can only be used to challenge factual errors from the case . Yasui claimed in his writ that the government withheld evidence at the original trial concerning the threat of a Japanese attack on the United States mainland . The court dismissed the original indictment and conviction against Yasui , as well as the petition for the writ on request by the government . Yasui , then appealed the decision to dismiss the petition , but the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals dismissed the appeal on procedural grounds . However , the Ninth Circuit ultimately did vacate Hirabayashi 's conviction , thereby impliedly vindicating Yasui as well . In 2011 , the U.S. Solicitor General 's office publicly confessed the Justice Department 's 1943 ethical lapse in the Supreme Court . Minoru Yasui died on November 12 , 1986 .
Lawyers who represented Fred Korematsu , Gordon Hirabayashi , and Minoru Yasui in successful efforts in lower federal courts to nullify their convictions for violating military curfew and exclusion orders sent a letter dated January 13 , 2014 to Solicitor General Donald Verrilli Jr .. In light of the appeal proceedings before the U.S. Supreme in Hedges v. Obama , the lawyers asked Verrili to request the Supreme Court overrule its decisions in Korematsu ( 1943 ) , Hirabayashi ( 1943 ) and Yasui ( 1943 ) . If the Solicitor General should not make the request , the lawyers asked that the federal government to make clear the federal government " does not consider the internment decisions as valid precedent for governmental or military detention of individuals or groups without due process of law [ ... ] . "
= 2011 Giro d 'Italia =
The 2011 Giro d 'Italia was the 94th Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . The race started on 7 May with a team time trial in Turin to celebrate the 150th anniversary of Italian unification , when the city served as the first capital of the single state .
The route was one of the most difficult in the modern history of the race , with substantial criticism that it was simply too hard for a three @-@ week @-@ long race . Of the seven stages categorized as ' high mountain ' , six had summit arrivals , highlighted by the three stages before the second rest day ending at Grossglockner in Austria , the exceptionally steep Monte Zoncolan , and a tall and steep peak near the Fascia Valley in Gardeccia . There was also , for the fifth consecutive Giro , a climbing time trial , this one to the Nevegal . Of the race 's 18 mass @-@ start stages , only three ended with the majority of the field together at the front of the race .
In the third stage , Leopard Trek rider Wouter Weylandt crashed coming down the Passo del Bocco , near the town of Mezzanego , suffering catastrophic injury . Despite substantial resuscitation efforts , he was established to have died on the spot . The fourth stage was not competitively raced ; instead , it was run as a cycling procession . On the second rest day , Xavier Tondó , a member of Movistar Team , was killed in an accident at his home . Although he was not a participant , his death caused his teammates and other members of the peloton to pay tribute to him in the subsequent stages .
Strong overall favorite Alberto Contador was the race 's original winner , in what constituted his second Giro championship . His winning margin ahead of second @-@ placed Michele Scarponi was over six minutes . He also won the points competition as the most consistent high finisher , also with a substantial lead over Scarponi in second place , and Vincenzo Nibali completed the podium . In the other sub @-@ classifications , Stefano Garzelli won the mountains competition and Roman Kreuziger finished as the best rider aged 25 or under in the general classification ; he finished the race fifth overall .
In February 2012 , the Court of Arbitration for Sport decided that Contador , following his positive test for clenbuterol at the 2010 Tour de France , lost his results since that event . He was therefore stripped of the 2011 Giro title , and Scarponi became the new victor of the race , and the winner of the points classification .
= = Teams = =
All 18 UCI ProTeams were invited automatically and obligated to attend . Two UCI Professional Continental teams were announced well ahead of time , Androni Giocattoli and Farnese Vini – Neri Sottoli . UCI rules normally limit races to a peloton of 200 riders , but the Giro received special dispensation for a 207 @-@ rider peloton , allowing a 23rd team . The three additional invited teams were Acqua & Sapone , Colnago – CSF Inox , and Geox – TMC . Despite talk that ProTeam Vacansoleil – DCM might be excluded due to the doping scandals involving team members Riccardo Riccò and Ezequiel Mosquera , they were included pursuant to UCI rules .
The full list of participating teams is :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
While the Giro had in its peloton many notable riders , including six former Grand Tour winners , the odds @-@ on favorite was always Saxo Bank – SunGard 's Alberto Contador . The 2008 Giro champion , who had likewise won the 2008 Vuelta a España and three editions of the Tour de France , announced in April 2010 that he would contest the Giro in 2011 . Though his status was put in doubt after a positive test for clenbuterol at the 2010 Tour de France , he was cleared by his national federation in February 2011 and able to return to racing , though the case still pended a final appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport later in 2011 . Contador was the overwhelming favorite for overall victory . Reigning Giro champion Ivan Basso chose not to return , preferring to focus on the Tour de France later in the season . He briefly considered riding as a domestique for Vincenzo Nibali , but opted against it because of his physical condition at the time and the feeling that doing so would be disrespectful to the race . The 2011 Giro was thus the third successive edition , and fourth in the last five , in which the reigning champion did not return to defend his championship .
The other five former Grand Tour winners in the field were Stefano Garzelli , Danilo Di Luca , Denis Menchov , Carlos Sastre , and Vincenzo Nibali . Of the five , only Menchov and Nibali were considered realistic overall contenders . Other riders named as contenders included Roman Kreuziger , riding as the leader of the Astana team and a protected rider in a Grand Tour for the first time in his career , 2010 Giro d 'Italia runner @-@ up David Arroyo , Lampre – ISD captain and 2010 Giro fourth @-@ place finisher Michele Scarponi , and Joaquim Rodríguez . Riders further noted as darkhorses included Sastre , Contador 's teammate and main support rider Richie Porte , Di Luca , Euskaltel – Euskadi 's Igor Antón , Garzelli , Domenico Pozzovivo , Italian national champion Giovanni Visconti , and Team RadioShack 's dual leaders Tiago Machado and Yaroslav Popovych . Visconti was given the irregular race number of 150 , wearing it as the Italian national champion to commemorate 150 years of Italian unification . While squads are normally given numbers from the same group of ten , such as 151 through 159 , numbers ending in zero are seldom issued . Visconti 's Farnese Vini – Neri Sottoli squad wore numbers 150 through 158 .
The ongoing Mantova doping investigation , involving members of the Lampre – NGC team , as it was known in 2009 , had an effect on the race . It greatly affected the Lampre – ISD team itself , as their manager Giuseppe Saronni was implicated in the investigation and stepped down as team manager shortly before the Giro began . He was replaced by former Omega Pharma – Lotto sporting director Roberto Damiani . Their contingent for the Giro specifically excluded any riders or staff implicated in the investigation . The foremost of these riders was former Giro winner Damiano Cunego , though Damiani felt he would eventually be cleared of any wrongdoing . While the BMC Racing Team was unlikely to field an overall favorite , given that their top man Cadel Evans chose to focus on the Tour de France , they were also affected by the investigation , for the second year in a row . Just as they had before the 2010 Giro , the team suspended Alessandro Ballan and Mauro Santambrogio , members of the Lampre – NGC team in 2009 who were named in the investigation . As with 2010 , the team reactivated the two riders after the Giro ended .
The near total dearth of flat , sprinter @-@ friendly stages did not stop sprinters Mark Cavendish , Tyler Farrar , and Alessandro Petacchi , from all taking the start . One sprinter who was expected to take part in the race , Farnese Vini – Neri Sottoli 's Andrea Guardini , was not part of the start list . Though his sporting director at the Presidential Cycling Tour of Turkey had promised him a place in the Giro should he win two stages at that event ( Guardini did indeed win two stages in Turkey ) , the team believed he would be better served continuing to take part in somewhat smaller races . Other sprinters in the Giro peloton mainly came from much smaller teams and teams with little overall ambition . Quick @-@ Step and Team RadioShack sent two sprinters apiece — Gerald Ciolek and Francesco Chicchi for the Belgian team and Robbie Hunter and Robbie McEwen on the American squad . Giro debutants Vacansoleil – DCM had among their squad Slovenian sprinter Borut Božič . Movistar Team 's sprinter was Francisco Ventoso , one of the season 's most prolific winners to date . The small Androni Giocattoli and Colnago – CSF Inox also sent sprinters , Roberto Ferrari and 2010 Giro stage winner Manuel Belletti , respectively . The Leopard Trek team had intended to send Daniele Bennati , a former winner of the points classification in the Giro d 'Italia who had had great success at the recently run Circuit de la Sarthe . After a crash at the Tour de Romandie where he sustained multiple fractures and a lung contusion , he was forced out of the Giro . That squad therefore turned their sprinting hopes to the rider originally set to be Bennati 's leadout man , Belgian sprinter Wouter Weylandt .
= = Route and stages = =
The route for the 2011 Giro was unveiled in Turin on 23 October 2010 . It was immediately recognized as being quite difficult , featuring 40 categorized climbs among its 18 mass @-@ start stages , seven of them summit finishes . Seventeen of the 20 regions of Italy were visited in the race , as the 2011 race commemorated the 150th anniversary of the unification of Italy . Attention was immediately drawn to the three stages preceding the second rest day , stages 13 , 14 , and 15 , each of which featured summit finishes and multiple high @-@ rated climbs , among them the Grossglockner , Monte Zoncolan , and the Passo Giau , this Giro 's Cima Coppi , its tallest climb . The route as it was originally announced was 3 @,@ 496 km ( 2 @,@ 172 mi ) in length , just 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) shy of the maximum length allowed under UCI regulations . The first summit finish was Mount Etna , which the peloton was faced with twice in stage 9 . The final major climb was the Colle delle Finestre , which made its return after last featuring in the 2005 Giro d 'Italia . While there were five stages classified as flat , and Italian sprinter Alessandro Petacchi claimed he saw as many as seven potential sprint finishes , consensus was overwhelming that the majority of the route favored the strongest of the climbers at the expense of other riders .
While the route did get some positive critiques , there was also critical opinion that it was simply too difficult . This was particularly in comparison with the similarly difficult , yet not as difficult , route for the 2011 Tour de France revealed days earlier . Team Sky sporting director Sean Yates called the route " brutal " and said that serious Tour de France contenders would not bother coming to the race since it was so difficult . This was seen as an early indication that his team 's leader Bradley Wiggins would skip the Giro . Additional critical analysis concurred that the route was excessively difficult , for its incredible amount of vertical climbing ( 409 km ( 254 mi ) in the route as originally announced ) , number of summit finishes and long transfers , and the unpaved or ' white roads ' which featured in stages 5 and 20 . Race director Angelo Zomegnan balked at the criticisms , saying simply " It 's a hard Giro but the Giro has to be hard . "
Two stages in the second half of the Giro had their courses altered shortly before they were run . The more notable was stage 14 , which had been hyped as the début of the Monte Crostis in the Giro d 'Italia . Commissaires from the UCI mandated it be removed the night before stage 14 was run . The Crostis is not a well @-@ maintained pass , and Giro officials had set out a detailed protocol whereby team cars would not follow the race up or down the mountain , and only motorbikes offering wheel changes would be present with the riders . Team managers expressed concern that they would not fully be able to fulfill their duties if not present with the riders like normal , and this was given as the basis of the UCI 's decision . They held that Giro organizers had sufficiently ensured rider safety on the course , but the necessary protocols did not protect the sporting aspect of the race . Thus , the Crostis was eliminated , and the stage was reduced in length from its originally planned length of 210 km ( 130 mi ) . The second @-@ category Tualis climb was added to the route for the day to offset the loss of the Crostis . However , protests from spectators disappointed by the removal of the Crostis part of the route , including many who had volunteered for works to make parts of that road safe , led to the cancellation of the Tualis climb . The route was diverted while the stage was in progress to avoid a small village at the foot of the Tualis where protesters had gathered . Therefore , the exact distance of this stage , and likewise of the entire Giro , is unknown . The Giro 's last stage , an individual time trial in Milan , was also shortened . The course was shortened by 5 @.@ 5 km ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) four days before the stage took place , due to a special election taking place in Milan the same day as the stage . City officials expected high voter turnout and did not want the city center tied up by the race all day , so the revised route began at the outskirts of Milan instead of its center . It still ended , per its original design , at the Duomo di Milano .
In spite of first @-@ hand criticism from riders following the race that the route was excessively difficult and dangerous , Zomegnan remained staunch in his defense of the route .
= = Race overview = =
The Giro began with a team time trial in the city that served as Italy 's first federal capital , Turin . The HTC – Highroad squad won this stage , making their rider Marco Pinotti the first wearer of the race leader 's pink jersey . That team 's focus the next day was not to defend Pinotti 's race lead , but to try to deliver their star sprinter Mark Cavendish to the victory , which would have the indirect effect of him overtaking Pinotti for the pink jersey . Cavendish indeed became the new race leader , but after an awkward final sprint it was not he but Italian Alessandro Petacchi who won the day . David Millar then became the third race leader in as many days when he finished with a breakaway group that was 21 seconds the better of the main field in stage 3 , though this result was overshadowed by the death of Wouter Weylandt earlier in the stage .
The peloton chose not to run stage four competitively following Weylandt 's death ; instead the stage was ridden as a procession in his memory . The remaining members of his team Leopard Trek , as well as training partner Tyler Farrar from the Garmin – Cervélo squad , crossed the finish line first with their arms around one another before withdrawing from the race that evening . Stage 5 was held on the dirt roads of Tuscany , which had provided for one of the more spectacular stages in the 2010 Giro d 'Italia . Dutch rider Pieter Weening won the stage with an 8 @-@ second time gap against the field . That , coupled with the 20 @-@ second time bonus for winning the day , gave him the pink jersey . There was some stability in the overall standings at this point , as the race 's top riders finished together , or nearly so , in the next three stages .
Stage 9 was the first major mountain stage , featuring two ascents of Mount Etna , including a summit finish . It was on this day that strong overall favorite Alberto Contador first seized control of the race . Just after Androni Giocattoli 's José Rujano attacked out of the leading group on the road on the way up to Etna for the last time , Contador did likewise . Rujano struggled mightily to hold Contador 's wheel and no one else came close to reaching the pair . Contador won the stage , his first Giro stage win despite having won the Italian Grand Tour in 2008 , and immediately attained a minute 's advantage in the overall classification . In his five previous Grand Tour wins , Contador had never lost the race lead after taking it , but he had also never taken it so early on in the race . As teams who have riders with a legitimate chance to win a race overall will generally try to avoid defending the lead for too many days , lest they tire their support riders out early and leave their leader vulnerable , there was speculation that Contador would tactically relinquish the jersey . The Spaniard himself hinted that such a move would be in his plans . This would be likeliest to happen in the heavily undulating stage 11 . The breakaway group for this stage was hard @-@ fought and late @-@ forming , since someone from its number could potentially become the new race leader . While Garmin – Cervélo 's Christophe Le Mével , who entered the day third overall and had on two other occasions come within a time bonus of claiming the jersey , made the group , neither he nor anyone in it was destined to take pink . Largely under the impetus of Michele Scarponi 's Lampre – ISD team , the breakaway group was caught before the finish . Contador and the rest of the overall favorites finished at the front of the race , with riders well down in the standings claiming the time bonuses , meaning Contador retained the race leadership after all .
Contador took the most time against the main field out of any day in stage 13 . On this day , which ended at the Grossglockner in Austria , he and Rujano again finished well ahead of the main field . As they approached the finish line , Contador did not attempt to sprint for the win , allowing Rujano to take it . Their minute and a half time gap , plus the time bonus for second place , gave Contador a lead of over three minutes in the overall standings . Only in the 2009 Tour de France had he ever held a larger lead . The next two days were extremely difficult high mountain stages , both won by members of the Euskaltel – Euskadi team . Contador finished the best of any rider in the top five overall on both days , and so further padded his advantage . Wearing a black armband to memorialize fellow Spanish cyclist Xavier Tondó who , though not a participant in the race , died while it was run , Contador dominantly won the stage 16 uphill individual time trial . This result put him nearly five minutes clear of the next @-@ best rider , the largest such advantage he had ever held in any race . In stage 19 , Contador again finished with another rider ahead of the main field . This time it was Astana 's Paolo Tiralongo , a former teammate of Contador 's . Just as he had with Rujano earlier , Contador appeared to allow his companion a stage win he could have easily taken himself . Contador later commented that the victory , the first of Tiralongo 's 12 @-@ year career , was meant as a gesture of thanks to the Italian for all the support riding he did for him in 2010 when the two were on the same squad . Although Contador claimed that he was not going to give his strongest effort in the stage 21 individual time trial , the Giro 's final stage , his ride was still good enough for third place , extending his winning margin to over six minutes , giving him his sixth and statistically most dominant Grand Tour championship . Contador 's two stage wins and numerous top five placings also made him the winner of the points competition , by a substantial margin . Michele Scarponi and Vincenzo Nibali completed the podium , in that order , having targeted one another once it became obvious that Contador 's advantage was insurmountable . Nibali held second place on stages 13 and 14 , but Scarponi overtook him on Gardeccia , finishing a minute and a half better ( only six seconds the lesser of Contador ) , and never relinquished second place . Stefano Garzelli was in the breakaway on the Gardeccia stage and took maximum points on three of the day 's five climbs , and second place points on the other two . It was largely thanks to this performance that he won the mountains classification at the end of the race . Roman Kreuziger , still eligible by a matter of months , won the youth competition with his ride to sixth place overall .
On the whole , success proved to be fairly widespread . As did Contador , Cavendish won two stages , stages 10 and 12 , but prior to Cavendish 's second victory no team , let alone individual rider , had won two individual stages . Four other teams – Androni Giocattoli , Euskaltel – Euskadi , Lampre – ISD , and Movistar Team – eventually repeated as stage winners . Androni Giocattoli won the ill @-@ fated stage 3 with Ángel Vicioso and later stage 13 with Rujano . Euskaltel – Euskadi 's wins came on the two most difficult stages in the race , the back @-@ to @-@ back high mountain stages that preceded the second rest day . Their leader Igor Antón won the controversy @-@ laden day ending at Monte Zoncolan , when the Monte Crostis climb was removed from the route . The next day , Mikel Nieve won the stage that Contador described as the hardest of his life , a seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour day with five high climbs ending at Gardeccia . Following Petacchi 's win in the contentious sprint that finished the first road stage , the Lampre – ISD team took another stage win with young Diego Ulissi in stage 17 , after another contentious sprint in which Italian national champion Giovanni Visconti actually crossed the line first but was relegated to third for shoving Ulissi . The Movistar Team had winners in stage 6 with Francisco Ventoso on an uphill sprint and in the Giro 's last road race stage with Vasil Kiryienka in a solo breakaway that finished almost five minutes better than the rest of the field . Rabobank , Omega Pharma – Lotto , Farnese Vini – Neri Sottoli , Ag2r – La Mondiale , Liquigas – Cannondale , Astana , and Garmin – Cervélo each won a single stage . With Acqua & Sapone 's Garzelli claiming the mountains classification and Yaroslav Popovych from Team RadioShack the Trofeo Fuga Pinarello , 15 of the 22 teams that completed the race came away with some sort of victory .
Much like had occurred at the final podium celebrations for the 2009 Tour de France , the wrong national anthem was played for Contador . Race organizers mistakenly played an old Spanish anthem with lyrics favored by former Spanish dictator Francisco Franco . The Spanish national anthem as it should have been played would have been purely instrumental .
= = = Death of Wouter Weylandt = = =
During the descent of the Passo del Bocco in stage 3 , Leopard Trek rider Wouter Weylandt crashed and suffered catastrophic injury . Race doctor Giovanni Tredici , and the doctor for the Garmin – Cervélo team were in cars very near Weylandt 's group on the road , and administered cardiopulmonary resuscitation for approximately 40 minutes . Doctors also gave Weylandt adrenaline and atropine to try to restart his heart , though Tredici stated that resuscitation efforts were rather clearly in vain , and that Weylandt was already dead by the time they got to him . Doctors were never able to revive Weylandt , and he was declared dead on the spot . A short time later , Weylandt 's body was airlifted off the descent and taken to a nearby hospital , where the pathologist conducting the autopsy concluded that the Belgian had died immediately upon crashing . Weylandt 's death was the first at the Giro in 25 years , and the first at one of cycling 's Grand Tours since Fabio Casartelli died during the 1995 Tour de France .
Manuel Antonio Cardoso of Team RadioShack had been nearest to Weylandt when he crashed , and stated that Weylandt had touched a small retaining wall on the left side of the road with either his pedal or his handlebars , and was then catapulted across the road to the other side , where he again collided with something . He had looked behind him to ascertain his exact position in the race when he clipped the wall . Teammate Tom Stamsnijder also witnessed the accident , saying " it was a very hard fall . " Italian police , conducting an inquest into Weylandt 's death , also took an official statement from the Portuguese rider at Team RadioShack 's hotel . A memorial was placed at the crash site , where Weylandt 's pregnant girlfriend and his mother , along with cyclists , passersby and residents of nearby villages , placed flowers . The Leopard Trek team remained in the race for another day at the encouragement of Weylandt 's family . David Millar , who had taken the race lead that same day , spent the evening discussing with members of Leopard Trek , Weylandt 's best friend Tyler Farrar , and his girlfriend and mother how best to pay tribute to the fallen rider .
Race director Angelo Zomegnan said in a post @-@ stage press conference that race officials would respect whatever decision the peloton made regarding the next day 's stage . As usually occurs when a rider dies in the midst of a multi @-@ day cycling event , the next day was not competitively raced . Instead , the stage was preceded by a minute 's silence , and ridden as a procession in Weylandt 's memory . Each of the 23 teams took to the front of the peloton for about 15 minutes , and members of Leopard Trek , along with Farrar , were allowed to finish first with their arms around each other . Millar led the rest of the field across the line a few seconds later . No results for the stage were recorded , and it did not count towards the general classification or any of the points competitions . After the stage , instead of any podium presentations , the four jersey classification leaders ( Millar , Alessandro Petacchi , Gianluca Brambilla , and Jan Bakelants ) appeared on stage with the Leopard Trek team to lead another moment of silence . Subsequently , Farrar and the remaining Leopard Trek squad all decided to leave the race . Farrar later revealed that his inclusion with the Leopard Trek squad in the final moments of the neutralized stage was a decision made solely on their part , one for which he felt extremely grateful .
A moment of silence was also held for Weylandt before stage 11 , as his funeral took place the same day . Pieter Weening also gave the first pink jersey to be presented to him on the podium to Weylandt 's surviving family , and stage 11 winner John Gadret stated that he had had Weylandt in his thoughts as he crossed the line and dedicated his win to him , even though the two were not well acquainted .
= = = Death of Xavier Tondó = = =
On 23 May , during the second rest day of the Giro , Xavier Tondó , the reigning Vuelta a Castilla y León champion and one of the leaders on the season for the Movistar Team , was killed in a freak accident at home while preparing to train with teammates . He was reportedly crushed between his car and a garage door .
Despite not taking part in this edition of the Giro , Tondó had taken part in the 2010 edition and was a popular , well @-@ liked rider . Race leader and eventual winner Alberto Contador , along with many others , rode the stage 16 individual time trial with black armbands . The stage was preceded by a minute of silence . Tondó 's teammate Branislau Samoilau posted a time that was provisionally best much of the day and was visibly overcome with emotion when interviewed by assembled media after his ride . Contador , who won the time trial , dedicated the victory to Tondó , as the two were acquainted despite never having been teammates .
Five days later , teammate and close friend Vasil Kiryienka rode to victory in a solo effort , and he too dedicated the stage victory to Tondó , pointing skyward as he crossed the finish line . The team had met to consider withdrawing from the race after Tondó 's death , but instead the riders unanimously voted to ride on . Kiryienka commented that the squad at the Giro hoped to get a further stage win ( as Francisco Ventoso 's win had come before Tondó 's death ) to honor him , while other members of the team grieved with Tondó 's family . In the final days of the race , many fans wrote signs memorializing Tondó as they had with Weylandt earlier on .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Immediately after Weylandt 's death , Giro officials announced that they would not issue his dossard number 108 in future editions of the race . His number was a prominent part of signs held by fans on the roadside at not just the Giro but other events later in the season as well , including the Tour of California where his death was part of the reason the first stage of that race was canceled due to safety concerns . Many other races , mostly those held in Weylandt 's native Belgium , also began the practice of not issuing the number . The Belgian federation criticized this gesture , saying it would not bring Weylandt back and would only serve to continually remind fans and those in the sport of Weylandt 's death . They issued the number for the Belgian national road race championships .
About a month after the race concluded , reports began surfacing which stated that Giro director Angelo Zomegnan was going to be ousted from that position . Though praised for his delicate handling of Weylandt 's death , Zomegnan 's handling of the teams ' protest of and eventual removal of the Monte Crostis from the Giro race route was seen much less approvingly . A further month later , RCS Sport , owners of the race , confirmed that Zomegnan had been removed from his largely autocratic position as race director . He was replaced by RCS general director Michele Acquarone and Mauro Vegni , along with a team of former professional riders . Zomegnan remains as an RCS consultant and director of the 2013 UCI Road World Championships in Florence . Zomegnan had held the position since 2004 , beginning with the 2005 Giro d 'Italia .
Along with the new organizational team came a certain measure of fan involvement in the direction of the 2012 Giro d 'Italia . Fans of the race were able to vote on its official Facebook page for two climbs , from an initial pool of 64 , to appear in the race . After several rounds of voting , the Passo dello Stelvio and the Passo del Mortirolo were chosen . They were later announced to be part of the same stage for the 2012 Giro . Fans were also given the opportunity to choose from among three prototypes for the design of the pink jersey in the 2012 Giro . Fans could also participate in a promotion called " Tweet Your Maglia Rosa " where they would submit 140 @-@ character or fewer Twitter messages describing what the pink jersey means to them . They were set to be printed on the jersey along with tweets from Ivan Basso , Cadel Evans , Alberto Contador , and Vincenzo Nibali , in the respective riders ' native languages . Ten tweets – six to be printed in Italian , two in English , and one each in Spanish and French – were eventually chosen by fan voting .
= = Contador 's results stripped = =
Alberto Contador rode the Giro with full knowledge that he was to answer to the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) regarding his positive test for clenbuterol at the 2010 Tour de France , since his national federation cleared him of doping charges but both the UCI and the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( WADA ) chose to appeal the ruling . He rode and won with the most dominant Grand Tour performance of his career , and later rode a relatively normal and full 2011 season as his CAS date was continually pushed back . It was originally scheduled for June , to occur soon enough to decide conclusively his status prior to the 2011 Tour de France , but it was instead pushed back to August and then again to November .
The hearing was at last held in November , with a verdict expected in January 2012 . This , however , was also subject to a delay . Finally , on 6 February 2012 , the court spoke , overturning the Spanish federation 's decision to clear Contador and assessing the rider a backdated two @-@ year ban , from the date of his adverse test at the 2010 Tour de France . The backdated ban meant any results obtained from the time of that test to the time the court announced its verdict were to be vacated and awarded in turn to previously second @-@ placed riders . This effectively made Michele Scarponi the new Giro champion and points winner , and it made José Rujano and Vincenzo Nibali into stage winners in this Giro . The decision was reminiscent of that handed down in the Alessandro Petacchi case from the 2007 Giro d 'Italia . The court 's ruling opinion was that the minute amount of clenbuterol found was probably not caused by a doping regimen , but that strict liability rules meant that Contador had nonetheless violated WADA 's World Anti @-@ Doping Code . The court held that the adverse finding itself was never in doubt , but merely how the substance had entered the athlete 's body . This was not a matter under which they could exonerate him .
Reaction to the decision , and to the protracted nature of the case itself , was widespread and negative . Five @-@ time Giro winner Eddy Merckx expressed surprise at the result and disappointment that it could further sully the sport 's image , saying " It 's like someone wants to kill cycling . " Since @-@ ousted race director Angelo Zomegnan called the decision to strip the Giro championship " nonsense , " noting that Contador was permitted to ride at the time and there were no irregularities of any kind during the race . His successor Michele Acquarone was also upset by the decision , believing that damage had been done to the Giro and noting that RCS Sport would need to commission a new trophy to award to Scarponi .
Scarponi , as well as John Gadret , the rider elevated onto the podium now in third place overall , both expressed sympathy for Contador and the feeling that being awarded these prestigious results in a court of law nearly a year after the race concluded kept them from feeling as good as they would were they attained on the road . Both Scarponi 's overall championship and Gadret 's podium finish constituted the first such results for either of them in a Grand Tour . Gadret , who had supported Contador 's presence in the Giro peloton when the race began , reconsidered his position in hindsight , saying the Spaniard 's attendance irrevocably changed the race . Further reactions from other personalities within the sport toward the ruling and the case itself were near universally negative . WADA celebrated the decision , calling the court " robust and thorough " in its jurisprudence of the World @-@ Anti Doping Code .
= = Classification leadership = =
In the 2011 Giro d 'Italia , four different jerseys were awarded . For the general classification , calculated by adding each cyclist 's finishing times on each stage , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages , the leader received a pink jersey . This classification was considered the most important of the Giro d 'Italia , and the winner was considered the winner of the Giro .
Additionally , there was a points classification , which awarded a red jersey . In the points classification , cyclists got points for finishing in the top 15 in a stage . Unlike in the better known points classification in the Tour de France , the type of stage had no effect on what points were on offer – each stage had the same points available on the same scale . The win earned 25 points , second place earned 20 points , third 16 , fourth 14 , fifth 12 , sixth 10 , and one point fewer per place down to a single point for 15th . In addition , points could be won in intermediate sprints .
There was also a mountains classification , the leadership of which was marked by a green jersey . In the mountains classifications , points were won by reaching the top of a climb before other cyclists . Each climb was categorized as either first , second , third , or fourth @-@ category , with more points available for the higher @-@ categorized climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded still more points than the other first @-@ category climbs .
The fourth jersey represented the young rider classification , marked by a white jersey . This was decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1986 were eligible .
There were also three classifications for teams . In the Trofeo Fast Team classification , the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added ; the leading team was the team with the lowest total time ; the Trofeo Super Team was a team points classification , with the top 20 placed riders on each stage earning points ( 20 for first place , 19 for second place and so on , down to a single point for 20th ) for their team ; and the Fair Play classification rewarded those teams that best avoided penalty points for minor technical infringements .
The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run , and shows to whom each jersey would have been awarded each day had Alberto Contador been removed from the standings as the race was ongoing .
= = Final standings = =
= = = Minor classifications = = =
Other less well @-@ known classifications , whose leaders did not receive a special jersey , were awarded during the Giro . These awards were based on points earned throughout the three weeks of the tour . Each mass @-@ start stage had one intermediate sprint , the Traguardo Volante , or T.V. The T.V. gave bonus seconds towards the general classification , points towards the regular points classification , and also points towards the T.V. classification . This award was known by various names in previous years , and was previously time @-@ based . It was won by Jan Bakelants of the Omega Pharma – Lotto team .
Other awards included the Combativity classification , which was a compilation of points gained for position on crossing intermediate sprints , mountain passes and stage finishes . Original general classification winner Alberto Contador won this award at the race 's conclusion ; upon his disqualification it passed to mountains category winner Stefano Garzelli . The Azzurri d 'Italia classification was based on finishing order , but points were awarded only to the top three finishers in each stage . It was originally won , like the closely associated points classification , by Contador , and passed to José Rujano when the Spaniard 's results were stripped . Additionally , the Trofeo Fuga Pinarello rewarded riders who took part in a breakaway at the head of the field , each rider in an escape of ten or fewer riders getting one point for each kilometre that the group stayed clear . Team RadioShack 's Yaroslav Popovych was first in this competition . Teams were given penalty points for minor technical infringements . Six different teams – Liquigas – Cannondale , Androni Giocattoli , HTC – Highroad , Quick @-@ Step , BMC Racing Team , and Colnago – CSF Inox – avoided incurring penalties over the course of the race , and so shared in winning the Fair Play classification .
= = = World Rankings points = = =
The Giro was one of 27 events throughout the season that contributed points towards the 2011 UCI World Tour . Points were awarded to the top 20 finishers overall , and to the top five finishers in each stage . In early 2012 , the points earned by Contador for overall placing were redistributed , and those gained for stage finishes were removed . Riders from non @-@ World Tour teams , who were not initially allocated points , received them . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
= 2008 American League Central tie @-@ breaker game =
The 2008 American League Central tie @-@ breaker game was a one @-@ game extension to Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 2008 regular season , played between the Chicago White Sox and Minnesota Twins to determine the champion of the American League 's ( AL ) Central Division . It was played at US Cellular Field in Chicago , Illinois , on September 30 , 2008 . The White Sox won the game , 1 – 0 , on a home run by Jim Thome , the lowest @-@ scoring game in MLB tie @-@ breaker history . The Sox advanced to the 2008 AL Division Series , where they lost to the Tampa Bay Rays , three games to one ; the Twins failed to qualify for the postseason .
The game was necessary after both teams finished the season with identical win – loss records of 88 – 74 . The White Sox won a coin flip late in the season which , by rule , awarded them home field in the game . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker counted as the 163rd regular season game by both teams , with all events in the game added to regular season statistics .
= = Background = =
Prior to the start of the season , the Detroit Tigers and Cleveland Indians , the division 's top two finishers in the previous season , were predicted to be the strongest teams by journalists such as Tom Verducci of ESPN and Joe Sheehan of Baseball Prospectus . However , the Indians lineup was weakened by injuries and spent just 13 days of the season in the division lead , last on May 17 . The Tigers never led the AL Central and finished the season in last place , 14 games back .
The White Sox led for most of the season starting with a tie for first on May 17 , held at least a share of the lead for 154 days , and never dropped more than a game behind the leader . The Twins spent much of the season in second place behind the White Sox , along with 54 days in the lead . Despite going 11 – 15 in September , the Twins took a half @-@ game lead with an extra innings win over the White Sox on September 25 that capped a three @-@ game sweep of Chicago . The Twins maintained that lead through their final game , forcing Chicago to play a make @-@ up on September 29 against the Tigers which had been rained out earlier that month . The White Sox won , 8 – 2 , leaving the Sox and Twins tied atop the AL Central with 88 – 74 records , forcing a tie @-@ breaker to decide the division . Tickets for the tie @-@ breaker sold out within an hour of the end of the September 29 game .
The White Sox won the right to play at U.S. Cellular Field , their home field , as a result of a coin flip earlier in September . Fans were encouraged to wear all @-@ black clothing to show support for the White Sox . The game was broadcast on TBS . The White Sox used John Danks on three days rest as their starter , and the Twins started Nick Blackburn .
= = Game summary = =
Box score for " Blackout Day " on Tuesday September 30 , 2008 — 6 : 37 p.m. ( CT ) at US Cellular Field in Chicago , Illinois
Both Blackburn and Danks held the game scoreless early on , allowing only six baserunners through the first four innings of the game . The Twins ' Michael Cuddyer led off the top of the fifth with a double , the only Twins runner in scoring position for the entire game . Danks induced a deep flyball out from Delmon Young , which allowed Cuddyer to advance to third . Brendan Harris hit a deep flyball to center field which was caught for an out by Ken Griffey , Jr . Cuddyer tried to score on the ball as a sacrifice fly , but Griffey delivered an accurate throw to home plate and White Sox catcher A. J. Pierzynski blocked the plate and tagged out Cuddyer to end the inning . This play drew praise after the game as a " nice throw " and a " defensive gem " .
The only run of the game scored when White Sox designated hitter Jim Thome led off the bottom of the seventh inning with a solo home run . Blackburn got Paul Konerko to ground out , but allowed a double to Griffey and , following an intentional walk to Alexei Ramírez , José Mijares relieved him . John Danks lasted through eight innings without allowing a run and was relieved by closer Bobby Jenks in the ninth . Jenks recorded three outs , securing the White Sox ' 1 – 0 victory with his 30th save of the season . Twins batters Joe Mauer , Justin Morneau , and Cuddyer had a combined 22 hits in 40 at @-@ bats ( .550 batting average ) against Danks for their careers but in the tie @-@ breaker they combined to go 1 – for @-@ 9 ( .111 ) with 3 strikeouts . This game saw the lowest combined score of any tie @-@ breaker game in MLB history , three runs lower than the 3 – 1 score of the first game of the 1951 National League tie @-@ breaker series .
= = Aftermath = =
With the victory , the White Sox earned their first playoff berth since their win in the 2005 World Series . However , they lost to the eventual pennant @-@ winning Tampa Bay Rays , three games to one . Statistically , the game counted as the 163rd regular season game . Thome 's home run , for example , was his 34th of the season . This total brought him a tie for fourth most in the league . Danks lowered his earned run average from 3 @.@ 47 to 3 @.@ 32 in the game , which moved him from a tie for tenth @-@ best in the league with Zack Greinke to fifth place . Mauer , Morneau , and White Sox outfielder Carlos Quentin won Silver Slugger Awards for their offensive performances in the 2008 regular season . Mauer also won a Rawlings Gold Glove Award that year . This was the last tie @-@ breaker with home field determined by a coin flip . Following the 2008 season MLB amended their rules , leaving future tie @-@ breaker sites to be determined on a series of performance @-@ based criteria beginning with the head @-@ to @-@ head record between the teams .
= U.S. Route 1 Business ( Trenton , New Jersey ) =
U.S. Route 1 Business ( US 1 Bus . ) is a four @-@ lane surface road that provides an alternate route to the Trenton Freeway ( US 1 ) northeast of Trenton in Mercer County , New Jersey . The route is 2 @.@ 73 mi ( 4 @.@ 39 km ) long and runs between US 1 in Trenton and Lawrence Township . On the border of Trenton and Lawrence Township , US 1 Bus. intersects the northbound direction of US 206 at the Brunswick Circle . The route was once part of a longer U.S. Route 1 Alternate ( US 1 Alt . ) , which continued southwest through downtown Trenton and into Morrisville , Pennsylvania .
The old US 1 Alt. in Trenton is now signed by the New Jersey Department of Transportation as part of US 1 Bus . , despite not being officially recognized as such . Signage in Pennsylvania no longer exists ; most of the former US 1 Alternate is now part of Pennsylvania Route 32 ( PA 32 ) . US 1 Alt. was created in 1953 after US 1 was moved to a freeway between Morrisville and the Brunswick Circle . By the 1980s , when the Trenton Freeway was extended to its current terminus , US 1 Bus. was created onto its current alignment and US 1 Alt. was removed through Trenton and Morrisville .
= = Route description = =
US 1 Bus. begins at a split from the median of the US 1 freeway in Trenton , having access to and from the south along US 1 . The road heads north as a four @-@ lane divided highway before making a turn to the northwest . The route becomes four @-@ lane undivided Strawberry Street and passes through residential areas . At the border of Lawrence Township and Trenton , the road enters the Brunswick Circle , where it junctions with northbound US 206 and CR 645 . At the circle , the route turns northeast onto a four @-@ lane divided highway known locally as Brunswick Pike ( originally the Trenton @-@ New Brunswick Turnpike ) and enters Lawrence Township . The road runs through residential and commercial areas and passes Colonial Lake , with a few intersections controlled by jughandles . US 1 Bus. has an intersection with CR 616 , which heads east to provide access to US 1 . Further to the northeast , the settings become more commercial before US 1 Bus. merges into northbound US 1 at the northeast end of the Trenton Freeway .
Despite the official route beginning at US 1 near the Brunswick Circle , signage has US 1 Bus. begin at the Lower Trenton Bridge over the Delaware River , just north of the Trenton @-@ Morrisville Toll Bridge ( US 1 ) . The continuation into Pennsylvania is State Route 2060 to the PA 32 intersection in Morrisville . From the bridge , US 1 Bus. signage heads northeast on Bridge Street , with the road curving north onto Warren Street into downtown Trenton . At Livingston Street , the road becomes a one @-@ way pair following Warren Street southbound and Broad Street northbound , concurrent with US 206 . At the south end of Route 31 , the one @-@ way pair becomes Brunswick Avenue northbound and Martin Luther King Jr . Boulevard southbound , heading northeast . These two roads are two @-@ way , but carry only one direction of US 1 Bus . / US 206 . The one @-@ way pair continues to the Brunswick Circle , where the official US 1 Bus. continues north . Strawberry Street is signed " to US 1 south " from the circle , and as US 1 Business north from US 1 . Southbound US 1 Bus. leaves the circle with US 206 southbound on Brunswick Circle Extension , merging with Princeton Avenue ( CR 583 ) . Officially , Brunswick Circle Extension is CR 645 and US 206 southbound bypasses the circle via Princeton Avenue , but all signage points US 206 through the circle . Northbound US 1 Business and US 206 simply enter the circle from Brunswick Avenue .
= = History = =
What is now US 1 Bus. north of the Brunswick Circle was chartered as part of the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike in 1803 . This turnpike became a public road in 1903 . In 1926 , the U.S. Highway System was created and US 1 was designated to run through the Trenton area from the Lower Trenton Bridge north to Pre @-@ 1927 Route 13 , which it followed to New Brunswick . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , pre @-@ 1927 Route 13 became Route 27 and the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike , which ran parallel to pre @-@ 1927 Route 13 in Trenton , became Route 26 . By the 1930s , US 1 was rerouted to follow Route 26 between Trenton and New Brunswick , with US 206 being designated along Route 27 in Trenton .
In December 1952 , the Trenton @-@ Morrisville Toll Bridge and its approaches opened , which included the Trenton Freeway between the Delaware River and the Brunswick Circle . US 1 was rerouted onto the new bridge and the Trenton Freeway . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering that occurred a month later , the Route 26 and Route 27 designations were removed through Trenton . In addition , US 1 Alt. was designated onto the former US 1 in Morrisville and Trenton , running from US 1 on the western end of Morrisville and over the Lower Trenton Bridge into Trenton , where it continued northeast to US 1 at the Brunswick Circle . By the 1980s , an extension of the Trenton Freeway had been completed to Lawrence Township . US 1 was rerouted to this freeway and US 1 Bus. was designated onto the former US 1 between the freeway ’ s north end and the interchange at Strawberry Street . The US 1 Alt. designation through Trenton and Morrisville was officially removed . Most of the route in Trenton is now only officially a part of US 206 , despite being signed as US 1 Bus . The former US 1 Alt. in Morrisville became State Route 2060 from the Lower Trenton Bridge to PA 32 and a southern extension of PA 32 south of there .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Mercer County .
= Russian monitor Latnik =
Latnik ( Russian : Латник ) was an Uragan @-@ class monitor built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the mid @-@ 1860s . The design was based on the American Passaic @-@ class monitor , but was modified to suit Russian engines , guns and construction techniques . She was one of two ships of the class to be built in Belgium and assembled in Russia . Spending her entire career with the Baltic Fleet , the ship was only active when the Gulf of Finland was not frozen , but very little is known about her service . She was stricken in 1900 from the Navy List , converted into a coal barge in 1903 and renamed Barzha No. 38 and then Barzha No. 326 . Abandoned by the Soviets in Finland in 1918 , the ship was later scrapped by the Finns .
= = Description = =
Latnik was 201 feet ( 61 @.@ 3 m ) long overall , with a beam of 46 feet ( 14 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 10 @.@ 16 – 10 @.@ 84 feet ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 524 – 1 @,@ 626 t ) , and her crew numbered eight officers and 88 enlisted men in 1865 . They numbered 10 officers and 100 crewmen in 1877 .
The ship was fitted with a two @-@ cylinder , horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engine built by Carr and MacPherson of Saint Petersburg . It drove a single propeller using steam that was provided by two rectangular boilers . Specific information on the output of the ship 's engine has not survived , but it ranged between 340 – 500 indicated horsepower ( 254 – 373 kW ) for all the ships of this class . During Latnik 's sea trials on 31 May 1865 , she reached a maximum speed of 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) , the slowest ship in the class . She carried a maximum of 190 long tons ( 193 t ) of coal , which gave her a theoretical endurance of 1 @,@ 440 nmi ( 2 @,@ 670 km ; 1 @,@ 660 mi ) at 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) .
Latnik was designed to be armed with a pair of 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading guns purchased from Krupp of Germany and rifled in Russia , but the rifling project was seriously delayed and the ship was completed with nine @-@ inch smoothbores . These lacked the penetration power necessary to deal with ironclads and they were replaced by license @-@ built 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading Rodman guns in 1867 – 68 . The Rodman guns were replaced around 1876 with the originally intended nine @-@ inch rifled guns .
All of the wrought @-@ iron armor that was used in the Uragan @-@ class monitors was in 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates , just as in the Passaic @-@ class ships . The side of the ship was entirely covered with three to five layers of armor plates , of which the three innermost plates extended 42 inches ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) below the waterline . This armor was backed by a wooden beam that had a maximum thickness of 36 inches ( 914 mm ) . The gun turret was protected by eleven layers of armor and the pilothouse above it had eight layers of armor . Curved plates six layers thick protected the base of the funnel up to a height of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) above the deck . Unlike their predecessors , the Uragans were built without deck armor to save weight , but Latnik 's deck was reinforced by the addition of 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) armor plates after completion .
= = Career = =
Construction of the ship began on 17 June 1863 at the Carr and MacPherson Shipyard in Saint Petersburg . Latnik was laid down on 24 December 1863 and she was launched on 22 March 1864 . She entered service on 14 July 1865 and cost a total of 1 @,@ 148 @,@ 000 rubles , almost double her contract cost of 600 @,@ 000 rubles . The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion . For some reason , she was the only ship of the class not to make a port visit to Stockholm , Sweden in July – August 1865 . She suffered some sort of hull damage in September , but the details are not known .
Sometime after Latnik was completed , an armored ring , 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick and 15 inches ( 381 mm ) tall , was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent splinters from jamming it . Later , an armored , outward @-@ curving bulwark was fitted around the top of the turret to protect any crewmen there . Three sponsons were later added , probably during the 1870s , to the upper portion of the turret . Each sponson , one above the gun ports and one on each side of the turret , mounted a light gun , probably a 1 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 44 mm ) Engstrem gun , for defense against torpedo boats . A fourth gun was mounted on a platform aft of the funnel when a hurricane deck was built between the funnel and the turret , also probably during the 1870s .
Little is known about the ship 's career other than that she was laid up each winter when the Gulf of Finland froze . Latnik was reclassified as a coast defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal on 6 July 1900 , although she was not stricken until 17 August . During 1903 , the ship was converted into a coal barge by the removal of her turret , her side armor , and its wooden backing , and by the division of her hull into three holds . She was redesignated as Barzha No. 38 and , in 1914 , Barzha No. 326 . She was abandoned by the Soviets in Helsingfors ( Helsinki ) when they were forced to withdraw from Finland in April 1918 according to the terms of the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk and was later broken up there .
= Clapotis =
In hydrodynamics , the clapotis ( from French : " lapping of water " ) is a non @-@ breaking standing wave pattern , caused for example , by the reflection of a traveling surface wave train from a near vertical shoreline like a breakwater , seawall or steep cliff . The resulting clapotic wave does not travel horizontally , but has a fixed pattern of nodes and antinodes . These waves promote erosion at the toe of the wall , and can cause severe damage to shore structures . The term was coined in 1877 by French mathematician and physicist Joseph Valentin Boussinesq who called these waves ‘ le clapotis ’ meaning ‘ ’ the lapping " .
In the idealized case of " full clapotis " where
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. / KG 26 was intercepted as its bombers attacked Portsmouth and Portland Harbour . Leutnant Erwin Hartmann crashed into the Channel with his crew . A No. 87 Squadron RAF pilot , Flight Lieutenant Derek Harland Ward claimed the victory as he saw a glow which he fired at before it hit the sea . However , Cunningham was credited with the victory as the Heinkel was about to crash . The 87 Squadron war diary acknowledged the fact in its entry for that night .
Two nights later , on 9 April , he accounted for another He 111 followed by another plus a probable victory on 11 April . It is possible his victim on the later mission was He 111P @-@ 2 , Werknummer 2002 , 1G + HT of 9 . / KG 27 . Pilot Leo Roth and crew members Oberfeldwebel Wilhelm Franke , and Unteroffizier Walter Rüggeberg and Fritz Unterieser were killed . A pilot from 307 Squadron also claimed the machine which crashed at Prowers Farm , Lydlinch , Dorset at 01 : 35 . One 8 . / KG 55 He 111 was lost with its crew over the Channel and a Stab . / KG 26 machine was lost over northern France when the crew abandoned their damaged aircraft . Cunningham 's comrade in 604 , Roderick Aeneas Chisholm , accounted for a 5 . / KG 54 Ju 88 near Portsmouth .
On 15 April Cunningham was to have his most successful night , shooting down three bombers ( victories no . 8 – 10 ) . On patrol near the south coast he engaged a He 111 over Monmouthshire which he shot down with only 40 rounds . He returned to Middle Wallop only to be sent on patrol for a second sortie . He took off and headed south , towards Southampton . GCI was too busy to employ him and he was granted a request to investigate a searchlight cone towards Marlborough . Rawnsley directed him to attack and he duly shot down the He 111 which crashed into derelict houses in Southampton . He was sent by GCI after another enemy but lost the contact , appearing over Southampton again he spotted yet another He 111 in the moonlight . He closed to 80 yards and shot it down . It crashed in the area of Lymington . Cunningham 's 9th victory was Werknummer 2857 , code G1 + ES , belonging to 8 . / KG 55 . The Heinkel , piloted by Oberleutnant Günther von Seidlitz , crashed onto No. 10 @-@ 12 Padwell Road , Southampton at 02 : 00 . Seidlitz and Feldwebel Franz Hümmer were killed in action and Unteroffizier Horst Rosenberg and Herbert Sauer were taken prisoner of war . In April , having downed at least 10 enemy aircraft in night @-@ fighting operations , Cunningham was decorated with his first Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) .
On 3 May Cunningham accounted for another Heinkel . Four nights later on 7 May 1941 Cunningham achieved a victory — his 12th — in front of King George VI . Sholto Douglas accompanied the King when he appeared at Danebury Hill , not far from Middle Wallop . The King met Cunningham and Rawnsley , congratulated the airmen on their success and asked Cunningham to get another on that night . The King then was driven to the GCI station Sopley outside Bournemouth to tour the facility . Eager to impress the King , Cunningham drove to dispersal and prepared to go on patrol . The Luftwaffe began operations at 22 : 00 that night , attacking Liverpool which took their flight path over 604 's patrol area . Cunningham took off and intercepted a He 111 north of Bournemouth . The controller asked the King to go outside as they may have the opportunity of witnessing the battle . Although they did not see it , the King heard the results ; the roar of engines and rattle of cannon fire . The Heinkel , from 7 . / KG 27 , Werknummer 1639 code IG + DR , eventually crashed near Andersea Farm south of RAF Weston Zoyland at 23 : 30 . Pilot Oberfeldwebel Heinz Laschinski , Feldwebel Heinz Shier , Oberfeldwebel Otto Willrich all survived though the pilot was badly burned . Flight Engineer Feldwebel Fritz Klemm and Feldwebel Heinz Shier were killed by gunfire . On the night of the 31 May / 1 June 1941 he accounted for another He 111 as the Luftwaffe completed its last major raid of the Blitz . It was one of 24 German bombers lost on that night . The following morning Cunningham was promoted to temporary squadron leader .
= = = = Propaganda = = = =
In early 1941 the British press , with permission from the Air Ministry , was allowed to approach Cunningham and write about his experiences . One of the motivating reasons for the lack of censorship was morale . In the early stages of the Blitz , the perception among the civilian population was that the Germans could attack at will over Britain during the night . The publication of Cunningham 's exploits were an attempt to assure the public the RAF was fighting back and imposing losses upon the Luftwaffe . Cunningham was singled out for attention for this purpose , though Rawnsley 's contribution to his success was virtually ignored .
The Air Ministry did not want to allow the enemy to learn of their airborne radar . German night fighters would not be equipped with such devices on a large scale until much later . A legend was created to explain his successes instead . As the first night fighter ace , they were allowed to publish his picture . The captions read that his eyesight was so exceptional it allowed him to see in the dark with the same visually ability as a domestic cat . It was also said that his diet of carrots provided him with vitamin A which allowed him to maintain excellent night @-@ vision . The ensuing public adulation was detested by Cunningham , but he accepted the " Cats @-@ Eyes " tag as a necessary deception . The propaganda story served its purpose for the populace when it was released to the public in January 1941 . The success of night defences also told the Germans the RAF was either improving its techniques , or it had something new .
The premier night fighter aces in the RAF — Cunningham , Braham and Branse Burbridge — did not appreciate press attention . In the case of Cunningham and Burbridge , this may have stemmed from deeper religious convictions about combat and killing . Burbridge became a priest during the war and both he and Cunningham did not cooperate with biographers when approached to have their exploits described in print after the war . During the war , Braham also actively shunned the lime @-@ light . One of the country 's best @-@ selling newspapers , the Daily Express , asked to interview him but he declined . Much to Braham 's embarrassment , his father gave interviews about his then famous son in 1943 . When no stories were forthcoming , the newspapers soon lost interest . Braham and Cunningham were certainly aware of each other as a result of the press attention , and a competitive rivalry developed . In his book Scramble , Braham mentioned with pride the night he surpassed Cunningham 's score permanently .
= = = Wing commander = = =
The dynamics of the air war changed in June 1941 . The German invasion of the Soviet Union , Operation Barbarossa , opened up the Eastern Front . The German bomber force was heavily committed to the theatre . The escalation of the fighting in the Mediterranean and North African theatres also diverted German air strength . The operations of the Luftwaffe over Britain changed dramatically . Small numbers of bombers would make hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks on selected targets near the coast for the remainder of 1941 , replacing the mass raids of the preceding autumn and winter . Cunningham used the decline in the pace of operations to train new crews .
Cunningham 's practice of leadership was different to his day @-@ fighter counterparts . A day unit would fly in formation together , engage the enemy together , communicate by radio and follow the directions and example of their commanding officer in combat . Cunningham was not in a position to lead in this way . The night fighter was a lone hunter . When it took off the crew would operate alone in the air . Instead , he could ensure proficiency in battle only by teaching his men to master their aircraft and AI . He was constantly in touch with scientists and tracked new developments . He also took up new crews in the Beaufighter to generate confidence in the machine . Night pilots had to learn to fly on instruments alone , in adverse weather conditions and for sustained periods . Rawnsley contributed with the use of AI and mock @-@ interception using target aircraft were flown regularly .
Cunningham still flew on operations . Flying the new Beaufighter II powered by Merlin engines on an interception in July , he was hit by return fire from a He 111 . The engines spluttered and one caught fire . Already far out to sea he flew back to base , extinguished the fire and made a wheels @-@ down landing . The following month he had greater success . On the night of the 22 August 1941 he intercepted two He 111s . One was claimed as damaged but the second was confirmed . The Heinkel He 111 , an H @-@ 5 model , Werknummer 4081 , coded F8 + BS belonging to 8 . / Kampfgeschwader 40 ( KG 40 ) , fell into the sea north @-@ west of Wells , Somerset at 22 @.@ 05 . Gefreiter G. Dohmen , H. Hädrich , and K. Dändel were never found . The body of Rudolf Faath was washed ashore at Burnham Overy on 31 August . On 1 September Cunningham caught and downed a Ju 88 — his 15th victory . He was awarded a bar to his DFC on 19 September , by which time he was an acting wing commander .
The winter 1941 – 42 passed by with relative inactivity . In the spring 1942 , Arthur Harris began his campaign over Germany in earnest with an attack by RAF Bomber Command upon Lübeck . Adolf Hitler , enraged by the attack , ordered the Luftwaffe to begin retaliatory strikes which began the so @-@ called Baedeker Blitz . On 4 April Cunningham engaged and damaged a Baedeker raider He 111 pathfinder operating over Exeter . It was able to escape into cloud . KGr 100 , the specialist German pathfinder unit , was now operating with new navigational aids which allowed them to fly through and navigate in thick cloud and rain . They deliberately operated whenever the weather proved more difficult for night fighters . Nevertheless , Cunningham made an interception on the night of the 23 May 1942 .
Attempting his usual tactic , the British crew approached from behind and below . Suddenly the Heinkel lurched into a tight left @-@ hand turn allowing the gunners to fire a broad @-@ side . The bomber disappeared into the mist . Cunningham asked GCI for help . They tracked the Heinkel flying north near Shaftesbury . Engaging again the German pilot managed to turn into a head @-@ on position and dive past almost upside down . He continually evaded Cunningham by turning in underneath him at near @-@ impossible angles . Cunningham and Rawnsley came to understand they were not dealing with a novice . Soon a turning match began and then the German attempted to escape by twisting and diving . Cunningham forced him down to 900 feet but Rawnsley and GCI lost contact when the ground clutter hid the Heinkel 's signal . Cunningham returned to base . News soon came through the He 111 had crashed onto the slopes on Cranborne Chase . Apparently , the Heinkel had broken through the clouds at only a hundred feet and dived vertically into the ground near the isolated village of Alvediston at 17 : 05 . Intelligence later determined that the machine was a He 111H @-@ 6 , Werknummer 4627 , code 6N + FR , from 7 . / KGr 100 . The bomber disintegrated upon impact . The pilot , Staffelkapitän ( " squadron leader " ) Hauptmann Siegried Langer was killed along with his crew ; Oberfeldwebel G. Schmidt , Feldwebel D. Hoffmann , P. Gaidies and Gefreiter W. Worring . It was a unique victory for Cunningham . He had not fired his guns in the 150 @-@ minute chase .
Following the episode Cunningham was promoted to temporary wing commander on 1 June 1942 , and following the downing of his 16th enemy aircraft , received a bar to his DSO on 24 July for , among other feats , " destroying an enemy aircraft without firing a single bullet ... by diving through cloud at great speed , drove the enemy aircraft to the ground . "
Cunningham and Rawnsley were soon ordered to staff positions . It was a compulsory order for fighter pilots even when the men considered themselves fit for operational duties . Before they departed Middle Wallop and 604 , they had a chance to test the new 4 – inch ( 10 cm ) AI Mk . VIII radar which had a range of two or three miles ( 3 – 5 kilometres ) . The new radar was a radical improvement . All the information was displayed on a single tube . The ground echo was reduced but could still be seen on screen when flying low , but it did not interfere with the overall picture . Cunningham was to take over as director of all training units from Rory Chisholm who left 604 to become a staff officer at group headquarters . Rawnsley was due to take an instructors job at 62 Operational Training Unit ( OTU ) at Usworth . Cunningham managed to persuade the CAS to deploy him to headquarters at No. 81 Group RAF , the training organisation for RAF Fighter Command . Rawnsley was also promoted to squadron leader and was awarded the DFC and Distinguished Flying Medal ( DFM ) . The pair remained grounded for six months until January 1943 .
= = = Last tour = = =
Cunningham was allowed back onto operations . He was given command of No. 85 Squadron RAF , equipped with the de Havilland Mosquito NF.II based at Hunsdon . He selected Jimmy Rawnsley as his operator . The radar set displayed the entire picture . A small cathode @-@ ray tube set on the left side of the instrument panel gave Cunningham a composite image . The duo decided Rawnsley should control the interception in the initial stages until they reached a point where the enemy could take evasive action . Then Cunningham would take over while Rawnsley would call out the ranges and free the pilot from looking at his ray @-@ tube .
On the night of the 3 March 1943 the Luftwaffe was active again . Cunningham scrambled too late to get contact with the GCI 's contact . He climbed toward a searchlight box . The searchlights operated in a box @-@ shape , separated by evenly spaced markers . Each fighter was given a box and flew to its allotted marker beacon . There he orbited until the lights illuminated a target , or formed a cone where he could pick up an AI contact . Soon he had a contact — a Dornier Do 217 . He closed in but his cannons jammed . After sitting behind the Dornier for some time and trying in vain to encourage the guns to fire , the German crew suddenly woke up and dived away . Cunningham was furious . Three @-@ quarters of the squadron got airborne but only he had seen an enemy . Unsatisfied with ground and aircrews , he used his influence in the small night @-@ fighter community to bring in personnel from his old unit , 604 , currently languishing in Cornwall . With the new VIII radar a uniform facility , Cunningham took command of a Mosquito NF.XII — the first Mosquito to have a smooth " bluff " nose dome over the dish antenna .
At this time the Luftwaffe was sending increased numbers of Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 fighters over England , at night and at low @-@ level . They were able to hit the coastal areas and their speed and agility meant they were a difficult prospect to intercept . The German pilots were disadvantaged in some respects . There was a lack of nigh @-@ flying experience in these units , the Fw 190s did not carry radar and had a short range . Aside from a small mirror , the pilot could not always see behind him well enough at night . On 16 May 1943 the Fw 190s lost four and probably a fifth to 85 Squadron . On 13 June 1943 Cunningham intercepted an Fw 190 not far from his airfield at West Malling . The GCI controller telephoned the crew @-@ room to notify them the commanding officer was closing on an enemy aircraft heading to London . They heard both aircraft and the brief burst of fire followed by the explosion . To his amazement , Cunningham later learned the pilot — Leutnant Ullrich from 3 . / Schnellkampfgeschwader 10 ( Fast Bomber Wing 10 — SKG 10 ) — was thrown through the canopy as the Fw 190A @-@ 5 , Werknummer , 840047 code CO + LT , fell earthwards . He deployed his parachute and was picked up by a searchlight crew with a broken arm .
On the night of the 23 August an Fw 190 was claimed off Dunkirk and on 8 / 9 September 1943 , an Fw 190A @-@ 5 off Aldborough proved his 19th victory and last claim of Cunningham for the year . The Fw 190 was seen to crash into the sea by the Coastguard . Cunningham achieved his 20th and final air victory on the night of the 2 / 3 January 1944 . Chasing a Messerschmitt Me 410 to France , near Boulogne before shooting it down . The machine , Werknummer 017 , Code U5 + FE , belonging to 14 . / Kampfgeschwader 2 ( KG 2 ) crashed at Marquise . Oberleutnant Helmut Schülze and Heinz Beger were killed .
In January 1944 the Luftwaffe initiated Operation Steinbock . Cunningham filed two claims during the offensive which lasted until May 1944 . On the night of the 20 / 21 February 1944 he claimed Junkers Ju 188 damaged at 22 : 09 near Staplehurst . One Ju 188 was lost and its destruction was attributed to another pilot . On the night of the 23 / 24 February he claimed a probable victory against another Ju 188 off Beachy Head . One Ju 188E @-@ 1 landed at Coulommiers after surviving an attack by a night fighter . Werknummer 260222 , code U5 + AN from 5 . / KG 2 returned with two crewmen injured — Unteroffizier Johann Triebel and Wihelm Spönemann . During these missions Cunningham was nearly shot down . Closing in on a Ju 188 from astern , the gunners suddenly opened fire and the Junkers took evasive manoeuvres . A single round struck the windshield nearly shattering it . Glass fragments struck Cunningham in the face which were later removed in a field hospital . Later , a captured German crew told intelligence officers a new radar was being used in the rear of German aircraft to detect night fighters . Bombers were now more difficult to surprise . Cunningham 's last encounter with the enemy in 1944 was in pursuit of an Me 410 . He had to give up when his windshield iced over near the French coast .
On 3 March 1944 he was awarded another bar to his DSO . The citation describing him as " an example beyond praise . " On 11 April 1944 , Cunningham was decorated by the Soviet Union with the Order of the Patriotic War , 1st Class . He was promoted to wing commander ( war @-@ substantive ) on 1 September 1944 , serving in a series of staff positions for the remainder of the war .
= = = Group captain = = =
In March 1944 Cunningham relinquished command of 85 Squadron . He was appointed group captain in command of Night Operations at No. 11 Group RAF . At 26 he was one of the youngest to hold that rank . Air Marshal Roderick Hill asked him to report to de Havilland in company with Adolph Malan . They were to test @-@ fly the de Havilland Vampire . Cunningham commented that the machine would make an ideal night fighter . Although he was not familiar with the workings of the de Havilland Goblin turbojet , he recommended that if the cockpit was extended to allow for a navigator and the fuel tanks were enlarged , the type could make a formidable interceptor . While test @-@ flying , Cunningham and Rawnsley carried out a sortie over Normandy from RAF Uxbridge . They overflew the British sector on the 9 June 1944 as the Battle for Caen began . They were vectored onto enemy aircraft but were unable to hold their contacts .
On 13 June 1944 the V @-@ 1 flying bomb offensive began and Cunningham was tasked with assisting with their interception . He also coordinated his efforts with No. 100 Group RAF , which were engaged in intruder operations over occupied Europe . Cunningham was concerned at using Mosquitoes for intercepting V @-@ 1s because of the dangers of the bomb exploding and damaging the attacking fighter . One of his former commanding officers and current Group Captain Edward Crew — an ace with 15 enemy aircraft and 31 V @-@ 1s shot down — was forced to bail out when the nose of his Mosquito was split open . The operations did last long and by August 1944 the Mosquitoes were back on bomber support missions .
Towards the end of the war he spent most of his time flying throughout Europe and meeting various commanding officers and units . He took advantage of his position to fly other types he had not had the chance to operate . He flew Supermarine Spitfires frequently on such trips . Soon after the Normandy Campaign he took leave to visit his mother in Ireland . She was staying with his sister Mary , ( and his niece ) who had lost her husband killed in action at Anzio in Italy . He remained with 11 Group until the capitulation of Germany on 8 May 1945 .
In July 1945 was sent to the Far East . A group was created which was a collection of RAF forces that were to be used to recover Singapore from the Japanese . Cunningham and Rawnsley flew out to Rangoon via Malta , Cairo , Baghdad and Karachi . Soon after they arrived they learned of the atomic attacks against Japan . On 2 September 1945 , Japan surrendered and the Second World War was over . Cunningham was offered a permanent commission in the RAF but he feared his career , if he stayed , would become mired in administration , policy @-@ making staff courses and committees . It would mean flying would become a secondary occupation . He decided to return to de Havilland . The company had asked the RAF to release him the previous summer but had been refused . He was formally de @-@ mobilised in November 1945 and re @-@ joined de Havilland on 1 December .
= = Post @-@ war activities = =
Cunningham relinquished his RAF commission officially on 1 August 1946 , retaining the rank of group captain , but remaining in the re @-@ constituted Auxiliary Air Force with the permanent rank of squadron leader . He reformed his old auxiliary squadron at the request of the Air Ministry in 1946 but took no active part in its running , serving as a reserve officer in the Royal Auxiliary Air Force until his retirement as a reserve squadron leader on 1 August 1967 .
At de Havilland he was awarded a salary of £ 1 @,@ 500 in a company that had expanded enormously during the war . The number of employees rose from 5 @,@ 000 to 38 @,@ 000 . The turnover of the company had gone from £ 1 @.@ 5 million before the war to £ 25 million and was now supported by around 100 factories . Cunningham now took the title of chief test pilot of the de Havilland Engine Company under the supervision of Geoffrey de Havilland Jr . Cunningham served as a pilot and consultant in a series of deals with the Swedish Air Force and Swiss Air Force . Both countries were keen to employ him but Cunningham visited only to deliver and advise on the de Havilland Vampire and British airborne radar design . In 1990 the Swiss presented him with the spade @-@ grip from the control column mounted on a wooden stand when they withdrew the last of their Vampires . When the Swedes retired the machine in 1997 he was invited to celebrate its 50 years of Swedish service .
On 27 September 1946 Geoffrey de Havilland Jr was killed test @-@ flying the DH.108 Swallow over the Thames estuary . Cunningham had taken off at the same time to deliver the first Vampire in Switzerland . Cunningham only learned the next morning , from Swiss newspapers at breakfast in Geneva , that de Havilland was missing . Cunningham knew the family well and contacted his father , whose other son John had been killed in a collision while flying a Mosquito in 1943 . With the agreement of de Havilland senior , Cunningham took the dead pilot 's post which earned him £ 2 @,@ 000 per year .
In March 1948 he set a world flight altitude record of 59 @,@ 430 feet ( 18 @,@ 114 metres ) in a Ghost @-@ powered Vampire . The flight lasted for 45 minutes , reaching 50 @,@ 000 feet in 13 @.@ 5 minutes . The following year he went on to test the de Havilland Comet , the world 's first jet airliner which first flew in 1949 . On 23 May 1952 he flew the Comet — now a highly successful export — carrying the recently widowed Queen Mother and Princess Margaret on a four @-@ hour tour around the Alps . At one point he supervised the Queen Mother as she took the controls . She was to dine with members of the No. 600 Royal Auxiliary Air Force squadron later that night and was anxious to say she had piloted an aircraft . Cunningham continued to test @-@ fly prototypes such as the re @-@ built Comet 3 and 4 in the late 1950s . On 23 October 1956 he travelled to the United States and received the Harmon Trophy from President Dwight D. Eisenhower . It was the most prestigious American trophy for services of civil aviation .
On 1 December 1958 he was appointed a member of the de Havilland board , but the company was sold and merged into Hawker Siddeley in 1960 . With the Siddeley company , he was instrumental in the development in the Hawker Siddeley Trident in 1962 . Cunningham worked under the managing director Arnold Alexander Hall , whom he had first met in 1940 to iron out the malfunctions in the Beaufighter gun sight . Later Cunningham acted as a consultant and advisor to the Chinese Government from 1972 – 79 as the company sought to increase its revenue by selling aircraft to China . At their insistence , he postponed his retirement for three years to complete a series of aircraft sales . On 1 May 1975 the British Government announced the nationalisation of the industry and British Aerospace consumed all the nation 's manufacturers .
Cunningham had one serious accident whilst flying . On 20 November 1975 at Dunsfold Aerodrome , Surrey , a flock of Snowy plover birds collided with the British Aerospace BAe 125 aircraft just after takeoff and were ingested by the engines . Cunningham was forced to make an emergency landing . He put the aircraft down at 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) , onto the runway , but it careered through the perimeter of the airfield and across a public road where it collided with a car carrying four passengers who were killed ; no @-@ one died on board the HS @-@ 125 . Cunningham suffered two crushed vertebra but he remained chief test pilot at Hawker Siddeley after the accident until 1978 when British Aerospace was formed . He was awarded the Segrave Trophy for his services in 1978 . In recognition of his wartime exploits and his contribution to civil aviation , he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire and retired from British aerospace in 1980 .
In his retirement , Cunningham devoted himself to aviation affairs of a charitable nature while building a retirement fund for himself . In 1980 he was appointed Chairman of the Sir Geoffrey de Havilland Flying Foundation , a charity to devoted to helping young people with aspirations in aviation . Over a number of years former senior RAF officers had been attracted to investing in Lloyd 's of London as a Lloyd 's " Name " . Unfortunately , Cunningham 's commitment was one of unlimited liability . When Lloyd 's ran into financial difficulty in 1988 he was faced with enormous debts . He was forced to live frugally until the end of his life . John Cunningham died six days shy of his 85th birthday in July 2002 .
= = Sale of medals = =
Following Cunningham 's death in 2002 his service medals and flying memorabilia passed to the de Havilland Aircraft Company Trust . The medals were subsequently sold for £ 384 @,@ 000 to raise funds for the Bentley Priory Battle of Britain Trust Appeal on 7 September 2012 .
= The Quick and the Dead ( 1995 film ) =
The Quick and the Dead is a 1995 American western film directed by Sam Raimi , and starring Sharon Stone , Gene Hackman , Russell Crowe and Leonardo DiCaprio . The screenplay was written by Simon Moore but includes contributions from Joss Whedon . The story focuses on " The Lady " ( Stone ) , a gunfighter who rides into the frontier town of Redemption , controlled by John Herod ( Hackman ) . The Lady joins a deadly dueling competition in an attempt to exact revenge for her father 's death .
Simon Moore 's script was purchased by Sony Pictures Entertainment in May 1993 , and actress Sharon Stone signed on as both star and co @-@ producer . Development was fast tracked after director Sam Raimi 's hiring , and principal photography began in Old Tucson Studios in Arizona on November 21 , 1993 . The film was distributed by TriStar Pictures and was released in the US on February 10 , 1995 to a dismal box office performance , receiving lukewarm reviews from critics .
This was Russell Crowe 's American film debut . This was Woody Strode 's final performance ( the film is dedicated to him ) , as well as the last theatrical release of Roberts Blossom who died in 2011 . The phrase " the quick and the dead " is from the Book of Common Prayer and its version of the Apostles ' Creed , describing the final judgement . The plot of this film bears no resemblance to that of the 1987 film of the same name , which was based on a western novel by Louis L 'Amour .
= = Plot = =
An unnamed gunslinger referred to as The Lady enters the Old West town of Redemption circa 1881 , where she enters a single elimination gunfighting contest held by Redemption 's ruthless mayor and former outlaw John Herod . While there she meets Cort , a former Herod henchman turned preacher whom Herod has captured and forced to enter the contest . During her first night in town , The Lady saves Cort 's life by shooting the rope Herod 's men had hung Cort from . She also meets " The Kid , " a brash young man who runs the general store and who hopes to impress Herod . The Kid believes Herod is his father and that he can earn his father 's respect by entering and winning the contest .
In the first round of duels The Kid defeats a Swedish quick @-@ draw champion while Herod kills a braggart named Ace Hanlon , who had taken credit for some of Herod 's own accomplishments . The Lady defeats an enemy she had previously left shackled to a wagon . Cort , who has renounced violence and doesn 't have a weapon , is taken to the general store . Herod buys Cort a gun and decrees that Cort can only have one bullet at a time so that he doesn 't shoot his way out of town . Despite telling everyone he wouldn 't fight , Cort winds up drawing his gun and winning his first round fight . During a rainstorm Herod meets with Clay Cantrell , a professional gunfighter hired by the townspeople to kill Herod . Before they duel , Herod changes the rules and proclaims that all contests are now to the death . After killing Cantrell , Herod angrily addresses the townspeople and informs them that he will continue to raise his taxes on them until they understand that he is in charge of everything . During a rainstorm that evening The Lady faces off with and kills Eugene Dred after Dred rapes a young girl at the saloon .
The next day , Cort is slated to fight Spotted Horse , a Native American who claims he cannot be killed by bullets . The Lady , still upset over killing Dred the night before , saddles up and rides out of town before Cort 's fight . Cort narrowly beats Spotted Horse after having to beg for a second bullet . The Lady is found at a nearby cemetery by Doc Wallace , who tells her that he recognizes her and knows why she is there . During flashbacks , we learn that The Lady 's father used to be the Marshal in Redemption and was strung up by Herod 's men . Herod gave the young girl a pistol and three shots to try and break the rope her father was hanging from , but she accidentally kills him instead . Doc Wallace tells her that Herod 's men dug up her father 's body and burned it . He hands The Lady her father 's old badge and begs her to come back and help rid the town of Herod .
The Lady rides back to town and directly challenges Herod , but is sickened to hear that he 's already accepted a fight against The Kid . The Lady and Cort are the only other fighters left and are ordered by Herod to face off . They both proclaim they won 't fight each other , but Herod tells them he will have them gunned down by his men if they refuse . Herod takes The Kid aside and asks him to withdraw from the contest , telling him his time will come . The Kid refuses and they fight , with The Kid wounding Herod in the neck while Herod delivers a fatal bullet to The Kid . The Lady and Cort then face each other , but both refuse to draw their weapons . Herod begins a countdown from ten , declaring that if neither draws by the time he gets to zero he will have them both killed . Cort begs The Lady to kill him but she still refuses , when Herod reaches one Cort draws and fires . Doc Wallace declares The Lady dead , and Cort angrily storms up to Herod and demands they fight immediately . Herod refuses , telling Cort they will meet at dawn . Later that night , one of Herod 's men named Ratsy chains Cort to a table and beats him severely before smashing Cort 's gunfighting hand and breaking it .
The next morning , Herod sees Cort 's busted hand and orders Ratsy to leave town . He offers to face Cort left @-@ handed , which Cort accepts . Herod kills Ratsy with a rifle and then squares off to fight Cort . At the moment Herod draws , several buildings explode on the street . Herod 's house and the clock tower are also blown up , and through the smoke and flames The Lady walks back into town . Cort tells Herod that from now all on fights in town will be fair , and proceeds to kill Herod 's men who were stationed around town . The Lady and Herod face off , and she finally reveals to him who she is when she throws her father 's old badge at Herod 's feet . They draw on each other , Herod shoots The Lady in the arm and she fires a shot though Herod 's chest . Herod raises his gun to fire again before being dispatched by a bullet to the eye .
The wounded Lady throws her father 's badge to Cort and names him as the new Marshal before saddling up and riding out of the town .
= = Cast = =
Sharon Stone as Ellen ( " The Lady " )
Gene Hackman as John Herod
Russell Crowe as Cort
Leonardo DiCaprio as Fee " The Kid " Herod
Pat Hingle as Horace
Kevin Conway as Eugene Dred
Keith David as Sgt. Clay Cantrell
Lance Henriksen as Ace Hanlon
Mark Boone Junior as Scars
Tobin Bell as Dog Kelly
Raynor Scheine as Ratsy
Olivia Burnette as Katie
Roberts Blossom as Doc Wallace
Gary Sinise as The Marshal
Sven @-@ Ole Thorsen as Swede Gutzon
Scott Spiegel as Gold Teeth Ma
Woody Strode as Charlie Moonlight
Jonothon Gill as Spotted Horse
Lennie Loftin as Flat Nose Foy
Josef Rainer as Virgil Sparks
Stacy Linn Ramsower as Young Ellen
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Writer Simon Moore finished his spec script for The Quick and the Dead in late 1992 , writing it as a homage to the Spaghetti Westerns of Sergio Leone , particularly the Dollars Trilogy starring Clint Eastwood . The writer decided the lead character should be a female . " When you introduce women into that kind of world , something very interesting happens and you have an interesting dynamic straight away , " Moore commented . The names of the lead villain ( Herod ) and the town ( Redemption ) were intentional allusions to the Bible . Moore considered directing his own script as an independent film and shooting The Quick and the Dead on a $ 3 – 4 million budget in either Spain or Italy .
Sony Pictures Entertainment purchased Moore 's script in May 1993 and approached Sharon Stone to star in the lead role in July 1993 . Because Stone also signed on as co @-@ producer , she had approval over the choice of director . Sam Raimi was hired to direct because Stone was impressed with his work on Army of Darkness ( 1992 ) . The actress told the producers that if Raimi did not direct the film , she would not star in it . Although she had mixed emotions on Raimi 's previous work , she believed that the director still had yet to showcase his talents , feeling that The Quick and the Dead would be a perfect opportunity to " stretch the limits of his technical and creative ability . " Moore was also enthusiastic over Raimi 's hiring , based on his previous work with the Evil Dead film series .
When Sony began fast tracking development The Quick and the Dead , the studio commissioned a series of rewrites from Moore . The writer was eventually dismissed and replaced with John Sayles , who , according to Moore , took Sony 's orders of " making more of an American Old West film " . Moore was rehired with filming to begin in three weeks because Sayles ' script was approaching a 2 @.@ 5 hour runtime . When rewriting the shooting script , Moore simply omitted Sayles ' work without Sony noticing . A week before shooting , Sony considered the script good so that Moore described the rewrites " a completely fucking pointless exercise " .
= = = Filming = = =
Russell Crowe originally auditioned for a different role in the film before Sharon Stone asked that the actor try for the lead male role . " When I saw Romper Stomper ( 1992 ) , I thought Russell was not only charismatic , attractive and talented but also fearless , " Stone reasoned . " And I find fearlessness very attractive . I was convinced I wouldn 't scare him . " Raimi found Crowe to be " bold and challenging . He reminds me of what we imagine the American cowboy to have been like . " On working with Raimi , Crowe later described the director as " sort of like the fourth Stooge " .
Sony Pictures was dubious over Stone 's choice of Crowe because he was not a famous actor in the mid @-@ 1990s . To cast Gene Hackman in the role of Herod , TriStar Pictures changed the shooting location from Durango , Mexico to Tucson , Arizona . Sam Rockwell auditioned for The Kid , a role which ended up going to Leonardo DiCaprio . Sony was also dubious over DiCaprio 's casting . As a result , Stone decided to pay for the actor 's salary herself .
Filming was originally set to begin in October 1993 , but was delayed because Crowe was busy on another film in Australia . Principal photography for The Quick and the Dead lasted from November 21 , 1993 to February 27 , 1994 . Locations included Old Tucson Studios in Arizona and Mescal , 40 miles southeast of Tucson . Production was briefly halted at times over weather problems . Thell Reed , who was hired as the gun coach and weapons master , worked with the cast through over three months of training . To age Cort 's Colt 1851 Navy Revolver and the other guns used , Reed experimented with simple measures . " I took them out by my swimming pool and dipped them in chlorine water to let them rust , " he explained . " They looked rusty and old , but were brand new guns . " Such detail , including the nickel plating and ivory handles on Ellen 's Colt Peacemakers , was accurate to the time period .
The town of Redemption was designed by Patrizia von Brandenstein , known for her work on Amadeus ( 1984 ) and The Untouchables ( 1987 ) . Raimi 's first choice as the visual effects supervisor was William Mesa , his collaborator on Darkman ( 1991 ) and Army of Darkness ( 1993 ) . Instead , Sony chose The Computer Film Company to create the VFX sequences . Pick @-@ up scenes took place through November - December 1994 . This included an extended duel between Sharon Stone and Gene Hackman .
Stone had a love scene removed from the final cut of The Quick and the Dead before the film 's release in the United States . The actress / co @-@ producer thought the scene did not fit in with the picture 's established reality . It was restored for the home cinema releases of the film .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The original motion picture soundtrack for The Quick and the Dead , was released by the Varèse Sarabande music label on February 14 , 1995 . The score for the film was composed and conducted by Alan Silvestri and mixed by Dennis Sands . Kenneth Karman and Thomas Drescher edited the film 's music .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
The Quick and the Dead was released in the U.S. on February 10 , 1995 in 2 @,@ 158 theaters , earning $ 6 @,@ 515 @,@ 861 in its opening weekend . The film eventually grossed $ 18 @,@ 636 @,@ 537 in revenue and was declared to be a box office bomb . However , writer Simon Moore acknowledged that the film performed modestly in Europe .
The Quick and the Dead 's dismal box office performance can be attributed to competition from Billy Madison , The Brady Bunch Movie , Just Cause and Heavyweights . Director Sam Raimi later blamed himself and his visual style for the film 's failure . " I was very confused after I made that movie . For a number of years I thought , I 'm like a dinosaur . I couldn 't change with the material . " TriStar Pictures also showed The Quick and the Dead as an " out @-@ of @-@ competition " film at the May 1995 Cannes Film Festival . Additionally , Stone was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Actress , but lost to Angela Bassett in Strange Days . A novelization written by Jack Curtis was published by HarperCollins in September 1995 . The Region 1 DVD release came in September 1998 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Quick and the Dead received mixed reviews from film critics . Based on 41 reviews , Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 56 % , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 9 / 10 . Metacritic calculated an average score of 49 / 100 , based on 21 reviews .
Janet Maslin of The New York Times praised Stone 's performance and Raimi 's directing . " Stone 's presence nicely underscores the genre @-@ bending tactics of Raimi , the cult filmmaker now doing his best to reinvent the B movie in a spirit of self @-@ referential glee . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times criticized the film for being overtly cliché , but praised Raimi 's direction and Dante Spinotti 's cinematography . Critic and Raimi biographer Bill Warren wrote that the film " is a very conscious ( though not self @-@ conscious ) attempt to recreate some of the themes , style and appeal of Sergio Leone 's majestically operatic Spaghetti Westerns of the 1960s , especially the Man with No Name trilogy that starred Clint Eastwood . It 's brisker , more romantic and somehow more American than Leone 's movies . "
Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader observed that " Raimi tries to do a Sergio Leone , and though The Quick and the Dead is highly enjoyable in spots , it doesn 't come across as very convincing , perhaps because nothing can turn Sharon Stone into Charles Bronson . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone felt that " The Quick and the Dead plays like a crazed compilation of highlights from famous westerns . Raimi finds the right look but misses the heartbeat . You leave the film dazed instead of dazzled , as if an expert marksman had drawn his gun only to shoot himself in the foot . "
= Mozart family grand tour =
The Mozart family grand tour was a journey through western Europe , undertaken by Leopold Mozart , his wife Anna Maria , and their musically gifted children Maria Anna ( Nannerl ) and Wolfgang Amadeus from 1763 to 1766 . At the start of the tour the children were aged eleven and seven respectively . Their extraordinary skills had been demonstrated during a visit to Vienna in 1762 , when they had played before the Empress Maria Theresa at the Imperial Court . Sensing the social and pecuniary opportunities that might accrue from a prolonged trip embracing the capitals and main cultural centres of Europe , Leopold obtained an extended leave of absence from his post as deputy Kapellmeister to the Prince @-@ Archbishop of Salzburg . Throughout the subsequent tour , the children 's Wunderkind status was confirmed as their precocious performances consistently amazed and gratified their audiences .
The first stage of the tour 's itinerary took the family , via Munich and Frankfurt , to Brussels and then on to Paris where they stayed for five months . They then departed for London , where during a stay of more than a year Wolfgang made the acquaintance of some of the leading musicians of the day , heard much music , and composed his first symphonies . The family then moved on to the Netherlands , where the schedule of performances was interrupted by the illnesses of both children , although Wolfgang continued to compose prolifically . The homeward phase incorporated a second stop in Paris and a trip through Switzerland , before the family 's return to Salzburg in November 1766 .
The material rewards of the tour , though reportedly substantial , did not transform the family 's lifestyle , and Leopold continued in the Prince @-@ Archbishop 's service . However , the journey enabled the children to experience to the full the cosmopolitan musical world , and gave them an outstanding education . In Wolfgang 's case this would continue through further journeys in the following six years , prior to his appointment by the Prince @-@ Archbishop as a court musician .
= = Child prodigies = =
The Mozart children were not alone as 18th @-@ century music prodigies . Education writer Gary Spruce refers to hundreds of similar cases , and cites that of William Crotch of Norwich who in 1778 , at the age of three , was giving organ recitals . British scholar Jane O 'Connor explains the 18th century fascination with prodigies as " the realisation of the potential entertainment and fiscal value of an individual child who was in some way extraordinary " . Other childhood contemporaries of Mozart included the violinist and composer Thomas Linley , born the same year as Wolfgang , and the organist prodigy Josef Siegmund Bachmann . Mozart eventually became recognised among prodigies as the future standard for early success and promise .
Of seven children born to Leopold and Anna Maria Mozart , only the fourth , Maria Anna ( Nannerl ) , born 31 July 1751 , and the youngest , Wolfgang Amadeus , born 27 January 1756 , survived infancy . The children were educated at home , under Leopold 's guidance , learning basic skills in reading , writing , drawing and arithmetic , together with some history and geography . Their musical education was aided by exposure to the constant rehearsing and playing of Leopold and his fellow musicians . When Nannerl was seven her father began to teach her to play the harpsichord , with Wolfgang looking on ; according to Nannerl 's own account " the boy immediately showed his extraordinary , God @-@ given talent . He often spent long periods at the clavier , picking out thirds , and his pleasure showed that they sounded good to him ... When he was five years old he was composing little pieces which he would play to his father who would write them down " . A family friend , the poet Johann Andreas Schachtner , recounted that at the age of four Wolfgang began to compose a recognisable piano concerto , and was able to demonstrate a phenomenal sense of pitch .
Nannerl herself was an apt pupil , no less quick to learn than her brother , and was playing the keyboard with striking virtuosity by the time she was eleven . In that year , 1762 , Leopold brought the children to Munich to play before Maximilian III Joseph , the Elector of Bavaria . Leopold then took the entire family to Vienna , on a trip that lasted for three months . He had secured invitations from several noble patrons , and within three days of arriving the children were playing at the palace of Count Collalto . Among those present was the Viennese Treasury councillor and future prime minister Karl von Zinzendorf , who noted in his diary that " a little boy , said to be only five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years old ( Wolfgang was actually nearly seven ) played the harpsichord " . After an appearance before the Imperial Vice @-@ Chancellor , the Mozarts were invited to the royal court , where the Empress Maria Theresa tested Wolfgang 's abilities by requiring him to play with the keyboard covered . During this court visit Wolfgang met the Archduchess Maria Antonia , the future Queen Marie Antoinette of France , who was two months his senior . Mozart 's biographer Eric Blom recounts an anecdote of how the Archduchess helped Wolfgang when he slipped on the polished floor ; she is supposed to have received a proposal of marriage in return .
As the Mozarts began to be noticed by the Viennese aristocracy , they were often required to give several performances during a single day . They were well rewarded for this activity — at the end of their first hectic week in Vienna , Leopold was able to send home the equivalent of more than two years ' salary . Their schedule was interrupted when Wolfgang fell ill with scarlet fever , and their former momentum was not regained . Nevertheless , the visit left Leopold eager to pursue further opportunities for social and financial success . On their return to Salzburg , Wolfgang played the harpsichord and violin at a birthday concert for the Archbishop , to the evident astonishment of those present .
= = Grand tour = =
= = = Preparations = = =
In a letter to his friend and landlord Lorenz Hagenauer ( 1712 – 1792 ) , written after the tour , Leopold quotes the German diplomat Friedrich Melchior , Baron von Grimm , who after hearing the children play had said : " Now for once in my life I have seen a miracle : this is the first " . Leopold believed that it was his duty to proclaim this miracle to the world , otherwise he would be " the most ungrateful creature " . He was said to have describe Wolfgang as “ The miracle which God let be born in Salzburg " . Mozart biographer Wolfgang Hildesheimer has suggested that , at least in the case of Wolfgang , this venture was premature : " Too soon , [ the ] father dragged [ the ] son all over Western Europe for years . This continual change of scene would have worn out even a robust child ... " However , there is little evidence to suggest that Wolfgang was physically harmed or musically hindered by these childhood exertions ; it seems that he felt equal to the challenge from the start .
Leopold wanted to begin the tour as soon as possible — the younger the children were , the more spectacular would be the demonstration of their gifts . The route he intended to take included southern Germany , the Austrian Netherlands , Paris , Switzerland and possibly northern Italy . The London leg was only added after urgings during the Paris visit , and the eventual Dutch trip was an unplanned detour . The plan was to take in as many princely European courts as possible , as well as the great cultural capitals — Leopold was relying on his professional musical network and on his more recent social contacts to obtain invitations from the royal courts . Practical assistance came from Hagenauer , whose trading connections in the major cities would supply the Mozarts with what were effectively banking facilities . These would enable them to obtain money en route , while waiting for the proceeds from their performances to accumulate .
Wolfgang prepared for the tour by perfecting himself on the violin , which he had learned to play apparently without any tuition whatsoever . As for more general preparation , the children delighted in making music together , something they never lost . On tour , even during the busiest travelling days they would fit in their daily practice , appearing to thrive on the hectic schedule . Before the journey could begin , Leopold needed the consent of his employer , the prince @-@ archbishop . Leopold had only been appointed deputy Kapellmeister in January 1763 ; nevertheless the archbishop 's consent to an extended leave of absence was granted , on the grounds that the Mozarts ' successes would bring glory to Salzburg , its ruler , and to God .
= = = Early stages ( July – November 1763 ) = = =
The journey 's beginning , on 9 July 1763 , was inauspicious ; on the first day a carriage wheel broke , requiring a 24 @-@ hour pause while repairs were carried out . Leopold turned this delay to advantage by taking Wolfgang to the nearby church at Wasserburg , where according to Leopold the boy played on the organ pedalboard as if he had been studying it for months . In Munich , on successive evenings , the children played before Elector Maximilian III , earning from these engagements the equivalent of half of Leopold 's annual salary of 354 gulden or florins . The next stop was Augsburg , where Leopold 's estranged mother refused to attend any of the three concerts given there . The family then moved on to Schwetzingen and the Mannheim court , where the children 's performance apparently amazed Elector Palatine Karl Theodor and his Electress .
The next extended stop was at Mainz . The Elector was ill , but the Mozarts gave three concerts in the town , which brought in 200 gulden . From Mainz the family took the market boat up the River Main to Frankfurt , where several public concerts were given . Among those present at the first of these was the fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , who would many years later recall " the little fellow with his wig and his sword " . An advertisement for these concerts announced that " the girl " would play " the most difficult pieces by the greatest masters " , while " the boy " would play a concerto on the violin and also repeat his Vienna trick of playing with the keyboard completely covered by a cloth . Finally " he will improvise out of his head , not only on the fortepiano but also on the organ ... in all the keys , even the most difficult , that he may be asked " .
The family proceeded by riverboat to Koblenz , Bonn and Cologne . Turning west they reached Aachen , where a performance was given before Princess Anna Amalia of Prussia , the sister of Frederick the Great . The princess tried to persuade Leopold to abandon his itinerary and go to Berlin , but Leopold resisted . " She has no money , " he wrote to Hagenauer , recounting that she had repaid the performance with kisses . " Howbeit , neither mine host nor the postmaster are to be contented with kisses . " They proceeded into the Austrian Netherlands , an area corresponding roughly to present @-@ day Belgium and Luxembourg , where they arrived in the regional capital , Brussels , on 5 October . After several weeks ' waiting for the governor @-@ general , Prince Charles of Lorraine , to summon them ( " His highness the prince does nothing but hunt , gobble and swill " , wrote Leopold to Hagenauer ) , the Mozarts gave a grand concert in the prince 's presence on 7 November . On the 15th the family departed for Paris .
During the hiatus in Brussels , Wolfgang turned his attention briefly from performing to composing . On 14 October he finished an Allegro for harpsichord , which would later be incorporated into the C major sonata , K. 6 , which he completed in Paris .
= = = Paris ( November 1763 – April 1764 ) = = =
On 18 November 1763 the Mozart family arrived in Paris , one of the most important musical centres of Europe , and also a city of great power , wealth , and intellectual activity . Leopold hoped to be received by the court of Louis XV at nearby Versailles . However , a recent death in the royal family prevented any immediate invitation , so Leopold arranged other engagements . One person who took particular note of the children was the German diplomat Friedrich Melchior von Grimm , whose journal records Wolfgang 's feats in glowing terms : " the most consummate Kapellmeister could not be more profound in the science of harmony and modulation " . Leopold 's own assessment , written a few months later , was similarly effusive : " My little girl , although only 12 years old , is one of the most skilful players in Europe and , in a word , my boy knows more in his eighth year than one would expect for a man of forty " .
On 24 December the family moved to Versailles for two weeks during which , through a court connection , they were able to attend a royal dinner , where Wolfgang was reportedly allowed to kiss the hand of the Queen . At Versailles they also visited the famous courtesan Madame de Pompadour , then in the last months of her life — " an extremely haughty woman who still ruled over everything " , according to Leopold . In Nannerl 's later recollections , Wolfgang was made to stand on a chair to be examined by the Madame , who would not allow him to kiss her .
There is no record of the children giving a formal concert at Versailles . In February 1764 they were given 50 louis d 'or ( about 550 florins ) and a gold snuff @-@ box by the royal entertainments office , presumably for entertaining the royal family privately , but no more details are available . Further concerts were given in Paris on 10 March and on 9 April , at a private theatre in the rue et Porte St Honoré . At the same time Wolfgang 's first published works were printed : two pairs of sonatas for harpsichord and violin , K. 6 and 7 , and K. 8 and 9 . These pairs became Opus 1 and Opus 2 in Leopold 's private catalogue of his son 's work . The first pair was dedicated to the king 's daughter , Madame Victoire de France , the second to the Countess of Tessé . Mozart biographer Stanley Sadie comments that some aspects of these pieces are rather childish and naïve , but that nevertheless their technique is " astonishingly sure , their line of thinking is clear and smooth , and their formal balance is beyond reproach " .
A decision was taken in Paris to go to London , perhaps on the advice of Leopold 's musical and court acquaintances , who would probably have advised him that England was , in the words of the Mozart scholar Neal Zaslaw , " known for the enthusiasm with which it received continental musicians and the extravagance with which it rewarded them " . On 10 April the family left for Calais and after an unpleasant crossing to Dover on a hired boat , and some delays , arrived in London on 23 April .
= = = London ( April 1764 – July 1765 ) = = =
The Mozarts ' first London lodgings were above a barber 's shop in Cecil Court , near St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields . Letters of introduction from Paris proved effective ; on 27 April 1764 , four days after their arrival , the children were playing before King George III and his 19 @-@ year @-@ old German queen , Charlotte Sophia . A second royal engagement was fixed for 19 May , at which Wolfgang was asked by the king to play pieces by Handel , Johann Christian Bach and Carl Friedrich Abel . He was allowed to accompany the queen as she sang an aria , and he later improvised on the bass part of a Handel aria from which , according to Leopold , he produced " the most beautiful melody in such a manner that everyone was astonished " .
Many of the nobility and gentry were leaving town for the summer , but Leopold reckoned that most would return for the king 's birthday celebrations on 4 June , and accordingly organised a concert for the 5th . This was deemed a success , and Leopold hastened to arrange for Wolfgang to appear at a benefit concert for a maternity hospital on 29 June , at Ranelagh Pleasure Gardens . Leopold apparently saw this effort to support charitable works as " a way to earn the love of this very special nation " . Wolfgang was advertised as " the celebrated and astonishing Master Mozart , a Child of Seven Years of Age ... " ( he was in fact eight ) , " justly esteemed the most extraordinary Prodigy , and most amazing Genius , that has appeared in any Age " . On 8 July there was a private performance at the Grosvenor Square home of the Earl of Thanet , from which Leopold returned with an inflammation of the throat and other worrying symptoms . " Prepare your heart to hear one of the saddest events " , he wrote to Hagenauer in anticipation of his own imminent demise . He was ill for several weeks , and for the sake of his health the family moved from their Cecil Court lodgings to a house in the countryside , at 180 Ebury Street , then considered part of the village of Chelsea .
During Leopold 's illness performances were impossible , so Wolfgang turned to composition . According to the writer and musician Jane Glover , Wolfgang was inspired to write symphonies after meeting Johann Christian Bach . It is not clear when this meeting occurred , or when Wolfgang first heard J.C. Bach 's symphonies , although he had played the older composer 's harpsichord works in his May 1764 royal recital . Wolfgang soon completed his Symphony No. 1 in E flat , K. 16 , and started his No. 4 in D major , K. 19 ( which Zaslaw concludes was more likely composed , or at least completed , in The Hague ) . The D major symphony has , in Hildesheimer 's words , " an originality of melody and modulation which goes beyond the routine methods of his [ grown @-@ up ] contemporaries " . These are Wolfgang 's first orchestral writings , although Zaslaw hypothesises a theoretical " Symphony No. 0 " from sketches in Wolfgang 's musical notebook . Three lost symphonies , identified in the Köchel catalogue of Mozart 's works only by their incipits ( first few bars of music ) , may also have originated from the London period . Other works composed by Wolfgang in London include several instrumental sonatas , the jewel of which , according to Hildesheimer , is the C major sonata for piano , four hands , K. 19d . A set of violin sonatas , with extra flute and cello parts , was dedicated to Queen Charlotte at her request , and presented to her with an appropriate inscription in January 1765 . Wolfgang also wrote his first vocal works , the motet " God is our Refuge " , K. 20 , and the tenor aria Va , dal furor portata , K. 21 . At the end of September , with Leopold 's recovery , the family moved back to central London , to lodgings in Thrift Street ( later 20 Frith Street ) , Soho . These lodgings were located conveniently close to several concert rooms , and to the residences of both J.C Bach and Carl Friedrich Abel . Bach , a son of Johann Sebastian Bach , soon became a family friend ; Nannerl later recalled Bach and the eight @-@ year @-@ old Wolfgang playing a sonata together , taking turns to play a few bars individually , and that " anyone not watching would have thought it was played by one person alone " . There is no record that the Mozarts met Abel , but Wolfgang knew his symphonies , perhaps through the medium of the annual Bach @-@ Abel concert series , and was much influenced by them .
On 25 October , at King George 's invitation , the children played at the celebrations marking the fourth anniversary of the king 's accession . Their next public appearance was a concert on 21 February 1765 , before a moderate audience — the date clashed with a Bach @-@ Abel concert . Only one more London concert was given , on 13 May , but between April and June members of the public could go to the Mozarts ' lodgings where , for a five shilling fee , Wolfgang would perform his musical party pieces . During June both the " young Prodigies " performed daily at the Swan and Harp Tavern in Cornhill , the charge this time being a mere two shillings and sixpence . These were , as Sadie puts it , " Leopold 's last , desperate effort to extract guineas from the English public " . Hildesheimer likens this part of the tour to a travelling circus , comparing the Mozarts to a family of acrobats .
The Mozarts left London for the continent on 24 July 1765 . Before this , Leopold allowed Wolfgang to be subjected to a scientific examination , conducted by The Hon. Daines Barrington . A report , issued in Philosophical Transactions for the year 1770 , confirms the truth of Wolfgang 's exceptional capabilities . Practically the last act of the family in London was the gift to the British Museum of the manuscript copy of " God is our Refuge " .
= = = The Netherlands ( September 1765 – April 1766 ) = = =
Leopold had been specific in letters to Hagenauer that the family would not visit the Dutch Republic , but would go to Paris and then return home to Salzburg . However , he was persuaded by an envoy of the Princess Carolina of Orange @-@ Nassau , sister of the Prince of Orange , to go instead to The Hague and to present the children to her , as official guests of the court . After the party 's landing at Calais there was a month 's delay at Lille , as first Wolfgang fell sick with tonsillitis , then Leopold suffered prolonged dizziness attacks . Early in September the family moved on to Ghent , where Wolfgang played on the new organ at the Bernardines chapel ; a few days later he played on the cathedral organ at Antwerp . On 11 September the family finally reached The Hague .
After arriving in The Hague , Nannerl developed a severe cold and was unable to participate in the initial concerts before the Princess during their first week , nor in a performance before the Prince a few days later . Leopold was sufficiently confident of Nannerl 's recovery to announce the appearances of both prodigies at a concert to be given at the hall of the Oude Doelen on 30 September . The notice for this concert gives Wolfgang 's age as eight ( he was nine ) , but correctly gives Nannerl 's as fourteen . The advertisement concentrates on Wolfgang : " All the overtures will be from the hands of this young composer [ ... ] Music @-@ lovers may confront him with any music at will , and he will play it at sight " . It is not certain whether this concert in fact took place — Sadie believes it may have been postponed . If it did happen , Wolfgang appeared alone , for by this time Nannerl 's cold had turned into typhoid fever . Her condition grew steadily worse , and on 21 October she was given the last sacrament . A visit from the royal physician turned the tide ; he changed the treatment , and by the end of the month she was recovering . Then Wolfgang fell ill , and it was mid @-@ December before he was on his feet again .
Both children were able to appear at the Oude Doelen on 22 January 1766 , in a concert which may have included the first public performance of one of Wolfgang 's London symphonies , K. 19 , and possibly of a new symphony in B flat major K. 22 , composed in the Netherlands . Following this concert they spent time in Amsterdam before returning to The Hague early in March . The main reason for their return was the forthcoming public celebrations of the Prince of Orange 's coming of age . Wolfgang had composed a quodlibet ( song medley ) for small orchestra and harpsichord , entitled Gallimathias musicum , K. 32 , which was played at a special concert to honour the Prince on 11 March . This was one of several pieces composed for the occasion ; Wolfgang also wrote arias for the Princess using words from Metastasio 's libretto Artaserse ( including Conservati fedele , K. 23 ) , and keyboard variations on a Dutch song Laat ons juichen , Batavieren ! K. 24 . He wrote a set of keyboard and violin sonatas for the Princess , as he had earlier for the French princess and for the Queen of Great Britain . Another symphony , K. 45a , commonly known as " Old Lambach " and once thought to have been written several years later , was also written in The Hague , possibly for the Prince 's coming @-@ of @-@ age concert .
The family left The Hague at the end of March , moving first to Haarlem , where the organist of St Bavo 's Church invited Wolfgang to play on the church 's organ , one of the largest in the country . From there they traveled east and south , giving concerts along the way at Amsterdam and Utrecht at 21st of April , before leaving the Netherlands and traveling through Brussels and Valenciennes , to arrive in Paris on 10 May .
= = = Homeward journey ( April – November 1766 ) = = =
The family remained in Paris for two months . No concerts were given by them in this period although , according to Grimm , there were performances of Wolfgang 's symphonies . Grimm was effusive about the development of both children ; Nannerl , he wrote , " had the finest and most brilliant execution on the harpsichord " , and : " no @-@ one but her brother can rob her of supremacy " . Of Wolfgang he quoted a Prince of Brunswick as saying that many Kapellmeisters at the peak of their art would die without knowing what the boy knew at the age of nine . " If these children live , " wrote Grimm , " they will not remain in Salzburg . Monarchs will soon be disputing about who should have them " .
The only surviving music composed by Wolfgang during this Paris visit is his Kyrie in F major , K. 33 , his first attempt to write formal church music . On 9 July , the family left Paris for Dijon , following an invitation from the Prince of Conti . The children played in a concert there on 19 July , accompanied by a local orchestra , about whose players Leopold made disparaging comments : Très médiocre – Un misérable italien détestable – Asini tutti – Un racleur ( a scratcher ) – Rotten . They moved on to Lyon where Wolfgang " preluded for an hour and a quarter with the most capable master here , yielding nothing to him " .
A letter to Hagenauer dated 16 August indicated that Leopold wished to proceed to Turin , then across northern Italy to Venice , and home via the Tyrol . " Our own interest and love of travel should have induced us to follow our noses " , he wrote , but added : " ... I have said I shall go [ directly ] home and I shall keep my word " . The family took a shorter route through Switzerland , arriving in Geneva on 20 August , where the children gave two concerts , and were received by the distinguished composer André @-@ Ernest @-@ Modeste Grétry . Many years later Grétry wrote of this encounter : " I wrote for him [ Wolfgang ] an Allegro in E flat , difficult but without pretension ; he played it , and everyone , except myself , thought it was a miracle . The child had never broken off , but following the modulations , he had substituted a number of passages for those I had written " . This claim , that Wolfgang improvised when faced with passages he could not play , appears to be the only adverse comment from all those called upon to test him .
The journey through Switzerland continued , with concerts at Lausanne and Zurich . Since leaving the Netherlands , Wolfgang had composed little ; a minor harpsichord piece , K. 33B , written for the Zürich concerts , and later some cello pieces ( since lost ) written for the Prince of Fürstenberg . The prince received the party on 20 October , on its arrival in Donaueschingen on the German border , for a stay of some 12 days . Resuming their journey , they reached Munich on 8 November . They were delayed here for nearly two weeks after Wolfgang fell ill , but he was well enough to perform before the Elector , with Nannerl , on 22 November . A few days later they set out for Salzburg , arriving at their home on the Getreidegasse on 29 November 1766 .
= = Evaluation = =
= = = Financial = = =
The party had survived major setbacks , including several prolonged illnesses which had curtailed their earning powers . Although Leopold did not reveal the full extent of the tour 's earnings , or its expenses , the material benefits from the tour had evidently been considerable — but so had the costs . The librarian of St Peter 's Abbey , Salzburg , thought that the gifts ( " gewgaws " ) alone which they brought back were worth about 12 @,@ 000 florins , but estimated the total costs of the enterprise at 20 @,@ 000 florins . The expenses were certainly high ; in a letter to Hagenauer sent in September 1763 , after ten weeks on the road , Leopold reported expenses to date as 1 @,@ 068 florins , an amount covered by their concert earnings without , however , any significant surplus . Leopold stated that " there was nothing to be saved , because we have to travel in noble or courtly style for the preservation of our health and the reputation of my court " . He later recorded that on arrival in Paris in November 1763 that they had " very little money " .
At times , the coffers were full ; in April 1764 , near the end of the Paris sojourn and after two successful concerts , Leopold announced he would shortly be depositing 2 @,@ 200 florins with his bankers . Two months later , after the initial London successes , Leopold banked a further 1 @,@ 100 florins . However , in November of that year , after his illness and with uncertain earning prospects , he was worrying about the high costs of living in London — he informed Hagenauer that he had spent 1 @,@ 870 florins in the four @-@ month period since July . The following summer , after little concert activity , Leopold resorted to increasingly desperate measures to raise funds , including the children 's daily circus performances at the Swan and Harp Inn at prices described by Jane Glover as humiliating . The insecurity of travelling life led Leopold to believe , later , that Wolfgang was not worldly @-@ wise enough to attempt such journeys alone , and needed to be anchored to an assured salary .
= = = Musical = = =
In terms of musical development , while both children had advanced , Wolfgang 's progress had been extraordinary , beyond all expectation . The Mozarts were now known throughout the musical establishments and royal courts of Northern Europe . As well as the encounters in palaces with kings , queens and nobility , the children could converse in several languages ; the tour represented , for them , an outstanding education . However , these advantages had been gained at a price ; Grimm , in Paris , noting the stress and strain on Wolfgang in particular , had feared that " so premature a fruit might fall before maturing " . However , Hildesheimer , while also expressing concerns , concludes that if Mozart 's death at the age of 35 was caused by the exertions of his childhood , the intervening decades would not have been so productive , and obvious symptoms of decline would have manifested themselves .
Of Wolfgang 's music composed during the tour , around thirty pieces survive . A number of works are lost , including the Zürich cello pieces and several symphonies . The surviving works include the keyboard sonatas written in Paris , London and The Hague , four symphonies , various arias , the assorted music written for the Prince of Orange , a Kyrie , and other minor pieces . Mozart 's career as a symphonist began in London where , in addition to the direct influences of Abel and J.C. Bach , he would have heard symphonies from leading London composers including Thomas Arne , William Boyce and Giuseppe Sammartini — " a nearly ideal introduction to the genre " , according to Zaslaw . The earliest symphonies , Zaslaw points out , while not in the same class as the later Mozart masterpieces , are comparable in length , complexity and originality to those written at the same time by the acknowledged symphonic masters of the day . Indeed , Abel 's Symphony No. 6 in E Flat was similar enough in style and technique to be mistaken as Mozart 's , and is listed as such ( Symphony No. 3 , K. 18 ) in the original Köchel catalogue . Sadie observes that the K. 22 symphony composed in The Hague is a good deal more sophisticated than the earlier ones which were written in London .
Mozart 's creative progress is likewise reflected in the sonatas composed for the Princess of Orange , which , according to Sadie , mark a considerable advance in technique and ideas over the earlier Paris and London sets . The arias composed in the Netherlands include Mozart 's first attempts at " aria d 'affetto " , Per pièta , bell 'idol mio , K. 73b , once thought to have been composed much later , as its higher K number indicates . The tour thus saw Wolfgang 's transformation from a composer of simple keyboard pieces to one with increasing mastery over a range of genres . This was evidenced in his home city , on 8 December , when one of his symphonies ( it is uncertain which ) was performed at High Mass at Salzburg Cathedral . Leopold 's employer , the Prince @-@ Archbishop , was frankly sceptical about Wolfgang 's compositions , believing them to be Leopold 's because they were " not nearly bad enough to be the work of a child " .
= = Aftermath = =
Whatever the true extent of their financial rewards from the tour , the Mozart family continued to live in their cramped apartment on the Getreidegasse , while Leopold resumed his duties as a court musician . However , travel and public display dominated the next six years of Wolfgang 's life . In September 1767 the family was on the move again , this time to Vienna , remaining there ( apart from an enforced evacuation during a smallpox epidemic ) until January 1769 . In December of the same year Leopold and Wolfgang left for Italy — without Nannerl who , now 18 , was no longer exhibitable as a child wonder . They were away for sixteen months , and returned to Milan in August 1771 for five months , to attend rehearsals and the performance of Wolfgang 's opera Ascanio in Alba . A third and final visit to Italy , from October 1772 until March 1773 , was the last of the extended trips ; the new Prince @-@ Archbishop of Salzburg , Hieronymous Colloredo , had distinct views about the roles of his court musicians , which precluded the freedoms that Leopold — and now Wolfgang , himself employed by the court — had formerly enjoyed .
= NSB Class 66 =
NSB Class 66 ( Norwegian : NSB type 66 ) was a three @-@ car electric train used by the Norwegian State Railways for express trains on the Østfold Line to Halden and Gothenburg , and the Sørlandet Line to Kristiansand and Stavanger . The four multiple units were built by Skabo Jernbanevognfabrikk , with motors from Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Boveri , and delivered in 1945 – 46 . They were originally named Class 106 , but this was changed in 1956 . The trains received the numbering BFM 66 @.@ 01 – 04 , B 66 @.@ 31 – 34 and BS 66 @.@ 61 – 64 .
The class was the electric counterpart of diesel Class 88 . With a power output of 474 kW ( 636 hp ) , it was the first train capable of 120 kilometers per hour ( 75 mph ) in Norway . One of the Class 66 trains was involved in the Hjuksebø train disaster in 1950 . Since 1967 , the trains served on the Vestfold Line . The Class 66 was retired from service in 1977 . BFM 66 @.@ 01 has been preserved by the Norwegian Railway Museum .
= = Construction = =
Four Class 66 units were ordered by the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) in 1939 , to be used as express trains on the then newly or shortly @-@ to @-@ be electrified Sørland- and Østfold Lines . At the same time , similar Class 88 diesel multiple units were ordered for the non @-@ electrified Bergen- and Dovre Lines . The trains were built by Strømmens Værksted , Skabo Jernbanevognfabrikk and Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Boveri ( NEBB ) . The diesel series was assembled by Strømmen , while Skabo assembled the electric version . NEBB delivered the motors for the units .
During construction , which occurred during World War II , there were several modifications , delays and accidents during construction to avoid the trains being finished before the war ended ; this was to avoid the finished trains to be able to assist the German occupation forces . The first three units were finished in 1945 , and delivery was completed the following year . The class was originally numbered 106 , but NSB changed the numbering system in 1956 , and the class was renumbered to 66 . The units consisted of three cars , given the lettering BFM , B and BS . They were numbered 66 @.@ 01 – 04 , 66 @.@ 31 – 34 and 66 @.@ 61 – 64 , respectively ; this numbering system dates from 1970 .
= = Specifications = =
The trains had aluminum bodies , that were painted in the unusual colors of blue and yellow . Total weight for three cars was 102 @.@ 2 tonnes ( 100 @.@ 6 long tons ; 112 @.@ 7 short tons ) , of which the cars respectively weighed 46 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 46 @.@ 0 long tons ; 51 @.@ 5 short tons ) ( BFM ) , 28 @.@ 0 tonnes ( 27 @.@ 6 long tons ; 30 @.@ 9 short tons ) ( B ) and 27 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 27 @.@ 1 long tons ; 30 @.@ 3 short tons ) ( BS ) . Total length was 66 @.@ 1 meters ( 217 ft ) . The first car was the only one equipped with motors ; the four motors had a total power output of 353 kilowatts ( 473 hp ) . This allowed a maximum speed of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , and it was the first train in Norway able to run at this speed . The trains were painted beige ( upper half ) and deep blue ( lower half ) , an until then unused color scheme in NSB . Only the Class 88 had a similar livery .
Seating was carried for 170 passengers — 46 , 70 and 54 respectively for each car . The motor car had a saloon section with ten seats ; however , this was converted to conventional seating in 1956 . It also had a 15 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 160 sq ft ) cargo section . The center and end cars each had two sections , and the latter had a 13 m2 ( 140 sq ft ) cargo area . However , 66 @.@ 64 instead had a restaurant with 23 seats . This was for when the trains were planned to be used on the Dovre Line . However , the line was not electrified until after the class had been removed from service .
= = Operation = =
Class 66 was put into service on the Østfold Line on 23 June 1946 . It reduced travel time to Halden to 1 hour and 53 minutes , and was branded as the Østfold Express . From 16 February to 8 September 1946 , it also had three weekly services that continued to Gothenburg , Sweden , as the Gothenburg Express . This was accomplished in 5 hours and 5 minutes . The high speed prohibited standing , and all passengers were required to purchase a seat reservation for NOK 4 . Three units were in operation at any given time , while the fourth was at service or in reserve . This proved to be too optimistic — during the 1950s , there were several periods were the trains were taken out of service due to lack of maintenance . During 1954 , Saturday trains were operated as double units .
On 9 June 1947 , the class was also taken into use from Oslo West Station ( Oslo V ) on the Vestfold Line , and along the Sørlandet Line to Kongsberg . From the 1 June 1949 , after the Sørlandet Line was electrified to Kristiansand , these services were shifted to the Sørlandet Express . On 15 November 1950 , one unit was involved in the Hjuksebø train disaster , and the end car needed to be fully rebuilt . From 1 December 1956 , when the whole Sørlandet Line to Stavanger was electrified , the service was extended and rebranded the Stavanger Express . To free up sufficient stock , the Østfold Express was discontinued on 14 November 1956 . The Sørlandet Express operated each day , while the Stavanger Express only operated three times a week . However , the Stavanger Express did not prove a success , featuring low passenger numbers , and the last train ran on 24 August 1958 . The trains remained in service on the Sørlandet Express until 27 May 1967 .
During the 1960s , the new El 13 locomotives were delivered , and locomotive @-@ hauled express trains replaced the multiple units . From 28 May 1967 , Class 66 was moved to serve the Vestfold Line . It operated in services to Skien until 3 June 1973 , after which it only served to Larvik . During the summer of 1975 , they could also be seen operating Oslo V – Nelaug , and during the fall of 1976 on Oslo V – Drammen . The units were taken out of service on 21 May 1977 . A single motor car , 66 @.@ 01 , has been preserved by the Norwegian Railway Museum , who has stationed it at Elverum Station .
= = Incidents = =
On 15 November 1950 , the Hjuksebø train disaster occurred , when a Class 66 train en route from Kristiansand to Oslo collided with freight cars that were running uncontrolled along the track between Hjuksebø and Holtås . The accident is among the most disastrous in Norwegian history , killing twelve people .
On 26 March 1957 , motor car 66 @.@ 03 and center car 18821 were damaged in a fire at Kristiansand . Both were retired due to the large damages . On 8 June 1969 , a unit derailed at between Eidanger and Oklungen , but was restored . Motor car 66 @.@ 02 was exposed to a fire on 4 June 1975 , and again on 28 December 1976 . After the latter incident , the car was retired .
= USS Oneota ( 1864 ) =
USS Oneota was a single @-@ turreted Canonicus @-@ class monitor built for the Union Navy during the American Civil War . Completed shortly after the end of the war , Oneota was laid up until sold to her builders in 1868 , and then resold to Peru . Renamed Manco Cápac , the ship participated in the defense of Arica during the War of the Pacific . When the town was taken by Chilean troops in 1880 , she was scuttled to prevent her capture . Her wreck was rediscovered in 1960 and it has been heavily looted .
= = Description and construction = =
The ship was 225 feet ( 68 @.@ 6 m ) long overall , had a beam of 43 feet 3 inches ( 13 @.@ 2 m ) and had a maximum draft of 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) . Oneota had a tonnage of 1 @,@ 034 tons burthen and displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . Her crew consisted of 100 officers and enlisted men .
Oneota was powered by a two @-@ cylinder horizontal vibrating @-@ lever steam engine that drove one propeller using steam generated by two Stimers horizontal fire @-@ tube boilers . The 320 @-@ indicated @-@ horsepower ( 240 kW ) engine gave the ship a top speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . She carried 140 – 150 long tons ( 140 – 150 t ) of coal . Oneota 's main armament consisted of two smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading , 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in a single gun turret . Each gun weighed approximately 43 @,@ 000 pounds ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) . They could fire a 350 @-@ pound ( 158 @.@ 8 kg ) shell up to a range of 2 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 7 ° .
The exposed sides of the hull were protected by five layers of 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) wrought iron plates , backed by wood . The armor of the gun turret and the pilot house consisted of ten layers of one @-@ inch plates . The ship 's deck was protected by armor 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick . A 5 @-@ by @-@ 15 @-@ inch ( 130 by 380 mm ) soft iron band was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent shells and fragments from jamming the turret as had happened to earlier monitors during the First Battle of Charleston Harbor in April 1863 . The base of the funnel was protected to a height of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) by 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of armor . A " rifle screen " of 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) armor 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) high was installed on the top of the turret to protect the crew against Confederate snipers based on a suggestion by Commander Tunis A. M. Craven , captain of her sister ship Tecumseh .
The contract for Oneota , the only Navy ship to be named after the Oneota Tribe of the Sioux Indians , was awarded to Alexander Swift & Company ; the ship was laid down in 1862 at their Cincinnati , Ohio shipyard . She was launched on 21 May 1864 and completed on 10 June 1865 . The ship 's construction was delayed by multiple changes ordered while she was being built — reflecting battle experience with earlier monitors . This included the rebuilding of the turrets and pilot houses to increase their armor thickness from 8 inches ( 203 mm ) to 10 inches and to replace the bolts that secured their armor plates together with rivets to prevent them from being knocked loose by the shock of impact from shells striking the turret . Other changes included deepening the hull by 18 inches ( 457 mm ) to increase the ship 's buoyancy , moving the position of the turret to balance the ship 's trim and replacing all of the ship 's deck armor . Completion of the ship was further delayed by the low depth of the Ohio River which prevented her movement from Cincinnati in December 1864 to finish fitting out . The river finally rose in March 1865 which allowed the ship to reach Mound City , Illinois on 7 March , where Oneota was placed in ordinary after completion , together with her sisters Catawba and Tippecanoe .
The ships needed a deep @-@ water berth and were moved opposite Cairo , Illinois in mid @-@ 1865 even though they still had to be anchored in the main channel where they were often struck by debris , drifting ice , and vulnerable to accidents . Tippecanoe 's anchor chain was broken on 27 March 1866 when she was struck by a steamboat towing barges and the monitor collided with Oneota and the two ships were dragged 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) downstream before they could be brought under control . This was a persistent problem and the Navy finally decided to move the ships down to New Orleans in May 1866 . In August 1867 , the Navy turned over Oneota and Catawba to Swift & Co. contingent on a guarantee that they would be returned in good shape if they could not be sold , and the company began refitting them for Peruvian service .
In October 1867 , an agent for Swift & Co. negotiated a deal with Peru to purchase Oneota and her sister for a million dollars apiece . Gideon Welles , Secretary of the Navy , initially indicated that the company could repurchase the two if it refunded the government 's costs to build them , but changed his mind and said that he had no authority to do that . Congress debated the issue and ultimately decided that they would be appraised by a board of officers and that the highest competitive bid in equal to or in excess of the appraised value would be accepted . The ship was appraised at $ 375 @,@ 000 and sold for that amount , possibly after a rigged bid , on 11 April 1868 .
= = BAP Manco Cápac = =
The monitor was renamed by the Peruvian Navy as Manco Cápac , after Manco Cápac , the legendary first king of the Kingdom of Cuzco which would grow into the Inca Empire . To prepare the ship for her lengthy voyage to Peru around Cape Horn , Swift & Co. added a breakwater on the bow , stepped two masts with a fore @-@ and @-@ aft rig to supplement her engine , and provided closures to make vents and deck openings water tight .
While this was going on , the United States was negotiating with Great Britain over compensation for losses inflicted by British ships knowingly sold to the Confederacy during the Civil War ( the Alabama Claims ) . Peru had been involved in an undeclared war with Spain ( the Chincha Islands War ) in 1864 – 66 and the US was not willing to prejudice its claims against the United Kingdom by performing a similar action for a belligerent power . Negotiations over the issue delayed the departure of the two monitors until January 1869 , after Peru bought two steamers , Reyes and Marañon to tow the monitors . They only reached Pensacola , Florida , before machinery breakdowns forced them to wait 30 days for repairs to be completed . En route from Key West to the Bahamas , the ships were separated in heavy weather . When Reyes attempted to reattach her towrope after the storm moderated , she collided with the sharp bow of Manco Cápac and sank in 15 minutes . The monitor , short of coal and food , was forced to make port at Naranjo , Cuba , then held by rebels against the Spanish government . They allowed the ship to restock her supplies , but no coal was available so the crew loaded up enough wood to reach the Bahamas where they were able to send a local schooner to Nassau to inform the authorities of their plight . The ships finally reunited at St. Thomas in the Virgin Islands and had to wait for the Pachitea to arrive from Peru to tow Manco Cápac . While entering Rio de Janeiro on the night of 15 September , Manco Cápac ran aground ; she was refloated the following day , but the damage required three months to repair . The ships were joined by the steam corvette Unión during this time . They reached the Strait of Magellan on 29 January 1870 and Callao on 11 May .
In 1879 , disagreements over guano and nitrate @-@ rich lands led Chile to start the War of the Pacific with Bolivia and Peru . The ex @-@ Peruvian turret ship Huáscar , captured by the Chileans at the Battle of Angamos , attacked the Peruvians at Arica on 27 February 1880 , fighting an inconclusive duel with Manco Cápac . The Peruvian failed in her attempt to ram the Chilean ironclad , although the Huascar 's captain was killed in the engagement . The Chilean fleet continued to blockade Arica as the army closed in on the city from the rear . Manco Cápac hit the schooner Covadondga on blockade duty on 6 June , but the monitor was scuttled to prevent her capture when the city fell the following day .
= = = Discovery = = =
The wreck was discovered in 1960 and is located 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of the mouth of the San José River at a depth of 15 @.@ 7 meters ( 51 ft 6 in ) . The hull is badly corroded and the wreck has been heavily looted . In June 2007 a documentary about the ship , directed by Miguel Vasquez , titled Manco Cápac , la última Estela , premiered .
= Reid Blackburn =
Reid Turner Blackburn ( August 11 , 1952 – May 18 , 1980 ) was a photographer killed in the 1980 volcanic eruption of Mount St. Helens . A photojournalist covering the eruption for a local newspaper — the Vancouver , Washington Columbian — as well as National Geographic magazine and the United States Geological Survey , he was caught at Coldwater Camp in the blast .
Blackburn 's car and body were found four days after the eruption . His camera , buried under the debris of the eruption , was found roughly one week later .
After his death , Reid was praised by his coworkers and friends alike . They spoke of his talent and enthusiasm , as well as his sometimes " acerbic " sense of humor . His wife , Fay , concluded that he had died doing what he loved .
= = Life = =
Blackburn was born in 1952 , the son of an engineer who possessed " a fixation on figuring out the way things worked " . He loved the idea of photography , once equating it to " painting with light " . He was an accomplished photographer , and had received accolades from the Associated Press for his photographs . Blackburn also authored a book on outboard hydroplane racing .
Blackburn attended Linfield College in Oregon . He began working at The Columbian newspaper in 1975 as a photojournalist . It was there that he met his wife , Fay Mall , who worked in the newspaper 's display advertising department . The two dated for several months before marrying in the summer of 1979 . Blackburn enjoyed hiking and loved the outdoors .
= = Assignment at Mount St. Helens = =
According to coworker and photo editor Steve Small , St. Helens was Blackburn 's favorite mountain . They climbed it together several times , and referred to it as " the Sleeping Beauty of the Northwest . "
Blackburn first became interested in the possibility of an eruption at Mount St. Helens in March 1980 , when a series of earthquakes rocked the volcano . Having already climbed the mountain , he was intrigued by the situation and was eventually assigned to document the activity of the volcano for his outdoor skills and his meticulousness . By May , he had begun camping out at the volcano as a joint project to take pictures of the volcanic phenomena for The Columbian , National Geographic , and the United States Geological Survey .
Despite being assigned to stay on the mountain only until May 17 , Blackburn opted to stay a few more days . Blackburn was situated near Coldwater Creek , 8 miles ( 13 km ) from the volcano , on the day of the eruption .
Early on May 18 , an earthquake measuring 5 @.@ 1 on the Richter scale struck the region , creating a massive landslide — -0.6 cubic miles ( 3 km3 ) of rock that released pressure on the volcano 's crater , causing an ejection of steam . Just seconds later , Mount St. Helens erupted laterally ( from its side ) , sending supersonic pyroclastic flows ( very hot clouds of gas and volcanic ash ) into the forest below .
= = Death = =
Blackburn was killed when a pyroclastic flow enveloped the area where he was camped out . His car was found four days later , surrounded up to the windows in ash with his body inside . The windows had been broken and ash filled the interior of the vehicle .
In early June , National Geographic photographer Fred Stocker recovered Blackburn 's camera from debris 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 m ) thick . The film was not salvageable , as the intense heat from the eruption had corrupted the negatives .
The 1980 event was the deadliest and most destructive volcanic eruption in the history of the United States . A total of 57 people are known to have died , and more were left homeless when the ash falls and pyroclastic flows destroyed or buried 200 houses . In addition to Blackburn , notable resident Harry Randall Truman and volcanologist David Alexander Johnston were killed .
= = Legacy = =
After his death , friends and coworkers of Blackburn came forward to compliment his pleasant character and his talent . Friends described Blackburn as having " an impishness his friends came to expect . " Coworker Mike Prager called Reid " one of the funniest and most talented journalists in the Pacific Northwest " who " made his job look easy , he was that good . " Tom Koenninger , editor of The Columbian , described Blackburn 's humor as " wry " and sometimes " acerbic " , but elaborated that Blackburn was " gentle , displaying aggression when it was necessary for him to get close to a subject he was photographing . " Commenting on her husband 's dedication to photography , Fay Blackburn remarked , " if Reid were alive today , he 'd probably be back on the front line seeking to capture the latest chapter in the mountain 's evolution , in spite of the risk . " " Reid loved that mountain . He climbed it , hiked it , skied it . " She added that he died doing what he loved .
The National Press Photographers Association awards a competitive scholarship annually in Blackburn 's honor , worth $ 2000 . In 2005 The Columbian offered an internship to applicants for the scholarship in memory of Blackburn .
In December 2013 , a roll of undeveloped film containing pre @-@ eruption shots of Mount St. Helens was discovered in Blackburn 's archives at The Columbian . The photos , taken by Blackburn during a helicopter photo shoot of the mountain the month before the eruption , were successfully developed over 30 years after Blackburn 's death , and remain journalistically important as a record of the pre @-@ eruption landscape .
= William Calcraft =
William Calcraft ( 11 October 1800 – 13 December 1879 ) was a 19th @-@ century English hangman , one of the most prolific of British executioners . It is estimated in his 45 @-@ year career he carried out 450 executions . A cobbler by trade , Calcraft was initially recruited to flog juvenile offenders held in Newgate Prison . While selling meat pies on streets around the prison , Calcraft met the City of London 's hangman , John Foxton .
After Foxton 's death in 1829 the government appointed Calcraft the official Executioner for the City of London and Middlesex . Following this , his executioner services were in great demand throughout England . Nevertheless , some considered Calcraft incompetent , in particular for his controversial use of the short @-@ drop hanging method in which the condemned were slowly strangled to death .
Because with Calcraft 's methods the condemned took several minutes to die , to hasten death Calcraft would sometimes dramatically pull on legs or climb on shoulders in an effort to break a victim 's neck . It has been speculated that Calcraft used these methods partly to entertain the crowds , sometimes numbering 30 @,@ 000 spectators or more .
Executions in England were public until 1868 . That year the law changed , mandating executions would take place privately and inside the prison . In 1868 Calcraft carried out the last public and first private executions . Among his executions were Marie and Frederick Manning , the first husband and wife to be hanged together since 1700 .
= = Early life = =
Calcraft was born in Baddow , near Chelmsford , in 1800 . He was a cobbler by trade , but had also worked as a nightwatchman at Reid 's brewery in Clerkenwell , London . While attempting to earn a living by selling meat pies on the streets around Newgate Prison he made the acquaintance of John Foxton , who was the City of London 's hangman for 40 years . That meeting led to his employment at Newgate to flog juvenile offenders , for which he was paid 10 shillings a week .
= = Career as an executioner , 1829 – 1874 = =
Foxton died on 14 February 1829 , and Calcraft was appointed as his successor . He was sworn in as the official Executioner for the City of London and Middlesex on 4 April 1829 , a position for which he was paid one guinea a week plus an additional guinea for each execution . He also received an allowance for cats o ' nine tails and birch rods , and supplemented his income by selling sections of the rope used to hang his victims , for which he charged between five shillings and £ 1 per inch . Calcraft 's first duty in his new role was the execution of Thomas Lister and George Wingfield , hanged together on 27 March 1829 , Lister for burglary and Wingfield for highway robbery . Esther Hibner , known in the press as the " Evil Monster " , was the first woman hanged by Calcraft . She was executed on 13 April 1829 , having been found guilty of starving to death her apprentice , Frances Colppits . Hibner did not go to the scaffold willingly , but had to be restrained in a straitjacket to prevent her from attacking her executioners . As she was hanged the watching crowd shouted out " Three cheers for the Hangman ! "
Calcraft was " in great demand " as an executioner elsewhere in the country as well , such as at Reading Gaol . During his tenure of office the Capital Punishment Amendment Act 1868 was passed , requiring that all executions must be conducted in private . Calcraft carried out the last public execution in Britain on 26 May 1868 , when he hanged the Fenian Michael Barrett in front of Newgate Prison for his part in the Clerkenwell Outrage . Calcraft also carried out the first private execution in Britain under the new law . Eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Thomas Wells , who had been convicted of the murder of his superior Edward Walshe , the stationmaster at Dover Priory railway station , was hanged on 13 August 1868 in a former timber yard inside Maidstone Gaol . Members of the press were allowed to attend and reported that Wells , who wore his railway porter 's uniform , did not die quickly , " struggling on the end of the rope for several minutes " . Calcraft 's final official duty was the hanging of James Godwin , on 25 May 1874 .
Reporting on Calcraft 's visit to Dundee to perform an execution in that city in April 1873 , The Times newspaper observed that " if their visitor had been a Royal personage , or an eminent statesman he could hardly have been treated with greater consideration " . They further reported that Calcraft arrived with only one piece of hand luggage , a carpet bag containing " a new rope , a white cap , and some pinioning straps " .
The number of executions Calcraft carried out is unrecorded , but it has been estimated at 450 , of whom 35 were women , making him one of the most active of British executioners . Among his better @-@ known victims was François Courvoisier , executed on 6 July 1840 outside Newgate Prison . Courvoisier had been valet to Lord William Russell , and had murdered his master after being caught stealing silverware from the household .
Calcraft officiated at one of the very few executions of a husband and wife , and the first since 1700 , when he hanged Marie and Frederick Manning at Horsemonger Lane Gaol on 13 November 1849 . The couple had murdered Marie 's wealthy lover , Patrick O 'Connor , with the aim of stealing his money . Calcraft also officiated at the last public execution of a woman in Britain , Frances Kidder , who was hanged on 2 April 1868 . Convicted of drowning her stepdaughter , she was executed in front of a crowd of 2 @,@ 000 , amongst whom was reported to be her husband . After her drop of 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) she struggled for " two or three minutes " before expiring .
= = = Technique = = =
Although Calcraft 's career as a hangman spanned 45 years , he appears to have been " particularly incompetent " , frequently having to " rush below the scaffold to pull on his victim 's legs to hasten death " . Those being hanged had their arms pinioned to their sides with leather straps before being walked to the gallows , where they were placed on a trapdoor and their heads and faces covered with a white cap , or hood . The purpose of the hood was to prevent the prisoner seeing the hangman pull the lever that released the trapdoor – and thus attempting to jump at the critical moment – and to hide from spectators any agony on the dying prisoner 's face . After the noose had been secured around each victim 's neck and the hangman had retired to a safe distance , the trapdoor was released . The bodies were left hanging for some time to ensure that death had occurred , before being lowered to the ground . Calcraft employed the short @-@ drop method of execution , in which the drop through the trapdoor might be around 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) or so . That was often insufficient to break the prisoner 's neck , and therefore death was not always instantaneous , typically occurring slowly by strangulation . Historians Anthony Stokes and Theodore Dalrymple have suggested that Calcraft 's " controversial " use of the short @-@ drop allowed him a couple of minutes to entertain the large crowds of 30 @,@ 000 plus that sometimes attended his public executions . " Renowned for his poor taste " , he would sometimes swing from his victim 's legs or climb onto their shoulders in an attempt to break their necks . In one of the first executions Calcraft carried out at the new Reading Gaol his victim , Thomas Jennings , took more than three minutes to die .
On 31 March 1856 , Calcraft executed William Bousfield , but a threat he had received that he would be shot on the scaffold unnerved him . After releasing the bolt securing the trapdoor on which the condemned man was standing , Calcraft ran off , leaving Bousfield hanging ; a few moments later Bousfield raised one of his legs to support himself on the platform . Calcraft 's assistant tried to push the victim off , but Bousfield repeatedly succeeded in supporting himself . The officiating chaplain forced the frightened Calcraft to return to the scaffold , where he " threw himself around his [ Bousfield 's ] legs and by the force of his weight finally succeeded in strangling him " . Calcraft 's bungling became the subject of a popular ballad .
Calcraft was also reportedly nervous of executing Fenians , because of threats he had received . On 22 November 1867 he officiated at the public execution of William Philip Allen , Michael Larkin , and Michael O 'Brien , who became known as the Manchester Martyrs . The three Fenians had been found guilty of the murder of a police officer , and were hanged together . Most accounts claim that Allen died almost instantaneously from a broken neck , but Larkin and O 'Brien were not so fortunate . A Catholic priest in attendance , Father Gadd , reported that :
The other two ropes , stretched taut and tense by their breathing twitching burdens , were in ominous and distracting movement . The hangman had bungled ! ... Calcraft then descended into the pit and there finished what he could not accomplish from above . He killed Larkin .
Father Gadd refused to allow Calcraft to dispatch O 'Brien in the same way , and so " for three @-@ quarters of an hour the good priest [ Father Gadd ] knelt , holding the dying man 's hands within his own , reciting the prayers for the dying . Then the long drawn out agony ended . "
Towards the end of his career the feeling began to be expressed in the press that Calcraft 's age was catching up with him . On 15 November 1869 , aged 69 , Calcraft executed Joseph Welsh , for murder , at Maidstone Gaol . Reporting on the execution The Times commented that " the adjustment of the rope was slow and bungling , and such as to show that Calcraft 's age has unfitted him for his occupation " .
= = Later life = =
By 1869 Calcraft 's mother , Sarah , was living as a pauper in a workhouse at Hatfield Peverel near Chelmsford . Calcraft was ordered to pay 3 shillings a week towards her upkeep , to which he objected , arguing that his brother and sister should be made to help , and that he had three children of his own to support , although there is no record of his marriage .
After reluctantly being forced to retire from office because of old age in 1874 , Calcraft received a pension of 25 shillings a week from the City of London and was succeeded as hangman by William Marwood . Although as a younger man Calcraft had been considered to be " genial " , with a love of breeding rabbits , in his later years he was described as " surly and sinister @-@ looking , with long hair and beard , in scruffy black attire and a fob chain " .
Calcraft died at Poole Street in Hoxton , on 13 December 1879 . An obituary published in The New York Times on 1 January 1880 reported that " Several so @-@ called biographies of Calcraft were published during his lifetime , but all are notable for a narrow stream of fact meandering through a broad meadow of commentary , and not one may be considered worthy of the subject or to be relied on for a strict accuracy of statement " . The earliest of them was an octavo pamphlet published in 1846 entitled The Groans of the Gallows ; or ; The Past and Present Life of William Calcraft , the Living Hangman of Newgate .
= Anthony Davis ( basketball ) =
Anthony Marshon Davis , Jr . ( born March 11 , 1993 ) is an American professional basketball player for the New Orleans Pelicans of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He plays the power forward and center positions . Davis was selected first overall in the 2012 NBA draft by New Orleans , and is a three @-@ time NBA All @-@ Star . He also earned a gold medal playing with Team USA at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
Davis played one season of college basketball for the University of Kentucky , when he was first team All @-@ American and the Consensus National Player of the Year . He also won the USBWA National Freshman of the Year , NABC Defensive Player of the Year and the Pete Newell Big Man Award . Davis led the NCAA in blocks and set Southeastern Conference and NCAA Division I freshman single @-@ season blocked shots records . Davis led Kentucky to a National Championship and was named Most Outstanding Player of the NCAA tournament .
He left college for the NBA after one season and was drafted by New Orleans , then known as the New Orleans Hornets , and was selected that summer to play for the Team USA in the 2012 Olympics . After his rookie season , he was named to the NBA All @-@ Rookie First Team . The next season , he became an All @-@ Star for the first time and led the NBA in blocked shots per game . He has since become a three @-@ time All @-@ Star and the youngest player to score 59 or more points in an NBA game .
= = High school career =
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Davis is from the South Side of Chicago and played high school basketball for Perspectives Charter School , where he had attended school since sixth grade . The team plays in a division of the Chicago Public High School League , known as the Blue Division , that is ignored by the media because of its lower level of competition . Perspectives is a charter school that operates as a math and science academy with high academic pedigree , but minimal athletic success . The school had no gymnasium and Davis ' middle school basketball teams practiced at a nearby church . In junior high school , he was known as " the little guy who would shoot threes from the corner " . He ended his freshman year at a height of 6 feet 0 inches ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) . By the beginning of his sophomore year , he had grown another 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) , and he finished the year at 6 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) .
As an unheralded guard after his sophomore season , he worked out with his cousins on guard drills that their father ( Davis ' uncle ) had developed . Davis did not play in the spring / summer AAU circuit between 8th grade and his junior year . He began his junior year at a height of 6 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) and his junior basketball season at 6 feet 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 03 m ) , saying he felt fortunate to have had such a rapid growth spurt without any knee pains . During his junior year , his family considered having him transfer to one of Chicago 's basketball powerhouses , but Hyde Park Career Academy head coach Donnie Kirksey , who knew Davis , Sr. well , advised against it saying " If you 're good enough , they 'll find you wherever you are . " Perspectives finished the season 8 – 15 . Although he remained unnoticed nationally and locally after three seasons of Chicago Public League play , he was soon thereafter rated as the # 1 player in the class of 2011 by Scout.com and in the ESPNU 100 . Rivals.com rated him the # 2 player behind Austin Rivers . The attention came when he started playing on Tai Streets ' Meanstreets ( AAU team ) traveling system in the spring of his junior year . As late as Spring 2010 he was still unknown , but began to be noticed in mid April . In late April , Syracuse offered him a scholarship . That spring NBA Top 100 Camp Director Dave Telep , invited him to the camp based on his dominant first half performance of the first game of the Fort Wayne , Indiana Spiece Fieldhouse event . That summer his talent was attention @-@ grabbing . In August 2010 , Davis played in the Nike Global Challenge in Hillsboro , Oregon . In the opening game , he had 23 points and 9 rebounds .
Davis verbally committed to Kentucky on August 13 , 2010 , choosing it over his other finalists , which were DePaul , Ohio State , and Syracuse . He had officially visited DePaul and Ohio State . On August 24 , 2010 , he became the number one rated player in the national class of 2011 at Scout.com. The pay @-@ for @-@ play scandal had played out very publicly in the press . Before Davis committed to Kentucky , the Chicago Sun @-@ Times reported that his father , Anthony Davis , Sr. asked Kentucky for $ 200 @,@ 000 for a commitment from his son . The report was initially released on Wednesday August 4 , 2010 by Sun @-@ Times reporter Michael O 'Brien . Citing " a reliable source , " he posted the following text " rumors / sources that have Davis choosing Kentucky are also alleging that the commitment cost $ 200 @,@ 000 . " before it was edited to say " rumors that Davis ' commitment is for sale have surfaced since he cut his list of schools down about a month ago . " and then removed later that day from the Sun @-@ Times ' high school sports website following a threat from a University of Kentucky lawyer . A Lexington , Kentucky law firm sent a letter under the signature of attorney Stephen L. Barker that expressed a " formal demand that you ( O 'Brien and the Sun @-@ Times ) withdraw the publication from any source from which it has been published , and issue an immediate statement that you know of no credible evidence indicating that there is any truth to the ' rumors ' referred to in your article . " Baker 's letter also threatened potential " punitive damages for your malicious and willful actions . " Anthony Davis Sr. declined to speak to the Chicago Tribune on August 4 regarding the allegation , although he denied the allegations to the Sun @-@ Times stating " We haven 't asked anyone for anything , and no one has offered us anything , " on July 30 before the story broke .
The article was reposted on the Sun @-@ Times ' website and included in the print edition on Friday August 6 where O 'Brien wrote " sources from three separate universities told the Sun @-@ Times that Davis Sr. asked for money in return for his son 's commitment , with the amounts ranging from $ 125 @,@ 000 to $ 150 @,@ 000 . " The University of Kentucky and the Davis family both threatened to sue the Sun @-@ Times over the article , however , no lawsuits were filed by Kentucky or the Davis family . The Davises and Kentucky claim the restated publication was false . Illinois ' one @-@ year statute of limitations on libel cases expired before any lawsuits were filed .
Davis signed his National Letter of Intent on November 10 , 2010 . He began his senior season on the Chicago Sun @-@ Times area 2010 Top 50 list . He was a pre @-@ season first team all @-@ state selection by the Sun @-@ Times along with Ryan Boatright ( East Aurora / Connecticut ) , Wayne Blackshear ( Morgan Park / Louisville ) , Mycheal Henry ( Orr / Illinois ) , and Jabari Parker ( Simeon / Duke ) . By that time , he stood at 6 feet 10 inches ( 2 @.@ 08 m ) . According to Rodger Bohn of SLAM Magazine who saw him play more than 10 times , Davis retained his guard instincts after his growth spurt . Despite Davis ' individual prowess , Perspectives began the season with a 0 – 6 record . He sat out one of those games with minor forearm and leg injuries . It took a near quadruple double on December 15 , 2010 against Benito Juarez Community Academy , when he posted 32 points , 21 rebounds , 11 assists and 9 blocked shots for the team to earn its first victory in its seventh game . The team 's subsequent game against Whitney M. Young Magnet High School played at Chicago State University was nationally televised on ESPNU . Later in the season , he missed some games due to a sprained right thumb . Despite losing approximately three @-@ quarters of its regular season games , Perspective earned a Class 3A regional play @-@ in game victory against Noble Street Charter High School in the Illinois High School Association state playoffs when Davis totaled 33 points , 9 rebounds , 7 assists , 5 blocked shots and 4 steals . However , after losing the subsequent regional semifinal game to King College Prep High School the team finished with a 6 – 19 record . Despite his growth , he continued to perform much of the role of a guard by bringing the ball up the court and shooting outside shots . For the season , he averaged 32 points , 22 rebounds and 7 blocks .
In high school , Davis earned numerous honors for his basketball abilities including being named to the 2011 McDonald 's All @-@ American Game and the 10th annual Jordan Brand Classic . Although he had not been rated in the Mr. Basketball USA poll to end the 2009 – 10 season , he began the 2010 – 11 season ranked fifth , which was the highest of previously unranked players and finished the season fourth behind Rivers , Mike Gilchrist ( now known as Michael Kidd @-@ Gilchrist ) and Bradley Beal . He joined those three and James Michael McAdoo as first team USA Today All @-@ USA high school basketball team selections . He was a first @-@ team Parade All @-@ American . He was also a first team All @-@ American selection by SLAM Magazine ( along with Gilchrist , Rivers , Beal , Quincy Miller and Marquis Teague ) and Dime Magazine ( along with Gilchrist , Rivers , Beal and Myles Mack ) . He was a first team selection to the ESPN Rise boys ' high school basketball All @-@ American team . However , in the statewide voting for the Illinois Mr. Basketball by coaches and media , he only placed fourth behind co @-@ winners Boatright and Chasson Randle ( Rock Island / Stanford ) and third @-@ place finisher Blackshear . Those four and Abdel Nader ( Niles North / underclassman ) formed the Chicago Tribune All @-@ State first team . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times selected him as a Class 3A first team All @-@ State selection along with Blackshear . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times selected him as an all @-@ Public League selection along with Blackshear , Parker , Henry and D. J. Tolliver . The Illinois Basketball Coaches Association included him in the Class 3A / 4A boys all @-@ state first team .
In the March 30 , 2011 McDonald 's All @-@ American Game , in front of a hometown crowd at the United Center , he made his first five field goals on his way to a 14 @-@ point , 6 @-@ rebound , 2 @-@ steal and 4 @-@ block performance . In the April 9 Nike Hoops Summit , Davis led the USA Basketball team to a 92 – 80 victory over the world team with a team @-@ high 10 rebounds to go along with 16 points and 2 blocks . He was named co @-@ MVP of the April 16 Jordan Brand Classic game ( along with McAdoo ) after posting 29 points ( on 13 @-@ for @-@ 15 shooting ) , 11 rebounds and 4 blocks in a losing effort . Davis ' 29 points was the second @-@ highest point total in the first 10 years of the Jordan Brand Classic , following only LeBron James ' 34 @-@ point performance .
= = College career = =
Davis committed to the Kentucky Wildcats , coached by John Calipari . Before his college career began , he was being mentioned as the NBA draft first overall selection in the 2012 NBA draft . In late February Dick Vitale mentioned the possibility that Davis might complete the men 's college basketball awards Grand Slam of National Player of the Year , Defensive Player of the Year , Freshman of the Year and the No. 1 overall pick in the upcoming draft . " During the exhibition portion of the season for the 2011 – 12 Wildcats , Calipari described Davis as follows : " He 's 6 – 10 with a 7 – 3 wingspan and he can shoot the 3 and dribble the ball and lead the break . . . " Less than a month into the season , ESPN 's Andy Katz described him similarly : " Davis offers a multitude of skills for the Wildcats with his ability to block shots , run the floor , score in the low post and face up to the basket . " Since Calipari had coached Marcus Camby , who was also a tall shot @-@ blocker , Davis drew comparisons to Camby . ESPN selected Davis as a preseason All @-@ American along with teammate Terrence Jones . Some sources , such as Blue Ribbon , selected Connecticut 's Andre Drummond as the preseason Freshman / Newcomer of the Year ahead of Davis , although Davis was the only freshman on the ESPN 10 @-@ man preseason team . Davis only received one vote for the Associated Press preseason All @-@ America team .
After most of the pre @-@ conference schedule but before the 2011 – 12 Southeastern Conference men 's basketball schedule , Davis ' teammate , Michael Kidd @-@ Gilchrist was mentioned as a possible Southeastern Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year . However , after less than a month of Southeastern Conference play , Davis was not only being mentioned as conference player of the year , but also National Player of the Year . By mid February , he was considered a National Player of the Year front @-@ runner with his primary competition coming from Thomas Robinson of Kansas . As the season progressed , he continued to battle Robinson while developing a college level offensive game . Davis averaged a double double and 6 @.@ 5 blocks in the two games ( November 15 , 2011 and April 2 , 2012 ) they played against each other , both on neutral courts . Davis led the Wildcats to a perfect 16 – 0 record in conference play en route to the SEC conference regular season championship . Davis finished the year with averages of 14 @.@ 2 points per game , 10 @.@ 4 rebounds per game , 4 @.@ 7 blocks per game and a field goal percentage of 62 @.@ 3 % . The Wildcats entered the SEC Tournament as heavy favorites and defeated LSU and Florida before losing to the Vanderbilt Commodores in the championship game . Despite the loss , the Wildcats earned the number one overall seed in the 2012 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . In the Wildcats ' six NCAA Tournament games , Davis averaged 15 @.@ 2 points , 11 @.@ 2 rebounds , and 4 @.@ 6 blocks per game , and led the team to its eighth NCAA championship .
= = = Watchlists = = =
On October 20 , 2011 , Davis was one of three Kentucky Wildcats named to the 12 @-@ man preseason watchlist for the 2012 Wayman Tisdale Award along with Kidd @-@ Gilchrist , and Teague . On November 7 , 2011 , he was selected to the 50 @-@ man preseason 2012 Naismith College Player of the Year Award watchlist by the Atlanta Tipoff Club along with three Kentucky teammates ( Jones , Kidd @-@ Gilchrist , and Teague ) . Davis was included on the 25 @-@ man John R. Wooden Award Midseason list on January 17 . On February 6 , Davis and Kidd @-@ Gilchrist were both included on the 20 @-@ player 2012 Oscar Robertson Trophy midseason watch list . Davis and Kidd @-@ Gilchrist were both among the five March 1 finalists for the 2012 Wayman Tisdale Award , which the United States Basketball Writers Association ( USBWA ) will award to the nation 's top freshman player via a March 30 announcement and April 16 presentation . On March 1 , Davis and Kidd @-@ Gilchrist were both named to the 30 @-@ player midseason Naismith watchlist . On March 6 , Davis and Kidd @-@ Gilchrist moved on to the final 15 nominees for the Wooden Award . As a USBWA first team All @-@ American selection on March 12 , he became one of five finalists for the Robertson Trophy . On March 19 , he became one of four finalists for the Naismith Award . Davis was named as one of 10 finalists for the Wooden Award , a designation termed as Wooden All @-@ American .
= = = Honors and awards = = =
= = = = National = = = =
Davis was named the 2012 Sporting News Men 's College Basketball Player of the Year . On March 19 , he won the U.S. Basketball Writers Association 's ( USBWA ) Robertson trophy . The Commonwealth Athletic Club of Kentucky named Davis the Adolph Rupp Trophy winner on March 22 . CBSSports.com recognized Davis as their national player of the year . On March 30 , he became the second freshman ( Kevin Durant ) to win the Associated Press College Basketball Player of the Year . On March 31 , he won the John R. Wooden Award . The following day he won the Naismith College Player of the Year . He was Kentucky 's first Naismith winner and the first from the SEC in 42 years ( Pete Maravich ) .
Davis was named to the 2012 Sporting News All @-@ American first team . He was also named first team All @-@ American by the United States Basketball Writers Association . On March 20 , the National Association of Basketball Coaches ( NABC ) chose him as a first team All @-@ American . Davis was a CBSSports.com first team All @-@ American . Davis was named a first team Associated Press All @-@ American , making him a unanimous first team All @-@ American selection .
During the 2012 NCAA Tournament , Davis was selected to the NCAA South Regional All @-@ Tournament Team . Then , in the 2012 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament final four , he posted 18 points , 14 rebounds and 5 blocks against Louisville . In the championship game , he had 16 rebounds , 6 blocks , 5 assists , 3 steals and 6 points against Kansas . He won the NCAA Basketball Tournament Most Outstanding Player and was selected to that All @-@ Tournament team . He was the fourth freshman to win the Most Outstanding Player award .
Davis was named the USBWA National Freshman of the Year . He was selected by the USBWA as the Player of the Year for its 10 @-@ man 2011 – 12 Men 's All @-@ District IV ( Kentucky , Tennessee , Mississippi , Alabama , Georgia , Florida ) Team . Davis was a first team selection to the NABC Division I All ‐ District 21 team on March 14 . On April 1 , he was also awarded the Pete Newell Big Man Award and the NABC Defensive Player of the Year . CollegeInsider.com recognized him with the Lefty Driesell Award as Defensive Player of the Year and the Kyle Macy Award as Freshman of the Year .
= = = = Conference = = = =
Davis twice earned SEC Player of the Week ( POTW ) honors ( Week of February 6 and 27 , 2012 ) and four times , when he was not Player of the Week , he earned SEC Freshman of the Week ( FOTW ) honors ( November 14 , 2011 , February 1 , 2012 , January 16 , 2012 , and May 3 , 2012 ) . He earned his first FOTW honor for debuting with a double double , including 23 points , 10 rebounds , 5 blocks and 3 assists against Marist on November 11 , 2011 . Only Jones and Sam Bowie had previously had 20 or more points and 10 or more rebounds in their Kentucky Freshman debut . His second FOTW came in a week in which he averaged 14 @.@ 0 points , 11 @.@ 5 rebounds , six blocks , 1 @.@ 5 steals and 1 assist in wins over Lamar and fourth @-@ rated Louisville . His third FOTW award came when he averaged 16 points , 7 rebounds , 4 blocks , 2 @.@ 5 steals and 2 assists in wins at Auburn and at Tennessee where both his point totals were game highs . He earned his fourth FOTW when he averaged 15 @.@ 5 points , 10 rebounds and 4 blocks in wins over Georgia and at Florida . He earned his first POTW recognition for averaging 20 points , eight rebounds , 7 @.@ 5 blocks and 2 assists in wins over Tennessee and at South Carolina . For Davis ' second POTW he posted a pair of double doubles to average 20 @.@ 5 points , 11 rebounds , 3 @.@ 5 blocks and two steals in wins at Mississippi State and over Vanderbilt . The February 25 win against Vanderbilt clinched the 2011 – 12 SEC championship for Kentucky as Davis tallied a career @-@ high 28 points as well as 11 rebounds and 5 blocked shots . ESPN 's Andy Katz described his SEC title @-@ clinching performance as the most complete performance of his career .
He was also selected as the SEC Player of the Year , SEC Freshman of the Year , SEC Defensive Player of the Year and a first team All @-@ SEC honoree . The SEC awards were selected by the league 's 12 coaches who were not permitted to vote for their own players . Thus , no awards were unanimous . Sporting News also selected him as Freshman and Player of the Year for the SEC . Also , the Associated Press selected him as Player and Newcomer of the Year for the SEC as well as an All @-@ SEC performer . Following the 2012 SEC tournament , he was selected to the SEC All @-@ Tournament Team .
= = = Records = = =
During the 2011 – 12 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season , Davis blocked more shots per game than most Division I men 's teams . In the January 17 contest against Arkansas , Davis set the Kentucky men 's basketball record for single @-@ season blocked shots surpassing Melvin Turpin and Andre Riddick , who each had 83 . In the game , he established a career high with 27 points and added 14 rebounds and 5 blocked shots . On February 4 , against South Carolina , Davis established the SEC freshman record with 116 blocks surpassing Shaquille O 'Neal 's total set for LSU . One of the most notable blocks of the season was a block of John Henson with four seconds left to preserve a 73 – 72 victory when number one Kentucky hosted number five North Carolina on December 3 . On March 15 , Davis established a Kentucky single @-@ game record for the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament by blocking 7 against Western Kentucky . On March 25 , Davis established the SEC single @-@ season blocked shots record in the NCAA Tournament South Regional Championship game victory over Baylor , surpassing Jarvis Varnado 's total of 169 . On March 31 , he tied DeMarcus Cousins with 20 double doubles for the Kentucky freshman @-@ season record . He also surpassed Cousins ' Kentucky freshman rebounds record of 374 with 415 rebounds . With six blocks in the championship game , he achieved a total of 186 for the season , surpassing Hassan Whiteside 's 2010 total of 182 , to set an NCAA Division I freshman record . This also tied the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Game record for blocks established by Joakim Noah in the 2006 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . Starting in the championship game gave him a total of 40 starts for the season , which tied Kentucky 's single @-@ season record along with teammate Marquis Teague .
= = = College statistics = = =
= = Professional career = =
= = = New Orleans Hornets / Pelicans ( 2012 – present ) = = =
Davis declared for the 2012 NBA draft alongside the rest of the national championship team starting five : fellow freshmen Kidd @-@ Gilchrist and Teague , and sophomores Jones and Doron Lamb . At the 2012 NBA Draft Combine , Davis measured at 6 feet 9 @.@ 25 inches ( 2 @.@ 06 m ) , 221 @.@ 8 pounds ( 100 @.@ 6 kg ) and had the second longest wingspan — 7 feet 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 2 @.@ 27 m ) of any player participating . On June 28 , the New Orleans Hornets selected Davis with the first overall pick . Davis became the fifth Chicago @-@ area first overall selection following Cazzie Russell ( 1966 ) , LaRue Martin ( 1972 ) , Mark Aguirre ( 1981 ) and Derrick Rose ( 2008 ) . On July 24 , 2012 , Davis signed a three @-@ year $ 16 million guaranteed contract with the Hornets as prescribed by the NBA 's collective bargaining agreement .
= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =
On November 1 , 2012 , Davis made his debut against the San Antonio Spurs . He scored a team high 21 in a losing effort . On November 2 , Davis suffered a concussion that sidelined him for 2 and a half games until November 9 . In his November 9 return , he posted his first double double with 23 points and 11 rebounds as well as 5 blocks , 2 steals and 2 assists in a victory over the Charlotte Bobcats . On November 17 , he totaled 28 points and 11 rebounds against the Milwaukee Bucks . On November 20 , Davis was announced to be out of the lineup for " a stress reaction " on his ankle . He was cleared to play on December 11 , 2012 after missing 11 games . On December 18 , he posted a career high 4 steals to go along with 15 points and a then career @-@ high 16 rebounds against the Golden State Warriors in his first start since being disabled on November 20 .
Davis appeared in the February 15 , 2013 Rising Stars Challenge during the 2013 NBA All @-@ Star Game weekend . Davis was removed from the Hornets ' lineup on February 27 following a collision with Brook Lopez the prior night in which he sprained his left shoulder . On March 5 , Davis returned to the starting lineup with 17 points , 15 rebounds and 4 blocked shots against the Orlando Magic . On March 9 , Davis established a career high in rebounds with 18 to go along with 20 points against the Memphis Grizzlies . On March 20 , Davis tipped in the game @-@ winning basket over Kevin Garnett against the Boston Celtics with 0 @.@ 3 seconds remaining . On April 10 , Davis suffered a season @-@ ending left knee medial collateral ligament sprain and bone bruise . He was injured in a collision with Marcus Thornton of the Sacramento Kings . He was a 2013 NBA All @-@ Rookie First Team selection , and finished second in NBA Rookie of the Year voting ( with 306 points ) to Damian Lillard ( 605 ) . His 20 double @-@ doubles was the most in his rookie class .
As a rookie , he proved to be mostly a pick and roll threat on offense , but was effective in fast break transition and on the offensive boards . He needed to develop his isolation and post @-@ up skills . His rookie skill set was said to resemble a young Lamar Odom , but he added over 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) following his rookie season .
After the 2012 – 13 season , the Hornets renamed themselves the Pelicans . Davis donated $ 65 @,@ 000 toward the construction of a basketball court at his alma mater , Perspectives . On October 16 , 2013 , during the preseason of Davis ' sophomore year for the 2013 – 14 New Orleans Pelicans ' , the Pelicans exercised the team 's 3rd @-@ year option on Davis ' contract .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
Davis began the 2013 – 14 NBA season with the newly @-@ renamed Pelicans with a pair of double @-@ doubles , posting 20 points and 12 rebounds against Indiana on October 30 and 26 points and 17 rebounds against Orlando on November 1 . In the Orlando game , Davis became the youngest player in franchise history to record 25 points and 15 rebounds in a game . In the third game of the season against Charlotte on November 2 , Davis established career @-@ highs with 6 blocks and 6 steals , while helping New Orleans to its first victory . He also became the first player with 6 blocks , 6 steals and 25 points in a game in the last 20 years and only the fifth with at least 5 blocks , 5 steals and 25 points in that period . For the week , Davis earned an NBA Player of the Week nomination , but lost out to Kevin Love . On November 8 , against the Los Angeles Lakers , Davis scored a career @-@ high 32 points and tied a career high with 6 blocks , along with 12 rebounds , becoming the youngest player ever to have at least 30 points , 10 rebounds and 5 blocks in an NBA game . On November 16 , he established a new career high with 8 blocks against Philadelphia . He again had 8 blocks on November 20 against the Utah Jazz . With 2 8 @-@ block games in the Pelican 's first 11 games of the 2013 – 14 NBA season Davis matched the number of 8 @-@ block games that Roy Hibbert had at that time in the 2012 – 13 and 2013 – 14 NBA seasons combined . No other players had 2 8 @-@ block games as recently . According to ESPN , while drawing a charging foul from Amar 'e Stoudamire , Davis suffered a non @-@ displaced fracture in his left hand in the first quarter against the New York Knicks on December 1 . Yahoo ! Sports claims the injury came on an attempted alley oop . On December 3 , the Pelicans announced a 4 @-@ 6 week layoff was expected . The injury came the night before he was supposed to play in his hometown of Chicago , marking the second year in a row that he was sidelined for his chance to play in his hometown .
Davis returned to the lineup on December 18 against the Los Angeles Clippers with 24 points , 12 rebounds and 3 steals . He returned to the starting lineup in the next game with 21 points , 9 rebounds , 2 blocks and a steal against Portland on December 21 . He missed 7 games due to the injury . In his seventh consecutive 20 @-@ point game ( all losses ) , Davis posted 31 points and 17 rebounds against Golden State . In the subsequent game on January 20 , he helped the Pelicans snap an 8 @-@ game losing streak with 27 points , 10 rebounds , 4 assists and 4 blocks against Memphis . On January 26 , Davis established a new career high with 19 rebounds , in addition to posting 22 points and 7 blocks , in a 100 – 92 victory over the Orlando Magic . On January 27 , Davis was a finalist for NBA Western Conference player of the week but lost out to Kevin Durant . The January 28 contest against the Cleveland Cavaliers featuring the last three first overall NBA draft picks ( Anthony Bennett , Davis , and Kyrie Irving ) , Davis posted 30 points , 8 blocks , 7 rebounds and 3 assists . However , he dislocated his left index finger causing him to miss the next game the following night . On January 29 , he was named a Rising Stars Challenge participant as part of the 2014 NBA All @-@ Star Game weekend . On February 7 , he was selected to replace Kobe Bryant in the 2014 NBA All @-@ Star Game . On February 26 , Davis sprained his left shoulder late in the first half against the Dallas Mavericks . He did not play in the rest of the game , and his subsequent availability was listed as day @-@ to @-@ day . Despite his shoulder sprain , Davis matched his career high with 32 points on February 28 against the Phoenix Suns . He was one of six Western Conference Player of the Week nominees on March 10 . On March 14 , Davis established a career high with 36 points against Portland . On March 16 , 2014 ( the very next game ) Davis scored a career high 40 points along with a career high 21 rebounds in a 121 to 120 overtime win against the Boston Celtics . The performance was the first 40 @-@ point / 20 @-@ rebound effort of the 2013 – 14 NBA season . Davis was the 4th youngest player ( 21 years and 5 days ) to achieve 40 / 20 in a game and the youngest since Shaquille O 'Neal in 1993 . In addition to his career game , Davis set a New Orleans ' franchise record with six straight games of at least 28 points . Glen Rice set the previous best stretch with five straight in the 1990s . It was also the first 40 @-@ point performance by a Pelican / Hornet since David West on February 26 , 2010 . Davis was again a finalist for NBA Player of the Week on March 17 and 24 .
In late March , Davis began suffering a series of injuries . On March 28 , Davis injured his left ankle , after four minutes of play against the Jazz . He missed the rest of the game and the next one . Davis returned to the lineup on March 31 against Sacramento . However , on April 2 , Davis endured back spasms that caused him to miss the second half against the Nuggets . Davis saw limited minutes on April 4 and missed a game on April 9 due to his back . On April 10 , the team announced that Davis would miss the remaining 4 games . Davis finished the season as the NBA leader in blocked shots per game ( 2 @.@ 82 ) . Because of his improved performance this season against his rookie season , Davis ended up finishing third place in the NBA Most Improved Player Award voting behind Lance Stephenson and Goran Dragić .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
Davis began the 2014 – 15 NBA season against the Orlando Magic with one of the best season opening performances of all time : 26 points , 17 rebounds , 9 blocks , 3 steals and 2 assists . It was the first 9 @-@ block season opener since Nate Thurmond had 12 to open the 1974 – 75 NBA season . The performance also marked the first 26 @-@ point / 17 @-@ rebound / 9 @-@ block / 3 @-@ steal effort since Hakeem Olajuwon during the 1989 – 90 NBA season . On November 8 , against the San Antonio Spurs , he posted 27 points , 11 rebounds and 6 blocks , including the game @-@ winning basket with 6 @.@ 6 seconds remaining . It marked the 5th time Davis had 25 points , 10 rebounds and 5 blocks since the beginning of the prior season . No other player has had multiple such games in that time . On November 22 , Davis scored a career @-@ high 43 points along with 14 rebounds against the Utah Jazz . He was a finalist for October / November Western Conference Player of the Month . On December 2 , Davis fell one assist and one block short of becoming the youngest NBA player to ever record a Five @-@ by @-@ five with a 25 @-@ point , 10 @-@ rebound , 4 @-@ assist , 6 -steal , 4 @-@ block performance against the Oklahoma City Thunder . Davis entered the December 12 , 2014 contest against the Cleveland Cavaliers with a player efficiency rating ( PER ) of 32 @.@ 9 , which would be the highest in NBA history if maintained for the full season . Davis was injured in the game and left in the first quarter . Davis was sidelined in the subsequent contest . He was a finalist for December Western Conference Player of the Month . On February 6 , despite having missed his last 11 three point shots and having a career 2 @-@ for @-@ 23 three point career record , Davis made a game winning three point buzzer beater against Oklahoma City Thunder as part of a 41 @-@ point , 10 @-@ rebound double @-@ double . The 41 @-@ point performance marked a New Orleans record 13th consecutive 20 @-@ point performance , surpassing Pete Maravich of the 1976 – 77 New Orleans Jazz .
On February 7 , 2015 , Davis injured his shoulder after falling off the rim when he received an alley @-@ oop . As a result of the injury , he withdrew from the 2015 NBA All @-@ Star Game , and was replaced on the roster by Dirk Nowitzki and in the starting lineup by LaMarcus Aldridge . Davis missed five games in late February and early March to the shoulder sprain . He returned against the Detroit Pistons with a very dominant game performance of 39 points , 13 rebounds , and 8 blocks , numbers that only Hakeem Olajuwon and Dwight Howard had achieved in a game in the prior 30 years . Davis also reached 437 career blocks , a franchise record . On March 9 , Davis tied his career high with 43 points and added 10 rebounds , 2 blocks and a steal in a 114 @-@ 103 win against the Milwaukee Bucks . On March 15 in a double overtime game against the Denver Nuggets , Davis became the first player in NBA history to tally 36 points , 14 rebounds , 9 blocks and 7 assists in a game since blocks became a statistic in 1973 . Only David Robinson has had at least 30 points , 11 rebounds , 8 blocks and 7 assists in a game . On March 16 , Davis earned Western Conference Player of the Week for games played Monday , March 9 , through Sunday , March 15 and was a finalist for Western Conference Player of the Month of March . In the final game of the regular season , a must @-@ win game that would send the Pelicans to the 2015 NBA Playoffs , Davis recorded 31 points , 13 rebounds , and 3 blocks in a 108 @-@ 103 victory over the defending @-@ champion San Antonio Spurs . The playoff berth was Davis ' first and the franchise 's first since 2011 . Davis ' season was one of the most impressive in NBA history , finishing the season averaging 24 @.@ 4 points , 10 @.@ 2 rebounds , 2 @.@ 9 blocks , and leading the league in player efficiency rating with 30 @.@ 89 . He was a finalist for Western Conference Player of the Month again in April .
In his first career playoff series , Davis averaged 31 @.@ 5 points and 11 @.@ 0 rebounds , and 3 @.@ 0 blocks per game . Although swept by the overall number one seeded Golden State Warriors , who went on to win the NBA championship , Davis joined Shaquille O 'Neal , Hakeem Olajuwon , and Karl Malone as the only players in the past 20 seasons to average 30 points and 10 rebounds in the playoffs . Davis also became the first player in 40 years to average 30 points and 10 rebounds in a player 's first playoff series , with the only other players to do so being Wilt Chamberlain , Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , and Bob McAdoo . At the end of the season , Davis finished 4th in the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award voting , 5th in the NBA Most Valuable Player Award voting , sixth in the NBA Most Improved Player Award voting . He was selected to the All @-@ NBA First Team for the first time in his career , becoming the first player to make the first team in his first three seasons since Derrick Rose did so in the 2010 – 11 NBA season . He was also an NBA All @-@ Defensive Team second team selection .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
On July 9 , 2015 , Davis signed a five @-@ year , $ 145 million contract extension with the Pelicans . On November 6 , he tied his career @-@ high of 43 points in a loss to the Atlanta Hawks . On December 1 , he tied a career @-@ high 9 blocked shots in an offensive off night against the Memphis Grizzlies . On December 20 , in a win over the Denver Nuggets , Davis scored a single @-@ quarter career @-@ high 19 first quarter points to finish the game with 27 . On January 15 , Davis converted an alley oop dunk from Jrue Holiday with 2 seconds remaining to give New Orleans a 109 – 107 victory over the Charlotte Hornets . On January 28 , Davis was named as a reserve for the 2016 NBA All @-@ Star Game . He again came close to a Five @-@ by @-@ five with a 28 @-@ point , 10 @-@ rebound , 4 @-@ assist , 4 @-@ block , 4 @-@ steal effort on February 3 against the San Antonio Spurs . The following day , he was named to the NBA All @-@ Star Weekend Skills Challenge lineup . On February 21 , in a win over the Detroit Pistons , Davis scored a franchise @-@ record 59 points and pulled down 20 rebounds . The previous franchise record was 50 points by Jamal Mashburn exactly 13 years earlier against the Memphis Grizzlies . Davis joined Shaquille O 'Neal and Chris Webber as the only NBA players with 50 points and 20 rebounds in a game since 1983 . Davis also became just the 20th player in NBA history to score at least 59 points in a game , and became the youngest player in NBA history to score 59 points in a game , and the second youngest ( behind Bob McAdoo ) to record 50 points and 20 rebounds in a game . The 59 points was an NBA @-@ wide season high at the time . The total was not surpassed until the final night of the season when Kobe Bryant posted 60 in his final career game . Davis posted a third 40 @-@ point game ( 40 points and 13 rebounds ) on March 9 against the Charlotte Hornets . On March 20 , he was ruled out for the rest of the season with a left knee injury and a torn labrum in his left shoulder . Upon being deactivated , Davis claimed that he had been playing through left shoulder pain since his rookie season .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
References :
= = National team career = =
On May 2 , 2012 , following a rash of injuries to players who had been on the 20 @-@ man Team USA basketball roster in January ( notably center Dwight Howard ) , Davis was named as one of the finalists for the 2012 Olympic basketball team . Davis , along with Greg Monroe , was under consideration to fill the vacancy at center resulting from Howard 's injury . Davis would be the first American player since Emeka Okafor ( 2004 ) to have competed in the Olympics without any prior NBA experience . By the beginning of July , he was one of six players ( along with Blake Griffin , James Harden , Rudy Gay , Andre Iguodala and Eric Gordon ) competing for the final three roster spots , according to USA Basketball director Jerry Colangelo . Tyson Chandler , Kevin Love , Griffin and Davis were the only true post players among the final 15 . It was reported that Davis " suffered a severely sprained ankle in a workout " on June 30 and " almost assuredly [ would ] bypass a chance to play for Team USA [ that ] summer in the London Olympics . " On July 12 , 2012 , however , he was selected for the 2012 USA men 's basketball roster after Blake Griffin suffered an injury to the same knee he injured in the 2012 NBA Playoffs . That team went undefeated in the 2012 Olympic tournament in London and won the gold medal match over Spain .
Davis was also a member of the 2014 national team that won the gold medal in the 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup over Serbia on September 14 .
= = Personal life = =
Davis is the son of Anthony Davis , Sr. Davis , Sr. is 6 foot 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) and his mother , Erainer , is 6 foot 1 inch ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) . He has a twin sister , Antoinette and an older sister , Iesha who plays basketball at Daley College .
He has cousins named Jarvis , Marshaun and Keith Chamberlain . Keith has played professional basketball in Germany and Latvia and their father , Keith Sr. , served as Davis ' elementary school athletic director .
On June 15 , 2012 , he signed with Arn Tellem and the Wasserman Media Group as his agents . Davis trademarked his unibrow sayings " Fear The Brow " and " Raise The Brow " in June 2012 .
= Bassem al @-@ Tamimi =
Bassem al @-@ Tamimi ( Arabic : باسم التميمي , born c . 1967 ) is a Palestinian activist and an organizer of protests against Israeli settlement construction in the West Bank . He was convicted by an Israeli military court in 2011 for " sending people to throw stones , and holding a march without a permit " . Tamimi 's lawyers denied those charges saying “ He believes in passive resistance and says he never asked anyone to throw stones ” .
al @-@ Tamimi organizes weekly demonstrations against Israeli settlement . He has been arrested by the Israeli authorities over a dozen times , at one point spending more than three years in administrative detention without trial . Al @-@ Tamimi advocates grassroots , nonviolent resistance , but has stated his belief that stone @-@ throwing is an important symbol of Palestinian resistance to Israeli occupation . His 2011 arrest drew international attention , with the European Union describing him as a " human rights defender " and Amnesty International designating him a prisoner of conscience . He was arrested again in October 2012 for a demonstration in a supermarket , but released in early 2013 .
= = Background = =
Al @-@ Tamimi was ten weeks old at the time of the Israeli occupation of the West Bank in June 1967 and hid with his mother in a cave during the conflict . As a grassroots activist , he organized weekly demonstrations to protest the seizure of the village 's well by the nearby Israeli settlement of Halamish , established in 1977 . The protests regularly lead to violent clashes , with Palestinian youths throwing stones and Israeli forces firing on protesters with tear gas , rubber bullets , and water cannons . Since the end of 2009 , 64 people ( 13 % of the village 's population ) has been arrested .
Prior to his 2011 arrest , al @-@ Tamimi had been arrested by Israeli authorities eleven times , at one point spending more than three years in administrative detention without trial . In 1993 , he lost consciousness for eight days after being shaken during an interrogation , and required surgery for removal of a subdural haematoma . His home has also been designated for demolition by Israel 's Civil Administration .
Al @-@ Tamimi is an admirer of Indian independence leader Mahatma Gandhi and believes that armed conflict against a more powerful Israeli opponent will only bring disaster . Al @-@ Tamimi states that he advocates nonviolent resistance , telling a reporter in 2011 , " Our strategic choice of a popular struggle — as a means to fight the occupation taking over our lands , lives and future — is a declaration that we do not harm human lives . The very essence of our activity opposes killing . " However , he has stated he is not concerned as to whether stone @-@ throwing is a form of violence , but views it instead as a symbol of Palestinian resistance : " We see our stones as our message . "
= = March 2011 arrest and trial = =
On 24 March 2011 al @-@ Tamimi was detained by Israeli forces following a demonstration . Following his arrest , he was charged with sending youths to throw stones , holding a march without a permit , incitement , and perverting the course of justice . He was subsequently held in a military prison for thirteen months . Amnesty International designated him a prisoner of conscience , " detained solely for his role in organizing peaceful protests against the encroachment onto Palestinian lands by Israeli settlers , " and called for his immediate and unconditional release .
On 27 April 2012 al @-@ Tamimi was released on 12 @,@ 000 shekels ( US $ 3 @,@ 193 ) bail due to a stroke suffered by his mother two weeks previous . An army prosecutor protested the release , stating that al @-@ Tamimi would " most definitely continue to use the status he received because of his arrest to influence young people to throw stones . "
Al @-@ Tamimi , during his trial , repeatedly questioned the legitimacy of the Israeli military court trying him as well as Israeli regulations regarding public gatherings . The military judge ultimately found him guilty of sending stone @-@ throwers and illegal protesting but cleared him of the two more serious charges . She stated that testimony from a 14 @-@ year @-@ old witness had been inconsistent and therefore unusable and that she had found misrepresentations by interrogators about the content of the confession of another witness . Israeli activist Jonathan Pollak described al @-@ Tamimi 's partial exoneration as a " miracle " given the 99 @.@ 74 percent conviction rate of the military court . Before his sentencing al @-@ Tamimi stated that " the laws come from an occupying regime whose legitimacy I do not recognise . I don 't think even for a single minute that there is going to be justice done . " His lawyer denied al @-@ Tamimi 's involvement in stone throwing , stating that al @-@ Tamimi believed in passive resistance .
On 29 May , al @-@ Tamimi was sentenced to time served of thirteen months ' imprisonment , and an additional two suspended sentences . A military spokeswoman stated that the sentence had been suspended due to " irregularities in the trial " and al @-@ Tamimi 's " clean prison record " . Under the terms of al @-@ Tamimi 's suspended sentences , he would be imprisoned for two months if he participated in an illegal demonstration within two years of the sentencing , and imprisoned for seven months if he participated in " activity against the security forces " within five years . Responding to the suspended sentences , al @-@ Tamimi said , " I feel that my whole life is under the surveillance of the judge . "
Catherine Ashton , the European Union High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy , expressed the EU 's concern over the conviction and called on Israel to allow peaceful protests . She also condemned the interrogation of a minor without a lawyer in the investigation as a " violation of his rights . " Human Rights Watch stated that the conviction " violates [ al @-@ Tamimi 's ] right to freedom of assembly , while [ the court 's ] conviction of him on a second charge of urging children to throw stones on the basis of a child ’ s coercively @-@ obtained statement raises serious concerns about the fairness of his trial . "
= = October 2012 arrest = =
On 24 October , al @-@ Tamimi joined 80 other activists , both Palestinian and international , in a protest at a Rami Levy supermarket in the West Bank just north of Jerusalem . The activists carried banners reading " Boycott occupation and its products . " Al @-@ Tamimi was arrested during the protest , which the Israeli police called " an illegal demonstration . " Amnesty International again described him as a prisoner of conscience , stating " Once again , Bassem Tamimi is being held solely for peacefully exercising his rights to freedom of expression and assembly . " He was released in early 2013 .
On 2 November , his sixteen @-@ year @-@ old son Wa 'ed al @-@ Tamimi was also arrested during one of the weekly demonstrations in Nabi Salih . The charges against him were dismissed by a judge two weeks later .
= = Personal life = =
Al @-@ Tamimi has a wife , Nariman , and four children . In 2012 , a photograph of his daughter Ahed shaking her fist at an Israeli soldier became internationally famous , and she received an award in Istanbul , Turkey , meeting that nation 's prime minister , Recep Tayyip Erdogan .
In 1993 , al @-@ Tamimi 's sister , Bassama Tamimi died while visiting him in custody of the Israeli Army ; it is alleged that she was struck and pushed down a flight of stairs by an Israeli army interpreter . Bassem 's cousin Rushdi Muhammed Sa 'id Tamimi was convicted of the October 1993 murder of Haim Mizrahi , a settler from Beit El , he was released in 2013 . Bassem was arrested and reportedly tortured . In December 2011 , al @-@ Tamimi 's cousin Mustafa Tamimi was killed by a direct hit from a gas grenade fired at close range . In November 2012 , al @-@ Tamimi 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Rushdi Tamimi was shot and killed by Israeli soldiers .
= HIV / AIDS in Malawi =
As of 2012 , approximately 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 people in Malawi are HIV @-@ positive , which represents 10 @.@ 8 % of the country 's population . Because the Malawian government was initially slow to respond to the epidemic under the leadership of Hastings Banda ( 1966 @-@ 1994 ) , the prevalence of HIV / AIDS increased drastically between 1985 , when the disease was first identified in Malawi , and 1993 , when HIV prevalence rates were estimated to be as high as 30 % among pregnant women . The Malawian food crisis in 2002 resulted , at least in part , from a loss of agricultural productivity due to the prevalence of HIV / AIDS . Various degrees of government involvement under the leadership of Bakili Muluzi ( 1994 @-@ 2004 ) and Bingu wa Mutharika ( 2004 @-@ 2012 ) resulted in a gradual decline in HIV prevalence , and , in 2003 , many people living in Malawi gained access to antiretroviral therapy . Condoms have become more widely available to the public through non @-@ governmental organizations , and more Malawians are taking advantage of HIV testing services .
Due to several successful television and radio campaigns by the Malawian government and non @-@ governmental organizations in Malawi , levels of awareness regarding HIV / AIDS are high among the general population . However , many men have adopted fatalistic attitudes in response to the epidemic , convincing themselves that death from AIDS is inevitable ; on the other hand , some have implemented preventative techniques such as partner selection to try to reduce their risk of infection . Although many women have developed strategies to protect themselves from HIV , women are more likely to be HIV @-@ positive than men in Malawi . The epidemic has affected sexual relationships between partners , who must cooperate to protect themselves from the disease . In addition , many teachers exclude HIV / AIDS from their curricula because they are uncomfortable discussing the topic or because they do not feel knowledgeable about the issue , and , therefore , many children are not exposed to information about HIV / AIDS at school . Finally , the epidemic has produced significant numbers of orphans in Malawi , leaving children vulnerable to abuse and exploitation .
= = History = =
The first case of HIV / AIDS in Malawi was reported at Lilongwe 's Kamuzu Central Hospital in 1985 . President Hastings Banda , who was in power at the time , responded with several small @-@ scale prevention initiatives and created the National AIDS Control Programme , a division of the Ministry of Health , to manage the growing epidemic . Banda believed that issues relating to sex , including HIV transmission , should not be addressed in the public sphere ; during this time , it was illegal for Malawian citizens to discuss the epidemic openly . In 1989 , Banda introduced a five @-@ year World Bank Medium Term Plan to combat the epidemic , but HIV prevalence had already increased drastically at this point .
In 1994 , when Bakili Muluzi became president , he addressed the nation 's need for a coordinated response to the HIV / AIDS epidemic . In 2000 , Muluzi introduced another five @-@ year policy known as the National Strategic Framework , but , like Banda 's five @-@ year World Bank Medium Term Plan , this plan was largely ineffective . In 2001 , in response to problems within the National AIDS Control Programme established by Banda , Muluzi created the National AIDS Commission . Unlike Banda , who prevented the public from accessing information about the epidemic , Muluzi ensured that information about HIV / AIDS was available on the radio and television , in newspapers , and on billboards . However , despite Muluzi 's efforts , HIV prevalence was already significantly influencing national agricultural productivity during this period , and Malawi experienced an AIDS @-@ related nationwide famine in 2002 .
Malawians gained access to antiretroviral drugs in 2003 , and , with a donation from the Global Fund to Fight AIDS , Tuberculosis , and Malaria and the election of new President Bingu wa Mutharika in 2004 , government interventions increased substantially . However , soon after his election , Mutharika experienced tensions with Muluzi after implementing an anti @-@ corruption program , which distracted the government from addressing the nation 's food and HIV / AIDS @-@ related crises . Despite these obstacles , Mutharika successfully developed a National AIDS Policy and appointed a Principal Secretary for HIV / AIDS during his presidency .
= = Awareness and risk perception = =
Despite Malawi 's limited health and educational infrastructure , knowledge regarding HIV / AIDS is high among many people living in both urban and rural Malawi . According to a 2004 study by Barden @-@ O 'Fallon et al. involving 100 households , women in Malawi are most likely to learn about HIV / AIDS through radio and television , health workers at local clinics , and female members of their social networks . Men are also likely to access information about HIV / AIDS through radio and television ; however , unlike women , they are not likely to gain information about HIV / AIDS from their male friends . When 57 Malawian men were interviewed in 2003 , 100 % of them said they had heard about the HIV / AIDS epidemic on the radio , and 84 @.@ 2 % of them said they had learned about HIV / AIDS during their visits to local health facilities ; this supports the fact that many people in Malawi have access to information about the epidemic , both through the radio and other sources .
Personal traits such as age , gender , location , and education correlate , either positively or negatively , with HIV / AIDS awareness levels . For example , older women have demonstrated higher levels of knowledge regarding HIV / AIDS than younger women in Malawi . Because men typically have greater access to education and other social resources , they are often more knowledgeable about HIV prevention and transmission than women . While men are , on average , able to list 2 @.@ 2 ways to prevent HIV transmission , women are only able to list 1 @.@ 5 ways . Only 38 % of women surveyed in 2003 @-@ 2004 understood that their husbands would be less likely to contract HIV if they used condoms during intercourse with prostitutes and other women from high @-@ risk groups . In addition , men who are raised in urban environments are , on average , more informed about HIV / AIDS than men who are raised in rural environments , presumably because urban children typically have greater access to educational resources than rural children . Among both men and women , higher levels of education correspond to increased knowledge about HIV / AIDS : men and women who have received secondary school educations are significantly more likely to understand complex aspects of the disease , such as the fact that people who appear healthy can still be HIV @-@ positive , than those who have not . Finally , people who have lost friends or family members to the disease are likely to have greater knowledge about HIV / AIDS due to their personal , firsthand exposure to the problem .
The aforementioned study by Barden @-@ O 'Fallon et al . , which surveyed 940 women and 661 men , indicated that , despite their knowledge and awareness , many people in Malawi do not feel personally susceptible to HIV infection . On average , only 23 % of the adults who were surveyed during this study , both male and female , believed that they were likely to contract HIV and die of AIDS . Greater HIV / AIDS awareness among men does not seem to correspond with increased perceived risk ; on the other hand , increased levels of knowledge about HIV / AIDS do correlate positively to perceived risk among women . Another study conducted in rural Malawi between 1998 and 2001 by Kirsten P. Smith et al. indicated that concerns about personal vulnerability to HIV / AIDS declined during this four @-@ year time frame , probably because the increased use of preventative strategies gave people a sense of control . In fact , many participants in this study claimed that they were " not at all worried " about HIV / AIDS ; unless they had simply adopted a fatalistic standpoint towards the epidemic , these respondents probably felt that they had successfully reduced their risk of exposure through personal behavioral changes .
= = Education = =
Students in Malawi have expressed high levels of dissatisfaction regarding the HIV / AIDS @-@ related education and support they receive at school . According to a survey of students in Malawi , most secondary students do not believe that the HIV / AIDS curricula at their schools provide them with an adequate understanding of the disease . Although the Malawian government and non @-@ governmental organizations have conducted many campaigns to improve awareness about HIV / AIDS in schools , there is still a significant shortage of age @-@ appropriate audio and visual educational materials relating to HIV / AIDS available to instructors , particularly in rural areas . In addition , most teachers cannot identify the students in their classes who have been personally affected by the epidemic , either through friends or relatives , which suggests that school @-@ based support for HIV / AIDS is minimal . However , despite this lack of support , surveys indicate that children who have been affected by the epidemic do not usually experience HIV / AIDS @-@ based discrimination at school .
Most teachers are required to address HIV / AIDS in their curricula ; although instructors are , for the most part , committed to helping their students understand and avoid the disease , they face many obstacles that prevent them from informing their students about HIV / AIDS in productive ways . For example , some teachers cannot advise their students to remain faithful to their sexual partners without seeming hypocritical because they engage in extramarital sexual relations themselves . Others feel uncomfortable discussing sexual matters with their students , and some believe that , due to their limited training , they are not knowledgeable enough about HIV / AIDS to direct classroom discussions about the disease . In addition , many teachers feel unsupported by community members , who often either deny the extent of the epidemic or believe that HIV / AIDS should not be addressed in the classroom .
= = Affected groups = =
Although the HIV / AIDS epidemic has affected men , women , and children in Malawi , certain factors such as sexual orientation , gender , and age influence infection patterns . In Malawi , HIV / AIDS is usually transmitted through heterosexual sex , but the epidemic has also significantly impacted the homosexual male population in Malawi . In addition , women in Malawi are more likely to be HIV @-@ positive than men , suggesting that women are particularly vulnerable to HIV / AIDS . Finally , the disease has affected children and young adults both directly and indirectly ; 170 @,@ 000 Malawian children were HIV @-@ positive in 2011 , and the number of orphans in Malawi has increased dramatically since the epidemic began in 1985 .
= = = Men = = =
Due to the vast scope of the HIV / AIDS epidemic , many Malawian men believe that HIV contraction and death from AIDS are inevitable . Older men in particular often claim that the HIV / AIDS epidemic is a punishment issued by God or other supernatural forces . Other men refer to their own irresponsible sexual behaviors when explaining why they believe that death from AIDS is inevitable . These men sometimes claim that unprotected sex is natural ( and therefore necessary and good ) when justifying their lack of condom use during sex with extramarital partners . Finally , some men identify as HIV @-@ positive without having undergone testing for HIV , preferring to believe that they have already been infected so they can avoid adopting undesirable preventative measures such as condom use or strict fidelity . Because of these fatalistic beliefs , many men continue engaging in extramarital sexual relations despite the prevalence of HIV / AIDS in Malawi .
However , despite these widespread feelings of fatalism , some men believe that they can avoid HIV contraction by modifying their personal behaviors . Men who decide to change their behaviors to reduce their risk of infection are unlikely to use condoms consistently , particularly during marital intercourse ; instead , they usually continue engaging in extramarital sexual relations , but alter the ways in which they choose their sexual partners . For example , before selecting extramarital sexual partners , men sometimes survey their peers to determine whether their potential partners are likely to have exposed themselves to the virus . Men who choose their sexual partners based on external appearances and peer recommendations often believe that women who violate traditional gender norms by , for example , wearing modern clothing are more likely to carry HIV , while young girls , who are perceived as sexually inexperienced , are considered " pure . " Because of this perception , many people are concerned that schoolchildren in Malawi , particularly girls , are becoming exposed to the virus through sexual harassment or abuse by their instructors .
= = = Women = = =
According to traditional gender roles in Malawi , men operate primarily in the formal work sector and are responsible for supporting their families through paid labor , whereas women , who are valued for their domestic skills , are responsible for agricultural labor and care work ; this gender @-@ based division of labor decreases women 's autonomy , thereby increasing their vulnerability to HIV / AIDS . Even within the home , women often lack bargaining power because they have limited access to education , formal employment , and other resources that could give them a sense of financial and personal independence . Women who are able to work in the formal sector typically earn significantly less money than men , even when they are completing the same tasks , making it difficult for them to elevate their status .
Many women are convinced that their husbands are putting their lives at risk by engaging in extramarital sexual relations without using protection ; however , because of their secondary status , they are often unwilling to initiate discussions about HIV / AIDS in the home . Most women in Malawi do not view divorce as a viable option , even when their husbands are HIV @-@ positive and refuse to protect them from the virus by wearing condoms during marital intercourse . Because they lack the education and training needed to seek gainful employment , women are not usually able to support themselves and their children outside of marriage without resorting to commercial sex work for money .
However , despite their vulnerability , some women in rural Malawi believe that they do , to a certain extent , have control over their own health and well @-@ being . They tell their husbands that the HIV / AIDS epidemic has made sexual infidelity extremely dangerous and encourage them to refrain from engaging in extramarital sexual contact . In addition , many women are convinced that , by appealing to the vulnerability of their children ( who will probably be orphaned if their parents contract HIV ) , they can convince their husbands to use condoms consistently during extramarital sexual encounters . Other women seek support from their friends and family members when they believe that their husbands ' unsafe behaviors are putting their lives at risk . Finally , as a last resort , women might warn their husbands that they will visit the ankhoswe , or traditional marriage counselor , and demand divorce if their husbands refuse to remain faithful and actively prevent the transmission of the disease .
= = = Children = = =
The number of orphaned children in Malawi has increased dramatically since the HIV / AIDS epidemic began in 1985 , with certain surveys indicating that more than 35 % of schoolchildren have experienced the death of at least one parent due to HIV / AIDS . Because HIV is transmitted sexually , married couples who engage in unprotected sexual relations put their children at increased risk of becoming double orphans , or children who have lost both parents to HIV / AIDS . Older children who have lost both parents to HIV / AIDS often become responsible for the care of their younger siblings , and many double orphans drop out of school or migrate to urban areas to try to support themselves and their siblings . Girls who have been orphaned by HIV / AIDS have unusually high rates of school absenteeism in Malawi .
When parents die of HIV / AIDS , extended family members usually become the children 's primary caregivers : in Malawi , 44 % of double orphans are adopted by grandparents or other close relatives . Extended family members often provide crucial support to HIV / AIDS orphans ; however , some sources indicate that extended family members mistreat orphans whose parents have died from HIV / AIDS . For example , family members who are unable to support adopted children often arrange early marriages for female orphans , who may then become victims of domestic violence and sexual abuse .
Evidence suggests that schoolchildren in Malawi are at risk of being exposed to HIV by their teachers , who sometimes value them as sexual partners because they believe that children have not yet been exposed to the virus . Children are particularly vulnerable to exploitation by adults who offer them money in exchange for sex ; because they are often unable to afford basic necessities , they might feel compelled to accept gifts in exchange for sex out of desperation . Interviews indicate that teachers and school administrators in Malawi often misinterpret the definition of sexual assault , as some believe that sexual relations between teachers and students are appropriate as long as the children have consented . Although most schools have strict policies against sexual abuse , children are often hesitant to accuse adults of wrongdoing , and many administrators are unwilling or unable to investigate the truth behind the accusations .
= = Marriage and relationships = =
Although couples are starting to use condoms during extramarital intercourse more frequently , condom use during marital sex is still viewed as inappropriate by many Malawians ; in 2000 , only 2 @.@ 3 % of people reported using condoms regularly during sexual intercourse with their spouses . Some people believe that condoms are only necessary during sex with high @-@ risk partners such as sex workers , and that condom use during marital sex implies infidelity . Others believe that marital condom use violates the religious purposes of marriage : sexual pleasure and reproduction . In a study published in 2007 by Agnes M. Chimbiri , men claimed that they use condoms with their wives for the sake of avoiding unwanted pregnancies ; on the other hand , they were more concerned about sexually transmitted infections when discussing condom use with extramarital sexual partners .
Many different sources of information can motivate discussion about HIV / AIDS among married couples . After hearing information about HIV / AIDS at local health facilities or during conversations with friends or family members , people are more likely to address the risk of HIV contraction with their spouses . In addition , women are more likely than men to mention the dangers of HIV / AIDS when they suspect that their spouses are engaging in extramarital sexual relations . According to a 2003 study by Eliya Msiyaphazi Zulu and Gloria Chepngeno , although higher levels of education do correspond to greater knowledge about HIV / AIDS , education levels do not significantly impact the likelihood that couples will discuss HIV @-@ related prevention strategies .
= = Economic impact = =
A 2002 study conducted by CARE International across three districts in the Central Region of Malawi considers how HIV / AIDS has affected economic well @-@ being in rural Malawi . When skilled laborers are infected with HIV , they are usually unable to work ; therefore , they often shift agricultural production on their land to less labor @-@ intensive crops , sacrificing the opportunity to grow more profitable , labor @-@ intensive crops such as tobacco . When family members fall ill with HIV / AIDS , their relatives invest time in their treatment and care , further reducing household productivity . In addition , when family members are infected with HIV , households often use the money they would normally invest in agriculture to cover medical expenses , further decreasing economic stability at the household level . Finally , when adults contract HIV , their children often remain home from school to work in the fields , threatening long @-@ term productivity and economic advancement in Malawi .
CARE International proposes several strategies that might reduce the destructive economic impact of HIV / AIDS on rural households . They recommend introducing new technologies that improve productivity to allow households affected by HIV / AIDS to continue supporting themselves through agriculture . Women in patrilineal / patrilocal villages are often unable to support themselves and their children when their husbands die of HIV / AIDS ; therefore , helping women acquire traditionally masculine agricultural skills might decrease their vulnerability while improving agricultural productivity at the household and community levels . CARE International recommends increasing cooperation at the community level by establishing labor and food banks in areas that have been devastated by the HIV / AIDS epidemic . Finally , CARE International highlights the importance of increasing access to information about HIV / AIDS in Malawi to help families prepare for and cope with the economic burdens associated with the epidemic .
= = Impact on health services = =
The HIV / AIDS epidemic in Malawi has been characterized by drastic declines in the number of health workers available to provide treatment and care and increasing strain on health services : more than half of all hospital admissions in Malawi are related to HIV / AIDS . However , Malawi currently faces a significant deficit in human resources : only 159 doctors were practicing in Malawi in 2007 . The World Health Organization 's Essential Health Package recommends placing at least three health workers at every health facility in the country , but the vast majority of Malawi 's health facilities fail to meet this standard .
While migration to more developed countries in search of better opportunities , also known as " brain drain , " is partially responsible for the shortage of health care workers in Malawi , many health care workers have been personally affected by the HIV / AIDS epidemic ; in fact , an average of 48 nurses die of HIV / AIDS in Malawi every year . The HIV / AIDS epidemic has resulted in high levels of absenteeism among health workers in Malawi , who often leave work to spend time with HIV @-@ positive friends or relatives , and the Malawian government has failed to respond to the declining number of full @-@ time employees working in the health sector . Health workers who are not chronically absent frequently abandon their jobs because they are unable to cope with the heavy patient loads or because they are afraid that working in a medical environment will increase their risk of becoming infected with HIV .
Malawi has adopted task shifting strategies to overcome the shortage of workers available for HIV / AIDS treatment and care . Task shifting , which has been successful in many other regions , involves training less specialized health workers to perform health @-@ related tasks that do not require professional training , such as the initiation of antiretroviral therapy . For example , at Thyolo District Hospital , health workers spend one week learning how to initiate antiretroviral therapy in a classroom setting and an additional two weeks practicing their knowledge in a supervised clinical setting ; after completing this course , they are legally ( under Ministry of Health guidelines ) allowed to initiate antiretroviral therapy . Another form of task shifting involves training health @-@ oriented counselors in HIV testing and counseling , which relieves nurses of this additional task .
= = Interventions = =
Malawi has taken many steps towards slowing the spread of HIV / AIDS , such as increasing access to condoms and improving testing services and treatment options . Many of these efforts have been funded by international donors including the World Bank , the Global Fund , the World Health Organization , the President 's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief ( PEPFAR ) , and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS ( UNAIDS ) . The World Bank has lent $ 407 @.@ 9 million to Malawi , the Global Fund has agreed to give $ 390 million , and PEPFAR has donated $ 25 million for prevention and treatment campaigns .
= = = Antiretroviral therapy = = =
The number of people using antiretroviral therapy in Malawi has increased dramatically in the past decade : between 2004 and 2011 , an estimated 300 @,@ 000 people gained access to antiretroviral treatment . In addition to improving access to antiretroviral therapy , in 2008 , Malawi introduced the World Health Organization 's treatment guidelines for antiretroviral therapy , which improved the quality of treatment available to Malawians . However , Malawi 's proposal for a new antiretroviral treatment plan in 2011 , which would have cost $ 105 million per year , was rejected by the Global Fund , threatening Malawi 's ability to continue expanding access to antiretroviral treatment .
In 2000 , Malawi 's Ministry of Health and Population began developing a plan to distribute antiretroviral drugs to the population , and , as of 2003 , there were several sites providing antiretroviral drugs in Malawi . The Lighthouse , a trust in Lilongwe that fights HIV / AIDS , provides antiretroviral drugs at a cost of 2 @,@ 500 kwacha per month . Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital in Blantyre provides antiretroviral therapy through its outpatient department , and Médecins Sans Frontières distributes antiretroviral drugs to patients for free in the Chiradzulu and Thyolo Districts . Many different private providers sell antiretroviral drugs , particularly in cities ; however , very few patients can afford to receive drugs from the private sector in Malawi . In addition , private providers are not currently required to obtain certification before selling antiretroviral drugs , and , therefore , this practice is not closely monitored . Finally , some employees receive access to antiretroviral drugs through the health insurance policies provided by their employers , but this practice is not widespread .
Due to the advent of antiretroviral drugs , HIV / AIDS has become a manageable disease for people who can access and afford treatment ; however , antiretroviral therapy remains largely unaffordable and inaccessible to most people in Malawi . For example , the South East region of Malawi has disproportionately low access to antiretroviral drugs . In many rural areas , poor health infrastructure combined with widespread famine have made sustained , high @-@ quality antiretroviral therapy difficult or impossible . In addition , donations from the Global Fund to Fight AIDS , Tuberculosis , and Malaria were used to fund antiretroviral therapy programs that distributed medication on a " first @-@ come , first @-@ served " basis , making the drugs more accessible to the male , urban , educated population . Because there are no explicit policies regarding the fair distribution of antiretroviral drugs in Malawi , individual health care workers often become responsible for deciding who will receive treatment , which inevitably leads to inequitable distribution .
= = = Condom distribution = = =
Although condoms effectively prevent the sexual transmission of HIV , several factors have limited widespread condom distribution and uptake in Malawi . People living in non @-@ urban areas often have difficulty accessing condoms , and condoms are not typically available at bars and other social locations where they could have a significant impact on HIV prevention . Many people oppose condoms because they believe that condoms make sex less enjoyable or because they question their ability to prevent the transmission of HIV . However , despite these factors , many unmarried couples have started using condoms more consistently as concern and fear about the HIV / AIDS epidemic have increased .
Non @-@ governmental organizations such as Population Services International ( Malawi ) , an organization that strives to improve the health of Malawians , and Banja La Mtsogolo , an organization that distributes information and resources related to family planning , have conducted campaigns advertising condom use as an effective form of protection against HIV / AIDS . Banja La Mtsogolo provides condoms to both men and women , and has significantly improved the availability of condoms for women in particular . Because of efforts by Population Services International , Banja La Mtsogolo , and many other organizations , condoms have become more widely available to many people in Malawi .
= = = Voluntary counseling and testing = = =
People living in areas with high rates of HIV / AIDS face several psychological barriers when deciding whether to undergo testing for HIV . For example , people may prefer not to know if they are HIV @-@ positive because , due to the obstacles they often face in gaining access to antiretroviral drugs , many view HIV / AIDS diagnoses as death sentences . Others may simply believe that they are HIV @-@ negative , either because they practice strict monogamy and consistently use condoms during sexual intercourse or because they are in denial about the prevalence of the disease . However , despite these barriers , both mobile and static testing services have become more widely available in Malawi recently : 1 @,@ 392 testing and counseling sites existed in 2011 . Certain non @-@ governmental organization such as the Malawi AIDS Counseling and Resource Organisation ( MACRO ) provide door @-@ to @-@ door counseling and testing services , which have drastically improved the accessibility of HIV testing .
= HMS Hotspur ( H01 ) =
HMS Hotspur was an H @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy during the 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 the ship spent considerable time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . During the Norwegian Campaign of the Second World War , she fought in the First Battle of Narvik in April 1940 where she was badly damaged . After her repairs were completed , Hotspur was transferred to Gibraltar where she participated in the Battle of Dakar in September . A month later the ship was badly damaged when she rammed and sank an Italian submarine . She received permanent repairs in Malta and was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet when they were finished in early 1941 . Hotspur participated in the Battle of Cape Matapan in March and evacuated British and Australian troops from both Greece and Crete in April – May . In June the ship participated in the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign and was escorting convoys and the larger ships of the Mediterranean Fleet until she was transferred to the Eastern Fleet in March 1942 .
Hotspur did not see any action during the Japanese Indian Ocean raid in April , but she did escort an aircraft carrier in September during the later stages of the invasion of Madagascar . In June 1942 the ship returned to the Mediterranean to escort another convoy to Malta ( Operation Vigorous ) . She was converted to an escort destroyer beginning in March 1943 in the United Kingdom and was assigned to escort convoys in the North Atlantic for most of the rest of the war . After a lengthy refit in late 1944 , Hotspur escorted convoys in the Irish Sea until the end of the Second World War in May 1945 .
After the war the ship was used both as a training ship and on active duty until she was placed in reserve in early 1948 . She was sold to the Dominican Republic late that year and renamed Trujillo . After the death of Rafael Trujillo , who ruled the Dominican Republic from 1930 until his assassination in 1961 , the ship was renamed Duarte in 1962 , and finally was sold for scrap in 1972 .
= = Description = =
Hotspur displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Hotspur carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime , but this increased to 146 in wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Hotspur had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
Beginning in mid @-@ 1940 , the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was increased although when exactly the modifications were made is not known . The rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ( 12 @-@ pounder ) AA gun and the quadruple .50 @-@ calibre Vickers mounts were replaced by 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon autocannon . Two more Oerlikon guns were also added in the forward superstructure .
= = Construction and service = =
Hotspur was laid down by Scotts Shipbuilding & Engineering Company , Greenock , Scotland on 27 February 1935 , launched on 23 March 1936 and completed on 29 December 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 253 @,@ 037 . She was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . Hotspur patrolled Spanish waters in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the policies of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . The ship received an overhaul at Gibraltar between 16 December 1937 and 17 January 1938 . She resumed patrolling Spanish waters in 1938 and 1939 . After the end of the Spanish Civil War , Hotspur began a refit in Sheerness Dockyard in August 1939 , but this was cancelled later in the month as tensions rose just before the beginning of the Second World War .
She sailed later that month for the Mediterranean , but , once she reached Gibraltar , she was diverted to Freetown , Sierra Leone to search for German commerce raiders . The ship was transferred to the North America and West Indies Station in October and was refitted in Sheerness between 18 January and 6 March 1940 . On 6 April Hotspur and the rest of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla escorted the four destroyer minelayers of the 20th Destroyer Flotilla as they sailed to implement Operation Wilfred , an operation to lay mines in the Vestfjord to prevent the transport of Swedish iron ore from Narvik to Germany . The mines were laid on the early morning of 8 April , before the Germans began their invasion , and the destroyers joined the battlecruiser Renown and her escorts .
During the First Battle of Narvik on 10 April the ship , together with her sister ship , Hostile , was initially deployed to secure the escape route of the other three destroyers of the 2nd Flotilla and deal with any captured coast defence guns . Hotspur did eventually move forward and fired four torpedoes into Narvik harbour , sinking at least two merchant ships . As the British ships were leaving the vicinity of Narvik they encountered five German destroyers at close range . Two of the German ships crossed the T of the British ships and quickly set Hardy on fire and forced her to run aground . Hunter eventually took the lead , but was severely damaged by the Germans , probably including one torpedo hit , and her speed dropped rapidly . Hotspur , immediately behind her , was temporarily out of control due to two hits and rammed her from behind . When the ships managed to disengage , Hunter capsized and Hotspur moved ahead slowly , engaged by all five German destroyers . Havock and Hostile had disengaged earlier , but came back to save Hotspur . Hostile laid a smoke screen that allowed Hotspur to escape while Havock engaged the German ships . Hostile escorted the badly damaged Hotspur to the repair base set up at Flakstadøya in the Lofoten Islands . During the battle the ship had been hit seven times by German shells which knocked out No. 2 boiler , all electrical circuits , her depth charges , her rangefinder and killed 18 of her crew . Temporary repairs allowed Hotspur to sail for Chatham Dockyard where she was repaired from 2 May to 16 July .
After her repairs were completed the ship was transferred to the 13th Destroyer Flotilla of the North Atlantic Command , based at Gibraltar . During Operation Hurry , Hotspur , and three other destroyers , escorted the aircraft carrier Argus to a position south @-@ west of Sardinia so the carrier could fly off her Hawker Hurricane fighters to Malta on 2 August . On 11 September , the ship spotted the Vichy French cruisers Georges Leygues , Gloire and Montcalm and three escorting destroyers en route from Toulon to Gabon . She escorted the capital ships of Force H during the Battle of Dakar on 23 September , but was not engaged . On 20 October , Hotspur , the destroyer Griffin and her sister Gallant sank the Italian submarine Lafolè east of Gibraltar . The ship was badly damaged when she rammed the submarine and she was given temporary repairs at Gibraltar between 22 October and 20 November . She escorted a troop convoy from Gibraltar to Malta in late November during Operation Collar . Permanent repairs were made at Malta between 29 November and 20 February 1941 .
= = = 1941 = = =
After her repairs were completed , Hotspur was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet . The ship escorted the capital ships of the Mediterranean Fleet during the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941 . In mid @-@ April she escorted the fast transport MV Breconshire and three battleships from Alexandria to Malta before going on to escort the battleships as they bombarded Tripoli on 20 April . After refuelling in Alexandria on 23 April , Hotspur sailed for Greece to begin evacuating British and Australian troops from the beaches . On 8 May , the ship again escorted the capital ships of the Mediterranean Fleet as they covered another convoy from Alexandria to Malta before being detached to escort the light cruiser Ajax as she bombarded Benghazi harbour on 7 / 8 May and sank two Italian merchant ships . During the evacuation of Crete Hotspur had to scuttle the destroyer Imperial on 29 May after the latter ship 's steering had been disabled by a near miss by a bomb .
The ship escorted the LSI ( L ) Glengyle during the opening stage of the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign of June 1941 and also hunted for French submarines . From July to November , Hotspur escorted convoys to Tobruk On 25 November , she was escorting the battleship Barham when that ship was torpedoed by German submarine U @-@ 331 . Hotspur and the other escorting destroyers rescued 451 men . The ship escorted the light cruiser Naiad when she bombarded Derna in early December . While escorting a convoy , Hotspur and her sister , Hasty , sank U @-@ 79 on 23 December north of Sollum .
= = = 1942 = = =
During a convoy to Malta in January 1942 , the ship was detailed to escort the merchant ship Thermopylae to Benghazi when she started having engine trouble . En route , however , Thermopylae was sunk by air attack on 19 January . On 23 March Hotspur was transferred to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean and was assigned to Force A of the fleet during the Indian Ocean raid by the Japanese in early April 1942 . The ship returned to the Mediterranean to participate in Operation Vigorous , another convoy from Alexandria to Malta , in June . Hotspur was forced to sink her sister , Hasty , after the latter was damaged by a torpedo from German motor torpedo boat S @-@ 55 . After the ship returned to the Indian Ocean , she escorted the carrier Illustrious when that ship supported operations on Madagascar in September . Hotspur remained in the Indian Ocean until January 1943 when she was transferred to Freetown , where she arrived on 14 February . The ship remained there only briefly before being transferred home to begin a conversion to an escort destroyer . The conversion began at Sheerness on 1 March and lasted until 31 May .
A Type 271 surface search radar replaced the fire @-@ control director and rangefinder above the bridge . A Type 290 surface warning radar was added at the top of the foremast . A High frequency direction finding system was added on a pole mast aft . The ship also received a Type 242 IFF system . Two 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns were removed , one each forward and aft , and the forward gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar . The 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft gun amidships was also removed , but the number of 20 mm AA guns was increased to six .
Hotspur was assigned to Escort Group C4 in June after working up and escorted convoys in the North Atlantic . She was transferred to the 14th Escort Group in June 1944 and refitted in Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness between 31 October and 9 March 1945 . Escort duties in the Irish Sea followed until Victory in Europe Day . Sometime before this , the ship 's Hedgehog was replaced by a 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch gun . Hotspur was briefly assigned to the Rosyth Escort Force before being transferred to the Derry Training Squadron in August .
Hotspur was reassigned to the 4th Escort Group in June 1946 until she was refitted at Portsmouth Dockyard in February – March 1947 . The ship was then assigned to the 3rd Escort Flotilla based at Portland Harbour . She was selected to be scrapped in November 1947 and was placed in reserve on 20 January 1948 pending disposal .
Hotspur was sold to the Dominican Republic on 23 November 1948 and renamed Trujillo . By this time the ship carried a Type 291 air warning radar and an American SG @-@ 1 surface search radar . Four 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) Bofors guns replaced the 20 mm Oerlikons . In June 1953 , she was one of a number of foreign warships to attend Queen Elizabeth II 's Coronation Review at Spithead . After the death of Rafael Trujillo , the ship was renamed Duarte in 1962 . She was sold for scrap in 1972 .
= Tommy Flanagan =
Thomas Lee Flanagan ( March 16 , 1930 – November 16 , 2001 ) was an American jazz pianist and composer . He grew up in Detroit , initially influenced by such pianists as Art Tatum , Teddy Wilson , and Nat King Cole , and then by the newer bebop musicians . Within months of moving to New York in 1956 , he had recorded with Miles Davis and on Sonny Rollins ' landmark Saxophone Colossus . Recordings under various leaders , including the historically important Giant Steps of John Coltrane , and The Incredible Jazz Guitar of Wes Montgomery , continued well into 1962 , when he became vocalist Ella Fitzgerald 's full @-@ time accompanist . He stayed for three years , then returned to be her pianist and musical director in 1968 , and stayed for a decade .
After leaving Fitzgerald again , Flanagan attracted praise for the elegance of his playing , which was principally in trio settings when under his own leadership . In his 45 @-@ year recording career , he recorded more than three dozen albums under his own name and more than 200 as a sideman . By the time of his death he was one of the most widely admired of jazz pianists and had influenced both his contemporaries and later generations of players .
= = Early life = =
Flanagan was born in Conant Gardens , Detroit , Michigan , on March 16 , 1930 . He was the youngest of six children – five boys and a girl . His parents were both originally from Georgia . His father , Johnson Sr , was a postman , and his mother , Ida Mae , worked in the garment industry .
At the age of six , his parents gave him a clarinet for Christmas . He learned to read music from playing that instrument , but within a few years he preferred the piano . The family had a piano in the house , and Flanagan received lessons from one of his brothers , Johnson , and Gladys Wade Dillard , who also taught Kirk Lightsey and Barry Harris . Flanagan graduated from Northern High School , which he attended with other future musicians , including Sonny Red .
Flanagan 's early influences included Art Tatum and Teddy Wilson , both of whom he heard on radio and playing in the Detroit area , as well as Nat King Cole and local pianists Earl Van Riper and Willie Anderson . These , however , played in an earlier style , and the young Flanagan and his friends were more interested in the newer bebop , including that played by pianist Bud Powell , who had a strong effect on Flanagan 's musical thinking and improvising .
= = Later life and career = =
= = = 1945 – 1955 – Around Detroit = = =
Flanagan 's first concert was around 1945 , with trombonist Frank Rosolino . Flanagan 's age meant that he could not stay in the bar area of the club , so between sets he went to another room and did some homework . As a teenager , he played in a band led by Lucky Thompson that also contained Pepper Adams and Kenny Burrell . Still in his teens , Flanagan also sat in on piano for some appearances by Charlie Parker in Detroit . During 1949 Flanagan had his first residence , at the Blue Bird Inn in Detroit . In 1950 he played with Rudy Rutherford , until the clarinetist returned to the Count Basie band . Flanagan then played jazz and rhythm and blues with saxophonist George Benson in Toledo , before being drafted into the army in 1951 .
After basic training in Fort Leonard Wood , Missouri , Flanagan auditioned as a pianist for an army show . He got the role , which prevented him from being sent to the Korean War at that time , but around a year later he was sent to Kunsan , with the war ongoing . There , he worked as a motion @-@ picture @-@ projector operator . After two years ' service he was discharged and returned to Detroit , where he soon became pianist at the Blue Bird again . He again worked with Burrell , as well as Donald Byrd and Yusef Lateef , among others .
= = = 1956 – early 1978 – After move to New York = = =
Flanagan moved to New York in 1956 . He was unsure of how long he would stay , having been persuaded to go by Burrell ; the pair initially stayed with Burrell 's aunt in Harlem . Flanagan soon found work in clubs and studios , including recording Detroit – New York Junction with Thad Jones in March . Later the same month he returned to recording , this time with Miles Davis and Sonny Rollins , for tracks released on Collectors ' Items . Rollins was leader for another session three months later : Saxophone Colossus , which was labeled an " undisputed masterpiece " by The Penguin Guide to Jazz .
Flanagan also first accompanied Ella Fitzgerald in 1956 , for around a month , including at the Newport Jazz Festival . Later that year he joined trombonist J. J. Johnson , with whom he recorded several albums in 1957 and then toured Europe . While in Sweden , Flanagan , with bassist Wilbur Little and drummer Elvin Jones , recorded his first album as leader , Overseas . Late in 1957 he was part of Miles Davis ' band for a short period , before returning to Johnson early the following year , for another stay of 10 months . A period leading his own trio in 1958 was followed by joining trombonist Tyree Glenn .
Throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s Flanagan made frequent appearances in recording studios , for a large number of leaders and record labels . In May 1959 he was part of a groundbreaking recording : John Coltrane 's Giant Steps , described by The Penguin Guide to Jazz as the saxophonist 's " first genuinely iconic record " . The technical complexity of the music , particularly of the title track , meant that there were numerous false starts and rejected takes , and the initially released take of " Giant Steps " is a rare instance on record of Flanagan sounding uncertain . Another appearance on a landmark recording came in January of the following year : Flanagan was a member of the quartet that made The Incredible Jazz Guitar of Wes Montgomery ; his playing complemented that of the guitarist , using controlled force on bebop numbers and delicacy on a ballad track .
Flanagan was with trumpeter Harry Edison in 1959 – 60 , and tenor saxophonist Coleman Hawkins in 1961 – 62 , including a UK tour . In this period , Flanagan recorded albums for several leaders from an earlier era , including Lionel Hampton , Jo Jones , and Pee Wee Russell , as well as one with Edison and around 10 with Hawkins . Flanagan then played with guitarist Jim Hall and bassist Percy Heath as a trio in New York .
In 1962 , he was asked by jazz impresario Norman Granz to become Ella Fitzgerald 's full @-@ time accompanist . Flanagan was looking for steadier work than was available with Hawkins , so he accepted . He worked with Fitzgerald from 1962 to 1965 . They toured internationally , including to Japan in 1964 . He also played with other bands when not required by the vocalist ; these included a brief reunion with Rollins in 1965 . Later the same year , Flanagan left Fitzgerald and was part of Art Farmer 's short @-@ lived New York Jazz Sextet , which recorded Group Therapy . Flanagan then became accompanist to Tony Bennett for part of 1966 , and lived on the West Coast .
Flanagan returned to working with Fitzgerald in 1968 . In addition to being her pianist , mostly as part of a trio , he was her musical director . Her popularity meant that a lot of touring was required : 40 – 45 weeks a year , including at least one tour of Europe a year ( 29 cities there in 1970 , for example ) . During these concerts , Flanagan often played a set as part of his trio , without the singer . Beginning in 1974 , he again began to perform and record as a leader : his 1975 trio release , The Tommy Flanagan Tokyo Recital , was his first as leader since 1960 . Prior to these performances , he had felt that his technique was inadequate for a soloist , but he enjoyed the extra exposure of being a leader , so decided to continue . Flanagan ended his role with Fitzgerald in 1978 , after he had a heart attack and had become tired of extensive touring . After the heart attack , he stopped smoking , reduced the amount that he drank , and exercised by walking more than he had previously .
= = = Late 1978 – 2001 – After Ella Fitzgerald = = =
Soon after leaving Fitzgerald , Flanagan played solo piano in New York . In 1979 he was a guest on the first series of Marian McPartland 's Piano Jazz radio programs . He continued to work with other players , including as a trio with Tal Farlow and Red Mitchell in 1980 . For much of the 1980s he led a trio that featured bassist George Mraz and various drummers . By around 1990 Flanagan was concentrating on his own appearances and recordings rather than sideman activities . In the early 1990s Mraz was replaced by Peter Washington , whose heavier bass lines added urgency to the trio 's sound .
Flanagan 's reputation gradually grew after he moved on from being primarily an accompanist : in a 1992 article , critic Leonard Feather suggested that " Flanagan is the pianist most likely to be named a personal idol by other jazz pianists , whether they be swing veterans or avant @-@ gardists " . This made him more in demand ; the workload may have contributed to his collapse in 1991 and subsequent quadruple bypass heart surgery . He returned to playing within weeks , but also returned to hospital for treatment for an aneurysm . Flanagan was awarded the Danish Jazzpar Prize in 1993 . Three years later , he was selected for a National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Masters Fellowship . In 1990 , 1993 and 1997 , Flanagan toured Japan , where he was very popular , with 100 Golden Fingers , a 10 @-@ pianist group .
Flanagan continued to be praised for the elegance of his playing – critic Ben Ratliff commented in 1998 that the trio with Washington and drummer Lewis Nash was , " in its controlled , elegant way , [ ... ] one of the more extraordinarily coordinated piano trios in jazz 's history " . Despite the near @-@ unanimous praise from critics and musicians for Flanagan 's recordings and concert performances after he left Fitzgerald , he did not secure a recording contract with a major label for more than one album .
In late October 2001 , Flanagan played in a John Coltrane tribute at the San Francisco Jazz Festival . The following month , he was admitted to Mount Sinai hospital in Manhattan ; less than a fortnight later , on November 16 , he died there , from complications related to the aneurysm he had suffered a decade earlier .
= = Personality and family life = =
Flanagan first married in 1960 , to Ann . The couple had a son and two daughters , and divorced in the early 1970s ; Ann was killed in a car accident in 1980 . Flanagan 's mother died in 1959 , and his father in 1977 . Flanagan married Diana , his second wife , in 1976 . He was survived by Diana , the three children from his first marriage , and six grandchildren .
Flanagan was usually self @-@ effacing , reserved and amiable . His personality was summarized by his second wife : " His gentleness and quietness are deceptive . He is a strong man , and he has a lot of spirit and firmness . "
= = Playing style = =
Whitney Balliett stated that Flanagan was the most consistent of the pianists influenced by Wilson , Tatum and Cole , and invariably created something new in his playing : he " often states the melody with dissonant , levering chords played offbeat or staccato . Never decorative , they [ ... ] reveal both a respect for the melody and an intense desire to alter it " ; during his main improvising , he used " interval @-@ filled descending figures [ ... ] charging rhythmic phrases whose accented first notes make the succeeding notes snap , double @-@ time phrases that race ahead to clear the way , and legato phrases that form sauntering rear guards . " In a review of a 1989 concert , Feather commented that Flanagan used " subtle dynamic shadings " , while " bursts of upsweeping chords sometimes lent an element of surprise , with a nimble left hand offering graceful filigree fills " and occasional musical quotes that added humor . Other techniques he employed were , in Stanley Crouch 's description , " crooning effects achieved by manipulating the pedals , holding down keys long enough to sustain notes in decisively different ways , and working out inflections that evoke the voice – sighs , moans , swells , purrs " . Critic John S. Wilson described Flanagan 's solo piano style on ballads in 1978 : " He drifts through ballads with a dreamy langourous flow , but it is not a soft or flabby style . There is , beneath the surface , a vitality that gives it a lean , swinging character " .
Although he acknowledged the influence of other pianists , Flanagan stated that , " I like to play like a horn player , like I 'm blowing into the piano . The sound of a piece – its over @-@ all tonality – is what concerns me . " In concerts , Flanagan typically played a range of composers ' works and , once he had become established as a small @-@ group leader , he often played songs by Tadd Dameron , Duke Ellington , Benny Golson , Thad Jones , Tom McIntosh , and Thelonious Monk .
= = Awards and legacy = =
During his career , Flanagan was nominated for five Grammy Awards . The first occasion was in 1983 : The Magnificent Tommy Flanagan for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance , Soloist ; and Giant Steps for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance , Group . Two years later , Thelonica was nominated for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance , Soloist . The next nomination was in 1998 , for Best Jazz Instrumental Solo for his solo on " Dear Old Stockholm " from Sea Changes . The last , in 2003 , was in the same category , for Flanagan 's solo on " Sunset & the Mockingbird " , from A Great Night in Harlem .
Flanagan 's influence on pianists extended from his contemporaries to later generations . Contemporaries included fellow Detroit players Barry Harris and Roland Hanna . Lightsey was influenced by Flanagan 's musical creative thinking and pianistic fluidity . Alan Broadbent also acknowledged Flanagan as an influence , as did Helen Sung , who changed from being a classical music pianist to a jazz one after hearing the swing and logic of a Flanagan solo . Kenny Barron described Flanagan as his " hero " and stated that he admired the older man 's touch and phrasing from when he first heard it at junior high school : " He became an influence and continued to be an influence till the day he died – and he still is . "
= = Discography = =
= Pedro II of Brazil =
Dom Pedro II ( English : Peter II ; 2 December 1825 – 5 December 1891 ) , nicknamed " the Magnanimous " , was the second and last ruler of the Empire of Brazil , reigning for over 58 years . Born in Rio de Janeiro , he was the seventh child of Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil and Empress Dona Maria Leopoldina and thus a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza . His father 's abrupt abdication and departure to Europe in 1831 left a five @-@ year @-@ old Pedro II as Emperor and led to a grim and lonely childhood and adolescence . Obliged to spend his time studying in preparation for rule , he knew only brief moments of happiness and encountered few friends of his age . His experiences with court intrigues and political disputes during this period greatly affected his later character . Pedro II grew into a man with a strong sense of duty and devotion toward his country and his people . On the other hand , he was increasingly resentful of his role as monarch .
Inheriting an Empire on the verge of disintegration , Pedro II turned Portuguese @-@ speaking Brazil into an emerging power in the international arena . The nation grew to be distinguished from its Hispanic neighbors on account of its political stability , zealously guarded freedom of speech , respect for civil rights , vibrant economic growth and especially for its form of government : a functional , representative parliamentary monarchy . Brazil was also victorious in three international conflicts ( the Platine War , the Uruguayan War and the Paraguayan War ) under his rule , as well as prevailing in several other international disputes and domestic tensions . Pedro II steadfastly pushed through the abolition of slavery despite opposition from powerful political and economic interests . A savant in his own right , the Emperor established a reputation as a vigorous sponsor of learning , culture and the sciences . He won the respect and admiration of scholars such as Charles Darwin , Victor Hugo and Friedrich Nietzsche , and was a friend to Richard Wagner , Louis Pasteur and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , among others .
Although there was no desire for a change in the form of government among most Brazilians , the Emperor was overthrown in a sudden coup d 'état that had almost no support outside a clique of military leaders who desired a form of republic headed by a dictator . Pedro II had become weary of emperorship and despaired over the monarchy 's future prospects , despite its overwhelming popular support . He allowed no prevention of his ouster and did not support any attempt to restore the monarchy . He spent the last two years of his life in exile in Europe , living alone on very little money .
The reign of Pedro II thus came to an unusual end — he was overthrown while highly regarded by the people and at the pinnacle of his popularity , and some of his accomplishments were soon brought to naught as Brazil slipped into a long period of weak governments , dictatorships , and constitutional and economic crises . The men who had exiled him soon began to see in him a model for the Brazilian republic . A few decades after his death , his reputation was restored and his remains were returned to Brazil with celebrations nationwide . Historians have regarded the Emperor in an extremely positive light and several have ranked him as the greatest Brazilian .
= = Early life = =
= = = Birth = = =
Pedro was born at 02 : 30 on 2 December 1825 in the Palace of São Cristóvão , in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil . Named after St. Peter of Alcantara , his name in full was Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga . Through his father , Emperor Dom Pedro I , he was a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza ( Portuguese : Bragança ) and was referred to using the honorific " Dom " ( Lord ) from birth . He was the grandson of Portuguese King Dom João VI and nephew of Dom Miguel I. His mother was the Archduchess Maria Leopoldina of Austria , daughter of Franz II , the last Holy Roman Emperor . Through his mother , Pedro was a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte and first cousin of Emperors Napoleon II of France , Franz Joseph I of Austria @-@ Hungary and Don Maximiliano I of Mexico .
The only legitimate male child of Pedro I to survive infancy , he was officially recognized as heir apparent to the Brazilian throne with the title Prince Imperial on 6 August 1826 . Empress Maria Leopoldina died on 11 December 1826 , a few days after a stillbirth , when Pedro was a year old . Two and a half years later , his father married Amélie of Leuchtenberg . Prince Pedro developed an affectionate relationship with her , whom he came to regard as his mother . Pedro I 's desire to restore his daughter Maria II to her Portuguese throne , which had been usurped by his brother Miguel I , as well as his declining political position at home led to his abrupt abdication on 7 April 1831 . He and Amélie immediately departed for Europe , leaving behind the Prince Imperial , who became Emperor Dom Pedro II .
= = = Early coronation = = =
Upon leaving the country , Emperor Pedro I selected three people to take charge of his son and remaining daughters . The first was José Bonifácio de Andrada , his friend and an influential leader during Brazilian independence , who was named guardian . The second was Mariana de Verna , who had held the post of aia ( governess ) since the birth of Pedro II . As a child , the then @-@ Prince Imperial called her " Dadama " , as he could not pronounce the word dama ( Lady ) correctly . He regarded her as his surrogate mother , and would continue to call her by her nickname well into adulthood out of affection . The third person was Rafael , an Afro @-@ Brazilian veteran of the Cisplatine War . He was an employee in the Palace of São Cristóvão whom Pedro I deeply trusted and asked to look after his son — a charge that he carried out for the rest of his life .
Bonifácio was dismissed from his position in December 1833 and replaced by another guardian . Pedro II spent his days studying , with only two hours set aside for amusements . Intelligent , he was able to acquire knowledge with great ease . However , the hours of study were strenuous and the preparation for his role as monarch was demanding . He had few friends of his age and limited contact with his sisters . All that coupled with the sudden loss of his parents gave Pedro II an unhappy and lonely upbringing . The environment in which he was raised turned him into a shy and needy person who saw books as a refuge and retreat from the real world .
The possibility of lowering the young Emperor 's age of majority , instead of waiting until he turned 18 , had been floated since 1835 . His elevation to the throne had led to a troublesome period of endless crises . The regency created to rule on his behalf was plagued from the start by disputes between political factions and rebellions across the nation . Those politicians who had risen to power during the 1830s had by now also become familiar with the pitfalls of rule . According to historian Roderick J. Barman , by 1840 " they had lost all faith in their ability to rule the country on their own . They accepted Pedro II as an authority figure whose presence was indispensable for the country 's survival . " When asked by politicians if he would like to assume full powers , Pedro II shyly accepted . On the following day , 23 July 1840 , the General Assembly ( the Brazilian Parliament ) formally declared the 14 @-@ year @-@ old Pedro II of age . He was later acclaimed , crowned and consecrated on 18 July 1841 .
= = Consolidation = =
= = = Imperial authority established = = =
Removal of the factious regency brought stability to the government . Pedro II was seen nationwide as a legitimate source of authority , whose position placed him above partisanship and petty disputes . He was , however , still no more than a boy , and a shy , insecure and immature one . His nature resulted from his broken childhood , when he experienced abandonment , intrigue and betrayal . Behind the scenes , a group of high @-@ ranking palace servants and notable politicians led by Aureliano Coutinho ( later Viscount of Sepetiba ) became known as the " Courtier Faction " as they established influence over the young Emperor . Some were very close to him , such as Mariana de Verna and Steward Paulo Barbosa da Silva . Pedro II was deftly used by the Courtiers against their actual or suspected foes .
The Brazilian government secured the hand of Princess Teresa Cristina of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies . She and Pedro II were married by proxy in Naples on 30 May 1843 . Upon seeing her in person , the Emperor was noticeably disappointed . Teresa Cristina was short , a bit overweight and though not ugly , neither was she pretty . He did little to hide his disillusionment . One observer stated that he turned his back to Teresa Cristina , another depicted him as being so shocked that he needed to sit , and it is possible that both occurred . That evening , Pedro II wept and complained to Mariana de Verna , " They have deceived me , Dadama ! " It took several hours to convince him that duty demanded that he proceed . The Nuptial Mass , with the ratification of the vows previously taken by proxy and the conferral of the nuptial blessing , occurred on the following day , 4 September .
In late 1845 and early 1846 the Emperor made a tour of Brazil 's southern provinces , traveling through São Paulo ( of which Paraná was a part at this time ) , Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul . He was buoyed by the warm and enthusiastic responses he received . By then Pedro II had matured physically and mentally . He grew into a man who , at 1 @.@ 90 meters ( 6 ft 3 in ) tall with blue eyes and blond hair , was seen as handsome . With growth , his weaknesses faded and his strengths of character came to the fore . He became self @-@ assured and learned to be not only impartial and diligent , but also courteous , patient and personable . Barman said that he kept " his emotions under iron discipline . He was never rude and never lost his temper . He was exceptionally discreet in words and cautious in action . " Most importantly , this period saw the end of the Courtier Faction . Pedro II began to fully exercise authority and successfully engineered the end of the courtiers ' influence by removing them from his inner circle while avoiding any public disruption .
= = = Abolition of slave trade and war = = =
Pedro II was faced by three crises between 1848 and 1852 . The first test came in confronting the trade in illegally imported slaves . This had been banned in 1826 as part of a treaty with Great Britain . Trafficking continued unabated , however , and the British government 's passage of the Aberdeen Act of 1845 authorized British warships to board Brazilian shipping and seize any found involved in the slave trade . While Brazil grappled with this problem , the Praieira revolt erupted on 6 November 1848 . This was a conflict between local political factions within Pernambuco province ; it was suppressed by March 1849 . The Eusébio de Queirós Law was promulgated on 4 September 1850 which gave the Brazilian government broad authority to combat the illegal slave trade . With this new tool , Brazil moved to eliminate importation of slaves . By 1852 this first crisis was over , and Britain accepted that the trade had been suppressed .
The third crisis entailed a conflict with the Argentine Confederation regarding ascendancy over territories adjacent to the Río de la Plata and free navigation of that waterway . Since the 1830s , Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas had supported rebellions within Uruguay and Brazil . It was only in 1850 that Brazil was able to address the threat posed by Rosas . An alliance was forged between Brazil , Uruguay and disaffected Argentines , leading to the Platine War and the subsequent overthrow of the Argentine ruler in February 1852 . Barman said that a " considerable portion of the credit must be ... assigned to the Emperor , whose cool head , tenacity of purpose , and sense of what was feasible proved indispensable . "
The Empire 's successful navigation of these crises considerably enhanced the nation 's stability and prestige , and Brazil emerged as a hemispheric power . Internationally , Europeans began to regard the country as embodying familiar liberal ideals , such as freedom of the press and constitutional respect for civil liberties . Its representative parliamentary monarchy also stood in stark contrast to the mix of dictatorships and instability endemic in the other nations of South America during this period .
= = Growth = =
= = = Pedro II and politics = = =
At the beginning of the 1850s , Brazil enjoyed internal stability and economic prosperity . Under the prime ministry of Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão ( then @-@ Viscount and later Marquis of Paraná ) the Emperor advanced his own ambitious program : the conciliação ( conciliation ) and melhoramentos ( material developments ) . Pedro II 's reforms aimed to promote less political partisanship , and forward infrastructure and economic development . The nation was being interconnected through railroad , electric telegraph and steamship lines , uniting it into a single entity . The general opinion , both at home and abroad , was that these accomplishments had been possible due to Brazil 's " governance as a monarchy and the character of Pedro II " .
Pedro II was neither a British @-@ style figurehead nor an autocrat in the manner of Russian czars . The Emperor exercised power through cooperation with elected politicians , economic interests , and popular support . The active presence of Pedro II on the political scene was an important part of the government 's structure , which also included the cabinet , the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate ( the latter two formed the General Assembly ) . He used his participation in directing the course of government as a means of influence . His direction became indispensable , although it never devolved into " one @-@ man rule . " In his handling of the political parties , he " needed to maintain a reputation for impartiality , work in accord with the popular mood , and avoid any flagrant imposition of his will on the political scene . "
The Emperor 's more notable political successes were achieved primarily because of the non @-@ confrontational and cooperative manner with which he approached both issues and the partisan figures with whom he had to deal . He was remarkably tolerant , seldom taking offense at criticism , opposition or even incompetence . He did not have the constitutional authority to force acceptance of his initiatives without support , and his collaborative approach towards governing kept the nation progressing and enabled the political system to successfully function . The Emperor respected the prerogatives of the legislature , even when they resisted , delayed , or thwarted his goals and appointments . Most politicians appreciated and supported his role . Many had lived through the regency period , when the lack of an emperor who could stand above petty and special interests led to years of strife between political factions . Their experiences in public life had created a conviction that Pedro II was " indispensable to Brazil 's continued peace and prosperity . "
= = = Domestic life = = =
The marriage between Pedro II and Teresa Cristina started off badly . With maturity , patience and their first child , Afonso , their relationship improved . Later Teresa Cristina gave birth to more children : Isabel , in 1846 ; Leopoldina , in 1847 ; and lastly , Pedro , in 1848 . However , both boys died when very young , which devastated the Emperor . Beyond suffering as a father , his view of the Empire 's future changed completely . Despite his affection for his daughters , he did not believe that Princess Isabel , although his heir , would have any chance of prospering on the throne . He felt his successor needed to be male for the monarchy to be viable . He increasingly saw the imperial system as being tied so inextricably to himself , that it would not survive him . Isabel and her sister received a remarkable education , although they were given no preparation for governing the nation . Pedro II excluded Isabel from participation in government business and decisions .
Sometime around 1850 , Pedro II began having discreet affairs with other women . The most famous and enduring of these relationships involved Luísa Margarida Portugal de Barros , Countess of Barral , with whom he formed a romantic and intimate , though not adulterous , friendship after she was appointed governess to the emperor 's daughters in November 1856 . Throughout his life , the Emperor held onto a hope of finding a soulmate , something he felt cheated of due to the necessity of a marriage of state to a woman for whom he never felt passion . This is but one instance illustrating his dual identity : one who assiduously carried out his duty in the role of emperor which destiny had assigned to him and another who considered the imperial office an unrewarding burden and who was happier in the worlds of literature and science .
Pedro II was hard @-@ working and his routine was demanding . He usually woke up at 07 : 00 and did not sleep before 02 : 00 in the morning . His entire day was devoted to the affairs of state and the meager free time available was spent reading and studying . The Emperor went about his daily routine dressed in a simple black tail coat , trousers , and cravat . For special occasions he would wear court dress , and he only appeared in full regalia with crown , mantle and scepter twice each year at the opening and closing of the General Assembly . Pedro II held politicians and government officials to the strict standards which he exemplified . The Emperor adopted a strict policy for the selection of civil servants based on morality and merit . To set the standard , he lived simply , once having said : " I also understand that useless expenditure is the same as stealing from the Nation . " Balls and assemblies of the Court ceased after 1852 . He also refused to request or allow the amount of his civil list of Rs 800 : 000 $ 000 per year ( U.S. $ 405 @,@ 000 or £ 90 @,@ 000 in 1840 ) to be raised from the declaration of his majority until his dethronement almost fifty years later .
= = = Patron of arts and sciences = = =
" I was born to devote myself to culture and sciences " , the Emperor remarked in his private journal during 1862 . He had always been eager to learn and found in books a refuge from the demands of his position . Subjects which interested Pedro II were wide @-@ ranging , including anthropology , history , geography , geology , medicine , law , religious studies , philosophy , painting , sculpture , theater , music , chemistry , physics , astronomy , poetry and technology , among others . By the end of his reign , there were three libraries in São Cristóvão palace containing more than 60 @,@ 000 books . A passion for linguistics prompted him throughout his life to study new languages , and he was able to speak and write not only Portuguese but also Latin , French , German , English , Italian , Spanish , Greek , Arabic , Hebrew , Sanskrit , Chinese , Occitan and Tupi . He became the first Brazilian photographer when he acquired a daguerreotype camera in March 1840 . He set up one laboratory in São Cristóvão devoted to photography and another to chemistry and physics . He also had an astronomical observatory constructed .
Pedro II 's erudition amazed Friedrich Nietzsche when both met . Victor Hugo told the Emperor : " Sire , you are a great citizen , you are the grandson of Marcus Aurelius " , and Alexandre Herculano called him : " A Prince whom the general opinion holds as the foremost of his era because of his gifted mind , and due to the constant application of that gift to the sciences and culture . " He became a member of the Royal Society , the Russian Academy of Sciences , The Royal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium and the American Geographical Society . In 1875 , he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences , an honor previously granted to only two other heads of state : Peter the Great and Napoleon Bonaparte . Pedro II exchanged letters with scientists , philosophers , musicians and other intellectuals . Many of his correspondents became his friends , including Richard Wagner , Louis Pasteur , Louis Agassiz , John Greenleaf Whittier , Michel Eugène Chevreul , Alexander Graham Bell , Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , Arthur de Gobineau , Frédéric Mistral , Alessandro Manzoni , Alexandre Herculano , Camilo Castelo Branco and James Cooley Fletcher .
The Emperor considered education to be of national importance and was himself a concrete example of the value of learning . He remarked : " Were I not an Emperor , I would like to be a teacher . I do not know of a task more noble than to direct young minds and prepare the men of tomorrow . " His reign saw the creation of the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute to promote research and preservation in the historical , geographical , cultural and social sciences . The Imperial Academy of Music and National Opera and the Pedro II School were also founded , the latter serving as a model for schools throughout Brazil . The Imperial Academy of the Fine Arts , established by his father , received further strengthening and support . Using his civil list income , Pedro II provided scholarships for Brazilian students to study at universities , art schools and conservatories of music in Europe . He also financed the creation of the Institute Pasteur , helped underwrite the construction of Wagner 's Bayreuth Festspielhaus , as well as subscribing to similar projects . His efforts were recognized both at home and abroad . Charles Darwin said of him : " The Emperor does so much for science , that every scientific man is bound to show him the utmost respect " .
= = = Clash with the British Empire = = =
At the end of 1859 , Pedro II departed on a trip to provinces north of the capital , visiting Espírito Santo , Bahia , Sergipe , Alagoas , Pernambuco and Paraíba . He returned in February 1860 after four months . The trip was a huge success , with the Emperor welcomed everywhere with warmth and joy . The first half of the 1860s saw peace and prosperity in Brazil . Civil liberties were maintained . Freedom of speech had existed since Brazil 's independence and was strongly defended by Pedro II . He found newspapers from the capital and from the provinces an ideal way to keep track of public opinion and the nation 's overall situation . Another means of monitoring the Empire was through direct contacts with his subjects . One opportunity for this was during regular Tuesday and Saturday public audiences , where anyone of any social class ( including slaves ) could gain admittance and present their petitions and stories . Visits to schools , colleges , prisons , exhibitions , factories , barracks and other public appearances presented further opportunities to gather first @-@ hand information .
This tranquility disappeared when the British consul in Rio de Janeiro , William Dougal Christie , nearly sparked a war between his nation and Brazil . Christie sent an ultimatum containing abusive demands arising out of two minor incidents at the end of 1861 and beginning of 1862 . The first was the sinking of a commercial barque on the coast of Rio Grande do Sul after which its goods were pillaged by local inhabitants . The second was the arrest of drunken British officers who were causing a disturbance in the streets of Rio .
The Brazilian government refused to yield , and Christie issued orders for British warships to capture Brazilian merchant vessels as indemnity . Brazil prepared for what was seen as an imminent conflict . Pedro II was the main reason for Brazil 's resistance ; he rejected any suggestion of yielding . This response came as a surprise to Christie , who changed his tenor and proposed a peaceful settlement through international arbitration . The Brazilian government presented its demands and , upon seeing the British government 's position weaken , severed diplomatic ties with Britain in June 1863 .
= = Paraguayan War = =
= = = First Fatherland Volunteer = = =
As war with the British Empire threatened , Brazil had to turn its attention to its southern frontiers . Another civil war had begun in Uruguay as its political parties turned against each other . The internal conflict led to the murder of Brazilians and looting of their property in Uruguay . Brazil 's government decided to intervene , fearful of giving any impression of weakness in the face of conflict with the British . A Brazilian army invaded Uruguay in December 1864 , beginning the brief Uruguayan War , which ended in February 1865 . Meanwhile , the dictator of Paraguay , Francisco Solano López took advantage of the situation to establish his country as a regional power . The Paraguayan army invaded the Brazilian province of Mato Grosso ( the area known after 1977 as the state of Mato Grosso do Sul ) , triggering the Paraguayan War . Four months later , Paraguayan troops invaded Argentine territory as a prelude to an attack on Rio Grande do Sul .
Aware of the anarchy in Rio Grande do Sul and the incapacity and incompetence of its military chiefs to resist the Paraguayan army , Pedro II decided to go to the front in person . Upon receiving objections from the cabinet , the General Assembly and the Council of State , Pedro II pronounced : " If they can prevent me from going as an Emperor , they cannot prevent me from abdicating and going as a Fatherland Volunteer " — an allusion to those Brazilians who volunteered to go to war and became known throughout the nation as the " Fatherland Volunteers " . The monarch himself was popularly called the " Number @-@ one volunteer " . Given permission to leave , Pedro II disembarked in Rio Grande do Sul in July and proceeded from there by land . He travelled overland by horse and wagon , sleeping at night in a campaign tent . In September , Pedro II arrived in Uruguaiana , a Brazilian town occupied by a besieged Paraguayan army .
The Emperor rode within rifle @-@ shot of Uruguaiana , but the Paraguayans did not attack him . To avoid further bloodshed , he offered terms of surrender to the Paraguayan commander , who accepted . Pedro II 's coordination of the military operations and his personal example played a decisive role in successfully repulsing the Paraguayan invasion of Brazilian territory . Before returning to Rio de Janeiro , he received the British diplomatic envoy Edward Thornton , who apologized on behalf of Queen Victoria and the British Government for the crisis between the empires . The Emperor regarded this diplomatic victory over the most powerful nation of the world as sufficient and renewed friendly relations .
= = = Total victory and its heavy costs = = =
Against all expectations , the war continued for five years . During this period , Pedro II 's time and energy were devoted to the war effort . He tirelessly worked to raise and equip troops to reinforce the front lines and to push forward the fitting of new warships for the navy . The rape of women , widespread violence against civilians , ransacking and destruction of properties that had occurred during Paraguay 's invasion of Brazilian territory had made a deep impression on him . He warned the Countess of Barral in November 1866 that " the war should be concluded as honor demands , cost what it cost . " " Difficulties , setbacks , and war @-@ weariness had no effect on his quiet resolve " , said Barman . Mounting casualties did not distract him from advancing what he saw as Brazil 's righteous cause , and he stood prepared to personally sacrifice his own throne to gain an honorable outcome . Writing in his journal a few years previously Pedro II remarked : " What sort of fear could I have ? That they take the government from me ? Many better kings than I have lost it , and to me it is no more than the weight of a cross which it is my duty to carry . "
At the same time , Pedro II worked to prevent quarrels between the national political parties from impairing the military response . The Emperor prevailed over a serious political crisis in July 1868 resulting from a quarrel between the cabinet and Luís Alves de Lima e Silva ( then @-@ Marques and later Duke of Caxias ) , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Brazilian forces in Paraguay . Caxias was also a politician and was a member of the opposing party to the ministry . The Emperor sided with him , leading to the cabinet 's resignation . As Pedro II maneuvered to bring about a victorious outcome in the conflict with Paraguay , he threw his support behind the political parties and factions that seemed to be most useful in the effort . The reputation of the monarchy was harmed and its trusted position as an impartial mediator was severely impacted in the long term . He was unconcerned for his personal position , and regardless of the impact upon the imperial system , he determined to put the national interest ahead of any potential harm caused by such expediencies .
His refusal to accept anything short of total victory was pivotal in the final outcome . His tenacity was well @-@ paid with the news that López had died in battle on 1 March 1870 , bringing the war to a close . Pedro II turned down the General Assembly 's suggestion to erect an equestrian statue of him to commemorate the victory and chose instead to use the money to build elementary schools .
= = Apogee = =
= = = Abolitionist on the throne = = =
In the 1870s progress was made in both social and political spheres , and all segments of society benefited from the reforms and shared in the increasing prosperity . Brazil 's international reputation for political stability and investment potential greatly improved . The Empire was seen as a modern and progressive nation unequalled , with the exception of the United States , in the Americas . The economy began growing rapidly and immigration flourished . Railroad , shipping and other modernization projects were adopted . With " slavery destined for extinction and other reforms projected , the prospects for ' moral and material advances ' seemed vast . "
In 1870 , few Brazilians opposed slavery and even fewer openly condemned it . Pedro II , who did not own slaves , was one of the few who did oppose slavery . Its abolition was a delicate subject . Slaves were used by everyone , from the richest to the poorest . Pedro II wanted to end the practice gradually to soften the impact to the national economy . With no constitutional authority to directly intervene to abolish slavery , the Emperor would need to use all his skills to convince , influence and gather support among politicians to achieve his goal . His first open move occurred back in 1850 , when he threatened to abdicate unless the General Assembly declared the Atlantic slave trade illegal .
Having dealt with the overseas supply of new slaves , Pedro II turned his attention in the early 1860s to removing the remaining source : enslavement of children born to slaves . Legislation was drafted at his initiative , but the conflict with Paraguay delayed discussion of the proposal in the General Assembly . Pedro II openly asked for the gradual eradication of slavery in the Speech from the Throne of 1867 . He was heavily criticized , and his move was condemned as " national suicide . " Critics argued " that abolition was his personal desire and not that of the nation . " He consciously ignored the growing political damage to his image and to the monarchy in consequence of his support for abolition . Eventually , a bill pushed through by Prime Minister José Paranhos , Viscount of Rio Branco , was enacted as
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fair . " Gregg Allman also saw the " southern rock " tag as redundant , saying it was like saying " rock rock " . The band was certainly at the forefront of the genre 's popularity in the early 1970s ; the breakthrough of At Fillmore East led their hometown of Macon to become flooded with " southern rock " groups . Despite this , the group has continued to remove themselves from the term . " The problem I have is a lot of people associate it with rednecks and rebel flags and backward mentality . That has never been representative of the Allman Brothers Band , " said guitarist Warren Haynes .
The group largely infused hints of the blues , jazz , and country into their music . They all avidly shared their record collections with one another during the early days of the band . For example , Betts was into country music and the guitar work of Chuck Berry , while Trucks was largely into groups such as the Rolling Stones and the Grateful Dead . Duane and Gregg Allman grew infatuated with rhythm and blues in their teens , collecting records by James Brown , B.B. King , Sonny Boy Williamson , and Howlin ' Wolf . Drummer Jai Johanny " Jaimoe " Johanson largely introduced the group to jazz . While Betts commented that he was interested in artists such as Howard Roberts prior , Jaimoe " really fired us up on it , " introducing his bandmates to Miles Davis and John Coltrane . Duane Allman was also inspired by Howard Roberts , Wes Montgomery , Tal Farlow , and Kenny Burrell . The source of the band 's modal jamming in their earliest days was Coltrane ’ s rendition of " My Favorite Things " and Davis 's " All Blues , " which Jaimoe occasionally stole from : " I did a lot of copying , but only from the best . " This type of jazz @-@ infused jamming is expressed in the instrumental " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " , which focuses heavily on improvisation . " Whipping Post " was notable for its inclusion of blues @-@ ballad themes , and became one of the most popular ( and longest ) compositions . Later , Betts generally led the band in a more " country " direction following Duane 's passing ; their only hit single " Ramblin ' Man " was considered so unusually " country " for the group they were initially reluctant to record it .
Duane Allman created the idea of having two lead guitarists , which was inspired by Curtis Mayfield ; " [ he ] wanted the bass , keyboards , and second guitar to form patterns behind the solo rather than just comping , " said Allman . Their style and incorporation of guitar harmonies was very influential on later musicians . " The pair also had a wide range of complementary techniques , often forming intricate , interlocking patterns with each other and with the bassist , Berry Oakley , setting the stage for dramatic flights of improvised melodies . " Dickey Betts ' playing was very melody @-@ based ; " My style is just a little too smooth and round to play the blues stuff straight , because I ’ m such a melody guy that even when I ’ m playing the blues , I go for melody first , " he said . His listening of country and string bluegrass growing up influenced this considerably : " I played mandolin , ukulele , and fiddle before I ever touched a guitar , which may be where a lot of the major keys I play come from . " He later characterized their style as " question and answer , anticipation and conclusion , " which involved allowing each musician 's downbeat to arrive in a different spot , while also keeping consideration of the bass guitar lines .
The group also held an improvisational approach to live performances , which connected the band with jam band culture . " Jazz and blues musicians have been doing this for decades , but I think they really brought that sense that anyone onstage can inspire anyone else at any given time to rock music , " said Haynes . " We sure didn ’ t set out to be a " jam band " but those long jams just emanated from within the band , because we didn ’ t want to just play three minutes and be over , " said Allman . Rolling Stone referred to the group as " without question the first great jam band , and they took the jam to heights that it had not previously reached . "
= = Legacy = =
The Allman Brothers Band were considerably influential within the Southern United States . Their arrival on the musical scene paved the way for several other notable southern rock acts — among those Lynyrd Skynyrd , the Marshall Tucker Band and Wet Willie — to achieve commercial success , and also " almost single @-@ handedly " made Capricorn Records into " a major independent label . " Billy Gibbons of ZZ Top , writing for Rolling Stone , wrote that the group " defined the best of every music from the American South in that time . They were the best of all of us . " He went on to call the band " a true brotherhood of players — one that went beyond race and ego . It was a thing of beauty . " The band 's extended popularity through heavy touring in the early 1990s created a new generation of fans , one that viewed the Allmans as pioneers of " latter @-@ day collegiate jam rock . " AllMusic praised the band 's history : " they went from being America 's single most influential band to a shell of their former self trading on past glories , to reach the 21st century resurrected as one of the most respected rock acts of their era . "
In 2012 , an official historic marker was erected on the site of the July 1970 Second Atlanta International Pop Festival near Byron , Georgia . The Allman Brothers Band had played two sets at the festival , which was a significant event in their career . The marker text reads , in part : " Over thirty musical acts performed , including ... Macon ’ s Allman Brothers Band on their launching pad to national fame . " Official sponsors of the marker included the Georgia Allman Brothers Band Association , The Allman Brothers Band Museum at the Big House , and Hittin ’ the Note . In 2003 , the band released a recording of their festival opening and closing performances , Live at the Atlanta International Pop Festival : July 3 & 5 , 1970 .
= = Awards and recognition = =
Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance , 1996 , " Jessica " ( also famous for being the Top Gear theme ) .
Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award , 2012
Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , 1995
Rolling Stone Magazine 's " Greatest ... of All Time " lists :
100 Greatest Artists of All Time ( 2004 ) : No. 52
500 Greatest Albums of All Time ( 2003 ) : No. 49 for At Fillmore East
100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time ( 2003 ) :
No. 2 Duane Allman
No. 23 Warren Haynes
No. 58 Dickey Betts
No. 81 Derek Trucks
100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time ( 2011 ) :
No. 9 Duane Allman
No. 16 Derek Trucks
No. 61 Dickey Betts
= = Discography = =
The Allman Brothers Band placed more emphasis on their live performances rather than albums . " We get kind of frustrated doing the [ studio ] records , " said Duane Allman in 1970 . Consequently , this listing includes all studio albums and major live releases ( several other live releases have been issued retrospectively ) .
The Allman Brothers Band ( 1969 )
Idlewild South ( 1970 )
At Fillmore East ( 1971 )
Eat a Peach ( 1972 )
Brothers and Sisters ( 1973 )
Win , Lose or Draw ( 1975 )
Wipe the Windows , Check the Oil , Dollar Gas ( 1976 )
Enlightened Rogues ( 1979 )
Reach for the Sky ( 1980 )
Brothers of the Road ( 1981 )
Seven Turns ( 1990 )
Shades of Two Worlds ( 1991 )
An Evening with the Allman Brothers Band : First Set ( 1992 )
Where It All Begins ( 1994 )
An Evening with the Allman Brothers Band : 2nd Set ( 1995 )
Peakin ' at the Beacon ( 2000 )
Hittin ' the Note ( 2003 )
One Way Out ( 2004 )
= = Personnel = =
Members
= = = Timeline = = =
= Kim Ki @-@ young =
Kim Ki @-@ young ( October 10 , 1919 – February 5 , 1998 ) was a South Korean film director , known for his intensely psychosexual and melodramatic horror films , often focusing on the psychology of their female characters . Kim was born in Seoul during the colonial period , raised in Pyongyang , where he became interested in theater and cinema . In Korea after the end of World War II , he studied dentistry while becoming involved in the theater . During the Korean War , he made propaganda films for the United States Information Service . In 1955 , he used discarded movie equipments to produce his first two films . With the success of these two films Kim formed his own production company and produced popular melodramas for the rest of the decade .
Kim Ki @-@ young 's first expression of his mature style was in his The Housemaid ( 1960 ) , which featured a powerful femme fatale character . It is widely considered to be one of the best Korean films of all time . After a " Golden Age " during the 1960s , the 1970s were a low @-@ point in the history of Korean cinema because of governmental censorship and a decrease in audience attendance . Nevertheless , working independently , Kim produced some of his most eccentric cinematic creations in this era . Films such as Insect Woman ( 1972 ) and Iodo ( 1977 ) were successful at the time and highly influential on the younger generations of South Korean filmmakers both at their time of release , and with their rediscovery years later . By the 1980s , Kim 's popularity had gone into decline , and his output decreased in the second half of the decade . Neglected by the mainstream during much of the 1990s , Kim became a cult figure in South Korean film Internet forums in the early 1990s . Widespread international interest in his work was stimulated by a career retrospective at the 1997 Pusan International Film Festival . Kim 's films , previously little @-@ known or totally unknown outside South Korea , were shown and gained enthusiastic new audiences in the United States , Germany , France and elsewhere . He was preparing a come @-@ back film when he and his wife were killed in a house fire in 1998 . The Berlin International Film Festival gave Kim a posthumous retrospective in 1998 , and the French Cinémathèque screened 18 of Kim 's films , some newly rediscovered and restored , in 2006 . Through the efforts of the Korean Film Council ( KOFIC ) , previously lost films by Kim Ki @-@ young continue to be rediscovered and restored . Many current prominent South Korean filmmakers , including directors Im Sang @-@ soo , Kim Ki @-@ duk , Bong Joon @-@ ho and Park Chan @-@ wook , claim Kim Ki @-@ young as an influence on their careers .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Kim Ki @-@ young was born in the Gyo @-@ dong neighborhood of Seoul — now part of Gyeongun @-@ dong in Jongno @-@ gu — on October 10 , 1922 . His family had lived in Seoul for several generations , and his grandfather was a guard at Gwanghwamun . Kim 's family was well @-@ educated and artistically inclined . His father , Kim Seok @-@ jin , was an English teacher , and his mother , Han Jin @-@ cho , was also a teacher and a graduate of Gyeonggi Women 's College . Both painted as a hobby . The family had two daughters , and Kim Ki @-@ young was their only son . One of his sisters graduated as an art major from Seoul National University , and the other majored in dance at Ewha Womans University . His sisters encouraged the young Kim to develop his own creativity . The family moved to Pyongyang in 1930 , where they stayed for the next 10 years . At Pyongyang National High School , Kim showed exceptional talent in music , painting and writing , and his studious nature earned him the nickname " Professor of Physics " . While still a student , one of Kim 's poems was published in a Japanese newspaper , and he was awarded first prize in a painting competition .
Despite his artistic talents , Kim 's main interest was medicine , and he applied for entrance into medical school upon graduation from high school in 1940 . When he failed to gain admittance , Kim moved to Japan , planning to study and save up money to reapply for medical school . The theater and cinema grew into lifetime interests at this time . Kim often went to Kyoto , where he attended many stage productions and saw many international films . Josef von Sternberg 's Morocco ( 1930 ) and Fritz Lang 's M ( 1931 ) made a particularly strong impression on him , and their influence was to show in his mature film style .
Kim returned to Korea in 1941 , initially planning to work as a dentist , but instead immersing himself in the study of drama . At this time he was particularly interested in classical Greek theater , Ibsen and Eugene O 'Neill . To avoid conscription by the Japanese into the military , Kim returned to Japan briefly before 1945 . He returned to Pyongyang where he studied Stanislavsky 's theories of acting and founded a theatrical group called " The Little Orchid " . In 1946 Kim enrolled in Seoul Medical School , Seoul National University , and graduated with a major in dentistry in 1950 . While attending university , his theatrical activities continued . He founded the National University Theater in 1949 , and with this group staged many works of the Western theater , including Ibsen 's Ghosts , Čapek 's Robots , Shakespeare 's The Merchant of Venice , and works by Chekhov and O 'Neill . The main actress Kim worked with while at the university was Kim Yu @-@ bong , who would later become his wife .
= = = Film career = = =
Kim was working as an intern at Seoul University Medical Clinic when the Korean War broke out . He went to Pusan on June 1 , 1951 , the day the North Korean army retreated . In Pusan , Kim met Oh Young @-@ jin , a fellow Pyongyang National High School graduate . Oh , who would later write the screenplay to the popular film The Wedding Day ( 1956 ) , was producing newsreels for the Korean News through the Bureau of Public Information , and helped Kim get a job writing screenplays with this organization . With Oh 's help , Kim was able to get a job working for the United States Information Service in Jinhae . The job helped shape Kim 's life in several ways . With the increase in pay he received from the U.S.I.S. , he was able to marry Kim Yu @-@ bong in 1951 , and their first son , Kim Dong @-@ won , was born in 1952 . They would have a daughter born in 1955 and a second son , Kim Dong @-@ yang , born in 1958 . The two remained married for the rest of their lives . Kim Yu @-@ bong supported her husband 's filmmaking career through her dental practice , giving him a unique degree of independence among Korean filmmakers of his era to pursue his own personal visions . At a career retrospective during the last year of his life , Kim commented , " My wife 's support has been unflagging over the years , even if , at times , she has seen one of my films and cried ' What have you done with my money ? ' But at rare moments like this retrospective , she becomes very emotional , recognizing that finally it has all been worthwhile . "
Kim filmed about 20 documentaries for the U.S.I.S. with such titles as Diary of the Navy and I Am a Truck for " Liberty News " . The latter title was given an award by the U.S. State Department . The training and equipment Kim gained while working on these propaganda newsreels for the U.S.I.S. also enabled him to direct his first commercial film , Box of Death ( 1955 ) . Kim used expired film stock and a manually operated camera from the U.S.I.S. to make this debut feature , an anti @-@ communist melodrama about war orphans . The film , now lost , showed stylistic influences from the Italian neo @-@ realists and was the first Korean film to employ synchronous sound .
With the success of this first film , Kim was able to direct his second feature , the historical costume drama Yangsan Province ( also 1955 ) , again using primitive equipment obtained from the U.S.I.S. Although Kim claimed to have based the film on a traditional song he learned from his mother , no exact source for the story has been found . It is suspected that the director made up the story himself , modeling it on traditional stories such as Chunhyangjeon , Lee Kyu @-@ hwan 's remake of which had recently become a major success , stimulating a rebirth in Korean cinema . After Lee 's Chunhyangjeon , Yangsan Province was the second most successful Korean film of 1955 . Though a popular success , critics of the time were not kind to Yangsan Province . Yoo Do @-@ yeon called the film a " work of bad taste , " and Heo Baek @-@ nyeon said that it " debases the dignity of Korean cinema . " As his only surviving film of the 1950s , Yangsan Province sheds considerable light on Kim Ki @-@ young 's early career . In an era in which Korean film critics considered realism to be important , the now @-@ lost ending to Yangsan Province , in which two dead lovers ascend to heaven on a beam of light , was harshly criticized . In light of Kim 's later career , critics today believe that this cut scene displays some of the most recognizable characteristics of Kim 's mature style such as an interest in the fantastic , and a jarring blending of genres . Other motifs that were to be explored in depth in Kim 's later work can also be found in Yangsan Province , such as animal imagery , particularly the use of hens as a representation of fertility and sexuality .
In 1956 Kim started Kim Ki @-@ young Productions , and began making melodramas , the most popular film genre in South Korea at the time . His first independent production was Touch @-@ Me @-@ Not ( 1956 ) . In 1957 , Kim was living near the red @-@ light district of Yongsan , and the atmosphere of this neighborhood influenced his films , A Woman 's War and Twilight Train ( both 1957 ) . With First Snow ( 1958 ) , Kim moved from melodrama to a more socially conscious realism . Defiance of a Teenager ( 1959 ) and Sad Pastorale ( 1960 ) followed in this style . Defiance of a Teenager was one of Kim 's most successful and respected early works , and he attended the San Francisco International Film Festival in 1960 for a showing of this film .
= = = The Housemaid = = =
1960 was a critical year for South Korea , marking the end of the rule of Syngman Rhee through the civilian April Revolution . In 1962 , another military authoritarian , General Park Chung @-@ Hee , would ascend to power and rule South Korea for nearly two decades . The short period of relative freedom between these two administrations was known as the Second Republic . During this time , filmmakers took advantage of the relaxation of governmental control over the film industry to create several boldly experimental works . Director Yu Hyun @-@ mok 's film Aimless Bullet ( 1960 ) dates from this period , as does Kim Ki @-@ young 's major breakthrough , The Housemaid ( also 1960 ) . A lurid , expressionistic melodrama set in an eerie house , involving sexual obsessions , murder and rats , this is the first film in which Kim 's mature style is fully evident , and is widely regarded as one of the greatest Korean films ever made .
The film is a domestic thriller telling of a family 's destruction by the introduction of a sexually predatory femme fatale into the household . A composer has just moved into a two @-@ story house with his wife and two children . When his wife becomes exhausted from working at a sewing machine to support the family , the composer hires a housemaid to help with the work around the house . The new housemaid behaves strangely , catching rats with her hands , spying on the composer , seducing him and eventually becoming pregnant by him . The composer 's wife convinces the housemaid to induce a miscarriage by falling down a flight of stairs . After this incident , the housemaid 's behavior becomes increasingly more erratic . She kills the composer 's son , and then persuades the composer to commit suicide with her by swallowing rat poison . The film ends with the composer reading the story from a newspaper with his wife . The narrative of the film has apparently been told by the composer , who then warns the film audience that this is just the sort of thing could happen to anyone .
The Housemaid marked Kim 's full break with realism , the main style of Korean cinema at the time , into his own version of expressionism . The plot , themes and even character names set out in The Housemaid were to be revisited by Kim repeatedly in his later career . Besides the first film , the official " Housemaid Trilogy " consists of Woman of Fire ( 1971 ) and Woman of Fire ' 82 ( 1982 ) . Also , at least two other later films — Insect Woman ( 1972 ) and Beasts of Prey ( 1985 ) — are , in some ways , remakes of The Housemaid . By using the story as a template , Kim was able to emphasize different aspects of the scenario , and to concentrate on different details and aspects of the central situation with each new re @-@ telling .
= = = Mid @-@ career = = =
Kim solidified his break with cinematic realism by following The Housemaid with two more films exploring styles and mixing genres , radically new for Korean cinema at the time . The Sea Knows ( 1961 ) transcended its roots in the standard anti @-@ Japanese World War II film to become a distinctive examination of humanity , sadism , greed , lust for power and sexuality . The box @-@ office success of this film enabled Kim to buy his first house , in the Namsan district of Seoul . Goryeojang ( 1963 ) , dealt with a similar subject matter as The Ballad of Narayama ( 1983 ) , directed by Shohei Imamura , a filmmaker with whom Kim has often been compared . Kim 's version of the story is marked by his mixing of genres . For example , he frames the story — which deals with an ancient tradition in which elders were abandoned to die — within a modern lecture on birth control .
Some of the characteristic traits of Kim 's mature style , first seen in these three films , are gothic excess , surrealism , horror , perversions and sexuality . Although in stark contrast to the realism , harmony , balance and sentimentality typical of Korean cinema of the time , Kim 's films , in an eccentric and metaphorical way , deal with the realities of postwar , industrializing South Korean society and psychology . After having firmly established his auteur status with these films , Kim 's unique vision began to wane in his films of the later 1960s .
During the 1970s , South Korea 's film industry was at a low point due to government censorship and underfunding . Because of the poor state of the local film industry , cinema attendance in South Korea had dropped drastically since its high @-@ point in the 1960s . Kim Ki @-@ young , however , working independently in B @-@ movie @-@ like genre films , began to produce some of his most innovative and personal works at this time . Kim fully regained his auteurist spirit with Woman of Fire ( 1971 ) , the second of his Housemaid trilogy . The use of color , particularly reds and blues to express the anxiety and desires of the film 's characters , distinguished this film from the original Housemaid 's dark , shadowy black @-@ and @-@ white photography . For this film , Kim was named Best Director at the Blue Dragon Film Awards and actress Youn Yuh @-@ jung was given Special Mention for Best Actress at the Festival de Cine de Sitges . Not only popular with the critics , Kim 's independently produced films were box @-@ office successes during this era in which most films were harmed through heavy governmental interference . In 1972 Kim 's Insect Woman was the only film to sell more than 100 @,@ 000 tickets in Seoul and won Kim the Best Director prize at the Baeksang Arts Awards in 1973 .
Although a critically acclaimed , financially successful independent filmmaker , Kim was not immune from governmental pressure . He filmed Ban Geum @-@ ryeon in 1975 , but it was banned at the time , and not released until 1981 , with 40 minutes of footage censored . The government also coerced Kim into making an anti @-@ Communist propaganda film . The resulting film , Love of Blood Relations ( 1976 ) , transcended the bounds of propaganda by portraying the communist agent as one of Kim 's typical femme fatale characters . Kim later commented , " North or south , capitalist or communist , ideology is far less interesting to me than the things that divide the sexes . "
Film professor and programmer for the Pusan International Film Festival , Lee Yong @-@ kwan calls Iodo ( 1977 ) Kim 's best film , and Variety 's Seoul @-@ correspondent Darcy Paquet calls it " one of Korean cinema 's most compelling , unnerving depictions of the primal forces that motivate humankind . " An examination of environmental , religious , social and sexual taboos , the film culminates in a scene of necrophilia that Paquet calls " one of the most shocking , brazen sequences ever shot by a Korean filmmaker " .
= = = Rediscovery and later life = = =
Kim 's associates characterize the director as an eccentric individual . Tokyo International Film Festival programming director Kenji Ishizaka recalls that Kim 's way of writing a screenplay was to walk away from home for three months . He would shut himself up in a cheap hotel , listen to neighborhood gossip , and write all night in the dark . South Korean film critic Lee Young @-@ il remembers that Kim 's shoes were never shined , and that one of his few material pleasures was high @-@ quality coffee . Kim Ki @-@ young 's unconventional and nonconformist nature also prevented him from participating in South Korea 's mainstream film industry . The only official title he held within the film community was member of The National Academy of Arts , which he joined in 1997 , and he did not cultivate friendships with journalists who could further his career .
Nevertheless , since the early 1960s , Kim Ki @-@ young 's status as one of the greatest and most original Korean film directors had never been in doubt . His stylistic preoccupation with sexuality , horror and melodrama had earned Kim the nickname , " Mister Monster " from his admirers . However , by the 1980s Kim 's career had fallen into neglect . His continued fascination with B @-@ movie exploitation themes as well as the increasingly obsessive and subversive nature of his films resulted in his isolation from the film community , and in financial failures at the box @-@ office . The last of the Housemaid trilogy , Woman of Fire ' 82 ( 1982 ) is an even more radicalized and baroque retelling of the same basic story he had filmed numerous times in the previous two decades . By the mid @-@ 1980s , Kim 's film output had slowed and finally stopped .
In the early 1990s Kim 's work began to be rediscovered by South Korean cult film fans who discussed his films through the Internet and exchanged hard @-@ to @-@ find copies by videotape . Noticing this growing domestic Kim Ki @-@ young cult , the Dongsung Cinematheque , an art @-@ house theater in Seoul , programmed a retrospective showing of Kim 's films . With his profile again high in Korean film society , Kim 's work began to attract international attention . Five of his films were screened at the Tokyo International Film Festival in 1996 . When Kim Ki @-@ young 's career was highlighted at the second Pusan International Film Festival in 1997 , his work found enthusiastic new audiences in the international film community . The strongly positive reception of Kim 's work by international audiences surprised the festival organizers , who immediately began receiving requests for overseas retrospectives of Kim 's career . With this renewed interest , Kim began work on a comeback film to be titled Diabolical Woman . The Berlin International Film Festival invited him to attend a showing of his films in 1998 . Before Kim started work on the film or attended the festival , he and his wife were killed in a house fire caused by an electrical short circuit on February 5 , 1998 .
Kim Ki @-@ young 's death did not stop the revival of interest in his films . A six @-@ film retrospective of Kim 's career was shown in San Francisco twice in 1998 . Within the year , Kim 's films were screened at the Belgrade International Film Festival , the London Pan @-@ Asian Film Festival , the Estate Romana and the Paris Videothèque . Few prints of Korean films before the 1970s survive , and at one point 90 % of Kim 's output was considered lost . Under the " Kim Ki @-@ young Renaissance Project " , the Korean Film Council ( KOFIC ) has worked to find Kim 's lost films and to restore those that are damaged . In 2006 , the French Cinémathèque presented 18 of Kim 's films , many of them newly rediscovered and restored through the efforts of the KOFIC .
During his lifetime , Kim gained many supporters among the younger generation of South Korean directors . Park Kwang @-@ su reportedly admires Kim Ki @-@ young above all other directors , and Lee Chang @-@ ho is another of Kim 's followers . In the years since his death , Kim 's influence on Korean cinema has continued to be seen through the work of the current generation of South Korean filmmakers , including such prominent directors as Im Sang @-@ soo and Kim Ki @-@ duk . Bong Joon @-@ ho calls Kim his mentor and favorite director . Park Chan @-@ wook names The Housemaid as one of the films which most influenced his career , and says of Kim Ki @-@ young , " He is able to find and portray beauty in destruction , humor in violence and terror . "
= = Filmography = =
= Daspletosaurus =
Daspletosaurus ( / dæsˌpliːtəˈsɔːrəs / das @-@ PLEET @-@ o @-@ SAWR @-@ əs ; meaning " frightful lizard " ) is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in western North America between 77 and 74 million years ago , during the Late Cretaceous Period . Fossils of the only named species ( D. torosus ) were found in Alberta , although other possible species from Alberta and Montana await description . Including these undescribed species makes Daspletosaurus the most species @-@ rich genus of tyrannosaur .
Daspletosaurus is closely related to the much larger and more recent Tyrannosaurus . Like most known tyrannosaurids , it was a multi @-@ tonne bipedal predator equipped with dozens of large , sharp teeth . Daspletosaurus had the small forelimbs typical of tyrannosaurids , although they were proportionately longer than in other genera .
As an apex predator , Daspletosaurus was at the top of the food chain , probably preying on large dinosaurs like the ceratopsid Centrosaurus and the hadrosaur Hypacrosaurus . In some areas , Daspletosaurus coexisted with another tyrannosaurid , Gorgosaurus , though there is some evidence of niche differentiation between the two . While Daspletosaurus fossils are rarer than other tyrannosaurids ' , the available specimens allow some analysis of the biology of these animals , including social behavior , diet and life history .
= = Description = =
While very large by the standard of modern predators , Daspletosaurus was not the largest tyrannosaurid . Adults could reach a length of 8 – 9 meters ( 26 – 30 ft ) from snout to tail . Mass estimates have centered on 2 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 2 @.@ 75 short tons ) but have ranged between 1 @.@ 8 and 3 @.@ 8 tonnes ( 2 @.@ 0 and 4 @.@ 1 short tons ) .
Daspletosaurus had a massive skull that could reach more than 1 meter ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in length . The bones were heavily constructed and some , including the nasal bones on top of the snout , were fused for strength . Large fenestrae ( openings ) in the skull reduced its weight . An adult Daspletosaurus was armed with about six dozen teeth that were very long but oval in cross section rather than blade @-@ like . Unlike its other teeth , those in the premaxilla at the end of the upper jaw had a D @-@ shaped cross section , an example of heterodonty always seen in tyrannosaurids . Unique skull features included the rough outer surface of the maxilla ( upper jaw bone ) and the pronounced crests around the eyes on the lacrimal , postorbital , and jugal bones . The orbit ( eye socket ) was a tall oval , somewhere in between the circular shape seen in Gorgosaurus and the ' keyhole ' shape of Tyrannosaurus . Split carinae have been found on Daspletosaurus teeth .
Daspletosaurus shared the same body form as other tyrannosaurids , with a short , S @-@ shaped neck supporting the massive skull . It walked on its two thick hindlimbs , which ended in four @-@ toed feet , although the first digit ( the hallux ) did not contact the ground . In contrast , the forelimbs were extremely small and bore only two digits , although Daspletosaurus had the longest forelimbs in proportion to body size of any tyrannosaurid . A long , heavy tail served as a counterweight to the head and torso , with the center of gravity over the hips .
= = Classification and systematics = =
Daspletosaurus belongs in the subfamily Tyrannosaurinae within the family Tyrannosauridae , along with Tarbosaurus , Tyrannosaurus and Alioramus . Animals in this subfamily are more closely related to Tyrannosaurus than to Albertosaurus and are known – with the exception of Alioramus – for their robust build with proportionally larger skulls and longer femora than in the other subfamily , the Albertosaurinae .
Daspletosaurus is usually considered to be closely related to Tyrannosaurus rex , or even a direct ancestor through anagenesis . Gregory Paul reassigned D. torosus to the genus Tyrannosaurus , creating the new combination Tyrannosaurus torosus , but this has not been generally accepted . Many researchers believe Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus to be sister taxa or even to be the same genus , with Daspletosaurus a more basal relative . On the other hand , Phil Currie and colleagues find Daspletosaurus to be more closely related to Tarbosaurus and other Asian tyrannosaurids like Alioramus than to the North American Tyrannosaurus . The systematics ( evolutionary relationships ) of Daspletosaurus may become clearer once all the species have been described .
Below is the cladogram of Tyrannosauridae based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Loewen et al. in 2013 .
= = Discovery and naming = =
The type specimen of Daspletosaurus torosus ( CMN 8506 ) is a partial skeleton including the skull , the shoulder , a forelimb , the pelvis , a femur and all of the vertebrae from the neck , torso and hip , as well as the first eleven tail vertebrae . It was discovered in 1921 near Steveville , Alberta , by Charles Mortram Sternberg , who thought it was a new species of Gorgosaurus . It was not until 1970 that the specimen was fully described by Dale Russell , who made it the type of a new genus , Daspletosaurus , from the Greek δασπλής ( dasples , stem and connective vowel resulting in daspleto ~ ) ( " frightful " ) and σαυρος / sauros ( " lizard " ) . The type species is Daspletosaurus torosus , the specific name torosus being Latin for ' muscular ' or ' brawny ' . Aside from the type , there is only one other well @-@ known specimen , RTMP 2001 @.@ 36 @.@ 1 , a relatively complete skeleton discovered in 2001 . Both specimens were recovered from the Oldman Formation in the Judith River Group of Alberta . The Oldman Formation was deposited during the middle Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous , from about 77 to 76 Ma ( million years ago ) . A specimen from the younger Horseshoe Canyon Formation in Alberta has been reassigned to Albertosaurus sarcophagus .
= = = Unnamed species = = =
Two or three additional species have been assigned to the genus Daspletosaurus over the years , although as of 2007 none of these species have received a proper description or scientific name . In the meantime , all are designated as Daspletosaurus spp ; this does not imply that they all are the same species .
Along with the holotype , Russell designated a specimen collected by Barnum Brown in 1913 as the paratype of D. torosus . This specimen ( AMNH 5438 ) consists of parts of the hindleg , the pelvis and some of its associated vertebrae . It was discovered in the Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta . The Dinosaur Park Formation was formerly known as the Upper Oldman Formation and dates back to the middle Campanian , between 76 @.@ 5 and 74 @.@ 8 million years ago . Daspletosaurus fossils are known specifically from the middle to upper section of the formation , between 75 @.@ 6 and 75 @.@ 0 million years ago . In 1914 , Brown collected a nearly complete skeleton and skull ; forty years later his American Museum of Natural History sold this specimen to the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago . It was mounted for display in Chicago and labeled as Albertosaurus libratus for many years , but after several skull features were later found to be modeled in plaster , including most of the teeth , the specimen ( FMNH PR308 ) was reassigned to Daspletosaurus . A total of eight specimens have been collected from the Dinosaur Park Formation over the years since , most of them within the boundaries of Dinosaur Provincial Park . Phil Currie believes that the Dinosaur Park specimens represent a new species of Daspletosaurus , distinguished by certain features of the skull . Pictures of this new species have been published , but it still awaits a name and full description in print .
A new tyrannosaurid specimen ( OMNH 10131 ) , including skull fragments , ribs and parts of the hindlimb , was reported from New Mexico in 1990 and assigned to the now @-@ defunct genus Aublysodon . Many later authors have reassigned this specimen , along with a few others from New Mexico , to yet another unnamed species of Daspletosaurus . However , research published in 2010 showed that this species , from the Hunter Wash Member of the Kirtland Formation , is actually a more primitive tyrannosauroid , and was classified in the genus Bistahieversor . There is currently disagreement over the age of the Kirtland Formation , with some workers claiming a late Campanian age , while others suggest a younger age in the early Maastrichtian stage .
In 1992 , Jack Horner and colleagues published an extremely preliminary report of a tyrannosaurid from the upper parts of the Campanian Two Medicine Formation in Montana , which was interpreted as a transitional species between Daspletosaurus and the later Tyrannosaurus . Another partial skeleton was reported from the Upper Two Medicine in 2001 , preserving the remains of a juvenile hadrosaur in its abdominal cavity . This specimen was assigned to Daspletosaurus but not to any particular species . The remains of at least three more Daspletosaurus have also been described in a Two Medicine bonebed . These specimens have not been described in detail , but Currie believes all of the Two Medicine material represents an as @-@ yet @-@ unnamed third species of Daspletosaurus .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Coexistence with Gorgosaurus = = =
In the late Campanian of North America , Daspletosaurus was a contemporary of the albertosaurine tyrannosaurid Gorgosaurus . This is one of the few examples of two tyrannosaur genera coexisting . In modern predator guilds , similar @-@ sized predators are separated into different ecological niches by anatomical , behavioral or geographical differences that limit competition . Several studies have attempted to explain niche differentiation in Daspletosaurus and Gorgosaurus .
Dale Russell hypothesized that the more lightly built and more common Gorgosaurus may have preyed on the abundant hadrosaurs of the time , while the more robust and less common Daspletosaurus may have specialized on the less prevalent but better @-@ defended ceratopsids , which may have been more difficult to hunt . However , a specimen of Daspletosaurus ( OTM 200 ) from the Two Medicine Formation preserves the digested remains of a juvenile hadrosaur in its gut region . The higher and broader muzzles of tyrannosaurines like Daspletosaurus are mechanically stronger than the lower snouts of albertosaurines like Gorgosaurus , although tooth strengths are similar between the two groups . This may indicate a difference in feeding mechanics or diet .
Other authors have suggested that competition was limited by geographical separation . Unlike some other groups of dinosaurs , there appears to be no correlation with distance from the sea . Neither Daspletosaurus nor Gorgosaurus was more common at higher or lower elevations than the other . However , while there is some overlap , Gorgosaurus appears to be more common at northern latitudes , with species of Daspletosaurus more abundant to the south . The same pattern is seen in other groups of dinosaurs . Chasmosaurine ceratopsians and hadrosaurine hadrosaurs are also more common in the Two Medicine Formation and in southwestern North America during the Campanian . Thomas Holtz has suggested that this pattern indicates shared ecological preferences between tyrannosaurines , chasmosaurines and hadrosaurines . Holtz notes that , at the end of the later Maastrichtian stage , tyrannosaurines like Tyrannosaurus rex , hadrosaurines and chasmosaurines like Triceratops were widespread throughout western North America , while albertosaurines and centrosaurines became extinct , and lambeosaurines were very rare .
= = = Social behavior = = =
A young specimen of the Dinosaur Park Daspletosaurus species ( TMP 94 @.@ 143 @.@ 1 ) shows bite marks on the face that were inflicted by another tyrannosaur . The bite marks are healed over , indicating that the animal survived the bite . A full @-@ grown Dinosaur Park Daspletosaurus ( TMP 85 @.@ 62 @.@ 1 ) also exhibits tyrannosaur bite marks , showing that attacks to the face were not limited to younger animals . While it is possible that the bites were attributable to other species , intraspecific aggression , including facial biting , is very common among predators . Facial bites are seen in other tyrannosaurs like Gorgosaurus and Tyrannosaurus , as well as in other theropod genera like Sinraptor and Saurornitholestes . Darren Tanke and Phil Currie hypothesize that the bites are due to intraspecific competition for territory or resources , or for dominance within a social group .
Evidence that Daspletosaurus lived in social groups comes from a bonebed found in the Two Medicine Formation of Montana . The bonebed includes the remains of three Daspletosaurus , including a large adult , a small juvenile , and another individual of intermediate size . At least five hadrosaurs are preserved at the same location . Geologic evidence indicates that the remains were not brought together by river currents but that all of the animals were buried simultaneously at the same location . The hadrosaur remains are scattered and bear numerous marks from tyrannosaur teeth , indicating that the Daspletosaurus were feeding on the hadrosaurs at the time of death . The cause of death is unknown . Currie speculates that the daspletosaurs formed a pack , although this cannot be stated with certainty . Other scientists are skeptical of the evidence for social groups in Daspletosaurus and other large theropods ;
Brian Roach and Daniel Brinkman have suggested that Daspletosaurus social interaction would have more closely resembled the modern Komodo dragon , where non @-@ cooperative individuals mob carcasses , frequently attacking and even cannibalizing each other in the process . Evidence of cannibalism in Daspletosaurus was published in 2015 .
= = = Life history = = =
Paleontologist Gregory Erickson and colleagues have studied the growth and life history of tyrannosaurids . Analysis of bone histology can determine the age of a specimen when it died . Growth rates can be examined when the age of various individuals are plotted against their size on a graph . Erickson has shown that after a long time as juveniles , tyrannosaurs underwent tremendous growth spurts for about four years midway through their lives . After the rapid growth phase ended with sexual maturity , growth slowed down considerably in adult animals . Erickson only examined Daspletosaurus from the Dinosaur Park Formation , but these specimens show the same pattern . Compared to albertosaurines , Daspletosaurus showed a faster growth rate during the rapid growth period due to its higher adult weight . The maximum growth rate in Daspletosaurus was 180 kilograms ( 400 lb ) per year , based on a mass estimate of 1800 kilograms ( 2 tons ) in adults . Other authors have suggested higher adult weights for Daspletosaurus ; this would change the magnitude of the growth rate but not the overall pattern .
By tabulating the number of specimens of each age group , Erickson and his colleagues were able to draw conclusions about life history in a population of Albertosaurus . Their analysis showed that while juveniles were rare in the fossil record , subadults in the rapid growth phase and adults were far more common . While this could be due to preservation or collection biases , Erickson hypothesized that the difference was due to low mortality among juveniles over a certain size , which is also seen in some modern large mammals like elephants . This low mortality may have resulted from a lack of predation , since tyrannosaurs surpassed all contemporaneous predators in size by the age of two . Paleontologists have not found enough Daspletosaurus remains for a similar analysis , but Erickson notes that the same general trend seems to apply .
A 2009 study found evidence of Trichomonas gallinae @-@ like infection in the jaws of various specimens of Daspletosaurus .
= = Paleoecology = =
All known Daspletosaurus fossils have been found in formations dating to the middle to late Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous Period , between 77 and 74 million years ago . Since the middle of the Cretaceous , North America had been divided in half by the Western Interior Seaway , with much of Montana and Alberta below the surface . However , the uplift of the Rocky Mountains in the Laramide Orogeny to the west , which began during the time of Daspletosaurus , forced the seaway to retreat eastwards and southwards . Rivers flowed down from the mountains and drained into the seaway , carrying sediment along with them that formed the Two Medicine Formation , the Judith River Group , and other sedimentary formations in the region . About 73 million years ago , the seaway began to advance westwards and northwards again , and the entire region was covered by the Bearpaw Sea , represented throughout the western United States and Canada by the massive Bearpaw Shale .
Daspletosaurus lived in a vast floodplain along the western shore of the interior seaway . Large rivers watered the land , occasionally flooding and blanketing the region with new sediment . When water was plentiful , the region could support a great deal of plant and animal life , but periodic droughts also struck the region , resulting in mass mortality as preserved in the many bonebed deposits found in Two Medicine and Judith River sediments , including the Daspletosaurus bonebed . Similar conditions exist today in East Africa . Volcanic eruptions from the west periodically blanketed the region with ash , also resulting in large @-@ scale mortality , while simultaneously enriching the soil for future plant growth . It is these ash beds that allow precise radiometric dating as well . Fluctuating sea levels also resulted in a variety of other environments at different times and places within the Judith River Group , including offshore and nearshore marine habitats , coastal wetlands , deltas and lagoons , in addition to the inland floodplains . The Two Medicine Formation was deposited at higher elevations farther inland than the other two formations .
The excellent vertebrate fossil record of Two Medicine and Judith River rocks resulted from a combination of abundant animal life , periodic natural disasters , and the deposition of large amounts of sediment . Many types of freshwater and estuarine fish are represented , including sharks , rays , sturgeons , gars and others . The Judith River Group preserves the remains of many aquatic amphibians and reptiles , including frogs , salamanders , turtles , Champsosaurus and crocodilians . Terrestrial lizards , including whiptails , skinks , monitors and alligator lizards have also been discovered . Azhdarchid pterosaurs , and birds like Apatornis and Avisaurus flew overhead , while several varieties of mammals coexisted with Daspletosaurus and other types of dinosaurs in the various formations that make up the Judith River wedge .
In the Oldman Formation ( the geological equivalent of the Judith River formation ) , Daspletosaurus torosus could have preyed upon the hadrosaur species Brachylophosaurus canadensis , the ceratopsians Coronosaurus brinkmani and Albertaceratops nesmoi , pachycephalosaurs , ornithomimids , therizinosaurs and possibly ankylosaurs . Other predators included troodontids , oviraptorosaurs , the dromaeosaurid Saurornitholestes and possibly an albertosaurine tyrannosaur ( genus currently unknown ) . The younger Dinosaur Park and Two Medicine Formations had faunas similar to the Oldman , with the Dinosaur Park in particular preserving an unrivaled array of dinosaurs . The albertosaurine Gorgosaurus lived alongside unnamed species of Daspletosaurus in the Dinosaur Park and Upper Two Medicine environments . Young tyrannosaurs may have filled the niches in between adult tyrannosaurs and smaller theropods , which were separated by two orders of magnitude in mass . A Saurornitholestes dentary has been discovered in the Dinosaur Park Formation that bore tooth marks left by the bite of a young tyrannosaur , possibly Daspletosaurus .
= Tracy Does Conan =
" Tracy Does Conan " is the seventh episode of NBC 's first season of 30 Rock . It was written by the series ' creator and executive producer , Tina Fey and it was directed by one of the season 's supervising producers , Adam Bernstein . It first aired on December 7 , 2006 in the United States and November 29 , 2007 in the United Kingdom . Guest stars in the episode included Katrina Bowden , Kevin Brown , Grizz Chapman , Rachel Dratch , Dave Finkel , Steve Hollander , Johnnie May , Maulik Pancholy , Chris Parnell , Aubrey Plaza , Keith Powell , R. N. Rao and Dean Winters . Conan O 'Brien appeared as himself in this episode . The episode marks the first appearance of Chris Parnell as recurring character , Dr. Leo Spaceman .
This episode revolves around Liz Lemon ( played by Tina Fey ) and Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) trying to get Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) to make a successful appearance on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien , a late night talk show . These attempts are complicated when Tracy has a bad reaction to pills prescribed by Dr. Leo Spaceman and he temporarily goes crazy . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) is preparing to give a speech at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria .
= = Plot = =
While giving a blood donation , Liz reveals that she plans to break up with her boyfriend , Dennis Duffy ( Dean Winters ) . On the way to her office , she runs into Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) who reveals that Jack has " bumped " her from appearing on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . He has decided to put Tracy on in her place instead . When Liz can 't change Jack 's mind , Jenna threatens to quit her job . In this scene , Jenna discusses her upcoming and hard to pronounce film " The Rural Juror . "
As the taping time , 6 pm , is fast approaching , Tracy begins acting strangely . Liz and Pete discover that he has not been taking his medication correctly . Liz calls Tracy 's doctor , Dr. Leo Spaceman ( Chris Parnell ) , who gives her instructions regarding the medication . Liz gives the instructions to Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) who has to visit multiple identical pharmacies until he finds the correct one , which will have Tracy 's new medication . Liz and Pete 's attempts to get Tracy to the Late Night stage on time are further complicated as Jack persistently calls Liz to his office to ask for her advice on a speech he is going to read at The Waldorf Astoria . Tracy eventually appears on Late Night only to immediately fall asleep after sitting down .
Liz walks into her apartment after the Conan incident and Dennis is sitting on their bed playing Halo . He told Liz he got her a cheeseburger . She takes one bite and falls asleep listening to him playing the video game .
= = Production = =
Rachel Dratch , longtime comedy partner and fellow Saturday Night Live alumna of Fey , was originally cast to portray Jenna . Dratch played the role in the show 's original pilot , but in August 2006 , Jane Krakowski was announced as Dratch 's replacement . Executive producer Lorne Michaels announced that while Dratch would not be playing a series regular , she would appear in various episodes in a different role . In this episode , she played a hallucination of Tracy 's , which he called Blue Dude .
Chris Parnell , who played Dr. Leo Spaceman in this episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey was the head writer on Saturday Night Live from 1999 until 2006 . Various other cast members of Saturday Night Live have appeared on 30 Rock . These cast members include : Rachel Dratch , Fred Armisen , Kristen Wiig , Will Forte , Jason Sudeikis and Molly Shannon . Tina Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of Saturday Night Live . Alec Baldwin has also hosted Saturday Night Live sixteen times , the highest number of episodes of any host of the series .
Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode where Tracy Jordan is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz Lemon admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger , and saying she dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four Halloweens . Fey , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to Robert Carlock , who she described as " the resident expert " . Star Wars is referenced in this episode when Tracy Jordan takes on the identity of the character Chewbacca .
The episode briefly features actress Aubrey Plaza , who would later appear on the NBC show Parks and Recreation , as an NBC page – a job she actually held at the time .
= = Reception = =
" Tracy Does Conan " brought in an average of 6 @.@ 84 million American viewers . This episode achieved a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 in the key 18 – 49 demographic , a series high in that category . The 3 @.@ 2 refers to 3 @.@ 2 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. and the 8 refers to 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast , in the U.S .. In the United Kingdom , the episode attracted 400 @,@ 000 viewers which was a 3 % share of the viewing audience at the time of the broadcast .
Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide said that although " 30 Rock gave us yet another riff on what a wild and crazy guy Tracy Jordan is " , the series was really finding its footing . Mitovich enjoyed the appearances of Dratch and Parnell , labeling the latter as the highlight of the episode . Robert Canning of IGN said that the episode " failed to deliver the comic gold we were hoping for . " Canning had hoped that Tracy 's storyline would be a " subtle , fairly straightforward plot " , in contrast to the wackiness the series had a reputation for , but found it unfunny . The reviewer did not enjoy the appearances of Dratch and Winters , and felt Conan O 'Brien was not used to his full potential . Canning rated the episode 5 out of 10 .
Tina Fey 's writing for this episode earned her a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series , but lost the award to Greg Daniels of The Office for the episode " Gay Witch Hunt " .
= TCG Heybeliada ( F @-@ 511 ) =
TCG Heybeliada ( F @-@ 511 ) is the lead ship of the Ada class ASW corvettes of the Turkish Navy . TCG Heybeliada was named after Heybeliada Island , where the Turkish Naval High School is located . Heybeliada Island is part of the Prince Islands archipelago in the Sea of Marmara , to the southeast of Istanbul .
Designed , developed and built by the Tuzla ( Istanbul ) Naval Shipyard as a part of the MILGEM project , it was laid down on 22 January 2007 , launched on 27 September 2008 , and commissioned on 27 September 2011 .
= = History = =
Istanbul Naval Shipyard Command started construction of the TCG Heybeliada on 22 January 2007 . Sailed out for initial sea trials in 2008 , she was officially commissioned by the Turkish Navy and entered navy service on 27 September 2011 . Since her commissioning , her longest voyage has been 2013 Mediterranean cruise . This journey took the vessel to the ports of Alexandria , Tripoli , Libya , Algiers , La Goulette , Casablanca , and Durres . Throughout the vagaries of her service career , the vessel has received the moniker the " Ghost of the Seas " .
= = Description = =
TCG Heybeliada has a displacement of 2 @,@ 300 tons , is 99 @.@ 56 metres ( 326 @.@ 6 ft ) in length , 14 @.@ 4 metres ( 47 ft ) in beam , and has a draft of 3 @.@ 89 metres ( 12 @.@ 8 ft ) . She is powered by two diesel engines and a gas turbine , with a power of 30 @,@ 000 kilowatts ( 40 @,@ 000 hp ) , driving two propellers , and is capable of speeding up to 29 knots . She has a range of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ; 4 @,@ 000 mi ) at 15 knots , and has an endurance of 21 days with logistical support and ten days while operating autonomously . She has a crew of 93 , with space for up to 106 .
TCG Heybeliada is equipped with GENESIS combat management system that controls search and navigation radars , electronic warfare suits , weapons , countermeasures , communication devices , underwater and onboard sensors . The ship is armed with a single Otobreda 76 mm gun , two Aselsan STAMP 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) guns , eight Harpoon missiles , 21 Rolling Airframe Missiles and two 324 @-@ millimetre ( 12 @.@ 8 in ) Mark 32 triple launchers for Mark 46 torpedoes . Electronic warfare systems include a dedicated EW radar , laser / RF systems , ASW jammers , and an SSTD system . Communication and navigation systems involve satellite communication , X @-@ band , navigation , fire control and LPI radar , ECDIS , GPS and LAN infrastructure . The radar suite is the SMART @-@ S Mk2 , built by Thales . The ship is fitted with sonar developed by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey . The whole platform is managed by an advanced integrated platform management system .
The ship is capable of carrying Sikorsky S @-@ 70 helicopter or unmanned aircraft , along with the associated armaments , 20 tons of JP @-@ 5 aircraft fuel , aerial refueling systems and maintenance facilities .
The ship serves as the lead vessel of the Ada class ASW corvettes . She derives her name from Heybeliada Island , a part of the Prince Islands archipelago in the Sea of Marmara , to the southeast of Istanbul .
= Colony collapse disorder =
Colony collapse disorder ( CCD ) is the phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in a colony disappear and leave behind a queen , plenty of food and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining immature bees and the queen . While such disappearances have occurred throughout the history of apiculture , and were known by various names ( disappearing disease , spring dwindle , May disease , autumn collapse , and fall dwindle disease ) , the syndrome was renamed colony collapse disorder in late 2006 in conjunction with a drastic rise in the number of disappearances of western honey bee ( Apis mellifera ) colonies in North America . European beekeepers observed similar phenomena in Belgium , France , the Netherlands , Greece , Italy , Portugal , and Spain , Switzerland and Germany , albeit to a lesser degree , and the Northern Ireland Assembly received reports of a decline greater than 50 % .
Colony collapse disorder causes significant economic losses because many agricultural crops ( although no staple foods ) worldwide are pollinated by western honey bees . According to the Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , the worth of global crops with honey bee 's pollination was estimated to be close to $ 200 billion in 2005 . Shortages of bees in the US have increased the cost to farmers renting them for pollination services by up to 20 % .
In the six years leading up to 2013 , more than 10 million beehives were lost , often to CCD , nearly twice the normal rate of loss .
Several possible causes for CCD have been proposed , but no single proposal has gained widespread acceptance among the scientific community . Suggested causes include : infections with Varroa and Acarapis mites ; malnutrition ; various pathogens ; genetic factors ; immunodeficiencies ; loss of habitat ; changing beekeeping practices ; or a combination of factors . A large amount of speculation has surrounded a family of pesticides called neonicotinoids as having caused CCD .
= = History = =
Limited occurrences resembling CCD have been documented as early as 1869 and this set of symptoms has , in the past several decades , been given many different names ( disappearing disease , spring dwindle , May disease , autumn collapse , and fall dwindle disease ) . Most recently , a similar phenomenon in the winter of 2004 / 2005 occurred , and was attributed to varroa mites ( the " vampire mite " scare ) , though this was never ultimately confirmed . The cause of the appearance of this syndrome has never been determined . Upon recognition that the syndrome does not seem to be seasonally restricted , and that it may not be a " disease " in the standard sense — that there may not be a specific causative agent — the syndrome was renamed .
A well @-@ documented outbreak of colony losses spread from the Isle of Wight to the rest of the UK in 1906 . These losses later were attributed to a combination of factors , including adverse weather , intensive apiculture leading to inadequate forage , and a new infection , the chronic bee paralysis virus , but at the time , the cause of this agricultural beekeeping problem was similarly mysterious and unknown .
Reports show this behavior in hives in the US in 1918 and 1919 . Coined " mystery disease " by some , it eventually became more widely known as " disappearing disease " . Oertel , in 1965 , reported that hives afflicted with disappearing disease in Louisiana had plenty of honey in the combs , although few or no bees were present , discrediting reports that attributed the disappearances to lack of food .
From 1972 to 2006 , dramatic reductions continued in the number of feral honey bees in the U.S. and a significant though somewhat gradual decline in the number of colonies maintained by beekeepers . This decline includes the cumulative losses from all factors , such as urbanization , pesticide use , tracheal and Varroa mites , and commercial beekeepers ' retiring and going out of business . However , in late 2006 and early 2007 , the rate of attrition was alleged to have reached new proportions , and the term " colony collapse disorder " began to be used to describe this sudden rash of disappearances ( sometimes referred to as " spontaneous hive collapse " or the " Mary Celeste syndrome " in the United Kingdom ) .
Losses had remained stable since the 1990s at 17 % – 20 % per year attributable to a variety of factors , such as mites , diseases , and management stress . The first report of CCD was in mid @-@ November 2006 by a Pennsylvania beekeeper overwintering in Florida . By February 2007 , large commercial migratory beekeepers in several states had reported heavy losses associated with CCD . Their reports of losses varied widely , ranging from 30 % to 90 % of their bee colonies ; in some cases , beekeepers reported losses of nearly all of their colonies with surviving colonies so weakened that they might no longer be able to pollinate or produce honey .
Losses were reported in migratory operations wintering in California , Florida , Oklahoma , and Texas . In late February , some larger nonmigratory beekeepers in the mid @-@ Atlantic and Pacific Northwest regions also reported significant losses of more than 50 % . Colony losses also were reported in five Canadian provinces , several European countries , and countries in South and Central America and Asia . In 2010 , the USDA reported that data on overall honey bee losses for 2010 indicated an estimated 34 % loss , which is statistically similar to losses reported in 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 . Fewer colony losses occurred in the U.S. over the winter of 2013 @-@ 2014 than in recent years . Total losses of managed honey bee colonies from all causes were 23 @.@ 2 % nationwide , a marked improvement over the 30 @.@ 5 % loss reported for the winter of 2012 @-@ 2013 and the eight @-@ year average loss of 29 @.@ 6 % .
After bee populations dropped 23 % in the winter of 2013 , the Environmental Protection Agency and Department of Agriculture formed a task force to address the issue . In the six years leading up to 2013 , more than 10 million beehives were lost , often to CCD , nearly twice the normal rate of loss . However , according to Syngenta , the total number of beehives worldwide continues to grow . An insecticide produced by Syngenta was banned by the European Commission in 2013 for use in crops pollinated by bees . Syngenta together with Bayer is challenging this ban in court .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
In collapsed colonies , CCD is suspected when a complete absence of adult bees is found in colonies , with little or no buildup of dead bees in the hive or in front of the hive . A colony which has collapsed from CCD is generally characterized by all of these conditions occurring simultaneously :
Presence of capped brood in abandoned colonies : Bees normally will not abandon a hive until the capped brood have all hatched .
Presence of food stores , both honey and bee pollen :
which are not immediately robbed by other bees
which when attacked by hive pests such as wax moth and small hive beetle , the attack is noticeably delayed
Presence of the queen bee : If the queen is not present , the hive died because it was queenless , which is not considered CCD .
Precursor symptoms that may arise before the final colony collapse are :
Insufficient workforce to maintain the brood that is present
Workforce seems to be made up of young adult bees
The colony members are reluctant to consume provided feed , such as sugar syrup and protein supplement .
= = Scope and distribution = =
= = = North America = = =
The National Agriculture Statistics Service reported 2 @.@ 44 million honey @-@ producing hives were in the United States in February 2008 , down from 4 @.@ 5 million in 1980 , and 5 @.@ 9 million in 1947 , though these numbers underestimate the total number of managed hives , as they exclude several thousand hives managed for pollination contracts only , and also do not include hives managed by beekeepers owning fewer than five hives . This under @-@ representation may be offset by the practice of counting some hives more than once ; hives that are moved to different states to produce honey are counted in each state 's total and summed in total counts .
Non @-@ CCD winter losses as high as 50 % have occurred in some years and regions ( e.g. , 2000 – 2001 in Pennsylvania ) . Normal winter losses are typically considered to be in the range of 15 – 25 % . In many cases , beekeepers reporting significant losses of bees did not experience true CCD , but losses due to other causes .
In 2007 in the US , at least 24 different states had reported at least one case of CCD . In a 2007 survey of 384 responding beekeepers from 13 states , 23 @.@ 8 % met the specified criterion for CCD ( that 50 % or more of their dead colonies were found without bees and / or with very few dead bees in the hive or apiary ) .
In the US in 2006 – 2007 , CCD @-@ suffering operations had a total loss of 45 % compared to the total loss of 25 % of all colonies experienced by non @-@ CCD suffering beekeepers .
A 2007 – 2008 survey of over 19 % of all colonies revealed a total loss of 35 @.@ 8 % . Operations that pollinated almonds lost , on average , the same number of colonies as those that did not . The 37 @.@ 9 % of operations that reported having at least some of their colonies die with a complete lack of bees had a total loss of 40 @.@ 8 % of colonies compared to the 17 @.@ 1 % loss reported by beekeepers without this symptom . Large operations were more likely to have this symptom , suggesting a contagious condition may be a causal factor . About 60 % of all colonies that were reported dead in this survey died without the presence of dead bees in the hive , thus possibly suffered from CCD .
In 2010 , the USDA reported that data on overall honey bee losses for the year indicate an estimated 34 % loss , which is statistically similar to losses reported in 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 . In 2011 , the loss was 30 % . In 2012 – 2013 , CCD was blamed for the loss of about half of the US honey bee hives , far more than the 33 % losses observed on average over previous years .
During the spring of 2015 , President Barack Obama unveiled the very first national strategy for improving the health of bees and other key pollinators . The plan calls for restoring 7 million acres of bee habitat with a variety of different plants for bees to eat . The administration is also proposing spending $ 82 @.@ 5 million for honey bee research .
= = = Europe = = =
According to the European Food Safety Authority ( EFSA ) , in 2007 , the United Kingdom had 274 @,@ 000 hives , Italy had 1 @,@ 091 @,@ 630 , and France 1 @,@ 283 @,@ 810 . In 2008 , the British Beekeepers Association reported the bee population in the United Kingdom dropped by around 30 % between 2007 and 2008 , and an EFSA study revealed that in Italy the mortality rate was 40 – 50 % . However , EFSA officials point out the figures are not very reliable because before the bees started dying , no harmonisation was used in the way different countries collected statistics on their bee populations . At that time ( 2008 ) , the reports blamed the high death rate on the varroa mite , two seasons of unusually wet European summers , and some pesticides .
In 2009 , Tim Lovett , president of the British Beekeepers ' Association , said : " Anecdotally , it is hugely variable . There are reports of some beekeepers losing almost a third of their hives and others losing none . " John Chapple , chairman of the London Beekeepers ' Association , put losses among his 150 members at between a fifth and a quarter . " There are still a lot of mysterious disappearances ; we are no nearer to knowing what is causing them . " The government 's National Bee Unit continued to deny the existence of CCD in Britain ; it attributes the heavy losses to the varroa mite and rainy summers that stop bees foraging for food .
In 2010 , David Aston of the British Beekeepers ’ Association stated , " We still do not believe CCD ( which is now better defined ) is a cause of colony losses in the UK , however we are continuing to experience colony losses , many if not most of which can be explained " . He feels recent studies suggest " further evidence to the evolving picture that there are complex interactions taking place between a number of factors , pathogens , environmental , beekeeping practices and other stressors , which are causing honey bee losses described as CCD in the US " .
Beekeepers in Scotland also reported losses for the past three years . Andrew Scarlett , a Perthshire @-@ based bee farmer and honey packer , lost 80 % of his 1 @,@ 200 hives during the 2009 winter . He attributed the losses to a virulent bacterial infection that quickly spread because of a lack of bee inspectors , coupled with sustained poor weather that prevented honey bees from building up sufficient pollen and nectar stores .
In Germany , where some of the first reports of CCD in Europe appeared , and where , according to the German national association of beekeepers , 40 % of the honey bee colonies died , there was no scientific confirmation ; in early May 2007 , the German media reported no confirmed CCD cases seemed to have occurred in Germany .
At the end of May 2012 , the Swiss government reported about half of the bee population had not survived the winter . The main cause of the decline was thought to be the parasite Varroa destructor .
= = Possible causes = =
The mechanisms of CCD are still unknown , but many causes are currently being considered , such as pesticides , mites , fungi , beekeeping practices ( such as the use of antibiotics or long @-@ distance transportation of beehives ) , malnutrition , poor quality queens , starvation , other pathogens , and immunodeficiencies . The current scientific consensus is that no single factor is causing CCD , but that some of these factors in combination may lead to CCD either additively or synergistically .
In 2006 , the Colony Collapse Disorder Working Group , based primarily at Pennsylvania State University , was established . Their preliminary report pointed out some patterns , but drew no strong conclusions . A survey of beekeepers early in 2007 indicated most hobbyist beekeepers believed that starvation was the leading cause of death in their colonies , while commercial beekeepers overwhelmingly believed invertebrate pests ( Varroa mites , honey bee tracheal mites , and / or small hive beetles ) were the leading cause of colony mortality . A scholarly review in June 2007 similarly addressed numerous theories and possible contributing factor , but left the issue unresolved .
In July 2007 , the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) released its " CCD Action Plan " , which outlined a strategy for addressing CCD consisting of four main components : survey and data collection ; analysis of samples ; hypothesis @-@ driven research ; mitigation and preventive action . The first annual report of the U.S. Colony Collapse Disorder Steering Committee was published in 2009 . It suggested CCD may be caused by the interaction of many agents in combination . The same year , the CCD Working Group published a comprehensive descriptive study that concluded : " Of the 61 variables quantified ( including adult bee physiology , pathogen loads , and pesticide levels ) , no single factor was found with enough consistency to suggest one causal agent . Bees in CCD colonies had higher pathogen loads and were co @-@ infected with more pathogens than control populations , suggesting either greater pathogen exposure or reduced defenses in CCD bees . "
The second annual Steering Committee report was released in November 2010 . The group reported , although many associations , including pesticides , parasites , and pathogens have been identified throughout the course of research , " it is becoming increasingly clear that no single factor alone is responsible for [ CCD ] " . Their findings indicated an absence of damaging levels of the parasite Nosema or parasitic Varroa mites at the time of collapse . They did find an association of sublethal effects of some pesticides with CCD , including two common miticides in particular , coumaphos and fluvalinate , which are pesticides registered for use by beekeepers to control varroa mites . Studies also identified sublethal effects of neonicotinoids and fungicides , pesticides that may impair the bees ' immune systems and may leave them more susceptible to bee viruses .
A 2015 review examined 170 studies on colony collapse disorder and stressors for bees , including pathogens , agrochemicals , declining biodiversity , climate change and more . The review concluded that " a strong argument can be made that it is the interaction among parasites , pesticides , and diet that lies at the heart of current bee health problems . " Furthermore :
" Bees of all species are likely to encounter multiple stressors during their lives , and each is likely to reduce the ability of bees to cope with the others . A bee or bee colony that appears to have succumbed to a pathogen may not have died if it had not also been exposed to a sublethal dose of a pesticide and / or been subject to food stress ( which might in turn be due to drought or heavy rain induced by climate change , or competition from a high density of honey bee hives placed nearby ) . Unfortunately , conducting well @-@ replicated studies of the effects of multiple interacting stressors on bee colonies is exceedingly difficult . The number of stressor combinations rapidly becomes large , and exposure to stressors is hard or impossible to control with free @-@ flying bees . Nonetheless , a strong argument can be made that it is the interaction among parasites , pesticides , and diet that lies at the heart of current bee health problems . "
= = = Pesticides = = =
According to the USDA , pesticides may be contributing to CCD . A 2013 peer @-@ reviewed literature review concluded neonicotinoids in the amounts typically used harm bees and safer alternatives are urgently needed . At the same time , other sources suggest the evidence is not conclusive , and that clarity regarding the facts is hampered by the role played by various issue advocates and lobby groups .
Scientists have long been concerned that pesticides , including possibly some fungicides , may have sublethal effects on bees , not killing them outright , but instead impairing their development and behavior . Of special interest is the class of insecticides called neonicotinoids , which contain the active ingredient imidacloprid , and other similar chemicals , such as clothianidin and thiamethoxam . Honey bees may be affected by such chemicals when they are used as a seed treatment because they are known to work their way through the plant up into the flowers and leave residues in the nectar . The doses taken up by bees are not lethal , but possible chronic problems could be caused by long @-@ term exposure . Most corn grown in the US is treated with neonicotinoids , and a 2012 study found high levels of clothianidin in pneumatic planter exhaust . In the study , the insecticide was present in the soil of unplanted fields near those planted with corn and on dandelions growing near those fields . Another 2012 study also found clothianidin and imidacloprid in the exhaust of pneumatic seeding equipment .
A 2010 survey reported 98 pesticides and metabolites detected in aggregate concentrations up to 214 ppm in bee pollen ; this figure represents over half of the individual pesticide incidences ever reported for apiaries . It was suggested that " while exposure to many of these neurotoxicants elicits acute and sublethal reductions in honey bee fitness , the effects of these materials in combinations and their direct association with CCD or declining bee health remains to be determined . "
Evaluating pesticide contributions to CCD is particularly difficult for several reasons . First , the variety of pesticides in use in the different areas reporting CCD makes it difficult to test for all possible pesticides simultaneously . Second , many commercial beekeeping operations are mobile , transporting hives over large geographic distances over the course of a season , potentially exposing the colonies to different pesticides at each location . Third , the bees themselves place pollen and honey into long @-@ term storage , effectively meaning a delay may occur from days to months before contaminated provisions are fed to the colony , negating any attempts to associate the appearance of symptoms with the actual time at which exposure to pesticides occurred .
Pesticides used on bee forage are far more likely to enter the colony by the pollen stores rather than nectar ( because pollen is carried externally on the bees , while nectar is carried internally , and may kill the bee if too toxic ) , though not all potentially lethal chemicals , either natural or man @-@ made , affect the adult bees ; many primarily affect the brood , but brood die @-@ off does not appear to be happening in CCD . Most significantly , brood are not fed honey , and adult bees consume relatively little pollen ; accordingly , the pattern in CCD suggests , if contaminants or toxins from the environment ' are ' responsible , it is most likely to be via the honey , as the adults are dying ( or leaving ) , not the brood ( though possibly effects of contaminated pollen consumed by juveniles may only show after they have developed into adults ) .
To date , most of the evaluation of possible roles of pesticides in CCD have relied on the use of surveys submitted by beekeepers , but direct testing of samples from affected colonies seems likely to be needed , especially given the possible role of systemic insecticides such as the neonicotinoid imidacloprid ( which are applied to the soil and taken up into the plant 's tissues , including pollen and nectar ) , which may be applied to a crop when the beekeeper is not present . The known effects of imidacloprid on insects , including honey bees , are consistent with the symptoms of CCD ; for example , the effects of imidacloprid on termites include apparent failure of the immune system , and disorientation .
In Europe , the interaction of the phenomenon of " dying bees " with imidacloprid has been discussed for quite some time . A study from the " Comité Scientifique et Technique ( CST ) " was at the center of discussion , and led to a partial ban of imidacloprid in France . The imidacloprid pesticide Gaucho was banned in 1999 by the French Minister of Agriculture Jean Glavany , primarily due to concern over potential effects on honey bees . Subsequently , when fipronil , a phenylpyrazole insecticide and in Europe mainly labeled " Regent " , was used as a replacement , it was also found to be toxic to bees , and banned partially in France in 2004 .
In February 2007 , about 40 French deputies , led by Jacques Remiller of the UMP , requested the creation of a parliamentary investigation commission on overmortality of bees , underlining that honey production had decreased by 1 @,@ 000 tons a year for a decade . By August 2007 , no investigation had opened . Five other insecticides based on fipronil were also accused of killing bees . However , the scientific committees of the European Union are still of the opinion " that the available monitoring studies were mainly performed in France and EU @-@ member @-@ states should consider the relevance of these studies for the circumstances in their country . "
Around the same time French beekeepers succeeded in banning neonicotinoids , the Clinton administration permitted pesticides which were previously banned , including imidacloprid . In 2004 , the Bush administration reduced regulations further and pesticide applications increased .
In 2005 , a team of scientists led by the National Institute of Beekeeping in Bologna , Italy , found pollen obtained from seeds dressed with imidacloprid contain significant levels of the insecticide , and suggested the polluted pollen might cause honey bee colony death . Analysis of maize and sunflower crops originating from seeds dressed with imidacloprid suggest large amounts of the insecticide will be carried back to honey bee colonies . Sublethal doses of imidacloprid in sucrose solution have also been documented to affect homing and foraging activity of honey bees . Imidacloprid in sucrose solution fed to bees in the laboratory impaired their communication for a few hours . Sublethal doses of imidacloprid in laboratory and field experiment decreased flight activity and olfactory discrimination , and olfactory learning performance was impaired .
Research , in 2008 , by scientists from Pennsylvania State University found high levels of the pesticides fluvalinate and coumaphos in samples of wax from hives , as well as lower levels of 70 other pesticides . These chemicals have been used to try to eradicate varroa mites , a bee pest that itself has been thought to be a cause of CCD . Researchers from Washington State University , under entomology professor Steve Sheppard in 2009 , confirmed high levels of pesticide residue in hive wax and found an association between it and significantly reduced bee longevity .
The WSU work also focused on the impact of the microsporidian pathogen Nosema ceranae , the build @-@ up of which was high in the majority of the bees tested , even after large doses of the antibiotic fumagillin . Penn State 's Dr. Maryann Frazier said , " Pesticides alone have not shown they are the cause of CCD . We believe that it is a combination of a variety of factors , possibly including mites , viruses and pesticides . "
In 2010 , fipronil was blamed for the spread of CCD among bees , in a study by the Minutes @-@ Association for Technical Coordination Fund in France , which found that even at very low nonlethal doses , this pesticide still impairs the ability to locate the hive , resulting in large numbers of foragers lost with every pollen @-@ finding expedition , though no mention was made regarding any of the other symptoms of CCD ; other studies , however , have shown no acute effect of fipronil on honey bees . Fipronil is designed to eliminate insects similar to bees , such as yellowjackets ( Vespula germanica ) and many other colonial pests by a process of ' toxic baiting ' , whereby one insect returning to the hive spreads the pesticide among the brood .
A large 2010 survey of healthy and CCD @-@ affected colonies also revealed elevated levels of pesticides in wax and pollen , but the amounts of pesticides were similar in both failing and healthy hives . They also confirmed suspected links between CCD and poor colony health , inadequate diet , and long @-@ distance transportation . Studies continue to show very high levels of pathogens in CCD @-@ affected samples and lower pathogen levels in unaffected samples , consistent with the empirical observation that healthy honey bee colonies normally fend off pathogens . These observations have led to the hypothesis that bee declines are resulting from immune suppression .
In 2010 , a sequencing of the honey bee genome provided a possible explanation for the sensitivity of bees to pesticides . Its genome is deficient in the number of genes encoding detoxification enzymes , including cytochrome P450 monooxygenases ( P450s ) , glutathione @-@ S @-@ transferases , and carboxylesterases .
In 2012 , researchers announced findings that sublethal exposure to imidacloprid rendered honey bees significantly more susceptible to infection by the fungus Nosema , thereby suggesting a potential link to CCD , given that Nosema is increasingly considered to contribute to CCD .
Neonicotinoids may interfere with bees ' natural homing abilities , causing them to become disoriented and preventing them from finding their way back to the hive .
Also , in 2012 , researchers in Italy published findings that the pneumatic drilling machines that plant corn seeds coated with clothianidin and imidacloprid release large amounts of the pesticide into the air , causing significant mortality in foraging honey bees . According to the study , " Experimental results show that the environmental release of particles containing neonicotinoids can produce high exposure levels for bees , with lethal effects compatible with colony losses phenomena observed by beekeepers . " Commonly used pesticides , such as the imidacloprid , reduce colony growth and new queen production in experimental exposure matched to field levels . Lu et al . ( 2012 ) reported they were able to replicate CCD with imidacloprid . Another neonicotinoid , thiamethoxam , causes navigational homing failure of foraging bees , with high mortality .
A 2012 in situ study provided strong evidence that exposure to sublethal levels of imidacloprid in high fructose corn syrup ( HFCS ) used to feed honey bees when forage is not available causes bees to exhibit symptoms consistent to CCD 23 weeks after imidacloprid dosing . The researchers suggested , " the observed delayed mortality in honey bees caused by imidacloprid in HFCS is a novel and plausible mechanism for CCD , and should be validated in future studies . "
In March 2013 , two studies were published showing that neonicotinoids affect bee long @-@ term and short @-@ term memory , suggesting a cause of action resulting in failure to return to the hive . In another study done in 2013 , scientists reported that experiments suggested that exposure to the neonicotinoid pesticides clothianidin and imidicloprid results in increased levels of a particular protein in bees that inhibits a key molecule involved in the immune response , making the insects more susceptible to attack by harmful viruses . Growth in the use of neonicotinoid pesticides has roughly tracked rising bee deaths . In 2015 , an 11 @-@ year British study showed a definitive relationship between increasing agricultural use of neonicotinoid and escalating honey bee colony losses at a landscape level . This is the first field study to establish a link between neonicotinoids and CCD .
In July 2013 , scientists from the University of Maryland and the US Department of Agriculture found that a combination of pesticides has been contaminating the pollen bees use to feed their hives . When researchers collected pollen from hives on the east coast , they discovered that it was contaminated ( on average ) with 9 different fungicides and pesticides , although scientists found a blend of 21 different agricultural chemicals in one sample of pollen . Eight ag chemicals were identified to be associated with increased risk of infection by Nosema ceranae .
A meta @-@ analysis study published in February 2016 strongly suggests a pattern linking imidacloprid to sublethal effects on honey bees , stating : " trace dietary imidacloprid at field @-@ realistic levels in nectar will have no lethal effects , but will reduce expected performance in honey bees by between 6 and 20 % . Statistical power analysis showed that published field trials that have reported no effects on honey bees from neonicotinoids were incapable of detecting these predicted sublethal effects with conventionally accepted levels of certainty . "
= = = = European Food Safety Authority statement = = = =
In 2012 , several peer @-@ reviewed independent studies were published showing that neonicotinoids had previously undetected routes of exposure affecting bees including through dust , pollen , and nectar and that subnanogram toxicity resulted in failure to return to the hive without immediate lethality , one primary symptom of CCD . Research also showed environmental persistence in agricultural irrigation channels and soil . These reports prompted a formal peer review by the European Food Safety Authority , which stated in January 2013 that some neonicotinoids pose an unacceptably high risk to bees , and identified several data gaps not previously considered . Their review concluded , " A high acute risk to honey bees was identified from exposure via dust drift for the seed treatment uses in maize , oilseed rape and cereals . A high acute risk was also identified from exposure via residues in nectar and / or pollen . " Dave Goulson , an author of one of the studies which prompted the EFSA review , has suggested that industry science pertaining to neonicotinoids may have been deliberately deceptive , and the UK Parliament has asked manufacturer Bayer Cropscience to explain discrepancies in evidence
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to the battery and would accompany B Company , 6 RAR . Due to the need to secure the task force base , 6 RAR would be required to return to Nui Dat before dark and this restriction would later impact heavily on the operation .
Over seven hours after Gilham 's original request , at 12 : 35 the Australian APCs had finally departed Nui Dat under Murphy 's command with C Company and the Mortar Platoon . Suspecting a Viet Cong ambush , Murphy had prudently avoided following the obvious route to Lang Phuoc Hai , travelling cross @-@ country instead , moving through Long Dien and into the paddy fields parallel to Route 326 . Yet the initial lack of artillery cover had slowed the movement of the 35 @-@ vehicle column , while the continual need to reduce speed while traversing the numerous paddy bunds en route was not appreciated beforehand and further hampered their progress . Indeed , while Murphy had correctly calculated that the rice fields would be dry and hard at that time of year , he found that the main obstacle to rapid movement was a 1 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high paddy @-@ bund every 30 to 100 metres ( 33 to 109 yd ) at the edge of each rice field . Meanwhile , although the lead company in the air assault — A Company commanded by Major Max Carroll — had departed Nui Dat at 13 : 30 aboard fifteen UH @-@ 1 helicopters from a US Army aviation company , C Company had still not arrived in position to secure the landing zone .
Although unknown to the Australians at the time , the earlier attack on Lang Phuoc Hai had been a deliberate attempt by the Viet Cong to provoke a reaction from 1 ATF . As such there would be no withdrawal on this occasion . Anticipating that any relief force would move by road , the Viet Cong had subsequently established an extensive ambush in the buildings alongside Route 44 , which led into the village itself . Although the presence of this trap was not detected by the Australians , Murphy 's evasion had ensured that his APCs had avoided it , moving the infantry by a cross @-@ country route instead . However , with C Company delayed as a result , A Company made their airmobile assault onto an unsecured landing zone at 13 : 45 , supported only by indirect fire from the artillery at Dat Do in suppression , which was initially limited due to delay in setting up the fire support base . Under the command of Major Owen O 'Brien , A Company then began to advance into the fringe of thick rainforest to secure the southern edge of the landing zone for the arrival of B Company and the remainder of the battalion . Finally , over 30 minutes after the lead company had flown in , the APCs began to receive sniper fire as they neared the landing zone .
A Company moved south , shaking out into an open formation across a frontage of 150 metres ( 160 yd ) , with 2 Platoon on the right and 3 Platoon on the left , while 1 Platoon was in depth . Already in the dense vegetation , 2 Platoon — under Second Lieutenant Graham Ackland — had only advanced 150 metres when a sniper was spotted in a tree and was subsequently shot by the platoon sergeant . Almost simultaneously , 3 Platoon was engaged with small arms fire , while behind them the company headquarters was engaged by more snipers . 2 Platoon assaulted straight into the main Viet Cong position with grenades and machine @-@ guns . Breaking @-@ in they moved forward , killing a number of Viet Cong in their weapon pits but suffering six casualties in less than a minute , with a third of the lead platoon falling wounded in the initial volleys . Pinned down and in trouble , Ackland realised that he was facing a sizable and well dug @-@ in force and he attempted to move his sections into an all @-@ round defensive perimeter in order to defend against any counter @-@ attack ; the Viet Cong did not attack however and instead remained in their pits . In an attempt to relieve 2 Platoon , O 'Brien manoeuvred 1 and 3 Platoons , while requesting B Company support his right flank as soon as they arrived at the landing zone .
Arriving shortly after the initial contact , the lead platoon from B Company — 5 Platoon under Second Lieutenant John O 'Halloran — was forced to jump from their helicopters as they were unable to land after taking fire at the landing zone . The platoon quickly formed up and moved into the vegetation on the western edge of the landing zone , with the remainder of the company following them as they landed . Meanwhile , O 'Brien estimated that A Company was facing at least a company dug @-@ in across a 100 to 200 metres ( 110 to 220 yd ) frontage , armed with five or six machine @-@ guns . Unable to use artillery because of the helicopters still flying @-@ in the remainder of the battalion , while the mortars were still with the APCs and had not yet arrived , O 'Brien was without support and any further advance would not be possible . Unlike previous encounters during which the Viet Cong had attempted to avoid battle , the force now confronting A Company appeared to have no intention of withdrawing and was instead mounting an unexpectedly determined defence . The Australians suspected that this uncharacteristic willingness to fight during daylight indicated that the Viet Cong force may have been covering the withdrawal of their command elements . Under heavy fire from what appeared to be a Viet Cong base area , O 'Brien extricated his platoons with difficulty and subsequently broke contact , withdrawing 250 metres ( 270 yd ) with the wounded to the southern edge of the landing zone .
Only twenty minutes since the first contact , A Company had returned to its original position on the rainforest fringe , having suffered seven men wounded and using most of their ammunition . O 'Brien subsequently briefed Townsend by radio , again reporting the Viet Cong position as a ' camp ' of at least company @-@ size , and proposing that A Company remain in location while B Company adopted a position on the right flank until the situation could be clarified , to which he agreed . Townsend subsequently arrived by helicopter as A Company 's casualties were being evacuated by an Australian UH @-@ 1 Iroquois from No. 9 Squadron RAAF . Meanwhile , the APCs carrying C Company and the Mortar Platoon began to arrive , while D Company was inserted by helicopter a few minutes later and took up blocking positions in the tree @-@ line north @-@ east of the landing zone . Just after 14 : 30 , B Company — under Major Ian Mackay — began receiving sniper fire in their position just south @-@ west of A Company , and in response Mackay moved the company back before calling @-@ in artillery fire onto the Viet Cong positions . Initially believing that he only faced a company @-@ sized Viet Cong force , with his rifle companies now finally assembled , at 15 : 15 Townsend issued orders for a quick attack by two companies .
= = = B Company 6 RAR quick attack fails , 17 February 1967 = = =
Townsend 's plan envisioned A Company advancing south approximately 200 metres ( 220 yd ) and engaging the Viet Cong in an attempt to split their fire and provide fire support , while B Company would move around from the right flank to launch the assault . Meanwhile , C Company would occupy a blocking position to the west , while D Company would be kept in reserve . B Company would then assault in a south @-@ east direction on an axis that would take them across the front of A Company , which would require their fire to cut @-@ out as they did so . The scheme of manoeuvre was based on the assumption that the Viet Cong position was a camp as previously reported , and not a defensive position , yet with visibility in the thick vegetation limited to between 10 to 30 metres ( 11 to 33 yd ) , few of the men from A Company had actually seen much of the position during the earlier fighting . Yet the Viet Cong had likely now been reinforced by North Vietnamese regulars from 275th Regiment and unknown to the Australians they now faced a battalion @-@ sized force in well prepared positions .
The assault began at 15 : 35 , with A Company beginning their advance into the rainforest with two platoons forward and one back . Meanwhile , B Company began forming up in single file on the right flank , also with two platoons forward in assault formation , while one remained in reserve at the rear . Each of the forward platoons covered a frontage of 100 metres ( 110 yd ) , with 4 Platoon — under the command of Second Lieutenant John Sullivan — on the left , and O 'Halloran 's 5 Platoon on the right . Company headquarters was located centrally , while 6 Platoon — commanded by Sergeant Butch Brady — was to the rear . Each platoon adopted a similar formation , with two sections forward and one back . From the outset the lead elements of B Company came under constant sniper fire from the trees , and from Viet Cong machine @-@ guns that had not previously been detected by the Australians . Even as the company was shaking out they were engaged sporadically by a group of Viet Cong just 50 metres ( 55 yd ) to their front , with one Australian soldier being hit before the attack began and later dying at the landing zone before he could be evacuated . B Company subsequently crossed the line of departure at 15 : 55 , and two minutes later A Company began engaging the Viet Cong positions with small arms from their 7 @.@ 62 mm M60 machine @-@ guns and L1A1 Self Loading Rifles , and 5 @.@ 56 mm M16 assault rifles in support .
As B Company moved forward , their left flank was engaged by a machine @-@ gun from a small party of Viet Cong to their front , while sniper fire intensified . The Australians continued to advance with co @-@ ordinated fire and movement , but were now receiving fire from three directions . Ten minutes after stepping off , B Company crossed the front of A Company , forcing them to cease their covering fire . Without support , the Australians were now assaulting a well dug @-@ in and largely unseen Viet Cong force that was disposed in a wide arc . Penetrating the position , the Australian flanks were increasingly exposed to fire , while the dense undergrowth obscured the Viet Cong pits and reduced visibility to just a few metres . Both the lead Australian platoons were soon enveloped , as fire swept across the front of B Company from the Viet Cong engaging them with heavy machine @-@ guns , claymore mines and light mortars . Meanwhile , Viet Cong snipers continued to engage the Australians from the rear , who unsuccessfully attempted to regain the initiative with small arms fire and grenades . The assault soon faltered with steadily increasing casualties .
The two forward Australian platoons subsequently lost contact with each other , while the left section of 4 Platoon was engaged by a 12 @.@ 7 mm heavy machine @-@ gun , and began to fall behind . The section on the right was also engaged by a machine @-@ gun , and the frontage of the platoon subsequently broke . The section commander assaulted the Viet Cong position with an M79 grenade launcher , however he was unable to dislodge them . Meanwhile on the right , 5 Platoon pressed their advance , and they subsequently pulled further ahead of the rest of B Company . At 16 : 25 , with 5 Platoon now 40 metres ( 44 yd ) in front and also receiving machine @-@ gun fire from its front and right flank , Mackay finally ordered the platoon to halt as he attempted to manoeuvre the company to regain control of the situation . 6 Platoon was ordered to advance through 4 Platoon to assault the machine @-@ gun on the left flank , before linking up with 5 Platoon and continuing the assault . Brady subsequently directed his men to fix bayonets and charge the Viet Cong positions , yet the attack was soon cut to pieces by machine @-@ guns which engaged them from the centre and left and it was subsequently halted behind O 'Halloran 's rear section . Brady then requested mortar fire in support ; however , the need to request air clearance only resulted in further delay . By 16 : 45 B Company 's assault had bogged down due to the strong Viet Cong resistance . All of its platoons were in contact and unable to move , while company headquarters had advanced behind the lead platoons and was also pinned down .
As the fighting continued , D Company remained in a blocking position to the north @-@ east of the landing zone . Meanwhile , after inserting C Company into its blocking position to the west , the APCs from A Squadron had moved into a harbour around the tree line , from where they covered the flanks of the rifle companies in the rainforest . Not included in the assault due to the belief that the terrain was unsuitable for armour , in their location the APCs were occasionally hit by overshooting rounds , but otherwise remained out of the battle . This assumption was later found to be incorrect though , and the APCs would likely have been able to move through the dense undergrowth , while the firepower provided by their .50 calibre machine @-@ guns would have been able to assist B Company , which was pinned down . Regardless , the armament of the M113s would have likely proven inadequate for attacking strong defences and bunkers , and their light aluminium armour was known to be vulnerable to heavy machine @-@ guns and RPGs . With both A and B Company now heavily engaged , Townsend subsequently asked Murphy whether his APCs could move around to the right in another attempt to outflank the Viet Cong ; however , a creek made the ground in that area too boggy for the vehicles and this proved impractical . A close quarters battle then ensued , continuing until night fell with the Australians assaulting the Viet Cong positions using frontal tactics which resulted in heavy casualties on both sides .
= = = Final assault and withdrawal overnight , 17 / 18 February 1967 = = =
Under orders from Townsend to press on with the assault as fast as possible , Mackay decided to switch the B Company assault to the right flank , ordering O 'Halloran by radio to advance a further 30 metres ( 33 yd ) in order to outflank the Viet Cong machine @-@ gun and allow 6 Platoon to resume its advance on the left flank . However , the machine @-@ gun was soon found to be located a further 30 metres forward than expected , and 5 Platoon would need to assault 60 metres ( 66 yd ) across open scrub under heavy fire in order to silence it . As O 'Halloran relayed orders for the assault , machine @-@ guns and snipers continued to engage them intermittently , and the Australians continued to return fire with small arms and grenades . Again fixing bayonets , on order the Australians rose as one and were almost immediately hit with heavy fire , with the forward line disintegrating as a result . The left forward section under Lance Corporal Kerry Rooney then advanced directly at the machine @-@ gun located to their front , firing as they moved . Rooney then charged the position throwing grenades but was shot and killed within metres of the Viet Cong position . Suffering several more men wounded , the Australian left flank again became pinned down .
Meanwhile , the right forward section under Corporal Robin Jones attacked the Viet Cong at close range , inflicting heavy casualties on the defenders with grenades and small arms fire . However , three previously undetected Viet Cong machine @-@ guns subsequently engaged 5 Platoon , which succeeded in breaking up the Australian attack on the right flank with intense enfilade fire which killed three men and wounded five more . Of his section only Jones was left unwounded . For his leadership he was later awarded the Military Medal . The Australian assault stalled having covered just 25 metres ( 27 yd ) . Nearly half of the men in the forward sections had become casualties and the platoon stretcher bearer , Private Richard Odendahl repeatedly risked his life dragging men to safety , providing first aid , recovering weapons from the dead , and providing O 'Halloran with information on the disposition of his platoon . For his actions Odendahl was also later awarded the Military Medal . Attempting to reinforce his threatened right flank , O 'Halloran ordered the M60 machine @-@ gun from his reserve section forward to support Jones while the wounded were recovered , however both the machine @-@ gunner and his offsider were killed attempting to move forward . Surrounded by Viet Cong machine @-@ guns and receiving fire from all sides , the lead Australian elements from B Company could advance no further against a determined and well dug @-@ in force , and all attempts to regain momentum were unable to dislodge the defenders .
With the Australian and Viet Cong positions now too close to each other , O 'Halloran could neither move forward nor withdraw . Artillery began to fire in support of the Australians , however it initially fell too far to the rear to be effective , and it had to be adjusted by the B Company forward observer , Captain Jim Ryan , himself under heavy fire . 5 Platoon was still in danger of becoming isolated and O 'Brien now suggested he move A Company forward to assist B Company , however this was rejected by Mackay who feared the two companies clashing in the confusion . Meanwhile , O 'Halloran called for the APCs to come forward to provide assistance , while the platoon sergeant — Sergeant Mervyn McCullough — guided a section from 6 Platoon forward to reinforce 5 Platoon , and begin evacuating the casualties . Bolstered by reinforcements and with accurate artillery covering fire O 'Halloran now felt that he was in a position to extract his platoon . Yet at that moment two rounds from one of the howitzers fell short , and while one of the shells harmlessly exploded against a tree , the other landed just to the right of the 5 Platoon headquarters , killing two men and wounding eight others , including six of the seven reinforcements from 6 Platoon . Following an urgent radio call from O 'Halloran , the artillery ceased fire . Shortly afterwards an RPG round hit the same area , wounding McCullough .
Townsend subsequently then reported that he was facing a force of at least battalion @-@ strength with support weapons — likely D445 Battalion — while the level of proficiency indicated that it might also include North Vietnamese Army ( NVA ) elements . However , due to earlier warnings that the Viet Cong were preparing to attack Nui Dat that evening , prior to the start of the operation Graham had ordered Townsend to return to base that afternoon , and this restriction remained extant . Likewise , with Operation Renmark scheduled to start the following morning , A Company 5 RAR — then at Dat Do protecting the artillery — would also need to be released before nightfall , adding to the requirement to conclude the operation that afternoon . Regardless , this restriction had only served to make B Company 's task all the more difficult , with Mackay facing demands to complete the action while at the same time not become decisively engaged and unable to withdraw his company . At 16 : 17 Townsend was ordered to prepare his battalion for a helicopter extraction which was due to begin an hour later , while at 17 : 15 he was ordered to break contact immediately , however this proved impossible as 5 Platoon remained in heavy contact . Mackay now estimated that he would be unable to get forward to support the beleaguered platoon for a further 30 minutes ; however , by 17 : 50 he realised that the Viet Cong had moved between them and A Company . Yet even while the Viet Cong continued to heavily engage both A and B Companies , the remainder of the Australian battalion and the APCs were beginning to line up on the landing zone in preparation for returning to Nui Dat . The order was finally rescinded when it became clear that both companies were unable to break @-@ off the engagement . Meanwhile , a number of bush fires were now burning through the area , detonating discarded ammunition and adding to the noise of the battle .
Initially the Australians had used their APCs to secure the landing zone at the jungle 's edge , however with the infantry in trouble they were subsequently dispatched as a relief force . Three M113s from 2 Troop under Sergeant Frank Graham entered the rainforest shortly after 17 : 15 ; however , lacking clear directions to B Company 's position 300 metres ( 330 yd ) away , they fumbled around in the dense vegetation before locating A Company instead . Instructed by Mackay to head for the white smoke of the bush fire , in error the APCs then set out towards the most obvious smoke further to the south @-@ east of B Company . A Viet Cong 75 mm recoilless rifle subsequently engaged the lead vehicle twice at close range , though both rounds missed , exploding in the trees nearby . Still unsure of B Company 's location , Graham was unwilling to engage the Viet Cong position with heavy machine @-@ guns for fear of hitting his own men , and the cavalry subsequently withdrew . Later it was discovered that the cavalry had likely been engaged by elements defending the Viet Cong headquarters . Meanwhile , due to the threat posed by the Viet Cong anti @-@ tank weapons the remainder of 2 Troop then arrived under the command Second Lieutenant David Watts to provide added protection ; in total 12 vehicles . A further attempt to reach B Company by the cavalry also failed however , after the A Company guide became disorientated in the thick vegetation . Mackay then threw coloured smoke , while Sioux helicopters arrived overhead to guide the vehicles to their position . B Company 's casualties now amounted to seven men killed and 19 wounded .
Fighting their way forward , the M113s finally arrived by 18 : 15 and began loading the most badly wounded as darkness approached . The Viet Cong subsequently launched two successive counter @-@ attacks , assaulting B Company from the east and south @-@ east ; however , both attacks were repulsed by the Australians , as they responded with small arms fire while Mackay called @-@ in an airstrike . During the fighting one of the APCs was subsequently disabled by a recoilless rifle at close range , killing the driver and wounding the crew commander . A second round then struck the open cargo hatch , wounding several more men and re @-@ wounding a number of the Australian casualties . A third round then landed nearby , as the M113s returned fire with their .30 and .50 calibre machine @-@ guns . Under covering fire the Australians attempted to recover the damaged vehicle , yet it became stuck hard against a tree . With the Viet Cong threatening a further attack from the north @-@ east , the Australian cavalry swept the area with a heavy volume of fire and were met by equally heavy return fire . By 18 : 50 the light was fading rapidly , while the bulk of 5 Platoon 's more serious casualties had been evacuated by APC . However , with many of the Australian dead lying in close proximity to the Viet Cong positions , no attempt was made to recover them due to the likelihood of further casualties . Meanwhile , the damaged APC was subsequently destroyed with white phosphorus grenades to prevent its weapons and equipment from being captured .
Finally , by 19 : 00 B Company was able break contact and withdrew after a five @-@ hour battle . Both sides then fell back as the Viet Cong also dispersed , evacuating most of their dead and wounded . Meanwhile , under covering fire from the APCs of 2 Troop , B Company boarded the remaining carriers , moving into a night harbour near the landing zone with the remainder of the battalion at 19 : 25 , as the last of their casualties were extracted by helicopter . Mortars , artillery fire and airstrikes covered the Australian withdrawal , and then proceeded to pound the abandoned battlefield into the evening . That night the body of the dead APC driver was evacuated by helicopter , as American AC @-@ 47 Spooky gunships circled overhead , dropping flares to illuminate the battlefield and strafing likely Viet Cong positions , while F @-@ 4 Phantoms dropped napalm . The airstrikes then continued in preparation for a further assault by the Australians planned for the following day . Otherwise there was no further fighting that night , and both sides remained unmolested . Ultimately no attack was made against the Australian base at Nui Dat that night either , while no unusual activity was reported in the area .
= = = Return to the battlefield , 18 February 1967 = = =
After a tense night the Australians returned to the battlefield the following morning . At 09 : 30 on 18 February 6 RAR assaulted into the area on a broad front , with C and D Companies forward and A Company in reserve , while B Company and the APCs from A Squadron occupied a blocking position to the south . Anxious not to repeat the failure to follow up the retreating Viet Cong after Long Tan , from Saigon Vincent urged Graham to pursue D445 Battalion . Meanwhile , a large American force of over 100 armoured vehicles from the 2nd Battalion , US 47th Mechanised Infantry Regiment , supported by a battery of self @-@ propelled guns and helicopters from the US 9th Division , attempted to cut @-@ off likely Viet Cong escape routes . Having deployed in support of 1 ATF earlier that morning from Bearcat , 42 kilometres ( 26 mi ) north @-@ west of Nui Dat , the Americans subsequently cleared an area along the line of Route 23 , 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north @-@ east of the battle @-@ zone . Although constituting an impressive display of combat power , the Americans had arrived too late to affect the outcome of the battle , and no contacts occurred before they were withdrawn the following day . Meanwhile , the Australians conducted a sweep of the battlefield only to find that the Viet Cong had left the area during the night , successfully avoiding the large blocking force while dragging most of their dead and wounded with them .
During the sweep one of the missing Australians — Lance Corporal Vic Otway — was unexpectedly found alive , having spent the night in close proximity to the Viet Cong after being wounded in both legs and falling just metres from the machine @-@ gun he had been assaulting . Unable to answer calls from other members of his platoon for fear of being discovered , he was presumed to have been killed . Lying still for four hours , Otway had managed to crawl 70 metres ( 77 yd ) to the rear after dark , before artillery fire and airstrikes began to fall on the area . Digging a shell scrape for protection from the American napalm strikes , he was subsequently wounded again by shrapnel . After first light he had continued to crawl back towards the Australian lines , but was confronted by a group of Viet Cong soldiers just 6 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 yd ) away . Otway attempted to fire on them , however his weapon jammed , and the Viet Cong had walked past him unaware of his presence . Continuing their search , the Australians then located and recovered the bodies of the six dead from 5 Platoon . Most had been burnt beyond recognition by napalm , while at least one had been stripped of his webbing and equipment . The burnt out APC was also recovered . On the side the Viet Cong had written " DU ME UC DAI LOI " in blood ; loosely translated into English as " Get fucked Australians " . Its destruction was subsequently completed by the cavalry and the burnt out hull was recovered to Nui Dat . At 10 : 35 A Squadron then undertook a thorough search of the area .
The bodies of six Viet Cong soldiers were also found by the Australians . Among the dead was the commander of C3 Company , D445 Battalion and his second @-@ in @-@ command , while others were identified as personnel from the command elements of the battalion and the heavy weapons company . Three of the dead were NVA soldiers , possibly from 275th Regiment , although this was not able to be confirmed . Many more bodies were thought to have been carried away , while one AK @-@ 47 assault rifle and a small quantity of ammunition and equipment was also located . The Viet Cong position was found to have been hastily prepared overnight , and consisted of well @-@ sited , but shallow weapon pits rather than bunkers , approximately half of which had overhead protection . Assessed as a good night defensive position rather than a position designed for a deliberate defensive battle , it had been laid out in the shape of a half @-@ moon ; by the fortunes of war B Company had directly assaulted into the centre of the position . Yet the flat terrain had offered good fields of fire , while the dense vegetation provided excellent concealment . The Australians believed that the Viet Cong had withdrawn to the east , and B Company subsequently patrolled through the " Light Green " up to the small village of Ap Gia Thanh , 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) east , supported by the APCs , hooking south along the jungle tracks towards the swamps along the Song Rai river . Although signs of heavy foot traffic were obvious the Viet Cong had long since left the area , while no evidence of blood trails or discarded equipment were found , indicating an orderly retirement from the battlefield . B Company returned to Nui Dat by 17 : 30 , while the remainder of 6 RAR was extracted by helicopter . The last APCs from A Squadron finally returned by 20 : 10 that evening as Operation Bribie concluded .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
In the aftermath of the operation Hanoi declared that the Viet Cong had won a decisive victory , claiming to have inflicted heavy losses on the Australians . The Australian higher command also claimed a major triumph , a view later reflected by Graham who believed that the Viet Cong had " got a thrashing " . While in total just eight Viet Cong bodies had been recovered from the battlefield , many more had obviously been removed and later Australian intelligence reports assessed Viet Cong losses as between 50 and 70 killed , with many fresh graves later found on the withdrawal route . Indeed as a result of the fighting D445 Battalion was unable to mount a full battalion operation for the remainder of 1967 , while their losses were increasingly filled by North Vietnamese . Yet the Australians had also suffered heavy casualties , and both sides had matched each other in bravery and determination . The fighting had cost 6 RAR seven killed and 27 wounded , while the cavalry also lost one killed and one wounded , and an APC destroyed . The Viet Cong had proven themselves able to withstand multiple Australian assaults , as well as heavy mortar , artillery , and aerial bombardment , before both sides fell back with their casualties . Although 6 RAR had ultimately prevailed , if only by default , the vicious fighting at Ap My An was probably the closest that the Australian Army came to defeat in a major battle during the war .
= = = Assessment = = =
By staying and fighting the Viet Cong had surprised the Australians , who expected them to withdraw rapidly to their jungle bases following their attack on Lang Phuoc Hai as they had on previous occasions . This assumption had led the Australians to commit forces in a piecemeal fashion when the situation required a deliberate battalion attack supported by blocking forces , a co @-@ ordinated indirect fire plan , and APCs . Yet such an operation would have required considerable time to plan and execute , and Townsend had been ordered not to become too heavily engaged . Ad hoc and planned in haste , Operation Bribie went badly for the Australians from the start with delays in deploying the reaction force . Expecting only minor contact , Graham had finally sent the battalion out after midday and ordered it to return before nightfall . Yet this restriction had a significant impact on the operation , and limited the time available to commanders at all levels for planning and reconnaissance , thereby preventing a more deliberate approach . Once committed , the Australians realised that they had struck at least a company from D445 Battalion with elements of a heavy weapons company , possibly supported by North Vietnamese reinforcements and at least five machine @-@ guns , one heavy machine @-@ gun and two recoilless rifles . Graham had intended to land 6 RAR behind the Viet Cong in order to cut @-@ off their withdrawal , yet instead they had almost landed directly on top of them . Further misjudgement and circumstance affected the Australian response once the battle began , with the initial reports that the Viet Cong position was a ' camp ' proving incorrect , as had the belief that the dense scrub made the area unsuitable for cavalry . Meanwhile , A Company 's initial assault had lacked adequate artillery support , while B Company 's final assault had been hampered by the requirement for A Company 's supporting fire to cut @-@ off early . The resulting friction had then culminated in A Squadron 's difficulty linking @-@ up with B Company in the dense vegetation , further delaying their relief .
The experience held a number of lessons for the Australians , not least of all was the need for tanks . Although the APCs had been used to support the infantry during the operation , they lacked the firepower and armour to be an effective substitute for tanks which would likely have found the terrain and vegetation no obstacle and may have proven decisive . Meanwhile , the futility and waste of frontal tactics and massed bayonet charges against automatic weapons had once again been demonstrated . Yet such lessons still had not been fully grasped by Australian Army training doctrine , and under pressure from Townsend to press on with the attack Mackay had given the order to fix bayonets and charge due to the proximity of his forward platoons to the Viet Cong . Despite having long since ceased to be a decisive weapon of warfare , when ordered the Australians had unhesitatingly charged towards the Viet Cong machine @-@ guns in the certainty of suffering casualties . As a result of their bravery 5 Platoon became one of the most highly decorated Australian platoons of the war . Yet aggression alone could not overcome concentrated firepower , and many survivors were later bitter about the order and losses suffered in these attempts . Another lesson identified included the need to thoroughly prepare an unsecure landing zone by fire prior to insertion . Likewise , during the initial contact A Company had been unable to call in artillery , and the need for a dedicated command and control helicopter to co @-@ ordinate indirect fire during an airmobile assault was also evident .
In attacking Lang Phuoc Hai the Viet Cong had likely intended to draw out and ambush any relief force as it approached the village ; a standard tactic they had employed on previous occasions . Indeed , early on 17 February two companies of Viet Cong had established an ambush between Dat Do and Lang Phuoc Hai . That morning the South Vietnamese had subsequently dispatched 189 RF Company from Hoi My , yet the ambush subsequently failed when the RF company commander elected to move by an indirect route to the east of the road , striking the Viet Cong flank just after first light . Although outnumbered , the South Vietnamese had caught the Viet Cong by surprise and were able to fight their way clear , forcing the communists to withdraw to the north @-@ east . Later that day Murphy had taken a similar precaution , moving A Squadron cross @-@ country over the paddy fields to the LZ Amber . Several days after the battle uncorroborated information was received which suggested that in so doing , the Australians may have also avoided a large area ambush on Route 44 between Hoi My and Lang Phuoc Hai by up to two main force battalions , with the convoy perhaps passing within 200 metres ( 220 yd ) of the Viet Cong command group without realising it . Murphy subsequently deduced that the two @-@ company Viet Cong force that had earlier contacted 189 RF Company may have been flank protection or a blocking force for the larger ambush . By inserting into LZ Amber it was probable that 6 RAR had unknowingly also avoided this ambush , yet had subsequently clashed with a large group of Viet Cong resting in the dense jungle adjacent to the landing zone . This force was likely either a reserve or flank security element , and was not a part of the main force that had attacked Lang Phuoc Hai .
During the subsequent fighting at Ap My An the Viet Cong had elected to fight from a hasty but well @-@ prepared position and had displayed good battle discipline , command and control and effective camouflage and concealment . The Australians were later generous in their praise for their performance . In particular their use of snipers had been particularly effective , although overall their individual shooting was of a poor standard and had often been too high . Townsend concluded that the Viet Cong force had most likely been ordered to fight a rearguard action until dark in order to cover the withdrawal a larger force and their command elements . Regardless , despite their strong performance , the battle also held lessons for the Viet Cong themselves . In particular their failure to deploy their machine @-@ guns in the tree line on the edge of the landing zone had allowed the Australians to establish a foothold , despite A Company being forced to assault into an insecure landing zone with only minimal suppression from a single artillery battery . Later during the war the Viet Cong developed the effective tactic of targeting troop helicopters as they arrived at landing zones when they were most vulnerable .
The most intense fighting involving 1 ATF since Long Tan , during Operation Bribie the Australians had suffered their highest casualties since August 1966 . In terms of the number of Viet Cong bodies recovered compared to their own losses it was the worst result they had experienced in Vietnam to that point , while the task force had also been unable to destroy D445 Battalion . The results of the fighting continued to be debated long after its conclusion , and while Graham felt that 6 RAR had inflicted severe casualties on the Viet Cong and that the battle later had far reaching effects on the insurgency in Phuoc Tuy province , Vincent believed that any success had only been marginal at best . Certainly to many of the Australian soldiers that fought it , the battle had been no victory . Private Robin Harris of 5 Platoon later wrote : " I think that on this occasion Charlie 's losses were overstated . It was us who had copped a hiding . " This view was shared by APC commander David Clifton when he recalled : " We had been soundly thrashed on Operation Bribie . " Perhaps though , as Mackay later wrote , the " truth of Operation Bribie " was that the Australians and Viet Cong had " thoroughly belted each other " . Overall , the Australians had lost the operational strength of a platoon , while the Viet Cong had effectively lost a company ; arguably though it was questionable if such attrition would achieve any long @-@ term gains in Phuoc Tuy for the Australians . The battle had a lasting effect on 1 ATF , and ultimately resulted in a number of measures to overcome a perceived weakness in firepower , while also confirming the need to limit the Viet Cong 's freedom of movement .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Operation Renmark had been temporarily delayed due to the fighting at Ap My An . Initially it had been planned to begin early on the morning of 18 February , following a pre @-@ planned airstrike on the Long Hais by American B @-@ 52 bombers , which had gone ahead as planned at 06 : 00 . However , 5 RAR could not be released until 6 RAR returned to Nui Dat that afternoon , and they finally departed at 15 : 30 . The first Australian search and destroy operation into the Viet Cong base areas of the Minh Dam Secret Zone — located in the Long Hai hills south of Long Dien and Dat Do , 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) from Nui Dat — the operation continued until 22 February . Heavily defended by mines and booby traps , the area had remained a Viet Cong safe haven despite previous operations by the US 173rd Airborne Brigade in June 1966 and two smaller ARVN operations . During the operation B Company 5 RAR suffered seven killed and 22 wounded in a single mine incident , while contact with the Viet Cong was otherwise limited . Once again the Australians had suffered heavy casualties for only modest gain , and coupled with those of Operation Bribie , their losses were beginning to mount .
During February 1967 1 ATF had sustained its heaviest casualties in the war to that point , losing 16 men killed and 55 wounded in a single week . The task force appeared to have lost the initiative and for the first time in nine months of operations the number of Australians killed in battle , or from friendly fire , mines or booby traps , had reversed the task force 's kill ratio . Such losses underscored the need for a third battalion and the requirement for tanks to support the infantry ; a realisation which challenged the conventional wisdom of Australian counter @-@ revolutionary warfare doctrine which had previously allotted only a minor role to armour . Regardless , it would be nearly a year before additional Australian forces would finally arrive in Vietnam . Although Graham had quickly established himself since taking over as Commander 1 ATF in January , and had developed a sound operational concept , the Viet Cong had succeeded in preventing him from implementing it as he had intended . Operation Bribie confirmed in his mind the need to establish a physical barrier to deny the Viet Cong freedom of movement and thereby regain the initiative , and the subsequent decision to establish an 11 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) barrier minefield from Dat Do to the coast increasingly came to dominate task force planning . Yet ultimately this would prove both controversial and costly for the Australians , and despite initial success , the minefield would become a source of munitions for the Viet Cong to use against 1 ATF and later the decision would be made to remove it in 1969 .
= Love Profusion =
" Love Profusion " is a song by American singer and songwriter Madonna for her ninth studio album American Life ( 2003 ) . Written and produced by Madonna and Mirwais Ahmadzaï , it was released as the fourth and final single from the album on December 8 , 2003 , by Maverick Records . " Love Profusion " was first premiered during the release of the album on AOL website . It later received a number of remixes , which were also released alongside the single . The song contains rhythm from a four piece bass drum , with guitar riffs of the acoustic guitar and Madonna 's voice backed by a male vocal during the chorus . Ahmadzaï used the stutter edit to create a new groove . Dedicated to director , and Madonna 's then @-@ husband , Guy Ritchie , the song 's lyrics deals with questions , solutions , resurrections and confusions of Madonna about the American culture .
After its release , " Love Profusion " received generally favorable reviews from music critics . Reviewers called it as the highlight of American Life , complimenting the dance beats and the acoustic guitar fusion in its composition , although some thought that the tune was repetitive in lieu of the other songs from the album . " Love Profusion " failed to chart in the US Billboard Hot 100 as its predecessors from American Life , but it reached number one on the dance charts and the singles sales chart . The song achieved moderate success internationally , reaching the top five in Canada , Italy , while topping the charts in Spain .
The accompanying music video of the song was directed by Luc Besson and was shot at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank , California . It featured Madonna in front of a greenscreen effect with her walking through a city , until walking into a surreal background , filled with red flowers , sea and fairies . " Love Profusion " also appeared on Estée Lauder " Beyond Paradise " fragrance television commercial , which was similar to the music video and was directed by Besson , but featured supermodel Carolyn Murphy . The advertisement debuted in more than 10 @,@ 000 cinemas across the country . Madonna has not performed the song during any promotional appearances or on any of her tours . She rehearsed it for the Re @-@ Invention World Tour ( 2004 ) , but it was dropped from the setlist .
= = Background and remixes = =
According to biographer Lucy O 'Brien , nothingness is the main theme of American Life ; it appears in the titles of songs like " Nobody Knows Me " and " Nothing Fails " and in the repetition of the word " no " in " Love Profusion " . Madonna 's negative tone in this song and throughout the album allowed her to be sarcastic about people 's assumptions about her and to emphasize her knowledge of romantic love . The tracks from American Life were released to AOL for digital download . Since Madonna was the " Artist of the Month " at AOL website , " Love Profusion " was premiered there on April 14 , 2003 , as part of AOL 's First Listen program . Several remixes of the song , done by DJs such as The Passengerz , Craig J. , Blow @-@ Up and Ralphi Rosario , were included on physical releases of the single around the world , released on December 8 , 2003 , in the United Kingdom and March 16 , 2004 in the United States .
The remixes were premiered by Warner Bros. Records at the 2003 Winter Music Conference in Miami , where Peter Rauhofer , Rosario and Blow @-@ Up played their remixes of " Love Profusion " . Blow @-@ Up also debuted their own version of " Good Boys " ( 2003 ) by Blondie , and remixes of Madonna 's previous single , " Hollywood " . An extended version of the " Love Profusion " remix , titled " Headcleanr Rock Mix " , was also included on Madonna 's remix album Remixed & Revisited ( 2003 ) . Michael Paoletta of Billboard named the remix ( along with the " Mount Sims Old School Mix " of " Nobody Knows Me " ) as the highlight of Remixed and Revisited , calling it " a new @-@ wave @-@ styled @-@ rock tune " , a " blast of fresh air " and an " essential listening experience " . John Payne from LA Weekly compares the lyrics of the song ( " Only you make me feel good " ) with the cautionary lyrics of " X @-@ Static Process " , in which the protagonist loses herself in her lover 's ego . The " Headcleanr Rock Mix " was included on the setlist during the rehearsals of Madonna 's 2004 Re @-@ Invention World Tour , but it was ultimately not included in the show .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Love Profusion " was composed and produced by Madonna and Mirwais Ahmadzaï . The song is dedicated to Madonna 's then @-@ husband , director Guy Ritchie . The recording sessions for American Life started in late 2001 , but was put on hold as Madonna filmed Swept Away in Malta and starred in the West End play Up for Grabs . She returned to the Olympic Recording Studios in late 2002 and finished the sessions .
The mixing for the track was done by Mark " Spike " Stent at the Westlake Recording Studios at West Hollywood , California , and Tim Young did the mastering of the song at Metropolis Studios in London . Tom Hannen and Simon Changer served as assistant engineers during the recording . Ahmadzaï played the guitars and provided its backing vocals . According to the sheet music published at Sheetmusicplus.com , " Love Profusion " is written in common time with a moderately fast tempo of 120 beats per minute . According to a writer from The Arizona Republic , it is an electronica @-@ meets @-@ folk song and is composed in the key of B minor with Madonna 's voice spanning from B3 to F ♯ 5 .
Ahmadzai used the technique of making the music freeze midrhythm throughout American Life , including " Love Profusion " . One technique was the stutter edit , which Ahmadzaï clarified was not characteristic of his production and recording . " People get upset because they think it is not natural to skip and stutter the music . But I do it because it is natural . The stuttering can help you create a new groove " , he said . The track starts with a " strummy " acoustic guitar introduction , as described by Michael Paoletta from Billboard , on the four @-@ chord progression of Bm – F ♯ m – A – E sequence . The folk rock inspired song has elements of electronica and folk at its core . Its rhythm is produced by a four piece bass drum — which fades in and out abruptly — and atmospheric synth @-@ strings , which are added later in the song .
Madonna sings in the first verse : " There are too many options / There is no consolation / I have lost my illusions / What I want is an explanation . " According to Rolling Stone , although not explicitly stated , the lines confirm Madonna 's belief that American culture will not " give her an explanation " , so she had rejected American values , and along with them her own values . She repeats the line " I got you under my skin " while a male voice acts as the backing for the track . The song ends with Madonna singing the final words , " feel good " , performed without any backing instrumental . The lyrics of the song deals with questions , solutions , resurrections , confusions and other broad topics of a neo @-@ philosophical nature . Edna Gundersen of USA Today compared its composition and Madonna 's performance with a love letter . The Advocate called it " a plaintive love letter to her husband " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Love Profusion " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Michael Paoletta from Billboard described the song as a " sparse number " and said that it was a " good fit " for the radio . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly called it " lovely " . Ian Youngs of BBC News commented that " Love Profusion " is one of the highlights from the album , with layers of dance beats and acoustic guitar that made it a more complete song . A writer for Daily Record described it as a " stunningly beautiful ballad " and considered it as one of the many highlights from American Life . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine called it " dull " and wrote that " it was reinvented into a vibrant piece of guitar @-@ driven pop @-@ rock by Ray Carroll . " Ben Ratliff from Rolling Stone deduced that with lyrics like " I got you under my skin " , Madonna conveyed the theme of gaining transcendence through detachment , " but finally American Life comes across as defeatist more than anything else " . Dan Aquilante from New York Post was dismissive of the track , saying that although there was nothing wrong with the guitar @-@ driven composition of the track , it was not different from the strings and orchestration of other tracks from American Life , like " Nothing Fails " or " Easy Ride " . Robert Hilburn , while reviewing American Life for The Press of Atlantic City , listed the track as one of the songs that could " save " the album from being a " profound fail " . Ross Raihala , writing for The Olympian listed the track as a standout on American Life , in contrast to the " dreary , directionless dance numbers and plodding ballads " on the album .
Caroline Bansal from musicOMH gave a mixed review for the song , feeling that the singer 's vocals over the Spanish guitar was monotonous . She felt that the chorus was more melodic but it was the lyrics and the dance beats which did not complete the track . Bansal said that " Love Profusion " could have been composed better . Ed Howard from Stylus Magazine wrote that " Love Profusion " , along with the song " Intervention " , " address Madonna 's marriage to director Guy Ritchie " , and " find the once @-@ cynical pop star surprisingly open and emotional , which prompts her to spit out cliché after cliché as she tells us how happy she is " . Alan Braidwood from BBC Music felt that the song was the most straight forward dance track on the album . He added that " this is one of those [ songs ] which could become a favorite and it feels like a classic upbeat Madonna song . It fuses the message behind the song American Life with Mirwais ' beats and acoustic elements really well " . Sean O 'Brien from The People complimented the song for its " great melody and acoustic guitar flavor to it " , and deduced that it would be a hit in the night clubs . Dan Gennoe from Dotmusic website gave a positive review of the track , calling " Love Profusion " , along with " Intervention " and " X @-@ Static Process " from American Life , " gracious " and " beautiful " songs . In 2012 , website AfterElton.com listed " Love Profusion " at number 91 on their list of " The 100 Greatest Madonna Songs " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Love Profusion " did not chart on the US Billboard Hot 100 or the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , making it the third consecutive single from American Life to fail to chart in the US . However , the song peaked at number 41 and " The Passengers Mix " topped on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . The song has also topped the Hot Singles Sales and appeared on the Hot Dance Singles Sales charts for five weeks . At the year @-@ end Hot Dance Singles Sales recap , " Love Profusion " was at number three position , while " Me Against the Music " was at number one and " Nothing Fails " was at number two . Billboard reported that Madonna was the first artist in its chart history to have the top three Dance Sales songs . The song also ranked at number 24 on the year @-@ end Dance Club Play tally . In Canada , the song peaked at number three on the Canadian Singles Chart .
In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at its peak of number eleven on December 20 , 2003 , with sales of 15 @,@ 361 copies , becoming Madonna 's first song to miss the top ten since " One More Chance " ( 1996 ) . The following week , it dropped to number 33 on the chart , ultimately remaining there for six weeks . " Love Profusion " reached a peak of number 33 on the UK Airplay Chart in five weeks , but quickly descended . As of August 2008 , the song had sold 41 @,@ 025 copies according to the Official Charts Company . In Australia , the song debuted at its peak of number 25 on December 28 , 2003 . It remained on the chart for another seven weeks . " Love Profusion " debuted at number 27 on the French Singles Chart on November 30 , 2003 . In its second week , it reached its peak of number 25 . The song was popular in Italy , peaking at number six on the Italian Singles Chart , staying on the chart for a total of sixteen weeks . The song also achieved commercial success in Spain , debuting at number one on its singles chart . On the Swiss Singles Chart , the song peaked at number 31 , falling out of the chart after a total of eleven weeks .
= = Music video = =
A few weeks before the official music video 's release in November 2003 , Madonna 's manager Caresse Henry confirmed video plans for " Love Profusion " . It was directed by Luc Besson and shot on September 2003 , at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank , California . Besson later directed Madonna in the 2007 animated film Arthur and the Invisibles . " There are a lot of special effects . I talked to things that weren 't there – which is what you do when you 're doing green @-@ screen or blue @-@ screen stuff . There 's going to be a lot of fairies dancing around me . Isn 't that exciting ? I always have a lot of fairies dancing around me " , Madonna commented about the music video . The video premiered in the US on February 11 , 2004 on AOL 's First View . After the premiere , it was streamed on Yahoo ! , MSN , Windows Media , Apple , MTV , VH1 , iFilm and Madonna.com.
The video begins with Madonna walking at night in the middle of the street of an American city surrounded by skyscrapers and wind . Then she finds herself in another dimension , as moving flowers surround her . As the video advances , Madonna walks on other different kinds of roads . She walks on a path of red flowers in the sky , and then walks on her knees on a deep , blue colored sea , as she is followed by little white fairies . At the end of the video , when there is destruction in the real dimension , Madonna finds peace and is surrounded by the fairies . When they go away , Madonna disappears altogether .
= = Usage in media = =
" Love Profusion " was used on the Estée Lauder " Beyond Paradise " fragrance television advertisement . It was also directed by Luc Besson and shot the same day than the official music video . The Estée Lauder advertisement featured supermodel Carolyn Murphy wandering through a world full of water , and surrounded by flowers and fairies while " Love Profusion " played in the background . The 30 second commercial debuted in more than 10 @,@ 000 cinemas in September , while the television version of the advertisement aired on MTV , VH1 , E ! and Style Network . Estée Lauder group president Patrick Bousquet @-@ Chauvanne explained that they " wanted the advertising to be groundbreaking for Estée Lauder ... The association of Luc Besson , Madonna and Carolyn Murphy will make for an exceptional visual and acoustic experience for movie and television audiences around the world . " The Olympian 's Ross Raihala wrote that it made sense that " Love Profusion " was used as the soundtrack for the commercial , and felt like it was another attempt by Madonna to " salvage her career " following the commercial disappointment of American Life .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – vocals , songwriter , producer
Mirwais Ahmadzaï – backing vocals , producer , programming , guitar
Mike " Spike " Stent – mixing
Tim Young – mastering
Tom Hannen – assistant engineer
Simon Changer – assistant engineer
Credits and personnel adapted from American Life album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Bleeding Through =
Bleeding Through was an American metalcore band from Orange County , California . Formed in 1999 , the band blended influences stemming from modern hardcore punk , symphonic black metal , and melodic death metal . Although the band was often labeled as simply metalcore , when Brandan Schieppati was asked if he considered Bleeding Through a hardcore band , he said : " I think we 're a hardcore band and I 'll never say we are a metal band , we 're all hardcore kids and we came from the hardcore scene . Ours is just a different version of hardcore , we 're trying to do something which adds a different variety to the hardcore scene , which has been sounding the same way for so long . "
In 2004 , Revolver magazine hailed Bleeding Through as one of eight bands ushering in the " Future of Metal " cover story , and Spin called Bleeding Through an " artist to watch " in the magazine 's February 2004 issue .
= = History = =
= = = Dust to Ashes and Portrait of the Goddess ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =
Bleeding Through was formed in 1999 in Woodlake , California . The band 's roots can be traced back to 1998 , when Breakneck was founded by Brandan " Ohrly " Schieppati ( Eighteen Visions / Throwdown ) , Javier Van Huss ( Eighteen Visions / The Mistake / Enewetak ) , guitarist Scott Danough , bass guitarist Chad Tafolla and drummer Troy Born ( Taken ) . They made their live debut as the supporting act to Throwdown and Adamantium . As the band witnessed lineup changes , the departure of Van Huss and subsequent recruitment of Marc Jackson ( Throwdown / Cold War ) to cover bass whilst Tafolla reverted to guitar , they decided to expand their current hardcore sound and added elements of death metal to their music . The origin of the band 's name was explained in an interview as follows : " Well , it is summed up by the explanation that whether black , white , red , brown , yellow , religious preference , straight or gay , we all bleed the same , and we bleed through this life the same . Thus Bleeding Through . "
Their 2000 's demo was followed by a full @-@ length album released through Prime Directive Records entitled Dust to Ashes in April 2001 . Just prior to entering the studio , Vijay Kumar ( of Roundhouse and Cat Burglar ) took the bass position and Molly Street enrolled as keyboard player . The addition of keyboards was an unconventional move for a metalcore act as it brought some black metal influences into the music . Just as the album saw issue Born quit the band but a quickfire substitute was located in Derek Youngsma of Cast in Stone repute .
Severing ties with both Eighteen Visions and Throwdown , Schieppati opted to pursue Bleeding Through as a priority upon completion of the Indecision Records 2002 offering Portrait of the Goddess . At this juncture the group comprised the guitar pairing of Scott Danough and Brian Leppke , bassist Ryan Wombacher ( replacing Vijay Kumar who played on Portrait of the Goddess ) and drummer Derek Youngsma .
= = = This Is Love , This Is Murderous and The Truth ( 2003 – 2007 ) = = =
After these two relatively underdistributed albums , Bleeding Through signed to a larger label , Trustkill Records in 2003 , releasing their third full @-@ length album in September of the same year . Promoting the Ulrich Wild produced This is Love , This is Murderous they embarked upon US nationwide touring , opening for AFI . These dates had propelled the band to national attention albeit for all the wrong reasons . Traveling from Utah to a show in Colorado the group 's vehicle hit black ice on the highway , spinning out of control and slamming into a truck that was already flipped over . A mobile TV unit , there to report on another crash , caught the entire incident on film as their equipment trailer rolled and exploded , showering their instruments and gear across the road . Fortunately the band escaped with only minor injuries ( Johnson had a minor cut on his head ) , but due to this accident they had to drop off the " Pure Hatred " tour with Chimaira , Soilwork and As I Lay Dying . The KSL @-@ TV footage of the accident taking place can be viewed in Real Media format on the channel 's official site . The dramatic televised footage was broadcast everywhere from CNN Headline News , Good Morning America , NBC News and even The Weather Channel .
This Is Love , This Is Murderous received generally favorable reviews from the mainstream media ; Allmusic reviewer , Eduardo Rivadavia wrote that " Bleeding Through 's blindingly technical execution provides a constant source of entertainment " , and Aaron Troy from DecoyMusic.com called it " the best metalcore release of 2003 " . The metal community praised it as well , even to a greater extent , with Deadtide.com calling it " a very mature offering from still a young band that will only get better and bigger in the future " , Metalrage giving it an 85 score out of 100 , The videos for " Love Lost in a Hail of Gun Fire " and " On Wings of Lead " became staples on MTV2 's Headbangers Ball and on Fuse TV 's Uranium as well . It is also Bleeding Through 's most successful album to date with more than 125 @,@ 000 copies sold .
The following year kicked off with the band 's " Mutilation Tour " , which culminated in a sold @-@ out performance at The Glasshouse , near their Orange County home that was captured on a live DVD , the next major step in Bleeding Through 's career was a spot on Ozzfest 2004 , sharing the second stage alongside headline act Slipknot and fellow supports Unearth , Lamb of God , Every Time I Die , Hatebreed , Lacuna Coil and Atreyu . They earned the direct support position on MTV2 's third " Headbanger 's Ball : The Tour " in November , featuring Cradle of Filth , Arch Enemy and Himsa as touring partners . In an unexpected move , Bleeding Through also donated their rendition of " Rocket Queen " to the Guns N ' Roses tribute album Bring You to Your Knees released by Law of Inertia Records in March 2004 .
A 2005 re @-@ issue of This Is Love , This Is Murderous added three bonus live tracks , " Revenge I Seek " , " Rise " and " Our Enemies " , two music videos and a ten @-@ minute documentary . Following this , the band embarked upon European touring in February 2005 , supported by Swedes Cult of Luna . In April the group , working with Rob Caggiano as producer , ensconced themselves in Cherokee Studios , Los Angeles to cut a new album billed The Truth .
As This Is Love , This Is Murderous passed the 100 @,@ 000 sales figure in the USA , further touring found the band headlining the second annual " Strhess Fest " in alliance with Darkest Hour , Zao , Misery Signals , and Fight Paris commencing early July . Upon completion of these gigs the group hooked up with the " Warped Tour " tour for a two @-@ week stretch . November saw shows with Day of Contempt , before the group entered the recording studio to lay down cover versions of Black Flag 's " My War " , for use on a tribute album , and Unbroken 's " Fall On Proverb " .
Bleeding Through 's The Truth album was released on January 10 , 2006 through Trustkill Records . The album was produced by Rob Caggiano , lead guitarist of Anthrax . The band decided to rebuild their sound from the ground up , quoting to Alternative Press as " Taking out the Metalcore , and then adding the metal into hardcore , if that makes any sense . " ( --Scott Danough , guitarist ) . " I don 't think this album sounds like anything else out there right now . We 're very proud of that fact . " says guitarist Brian Leppke .
Kerrang ! magazine declared that " The Truth " " is about to tear 2006 a new arsehole " upon the album 's release in a 4 " KKKK " review ( out of 5 ) while Billboard Magazine hailed the album as " one of the most important " heavy metal albums of the year . A few smaller critics were not so kind : Vik Bansal of musicOMH.com described it as an album that shows " whilst they 're not quite there yet , Bleeding Through do have the ability to become bleeding edge " , Allmusic 's Eduardo Rivadavia 's opinion was that the band " played it safe " this time and emphasized their " infuriatingly one @-@ dimensional reliance on victimized , self @-@ pitying lyrics of a middle school maturity level " . Although some critics praised the improvement of production , recording , and mixing quality by Rob Caggiano , and the melodic approach to song writing . The album entered the Billboard 200 at No. 48 , and No. 1 on the Top Independent Albums .
Promoting The Truth , the band opened 2006 with US dates throughout February and March backed by Every Time I Die , Between the Buried and Me and Haste the Day . The band also put in a significant appearance on the second stage at the Tool , Guns N ' Roses and Metallica headlined Download Festival in Castle Donington , UK on June 9 . On July 18 , Bleeding Through appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . Stand @-@ up comedian Mitch Fatel joined the band for a song , Brandan Schieppati called this " surreal in the best possible way " .
The group once again played on the second stage at the 2006 Ozzfest , now as part of the non @-@ rotating lineup along with Black Label Society , Unearth , Atreyu and Norma Jean . In addition to their own headline dates , they also filled Ozzfest " off dates " with shows supporting Disturbed , Avenged Sevenfold and Hatebreed . The band members were on a day off from the festival passing through Medford , Oregon , when they pulled into a Taco Bell parking lot to eat . This resulted in a fan recognizing them and then calling over a bunch of his friends . The band talked with the fans , signed autographs , posed for pictures and also asked the kids if there were any shows happening that night they could participate in . They ended up doing a small club concert with local bands , with roughly 150 people in attendance . The show was a benefit with all proceeds going toward cancer research .
In April 2007 Danough left the band . " We felt that we had grown apart and it was time for both parties to move on " , the band wrote in a statement . After his departure he wrote on his MySpace blog : " .. Just know that when this all comes out don 't think you 've seen the last of Scott . I 'm on to the next chapter very soon and I 'm excited to see what the future brings . " After Danough 's departure he was quickly replaced by Jona Weinhofen of Australian band I Killed The Prom Queen – one of several factors that led that band to split up .
Bleeding Through headlined the Darkness Over Europe 2007 Tour with I Killed The Prom Queen , All Shall Perish , and Caliban from February to March . The band then toured as the opening act for the Slayer and Marilyn Manson summer tour . Following that , the group embarked on a six @-@ week stint across the U.S. and parts of Canada opening for HIM , with the arduous year of touring finally reaching an end with shows in New York City , on December 1 and December 2 , 2007 , while HIM was simply done touring North America and set to move on to Europe .
= = = Declaration ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = =
In March 2008 , Bleeding Through announced Declaration as the title of its fifth studio release , a concept album about the rigors of being away from home . The band 's frontman and lyricist Brandan Schieppati explained to Revolver in the magazine 's May 2008 issue , " There are definitely places when we 're traveling where every time we go there , we 're like , ' Fuck , why do we have to be here ? ' Like , we 'll be in France and all of a sudden we 'll feel totally insignificant . You get the feeling that people 's eyes are just burining a hole through you . " The group recorded Declaration between April and May 2008 in Vancouver , Canada with producer Devin Townsend .
On June 6 , 2008 , the band released a blog on MTV 's Headbangers Ball website . The blog addressed numerous disappointments the band had with Trustkill Records . These disappointments included unpaid royalties , lack of funding for Declaration , and an unapproved re @-@ release of their 2006 album The Truth . Despite Trustkill 's website saying that the new album , Declaration would be released August 2008 , the band stated that they did not intend to hand over the master recording of the album , until they were paid the minimum fees required to pay back producer Devin Townsend , the band 's management and Schieppati 's father who loaned the band money for recording . In a follow @-@ up blog on their MySpace page , Bleeding Through stated that " Trustkill Records delivered the funds necessary to complete the album and to compensate everyone who had loaned [ us ] cash . "
Following the recording of Declaration , the group appeared at the 2008 's Download Festival , which was held from 13 to 15 June at Donington Park , United Kingdom . During the festival , vocalist Brandan Schieppati spoke to Rock Sound TV about the group 's dispute with its record label . During the conversation , Schieppati revealed that Bleeding Through has been contacted by a number of other record companies since the band went public with its Trustkill feud . In July 2008 , Bleeding Through inked a European deal with German record label Nuclear Blast for the release of Declaration .
The band performed in the US ' No Fear Music Tour ' with Bullet for My Valentine in August , and continued to support them throughout Europe with Lacuna Coil in November and December 2008 . They also performed in two countries for the first time in 2008 : Mexico and Russia . They performed in Mexico City in August as part of the Warped Tour with Underoath and MxPx and headlined four Russian shows in December .
On September 25 , 2008 , Machine Head frontman Robb Flynn joined the band on stage at The Warfield in San Francisco , and performed Bleeding Through 's song " Revenge I Seek " . The next day , Declaration was released in Europe by Nuclear Blast and September 30 in the US by Trustkill . The album sold under 6 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week of release to debut at number 104 on the Billboard 200 chart .
Bleeding Through co @-@ headlined along with Darkest Hour the Thrash and Burn European Tour between April and May 2009 . They will also headline " The Declaration Tour " in 2009 along with As Blood Runs Black , Impending Doom , The Acacia Strain . Guitarist Brian Leppke was unable to make it on tour resulting in Demon Hunter 's Patrick Judge temporarily filling in for him . In late May 2009 , Bleeding Through announced that Jona Weinhofen would be leaving the band and No Use for a Name guitarist Dave Nassie would replace him . Jona cited that while he loved his time in Bleeding Through , he decided that he should leave the band and return home to Australia with his family and friends . Following his departure Jona joined Bring Me The Horizon until January 2013 .
The band embarked on a special West Coast tour in August to celebrate their ten @-@ year anniversary , with supporters Carnifex , Miss May I , and Motionless in White . In early June 2009 , Bleeding Through inked a deal with the Portland , Oregon @-@ based independent record label Rise Records . Insinuating about the band 's previous dispute with its former label Trustkill , Schieppati said , " We 're very excited to align with a record label that has so much momentum and is growing when many seem to be faltering , dropping bands and firing employees . "
= = = Bleeding Through ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = =
On October 12 , 2009 , Bleeding Through issued the statement , " Rest assured that everything is fine as far as The Band is concerned ! We ’ re looking very forward to the Halloween show followed by the creation of our BRAND NEW ALBUM , which we can tell you will take place in December and January before our European tour with Machine Head , Hatebreed and All Shall Perish ! That ’ s right , NEW Bleeding Through album in 2010 , " confirming the band will release a new album , which was self @-@ titled and released by Rise Records on April 13 , 2010 in North America and internationally through Roadrunner Records The album was produced by Zeuss .
The band supported the album with a lengthy tour of Europe , Japan and Australia with Machine Head and Hatebreed in the first part of 2010 . This was followed by their own " Spring Breakdown " headlining tour in the US with Born Of Osiris , Sleeping Giant and more . The band returned to Europe for several festivals and a few headlining shows . The group released a video for the song " Anti @-@ Hero " . In August , 2010 the group headlined the " California United " West Coast tour with Terror and The Ghost Inside . The following month they headlined " The Anti @-@ Hero " tour across the US with support from For Today , After The Burial and more . After that they joined Parkway Drive and Comeback Kid for the European " Never Say Die ! " tour . The band closed out 2010 with an appearance at the " Noise for Toyz " benefit show in Fullerton , California and released an iTunes / digital only single through Rise Records which was recorded during the sessions for the self @-@ titled album .
= = = The Great Fire , disbandment announcement and final tours ( 2010 – 2014 ) = = =
The band planned to write and record their seventh studio album once they returned from touring . They planned to release the yet to be titled album anywhere from mid to late 2011 , which bassist Ryan Wombacher explained in a November 2010 interview :
Maybe mid @-@ year ; safe to say towards the end but not at the end , maybe like eight months or something like that . Best thing about it is we ’ re going to do it whenever we want to do it . There is no deadline right now , we don ’ t have any dates set , we don ’ t have the studio , we ’ re going to do the record ourselves . So we will literally go in and record it and it will be probably be done before we sign a contract .
On November 14 , 2011 , the band announced that the name of their new record would be called " The Great Fire " . On November 30 , 2011 , the band announced that " The Great Fire " was complete , although no release date has been stated . On December 14 , 2011 , the band revealed The Great Fire 's release date as January 31 , 2012 .
On January 3 , 2013 the band announced their upcoming tour in Europe would be their last , leading to rumors that the band would be breaking up . This was later confirmed by a post on the band 's Facebook page that they would be finished at the end of the year . The band also stated that they would like to set up an Australian tour during the summer and singer Brandan Schieppati stated in a reply to an Instagram comment that the band would have a final U.S. tour possibly starting in September . November 2013 the band announced final west coast dates will take place in 2014 .
Former guitarist and founding member Scott Danough played with the band on the final tours in Australia , Europe and the U.S. He was added to the band 's current lineup as of July 2014 on their Facebook page , which is lead to believe he has rejoined Bleeding Through . The first show to kick off 2014 was their final appearance at New England Hardcore & Metal Fest at the Palladium in Worcester Massachusetts on April 17 . The line up was made up of Brandan Schieppati , Scott Danough , Ryan Wombacher , Marta Peterson , Derek Youngsma and Dave Nassie 's final appearance with the band in 2014 . In May , the final nine west coast dates were announced with Winds of Plague and Scars of Tomorrow . A majority of the shows the band played were sold out . It was later announced in June that the first three of the west coast dates would be the " This Is Love This Is Murderous " line up which included Brian Leppke on guitar since he hasn 't toured with Bleeding Through since 2010 . Sacramento , Portland and Seattle shows featured Declaration era ex member Jona Weinhofen on guitar . In July another show on August 2 was added at Chain Reaction because the August 3 show sold out fast . The final show was on August 3 . Brandan Schieppati 's podcast he made it clear the final shows were very emotional and he realized how well they all played together . He said something may come
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Following the events at Lachine , Denonville was recalled to France for matters unrelated to the massacre , and Louis de Buade de Frontenac took over governorship of Montreal in October 1689 . Frontenac launched raids of vengeance against the English colonists to the south " in Canadien style " by attacking during the winter months of 1690 .
= = Bias = =
Francis Parkman , an American historian who was one of the first to write about natives within the colonial historical narrative , argues that the Iroquois wars “ were products of an ‘ insensate fury ’ and ‘ mad ambition ’ " . He said that the Iroquois waged wars due to the extinction of the beaver , their growing dependence on European goods , and resentment at the extermination of native culture . Parkman argues that the Iroquois had become so dependent on European goods that they needed these items in order to survive . In his research , Parkman had no evidence to support his claims . He assumed that the natives ’ culture was inferior to the British @-@ American , and overlooked potential reasons for the Iroquois attacks . Parkman ’ s interpretation neglected to explain why the Iroquois had waged war against other native groups as well . Parkman ’ s view would later on be dismissed due to its ethnocentric interpretation of the events .
Jose Brandao , a historian specializing in North American Native history , suggests that contemporary analyses of the Lachine Massacre continue to demonstrate cultural bias . Brandao criticizes historians Parkman , Charles McIlwain , and George Hunt for citing the growing dependence on European goods ( which were , according to these historians , viewed by the Iroquois as superior to other goods ) as a reason for Iroquois dissatisfaction and violence . Brando dismisses this theory as a largely ethnocentric interpretation with little evidence to support it . Brandao also dismisses Hunt ’ s suggestion that natives , similar to the Europeans , waged wars for economic reasons .
= = Historical accounts = =
According to historian Jean @-@ Francois Lozier , the factors influencing the course of war and peace throughout the region of New @-@ France were not exclusive to the relations between the French and Iroquois , or those between the French and British crowns . A number of factors provide context for the Lachine Massacre .
Sources of information regarding victims of the Iroquois in New France are the writings of Jesuit priests ; the state registry of parishes in Quebec , Trois @-@ Rivieres , and Montreal ; letters written by Marie Guyart ( French : Mère Marie de l ’ Incarnation ) ; and the writings of Samuel Champlain . However , the accuracy of these sources and reports vary . For instance , in the town of Trois @-@ Rivieres , approximately one third of deaths attributed to the Iroquois are missing names . According to Canadian historian John A. Dickinson , although the cruelty of the Iroquois was real , their threat was neither as constant nor terrible as the sources of the time represented , but they were feeling under siege .
European accounts of the Lachine massacre come from two primary sources , survivors of the attack , and Catholic missionaries in the area .
Initial reports inflated the Lachine death toll significantly . Colby arrived at the total number of dead , 24 , by examining Catholic parish registers before and after the attack . French Catholic accounts of the attack were recorded . François Vachon de Belmont , the fifth superior of the Sulpicians of Montreal , wrote in his History of Canada :
After this total victory , the unhappy band of prisoners was subjected to all the rage which the cruellest vengeance could inspire in these savages . They were taken to the far side of Lake St. Louis by the victorious army , which shouted ninety times while crossing to indicate the number of prisoners or scalps they had taken , saying , we have been tricked , Ononthio , we will trick you as well . Once they had landed , they lit fires , planted stakes in the ground , burned five Frenchmen , roasted six children , and grilled some others on the coals and ate them .
Surviving prisoners of the Lachine massacre reported that 48 of their colleagues were tortured , burned and eaten shortly after being taken captive . Further , many survivors showed evidence of ritual torture and recounted their experiences . Following the attack , the French colonists retrieved many English @-@ made weapons which the Mohawk had left behind in their retreat from the island . The evidence of English arming the Mohawk incited a long @-@ standing hatred of the English colonists of New York and demands for revenge . Iroquois accounts of the attack have not been recovered , as they were recounted in oral histories . French sources reported that only three of the attackers were killed . Because all written accounts of the attack were by the French victims , their reports of cannibalism and parents being forced to throw their children onto burning fires may be exaggerated or apocryphal . At the same time , the Mohawk and Iroquois used ritual torture after warfare , sometimes to honor the bravery of enemy warriors . It was common practice among native tribes at the time .
= Velociraptor =
Velociraptor ( / vᵻˈlɒsᵻræptər / ; meaning " swift seizer " in Latin ) is a genus of dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived approximately 75 to 71 million years ago during the later part of the Cretaceous Period . Two species are currently recognized , although others have been assigned in the past . The type species is V. mongoliensis ; fossils of this species have been discovered in Mongolia . A second species , V. osmolskae , was named in 2008 for skull material from Inner Mongolia , China .
Smaller than other dromaeosaurids like Deinonychus and Achillobator , Velociraptor nevertheless shared many of the same anatomical features . It was a bipedal , feathered carnivore with a long tail and an enlarged sickle @-@ shaped claw on each hindfoot , which is thought to have been used to tackle prey . Velociraptor can be distinguished from other dromaeosaurids by its long and low skull , with an upturned snout .
Velociraptor ( commonly shortened to " raptor " ) is one of the dinosaur genera most familiar to the general public due to its prominent role in the Jurassic Park motion picture series . Today , Velociraptor is well known to paleontologists , with over a dozen described fossil skeletons , the most of any dromaeosaurid . One particularly famous specimen preserves a Velociraptor locked in combat with a Protoceratops .
= = Description = =
Velociraptor was a mid @-@ sized dromaeosaurid , with adults measuring up to 2 @.@ 07 m ( 6 @.@ 8 ft ) long , 0 @.@ 5 m ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) high at the hip , and weighing up to 15 kg ( 33 lb ) . The skull , which grew up to 25 cm ( 10 in ) long , was uniquely up @-@ curved , concave on the upper surface and convex on the lower . The jaws were lined with 26 – 28 widely spaced teeth on each side , each more strongly serrated on the back edge than the front .
Velociraptor , like other dromaeosaurids , had a large manus ( ' hand ' ) with three strongly curved claws , which were similar in construction and flexibility to the wing bones of modern birds . The second digit was the longest of the three digits present , while the first was shortest . The structure of the carpal ( wrist ) bones prevented pronation of the wrist and forced the ' hands ' to be held with the palmar surface facing inwards ( medially ) , not downwards . The first digit of the foot , as in other theropods , was a small dewclaw . However , whereas most theropods had feet with three digits contacting the ground , dromaeosaurids like Velociraptor walked on only their third and fourth digits . The second digit , for which Velociraptor is most famous , was highly modified and held retracted off the ground . It bore a relatively large , sickle @-@ shaped claw , typical of dromaeosaurid and troodontid dinosaurs . This enlarged claw , which could grow to over 6 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) long around its outer edge , was most likely a predatory device used to tear into or restrain struggling prey .
As in other dromaeosaurs , Velociraptor tails had long bony projections ( prezygapophyses ) on the upper surfaces of the vertebrae , as well as ossified tendons underneath . The prezygapophyses began on the tenth tail ( caudal ) vertebra and extended forward to brace four to ten additional vertebrae , depending on position in the tail . These were once thought to fully stiffen the tail , forcing the entire tail to act as a single rod @-@ like unit . However , at least one specimen has preserved a series of intact tail vertebrae curved sideways into an S @-@ shape , suggesting that there was considerably more horizontal flexibility than once thought .
In 2007 , paleontologists reported the discovery of quill knobs on a well @-@ preserved Velociraptor mongoliensis forearm from Mongolia , confirming the presence of feathers in this species .
= = = Feathers = = =
Fossils of dromaeosaurids more primitive than Velociraptor are known to have had feathers covering their bodies and fully developed feathered wings . The fact that the ancestors of Velociraptor were feathered and possibly capable of flight had long suggested to paleontologists that Velociraptor bore feathers as well , since even flightless birds today retain most of their feathers . In September 2007 , researchers found quill knobs on the forearm of a Velociraptor found in Mongolia . These bumps on bird wing bones show where feathers anchor , and their presence on Velociraptor indicate it too had feathers . According to paleontologist Alan Turner ,
A lack of quill knobs does not necessarily mean that a dinosaur did not have feathers . Finding quill knobs on Velociraptor , though , means that it definitely had feathers . This is something we 'd long suspected , but no one had been able to prove .
Co @-@ author Mark Norell , Curator @-@ in @-@ Charge of fossil reptiles , amphibians and birds at the American Museum of Natural History , also weighed in on the discovery , saying :
The more that we learn about these animals the more we find that there is basically no difference between birds and their closely related dinosaur ancestors like velociraptor . Both have wishbones , brooded their nests , possess hollow bones , and were covered in feathers . If animals like velociraptor were alive today our first impression would be that they were just very unusual looking birds .
According to Turner and co @-@ authors Norell and Peter Makovicky , quill knobs are not found in all prehistoric birds , and their absence does not mean that an animal was not feathered – flamingos , for example , have no quill knobs . However , their presence confirms that Velociraptor bore modern @-@ style wing feathers , with a rachis and vane formed by barbs . The forearm specimen on which the quill knobs were found ( specimen number IGM 100 / 981 ) represents an animal 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 feet ) in length and 15 kilograms ( 33 pounds ) in weight . Based on the spacing of the six preserved knobs in this specimen , the authors suggested that Velociraptor bore 14 secondaries ( wing feathers stemming from the forearm ) , compared with 12 or more in Archaeopteryx , 18 in Microraptor , and 10 in Rahonavis . This type of variation in the number of wing feathers between closely related species , the authors asserted , is to be expected , given similar variation among modern birds .
Turner and colleagues interpreted the presence of feathers on Velociraptor as evidence against the idea that the larger , flightless maniraptorans lost their feathers secondarily due to larger body size . Furthermore , they noted that quill knobs are almost never found in flightless bird species today , and that their presence in Velociraptor ( presumed to have been flightless due to its relatively large size and short forelimbs ) is evidence that the ancestors of dromaeosaurids could fly , making Velociraptor and other large members of this family secondarily flightless , though it is possible the large wing feathers inferred in the ancestors of Velociraptor had a purpose other than flight . The feathers of the flightless Velociraptor may have been used for display , for covering their nests while brooding , or for added speed and thrust when running up inclined slopes .
= = History of discovery = =
During an American Museum of Natural History expedition to the Outer Mongolian Gobi Desert , on 11 August 1923 Peter Kaisen recovered the first Velociraptor fossil known to science : a crushed but complete skull , associated with one of the raptorial second toe claws ( AMNH 6515 ) . In 1924 , museum president Henry Fairfield Osborn designated the skull and claw ( which he assumed to come from the hand ) as the type specimen of his new genus , Velociraptor . This name is derived from the Latin words velox ( ' swift ' ) and raptor ( ' robber ' or ' plunderer ' ) and refers to the animal 's cursorial nature and carnivorous diet . Osborn named the type species V. mongoliensis after its country of origin . Earlier that year , Osborn had mentioned the animal in a popular press article , under the name " Ovoraptor djadochtari " ( not to be confused with the similarly named Oviraptor ) . However , because the name " Ovoraptor " was not published in a scientific journal or accompanied by a formal description , it is considered a nomen nudum ( ' naked name ' ) , and the name Velociraptor retains priority .
While North American teams were shut out of communist Mongolia during the Cold War , expeditions by Soviet and Polish scientists , in collaboration with Mongolian colleagues , recovered several more specimens of Velociraptor . The most famous is part of the famous " Fighting Dinosaurs " specimen ( GIN 100 / 25 ) , discovered by a Polish @-@ Mongolian team in 1971 . This fossil preserves a single Velociraptor in the midst of battle against a lone Protoceratops . This specimen is considered a national treasure of Mongolia , although in 2000 it was loaned to the American Museum of Natural History in New York City for a temporary exhibition .
Between 1988 and 1990 , a joint Chinese @-@ Canadian team discovered Velociraptor remains in northern China . American scientists returned to Mongolia in 1990 , and a joint Mongolian @-@ American expedition to the Gobi , led by the American Museum of Natural History and the Mongolian Academy of Sciences , turned up several well @-@ preserved skeletons . One such specimen , IGM 100 / 980 , was nicknamed " Ichabodcraniosaurus " by Norell 's team because the fairly complete specimen was found without its skull ( an allusion to the Washington Irving character Ichabod Crane ) . This specimen may belong to Velociraptor mongoliensis , but Norell and Makovicky concluded that it was not complete enough to say for sure , and it awaits a formal description .
Maxillae and a lacrimal ( the main tooth @-@ bearing bones of the upper jaw , and the bone that forms the anterior margin of the eye socket , respectively ) recovered in 1999 by the Sino @-@ Belgian Dinosaur Expeditions were found to pertain to Velociraptor , but not to the type species V. mongoliensis . Pascal Godefroit and colleagues named these bones V. osmolskae ( for Polish paleontologist Halszka Osmólska ) in 2008 .
= = Classification = =
Velociraptor is a member of the group Eudromaeosauria , a derived sub @-@ group of the larger family Dromaeosauridae . It is often placed within its own " subfamily " , Velociraptorinae . In phylogenetic taxonomy , Velociraptorinae is usually defined as " all dromaeosaurs more closely related to Velociraptor than to Dromaeosaurus . " However , dromaeosaurid classification is highly variable . Originally , the subfamily Velociraptorinae was erected solely to contain Velociraptor . Other analyses have often included other genera , usually Deinonychus and Saurornitholestes , and more recently Tsaagan . However , several studies published during the 2010s , including expanded versions of the analyses that found support for Velociraptorinae , have failed to resolve it as a distinct group , but rather have suggested it is a paraphyletic grade which gave rise to the Dromaeosaurinae .
In the past , other dromaeosaurid species , including Deinonychus antirrhopus and Saurornitholestes langstoni , have sometimes been classified in the genus Velociraptor . Since Velociraptor was the first to be named , these species were renamed Velociraptor antirrhopus and V. langstoni . However , the only currently recognized species of Velociraptor are V. mongoliensis and V. osmolskae .
When first described in 1924 , Velociraptor was placed in the family Megalosauridae , as was the case with most carnivorous dinosaurs at the time ( Megalosauridae , like Megalosaurus , functioned as a sort of ' wastebin ' taxon , where many unrelated species were grouped together ) . As dinosaur discoveries multiplied , Velociraptor was later recognized as a dromaeosaurid . All dromaeosaurids have also been referred to the family Archaeopterygidae by at least one author ( which would , in effect , make Velociraptor a flightless bird ) .
The cladogram below follows a 2015 analysis by paleontologists Robert DePalma , David Burnham , Larry Martin , Peter Larson , and Robert Bakker , using updated data from the Theropod Working Group .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Predatory behavior = = =
The " Fighting Dinosaurs " specimen , found in 1971 , preserves a Velociraptor mongoliensis and Protoceratops andrewsi in combat and provides direct evidence of predatory behavior . When originally reported , it was hypothesized that the two animals drowned . However , as the animals were preserved in ancient sand dune deposits , it is now thought that the animals were buried in sand , either from a collapsing dune or in a sandstorm . Burial must have been extremely fast , judging from the lifelike poses in which the animals were preserved . Parts of the Protoceratops are missing , which has been seen as evidence of scavenging by other animals . Comparisons between the scleral rings of Velociraptor , Protoceratops , and modern birds and reptiles indicates that Velociraptor may have been nocturnal , while Protoceratops may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day during short intervals , suggesting that the fight may have occurred at twilight or during low @-@ light conditions .
The distinctive claw , on the second digit of dromaeosaurids , has traditionally been depicted as a slashing weapon ; its assumed use being to cut and disembowel prey . In the " Fighting Dinosaurs " specimen , the Velociraptor lies underneath , with one of its sickle claws apparently embedded in the throat of its prey , while the beak of Protoceratops is clamped down upon the right forelimb of its attacker . This suggests Velociraptor may have used its sickle claw to pierce vital organs of the throat , such as the jugular vein , carotid artery , or trachea ( windpipe ) , rather than slashing the abdomen . The inside edge of the claw was rounded and not unusually sharp , which may have precluded any sort of cutting or slashing action , although only the bony core of the claw is known . The thick abdominal wall of skin and muscle of large prey species would have been difficult to slash without a specialized cutting surface . The slashing hypothesis was tested during a 2005 BBC documentary , The Truth About Killer Dinosaurs . The producers of the program created an artificial Velociraptor leg with a sickle claw and used a pork belly to simulate the dinosaur 's prey . Though the sickle claw did penetrate the abdominal wall , it was unable to tear it open , indicating that the claw was not used to disembowel prey .
Remains of Deinonychus , a closely related dromaeosaurid , have commonly been found in aggregations of several individuals . Deinonychus has also been found in association with a large herbivore , Tenontosaurus , which has been seen as evidence of cooperative hunting . The only solid evidence for social behavior among dromaeosaurids comes from a Chinese trackway of fossil footprints , which shows six individuals of a large species moving as a group , though no evidence of cooperative hunting was found . Although many isolated fossils of Velociraptor have been found in Mongolia , none were closely associated with any other individuals . Therefore , while Velociraptor is commonly depicted as a pack hunter , as in Jurassic Park , there is only limited fossil evidence to support this theory for dromaeosaurids in general , and none specific to Velociraptor itself . The pack hunting theory was based on a discovery of several specimens of Deinonychus found around the remains of a Tenontosaurus . No other group of dromaeosaurids has been found in close association .
In 2011 , Denver Fowler and colleagues suggested a new method by which dromaeosaurs like Velociraptor and similar dromaeosaurs may have captured and restrained prey . This model , known as the " raptor prey restraint " ( RPR ) model of predation , proposes that dromaeosaurs killed their prey in a manner very similar to extant accipitrid birds of prey : by leaping onto their quarry , pinning it under their body weight , and gripping it tightly with the large , sickle @-@ shaped claws . Like accipitrids , the dromaeosaur would then begin to feed on the animal while still alive , until it eventually died from blood loss and organ failure . This proposal is based primarily on comparisons between the morphology and proportions of the feet and legs of dromaeosaurs to several groups of extant birds of prey with known predatory behaviors . Fowler found that the feet and legs of dromaeosaurs most closely resemble those of eagles and hawks , especially in terms of having an enlarged second claw and a similar range of grasping motion . The short metatarsus and foot strength , however , would have been more similar to that of owls . The RPR method of predation would be consistent with other aspects of Velociraptor 's anatomy , such as their unusual jaw and arm morphology . The arms , which could exert a lot of force but were likely covered in long feathers , may have been used as flapping stabilizers for balance while atop a struggling prey animal , along with the stiff counterbalancing tail . The jaws , thought by Fowler and colleagues to be comparatively weak , would have been useful for row saw motion bites like the modern day Komodo dragon , which also has a weak bite , to finish of its prey if the kicks weren 't powerful enough . These predatory adaptations working together may also have implications for the origin of flapping in paravians .
= = = Scavenging behavior = = =
In 2010 , Hone and colleagues published a paper on their 2008 discovery of shed teeth of what they believed to be a Velociraptor near a tooth @-@ marked jaw bone of what they believed to be a Protoceratops in the Bayan Mandahu Formation . The authors concluded that the find represented " late @-@ stage carcass consumption by Velociraptor " as the predator would have eaten other parts of a freshly killed Protoceratops before biting in the jaw area . The evidence was seen as supporting the inference from the " Fighting Dinosaurs " fossil that Protoceratops was part of the diet of Velociraptor . In 2012 , Hone and colleagues published a paper that described a Velociraptor specimen with a long bone of an azhdarchid pterosaur in its gut . This was interpreted as showing scavenging behaviour .
= = = Metabolism = = =
Velociraptor was warm @-@ blooded to some degree , as it required a significant amount of energy to hunt . Modern animals that possess feathery or furry coats , like Velociraptor did , tend to be warm @-@ blooded , since these coverings function as insulation . However , bone growth rates in dromaeosaurids and some early birds suggest a more moderate metabolism , compared with most modern warm @-@ blooded mammals and birds . The kiwi is similar to dromaeosaurids in anatomy , feather type , bone structure and even the narrow anatomy of the nasal passages ( usually a key indicator of metabolism ) . The kiwi is a highly active , if specialized , flightless bird , with a stable body temperature and a fairly low resting metabolic rate , making it a good model for the metabolism of primitive birds and dromaeosaurids .
= = = Pathology = = =
One Velociratoptor mongoliensis skull bears two parallel rows of small punctures that match the spacing and size of Velociraptor teeth . Scientists believe that the wound was likely inflicted by another Velociraptor during a fight . Further , because the fossil bone shows no sign of healing near the bite wounds , the injury probably killed it . Another specimen , found with the bones of an azhdarchid pterosaur within its stomach cavity , was carrying or recovering from an injury sustained to its ribs . From evidence on the pterosaur bones , which were devoid of pitting or deformations from digestion , the Velociraptor died shortly after , possibly from the earlier injury .
= = Provenance = =
All known specimens of Velociraptor mongoliensis were discovered in the Djadochta Formation ( also spelled Djadokhta ) , in the Mongolian province of Ömnögovi . Species of Velociraptor have also been reported from the slightly younger Barun Goyot Formation of Mongolia , though these are indeterminate and may belong to a related genus instead . These geologic formations are estimated to date back to the Campanian stage ( between 83 and 70 million years ago ) of the Late Cretaceous Epoch .
V. mongoliensis has been found at many of the most famous and prolific Djadochta localities . The type specimen was discovered at the Flaming Cliffs site ( also known as Bayn Dzak and Shabarakh Usu ) , while the " Fighting Dinosaurs " were found at the Tugrig locality ( also known as Tugrugeen Shireh ) . The well @-@ known Barun Goyot localities of Khulsan and Khermeen Tsav have also produced remains which may belong to Velociraptor or a related genus . Teeth and partial remains attributed to juvenile V. mongoliensis have also been reported from the Bayan Mandahu Formation , a prolific site in Inner Mongolia , China that is contemporaneous with the Djadochta Formation . However , these fossils had not been prepared or studied as of 2008 . A partial adult skull from the Bayan Mandahu Formation has been assigned to a distinct species , Velociraptor osmolskae .
= = = Paleoecology = = =
All of the fossil sites that have yielded Velociraptor remains preserve an arid environment with fields of sand dunes and only intermittent streams , although the younger Barun Goyot environment seems to have been slightly wetter than the older Djadochta . The posture of some complete fossils , as well as the mode of preservation most show within structureless sandstone deposits , may show that a number of specimens were buried alive during sandstorm events common to the three environments .
Many of the same genera were present across these formations , though they varied at the species level . For example , the Djadochta was inhabited by Velociraptor mongoliensis , Protoceratops andrewsi , and Pinacosaurus grangeri , while the Bayan Mandahu was home to Velociraptor osmolskae , Protoceratops hellenikorhinus , and Pinacosaurus mephistocephalus . These differences in species composition may be due a natural barrier separating the two formations , which are relatively close to each other geographically . However , given the lack of any known barrier which would cause the specific faunal compositions found in these areas , it is more likely that those differences indicate a slight time difference .
Other dinosaurs known from the same locality as V. mongoliensis include the troodontid Saurornithoides mongoliensis , the oviraptorid Oviraptor philoceratops , and the dromaeosaurid Mahakala omnogovae . V. osmolskae lived alongside the ceratopsian species Magnirostris dodsoni , as well as the oviraptorid Machairasaurus leptonychus and the dromaeosaurid Linheraptor exquisitus .
= = In popular culture = =
Velociraptor are well known for their role as vicious and cunning killers thanks to their portrayal in the 1990 novel Jurassic Park by Michael Crichton and its 1993 film adaptation , directed by Steven Spielberg . The " raptors " portrayed in Jurassic Park were actually modeled after the closely related dromaeosaurid Deinonychus . Paleontologists in both the novel and film excavate a skeleton in Montana , far from the central Asian range of Velociraptor but characteristic of the Deinonychus range . A character in Crichton 's novel also states that " Deinonychus is now considered one of the velociraptors " , which suggests that Crichton used the controversial taxonomy proposed by Gregory S. Paul , even though the " raptors " in the novel are at another point referred to as V. mongoliensis . Crichton met with the discoverer of Deinonychus , John Ostrom , several times at Yale University to discuss details of the animal 's possible range of behaviors and appearance . Crichton at one point apologetically told Ostrom that he had decided to use the name Velociraptor in place of Deinonychus because the former name was " more dramatic " . According to Ostrom , Crichton stated that the Velociraptor of the novel was based on Deinonychus in almost every detail , and that only the name had been changed . The Jurassic Park filmmakers also requested all of Ostrom 's published papers on Deinonychus during production . They portrayed the animals with the size , proportions , and snout shape of Deinonychus rather than Velociraptor .
Production on Jurassic Park began before the discovery of the large dromaeosaurid Utahraptor was made public in 1991 , but as Jody Duncan wrote about this discovery : " Later , after we had designed and built the Raptor , there was a discovery of a Raptor skeleton in Utah , which they labeled ' super @-@ slasher ' . They had uncovered the largest Velociraptor to date - and it measured five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ feet tall , just like ours . So we designed it , we built it , and then they discovered it . That still boggles my mind . " Spielberg was particularly pleased with the discovery of the Utahraptor because of the boost it gave to the velociraptors in his film . Spielberg 's name was briefly considered for naming of the new dinosaur . In reality , Velociraptor , like many other maniraptoran theropods , was covered in feathers . Jurassic Park and its sequel The Lost World : Jurassic Park were released before this discovery , so the creatures in both films are depicted as featherless with scales all over in the manner of modern reptiles . For Jurassic Park III , the male Velociraptor was given quill @-@ like structures along the back of the head and neck . While this was the extent to which CGI effects were able to render feathers at the time , the structures do not resemble the down @-@ like feathers real @-@ life dromaeosaurids bore or the fully developed arm feathers , akin to the wing feathers of modern birds , borne by Velociraptor .
= This Used to Be My Playground =
" This Used to Be My Playground " is a song recorded by American singer Madonna . It is the theme for the film A League of Their Own , which starred Madonna , and portrayed a fictionalized account of the real @-@ life All @-@ American Girls Professional Baseball League . Madonna was asked to record a song for the film 's soundtrack . At that time she was busy recording her fifth studio album , Erotica , with producer Shep Pettibone . They worked on some ideas and came up with " This Used to Be My Playground " in two days . Once presented to director Penny Marshall 's team , the song was released as a standalone single on June 16 , 1992 , by Warner Bros. Records . However , it was not available on the film 's soundtrack due to contractual obligations and was later added to the Olympics @-@ inspired Barcelona Gold compilation album , released that summer . The song was included on Madonna 's 1995 ballads compilation Something to Remember .
Written and produced by Madonna and Pettibone , " This Used to Be My Playground " was the first time that Pettibone worked with live string arrangement . Madonna recorded the song on a Shure SM57 microphone , with instrumentation from piano , organ , strings and a basic drum sounds . During the final recording , the duo had to redo the whole orchestra section to tailor it for the song . " This Used to Be My Playground " starts with a keyboard introduction and strings , with Madonna singing in expressive but subdued vocals . Its verse and chorus merge into each other for having a continuity in the song , but the track ends abruptly . Lyrically it discusses visiting one 's childhood places and not letting go of the past .
The song received positive reviews from critics , who noted it as an essential addition in Madonna 's repertoire . The song earned the singer a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Original Song . It was a commercial success , reaching the top of the charts on the US Billboard Hot 100 ; the track was Madonna 's tenth chart @-@ topping single , breaking her tie with Whitney Houston to become the female artist with the most number one singles at that time . It also reached the top of the charts in Canada , Finland , Italy and Sweden , while reaching the top @-@ ten of the charts in Australia , Belgium , France , Germany , Ireland , Netherlands , Norway , Spain , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . Even though the song was commercially successful , Madonna has never performed it in any of her concert tours , nor included it on her greatest hits albums , GHV2 ( 2001 ) and Celebration ( 2009 ) .
= = Background and release = =
In 1992 , Madonna starred in the Penny Marshall directed film A League of Their Own , which portrayed a fictionalized account of the real @-@ life All @-@ American Girls Professional Baseball League ( AAGPBL ) . Columbia Records representatives presented music supervisor Jay Landers with the film 's script . Together with Michael Dilbeck , head of music for Columbia Pictures , they decided to compose a soundtrack for the film . According to Landers , Marshall being well connected to the music community also helped them choose the artists they wanted to work with . The director wanted the music and songs to be performed by contemporary artists , but catering to the period of 1943 – 44 , which was the film 's timeline . Carole King had already written the opening song for A League of Their Own , and Madonna being associated with it , Columbia wanted her to record another song . Lars recalled that there was some " early hesitation " if Madonna 's character should be kept the same or separated from that in the film and the song , and in the end they decided to go with the latter concept .
After the shooting was over , Madonna was busy in the recording sessions for her fifth studio album , Erotica with producer Shep Pettibone . Throughout January – March 1992 , Madonna and Pettibone worked on demos for the album and finally decided on 15 of them . When Lars called Madonna and asked her to record a song for the film , the singer and Pettibone had just completed working on the ballad " Rain " . Madonna admitted that she did not have any material for the film and Lars explained that Marshall wanted only a ballad . Pettibone composed a track the same night and Madonna had some ideas she wanted to incorporate . During an interview with The Guardian , Madonna described the process as " assignment writing " since it was completely separate from her Erotica sessions . It took them two days to write and produce the song , and the final version was submitted to Marshall 's team . Lars recalled that they " immediately loved it ... We all thought it would be a very successful record and we knew right away it would be perfect . "
Due to contractual reasons , the track could not be included on the official A League of Their Own soundtrack ; instead , it was included on the compilation Barcelona Gold , which was released to promote the 1992 Barcelona Summer Olympics . " This Used to Be My Playground " was officially released as a standalone single to promote the film , on June 16 , 1992 , by Warner Bros. Records . The song was later included on the 1995 ballad compilation album Something to Remember .
= = Recording and composition = =
Recording the track was a new experience for Pettibone since it was the first time that he worked with live musicians and arrangements . Pettibone took the demo of the song , and added live drums , piano and strings to it . They did not have any strings written originally for the song , and chose composer Jeremy Lubbock for the music arrangement ; Lubbock had previously worked with Madonna on her soundtrack album I 'm Breathless ( 1990 ) . Madonna recorded the song on a Shure SM57 microphone , with the melody being played over and over again , accompanied by the piano , organ , strings and a basic rim @-@ looping sound on a portable Macintosh computer . Pettibone spent the rest of the recording session working on the verses and final structure of " This Used to Be My Playground " was completed . The day after the song was finished , Madonna traveled to Oregon to work on her next film , Body of Evidence , giving Pettibone the time to finish off the songs for Erotica .
The duo met again in May 1992 at Oceanway Studios in Los Angeles to complete the orchestration of the song . Lubbock 's arrangement was chosen for adding the final touches and the recording started . However , Madonna and Pettibone did not like the orchestra parts and wanted to redo the whole composition . The producer recalled , " Madonna and I had to change the whole arrangement , right there in the studio , with a full orchestra sitting there getting paid for taking up space — around $ 15 @,@ 000 for three hours , $ 3000 for every half @-@ hour over that . And of course , Lubbock was talking to two people who didn 't know a C from a B natural . The pressure was on " . So they stood near Pettibone 's Mac and sang the notes , with Lubbock correcting them . The total recording was finished of in 2 hours and 58 minutes , thereby saving to pay the orchestra the extra fees . The last recording of the song was on Memorial Day where Madonna re @-@ did the lead vocals and improved them . Together they did some final edits of the track and finished it .
" This Used to Be My Playground " features a keyboard introduction , followed by the strings and the song starts . Musically , the song is set in the time signature of common time with a slow tempo of 77 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of G minor with Madonna vocals ranging from the chords of G3 to B ♭ 4 . The song follows a basic sequence of Gm – F / G – E ♭ maj7 – Dm7 – Gsus – G as its chord progression . The chords have an unexpected flow in terms of the beginning and the ending , moving from E ♭ down to Gm and momentarily to F major , then going back to the previous sequence again . The song has a lush , romantic quality , with the melody going through different ranges and peaks , and the verse and the chorus flow into each other , making it sound seamless . Madonna sings in subdued but expressive vocals , aided by the strings and background singers during the third verse . Towards the end the singer 's voice is double tracked and produces little amount of roughness . Lyrically the song talks about Madonna revisiting the places from her childhood ( " This used to be my playground / This used to be my childhood dream " ) , and evokes the songwriting on her fourth studio album , Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) . The singer is in a dilemma between choosing the past and letting go , concluding that the latter is difficult ( " Say goodbye to yesterday ( the dream ) / Those are words I 'll never say ( I 'll never say ) ) " . The track has a sudden ending with the orchestra and the backing vocal uttering " Wishing you were here with me " , the line addressed to Madonna 's mother .
= = Critical response = =
After its release , " This Used to Be My Playground " received acclaim from music critics . J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , called the track a " melancholic performance " . Michelle Morgan , author of the book Madonna , described it as a " beautiful ballad " . Similarly , Humberto Quiroga Lavié called it one of Madonna 's best ballads in his essay Secretos y Misterios de Hombres y Mujeres . Author Rikky Rooksby wrote in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , that the song was appropriate for the film and its nostalgic moment towards the end , showing the characters grown up and reuniting at a museum opened for themselves and the titular league . He called it " one of Madonna 's very best recordings and most expressive single " . While reviewing Something to Remember , author Chris Wade wrote in his book The Music of Madonna , that the song conjured up a " strangely sad , nostalgic feel , reminding ourselves of memories from yesteryear " . He commended Madonna 's vocals calling it as the song 's " premier sound " and adding that the way " she sings and captures the melancholic melody is heartbreaking [ ... ] it 's one of her finest ever ballads . " Encyclopedia Madonnica writer and journalist Matthew Rettenmund noted in the book that the song 's rise to the top of the charts was aided by its " honest delivery and aching sense of loneliness , regret and nostalgia for friendship lost . "
Matthew Jacobs from The Huffington Post , placed it at number 32 on his list " The Definitive Ranking Of Madonna Singles " . He wrote : " What 's surprising is that this heartfelt ballad 's release was sandwiched between ' Justify My Love ' and ' Erotica ' , which corroborates the many checkered crowns that Madonna can wear " . Similarly , AllMusic 's Jose F. Promis called it " a quiet predecessor to her most notorious album Erotica " . Promis also believed that the single version of the song was worth of collecting since it was not released in CD version in the United States . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine , called it one of the singer 's " soundtrack gems " . Writing for the Deseret News , Chris Hicks called the song " a lovely change @-@ of @-@ pace number " for Madonna .
Louis Virtel , from TheBacklot.com , placed " This Used to Be My Playground " at number 52 of his list " The 100 Greatest Madonna Songs " . He wrote ; " The theme to Madonna ’ s best movie is nostalgic and sweet , and it gave her a major hit that utilized the lachrymose qualities in her voice . " Mary Ann A. Bautist , from the Philippine Daily Inquirer , called it one of the singer 's " alternative tunes [ ... ] that can be as romantic and touching as any ballad " . Liz Smith , from The Toledo Blade , called it an " exquisite ballad " . On his review of the compilation Barcelona Gold , The Daily Gazette 's Bill Rice wrote : " Madonna 's plaintive single ' This Used to Be My Playground ' , is one medal winner " . The song was nominated for a Golden Globe award for Best Original Song , but lost to " A Whole New World " from Aladdin . It won two accolades at the ASCAP Awards , in the categories of Most Performed Songs from Motion Pictures and Most Performed Pop Song .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " This Used to Be My Playground " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 35 , for the week of July 4 , 1992 . The debut was aided by just airplay points which enabled it to enter the Hot 100 Airplay chart at number 14 . The song received immediate heavy rotation in US radio stations like Hot 97 in New York and Wild 107 in San Francisco . One week later , the song jumped to number 17 on the Hot 100 , having had the largest sales and airplay points of any record on the chart . On August 8 , 1992 , the song reached the top of the chart for one week , becoming Madonna 's tenth number one single , breaking her tie with Whitney Houston as the female artist with the most number one singles at that time . The song replaced " Baby Got Back " by Sir Mix @-@ a @-@ Lot although it was number three on the Hot Singles Sales and Hot 100 Airplay charts . According to Michael Ellis from Billboard , the song edged out " Baby Got Back " by a small margin of chart points . The song spent a total of 20 weeks on the chart and ranked at number 21 on the Hot 100 year end chart for 1992 .
" This Used to Be My Playground " also reached peak positions of number two on the Hot 100 Airplay and number four on the Adult Contemporary charts . On September 10 , 1992 , it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . Billboard ranked it at number 22 on their list of " Madonna 's 40 Biggest Hits " on the Hot 100 . In Canada , the song debuted at number 60 on the RPM Top Singles chart on July 4 , 1992 . After seven weeks it reached the top of the chart and was present for a total of 19 weeks . It also reached number two on the RPM Adult Contemporary chart .
In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number five on the UK Singles Chart , and reached a peak of number three the week of August 25 , 1992 , and was present on the top 100 for a total of 9 weeks . It was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on September 1 , 1992 , for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies . The single has sold over 275 @,@ 000 copies as of October 2010 . The song also achieved great success across Europe , hitting number one in various countries including Italy , Finland , and Sweden and charting within the top ten in other countries . It resulted in the song achieving a peak of number five on the European Hot 100 Singles chart . In Australia the song reached a peak of number nine on the ARIA Charts and received a gold certification from the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 35 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video , directed by Alek Keshishian , was filmed in June 1992 at Raleigh Studios in Hollywood , California and Malibu Beach . It premiered on MTV on June 30 , 1992 , a day before the release of A League of Their Own . The video shows a man viewing a photo album , as Madonna sings in different settings from within the various pictures . Scenes from A League of Their Own also appear on the album during the song 's instrumental break . As the video ends , the man having reached the end of the album , then scrolls backwards through the previous pages . The video was commercially released in 2004 as a bonus feature on the 2 @-@ disc special edition DVD of A League of Their Own . According to Rettenmund , unlike most music videos related to film soundtracks , " This Used to Be My Playground " did not give emphasis on having shots from the film in the video itself . Instead Keshishian and Madonna chose introspection as the theme , with simple images to portray them . Rettenmund notes , " At the end , the man who has been looking back at his scrapbook of Madonna lays his head down , sealing the video with the perfect bit of sadness to resonate with Madonna 's ennui . "
The video has been compared to Boy George 's video for his 1987 single , " To Be Reborn " , released less than five years before " This Used to Be My Playground " . In George 's video , he also appears on pages of a photo album , performing the song . George himself stated in his autobiography that he was " furious " after watching Madonna 's video and renamed it " This Used to Be My Video " .
= = Track listing = =
7 " vinyl , Cassette single , Japanese 3 " CD single
" This Used to Be My Playground " ( single version ) – 5 : 08
" This Used to Be My Playground " ( long version ) – 6 : 03
European 12 " vinyl , CD single
" This Used to Be My Playground " ( single version ) – 5 : 08
" This Used to Be My Playground " ( instrumental version ) – 6 : 54
" This Used to Be My Playground " ( long version ) – 6 : 03
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – songwriter , producer , vocals
Shep Pettibone – songwriter , producer , programming
Jeremy Lubbock – string arrangement , programming
Al Schmitt – engineer , mixing
Jeri Heiden – designer
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Something to Remember and the single release of " This Used to Be My Playground " .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Talk That Talk ( Rihanna song ) =
" Talk That Talk " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for her 2011 studio album of the same name . It features a rap verse by American rapper Jay @-@ Z , who had previously collaborated with Rihanna on her song " Umbrella " in 2007 and " Run This Town " in 2009 . The song was written by Jay @-@ Z , Ester Dean , Christopher Wallace , Anthony Best , Sean Combs , and Chucky Thompson together with the Norwegian production duo StarGate . Def Jam Recordings serviced the track to urban radio in the United States on January 17 , 2012 , as the third single from Talk That Talk . It was released in France as a CD single on March 26 . " Talk That Talk " is a hip hop song with R & B beats , rough drums and unrefined synths , and has a similar style to Rihanna 's 2010 single " Rude Boy " .
The single received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised its sound and Rihanna 's collaboration with Jay Z. It was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 2013 ceremony . The song appeared on several charts worldwide ; it reached number 31 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , number 25 on the UK Singles Chart , and the top ten in Israel , Norway , and South Korea . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting digital downloads of over one million copies in the US . Rihanna performed " Talk That Talk " on television shows such as The Jonathan Ross Show and Saturday Night Live , and included it on the set lists of the 2013 Diamonds and the 2014 The Monster Tour with Eminem .
= = Background = =
Before her sixth studio album Talk That Talk was released in November 2011 , Rihanna announced on her Twitter account that , apart from the song " We Found Love " with Calvin Harris , the album would have only one other featured artist , although she did not mention the artist 's name . Jay Brown , Rihanna 's manager , explained that they preferred to record independently rather than collaborate with other artists . On November 8 , Rihanna confirmed on Twitter that her mentor , American rapper Jay @-@ Z , would appear as a featured artist on the album 's title track . Brown said that the collaboration " happened organically " .
" Talk That Talk " is the third major collaboration between Rihanna and Jay @-@ Z , who had worked together on " Umbrella " in 2007 and " Run This Town " in 2009 . " Umbrella " was the lead single from Rihanna 's 2007 album Good Girl Gone Bad and topped the charts in more than ten countries , including the US Billboard Hot 100 , on which it spent seven consecutive weeks at number one . " Run This Town " , which also featured rapper Kanye West , was released as the second single from Jay @-@ Z 's 2009 album The Blueprint 3 .
= = Production and release = =
" Talk That Talk " was written by Ester Dean , Jay @-@ Z , StarGate , Anthony Best , Sean Combs , and Chucky Thompson , and produced by StarGate . They had produced Rihanna 's 2010 hit singles " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and " What 's My Name ? " for her fifth album Loud . StarGate told Norwegian website 730.no that it was their first collaboration with Jay @-@ Z and said that they were very satisfied with both the song and each artist 's contribution . " Talk That Talk " was recorded at Roc the Mic Studios and The Jungle City Studios in New York City , Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , and The Hide Out Studios in London . StarGate , Miles Walker , and Mike Anderson served as the song 's recording engineers . Rihanna 's vocals were recorded by Marcos Tovar and Kuk Harrell , who additionally produced them , while Jordan " DJ Swivel " Young recorded Jay @-@ Z 's verses . Additional recording of the song was done in Sofitel Paris Le Faubourg and Savoy London hotels . " Talk That Talk " was mixed by Phil Tan and assistant Daniela Rivera at Ninja Beat Club Studios in Atlanta . Eriksen and Hermansen recorded the song 's instrumentation , and Tim Blacksmith and Danny D. were assigned as its executive producers .
In December 2011 , Rihanna asked her fans on Twitter to recommend a song from Talk That Talk for release as the third single . On January 10 , 2012 , she announced that the title track was chosen and also debuted the single 's cover — a black @-@ and @-@ white image in which Rihanna is dressed in " street punk / rockabilly clothes " and crouches against a wall . According to Jazmine Gray of Vibe magazine , the singer 's has an ambiguous facial expression on the cover . On January 17 , Def Jam Recordings serviced " Talk That Talk " to urban contemporary radio stations in the United States . It also impacted US contemporary hit and rhythmic radios on February 14 . On March 26 , " Talk That Talk " was released in France as a CD single , which contained the album version of the song and the Chuckie Extended Remix of " We Found Love " .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Talk That Talk " has a length of three minutes and twenty @-@ nine seconds . Time magazine 's Claire Suddath characterized it as a lively hip hop track with a pop hook . It features R & B beats , " hard drums " , unrefined synths , and a sample of the song " I Got a Story to Tell " by rapper The Notorious B.I.G ..
Adrian Thrills from the Daily Mail described the song as " slow and sultry " . Similarly , Sam Lansky of MTV Buzzworthy found it sensual and confident , and observed that Rihanna counts when she sings the song 's chorus . IGN 's Chad Grischow wrote that a " fuzzy synth melody " interjects Rihanna 's " sexy plea for pillow talk " , which is complemented by " bling @-@ loving rap from Jay @-@ Z. " Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey felt that its riff is similar to Rihanna 's 2010 single " Rude Boy " .
The song begins with a rap verse performed by Jay Z , whose lines include : " I talk big money , I talk big homes / I sell out arenas , I call that getting dome / Million dollar voice , came through phone / We heading to the top , if you coming , come on " . He raps at a slow pace and incorporates both double entendres and humorous remarks , including a sexual reference that Claire Suddath viewed was an indication of Jay Z 's enjoyment on the song : " [ I ] had it by her bladder , she 's like ' Oh I gotta pee ! ' . " Melissa Maerz from Entertainment Weekly remarked that he " even touts their jet @-@ set lifestyle on the title track , bragging that he can fly out to Pisa / Just to get some pizza . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Talk That Talk " was well received by most music critics . Daily Mirror critic Gavin Martin commented that the song has Rihanna " stealing not just Beyoncé 's bootylicious crown but also her husband Jay Z for a frisky exchange against sibilant drum cracks . " Sputnikmusic 's Steve M. felt that it could be a major hit on radio partly because of Jay Z 's guest rap . Reem Buhazza of The National similarly felt that " Talk That Talk " , along with " You da One " and " Roc Me Out " , is part of " the winning combination of made @-@ for @-@ radio pop sensibility " . David Griffiths from 4Music found the song to be compelling and viewed it as another successful collaboration between Rihanna and Jay @-@ Z. Lansky from MTV Buzzworthy was not surprised that another collaboration between the two was a success . MTV News ' Jocelyn Vena called it " big and hard with just enough brightness " and felt that the song discusses sexual intercourse more appropriately than " Cockiness ( Love It ) " ; in the latter , Rihanna expresses her desire to have sex while singing the lyrics " Suck my cockiness , lick my persuasion " .
Lewis Corner of Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars and called it an enticing , anthemic club song . In a review of Talk That Talk , Pitchfork Media 's Lindsay Zoladz wrote that it is one of the album 's more lighthearted songs , even though it is not as good as " Umbrella " . Consequence of Sound 's Chris Coplan found Jay Z 's rap unenthusiastic , but said that Rihanna is as emotional and invested in her singing as she was on Saturday Night Live . People magazine 's Chuck Arnold called the song " another moment in the sun . " Julianne Escobedo Shepherd of Spin thought that it is a collaboration that " does not go unnoticed " . On the critical side , Priya Elan of NME wrote that the song is a " gamble that doesn ’ t pay off " . The single was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 2013 Grammy Awards , but lost to " No Church in the Wild " ( 2012 ) by Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West featuring Frank Ocean and The @-@ Dream .
= = Chart performance = =
After the release of the album , the song charted in many countries owing to strong digital sales . It debuted and peaked at number 31 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and sold 73 @,@ 000 digital copies , which was the highest debut on the chart for that week . In the week of February 4 , 2012 , " Talk That Talk " re @-@ entered the chart at number 100 . It reached number 36 in the week of March 24 . The song also appeared on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart at number 63 in the issue dated January 28 . It peaked of number 12 and stayed on the chart for 21 weeks . It was ranked number 73 on the Billboard 's year @-@ end R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . On the Pop Songs chart , the single debuted and peaked at number 26 in the week of April 7 . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting digital downloads of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . " Talk That Talk " debuted and peaked at number 30 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart .
In Europe , after the release of the album , the song appeared on ten national charts . In the United Kingdom , it debuted at number 25 on the Singles Chart , and reached number seven on the R & B Chart . The song made a top @-@ ten debut on the Norwegian Singles Chart and charted at number 11 on the Swiss Singles Chart . It also made top @-@ forty appearances in the Republic of Ireland , New Zealand , and Spain , and also entered the top thirty in Scotland , France , and Denmark . After its release as a single , " Talk That Talk " entered the Australian Singles Chart at number 42 and peaked at number 28 on February 19 . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for selling 70 @,@ 000 digital copies . Following the release of the album , the song debuted in South Korea on the Gaon International Chart at number 22 with sales of 14 @,@ 207 digital copies . The following week , it sold 27 @,@ 169 more copies and peaked at number 9 on the chart .
= = Live performances = =
Rihanna first performed " Talk That Talk " on the British talk show The Jonathan Ross Show , which aired on March 3 , 2012 . She performed without Jay Z and was also interviewed . On May 5 , Rihanna performed the song on the American comedy show Saturday Night Live as part of a medley that included the original interlude version of " Birthday Cake " . In her performance , she wore an all @-@ black outfit with a giant spider web as her backdrop . She sung a short section of " Birthday Cake " , which transitioned into " Talk That Talk " , of which the latter was performed in its entirety . Rihanna and Jay Z performed " Talk That Talk " together at the 2012 BBC Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend in London . The performance also featured their previous collaborations " Run This Town " and " Umbrella " . In November , she performed the song on the set list of her 777 Tour , a seven @-@ day long promotional tour that supported the release of her 2012 album Unapologetic . " Talk That Talk " was also included on the set list of her 2013 Diamonds World Tour . Rihanna performed the song on her joint tour with rapper Eminem , titled The Monster Tour in 2014 .
= = Track listing = =
CD single
" Talk That Talk " ( feat . Jay @-@ Z )
" We Found Love " ( Chuckie Extended Remix )
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk .
Locations
Recorded at Roc the Mic Studios and The Jungle City Studios , New York City , New York ; Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California ; The Hide Out Studios , London , UK
Mixed at Ninja Club Studios , Atlanta , Georgia .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= Pundarikakshan Perumal Temple =
Pundarikakshan Perumal Temple or Thiruvellarai a in Thiruvellarai , a village in the outskirts of Tiruchirappalli in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu , is dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu . Constructed in the Dravidian style of architecture , the temple is glorified in the Divya Prabandha , the early medieval Tamil canon of the Azhwar saints from the 6th – 9th centuries AD . It is one of the 108 Divyadesam dedicated to Vishnu , who is worshipped as Pundarikakshan and his consort Lakshmi as Pankajavalli .
The temple was built by Shivi Chakravarthy , king of Ayodhya in Treta Yuga 15 lakh years ago . This temple is older than Srirangam temple.The temple has three inscriptions in its two rock @-@ cut caves , two dating from the period of Nandivarman II ( 732 – 796 AD ) and the other to that of Dantivarman ( 796 – 847 ) . It also has Pallava sculptural depictions of Narasimha and Varaha , two of the ten avatars of Vishnu .
A granite wall surrounds the temple , enclosing all its shrines and six of its seven bodies of water . The rajagopuram , the temple 's gateway tower , is unfinished . A swastika shaped temple tank built in 800 AD by Kamban Araiyan during the reign of Dantivarman is outside the temple complex . The Vijayanagar and Nayak kings commissioned paintings on the walls of the shrine of Pudarikakshan , some of which are still present .
Pundarikakshan is believed to have appeared to Garuda ( vahana of Vishnu ) , Sibi Chakravarthy , sage Markandeya and Hindu gods Bhoomadevi , Brahma and Shiva . Six daily rituals and three yearly festivals are held at the temple , of which the chariot festival , celebrated during the Tamil month of Chittirai ( March – April ) , is the most prominent . The festival is unique in the state as a community feast is offered , a custom stretching back many centuries . The temple is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Endowment Board of the Government of Tamil Nadu .
= = History = =
Pundarikakshan Perumal temple is believed to have been built by the Pallavas , as seen from the three inscriptions in its two rock @-@ cut caves . Two of the inscriptions are dated from the period of Nandivarman II ( 732 – 796 AD ) and the other from the period of Dantivarman ( 796 – 847 AD ) . The temple construction completed presumably during the time of Dantivarman . The influence of Azhwars , the Vaishanva saints of the 7th – 9th centuries helped spread Vaishnavism to a greater extent among the public and the ruling Pallava kings , who became temple patrons .
A Chola inscription indicates an endowment to the shrines of Krishna ( an avatar of Vishnu ) and his consort Rukmini inside the temple by King Parakesarivarman ( 907 @-@ 955 AD ) . The temple had later additions from the subsequent Chola , later Pandyas , Hoysala and the Vijayanagara kings . The temple suffered extensive damage during a flood and was repaired by a merchant around 1262 – 63 .
In modern times , the temple is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Endowment Board of the Government of Tamil Nadu . An Executive officer appointed by the Board manages the temple along with Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple , Sri Azhagiya Manavala Perumal Temple at Woraiyur , Sri Vadivazhagiya Nambi Perumal Temple and Mariamman Temple at Anbil . Annadhanam scheme , which provides free food to devotees , is implemented in the temple by the Board . Under the scheme , free food is offered to hundred devotees every day in the temple and the expenditure is fully funded by the contributions from devotees .
= = Architecture = =
Pundarikakshan Perumal temple is located in Thiruvellarai , a village 27 km ( 17 mi ) from Tiruchirappalli , on the Thuraiyur road . The shrine of Pundarikakshan is built on a 50 ft ( 15 m ) tall artificial hill . There are two stepped entrances to the sanctum , Utharayana Vaasal and Dhakshanayana Vaasal , each open for a six @-@ month period . From 15 January to 15 June , Utharayanya Vaasal is opened , Dhakshanaya Vaasal is for the other six @-@ month period . Pundarikakshan , the presiding deity of the temple is named " Maayavan " during Dakshinayanam and " Thai Maatha Naayagan " during Uttarayanam . The two gates in the temple are believed to represent the continuous cycle of entering into life and getting out of it . An image of the presiding deity , Pundarikakshan , is seen in a standing posture facing east . He is believed to have appeared to Garuda , Sibi Chakravarthy , Bhoomadevi , sage Markandeya , Brahma and Shiva , all of whose images are housed inside the sanctum . The consort of Pundarikakshan , Shenbagavalli , ( also called " Peri Pirattiyaar Lakshmi Devi " ) has a separate shrine . The Utsavar ( festival image ) of Pankajavalli is called Shenbagavalli and is housed inside the same shrine . The temple has Pallava sculptural depictions of Narasimha and Varaha , two of the ten avatars of Vishnu . Narasimha is depicted holding a demon in one panel , the other shows him tearing the demon .
The rectangular walls around the temple enclose all the eight shrines and six of the seven water bodies associated with the temple . Besides the main shrine for Pundarikakshan and Pangayavalli , the temple has shrines for Azhwars , Garuda , Ramanujar and Uyyakondar . The seven water bodies are Divya Theertham , Kanda Kshree Theertham , Theertham , Chakkara Theertham , Pushkala Theertham , Padma Theertham and Varaaha Manikarnika Theertham . The vimanam ( structure over the santum ) is called Vimalaakkruthi Vimaanam . There are various sculptural depictions of Krishna on the pillars of the temple , in the most notable of which he is depicted dancing on a pot . He is seen dancing in Swastika posture with his bun like hair @-@ do , ornaments and anklet . In another sculpture , he is seen slaying the demon Bhagasura . The Vijayanagar and Nayak kings commissioned the Krishna paintings on the exterior walls of the shrine of Pundarikakshan ; they have clear Telugu language labels . Paintings with some of the popular themes from the epic Ramayana were also commissioned by the Nayak kings in the temple .
The rajagopuram , the main gateway tower , is an unfinished structure . A swastika @-@ shaped temple tank built during 800 AD is present in the south @-@ western corner of the street around the temple . It has four stepped gateways , each having 51 steps . The tank is believed to have been built by Kamban Araiyan during the reign of Dantivarman . In modern times , it is maintained by the Department of Archaeology of the Government of Tamil Nadu . The temple complex covers an area of 2 @.@ 62 ha ( 6 @.@ 5 acres ) , while the tank covers an area of 0 @.@ 1256 ha ( 0 @.@ 310 acres ) .
A archaeological study in 2010 revealed that the layout of the rock @-@ cut caves in the temple is similar to that of other rock @-@ cut temples such as the Rockfort and Pechipalai cave temple . The unfinished caves in the temple , along with the lower cave temples in Tiruchirappalli and Tiruparankunram , each have a shrine for Shiva in the east and Vishnu in the west , separated by a central bay between them .
= = Legend = =
The word Vellarai means white rock . Owing to the presence of white rocks in the region , the place is historically referred as Thiru Vellara . As per Hindu legend , when Sibi Chakravarthi stayed there with his warriors , a white boar crossed his path . He chased it and the boar hid inside a hole . Markandeya , a sage , was doing penance there and the king narrated the incident to him . The sage asked the king to fill the hole with milk . While doing so , Hindu god Vishnu appeared before them . The sage asked the king to bring 3700 Vaishnavites from the north and build a temple on the site for Vishnu . As requested , the king took 3700 Vaishnavites and started building the temple . While doing so , one of the Vaishnavites was killed in transit and the king was concerned by the accident . Vishnu appeared incognito as Pundarikakshan , a Vaishnavite , and requested to be counted among the 3700 . According to another legend Lakshmi , the consort of Vishnu , performed penance at the temple , and Vishnu appeared before her as Sengamalakannan . The presiding deity has since been called " Thamarai Kannan " , meaning the one who has eyes resembling lotus ; his consort is called " Pankacha Valli " . The Hindu god Shiva in form of Neelivaneswarar is believed to have worshiped Pundarikakshan to absolve himself from the sin of holding Brahma 's severed head . Vishnu appeared to both Shiva and Brahma , adhering to their prayers .
= = Religious significance = =
The temple is revered in Nalayira Divya Prabandham , the 7th – 9th century Vaishnava canon , by Periazhwar in eleven hymns and Thirumangai Azhwar in thirteen hymns . The temple is classified as a Divyadesam , one of the 108 Vishnu temples that are mentioned in the book . Some of the ancient Sanskrit books consider the temple as a uthamakshetram , meaning the place that gives the best to its devotees . The sculptures on the pillars of the temple reveal the earliest practice of Krishna worship in Tamil Nadu . Vedantha Desikar ( 1269 – 1370 ) has revered the temple in his work Hamsa Sandesam . As per Hindu legend , the eighteen steps in the temple represent the eighteen chapters of the Hindu scripture Bhagawad Gita and the last four steps represent the four vedas , the sacred Hindu religious texts . The sound made in front of some of the big pillars of the temple echoes around the temple . Some of the sacred verses are recited more than once in front of these pillars during worship . Thiruvellarai is the birthplace of Uyyakondar , a disciple of Ramanuja and Thirukurukai Piran pillan . Uyyakondar ( also called Engalazhwan ) is believed to have taught Sri Bhasyam to Nadadhoor Ammal in the temple .
According to Hindu legend Ramanuja ( 1017 – 1137 ) , the leading expounder of Vishishtadvaita philosophy , visited the temple . One of his disciples placed Ramanuja 's sandals along with the image of Varadarajar . Ramanujar became furious at this , for which the disciple explained that for Ramanuja Varadarajar is god , but for him , Ramanuja is supreme . Thiruvellarai is the birthplace of Uyyakondar , a disciple of Nathamuni and Thirukurukai Piran pillan . Acharya Uyyakondar ( Engalazhwan ) is believed to have taught Sri Bhasyam to Nadadhoor Ammal in the temple .
= = Festivals and religious practices = =
The temple priests perform the pooja ( rituals ) during festivals and on a daily basis . As at other Vishnu temples of Tamil Nadu , the priests belong to the Vaishnavaite community , a Brahmin sub @-@ caste . The temple rituals are performed six times a day : Ushathkalam at 7 a.m. , Kalasanthi at 8 : 00 a.m. , Uchikalam at 12 : 00 p.m. , Sayarakshai at 6 : 00 p.m. , Irandamkalam at 7 : 00 p.m. and Ardha Jamam at 10 : 00 p.m. Each ritual has three steps : alangaram ( decoration ) , neivethanam ( food offering ) and deepa aradanai ( waving of lamps ) for both Pundarikakshan and Pankajavalli . During the last step of worship , nagaswaram ( pipe instrument ) and tavil ( percussion instrument ) are played , religious instructions in the Vedas ( sacred text ) are recited by priests , and worshippers prostrate themselves in front of the temple mast . There are weekly , monthly and fortnightly rituals performed in the temple .
The Chariot festival is the most prominent festival of the temple , and for the surrounding villages . It is celebrated during the Tamil month of Chittirai ( March – April ) when devotees pull the chariot round the streets of Tirvellarai . Verses from Nalayira Divya Prabandham are recited by a group of temple priests amidst music with nagaswaram ( pipe instrument ) and tavil ( percussion instrument ) . The chariot festival is unique in the state as a community feast is offered by several individuals and committees , a custom many centuries old . The processional idols of Pundarikakshan and Pankajavalli are brought to the temple car early in the morning amidst religious chanting . Ratharohanam , the rituals associated with taking the idols to the temple car , is performed at an auspicious time before commencing the procession .
= Thomas Pilcher =
Major @-@ General Thomas David Pilcher , CB ( 8 July 1858 – 14 December 1928 ) was a British Army officer , who commanded a mounted infantry unit in the Second Boer War and the 17th ( Northern ) Division during the First World War , before being removed from command in disgrace during the Battle of the Somme .
Pilcher spent his early career as an infantry officer , first seeing active service on colonial campaigns in Nigeria in the late 1890s followed by field command in the Second Boer War ( 1899 – 1902 ) , on which he published a book of lessons learned in 1903 . Following the war , he held a number of senior commands in India . However , further promotion was checked by his having come into conflict with his commander @-@ in @-@ chief , who regarded him as unsuited for senior command in part because of his writings ; Pilcher was a keen student of the German army and its operational methods , and an active theorist who published a number of controversial books advocating the adoption of new military techniques as well as an anonymous invasion novel .
On the outbreak of the First World War he was on leave in England , and eventually obtained the command of 17th ( Northern ) Division , a New Army volunteer unit . The division supported the initial attacks at the Battle of the Somme in July 1916 , where Pilcher again clashed with his superiors over his refusal to push on an attack without pausing for preparations , believing it would result in failure and heavy casualties . After ten days of fighting , Pilcher was sacked and sent to command a reserve centre in England . From here , he wrote a series of books before retiring in 1919 . He ran as a parliamentary candidate for the splinter right @-@ wing National Party in the 1918 general election , and continued a loose involvement with right @-@ wing politics which extended to membership in the early British Fascisti .
Pilcher had married Kathleen Gonne , daughter of a cavalry officer , in 1889 ; the marriage was strained , partly through Pilcher 's gambling habits and adultery , and partly through his dislike for Maud Gonne , Kathleen 's sister and a prominent Irish nationalist . The couple divorced in 1911 , having had four children ; one would later become a High Court judge , while another died on the Western Front in 1915 . Pilcher remarried in 1913 , and remained married to his second wife Millicent until his death in 1928 .
= = Early career = =
After being educated at Harrow School , Pilcher joined the Dublin City Artillery , a Militia unit , and from there transferred into the regular Army . He was initially commissioned into the 22nd Regiment of Foot , but transferred shortly afterwards into the 5th Fusiliers ( later the Northumberland Fusiliers ) .
Pilcher attended the Staff College , Camberley , passing the course in 1902 , and from 1895 to 1897 was deputy assistant adjutant @-@ general for Dublin District . From here , he took a posting in colonial West Africa in the late 1890s , where he was involved in raising a battalion of the West African Frontier Force and commanded an expedition to Lapai and Argeyah .
In 1899 Pilcher transferred regiments for the third time , to the Bedfordshire Regiment , where he took command of the 2nd Battalion . It served in the Second Boer War from 1899 to 1902 , during which time Pilcher was also given command of a column of mounted infantry , including a large contingent of Australians . He was promoted to Lieutenant @-@ Colonel on 20 October 1900 , and to Colonel on 29 November 1900 , and in 1901 he was made an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to King Edward VII . He returned to the United Kingdom in early June 1902 , and commanded regular brigades at Aldershot from 1902 to 1907 . From here , he was posted to India , where he held a variety of commands , culminating in that of the Burma Division , the senior military officer in the colony , from 1912 to 1914 . From 1914 to 1928 he was Colonel of the Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment . At the time of the outbreak of war , though still holding the Burmese posting , he was on leave in England .
= = Personal life and writing = =
In 1889 , Pilcher married Kathleen Mary Gonne , daughter of Colonel Thomas Gonne of the 17th Lancers ; her sister , Maude Gonne , later became a prominent Irish nationalist and mother of the politician and Nobel laureate Seán MacBride , as well as a close associate and muse of W. B. Yeats . Pilcher disapproved of his sister @-@ in @-@ law , particularly after her marriage to John MacBride , and relations were frequently strained ; however , the two sisters remained close . The couple would have a daughter , Thora , and three sons – Toby , Tommy , and Pat . The elder son , Gonne ( " Toby " , to his family ) , became a Judge of the High Court of Justice , while Tommy would be killed at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915 , aged 21 .
Pilcher 's marriage was not a happy one ; a gambler and womaniser , he expected his independently wealthy wife to bail out his debts and turn a blind eye to his mistresses . The two gradually drifted into separate lives , and after finally confronted with an affair becoming public , Kathleen sued for divorce . The precipitating event was Pilcher having been named as co @-@ respondent in a divorce suit ; it was alleged that he had committed adultery with Millicent Knight @-@ Bruce , the wife of Major James Knight @-@ Bruce . The case dragged on through 1910 , delayed by Pilcher 's inability to return from India to attend the court . Pilcher did not contest his wife 's suit , and his own divorce was granted in 1911 ; he married Millicent , now divorced , in 1913 .
Pilcher was a particularly active observer of the German army , studying their military methods and attending German army manoeuvres . He would later publish a translation of Clausewitz . His writing was sometimes controversial , beginning with the 1896 Artillery from an Infantry Officer 's Point of View , in which he argued strongly in favour of adopting indirect fire techniques from concealed locations . Conventional doctrine held that artillery should be used to fire directly on its targets , as much from principle as from practical effect , with one prominent artillerist arguing that " firing from cover ... will destroy the whole spirit of the arm " . The argument ran for two years . As well as provoking debate , his writing proved problematic for his career ; in part because of a 1907 pamphlet , Fire Problems , he was twice blocked for promotion by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief India . In it , he had encouraged the development of machine @-@ gun tactics , and much heavier concentration and use of the weapons , an unusual position for the pre @-@ war period .
In 1906 , Pilcher had also published an anonymous invasion novel , The Writing on the Wall , which described a German invasion of Britain ; The war he theorised was an invasion by Germany followed by a rapid collapse of the British forces , particularly the volunteers , which he saw as unfit for purpose ; he advocated a form of conscription and a mandatory reserve system to strengthen the Army . The Spectator was dismissive , comparing the novel unfavourably to The Invasion of 1910 ( " many useful hints are given as to practical lessons ... [ but ] the general plot entirely destroys any value it might otherwise possess " ) and noting that the suggestions were " highly typical " , but that it was counterproductive to simply malign the Army and encourage the country to adopt German military policies . It was translated and published in Germany the same year , as Mene Mene Tekel Upharsin : Englands überwältigung durch Deutschland .
= = First World War = =
At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 Pilcher was on leave in England , and offered his services to the War Office , but was initially turned down as unsuitable for command by Sir John French ; however , in January 1915 he was appointed to command the newly formed 17th ( Northern ) Division , a New Army division predominantly drawn from northern England .
The division moved to France in July 1915 , where it held a sector near Ypres for the remainder of the year . It fought in an action at St. Eloi in March 1916 , following which Douglas Haig considered relieving Pilcher of his command – he was not highly rated by his superior officers – but in the end his corps commander , Hew Fanshawe , was sacked instead . Pilcher was perceived by many as old @-@ fashioned and disengaged , rarely visiting the trenches ; the journalist Philip Gibbs remarked on his " courteous old @-@ fashioned dignity and gentleness of manner " , but concluded simply that " modern warfare was too brutal for him " . Pilcher 's command was certainly slack ; an observer in the summer of 1916 , recently appointed to 17th Division as a staff officer , recalled finding a completely disorganised unit , with no central co @-@ ordination , no effective provision of laundry or comforts for front @-@ line units , and described the divisional staff as simply " of no value " .
The 17th was deployed for the Battle of the Somme in July . It was engaged on the first day of the Somme , 1 July , where it supported the capture of Fricourt and lost 1 @,@ 155 men killed or wounded . Following this , it was involved in the capture of Contalmaison and the capture of Mametz , and had taken a total of 4 @,@ 771 casualties by the time it was relieved on 11 July . Many of these casualties stemmed from an unsuccessful attack on the " Quadrangle Trench Support " on 7 July ; the division had captured the main trench system on 5 July and Pilcher ordered it to pause and prepare for a subsequent assault . However , he was over @-@ ruled by higher command , who forced an attack the next night – which failed – followed by a daylight attack on 7 July , which Pilcher strongly protested but eventually acquiesced in . He ordered an attack with the minimal amount of men necessary , assuming it would inevitably be doomed to failure and high casualties , which outraged his superiors . Pilcher later wrote that " It is very easy to sit a few miles in the rear and get credit for allowing men to be killed in an undertaking foredoomed to failure , but the part did not appeal to me and my protests against these useless attacks were not well received . "
Following the division 's withdrawal , Pilcher was promptly sacked by his corps commander , Henry Horne , along with the commander of the neighbouring 38th ( Welsh ) Division ; Horne considered him lacking in " initiative , drive , and readiness " , while Haig simply dismissed him as " unequal to the task " of divisional command . Pilcher was succeeded by Philip Robertson on 13 July 1916 . He was later appointed to command the Eastern Reserve Centre at St. Albans , and retired from the Army in 1919 .
= = Later life = =
Following the end of the war , Pilcher contested the seat of Thornbury in the 1918 general election . He opposed the sitting Liberal member Athelstan Rendall , a Coalition Coupon candidate , representing the splinter right @-@ wing National Party of Conservatives opposed to the Coalition . He was heavily defeated , taking only 38 % of the vote in what had previously been a relatively close seat . He continued a loose association with right @-@ wing politics , chairing the anti @-@ Bolshevik National Security Union , and joining the anti @-@ socialist and protectionist British Commonwealth Union . When the British Fascisti was formed in the early 1920s , Pilcher became a member and an official of its London branch .
Pilcher died in 1928 , aged 70 , of pneumonia . He was survived by his second wife .
= = Publications = =
Pilcher published a number of books through his career :
Manœuvre block ( 1895 )
Artillery from an Infantry Officer 's Point of View ( 1896 [ ? ] )
Some Lessons from the Boer War , 1899 – 1902 ( 1903 ) – digital copy
Some considerations connected with the formations of infantry in attack and defence ( 1906 )
The writing on the wall [ published anonymously as " General Staff " ] ( 1906 )
Fire problems ( 1912 )
A general 's letters to his son on obtaining his commission [ published anonymously ] ( 1917 ) – digital copy
A General 's letters to his son on minor tactics [ published anonymously as " X. Y. Z. " ] ( 1918 ) – digital copy
War according to Clausewitz [ edited , with commentary ] ( 1918 )
East is East : stories of Indian life ( 1922 ) – digital copy
= Culture of the Cook Islands =
The culture of the Cook Islands reflects the traditions of its fifteen islands as a Polynesian island country , spread over 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 690 @,@ 000 sq mi ) in the South Pacific Ocean . It is in free association with New Zealand . Its traditions are based on the influences of those who settled the islands over several centuries . Polynesian people from Tahiti settled in the Cook Islands in the 6th century . The Portuguese captain , Pedro Fernandes de Queirós , made the first recorded European landing in the islands in the early 17th century , and well over a hundred years later , in the 18th century , the British navigator , Captain James Cook arrived , giving the islands their current name . Missionaries developed a written language , bringing schools and Christianity to the Cook Islands in the early 19th century . Cook Islands Māori , also known as Māori Kūki ' Āirani or Rarotongan , is the country 's official language .
The Culture Division of the Cook Islands Government supports and preserves the country 's national heritage . One of the popular traditional dances of the Cook Islands is the Ura , a sacred ritual usually performed by a female who moves her body to tell a story , accompanied by intense drumming by at least five drummers . The craft of the locals can be seen in dresses , sarongs , and jewellery crafted with local products , such as shells , and an important practice among women is tivaevae , a type of quilting . Typical cuisine consumed in the Cook Island is fresh seafood such as octopus or clams , lamb or suckling pig , and fresh fruit , especially coconut . Rugby union and bowling are popular sports , and the islands hosted the 1986 Pacific Cup and the 1998 Polynesia Cup . The House of Ariki ( Are Ariki ) offers dignity but limited power to the ariki , historical chiefs in the islands ' social hierarchy .
= = Background = =
Polynesian settlers arrived from Tahiti in the 6th century . In 1606 , the Portuguese captain , Pedro Fernandes de Queirós , was the first European recorded as landing in the islands . Captain Cook , who gave the islands their current name , arrived in 1773 and 1777 . Missionaries from the early 1800s brought schools and Christianity , and developed a written language .
= = = Social hierarchy = = =
Social hierarchy and tapu ( sacred matters ) in the Cook Islands was controlled by ariki ( high chiefs ) , with typically between three and six per island . Each ariki was a ruler of an ivi or ngati ( tribe ) . Lesser noble ranks in the social hierarchy were the mataiapo and rangatira ( minor chiefs ) . The chief 's control , which could neither be gained or lost , was established by his mana ( power ) , which derived from his birth , achievements and status . However , an ariki with declining popularity could be perceived to be lacking in mana , which might lead to a loss of social control .
Ariki controlled Ariki , mataiapo and rangatira titles continue to be passed down through family lines , and the associated ancient ceremonies and traditions continue to be practised in the present day . The House of Ariki ( Are Ariki ) , a parliamentary body in the Cook Islands , was established in 1967 . It is composed of high chiefs , with limited power .
Some women 's organisations , such as the Cook Islands National Council of Women and the Cook Islands Business and Professional Women 's Association , have difficulty separating themselves from national politics . The largest women 's organisations , Cook Islands Christian Church Ekalesia Vainetini , Dorcas , National Catholic Women 's League , and Women 's Harvesters , are affiliated with local churches .
= = Mythology , superstition and religion = =
Cook Islands mythology has commonality with Polynesian myths and legends . Avaiki is known as the land of the gods and ancestors . Prominent figures include Avatea , Ina , Marama , Nganaoa , Papa , Rongo , Tangaroa , Vaitakere , Varima te takere , and Vatea . A belief in the mystic power by the use of incantations and charms or purepure ( see witchcraft ) was passed down through the generations . Tales of the supernatural and spirits is common practice in the islands by people of all generations and are used to explain many of the more unusual events . Tupapaku is woven into discussions on social relationships , proprietary rights , and historical events . Spirit shelters exist in the islands , typically made by children who weave them out of plantain stems .
The missionary , John Williams , was instrumental in the conversion of Cook Islanders to Christianity . He brought two Tahitian missionaries to Aitutaki in 1821 who converted the island 's population . A subsequent group of Polynesian missionaries went to Mauke and Atiu , while Mitiaro followed next in 1823 . Williams encountered difficulty in converting the population on Rarotonga whose tribes were divided under ariki ( chiefs ) and ta 'unga ( priests ) . Aaron Buzacott , a Congregationalist colleague of Williams , a central figure in the missionary work of the London Missionary Society in the South Seas , lived on Rarotonga between 1828 and 1857 . Takamoa Theological College , founded by Aaron Buzacott , trains pastors for the Cook Islands Christian Church , which is the nation 's largest religious denomination .
= = Language and literature = =
Cook Islands Māori , officially named Māori Kūki ' Āirani , and also known as Rarotongan , is the nation 's official language . There are several mutually intelligible dialects , spoken on the fifteen islands . Rakahanga @-@ Manihiki and Penrhyn are examples . The Cook Islands Maori Dictionary was eventually published in 1995 and included language studies by Dr. Jasper Base of the University of London ( 1957 – 1985 ) , the compilation assistance of Raututi Taringa ( 1957 – 1959 ) , and the works of an Advisory Committee which was established by Dr. Jasper Buse established in 1960 . Pukapukan developed in isolation on the island of Pukapuka and is considered by scholars as a distinct language .
Naming is a symbolic tradition of the islands ' Maori population . Names form a link not only to ancestors , descendents , and friends , but to titles and land , as well as events and relationships . Dreamed or created , name change are not limited to events , such as birth , marriage , and death , but can also occur in association with a bad omen . First names are interchangeable between men and women , while surnames can vary from person to person within a family unit .
Considering the relatively small size of the islands , it has a notable literary scene . Tuepokoina Utanga Morgan is credited with writing musical compositions and poetry and producing folk opera . Composer and poet Teate Makirere , who toured as communications adviser of the Pacific Conference of Churches , has been commended for his secular writings . Paiere Mokoroa and Merota Ngamata are known for their writings on the culture of Atiu Island and Pukapuka , and Tingota Simiona wrote an extensive collection of stories based on the legends of Atiu Island . One of the well @-@ known Cook Islands children 's story tellers and poets was Mona Matepi , who produced the Mokopets television series of 52 episodes for children . There is also a number of popular songs and dramas of unknown artists , presented on television and radio , which are available on cassettes and CDs . Radio programs in the islands are broadcast in the native language , English and Tahitian .
= = Music and dance = =
The music of the Cook Islands is characterised by heavy drums and ukuleles . Men perform the hura , which is the equivalent of the Hawaiian hula , locking their feet on the ground and keeping their shoulders steady . Drums form part of an ensemble . Performing groups include the Cook Islands National Arts Theatre , Arorangi Dance Troupe , Betela Dance Troupe , Akirata Folk Dance Troupe , and Te Ivi Maori Cultural Dance Troupe . Raro Records is the main specialist in music retail on the islands .
Dances are performed at multicultural festivals . One of the popular traditional dances of the Cook Islands is the Maori Ura , a sacred ritual usually performed by a female who moves her body to tell a story , accompanied by intense drumming by at least 5 drummers . Moving the hips , legs and hands give off different gestures to the audience to tell a tale , typically related to the natural landscape such as the ocean and birds and flowers , but also feelings of love and sadness . The ura dance has three distinct components ; the ura pa 'u ( drum dances ) , korero ( legends ) and kaparima ( action songs ) . To perform the ura , women typically wear a pareu and a kikau ( grass ) skirt , with flowers and shell headbands and necklaces known as ei . Men during the dance are said to " vigorously flap their knees in a semi @-@ crouched position while holding their upper bodies steady " , and they typically wear kikau skirts and headbands . The drumming group , an integral part of the Ura , typically consists of a lead drummer ( pate taki ) , support lead ( pate takirua ) , a double player ( tokere or pate akaoro ) playing wooden gongs , and two other players playing skin drums ( pa 'u and mango ) . Travel writer David Stanley asserts that the finest performances of the Ura are put on in Rarotonga .
A sexually charged variant of the ura dance is known at the ura piani in which both men and women are involved in telling the story . Other variations include the ura rore ( stilt dance ) , ura tairiri ( fan dance ) , ura korare ( spear dance ) , and ura rama ( torch dance ) . Aside from the Ura dance and its components such as the korero and kaparima , there are several other genres of music and dance in the Cook Islands including dance dramas ( peu tupuna ) , religious pageants ( nuku ) , formal chants ( pe 'e ) , celebratory chants ( ' ute ) , and polyphonic choral music ( ' imene tapu ) . Like the ura , these are also often accompanied by drums .
= = Art = =
Local residents have developed their own style in clothing and jewellery , using local products , such as shells . Giving somebody a shell necklace and placing it around the recipients neck is a goodwill and love gesture . They make a type of sarong , called a pareu , which is typically brightly coloured . Like the other islands of Melanesia such as Fiji and Samoa , the Cook Islanders are known for their hand @-@ painted and silk @-@ screened dress fabrics . An important practice among women is tivaevae , a type of quilting .
The islanders have many fine carvers , especially at Michael Tavioni 's workshop and Island Craft , the latter of which produces items like spears and masks . Items are sold in places like Punanga Nui Market , Beachcomber Gallery and Bergman and Sons Crafts Store . Kenwalls Gallery displays paintings by local artists , and landscape artist Judith Kunzle sells her drawings and paintings in her home studio and several of the crafts stores , several of which have featured in numerous publications and postcards of the islands .
= = Cuisine = =
Due to the island location and the fact that the Cook Islands produce a significant array of fruits and vegetables , natural local produce , especially coconut , features in many of the dishes of the islands as does fresh seafood . While most food is imported from New Zealand , there are several Growers ' Associations , such as Mangaian , Ngatangiia , Penrhyn , Puaikura , and Rakahanga , which contribute produce for local cuisine . Typical local cuisine includes arrowroot , clams , octopus , and taro , and seasonings such as fresh ginger , lime , lemon , basil , garlic and coconut . Rukau is a dish of taro leaves cooked with coconut sauce and onion . A meal of octopus is known locally as Eke , and suckling pig is known as Puaka . Ika mata is a dish of raw fish marinated with lemon or lime and served with coconut cream , while Pai Ika and Keke Ika are also local fish fare . Poke is a dessert which can be made in one of two ways , either with banana and coconut milk or with pawpaw . Soursop , oranges and mangos are popular as juices . Coconut water , local beer ( Cooks Lager ) , and coffee are popular beverages among the Cook Islanders .
= = Sports = =
Like in many of the other islands of the Pacific , Rugby Union is a popular sport . The Cook Islands national rugby union team began playing on the international stage in 1971 . Sevens rugby is also played and has its own association , as does netball , sevens rugby , weightlifting and powerlifting , table tennis , Tae Kwon @-@ Do , and volleyball . The Cook Islands Round Cup is the top division of the Cook Islands Football Association and plays at the National Stadium among other venues .
Bowling is popular , and the Cook Islands have at least six clubs including Ikurangi Women 's Bowling Club , Parekura Men 's Bowling Club , Parekura Women 's Bowling Club , and Rarotonga Men 's Bowling Club . It is presided over by the Cook Islands Lawn Bowling Federation , and the Cook Islands Bowls Carnival Tour is organised annually . There are also various badminton , motorcycle , golf , racing , sailing , squash , and canoeing clubs .
On a broader scale , the Cook Islands Sports & Olympic Association , Rarotonga Amateur Athletics Association , Tauvaine Sports & Cultural Association , and Tupapa @-@ Maraerena Sports Association are notable associations . The Cook Islands Fisherman 's Association , Cook Islands Game Fishing Club , and the Ngatangiia Fishermen 's Club support fishing enthusiasts . The country hosted the 1986 Pacific Cup and the 1998 Polynesia Cup .
= = Administration and preservation = =
Native antiquities , defined as " native relics , articles with ancient native tools and according to native methods , and all other articles or things of historical or scientific value or interest and relating to the Cook Islands " are protected by the Cook Islands Amendment Act 1950 . Cultural events are coordinated by the Cook Islands National Arts Council , which was established in 1985 by an Act of Parliament . The administrative mechanism was specially oriented towards promotion of culture of the islands and a Cultural Division was functional . In the late 1980s , the Prime Minister , Geoffrey Henry a keen enthusiast in promoting island 's culture , established a number of monuments and also created the Ministry of Cultural Development , he backed it up with financial resources . The activity got a boost because of creation of expressive arts , large influx of tourist into the island , and the knowledge assimilated and adopted by the islanders on the culture of the other regions . The Ministry of Cultural Development Act 1990 repealed the National Arts Council Act 1981 – 82 and provided for the preservation and enhancement of the country 's cultural heritage , encouragement of its cultural art forms , and maintenance of the unique cultural national identity of its people .
The Cook Island Museum promotes the cultural heritage of the entire region including Pacific Islanders . It represents a large variety of material culture . The islands ' history , as well as its traditional techniques in dancing , fishing , weaving , woodcarving , medicine , and food preparation are also profiled at the Cook Islands Cultural Village .
= Speed of light =
The speed of light in vacuum , commonly denoted c , is a universal physical constant important in many areas of physics . Its precise value is 299792458 metres per second ( approximately 3 @.@ 00 × 108 m / s ) , since the length of the metre is defined from this constant and the international standard for time . According to special relativity , c is the maximum speed at which all matter and hence information in the universe can travel . It is the speed at which all massless particles and changes of the associated fields ( including electromagnetic radiation such as light and gravitational waves ) travel in vacuum . Such particles and waves travel at c regardless of the motion of the source or the inertial reference frame of the observer . In the theory of relativity , c interrelates space and time , and also appears in the famous equation of mass – energy equivalence E
= mc2 .
The speed at which light propagates through transparent materials , such as glass or air , is less than c ; similarly , the speed of radio waves in wire cables is slower than c . The ratio between c and the speed v at which light travels in a material is called the refractive index n of the material ( n =
c / v ) . For example , for visible light the refractive index of glass is typically around 1 @.@ 5 , meaning that light in glass travels at c / 1 @.@ 5 ≈ 200000 km / s ; the refractive index of air for visible light is about 1 @.@ 0003 , so the speed of light in air is about 299700 km / s ( about 90 km / s slower than c ) .
For many practical purposes , light and other electromagnetic waves will appear to propagate instantaneously , but for long distances and very sensitive measurements , their finite speed has noticeable effects . In communicating with distant space probes , it can take minutes to hours for a message to get from Earth to the spacecraft , or vice versa . The light seen from stars left them many years ago , allowing the study of the history of the universe by looking at distant objects . The finite speed of light also limits the theoretical maximum speed of computers , since information must be sent within the computer from chip to chip . The speed of light can be used with time of flight measurements to measure large distances to high precision .
Ole Rømer first demonstrated in 1676 that light travels at a finite speed ( as opposed to instantaneously ) by studying the apparent motion of Jupiter 's moon Io . In 1865 , James Clerk Maxwell proposed that light was an electromagnetic wave , and therefore travelled at the speed c appearing in his theory of electromagnetism . In 1905 , Albert Einstein postulated that the speed of light c with respect to any inertial frame is a constant and is independent of the motion of the light source . He explored the consequences of that postulate by deriving the special theory of relativity and in doing so showed that the parameter c had relevance outside of the context of light and electromagnetism .
After centuries of increasingly precise measurements , in 1975 the speed of light was known to be 299792458 m / s with a measurement uncertainty of 4 parts per billion . In 1983 , the metre was redefined in the International System of Units ( SI ) as the distance travelled by light in vacuum in 1 / 299792458 of a second . As a result , the numerical value of c in metres per second is now fixed exactly by the definition of the metre .
= = Numerical value , notation , and units = =
The speed of light in vacuum is usually denoted by a lowercase c , for " constant " or the Latin celeritas ( meaning " swiftness , celerity " ) . Historically , the symbol V was used as an alternative symbol for the speed of light , introduced by James Clerk Maxwell in 1865 . In 1856 , Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch had used c for a different constant later shown to equal √ 2 times the speed of light in vacuum . In 1894 , Paul Drude redefined c with its modern meaning . Einstein used V in his original German @-@ language papers on special relativity in 1905 , but in 1907 he switched to c , which by then had become the standard symbol for the speed of light .
Sometimes c is used for the speed of waves in any material medium , and c0 for the speed of light in vacuum . This subscripted notation , which is endorsed in official SI literature , has the same form as other related constants : namely , μ0 for the vacuum permeability or magnetic constant , ε0 for the vacuum permittivity or electric constant , and Z0 for the impedance of free space . This article uses c exclusively for the speed of light in vacuum .
Since 1983 , the metre has been defined in the International System of Units ( SI ) as the distance light travels in vacuum in 1 ⁄ 299792458 of a second . This definition fixes the speed of light in vacuum at exactly 299792458 m / s . As a dimensional physical constant , the numerical value of c is different for different unit systems . In branches of physics in which c appears often , such as in relativity , it is common to use systems of natural units of measurement or the geometrized unit system where c = 1 . Using these units , c does not appear explicitly because multiplication or division by 1 does not affect the result .
= = Fundamental role in physics = =
The speed at which light waves propagate in vacuum is independent both of the motion of the wave source and of the inertial frame of reference of the observer . This invariance of the speed of light was postulated by Einstein in 1905 , after being motivated by Maxwell 's theory of electromagnetism and the lack of evidence for the luminiferous aether ; it has since been consistently confirmed by many experiments . It is only possible to verify experimentally that the two @-@ way speed of light ( for example , from a source to a mirror and back again ) is frame @-@ independent , because it is impossible to measure the one @-@ way speed of light ( for example , from a source to a distant detector ) without some convention as to how clocks at the source and at the detector should be synchronized . However , by adopting Einstein synchronization for the clocks , the one @-@ way speed of light becomes equal to the two @-@ way speed of light by definition . The special theory of relativity explores the consequences of this invariance of c with the assumption that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference . One consequence is that c is the speed at which all massless particles and waves , including light , must travel in vacuum .
Special relativity has many counterintuitive and experimentally verified implications . These include the equivalence of mass and energy ( E
= mc2 ) , length contraction ( moving objects shorten ) , and time dilation ( moving clocks run more slowly ) . The factor γ by which lengths contract and times dilate is known as the Lorentz factor and is given by γ =
( 1 − v2 / c2 ) − 1 / 2 , where v is the speed of the object . The difference of γ from 1 is negligible for speeds much slower than c , such as most everyday speeds — in which case special relativity is closely approximated by Galilean relativity — but it increases at relativistic speeds and diverges to infinity as v approaches c .
The results of special relativity can be summarized by treating space and time as a unified structure known as spacetime ( with c relating the units of space and time ) , and requiring that physical theories satisfy a special symmetry called Lorentz invariance , whose mathematical formulation contains the parameter c . Lorentz invariance is an almost universal assumption for modern physical theories , such as quantum electrodynamics , quantum chromodynamics , the Standard Model of particle physics , and general relativity . As such , the parameter c is ubiquitous in modern physics , appearing in many contexts that are unrelated to light . For example , general relativity predicts that c is also the speed of gravity and of gravitational waves . In non @-@ inertial frames of reference ( gravitationally curved spacetime or accelerated reference frames ) , the local speed of light is constant and equal to c , but the speed of light along a trajectory of finite length can differ from c , depending on how distances and times are defined .
It is generally assumed that fundamental constants such as c have the same value throughout spacetime , meaning that they do not depend on location and do not vary with time . However , it has been suggested in various theories that the speed of light may have changed over time . No conclusive evidence for such changes has been found , but they remain the subject of ongoing research .
It also is generally assumed that the speed of light is isotropic , meaning that it has the same value regardless of the direction in which it is measured . Observations of the emissions from nuclear energy levels as a function of the orientation of the emitting nuclei in a magnetic field ( see Hughes – Drever experiment ) , and of rotating optical resonators ( see Resonator experiments ) have put stringent limits on the possible two @-@ way anisotropy .
= = = Upper limit on speeds = = =
According to special relativity , the energy of an object with rest mass m and speed v is given by γmc2 , where γ is the Lorentz factor defined above . When v is zero , γ is equal to one , giving rise to the famous E = mc2 formula for mass – energy equivalence . The γ factor approaches infinity as v approaches c , and it would take an infinite amount of energy to accelerate an object with mass to the speed of light . The speed of light is the upper limit for the speeds of objects with positive rest mass , and individual photons cannot travel faster than the speed of light . This is experimentally established in many tests of relativistic energy and momentum .
More generally , it is normally impossible for information or energy to travel faster than c . One argument for this follows from the counter @-@ intuitive implication of special relativity known as the relativity of simultaneity . If the spatial distance between two events A and B is greater than the time interval between them multiplied by c then there are frames of reference in which A precedes B , others in which B precedes A , and others in which they are simultaneous . As a result , if something were travelling faster than c relative to an inertial frame of reference , it would be travelling backwards in time relative to another frame , and causality would be violated . In such a frame of reference , an " effect " could be observed before its " cause " . Such a violation of causality has never been recorded , and would lead to paradoxes such as the tachyonic antitelephone .
= = Faster @-@ than @-@ light observations and experiments = =
There are situations in which it may seem that matter , energy , or information travels at speeds greater than c , but they do not . For example , as is discussed in the propagation of light in a medium section below , many wave velocities can exceed c . For example , the phase velocity of X @-@ rays through most glasses can routinely exceed c , but phase velocity does not determine the velocity at which waves convey information .
If a laser beam is swept quickly across a distant object , the spot of light can move faster than c , although the initial movement of the spot is delayed because of the time it takes light to get to the distant object at the speed c . However , the only physical entities that are moving are the laser and its emitted light , which travels at the speed c from the laser to the various positions of the spot . Similarly , a shadow projected onto a distant object can be made to move faster than c , after a delay in time . In neither case does any matter , energy , or information travel faster than light .
The rate of change in the distance between two objects in a frame of reference with respect to which both are moving ( their closing speed ) may have a value in excess of c . However , this does not represent the speed of any single object as measured in a single inertial frame .
Certain quantum effects appear to be transmitted instantaneously and therefore faster than c , as in the EPR paradox . An example involves the quantum states of two particles that can be entangled . Until either of the particles is observed , they exist in a superposition of two quantum states . If the particles are separated and one particle 's quantum state is observed , the other particle 's quantum state is determined instantaneously ( i.e. , faster than light could travel from one particle to the other ) . However , it is impossible to control which quantum state the first particle will take on when it is observed , so information cannot be transmitted in this manner .
Another quantum effect that predicts the occurrence of faster @-@ than @-@ light speeds is called the Hartman effect ; under certain conditions the time needed for a virtual particle to tunnel through a barrier is constant , regardless of the thickness of the barrier . This could result in a virtual particle crossing a large gap faster @-@ than @-@ light . However , no information can be sent using this effect .
So @-@ called superluminal motion is seen in certain astronomical objects , such as the relativistic jets of radio galaxies and quasars . However , these jets are not moving at speeds in excess of the speed of light : the apparent superluminal motion is a projection effect caused by objects moving near the speed of light and approaching Earth at a small angle to the line of sight : since the light which was emitted when the jet was farther away took longer to reach the Earth , the time between two successive observations corresponds to a longer time between the instants at which the light rays were emitted .
In models of the expanding universe , the farther galaxies are from each other , the faster they drift apart . This receding is not due to motion through space , but rather to the expansion of space itself . For example , galaxies far away from Earth appear to be moving away from the Earth with a speed proportional to their distances . Beyond a boundary called the Hubble sphere , the rate at which their distance from Earth increases becomes greater than the speed of light .
= = Propagation of light = =
In classical physics , light is described as a type of electromagnetic wave . The classical behaviour of the electromagnetic field is described by Maxwell 's equations , which predict that the speed c with which electromagnetic waves ( such as light ) propagate through the vacuum is related to the electric constant ε0 and the magnetic constant μ0 by the equation
<formula>
In modern quantum physics , the electromagnetic field is described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics ( QED ) . In this theory , light is described by the fundamental excitations ( or quanta ) of the electromagnetic field , called photons . In QED , photons are massless particles and thus , according to special relativity , they travel at the speed of light in vacuum .
Extensions of QED in which the photon has a mass have been considered . In such a theory , its speed would depend on its frequency , and the invariant speed c of special relativity would then be the upper limit of the speed of light in vacuum . No variation of the speed of light with frequency has been observed in rigorous testing , putting stringent limits on the mass of the photon . The limit obtained depends on the model used : if the massive photon is described by Proca theory , the experimental upper bound for its mass is about 10 − 57 grams ; if photon mass is generated by a Higgs mechanism , the experimental upper limit is less sharp , m ≤ 10 − 14 eV / c2 ( roughly 2 × 10 − 47 g ) .
Another reason for the speed of light to vary with its frequency would be the failure of special relativity to apply to arbitrarily small scales , as predicted by some proposed theories of quantum gravity . In 2009 , the observation of the spectrum of gamma @-@ ray burst GRB 090510 did not find any difference in the speeds of photons of different energies , confirming that Lorentz invariance is verified at least down to the scale of the Planck length ( lP = √ ħG / c3 ≈ 1 @.@ 6163 × 10 − 35 m ) divided by 1 @.@ 2 .
= = = In a medium = = =
In a medium , light usually does not propagate at a speed equal to c ; further , different types of light wave will travel at different speeds . The speed at which the individual crests and troughs of a plane wave ( a wave filling the whole space , with only one frequency ) propagate is called the phase velocity vp . An actual physical signal with a finite extent ( a pulse of light ) travels at a different speed . The largest part of the pulse travels at the group velocity vg , and its earliest part travels at the front velocity vf .
The phase velocity is important in determining how a light wave travels through a material or from one material to another . It is often represented in terms of a refractive index . The refractive index of a material is defined as the ratio of c to the phase velocity vp in the material : larger indices of refraction indicate lower speeds . The refractive index of a material may depend on the light 's frequency , intensity , polarization , or direction of propagation ; in many cases , though , it can be treated as a material @-@ dependent constant . The refractive index of air is approximately 1 @.@ 0003 . Denser media , such as water , glass , and diamond , have refractive indexes of around 1 @.@ 3 , 1 @.@ 5 and 2 @.@ 4 , respectively , for visible light . In exotic materials like Bose – Einstein condensates near absolute zero , the effective speed of light may be only a few metres per second . However , this represents absorption and re @-@ radiation delay between atoms , as do all slower @-@ than @-@ c speeds in material substances . As an extreme example of light " slowing " in matter , two independent teams of physicists claimed to bring light to a " complete standstill " by passing it through a Bose – Einstein condensate of the element rubidium , one team at Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge , Mass . , and the other at the Harvard – Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics , also in Cambridge . However , the popular description of light being " stopped " in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms , then re @-@ emitted at an arbitrarily later time , as stimulated by a second laser pulse . During the time it had " stopped , " it had ceased to be light . This type of behaviour is generally microscopically true of all transparent media which " slow " the speed of light .
In transparent materials , the refractive index generally is greater than 1 , meaning that the phase velocity is less than c . In other materials , it is possible for the refractive index to become smaller than 1 for some frequencies ; in some exotic materials it is even possible for the index of refraction to become negative . The requirement that causality is not violated implies that the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant of any material , corresponding respectively to the index of refraction and to the attenuation coefficient , are linked by the Kramers – Kronig relations . In practical terms , this means that in a material with refractive index less than 1 , the absorption of the wave is so quick that no signal can be sent faster than c .
A pulse with different group and phase velocities ( which occurs if the phase velocity is not the same for all the frequencies of the pulse ) smears out over time , a process known as dispersion . Certain materials have an exceptionally low ( or even zero ) group velocity for light waves , a phenomenon called slow light , which has been confirmed in various experiments . The opposite , group velocities exceeding c , has also been shown in experiment . It should even be possible for the group velocity to become infinite or negative , with pulses travelling instantaneously or backwards in time .
None of these options , however , allow information to be transmitted faster than c . It is impossible to transmit information with a light pulse any faster than the speed of the earliest part of the pulse ( the front velocity ) . It can be shown that this is ( under certain assumptions ) always equal to c .
It is possible for a particle to travel through a medium faster than the phase velocity of light in that medium ( but still slower than c ) . When a charged particle does that in a dielectric material , the electromagnetic equivalent of a shock wave , known as Cherenkov radiation , is emitted .
= = Practical effects of finiteness = =
The speed of light is of relevance to communications : the one @-@ way and round @-@ trip delay time are greater than zero . This applies from small to astronomical scales . On the other hand , some techniques depend on the finite speed of light , for example in distance measurements .
= = = Small scales = = =
In supercomputers , the speed of light imposes a limit on how quickly data can be sent between processors . If a processor operates at 1 gigahertz , a signal can only travel a maximum of about 30 centimetres ( 1 ft ) in a single cycle . Processors must therefore be placed close to each other to minimize communication latencies ; this can cause difficulty with cooling . If clock frequencies continue to increase , the speed of light will eventually become a limiting factor for the internal design of single chips .
= = = Large distances on Earth = = =
For example , given the equatorial circumference of the Earth is about 40075 km and c about 300000 km / s , the theoretical shortest time for a piece of information to travel half the globe along the surface is about 67 milliseconds . When light is travelling around the globe in an optical fibre , the actual transit time is longer , in part because the speed of light is slower by about 35 % in an optical fibre , depending on its refractive index n . Furthermore , straight lines rarely occur in global communications situations , and delays are created when the signal passes through an electronic switch or signal regenerator .
= = = Spaceflights and astronomy = = =
Similarly , communications between the Earth and spacecraft are not instantaneous . There is a brief delay from the source to the receiver , which becomes more noticeable as distances increase . This delay was significant for communications between ground control and Apollo 8 when it became the first manned spacecraft to orbit the Moon : for every question , the ground control station had to wait at least three seconds for the answer to arrive . The communications delay between Earth and Mars can vary between five and twenty minutes depending upon the relative positions of the two planets . As a consequence of this , if a robot on the surface of Mars were to encounter a problem , its human controllers would not be aware of it until at least five minutes later , and possibly up to twenty minutes later ; it would then
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dominant over the more recently established outer colonies , although the older planets rely on the new worlds for raw materials . Tensions lead to unrest and outright rebellion , with radical members of the outer colonies known as " Insurrectionists " launching terrorist attacks on the UNSC in a bid for independence .
Contact Harvest features several characters seen previously in the video games as well as new characters . The protagonist is Avery Johnson , a Marine who is sent to the colony of Harvest to deal with suspected Insurrectionist activity ; Johnson had previously appeared in the video game Halo : Combat Evolved and its sequels , as well as the novel Halo : First Strike . A side character is Wallace Jenkins , a hapless Marine who is assimilated by the parasitic Flood in Halo : Combat Evolved and plays an important role in the novelization of the game , Halo : The Flood . Contact Harvest also illuminates the origins of several alien Covenant characters who play important roles in the video games , such as the Brute Chieftain Tartarus and the three Prophet Hierarchs , Truth , Mercy , and Regret .
= = = Plot summary = = =
Humanity has spread across the galaxy , and the outer colony " Harvest " is one of the most remote . Although Harvest itself is only one @-@ third the size of Earth , its fertile surface serves as the breadbasket for the other colonies . The United Nations Space Command Office of Naval Intelligence ( ONI ) notices strange disappearances of human ships around Harvest , and assumes that Insurrectionists are attacking the vessels . ONI pulls Staff Sergeants Avery Johnson and Nolan Byrne from the frontlines of the civil war to raise a militia to protect Harvest . The disappearances are revealed to be alien Kig @-@ Yar vessels intercepting the ships in their search for relics left by the Forerunners , an ancient race sacred to the Kig @-@ Yar and other members of the Covenant . Members of the vessel are shocked to discover that their instruments indicates hundreds of thousands of Forerunner relics on the planet of Harvest . A Covenant Unggoy Deacon named Dadab is alarmed when he realizes the Kig @-@ Yar shipmistress intends to steal a portion of the relics for herself , starting with relics leaving the planet on a human cargo ship . The ship is actually a trap set by the humans , with Johnson and Byrne on board . Johnson and Byrne kill several of the Covenant boarding party when they enter the cargo ship , which is later destroyed by a methane explosion . Dadab and his Huragok friend , Lighter than Some , escape the blast and are picked up by a Covenant ship crewed by Jiralhanae . These agents , led by their chieftain Maccabeus , have been ordered to confirm the presence of the relics ; despite the reservations of his nephew , Tartarus , Maccabeus agrees to parley with the humans on Harvest . In the midst of the meeting in Harvest 's gardens , the Covenant begin a firefight and the peace talks are shattered .
On the Covenant holy city of High Charity , two San ' Shyuum , the Minister of Fortitude and the Vice @-@ Minister of Tranquility , plot to take the place of the three Prophet Hierarchs currently leading the Covenant . They visit the old , supposedly senile Philologist for blessings and advice , seeking a third San ' Shyuum to help them usurp the throne . As Tranquility and Fortitude are meeting with the Philologist , the " Oracle " , a Forerunner A.I. named Mendicant Bias , suddenly awakens from eons of dormancy . Mendicant Bias informs the San ' Shyuum that the " Forerunner artifacts " found at Harvest are actually the A.I. ' s " makers " , living Forerunners — meaning that the humans themselves are the descendants of the Covenant 's gods , and that all the Covenant 's writings are false . The Minister of Fortitude realizes that the truth must never be revealed , as this revelation would tear the Covenant apart . Instead , Fortitude , Tranquility , and the Philologist plot to quickly take the throne so they can exterminate the " reclaimers " .
Back on Harvest , Johnson and his squad of militia are heavily out @-@ manned and out @-@ gunned . Maccabeus is ordered to " glass " the planet from space , but disobeys and launches a ground assault in an effort to recover the " relics " . The human militia tries to keep the aliens busy while evacuating the civilians from the planet ; this requires Johnson and his team to board an orbital platform controlled by Dadab and his troops . Tartarus challenges Maccabeus for control of the Jiralhanae pack , killing his uncle and becoming the next leader . Lighter than Some is killed by Tartarus ' troops , and Dadab goes off to kill those he believes are responsible . As his weapon only has one more shot left , Dadab searches for Tartarus , who is fighting Johnson . Dadab destroys Tartarus ' shield , and the enraged Brute kills the deacon . Wallace Jenkins , a young militia member that had lost his family in the battle , attempts to finish Tartarus off , but the alien escapes . The human civilians and survivors of Harvest successfully evacuate the planet on hundreds of freighters , while on High Charity , the Minister of Fortitude , Tranquility , and The Philologist become the new Prophet Hierarchs . They take the names Truth , Regret , and Mercy , declaring a new age for the Covenant has begun , and that the humans must be annihilated for their crimes .
= = Reception = =
Upon release , Contact Harvest debuted at # 7 on The New York Times Best Sellers list ; it remained on the list for four more weeks . The novel also appeared on the USA Today bestseller 's list at the same time . Reviewers noted that despite being an unproven writer , Staten had succeeded in crafting an excellent novel ; complaints included the perceived overly descriptive prose and use of military jargon . In response to the success of the novel , Will Tuttel of Gamespy.com said that " it makes sense " because videogames are increasingly about the story . A ten @-@ CD audiobook was later released , featuring the voices of Holter Graham and Jen Taylor ; Publishers Weekly enjoyed Graham 's performance , but felt Taylor 's over @-@ emphasis and [ sic ] cheesy dialects detracted from the tension of the novel .
Contact Harvest 's success was surprising to some . On January 8 , 2008 , National Public Radio 's " All Things Considered " segment ran a story in which the Chana Joffe asked Staten if gamers read and acting surprised that Halo had a story . Several writers covering the story believed that the " All Things Considered " piece was biased against gamers and insulting . Scott Siegel of Joystiq , in particular , railed against interviewer Chana Joffe , saying that she " takes unfair jabs at video game fans " .
= Carnivores Tour =
The Carnivores Tour was a co @-@ headlining concert tour by American rock bands Linkin Park and Thirty Seconds to Mars . It was launched in support of Linkin Park 's sixth studio album The Hunting Party ( 2014 ) and Thirty Seconds to Mars ' fourth studio album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams ( 2013 ) . The joint tour was officially announced in March 2014 at a press conference , with the full itinerary being revealed . It began on August 8 , 2014 in West Palm Beach , Florida and ended on September 19 in Concord , California , visiting arenas and stadiums throughout North America . It was promoted by Live Nation and sponsored in @-@ part by Infinity . American rock band AFI served as the opening act for the tour .
During the concert tour , Linkin Park and Thirty Seconds to Mars promoted greener touring practices and worked with Music for Relief , a non @-@ profit organization to support disaster relief and programs to protect the environment . The Carnivores Tour received general critical acclaim , with critics praising both artists ' performance abilities and the production of the show . The concert at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles , California , was filmed and streamed live over the interactive social platform VyRT .
= = Background = =
Rumours of a co @-@ headlining tour from Linkin Park and Thirty Seconds to Mars first circulated on March 3 , 2014 , when a Texas radio station revealed that the two " modern rock icons " would be partaking in a tour starting in late summer and that a performance in The Woodlands would take place on September 5 . The tour was officially announced the following day , on March 4 , 2014 at a press conference held at Milk Studios in Los Angeles , California with Mike Shinoda and Chester Bennington from Linkin Park , and Jared Leto from Thirty Seconds to Mars . The conference was broadcast on the internet through the interactive social platform VyRT . In an interview with Billboard , Bennington explained that a co @-@ headlining tour with Thirty Seconds to Mars had been a long time coming ; Linkin Park , indeed , had polled their fans a number of times in order to identify which artist they would like to join them on tour and Thirty Seconds to Mars was the most sought @-@ after band multiple times . Thirty Seconds to Mars first worked with Linkin Park in 2007 , opening some European shows for the band .
Set for August 2014 , the Carnivores Tour showcased Linkin Park 's sixth studio album The Hunting Party ( 2014 ) and Thirty Seconds to Mars ' fourth studio album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams ( 2013 ) . Speaking on the tour name , Shinoda said , " ' Carnivores ' is a metaphor that is meant to convey an appetite for something visceral and substantive . I feel that 's exactly the hunger this tour will feed . " Leto added , " We are so excited to join our friends on this epic journey . It 's going to be the adventure of a lifetime . " American rock band AFI was confirmed as the supporting act for the tour , promoting their ninth album Burials ( 2013 ) . The Carnivores Tour was sponsored in @-@ part by Infinity and promoted by Live Nation .
= = Development = =
Sales for general tickets began on March 7 , 2014 , with Hollywood Bowl and Verizon Wireless Amphitheater on sale March 10 . Linkin Park and Thirty Seconds to Mars offered pre @-@ sale tickets for their respective fan club members . Linkin Park 's set list mixed The Hunting Party with the rest of the band 's catalog . The set by Thirty Seconds to Mars encompassed songs from Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams , as well as tracks from their previous albums . Supporting act AFI did not perform on September 15 in Los Angeles . Mike Shinoda described the tour production as " more @-@ video based " , incorporating The Hunting Party artwork created by visual artist James Jean . He explained :
" It adapts with the show , I think in the context of a live show it 's important to have something that lives and breathes with the show . One of the challenges that I posed to the production team was ... if we decided to play something different , if we decided to extend a part , whatever we decide to do , I want the artwork to change with the performance . So it needs to be malleable ... It 's as much a piece of art as the music is , so we want it to be compelling and fit with the overall kind of aesthetic of what the band is up to right at this moment . "
A minute @-@ long trailer for the tour premiered in March 2014 , featuring a British narrator and assorted live scenes , paired with some of the bands ' songs , including " Numb " by Linkin Park and " The Kill " by Thirty Seconds to Mars . The promotional poster for the tour featured the three groups ' logos with a background based on The Hunting Party artwork .
= = Philanthropy = =
A category of ticket packages was created to be sold by an auction process at prices estimated at up to $ 1 @,@ 000 . All proceeds were donated to Music for Relief , a non @-@ profit organization founded by Linkin Park to support disaster relief and programs to protect and restore the environment . Additionally , one dollar per concert ticket sold was contributed to the charity . A tent of Music for Relief was staffed by local volunteers at each concert . The tent featured a photo booth which enabled fans to document their concert experience and express their support to take action on climate change , leading up to the United Nations Climate Summit that took place on September 23 , 2014 in New York City . Various clean energy tools were also showcased .
Determined to offset the impact that the tour would had on the environment , Music for Relief and environmental non @-@ profit Rewerb promoted greener touring practices such as recycling throughout the venue , free water stations for refillable bottles , reusable products and carpooling incentives . Touring vehicles were powered by low @-@ emissions renewable biodiesel , a fuel made partly from vegetable oil . Non @-@ profit organizations Love Hope Strength and HeadCount joined the tour for select dates .
= = Critical response = =
The tour was met with high praise from critics . Ashley Zimmerman from the New Times Broward @-@ Palm Beach called the opening night of the tour " memorable " , describing the set by Thirty Seconds to Mars as " a bit like a party " , during which lead vocalist Jared Leto provided " raw and beautiful vocals " . She further wrote that co @-@ headliner Linkin Park played a " great mix of old and new songs " that was able to please those who brought the band to fame , while still showcasing the newest work . Jay Cridlin of the Tampa Bay Times commented that the two bands made Steinbrenner Field 's return to concert a " smashing spectacle " creating a " powerful , festival @-@ like feeling " . He felt that Thirty Seconds to Mars delivered a " fully committed performance " , praising the band 's energy on stage , and noticed the " futuristic " production of the show by Linkin Park . Alison Angel , writing for Creative Loafing Charlotte , opined that the tour offered fans a chance to catch " three big rock bands " on a single event and felt that each performance was a " sight to behold " . She further said , " between AFI tearing up the stage before the headliners even appeared , to the theatrics in Thirty Seconds to Mars ' act and the grand performance of hard @-@ rocking Linkin Park , fans walked out with a sense that this moment was truly once in a lifetime . " Danny Crandall of the The Sun Chronicle commented that Linkin Park " blitzed through an intense , head @-@ bobbing " set , while Thirty Seconds to Mars played a " rousing performance " high on audience interaction .
Loudwire 's Mary Ouellette , who attended the same show , felt that Thirty Seconds to Mars emphatically invited the crowd into their self @-@ proclaimed cult , conducting a " straight up rock ' n ' roll sermon " , while Linkin Park took a different direction fueled by the " latest in technology and good old @-@ fashioned angst " . She concluded in her review , " Strangely enough , the combined forces made for one of the most memorable tours of the summer . " Andrej Ivanov from The Scene Magazine who attended the show in Montreal , gave a positive review and hailed Linkin Park 's " outstanding setlist " and Thirty Seconds to Mars ' musicianship . He also complimented special guest AFI for " bringing it back to our angsty teenage years " . Chris Riemenschneider of the Star Tribune , while praising Thirty Seconds to Mars ' performance , gave a negative response to the set by Linkin Park , noticing that older tracks were abbreviated to make room for a drum solo and less impactful songs . In his review for The Arizona Republic , Ed Masley commended the set by Linkin Park featuring a " well @-@ chosen mixture of career @-@ defining hits and album tracks " and hailed the inspirational and charismatic performance by Thirty Seconds to Mars . Mary Bonney from LA Music Blog , reviewing the concert at the Hollywood Bowl , felt that the tour delivered an " epic rock experience that turned up the heat " .
= = Broadcast and recordings = =
In August 2014 , it was announced that VyRT would exclusively broadcast worldwide the performance scheduled on September 15 at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles . Sales for digital tickets began on September 3 . VyRT provided access to several different experience packages featuring backstage interactivity with both bands and exclusive content . On September 15 , before Thirty Seconds to Mars took to the stage , the VyRT platform was hacked and was a victim of a piracy . Jared Leto , founder of the streaming service , was forced to delay the performance by Thirty Seconds to Mars by an hour to resolve the issue . The audience eventually lost approximately three minutes of actual stage time , but the set list was shortened . The event included real @-@ time social community engagement from audiences worldwide . A second broadcast of the show was later scheduled for September 17 , 2014 . The performance by Thirty Seconds to Mars became commercially available for download in October 2014 through VyRT . Footage recorded during the Carnivores Tour was uploaded to Linkin Park 's official YouTube account .
= = Set list = =
This set list is representative of the show in Charlotte at PNC Music Pavilion . It does not represent all dates throughout the tour .
= = Tour dates = =
= Cross of Gold speech =
The Cross of Gold speech was delivered by William Jennings Bryan , a former United States Representative from Nebraska , at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago on July 9 , 1896 . In the address , Bryan supported bimetallism or " free silver " , which he believed would bring the nation prosperity . He decried the gold standard , concluding the speech , " you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold " . Bryan 's address helped catapult him to the Democratic Party 's presidential nomination ; it is considered one of the greatest political speeches in American history .
For twenty years , Americans had been bitterly divided over the nation 's monetary standard . The gold standard , which the United States had effectively been on since 1873 , limited the money supply but eased trade with other nations , such as the United Kingdom , whose currency was also based on gold . Many Americans , however , believed that bimetallism ( making both gold and silver legal tender ) was necessary for the nation 's economic health . The financial Panic of 1893 intensified the debates , and when Democratic President Grover Cleveland continued to support the gold standard against the will of much of his party , activists became determined to take over the Democratic Party organization and nominate a silver @-@ supporting candidate in 1896 .
Bryan had been a dark horse candidate with little support in the convention . His speech , delivered at the close of the debate on the party platform , electrified the convention and is generally credited with getting him the nomination for president . However , he lost the general election to William McKinley and the United States formally adopted the gold standard in 1900 .
= = Background = =
= = = Monetary standards and the United States = = =
In January 1791 , at the request of Congress , Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton issued a report on the currency . At the time , there was no mint in the United States ; foreign coins were used . Hamilton proposed a monetary system based on bimetallism , in which the new currency would be equal to a given amount of gold , or a larger amount of silver ; at the time a given weight of gold was worth about 15 times as much as the same amount of silver . Although Hamilton understood that adjustment might be needed from time to time as precious metal prices fluctuated , he believed that if the nation 's unit of value were defined only by one of the two precious metals used for coins , the other would descend to the status of mere merchandise . He also proposed the establishment of a mint , at which citizens could present gold or silver , and receive it back , struck into money . On April 2 , 1792 , Congress passed the Mint Act of 1792 . This legislation defined a unit of value for the new nation , to be known as a dollar . The new unit of currency was defined to be equal to 24 @.@ 75 grains ( 1 @.@ 604 g ) of gold , or alternatively , 371 @.@ 25 grains ( 24 @.@ 057 g ) of silver , establishing a ratio of value between gold and silver of 15 : 1 . The legislation also established the Mint of the United States .
In the early 19th century , the economic disruption caused by the Napoleonic Wars caused United States gold coins to be worth more as bullion than as money , and they vanished from circulation . Governmental response to this shortage was hampered by the fact that officials did not clearly understand what had happened . In 1830 , Treasury Secretary Samuel D. Ingham proposed adjusting the ratio between gold and silver in US currency to 15 @.@ 8 : 1 , which had for some time been the ratio in Europe . It was not until 1834 that Congress acted , changing the gold / silver ratio to 16 @.@ 002 : 1 . This was close enough to the market value to make it uneconomic to export either US gold or silver coins . When silver prices rose relative to gold as a reaction to the California Gold Rush , silver coinage was worth more than face value , and rapidly flowed overseas for melting . Despite vocal opposition led by Tennessee Representative ( and future president ) Andrew Johnson , the precious metal content of smaller silver coins was reduced in 1853 . Silver was now undervalued at the Mint ; accordingly little was presented for striking into money .
The Coinage Act of 1873 eliminated the standard silver dollar . It also repealed the statutory provisions allowing silver bullion to be presented to the Mint and returned in the form of circulating money . In passing the Coinage Act , Congress eliminated bimetallism . During the economic chaos of the Panic of 1873 , the price of silver dropped significantly , but the Mint would accept none for striking into legal tender . Silver producers complained , and many Americans came to believe that only through bimetallism could the nation achieve and maintain prosperity . They called for the return to pre @-@ 1873 laws , which would require the Mint to take all the silver offered it and return it , struck into silver dollars . This would inflate the money supply , and , adherents argued , increase the nation 's prosperity . Critics contended that the inflation which would follow the introduction of such a policy would harm workers , whose wages would not rise as fast as prices would , and the operation of Gresham 's law would drive gold from circulation , effectively placing the United States on a silver standard .
= = = Early attempts towards free silver = = =
To advocates of what became known as free silver , the 1873 act became known as the " Crime of ' 73 " . Pro @-@ silver forces , with congressional leaders such as Missouri Representative Richard P. Bland , sought the passage of bills to allow depositors of silver bullion to receive it back in the form of coin . Such bills , sponsored by Bland , passed the House of Representatives in 1876 and 1877 , but both times failed in the Senate . A third attempt in early 1878 again passed the House , and eventually both houses after being amended in the Senate . The bill , as modified by amendments sponsored by Iowa Senator William B. Allison , did not reverse the 1873 provisions , but required the Treasury to purchase a minimum of $ 2 million of silver bullion per month ; the profit , or seignorage from monetizing the silver was to be used to purchase more silver bullion . The silver would be struck into dollar coins , to be circulated or else stored and used as backing for silver certificates . The Bland – Allison Act was vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes , but was enacted by Congress over his veto on February 28 , 1878 .
Implementation of the Bland – Allison Act did not end calls for free silver . The 1880s saw a steep decline in the prices of grain and other agricultural commodities . Silver advocates argued that this dropoff , which caused the price of grain to fall below its cost of production , was caused by the failure of the government to adequately increase the money supply , which had remained steady on a per capita basis . Advocates of the gold standard attributed the decline to advances in production and transportation . The late 19th century saw divergent views in economics as the laissez @-@ faire orthodoxy was questioned by younger economists , and both sides found ample support for their views from theorists .
In 1890 , the Sherman Silver Purchase Act greatly increased government purchases of silver . The government pledged to stand behind the silver dollars and treasury notes issued under the act by redeeming them in gold . Pursuant to this promise , government gold reserves dwindled over the following three years . Although the economic Panic of 1893 had a number of causes , President Grover Cleveland believed the inflation caused by Sherman 's act to be a major factor , and called a special session of Congress to repeal it . Congress did so , but the debates showed bitter divides in both major parties between silver and gold factions . Cleveland tried to replenish the Treasury through issuance of bonds which could only be purchased with gold , with little effect but to increase the public debt , as the gold continued to be withdrawn in redemption for paper and silver currency . Many in the public saw the bonds as benefiting bankers , not the nation . The bankers ' feeling was that they did not want loans repaid in an inflated currency — the gold standard was deflationary , and as creditors , they preferred to be paid in such a currency , whereas debtors preferred to repay in inflated currency .
The effects of the recession which began in 1893 , and which continued through 1896 , ruined many Americans . Contemporary estimates were an unemployment rate as high as 25 % . The task of relieving the jobless fell to churches and other charities , as well as to labor unions . Farmers went bankrupt ; their farms were sold to pay their debts . Some of the impoverished died of disease or starvation ; others killed themselves .
= = = Bryan seeks the nomination = = =
Among those who spoke against the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act was Nebraska Congressman William Jennings Bryan . Known as an orator even then , Bryan had not always favored free silver out of conviction , stating in 1892 that he was for it because the people of Nebraska were for it . By 1893 , his views on silver had evolved , and on the floor of the House of Representatives , he delivered a riveting three @-@ hour address against repeal of the Silver Purchase Act . In his conclusion , Bryan reached back in history :
When a crisis like the present arose and the national bank of his day sought to control the politics of the nation , God raised up an Andrew Jackson , who had the courage to grapple with that great enemy , and by overthrowing it , he made himself the idol of the people and reinstated the Democratic party in public confidence . What will the decision be today ? The Democratic party has won the greatest success in its history . Standing upon this victory @-@ crowned summit , will it turn its face to the rising or the setting sun ? Will it choose blessings or cursings — life or death — which ? Which ?
Despite the repeal of the act , economic conditions failed to improve . The year 1894 saw considerable labor unrest . President Cleveland sent federal troops to Illinois to end the Pullman strike — workers at the Pullman Palace Car Company , which made railroad cars , had struck after wages were cut . Railway employees had refused to handle Pullman cars in sympathy with the strikers ; this action threatened to paralyze the nation 's rail lines . The President 's move was opposed by the Democratic Governor of Illinois , John Altgeld . Angered by Cleveland 's actions in the labor dispute , and by his uncompromising stand against silver , Altgeld began to organize Democrats against Cleveland 's renomination in 1896 . Although Altgeld and his adherents urged voters to distinguish between Cleveland and his party , the Democrats lost 113 seats in the House in the 1894 midterm elections , the greatest loss by a majority party in congressional history . The Republicans gained control of the House , as well as the Senate , which until 1913 was elected by the state legislatures rather than by the popular vote . Among those defeated for Senate was Bryan in Nebraska .
Bryan had long planned to run for president . Although he would only be 36 years old in 1896 — one year above the constitutional minimum — he believed the silver question could carry him not only to the nomination , but to the presidency . He traveled widely , speaking to audiences across the nation . His speeches impressed many ; even some of his opponents later conceded that Bryan was the most compelling speaker they had ever heard . Bryan 's speeches evolved over time ; in December 1894 , in a speech in Congress , he first used a phrase from which would come the conclusion to his most famous address : as originally stated , it was " I will not help to crucify mankind upon a cross of gold . "
A myth has arisen that Bryan was an unknown prior to 1896 . This was not the case ; Bryan was well known as an orator on the tariff and silver questions . Albert Shaw , editor of The Review of Reviews , stated that after Bryan 's nomination , many easterners professed not to have heard of him but : " If , indeed , they had not heard of Mr. Bryan before , they had failed to follow closely the course of American politics in the past eight years . As a Democratic member of the Ways and Means Committee through two Congresses , Mr. Bryan was by all odds the ablest and strongest orator on the Democratic side of the House . His subsequent canvass [ campaign ] for the United States senatorship in Nebraska was noteworthy and conspicuous on many accounts . "
In the aftermath of the 1894 election , the silver forces , led by Altgeld and others , began an attempt to take over the machinery of the Democratic Party . Historian Stanley Jones , in his study of the 1896 election , suggests that western Democrats would have opposed Cleveland even if the party had held its congressional majority in 1894 ; with the disastrous defeat , they believed the party would be wiped out in the West if it did not support silver . Bryan biographer Paulo E. Coletta wrote , " during this year [ July 1894 – June 1895 ] of calamities , disintegration and revolution , each crisis aided Bryan because it caused division within his party and permitted him to contest for its mastery as it slipped from Cleveland 's fingers . "
In early 1896 , with the economy still poor , there was widespread discontent with the two existing major political parties . Some people , for the most part Democrats , joined the far @-@ left Populist Party . Many Republicans in the western states , dismayed by the strong allegiance of eastern Republicans to the gold standard , considered forming their own party . When the Republicans in June 1896 nominated former Ohio Governor William McKinley for president and passed at his request a platform strongly supporting " sound money " ( the gold standard unless modified by international agreement ) , a number of " Silver Republicans " walked out of the convention . The leader of those who left was Colorado Senator Henry M. Teller ; he was immediately spoken of as a possible candidate for the Democratic nomination .
Bryan believed that he could , if nominated , unite the disaffected behind a strong silver campaign . However , part of his strategy was to remain inconspicuous until the last possible moment at the convention . He sent letters to national convention delegates , urging them to support silver , and enclosing copies of his photograph , writings , and speeches . Jones points out that though Bryan 's speaking engagements were not deemed political by the standards of 1896 , by modern measurements he was far more active in campaigning for the nomination than most of the better @-@ known candidates .
Historian James A. Barnes , in his historical journal article pointing out myths that have arisen about Bryan 's candidacy and campaign , stated that Bryan 's efforts bore fruit even before the convention :
By April , 1896 , many individuals were quietly working for Bryan 's nomination . Circulars were being distributed in Illinois , and admirers in Nebraska , North Carolina , Mississippi , Louisiana , Texas , Arkansas , and other states were urging his selection among their friends . It was not in any concerted or open action , however , that Bryan had his strength ; it was in the friendly predisposition of the mass of the delegates that he had hopes .
= = = Selection of delegates = = =
The 1896 Democratic National Convention followed events unique in post @-@ Civil War American history . One after another , state conventions to elect delegates to the national convention in Chicago repudiated an incumbent elected president of their party , who had not declared whether he would be a candidate for renomination . According to Barnes :
The people of the South and the West had for years been convinced of the enormity of the " crime of 1873 " , and they had long since come to regard silver as the sword that would cut the Gordian knot of privilege . Consciousness of grievances of years and not of months was reflected in the decisive action of the state Democratic conventions in the spring and early summer of 1896 .
Many state conventions elected delegates pledged to support bimetallism in the party platform . Gold Democrats were successful in a few states in the Northeast , but had little luck elsewhere . Speakers in some states cursed Cleveland ; the South Carolina convention denounced him . Cleveland issued a statement urging Democratic voters to support gold — the next convention to be held , in Illinois , unanimously supported silver ; the keynote speaker prayed for divine forgiveness for Cleveland 's 1892 nomination . Gold and silver factions in some states , such as Bryan 's Nebraska , sent rival delegations to the convention .
= = 1896 convention = =
The 1896 Democratic convention opened at the Chicago Coliseum on July 7 , 1896 . Much activity took place in advance of the formal opening as the silver and ( vastly outnumbered ) gold forces prepared their strategies . Silver forces were supported by the Democratic National Bimetallic Committee , the umbrella group formed in 1895 to support silver Democrats in their insurgency against Cleveland . Gold Democrats looked to the President for leadership , but Cleveland , trusting few in his party , did not involve himself further in the gold efforts , but spent the week of the convention fishing off the New Jersey coast .
The Bimetallic Committee carefully planned to take control of every aspect of the convention , eliminating any threat that the minority gold faction could take power . It made no secret of these preparations . This takeover was considered far more important than was the choice of presidential candidate , and the committee decided to take no position on who should win the race for the nomination , reasoning that the victor , no matter who he was , would be a silver man . Well aware of the overwhelming forces against them , many gold delegates were inclined to concede the platform battle .
Bryan arrived quietly and took rooms at a modest hotel ; the Nebraskan later calculated that he spent less than $ 100 while in Chicago . He arrived convinced that he would win the nomination . He had already begun work on a speech . On the evening of July 5 , Bryan was visited by a delegation of Coloradans , seeking his support for Senator Teller . They went away apologetically , not having known Bryan sought the nomination .
= = = Candidates for the nomination = = =
Despite the desire of silver delegates to nominate a candidate who shared their beliefs , and although several states instructed their delegates to vote for a specific candidate , there was no overwhelming favorite for the nomination going into the convention . With a two @-@ thirds vote of the delegates needed to nominate , almost every silver delegate would have to vote for the same candidate to assure success , though any organized support from gold delegates would greatly damage a silver candidate 's chances .
The only gold man who put together any sort of campaign for the Democratic nomination was Treasury Secretary John G. Carlisle , but he withdrew in April , stating that he was more concerned about the platform of the party than who would lead it . However , as late as June , the gold forces , which still controlled the Democratic National Committee ( DNC ) , continued to believe that the nominee could be pro @-@ gold . Cleveland friend and former Postmaster General Donald M. Dickinson wrote to the President in June 1896 hoping that the delegates would recognize " common sense " and be frightened at the thought of nominating a radical .
One of the leaders of the silver movement was Illinois Governor Altgeld ; a native of Germany , he was constitutionally barred from the presidency by his foreign birth . Going into the convention , the two leading candidates for the nomination were former Congressman Bland , who had originated the Bland @-@ Allison Act , and former Iowa Governor Horace Boies , with Bland considered the frontrunner . These were the only two candidates to put together organizations to try to secure delegate votes , though both efforts were cash @-@ starved . Both men had electoral problems : Bland at age 61 was seen by some as a man whose time had passed ; Boies was a former Republican who had once decried bimetallism . There were a large number of potential candidates seen as having less support ; these included Vice President Adlai Stevenson of Illinois , Senator Joseph C. Blackburn of Kentucky , Senator Teller , and Bryan .
= = = Silver advocates take control = = =
Although Bryan had decided on a strategy to gain the nomination — to give a speech which would make him the logical candidate in the eyes of delegates — he faced obstacles along the way . For one thing , he began the 1896 convention without any official status — the Democratic National Committee , which made the initial determination of which delegations would be seated , had chosen the pro @-@ gold Nebraskans to represent their state . Bryan had been waiting outside the committee room when his rivals were seated by a 27 – 23 vote ; contemporary accounts state he was " somewhat surprised " at the result . The DNC 's action could be reversed , but not until the convention 's credentials committee reported . However , Barnes deemed the actions by the committee immaterial to the outcome due to the silver strength in the convention :
Anyone who doubts the power the silverites were ready to unleash in a disciplined and irresistible attack needs only to read the results of the election of temporary chairman . The gold men , though they possessed the machinery of the party , had neither the power nor the strength to challenge their opponents . They could only beg them to spare the party the humiliation of broken traditions and the overthrowing of established control . Nevertheless , Senator John W. Daniel of Virginia was by an overwhelming vote elected temporary chairman , and a Committee on Credentials was appointed that seated Bryan and his contesting Nebraska delegation .
Good luck favored Bryan — he was considered for various convention roles by the silverites , but each time was not selected . The temporary chairmanship , for example , would have permitted him to deliver the keynote address . However , Bryan , lacking a seat at the start of the convention , could not be elected temporary chairman . Bryan considered this no loss at all ; the focus of the convention was on the party platform and the debate which would precede its adoption . The platform would symbolize the repudiation of Cleveland and his policies after the insurgents ' long struggle , and Bryan was determined to close the debate on the platform . Bryan , once seated , was Nebraska 's representative to the Committee on Resolutions ( generally called the " platform committee " ) , which allocated 80 minutes to each side in the debate and selected Bryan as one of the speakers . South Carolina Senator Benjamin Tillman was to be the other pro @-@ silver speaker , and originally wished to close the debate . However , the senator wanted 50 minutes to speak , too long for a closing address , and at Bryan 's request agreed to open the debate instead . Accordingly , Bryan became the final speaker on the platform .
Delegates , as they waited for the committees to complete their work , spent much of the first two days listening to various orators . Of these , only Senator Blackburn , a silver supporter , sparked much reaction , and that only momentary . Delegates called for better @-@ known speakers , such as Altgeld or Bryan , but were granted neither then ; the Illinois governor declined , and the Nebraskan , once seated , spent much of his time away from the convention floor at the platform committee meeting at the Palmer House .
The debate on the platform opened at the start of the third day of the convention , July 9 , 1896 . The session was supposed to begin at 10 : 00 a.m. , but as delegates , slowed by the long commute from the hotels to the Coliseum and fatigue from the first two days , did not arrive on time , proceedings did not begin until 10 : 45 . Nevertheless , large crowds gathered outside the public entrances ; the galleries were quickly packed . Once the convention came to order , Arkansas Senator James K. Jones , chair of the Committee on Resolutions , read the proposed platform to cheers by many delegates ; the reading of the pro @-@ gold minority report attracted less applause .
" Pitchfork Ben " Tillman lived up to his nickname with an incendiary address which began with a reference to his home state 's role in beginning the Civil War . Although Tillman endorsed silver , his address was so laced with sectionalism that most silver delegates remained silent for fear of being seen as supporting him . Tillman 's speech , scheduled to be the only one in support of silver except Bryan 's , was so badly received that Senator Jones , who had not planned to speak , gave a brief address asserting that silver was a national issue .
Senator David B. Hill of New York , a gold supporter , was next . As Hill moved to the podium , a reporter friend passed Bryan a note urging him to make a patriotic speech without hint of sectionalism ; Bryan responded , " You will not be disappointed . " Hill gave a calm speech defending the gold position , and swayed few delegates . He was followed by two other gold men , Senator William Vilas of Wisconsin and former Massachusetts Governor William E. Russell . Vilas gave a lengthy defense of the Cleveland administration 's policies , so long that Russell , fearing that Vilas ' speech would cut into his time , asked that the time given to the gold proponents be extended by ten minutes . Bryan consented , on condition that his own time was extended by the same amount ; this was agreed to . " And I needed it for the speech I was to make . " Bryan later wrote , " This was another unexpected bit of good fortune . I had never had such an opportunity before in my life and never expect to have again . "
Vilas quickly lost his audience , which did not want to hear Cleveland defended . Russell 's address was inaudible to most of the Coliseum ; he was ill and died just over a week later . As the gold men spoke , Bryan ate a sandwich to settle his stomach ; he was often nervous before major speeches . Another reporter approached him and asked him who he thought would win the nomination . " Strictly confidential , not to be quoted for publication : I will be . "
= = = Bryan addresses the convention = = =
As Russell concluded , to strong applause from gold delegates , there was a buzz of anticipation as Bryan ascended to the podium . There was loud cheering as Bryan stood there , waiting for his audience to calm . Bryan 's lecture tours had left him a well @-@ known spokesman for silver . As yet , no one at the convention had effectively spoken for that cause , which was paramount to the delegates . According to political scientist Richard F. Bensel in his study of the 1896 Democratic convention , " Although the silver men knew they would win this fight , they nonetheless needed someone to tell them — and the gold men — why they must enshrine silver at the heart of the platform . " Bensel noted , " The pump was more than primed , it was ready to explode . " Bryan would say little that he had not said before — the text is similar to that of a speech he had given at Crete , Nebraska the previous week — but he would give the convention its voice .
Bryan began softly ,
I would be presumptuous , indeed , to present myself against the distinguished gentlemen to whom you have listened if this were a mere measuring of abilities ; but this is not a contest between persons . The humblest citizen in all the land , when clad in the armor of a righteous cause , is stronger than all the hosts of error . I come to speak to you in defense of a cause as holy as the cause of liberty — the cause of humanity .
Bryan 's opening claimed no personal prestige for himself — but nevertheless placed him as the spokesman for silver . According to Bensel , the self @-@ deprecation helped disarm the delegates . As Bryan was not deemed a major contender for the nomination , even delegates committed to a candidate could cheer him without seeming to betray their allegiance . Bryan then recounted the history of the silver movement ; the audience , which had loudly demonstrated its approval of his opening statements , quieted . Throughout the speech , Bryan had the delegates in the palm of his hand ; they cheered on cue . The Nebraskan later described the audience as like a trained choir . As he concluded his historical recitation , he reminded the silver delegates that they had come to crown their victory , " not to discuss , not to debate , but to enter up the judgment already rendered by the plain people of this country " .
Bryan continued with language evoking the Civil War , telling his audience that " in this contest brother has been arrayed against brother , father against son . " By then , as he spoke in a sincere tone , his voice sounded clearly and loudly through the hall . He denied , however that the contest was personal ; he bore no ill @-@ will towards those who supported the gold standard . However , he stated , facing towards the gold delegates , " when you come before us and tell us that we are about to disturb your business interests , we reply that you have disturbed our business interests by your course . " The gold men , during the address , paid close attention and showed their appreciation for Bryan 's oratory . Bryan then defended the right of silver supporters to make their argument against opposition from gold men , who were associated with financial interests , especially in the East . Although his statements nominally responded to a point made by Russell , Bryan had thought of the argument the previous evening , and had not used it in earlier speeches . He always regarded it as the best point he made during the speech , and only the ending caused more reaction from his listeners :
We say to you that you have made the definition of a business man too limited in its application . The man who is employed for wages is as much a business man as his employer ; the attorney in a country town is as much a business man as the corporation counsel in a great metropolis ; the merchant at the cross @-@ roads store is as much a business man as the merchant of New York ; the farmer who goes forth in the morning and toils all day , who begins in spring and toils all summer , and who by the application of brain and muscle to the natural resources of the country creates wealth , is as much a business man as the man who goes upon the Board of Trade and bets upon the price of grain ; the miners who go down a thousand feet into the earth , or climb two thousand feet upon the cliffs , and bring forth from their hiding places the precious metals to be poured into the channels of trade are as much business men as the few financial magnates who , in a back room , corner the money of the world . We come to speak of this broader class of business men .
Through this passage , Bryan maintained the contrast between the common man and the city @-@ dwelling elite . It was clear to listeners as he worked his way through the comparisons that he would refer to the farmer , and when he did , the hall exploded with sound . His sympathetic comparison contrasted the hardworking farmer with the city businessman , whom Bryan cast as a gambler . The galleries were filled with white as spectators waved handkerchiefs , and it was several minutes before he could continue . The police in the convention hall , not sharing the enthusiasm for silver , were described by the press ( some of whose members were caught up in the frenzy ) as standing as if they thought the audience was about to turn on them . When Bryan resumed , his comparison of miner with miser again electrified the audience ; the uproar prevented him from continuing for several minutes . One farmer in the gallery had been about to leave rather than listen to Bryan , whom he deemed a Populist ; he had been persuaded to stay . At Bryan 's words , he threw his hat into the air , slapped the empty seat in front of him with his coat , and shouted , " My God ! My God ! My God ! "
Bryan , having established the right of silver supporters to petition , explained why that petition was not to be denied :
It is for these that we speak . We do not come as aggressors . Our war is not a war of conquest ; we are fighting in the defense of our homes , our families , and posterity . We have petitioned , and our petitions have been scorned ; we have entreated , and our entreaties have been disregarded ; we have begged , and they have mocked when our calamity came . We beg no longer ; we entreat no more ; we petition no more . We defy them !
With this call to action , Bryan abandoned any hint at compromise , and adopted the techniques of the radical , polarizing orator , finding no common ground between silver and gold forces . He then defended the remainder of the platform , though only speaking in general terms . He mocked McKinley , said by some to resemble Napoleon , noting that he was nominated on the anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo . The lengthy passage as he discussed the platform and the Republicans helped calm the audience , ensuring he would be heard as he reached his peroration . But Bryan first wished to tie the silver question to a greater cause :
Upon which side will the Democratic Party fight ; upon the side of " the idle holders of idle capital " or upon the side of " the struggling masses " ? That is the question which the party must answer first , and then it must be answered by each individual hereafter . The sympathies of the Democratic Party , as shown by the platform , are on the side of the struggling masses , who have ever been the foundation of the Democratic Party .
He faced in the direction of the gold @-@ dominated state delegations :
There are two ideas of government . There are those who believe that , if you will only legislate to make the well @-@ to @-@ do prosperous , their prosperity will leak through on those below . The Democratic idea , however , has been that if you legislate to make the masses prosperous , their prosperity will find its way up through every class which rests upon them . You come to us and tell us that the great cities are in favor of the gold standard ; we reply that the great cities rest upon our broad and fertile prairies . Burn down your cities and leave our farms , and your cities will spring up again as if by magic ; but destroy our farms and the grass will grow in the streets of every city in the country .
This statement attracted great cheering , and Bryan turned to rhetorically demolish the compromise position on bimetallism — that it should only be accomplished through international agreement :
It is the issue of 1776 over again . Our ancestors , when but three millions in number , had the courage to declare their political independence of every other nation ; shall we , their descendants , when we have grown to seventy millions , declare that we are less independent than our forefathers ? No , my friends , that will never be the verdict of our people . Therefore , we care not upon what lines the battle is fought . If they say bimetallism is good , but that we cannot have it until other nations help us , we reply that , instead of having a gold standard because England has , we will restore bimetallism , and then let England have bimetallism because the United States has it . If they dare to come out in the open field and defend the gold standard as a good thing , we will fight them to the uttermost .
Now , Bryan was ready to conclude the speech , and according to his biographer , Michael Kazin , step " into the headlines of American history " .
Having behind us the producing masses of this nation and the world , supported by the commercial interests , the laboring interests , and the toilers everywhere , we will answer their demand for a gold standard by saying to them : " You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns ; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold . "
As Bryan spoke his final sentence , recalling the Crucifixion of Jesus , he placed his hands to his temples , fingers extended ; with the final words , he extended his arms to his sides straight out to his body and held that pose for about five seconds as if offering himself as sacrifice for the cause , as the audience watched in dead silence . He then lowered them , descended from the podium , and began to head back to his seat as the stillness held .
= = Reception and nomination = =
= = = Convention events = = =
Bryan later described the silence as " really painful " and momentarily thought he had failed . As he moved towards his seat , the Coliseum burst into pandemonium . Delegates threw hats , coats , and handkerchiefs into the air . Others took up the standards with the state names on them with each delegation , and planted them by Nebraska 's . Two alert police officers had joined Bryan as he left the podium , anticipating the crush . The policemen were swept away by the flood of delegates , who raised Bryan to their shoulders and carried him around the floor . The Washington Post newspaper recorded , " bedlam broke loose , delirium reigned supreme . "
It took about 25 minutes to restore order , and according to Bensel , " somewhere in the mass demonstration that was convulsing the convention hall , the transfer of sentiment from silver as a policy to Bryan as a presidential candidate took place " . Newspaper accounts of the convention leave little doubt but that , had a vote been taken at that moment ( as many were shouting to do ) , Bryan would have been nominated . Bryan was urged by Senator Jones to allow it , but refused , stating that if his boom would not last overnight , it would never last until November . He soon retired from the convention , returning to his hotel to await the outcome . The convention passed the platform in Bryan 's absence and recessed .
The balloting began the following morning , July 10 , with a two @-@ thirds vote necessary to nominate . Bryan , who remained at his hotel , sent word to the Nebraska delegation to make no deals on his behalf . He stood second out of fourteen candidates in the first ballot , behind Bland . On the second ballot , Bryan still stood second , but had gained as other candidates had fallen away . The third ballot saw Bland still in the lead , but Bryan took the lead on the fourth ballot . According to Jones , it was clear that Bland could not win , and that Bryan could not be stopped . On the fifth ballot , the Illinois delegation , led by Governor Altgeld , switched its votes from Bland to Bryan . Other delegations , seeing that Bryan would be nominated , also switched , securing the victory . Nevertheless , he won the nomination without the votes of the gold delegates , most of whom either left the convention or refused to vote .
= = = Press reaction = = =
Most contemporary press accounts attributed Bryan 's nomination to his eloquence , though in the case of Republican and other gold @-@ favoring newspapers , they considered it his demagoguery . The pro @-@ silver Cleveland Plain Dealer called Bryan 's speech " an eloquent , stirring , and manly appeal " . The Chicago Tribune reported that Bryan had lit the spark " which touched off the trail of gun @-@ powder " . The St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch opined that with the speech , Bryan " just about immortalized himself " .
According to the New York World , " Lunacy having dictated the platform , it was perhaps natural that hysteria should evolve the candidate . " The New York Times disparaged Bryan as " the gifted blatherskite from Nebraska " . The only paper to predict , after Bryan gave his speech , that he would not be nominated was The Wall Street Journal , which stated , " Bryan has had his day " . The Akron Journal and Republican , no friend to Bryan , opined that " never probably has a national convention been swayed or influenced by a single speech as was the national Democratic convention " .
= = Campaign and aftermath = =
The Pullman Company offered Bryan a private car for his trip home ; he declined , not wishing to accept corporate favors . As he traveled by rail to Lincoln , he saw farmers and others standing by the tracks , hoping for a glimpse of the new Democratic nominee . He received many letters from supporters , expressing their faith in him in stark terms . One Indiana voter wrote , " God has sent you amongst our people to save the poor from starvation , and we no [ sic ] you will save us . " A farmer in Iowa , in a letter to Bryan , stated , " You are the first big man that i [ sic ] ever wrote to . "
When McKinley heard that Bryan was likely to be the nominee , he called the report " rot " and hung up the phone . The Republican nominee was slow to realize the surge of support for Bryan after the nomination , stating his view that the silver sentiment would be gone in a month . When McKinley and his advisers , such as industrialist and future senator Mark Hanna , realized that the views were more than transitory , they began intensive fundraising from corporations and the wealthy . The money went for speakers , pamphlets , and other means of conveying their " sound money " campaign to the voter . With far less money than McKinley , Bryan embarked on a nationwide campaign tour by train on a then @-@ unprecedented scale . McKinley on the other hand , opted for a front porch campaign . Both men spoke to hundreds of thousands of people from their chosen venues .
Bryan 's nomination divided the party . The dissidents nominated their own ticket ; the split in the vote would contribute to Bryan 's defeat . However , Bryan did gain the support of the Populists , as well as a convention of Silver Republicans . Bryan spoke on silver throughout the campaign ; he rarely addressed other issues . Bryan won the South and most of the West , but McKinley 's victories in the more populous Northeast and Midwest carried him to the presidency . The Democratic candidate failed to gain a majority of the labor vote ; McKinley won in working @-@ class areas as well as wealthy precincts . Although McKinley outpolled him by 600 @,@ 000 votes , Bryan received more votes than any previous presidential candidate .
After McKinley 's inauguration , increases in gold availability from new discoveries and improved refining methods led to a considerable increase in the money supply . Even so , in 1900 , Congress passed the Gold Standard Act , formally placing the United States on that standard . Although Bryan ran again on a silver platform in the 1900 presidential election , the issue failed to produce the same resonance with the voters . McKinley won more easily than in 1896 , making inroads in the silver West .
= = Legacy = =
Bryan 's speech is considered one of the most powerful political addresses in American history . Stanley Jones , however , suggested that even if Bryan had never made it , he would still have been nominated . Jones deemed the Democrats likely to nominate a candidate who would appeal to the Populist Party , and Bryan had been elected to Congress with Populist support . According to rhetorical historian William Harpine in his study of the rhetoric of the 1896 campaign , " Bryan 's speech cast a net for the true believers , but only for the true believers . " Harpine suggested that , " by appealing in such an uncompromising way to the agrarian elements and to the West , Bryan neglected the national audience who would vote in the November election " . Bryan 's emphasis on agrarian issues , both in his speech and in his candidacy , may have helped cement voting patterns which kept the Democrats largely out of power until the 1930s .
Writer Edgar Lee Masters called the speech , " the beginning of a changed America . " Bryan 's words gave rise to later economic and political philosophies , including Huey Long 's 1930s Share Our Wealth program , with its trigger phrase , " Every Man a King " inspired by Bryan 's speech . Author and political commentator William Safire , in his political dictionary , traced the term " trickle @-@ down economics " ( common in the Reagan era ) to Bryan 's statement that some believe that government should legislate for the wealthy , and allow prosperity to " leak through " on those below . Historian R. Hal Williams suggested that the opposite philosophy , of legislation for the masses leading to prosperity for all , advocated by Bryan in his speech , informed the domestic policies of later Democratic presidents , including Franklin Roosevelt with his New Deal .
Bensel ties the delegates ' response to Bryan 's address to their uncertainty in their own beliefs :
In a very real sense , adoption of the silver plank in the platform was akin to a millennial expectation that the " laws of economics " would henceforth be suspended and that the silver men could simply " will " that silver and gold would , in fact , trade on financial markets at a ratio of sixteen to one . The silver men were thus in the hunt for a charismatic leader who would underpin what they already desperately wanted to believe . They manufactured that leader in the convention , a fabrication in which Bryan was only too happy to assist .
= Gran Paradiso National Park =
Gran Paradiso National Park ( Italian : Parco nazionale del Gran Paradiso , French : Parc national du Grand @-@ Paradis ) is an Italian national park in the Graian Alps , between the Aosta Valley and Piedmont regions . The park is named after Gran Paradiso mountain , which is located in the park , and is contiguous with the French Vanoise national park . The land the park encompasses was initially protected in order to protect the Alpine ibex from poachers , as it was a personal hunting ground for king Victor Emanuel II , but now also protects other species .
= = History = =
In the early 19th century , due to hunting , the Alpine ibex only survived in the Gran Paradiso area . Approximately 60 individual ibex survived , here . Ibex were intensively hunted , partly for sport , but also because their body parts were thought to have therapeutic properties : talismans were made from a small cross @-@ shaped bone near the ibex 's heart in order to protect against violent death . Due to the alarming decrease in the ibex population , Victor Emmanuel , soon to be King of Italy , declared the Royal Hunting Reserve of the Gran Paradiso in 1856 . A protective guard was created for the ibex . Paths laid out for the ibex are still used today as part of 724 kilometres ( 450 mi ) of marked trails and mule tracks .
In 1920 Victor Emmanuel II 's grandson King Victor Emmanuel III donated the park 's original 21 square kilometres ( 5 @,@ 189 acres ) , and the park was established in 1922 . It was Italy 's first national park . There were approximately 4 @,@ 000 ibex in the park when it was protected . Despite the presence of the park , ibex were poached until 1945 , when only 419 remained . Their protection increased , and there are now almost 4 @,@ 000 in the park .
= = Geography = =
The park is located in the Graian Alps in the regions of Piedmont and Aosta Valley in north @-@ west Italy . It encompasses 703 square kilometres ( 173 @,@ 715 acres ) of alpine terrain . 10 % of the park 's surface area is wooded . 16 @.@ 5 % is used for agriculture and pasture , 24 % is uncultivated , and 40 % is classified as sterile . 9 @.@ 5 % of the park 's surface area is occupied by 57 glaciers . The park 's mountains and valleys were sculpted by glaciers and streams . Altitudes in the park range from 800 @-@ 4 @,@ 061 metres ( 2 @,@ 624 @-@ 13 @,@ 323 ft ) , with an average altitude of 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 561 ft ) . Valley floors in the park are forested . There are alpine meadows at higher altitudes . There are rocks and glaciers at altitudes higher than the meadows . Gran Paradiso is the only mountain entirely within the boundaries of Italy that is over 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) high . Mont Blanc and the Matterhorn can be seen from its summit . In 1860 , John Cowell became the first person to reach the summit . To the west , the park shares a boundary with France 's Vanoise National Park . Combined , the two parks form the largest protected area in Western Europe . They co @-@ operate in managing the ibex population , which moves across their shared boundary seasonally .
= = Flora = =
The park 's woods are important because they provide shelter for a large number of animals . They are a natural defence against landslides , avalanches , and flooding . The two main types of woods found in the park are coniferous and deciduous woods . The deciduous European beech forests are common on the Piedmont side of the park , and are not found on the dryer Valle d 'Aosta side . These forests are thick with dense foliage that lets in very little light during the summer . The beech leaves take a long time to decompose , and they form a thick layer on the woodland floor that impedes the development of other plants and trees . Larches are the most common trees in the forests on the valley floors . They are mixed with spruces , Swiss stone pines , and more rarely silver firs .
Maple and lime forests are found in gulleys . These forests are only present in isolated areas and are at risk of extinction . Downy oak woods are more common in the Aosta Valley area than in the Piedmont area because of its higher temperatures and lower precipitation . Oak is not a typical species in the park and it is often found mixed with Scots pine . The park 's chestnut groves have been affected by human cultivation for wood and fruit . It rarely grows above 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 280 ft ) , and the most important chestnut forests are in the park 's Piedmontese side . The park 's conifer woods include Scots pine groves , spruce forests dominated by the Norway spruce , often mixed with larch . Larch and Swiss stone pine woods are found up to the highest sub @-@ alpine level ( 2200 – 2300 metres ( 7 @,@ 217 @-@ 7 @,@ 546 ft ) ) .
At higher altitudes the trees gradually thin out and there are alpine pastures . These pastures are rich in flowers in the late spring . The wildflowers in the park 's high meadows include wild pansies , gentians , martagon lilies , and alpenroses . The park has many rocky habitats . They are mostly located above the timberline and alpine pastures . These areas have rock and detritus on their surface . Alpine plants have adapted to these habitats by assuming characteristics like dwarfism , hairiness , bright coloured flowers , and highly developed roots . About 1 @,@ 500 plant species can be seen at Paradisia Botanical Garden near Cogne inside the park .
= = Fauna = =
Alpine ibex graze in the abundant mountain pastures in summer , and descend to lower elevations in winter . Gran Paradiso 's pairing with Vanoise National Park provides year @-@ round protection to the ibex . Along with the ibex , the animal species found in the park include ermine , weasel , hare , Eurasian badger , alpine chamois , wolf ( recently arrived from Central Italy ) and maybe even lynx . The ibex and chamois spend most of the year above the tree line . They descend to the valleys in the winter and spring . Alpine marmot forage on plants along the snow line .
There are more than 100 bird species in the park , including Eurasian eagle @-@ owl , rock ptarmigan , alpine accentor , and chough . Golden eagles nest on rocky ledges , and sometimes in trees . Wallcreeper are found on steep cliffs . There are black woodpeckers and nutcrackers in the park 's woodlands .
The park supports many species of butterflies including apollos , peak whites , and southern white admirals .
= Where No Fan Has Gone Before =
" Where No Fan Has Gone Before " is the eleventh episode in the fourth season of the American animated television series Futurama . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 21 , 2002 . Set in a retro @-@ futuristic 31st century , the series follows the adventures of the employees of Planet Express , an interplanetary delivery company . In this episode , the Planet Express team and most of the main cast of Star Trek : The Original Series face a court @-@ martial after visiting the forbidden planet Omega 3 .
An existing idea to feature the cast of Star Trek : The Original Series was scrapped and replaced with a new script written by David A. Goodman , after the newly hired writer was identified as the biggest Star Trek fan on the staff . All of the main cast of The Original Series agreed to appear , with the exception of DeForest Kelley ( who had died in 1999 ) and James Doohan , resulting in the creation of a new character called Welshie . " Where No Fan Has Gone Before " was received positively by critics , with praise directed at the various Star Trek homages . The script was nominated for a Nebula Award , losing to The Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers .
= = Plot = =
Fry learns that Star Trek has been forbidden since the show became a worldwide religion in the 2200s ; all of its fans were killed during the Star Trek Wars and the " sacred " tapes of its 79 episodes and six movies were burned , with the sole remaining copies sent to the forbidden planet Omega 3 . Outraged , Fry takes Leonard Nimoy 's head from the Head Museum and convinces Bender and Leela to join him in a mission to recover the Star Trek tapes from Omega 3 .
On Omega 3 they find several original sets from Star Trek , and most of the original cast with their bodies and eternal youth . An energy being named Melllvar appears and explains that he became an obsessed Star Trek fan after watching the dumped tapes over and over again . Melllvar gives Nimoy a body , and orders the actors and the Planet Express crew to participate in a Star Trek convention until the end of time . Welshie is killed in a show of force to force their obedience . While Melllvar forces the cast to perform his fan script , Bender , Leela and Fry escape in the Planet Express Ship . Fry convinces the crew to attack Melllvar to save the actors , but Melllvar destroys the ship 's engine as he drags it back to the planet .
After seeing the Planet Express crew 's attempt to defeat him , Melllvar wonders if they are more worthy of his adoration than the Star Trek cast , and decides to settle the question with a battle to the death . After several minutes of fighting , Melllvar 's mother appears and makes him come home for dinner . While he is gone , the two groups combine the engine of the cast 's ship with the hull of the Planet Express Ship to escape . To lose enough weight to lift off , the cast jettison their bodies . Melllvar follows the crew into space with his own ship , a Romulan Bird of Prey . Zapp Brannigan boards the Planet Express Ship and holds a court @-@ martial of the occupants for trespassing on Omega 3 . Leela points out that while the court @-@ martial is in progress Melllvar is still chasing them . Fry convinces Melllvar that he cannot spend his life watching Star Trek , and Melllvar agrees to end the chase . The crew and cast return to Earth .
= = Production = =
The writer for this episode , David A. Goodman , said that making this episode was a " dream come true " for many members of the crew including himself . At the time he was hired onto the staff , they were already talking about creating a Star Trek @-@ centric episode . The initial idea was to have a giant Kirk and Spock fighting over New York @-@ New York Hotel and Casino . Executive producer David X. Cohen assigned the writing task to Goodman , as they agreed he was the biggest Trek fan of the group . They agreed to drop the story idea with the giant characters and gave him two weeks to write the script . The deadline was complicated as Goodman had to spend the first week on jury duty , and then broke his ankle . Despite this , he described " Where No Fan Has Gone Before " as the most fun he has ever had writing a script .
Series creator Matt Groening stated that while he is a fan of the Star Trek franchise he has never seen an episode of The Original Series in entirety , but has seen Star Trek : The Motion Picture . But director Pat Shinagawa said that there was a certain amount of jealousy among the crew that she got to work on this episode . All of the living members of the original Star Trek cast agreed to appear in the episode with the exception of James Doohan , whose agent replied with " No way . " Because of this , the episode 's working title was jokingly named " We got everybody but Scotty " and so Scotty was replaced with " Welshie " . William Shatner and Leonard Nimoy recorded their lines together , which was unusual as actors usually record solo . Following his work on Futurama , Goodman went on to join the writing staff on Star Trek : Enterprise .
A number of designs for the energy being were considered for this episode ; however , the final version was decided upon due to a desire to keep the design simple . Shinagawa noted that even so , the final design for Melllvar is more sophisticated than some energy beings featured in the original series .
= = = Cultural references = = =
This episode contains many story elements based on episodes of Star Trek . In the DVD audio commentary , Goodman noted his pride in having included a large number of quotations from The Original Series , particularly those items which he claims " the people on the internet " had not found on their own . He noted that in " Shatner 's Log " , based on Star Trek 's " Captain 's log " , the line " The impossible has happened " quotes the opening log in " Where No Man Has Gone Before " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
Although the episode was not the last episode produced for season four , it was used as the season finale for the fourth broadcast season , being broadcast on April 21 , 2002 , on Fox in the United States . The episode was subsequently nominated for a Nebula Award in 2004 for best script , but lost to the 2002 film The Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers .
Prior to the broadcast , Dusty Saunders previewed the episode for Rocky Mountain News , calling Futurama " under @-@ appreciated " and that this episode had " Lots of fun and fantasy at the expense of the noted sci @-@ fi series . " Zack Handlen , while writing for the A.V. Club , gave the episode an ' A ' grade . He said that the storyline could have been seen as " pretty mean @-@ spirited if there wasn 't such a clear thread of Trek love running through the episode " . He felt that having the framing device set during the event rather than afterwards as " delightful " , and that the Star Trek references were both " relevant to the story and funny in their own right " . Andy Wilson reviewed the episode for BigShinyRobot , calling it the " greatest animated homage to Trek ever " and " one of the best episodes of Futurama " .
IGN ranked the episode in tenth place in their list of the top 25 episodes of the series in 2006 , calling it " ultimate fan service episode " , but " one that any sci @-@ fi fan , Trekker or otherwise , can still enjoy " . The popularity of this episode combined with the large volume of Star Trek references has made this episode a touchstone among Trekkies according to Chris Baker at Wired.com. This episode , along with " Teenage Mutant Leela 's Hurdles " , was the great moments of the fourth season by David Hofstede in his book 5000 Episodes and No Commercials : The Ultimate Guide to TV Shows on DVD . " Where No Fan Has Gone Before " was included in the Volume 4 release on DVD , including several deleted scenes , which was first released on August 24 , 2004 , in the United States .
= Jade @-@ class aircraft carrier =
The Jade class comprised a pair of passenger ships intended to be converted into auxiliary aircraft carriers by Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II . The two ships were launched as Gneisenau and Potsdam in 1935 and operated in peace time by Norddeutscher Lloyd . After the outbreak of war , the ships were requisitioned by the Kriegsmarine as transports , and in May 1942 , plans were drawn up to convert them into aircraft carriers . The ships were not identical , but were similar enough in size to allow identical outfitting .
Gneisenau and Potsdam were to be renamed Jade and Elbe , respectively . Once converted , the ships were intended to operate twelve Ju @-@ 87 Stuka dive bombers and twelve Bf @-@ 109 fighters . Work on Jade was not started and the conversion project was abandoned in November 1942 . She returned to service as a troopship , only to be sunk by a mine in the western Baltic . Elbe actually began the conversion process in December 1942 , but only her passenger fittings were removed by the time work was halted in February 1943 . She was converted into a barracks ship in Gotenhafen and seized by Great Britain after the end of the war . She remained in use until 1976 , when she was broken up for scrap
= = Conversion = =
Following the loss of the battleship Bismarck in May 1941 , during which British aircraft carriers proved instrumental , and the near torpedoing of her sister ship Tirpitz by carrier @-@ launched aircraft in March 1942 , the Kriegsmarine became convinced of the necessity of acquiring aircraft carriers . Work on the purpose @-@ built carrier Graf Zeppelin , which had been halted in April 1940 , was resumed in March 1942 . The Kriegsmarine also decided to convert a number of vessels into auxiliary aircraft carriers . Several passenger ships , including Gneisenau , Potsdam , and Europa were selected for conversion , along with the incomplete heavy cruiser Seydlitz . Gneisenau and Potsdam had been built in the mid @-@ 1930s and operated by Norddeutscher Lloyd on its East Asia Service until the outbreak of war , when they were requisitioned by the Kriegsmarine as troopships .
The ships were found to have insufficient stability when converted into aircraft carriers . This was to have been remedied by the addition of side bulges and fixed ballast . The ballast was to have consisted of " concrete armor , " a layer of concrete fitted to the sides of the hulls below the waterline . Conversion work on Gneisenau , which was to be renamed Jade , never began . The project was abandoned on 25 November 1942 . The design for Potsdam , which was assigned the name Elbe , was reworked to correct the stability problems . The bulges and concrete armor were discarded and a second outer skin was substituted . Work began on the ship in December 1942 ; only the ship 's passenger fittings were removed by the time work was halted on 2 February 1943 . This was due to the resignation of Admiral Erich Raeder , the commander in chief of the Kriegsmarine , the previous month . Raeder had resigned in protest of Adolf Hitler 's order that all surface ships be decommissioned and scrapped in the aftermath of the Battle of the Barents Sea .
Gneisenau was returned to troopship duties after the project was abandoned , but at 12 : 02 on 2 May 1943 , she was sunk by a mine off Gedser . Potsdam was converted into a barracks ship in Gotenhafen , where she spent the remainder of the war . Following the German defeat , the ship was seized by the British on 20 June 1946 as a war prize , who commissioned her as a troop transport under the name Empire Fowey . She was sold to Pakistan , who operated her under the name Safina @-@ E @-@ Hujjaj until she was broken up for scrap in 1976 .
= = = Characteristics = = =
Jade was 191 meters ( 627 ft ) long at the waterline and 203 m ( 666 ft ) long overall . Elbe was 189 m ( 620 ft ) long at the waterline and 203 m overall . Both ships had a designed draft of 5 @.@ 1 m ( 17 ft ) , and at full load , drew up to 8 @.@ 85 m ( 29 @.@ 0 ft ) . Jade displaced 18 @,@ 160 metric tons ( 17 @,@ 870 long tons ; 20 @,@ 020 short tons ) , while Elbe displaced 17 @,@ 527 t ( 17 @,@ 250 long tons ; 19 @,@ 320 short tons ) . The ships had steel @-@ built , welded hulls with twelve watertight compartments and a double bottom . Jade was to have been crewed by 79 officers and 804 enlisted men , including 134 Luftwaffe personnel ; Elbe 's crew arrangements are not known specifically , but would have consisted of approximately 900 officers and men .
Jade was powered by a pair of Deschimag geared steam turbines . The two turbines drove a three @-@ bladed screw each . Steam was provided by four single @-@ ended high @-@ pressure boilers . Elbe 's propulsion system consisted of two electric drive motors powered by two turbo @-@ generators . Each electric motor drove a four @-@ bladed screw . The two ships ' engines were rated at 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) and a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , though in service the ships were limited to 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . They had a maximum range of 9 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 17 @,@ 000 km ; 10 @,@ 000 mi ) at 19 knots .
As converted , the ships were to be armed with several anti @-@ aircraft guns . The heavy anti @-@ aircraft battery consisted of eight 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) SK C / 33 guns in twin mountings . The mounts were the Dopp LC / 31 type , originally designed for earlier 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK C / 31 guns . The LC / 31 mounting was triaxially @-@ stabilized and capable of elevating to 80 ° . This enabled the guns to engage targets up to a ceiling of 12 @,@ 500 m ( 41 @,@ 000 ft ) . Against surface targets , the guns had a maximum range of 17 @,@ 700 m ( 58 @,@ 100 ft ) . The guns fired fixed ammunition weighing 15 @.@ 1 kg ( 33 lb ) ; the guns could fire HE and HE incendiary rounds , as well as illumination shells . The two guns were supplied with a total of 3 @,@ 200 rounds of ammunition .
Close @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft weaponry consisted of twelve 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) SK C / 30 guns and twenty @-@ four to thirty @-@ two 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Flak 38 guns . The 3 @.@ 7 cm gun was a single @-@ shot gun , with a rate of fire of around 30 rounds per minute . At its maximum elevation of 85 ° , the gun had a ceiling of 6 @,@ 800 m ( 22 @,@ 300 ft ) . They were supplied with 20 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition . The 2 cm gun was a magazine @-@ fed automatic weapon , firing at up to 500 rounds per minute . Twenty and forty @-@ round magazines were supplied for the guns ; The guns were supplied with 48 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition .
Aircraft facilities were to have consisted of a 186 m ( 610 ft ) long , 27 m ( 89 ft ) wide flight deck . Aircraft were handled in a single hangar , which was 148 m ( 486 ft ) long and 18 m ( 59 ft ) wide . The hangar roof was protected by 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) of Krupp Wotan hart steel armor , while the sides were 10 to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 to 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick . The ships ' air complement was to have consisted of twelve Bf 109 fighters and twelve Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers . The Bf 109 fighters were a navalized version of the " E " model , designated as Bf 109T . Their wings were longer than the land @-@ based model to allow for shorter take @-@ off . The Ju 87s were to have been the " E " variant , which was a navalized version of the Ju 87D , and were modified for catapult launches and were equipped with arresting gear .
= K @-@ 17 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 17 was a 21 @.@ 138 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 34 @.@ 018 km ) state highway in Kansas that served Kingman and Reno counties . The route originated at an intersection with U.S. Route 54 ( US @-@ 54 ) and US @-@ 400 south of the unincorporated community of Waterloo and ended at K @-@ 96 south of South Hutchinson . The road was maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) , and was a two @-@ lane road for its entire length . The route was designated in 1932 . When originally designated , K @-@ 17 ran north to an intersection with US @-@ 81 near McPherson . Between 1957 and 1962 , a series of changes to the route shortened it and brought its northern terminus to an intersection with K @-@ 96 near South Hutchinson . The route was decommissioned in 2013 .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 17 began at a diamond interchange with US @-@ 54 and US @-@ 400 near Waterloo in Kingman County and ran north on a two @-@ lane road . The route passed a cemetery just north of its southern terminus and continued north through level farmland , entering Reno County and passing a few miles east of the community of Pretty Prairie , which was accessible by a county road . North of here , K @-@ 17 crossed the north fork of the Ninnescah River and curved slightly to the northwest . The route bent back to the north and continued in that direction for approximately eight miles ( 13 km ) before twisting to the east and reaching its northern terminus at an intersection with K @-@ 96 .
K @-@ 17 was maintained by KDOT . In 2012 , KDOT calculated the route 's average annual daily traffic to be about 1000 vehicles near its southern terminus , and approximately 1600 vehicles near the northern terminus . K @-@ 17 was not included in the National Highway System , a system of highways important to the nation 's defense , economy , and mobility .
= = History = =
K @-@ 17 was commissioned by 1932 . Originally , the route went through Hutchinson and ended at US @-@ 81 south of McPherson . Only the portion from just south of Hutchinson to the city of Medora was paved . The remainder of the route was gravel . Within a year , the segment from Medora to the route 's northern terminus had been paved with a bituminous surface . Between 1933 and 1936 , a stretch of the route in Reno County was also given a bituminous surface . In 1940 , the route was extended north from its northern terminus along the route of US @-@ 81 to an intersection with K @-@ 4 in Saline County . By this time , all segments of the route had been paved . The majority of the route had a bituminous surface , but some segments had a hard surface . Between 1941 and 1945 , the whole route was paved with a hard surface .
In 1957 , the portion of K @-@ 17 from its intersection with K @-@ 61 to its northern terminus was redesignated as an extension of K @-@ 61 . This realignment removed K @-@ 17 from McPherson and Saline counties . In 1962 , K @-@ 96 was realigned through Hutchinson and replaced a portion of K @-@ 17 south of the city . This shortened K @-@ 17 yet again to its final northern terminus at an intersection with K @-@ 96 . In 1977 , the southern terminus was upgraded to an interchange as US @-@ 54 was upgraded to a freeway in much of eastern Kingman County . In 2012 , K @-@ 17 was decommissioned when KDOT realigned a number of state highways in Reno and Kingman counties . The former alignment of K @-@ 17 was re @-@ designated as a segment of K @-@ 14 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Levi Coffin =
Levi Coffin ( October 28 , 1798 – September 16 , 1877 ) was an American Quaker , abolitionist , and businessman . Coffin was deeply involved in the Underground Railroad in Indiana and Ohio and his home is often called " Grand Central Station of the Underground Railroad " . He was nicknamed " President of the Underground Railroad " because of the thousands of slaves that are reported to have passed through his care while escaping their masters .
Born in the Southern United States , Coffin was exposed to and developed an opposition to slavery as a child . He followed his family and immigrated to Indiana from North Carolina in 1826 following a persecution of the Quakers by the slave @-@ holders . In Indiana he quickly became a local business leader as a merchant and farmer . The wealth he accumulated allowed him to become a major investor in the Richmond branch of the Bank of Indiana where he served as director during the 1830s . His position in the community allowed him to provide most of the funds necessary to supply food , clothing , and transportation for the Underground Railroad operations in his region .
At the urging of friends in the anti @-@ slavery movement , he moved to Cincinnati in 1847 to operate a warehouse selling only goods produced by free labor . Despite making considerable progress with the business , the venture was unprofitable and he was forced to abandon the enterprise in 1857 . Throughout the period , he continued to assist hundreds of runaway slaves by lodging them in his Ohio home . After slavery was abolished following the American Civil War , Coffin traveled around the Midwestern United States and abroad to France and Great Britain where he was instrumental in forming aid societies to provide food , clothing , funds , and education to the freed slaves . He retired during the 1870s and wrote an autobiography that was published a year before his death .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family and background = = =
Coffin was born on a farm near New Garden in Guilford County , North Carolina on October 28 , 1798 , the son of Prudence and Levi Coffin Sr. He was the family 's only son and had six sisters . Coffin 's father was born in Massachusetts during the 1760s and emigrated from Nantucket to North Carolina where he farmed land among a community of Quakers . The family was greatly influenced by the teachings of John Woolman who believed that slaveholding was not fair . Coffin 's parents probably met Woolman in 1767 during religious meetings near their New Garden home with other non @-@ slaveholding Quaker families . Coffin 's cousin , Vestal Coffin , also probably attended the meeting . Vestel was one of the earliest Quakers to help slaves escape North Carolina , beginning as early as 1819 .
Coffin grew up working on his father 's farm and received little , if any , formal education . He was frequently exposed to slaves throughout his childhood and sympathized with their condition . According to his own account , he became an abolitionist at age seven when he asked a slave who was in a chain gang why he was bound . The man replied that it was to prevent him from escaping and returning to his wife and children . The event disturbed Coffin who often considered the possibility of his own father being taken from him in a similar fashion . By age fifteen , Coffin was helping his family assist escaping slaves by taking food to those hiding on his farm . As the repressive Fugitive Slave Act became more rigorously enforced , the family began conducting their assistance to slaves with greater secrecy and doing most of their illegal activities at night . Scrutiny of the abolitionists only worsened with the passage of the 1804 Black Laws . By the early 1820s , Quakers in North Carolina were being openly persecuted for the assistance they were suspected of providing to runaway slaves .
= = = Move to Indiana = = =
In 1821 , Coffin and his cousin started a Sunday School to teach slaves to read the Bible . The plan was short @-@ lived though , as slaveholders soon forced the two to close the school . As the persecution worsened , thousands of Quakers began to leave North Carolina for the Northwest Territories where slavery was illegal and land was cheap . There was already a large Quaker community there and they had been influential in the passing of constitutional bans on slavery in Ohio and Indiana . In 1822 Coffin accompanied his brother @-@ in @-@ law Benjamin White on his move to Indiana . He stayed in Indiana with the Whites for about a year before returning to North Carolina . He carried back with him reports of Indiana and its prosperity . He was convinced that Quakers and slavery could not co exsist and decided that he himself would move to Indiana .
On October 28 , 1824 , Coffin married long @-@ time friend Catherine White , the sister of his brother @-@ in @-@ law . The ceremony was held in the Hopewell Friends Meetinghouse in North Carolina . Catherine 's family is believed to have been involved in helping slaves escape , and it is likely she met Coffin in this activity . The couple postponed their move to Indiana after Catherine became pregnant with Jesse , the first of six children , who was born in 1825 . Coffin 's parents moved to Indiana in that year . He and his new wife and son followed them and moved to Newport ( now called Fountain City , Indiana ) in 1826 .
= = Underground Railroad = =
= = = Indiana = = =
After moving to Indiana , Coffin began to farm a tract of land . Within a year of his move he opened a general store . In his later years , he credited his business success with granting him the ability to become heavily involved in the costly enterprise of the Underground Railroad . Although the term " Underground Railroad " did not come into use until the 1830s , the organization was operating in Indiana by the early 1820s . According to Coffin 's own account , not long after moving he discovered that his home was on a line of Underground Railroad stops . There was a large community of free blacks near Newport where fugitive slaves would hide before continuing north . Often , they were recaptured because their hiding place there was well known . Coffin made contact with the black community and made it known to them that he would be willing to hide runaways in his nearby home to better protect them .
He first took fugitive slaves into his new home in the winter of 1826 – 1827 . Word of his activity quickly spread throughout the community . Although many had previously been afraid to take part , upon seeing his success at avoiding problems they soon joined him . The group formed a more formal route whereby the fugitives could be moved from stop to stop until they reached Canada . Coffin referred to the system as the " mysterious road " . As time progressed the number of escaping slaves increased . Coffin estimated that on average he helped one hundred escape annually . Coffin 's home became the convergence point of three major escape routes from Madison , New Albany , and Cincinnati . The runaways gathered at his home and at times two wagons were required to transport the escapees further north . Coffin would move them from his home to the next stops during the night . His home saw so many fugitives pass through , it became known as the " Grand Central Station of the Underground Railroad . "
Coffin 's life was frequently threatened by slave @-@ hunters and many of his friends feared for his safety . They tried to dissuade him from his activities by warning him of the danger to his family and business . Coffin , however , was deeply moved by his religious convictions and wrote of these fears later in life saying :
After listening quietly to these counselors , I told them that I felt no condemnation for anything that I had ever done for the fugitive slaves . If by doing my duty and endeavoring to fulfill the injunctions of the Bible , I injured my business , then let my business go . As to my safety , my life was in the hands of my Divine Master , and I felt that I had his approval . I had no fear of the danger that seemed to threaten my life or my business . If I was faithful to duty , and honest and industrious , I felt that I would be preserved , and that I could make enough to support my family .
His business had a period of poor performance . Neighbors who were opposed to his activity boycotted his store . The population of Indiana was quickly growing however , and the majority of the new immigrants supported the anti @-@ slavery movement and Coffin 's business began to grow . His prosperity continued and he made a substantial investment in the Bank of Indiana when it was first established in 1833 . He soon became the director of the Richmond branch of the bank . In 1836 he built a mill and began to produce linseed oil from flax he grew on his farm . Coffin built a new two @-@ story brick home in 1838 and had several modifications made to his house to create better hiding places for the slaves . A secret door was created in his maids ' quarters where up to fourteen people could hide in a narrow crawlspace between the walls . The space was often used when slave hunters came to Coffin 's home in search of runaways .
During the 1840s pressure was brought to bear on the Quaker communities that helped escaping slaves . In 1842 leaders of the Religious Society of Friends , the Quaker Meeting to which Coffin belonged , advised all their members to cease membership in abolitionist societies and end activities assisting runaway slaves . They insisted that legal emancipation was the best course of action . The following year they disowned Coffin and expelled him from their group because he continued to take an active role in assisting escaping slaves . Coffin and other Quakers who supported his activities separated and formed the Antislavery Friends . The two groups remained separate until a reunification in 1851 .
Despite the opposition , his desire to help the runaway slaves only increased . Catherine organized a sewing society who met at the Coffins ' home to produce clothing to give to the runaways . Other aid was sought from neighbors and those sympathetic , but unwilling take the fugitives into their homes . Through these activities he was able to procure a steady supply of goods to assist in the operations efforts . Over the years he came to realize that many of the goods he sold in his business were the product of slave labor . Through traveling he learned of organizations in Philadelphia and New York City that only sold goods produced by free labor . He began to purchase stock from the organizations and marketed them to his fellow abolitionists , though the products were sold for almost no profit .
The free labor proponents in the eastern United States wanted to create a similar organization in the west . The members of the Salem Free Produce Association approached Coffin to see if he would be interested in managing the proposed Western Free Produce Association . At first he declined , saying he lacked the money required to fund the venture , and that he did not want to move into the city . In 1845 a group of abolitionist businessmen opened a wholesale mercantile business in Cincinnati . The Free Produce Association raised $ 3 @,@ 000 to help stock the new warehouse with goods . Different groups continued to pressure him to accept a position as the new business 's director , claiming there were no other western abolitionists qualified to manage the enterprise . Reluctantly , he finally accepted , but agreed to only oversee the warehouse for five years , in which time he could train someone else to run it .
= = = Ohio = = =
Coffin moved to the Cincinnati area in 1847 , where he took over the management of the venture . He rented out his Newport business before leaving and made arrangements for his home to continue serving as an Underground Railroad stop ; he intended to return to Newport after fulfilling his obligation in Cincinnati . His first task was working with the eastern organizations to set up a steady supply of goods for the business . The most constant problem to plague the enterprise was the poor quality of its goods . Coffin had frequent difficulty procuring free goods that were produced with the same quality as those produced by slave labor . Because the goods were inferior in quality to his competition , he had a difficult time finding purchasers for the goods . The problem plagued the business for years , and as a result the enterprise was in a constant financial struggle .
The problem caused Coffin to begin to travel into the south to seek out plantations that did not use slave labor , but he met with only limited success . He located a cotton plantation in Mississippi where the owner had freed all his slaves and operated by paying them as free laborers . The plantation was struggling financially because they had no equipment to automate the cotton production . Coffin helped the owner purchase a cotton gin that greatly increased their productivity and provided a steady supply of cotton for his association . The cotton was shipped to Cincinnati where it was spun into cloth and sold . Other trips to Tennessee and Virginia were less successful , although he did succeed in spreading the word about the movement . Despite his constant attention to the business , the poor supply of cheap and quality free labor products proved insurmountable , making it impossible for Coffin to return to Indiana or locate a replacement to run the company . The company had stayed in business primarily through the financial support of wealthy benefactors . Coffin sold the business in 1857 after deciding it would be impossible for the business to remain profitable .
Cincinnati already had a large anti @-@ slavery movement who had violent conflicts with slavery proponents in the years before Coffin moved to the city . He purchased a new home at the corner of Elm and Sixth streets . He continued to be active in the Underground Railroad , setting up a new safe house in the city and helping organize a larger network in the area . At first he was very cautious about helping slaves until he was able to find people he could trust in the community , and the community came to trust him . Coffin moved several times during his life in the city , and finally came to reside on Wehrman Street . It was a large home and rooms were rented out for boarding . With the many guests coming and going , the home was an excellent place to operate an Underground Railroad stop without arousing much suspicion . Catherine created costumes and when fugitives arrived they would be dressed as butlers , cooks , and other workers . Some of the mulattoes were even able to pass as white guests . The most frequently used disguise was a that of a Quaker woman . The high collar , long sleeves , gloves , veil , and large brimmed hat could completely hide its wearer when their head was tilted slightly downward .
One of the many slaves Coffin helped to escape was Eliza Harris . The girl had escaped the south and crossed the Ohio River on a winter night when it was frozen over . Barefooted and carrying her baby , she was exhausted and nearly dead when she reached Coffin 's home . He provided her with food , clothing , new shoes , and shelter before helping her to continue on her journey to freedom in Canada . Harriet Beecher Stowe was living in the city at the time and was well acquainted with the Coffins . The story so moved her she retold it in part in her book Uncle Tom 's Cabin . Levi and Catherine Coffin may have been the Quaker couple she refers to in her book .
Coffin 's role began to change as the American Civil War approached . He made a trip to Canada in 1854 to visit the community of escaped slaves that was living there and offer assistance and he helped found an orphanage in Cincinnati for blacks . As soon as the war broke out in 1861 , he and his group began to prepare to help the war 's wounded . Although as a Quaker , he was opposed to war , he did support their cause . He and his wife spent almost every day at Cincinnati 's war hospital helping to care for the wounded . They prepared large buckets of coffee and distributed it freely to the soldiers and took many into their home .
Coffin helped form the Western Freedman 's Aid Society in 1863 to offer assistance to the slaves freed during the war . As Union soldiers moved into the South , some slaveholders shot their slaves , while others abandoned them , leaving them without food or shelter . Coffin 's group began collecting food and goods to be distributed to the former slaves . Coffin petitioned the government to create the Freedmen 's Bureau to offer assistance to freed slaves . Coffin was also involved in helping freed slaves after the war in establishing businesses and getting educations . As leader of the society , he traveled to Great Britain in 1864 to seek aid . His advocacy there led to the formation of the Englishman 's Freedmen 's Aid Society .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
After the war ended , Coffin raised over $ 100 @,@ 000 for the Western Freedman 's Aid Society to provide aid to the free blacks . The society provided food , clothing , money , and other aid to the newly freed slave population in the United States . In 1867 he attended the International Anti @-@ Slavery Conference in Paris . Coffin did not enjoy being in the public eye and considered his job as begging for money , which he thought to be demeaning . He recorded in his book that he gladly gave up the position once a new leader for the organization was found . He was concerned about giving money freely to all blacks , some of whom he was believed would never be able to care for themselves unless adequate education and farms were provided to them . He believed the society should only be giving their limited resources to those who were best able to benefit from them . The society continued to operate until 1870 , the same year blacks were guaranteed equality in constitutional amendment .
With the war over , the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment , and slavery illegal , Coffin lived the rest of his life in retirement . He later recorded in his book that " ... I resign my office and declare the operations of the Underground Railroad at an end . " He spent his final year writing a book about the activities of the Underground Railroad and his life . The book , Reminiscences of Levi Coffin , was published in 1876 and is considered by historians to be one of the best firsthand accounts of the activities of the Underground Railroad . He died on September 16 , 1877 at around 2 : 30pm in his Avondale , Ohio home . His funeral ceremony was held in the Friends Meeting House of Cincinnati . The Daily Gazette recorded that the crowd was too large to be accommodated and hundreds had to remain outside . Four of his eight pallbearers were free blacks who had worked with Coffin on the Underground Railroad . He was interred in the Spring Grove Cemetery in an unmarked grave . On July 11 , 1902 , African Americans in Cincinnati erected a 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall monument over Coffin 's grave in his honor .
Coffin 's home in Fountain City , Indiana was purchased by the state of Indiana in 1967 and restored to its original condition . It is now a National Historic Landmark and is open to the public for tours .
Coffin was first referred to as the " President of the Underground Railroad " by a slavecatcher who said , " There 's an underground railroad going on here , and Levi 's the president of it . " The title became commonly used among other abolitionists . Modern historians estimate that Coffin helped more than 2 @,@ 000 slaves escape , although Coffin himself estimated the number to be around 3 @,@ 000 . Once questioned about why he aided slaves , Coffin said " The Bible , in bidding us to feed the hungry and clothe the naked , said nothing about color , and I should try to follow out the teachings of that good book . " Another time he simply said , " I thought it was always safe to do right . "
= Green Hill Zone =
Green Hill Zone is the first level of the 1991 Sega Genesis video game Sonic the Hedgehog . The level is grassy and lush , with environmental features such as palm trees , vertical loops , and cliffs , and is the home of numerous forest animals . Like the game 's other levels , Green Hill comprises three acts ; in the third , Sonic fights antagonist Doctor Eggman before moving to the second level , Marble Zone . It was constructed by level designer Hirokazu Yasuhara and its musical theme was created by Masato Nakamura .
Green Hill Zone is remembered as a classic within both the Sonic the Hedgehog series and video games in general . The level and its music have also received positive opinions from critics . It has gone on to make reappearances in other games , such as Sonic Adventure 2 , Sonic Battle , and Sonic Generations , and critics have also noted a Green Hill @-@ like aesthetic in levels of other games .
= = History and characteristics = =
Green Hill is the first level of Sonic the Hedgehog . Located on South Island , it is a lush , grassy stage with unique features like droopy palm trees and crumbling cliffs . In addition , as with later levels in the game , Green Hill has environmental features and obstacles like ramps , vertical loops , tunnels , spring @-@ boards , spikes , and checkpoints . It is normally populated by woodland creatures , but antagonist Doctor Eggman imprisons them inside robots known as Badniks prior to the events of the game , so the player must destroy them to free the animals . Green Hill consists of three acts , and the end of Act 3 features a boss battle with Eggman . After beating Eggman , Sonic moves on to the second level , the lava @-@ themed Marble Zone .
Sonic the Hedgehog was created by the newly formed Sonic Team , a 15 @-@ member Sega subsidiary formed to create a character that could compete with Nintendo 's Mario . The game 's level design was handled by Hirokazu Yasuhara , and the musical theme was composed by Masato Nakamura from the Japanese band Dreams Come True . In designing Green Hill , Yasuhara was inspired by the U.S. state of California , while the game 's color scheme in general was influenced by the work of pop artist Eizin Suzuki . While the original game was a 2D side @-@ scroller , Green Hill was remade in full 3D as a secret level in the 2001 game Sonic Adventure 2 ; the player unlocks it after collecting all 180 of the emblems found by completing the game 's many objectives . The 2011 game Sonic Generations , a title that revisits past entries in the Sonic series ' history , features both 2D ( " Classic " ) and 3D ( " Modern " ) versions of Green Hill , as well as of numerous other Sonic levels . A reinterpretation of the level is set to appear in the upcoming 2017 title , Sonic Mania .
In addition , Green Hill appears as a stage in the 2.5D fighting game Sonic Battle , in the tennis video game Sega Superstars Tennis , in the sports video game Mario & Sonic at the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games , in the crossover adventure game Lego Dimensions , and in the crossover fighting games Super Smash Bros. Brawl , Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS , and Dengeki Bunko : Fighting Climax .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Green Hill Zone has received consistently positive opinions from critics , particularly for its music . Craig Snyder at MakeUseOf named the level as one of the five best levels in video games , calling it " a great way to prepare for what ’ s to come " . Game Informer 's Tim Turi found the level 's music " catchy " , and Wong ranked it as the thirteenth greatest piece of gaming music from the 16 @-@ bit era . In 2010 , Sega 's community manager , Aaron Webber , returned from a vacation to find his cubicle redecorated to resemble Green Hill ; IGN 's Levi Buchanan claimed that " everyone wants to come back to " this , and Owen Good of Kotaku exclaimed " I want to work in Green Hill Zone , too ! " Writing for the Sabotage Times , Carl Anka ranked the original Sonic the Hedgehog as having the greatest music of any video game , largely as a result of Green Hill 's theme .
Critics have compared levels , particularly first levels , of later Sonic games to Green Hill . Turi considers Emerald Hill from Sonic the Hedgehog 2 , Mushroom Hill from Sonic & Knuckles , and Seaside Hill from Sonic Heroes to fit the same general mold as Green Hill , noting repetition in Sonic level design and stating that " gamers have played Green Hill Zone dozens of times . " However , he has opined that the Generations version of the original Green Hill " trounces them all " in both its 2D and 3D incarnations . Justin Baker of Nintendo World Report and Skrebels both analogized Windy Hill from Sonic Lost World to Green Hill , while Carter thought similarly of the Legend of Zelda downloadable content levels .
= = = Impact and legacy = = =
Green Hill Zone has also been recognized by critics as a classic , well @-@ known video game level . It has been described as " classic " by Samit Sarkar of Polygon and by Jim Sterling and Chris Carter of Destructoid . Comparably , Joe Skrebels of Official Nintendo Magazine called it " nostalgic " , while Christopher Grant from Joystiq considered it to have a place " in the center of your retro @-@ gaming shrine " . Kevin Wong of Complex stated that the game 's and level 's popularity were such that " even if you didn 't have a Genesis , this was the level you played at the department store while your parents went shopping . " Andy Kelly from Computer and Video Games called the Green Hill theme a " monumental slice of Sega nostalgia " , and GamesRadar writer Justin Towell also referred to it as classic . Anka has summarized that " Green Hill Zone in the original game has gone down as an instantly recognisable piece of music in pop culture " .
To mark Sonic 's fifteenth anniversary in 2006 , Sega released a papercraft version of Green Hill as a PDF on its website . In 2011 , not long after Generations ' release , Sega held a contest inviting gamers to upload playthroughs of Generations ' 3D version of Green Hill completed in under one minute and fifty seconds to YouTube ; winners were eligible for Sonic merchandise .
= Workhouse =
In England and Wales a workhouse , colloquially known as a spike , was a place where those unable to support themselves were offered accommodation and employment . The earliest known use of the term dates from 1631 , in an account by the mayor of Abingdon reporting that " wee haue erected wthn our borough a workehouse to sett poore people to worke " .
The origins of the workhouse can be traced to the Poor Law Act of 1388 , which attempted to address the labour shortages following the Black Death in England by restricting the movement of labourers , and ultimately led to the state becoming responsible for the support of the poor . But mass unemployment following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 , the introduction of new technology to replace agricultural workers in particular , and a series of bad harvests , meant that by the early 1830s the established system of poor relief was proving to be unsustainable . The New Poor Law of 1834 attempted to reverse the economic trend by discouraging the provision of relief to anyone who refused to enter a workhouse . Some Poor Law authorities hoped to run workhouses at a profit by utilising the free labour of their inmates , who generally lacked the skills or motivation to compete in the open market . Most were employed on tasks such as breaking stones , crushing bones to produce fertiliser , or picking oakum using a large metal nail known as a spike , perhaps the origin of the workhouse 's nickname .
Life in a workhouse was intended to be harsh , to deter the able @-@ bodied poor and to ensure that only the truly destitute would apply . But in areas such as the provision of free medical care and education for children , neither of which was available to the poor in England living outside workhouses until the early 20th century , workhouse inmates were advantaged over the general population , a dilemma that the Poor Law authorities never managed to reconcile .
As the 19th century wore on , workhouses increasingly became refuges for the elderly , infirm and sick rather than the able @-@ bodied poor , and in 1929 legislation was passed to allow local authorities to take over workhouse infirmaries as municipal hospitals . Although workhouses were formally abolished by the same legislation in 1930 , many continued under their new appellation of Public Assistance Institutions under the control of local authorities . It was not until the National Assistance Act of 1948 that the last vestiges of the Poor Law disappeared , and with them the workhouses .
= = Legal and social background = =
= = = Medieval to Early Modern period = = =
The Poor Law Act of 1388 was an attempt to address the labour shortage caused by the Black Death , a devastating pandemic that killed about one @-@ third of England 's population . The new law fixed wages and restricted the movement of labourers , as it was anticipated that if they were allowed to leave their parishes for higher @-@ paid work elsewhere then wages would inevitably rise . According to historian Derek Fraser , the fear of social disorder following the plague ultimately resulted in the state , and not a " personal Christian charity " , becoming responsible for the support of the poor . The resulting laws against vagrancy were the origins of state @-@ funded relief for the poor . From the 16th century onwards a distinction was legally enshrined between those who were able to work but could not , and those who were able to work but would not : between " the genuinely unemployed and the idler " . Supporting the destitute was a problem exacerbated by King Henry VIII 's Dissolution of the Monasteries , which began in 1536 . They had been a significant source of charitable relief , and provided a good deal of direct and indirect employment . The Poor Relief Act of 1576 went on to establish the principle that if the able @-@ bodied poor needed support , they had to work for it .
The Act for the Relief of the Poor of 1601 made parishes legally responsible for the care of those within their boundaries who , through age or infirmity , were unable to work . The Act essentially classified the poor into one of three groups . It proposed that the able @-@ bodied be offered work in a house of correction ( the precursor of the workhouse ) , where the " persistent idler " was to be punished . It also proposed the construction of housing for the impotent poor , the old and the infirm , although most assistance was granted through a form of poor relief known as outdoor relief – money , food , or other necessities given to those living in their own homes , funded by a local tax on the property of the wealthiest in the parish .
= = = Georgian era = = =
The workhouse system evolved in the 17th century , allowing parishes to reduce the cost to ratepayers of providing poor relief . The first authoritative figure for numbers of workhouses comes in the next century from The Abstract of Returns made by the Overseers of the Poor , which was drawn up following a government survey in 1776 . It put the number of parish workhouses in England and Wales at more than 1800 ( approximately one parish in seven ) , with a total capacity of more than 90 @,@ 000 places . This growth in the number of workhouses was prompted by the Workhouse Test Act of 1723 ; by obliging anyone seeking poor relief to enter a workhouse and undertake a set amount of work , usually for no pay ( a system called indoor relief ) , the Act helped prevent irresponsible claims on a parish 's poor rate . The growth in the number of workhouses was also bolstered by the Relief of the Poor Act 1782 , proposed by Thomas Gilbert . Gilbert 's Act was intended to allow parishes to share the cost of poor relief by forming unions – known as Gilbert Unions – to build and maintain even larger workhouses to accommodate the elderly and infirm . The able @-@ bodied poor were instead either given outdoor relief or found employment locally . Relatively few Gilbert Unions were set up , but supplementing inadequate wages under the Speenhamland system did become established towards the end of the 18th century . So keen were some Poor Law authorities to cut costs wherever possible that cases were reported of husbands being forced to sell their wives , to avoid them becoming a financial burden on the parish . In one such case in 1814 the wife and child of Henry Cook , who were living in Effingham workhouse , were sold at Croydon market for one shilling ( 5p ) ; the parish paid for the cost of the journey and a " wedding dinner " .
By the 1830s most parishes had at least one workhouse , but many were badly managed . In his 1797 work , The State of the Poor , Sir Frederick Eden , wrote :
The workhouse is an inconvenient building , with small windows , low rooms and dark staircases . It is surrounded by a high wall , that gives it the appearance of a prison , and prevents free circulation of air . There are 8 or 10 beds in each room , chiefly of flocks , and consequently retentive of all scents and very productive of vermin . The passages are in great want of whitewashing . No regular account is kept of births and deaths , but when smallpox , measles or malignant fevers make their appearance in the house , the mortality is very great . Of 131 inmates in the house , 60 are children .
In lieu of a workhouse some sparsely populated parishes placed homeless paupers into rented accommodation , and provided others with relief in their own homes . Those entering a workhouse might have joined anything from a handful to several hundred other inmates ; for instance , between 1782 and 1794 Liverpool 's workhouse accommodated 900 – 1200 indigent men , women and children . The larger workhouses such as the Gressenhall House of Industry generally served a number of communities , in Gressenhall 's case 50 parishes . Writing in 1854 , Poor Law commissioner George Nicholls viewed many of them as little more than factories :
These workhouses were established , and mainly conducted , with a view to deriving profit from the labour of the inmates , and not as being the safest means of affording relief by at the same time testing the reality of their destitution . The workhouse was in truth at that time a kind of manufactory , carried on at the risk and cost of the poor @-@ rate , employing the worst description of the people , and helping to pauperise the best .
= = = 1834 act = = =
By 1832 the amount spent on poor relief nationally had risen to £ 7 million a year , more than 10 shillings per head of population , up from £ 2 million in 1784 . The large number of those seeking assistance was pushing the system to " the verge of collapse " . The economic downturn following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in the early 19th century resulted in increasing numbers of unemployed . Coupled with developments in agriculture that meant less labour was needed on the land , along with three successive bad harvests beginning in 1828 and the Swing Riots of 1830 , reform was inevitable . Many suspected that the system of poor relief was being widely abused , and in 1832 the government established a Royal Commission to investigate and recommend how relief could best be given to the poor . The result was the establishment of a centralised Poor Law Commission in England and Wales under the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 , also known as the New Poor Law , which discouraged the allocation of outdoor relief to the able @-@ bodied ; " all cases were to be ' offered the house ' , and nothing else " . Individual parishes were formed into Poor Law Unions , each of which was to have a union workhouse . More than 500 were built during the next 50 years , two @-@ thirds of them by 1840 . In certain parts of the country there was a good deal of resistance to these new buildings , some of it violent , particularly in the industrial north . Many workers lost their jobs during the major economic depression of 1837 , and there was a strong feeling that what the unemployed needed was not the workhouse but short @-@ term relief to tide them over . By 1838 , 573 Poor Law Unions had been formed in England and Wales , incorporating 13 @,@ 427 parishes , but it was not until 1868 that unions were established across the entire country , the same year that the New Poor Law was applied to the Gilbert Unions .
Despite the intentions behind the 1834 Act , relief of the poor remained the responsibility of local taxpayers , and there was thus a powerful economic incentive to use loopholes such as sickness in the family to continue with outdoor relief ; the weekly cost per person was about half that of providing workhouse accommodation . Outdoor relief was further restricted by the terms of the 1844 Outdoor Relief Prohibitory Order , which aimed to end it altogether for the able @-@ bodied poor . In 1846 , of 1 @.@ 33 million paupers only 199 @,@ 000 were maintained in workhouses , of whom 82 @,@ 000 were considered to be able @-@ bodied , leaving an estimated 375 @,@ 000 of the able @-@ bodied on outdoor relief . Excluding periods of extreme economic distress , it has been estimated that about 6 @.@ 5 per cent of the British population may have been accommodated in workhouses at any given time .
= = Early Victorian workhouses = =
The New Poor Law Commissioners were very critical of existing workhouses , and generally insisted that they be replaced . They complained in particular that " in by far the greater number of cases , it is a large almshouse , in which the young are trained in idleness , ignorance , and vice ; the able @-@ bodied maintained in sluggish sensual indolence ; the aged and more respectable exposed to all the misery that is incident to dwelling in such a society " .
After 1835 many workhouses were constructed with the central buildings surrounded by work and exercise yards enclosed behind brick walls , so @-@ called " pauper bastilles " . The commission proposed that all new workhouses should allow for the segregation of paupers into at least four distinct groups , each to be housed separately : the aged and impotent , children , able @-@ bodied males , and able @-@ bodied females . A common layout resembled Jeremy Bentham 's prison panopticon , a radial design with four three @-@ storey buildings at its centre set within a rectangular courtyard , the perimeter of which was defined by a three @-@ storey entrance block and single @-@ storey outbuildings , all enclosed by a wall . That basic layout , one of two designed by the architect Sampson Kempthorne ( his other design was hexagonal with a segmented interior , sometimes known as the Kempthorne star ) , allowed for four separate work and exercise yards , one for each class of inmate . Separating the inmates was intended to serve three purposes : to direct treatment to those who most needed it ; to deter others from pauperism ; and as a physical barrier against illness , physical and mental . The commissioners argued that buildings based on Kempthorne 's plans would be symbolic of the recent changes to the provision of poor relief ; one assistant commissioner expressed the view that they would be something " the pauper would feel it was utterly impossible to contend against " , and " give confidence to the Poor Law Guardians " . Another assistant commissioner claimed the new design was intended as a " terror to the able @-@ bodied population " , but the architect George Gilbert Scott was critical of what he called " a set of ready @-@ made designs of the meanest possible character " . Some critics of the new Poor Law noted the similarities between Kempthorne 's plans and model prisons , and doubted that they were merely coincidental . Augustus Pugin compared Kempthorne 's hexagonal plan with the " antient poor hoyse " , in what Professor Felix Driver calls a " romantic , conservative critique " of the " degeneration of English moral and aesthetic values " .
By the 1840s some of the enthusiasm for Kempthorne 's designs had waned . With limited space in built @-@ up areas , and concerns over the ventilation of buildings , some unions moved away from panopticon designs . Between 1840 and 1870 about 150 workhouses with separate blocks designed for specific functions were built . Typically the entrance building contained offices , while the main workhouse building housed the various wards and workrooms , all linked by long corridors designed to improve ventilation and lighting . Where possible , each building was separated by an exercise yard , for the use of a specific category of pauper .
= = = Admission and discharge = = =
Each Poor Law Union employed one or more relieving officers , whose job it was to visit those applying for assistance and assess what relief , if any , they should be given . Any applicants considered to be in need of immediate assistance could be issued with a note admitting them directly to the workhouse . Alternatively they might be offered any necessary money or goods to tide them over until the next meeting of the guardians , who would decide on the appropriate level of support and whether or not the applicants should be assigned to the workhouse .
Workhouses were designed with only a single entrance guarded by a porter , through which inmates and visitors alike had to pass . Near to the entrance were the casual wards for tramps and vagrants and the relieving rooms , where paupers were housed until they had been examined by a medical officer . After being assessed the paupers were separated and allocated to the appropriate ward for their category : boys under 14 , able @-@ bodied men between 14 and 60 , men over 60 , girls under 14 , able @-@ bodied women between 14 and 60 , and women over 60 . Children under the age of two were allowed to remain with their mothers , but by entering a workhouse paupers were considered to have forfeited responsibility for their families . Clothing and personal possessions were taken from them and stored , to be returned on their discharge . After bathing , they were issued with a distinctive uniform : for men it might be a striped cotton shirt , jacket and trousers , and a cloth cap , and for women a blue @-@ and @-@ white striped dress worn underneath a smock . Shoes were also provided . In some establishments certain categories of inmate were marked out by their clothing , such as at Bristol Incorporation workhouse , where prostitutes were required to wear a yellow dress and pregnant single women a red dress ; such practices were deprecated by the Poor Law Commission in a directive issued in 1839 entitled " Ignominious Dress for Unchaste Women in Workhouses " , but they continued until at least 1866 . Some workhouses had a separate " foul " or " itch " ward , where inmates diagnosed with skin diseases such as scabies could be detained before entering the workhouse proper .
Conditions in the casual wards were worse than in the relieving rooms and deliberately designed to discourage vagrants , who were considered potential trouble @-@ makers and probably disease @-@ ridden . Vagrants who presented themselves at the door of a workhouse were at the mercy of the porter , whose decision it was whether or not to allocate them a bed for the night in the casual ward . Those refused entry risked being sentenced to two weeks of hard labour if they were found begging or sleeping in the open and prosecuted for an offence under the Vagrancy Act 1824 .
A typical early 19th @-@ century casual ward was a single large room furnished with some kind of bedding and perhaps a bucket in the middle of the floor for sanitation . The bedding on offer could be very basic : the Poor Law authorities in Richmond in the mid @-@ 1840s provided only straw and rags , although beds were available for the sick . In return for their night 's accommodation vagrants might be expected to undertake a certain amount of work before leaving the next day , such as at Guisborough , where men were required to break stones for three hours and women to pick oakum , two hours before breakfast and one after . Until the passage of the Casual Poor Act 1882 vagrants could discharge themselves before 11 am on the day following their admission , but from 1883 onwards they were required to be detained until 9 am on the second day . Those who were admitted to the workhouse again within one month were required to be detained until the fourth day after their admission .
Inmates were free to leave whenever they wished after giving reasonable notice , generally considered to be three hours , but if a parent discharged him or herself then the children were also discharged , to prevent them from being abandoned . The comic actor Charlie Chaplin , who spent some time with his mother in Lambeth workhouse , records in his autobiography that when he and his half @-@ brother returned to the workhouse after having been sent to a school in Hanwell , he was met at the gate by his mother Hannah , dressed in her own clothes . Desperate to see them again she had discharged herself and the children ; they spent the day together playing in Kennington Park and visiting a coffee shop , after which she readmitted them all to the workhouse .
= = = Work = = =
Some Poor Law authorities hoped that payment for the work undertaken by the inmates would produce a profit for their workhouses , or at least allow them to be self @-@ supporting , but whatever small income could be produced never matched the running costs . Eighteenth @-@ century inmates were poorly managed , and lacked either the inclination or skills to compete effectively with free market industries such as spinning and weaving . Some workhouses operated not as places of employment , but as houses of correction , a role similar to that trialled by Buckinghamshire magistrate Matthew Marryott . Between 1714 and 1722 he experimented with using the workhouse as a test of poverty rather than a source of profit , leading to the establishment of a large number of workhouses for that purpose . Nevertheless , local people became concerned about the competition to their businesses from cheap workhouse labour . As late as 1888 , for instance , the Firewood Cutters Protection Association was complaining that the livelihood of its members was being threatened by the cheap firewood on offer from the workhouses in the East End of London .
Many inmates were allocated tasks in the workhouse such as caring for the sick or teaching that were beyond their capabilities , but most were employed on " generally pointless " work , such as breaking stones or removing the hemp from telegraph wires . Others picked oakum using a large metal nail known as a spike , which may be the source of the workhouse 's nickname . Bone @-@ crushing , useful in the creation of fertiliser , was a task most inmates could perform , until a government inquiry into conditions in the Andover workhouse in 1845 found that starving paupers were reduced to fighting over the rotting bones they were supposed to be grinding , to suck out the marrow . The resulting scandal led to the withdrawal of bone @-@ crushing as an employment for those living in workhouses and the replacement of the Poor Law Commission by the Poor Law Board in 1847 . Conditions thereafter were regulated according to a list of rules contained in the 1847 Consolidated General Order , which included guidance on issues such as diet , staff duties , dress , education , discipline and redress of grievances .
Some Poor Law Unions opted to send destitute children to the British colonies , in particular to Canada and Australia , where it was hoped the fruits of their labour would contribute to the defence of the empire and enable the colonies to buy more British exports . Known as Home Children , the Philanthropic Farm school alone sent more than 1000 boys to the colonies between 1850 and 1871 , many of them taken from workhouses . In 1869 Maria Rye and Annie Macpherson , " two spinster ladies of strong resolve " , began taking groups of orphans and children from workhouses to Canada , most of whom were taken in by farming families in Ontario . The Canadian government paid a small fee to the ladies for each child delivered , but most of the cost was met by charities or the Poor Law Unions .
As far as possible elderly inmates were expected to undertake the same kind of work as the younger men and women , although concessions were made to their relative frailty . They might alternatively be required to chop firewood , clean the wards , or carry out other domestic tasks . In 1882 Lady Brabazon , later the Countess of Meath , set up a project to provide alternative occupation for non @-@ able @-@ bodied inmates , known as the Brabazon scheme . Volunteers provided training in crafts such as knitting , embroidery and lace making , all costs initially being borne by Lady Brabazon herself . Although slow to take off , when workhouses discovered that the goods being produced were saleable and could make the enterprise self @-@ financing , the scheme gradually spread across the country , and by 1897 there were more than 100 branches .
= = = Diet = = =
In 1836 the Poor Law Commission distributed six diets for workhouse inmates , one of which was to be chosen by each Poor Law Union depending on its local circumstances . Although dreary , the food was generally nutritionally adequate , and according to contemporary records was prepared with great care . Issues such as training staff to serve and weigh portions were well understood . The diets included general guidance , as well as schedules for each class of inmate . They were laid out on a weekly rotation , the various meals selected on a daily basis , from a list of foodstuffs . For instance , a breakfast of bread and gruel was followed by dinner , which might consist of cooked meats , pickled pork or bacon with vegetables , potatoes , yeast dumpling , soup and suet , or rice pudding . Supper was normally bread , cheese and broth , and sometimes butter or potatoes .
The larger workhouses had separate dining rooms for males and females ; workhouses without separate dining rooms would stagger the meal times to avoid any contact between the sexes . Rations provided for the indoor staff were much the same as those for the paupers , although more generous . The master and matron , for instance , received six times the amount of food given to a pauper .
= = = Education = = =
Education was provided for the children , but workhouse teachers were a particular problem . Poorly paid , without any formal training , and facing large classes of unruly children with little or no interest in their lessons , few stayed in the job for more than a few months . In an effort to force workhouses to offer at least a basic level of education , legislation was passed in 1845 requiring that all pauper apprentices should be able to read and sign their own indenture papers . A training college for workhouse teachers was set up at Kneller Hall in Twickenham during the 1840s , but it closed in the following decade .
Some children were trained in skills valuable to the area . In Shrewsbury , the boys were placed in the workhouse 's workshop , while girls were tasked with spinning , making gloves and other jobs " suited to their sex , their ages and abilities " . At St Martin in the Fields , children were trained in spinning flax , picking hair and carding wool , before being placed as apprentices . Workhouses also had links with local industry ; in Nottingham , children employed in a cotton mill earned about £ 60 a year for the workhouse . Some parishes advertised for apprenticeships , and were willing to pay any employer prepared to offer them . Such agreements were preferable to supporting children in the workhouse : apprenticed children were not subject to inspection by justices , thereby lowering the chance of punishment for neglect ; and apprenticeships were viewed as a better long @-@ term method of teaching skills to children who might otherwise be uninterested in work . Supporting an apprenticed child was also considerably cheaper than the workhouse or outdoor relief . Children often had no say in the matter , which could be arranged without the permission or knowledge of their parents . The supply of labour from workhouse to factory , which remained popular until the 1830s , was sometimes viewed as a form of transportation . While getting parish apprentices from Clerkenwell , Samuel Oldknow 's agent reported how some parents came " crying to beg they may have their Children out again " . Historian Arthur Redford suggests that the poor may have once shunned factories as " an insidious sort of workhouse " .
= = = Religion = = =
Religion played an important part in workhouse life : prayers were read to the paupers before breakfast and after supper each day . Each
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= = = Management and staffing = = =
Although the commissioners were responsible for the regulatory framework within which the Poor Law Unions operated , each union was run by a locally elected board of guardians , comprising representatives from each of the participating parishes , assisted by six ex officio members . The guardians were usually farmers or tradesmen , and as one of their roles was the contracting out of the supply of goods to the workhouse the position could prove lucrative for them and their friends . Simon Fowler has commented that " it is clear that this [ the awarding of contracts ] involved much petty corruption , and it was indeed endemic throughout the Poor Law system " .
Although the 1834 Act allowed for women to become workhouse guardians provided they met the property requirement , the first female was not elected until 1875 . Working class guardians were not appointed until 1892 , when the property requirement was dropped in favour of occupying rented premises worth £ 5 a year .
Every workhouse had a complement of full @-@ time staff , often referred to as the indoor staff . At their head was the governor or master , who was appointed by the board of guardians . His duties were laid out in a series of orders issued by the Poor Law Commissioners . As well as the overall administration of the workhouse , masters were required to discipline the paupers as necessary and to visit each ward twice daily , at 11 am and 9 pm . Female inmates and children under seven were the responsibility of the matron , as was the general housekeeping . The master and the matron were usually a married couple , charged with running the workhouse " at the minimum cost and maximum efficiency – for the lowest possible wages " .
A large workhouse such as Whitechapel , accommodating several thousand paupers , employed a staff of almost 200 ; the smallest may only have had a porter and perhaps an assistant nurse in addition to the master and matron . A typical workhouse accommodating 225 inmates had a staff of five , which included a part @-@ time chaplain and a part @-@ time medical officer . The low pay meant that many medical officers were young and inexperienced . To add to their difficulties , in most unions they were obliged to pay out of their own pockets for any drugs , dressings or other medical supplies needed to treat their patients .
= = Later developments and abolition = =
A second major wave of workhouse construction began in the mid @-@ 1860s , the result of a damning report by the Poor Law inspectors on the conditions found in infirmaries in London and the provinces . Of one workhouse in Southwark , London , an inspector observed bluntly that " The workhouse does not meet the requirements of medical science , nor am I able to suggest any arrangements which would in the least enable it to do so " . By the middle of the 19th century there was a growing realisation that the purpose of the workhouse was no longer solely or even chiefly to act as a deterrent to the able @-@ bodied poor , and the first generation of buildings was widely considered to be inadequate . About 150 new workhouses were built mainly in London , Lancashire and Yorkshire between 1840 and 1875 , in architectural styles that began to adopt Italianate or Elizabethan features , to better fit into their surroundings and present a less intimidating face . One surviving example is the gateway at Ripon , designed somewhat in the style of a medieval almshouse . A major feature of this new generation of buildings is the long corridors with separate wards leading off for men , women and children .
By 1870 the architectural fashion had moved away from the corridor design in favour of a " pavilion " style based on the military hospitals built during and after the Crimean War , providing light and well @-@ ventilated accommodation . Opened in 1878 , the Manchester Union 's infirmary comprised seven parallel three @-@ storey pavilions separated by 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) wide " airing yards " ; each pavilion had space for 31 beds , a day room , a nurse 's kitchen and toilets . By the start of the 20th century new workhouses were often fitted out to an " impressive standard " . Opened in 1903 , the workhouse at Hunslet in West Riding of Yorkshire had two steam boilers with automatic stokers supplying heating and hot water throughout the building , a generator to provide electricity for the institution 's 1 @,@ 130 electric lamps , and electric lifts in the infirmary pavilion .
As early as 1841 the Poor Law Commissioners were aware of an " insoluble dilemma " posed by the ideology behind the New Poor Law :
If the pauper is always promptly attended by a skilful and well qualified medical practitioner ... if the patient be furnished with all the cordials and stimulants which may promote his recovery : it cannot be denied that his condition in these respects is better than that of the needy and industrious ratepayer who has neither the money nor the influence to secure prompt and careful attendance .
The education of children presented a similar dilemma . It was provided free in the workhouse but had to be paid for by the " merely poor " ; free elementary education for all children was not provided in the UK until 1918 . Instead of being " less eligible " , those living in the workhouse were in certain respects " more eligible " than those living in poverty outside .
By the late 1840s most workhouses outside London and the larger provincial towns housed only " the incapable , elderly and sick " . Responsibility for administration of the Poor Law passed to the Local Government Board in 1871 , and the emphasis soon shifted from the workhouse as " a receptacle for the helpless poor " to its role in the care of the sick and helpless . The Diseases Prevention Act of 1883 allowed workhouse infirmaries to offer treatment to non @-@ paupers as well as inmates , and by the beginning of the 20th century some infirmaries were even able to operate as private hospitals . By the end of the century only about 20 per cent admitted to workhouses were unemployed or destitute , but about 30 per cent of the population over 70 were in workhouses . The introduction of pensions for those aged over 70 in 1908 did not result in a reduction in the number of elderly housed in workhouses , but it did reduce the number of those on outdoor relief by 25 per cent .
A Royal Commission of 1905 reported that workhouses were unsuited to deal with the different categories of resident they had traditionally housed , and recommended that specialised institutions for each class of pauper should be established , in which they could be treated appropriately by properly trained staff . The " deterrent " workhouses were in future to be reserved for " incorrigibles such as drunkards , idlers and tramps " . The Local Government Act of 1929 gave local authorities the power to take over workhouse infirmaries as municipal hospitals , although outside London few did so . The workhouse system was abolished in the UK by the same Act on 1 April 1930 , but many workhouses , renamed Public Assistance Institutions , continued under the control of local county councils . Even as late as the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 there were still almost 100 @,@ 000 people accommodated in the former workhouses , 5 @,@ 629 of whom were children . It was not until the 1948 National Assistance Act that the last vestiges of the Poor Law disappeared , and with them the workhouses . Many of the buildings were converted into old folks ' homes run by local authorities ; slightly more than 50 per cent of local authority accommodation for the elderly was provided in former workhouses in 1960 . Camberwell workhouse ( in Peckham , South London ) continued until 1985 as a shelter for more than 1000 homeless men , operated by the Department of Health and Social Security and renamed a resettlement centre . Southwell workhouse , now a museum , was used to provide temporary accommodation for mothers and children until the early 1990s .
= = Modern view = =
The Poor Law was not designed to address the issue of poverty , which was considered to be the inevitable lot for most people ; rather it was concerned with pauperism , " the inability of an individual to support himself " . Writing in 1806 Patrick Colquhoun commented that :
Poverty ... is a most necessary and indispensable ingredient in society , without which nations and communities could not exist in a state of civilisation . It is the lot of man – it is the source of wealth , since without poverty there would be no labour , and without labour there could be no riches , no refinement , no comfort , and no benefit to those who may be possessed of wealth .
Historian Simon Fowler has argued that workhouses were " largely designed for a pool of able @-@ bodied idlers and shirkers ... However this group hardly existed outside the imagination of a generation of political economists " . Workhouse life was intended to be harsh , to deter the able @-@ bodied poor and to ensure that only the truly destitute would apply , a principle known as less eligibility . Writing ten years after its introduction , Friedrich Engels described the motives of the authors of the 1834 New Poor Law as " to force the poor into the Procrustean bed of their preconceived notions . To do this they treated the poor with incredible savagery . "
The purpose of workhouse labour was never clear according to historian M. A. Crowther . In the early days of workhouses it was either a punishment or a source of income for the parish , but during the 19th century the idea of work as punishment became increasingly unfashionable . The idea took hold that work should rehabilitate the workhouse inmates for their eventual independence , and that it should therefore be rewarded with no more than the workers ' maintenance , otherwise there would be no incentive for them to seek work elsewhere .
= = In art and literature = =
The " dramatic possibilities " of the workhouse provided the inspiration for several artists including Charles West Cope , whose Board Day Application for Bread ( 1841 ) , depicting a young widow pleading for bread for her four children , was painted following his visit to a meeting of the Staines Board of Guardians . The " quintessential workhouse yarn " is of course Oliver Twist ( 1838 ) by Charles Dickens , which contains the well @-@ known request from Oliver to the master of the workhouse : " Please , sir , I want some more [ food ] " . Another popular piece of workhouse literature was the dramatic monologue In the Workhouse : Christmas Day ( 1877 ) by George Robert Sims , better known by its first line of " It is Christmas Day in the workhouse " . In chapter XXVII of his first novel Down and Out in Paris and London ( 1933 ) , George Orwell gives a brief but vivid account of his stay in a London workhouse when he roamed the streets as a tramp during a short period in his late twenties . In 1931 an early version of this account had already been published as an essay ( The Spike ) in an issue of The New Adelphi .
= John Waddy ( British Army officer ) =
Colonel John Llewellyn Waddy OBE ( born 17 June 1920 ) is a former officer of the British Army who served in World War II , Palestine and the Malayan Emergency before becoming director of the SAS .
Joining the British Army shortly before the Second World War , he initially served with the Somerset Light Infantry in India . He subsequently volunteered for the Parachute Regiment and saw action in the Italian Campaign in late 1943 . After returning to the United Kingdom with the 4th Parachute Brigade , part of the 1st Airborne Division , he took part in the Battle of Arnhem , where he was wounded and taken prisoner by German troops .
After the war Waddy remained in the army and saw action in the Mandatory Palestine and during the Malayan Emergency , for which he was mentioned in dispatches . He went on to hold a series of command posts with the Parachute Regiment , both at home and overseas , and was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1963 . He was an early incumbent in the post of Director SAS and did much to expand the Special Air Service 's role . He subsequently held a number of Military Advisor positions , most notably in Washington DC , Vietnam and , after resigning from the military , with Westland Helicopters and during filming of the movie A Bridge Too Far .
= = Early life = =
John Waddy was born on 17 June 1920 in Taunton , Somerset , the son of Lieutenant Colonel Richard Henry Waddy , DSO , and his wife Llewellyn . He was educated at Wellington College , Berkshire and then as a cadet at Royal Military College Sandhurst .
= = Second World War = =
= = = North Africa and Italy = = =
On 3 July 1939 , Waddy was commissioned into the Somerset Light Infantry as a second lieutenant and sent to India two months later with the 1st Battalion . After travelling from Taunton to Scotland he sailed from Britain on the same day that Britain declared war on Germany . He was promoted to acting , then temporary , captain from September 1940 , and substantive lieutenant on 3 January 1941 . His time in India , however , was mostly spent on exercises with little chance of action . Desperate to leave , Waddy successfully volunteered for a new British Parachute Battalion when the chance came in August 1941 , and in October joined 151st Parachute Battalion as their intelligence officer . Parachuting was rudimentary in India and training jumps were made from Vickers Valentia biplanes . He qualified for his jump wings on the same day that Japan attacked Pearl Harbor , although only two months later he was nearly killed in a training jump and spent three days in a coma .
In October 1942 the battalion was sent to North Africa and re @-@ designated 156th Parachute Battalion , where it became the central unit of the new 4th Parachute Brigade , formed in December . Waddy was briefly made adjutant of 156 Battalion , but quickly moved up to the post of 4th Brigade 's Intelligence Officer . The brigade moved from Egypt to Palestine in February 1943 , and to Tunisia in June where it joined the 1st Airborne Division . Waddy recalled that the introduction of the now famous maroon beret was particularly unpopular with 156 Battalion , who had previously worn bush hats . The 4th Brigade did not take part in the Invasion of Sicily but on 5 September the whole Division sailed to Taranto in Italy ( Operation Slapstick ) , successfully capturing the port with 156 Battalion and Brigade HQ in the vanguard .
The Division advanced northwards over the coming weeks , slowly pursuing the 1st German Parachute Division . In one action Waddy found an Italian 179mm Howitzer which he used to disperse Germans gathering to counter attack 156 Battalion 's positions , firing through open sights at a building in the centre of their front . Waddy was promoted to acting major in October and took charge of 156 Battalion 's B Company , a month before the Division was withdrawn and sailed back to the UK . On 24 January 1944 , he was made a war substantive captain and temporary major .
= = = Arnhem = = =
1st Airborne Division 's next deployment was in September 1944 during Operation Market Garden . The Allies planned to use airborne forces to secure key bridges over a number of rivers and canals in the Netherlands , opening a route around the Seigfried Line and into the heart of Germany . 1st Airborne Division was tasked with securing bridges across the Lower Rhine at Arnhem and 4th Parachute Brigade was detailed to occupy the northern approaches of the city in the event of a counterattack by German forces . The brigade was scheduled to arrive on the second day of the operation , 18 September , using drop zones protected by elements of 1st Airlanding Brigade . In the event , ground mist in England meant that the second lift was delayed by four hours , which spared the Dakota transport aircraft from meeting Luftwaffe fighters over the drop zone . Nevertheless , the aircraft encountered considerable anti @-@ aircraft fire as they approached the drop zone . Waddy later recalled that his aircraft was so near to the ground that he could see the upturned faces of the German gun crews . He observed numerous flak bursts and watched the escorting Hawker Typhoon fighters attacking flak batteries as they approached the DZ . His own aircraft was hit in the tail but the pilot continued to the drop zone where , despite bad yawing , Waddy and his men were able to jump . The paratroopers came under small @-@ arms fire directed at the aircraft 's doors as they left the aircraft and parachuted under heavy fire onto Ginkel Heath . Waddy 's signaller lost his radio as he jumped behind him ; the bulky equipment was hit by a round the moment he jumped out of the Dakota .
On the ground an irate captain , who had expected the men four hours earlier , explained to a shocked Waddy the rapidly deteriorating situation on the ground . With 11th Parachute Battalion despatched to Arnhem and 10th Parachute Battalion defending the wounded on the drop zone , only 156th Battalion was free to move . At about 5pm they moved off along the Utrecht @-@ Arnhem railway and met their glider @-@ borne elements at Wolfheze just before being strafed by a German fighter . Approaching Oosterbeek they encountered German Panzer troops and stopped for the night .
In the morning , fresh orders were issued to lead the 4th Brigade to the left flank of 1st Parachute Brigade . B Company were ordered to provide supporting fire from the flanks of A Company 's advance , which they successfully did before returning to battalion HQ and following up the advance . Lieutenant Colonel Sir Richard des Voeux ordered Waddy to take B Company through A Company 's positions and continue the advance to the high ground , believing that there was not much opposition . In fact A Company had been nearly destroyed , and Waddy passed numerous bodies on his way forward . As the company advanced , they were held up by what Waddy believes was a twin barrelled 20mm flak gun . He led a small group to attack it , but was spotted by a German sniper as they moved forward . A companion was killed instantly and Waddy , without his machine gun , could only fire ineffectively with his pistol . The sniper shot him in the groin and tried to hit him again as he started to crawl away , forcing Waddy to lay doggo for a moment before one of his men , a 6 foot 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) tall Rhodesian soldier , carried him back to Company HQ . Faced with a heavy concentration of enemy armour , the attack stalled and was then called off ; the battalion had taken such heavy casualties that it was reduced to the size of what was essentially a single company .
At the Regimental Aid Post , Waddy found that the doctors did not rate his chances particularly highly ; the 156 Battalion 's war diary even recorded that " B Company commander was fatally wounded " . He was taken next to a Field Ambulance post and from there to the Tafelburg hotel in Oosterbeek , now being used as a Main Dressing Station . Here he was operated on in the hotel 's billiard room where Major Guy Rigby Jones used the billiard table to perform surgery . A day later he was moved to a house opposite as the number of casualties increased . Because the aid stations were in the front lines of the Oosterbeek perimeter , they came under constant fire and he was wounded twice more . A mortar round shell fragment lodged in his left foot , and a later hit caused splinter injuries to his face and shoulder . On another occasion , as the battle seesawed around the aid post , Germans occupied his building . A British sniper shot a German rifleman , prompting a German sergeant to lecture the British about shooting at a Red Cross house . When the house caught fire he was taken outside and driven to a collection point from where German medics took him to Apeldoorn .
Waddy spent the next six weeks in a German hospital in Apeldoorn . Once again the British patients were lectured about firing at the Red Cross after a Spitfire strafed the operating theatre , but overall Waddy was impressed by the kindness of the German staff and guards . He narrowly avoided having his foot amputated when a nurse removed the splinter embedded in it with a pair of forceps , and once he had sufficiently recovered from his wounds he was taken to Stalag VII @-@ A where he remained until the camp was liberated at the end of April 1945 .
= = Post @-@ war service = =
Waddy remained in the army after the war ended and joined the HQ of 3rd Parachute Brigade before being sent to Palestine in September 1945 . A month later he joined 9th Battalion dealing with the Jewish terrorist threat and in July 1947 he was wounded once again , this time by members of the IZL . Because the Parachute Regiment was not allowed to recruit officers for longer than three years , Waddy was posted in March 1948 , after almost seven years with the regiment . He spent the next four years in staff posts , initially in Greece , then Taunton where he became GSO 3 for 43rd ( Wessex ) Division . Later he was sent to 1st Infantry Division in Egypt and then Libya . In July 1952 he was promoted to substantive major , and two months later was posted to Malaya as a company commander with the 1st Battalion , The Somerset Light Infantry . He spent a year in the country during the Malayan Emergency and was Mentioned in Despatches .
Returning from Malaya , Waddy spent time at RAF Staff College and as a training major for the Somerset Light Infantry Territorial Army Battalion . He then volunteered to rejoin the Parachute Regiment and was sent to the Canadian Joint Air Training Centre in Manitoba , Canada on exchange . In 1958 the Parachute Regiment was allowed to keep its own officers and Waddy swiftly applied . He was posted to Jordan and then Cyprus as 2IC of 2nd Battalion , an experience he likened to being back with family . In 1960 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and posted to Aldershot to command the Depot The Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces during which time he established the Parachute Regiment Battle Camp at Brecon , which later evolved into the Infantry Battle School . In 1962 he came chief instructor at a small arms school in Hythe . In the 1963 New Year Honours he was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his command of the depot .
In late 1964 , Waddy took up a new post as Colonel SAS , which later evolved into Director SAS ( now Director Special Forces ) , resulting in his promotion to full Colonel . Waddy was an early incumbent of this post and is credited with doing much to develop new roles for the SAS in the post colonial war period . He also wrote a paper envisaging counter @-@ terrorism and intelligence gathering roles for the service , predictions that have since been realised .
After brief stints in Washington DC and Fort Benning as a liaison officer , Waddy was posted to the British Embassy in Saigon as a defence advisor in 1970 . Here he was able to witness the Vietnam War first hand before returning to Britain in 1972 and joining the Joint Warfare Establishment at Old Sarum near Salisbury in Wiltshire .
= = Civilian service = =
Waddy resigned his commission in 1974 and became Military Advisor to Westland Helicopters , a post he held until his retirement in 1989 . Although he found the work stimulating , Waddy was frustrated by the Army 's lack of interest in the helicopter .
When production of the movie A Bridge Too Far began in 1975 , Waddy was given six months leave by Westland to act as chief Military Advisor , an appointment that John Frost thought was ideal . Waddy was responsible for training " Attenborough 's Private Army " , a group of fifty men who went through boot camp in order to portray Frost 's men at Arnhem Bridge and provide the backbone of the extra cast . Waddy confessed to being deeply concerned by the actors ' quality at first , but was able to turn them into men who looked and acted the part . Although there was little that Waddy or his fellow military consultants ( who included Frost , Roy Urquhart , James M. Gavin , Brian Horrocks and J.O.E. Vandeleur ) could do to greatly influence the film 's script , he was able to ensure that some parts were kept historically accurate . By way of thanking him after receiving some advice , Edward Fox referred to his driver as Waddy in his first scene in the movie , and he had a brief cameo appearance in one of the film 's final scenes .
Along with many veterans , Waddy has returned to Arnhem frequently . When visiting in 1954 he was presented with a damaged silver cigarette case bearing his surname . When he had it cleaned at home he discovered it was a present from his father to Colonel Hilaro Barlow , another 1st Airborne officer who was killed during the battle .
From 1982 to 1996 Waddy led talks for students of the Army Staff College on their battlefield tours at Arnhem , a role he has reprised since the Defence Academy restarted the tours in 2008 . He wrote a book on the subject in 1999 ( A Tour of the Arnhem Battlefields ) and is recognised as an authority on the battle .
= Robert Surcouf =
Robert Surcouf ( 12 December 1773 – 8 July 1827 ) was a French privateer and slave trader who operated in the Indian Ocean between 1789 and 1801 , and again from 1807 to 1808 , capturing over 40 prizes , while amassing a large fortune as a ship @-@ owner , both from privateering and from commerce for a time .
Surcouf started his career as a sailor and officer on the slave ships Aurore , Courrier d 'Afrique and Navigateur . Having risen to Captain , and in spite of the prohibition of slave trading by the National Convention in 1793 , he engaged in the business himself as a captain on Créole . He then captained the merchantman Émilie , on which he engaged in commerce raiding despite lacking a letter of marque . He preyed on British shipping , capturing the East Indiaman Triton , before returning to Île de France , where his prizes were confiscated . He then returned to France , where he obtained prize money from the government .
Returning to the Indian Ocean , Surcouf captained the privateers Clarisse and Confiance , raiding British , American and Portuguese merchantmen . He captured the East Indiaman Kent on 7 October 1800 . Returning to France , he was awarded the Legion of Honour and settled as a ship @-@ owner .
He briefly returned to the Indian Ocean in 1807 on the custom @-@ built Revenant before returning to France . There , he armed privateers and merchantmen . His privateers led successful campaigns against the British in the Indian Ocean and disastrous ones in the English Channel , except for Renard which achieved fame in her very costly victory over HMS Alphea on 9 September 1812 which exploded after repulsing French attempts at boarding it causing many casualties . After the Bourbon restoration , he organised fishing expeditions to Terre @-@ Neuve and amassed a considerable fortune . He died in 1827 and is buried in a graveyard at Saint @-@ Malo .
= = Career = =
= = = Youth = = =
Robert Surcouf was born 12 December 1773 in Saint @-@ Malo to a family of ship @-@ owners . His father , Charles @-@ Ange Surcouf de Boisgris , was the grandson of Robert Surcouf de Maisonneuve , who had captained the privateer Aimable during the reign of Louix XIV . On his mother 's side , Robert was a distant relative of René Duguay @-@ Trouin . When his parents sent him to Dinan college to become a priest , he fled at age thirteen to enlist on the merchantman Héron , which shuttled between Saint @-@ Malo and Cadiz .
On 3 March 1789 , he enlisted as a volunteer on the 700 @-@ ton Aurore , under Captain Tardivet , a slave ship bound for India . Aurore sailed to Pondicherry and ferried troops bound for Isle de France . On her next journey , seeking to purchase slaves on the Horn of Africa , Aurore was wrecked in Mozambique Channel , drowning 400 black slaves chained in the orlop . Tardivet chartered the Portugues San Antoine in October 1790 to return to Port @-@ Louis , but had to divert to Sumatra because of the weather , and only returned to Port @-@ Louis in late 1790 , on a French ship via the French colony of Pondicherry . Promoted to officer , Surcouf enlisted on the Courrier d 'Afrique , another slave ship , bound for Mozambique under Captain Garnier . Captain Tardivet then brought him over as Lieutenant on his new ship , Revanche . On Revanche , Surcouf made several expeditions off Madagascar .
Surcouf enlisted as a helmsman on the French Royal Navy 's 20 @-@ gun fluyt Bienvenue , under Lieutenant Haumont , bound for France . Bienvenue arrived at Lorient on 2 January 1792 , where Surcouf discovered the political changes France had undergone in the wake of the French Revolution .
After six months , Surcouf enlisted as a lieutenant on the slave ship Navigateur , under Captain Lejoliff . She departed on 27 August 1792 for Mozambique before sailing to Isle de France , where Surcouf was informed on his arrival of the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars .
Rising to the rank of captain , Surcouf took command of the brig Créole , a four @-@ gun slave ship . He departed Isle de France on 3 June 1794 for a journey off Africa and Madagascar , and engaged again in slave trading , even though it had been prohibited by the National Convention and the Assembly of Île Bourbon . Upon his return to Isle de France , agents of the Committee of Public Safety inspected Créole for evidence of slave trading , but left empty @-@ handed as Surcouf had already sold his slaves . When British naval forces arrived to blockade Isle de France , he served as an auxiliary ensign on the 40 @-@ gun frigate Cybèle and participated in the Action of 22 October 1794 .
= = = Cruise of Émilie and capture of Triton = = =
In the spring in 1795 , Surcouf took command of the 180 @-@ ton , privateer schooner Modeste , renamed Émilie , with a 32 @-@ man crew and four 6 @-@ pounder guns , armed by Malroux and Levaillant . Governor Malartic refused to provide a lettre de marque and ordered Émilie to go to the Seychelles to purchase tortoises as food for Isle de France .
Émilie departed on 3 September 1795 with a congé de navigation authorising her to defend herself , but not to take prizes as a privateer . The next day , she made a port call at Saint @-@ Denis before cruising to Mahé . At Sainte Anne Island , two large British ships chased him , but he was able to evade them by sailing through the reefs , at night .
Surcouf then decided to sail to the Mergui Archipelago to load a rice cargo . On 8 December 1795 , while in transit , cruising off the Ganges Delta , Surcouf captured his first prized , the ship Penguin , loaded with lumber , on which he detached a prize crew under Lieutenant Péru before sending her to Isle de France .
On 19 January 1796 , Surcouf met the pilot ship Cartier leading two merchantmen , the Russel and Sambolasse , through the Ganges delta . He attacked and captured them , finding the merchantmen to be carrying rice . After detaching prize crews , Surcouf transferred his command , along with his remaining 22 crew members and Émilie 's four guns , to Cartier , which ( according to Ambroise Louis Garneray ) he renamed Hasard . Surcouf then sent Émilie , under Lieutenant Croizet , together with his prizes , to Isle de France .
On the night of 28 January , Surcouf captured the 12 @-@ gun Diana , loaded with 6000 bags of rice . The next day , Cartier met a 26 @-@ gun Indiaman , the Triton , armed with 12 @-@ pounders and a 150 @-@ man crew ; having decided to attack , and recognising only too late the overwhelming superiority of his opponent , Surcouf , feeling threatened and unable to flee , decided to board her with his 26 men . After haranguing his men , he approached under a British flag , before hoisting French colours at the very last moment and launching a violent assault . In the ensuing 45 @-@ minute battle , Triton suffered 5 wounded and 10 killed , including her captain , Captain Burnycat , and the first officer , Picket ; The prisoners were transferred to Diana , which Surcouf released against a 30 @,@ 000 rupee ransom .
Surcouf returned to Ile de France with his prizes , where he arrived on 10 March 1796 , although Hasard was captured by HMS Victorious on the journey back . As Émilie had been armed as a merchant rather than a privateer , the Prize court seized her prizes and sold them for the benefit of the State , although their capture was declared to be legal . Surcouf returned to France to claim his prize money , and on 3 September 1797 , the government finally granted him 660 @,@ 000 francs , of which he only received 80 @,@ 000 .
= = = Cruise of Clarisse = = =
In early 1798 , after 14 months in Paris , Surcouf took command of the Clarisse , a 14 @-@ gun privateer brig armed with four 12 @-@ pounders , ten 8 @-@ pounders , and manned by a 120 @-@ strong complement . He departed from Paimboeuf Nantes in February 1798 , this time with a proper lettre de marque . During the journey to Isle de France , Clarisse chased a British slave ship , which escaped after one of her shots cut off Clarisse ' s foremast tops . Surcouf captured a British brig South of Cape of Good Hope , which surrendered at the warning shot , on which he sent a prize crew under Captain Dujardin , and arrived La Réunion on 5 December .
In early 1799 , Surcouf sailed to the city of Susoh in Aceh , on Sumatra , where he found two 20 @-@ gun merchantmen anchored in the harbour , in the process of loading pepper ; Clarisse dropped anchor close by and opened fire , after which Surcouf sent his older brother Nicolas to head a 20 @-@ man board party on Clarisse ' s boats and board the largest of the ships , while he boarded her with Clarisse from the opposite side ; assaulted from two sides , she surrendered after a 30 @-@ minute battle . The other ship cut her anchor and attempted to flee , but she was overhauled by the boats of Clarisse and captured without resistance , most of her crew being ashore . Surcouf returned to Île de France with his prizes in June .
On 16 August , Clarisse departed Isle de France for another cruise ; she sailed to La Réunion carrying despatches of Malartic to the governor . She then cruised to Java to procure water , where she arrived on 27 September . On 1 October , Surcouf captured a Danish merchantman , which he sent away under Lieutenant Fonroc ; on 4 November , the Portuguese merchantman Nostra Signora de la Conception carrying 116 000 piastres ; on 6 , a British ship laden with a salt cargo ; and on 11 November , the 20 @-@ gun Auspicious , with a cargo worth 1 @,@ 032 @,@ 580 francs .
Surcouf sailed to Mergui to purchase food and free his prisoners , and put to sail on 10 December . En route , he met the fellow French privateer Malartic , under Jean Dutertre ; soon after , the privateers met a British frigate , 38 @-@ gun frigate HMS Sybille , which gave chase and which Surcouf managed to outsail by throwing eight guns overboard , along with various other implements .
On 1 January 1800 , Clarisse captured a large rice @-@ laden merchantman , the British James . On 3 January , she detected two American 16 @-@ carronade ships forming a line of battle ; although Clarisse lacked the eight guns sacrificed to escape Sybille and 60 of her men detached on her various prizes , Surcouf engaged . Clarisse raked the rear @-@ most ship , the Louisa , and boarded her , while simultaneously firing a broadside on the other ship , Mercury , which attempted to rescue her mate . Nicolas Surcouf led a 30 @-@ man boarding party to seize Louisa , while Mercury escaped . Clarisse could not give chase , her bowsprit having been destroyed in the collision with Louisa . Nicolas Surcouf took a prize crew and sailed Louisa back to Port Louis .
Clarisse continued her patrol , capturing the ships Catherine , Haderbux , Anna Maria , Nostra Signora de la Cruz , Louis , Janna , Notre Dame de Bon Succès and Albion , before sailing back to Isle de France with her prizes . She arrived in early February 1800 .
= = = Cruise of Confiance and capture of Kent = = =
In May 1800 , Surcouf took command of Confiance , a fast 18 @-@ gun brig from Bordeaux , with a 150 @-@ man complement ; the competition with Dutertre for the captainship of Confiance almost degenerated into a duel , and Governor Malartic had to intervene to prevent it , stating that such a confrontation would be " an English victory " . The sailor and painter Ambroise Louis Garneray , future biographer of Surcouf , enlisted at this time .
In late April 1800 , Confiance cruised off Sunda Strait , where she captured the American ship ; she then left the strait to avoid the US frigate Essex which was known to cruise in these waters , and sailed to the Seychelles . There , he escaped a British ship of the line and a frigate , and sailed on to cruise the Bay of Bengal .
On 19 September , Confiance captured the Prize , from Calcutta , which has stored eight of her ten guns in her hold to improve her stability . Prize was sent off to Mauritius on the next day with an 85 @-@ man prize crew . Surcouf then steered for Ganjam , where he captured three smaller ships .
On 7 October 1800 , off Sand Heads , near Calcutta , Confiance met the 40 @-@ gun East Indiaman Kent , of 824 tons burthen , under Captain Robert Rivington . Kent had rescued the crew of another ship , the Queen , destroyed by fire , and therefore had an exceptionally large complement of 437 men , including her passengers ; 300 of them were soldiers and sailors ; Surcouf managed to board his larger opponent and , after over an hour and a half of battle across the decks of the ship , seize control of the Kent .
The British had fourteen killed , including the captain , and 44 wounded , while the French suffered five killed and ten wounded . The privateers were then granted one hour of free pillaging on Kent before Surcouf restored order ; however , the female passengers were strictly protected and sentries were placed in front of their apartments . Amongst the prisoners were General Frederick St. John and his wife , Arabella Craven .
The first officer of Confiance , Joachim Drieux , was sent on Kent with a 60 @-@ man prize crew , while her passengers were released on a merchantman that Surcouf stopped a few days later . Confiance and Kent arrived at the Rade des Pavillons in Port @-@ Louis in November . The capture of Kent became a sensation , and the British Admiralty promised a reward for the capture of Surcouf .
After her return to Ile de France , Confiance was armed as a merchantman en aventurier with an 89 @-@ man crew and loaded with colonial goods for her return to France . On the journey , Surcouf still managed to capture a number of ships , notably the Portuguese Ebre , with eighteen 12 @-@ pounder carronades and a 60 @-@ man crew ; he released her against a ransom of 10 @,@ 000 piastres and after exchanging her greatmast with that of Confiance .
Upon her return , Confiance ran into the British blockade and was chased by a frigate ; Surcouf managed to evade her by throwing overboard all but one of her guns , his boats , anchors , chains and even components of his masts . He eventually arrived at La Rochelle on 13 April 1801 .
In France , Navy Minister Truguet attempted to enrol Surcouf in the Navy as an auxiliary officer , which he declined . Hennequin states that Bonaparte himself offered him the rank of Captain and the command of two frigates , which Surcouf declined for fear of losing his freedom of action , and awarded him a Sabre of honour . Surcouf was awarded the Legion of Honour at the founding of the Order , on 19 May 1802 .
On 28 May , in Saint @-@ Malo , he married Marie Blaize , who had been his fiancée for two years ; over the course of their marriage , they had five children together . Around 1805 , Surcouf started to arm privateers in Saint @-@ Malo in partnership with his father @-@ in @-@ law Louis Blaize de Maisonneuve , notably Caroline which captured four ships in the Indian Ocean under Nicolas Surcouf ; Marsouin ; and Confiance , which took two prizes under Joseph Potier .
= = = Cruise of Revenant = = =
After a five @-@ year retirement , in early 1807 , Surcouf ordered the 18 @-@ gun Revenant , a privateer which he had built on his own specifications . On 2 March , he departed Saint @-@ Malo with a 192 @-@ man crew to cruise off Bengal . On 9 March 1807 , while en route , off Madeira , Revenant captured the British slave ship Aun , of sixteen 12 @-@ pounders , recently departed from Liverpool , which Surcouf let go for a ransom , after throwing her guns overboard , wetting her gunpowder and destroying some of her sails .
Surcouf arrived at Île de France in June , defeating the British blockade and capturing several ships on the journey . During the subsequent campaign , which was to be his last , Surcouf captured 16 British ships , partly because British ships tended strike their colours as soon as they realised their opponent was Surcouf .
The arrival of Surcouf at Isle de France did not go unnoticed : the authorities and the population reacted with enthusiasm , while British insurance companies on Calcutta doubled the reward for his capture , which amounted to one rupee lake , or 250 @,@ 000 francs . On 3 September 1807 , Revenant departed to cruise off Bengal . On 25 September , she captured the British 12 @-@ gun Trafalgar carrying 10 @,@ 000 bags of rice , and the 14 @-@ gun Mangles , carrying 11 @,@ 000 ; on the 27th , the 12 @-@ gun Admiral Applin , with 9 @,@ 500 bags of rice ; on 1 October , the 1 @-@ gun Suzannah , with 5 @,@ 500 bags of rice ; on the 19th , the wood @-@ laden Success , which was burnt ; on the 30th , the 12 @-@ gun Fortune , which carried no cargo and was sunk ; on 15 November , the Indian Macauly ; on 18 December , the British 10 @-@ gun Sir William Burrough ; on the 30th , the Portuguese Oriente ; and on 6 January 1808 , the Arab Jem lab Dim . Surcouf sent these with prize crews to Isle de France , and then returned himself on 31 January 1808 .
When a British captive officer challenged Surcouf with the words " You French fight for money while we fight for honour " , Surcouf replied " Each of us fights for what he lacks most " .
Surcouf then gave command of Revenant to his first officer , Joseph Potier . After a short cruise , Potier returned with a 34 @-@ gun prize of the Portuguese East India Company , the Conceçáo de Santo Antonio , captured after a one @-@ hour fight .
On 4 July 1808 , Revenant was requisitioned by order of General Decaen , governor of Isle de France . She was renamed Iéna , and command given to Lieutenant Morice , with Lieutenant de vaisseau Albin Roussin as second officer . Surcouf had an altercation with Decaen but had to renounce his ship . He eventually purchased the Sémillante , which he renamed Charles . Returning with this vessel to Saint @-@ Malo , he arrived on 4 February 1809 .
= = = Late life = = =
From 1809 , Surcouf went into business as ship @-@ owner , and over the years , he armed a number of privateers : Auguste , under Pelletier ; Dorade ; Biscayenne ; Édouard ; Espadon ; Ville @-@ de @-@ Caen ; Adolphe and his last , the Renard , under Leroux . The British captured all the privateers sent into the Channel , with the exception of Renard .
In January 1814 , Surcouf was made a colonel in the National Guard of Saint @-@ Malo . During the Hundred Days , he served as a chief of Legion and maintained order . He resigned after the Battle of Waterloo and became a merchant , arming 19 merchantmen and establishing business with Newfoundland .
Surcouf died on 8 July 1827 , and was buried in Saint @-@ Malo graveyard with military honours . His tomb features a globe showing the Indian Ocean and an anchor , with the epitaph :
= = Legacy = =
Five ships of the French Navy were named in honour of Surcouf : a steam aviso ( sloop ) ; an armoured cruiser ; a submarine cruiser , which at the time of her launch was the largest submarine in the world , joined the Free French Naval Forces during the Second World War , and disappeared mysteriously after liberating Saint @-@ Pierre and Miquelon ; a large fleet escort destroyer , which was heavily damaged in a collision with a Soviet ship ; and the present @-@ day stealth frigate , one of the first stealth combat ships .
A number of legends have grown around Surcouf over the time : he is often stated to have been made a Baron of the Empire , which is untrue . Another legend states that Surcouf had thrown overboard gold seized on Kent ; in fact , Kent did not carry gold .
There is a tale that in 1816 , Surcouf challenged twelve Prussian officers to a duel and defeated all of them except for the last , which he let go " to tell in his country how a former soldier of Napoleon fights " ; this story has been debunked .
= HD 2039 =
HD 2039 is a yellow dwarf or yellow subgiant star in the constellation Phoenix . The star is not visible to the naked eye , and lies approximately 330 light years away from the Sun . HD 2039 is a relatively stable star , and an exoplanet at least three times the mass of the planet Jupiter has been discovered in its orbit ; this exoplanet , known as HD 2039 b , was the 100th exoplanet to be discovered .
= = Nomenclature = =
The designation HD 2039 from the Henry Draper Catalogue . The catalogue , which was published between 1918 and 1924 , was based on the work of Annie Jump Cannon and her team between 1911 and 1915 . HD 2039 does not have a common , collaquial name that is characteristic of stars like Sirius , Procyon , and Aldebaran .
= = Characteristics = =
HD 2039 is a stable G @-@ type star , meaning it shines with white light that can be seen in the Sun . In terms of mass , the star exhibits almost identical properties . HD 2039 exhibits a radius approximately six @-@ fifth times the size of the Sun 's . The star is slightly hotter than the Sun ; while HD 2039 has a temperature of 5984 K , the Sun 's surface temperature lies nearly 200 kelvins lower at 5778 K. HD 2039 is unusually metal @-@ rich , which has attracted the attention of astrophysicists .
= = = Distance and visibility = = =
The star 's magnitude as observed from Earth is 9 ; this signifies that the body is not visible with the naked eye , but can be seen with a telescope . HD 2039 lies roughly 330 light years from the Sun , which is about as far from the Sun as the second brightest star in the night sky , Canopus .
= = Planetary system = =
In 2002 , a planet was found by the Anglo @-@ Australian Planet Search team to be orbiting the star in a very eccentric orbit . It has a minimum mass more than three times that of Jupiter and has an orbital period of over three years . The planet orbits its star at a distance of approximately two AU away ; the planet Earth , in comparison , orbits at a distance of one AU away from the Sun . HD 2039 b 's discovery was reported quietly ; no press release was provided by the observatory that discovered the star 's planet , and no formal announcement of the planet 's existence was made . The entity was the 100th exoplanet to have been verified by the scientific community .
= Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic =
The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic ; ( Armenian SSR ; Armenian : Հայկական Սովետական Սոցիալիստական Հանրապետություն Haykakan Sovetakan Soc 'ialistakan Hanrapetut 'yun ; Russian : Армя ́ нская Сове ́ тская Социалисти ́ ческая Респу ́ блика Armyanskaya Sovetskaya Sotsialističeskaya Respublika ) also commonly referred to as Soviet Armenia or simply as Armenia was one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union in December 1922 . It was established in December 1920 , when the Soviets took over control of the short @-@ lived First Republic of Armenia and lasted until 1991 . It is sometimes called the Second Republic of Armenia , following the First Republic of Armenia 's demise .
As part of the Soviet Union , the Armenian SSR transformed from a largely agricultural hinterland to an important industrial production center , while its population almost quadrupled from around 880 @,@ 000 in 1926 to 3 @.@ 3 million in 1989 due to natural growth and large @-@ scale influx of Armenian Genocide survivors and their descendants . On August 23 , 1990 , it was renamed the Republic of Armenia , but remained in the Soviet Union until its official proclamation of independence on 21 September 1991 . Its independence was recognised on 26 December 1991 when the Soviet Union ceased to exist . After the dissolution of the Soviet Union , the state of the post @-@ Union Republic of Armenia existed until the adoption of the new constitution in 1995 .
= = History = =
= = = Sovietization = = =
From 1828 with the Treaty of Turkmenchay to the October Revolution in 1917 , Eastern Armenia was part of the Russian Empire and partly confined to the borders of the Erivan Governorate . After the October Revolution , Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin 's government announced that minorities in the empire could pursue a course of self @-@ determination . Following the collapse of the empire , in May 1918 Armenia , and its neighbors Azerbaijan and Georgia , declared their independence from Russian rule and each established their respective republics . After the near @-@ annihilation of the Armenians during the Armenian Genocide and the subsequent Turkish @-@ Armenian War , the historic Armenian area in the Ottoman Empire was overrun with despair and devastation .
A number of Armenians joined the advancing 11th Soviet Red Army . Afterward , Turkey and the newly proclaimed Soviet republics in the Caucasus negotiated the Treaty of Kars , in which Turkey resigned from its claims to Batumi to Georgia in exchange for the Kars territory , corresponding to the modern @-@ day Turkish provinces of Kars , Iğdır , and Ardahan . The medieval Armenian capital of Ani , as well as the cultural icon of the Armenian people Mount Ararat , were located in the ceded area . Additionally , Joseph Stalin , then acting Commissar for Nationalities , granted the areas of Nakhchivan and Nagorno @-@ Karabakh ( both of which were promised to Armenia by the Bolsheviks in 1920 ) to Azerbaijan .
From March 12 , 1922 to December 5 , 1936 , Armenia was a part of the Transcaucasian SFSR ( TSFSR ) together with the Georgian SSR and the Azerbaijan SSR . The policies of the first Soviet Armenian government , the Revolutionary Committee ( Revkom ) , headed by young , inexperienced , and militant communists such as Sarkis Kasyan and Avis Nurijanyan , were implemented in a highhanded manner and did not take into consideration the poor conditions of the republic and the general weariness of the people after years of conflict and civil strife . As the Soviet Armenian historian Bagrat Borian , who was to later perish during Stalin 's purges , wrote in 1929 :
The Revolutionary Committee started a series of indiscriminate seizures and confiscations , without regard to class , and without taking into account the general economic and psychological state of the peasantry . Devoid of revolutionary planning , and executed with needless brutality , these confiscations were unorganized and promiscuous . Unattended by disciplinary machinery , without preliminary propaganda or enlightenment , and with utter disregard of the country 's unusually distressing condition , the Revolutionary Committee issued its orders nationalizing food supply of the cities and peasantry . With amazing recklessness and unconcern , they seized and nationalized everything – military uniforms , artisan tools , rice mills , water mills , barbers ' implements , beehives , linen , household furniture , and livestock .
Such was the degree and scale of the requisitioning and terror imposed by the local Cheka that in February 1921 the Armenians , led by former leaders of the republic , rose up in revolt and briefly unseated the communists in Yerevan . The Red Army , which was campaigning in Georgia at the time , returned to suppress the revolt and drove its leaders out of Armenia .
Convinced that these heavy @-@ handed tactics were the source of the alienation of the native population to Soviet rule , in 1921 Moscow appointed an experienced administrator , Alexander Miasnikian , to carry out a more moderate policy and one better attuned to Armenian sensibilities . With the introduction of the New Economic Policy ( NEP ) , Armenians began to enjoy a period of relative stability . Life under the Soviet rule proved to be a soothing balm in contrast to the turbulent final years of the Ottoman Empire . The Armenians received medicine , food , as well as other provisions from the central government and extensive literacy reforms were carried out . The situation was difficult for the Armenian Apostolic Church , however , which became a regular target of criticism in educational books and in the media and struggled greatly under Communism .
= = = Stalin 's reign = = =
After the death of Vladimir Lenin in January 1924 , there was a brief power struggle in the Soviet Union , from which Joseph Stalin rose to take the reins of power . Armenian society and its economy were changed by Stalin and his fellow Moscow policymakers . In 1936 , the TSFSR was dissolved under Stalin 's orders and the socialist republics of Armenia , Azerbaijan , and Georgia were established instead . For the Armenian people , conditions grew worse under Stalin 's rule . In a period of twenty @-@ five years , Armenia was industrialized and educated under strictly prescribed conditions , and nationalism was harshly suppressed .
Stalin took several measures in persecuting the Armenian Church , already weakened by the Armenian Genocide and the Russification policies of the Russian Empire . In the 1920s , the private property of the church was confiscated and priests were harassed . Soviet assaults against the Armenian Church accelerated under Stalin , beginning in 1929 , but momentarily eased in the following years to improve the country 's relations with the Armenian diaspora . In 1932 , Khoren Muradpekyan became known as Khoren I and assumed the title of His Holiness the Catholicos . However , in the late 1930s , the Soviets renewed their attacks against the Church . This culminated in the murder of Khoren in 1938 as part of the Great Purge , and the closing of the Catholicosate of Echmiatsin on August 4 , 1938 . The Church , however , managed to survive underground and in the diaspora .
The Great Purge was a series of campaigns of political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union orchestrated against members of the Communist Party , writers and intellectuals , peasants and ordinary citizens . In September 1937 Stalin dispatched Anastas Mikoyan , along with Georgy Malenkov and Lavrentiy Beria , with a list of 300 names to Yerevan to oversee the liquidation of the Communist Party of Armenia ( CPA ) , which was largely made up of Old Bolsheviks . Armenian communist leaders such as Vagharshak Ter @-@ Vahanyan and Aghasi Khanjian fell victim to the purge , the former being a defendant at the first of the Moscow Show Trials . Mikoyan tried , but failed , to save one from being executed during his trip to Armenia . That person was arrested during one of his speeches to the CPA by Beria . Over a thousand people were arrested and seven of nine members of the Armenian Politburo were sacked from office . According to one study , 4 @,@ 530 people were executed by firing squad in the years 1937 @-@ 38 alone , the majority of them having been accused of anti @-@ Soviet or " counter @-@ revolutionary " activities , for belonging to the nationalist Dashnak party , or Trotskyism .
As with various other ethnic minorities who lived in the Soviet Union under Stalin , tens of thousands of Armenians were executed or deported . In 1936 , Beria and Stalin worked to deport Armenians to Siberia in an attempt to bring Armenia 's population under 700 @,@ 000 in order to justify an annexation into Georgia . Under Beria 's command , police terror was used to strengthen the party 's political hold on the population and suppress all expressions of nationalism . Many writers , artists , scientists and political leaders , including the writer Axel Bakunts and the celebrated poet Yeghishe Charents , were executed or forced into exile . Additionally , in 1944 , roughly 200 @,@ 000 Hamshenis ( Sunni Muslim Armenians who live near the Black Sea coastal regions of Russia , Georgia and Turkey ) were deported from Georgia to areas of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan . Further deportations of Armenians from the coastal region occurred in 1948 , when 58 @,@ 000 alleged supporters of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation and Greeks were forced to move to Kazakhstan .
= = = World War II = = =
Armenia was spared the devastation and destruction that wrought most of the western Soviet Union during the Great Patriotic War of World War II . The Wehrmacht never reached the South Caucasus , which they intended to do in order to capture the oil fields in Azerbaijan . Still , Armenia played a valuable role in the war in providing food , manpower and war matériel . An estimated 300 – 500 @,@ 000 Armenians served in the war , almost half of whom did not return . Many attained the highest rank of Hero of the Soviet Union . Over sixty Armenians were promoted to the rank of general , and with an additional four eventually achieving the rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union : Ivan Bagramyan ( the first non @-@ Slavic commander to hold the position of front commander when he was assigned to be the commander of the First Baltic Front in 1943 ) , Admiral Ivan Isakov , Hamazasp Babadzhanian , and Sergei Khudyakov . The Soviet government , in an effort to shore up popular support for the war , also allowed for token expressions of nationalism with the re @-@ publication of Armenian novels , the production of films such as David Bek ( 1944 ) , and the easing of restrictions placed against the Church . Stalin temporarily relented his attacks on religion during the war . This led to the election of bishop Gevork in 1945 as new Catholicos Gevork VI . He was subsequently allowed to reside in Echmiatsin .
Some Armenians who were captured by the Germans as POWs opted to serve in German battalions rather than risk life @-@ threatening conditions in POW camps . As with many Soviet soldiers who surrendered to German forces during fighting , Armenians were punished by Stalin and sent to work at labor camps located in Siberia .
At the end of the war , after Germany 's capitulation , many Armenians in both the Republic , including Armenian Communist Party First Secretary Grigor Harutyunyan ( Arutyunov ) , and the diaspora lobbied Stalin to reconsider the issue of taking back the provinces of Kars , Iğdır , and Ardahan , which Armenia had lost to Turkey in the Treaty of Kars . In September , 1945 , the Soviet Union announced that it would annul the Soviet @-@ Turkish treaty of friendship that was signed in 1925 . Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs Vyacheslav Molotov presented the claims put forth by the Armenians to the other Allied heads .
Turkey itself was in no condition to fight against the Soviet Union , which had emerged as a superpower after the war . By the autumn of 1945 , Soviet troops in the Caucasus and Soviet @-@ occupied Iran were already assembling for an invasion of Turkey . However , as the hostility between the East and West developed into the Cold War , especially after the issuing of the Truman Doctrine in 1947 , Turkey strengthened its ties with the West . The Soviet Union relinquished its claims over the lost territories , understanding that the newly formed NATO would intervene on Turkey 's side in the event of a conflict .
= = = Armenian immigration = = =
With the republic suffering heavy losses after the war , Stalin allowed an open immigration policy in Armenia ; the diaspora were invited to repatriate to Armenia ( nergaght ) and revitalize the country 's population and bolster its workforce . Armenians living in countries such as Cyprus , France , Greece , Iraq , Lebanon , and Syria were primarily the survivors or the descendants of the genocide . They were offered the option of having their expenses paid by the Soviet government for their trip back to their homeland . An estimated 150 @,@ 000 Armenians immigrated to Soviet Armenia between 1946 and 1948 and settled in Yerevan , Leninakan , Kirovakan and other towns .
Lured by numerous incentives such as food coupons , better housing and other benefits , they were received coldly by the Armenians living in the Republic upon their arrival . The repatriates spoke the Western Armenian dialect , instead of the Eastern Armenian spoken in Soviet Armenia . They were often addressed as aghbars ( " brothers " ) by Armenians living in the republic , due to their different pronunciation of the word . Although initially used in humor , the word went on to carry on a more pejorative connotation . Their treatment by the Soviet government was not much better . A number of Armenian immigrants in 1946 had their belongings confiscated upon arrival at Odessa 's port , as they had taken with them everything they had , including clothes and jewelry . This was the first disappointment experienced by Armenians ; however , as there was no possibility of return the Armenians were forced to continue their journey to Armenia . Many of the immigrants were targeted by Soviet intelligence agencies and the Ministry of Interior for real or perceived ties to Armenian nationalist organizations , and were later sent to labor camps in Siberia and elsewhere , where they would not be released until after Stalin 's death .
= = = Revival under Khrushchev = = =
Following the power struggle after Stalin 's death in 1953 , Nikita Khrushchev emerged as the country 's new leader . In a secret speech he gave in 1956 , Khrushchev denounced Stalin and his domestic policies largely loosened the government 's grip over the country . Khrushchev put more resources into the production of consumer goods and housing . Almost immediately , Armenia underwent a cultural and economic rebirth . Religious freedom , to a limited degree , was granted to Armenia when Catholicos Vazgen I assumed the duties of his office in 1955 . One of Khrushchev 's advisers and close friends , Armenian Politburo member Anastas Mikoyan , urged Armenians to reaffirm their national identity . In 1954 , he gave a speech in Yerevan where he encouraged them to republish the works of writers such as Raffi and Charents . The massive statue of Stalin that towered over Yerevan was pulled down from its pedestal by troops literally overnight and replaced in 1962 with that of Mother Armenia . Contacts between Armenia and the Diaspora were revived , and Armenians from abroad began to visit the republic more frequently .
Many Armenians rose to prominence during this era , including one of Khrushchev 's friends , Mikoyan , who was the older brother of the designer and co @-@ founder of the Soviet MiG fighter jet company , Artem Mikoyan . Other famed Soviet Armenians included composer Aram Khachaturyan , who wrote the ballets Spartacus and Gayane that featured the well known " Sabre Dance , " the noted astrophysicist and astronomer Viktor Hambardzumyan , and popular literary figures Paruyr Sevak , Sero Khanzadyan , Hovhannes Shiraz , and Silva Kaputikyan .
= = = Brezhnev = = =
After Leonid Brezhnev assumed power in 1964 , much of Khrushchev 's reforms were reversed . The Brezhnev era began a new state of stagnation , and saw a decline in both the quality and quantity of products in the Soviet Union . Armenia was severely affected by these policies , as was to be demonstrated several years later in the catastrophic earthquake that hit Spitak . Material allocated to the building of new homes , such as cement and concrete , was diverted for other uses . Bribery and a lack of oversight saw the construction of shoddily built and weakly supported apartment buildings . When the earthquake hit on the morning of December 7 , 1988 , the houses and apartments least able to resist collapse were those built during the Brezhnev years . Ironically , the older the dwellings , the better they withstood the quake .
Though the Soviet state remained ever wary of the resurgence of Armenian nationalism , it did not impose the sort of restrictions as were seen during Stalin 's time . On April 24 , 1965 , thousands of Armenians demonstrated in the streets of Yerevan during the fiftieth anniversary of the Armenian Genocide . Soviet troops entered the city and attempted to restore order . To prevent this from happening again , the Kremlin agreed to have a memorial built in honor of those who perished during the atrocities . In November 1967 , the memorial ( designed by the architects Kalashian and Mkrtchyan ) was completed at the Tsitsernakaberd hill above the Hrazdan gorge in Yerevan . The 44 @-@ meter stele symbolizes the national rebirth of the Armenians . Twelve slabs are positioned in a circle , representing twelve lost provinces in present @-@ day Turkey . In the center of the circle , in depth of 1 @.@ 5 meters , there is an eternal flame . A 100 @-@ meter wall around the memorial 's park contains the names of towns and villages where massacres are known to have taken place . Monuments in honor of other important events in Armenian history , such as that commemorating the battles of Sardarapat and Bash Abaran , were also permitted to be erected , as was the sculpting of the statues of popular Armenian figures like the fifth @-@ century military commander Vardan Mamikonian and the folk hero Sasuntsi David .
= = = The Gorbachev era = = =
Mikhail Gorbachev 's introduction of the policies of glasnost and perestroika in the 1980s also fueled Armenian visions of a better life under Soviet rule . The Hamshenis who were deported by Stalin to Kazakhstan began petitioning for the government to move them to the Armenian SSR . This move was denied by the Soviet government because of fears that the Muslim Hamshenis might spark ethnic conflicts with their Christian Armenian cousins . However , another event that occurred during this time made an ethnic clash between Christian Armenians and Muslims inevitable .
Armenians in the region of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , which was promised to Armenia by the Bolsheviks but transferred to the Azerbaijan SSR by Stalin , began a movement to unite the area with Armenia . The majority Armenian population expressed concern about the forced " Azerification " of the region . On February 20 , 1988 , the Supreme Soviet of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Autonomous Oblast voted to unify with Armenia . Demonstrations took place in Yerevan showing support for the Karabakh Armenians . Azerbaijani authories encouraged counter demonstrations . However , these soon broke down into violence against Armenians in the city of Sumgait . Soon , ethnic rioting broke out between Armenians and Azeris , preventing a solid unification from taking place . A formal petition written to Gorbachev and senior leaders in Moscow asked for the unification of the enclave with Armenia , but the claim was rejected in the spring of 1988 . Until then , the Soviet leader had been viewed favorably by Armenians , but following his refusal to alter his stance on the issue , Gorbachev 's standing among Armenians deteriorated sharply .
= = Independence = =
Tension between central and local government heightened in the final years of the Soviet Union 's existence . On May 5 , 1990 , the New Armenian Army ( NAA ) , a defense force envisioned to serve as a separate entity from the Soviet Union 's military , was created . A celebration was planned for May 28 , the anniversary of the creation of the first Armenian republic . However , on May 27 hostilities broke out between the NAA and the MVD troops based in Yerevan , resulting in the deaths of five Armenians in a shootout at the railway station . Witnesses claimed that the MVD had used an excessive amount of force in the firefight and insisted that it had instigated the fighting . Further firefights between Armenian militiamen and the MVD in nearby Sovetashen ( now Nubarashen ) resulted in the deaths of twenty @-@ seven people and an indefinite cancellation of the May 28 celebration .
On March 17 , 1991 , Armenia , along with the Baltics , Georgia and Moldova , boycotted a union @-@ wide referendum in which 78 % of all voters voted for the retention of the Soviet Union in a reformed form . On August 23 , 1991 , Armenia became one of the first republics to declare independence from the Soviet Union . Armenia 's desire to break away from the Soviet Union largely stemmed from Moscow 's intransigence on Karabakh , mishandling of the earthquake relief effort , and the shortcomings of the Soviet economy .
On September 21 , 1991 , Armenia declared its independence . Tensions between Armenia and Azerbaijan continued to escalate , ultimately leading to the outbreak of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War . Despite a cease @-@ fire in place since 1994 , Armenia has yet to resolve its conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . The country , however , has seen substantial development since independence , moving away from a planned economy to a privatized one and adopting a representative democratic system of government . Armenia remains blockaded by both Turkey and Azerbaijan over the Karabakh dispute . It maintains friendly relations with its neighboring states of Georgia and Iran and is a strategic ally of Russia .
On July 5 , 1995 , the new constitution of the Republic of Armenia was adopted .
= = Government = =
The structure of government in the Armenian SSR was identical to that of the other Soviet republics . The highest political body of the republic was the Armenian Supreme Soviet , which included the highest judicial branch of the republic , the supreme court . Members of the Supreme Soviet served for a term of five years , whereas regional deputies served for two and a half years . All officials holding office were mandated to be members of the Communist Party and sessions were convened in the Supreme Soviet building in Yerevan .
= = Economy = =
Under the Soviet system , the centralized economy of the republic banned private ownership of income producing property . Beginning in the late 1920s , privately owned farms in Armenia were collectivized and placed under the directive of the state , although this was often met with active resistance by the peasantry . During the same time ( 1929 – 1936 ) , the government also began the process of industrialization in Armenia . By 1935 , the gross product of agriculture was 132 % of that of 1928 and the gross product of industry was 650 % to that of 1928 . The economic revolution of the 1930s , however , came at a great cost : it broke up the traditional peasant family and village institution and forced many living in the rural countryside to settle in urban areas . Private enterprise came to a virtual end as it was effectively brought under government control .
= = Culture and life = =
With the establishment of the Republic , Soviet authorities worked tenaciously to eliminate certain elements in society , in whole or in part , such as nationalism and religion , to strengthen the cohesiveness of the Union . In the eyes of early Soviet policymakers , Armenians , along with Russians , Ukrainians , Belarusians , Georgians , Germans , and Jews were deemed " advanced " ( as opposed to " backward " ) peoples , and were grouped together with Western nationalities . The Caucasus and particularly Armenia were recognized by academic scholars and in Soviet textbooks as the " oldest civilisation on the territory " of the Soviet Union .
At first , Armenia was not impacted significantly by the policies set forth by Lenin 's government . Prior to his debilitating illness , Lenin encouraged the policy of Korenizatsiya or " nativization " in the republics which essentially called for the different nationalities of the Soviet Union to " administer their republics " , establishing native @-@ language schools , newspapers , and theaters . In Armenia , the Soviet government ruled that all illiterate citizens up to the age of fifty to attend school and learn to read Armenian , which became the official language of the republic . The number of Armenian @-@ language newspapers ( Sovetakan Hayastan ) , magazines ( Garun ) , and journals ( Sovetakan Grakanutyun , Patma @-@ Banasirakan Handes ) grew . An institute for culture and history was created in 1921 in Echmiatsin , the Yerevan Opera Theater and a dramatic theater in Yerevan were built and established in the 1920s and 1930s , the Matenadaran , a facility to house ancient and medieval manuscripts was erected in 1959 , important historical studies were prepared by a new cadre of Soviet @-@ trained scholars , and popular works in the fields of art and literature were produced by such luminaries as Martiros Saryan , Avetik Isahakian and Yeghishe Charents , who all adhered to the socialist dictum of creating works " national in form , socialist in content . " The first Armenian film studio , Armenkino , released the first fiction film , Namus ( Honor ) in 1925 and the first sound film Pepo , both directed by Hamo Bek @-@ Nazarov .
Like all the other republics of the Soviet Union , Armenia had its own flag and coat of arms . According to Nikita Khrushchev , the latter became a source of dispute between the Soviet Union and the Republic of Turkey in the 1950s , when Turkey objected to the inclusion of Mount Ararat , which holds a deep symbolic importance for Armenians but is located on Turkish territory , in the coat of arms . Turkey felt that the presence of such an image implied Soviet designs on Turkish territory . Khrushchev retorted by asking , " Why do you have a moon depicted on your flag ? After all , the moon doesn 't belong to Turkey , not even half the moon ... Do you want to take over the whole universe ? " Turkey dropped the issue after this .
= Construction of the World Trade Center =
The construction of the first World Trade Center was conceived as an urban renewal project , spearheaded by David Rockefeller , to help revitalize Lower Manhattan . The project was developed by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey , which hired architect Minoru Yamasaki who came up with the specific idea for twin towers . After extensive negotiations , the New Jersey and New York state governments , which oversee the Port Authority , agreed to support the World Trade Center project at the Radio Row site on the Lower West Side of Manhattan , New York City . To make the agreement acceptable to New Jersey , the Port Authority agreed to take over the bankrupt Hudson & Manhattan Railroad , which brought commuters from New Jersey to the Lower Manhattan site and , upon the Port Authority 's takeover of the railroad , was renamed Port Authority Trans @-@ Hudson ( now known as PATH ) .
The towers were designed as framed tube structures , which provided tenants with open floor plans , uninterrupted by columns or walls . This was accomplished using numerous closely spaced perimeter columns to provide much of the strength to the structure , along with gravity load shared with the core columns . The elevator system , which made use of sky lobbies and a system of express and local elevators , allowed substantial floor space to be freed up for use as office space by making the structural core smaller . The design and construction of the World Trade Center , most centrally its twin towers , involved many other innovative techniques , such as the slurry wall for digging the foundation , and wind tunnel experiments . Construction of the World Trade Center 's North Tower began in August 1968 , and the South Tower in 1969 . Extensive use of prefabricated components helped to speed up the construction process . The first tenants moved into the North Tower in December 1970 and into the South Tower in January 1972 . Four other low @-@ level buildings were constructed as part of the World Trade Center in the 1970s , and a seventh building was constructed in the mid @-@ 1980s .
= = Planning = =
In 1942 , Austin J. Tobin became the Executive Director of the Port Authority , beginning a 30 @-@ year career during which he oversaw the planning and development of the World Trade Center . The concept of establishing a " world trade center " was conceived during the post – World War II period , when the United States thrived economically and international trade was increasing . In 1946 , the New York State Legislature passed a bill that called for a " world trade center " to be established . The World Trade Corporation was founded , and a board was appointed by New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey to develop plans for the project . Architect John Eberson and his son Drew devised a plan that included 21 buildings over a ten @-@ block area , at an estimated cost of $ 150 million . In 1949 , the World Trade Corporation was dissolved by the New York State Legislature , and plans for a " world trade center " were put on hold .
= = = Original plans = = =
During the post @-@ war period , economic growth was concentrated in Midtown Manhattan , in part stimulated by the Rockefeller Center , which was developed in the 1930s . Meanwhile , Lower Manhattan was left out of the economic boom . One exception was the construction of One Chase Manhattan Plaza in the Financial District by David Rockefeller , who led urban renewal efforts in Lower Manhattan . In 1958 , Rockefeller established the Downtown @-@ Lower Manhattan Association ( DLMA ) , which commissioned Skidmore , Owings and Merrill to draw up plans for revitalizing Lower Manhattan . The plans , made public in late June 1960 , called for a World Trade Center to be built on a 13 @-@ acre ( 53 @,@ 000 m2 ) site along the East River , from Old Slip to Fulton Street and between Water Street and South Street . The complex would include a 900 @-@ foot ( 275 m ) long exhibition hall , and a 50 – 70 story building , with some of its upper floors used as a hotel . Other amenities would include a theater , shops , and restaurants . The plan also called for a new securities exchange building , which the Downtown @-@ Lower Manhattan Association hoped would house the New York Stock Exchange .
David Rockefeller suggested that the Port Authority would be a logical choice for taking on the project , and argued that the Trade Center would provide great benefits in facilitating and increasing volume of international commerce coming through the Port of New York . Given the importance of New York City in global commerce , Port Authority director Austin J. Tobin remarked that the proposed project should be the World Trade Center , and not just a " world trade center . " After a year @-@ long review of the proposal , the Port Authority formally backed the project on March 11 , 1961 .
= = = Agreement = = =
The States of New York and New Jersey also needed to approve the project , given their control and oversight role of the Port Authority . Objections to the plan came from New Jersey Governor Robert B. Meyner , who resented that New York would be getting this $ 335 million project . Meanwhile , ridership on New Jersey 's Hudson and Manhattan Railroad ( H & M ) had declined substantially from a high of 113 million riders in 1927 to 26 million in 1958 , after new automobile tunnels and bridges opened across the Hudson River . Toward the end of 1961 , negotiations with outgoing New Jersey Governor Meyner regarding the World Trade Center project reached a stalemate . In December 1961 , Tobin met with newly elected New Jersey Governor Richard J. Hughes , and made a proposal to shift the World Trade Center project to a west side site where the Hudson Terminal was located . In acquiring the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad , the Port Authority would also acquire the Hudson Terminal and other buildings which were deemed obsolete . On January 22 , 1962 , the two states reached an agreement to allow the Port Authority to take over the railroad and to build the World Trade Center on Manhattan 's lower west side . The shift in location for the World Trade Center to a site more convenient to New Jersey , together with Port Authority acquisition of the H & M Railroad , brought New Jersey to agreement in support of the World Trade Center project .
= = = Controversy = = =
Even once the agreement between the states of New Jersey , New York , and the Port Authority was finalized , the World Trade Center plan faced continued controversy . The site for the World Trade Center was the location of Radio Row , which was home to hundreds of commercial and industrial tenants , property owners , small businesses , and approximately 100 residents . The World Trade Center plans involved evicting these business owners , some of whom fiercely protested the forced relocation . In June 1962 , a group representing approximately 325 shops and 1 @,@ 000 other affected small businesses filed an injunction , challenging the Port Authority 's power of eminent domain . The dispute with local business owners worked its way through the court system , up to the New York State Court of Appeals , which in April 1963 upheld the Port Authority 's right of eminent domain , saying that the project had a " public purpose . " On November 12 , 1963 , the United States Supreme Court refused to accept the case . Under the state law , the Port Authority was required to assist business owners in relocating , though many business owners regarded what the Port Authority offered as inadequate . Questions continued while the World Trade Center was constructed , as to whether the Port Authority really ought to take on the project , described by some as a " mistaken social priority . "
By 1964 , by which time the intended scale of the Yamasaki designed scheme had been made public with plans for the twin 110 @-@ story towers , private real estate developers and members of the Real Estate Board of New York also expressed concerns about this much " subsidized " office space going on the open market , competing with the private sector when there was already a glut of vacancies . An especially vocal critic was Lawrence A. Wien , owner of the Empire State Building , which would lose its title of tallest building in the world . Wien organized a group of builders into a group called the " Committee for a Reasonable World Trade Center " to demand that the project be scaled down .
In January 1964 , the Port Authority inked a deal with the State of New York to locate government offices at the World Trade Center . The Port Authority began signing commercial tenants in the spring and summer of 1964 , including several banks . In 1965 , the Port Authority signed the United States Customs Service as a tenant .
A final obstacle for the Port Authority was getting approval from New York City Mayor John Lindsay and the New York City Council , who raised concerns about the limited extent that the Port Authority involved the city in the negotiations and deliberations . Negotiations between The City of New York and the Port Authority were centered on tax issues . A final agreement was made on August 3 , 1966 , that the Port Authority would make annual payments to the City , in lieu of taxes , for the portion of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants . In subsequent years , the
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payments would rise as the real estate tax rate increased .
= = Design = =
= = = Design announced = = =
On September 20 , 1962 , the Port Authority announced the selection of Minoru Yamasaki as lead architect , and Emery Roth & Sons as associate architects . Originally , Yamasaki submitted to the Port Authority a concept incorporating twin towers , but with each building only 80 stories tall . Yamasaki remarked that the " obvious alternative , a group of several large buildings , would have looked like a housing project . " Yamasaki 's design for the World Trade Center was unveiled to the public on January 18 , 1964 , with an eight @-@ foot model . The towers had a square plan , approximately 207 feet ( 63 m ) in dimension on each side . The buildings were designed with narrow office windows , only 18 inches ( 45 cm ) wide , which reflected on Yamasaki 's fear of heights and desire to make building occupants feel secure . Yamasaki 's design called for the building facades to be sheathed in aluminum @-@ alloy .
To meet the Port Authority 's requirement to build 10 million square feet ( 930 @,@ 000 m ² ) of office space , the buildings would each need to be 110 stories tall . A major limiting factor in building heights is elevators ; the taller the building , the more elevators are needed to service the building , requiring more space @-@ consuming elevator banks . Yamasaki and the engineers decided to use a new system that included sky lobbies , which are floors where people can switch from a large @-@ capacity express elevator , which goes only to the sky lobbies , to a local elevator that goes to each floor in a section ( the local elevators can be stacked within the same elevator shaft ) . Located on the 44th and 78th floors of each tower , the sky lobbies enabled the elevators to be used efficiently , while also increasing the amount of usable space on each floor from 62 to 75 percent by reducing the number of required elevator shafts . The World Trade Center towers were the second supertall buildings to use sky lobbies , after the John Hancock Center in Chicago . This system was inspired by the New York City Subway system , whose lines include local stations where local trains stop and express stations where all trains stop .
Yamasaki , who had previously designed Saudi Arabia 's Dhahran International Airport with the Saudi Binladin Group , incorporated features of Arabic architecture into the design of the World Trade Center . The plaza was modelled after Mecca , incorporating features such as a vast delineated square , a fountain , and a radial circular pattern . Yamasaki described the plaza as " a mecca , a great relief from the narrow streets and sidewalks of the Wall Street area . " He also incorporated other features of Arabic architecture into the building design , including pointed arches , interweaving tracery of prefabricated concrete , a minaret like flight tower , and arabesque patterns .
The World Trade Center design brought criticism of its aesthetics from the American Institute of Architects and other groups . Lewis Mumford , author of The City in History and other works on urban planning , criticized the project and described it and other new skyscrapers as " just glass @-@ and @-@ metal filing cabinets . " Television broadcasters raised concerns that the World Trade Center twin towers would cause interference in television reception for viewers in the New York City area . In response to these concerns , the Port Authority offered to provide new television transmission facilities at the World Trade Center . The Linnaean Society of the American Museum of Natural History also opposed the Trade Center project , citing hazards the buildings would impose on migrating birds .
The structural engineering firm Worthington , Skilling , Helle & Jackson worked to implement Yamasaki 's design , developing the tube @-@ frame structural system used in the buildings . The Port Authority 's Engineering Department served as foundation engineers , Joseph R. Loring & Associates as electrical engineers , and Jaros , Baum & Bolles as mechanical engineers . Tishman Realty & Construction Company was the general contractor on the World Trade Center project . Guy F. Tozzoli , director of the World Trade Department at the Port Authority , and the Port Authority 's Chief Engineer , Rino M. Monti , oversaw the project .
= = = Structural design = = =
As an interstate agency , the Port Authority was not subject to local laws and regulations of the City of New York , including building codes . Nonetheless , the Port Authority required architects and structural engineers to follow the New York City building codes . At the time when the World Trade Center was planned , new building codes were being devised to replace the 1938 version that was still in place . The structural engineers ended up following draft versions of the new 1968 building codes , which incorporated " advanced techniques " in building design .
The World Trade Center towers included many structural engineering innovations in skyscraper design and construction , which allowed the buildings to reach new heights and become the tallest in the world . Traditionally , skyscrapers used a skeleton of columns distributed throughout the interior to support building loads , with interior columns disrupting the floor space . The tube @-@ frame concept , earlier introduced by Fazlur Khan , was a major innovation , allowing open floor plans and more space to rent . The buildings used high @-@ strength , load @-@ bearing perimeter steel columns called Vierendeel trusses that were spaced closely together to form a strong , rigid wall structure . There were 60 perimeter columns , narrowly spaced , on each side of the buildings . In all , the perimeter walls of the towers were 210 feet ( 64 m ) on each side , and the corners were beveled . The perimeter columns were designed to provide support for virtually all lateral loads ( such as wind loads ) and to share the gravity loads with the core columns . Structural analysis of major portions of the World Trade Center were computed on an IBM 1620 .
The perimeter structure was constructed with extensive use of prefabricated modular pieces , which consisted of three columns , three stories tall , connected by spandrel plates . The perimeter columns had a square cross section , 14 inches ( 36 cm ) on a side , and were constructed of welded steel plate . The thickness of the plates and grade of structural steel varied over the height of the tower , ranging from 36 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch ( 260 to 670 MPa ) . The strength of the steel and thickness of the steel plates decreased with height because they were required to support lesser amounts of building mass on higher floors . The tube @-@ frame design required 40 percent less structural steel than conventional building designs . From the 7th floor to the ground level , and down to the foundation , the columns were spaced 10 feet ( 3 m ) apart . All columns were placed on bedrock , which , unlike that in Midtown Manhattan , where the bedrock is shallow , is at 65 – 85 feet ( 20 – 26 m ) below the surface .
The spandrel plates were welded to the columns to create the modular pieces off @-@ site at the fabrication shop . The modular pieces were typically 52 inches ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) deep , and extended for two full floors and half of two more floors . Adjacent modules were bolted together , with the splices occurring at mid @-@ span of the columns and spandrels . The spandrel plates were located at each floor , transmitting shear stress between columns , allowing them to work together in resisting lateral loads . The joints between modules were staggered vertically , so the column splices between adjacent modules were not at the same floor .
The building 's core housed the elevator and utility shafts , restrooms , three stairwells , and other support spaces . The core of each tower was a rectangular area 87 by 135 feet ( 27 by 41 m ) , and contained 47 steel columns running from the bedrock to the top of the tower . The columns tapered after the 66th floor , and consisted of welded box @-@ sections at lower floors and rolled wide @-@ flange sections at upper floors . The structural core in 1 WTC was oriented with the long axis east to west , while that of 2 WTC was oriented north to south . All elevators were located in the core . Each building had three stairwells , also in the core , except on the mechanical floors where the two outside stairwells temporarily left the core in order to avoid the express elevator machine rooms , and then rejoined the core by means of a transfer corridor . It was this arrangement that allowed Stairwell A of 2 WTC to remain passable after the aircraft impact on September 11 , 2001 .
The large , column @-@ free space between the perimeter and core was bridged by prefabricated floor trusses . The floors supported their own weight , as well as live loads , provided lateral stability to the exterior walls , and distributed wind loads among the exterior walls . The floors consisted of 4 @-@ inch ( 10 cm ) thick lightweight concrete slabs laid on a fluted steel deck with shear connections for composite action . A grid of lightweight bridging trusses and main trusses supported the floors . The trusses had a span of 60 feet ( 18 m ) in the long @-@ span areas and 35 feet ( 11 m ) in the short span area . The trusses connected to the perimeter at alternate columns , and were on 6 @-@ foot @-@ 8 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 03 m ) centers . The top chords of the trusses were bolted to seats welded to the spandrels on the exterior side and a channel welded to the core columns on the interior side . The floors were connected to the perimeter spandrel plates with viscoelastic dampers , which helped reduce the amount of sway felt by building occupants .
Hat trusses ( or " outrigger truss " ) located from the 107th floor to the top of the buildings were designed to support a tall communication antenna on top of each building . Only 1 WTC ( north tower ) actually had an antenna fitted , which was added in 1978 . The truss system consisted of six trusses along the long axis of the core and four along the short axis . This truss system allowed some load redistribution between the perimeter and core columns and supported the transmission tower .
= = = Wind effects = = =
The tube frame design using steel core and perimeter columns protected with sprayed @-@ on fire resistant material created a relatively lightweight structure that would sway more in response to the wind , compared to traditional structures such as the Empire State Building that have thick , heavy masonry for fireproofing of steel structural elements . During the design process , wind tunnel tests were done at Colorado State University and at the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom to establish design wind pressures that the World Trade Center towers could be subjected to and structural response to those forces . Experiments were also done to evaluate how much sway occupants could tolerate . Subjects were recruited for " free eye exams , " while the real purpose of the experiment was to subject them to simulated building sway and find out how much they could comfortably tolerate . Many subjects did not respond well , experiencing dizziness and other ill effects . One of the chief engineers Leslie Robertson worked with Canadian engineer Alan G. Davenport to develop viscoelastic dampers to absorb some of the sway . These viscoelastic dampers , used throughout the structures at the joints between floor trusses and perimeter columns , along with some other structural modifications reduced the building sway to an acceptable level .
= = = Aircraft impact = = =
The structural engineers on the project also considered the possibility that an aircraft could crash into the building . In July 1945 , a B @-@ 25 bomber that was lost in the fog had crashed into the 78th and 79th floors of the Empire State Building . A year later , another airplane nearly crashed into the 40 Wall Street building , and there was another close call at the Empire State Building . In designing the World Trade Center , Leslie Robertson considered the scenario of the impact of a jet airliner , the Boeing 707 , which might be lost in the fog , seeking to land at JFK or at Newark airports . The National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) found a three @-@ page white paper that mentioned another aircraft impact analysis , involving impact of a jet at 600 mph ( 970 km / h ) , was indeed considered , but NIST could not locate the documentary evidence of the aircraft impact analysis .
= = = Fire protection = = =
Sprayed @-@ fire resistant materials ( SFRMs ) were used to protect some structural steel elements in the towers , including all floor trusses and beams . Gypsum wallboard in combination with SFRMs , or in some cases gypsum wallboard alone , was used to protect core columns . Vermiculite plaster was used on the interior @-@ side and SFRMs on the other three sides of the perimeter columns for fire protection . The 1968 New York City building codes were more lenient in some aspects of fire protection , such as allowing three exit stairwells in the World Trade Center towers , instead of six as required under older building codes .
In April 1970 , the New York City Department of Air Resources ordered contractors building the World Trade Center to stop the spraying of asbestos as an insulating material .
More fireproofing was added after a fire in February 1975 that spread to six floors before being extinguished . After the 1993 bombing , inspections found fireproofing to be deficient . The Port Authority was in the process of replacing it , but replacement had been completed on only 18 floors in WTC 1 , including all the floors affected by the aircraft impact and fires on September 11 , and on 13 floors in WTC 2 , although only three of these floors ( 77 , 78 , and 85 ) were directly affected by the aircraft impact .
The 1968 New York City building codes did not require sprinklers for high @-@ rise buildings , except for underground spaces . In accordance with building codes , sprinklers were originally installed only in the underground parking structures of the World Trade Center . Following a major fire in February 1975 , the Port Authority decided to start installing sprinklers throughout the buildings . By 1993 , nearly all of 2 WTC and 85 percent of 1 WTC had sprinklers installed , and the entire complex was retrofitted by 2001 .
= = Construction = =
In March 1965 , the Port Authority began acquiring property at the World Trade Center site . The Ajax Wrecking and Lumber Corporation was hired for the demolition work , which began on March 21 , 1966 to clear the site for construction of the World Trade Center .
= = = Twin Towers = = =
Groundbreaking was on August 5 , 1966 , marking the beginning of construction of the World Trade Center 's foundations . The site of the World Trade Center was located on landfill , with the bedrock located 65 feet ( 20 m ) below grade . In order to construct the World Trade Center , it was necessary to build " The Bathtub " , with the slurry wall along the West Street side of the site , to keep water from the Hudson River out . This method was used in place of conventional dewatering methods because lowering the groundwater table would cause large settlements of nearby buildings not built on deep foundations . The slurry method involves digging a trench , and as excavation proceeds , filling the space with a " slurry " mixture , composed of bentonite which plugs holes and keeps water out . When the trench was dug out , a steel cage was inserted , with concrete poured in , forcing the " slurry " out . The " slurry " method was devised by Port Authority chief engineer John M. Kyle Jr . Towards the end of 1966 , work began on building the slurry wall , led by Montreal @-@ based Icanda , a subsidiary of an Italian engineering firm , Impresa Costruzioni Opere Specializzate ( I.C.O.S. ) . It took fourteen months for the slurry wall to be completed , which was necessary before excavation of material from the interior of the site could begin . The original Hudson Tubes , which carried PATH trains into Hudson Terminal , remained in service as elevated tunnels until 1971 when a new PATH station was built .
Construction work began on the North Tower in August 1968 with construction beginning on the South Tower by January 1969 . In January 1967 , $ 74 million in contracts were awarded to the Pacific Car and Foundry Company , Laclede Steel Company , Granite City Steel Company , and Karl Koch Erecting Company to supply steel for the project . The Port Authority chose to use many different steel suppliers , bidding on smaller portions of steel , rather than buy larger amounts from a single source such as Bethlehem Steel or U.S. Steel as a cost @-@ saving measure . Karl Koch was also hired to do all the work of erecting the steel , and a contract for work on the aluminum facade was awarded to the Aluminum Company of America . Tishman Realty & Construction was hired in February 1967 to oversee construction of the project .
Extensive use of prefabricated parts for the perimeter framing and floor truss systems helped speed up the construction process and reduce costs , while providing greater quality control . Steel components were freighted into a Penn Central yard in Jersey City . From there , they were brought in early morning hours through the Holland Tunnel to the construction site , and lifted into place by a crane . Larger pieces were brought to the construction site by tugboats . A special type of crane , suitable for constructing such tall buildings , that used hydraulics to lift components and provided its own power was used in construction of the World Trade Center . The Favco Standard 2700 Crane , manufactured by Favelle Mort Ltd. of New South Wales , Australia was informally called a " kangaroo crane . "
In 1970 , tugboat workers went on strike , halting the transport of material to the construction site . The Port Authority attempted other means of transporting material , including via helicopter . When this method was tried , the helicopter lost its load of steel into the Kill Van Kull . Some other mishaps occurred during the construction process , including disruption of telephone service in Lower Manhattan when telephone cables were crushed by pile drivers . On March 16 , 1970 , an explosion injured six workers when a truck hit a propane tank . In all , 60 workers were killed in construction accidents while the World Trade Center was being built .
The topping out ceremony of 1 WTC ( North Tower ) took place on December 23 , 1970 , with 2 WTC 's ceremony ( South Tower ) occurring later on July 19 , 1971 . The first tenants moved into the North Tower on December 15 , 1970 , and into the South Tower in January 1972 . The buildings were dedicated on April 4 , 1973 ; Tobin , who had resigned the year before , was absent from the ceremonies .
Building the World Trade Center involved excavating 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 920 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material . Rather than transporting this material at great costs out to sea or to landfills in New Jersey , the fill material was used to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street . Work to demolish the piers began on January 5 , 1967 , including Pier 7 to Pier 11 which were all constructed around 1910 . The demolition work moved forward , despite conflicts between David Rockefeller , Governor Nelson Rockefeller , and Mayor John Lindsay regarding plans for Battery Park City . Landfill material from the World Trade Center was used to add land , and a cellular cofferdam was constructed to retain the material . The result was a 700 @-@ foot ( 210 m ) extension into the Hudson River , running six blocks or 1 @,@ 484 feet ( 452 m ) . This land was a " gift " to New York City , allowing more tax @-@ generating developments in Battery Park City .
The original estimates put forth by the Port Authority had the costs for construction of the World Trade Center at $ 350 million — an optimistic figure . In December 1966 , the Port Authority announced increased cost estimates , bringing the estimated total to $ 575 million . This announcement brought criticism of the project from private real estate developers , The New York Times , and others in New York City . The critics charged that the Port Authority figure was an unrealistically low estimate , and they estimated the project would end up costing $ 750 million . When the World Trade Center twin towers were completed , the total costs to the Port Authority had reached $ 900 million . The project was financed through tax @-@ exempt bonds issued by the Port Authority .
= = = Other buildings = = =
The World Trade Center complex included four other smaller buildings constructed during the 1970s . 3 World Trade Center was a 22 @-@ story building , which was home to the Marriott World Trade Center . It was designed by Skidmore , Owings and Merrill in 1978 – 79 . 4 World Trade Center , 5 World Trade Center , and 6 World Trade Center were all 8 – 9 story buildings that were designed by the same team as the Twin Towers , including Minoru Yamasaki , Emery Roth & Sons , and Skilling , Helle , Christiansen , Robertson . 7 World Trade Center was built in the mid @-@ 1980s , just north of the main World Trade Center site . The 47 @-@ story building was designed by Emery , Roth & Sons , and constructed on top of a Con Edison power substation .
= = Modifications = =
Over time , numerous structural modifications were made to suit the needs of tenants in the Twin Towers . Modifications were made in accordance with the Port Authority 's Tenant Alteration Review Manual and were reviewed by the Port Authority to ensure the changes did not compromise structural integrity of the buildings . In many instances , openings were cut in the floors to accommodate new stairways to connect tenant floors . Some steel beams in the core were reinforced and strengthened to accommodate heavy live loads , such as large amounts of heavy files that tenants had on their floors .
Repairs to structural elements on the lower levels of 1 WTC were made following the 1993 bombing . The greatest damage occurred on levels B1 and B2 , with significant structural damage also on level B3 . Primary structural columns were not damaged , but secondary steel members experienced some damage . Floors that were blown out needed to be repaired to restore the structural support they provided to columns . The slurry wall was in peril following the bombing and loss of the floor slabs which provided lateral support to counteract pressure from Hudson River water on the other side . The refrigeration plant on sublevel B5 , which provided air conditioning to the entire World Trade Center complex , was heavily damaged and replaced with a temporary system for the summer of 1993 . The fire alarm system for the entire complex needed to be replaced , after critical wiring and signaling in the original system was destroyed in the 1993 bombing . Installation of the new system took years to complete , and replacement of some components was still underway in September 2001 .
= Washington , D.C. =
Washington , D.C. , formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as " Washington " , " the District " , or simply " D.C. " , is the capital of the United States . The signing of the Residence Act on July 16 , 1790 , approved the creation of a capital district located along the Potomac River on the country 's East Coast . The U.S. Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any U.S. state .
The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district , which included the pre @-@ existing settlements of Georgetown and Alexandria . Named in honor of George Washington , one of the United States ' founding fathers and the leader of the American Continental Army who won the Revolutionary War , the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital . In 1846 , Congress returned the land originally ceded by Virginia ; in 1871 , it created a single municipal government for the remaining portion of the District .
Washington had an estimated population of 672 @,@ 228 as of July 2015 . Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the city 's population to more than one million during the workweek . The Washington metropolitan area , of which the District is a part , has a population of over 6 million , the sixth @-@ largest metropolitan statistical area in the country .
The centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District , including the Congress , President , and Supreme Court . Washington is home to many national monuments and museums , which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall . The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of many international organizations , trade unions , non @-@ profit organizations , lobbying groups , and professional associations .
A locally elected mayor and a 13 ‑ member council have governed the District since 1973 . However , the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws . D.C. residents elect a non @-@ voting , at @-@ large congressional delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives , but the District has no representation in the U.S. Senate . The District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty @-@ third Amendment to the United States Constitution , ratified in 1961 .
= = History = =
Various tribes of the Algonquian @-@ speaking Piscataway people ( also known as the Conoy ) inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century . One group known as the Nacotchtank ( also called the Nacostines by Catholic missionaries ) maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present @-@ day District of Columbia . Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people , some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks , Maryland .
In his Federalist No. 43 , published January 23 , 1788 , James Madison argued that the new federal government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance and safety . Five years earlier , a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia . Known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 , the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security .
Article One , Section Eight , of the Constitution permits the establishment of a " District ( not exceeding ten miles square ) as may , by cession of particular states , and the acceptance of Congress , become the seat of the government of the United States " . However , the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital . In what is now known as the Compromise of 1790 , Madison , Alexander Hamilton , and Thomas Jefferson came to an agreement that the federal government would pay each state 's remaining Revolutionary War debts in exchange for establishing the new national capital in the Southern United States .
= = = Foundation = = =
On July 9 , 1790 , Congress passed the Residence Act , which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River . The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington , who signed the bill into law on July 16 . Formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia , the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles ( 16 km ) on each side , totaling 100 square miles ( 259 km2 ) .
Two pre @-@ existing settlements were included in the territory : the port of Georgetown , Maryland , founded in 1751 , and the city of Alexandria , Virginia , founded in 1749 . During 1791 – 92 , Andrew Ellicott and several assistants , including a free African American astronomer named Benjamin Banneker , surveyed the borders of the federal district and placed boundary stones at every mile point . Many of the stones are still standing .
A new federal city was then constructed on the north bank of the Potomac , to the east of Georgetown . On September 9 , 1791 , the three commissioners overseeing the capital 's construction named the city in honor of President Washington . The federal district was named Columbia , which was a poetic name for the United States commonly in use at that time . Congress held its first session in Washington on November 17 , 1800 .
Congress passed the Organic Act of 1801 , which officially organized the District and placed the entire territory under the exclusive control of the federal government . Further , the unincorporated area within the District was organized into two counties : the County of Washington to the east of the Potomac and the County of Alexandria to the west . After the passage of this Act , citizens living in the District were no longer considered residents of Maryland or Virginia , which therefore ended their representation in Congress .
On August 24 – 25 , 1814 , in a raid known as the Burning of Washington , British forces invaded the capital during the War of 1812 . The Capitol , Treasury , and White House were burned and gutted during the attack . Most government buildings were repaired quickly ; however , the Capitol was largely under construction at the time and was not completed in its current form until 1868 .
= = = Retrocession and the Civil War = = =
In the 1830s , the District 's southern territory of Alexandria went into economic decline partly due to neglect by Congress . The city of Alexandria was a major market in the American slave trade , and pro @-@ slavery residents feared that abolitionists in Congress would end slavery in the District , further depressing the economy . Alexandria 's citizens petitioned Virginia to take back the land it had donated to form the District , through a process known as retrocession .
The Virginia General Assembly voted in February 1846 to accept the return of Alexandria and on July 9 , 1846 , Congress agreed to return all the territory that had been ceded by Virginia . Therefore , the District 's current area consists only of the land originally donated by Maryland . Confirming the fears of pro @-@ slavery Alexandrians , the Compromise of 1850 outlawed the slave trade in the District , although not slavery itself .
The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 led to expansion of the federal government and notable growth in the District 's population , including a large influx of freed slaves . President Abraham Lincoln signed the Compensated Emancipation Act in 1862 , which ended slavery in the District of Columbia and freed about 3 @,@ 100 enslaved persons , nine months prior to the Emancipation Proclamation . In 1868 , Congress granted the District 's African American male residents the right to vote in municipal elections .
= = = Growth and redevelopment = = =
By 1870 , the District 's population had grown 75 % from the previous census to nearly 132 @,@ 000 residents . Despite the city 's growth , Washington still had dirt roads and lacked basic sanitation . Some members of Congress suggested moving the capital further west , but President Ulysses S. Grant refused to consider such a proposal .
Congress passed the Organic Act of 1871 , which repealed the individual charters of the cities of Washington and Georgetown , and created a new territorial government for the whole District of Columbia . President Grant appointed Alexander Robey Shepherd to the position of governor in 1873 . Shepherd authorized large @-@ scale projects that greatly modernized Washington , but ultimately bankrupted the District government . In 1874 , Congress replaced the territorial government with an appointed three @-@ member Board of Commissioners .
The city 's first motorized streetcars began service in 1888 and generated growth in areas of the District beyond the City of Washington 's original boundaries . Washington 's urban plan was expanded throughout the District in the following decades . Georgetown was formally annexed by the City of Washington in 1895 . However , the city had poor housing conditions and strained public works . Washington was the first city in the nation to undergo urban renewal projects as part of the " City Beautiful movement " in the early 1900s .
Increased federal spending as a result of the New Deal in the 1930s led to the construction of new government buildings , memorials , and museums in Washington . World War II further increased government activity , adding to the number of federal employees in the capital ; by 1950 , the District 's population reached its peak of 802 @,@ 178 residents .
= = = Civil rights and home rule era = = =
The Twenty @-@ third Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified in 1961 , granting the District three votes in the Electoral College for the election of president and vice president , but still no voting representation in Congress .
After the assassination of civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr . , on April 4 , 1968 , riots broke out in the District , primarily in the U Street , 14th Street , 7th Street , and H Street corridors , centers of black residential and commercial areas . The riots raged for three days until more than 13 @,@ 600 federal troops stopped the violence . Many stores and other buildings were burned ; rebuilding was not completed until the late 1990s .
In 1973 , Congress enacted the District of Columbia Home Rule Act , providing for an elected mayor and 13 @-@ member council for the District . In 1975 , Walter Washington became the first elected and first black mayor of the District .
On September 11 , 2001 , terrorists hijacked American Airlines Flight 77 and deliberately crashed the plane into the Pentagon in nearby Arlington , Virginia . United Airlines Flight 93 , believed to be destined for Washington , D.C. , crashed in Pennsylvania when passengers tried to recover control of the plane from hijackers .
= = Geography = =
Washington , D.C. , is located in the mid @-@ Atlantic region of the U.S. East Coast . Due to the District of Columbia retrocession , the city has a total area of 68 @.@ 34 square miles ( 177 @.@ 0 km2 ) , of which 61 @.@ 05 square miles ( 158 @.@ 1 km2 ) is land and 7 @.@ 29 square miles ( 18 @.@ 9 km2 ) ( 10 @.@ 67 % ) is water . The District is bordered by Montgomery County , Maryland , to the northwest ; Prince George 's County , Maryland , to the east ; and Arlington and Alexandria , Virginia , to the south and west .
The south bank of the Potomac River forms the District 's border with Virginia and has two major tributaries : the Anacostia River and Rock Creek . Tiber Creek , a natural watercourse that once passed through the National Mall , was fully enclosed underground during the 1870s . The creek also formed a portion of the now @-@ filled Washington City Canal , which allowed passage through the city to the Anacostia River from 1815 until the 1850s . The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal starts in Georgetown and was used during the 19th century to bypass the Great Falls of the Potomac River , located upstream ( northwest ) of Washington at the Atlantic Seaboard fall line .
The highest natural elevation in the District is 409 feet ( 125 m ) above sea level at Fort Reno Park in upper northwest Washington . The lowest point is sea level at the Potomac River . The geographic center of Washington is near the intersection of 4th and L Streets NW . Contrary to the urban legend , Washington was not built on a reclaimed swamp , but wetlands did cover areas along the water .
The District has 7 @,@ 464 acres ( 30 @.@ 21 km2 ) of parkland , about 19 % of the city 's total area and the second @-@ highest percentage among high @-@ density U.S. cities . The National Park Service manages most of the 9 @,@ 122 acres ( 36 @.@ 92 km2 ) of city land owned by the U.S. government . Rock Creek Park is a 1 @,@ 754 @-@ acre ( 7 @.@ 10 km2 ) urban forest in Northwest Washington , which extends 9 @.@ 3 miles ( 15 @.@ 0 km ) through a stream valley that bisects the city . Established in 1890 , it is the country 's fourth @-@ oldest national park and is home to a variety of plant and animal species including raccoon , deer , owls , and coyotes . Other National Park Service properties include the C & O Canal National Historical Park , the National Mall and Memorial Parks , Theodore Roosevelt Island , Columbia Island , Fort Dupont Park , Meridian Hill Park , Kenilworth Park and Aquatic Gardens , and Anacostia Park . The D.C. Department of Parks and Recreation maintains the city 's 900 acres ( 3 @.@ 6 km2 ) of athletic fields and playgrounds , 40 swimming pools , and 68 recreation centers . The U.S. Department of Agriculture operates the 446 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 80 km2 ) U.S. National Arboretum in Northeast Washington .
= = = Climate = = =
Washington is in the humid subtropical climate zone ( Köppen : Cfa ) However , under the Trewartha climate classification , the city has a temperate maritime climate ( Do ) . Winters are usually chilly with light snow , and summers are hot and humid . The District is in plant hardiness zone 8a near downtown , and zone 7b elsewhere in the city , indicating a humid subtropical climate .
Spring and fall are mild to warm , while winter is chilly with annual snowfall averaging 15 @.@ 5 inches ( 39 cm ) . Winter temperatures average around 38 ° F ( 3 @.@ 3 ° C ) from mid @-@ December to mid @-@ February . Summers are hot and humid with a July daily average of 79 @.@ 8 ° F ( 26 @.@ 6 ° C ) and average daily relative humidity around 66 % , which can cause moderate personal discomfort . The combination of heat and humidity in the summer brings very frequent thunderstorms , some of which occasionally produce tornadoes in the area .
Blizzards affect Washington on average once every four to six years . The most violent storms are called " nor 'easters " , which often affect large sections of the U.S. East Coast . From January 27 to January 28 , 1922 , the city officially received 28 inches ( 71 cm ) of snowfall , the largest snowstorm since official measurements began in 1885 . According to notes kept at the time , the city received between 30 and 36 inches ( 76 and 91 cm ) from a snowstorm on January 1772 .
Hurricanes ( or their remnants ) occasionally track through the area in late summer and early fall , but are often weak by the time they reach Washington , partly due to the city 's inland location . Flooding of the Potomac River , however , caused by a combination of high tide , storm surge , and runoff , has been known to cause extensive property damage in the neighborhood of Georgetown .
Precipitation occurs throughout the year .
The highest recorded temperature was 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) on August 6 , 1918 , and on July 20 , 1930 @.@ while the lowest recorded temperature was − 15 ° F ( − 26 ° C ) on February 11 , 1899 , during the Great Blizzard of 1899 . During a typical year , the city averages about 37 days at or above 90 ° F ( 32 @.@ 2 ° C ) and 64 nights at or below freezing .
= = Cityscape = =
Washington , D.C. , is a planned city . In 1791 , President Washington commissioned Pierre ( Peter ) Charles L 'Enfant , a French @-@ born architect and city planner , to design the new capital . The L 'Enfant Plan featured broad streets and avenues radiating out from rectangles , providing room for open space and landscaping . He based his design on plans of cities such as Paris , Amsterdam , Karlsruhe , and Milan brought from Europe by Thomas Jefferson in 1788 . L 'Enfant 's design also envisioned a garden @-@ lined " grand avenue " approximately 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in length and 400 feet ( 120 m ) wide in the area that is now the National Mall .
President Washington dismissed L 'Enfant in March 1792 due to conflicts with the three commissioners appointed to supervise the capital 's construction . Andrew Ellicott , who had worked with L 'Enfant surveying the city , was then tasked with completing the design . Though Ellicott made revisions to the original plans , including changes to some street patterns , L 'Enfant is still credited with the overall design of the city .
By the early 1900s , L 'Enfant 's vision of a grand national capital had become marred by slums and randomly placed buildings , including a railroad station on the National Mall . Congress formed a special committee charged with beautifying Washington 's ceremonial core . What became known as the McMillan Plan was finalized in 1901 and included re @-@ landscaping the Capitol grounds and the National Mall , clearing slums , and establishing a new city @-@ wide park system . The plan is thought to have largely preserved L 'Enfant 's intended design .
By law , Washington 's skyline is low and sprawling . The federal Heights of Buildings Act of 1910 allows buildings that are no taller than the width of the adjacent street , plus 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . Despite popular belief , no law has ever limited buildings to the height of the United States Capitol or the 555 @-@ foot ( 169 m ) Washington Monument , which remains the District 's tallest structure . City leaders have criticized the height restriction as a primary reason why the District has limited affordable housing and traffic problems caused by urban sprawl .
The District is divided into four quadrants of unequal area : Northwest ( NW ) , Northeast ( NE ) , Southeast ( SE ) , and Southwest ( SW ) . The axes bounding the quadrants radiate from the U.S. Capitol building . All road names include the quadrant abbreviation to indicate their location and house numbers generally correspond with the number of blocks away from the Capitol . Most streets are set out in a grid pattern with east – west streets named with letters ( e.g. , C Street SW ) , north – south streets with numbers ( e.g. , 4th Street NW ) , and diagonal avenues , many of which are named after states .
The City of Washington was bordered by Boundary Street to the north ( renamed Florida Avenue in 1890 ) , Rock Creek to the west , and the Anacostia River to the east . Washington 's street grid was extended , where possible , throughout the District starting in 1888 . Georgetown 's streets were renamed in 1895 . Some streets are particularly noteworthy , such as Pennsylvania Avenue , which connects the White House to the U.S. Capitol and K Street , which houses the offices of many lobbying groups . Washington hosts 297 foreign embassies and related buildings , many of which are on a section of Massachusetts Avenue informally known as Embassy Row .
= = = Architecture = = =
The architecture of Washington varies greatly . Six of the top 10 buildings in the American Institute of Architects ' 2007 ranking of " America 's Favorite Architecture " are in the District of Columbia : the White House ; the Washington National Cathedral ; the Thomas Jefferson Memorial ; the United States Capitol ; the Lincoln Memorial ; and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial . The neoclassical , Georgian , gothic , and modern architectural styles are all reflected among those six structures and many other prominent edifices in Washington . Notable exceptions include buildings constructed in the French Second Empire style such as the Eisenhower Executive Office Building .
Outside downtown Washington , architectural styles are even more varied . Historic buildings are designed primarily in the Queen Anne , Châteauesque , Richardsonian Romanesque , Georgian revival , Beaux @-@ Arts , and a variety of Victorian styles . Rowhouses are especially prominent in areas developed after the Civil War and typically follow Federalist and late Victorian designs . Georgetown 's Old Stone House was built in 1765 , making it the oldest @-@ standing original building in the city . Founded in 1789 , Georgetown University features a mix of Romanesque and Gothic Revival architecture . The Ronald Reagan Building is the largest building in the District with a total area of approximately 3 @.@ 1 million square feet ( 288 @,@ 000 m2 ) .
= = Demographics = =
The U.S. Census Bureau estimates that the District 's population was 672 @,@ 228 on July 1 , 2015 , an 11 @.@ 7 % increase since the 2010 United States Census . The increase continues a growth trend since 2000 , following a half @-@ century of population decline . The city was the 24th most populous place in the United States as of 2010 . According to data from 2010 , commuters from the suburbs increase the District 's daytime population to over one million people . If the District were a state it would rank 49th in population , ahead of Vermont and Wyoming .
The Washington Metropolitan Area , which includes the District and surrounding suburbs , is the seventh @-@ largest metropolitan area in the United States with an estimated 6 million residents in 2014 . When the Washington area is included with Baltimore and its suburbs , the Baltimore – Washington Metropolitan Area had a population exceeding 9 @.@ 5 million residents in 2014 , the fourth @-@ largest combined statistical area in the country .
According to 2015 U.S. Census Bureau data , the population of Washington , D.C. was 48 @.@ 3 % Black or African American , 44 @.@ 1 % White ( 36 @.@ 1 % non @-@ Hispanic White ) , 4 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 6 % American Indian or Alaska Native , and 0 @.@ 2 % Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander . Individuals from two or more races made up 2 @.@ 7 % of the population . Hispanics of any race made up 10 @.@ 6 % of the District 's population .
Washington has had a significant African American population since the city 's foundation . African American residents composed about 30 % of the District 's total population between 1800 and 1940 . The black population reached a peak of 70 % by 1970 , but has since steadily declined due to many African Americans moving to the surrounding suburbs . Partly as a result of gentrification , there was a 31 @.@ 4 % increase in the non @-@ Hispanic white population and an 11 @.@ 5 % decrease in the black population between 2000 and 2010 .
About 17 % of D.C. residents were age 18 or younger in 2010 ; lower than the U.S. average of 24 % . However , at 34 years old , the District had the lowest median age compared to the 50 states . As of 2010 , there were an estimated 81 @,@ 734 immigrants living in Washington , D.C. Major sources of immigration include El Salvador , Vietnam , and Ethiopia , with a concentration of Salvadorans in the Mount Pleasant neighborhood .
Researchers found that there were 4 @,@ 822 same @-@ sex couples in the District of Columbia in 2010 ; about 2 % of total households . Legislation authorizing same @-@ sex marriage passed in 2009 and the District began issuing marriage licenses to same @-@ sex couples in March 2010 .
A 2007 report found that about one @-@ third of District residents were functionally illiterate , compared to a national rate of about one in five . This is attributed in part to immigrants who are not proficient in English . As of 2011 , 85 % of D.C. residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language . Half of residents had at least a four @-@ year college degree in 2006 . D.C. residents had a personal income per capita of $ 55 @,@ 755 ; higher than any of the 50 U.S. states . However , 19 % of residents were below the poverty level in 2005 , higher than any state except Mississippi .
Of the District 's population , 17 % is Baptist , 13 % is Catholic , 6 % is Evangelical Protestant , 4 % is Methodist , 3 % is Episcopalian / Anglican , 3 % is Jewish , 2 % is Eastern Orthodox , 1 % is Pentecostal , 1 % is Buddhist , 1 % is Adventist , 1 % is Lutheran , 1 % is Muslim , 1 % is Presbyterian , 1 % is Mormon , and 1 % is Hindu .
Over 90 % of D.C. residents have health insurance coverage , the second @-@ highest rate in the nation . This is due in part to city programs that help provide insurance to low @-@ income individuals who do not qualify for other types of coverage . A 2009 report found that at least 3 % of District residents have HIV or AIDS , which the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) characterizes as a " generalized and severe " epidemic .
= = = Crime = = =
Crime in Washington , D.C. , is concentrated in areas associated with poverty , drug abuse , and gangs . A 2010 study found that 5 % of city blocks accounted for over one @-@ quarter of the District 's total crime . The more affluent neighborhoods of Northwest Washington are typically safe , but reports of violent crime increase in poorer neighborhoods generally concentrated in the eastern portion of the city . Approximately 60 @,@ 000 residents are ex @-@ convicts .
Washington was often described as the " murder capital " of the United States during the early 1990s . The number of murders peaked in 1991 at 479 , but the level of violence then began to decline significantly . By 2012 , Washington 's annual murder count had dropped to 88 , the lowest total since 1961 . The murder rate has risen since that historic low , and as of December 11 , 2015 , the District 's homicide total for the year stands at 154 , a 58 @.@ 8 % increase over the same period in 2014 . This is still a murder rate of almost half that of the early 2000s . Many neighborhoods such as Columbia Heights and Logan Circle are becoming safer and vibrant . However , incidents of robberies and thefts have remained higher in these areas because of increased nightlife activity and greater numbers of affluent residents . Even still , citywide reports of both property and violent crimes have declined by nearly half since their most recent highs in the mid @-@ 1990s .
On June 26 , 2008 , the Supreme Court of the United States held in District of Columbia v. Heller that the city 's 1976 handgun ban violated the Second Amendment right to gun ownership . However , the ruling does not prohibit all forms of gun control ; laws requiring firearm registration remain in place , as does the city 's assault weapon ban . In addition to the District 's own Metropolitan Police Department , many federal law enforcement agencies have jurisdiction in the city as well ; most visibly the U.S. Park Police , founded in 1791 .
= = Economy = =
Washington has a growing , diversified economy with an increasing percentage of professional and business service jobs . The gross state product of the District in 2010 was $ 103 @.@ 3 billion , which would rank it No. 34 compared to the 50 U.S. states . The gross product of the Washington Metropolitan Area was $ 425 billion in 2010 , making it the fourth @-@ largest metropolitan economy in the United States . As of June 2011 , the Washington Metropolitan Area had an unemployment rate of 6 @.@ 2 % ; the second @-@ lowest rate among the 49 largest metro areas in the nation . The District of Columbia itself had an unemployment rate of 9 @.@ 8 % during the same time period .
In 2012 , the federal government accounted for about 29 % of the jobs in Washington , D.C. This is thought to immunize Washington to national economic downturns because the federal government continues operations even during recessions . Many organizations such as law firms , independent contractors ( both defense and civilian ) , non @-@ profit organizations , lobbying firms , trade unions , industry trade groups , and professional associations have their headquarters in or near D.C. to be close to the federal government .
Tourism is Washington 's second largest industry . Approximately 18 @.@ 9 million visitors contributed an estimated $ 4 @.@ 8 billion to the local economy in 2012 . The District also hosts nearly 200 foreign embassies and international organizations such as the World Bank , the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) , the Organization of American States , the Inter @-@ American Development Bank , and the Pan American Health Organization . In 2008 , the foreign diplomatic corps in Washington employed about 10 @,@ 000 people and contributed an estimated $ 400 million annually to the local economy .
The District has growing industries not directly related to government , especially in the areas of education , finance , public policy , and scientific research . Georgetown University , George Washington University , Washington Hospital Center , Children 's National Medical Center and Howard University are the top five non @-@ government @-@ related employers in the city as of 2009 . According to statistics compiled in 2011 , four of the largest 500 companies in the country were headquartered in the District .
= = Culture = =
= = = Historic sites and museums = = =
The National Mall is a large , open park in downtown Washington between the Lincoln Memorial and the United States Capitol . Given its prominence , the mall is often the location of political protests , concerts , festivals , and presidential inaugurations . The Washington Monument and the Jefferson Pier are near the center of the mall , south of the White House . Also on the mall are the National World War II Memorial at the east end of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool , the Korean War Veterans Memorial , and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial .
Directly south of the mall , the Tidal Basin features rows of Japanese cherry blossom trees that originated as gifts from the nation of Japan . The Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial , George Mason Memorial , Jefferson Memorial , Martin Luther King Jr . Memorial , and the District of Columbia War Memorial are around the Tidal Basin .
The National Archives houses thousands of documents important to American history including the Declaration of Independence , the United States Constitution , and the Bill of Rights . Located in three buildings on Capitol Hill , the Library of Congress is the largest library complex in the world with a collection of over 147 million books , manuscripts , and other materials . The United States Supreme Court Building was completed in 1935 ; before then , the court held sessions in the Old Senate Chamber of the Capitol .
The Smithsonian Institution is an educational foundation chartered by Congress in 1846 that maintains most of the nation 's official museums and galleries in Washington , D.C. The U.S. government partially funds the Smithsonian and its collections open to the public free of charge . The Smithsonian 's locations had a combined total of 30 million visits in 2013 . The most visited museum is the National Museum of Natural History on the National Mall . Other Smithsonian Institution museums and galleries on the mall are : the National Air and Space Museum ; the National Museum of African Art ; the National Museum of American History ; the National Museum of the American Indian ; the Sackler and Freer galleries , which both focus on Asian art and culture ; the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden ; the Arts and Industries Building ; the S. Dillon Ripley Center ; and the Smithsonian Institution Building ( also known as " The Castle " ) , which serves as the institution 's headquarters .
The Smithsonian American Art Museum and the National Portrait Gallery are housed in the Old Patent Office Building , near Washington 's Chinatown . The Renwick Gallery is officially part of the Smithsonian American Art Museum but is in a separate building near the White House . Other Smithsonian museums and galleries include : the Anacostia Community Museum in Southeast Washington ; the National Postal Museum near Union Station ; and the National Zoo in Woodley Park .
The National Gallery of Art is on the National Mall near the Capitol and features works of American and European art . The gallery and its collections are owned by the U.S. government but are not a part of the Smithsonian Institution . The National Building Museum , which occupies the former Pension Building near Judiciary Square , was chartered by Congress and hosts exhibits on architecture , urban planning , and design .
There are many private art museums in the District of Columbia , which house major collections and exhibits open to the public such as the National Museum of Women in the Arts ; the Corcoran Gallery of Art , the largest private museum in Washington ; and The Phillips Collection in Dupont Circle , the first museum of modern art in the United States . Other private museums in Washington include the Newseum , the O Street Museum Foundation , the International Spy Museum , the National Geographic Society Museum , and the Marian Koshland Science Museum . The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum near the National Mall maintains exhibits , documentation , and artifacts related to the Holocaust .
= = = Arts = = =
Washington , D.C. , is a national center for the arts . The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts is home to the National Symphony Orchestra , the Washington National Opera , and the Washington Ballet . The Kennedy Center Honors are awarded each year to those in the performing arts who have contributed greatly to the cultural life of the United States . The historic Ford 's Theatre , site of the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln , continues to operate as a functioning performance space as well as museum .
The Marine Barracks near Capitol Hill houses the United States Marine Band ; founded in 1798 , it is the country 's oldest professional musical organization . American march composer and Washington @-@ native John Philip Sousa led the Marine Band from 1880 until 1892 . Founded in 1925 , the United States Navy Band has its headquarters at the Washington Navy Yard and performs at official events and public concerts around the city .
Washington has a strong local theater tradition . Founded in 1950 , Arena Stage achieved national attention and spurred growth in the city 's independent theater movement that now includes organizations such as the Shakespeare Theatre Company , Woolly Mammoth Theatre Company , and the Studio Theatre . Arena Stage opened its newly renovated home in the city 's emerging Southwest waterfront area in 2010 . The GALA Hispanic Theatre , now housed in the historic Tivoli Theatre in Columbia Heights , was founded in 1976 and is a National Center for the Latino Performing Arts .
The U Street Corridor in Northwest D.C. , known as " Washington 's Black Broadway " , is home to institutions like the Howard Theatre , Bohemian Caverns , and the Lincoln Theatre , which hosted music legends such as Washington @-@ native Duke Ellington , John Coltrane , and Miles Davis . Washington has its own native music genre called go @-@ go ; a post @-@ funk , percussion @-@ driven flavor of rhythm and blues that was popularized in the late 1970s by D.C. band leader Chuck Brown .
The District is an important center for indie culture and music in the United States . The label Dischord Records , formed by Ian MacKaye , was one of the most crucial independent labels in the genesis of 1980s punk and eventually indie rock in the 1990s . Modern alternative and indie music venues like The Black Cat and the 9 : 30 Club bring popular acts to the U Street area .
= = = Sports = = =
Washington is one of 12 cities in the United States with teams from all four major professional men 's sports and is home to one major professional women 's team . The Washington Wizards ( National Basketball Association ) , the Washington Capitals ( National Hockey League ) , and the Washington Mystics ( Women 's National Basketball Association ) , play at the Verizon Center in Chinatown . Nationals Park , which opened in Southeast D.C. in 2008 , is home to the Washington Nationals ( Major League Baseball ) . D.C. United ( Major League Soccer ) plays at RFK Stadium . The Washington Redskins ( National Football League ) play at nearby FedExField in Landover , Maryland .
Current D.C. teams have won a combined ten professional league championships : the Washington Redskins have won five ; D.C. United has won four ; and the Washington Wizards ( then the Washington Bullets ) have won a single championship .
Other professional and semi @-@ professional teams in Washington include : the Washington Kastles ( World TeamTennis ) ; the Washington D.C. Slayers ( USA Rugby League ) ; the Baltimore Washington Eagles ( U.S. Australian Football League ) ; the D.C. Divas ( Independent Women 's Football League ) ; and the Potomac Athletic Club RFC ( Rugby Super League ) . The William H.G. FitzGerald Tennis Center in Rock Creek Park hosts the Citi Open . Washington is also home to two major annual marathon races : the Marine Corps Marathon , which is held every autumn , and the Rock ' n ' Roll USA Marathon held in the spring . The Marine Corps Marathon began in 1976 and is sometimes called " The People 's Marathon " because it is the largest marathon that does not offer prize money to participants .
The District 's four NCAA Division I teams , American Eagles , George Washington Colonials , Georgetown Hoyas and Howard Bison and Lady Bison , have a broad following . The Georgetown Hoyas men 's basketball team is the most notable and also plays at the Verizon Center . From 2008 to 2012 , the District hosted an annual college football bowl game at RFK Stadium , called the Military Bowl . The D.C. area is home to one regional sports television network , Comcast SportsNet ( CSN ) , based in Bethesda , Maryland .
= = Media = =
Washington , D.C. is a prominent center for national and international media . The Washington Post , founded in 1877 , is the oldest and most @-@ read local daily newspaper in Washington . It is probably most notable for its coverage of national and international politics and for exposing the Watergate scandal . " The Post " , as it is popularly called , had the sixth @-@ highest readership of all news dailies in the country in 2011 . The Washington Post Company also publishesa daily free commuter newspaper called the Express , which summarizes events , sports and entertainment , as well as the Spanish @-@ language paper El Tiempo Latino .
Another popular local daily is The Washington Times , the city 's second general interest broadsheet and also an influential paper in political circles . The alternative weekly Washington City Paper also have substantial readership in the Washington area .
Some community and specialty papers focus on neighborhood and cultural issues , including the weekly Washington Blade and Metro Weekly , which focus on LGBT issues ; the Washington Informer and The Washington Afro American , which highlight topics of interest to the black community ; and neighborhood newspapers published by The Current Newspapers . Congressional Quarterly , The Hill , Politico and Roll Call newspapers focus exclusively on issues related to Congress and the federal government . Other publications based in Washington include the National Geographic magazine and political publications such as The Washington Examiner , The New Republic and Washington Monthly .
The Washington Metropolitan Area is the ninth @-@ largest television media market in the U.S. with two million homes , approximately 2 % of the U.S. population . Several media companies and cable television channels have their headquarters in the area , including C @-@ SPAN ; Black Entertainment Television ( BET ) ; Radio One ; the National Geographic Channel ; Smithsonian Networks ; National Public Radio ( NPR ) ; Travel Channel ( in Chevy Chase , Maryland ) ; Discovery Communications ( in Silver Spring , Maryland ) ; and the Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) ( in Arlington , Virginia ) . The headquarters of Voice of America , the U.S. government 's international news service , is near the Capitol in Southwest Washington .
= = Government and politics = =
= = = Politics = = =
Article One , Section Eight of the United States Constitution grants the U.S. Congress " exclusive jurisdiction " over the city . The District did not have an elected local government until the passage of the 1973 Home Rule Act . The Act devolved certain Congressional powers to an elected mayor , currently Muriel Bowser , and the thirteen @-@ member Council of the District of Columbia . However , Congress retains the right to review and overturn laws created by the council and intervene in local affairs .
Each of the city 's eight wards elects a single member of the council and residents elect four at @-@ large members to represent the District as a whole . The council chair is also elected at @-@ large . There are 37 Advisory Neighborhood Commissions ( ANCs ) elected by small neighborhood districts . ANCs can issue recommendations on all issues that affect residents ; government agencies take their advice under careful consideration . The Attorney General of the District of Columbia , currently Karl Racine , is elected to a four @-@ year term .
Washington , D.C. , observes all federal holidays and also celebrates Emancipation Day on April 16 , which commemorates the end of slavery in the District . The flag of Washington , D.C. , was adopted in 1938 and is a variation on George Washington 's family coat of arms .
= = = Budgetary issues = = =
The mayor and council set local taxes and a budget , which must be approved by Congress . The Government Accountability Office and other analysts have estimated that the city 's high percentage of tax @-@ exempt property and the Congressional prohibition of commuter taxes create a structural deficit in the District 's local budget of anywhere between $ 470 million and over $ 1 billion per year . Congress typically provides additional grants for federal programs such as Medicaid and the operation of the local justice system ; however , analysts claim that the payments do not fully resolve the imbalance .
The city 's local government , particularly during the mayoralty of Marion Barry , was criticized for mismanagement and waste . During his administration in 1989 , The Washington Monthly magazine claimed that the District had " the worst city government in America . " In 1995 , at the start of Barry 's fourth term , Congress created the District of Columbia Financial Control Board to oversee all municipal spending . Mayor Anthony Williams won election in 1998 and oversaw a period of urban renewal and budget surpluses . The District regained control over its finances in 2001 and the oversight board 's operations were suspended .
= = = Voting rights debate = = =
The District is not a U.S. state and therefore has no voting representation in the Congress . D.C. residents elect a non @-@ voting delegate to the House of Representatives , currently Eleanor Holmes Norton ( D @-@ D.C. At @-@ Large ) , who may sit on committees , participate in debate , and introduce legislation , but cannot vote on the House floor . The District has no official representation in the United States Senate . Neither chamber seats the District 's elected " shadow " representative or senators . Unlike residents of U.S. territories such as Puerto Rico or Guam , which also have non @-@ voting delegates , D.C. residents are subject to all U.S. federal taxes . In the financial year 2012 , D.C. residents and businesses paid $ 20 @.@ 7 billion in federal taxes ; more than the taxes collected from 19 states and the highest federal taxes per capita .
A 2005 poll found that 78 % of Americans did not know that residents of the District of Columbia have less representation in Congress than residents of the 50 states . Efforts to raise awareness about the issue have included campaigns by grassroots organizations and featuring the city 's unofficial motto , " Taxation Without Representation " , on D.C. vehicle license plates . There is evidence of nationwide approval for D.C. voting rights ; various polls indicate that 61 to 82 % of Americans believe that D.C. should have voting representation in Congress . Despite public support , attempts to grant the District voting representation , including the D.C. statehood movement and the proposed District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment , have been unsuccessful .
Opponents of D.C. voting rights propose that the Founding Fathers never intended for District residents to have a vote in Congress since the Constitution makes clear that representation must come from the states . Those opposed to making D.C. a state claim that such a move would destroy the notion of a separate national capital and that statehood would unfairly grant Senate representation to a single city .
= = = Sister cities = = =
Washington , D.C. , has fourteen official sister city agreements . Listed in the order each agreement was first established , they are : Bangkok , Thailand ( 1962 , renewed 2002 ) ; Dakar , Senegal ( 1980 , renewed 2006 ) ; Beijing , China ( 1984 , renewed 2004 ) ; Brussels , Belgium ( 1985 , renewed 2002 ) ; Athens , Greece ( 2000 ) ; Paris , France ( 2000 , renewed 2005 ) ; Pretoria , South Africa ( 2002 , renewed 2008 ) ; Seoul , South Korea ( 2006 ) ; Accra , Ghana ( 2006 ) ; Sunderland , United Kingdom ( 2006 ) ; Rome , Italy ( 2011 ) ; Ankara , Turkey ( 2011 ) ; Brasília , Brazil ( 2013 ) ; and Addis Ababa , Ethiopia ( 2013 ) . Each of the listed cities is a national capital except for Sunderland , which includes the town of Washington , the ancestral home of George Washington 's family . Paris and Rome are each formally recognized as a " partner city " due to their special one sister city policy .
= = Education = =
District of Columbia Public Schools ( DCPS ) operates the city 's 123 public schools . The number of students in DCPS steadily decreased for 39 years until 2009 . In the 2010 – 11 school year , 46 @,@ 191 students were enrolled in the public school system . DCPS has one of the highest @-@ cost yet lowest @-@ performing school systems in the country , both in terms of infrastructure and student achievement . Mayor Adrian Fenty 's administration made sweeping changes to the system by closing schools , replacing teachers , firing principals , and using private education firms to aid curriculum development .
The District of Columbia Public Charter School Board monitors the 52 public charter schools in the city . Due to the perceived problems with the traditional public school system , enrollment in public charter schools has steadily increased . As of fall 2010 , D.C. charter schools had a total enrollment of about 32 @,@ 000 , a 9 % increase from the prior year . The District is also home to 92 private schools , which enrolled approximately 18 @,@ 000 students in 2008 . The District of Columbia Public Library operates 25 neighborhood locations including the landmark Martin Luther King Jr . Memorial Library .
Private universities include American University ( AU ) , the Catholic University of America ( CUA ) , Gallaudet University , George Washington University ( GW ) , Georgetown University ( GU ) , Howard University , and the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies ( SAIS ) . The Corcoran College of Art and Design provides specialized arts instruction and other higher @-@ education institutions offer continuing , distance and adult education . The University of the District of Columbia ( UDC ) is a public university providing undergraduate and graduate education . D.C. residents may also be eligible for a grant of up to $ 10 @,@ 000 per year to offset the cost of tuition at any public university in the country .
The District is known for its medical research institutions such as Washington Hospital Center and the Children 's National Medical Center , as well as the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda , Maryland . In addition , the city is home to three medical schools and associated teaching hospitals at George Washington , Georgetown , and Howard universities .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
There are 1 @,@ 500 miles ( 2 @,@ 400 km ) of streets , parkways , and avenues in the District . Due to the freeway revolts of the 1960s , much of the proposed interstate highway system through the middle of Washington was never built . Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) , the nation 's major east coast highway , therefore bends around the District to form the eastern portion of the Capital Beltway . A portion of the proposed highway funding was directed to the region 's public transportation infrastructure instead . The interstate highways that continue into Washington , including I @-@ 66 and I @-@ 395 , both terminate shortly after entering the city .
The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority ( WMATA ) operates the Washington Metro , the city 's rapid transit system , as well as Metrobus . Both systems serve the District and its suburbs . Metro opened on March 27 , 1976 and , as of July 2014 , consists of 91 stations and 117 miles ( 188 km ) of track . With an average of about one million trips each weekday , Metro is the second @-@ busiest rapid transit system in the country . Metrobus serves over 400 @,@ 000 riders each weekday and is the nation 's sixth @-@ largest bus system . The city also operates its own DC Circulator bus system , which connects commercial areas within central Washington .
Union Station is the city 's main train station and services approximately 70 @,@ 000 people each day . It is Amtrak 's second @-@ busiest station with 4 @.@ 6 million passengers annually and is the southern terminus for the Northeast Corridor and Acela Express routes . Maryland 's MARC and Virginia 's VRE commuter trains and the Metrorail Red Line also provide service into Union Station . Following renovations in 2011 , Union Station became Washington 's primary intercity bus transit center .
Three major airports serve the District . Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport is across the Potomac River from downtown Washington in Arlington , Virginia and primarily handles domestic flights . Major international flights arrive and depart from Washington Dulles International Airport , 26 @.@ 3 miles ( 42 @.@ 3 km ) west of the District in Fairfax and Loudoun counties in Virginia . Baltimore @-@ Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport is 31 @.@ 7 miles ( 51 @.@ 0 km ) northeast of the District in Anne Arundel County , Maryland .
According to a 2010 study , Washington @-@ area commuters spent 70 hours a year in traffic delays , which tied with Chicago for having the nation 's worst road congestion . However , 37 % of Washington @-@ area commuters take public transportation to work , the second @-@ highest rate in the country . An additional 12 % of D.C. commuters walked to work , 6 % carpooled , and 3 % traveled by bicycle in 2010 . A 2011 study by Walk Score found that Washington was the seventh @-@ most walkable city in the country with 80 % of residents living in neighborhoods that are not car dependent .
An expected 32 % increase in transit usage within the District by 2030 has spurred construction of a new DC Streetcar system to interconnect the city 's neighborhoods . Construction has also started on an additional Metro line that will connect Washington to Dulles airport . The District is part of the regional Capital Bikeshare program . Started in 2010 , it is currently one of the largest bicycle sharing systems in the country with over 4 @,@ 351 bicycles and more than 395 stations all provided by PBSC Urban Solutions . The city is expanding a network of marked bicycle lanes which currently exist on 56 miles ( 90 km ) of streets .
= = = Utilities = = =
The District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority ( i.e. WASA or D.C. Water ) is an independent authority of the D.C. government that provides drinking water and wastewater collection in Washington . WASA purchases water from the historic Washington Aqueduct , which is operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . The water , sourced from the Potomac River , is treated and stored in the city 's Dalecarlia , Georgetown , and McMillan reservoirs . The aqueduct provides drinking water for a total of 1 @.@ 1 million people in the District and Virginia , including Arlington , Falls Church , and a portion of Fairfax County . The authority also provides sewage treatment services for an additional 1 @.@ 6 million people in four surrounding Maryland and Virginia counties .
Pepco is the city 's electric utility and services 793 @,@ 000 customers in the District and suburban Maryland . An 1889 law prohibits overhead wires within much of the historic City of Washington . As a result , all power lines and telecommunication cables are located underground in downtown Washington , and traffic signals are placed at the edge of the street . A plan announced in 2013 would bury an additional 60 miles ( 97 km ) of primary power lines throughout the District .
Washington Gas is the city 's natural gas utility and serves over one million customers in the District and its suburbs . Incorporated by Congress in 1848 , the company installed the city 's first gas lights in the U.S. Capitol building , White House , and along Pennsylvania Avenue .
= Lady Gaga x Terry Richardson =
Lady Gaga x Terry Richardson is a photo @-@ book by American singer Lady Gaga and American photographer Terry Richardson , released on November 22 , 2011 by Grand Central Publishing . The book features more than 350 pictures of Gaga as taken by Richardson during a ten @-@ month period from Gaga 's performance at The Monster Ball Tour till the 2011 Grammy Awards . In addition to photographs , it includes a foreword written by the singer about her relationship with Richardson . The duo had collaborated on other projects prior to the shooting of the book .
Upon release , Lady Gaga x Terry Richardson received positive reviews from critics , who praised both the provocative pictures as well as simpler shots of Gaga without makeup and stage costumes . The book appeared at number five on The New York Times Best Seller list , before fluctuating down the ranking in subsequent weeks . Due to a lawsuit against Gaga by her former assistant , in 2013 the photos taken by Richardson were asked to be submitted as evidence for the case .
= = Background and inspiration = =
Lady Gaga x Terry Richardson consists of photos ( in black @-@ and @-@ white and in color ) that Richardson took of Gaga during a ten @-@ month period , ranging from the singer 's performance at Lollapalooza in 2010 to the final shows of her 2009 – 11 Monster Ball Tour . More than 100 @,@ 000 pictures were taken during the time period with over 350 appearing in the book . The book also includes a Gaga @-@ written foreword about her relationship with Richardson that doubles as an examination of self . " With Terry , the relationship extends beyond the photograph , and if you 're lucky , he will teach you something truly profound about yourself . "
Prior to the shooting of Lady Gaga x Terry Richardson , Gaga and Richardson had worked together on several project . These include an advertisement for New York skate shop and clothing brand Supreme and photoshoots for Vogue Hommes Japan and Harper 's Bazaar . Jamie Raab ( executive vice president of Grand Central Publishing ) said " We are proud to be publishing this remarkable collaboration between Lady Gaga and Terry Richardson and anticipate that it will be one of the most stunning , provocative and coveted books of the 2011 holiday season . "
Gaga claimed that she held nothing back from Richardson , who was with her " every minute , every moment " during the photographing period . She explained that the images were completely unfiltered and he shot her waking up in the morning , doing her chores , as well as images taken while she got ready in her bathroom . She added that true to Richardson 's photographing style , nothing in the book was staged and he was able to make her do things in front of the camera that has not been done by anyone previously . Richardson also took pictures of Gaga 's fans for the book – which she appreciated – explaining to The Hollywood Reporter :
" My favorite thing , honestly , is that [ Richardson ] loved the fans . He shot the fans the same way he shot me : with no pretense . No ' Well , she ’ s put out records and they haven 't . ' None of that . The music was all of ours ... He would come backstage and he would say , ' Oh my God , the fans ! ' And I 'd say , ' I Know ... I know what you just photographed ' . And he 'd say , ' Baby , wow ! ' And then he 'd film me , like , peeing in a cup and , like , ridiculous things . "
= = Release and reception = =
Gaga posted a video of herself reading the foreword of the book aloud on her YouTube account days before the book 's release . On November 22 , 2011 , a book party was held at the New Museum of Contemporary Art in New York where Gaga attended for book signings . Lady Gaga x Terry Richardson debuted on The New York Times Best Seller list at number five among hardcover advice / miscellaneous books for the week ending November 26 , 2011 . It fell to number fourteen in its second week and remained there for its third week before rising to number eleven in its fourth week . It reentered the top ten in its fifth week at number nine and rose to number six the following week . The book 's publishing rights for the United Kingdom were brought from Grand Central Publishing by Hodder & Stoughton ( an imprint of Hachette UK ) .
The book received positive reviews from critics . New York magazine 's James Lim wrote that while Gaga 's magazine covers were showing the singer in more modest poses , the book showed the " wild , funky , creative Gaga that we all know and love " . Liesl Bradner of the Los Angeles Times expressed surprise at seeing Gaga without her makeup and stage costumes . " It 's when the singer takes a moment from the madness , pulls back her hair and ditches the costumes , that we see the real girl who is the mastermind behind the monster , " Bradner wrote , adding that the release would be special for the fans . Eden Carter Wood of Diva magazine shared the same thought with Bradner and added that the book contained nice portraits of the artist . Arthur House from The Daily Telegraph was positive in his review , while finding the pictures to be glossy and enjoyable . Toronto Star 's David Graham compared the book to Madonna 's similar styled book called Sex ( released in 1992 ) . However , he found a " distinct lack of fanfare surrounding the book " . Lady Gaga x Terry Richardson , according to Graham could not generate the same amount of " shock and awe that erupted when Madonna came out with Sex " . However he still believed that there were " outrageous — even disturbing — photographs " of Gaga .
= = Lawsuit = =
In June 2013 , the pictures for the book and of Gaga , taken during the Monster Ball tour were introduced in the middle of a lawsuit . Gaga 's former assistant Jennifer O 'Neil had filed a case against the singer for overtime money owed to her by Gaga 's management but never paid . As evidence for her case , O 'Neil requested for the photos taken by Richardson to be presented to the court , intending to prove her " crazy " schedule while on tour with the singer and that O 'Neil was working " around the clock . " A Manhattan Federal Court judge ordered the photographer to submit over 142 @,@ 000 images , but Richardson dismissed the request . He said that the request was a " harassment " for him and the documents asked to be submitted in the subpoena were " irrelevant " in lieu of the actual case . Judge Paul G. Gardephe noted in the court that " Mr. Richardson hasn 't demonstrated to [ the court ] that there is any significant burden in producing the photographs . " Writing for Complex magazine , Gregory Babcock analyzed that Richardson — who made a yearly gross of $ 58 million from his job — would lose money if he cooperated in the case . He reasoned that if the 142 @,@ 000 images were deemed as evidence for the case , then ( as per US laws ) they would enter the public record . Hence his work would be deemed free and devoid of any copyright , thus leading to attribution and reproduction by anyone . The New York Post reported in October 2013 that Richardson lost his appeal which caused his lawyer to comment that it was " immeasurable financial loss " for the photographer .
= Eastern mole =
The eastern mole or common mole ( Scalopus aquaticus ) is a medium @-@ sized , overall grey North American mole and the only member of the genus Scalopus . Its large , hairless , spade @-@ shaped forefeet are adapted for digging . The species is native to Canada ( Ontario ) , Mexico , and the eastern United States , and has the widest range of any North American mole .
The species prefers the loamy soils found in thin woods , fields , pastures , and meadows , and builds both deep and shallow burrows characterized by discarded excess soil collected in molehills . Its nest is composed of leaves and grasses , and its two to five young are on their own at about four weeks . Its diet consists principally of earthworms and other soil life , but the mole will eat vegetable matter .
Dogs , cats , foxes , and coyotes prey upon the mole , and the species hosts a variety of parasites . Unlike gophers , moles do not eat vegetation and pose no threat to human concerns ; the occasional damage to lawns is offset by the aeration provided the soil and consumption of insects . The construction of golf courses has provided the mole with ideal habitat . The species is abundant , occurs in protected areas , faces no major threats and is of little concern to conservationists .
= = Description = =
The eastern mole is a small , sturdy animal which lives principally underground and is highly specialized for a subterranean way of life . Its body is somewhat cylindrically shaped with an elongated head . A fleshy , moveable snout projecting over the mouth with nostrils on the upper part is used as an organ of touch . The minute , degenerative eyes are hidden in the fur ; the eyelids are fused and sight is limited to simply distinguishing between light and dark . The ear opening is small and concealed in the fur , but hearing is fairly acute . A short , thick tail is lightly furred and is used as an organ of touch , guiding the mole when it moves backward in the tunnel .
The very large front feet are broader rather than long with well @-@ developed claws , and possess a specialized sesamoid bone attached to the wrist that aids digging . The front feet are normally held in a vertical position with the palms facing outward . Both the front feet and the small hind feet are fringed with sensory hairs that help the mole in its excavations . The bones of the front limbs and the breast are hugely enlarged , and provide strong support for the attached muscles used in digging . The hip girdle is narrow , permitting the mole to turn around in its tunnel by doing a partial somersault or doubling back upon itself .
The mole has grey @-@ brown , plush like fur with paler or browner underparts , and may appear to have a silver sheen depending on the angle it is viewed . The fur offers little resistance to backward movement in the tunnel . Compared to the female , the male tends to have a brighter orange strip on the belly being caused by secretion of skin glands in the region . Albinos occur but these may appear white , orange , or cinnamon yellow depending on the skin gland secretion . The face , feet , and tail are whitish to pink . Molting occurs in the spring and fall with the new pelage appearing first on the underparts . On the back , the new fur appears first at the tail then works forward . A distinct line usually marks the old and new fur , and there is no distinct underfur . The hairs are of equal length , and , when viewed microscopically , are seen to possess a whip @-@ like tip unlike the hairs of any other mammal .
The sexes are determined externally by the number of openings in the groin area : the female has three – the forward one is the urinary opening ( in the urinary papilla or projection ) , the second is the vagina , and the third is the anus at the tail . The male has two openings – the combined urinary / reproductive opening in the penis , and the anus . The testes never descend into a scrotum but remain within the body cavity . There are six teats on the belly – a pair at the chest , a pair at the groin , and a pair between the two . A rank , musky odor is emitted from a scent gland on the belly , and is left on the floor of the tunnel as the mole passes . It probably serves as a form of communication between the sexes during the breeding season , and to discourage predators . Other scent glands are found at the anus .
= = Measurements = =
The mole is about 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) in length including a 3 cm long tail and weighs about 75 g ( 2 @.@ 6 oz ) . Males collected from various parts of the species ' range showed the following extremes in measurements : total length 152 – 184mm , tail 22 – 30mm , hind foot 18 – 21 mm , and females displayed extremes of : total length 144 – 16 mm , tail 15 – 28 mm , hind foot 18 – 21 mm , weight 40 – 50 grams . Males are larger than females and males collected in the northern Midwest were largest of all . Twelve adults from northeastern Florida averaged : total length 142 , tail 24 @.@ 5 , hind foot 17 @.@ 8 mm . In Hillsborough and Pasco Counties in Florida , the eastern mole is still smaller , and in the area north of Tampa Bay , total length does not exceed 140 mm , and the hind foot rarely exceeds 17 mm . The smallest and darkest moles are those found in the Miami area . In Pennsylvania , specimens range in weight from 40 to 64 grams . The tooth count numbers 36 ( I3 / 2 ; C1 / 0 ; P3 / 3 ; M3 / 3 ) , and the chromosome diploid number is 34 .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The eastern mole is native to Canada ( Ontario ) , Mexico , and the United States , and has the widest range of any North American mole . In the United States , the species is found from southern South Dakota and southern Wisconsin to eastern Massachusetts and south to the tip of Florida and Louisiana and west to Nebraska , Kansas , and central Texas . It is absent from the Appalachian Mountains , most of Canada , and Northern New England .
The species is found in the southern tip of Ontario , and northern Tamaulipas , Mexico . Its distribution , however , is patchy . Colonies in southwestern Texas and Coahuila , Mexico and Tamaulipas , Mexico are isolated and small .
The species prefers well @-@ drained , loose , sandy or loamy soil , and avoids heavy clay , stony or gravelly soils , and very dry or very wet soils . It frequents pastures , open fields , meadows , and thin woods . In some marginal areas , human activities such as the building of roads and golf courses often provide beneficial habitat due to higher quality soils and adequate moisture .
= = Population characteristics = =
In a study from 1976 , home range areas of seven moles were calculated after each had been located periodically during periods ranging from 11 months to 3 years . The mean home range area was 0 @.@ 74 hectares ( 1 @.@ 8 acres ) ; males averaged 1 @.@ 09 hectares ( 2 @.@ 7 acres ) , and females 0 @.@ 28 hectares ( 0 @.@ 69 acres ) . Because the male range is so large , males generally predominate in samples . The species ' fossorial habit tends to limit its dispersal and gene flow , and soil character often limits populations . Eastern moles are good swimmers and not limited by rivers , but heavy clay soils associated with some waterways may limit dispersal .
Moles probably have a long life span due to a paucity of predators and a low reproductive rate . The young are grayer than the adults , and , with age , the skull flattens and the teeth display wear . Females live longer than males . Longevity has been estimated at 6 years with mark @-@ recapture methods in South Carolina . In Kansas , longevity was estimated at greater than 3 @.@ 5 years . The eastern mole is common in most of the United States , but populations in southern Texas and Mexico are considered extremely rare and possibly extinct .
= = Behavior = =
The species is more abundant in warm climes rather than cool or cold climes , and in the southern United States , cultivated fields will often be riddled with their burrows after a penetrating rain . The eastern mole is active at all hours , with peaks in activity near dawn and at dusk . The length of time between bouts of activity averages about three hours , but may last up to 6 @.@ 5 h .
= = = Diet = = =
The eastern mole is voracious and will daily consume food equal to 25 to 100 % of its weight . In captivity , it will eat almost anything , including ground beef and dog food . In its natural environment , the species principally feeds on earthworms when these are available , but will eat many other foods , including slugs , snails , centipedes , larval and adult insects , scarab beetle grubs , and ants at all their life stages . Vegetable matter is consumed in great quantities and Indiana specimens collected in 1974 were found to have stomachs completely filled with grass seeds .
= = = Burrowing = = =
The eastern mole digs both deep , permanent burrows and shallow , temporary ones just under the surface , used for foraging . The regular , permanent highway is often built 25 cm or more below the surface and is used as a retreat during hot , dry weather or when frost has descended . The oxygen levels in the tunnels can be as low as 14 @.@ 3 % , and carbon dioxide as high as 5 @.@ 5 % .
When digging new burrows , the mole will push excess soil up through vertical shafts called " molehills " . New burrows just below the surface are marked by ridges and molehills , and such burrows appear to be used to facilitate the capture of earthworms and other soil life after a rain . In building burrows and probably at other times , the mole uses its nose as a tactile organ , poking about here and there . In friable soil , the species can burrow at a rate of 6 m / h .
The mole 's nest is built of leaves and grasses , and is usually situated several inches to a foot or more below the surface . It is typically found beneath a boulder , stump , or bush , and has several approaches , including one that enters from below . The eastern mole in Florida is reported to not build a nest .
= = = Vocalizations = = =
Moles vocalize by making high @-@ pitched squeals , harsh , guttural squeaks , short snorting sounds , and grating the teeth .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Gestation is usually 45 days and a single litter of two to five young is produced between mid @-@ April and June . In warm climates , the young may be born in March . They are born blind and naked , and are relatively large compared to the size of the mother . At 10 days , they exhibit a fine , velvety light @-@ gray fur which is retained for several weeks . Rapid growth permits the young to leave the nest and shift for themselves at about four weeks .
= = = Survival = = =
Dogs , cats , foxes , and coyotes are some of the predators of the species . The eastern mole harbors many parasites . One hundred four moles taken in Indiana exhibited four species of fleas , one species of sucking louse , one species of beetle , and at least 20 species of mites , several of them entirely new species , with one of them , Scalopacarus , constituting a new genus .
= = Scientific and common names = =
Linnaeus based the original description of the species upon a specimen found dead in the water , a fact noted on the collection label . He named the species aquaticus , certainly a misnomer because the species is the least aquatic of North American moles .
The first part of the scientific name , Scalopus , is from two Greek words which mean " digging " and " foot " ( skalops , " mole " , derived from the word " to dig " and pous , " foot " ) . The word refers to the species ' large front feet which are used for digging .
The second word of the name , aquaticus , is Latin and means " found in water " . The word is misleading but was given to the species because its webbed foot suggested it was accustomed to a water habitat , and the original specimen was found dead in water .
The first part of the common name , " eastern " , refers to the species ' range , and the second part , " mole " is from the Middle English molle which in turn is related to another Middle English word , mold @-@ warpe , which means " earth @-@ thrower " .
= = Fossils = =
Fossil remains have been reported from the upper Ohio Valley in Pennsylvania and West Virginia , and Pleistocene cave faunas in Texas .
= = Interaction with humans and conservation = =
Moles till and form soil , feed on destructive insects such as cutworms and Japanese beetles , and dig tunnels that aerate the soil and permit moisture to penetrate deeper soil layers . The pelt is small and does not take dyes well ; it is thus of no commercial interest to the fur industry . When moles disfigure lawns , damage the roots of garden plants while searching for food , or take sprouting corn , they are considered undesirable . In one anecdote , a homeowner reported the animal completely eradicated the Japanese beetles on his grounds .
The species is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List because of its wide distribution , presumed large population , occurrence in a number of protected areas , tolerance to some degree of habitat modification , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .
= ZX Spectrum =
The ZX Spectrum ( UK / zɛd ɛks ˈspɛktrəm / ) is an 8 @-@ bit personal home computer released in the United Kingdom in 1982 by Sinclair Research Ltd .
Referred to during development as the ZX81 Colour and ZX82 , it was launched as the ZX Spectrum by Sinclair to highlight the machine 's colour display , compared with the black and white of its predecessor , the ZX81 . The Spectrum was released as eight different models , ranging from the entry level with 16 KB RAM released in 1982 to the ZX Spectrum + 3 with 128 KB RAM and built in floppy disk drive in 1987 ; together they sold in excess of 5 million units worldwide ( not counting clones ) .
The Spectrum was among the first mainstream @-@ audience home computers in the UK , similar in significance to the Commodore 64 in the USA . The introduction of the ZX Spectrum led to a boom in companies producing software and hardware for the machine , the effects of which are still seen ; some credit it as the machine which launched the UK IT industry . Licensing deals and clones followed , and earned Clive Sinclair a knighthood for " services to British industry " .
The Commodore 64 , Dragon 32 , Oric @-@ 1 and Atmos , BBC Microcomputer and later the Amstrad CPC range were rivals to the Spectrum in the UK market during the early 1980s . Over 24 @,@ 000 software titles have been released since the Spectrum 's launch and new titles continue to be released--over 100 in 2012 . In 2014 , a Bluetooth keyboard modelled on the Spectrum was announced .
= = Hardware = =
The Spectrum is based on a Zilog Z80 A CPU running at 3 @.@ 5 MHz ( or NEC D780C @-@ 1 clone ) . The original model has 16 KB ( 16 × 1024 bytes ) of ROM and either 16 KB or 48 KB of RAM . Hardware design was by Richard Altwasser of Sinclair Research , and the outward appearance was designed by Sinclair 's industrial designer Rick Dickinson .
Video output is through an RF modulator and was designed for use with contemporary portable television sets , for a simple colour graphic display . Text can be displayed using 32 columns × 24 rows of characters from the ZX Spectrum character set or from a set provided within an application , from a palette of 15 shades : seven colours at two levels of brightness each , plus black . The image resolution is 256 × 192 with the same colour limitations . To conserve memory , colour is stored separate from the pixel bitmap in a low resolution , 32 × 24 grid overlay , corresponding to the character cells . In practice , this means that all pixels of an 8x8 character block share one foreground colour and one background colour . Altwasser received a patent for this design .
An " attribute " consists of a foreground and a background colour , a brightness level ( normal or bright ) and a flashing " flag " which , when set , causes the two colours to swap at regular intervals . This scheme leads to what was dubbed colour clash or attribute clash , where a desired colour of a specific pixel could not necessarily be selected . This became a distinctive feature of the Spectrum , meaning programs , particularly games , had to be designed around this limitation . Other machines available around the same time , for example the Amstrad CPC or the Commodore 64 , did not suffer from this limitation . The Commodore 64 used colour attributes in a similar way , but a special multicolour mode , hardware sprites and hardware scrolling were used to avoid attribute clash .
Sound output is through a beeper on the machine itself , capable of producing one channel with 10 octaves . Software was later available that could play two channel sound . The machine includes an expansion bus edge connector and 3 @.@ 5 mm audio in / out ports for the connection of a cassette recorder for loading and saving programs and data . The " ear " port can drive headphones and the " mic " port provides line level audio out which could be amplified .
= = Firmware = =
The machine 's Sinclair BASIC interpreter is stored in ROM ( along with fundamental system @-@ routines ) and was written by Steve Vickers on contract from Nine Tiles Ltd . The Spectrum 's chiclet keyboard ( on top of a membrane , similar to calculator keys ) is marked with BASIC keywords . For example , pressing " G " when in programming mode would insert the BASIC command GOTO .
The BASIC interpreter was developed from that used on the ZX81 and a ZX81 BASIC program can be typed into a Spectrum largely unmodified , but Spectrum BASIC included many extra features making it easier to use . The ZX Spectrum character set was expanded from that of the ZX81 , which did not feature lower @-@ case letters . Spectrum BASIC included extra keywords for the more advanced display and sound , and supported multi @-@ statement lines . The cassette interface was much more advanced , saving and loading around five times faster than the ZX81 ( 1500 bits per second compared to 307 ) , and unlike the ZX81 , the Spectrum could maintain the TV display during tape storage and retrieval operations . As well as being able to save programs , the Spectrum could save the contents of arrays , the contents of the screen memory , and the contents of any defined range of memory addresses .
= = Sinclair Research models = =
= = = Pre @-@ production designs = = =
Rick Dickinson came up with a number of designs for the " ZX82 " project before the final ZX Spectrum design . A number of the keyboard legends changed during the design phase including ARC becoming CIRCLE , FORE becoming INK and BACK becoming PAPER . The Spectrum reused a number of design elements of the ZX81 : The ROM code for things such as floating point calculations and expression parsing were very similar ( with a few obsolete ZX81 routines left in the Spectrum ROM ) . The simple keyboard decoding and cassette interfaces were nearly identical ( although the latter was now programmed to load / save at a higher speed ) . The central ULA integrated circuit was somewhat similar although it implemented the major enhancement over the ZX81 : A ( fully ) hardware based television raster generator ( with colour ) that indirectly gave the new machine approximately four times as much processing power as the ZX81 , simply due to the Z80 now being released from this video generation task . A bug in the ULA as originally designed meant that the keyboard did not always scan correctly , and was rectified by a " dead cockroach " ( a small circuit board mounted upside down next to the CPU ) for Issue 1 ZX Spectrums .
= = = ZX Spectrum 16K / 48K = = =
The original ZX Spectrum is remembered for its rubber keyboard , diminutive size and distinctive rainbow motif . It was originally released on 23 April 1982 with 16 KB of RAM for £ 125 or with 48 KB for £ 175 ; these prices were later reduced to £ 99 and £ 129 respectively . Owners of the 16 KB model could purchase an internal 32 KB RAM upgrade , which for early " Issue 1 " machines consisted of a daughterboard . Later issue machines required the fitting of 8 dynamic RAM chips and a few TTL chips . Users could mail their 16K Spectrums to Sinclair to be upgraded to 48 KB versions . Later revisions contained 64 KB of memory but were configured such that only 48 KB were usable . External 32 KB RAM packs that mounted in the rear expansion slot were available from third parties . Both machines had 16 KB of onboard ROM .
About 60 @,@ 000 " Issue 1 " ZX Spectrums were manufactured ; they can be distinguished from later models by the colour of the keys ( light grey for Issue 1 , blue @-@ grey for later models ) .
The Sinclair models featured audio line in and out , in the form of an " ear " and " mic " socket . An external tape recorder was needed to load the majority of software released . Either socket could be connected to headphones or an amplifier as an audio output , although this would not disable the internal speaker .
= = = ZX Spectrum + = = =
Planning of the ZX Spectrum + started in June 1984 , and it was released in October the same year . This 48 KB Spectrum ( development code @-@ name TB ) introduced a new QL @-@ style case with an injection @-@ moulded keyboard and a reset button that was basically a switch that shorted across the CPU reset capacitor . Electronically , it was identical to the previous 48 KB model . It was possible to change the system boards between the original case and the Spectrum + case . It retailed for £ 179 @.@ 95 . A DIY conversion @-@ kit for older machines was available . Early on , the machine outsold the rubber @-@ key model 2 : 1 ; however , some retailers reported a failure rate of up to 30 % , compared with a more usual 5 – 6 % for the older model .
= = = ZX Spectrum 128 = = =
Sinclair developed the ZX Spectrum 128 ( code @-@ named Derby ) in conjunction with their Spanish distributor Investrónica . Investrónica had helped adapt the ZX Spectrum + to the Spanish market after the Spanish government introduced a special tax on all computers with 64 KB RAM or less , and a law which obliged all computers sold in Spain to support the Spanish alphabet and show messages in Spanish .
The appearance of the ZX Spectrum 128 was similar to the ZX Spectrum + , with the exception of a large external heatsink for the internal 7805 voltage regulator added to the right hand end of the case , replacing the internal heatsink in previous versions .
New features included 128 KB RAM , three @-@ channel audio via the AY @-@ 3 @-@ 8912 chip , MIDI compatibility , an RS @-@ 232 serial port , an RGB monitor port , 32 KB of ROM including an improved BASIC editor , and an external keypad .
The machine was simultaneously presented for the first time and launched in September 1985 at the SIMO ' 85 trade show in Spain , with a price of 44 @,@ 250 pesetas . Because of the large number of unsold Spectrum + models , Sinclair decided not to start selling in the UK until January 1986 at a price of £ 179 @.@ 95 . No external keypad was available for the UK release , although the ROM routines to use it and the port itself remained .
The Z80 processor used in the Spectrum has a 16 @-@ bit address bus , which means only 64 KB of memory can be directly addressed . To facilitate the extra 80 KB of RAM the designers used bank switching so the new memory would be available as eight pages of 16 KB at the top of the address space . The same technique was used to page between the new 16 KB editor ROM and the original 16 KB BASIC ROM at the bottom of the address space .
The new sound chip and MIDI out abilities were exposed to the BASIC programming language with the command PLAY and a new command SPECTRUM was added to switch the machine into 48K mode , keeping the current BASIC program intact ( although there is no way to switch back to 128K mode ) . To enable BASIC programmers to access the additional memory , a RAM disk was created where files could be stored in the additional 80 KB of RAM . The new commands took the place of two existing user @-@ defined @-@ character spaces causing compatibility problems with certain BASIC programs .
The ZX Spectrum 128 had no internal speaker , unlike its predecessors . Sound was produced from the television speaker instead .
The Spanish version had the " 128K " logo in white ; the British one had the same logo in red .
= = Amstrad models = =
= = = ZX Spectrum + 2 = = =
The ZX Spectrum + 2 was Amstrad 's first Spectrum , coming shortly after their purchase of the Spectrum range and " Sinclair " brand in 1986 . The machine featured an all @-@ new grey case featuring a spring @-@ loaded keyboard , dual joystick ports , and a built @-@ in cassette recorder dubbed the " Datacorder " ( like the Amstrad CPC 464 ) , but was in most respects identical to the ZX Spectrum 128 . The main menu screen lacked the Spectrum 128 's " Tape Test " option , and the ROM was altered to account for a new 1986 Amstrad copyright message . These changes resulted in minor incompatibility problems with software that accessed ROM routines at certain addresses . Production costs had been reduced and the retail price dropped to £ 139 – £ 149 .
The new keyboard did not include the BASIC keyword markings that were found on earlier Spectrums , except for the keywords LOAD , CODE and RUN which were useful for loading software . This was not a major issue , as the + 2 boasted a menu system , almost identical to the ZX Spectrum 128 , where one could switch between 48K BASIC programming with the keywords , and 128K BASIC programming in which all words ( keywords and otherwise ) must be typed out in full ( although the keywords are still stored internally as one character each ) . Despite these changes , the layout remained identical to that of the 128 .
The ZX Spectrum + 2 power supply was a grey version of the ZX Spectrum + and 128 power supply .
= = = ZX Spectrum + 2A = = =
The ZX Spectrum + 2A was a variant of the Spectrum + 3 , housed inside a black version of the Spectrum + 2 case mouldings . The Spectrum + 2A / + 3 motherboard ( AMSTRAD part number Z70830 ) was designed such that it could be assembled without the floppy disk controller or associated logic and a + 2 style " datacorder " connected . Originally , Amstrad planned to introduce an additional disk interface for the + 2A / + 2B called the AMSTRAD SI @-@ 1 , but it never appeared . If an external disk drive was added , the " + 2A " on the system OS menu would change to a + 3 .
The power supply of the ZX Spectrum + 2A used the same pinout as the + 3 . The power supply purchased with the + 2A / B had " Sinclair + 2 " written on the case .
= = = ZX Spectrum + 3 = = =
The ZX Spectrum + 3 looked similar to the + 2 but featured a built @-@ in 3 @-@ inch floppy disk drive ( like the Amstrad CPC 6128 ) instead of the tape drive , and was in a black case . It was launched in 1987 , initially retailed for £ 249 and then later £ 199 and was the only Spectrum capable of running the CP / M operating system without additional hardware .
The + 3 saw the addition of two more 16 KB ROMs . One was home to the second part of the reorganised 128 ROM and the other hosted the + 3 's disk operating system . This was a modified version of Amstrad 's PCWDOS ( the disk access code used in LocoScript ) , called + 3DOS . These two new 16 KB ROMs and the original two 16 KB ROMs were now physically implemented together as two 32 KB chips . To be able to run CP / M , which requires RAM at the bottom of the address space , the bank @-@ switching was further improved , allowing the ROM to be paged out for another 16 KB of RAM .
Such core changes brought incompatibilities :
Removal of several lines on the expansion bus edge connector ( video , power , and IORQGE ) ; caused many external devices problems ; some such as the VTX5000 modem could be used via the " FixIt " device .
Dividing ROMCS into 2 lines , to disable both ROMs
Reading a non @-@ existent I / O port no longer returned the last attribute ; caused certain games such as Arkanoid to be unplayable
Memory timing changes ; certain RAM banks were now contended causing high @-@ speed colour @-@ changing effects to fail
The keypad scanning routines from the ROM were removed
move 1 byte address in ROM
Some older 48K and 128K games were incompatible with the machine . The ZX Interface 1 was incompatible due to differences in ROM and expansion connector , making it impossible to connect and use the Microdrive units .
There was a regression in sound quality from the previous 128K models - an error with a resistor placement meant sound was distorted .
The ZX Spectrum + 3 power supply provides the same voltages as the one supplied with + 2A / B. This power supply has the same DIN connector so can be used with the + 2A / B. The power supply purchased with the + 3 had " Sinclair + 3 " written on the case .
Production of the + 3 ceased in December 1990 , believed to be in response for Amstrad relaunching their CPC range . At the time , it was estimated about 15 % of ZX Spectrums sold had been + 3 models . Production of the + 2B ( the only other model then still in production ) continued , as it was believed not to be in competition with other computers in Amstrad 's product range . It was discontinued in 1992 .
= = = ZX Spectrum + 2B and + 3B = = =
The ZX Spectrum + 2B and ZX Spectrum + 3B were functionally similar in design to the Spectrum + 2A and + 3 . The main electronic differences being changes to the generation of the audio output signal to resolve problems with clipping .
Unlike the + 2A and + 3 , the Spectrum + 2B and + 3B do not share a common motherboard . The + 2B board ( AMSTRAD part number Z70833 ) has no provision for floppy disk controller circuitry and the + 3B motherboard ( Amstrad part number Z70835 ) has no provision for connecting an internal tape drive .
= = Clones = =
= = = Official clones = = =
Sinclair licensed the Spectrum design to Timex Corporation in the United States . An enhanced version with better sound , graphics and other modifications was marketed in the USA by Timex as the Timex Sinclair 2068 . Timex 's derivatives were largely incompatible with Sinclair systems . Some of the Timex innovations were later adopted by Sinclair Research . A case in point was the abortive Pandora portable Spectrum , whose ULA had the high resolution video mode pioneered in the TS2068 . Pandora had a flat @-@ screen monitor and Microdrives and was intended to be Sinclair 's business portable . After Amstrad bought the computer business of Sinclair Research , Sir Clive retained the rights to the Pandora project , and it evolved into the Cambridge Computer Z88 , launched in 1987 .
In India , Decibells Electronics introduced a licensed version of the Spectrum + in 1986 . Dubbed the " db Spectrum + " , it did reasonably well in the Indian market and sold many units until 1990 , when the market died away .
The ZX Spectrum Vega is a modern redesign of the ZX Spectrum in the form of a game console endorsed by Sir Clive Sinclair .
= = = Unofficial clones = = =
Unofficial Spectrum clones were produced , especially in the former Eastern Bloc countries ( e.g. in Romania , several models were produced ( Tim @-@ S , HC85 , HC91 , Cobra , Junior , CIP , CIP 3 , Jet ) , some featuring CP / M and a 5 @.@ 25 " / 3 @.@ 5 " floppy disk ) and South America ( e.g. Microdigital TK90X and TK95 ) . In the Soviet Union , ZX Spectrum clones were assembled by thousands of small start @-@ ups and distributed through poster ads and street stalls . Over 50 such clone models existed . Some of them are still being produced , such as the Pentagon and ATM Turbo .
In the UK , Spectrum peripheral vendor Miles Gordon Technology ( MGT ) released the SAM Coupé as a potential successor with some Spectrum compatibility . By this point , the Commodore Amiga and Atari ST had taken hold of the market , leaving MGT in eventual receivership .
= = Peripherals = =
Several peripherals were marketed by Sinclair : the ZX Printer was already on the market , as the ZX Spectrum expansion bus was partially backwards @-@ compatible with that of the ZX81 .
The ZX Interface 1 add @-@ on module included 8 KB of ROM , an RS @-@ 232 serial port , a proprietary LAN interface ( called ZX Net ) , and an interface for the connection of up to eight ZX Microdrives – somewhat unreliable but speedy tape @-@ loop cartridge storage devices released in July 1983 . These were used in a revised version on the Sinclair QL , whose storage format was electrically compatible but logically incompatible with the Spectrum 's . Sinclair also released the ZX Interface 2 which added two joystick ports and a ROM cartridge port .
There were a plethora of third @-@ party hardware addons . The better known of these included the Kempston joystick interface , the Morex Peripherals Centronics / RS @-@ 232 interface , the Currah Microspeech unit ( speech synthesis ) , Videoface Digitiser , RAM pack , the Cheetah Marketing SpecDrum , a drum machine , and the Multiface , a snapshot and disassembly tool from Romantic Robot . Keyboards were especially popular in view of the original 's notorious " dead flesh " feel .
There were disk drive interfaces , such as the Abbeydale Designers / Watford Electronics SPDOS , Abbeydale Designers / Kempston KDOS and Opus Discovery . The SPDOS and KDOS interfaces were the first to come bundled with office productivity software ( Tasword Word Processor , Masterfile database and Omnicalc spreadsheet ) . This bundle , together with OCP 's Stock Control , Finance and Payroll systems , introduced small businesses to a streamlined , computerised operation . The most popular floppy disk systems ( except in East Europe ) were the DISCiPLE and + D systems released by Miles Gordon Technology in 1987 and 1988 respectively . Both systems had the ability to store memory images onto disk snapshots could later be used to restore the Spectrum to its exact previous state . They were both compatible with the Microdrive command syntax , which made porting existing software much simpler .
During the mid @-@ 1980s , Telemap Group Ltd launched a fee @-@ based service allowing users to connect their ZX Spectrums via a Prism Micro Products VTX5000 modem to a viewdata service known as Micronet 800 , hosted by Prestel , which provided news and information about microcomputers . The service allowed a form of instant messaging and online shopping .
= = Software = =
As of July 2012 , over 24 @,@ 000 titles had been released for the Spectrum family . While most of these are games , the library includes programming language implementations , databases ( e.g. VU @-@ File ) , word processors ( e.g. Tasword II ) , spreadsheets ( e.g. VU @-@ Calc ) , drawing and painting tools ( e.g. OCP Art Studio ) , and even 3D @-@ modelling ( e.g. VU @-@ 3D ) and archaeology software amongst many other types .
The early Spectrum models ' great success as a games platform came in spite of its lack of built @-@ in joystick ports , primitive sound generation , and colour support that was optimised for text display : the hardware limitations of the platform required a particular level of creativity from video game designers .
A simulation program called Evolution , commonly known as Foxes and Rabbits , came with the Spectrum . The logic was that too small a population of rabbits would provide insufficient food for foxes whose numbers would then decline , until too few foxes would result in the rabbit population again increasing , and the cycle would continue . One nominated a number of rabbits and number of foxes to start , then watched the basic graph of the two populations rising and falling . At any point in time , one could pause the simulation and save to the audio cassette by pressing ' Record ' on the connected remote tape recorder , then later resume the simulation on the Spectrum from that point .
According to the 90th issue of the British gaming magazine GamesMaster , the ten biggest games released were ( in descending order ) Head Over Heels , Jet Set Willy , Skool Daze , Renegade , R @-@ Type , Knight Lore , Dizzy , The Hobbit , Way Of The Exploding Fist , and Match Day 2 .
= = = Distribution = = =
Most Spectrum software was originally distributed on audio cassette tapes . The Spectrum was intended to work with a normal domestic cassette recorder , and despite differences in audio reproduction fidelity , the software loading process was quite reliable and faster than on competing systems of the time , but slow by modern standards .
Although the ZX Microdrive was initially greeted with good reviews , it never took off as a distribution method due to worries about the quality of the cartridges and piracy . Hence the main use became to complement tape releases , usually utilities and niche products like the Tasword word processing software and Trans Express , ( a tape to microdrive copying utility ) . No games are known to be exclusively released on Microdrive .
Although the Interface 2 proved popular , the high cost of ROM cartridges meant that very few titles were released in this format .
Despite the popularity of the DISCiPLE and + D systems , most software released for them took the form of utility software . The ZX Spectrum + 3 enjoyed much more success when it came to commercial software releases on floppy disk . More than 700 titles were released on 3 @-@ inch disk from 1987 to 1997 .
Software was distributed through print media ; magazines and books . The reader would type the Sinclair BASIC program listing into the computer by hand , run it , and could save it to tape for later use . Software distributed in this way was in general simpler and slower than its assembly language counterparts . Magazines printed long lists of checksummed hexadecimal digits with machine code games or tools .
Another software distribution method was to broadcast the audio stream from the cassette on another medium and have users record it onto an audio cassette themselves . In radio or television shows in many European countries , the host would describe a program ,
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had something to do with her death .
The episode featured the first appearance of Jerry 's uncle Leo ( Len Lesser ) , who became a recurring character on the show . The episode also featured the first appearance of Barney Martin as Morty Seinfeld , replacing actor Phil Bruns , who had portrayed Morty in the season 1 episode " The Stake Out " . " The Pony Remark " aired on January 30 , 1991 , and gained a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 7 / 16 . It gained positive responses from critics and The New York Times considers the episode a turning point for the show .
= = Plot = =
Jerry 's parents , Helen ( Liz Sheridan ) and Morty Seinfeld , are staying at Jerry 's apartment in New York City , making themselves at home . He bursts in , wearing baseball clothes , carrying a bat and glove , and proudly tells them that during his softball game , " I made an incredible play in the field ! There was a tag @-@ up at third base and I threw the guy out from left field on a fly ! We 'll be in the championship game Wednesday because of me . It was the single greatest moment in my life . "
Morty shares the reflected glory by remembering his own greatest moment ; he is sympathetic , but Helen reminds them that they are all going to the 50th anniversary dinner of Helen 's second cousin Manya ( Rozsika Halmos ) and her husband Isaac ( David Fresco ) . Though Jerry does not want to go — he has made plans , he doesn 't know the people — his mother coerces him : " At least come and say hello , have a cup of coffee , then you 'll leave . " Jerry knows it won 't be that simple , so he persuades Elaine to attend , too . ( To their unspoken dismay , she is seated at the kiddie table , lower than the grown @-@ ups . )
During the dinner , he makes the tactless comment to which the title refers :
HELEN : I hear the fella owns a couple of racehorses . You know , trotters , like at Yonkers .
JERRY : Horses ? They 're like big riding dogs .
ELAINE : What about ponies ? What kind of abnormal animal is that ? And those kids who had their own ponies ...
JERRY : I know , I hated those kids . In fact , I hate anyone that ever had a pony when they were growing up .
MANYA : ( angry ) I had a pony .
( The room goes dead quiet . )
JERRY : Well , I didn 't , uh , really mean a pony , per se ...
MANYA : When I was a little girl in Poland , we all had ponies . My sister had pony , my cousin had pony ... So , what 's wrong with that ?
Jerry tries to apologize , even going as far as to compare ponies with compact cars , but Manya gets even more angry and leaves the table . Just after she leaves , Jerry tries to reason with the others that he did not know she had a pony and wonders why immigrants with ponies would leave Europe to come to America without ponies ( " Who leaves a country packed with ponies to come to a non @-@ pony country ? " ) After the dinner , when Jerry 's parents are leaving , his father soothes : " Hey , I agree with him . Nobody likes a kid with a pony . " But Jerry receives a phone call from Uncle Leo , who informs him that Manya has died . Jerry is very upset about it , but he 's also upset to learn that the funeral will be held on the same day of his softball championship .
At Monk 's Cafe , Jerry discusses the situation with George and Elaine . They speculate whether his comment may have been a factor , though both are self @-@ centered : Elaine wonders about her own death , and George urges Jerry to play in the softball game , because he thinks Jerry needs " to play left field " , as Jerry 's replacement fielder " stinks , " and , George adds , " I just don 't see what purpose is it gonna serve your going ? I mean , you think dead people care who 's at their funeral ? They don 't even know they 're having a funeral . "
Feeling guilty , Jerry ends up going to the funeral , where he , again , apologizes for his remark . Isaac informs him that Manya had forgotten Jerry made the pony remark : " Oh , no no no . She forgot all about that . She was much more upset about the potato salad . " Elaine asks Isaac multiple times about what is going to happen with their apartment . Isaac eventually tells her that Jerry 's cousin Jeffrey is going to live in it . When it starts to rain , Jerry realizes that the game will be postponed . The following day , after the game , Jerry , George and Elaine meet at Monk 's Cafe , where they discuss the lousy way Jerry played softball . ( Jerry recalls a certain play , about which he admits , " It was the single worst moment of my life . " ) Elaine wonders if Manya 's spirit put a spell on him .
In a subplot , Jerry and Kramer bet whether or not Kramer will rebuild his apartment so that it has multiple flat wooden levels instead of needing furniture . Kramer changes his mind and decides not to build levels , but refuses to pay Jerry , arguing that since he did not attempt it , the bet was invalid .
= = Production = =
This episode was written by series creators Larry David and Jerry Seinfeld , in their second episode for this season , and directed by Tom Cherones , also his second episode this season , during the course of the second production season . This episode was based on a remark David once made during a conversation . Cherones deliberately made Elaine sit at a smaller table while directing the dinner scene . " The Pony Remark " was the first episode in which Kramer wants to gamble , it is later established that he has a gambling addiction . The idea of Elaine asking Isaac what is going to happen with his old apartment was added during rehearsals . The first table reading of the episode was held on October 24 , 1990 , and a run through was held two days later . " The Pony Remark " was filmed in front of a live audience on October 30 , 1990 , while Seinfeld 's stand @-@ up routine was filmed one day earlier , along with the performances used in " The Ex @-@ Girlfriend " and " The Busboy " ; Seinfeld would change wardrobe between takes .
" The Pony Remark " featured the second appearance of Helen and Morty Seinfeld , who had previously appeared in the season 1 episode " The Stake Out " . In " The Stake Out " , Morty was portrayed by Phil Bruns ; however , David and Seinfeld decided they wanted the character to be harsher , and re @-@ cast him with Barney Martin , who auditioned for the part on October 15 , 1990 at 12 @.@ 45 PM . Martin was unaware that another actor had already established the part . Helen was portrayed by Liz Sheridan ; in an early draft of the episode , her name was Adele , though this did not match her name from " The Stake Out " . It was later changed back to Helen . The episode also introduced Jerry 's uncle Leo , portrayed by Len Lesser , who was known for his acting in gangster films , and also The Outlaw Josey Wales and Kelly 's Heroes . When Lesser auditioned for the part on October 22 , 1990 , he got a lot of laughs from David , Seinfeld and casting director Marc Herschfield , but did not understand why , because he did not think his lines were funny . Herschfield stated that Lesser was the right actor for the part when Lesser had auditioned . David Fresco guest starred in the episode as Isaac . Fresco had some difficulty with his lines in the episode , and would sometimes burst into laughter during filming . Other actors who guest @-@ starred in the episode were Rozsika Halmos , who portrayed Manya , and Milt Oberman , who played the funeral director .
= = Reception = =
On January 30 , 1991 , " The Pony Remark " was first broadcast on American television . It gained a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 7 and an audience share of 16 . This means that 10 @.@ 7 % of American households watched the episode , and that 16 % of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it . The episode gained two Primetime Emmy Award nominations ; Seinfeld and David were nominated for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series and Cherones was nominated for Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series . Though the episode did not win either of its Emmy nominations , Seinfeld was praised for co @-@ hosting the Emmy telecast .
Dave Kehr of The New York Times felt that " The Pony Remark " was a turning point for the show , stating that , after the first few episodes , the show " turn [ ed ] into something sharp and distinctive [ ... ] Here , suddenly , is the tight knot of guilt and denial , of hypersensitivity and sarcastic contempt that Seinfeld would explore for the next eight years . " Holly Ordway of DVD Talk considered the episode the best episode of Seinfeld 's second season . " The Pony Remark " is considered one of Seinfeld 's " classic episodes " . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , critics Mike Flaherty and Mary Kaye Schilling called the episode " Seinfeld at its mordant best " and graded it with an A- .
In the book Something Ain 't Kosher Here : The Rise of the " Jewish " Sitcom , Vincent Brook analysed the episode , saying , " Jerry is made to feel guilty for his ' lethal ' pony remark , whence the episode 's macabre humor ; yet the moral in terms of ethno @-@ spatial identity is clear . In its violent rejection of Manya , Seinfeld has driven descent @-@ based ethnicities ( and their legacy of privation and self @-@ sacrifice ) off the face of the earth , and literally off the air . There is no place for traditional Jewishness in the hedonistic Seinfeld world , " The Pony Remark " vociferously proclaims . "
David Sims of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A , calling it a " classic " and writing that it " is so damn clever in how it bonds Jerry 's fears about social niceties with larger fears about mortality " ; he also praised Louis @-@ Dreyfus 's acting , saying that Elaine " has an amusingly stark little bit of dialogue about death midway through the episode : " You know , funerals always make me think about my own mortality and how I 'm actually going to die someday . Me , dead . Imagine that ! " I think it 's probably Louis @-@ Dreyfus ' best moment of the show so far , because she 's really starting to nail Elaine 's declarative , vaguely imperious , self @-@ centered tone . " He also admired " the estimable Barney Martin in his first appearance as Jerry 's irascible dad . "
= M @-@ 65 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 65 is a 103 @.@ 176 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 166 @.@ 046 km ) state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The highway runs between termini on US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) near Omer and Rogers City in the northeastern Lower Peninsula of the state . M @-@ 65 runs inland through several small communities in the region , passing through forests and fields along its course . M @-@ 65 crosses several watercourses , including the Au Sable River where it runs along the River Road National Scenic Byway . The region also includes the Huron National Forest and the Mackinaw State Forest areas .
The original M @-@ 65 was created by 1919 on a discontinuous series of roads between the Ohio state line and Flint ; the two sections were later joined together before the highway was replaced by US 23 in 1926 . The current M @-@ 65 was created in 1930 in Iosco County . When US 23 near Omer was moved in 1932 , M @-@ 65 was extended southward to encompass a roadway formerly part of US 23 . A second segment in Alpena County was added to M @-@ 65 later in the 1930s . A second extension at the end of that decade added another former US 23 segment to the highway . The two sections of M @-@ 65 were connected in the late 1940s , and the highway was completely paved by the early 1960s . The National Forest Scenic Byway and National Scenic Byway designations were added in 1988 and 2005 respectively .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 65 begins at an intersection with US 23 ( Huron Road ) near the town of Omer . The highway runs north along Hale Road through a mixed forest and agricultural area inland of the Saginaw Bay in Arenac County . As the road passes through the community of Twining , it crosses a branch of the Lake State Railway . South of Whittemore , the trunkline crosses a tributary of the Au Gres River . M @-@ 65 follows Bullock Street through Whittemore , running near the Whittemore Speedway in town . North of town , the highway crosses the main channel of the Au Gres River before it intersects M @-@ 55 in a rural area of Iosco County about 15 miles ( 24 km ) west of Tawas City . From there , the road continues due north through fields until reaching the edge of Huron National Forest in the northern part of the county .
Just north of the community of Hale the road enters the Huron National Forest near Loon Lake . The trunkline takes a turn to the east as it passes along the Au Sable River . The River Road National Scenic Byway starts on M @-@ 65 at Rollways Road , and the highway generally follows the river as it passes by a former logging community which is commemorated by Lumberman 's Monument . At the intersection with River Road , M @-@ 65 turns north to cross the Au Sable , and the byway designation continues east along River Road to follow the river to Oscoda . The M @-@ 65 bridge over the Au Sable is just downstream of the Cooke Dam , crossing high above the water below . The highway turns northwesterly through forest land to cross into Alcona County . North of the county line , the trunkline follows Baker and State roads near Vaughn and Hunters lakes . M @-@ 65 meets the western terminus of county road F @-@ 30 in the community of Glennie . The highway also crosses the South Branch of the Pine River .
North of Glennie , the highway passes Clear Lake as it continues through rural Alcona County . Near the West Branch of the Pine River , M @-@ 65 merges with M @-@ 72 . The two trunklines run concurrently curving to the northwest past the eastern terminus of county road F @-@ 32 into Curran . North of town , they separate as M @-@ 72 turns westward and M @-@ 65 continues north , exiting the Huron National Forest . The highway jogs along the Alcona – Alpena County line and crosses the Beaver Creek in the process . The trunkline runs to the east of Beaver Lake as it runs north through mixed forest and fields toward the community of Lachine . Southeast of that town , M @-@ 65 turns eastward along M @-@ 32 for a short distance before turning north into town . North of Lachine , the highway crosses the Thunder Bay River near the community of Long Rapids . As M @-@ 65 runs through the northern portion of Alpena County , it runs through the Mackinaw State Forest . The highway passes through the community of Posen in eastern Presque Isle County . The road continues due north to its terminus at an intersection with US 23 ; the junction is inland from Lake Huron near Big and Little Trout lakes southeast of Rogers City .
M @-@ 65 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like all other state highways . As a part of these responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic using the roads under its jurisdiction . They use a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . In 2009 , MDOT 's surveys calculated that the highest volume of traffic along M @-@ 65 was 6 @,@ 699 cars north of the M @-@ 55 junction ; the highest commercial AADT was 310 trucks along the River Road National Scenic Byway segment north to the F @-@ 30 junction in Glennie . The lowest traffic counts were the 947 cars and 107 trucks near the northern terminus in Presque Isle County . The section of M @-@ 65 concurrent with M @-@ 32 has been listed as a part of the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous routing = = =
On July 1 , 1919 , the M @-@ 65 designation was used on two , discontinuous roads in the southern part of the Lower Peninsula . The southern segment ran from the Ohio state line north to the Dundee area in Monroe County ; the northern section ran between Ann Arbor and Flint by way of Brighton and Fenton . The gap between the two segments was eliminated by the middle of 1926 . When the United States Numbered Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , the original M @-@ 65 was redesignated as part of US 23 .
= = = Current routing = = =
In 1930 , the first segment of the current routing of M @-@ 65 was designated . At the time , the road ran from an intersection with US 23 and M @-@ 55 near Whittemore and ran north to Hale . US 23 was moved from its inland routing to follow a shoreline alignment along Saginaw Bay around 1932 . The former route through Twinning and Whittemore became an extension of M @-@ 65 as a part of these changes . By 1936 , the highway was lengthened northwards to end in Glennie ; a second segment was also added that ran north from the Alcona – Alpena county line to Lachine . Around the end of the decade , US 23 's routing was moved in another location to follow the lakeshore ; this time the highway was rerouted between Alpena and Rogers City . M @-@ 65 was extended northwards from Lachine through Posen to terminate at M @-@ 91 downtown Rogers City . By 1945 , this northernmost segment downtown was redesignated Business US 23 , and M @-@ 65 was truncated to its junction with US 23 southeast of town .
In 1947 or early 1948 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) closed the gap between the northern and southern segments of M @-@ 65 by adding two " earth " roadways : one between Glennie and M @-@ 72 near Curran and a second between Curran and the Alcona – Alpena county line . By the next year , the northern end of the highway near Posen was moved to eliminate several zig @-@ zagging segments of roadway from the routing ; M @-@ 65 ran due north to terminate at US 23 after the change . In the middle of 1953 , the section of M @-@ 65 / M @-@ 72 in Alcona County was straightened and paved . The MSHD realigned M @-@ 65 from a series of zig @-@ zagging roads to a single set of curves along the Alcona – Alpena county line in late 1961 . At the time this project was completed , all of M @-@ 65 was paved .
On December 20 , 1988 , the National Forest Service designated the River Road National Forest Scenic Byway along a section of M @-@ 65 in Iosco County . A second designation was added on September 22 , 2005 , when the Federal Highway Administration listed the roadway as the River Road National Scenic Byway .
Beginning in 1999 , MDOT spent substantial sums of money over a five @-@ year program to upgrade M @-@ 65 and US 23 by refurbishing and replacing bridges and adding more passing lanes . During the same timeframe , the community of Hale embarked on a project to beautify the length of M @-@ 65 in town . The project cost $ 877 @,@ 929 and installed park benches , new lighting , sidewalks and plantings along the highway . Funding for the venture came from the federal government and MDOT .
In particular , MDOT restored the old truss bridge over the Au Sable River in Iosco County , and then built a new parallel and upgraded bridge next to it . The latter straightened and leveled the roadway , so that it no longer dips deep into the river valley . This change improved the safety of the highway in the area . The new bridge was opened to traffic on October 13 , 2004 , and the original bridge was left in place for recreational uses . The original structure is a Parker truss bridge with two 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) spans that was built in 1930 . Its total length of 320 feet ( 98 m ) makes it one of the longest of its type in Michigan .
= = Major intersections = =
= Giuseppe Verdi =
Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi ( Italian : [ dʒuˈzɛppe ˈverdi ] ; 9 or 10 October 1813 – 27 January 1901 ) was an Italian opera composer .
Verdi was born near Busseto to a provincial family of moderate means , and developed a musical education with the help of a local patron . Verdi came to dominate the Italian opera scene after the era of Bellini , Donizetti and Rossini , whose works significantly influenced him , becoming one of the pre @-@ eminent opera composers in history .
In his early operas Verdi demonstrated a sympathy with the Risorgimento movement which sought the unification of Italy . He also participated briefly as an elected politician . The chorus " Va , pensiero " from his early opera Nabucco ( 1842 ) , and similar choruses in later operas , were much in the spirit of the unification movement , and the composer himself became esteemed as a representative of these ideals . An intensely private person , Verdi however did not seek to ingratiate himself with popular movements and as he became professionally successful was able to reduce his operatic workload and sought to establish himself as a landowner in his native region . He surprised the musical world by returning , after his success with the opera Aida ( 1871 ) , with three late masterpieces : his Requiem ( 1874 ) , and the operas Otello ( 1887 ) and Falstaff ( 1893 ) .
His operas remain extremely popular , especially the three peaks of his ' middle period ' : Rigoletto , Il trovatore and La traviata , and the bicentenary of his birth in 2013 was widely celebrated in broadcasts and performances .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood and education = = =
Verdi , the first child of Carlo Giuseppe Verdi ( 1785 – 1867 ) and Luigia Uttini ( 1787 – 1851 ) , was born at their home in Le Roncole , a village near Busseto , then in the Département Taro and within the borders of the First French Empire following the annexation of the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza in 1808 . The baptismal register , prepared on 11 October 1813 , lists his parents Carlo and Luigia as " innkeeper " and " spinner " respectively . Additionally , it lists Verdi as being " born yesterday " , but since days were often considered to begin at sunset , this could have meant either 9 or 10 October . Verdi himself , following his mother , always celebrated his birthday on 9 October .
Verdi had a younger sister , Giuseppa , who died aged 17 in 1833 . From the age of four , Verdi was given private lessons in Latin and Italian by the village schoolmaster , Baistrocchi , and at six he attended the local school . After learning to play the organ , he showed so much interest in music that his parents finally provided him with a spinet . Verdi 's gift for music was already apparent by 1820 – 21 when he began his association with the local church , serving in the choir , acting as an altar boy for a while , and taking organ lessons . After Baistrocchi 's death , Verdi , at the age of eight , became the official paid organist .
The music historian Roger Parker points out that both of Verdi 's parents " belonged to families of small landowners and traders , certainly not the illiterate peasants from which Verdi later liked to present himself as having emerged ... Carlo Verdi was energetic in furthering his son 's education ... something which Verdi tended to hide in later life ... [ T ] he picture emerges of youthful precocity eagerly nurtured by an ambitious father and of a sustained , sophisticated and elaborate formal education . "
In 1823 , when he was 10 , Verdi 's parents arranged for the boy to attend school in Busseto , enrolling him in a Ginnasio — an upper school for boys — run by Don Pietro Seletti , while they continued to run their inn at Le Roncole . Verdi returned to Busseto regularly to play the organ on Sundays , covering the distance of several kilometres on foot . At age 11 , Verdi received schooling in Italian , Latin , the humanities , and rhetoric . By the time he was 12 , he began lessons with Ferdinando Provesi , maestro di cappella at San Bartolomeo , director of the municipal music school and co @-@ director of the local Società Filarmonica ( Philharmonic Society ) . Verdi later stated : " From the ages of 13 to 18 I wrote a motley assortment of pieces : marches for band by the hundred , perhaps as many little sinfonie that were used in church , in the theatre and at concerts , five or six concertos and sets of variations for pianoforte , which I played myself at concerts , many serenades , cantatas ( arias , duets , very many trios ) and various pieces of church music , of which I remember only a Stabat Mater . " This information comes from the Autobiographical Sketch which Verdi dictated to the publisher Giulio Ricordi late in life , in 1879 , and remains the leading source for his early life and career . Written , understandably , with the benefit of hindsight , it is not always reliable when dealing with issues more contentious than those of his childhood .
The other director of the Philharmonic Society was Antonio Barezzi , a wholesale grocer and distiller , who was described by a contemporary as a " manic dilettante " of music . The young Verdi did not immediately become involved with the Philharmonic . By June 1827 , he had graduated with honours from the Ginnasio and was able to focus solely on music under Provesi . By chance , when he was 13 , Verdi was asked to step in as a replacement to play in what became his first public event in his home town ; he was an immediate success mostly playing his own music to the surprise of many and receiving strong local recognition .
By 1829 – 30 , Verdi had established himself as a leader of the Philharmonic : " none of us could rival him " reported the secretary of the organisation , Giuseppe Demaldè . An eight @-@ movement cantata , I deliri di Saul , based on a drama by Vittorio Alfieri , was written by Verdi when he was 15 and performed in Bergamo . It was acclaimed by both Demaldè and Barezzi , who commented : " He shows a vivid imagination , a philosophical outlook , and sound judgment in the arrangement of instrumental parts . " In late 1829 , Verdi had completed his studies with Provesi , who declared that he had no more to teach him . At the time , Verdi had been giving singing and piano lessons to Barezzi 's daughter Margherita ; by 1831 , they were unofficially engaged .
Verdi set his sights on Milan , then the cultural capital of northern Italy , where he applied unsuccessfully to study at the Conservatory . Barezzi made arrangements for him to become a private pupil of Vincenzo Lavigna , who had been maestro concertatore at La Scala , and who described Verdi 's compositions as " very promising . " Lavigna encouraged Verdi to take out a subscription to La Scala , where he heard Maria Malibran in operas by Gioachino Rossini and Vincenzo Bellini . Verdi began making connections in the Milanese world of music that were to stand him in good stead . These included an introduction by Lavigna to an amateur choral group , the Società Filarmonica , led by Pietro Massini . Attending the Società frequently in 1834 , Verdi soon found himself functioning as rehearsal director ( for Rossini 's La cenerentola ) and continuo player . It was Massini who encouraged him to write his first opera , originally titled Rocester , to a libretto by the journalist Antonio Piazza .
= = = 1834 – 42 : First operas = = =
In mid @-@ 1834 , Verdi sought to acquire Provesi 's former post in Busseto but without success . But with Barezzi 's help he did obtain the secular post of maestro di musica . He taught , gave lessons , and conducted the Philharmonic for several months before returning to Milan in early 1835 . By the following July , he obtained his certification from Lavigna . Eventually in 1835 Verdi became director of the Busseto school with a three @-@ year contract . He married Margherita in May 1836 , and by March 1837 , she had given birth to their first child , Virginia Maria Luigia on 26 March 1837 . Icilio Romano followed on 11 July 1838 . Both the children died young , Virginia on 12 August 1838 , Ilicio on 22 October 1839 .
In 1837 , the young composer asked for Massini 's assistance to stage his opera in Milan . The La Scala impresario , Bartolomeo Merelli , agreed to put on Oberto ( as the reworked opera was now called , with a libretto rewritten by Temistocle Solera ) in November 1839 . It achieved a respectable 13 additional performances , following which Merelli offered Verdi a contract for three more works .
While Verdi was working on his second opera Un giorno di regno , Margherita died of encephalitis at the age of 26 . Verdi adored his wife and children and was devastated by their deaths . Un giorno , a comedy , was premiered only a few months later . It was a flop and only given the one performance . Following its failure , it is claimed Verdi vowed never to compose again , but in his Sketch he recounts how Merelli persuaded him to write a new opera .
Verdi was to claim that he gradually began to work on the music for Nabucco , the libretto of which had originally been rejected by the composer Otto Nicolai : " This verse today , tomorrow that , here a note , there a whole phrase , and little by little the opera was written " , he later recalled . By the autumn of 1841 it was complete , originally under the title Nabucodonosor . Well received at its first performance on 9 March 1842 , Nabucco underpinned Verdi 's success until his retirement from the theatre , twenty @-@ nine operas ( including some revised and updated versions ) later . At its revival in La Scala for the 1842 autumn season it was given an unprecedented ( and later unequalled ) total of 57 performances ; within three years it had reached ( among other venues ) Vienna , Lisbon , Barcelona , Berlin , Paris and Hamburg ; in 1848 it was heard in New York , in 1850 in Buenos Aires . Porter comments that " similar accounts ... could be provided to show how widely and rapidly all [ Verdi 's ] other successful operas were disseminated . "
= = = 1842 – 49 = = =
A period of hard work for Verdi — with the creation of twenty operas ( excluding revisions and translations ) — followed over the next sixteen years , culminating in Un ballo in maschera . This period was not without its frustrations and setbacks for the young composer , and he was frequently demoralised . In April 1845 , in connection with I due Foscari , he wrote : " I am happy , no matter what reception it gets , and I am utterly indifferent to everything . I cannot wait for these next three years to pass . I have to write six operas , then addio to everything . " In 1858 Verdi complained : " Since Nabucco , you may say , I have never had one hour of peace . Sixteen years in the galleys . "
After the initial success of Nabucco , Verdi settled in Milan , making a number of influential acquaintances . He attended the Salotto Maffei , Countess Clara Maffei 's salons in Milan , becoming her lifelong friend and correspondent . A revival of Nabucco followed in 1842 at La Scala where it received a run of fifty @-@ seven performances , and this led to a commission from Merelli for a new opera for the 1843 season . I Lombardi alla prima crociata was based on a libretto by Solera and premiered in February 1843 . Inevitably , comparisons were made with Nabucco ; but one contemporary writer noted : " If [ Nabucco ] created this young man 's reputation , I Lombardi served to confirm it . "
Verdi paid close attention to his financial contracts , making sure he was appropriately remunerated as his popularity increased . For I Lombardi and Ernani ( 1844 ) in Venice he was paid 12 @,@ 000 lire ( including supervision of the productions ) ; Attila and Macbeth ( 1847 ) , each brought him 18 @,@ 000 lire . His contracts with the publishers Ricordi in 1847 were very specific about the amounts he was to receive for new works , first productions , musical arrangements , and so on . He began to use his growing prosperity to invest in land near his birthplace . In 1844 he purchased Il Pulgaro , 62 acres ( 23 hectares ) of farmland with a farmhouse and outbuildings , providing a home for his parents from May 1844 . Later that year , he also bought the Palazzo Cavalli ( now known as the Palazzo Orlandi ) on the via Roma , Busseto 's main street . In May 1848 , Verdi signed a contract for land and houses at Sant 'Agata in Busseto , which had once belonged to his family . It was here he built his own house , completed in 1880 , now known as the Villa Verdi , where he lived from 1851 until his death .
In March 1843 , Verdi visited Vienna ( where Gaetano Donizetti was musical director ) to oversee a production of Nabucco . The older composer , recognising Verdi 's talent , noted in a letter of January 1844 : " I am very , very happy to give way to people of talent like Verdi ... Nothing will prevent the good Verdi from soon reaching one of the most honourable positions in the cohort of composers . " Verdi travelled on to Parma , where the Teatro Regio di Parma was producing Nabucco with Strepponi in the cast . For Verdi the performances were a personal triumph in his native region , especially as his father , Carlo , attended the first performance . Verdi remained in Parma for some weeks beyond his intended departure date . This fuelled speculation that the delay was due to Verdi 's interest in Giuseppina Strepponi ( who stated that their relationship began in 1843 ) . Strepponi was in fact known for her amorous relationships ( and many illegitimate children ) and her history was an awkward factor in their relationship until they eventually agreed on marriage .
After successful stagings of Nabucco in Venice ( with twenty @-@ five performances in the 1842 / 43 season ) , Verdi began negotiations with the impresario of La Fenice to stage I Lombardi , and to write a new opera . Eventually , Victor Hugo 's Hernani was chosen , with Francesco Maria Piave as librettist . Ernani was successfully premiered in 1844 , and within six months had been performed at twenty other theatres in Italy , and also in Vienna . The writer Andrew Porter notes that for the next ten years , Verdi 's life " reads like a travel diary – a timetable of visits ... to bring new operas to the stage or to supervise local premieres . " La Scala premiered none of these new works , except for Giovanna d 'Arco . Verdi " never forgave the Milanese for their reception of Un giorno di regno . "
During this period , Verdi began to work more consistently with his librettists . He relied on Piave again for I due Foscari , performed in Rome in November 1844 , then on Solera once more for Giovanna d 'Arco , at La Scala in February 1845 , while in August that year he was able to work with Salvadore Cammarano on Alzira for the Teatro di San Carlo in Naples . Solera and Piave worked together on Attila for La Fenice ( March 1846 ) .
In April 1844 , Verdi took on Emanuele Muzio , eight years his junior , as a pupil and amanuensis . He had known him since about 1828 as another of Barezzi 's protégés . Muzio , who in fact was Verdi 's only pupil , became indispensable to the composer . He reported to Barezzi that Verdi " has a breadth of spirit , of generosity , a wisdom . " In November 1846 , Muzio wrote of Verdi : " If you could see us , I seem more like a friend , rather than his pupil . We are always together at dinner , in the cafes , when we play cards ... ; all in all , he doesn 't go anywhere without me at his side ; in the house we have a big table and we both write there together , and so I always have his advice . " Muzio was to remain associated with Verdi , assisting in the preparation of scores and transcriptions , and later conducting many of his works in their premiere performances in the USA and elsewhere outside Italy . He was chosen by Verdi as one of the executors of his will , but predeceased the composer in 1890 .
After a period of illness Verdi began work on Macbeth in September 1846 . He dedicated the opera to Barezzi : " I have long intended to dedicate an opera to you , as you have been a father , a benefactor and a friend for me . It was a duty I should have fulfilled sooner if imperious circumstances had not prevented me . Now , I send you Macbeth , which I prize above all my other operas , and therefore deem worthier to present to you . " In 1997 Martin Chusid wrote that Macbeth was the only one of Verdi 's operas of his " early period " to remain regularly in the international repertoire , although in the 21st century Nabucco has also entered the lists .
Strepponi 's voice declined and her engagements dried up in the 1845 to 1846 period , and she returned to live in Milan whilst retaining contact with Verdi as his " supporter , promoter , unofficial adviser , and occasional secretary " until she decided to move to Paris in October 1846 . Before she left Verdi gave her a letter that pledged his love . On the envelope , Strepponi wrote : " 5 or 6 October 1846 . They shall lay this letter on my heart when they bury me . "
Verdi had completed I masnadieri for London by May 1847 except for the orchestration . This he left until the opera was in rehearsal , since he wanted to hear " la [ Jenny ] Lind and modify her role to suit her more exactly . " Verdi agreed to conduct the premiere on 22 July 1847 at Her Majesty 's Theatre , as well as the second performance . Queen Victoria and Prince Albert attended the first performance , and for the most part , the press was generous in its praise .
For the next two years , except for two visits to Italy during periods of political unrest , Verdi was based in Paris . Within a week of returning to Paris in July 1847 , he received his first commission from the Paris Opéra . Verdi agreed to adapt I Lombardi to a new French libretto ; the result was Jérusalem , which contained significant changes to the music and structure of the work ( including an extensive ballet scene ) to meet Parisian expectations . Verdi was awarded the Order of Chevalier of the Legion of Honour . To satisfy his contracts with the publisher Francesco Lucca , Verdi dashed off Il Corsaro . Budden comments " In no other opera of his does Verdi appear to have taken so little interest before it was staged . "
On hearing the news of the " Cinque Giornate " , the " Five Days " of street fighting that took place between 18 and 22 March 1848 and temporarily drove the Austrians out of Milan , Verdi travelled there , arriving on 5 April . He discovered that Piave was now " Citizen Piave " of the newly proclaimed Republic of San Marco . Writing a patriotic letter to him in Venice , Verdi concluded " Banish every petty municipal idea ! We must all extend a fraternal hand , and Italy will yet become the first nation of the world ... I am drunk with joy ! Imagine that there are no more Germans here ! ! "
Verdi had been admonished by the poet Giuseppe Giusti for turning away from patriotic subjects , the poet pleading with him to " do what you can to nourish the [ sorrow of the Italian people ] , to strengthen it , and direct it to its goal . " Cammarano suggested adapting Joseph Méry 's 1828 play La Bataille de Toulouse , which he described as a story " that should stir every man with an Italian soul in his breast " . The premiere was set for late January 1849 . Verdi travelled to Rome before the end of 1848 . He found that city on the verge of becoming a ( short @-@ lived ) republic , which commenced within days of La battaglia di Legnano 's enthusiastically received premiere . In the spirit of the time were the tenor hero 's final words , " Whoever dies for the fatherland cannot be evil @-@ minded " .
Verdi had intended to return to Italy in early 1848 , but was prevented by work and illness , as well as , most probably , by his increasing attachment to Strepponi . Verdi and Strepponi left Paris in July 1849 , the immediate cause being an outbreak of cholera , and Verdi went directly to Busseto to continue work on completing his latest opera , Luisa Miller , for a production in Naples later in the year .
= = = 1849 – 53 : Fame = = =
Verdi was committed to the publisher Giovanni Ricordi for an opera — which became Stiffelio — for Trieste in the Spring of 1850 ; and , subsequently , following negotiations with La Fenice , developed a libretto with Piave and wrote the music for Rigoletto ( based on Victor Hugo 's Le roi s 'amuse ) for Venice in March 1851 . This was the first of a sequence of three operas ( followed by Il trovatore and La traviata ) which were to cement his fame as a master of opera . The failure of Stiffelio ( attributable not least to the censors of the time taking offence at the taboo subject of the supposed adultery of a clergyman 's wife and interfering with the text and roles ) incited Verdi to take pains to rework it , although even in the completely recycled version of Aroldo ( 1857 ) it still failed to please . Rigoletto , with its intended murder of royalty , and its sordid attributes , also upset the censors . Verdi would not compromise :
What does the sack matter to the police ? Are they worried about the effect it will produce ? ... Do they think they know better than I ? ... I see the hero has been made no longer ugly and hunchbacked ! ! Why ? A singing hunchback ... why not ? ... I think it splendid to show this character as outwardly deformed and ridiculous , and inwardly passionate and full of love . I chose the subject for these very qualities ... if they are removed I can no longer set it to music .
Verdi substituted a Duke for the King , and the public response and subsequent success of the opera all over Italy and Europe fully vindicated the composer . Aware that the melody of the Duke 's song " La donna è mobile " ( " Woman is fickle " ) would become a popular hit , Verdi excluded it from orchestral rehearsals for the opera , and rehearsed the tenor separately .
For several months Verdi was preoccupied with family matters . These stemmed from the way in which the citizens of Busseto were treating Giuseppina Strepponi , with whom he was living openly in an unmarried relationship . She was shunned in the town and at church , and while Verdi appeared indifferent , she was certainly not . Furthermore , Verdi was concerned about the administration of his newly acquired property at Sant 'Agata . A growing estrangement between Verdi and his parents was perhaps also attributable to Strepponi ( The suggestion that this situation was sparked by the birth of a child to Verdi and Strepponi which was given away as a foundling lacks any firm evidence ) . In January 1851 , Verdi broke off relations with his parents , and in April they were ordered to leave Sant 'Agata ; Verdi found new premises for them and helped them financially to settle into their new home . It may not be coincidental that all six Verdi operas written in the period 1849 – 53 ( La battaglia , Luisa Miller , Stiffelio , Rigoletto , Il trovatore and La traviata ) , have , uniquely in his oeuvre , heroines who are , in the opera critic Joseph Kerman 's words , " women who come to grief because of sexual transgression , actual or perceived " . Kerman , like the psychologist Gerald Mendelssohn , sees this choice of subjects as being influenced by Verdi 's uneasy passion for Strepponi .
Verdi and Strepponi moved into Sant 'Agata on 1 May 1851 . May also brought an offer for a new opera from La Fenice , which Verdi eventually realised as La traviata . That was followed by an agreement with the Rome Opera company to present Il trovatore for January 1853 . Verdi now had sufficient earnings to retire , should he have wished to do so . He had reached a stage where he could develop his operas as he wished , rather than be dependent on commissions from third parties . Il trovatore was in fact the first opera he wrote without a specific commission ( apart from Oberto ) . At around the same time he began to consider creating an opera from Shakespeare 's King Lear . After first ( 1850 ) seeking a libretto from Cammarano ( which never appeared ) , Verdi later ( 1857 ) commissioned one from Antonio Somma , but this proved intractable , and no music was ever written . Verdi began work on Il trovatore after the death of his mother in June 1851 . The fact that this is " the one opera of Verdi 's which focuses on a mother rather than a father " is perhaps related to her death .
In the winter of 1851 – 52 Verdi decided to go to Paris with Strepponi where he concluded an agreement with the Opéra to write what became Les vêpres siciliennes , his first original work in the style of grand opera . In February 1852 , the couple attended a performance of Alexander Dumas fils 's play , The Lady of the Camellias ; Verdi immediately began to compose music for what would later become La traviata .
After his visit to Rome for Il trovatore in January 1853 , Verdi worked on completing La traviata , but with little hope of its success , due to his lack of confidence in any of the singers engaged for the season . Furthermore , the management insisted that the opera be given a historical , not a contemporary setting . The premiere in March 1853 was indeed a failure : Verdi wrote : " Was the fault mine or the singers ' ? Time will tell . " Subsequent productions ( following some rewriting ) throughout Europe over the following two years fully vindicated the composer ; Roger Parker has written " Il trovatore consistently remains one of the three or four most popular operas in the Verdian repertoire : but it has never pleased the critics " .
= = = 1853 – 60 : Consolidation = = =
In the eleven years up to and including Traviata , Verdi had written sixteen operas . Over the next eighteen years ( up to Aida ) , he wrote only six new works for the stage . Verdi was happy to return to Sant 'Agata and , in February 1856 , was reporting a " total abandonment of music ; a little reading ; some light occupation with agriculture and horses ; that 's all " . A couple of months later , writing in the same vein to Countess Maffei he stated : " I 'm not doing anything . I don 't read . I don 't write . I walk in the fields from morning to evening , trying to recover , so far without success , from the stomach trouble caused me by I vespri siciliani . Cursed operas ! " An 1858 letter by Strepponi to the publisher Léon Escudier describes the kind of lifestyle that increasingly appealed to the composer : " His love for the country has become a mania , madness , rage , and fury — anything you like that is exaggerated . He gets up almost with the dawn , to go and examine the wheat , the maize , the vines , etc .... Fortunately our tastes for this sort of life coincide , except in the matter of sunrise , which he likes to see up and dressed , and I from my bed . "
Nonetheless on 15 May , Verdi signed a contract with La Fenice for an opera for the following spring . This was to be Simon Boccanegra . The couple stayed in Paris until January 1857 to deal with these proposals , and also the offer to stage the translated version of Il trovatore as a grand opera . Verdi and Strepponi travelled to Venice in March for the premiere of Simon Boccanegra , which turned out to be " a fiasco " ( as Verdi reported , although on the second and third nights , the reception improved considerably ) .
With Strepponi , Verdi went to Naples early in January 1858 to work with Somma on the libretto of the opera Gustave III , which over a year later would become Un ballo in maschera . By this time , Verdi had begun to write about Strepponi as " my wife " and she was signing her letters as " Giuseppina Verdi " . Verdi raged against the stringent requirements of the Neapolitan censor stating : " I 'm drowning in a sea of troubles . It 's almost certain that the censors will forbid our libretto . " With no hope of seeing his Gustavo III staged as written , he broke his contract . This resulted in litigation and counter @-@ litigation ; with the legal issues resolved , Verdi was free to present the libretto and musical outline of Gustave III to the Rome Opera . There , the censors demanded further changes ; at this point , the opera took the title Un ballo in maschera .
Arriving in Sant 'Agata in March 1859 Verdi and Strepponi found the nearby city of Piacenza occupied by about 6 @,@ 000 Austrian troops who had made it their base , to combat the rise of Italian interest in unification in the Piedmont region . In the ensuing Second Italian War of Independence the Austrians abandoned the region and began to leave Lombardy , although they remained in control of the Venice region under the terms of the armistice signed at Villafranca . Verdi was disgusted at this outcome : " [ W ] here then is the independence of Italy , so long hoped for and promised ? ... Venice is not Italian ? After so many victories , what an outcome ... It is enough to drive one mad " he wrote to Clara Maffei .
Verdi and Strepponi now decided on marriage ; they travelled to Collonges @-@ sous @-@ Salève , a village then part of Piedmont . On 29 August 1859 the couple were married there , with only the coachman who had driven them there and the church bell @-@ ringer as witnesses . At the end of 1859 , Verdi wrote to his friend Cesare De Sanctis " [ Since completing Ballo ] I have not made any more music , I have not seen any more music , I have not thought anymore about music . I don 't even know what colour my last opera is , and I almost don 't remember it . " He began to remodel Sant 'Agata , which took most of 1860 to complete and on which he continued to work for the next twenty years . This included major work on a square room that became his workroom , his bedroom , and his office .
= = = Politics = = =
Having achieved some fame and prosperity , Verdi began in 1859 to take an active interest in Italian politics . His early commitment to the Risorgimento movement is difficult to estimate accurately ; in the words of the music historian Philip Gossett " myths intensifying and exaggerating [ such ] sentiment began circulating " during the nineteenth century . An example is the claim that when the " Va , pensiero " chorus in Nabucco was first sung in Milan , the audience , responding with nationalistic fervour , demanded an encore . As encores were expressly forbidden by the government at the time , such a gesture would have been extremely significant . But in fact the piece encored was not " Va , pensiero " but the hymn " Immenso Jehova " .
The growth of the " identification of Verdi 's music with Italian nationalist politics " perhaps began in the 1840s . In 1848 , the nationalist leader Giuseppe Mazzini , ( whom Verdi had met in London the previous year ) requested Verdi ( who complied ) to write a patriotic hymn . The opera historian Charles Osborne describes the 1849 La battaglia di Legnano as " an opera with a purpose " and maintains that " while parts of Verdi 's earlier operas had frequently been taken up by the fighters of the Risorgimento ... this time the composer had given the movement its own opera " It was not until 1859 in Naples , and only then spreading throughout Italy , that the slogan " Viva Verdi " was used as an acronym for Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re D 'Italia ( Viva Victor Emmanuel King of Italy ) , ( who was then king of Sardinia ) . After Italy was unified in 1861 , many of Verdi 's early operas were increasingly re @-@ interpreted as Risorgimento works with hidden Revolutionary messages that perhaps had not been originally intended by either the composer or his librettists .
In 1859 , Verdi was elected as a member of the new provincial council , and was appointed to head a group of five who would meet with King Vittorio Emanuele II in Turin . They were enthusiastically greeted along the way and in Turin Verdi himself received much of the publicity . On 17 October Verdi met with Cavour , the architect of the initial stages of Italian unification . Later that year the government of Emilia was subsumed under the United Provinces of Central Italy , and Verdi 's political life temporarily came to an end . Whilst still maintaining nationalist feelings , he declined in 1860 the office of provincial council member to which he had been elected in absentia . Cavour however was anxious to convince a man of Verdi 's stature that running for political office was essential to strengthening and securing Italy 's future . The composer confided to Piave some years later that " I accepted on the condition that after a few months I would resign . " Verdi was elected on 3 February 1861 for the town of Borgo San Donnino ( Fidenza ) to the Parliament of Piedmont @-@ Sardinia in Turin ( which from March 1861 became the Parliament of the Kingdom of Italy ) , but following the death of Cavour in 1861 , which deeply distressed him , he scarcely attended . Later , in 1874 , Verdi was appointed a member of the Italian Senate , but did not participate in its activities .
= = = 1860 – 1887 : from La forza to Otello = = =
In the months following the staging of Ballo , Verdi was approached by several opera companies seeking a new work or making offers to stage one of his existing ones , but refused them all . But when , in December 1860 , an approach was made from Saint Petersburg 's Imperial Theatre , the offer of 60 @,@ 000 francs plus all expenses was doubtless a strong incentive . Verdi came up with the idea of adapting the 1835 Spanish play Don Alvaro o la fuerza del sino by Angel Saavedra , which became La forza del destino , with Piave writing the libretto . The Verdis arrived in St. Petersburg in December 1861 for the premiere , but casting problems meant that it had to be postponed .
Returning via Paris from Russia on 24 February 1862 , Verdi met two young Italian writers , the twenty @-@ year @-@ old Arrigo Boito and Franco Faccio . Verdi had been invited to write a piece of music for the 1862 International Exhibition in London , and charged Boito with writing a text , which became the Inno delle nazioni . Boito , as a supporter of the grand opera of Giacomo Meyerbeer and an opera composer in his own right , was later in the 1860s critical of Verdi 's " reliance on formula rather than form " , incurring the composer 's wrath . Nevertheless , he was to become Verdi 's close collaborator in his final operas . The St. Petersburg premiere of La forza finally took place in September 1862 , and Verdi received the Order of St. Stanislaus .
A revival of Macbeth in Paris in 1865 was not a success , but he obtained a commission for a new work , Don Carlos , based on the drama , Don Carlos by Friedrich Schiller . He and Giuseppina spent late 1866 and much of 1867 in Paris , where they heard , and did not warm to , Giacomo Meyerbeer 's last opera L 'Africaine , and Richard Wagner 's overture to Tannhäuser . The opera 's premiere in 1867 drew mixed comments . Whilst the critic Théophile Gautier praised the work , the composer Georges Bizet was disappointed at Verdi 's changing style : " Verdi is no longer Italian . He is following Wagner . "
During the 1860s and 1870s Verdi paid great attention to his estate around Busseto , purchasing additional land , dealing with unsatisfactory ( in one case , embezzling ) , stewards , installing irrigation , coping with variable harvests and economic slumps . In 1867 , both Verdi 's father Carlo , with whom he had restored good relations , and his early patron and father @-@ in @-@ law Antonio Barezzi , died . Verdi and Giuseppina decided to adopt Carlo 's great @-@ niece Filomena Maria Verdi , then seven years old , as their own child . She was to marry in 1878 the son of Verdi 's friend and lawyer Angelo Carrara and her family became eventually the heirs of Verdi 's estate .
Aida was commissioned by the Egyptian government for the opera house built by the Khedive Isma 'il Pasha to celebrate the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 . The opera house actually opened with a production of Rigoletto . The prose libretto in French by Camille du Locle , based on a scenario by the Egyptologist Auguste Mariette , was transformed to Italian verse by Antonio Ghislanzoni . Verdi was offered the enormous sum of 150 @,@ 000 francs for the opera ( even though he confessed that Ancient Egypt was " a civilization I have never been able to admire " ) , and it was first performed in Cairo in 1871 . Verdi spent much of 1872 and 1873 supervising the Italian productions of Aida at Milan , Parma and Naples , effectively acting as producer and demanding high standards and adequate rehearsal time . During the rehearsals for the Naples production he wrote his string quartet , the only chamber music by him to survive , and the only major work in the form by an Italian of the 19th century .
In 1869 , Verdi had been asked to compose a section for a requiem mass in memory of Gioachino Rossini . He compiled and completed the requiem , but its performance was abandoned ( and its premiere did not take place until 1988 ) . Five years later , Verdi reworked his " Libera Me " section of the Rossini Requiem and made it a part of his Requiem honouring Alessandro Manzoni , who had died in 1873 . The complete Requiem was first performed at the cathedral in Milan on the anniversary of Manzoni 's death on 22 May 1874 . The spinto soprano Teresa Stolz ( 1834 – 1902 ) , who had sung in La Scala productions from 1865 onwards , was the soloist in the first and many later performances of the Requiem ; in February 1872 , she had created Aida in its European premiere in Milan . She became closely associated personally with Verdi ( exactly how closely remains conjectural ) , to Giuseppina Verdi 's initial disquiet ; but the women were reconciled and Stolz remained a companion of Verdi after Giuseppina 's death in 1897 until his own death .
Verdi conducted his Requiem in Paris , London and Vienna in 1875 and in Cologne in 1876 . It seemed that it would be his last work . In the words of his biographer John Rosselli , it " confirmed him as the unique presiding genius of Italian music . No fellow composer ... came near him in popularity or reputation " . Verdi , now in his sixties , initially seemed to withdraw into retirement . He deliberately shied away from opportunities to publicise himself or to become involved with new productions of his works , but secretly he began work on Otello , which Boito ( to whom the composer had been reconciled by Ricordi ) had proposed to him privately in 1879 . The composition was delayed by a revision of Simon Boccanegra which Verdi undertook with Boito , produced in 1881 , and a revision of Don Carlos . Even when Otello was virtually completed , Verdi teased " Shall I finish it ? Shall I have it performed ? Hard to tell , even for me . " As news leaked out , Verdi was pressed by opera houses across Europe with enquiries ; eventually the opera was triumphantly premiered at La Scala in February 1887 .
= = = 1887 – 1901 : Falstaff and the last years = = =
Following the success of Otello Verdi commented , " After having relentlessly massacred so many heroes and heroines , I have at last the right to laugh a little . " He had considered a variety of comic subjects but had found none of them wholly suitable and confided his ambition to Boito . The librettist said nothing at the time but secretly began work on a libretto based on The Merry Wives of Windsor with additional material taken from Henry IV , Part 1 and Part 2 . Verdi received the draft libretto probably in early July 1889 after he had just read Shakespeare 's play : " Benissimo ! Benissimo ! ... No one could have done better than you " , he wrote back to Boito . But he still had doubts : his age , his health ( which he admits to being good ) and his ability to complete the project : " If I were not to finish the music ? " . If the project failed , it would have been a waste of Boito 's time , and have distracted him from completing his own new opera . Finally on 10 July 1889 he wrote again : " So be it ! So let 's do Falstaff ! For now , let 's not think of obstacles , of age , of illnesses ! " Verdi emphasised the need for secrecy , but continued " If you are in the mood , then start to write . " Later he wrote to Boito ( capitals and exclamation marks are Verdi 's own ) : " What joy to be able to say to the public : HERE WE ARE AGAIN ! ! ! COME AND SEE US ! "
The first performance of Falstaff took place at La Scala on 9 February 1893 . For the first night , official ticket prices were thirty times higher than usual . Royalty , aristocracy , critics and leading figures from the arts all over Europe were present . The performance was a huge success ; numbers were encored , and at the end the applause for Verdi and the cast lasted an hour . That was followed by a tumultuous welcome when the composer , his wife and Boito arrived at the Grand Hotel de Milan . Even more hectic scenes ensued when he went to Rome in May for the opera 's premiere at the Teatro Costanzi , when crowds of well @-@ wishers at the railway station initially forced Verdi to take refuge in a tool @-@ shed . He witnessed the performance from the Royal Box at the side of King Umberto and the Queen .
In his last years Verdi undertook a number of philanthropic ventures , publishing in 1894 a song for the benefit of earthquake victims in Sicily , and from 1895 onwards planning , building and endowing a rest @-@ home for retired musicians in Milan , the Casa di Riposo per Musicisti , and building a hospital at Villanova sull 'Arda , close to Busseto . , His last major composition , the choral set of Four sacred pieces , was published in 1898 . In 1900 he was deeply upset at the assassination of King Umberto and sketched a setting of a poem in his memory but was unable to complete it . While staying at the Grand Hotel , Verdi suffered a stroke on 21 January 1901 . He gradually grew more feeble over the next week , during which Stolz cared for him , and died on 27 January at the age of 87 .
Verdi was initially buried in a private ceremony at Milan 's Cimitero Monumentale . A month later , his body was moved to the crypt of the Casa di Riposo . On this occasion , " Va , pensiero " from Nabucco was conducted by Arturo Toscanini with a chorus of 820 singers . A huge crowd was in attendance , estimated at 300 @,@ 000 . Boito wrote to a friend , in words which recall the mysterious final scene of Don Carlos , " [ Verdi ] sleeps like a King of Spain in his Escurial , under a bronze slab that completely covers him . "
= = Personality = =
Not all of Verdi 's personal qualities were amiable . John Rosselli concluded after writing his biography that " I do not very much like the man Verdi , in particular the autocratic rentier @-@ cum @-@ estate owner , part @-@ time composer , and seemingly full @-@ time grumbler and reactionary critic of the later years " , yet admits that like other writers , he must " admire him , warts and all ... a deep integrity runs beneath his life , and can be felt even when he is being unreasonable or wrong . "
Budden suggests that " With Verdi ... the man and the artist on many ways developed side by side . " Ungainly and awkward in society in his early years , " as he became a man of property and underwent the civilizing influence of Giuseppina , ... [ he ] acquired assurance and authority . " He also learnt to keep himself to himself , never discussing his private life and maintaining when it suited his convenience legends about his supposed ' peasant ' origins , his materialism and his indifference to criticism . Mendelsohn describes the composer as " an intensely private man who deeply resented efforts to inquire into his personal affairs . He regarded journalists and would @-@ be biographers , as well as his neighbors in Busseto and the operatic public at large , as an intrusive lot , against whose prying attentions he needed constantly to defend himself . "
Verdi was similarly never explicit about his religious beliefs . Anti @-@ clerical by nature in his early years , he nonetheless built a chapel at Sant 'Agata , but is rarely recorded as going to church . Strepponi wrote in 1871 " I won 't say [ Verdi ] is an atheist , but he is not much of a believer . " Rosselli comments that in the Requiem " The prospect of Hell appears to rule ... [ the Requiem ] is troubled to the end , " and offers little consolation .
= = Music and form = =
See also List of compositions by Giuseppe Verdi and individual articles on the works .
= = = Spirit = = =
The writer Friedrich Schiller ( four of whose plays were adapted as operas by Verdi ) distinguished two types of artist in his 1795 essay On Naïve and Sentimental Poetry . The philosopher Isaiah Berlin ranked Verdi in the ' naïve ' category – " They are not ... self @-@ conscious . They do not ... stand aside to contemplate their creations and express their own feelings .... They are able ... if they have genius , to embody their vision fully . " ( The ' sentimentals ' seek to recreate nature and natural feelings on their own terms – Berlin instances Wagner – " offering not peace , but a sword . " ) Verdi 's operas are not written according to an aesthetic theory , or with a purpose to change the tastes of their audiences . In conversation with a German visitor in 1887 he is recorded as saying that , whilst " there was much to be admired in [ Wagner 's operas ] Tannhäuser and Lohengrin ... in his recent operas [ Wagner ] seemed to be overstepping the bounds of what can be expressed in music . For him " philosophical " music was incomprehensible . " Although Verdi 's works belong , as Rosselli admits " to the most artificial of genres ... [ they ] ring emotionally true : truth and directness make them exciting , often hugely so . "
That is not to say his operas did not come as great innovations . What sounds to a modern listener as derivative of the bel canto , his first major success , Nabucco , came as a something entirely new . Never before had opera been so harmonically complex and direct . No longer was there the empty vocal display of the bel canto period composers . Granted , there is a significant amount of vocal fireworks , but they exist for the purpose of drama , not to show off singers . Aside from this , his use of the chorus was entirely new . Before Nabucco , an opera 's chorus was limited to be only a background voice , another instrument . In Nabucco , this is abolished ; he uses the chorus as character , to show the suffering and consensus of the people . The famous " Va , pensiero " is an example of this .
The first of his " big three " operas , Rigoletto , followed by La Traviata , and ending with Il Trovatore , also was revolutionary . In a letter to Rigoletto 's librettist , Francesco Maria Piave , he says , " I conceived Rigoletto almost without arias , without finales but only an unending string of duets . " And that it is . Rigoletto is one of , if not the earliest operas to abandon the traditional distinction between the sung aria , and the more speech @-@ like recitative .
After these three operas , his works took an increasing amount of time to finish , were significantly longer , and more masterfully orchestrated .
= = = Periods = = =
The earliest study of Verdi 's music , published in 1859 by the Italian critic Abraham Basevi , already distinguished four periods in Verdi 's music . The early , ' grandiose ' period , ended according to Basevi with La battaglia di Legnano ( 1849 ) , and a ' personal ' style began with the next opera Luisa Miller . These two operas are generally agreed today by critics to mark the division between Verdi 's ' early ' and ' middle ' periods . The ' middle ' period is felt to end with La traviata ( 1853 ) and Les vêpres siciliennes ( 1855 ) , with a ' late ' period commencing with Simon Boccanegra ( 1857 ) running through to Aida ( 1871 ) . The last two operas , Otello and Falstaff , together with the Requiem and the Four Sacred Pieces , then represent a ' final ' period .
= = = = Early period = = = =
Verdi was to claim in his Sketch that during his early training with Lavigna " I did nothing but canons and fugues ... No @-@ one taught me orchestration or how to handle dramatic music . " He is known to have written a variety of music for the Busseto Philharmonic society , including vocal music , band music and chamber works , ( and including an alternative overture to Rossini 's Barber of Seville ) but few of these works survive . ( He may have given instructions before his death to destroy his early works ) .
Verdi uses in his early operas ( and , in his own stylized versions , throughout his later work ) the standard elements of Italian opera content of the period , referred to by the opera writer Julian Budden as the ' Code Rossini ' , after the composer who established through his work and popularity the accepted templates of these forms ; they were also used by the composers dominant during Verdi 's early career , Bellini , Donizetti and Saverio Mercadante . Amongst the essential elements are the aria , the duet , the ensemble , and the finale sequence of an act . The aria format , centred on a soloist , typically involved three sections ; a slow introduction , marked typically cantabile or adagio , a tempo di mezzo which might involve chorus or other characters , and a cabaletta , an opportunity for bravura singing for the soloist . The duet was similarly formatted . Finales , covering climactic sequences of action , used the various forces of soloists , ensemble and chorus , usually culminating with an exciting stretto section . Verdi was to develop these and the other formulae of the generation preceding him with increasing sophistication during his career .
The operas of the early period show Verdi learning by doing and gradually establishing mastery over the different elements of opera . Oberto is poorly structured , and the orchestration of the first operas is generally simple , sometimes even basic . The musicologist Richard Taruskin suggests " the most striking effect in the early Verdi operas , and the one most obviously allied to the mood of the Risorgimento , was the big choral number sung – crudely or sublimely , according to the ear of the beholder – in unison . The success of " Va , pensiero " in Nabucco ( which Rossini approvingly denoted as " a grand aria sung by sopranos , contraltos , tenors and basses " ) , was replicated in the similar " O Signor , dal tetto natio " in I lombardi and in 1844 in the chorus " Si ridesti il Leon di Castiglia " in Ernani , the battle hymn of the conspirators seeking freedom In I due Foscari Verdi first uses recurring themes identified with main characters ; here and in future operas the accent moves away from the ' oratorio ' characteristics of the first operas towards individual action and intrigue .
From this period onwards Verdi also develops his instinct for " tinta " ( literally ' colour ' ) , a term which he used for characterising elements of an individual opera score – Parker gives as an example " the rising 6th that begins so many lyric pieces in Ernani " . Macbeth , even in its original 1847 version , shows many original touches ; characterization by key ( the Macbeths themselves generally singing in sharp keys , the witches in flat keys ) , a preponderance of minor key music , and highly original orchestration . In the ' dagger scene ' and the duet following the murder of Duncan , the forms transcend the ' Code Rossini ' and propel the drama in a compelling fashion . Verdi was to comment in 1868 that Rossini and his followers missed " the golden thread that binds all the parts together and , rather than a set of numbers without coherence , makes an opera . " Tinta was for Verdi this " golden thread " , an essential unifying factor in his works .
= = = = Middle period = = = =
The writer David Kimbell states that in Luisa Miller and Stiffelio ( the earliest operas of this period ) there appears to be a " growing freedom in the large scale structure ... and an acute attention to fine detail . " Others echo those feelings . Julian Budden expresses the impact of Rigoletto and its place in Verdi 's output as follows : " Just after 1850 at the age of 38 , Verdi closed the door on a period of Italian opera with Rigoletto . The so @-@ called ottocento in music is finished . Verdi will continue to draw on certain of its forms for the next few operas , but in a totally new spirit . " One example of Verdi 's wish to move away from " standard forms " appears in his feelings about the structure of Il trovatore . To his librettist , Cammarano , Verdi plainly states in a letter of April 1851 that if there were no standard forms – " cavatinas , duets , trios , choruses , finales , etc . ... and if you could avoid beginning with an opening chorus .... " , he would be quite happy .
Two external factors had their impacts on Verdi 's compositions of this period . One is that with increasing reputation and financial security he no longer needed to commit himself to the productive treadmill , had more freedom to choose his own subjects , and had more time to develop them according to his own ideas . In the years 1849 to 1859 he wrote eight new operas , compared with fourteen in the previous ten years .
Another factor was the changed political situation ; the failure of the 1848 revolutions led both to some diminution of the Risorgimento ethos ( at least initially ) and a significant increase in theatre censorship . This is reflected both in Verdi 's choices of plots dealing more with personal relationships than political conflict , and in a ( partly consequent ) dramatic reduction in the operas of this period in the number of choruses ( of the type which had first made him famous ) – not only are there on average 40 % fewer choruses in the ' middle ' period operas compared to the ' early ' period ' , but whereas virtually all the ' early ' operas commence with a chorus , only one ( Luisa Miller ) of the ' middle ' period operas begin this way . Instead , Verdi experiments with a variety of means – e.g. a stage band ( Rigoletto ) , an aria for bass ( Stiffelio ) , a party scene ( La traviata ) . Chusid also notes Verdi 's increasing tendency to replace full @-@ scale overtures with shorter orchestral introductions . Parker comments that La traviata , the last opera of the ' middle ' period , is " again a new adventure . It gestures towards a level of ' realism ' ... the contemporary world of waltzes pervades the score , and the heroine 's death from disease is graphically depicted in the music . " Verdi 's increasing command of musical highlighting of changing moods and relationships is exemplified in Act III of Rigoletto , where Duke 's flippant song " La donna è mobile " is followed immediately by the quartet " Bella figlia dell 'amore " , contrasting the rapacious Duke and his inamorata with the ( concealed ) indignant Rigoletto and his grieving daughter . Taruskin asserts this is " the most famous ensemble Verdi ever composed . "
= = = = Late period = = = =
Chusid notes Strepponi 's description of the operas of the 1860s and 1870s as being " modern " whereas Verdi described the pre @-@ 1849 works as " the cavatina operas " , as further indication that " Verdi became increasingly dissatisfied with the older , familiar conventions of his predecessors that he had adopted at the outset of his career , " Parker sees a physical differentiation of the operas from Les vêpres siciliennes ( 1855 ) to Aida ( 1871 ) is that they are significantly longer , and with larger cast @-@ lists , than previous works . They also reflect a shift towards the French genre of grand opera , notable in more colorful orchestration , counterpointing of serious and comic scenes , and greater spectacle . The opportunities of transforming Italian opera by utilising such resources appealed to him . For a commission from the Paris Opéra he expressly demanded a libretto from Eugène Scribe , the favorite librettist of Meyerbeer , telling him : " I want – in fact , I must have – a grandiose , impassioned and original subject . " The result was Les vêpres siciliennes , and the scenarios of Simon Boccanegra ( 1857 ) , Un ballo in maschera ( 1859 ) , La forza del destino ( 1862 ) , Don Carlos ( 1865 ) and Aida ( 1872 ) all meet the same criteria . Porter notes that Un ballo marks an almost complete synthesis of Verdi 's style with the grand opera hallmarks , such that " huge spectacle is not mere decoration but essential to the drama ... musical and theatrical lines remain taut [ and ] the characters still sing as warmly , passionately and personally as in Il trovatore . "
Aida marks a return to earlier days in many ways . The plot as in the first operas centers on love and heroism ; the music is relatively ' four @-@ square ' and oriented to sensation and spectacle . When the composer Ferdinand Hiller asked Verdi whether he preferred Aida or Don Carlos , Verdi replied that Aida had " more bite and ( if you 'll forgive the word ) , more theatricality . " During the rehearsals for the Naples production of Aida Verdi amused himself by writing his only string quartet , a sprightly work which shows in its last movement that he had not lost the skill for fugue @-@ writing that he had learned with Lavigna .
= = = = Final works = = = =
Verdi 's three last major works continued to show new development in conveying drama and emotion . The first to appear , in 1874 was his Requiem , scored for operatic forces but by no means an " opera in ecclesiastical dress " ( the words in which Hans von Bülow condemned it before even hearing it ) . Although in the Requiem Verdi puts to use many of the techniques he learned in opera , its musical forms and emotions are not those of the stage . Verdi 's tone painting at the opening of the Requiem is vividly described by the Italian composer Ildebrando Pizzetti , writing in 1941 : " in [ the words ] murmured by an invisible crowd over the slow swaying of a few simple chords , you straightaway sense the fear and sadness of a vast multitude before the mystery of death . In the [ following ] Et lux perpetuum the melody spreads it wings ... before falling back on itself ... you hear a sigh for consolation and eternal peace . "
By the time Otello premièred in 1887 , more than 15 years after Aida , the operas of Verdi 's ( predeceased ) contemporary Richard Wagner had begun their ascendancy in popular taste , and many sought or identified Wagnerian aspects in Verdi 's latest composition . Budden points out that there is little in the music of Otello that relates either to the verismo opera of the younger Italian composers , and little if anything which can be construed as a homage to the New German School . Nonetheless there is still much originality , building on the strengths which Verdi had already demonstrated ; the powerful storm which opens the opera in medias res , the recollection of the love duet of Act I in Otello 's dying words ( more an aspect of tinta than leitmotif ) , imaginative touches of harmony in Iago 's " Era la notte " ( Act II ) .
Finally , six years later , appeared Falstaff , Verdi 's only comedy apart from the early , ill @-@ fated Un giorno di regno . In this work Roger Parker writes that : " the listener is bombarded by a stunning diversity of rhythms , orchestral textures , melodic motifs and harmonic devices . Passages that in earlier times would have furnished material for an entire number here crowd in on each other , shouldering themselves unceremoniously to the fore in bewildering succession " . Rosselli comments : " In Otello Verdi had miniaturized the forms of romantic Italian opera ; in Falstaff he miniaturized himself ... [ M ] oments ... crystallize a feeling ... as though an aria or duet had been precipitated into a phrase . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Reception = = =
Although Verdi 's operas brought him a popular following , not all contemporary critics approved of his work . The English critic Henry Chorley allowed in 1846 that " he is the only modern man ... having a style , – for better or worse " , but found all his output unacceptable . " [ His ] faults [ are ] grave ones , calculated to destroy and degrade taste beyond those of any Italian composer in the long list " wrote Chorley , whilst conceding that " howsoever incomplete may have been his training , howsoever mistaken his aspirations may have proved ... he has aspired . " But by the time of Verdi 's death , 55 years later , his reputation was assured , and the 1910 edition of Grove 's Dictionary pronounced him " one of the greatest and most popular opera composers of the nineteenth century . "
Verdi had no pupils apart from Muzio and no school of composers sought to follow his style which , however much it reflected his own musical direction , was rooted in the period of his own youth . By the time of his death , verismo was the accepted style of young Italian composers . The New York Metropolitan Opera frequently staged Rigoletto , Trovatore and Traviata during this period and featured Aida in every season from 1898 to 1945 . Interest in the operas reawakened in mid @-@ 1920s Germany and this sparked a revival in England and elsewhere . From the 1930s onward there began to appear scholarly biographies and publications of documentation and correspondence .
In 1959 the Instituto di Studi Verdiani ( from 1989 the Istituto Nazionale di Studi Verdiani ) was founded in Parma and became a leading centre for research and publication of Verdi studies , and in the 1970s the American Institute for Verdi Studies was founded at New York University .
= = = Memorials and film and stage portrayals = = =
Three Italian conservatories , the Milan Conservatory and those in Turin and Como , are named after Verdi , as are many Italian theatres .
Verdi ’ s hometown of Busseto displays Luigi Secchi 's statue of a seated Verdi in 1913 , next to the Teatro Verdi built in his honour in the 1850s . It is one of many statues to the composer in Italy . The Giuseppe Verdi Monument , a 1906 marble memorial , sculpted by Pasquale Civiletti , is located in Verdi Square in Manhattan , New York City . The monument includes a statue of Verdi himself and life @-@ sized statues of four characters from his operas , ( Aida , Otello , and Falstaff from the operas of the same names , and Leonora from Il trovatore ) .
Verdi has been the subject of a number of film and stage works . These include the 1938 film directed by Carmine Gallone , Giuseppe Verdi , starring Fosco Giachetti ; the 1982 miniseries , The Life of Verdi , directed by Renato Castellani , where Verdi was played by Ronald Pickup , with narration by Burt Lancaster in the English version ; and the 1985 play After Aida , by Julian Mitchell ( 1985 ) . He is a character in the 2011 opera Risorgimento ! by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero , written to commemorate the 150th anniversary of Italian unification of 1861 .
= = = Verdi today = = =
Verdi 's operas are frequently staged around the world . The Operabase listings for 2013 – 2014 show La traviata as the most performed opera during this period ( 659 performances ) . Other Verdi operas in the top 20 are Rigoletto ( 8th place , 445 performances ) , Aida ( 12th place , 304 performances ) , Nabucco ( 16th place , 304 performances ) and Il trovatore ( 18th place , 232 performances ) . All of his operas are available in recordings in a number of versions , and on DVD – Naxos Records offers a complete boxed set .
Modern productions may differ substantially from those originally envisaged by the composer . Jonathan Miller 's 1982 version of Rigoletto for English National Opera , set in the world of modern American mafiosi , received critical plaudits . But the same company 's staging in 2002 of Un ballo in maschera as A Masked Ball , directed by Calixto Bieito , including " satanic sex rituals , homosexual rape , [ and ] a demonic dwarf " , got a general critical thumbs down .
Meanwhile , the music of Verdi can still evoke a range of cultural and political resonances . Excerpts from the Requiem were featured at the memorial service for Diana , Princess of Wales in 1997 . On 12 March 2011 during a performance of Nabucco at the Opera di Roma celebrating 150 years of Italian unification , the conductor Riccardo Muti paused after " Va pensiero " and turned to address the audience ( which included the then Italian Prime Minister , Silvio Berlusconi ) to complain about cuts in state funding of culture ; the audience then joined in a repeat of the chorus . In 2014 , the pop singer Katy Perry appeared at the Grammy Award wearing a dress designed by Valentino , embroidered with the music of " Dell 'invito trascorsa e gia l 'ora " from the start of La traviata . The bicentenary of Verdi 's birth in 2013 was celebrated in numerous events around the world , both in performances and broadcasts .
= = Coda = =
Noble , simple , with a degree of unbroken vitality and vast natural power of creation and organization , Verdi is the voice of a world that is no more . His enormous popularity among the most sophisticated as well as the most ordinary listeners today is due to the fact that he expressed permanent states of consciousness in the most direct terms : as Homer , Shakespeare , Ibsen , and Tolstoy have done ... After Verdi this is not heard in music again . – Isaiah Berlin ( 1979 )
= Viva Ned Flanders =
" Viva Ned Flanders " is the tenth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 10 , 1999 . In the episode , Ned Flanders , who is revealed to be 60 years old , feels that he has not lived his life to the fullest . He asks for help from his neighbor , Homer Simpson , who takes Ned to Las Vegas to show him " the right way to live " . However , while there , the two become intoxicated and marry two cocktail waitresses .
The episode was written by David M. Stern and directed by Neil Affleck . The revelation of Ned 's age was heavily debated between the Simpsons staff , and the decision to make him 60 years old could have been inspired from a joke by Simpsons writer Ron Hauge . A scene in the episode features the song Viva Las Vegas by Elvis Presley , although the staff originally wanted a version of the song performed by Bruce Springsteen . The Moody Blues guest @-@ starred as themselves in the episode , and the episode marked the first appearance of the cocktail waitresses Amber and Ginger , who were voiced by Pamela Hayden and Tress MacNeille .
The episode was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming less than One Hour ) in 1999 , which it ultimately lost to King of the Hill . Following the tenth season 's release on DVD , the episode received mostly positive reviews from critics . Amber and Ginger have appeared in later episodes in the series , the first time being the season 13 episode " Brawl in the Family " , which serves as a continuation of " Viva Ned Flanders " .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Burns ' Casino is about to get demolished , however , a confusion over whether demolitions are supposed to involve implosions or explosions results in the casino being blasted into a huge dust cloud . The family goes to the car wash to get rid of the dust , and when Homer is there , he sees that Ned Flanders gets a senior discount . Homer thinks Ned is lying and tries to expose him at church , but Ned proves he really is sixty years old . People are impressed that Ned looks so young for his age and remark that he must take exceptional care of himself , but when Ned says that he follows the three " c " s of success — clean living , chewing thoroughly , and " a daily dose of vitamin Church ! " — they start to pity him for having never , in their view , truly lived at all .
Ned reluctantly agrees with this and asks Homer to teach him the secret to his lust for life . This leads Homer to head towards Mr. Burns ' Casino , but when Ned reminds Homer it is now defunct , Homer instead takes Ned on a gambling trip to Las Vegas . Homer is confident about going there , but Flanders is nervous . When they arrive , they see Captain Lance Murdock ( from " Bart the Daredevil " ) doing one of his stunts , and Homer chooses to volunteer , and survives . They wander into a casino called " Nero 's Palace " and begin to play roulette . Ned protests against games of chance because of Deuteronomy 7 , but Homer ignores him and takes the reference as a lucky number . They win , but immediately lose all they won . They then go to the casino 's bar , and Ned gives into temptation and gets drunk of wine spritzers . Homer and Ned wake up the next morning in their hotel room married to two cocktail waitresses : Homer 's new wife is named Amber , and Ned 's new wife is Ginger . Homer finally realizes he got in over his head . While Homer fantasizes about bigamy , Ned snaps Homer back to reality by saying they were drunk and thus not of sound judgement to have such quickie , plastic weddings ; also they are already married .
Homer and Ned try to escape from the waitresses , going on a wild rampage through the casino , until they are confronted by casino security , Gunter and Ernst ( also from " $ pringfield " ) , Drederick Tatum , Boomhauer , and the Moody Blues . Homer and Ned attempt to escape in a car , but are beaten up in the process and are exiled from Las Vegas . Amber & Ginger angrily tell the two never to marry them again . Homer and Ned head back to their real wives in Springfield by hitchhiking , only to be attacked by two hungry vultures on their way back , being heard screaming as the credits roll .
= = Production and themes = =
" Viva Ned Flanders " was written by writer David M. Stern and directed by director Neil Affleck . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on January 10 , 1999 . It was recorded in July 1998 .
The beginning of the episode shows Mr. Burns ' casino being demolished with implosion . In the DVD commentary for the episode , show runner Mike Scully stated that there was " a lot of talk " and news reports about implosions at the time . Only directly after the implosion do the on @-@ lookers realize the amount of dust that is unleashed . This is based on an observation by the writers , who noted that , when an implosion takes place , " everybody wants to be right next to them " , not realizing that dust and asbestos will " fly in the air " . In the DVD audio commentary for the episode , director Affleck stated that the scene was very complicated to animate , and took about " four or five takes " to get right . Scully thought that the implosion looked " fantastic " .
The revelation of Ned 's age was much discussed among the writers , and Scully stated that they argued over " how old they could get away with " , since Ned had " lived such a pure life " and had " taken such good care of himself " . The writers kept pitching for him to be older and older , eventually debating whether his age would be 57 or 58 . They then decided on 60 , an idea that could have come from Ron Hauge , one of the Simpsons writers . A few weeks before the discussions , after having found out that he was slightly older than the next oldest writer in the staff , Hauge had told one of the writers , in " the most serious reasonable " voice , that he was 60 years old . At the time , Hauge was " around 40 " years old .
The morning after having drunk extensively , Homer and Ned are seen sleeping , clothed , in a Jacuzzi . The staff discussed whether or not the two should wake up naked or clothed ; series creator Matt Groening , for example , wanted them to wake up naked , since it would " raise some questions " . During production , Affleck had drawn an alternate version of the scene , which would be based on his " extensive experience in the field of alcohol abuse " in his younger years . The scene would be in Ned 's point of view , and would show Homer 's open mouth half submerged in the Jacuzzi . Affleck described the alternate scene as being " a little bit Fellini @-@ esque " and therefore did not fit with The Simpsons style . Scully had also suggested that Ned would throw up on screen at the end of the scene , however the idea never came to fruition .
The song used during the chase scene in the casino is " Viva Las Vegas " , performed by Elvis Presley . Although he admitted that he has " nothing against Elvis " , Scully originally wanted to use a " hard to find " version of the song performed by Bruce Springsteen . However , Scully could not clear the version in time , and therefore had to resort to using Elvis ' version of the song . The episode features The Moody Blues as themselves . Scully commented that they were " very good actors " and " did a great job " . The episode also features the first appearance of Amber and Ginger , who were voiced by Pamela Hayden and Tress MacNeille respectively . Real @-@ life commentator Don Rickles and fictional character Lance Murdock were both portrayed by series regular voice actor Dan Castellaneta , who plays Homer among many others in the series .
Affleck described the plot of the episode to have a " grotesque " and " burlesque " , yet " plausible " quality to it . In a scene in the episode , Homer , not knowing of Ned 's age , accuses Ned of defrauding a carwash salesman . Affleck commented that the scene has " a touch of music @-@ hall " in it , as it turns , from a scene in church , to a " courtroom scene " . He also noted that Ned 's journey to Las Vegas can be compared to a Christian 's travel to the temple of Mammon , a figure that in the Bible is characterized as the personification of wealth and greed .
The episode 's title is a reference to the film Viva Las Vegas ( 1964 ) . The panic and smoke cloud generated from the implosion of Mr Burns ' casino is reminiscent of the 1997 disaster film Dante 's Peak , and the Simpson family 's escape from the smoke cloud is a reference to a scene in the 1996 science fiction film Independence Day . Outside Rev. Lovejoy 's church is a notice that today 's sermon will be ' He Knows What You Did Last Summer ' , which is a reference to the title of the 1997 slasher film I Know What You Did Last Summer . As Homer and Ned escape from Vegas , a snippet of the theme from the 1996 comic science fiction film Mars Attacks ! can be heard . The Comic Book Guy 's license plate is NCC @-@ 1701 , which is also the registration of the USS Enterprise , a fictional starship from the Star Trek media franchise . He also has a bumper sticker which reads " my other car is the Millennium Falcon " which was given to him by somebody who looked liked the actor Harrison Ford ; the Millennium Falcon was the ship used by Ford 's character Han Solo in the Star Wars film series . The line Homer gives after Ned signs the contract is a reference to the 1997 film The Game .
The song Homer and Ned listen to on the way to Las Vegas is “ Highway Star ” by English rock band Deep Purple . The two characters driving the other way from Las Vegas were based on Ralph Steadman 's illustrations of Raoul Duke and his attorney Dr Gonzo from the novel Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas : A Savage Journey to the Heart of the American Dream , written by Hunter S. Thompson . The reference was contributed by Simpsons writer George Meyer , who stated that , since Homer and Ned were driving to Las Vegas , " we [ the Simpsons writers ] had to do a Ralph Steadman tribute . In the wedding video , Homer is seen wearing an attire similar to the ones worn by the Rat Pack members .
= = Reception and legacy = =
In its original American broadcast on January 10 , 19
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rooms fill up fast . Three campgrounds are available : South and Watchman at the far southern side of the park , and a primitive site at Lava Point in the middle of the park off Kolob Terrace Road . Watchman is the only campground in the park that takes reservations . Lava Point has only primitive facilities and is usually open from June to October . Overnight camping in the backcountry requires permits .
Nearby attractions and amenities
Zion Canyon IMAX in Springdale offers many interesting documentaries about the natural history of Zion Canyon and the American Southwest .
Lodging , food , and entertainment are also offered on the east side of the park along the Zion – Mount Carmel Highway and in Mount Carmel Junction .
Adjacent to the park on the south is the town of Springdale , Utah , which offers services such as lodging , food , and entertainment .
Driving through the east side of Zion to U.S. Route 89 allows access to Bryce Canyon National Park in the north or to the north rim of the Grand Canyon in the south . Due to the narrowness of the Zion – Mount Carmel Tunnel , RVs and buses must obtain a special pass and can only drive through the tunnel during limited hours .
= HMS Endeavour =
HMS Endeavour , also known as HM Bark Endeavour , was a British Royal Navy research vessel that Lieutenant James Cook commanded on his first voyage of discovery , to Australia and New Zealand , from 1769 to 1771 .
She was launched in 1764 as the collier Earl of Pembroke , and the navy purchased her in 1768 for a scientific mission to the Pacific Ocean and to explore the seas for the surmised Terra Australis Incognita or " unknown southern land " . The navy renamed and commissioned her as His Majesty 's Bark the Endeavour . She departed Plymouth in August 1768 , rounded Cape Horn , and reached Tahiti in time to observe the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun . She then set sail into the largely uncharted ocean to the south , stopping at the Pacific islands of Huahine , Bora Bora , and Raiatea to allow Cook to claim them for Great Britain . In September 1769 , she anchored off New Zealand , the first European vessel to reach the islands since Abel Tasman 's Heemskerck 127 years earlier .
In April 1770 , Endeavour became the first ship to reach the east coast of Australia , when Cook went ashore at what is now known as Botany Bay . Endeavour then sailed north along the Australian coast . She narrowly avoided disaster after running aground on the Great Barrier Reef , and Cook had to throw her guns overboard to lighten her . He then beached her on the mainland for seven weeks to permit rudimentary repairs to her hull . On 10 October 1770 , she limped into port in Batavia ( now named Jakarta ) in the Dutch East Indies for more substantial repairs , her crew sworn to secrecy about the lands they had visited . She resumed her westward journey on 26 December , rounded the Cape of Good Hope on 13 March 1771 , and reached the English port of Dover on 12 July , having been at sea for nearly three years .
Largely forgotten after her epic voyage , Endeavour spent the next three years sailing to and from the Falkland Islands . Sold into private hands in 1775 , and later renamed as Lord Sandwich , she was hired as a British troop transport during the American War of Independence and was scuttled in a blockade of Narragansett Bay , Rhode Island , in 1778 . As of 2016 her wreck had not been precisely located but was thought to be one of a cluster of five in Newport Harbor , and searching continued . Relics , including six of her cannon and an anchor , are displayed at maritime museums worldwide . A replica of Endeavour was launched in 1994 and is berthed alongside the Australian National Maritime Museum in Sydney Harbour . The US space shuttle Endeavour is named after the ship and she is depicted on the New Zealand fifty @-@ cent coin .
= = Construction = =
Endeavour was originally the merchant collier Earl of Pembroke , built by Thomas Fishburn for Thomas Millner , launched in June 1764 from the coal and whaling port of Whitby in North Yorkshire , and of a type known locally as the Whitby Cat . She was ship @-@ rigged and sturdily built with a broad , flat bow , a square stern , and a long box @-@ like body with a deep hold .
A flat @-@ bottomed design made her well @-@ suited to sailing in shallow waters and allowed her to be beached for loading and unloading of cargo and for basic repairs without requiring a dry dock . Her hull , internal floors , and futtocks were built from traditional white oak , her keel and stern post from elm , and her masts from pine and fir . Plans of the ship also show a double keelson to lock the keel , floors and frames in place .
Some doubt exists about the height of her standing masts ( excludes top and gallant masts ) , as surviving diagrams of Endeavour depict the body of the vessel only , and not the mast plan . While her main and foremast standing spars ( excludes top and gallant masts ) are accepted to be a standard ( standards differed from shipyard to shipyard and country to country ) 69 and 65 feet ( 21 and 20 m ) , respectively from an annotation on one surviving ship plan National Maritime Museum in Greenwich NMM ZAZ6594 which records these lengths has the mizzen as " 16 yards 29 inches " ( 15 @.@ 4 m ) . If correct , this would produce an oddly truncated mast a full 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) shorter than the standards of the day. late 20th century research suggested the annotation may be a transcription error and should read " 19 yards 29 inches " ( 24 @.@ 5 m ) , which would more closely conform with both the naval standards ( which standard ? ) and the lengths of the other masts .
A more recent critical review of contemporary sources doesn 't require a supposed typo in 1771 to explain this shorter measurement for the mizzen whilst at the same time offers supporting evidence of its cap being at the taller supposed normal height . Sydney Parkinson 's sketches and paintings of Cooks Bark Endeavour along with the 1771 Woolwich Yard Bark Endeavour spar measurements National Maritime Museum in Greenwich NMM ZAZ6594 , and other contemporary sources suggest that the shorter mizzen mast was not stepped in the hold / keelson , but instead was stepped in the lower deck 10 ft above this as was sometimes done . This would bring its standing height at the cap to within a supposed normal height of around 8 – 9 ft below the main mast cap and approx 5 @.@ 5 ft below the foremast cap when comparing the heights of the standing mast tops ( excludes top and gallant masts ) from the level of the water line . Whereas the shorter mizzen stepped in the hold on the keelson instead of the lower deck would make the standing mizzen cap 18 ft below the main mast cap which is clearly not the case when critically examining Sydney Parkinson 's drawings and the contemporary painting titled HMS Endeavour off the coast of New Holland , by Samuel Atkins c . 1794 at the top of this page . Zooming this painting also reveals that the position of the mizzen channel is forward to inline with the mast which it is when looking at the angle of the mizzen chainplates on the original as fitted draught NMM ZAZ7844 . Using these mizzen chainplate angles from this as fitted draught it is possible to extrapolate where the top of the standing mast could be and combined with the similar shroud angles Sydney Parkinson drew in his sketch of the larboard quarter of Endeavour support this theory of the shorter standing mizzen stepped in the lower deck which would make its standing cap 10 foot higher than if stepped in the hold .
The replica standing mizzen is built to this shorter measurement and stepped in the hold on the keelson , as is the model in the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich . There is a difference between the height of the mizzen fore @-@ and @-@ aft spar in the contemporary painting of Earl of Pembroke before the naval refit of 1768 by Luny ( below ) and its position on the replica in the photographs , compared to the height of the lowest spars on the fore and mainmasts .
= = Purchase and refit by the Admiralty = =
On 16 February 1768 , the Royal Society petitioned King George III to finance a scientific expedition to the Pacific to study and observe the 1769 transit of Venus across the sun . Royal approval was granted for the expedition , and the Admiralty elected to combine the scientific voyage with a confidential mission to search the south Pacific for signs of the postulated continent Terra Australis Incognita ( or " unknown southern land " ) .
The Royal Society suggested command be given to Scottish geographer Alexander Dalrymple , whose acceptance was conditional on a brevet commission as a captain in the Royal Navy . However , First Lord of the Admiralty Edward Hawke refused , going so far as to say he would rather cut off his right hand than give command of a navy vessel to someone not educated as a seaman . In refusing Dalrymple 's command , Hawke was influenced by previous insubordination aboard the sloop HMS Paramour in 1698 , when naval officers had refused to take orders from civilian commander Dr. Edmond Halley . The impasse was broken when the Admiralty proposed James Cook , a naval officer with a background in mathematics and cartography . Acceptable to both parties , Cook was promoted to Lieutenant and named as commander of the expedition .
On 27 May 1768 , Cook took command of Earl of Pembroke , valued in March at £ 2 @,@ 307 . 5s . 6d. but ultimately purchased for £ 2 @,@ 840 . 10s . 11d. and assigned for use in the Society 's expedition . [ b ] She was refitted at Deptford on the River Thames for the sum of £ 2 @,@ 294 , almost the price of the ship itself . The hull was sheathed and caulked to protect against shipworm , and a third internal deck installed to provide cabins , a powder magazine and storerooms . The new cabins provided around 2 square metres ( 22 sq ft ) of floorspace apiece and were allocated to Cook and the Royal Society representatives : naturalist Joseph Banks , Banks ' assistants Daniel Solander and Herman Spöring , astronomer Charles Green , and artists Sydney Parkinson and Alexander Buchan . These cabins encircled the officer 's mess . The Great Cabin at the rear of the deck was designed as a workroom for Cook and the Royal Society . On the rear lower deck , cabins facing on to the mate 's mess were assigned to Lieutenants Zachary Hickes and John Gore , ship 's surgeon William Monkhouse , the gunner Stephen Forwood , ship 's master Robert Molyneux , and the captain 's clerk Richard Orton . The adjoining open mess deck provided sleeping and living quarters for the marines and crew , and additional storage space .
A longboat , pinnace and yawl were provided as ship 's boats , though the longboat was rotten and had to be rebuilt and painted with white lead before it could be brought aboard . These were accompanied by two privately owned skiffs , one belonging to the boatswain John Gathrey , and the other to Banks . The ship was also equipped with a set of 28 ft ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) sweeps to allow her to be rowed forward if becalmed or demasted . The refitted vessel was commissioned as His Majesty 's Bark the Endeavour , to distinguish her from the 4 @-@ gun cutter HMS Endeavour .
On 21 July 1768 , Endeavour sailed to Galleon 's Reach to take on armaments to protect her against potentially hostile Pacific island natives . Ten 4 @-@ pounder cannons were brought aboard , six of which were mounted on the upper deck and the remainder stowed in the hold . Twelve swivel guns were also supplied , and fixed to posts along the quarterdeck , sides and bow . The ship departed for Plymouth on 30 July , for provisioning and to board her crew of 85 , including 12 Royal Marines . Cook also ordered that twelve tons of pig iron be brought on board as sailing ballast .
= = Voyage of discovery = =
= = = Outward voyage = = =
Endeavour departed Plymouth on 26 August 1768 , carrying 94 people and 18 months of provisions . [ c ] Livestock on board included pigs , poultry , two greyhounds and a milking goat .
The first port of call was Funchal in the Madeira Islands , which Endeavour reached on 12 September . The ship was recaulked and painted , and fresh vegetables , beef and water were brought aboard for the next leg of the voyage . While in port , an accident cost the life of master 's mate Robert Weir , who became entangled in the anchor cable and was dragged overboard when the anchor was released . To replace him , Cook shanghaied a sailor from an American sloop anchored nearby . [ d ]
Endeavour then continued south along the coast of Africa and across the Atlantic to South America , arriving in Rio de Janeiro on 13 November 1768 . Fresh food and water were brought aboard and the ship departed for Cape Horn , which she reached during stormy weather on 13 January 1769 . Attempts to round the Cape over the next two days were unsuccessful , and Endeavour was repeatedly driven back by wind , rain and contrary tides . Cook noted that the seas off the Cape were large enough to regularly submerge the bow of the ship as she rode down from the crests of waves . At last , on 16 January the wind eased and the ship was able to pass the Cape and anchor in the Bay of Good Success on the Pacific coast . The crew were sent to collect wood and water , while Banks and his team gathered hundreds of plant specimens from along the icy shore . On 17 January two of Banks ' servants died from cold while attempting to return to the ship during a heavy snowstorm .
Endeavour resumed her voyage on 21 January 1769 , heading west @-@ northwest into warmer weather . She reached Tahiti on 10 April , where she remained for the next three months . The transit of Venus across the Sun occurred on 3 June , and was observed and recorded by astronomer Charles Green from Endeavour 's deck .
= = = Pacific exploration = = =
The transit observed , Endeavour departed Tahiti on 13 July and headed northwest to allow Cook to survey and name the Society Islands . Landfall was made at Huahine , Raiatea and Borabora , providing opportunities for Cook to claim each of them as British territories . However , an attempt to land the pinnace on the Austral Island of Rurutu was thwarted by rough surf and the rocky shoreline . On 15 August , Endeavour finally turned south to explore the open ocean for Terra Australis Incognita .
In October 1769 , Endeavour reached the coastline of New Zealand , becoming the first European vessel to do so since Abel Tasman 's Heemskerck in 1642 . Unfamiliar with such ships , the Māori people at Cook 's first landing point in Poverty Bay thought the ship was a floating island , or a gigantic bird from their mythical homeland of Hawaiki . Endeavour spent the next six months sailing close to shore , while Cook mapped the coastline and concluded that New Zealand comprised two large islands and was not the hoped @-@ for Terra Australis . In March 1770 , the longboat from Endeavour carried Cook ashore to allow him to formally proclaim British sovereignty over New Zealand . On his return , Endeavour resumed her voyage westward , her crew sighting the east coast of Australia on 19 April . On 29 April , she became the first European vessel to make landfall on the east coast of Australia , when Cook landed one of the ship 's boats on the southern shore of what is now known as Botany Bay , New South Wales .
= = = Shipwreck = = =
For the next four months , Cook charted the coast of Australia , heading generally northward . Just before 11 pm on 11 June 1770 , the ship struck a reef , today called Endeavour Reef , within the Great Barrier Reef system . The sails were immediately taken down , a kedging anchor set and an unsuccessful attempt was made to drag the ship back to open water . The reef Endeavour had struck rose so steeply from the seabed that although the ship was hard aground , Cook measured depths up to 70 feet ( 21 m ) less than one ship 's length away .
Cook then ordered that the ship be lightened to help her float off the reef . Iron and stone ballast , spoiled stores and all but four of the ship 's guns were thrown overboard , and the ship 's drinking water pumped out . The crew attached buoys to the discarded guns with the intention of retrieving them later , but this proved impractical . Every man on board took turns on the pumps , including Cook and Banks .
When , by Cook 's reckoning , about 40 to 50 long tons ( 41 to 51 t ) of equipment had been thrown overboard , on the next high tide a second unsuccessful attempt was made to pull the ship free . In the afternoon of 12 June , the longboat carried out two large bower anchors , and block and tackle were rigged to the anchor chains to allow another attempt on the evening high tide . The ship had started to take on water through a hole in her hull . Although the leak would certainly increase once off the reef , Cook decided to risk the attempt and at 10 : 20 pm the ship was floated on the tide and successfully drawn off . The anchors were retrieved , except for one which could not be freed from the seabed and had to be abandoned .
As expected the leak increased once the ship was off the reef , and all three working pumps had to be continually manned . A mistake occurred in sounding the depth of water in the hold , when a new man measured the length of a sounding line from the outside plank of the hull where his predecessor had used the top of the cross @-@ beams . The mistake suggested the water depth had increased by about 18 inches ( 46 cm ) between soundings , sending a wave of fear through the ship . As soon as the mistake was realised , redoubled efforts kept the pumps ahead of the leak .
The prospects if the ship sank were grim . The vessel was 24 miles ( 39 km ) from shore and the three ship 's boats could not carry the entire crew . Despite this , Joseph Banks noted in his journal the calm efficiency of the crew in the face of danger , contrary to stories he had heard of seamen panicking or refusing orders in such circumstances .
Midshipman Jonathon Monkhouse proposed fothering the ship , as he had previously been on a merchant ship which used the technique successfully . He was entrusted with supervising the task , sewing bits of oakum and wool into an old sail , which was then drawn under the ship to allow water pressure to force it into the hole in the hull . The effort succeeded and soon very little water was entering , allowing the crew to stop two of the three pumps .
Endeavour then resumed her course northward and parallel to the reef , the crew looking for a safe harbour in which to make repairs . On 13 June , the ship came to a broad watercourse that Cook named the Endeavour River . Cook attempted to enter the river mouth , but strong winds and rain prevented Endeavour from crossing the bar until the morning of 17 June . She grounded briefly on a sand spit but was refloated an hour later and warped into the river proper by early afternoon . The ship was promptly beached on the southern bank and careened to make repairs to the hull . Torn sails and rigging were also replaced and the hull scraped free of barnacles .
An examination of the hull showed that a piece of coral the size of a man 's fist had sliced clean through the timbers and then broken off . Surrounded by pieces of oakum from the fother , this coral fragment had helped plug the hole in the hull and preserved the ship from sinking on the reef .
= = = Northward to Batavia = = =
After waiting for the wind , Endeavour resumed her voyage on the afternoon of 5 August 1770 , reaching the northernmost point of Cape York Peninsula fifteen days later . On 22 August , Cook was rowed ashore to a small coastal island to proclaim British sovereignty over the eastern Australian mainland . Cook christened his landing place Possession Island , and ceremonial volleys of gunfire from the shore and Endeavour 's deck marked the occasion .
Endeavour then resumed her voyage westward along the coast , picking a path through intermittent shoals and reefs with the help of the pinnace , which was rowed ahead to test the water depth . By 26 August she was out of sight of land , and had entered the open waters of the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea , earlier navigated by Luis Váez de Torres in 1606 . To keep Endeavour 's voyages and discoveries secret , Cook confiscated the log books and journals of all on board and ordered them to remain silent about where they had been .
After a three @-@ day layover off the island of Savu , Endeavour sailed on to Batavia , the capital of the Dutch East Indies , on 10 October . A day later lightning during a sudden tropical storm struck the ship , but the rudimentary " electric chain " or lightning rod that Cook had ordered rigged to Endeavour 's mast saved her from serious damage .
The ship remained in very poor condition following her grounding on the Great Barrier Reef in June . The ship 's carpenter , John Seetterly , observed that she was " very leaky – makes from twelve to six inches an hour , occasioned by her main keel being wounded in many places , false keel gone from beyond the midships . Wounded on her larbord side where the greatest leak is but I could not come at it for the water . " An inspection of the hull revealed that some unrepaired planks were cut through to within ⅛ inch ( 3 mm ) . Cook noted it was a " surprise to every one who saw her bottom how we had kept her above water " for the previous three @-@ month voyage across open seas .
After riding at anchor for two weeks , Endeavour was heaved out of the water on 9 November and laid on her side for repairs . Some damaged timbers were found to be infested with shipworms , which required careful removal to ensure they did not spread throughout the hull . Broken timbers were replaced and the hull recaulked , scraped of shellfish and marine flora , and repainted . Finally , the rigging and pumps were renewed and fresh stores brought aboard for the return journey to England . Repairs and replenishment were completed by Christmas Day 1770 , and the next day Endeavour weighed anchor and set sail westward towards the Indian Ocean .
= = = Return voyage = = =
Though Endeavour was now in good condition , her crew were not . During the ship 's stay in Batavia , all but 10 of the 94 people aboard had been taken ill with malaria and dysentery . [ e ] By the time Endeavour set sail on 26 December , seven crew members had died and another forty were too sick to attend their duties . Over the following twelve weeks , a further 23 died from disease and were buried at sea , including Spöring , Green , Parkinson , and the ship 's surgeon William Monkhouse .
Cook attributed the sickness to polluted drinking water , and ordered that it be purified with lime juice , but this had little effect . Jonathan Monkhouse , who had proposed fothering the ship to save her from sinking on the reef , died on 6 February , followed six days later by ship 's carpenter John Seetterly , whose skilled repair work in Batavia had allowed Endeavour to resume her voyage . The health of the surviving crew members then slowly improved as the month progressed , with the last deaths from disease being three ordinary seamen on 27 February .
On 13 March 1771 , Endeavour rounded the Cape of Good Hope and made port in Cape Town two days later . Those still sick were taken ashore for treatment . The ship remained in port for four weeks awaiting the recovery of the crew and undergoing minor repairs to her masts . On 15 April , the sick were brought back on board along with ten recruits from Cape Town , and Endeavour resumed her homeward voyage . The English mainland was sighted on 10 July and Endeavour entered the port of Dover two days later .
Approximately one month after his return , Cook was promoted to the rank of Commander , and by November 1771 was in receipt of Admiralty Orders for a second expedition , this time aboard HMS Resolution . He was killed during an altercation with Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay on 14 February 1779 .
= = Later service = =
While Cook was fêted for his successful voyage , Endeavour was largely forgotten . Within a week of her return to England , she was directed to Woolwich Dockyard for refitting as a naval transport . Under the command of Lieutenant James Gordon she then made three return voyages to the Falkland Islands .
The first , with Joseph Irving as sailing master ( replaced by John Dykes at Portsmouth due to illness ) , was to deliver " sufficient provisions to serve 350 men to the end of the year 1772 " ; she sailed from Portsmouth on 8 November 1771 , but due to terrible weather did not arrive at Port Egmont ( the British base in the Falkland Islands ) until 1 March . Endeavour sailed from Port Egmont on 4 May in a three @-@ month non @-@ stop voyage until she anchored at Portsmouth .
The second voyage was to reduce the garrison and replace HM Sloop Hound , John Burr Commander , with a smaller vessel , namely the 36 @-@ ton shallop Penguin , commander Samuel Clayton . She was a collapsible vessel and was no sooner built than taken apart , and the pieces were stowed in Endeavour . Endeavour sailed in November with Hugh Kirkland as the sailing master , and additionally the crew of Penguin , and four ship 's carpenters whose job was to reassemble Penguin on arrival , which was 28 January 1773 . On 17 April Endeavour and Hound sailed for England with their crew . One of Penguin 's crew was Bernard Penrose who wrote an account . Samuel Clayton also wrote an account .
The third voyage sailed in January 1774 and her purpose was to evacuate the Falklands entirely as Britain was faced with political difficulties from the American Colonies , the French and the Spanish . The government thought that if British ships and troops were engaged in America , Spain might seize the Falklands , capturing the small garrison at Port Egmont and maybe killing some of them - this , it was feared , would trigger an outcry which might topple the government . Endeavour left England in January 1774 , and sailed from the Falklands with all the British inhabitants on 23 April , leaving a flag and a plaque .
Endeavour was paid off in September 1774 , and in March 1775 was sold by the Navy to shipping magnate J. Mather for £ 645 . Mather returned her to sea for at least one commercial voyage to Archangel in Russia .
Once the American War of Independence had commenced , the British government needed ships to carry troops and materiel across the Atlantic . In 1775 Mather submitted Endeavour as a transport ship , and she was rejected . Thinking that renaming her would fool Deptford Yard , Mather resubmitted Endeavour under the name Lord Sandwich Lord Sandwich was rejected in no uncertain terms : " Unfit for service . She was sold out Service Called Endeavour Bark refused before " . Lord Sandwich then had serious repairs , and on her third submission was accepted and was termed Lord Sandwich 2 as there was already a transport ship called Lord Sandwich .
Lord Sandwich 2 , master William Author , sailed on 6 May 1776 from Portsmouth in a fleet of 100 vessels , 68 of which were transports , which was under orders to support Howe 's campaign to capture New York . Lord Sandwich 2 carried 206 men mainly of the Hessian du Corps regiment of Hessian mercenaries . The crossing was terrible , and two Hessians who were in the same fleet have left us accounts of the voyage . The scattered fleet assembled at Halifax and then sailed to Sandy Hook where other ships and troops assembled . On 15 August 1776 Lord Sandwich 2 was anchored at Sandy Hook ; also assembled there was Adventure ( which had sailed with Resolution on Cook 's second voyage ) , now a storeship , captain John Hallum . Another ship there at that time was HMS Siren , captain Tobias Furneaux , who had commanded Adventure on the second voyage .
New York was eventually captured , but Newport , Rhode Island in the hands of the Americans posed a threat as a base for recapturing New York , so in November 1776 a fleet , which included Lord Sandwich 2 carrying Hessian Troops , set out to take Rhode Island , which was taken but not subdued , and Lord Sandwich 2 was needed as a prison ship .
= = Final resting place = =
The surrender of Burgoyne 's army at Saratoga , brought France into the war , and in the summer of 1778 a pincer plan was agreed to recapture Newport : the Continental Army would approach overland , and a French Fleet would sail into the harbour . To prevent the latter the British commander , Captain John Brisbane , determined to blockade the bay by sinking surplus vessels at its mouth . Between 3 and 6 August a fleet of Royal Navy and hired craft , including Lord Sandwich 2 , were scuttled at various locations in the Bay . [ f ] Lord Sandwich 2 , previously Endeavour , previously Earl of Pembroke , was sunk on 4 August 1778 .
The owners of the sunken vessels were compensated by the British government for the loss of their ships . The Admiralty valuation for 10 of the sunken vessels recorded that many had been built in Yorkshire , and the details of the Lord Sandwich transport matched those of the former Endeavour including construction in Whitby , a burthen of 368 71 / 94 tons , and re @-@ entry into Navy service on 10 February 1776 . In 1834 a letter appeared in the Providence Journal of Rhode Island , drawing attention to the possible presence of the former Endeavour on the seabed of the bay . This was swiftly disputed by the British consul in Rhode Island , who wrote claiming that Endeavour had been bought from Mather by the French in 1790 and renamed Liberté . The consul later admitted he had heard this not from the Admiralty , but as hearsay from the former owners of the French ship . It was later suggested Liberté , which sank off Newport in 1793 , was in fact another of Cook 's ships , the former HMS Resolution , or another Endeavour , a naval schooner sold out of service in 1782 . A further letter to the Providence Journal stated that a retired English sailor was conducting guided tours of a hulk on the River Thames as late as 1825 , claiming that the ship had once been Cook 's Endeavour .
In 1991 the Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project ( RIMAP ) began research into the identity of the thirteen transports sunk as part of the Newport blockade of 1778 , including Lord Sandwich . In 1999 RIMAP discovered documents in the Public Record Office ( now called the National Archives ) in London confirming that Endeavour had been renamed Lord Sandwich , had served as a troop transport to North America , and had been scuttled at Newport as part of the 1778 fleet of transports .
In 1999 a combined research team from RIMAP and the Australian National Maritime Museum examined some known wrecks in the harbour and in 2000 , RIMAP and the ANMM examined a site that appears to be one of the blockade vessels , partly covered by a separate wreck of a 20th @-@ century barge . The older remains were those of a wooden vessel of approximately the same size , and possibly a similar design and materials as Lord Sandwich ex Endeavour . Confirmation that Cook 's former ship had indeed been in Newport Harbor sparked considerable media and public interest in confirming her location . However , further mapping showed eight other 18th @-@ century wrecks in Newport Harbor , some with features and conditions also consistent with Endeavour . In 2006 RIMAP announced that the wrecks were unlikely to be raised . In 2016 RIMAP concluded that there was a probability of 80 to 100 % that the wreck of Endeavour was still in Newport Harbor , probably one of a cluster of five wrecks on the seafloor , and planned to investigate the ships and their artifacts further . They were seeking funds to build facilities for handling and storing recovered objects .
= = Endeavour relics and legacy = =
In addition to the search for the remains of the ship herself , there was considerable Australian interest in locating relics of the ship 's south Pacific voyage . In 1886 , the Working Men 's Progress Association of Cooktown sought to recover the six cannons thrown overboard when Endeavour grounded on the Great Barrier Reef . A £ 300 reward was offered for anyone who could locate and recover the guns , but searches that year and the next were fruitless and the money went unclaimed . Remains of equipment left at Endeavour River were discovered in around 1900 , and in 1913 the crew of a merchant steamer erroneously claimed to have recovered an Endeavour cannon from shallow water near the Reef .
In 1937 , a small part of Endeavour 's keel was gifted to the Australian Government by philanthropist Charles Wakefield in his capacity as president of the Admiral Arthur Phillip Memorial . Prime Minister Joseph Lyons of Australia described the section of keel as " intimately associated with the discovery and foundation of Australia " .
Searches were resumed for the lost Endeavour Reef cannons , but expeditions in 1966 , 1967 , and 1968 were unsuccessful . They were finally recovered in 1969 by a research team from the American Academy of Natural Sciences , using a sophisticated magnetometer to locate the cannons , a quantity of iron ballast and the abandoned bower anchor . Conservation work on the cannons was undertaken by the Australian National Maritime Museum , after which two of the cannons were displayed at its headquarters in Sydney 's Darling Harbour , and eventually put on display at Botany Bay and the National Museum of Australia in Canberra ( with a replica remaining at the museum ) . A third cannon and the bower anchor were displayed at the James Cook Museum in Cooktown , with the remaining three at the National Maritime Museum in London , the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia , and the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa in Wellington .
Endeavour 's Pacific voyage was further commemorated in the use of her image on the reverse of the New Zealand fifty @-@ cent coin , and in the naming of the Space Shuttle Endeavour in 1989 .
= = Replica vessels = =
In January 1988 , to commemorate the Australian Bicentenary of European settlement in Australia , work began in Fremantle , Western Australia , on a replica of Endeavour . Financial difficulties delayed completion until December 1993 , and the vessel was not commissioned until April 1994 . The replica vessel commenced her maiden voyage in October of that year , sailing to Sydney Harbour and then following Cook 's path from Botany Bay northward to Cooktown . From 1996 to 2002 , the replica retraced Cook 's ports of call around the world , arriving in the original Endeavour 's home port of Whitby in May 1997 and June 2002 . Footage of waves shot while rounding Cape Horn on this voyage was later used in digitally composited scenes in the 2003 film Master and Commander : The Far Side of the World .
The replica Endeavour visited various European ports before undertaking her final ocean voyage from Whitehaven to Sydney Harbour on 8 November 2004 . Her arrival in Sydney was delayed when she ran aground in Botany Bay , a short distance from the point where Cook first set foot in Australia 235 years earlier . The replica Endeavour finally entered Sydney Harbour on 17 April 2005 , having travelled 170 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 310 @,@ 000 km ) , including twice around the world . Ownership of the replica was transferred to the Australian National Maritime Museum in 2005 for permanent service as a museum ship in Sydney 's Darling Harbour .
A second full @-@ size replica of Endeavour is berthed on the River Tees in Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees . While this reflects the external dimensions of Cook 's vessel , this replica was constructed with a steel rather than a timber frame , has one less internal deck than the original , and is not designed to be put to sea .
The Russell Museum , in the Bay of Islands , New Zealand , has a seagoing one @-@ fifth scale replica of the Endeavour . It was built in Auckland ; during 1969 and 1970 it sailed some 15 @,@ 000 miles ( 24 @,@ 000 km ) in New Zealand and Australia .
At Whitby the " Bark Endeavour Whitby " is a scaled @-@ down replica of the original ship . It relies on engines for propulsion and is a little less than half the size of the original . Trips for tourists take them along the coast to Sandsend .
= Louis Leblanc =
Louis Jean Joseph Leblanc ( born January 26 , 1991 ) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey centre .
Leblanc played minor hockey in the Montreal region before he moved to the United States in 2008 , where he played one season with the Omaha Lancers of the United States Hockey League ( USHL ) and was named Rookie of the Year . Eligible for the 2009 NHL Entry Draft , he was selected 18th overall by the Montreal Canadiens . He then enrolled at Harvard University and spent one season with the Crimson , being named Ivy League rookie of the year , before he signed a contract with the Canadiens in 2010 . Leblanc joined the Montreal Juniors later that year , who had earlier acquired his Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) playing rights . Midway through his first season in the QMJHL , Leblanc played in the 2011 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships for Team Canada ; it was the second time he had played in an international tournament , having played at the 2008 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament , where Canada won the gold medal .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Leblanc was selected 18th overall by the Val @-@ d 'Or Foreurs in the 2007 QMJHL Draft , but instead went to the Omaha Lancers of the United States Hockey League ( USHL ) , with the intent of attending university in the United States . He spent the 2008 – 09 season with Omaha and played in 60 games for the Lancers , finishing with 28 goals and 31 assists for 59 points . His point total led the team in scoring and tied for tenth overall in the USHL ; his goal total was tied for eighth overall , and the six game @-@ winning goals Leblanc scored were tied for second overall . In recognition of his season , the USHL named him the league 's rookie of the year .
Leblanc was one of the top @-@ ranked prospects for the 2009 NHL Entry Draft , ranked 13th overall among North American skaters by NHL Central Scouting , and was selected 18th overall by the Montreal Canadiens , who were hosts of the Draft . Leblanc was the first francophone selected in the first round of the Entry Draft by the Canadiens since they picked Eric Chouinard 16th overall in 1998 . Leblanc was praised for his speed and determination , in addition to his willingness to go to the corners for the puck , as well as being a natural goal @-@ scorer . Then @-@ Canadiens General Manager Bob Gainey also applauded Leblanc 's choice to move to the United States and play in the USHL rather than stay in Quebec with the QMJHL and stated that as it was a more difficult developmental route , it showed he had good character .
Leblanc enrolled at Harvard University in September 2009 , and began playing for the university 's hockey team , the Crimson . In his one year at Harvard , Leblanc led the team in goals ( 11 ) , assists ( 12 ) and points ( 23 ) . He was named the Ivy League rookie of the year , and was a finalist for the ECAC rookie of the year .
On July 30 , 2010 , Leblanc signed a three @-@ year contract with the Canadiens . By agreeing to an NHL contract , he forfeited his NCAA eligibility , being considered a professional . Leblanc subsequently left Harvard and joined the Montreal Junior Hockey Club of the QMJHL for the 2010 – 11 season . His QMJHL rights had previously been owned by three different teams . Originally selected by Val @-@ d 'Or in the 2007 QMJHL Draft , the team traded him to the Chicoutimi Saguenéens on January 8 , 2009 . His rights were traded again on June 5 , 2010 , when Chicoutimi sent him to the Juniors . After attending his first training camp with the Canadiens in September 2010 , Leblanc was sent back to the Juniors , where he made his QMJHL debut on September 10 in Montreal against the Shawinigan Cataractes ; he recorded his first point , an assist , in the game . Two days later , he scored his first goal in the QMJHL , in addition to three assists , against the Gatineau Olympiques .
The Montreal Juniors relocated in the summer of 2011 and became the Blainville @-@ Boisbriand Armada . On August 22 , 2011 , the summer trade deadline in the QMJHL , Leblanc was traded by the Armada to the Shawinigan Cataractes in exchange for Cole Hawes . Because Leblanc was now eligible to play in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) due to being 20 years old , Blainville @-@ Boisbriand received two draft choices from Shawinigan , who hosted ( and won ) the 2012 Memorial Cup , if Leblanc played .
= = = Professional = = =
Leblanc made his professional debut on October 27 , 2011 , scoring three points for the Hamilton Bulldogs of the AHL , including potting the overtime winner , to give his team a 3 – 2 victory over the Rochester Americans .
On November 28 , 2011 , Montreal recalled Leblanc from their Hamilton AHL affiliate to join the Canadiens ; Leblanc had recorded four goals and six assists in 14 games with the Bulldogs by that point . He made his NHL debut November 30 against the Anaheim Ducks . He recorded his first NHL point , an assist on a goal by Andrei Kostitsyn on December 3 , against the Los Angeles Kings . In addition , he scored his first NHL goal in a 4 – 3 loss against the Philadelphia Flyers on December 15 , 2011 . Leblanc split the remainder of the season playing with both Montreal and Hamilton . He played 42 games for the Canadiens , where he had five goals and five assists , and 31 games with the Bulldogs , scoring 11 goals and 11 assists .
With Leblanc failing to establish himself on the Canadiens roster , on June 14 , 2014 , he was traded to the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for a conditional fifth @-@ round pick in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft .
On July 17 , 2015 , Leblanc signed as a free agent to a one @-@ year , two @-@ way contract with the New York Islanders . After failing to secure a spot in New York 's lineup and being assigned to New York 's AHL affiliate , Bridgeport Sound Tigers , the team agreed to release him from his contract and he quickly signed with HC Slovan Bratislava of the Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) .
On January 15 , 2016 , it was announced that Leblanc signed with Lausanne HC of the National League A ( NLA ) .
On June 29 , 2016 , Leblanc announced his retirement from professional ice hockey .
= = International play = =
Leblanc first participated in an international tournament when he played for the Canadian national junior team at the 2008 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament in the Czech Republic and Slovakia in August 2008 @.@ he led the team with three goals and added two assists for five points as Canada won the gold medal . Leblanc was then invited to try out for the national junior team prior to the 2010 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships , but was one of the last players cut from the team . There was speculation that since he played in the NCAA rather than the Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) , it hindered his chances of making the team , as CHL players had played considerably more games than those in the NCAA . Leblanc also had exams scheduled around the time of the camp . He was invited to the summer camp the following year in St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador , and was one of the better players at the camp . After the pre @-@ tournament camp in December 2010 , Leblanc was named to the final roster for the 2011 World Juniors .
In Canada 's first game against Russia , Leblanc earned his first point , an assist . He scored his first goal , short @-@ handed ( Canada 's first in the tournament ) , and added an assist in the second game , versus the Czech Republic . He later notched an assist in the gold medal game , where Canada lost to Russia 5 – 3 . He finished the tournament with three goals and seven points over seven games and ranked fourth in team scoring .
= = Personal life = =
Leblanc was born to Yves and Marie Leblanc in Pointe @-@ Claire , a suburb of Montreal on January 26 , 1991 . Yves works as a chemist for Merck Frosst , one of the world 's largest pharmaceutical companies and worked at their research facility in Montreal before it closed in 2009 . He then transferred to their facility at Cambridge , Massachusetts , working four @-@ day weeks and travelling back to Montreal on weekends . Marie works as a piano teacher . His younger brother Jean also plays hockey .
Growing up on the West Island town of Kirkland , Quebec , Leblanc first skated when he was three years old and entered organized hockey two years later . He first played in the Lakeshore Minor Hockey Association , then joined the Lac St. Louis Lions , a midget team based in Montreal , at age 15 when it became apparent that he could pursue the sport at a higher level . Leblanc played two seasons for the Lions and led the triple @-@ A league in scoring both times .
While at Harvard , Leblanc was majoring in economics , and intends to eventually earn his degree . In lieu of this , he took a business class at McGill University in Montreal when he moved back to the city in 2010 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= Outlaw Run =
Outlaw Run is a wooden roller coaster located at the Silver Dollar City amusement park in Branson , Missouri . The ride was the first wooden roller coaster manufactured by Rocky Mountain Construction and the first wooden roller coaster with multiple inversions , in which riders are turned upside @-@ down and then back upright . The 2 @,@ 937 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 895 m ) ride features three inversions and a top speed of 68 miles per hour ( 109 km / h ) , making Outlaw Run the fourth @-@ fastest wooden roller coaster in the world . The 162 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 49 m ) first drop of the ride is the second steepest in the world among wooden roller coasters , at 81 ° beyond horizontal .
Planning for Outlaw Run began in 2009 , three years before its official announcement in August 2012 . Rocky Mountain Construction were contracted to manufacture the ride as their proposal best suited Silver Dollar City 's available space and budget . The ride 's track layout was designed by Alan Schilke . Outlaw Run opened to the public on March 15 , 2013 , to generally positive reviews .
= = Planning and marketing = =
Planning for a new 2013 attraction in the Silver Dollar City amusement park began in 2009 with the owners , Herschend Family Entertainment , approaching Rocky Mountain Construction and other manufacturers for ideas for " a ride with marketing appeal " . Joel Manby , CEO of Herschend , wanted a " world first " , to have a wooden roller coaster that would be " the first to do a double barrel roll " , which is when the train goes twice through a combination of a loop and a roll . In 2011 , Rocky Mountain Construction showcased their new steel roller coaster , New Texas Giant , to park executives . This demonstration secured the contract .
Marketing began in 2011 when the public were made aware at the 2011 trade show of the International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions that Rocky Mountain were working on a wooden roller coaster ; it being later revealed that this roller coaster would be built at Silver Dollar City . Following the beginning of construction at the park , Silver Dollar City launched a teaser website for a new attraction to open in 2013 . The website featured a public notice indicating that the ride 's theme would be stagecoaches and the wild west . The teaser website also stated that an announcement would be made on August 9 , 2012 . As part of its teaser campaign leading to the announcement , the park released two clues ; the first clue was a handwritten letter , while the second was a photo of the park 's Powder Keg : A Blast into the Wilderness attraction and the nearby Table Rock Lake . On August 9 , 2012 , Silver Dollar City officially announced that Outlaw Run would open in the second quarter of 2013 . At its opening , the ride would be the only wooden roller coaster to feature inversions and would feature the steepest drop on a wooden roller coaster . At a cost of $ 10 million , the ride would be the most expensive Silver Dollar City attraction in more than a decade .
On September 26 , 2012 , the last piece of track was installed on Outlaw Run . The ride opened to a limited audience on March 13 , 2013 , with a public opening two days later . Official opening celebrations were held in April .
= = Characteristics = =
Outlaw Run was Rocky Mountain Construction 's first wooden roller coaster . It is the sixth fastest wooden roller coaster in the world , reaching speeds of up to 68 miles per hour ( 109 km / h ) . Throughout the course of the 2 @,@ 937 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 895 m ) ride , riders go through three inversions , including a double heartline roll . The park 's existing terrain ( the park is located in the Ozark Mountains ) is used to allow a 107 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 33 m ) lift hill to be translated into a first drop stretching 162 feet ( 49 m ) .
The 2 @,@ 937 feet ( 895 m ) of track is made primarily of layers of laminated wood , with a steel plate located in the upper layers of the track . The steel plating is known as Topper Track and is found on many roller coasters that Rocky Mountain Construction has renovated . This track style is designed to reduce the maintenance typically required for a wooden roller coaster and to provide a smoother ride experience . Rocky Mountain Construction spent four years developing technology to allow them to twist beams of wood , that make up the lower layers of the track . This track configuration allows for more dynamic roller coaster elements to be performed on a wooden roller coaster .
Outlaw Run consists of two trains , each featuring twelve pairs of riders . Riders , who must be 48 inches ( 122 cm ) or taller to ride , are restrained in their individual fiberglass seats with a U @-@ shaped lap bar . Unlike most roller coaster trains , which have polyurethane wheels , Outlaw Run features steel wheels .
Outlaw Run features a Western stagecoach theme . The ride 's station is themed as a stagecoach depot located in the outskirts of Silver Dollar City . According to the ride 's storyline , stagecoaches depart daily heading west , where they are intercepted by outlaws who want to steal the riders ' belongings . Outlaw Run riders are law enforcement personnel tasked with stopping the outlaws . To keep their family @-@ friendly image , Silver Dollar City uses a variety of theming to advertise that the " good guys " will always win .
= = Ride experience = =
The train exits out of the station and ascends the chain lift hill . The track then goes through a small pre @-@ drop , similar to that on Bolliger & Mabillard steel roller coasters , before dropping 162 feet ( 49 m ) at an angle of 81 ° . The train then ascends into the first element , an outside banked turn , where the track is banked over to 153 ° before rolling back out of the bank . After going around a low @-@ to @-@ the @-@ ground curve , the train enters a 100 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 30 m ) double down followed by a 70 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 21 m ) double up . After more turns , the train enters a small air @-@ time hill . Outlaw Run 's final two inversions are heartline rolls , turns in which the axis of rotation is approximately at the riders ' hearts . The train then enters the brake run and returns to the station . A single ride cycle is completed in approximately 1 minute and 27 seconds .
= = Records = =
Outlaw Run debuted with the steepest drop , 81 ° , on any wooden roller coaster in the world at the time . Although the creators of Outlaw Run originally planned to claim the record for the only operating wooden roller coaster to feature inversions , the announcement of Hades 360 at Mt . Olympus Water & Theme Park in Wisconsin Dells , Wisconsin , forced Silver Dollar City to modify their claim ; they now cite Outlaw Run as the only wooden roller coaster to feature multiple inversions . It is also tied with Colossos at Heide Park as the second fastest wooden roller coaster in the world , with a top speed of 68 miles per hour ( 109 km / h ) . The speed , height , and drop angle records were broken by Goliath at Six Flags Great America in the first half of 2014 . Goliath is another Rocky Mountain Construction roller coaster . Outlaw Run retains the record for the wooden roller coaster with the most inversions .
= = Reception = =
Following the announcement of Outlaw Run , the ride 's layout received favorable reviews . Arthur Levine of About.com said that " the coaster appears to have a great layout and should provide the kind of ride that fans adore " . Brady MacDonald of the Los Angeles Times ranked Outlaw Run in his top 13 most anticipated new theme park attractions in the United States for 2013 .
Outlaw Run received largely positive reviews following the ride 's opening in 2013 . Marcus Leshock of WGN @-@ TV was among the first to ride Outlaw Run . Despite his high expectations , he described it as " a great ride ; an incredible ride " . Brandy McDonnell of The Oklahoman described Outlaw Run as the highlight of Silver Dollar City : " it 's a speedy and spine @-@ tingling ride worth waiting a few hours to take " . Tim Baldwin of Roller Coaster Magazine described Outlaw Run as " exhilarating but not intimidating " and " satisfying to the thrill seekers and fun for moms as well " . Justin Garvanovic of First Drop Magazine , after describing pacing as an important characteristic of a roller coaster , said " So many coasters get it wrong . Outlaw Run gets it right . "
In its debut year , Outlaw Run ranked highly in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards . The ride won the Golden Ticket Award for Best New Ride with 45 % of the vote . It also ranked at position 7 for the world 's best wooden roller coasters .
= Oryzomys antillarum =
Oryzomys antillarum , also known as the Jamaican rice rat , is an extinct rodent of Jamaica . A member of the genus Oryzomys within the family Cricetidae , it is similar to O. couesi of mainland Central America , from where it may have dispersed to its island during the last glacial period . O. antillarum is common in subfossil cave faunas and is also known from three specimens collected live in the 19th century . Some historical records of Jamaican rats may pertain to it . The species probably became extinct late in the 19th century , perhaps due to the introduction of the small Asian mongoose , competition with introduced rodents such as the brown rat , and habitat destruction .
Oryzomys antillarum was a medium @-@ sized rat , similar in most respects to Oryzomys couesi . The head and body length was 120 to 132 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 2 in ) and the skull was about 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long . The upperparts were reddish and graded into the yellowish underparts . The tail was about as long as the head and body , sparsely haired , and darker above than below . The species differed from O. couesi in having longer nasal bones , shorter incisive foramina ( perforations of the front part of the palate ) , and more robust zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
In his 1877 monograph on North American rodents , Elliott Coues mentioned two specimens of Oryzomys from Jamaica in the collections of the United States National Museum ( USNM ) . According to Coues , the specimens were similar to the marsh rice rat ( Oryzomys palustris ) of the United States , but different in color . Although he wrote that they probably represented a separate form , he refrained from giving a scientific name to them because of the possibility that the form had already received a name he did not know of . The species was first formally described by Oldfield Thomas in 1898 based on a specimen that had been in the British Museum of Natural History since 1845 . He recognized it as a separate species of Oryzomys , Oryzomys antillarum , but wrote that it was related to the mainland Central American O. couesi . Thomas suspected that the species was already extinct on Jamaica , but that it or a similar rice rat could still be found in the unexplored interior of Cuba or Hispaniola .
Revising North American Oryzomys in 1918 , Edward Alphonso Goldman retained O. antillarum as a separate species , but conceded that it was so similar to mainland O. couesi that it may have been introduced on Jamaica . In 1920 , Harold Anthony reported that remains of O. antillarum were common in coastal caves , suggesting that the species had previously been an important part of the diet of the barn owl ( Tyto alba ) . In 1942 , Glover Morrill Allen doubted that it was even a distinct species and in his 1962 Ph.D. thesis , Clayton Ray , who examined numerous cave specimens , agreed and retained it as only a " weakly differentiated subspecies " of Oryzomys palustris ( which by then included O. couesi and other Mexican and Central American forms ) , Oryzomys palustris antillarum . Philip Hershkovitz came to the same conclusion in a 1966 paper . After O. couesi of Mexico and Central America was again classified as a species distinct from the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) of the United States , the Jamaican form came to be regarded as a subspecies of the former , Oryzomys couesi antillarum .
In a 1993 review , Gary Morgan reinstated the animal as a distinct species closely related to O. couesi , citing an unpublished paper by Humphrey , Setzer , and himself . Guy Musser and Michael Carleton , writing for the 2005 third edition of Mammal Species of the World , continued to classify the Jamaican form as part of O. couesi , but did not reference Morgan . However , in a 2006 review of the contents of Oryzomys , Marcelo Weksler and colleagues listed O. antillarum as a separate species , citing Morgan , and in a 2009 paper on western Mexican Oryzomys Carleton and Joaquín Arroyo @-@ Cabrales did the same .
According to the classification by Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales , Oryzomys antillarum is one of eight species in the genus Oryzomys , which occurs from the eastern United States ( O. palustris ) into northwestern South America ( O. gorgasi ) . O. antillarum is further part of the O. couesi section , which is centered on the widespread Central American O. couesi and also includes various other species with more limited and peripheral distributions . Many aspects of the systematics of the O. couesi section remain unclear and it is likely that the current classification underestimates the true diversity of the group . Oryzomys previously included many other species , which were progressively removed in various studies culminating in the 2006 paper by Weksler and colleagues , which excluded more than forty species from the genus . All are classified in the tribe Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , a diverse assemblage of American rodents of over a hundred species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents .
= = Description = =
Oryzomys antillarum was a medium @-@ sized rodent , about as large as O. couesi . According to Thomas 's description , the upperparts were reddish , slightly brighter on the rump and more grayish on the head . The color of the upperparts graded into that of the underparts , which were yellowish . The hairs of the underparts were grayish at the bases . The small ears were black on the outer and yellow on the inner side and the upper surfaces of the hands and feet were whitish . The tail was nearly naked and was light brownish above and lighter below . Goldman wrote that the specimens in the USNM were rather more reddish , but their color may have been altered because they had been preserved in alcohol . Coues had described these as rusty brown above and washed with the same color below . Andrew Arata compared the USNM specimens with examples of the reddish Florida subspecies of the marsh rice rat , Oryzomys palustris natator , for Ray and found that they were more reddish than even the most strongly colored animals from Florida .
The skull was generally similar to that of Oryzomys couesi , as were the teeth . It was robust and bore well @-@ developed supraorbital ridges ( located above the eyes ) on the braincase . The interparietal bone , part of the roof of the braincase , was small and narrow . The bony palate extended beyond the third molars . The nasal bones extended further back than the premaxillaries , whereas these bones are usually about coterminous in O. couesi . On average , the incisive foramina , which perforate the front part of the palate , were shorter than in O. couesi . The zygomatic arch ( cheekbone ) appears to have been better developed in O. antillarum .
In the three modern and numerous cave specimens , condylobasal length ( a measure of skull length ) varies from 28 @.@ 9 to 31 @.@ 2 mm ( 1 @.@ 14 to 1 @.@ 23 in ) ( one modern and two cave specimens only ) , length of the bony palate from 13 @.@ 0 to 17 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 51 to 0 @.@ 70 in ) , width of the interorbital region ( located between the eyes ) from 4 @.@ 78 to 6 @.@ 33 mm ( 0 @.@ 188 to 0 @.@ 249 in ) , length of the incisive foramina from 5 @.@ 1 to 6 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 to 0 @.@ 26 in ) , crown length of the upper molars from 4 @.@ 36 to 5 @.@ 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 172 to 0 @.@ 205 in ) , and crown length of the lower molars from 4 @.@ 80 to 5 @.@ 39 mm ( 0 @.@ 189 to 0 @.@ 212 in ) .
= = History = =
= = = Origin and subfossil records = = =
The oldest well @-@ dated record of Oryzomys antillarum is at Drum Cave in the Jacksons Bay Caves system , where it was found in a stratum radiocarbon dated to between 10 @,@ 250 and 11 @,@ 260 years before present according to a 2002 study . It is present in several other undated sites that predate the human colonization of the island , around 1 @,@ 400 years before present . However , a site ( Wallingford Roadside Cave ) from the last interglacial , the Eemian , contains only the hystricognath rodents Clidomys and Geocapromys browni and lacks Oryzomys . The presence of the rice rat on Jamaica before the arrival of humans disproves the hypothesis that it was introduced ; instead , it must have reached the island by overwater dispersal through a rafting event , probably less than 125 @,@ 000 years ago . During the last glacial period , low sea levels would have exposed much land between Jamaica and Central America , substantially decreasing the distance needed for the ancestor of O. antillarum to arrive on the island and probably influencing sea currents so that rafts of vegetation from Central America would be more likely to reach Jamaica . Species of Oryzomys are semiaquatic and closely associated with water , which may help to explain the occurrence of the genus on Jamaica . The rice rat has been found in many superficial , late Holocene cave deposits , some of which have been radiocarbon dated to within the last 1 @,@ 100 years . Its remains also occur in some Amerindian archeological sites . From its common and widespread occurrence in caves , Ray suggested that the rice rat occurred in many different habitats before European contact . O. antillarum was the only sigmodontine rodent on any of the Greater Antilles , where the rodent fauna otherwise consists solely of hystricognaths and introduced rodents .
= = = Historical records = = =
Although there are some early historical records of the rats of Jamaica , very little is to be found in them regarding Oryzomys antillarum , perhaps because the species declined rapidly following the European colonization of the island and because early authors failed to distinguish it from introduced rodents ( the black rat , Rattus rattus ; brown rat , Rattus norvegicus ; and house mouse , Mus musculus ) . Patrick Browne , in the 1756 Civil and Natural History of Jamaica , described a " House and Cane @-@ Rat " , a " Mouse " , and a large " Water @-@ Rat " , which he said had been introduced to the island and become very common there .
In his History of Jamaica ( 1774 ) , Edward Long recognized four Jamaican rats : Browne 's " Water @-@ Rat " , termed the " Charles @-@ price rat " , which Long regarded as identical with the European water vole ( Arvicola ) ; the " black house @-@ rat " , said to have been brought from England ; and two he said were indigenous . The larger of those was a grayish " cane @-@ rat " and the smaller was a reddish " field @-@ rat " as large as the English mole ( the European mole , Talpa europaea ) . Ray considered that the last may simply have been the house mouse , since the size of an English mole would be too small for Oryzomys .
In A Naturalist 's Sojourn in Jamaica ( 1851 ) , Philip Henry Gosse listed the black and brown rat and the house mouse , as well as the " Cane @-@ piece Rat " , which he described as Mus saccharivorus and regarded as probably identical with Browne 's " Water @-@ Rat " and Long 's " Charles @-@ price Rat " . He also mentioned the two species Long had listed as indigenous . Thomas and Ray both asserted that this " Cane @-@ piece Rat " was most likely a brown rat , as judged from its measurements . Gosse wrote that an early explorer , Anthony Robinson , had described and pictured this species in an unpublished manuscript , on the basis of a specimen 20 inches ( 51 cm ) long , half of which consisted of the tail . Ray was unable to examine Robinson 's manuscript , but suggested that Robinson 's rat could not have been the brown rat , because that species did not reach the Americas until about 1800 , and may instead have been O. antillarum .
Gosse had collected the British Museum specimen of Oryzomys antillarum in 1845 , but may not have separated it from introduced rats found with it . Coues noted that the two USNM specimens he examined were received after he had written the preceding part of his monograph ; later , Thomas and others wrote that these specimens were obtained around 1877 , but Ray asserted that they were taken before 1874 . No specimens have been collected since .
= = = Extinction = = =
Oryzomys antillarum probably became extinct about the 1870s and is currently listed as such by the IUCN Red List . Its disappearance is usually attributed to the small Asian mongoose ( Herpestes javanicus ) , which was introduced to Jamaica in 1872 , and sometimes also to introduced Rattus species . Ray , on the other hand , argued that the significance of the mongoose had been overrated . Instead , he suggested that Oryzomys antillarum may have been affected by the massive environmental changes that occurred on the island after the British takeover in 1655 . In that period , the bulk of the island came to be used for cultivation , so that the native habitat of Oryzomys was destroyed . Thus , Oryzomys was reduced to competition with introduced rats in man @-@ made habitats , to which the latter are well adapted . Perhaps , Ray wrote , the black rat may not have been able to extirpate Oryzomys , but the brown rat , a later and more assertive invader , brought it to extinction . Cats and dogs preying on Oryzomys may also have contributed to its demise .
= AHS Centaur =
Australian Hospital Ship ( AHS ) Centaur was a hospital ship which was attacked and sunk by a Japanese submarine off the coast of Queensland , Australia , on 14 May 1943 . Of the 332 medical personnel and civilian crew aboard , 268 died , including 63 of the 65 army personnel .
The Scottish @-@ built vessel was launched in 1924 as a combination passenger liner and refrigerated cargo ship and operated a trade route between Western Australia and Singapore via the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) , carrying passengers , cargo , and livestock . At the start of World War II , Centaur ( like all British Merchant Navy vessels ) was placed under British Admiralty control , but after being fitted with defensive equipment , was allowed to continue normal operations . In November 1941 , the ship rescued German survivors of the engagement between Kormoran and HMAS Sydney . Centaur was relocated to Australia 's east coast in October 1942 , and used to transport materiel to New Guinea .
In January 1943 , Centaur was handed over to the Australian military for conversion into a hospital ship , as the ship 's small size made her suitable for operating in Maritime Southeast Asia . The refit ( including installation of medical facilities and repainting with Red Cross markings ) was completed in March , and the ship undertook a trial voyage : transporting wounded from Townsville to Brisbane , then from Port Moresby to Brisbane . After replenishing in Sydney , Centaur embarked the 2 / 12th Field Ambulance for transport to New Guinea , and sailed on 12 May . Before dawn on 14 May 1943 , during her second voyage , Centaur was torpedoed and sunk by a Japanese submarine off North Stradbroke Island , Queensland . The majority of the 332 aboard died in the attack ; the 64 survivors were discovered 36 hours later . The incident resulted in public outrage as attacking a hospital ship is considered a war crime under the tenth 1907 Hague Convention . Protests were made by the Australian and British governments to Japan and efforts were made to discover the people responsible so they could be tried at a war crimes tribunal . In the 1970s the probable identity of the attacking submarine , I @-@ 177 , became public .
The reason for the attack is unknown , with theories that Centaur was in breach of the international conventions that should have protected her , that I @-@ 177 's commander was unaware that Centaur was a hospital ship , or that the submarine commander knowingly attacked a protected vessel . Claims of discovery were made in 1995 , but that wreck was proven in 2003 to be another ship . The wreck of Centaur was found on 20 December 2009 .
= = Design and construction = =
= = = Original design = = =
In early 1923 , the Ocean Steamship Company ( a subsidiary of Alfred Holt 's Blue Funnel Line ) decided that a new vessel would be required to replace the ageing Charon on the Western Australia to Singapore trade route . The vessel had to be capable of simultaneously transporting passengers , cargo , and livestock . She also had to be capable of resting on mud flats out of the water as the tidal variance in ports at the northern end of Western Australia was as great as 8 metres ( 26 ft ) .
Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company in Greenock was chosen to build Centaur . The ship 's keel was laid on 16 November 1923 , with the ship ready for collection by 29 August 1924 . Constructed at a cost of £ 146 @,@ 750 sterling , Centaur was designed to carry 72 passengers and 450 cattle . Cargo was carried in four holds ; the two decks within the hull were primarily for livestock , and could also be used as additional cargo space . The hull of the ship was a ' turret deck ' design ; decks below the waterline were wider than those above water , and a flat , reinforced hull allowed the ship to rest on the bottom . Centaur was among the first civilian vessels to be equipped with a diesel engine . One of the most visible characteristics was the 35 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) smokestack , the extreme size was more a concession to tradition than of practical advantage on a diesel @-@ powered vessel . Her engine was 6 @-@ cylinder 4 @-@ stroke , single cycle single action diesel engine . It had cylinders of 2415 ⁄ 16 inches ( 64 cm ) diameter by 513 ⁄ 16 inches ( 135 cm ) stroke . The engine was built by Burmeister & Wain , Copenhagen , Denmark . One of her holds was fitted with refrigeration equipment . The refrigerant was brine and the insulation was cork . The refrigerated hold had a capacity of 3 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 85 m3 ) .
In December 1939 , Centaur underwent a minor refit in Hong Kong , with a supercharger and a new propeller fitted to the engine . The supercharger broke down in April 1942 , and could not be repaired because of equipment shortages and restricted dockyard access caused by World War II .
= = = Hospital ship refit = = =
At the beginning of 1943 , Centaur was placed at the disposal of the Australian Department of Defence for conversion to a hospital ship . The conversion was performed by United Ship Services in Melbourne , Australia , and was initially estimated to cost AU £ 20 @,@ 000 .
The cost increased to almost AU £ 55 @,@ 000 , for a variety of reasons . It was originally intended for the ship to travel between ports in New Guinea and Townsville , Queensland , Australia . Increasing casualty numbers in the New Guinea campaign meant that the hospitals in Queensland would quickly become unable to deal with the quantity of the casualties and the nature of their injuries , so a longer voyage to Sydney was required . The Army demanded that additional facilities and conversions be added to the original plans such as expanded bathing and washing facilities , hot water made available to all parts of the ship through installation of a calorifier , the rerouting of all steam pipes away from patient areas , and ventilation arrangements suitable for tropical conditions . The unions representing the ship 's crew requested improved living and dining conditions , including new sinks in the food preparation areas and the replacement of flooring in the quarters and mess rooms .
When AHS Centaur was relaunched on 12 March 1943 , she was equipped with an operating theatre , dispensary , two wards ( located on the former cattle decks ) , and a dental surgery , along with quarters for seventy five crew and sixty five permanent Army medical staff . To maintain the ship 's mean draught of 6 @.@ 1 metres ( 20 ft ) , 900 tons of ironstone were distributed through the cargo holds as ballast . AHS Centaur was capable of voyages of 18 days before resupply and could carry just over 250 bedridden patients .
= = Operational history = =
= = = 1924 to 1938 = = =
Centaur was allocated the United Kingdom Official Number 147275 and the Code Letters KHHC . Her port of registry was Liverpool . When Centaur entered service at the end of 1924 , the Fremantle – Java – Singapore trade route was being serviced by two other Blue Funnel Line vessels ; Gorgon ( which remained in service until 1928 ) and Charon ( which Centaur was replacing ) . Centaur 's route ran from Fremantle up the Western Australian coast calling at Geraldton , Carnarvon , Onslow , Point Samson , Port Hedland , Broome , and Derby then to the Bali Strait , Surabaya , Semarang , Batavia , and Singapore . Centaur operated as a cross between a tramp steamer and a freight liner ; she travelled a set route , but stops at ports along the route varied between journeys . From 1928 until sometime in the 1930s , Centaur remained alone on her route , but the increase in trade along this route prompted Blue Funnel Line to reassign Gorgon and assign the new Charon to work alongside Centaur .
Following the change in Code Letters in 1934 , Centaur was allocated the Code Letters GMQP . A highlight of Centaur 's pre @-@ war career was the rescue of the 385 ton Japanese whale @-@ chaser Kyo Maru II in November 1938 . Kyo Maru II had developed boiler problems while returning from the Antarctic and was drifting towards the Houtman Abrolhos Archipelago , where she was in danger of being wrecked by the reefs in the area . Centaur responded to the distress signal and towed Kyo Maru II to Geraldton .
= = = 1939 to 1942 = = =
As a vessel of the British Merchant Navy , Centaur was affected by the British Parliament 's 1939 outline of how the Merchant Navy would respond to the declaration of war , primarily submission to the Admiralty in all matters excluding the crewing and management of vessels . Following the outbreak of World War II on 3 September 1939 , Centaur was equipped with a stern @-@ mounted 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) Mark IX naval gun and two .303 Vickers machine guns located on the bridge wings for protection against Axis warships and aircraft . She was also fitted with port and starboard paravanes and degaussing equipment for protection against naval mines . The weapons were removed during the hospital ship refit , although the anti @-@ mine countermeasures remained . Centaur initially remained in service on her original trade route .
On 26 November 1941 , a damaged lifeboat carrying 62 Kriegsmarine ( German navy ) sailors and officers was spotted by an aircraft looking for the missing Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney ; the aircraft directed Centaur to the lifeboat . Upon encountering the lifeboat , food was lowered to its occupants , and one person was allowed on board to explain the situation . Initially posing as a Norwegian merchant navy officer , the man quickly revealed that he was the first officer of the German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran and that the lifeboat contained German survivors from Kormoran 's battle with HMAS Sydney seven days earlier , including Captain Theodor Detmers .
Unwilling to leave the shipwrecked men at sea , but afraid of having his ship captured by the Germans , Centaur 's master decided to take the lifeboat in tow , after allowing nine wounded men aboard . During the tow towards Carnarvon , Western Australia , the lifeboat was swamped and partially sunk by rough seas , so two of Centaur 's lifeboats were lowered to carry the Germans . On arrival in Carnarvon , the Germans were relocated to the number one cargo hold , where they were joined by another hundred Kormoran survivors collected by other ships , plus forty Australian Army guards , which were then transported by Centaur to Fremantle .
Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the beginning of the Malayan Campaign on 7 December 1941 , Centaur 's run was curtailed to Broome , Western Australia . On 6 October 1942 , Centaur was ordered to sail to Queensland , where she began runs between the east coast of Australia and New Guinea , carrying materiel .
= = = 1943 = = =
With the commencement of hostilities between Japan and the British Empire , it became clear that the three hospital ships currently serving Australia — Manunda , Wanganella , and Oranje — would not be able to operate in the shallow waters typical of Maritime Southeast Asia , so a new hospital ship was required . Of the Australian Merchant Navy vessels able to operate in this region , none were suitable for conversion to a hospital ship , and a request to the British Ministry of Shipping placed Centaur at the disposal of the Australian military on 4 January 1943 . The conversion work began on 9 January and Centaur was commissioned as an Australian Hospital Ship on 1 March . During her conversion , Centaur was painted with the markings of a hospital ship as detailed in Article 5 of the tenth Hague Convention of 1907 ( " Adaptation to Maritime War of the Principles of the Geneva Convention " ) ; white hull with a green band interspersed by three red crosses on each flank of the hull , white superstructure , multiple large red crosses positioned so that the ship 's status would be visible from both sea and air , and an identification number ( for Centaur , 47 ) on her bows . At night , the markings were illuminated by a combination of internal and external lights . Data on the ship 's markings and the layout of identifying structural features was provided to the International Committee of the Red Cross during the first week of February 1943 , who passed this on to the Japanese on 5 February . This information was also circulated and promoted by the press and media .
Centaur entered operation as a hospital ship on 12 March 1943 . The early stages of Centaur 's first voyage as a hospital ship were test and transport runs ; the initial run from Melbourne to Sydney resulted in the Master , Chief Engineer , and Chief Medical Officer composing a long list of defects requiring attention . Following repairs , she conducted a test run , transporting wounded servicemen from Townsville to Brisbane to ensure that she was capable of fulfilling the role of a medical vessel . Centaur was then tasked with delivering medical personnel to Port Moresby , New Guinea , and returning to Brisbane with Australian and American wounded along with a small number of wounded Japanese prisoners of war .
Arriving in Sydney on 8 May 1943 , Centaur was re @-@ provisioned at Darling Harbour , before departing for Cairns , Queensland on 12 May 1943 . From there , her destination was again New Guinea . On board at the time were 74 civilian crew , 53 Australian Army Medical Corps personnel ( including 8 officers ) , 12 female nurses from the Australian Army Nursing Service , 192 soldiers from the 2 / 12th Field Ambulance , and one Torres Strait ship pilot . Most of the female nurses had transferred from the hospital ship Oranje , and the male Army personnel assigned to the ship aboard were all medical staff . During the loading process , there was an incident when the ambulance drivers attached to the 2 / 12th attempted to bring their rifles and personal supplies of ammunition aboard . This was met with disapproval from Centaur 's Master and Chief Medical Officer , and raised concerns amongst the crew and wharf labourers that Centaur would be transporting military supplies or commandos to New Guinea : the rifles were not allowed on board until Centaur 's Master received official reassurance that the ambulance drivers were allowed to carry weapons under the 10th Hague Convention ( specifically Article 8 ) , as they were used " for the maintenance of order and the defence of the wounded . " The remaining cargo was searched by the crew and labourers for additional weapons and munitions .
= = Sinking = =
At approximately 4 : 10 am on 14 May 1943 , while on her second run from Sydney to Port Moresby , Centaur was torpedoed by an unsighted submarine . The torpedo struck the portside oil fuel tank approximately 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) below the waterline , creating a hole 8 to 10 metres ( 26 to 33 ft ) across , igniting the fuel , and setting the ship on fire from the bridge aft . Many of those on board were immediately killed by concussion or perished in the inferno . Centaur quickly took on water through the impact site , rolled to port , then sank bow @-@ first , submerging completely in less than three minutes . The rapid sinking prevented the deployment of lifeboats , although two broke off from Centaur as she sank , along with several damaged liferafts .
According to the position extrapolated by Second Officer Gordon Rippon from the 4 : 00 am dead reckoning position , Centaur was attacked approximately 24 nautical miles ( 44 km ; 28 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Point Lookout , North Stradbroke Island , Queensland . Doubts were initially cast on the accuracy of both the calculated point of sinking and the dead reckoning position , but the 2009 discovery of the wreck found both to be correct , with Centaur located within 1 nautical mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ; 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of Rippon 's coordinates .
= = = Survivors = = =
Of the 332 people on board , 64 were rescued . Most of the crew and passengers were asleep at the time of attack and had little chance to escape . It was estimated that up to 200 people may have been alive at the time Centaur submerged . Several who made it off the ship later died from shrapnel wounds or burns ; others were unable to find support and drowned .
The survivors spent 36 hours in the water , using barrels , wreckage , and the two damaged lifeboats for flotation . During this time , they drifted approximately 19 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 36 @.@ 3 km ; 22 @.@ 6 mi ) north east of Centaur 's calculated point of sinking and spread out over an area of 2 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ; 2 @.@ 3 mi ) . The survivors saw at least four ships and several aircraft , but could not attract their attention .
At the time of rescue , the survivors were in two large and three small groups , with several more floating alone . Amongst those rescued were Sister Ellen Savage , the only surviving nurse from 12 aboard ; Leslie Outridge , the only surviving doctor from 18 aboard ; Gordon Rippon , second officer and most senior surviving crewmember ; and Richard Salt , the Torres Strait ship pilot . In 1944 , Ellen Savage was presented with the George Medal for providing medical care , boosting morale , and displaying courage during the wait for rescue .
= = = Rescue = = =
On the morning of 15 May 1943 , the American destroyer USS Mugford departed Brisbane to escort the 11 @,@ 063 ton New Zealand freighter Sussex on the first stage of the latter 's trans @-@ Tasman voyage . At 2 : 00 pm , a lookout aboard Mugford reported an object on the horizon . Around the same time , a Royal Australian Air Force Avro Anson of No. 71 Squadron , flying ahead on anti @-@ submarine watch , dived towards the object . The aircraft returned to the two ships and signalled that there were shipwreck survivors in the water requiring rescue . Mugford 's commanding officer ordered Sussex to continue alone as Mugford collected the survivors . Marksmen were positioned around the ship to shoot sharks , and sailors stood ready to dive in and assist the wounded . Mugford 's medics inspected each person as they came aboard and provided necessary medical care . The American crew learned from the first group of survivors that they were from the hospital ship Centaur .
At 2 : 14 pm , Mugford made contact with the Naval Officer @-@ in @-@ Charge in Brisbane , and announced that the ship was recovering survivors from Centaur at 27 ° 03 ′ S 154 ° 12 ′ E , the first that anyone in Australia had knowledge of the attack on the hospital ship . The rescue of the 64 survivors took an hour and twenty minutes , although Mugford remained in the area until dark , searching an area of approximately 7 by 14 nautical miles ( 13 by 26 km ; 8 by 16 mi ) for more survivors . After darkness fell , Mugford returned to Brisbane , arriving shortly before midnight . Further searches of the waters off North Stradbroke Island were made by USS Helm during the night of 15 May until 6 : 00 pm on 16 May , and by HMAS Lithgow and four motor torpedo boats from 16 to 21 May , with neither search finding more survivors .
= = = Attacker = = =
At the time of the attack , none aboard Centaur witnessed what had attacked the ship . Due to the ship 's position , the distance from shore , and the depth , it was concluded that she was torpedoed by one of the Japanese submarines known to be operating off the Australian east coast . Several survivors later claimed to have heard the attacking submarine moving on the surface while they were adrift , and the submarine was seen by the ship 's cook , Francis Martin , who was floating alone on a hatch cover , out of sight from the main cluster of survivors . Martin described the submarine to Naval Intelligence following the survivors ' return to land ; his description matched the profile of a KD7 type Kaidai @-@ class submarine of the Imperial Japanese Navy .
At the time of the attack , three KD7 Kaidai were operating off Australia 's east coast : I @-@ 177 under the command of Hajime Nakagawa , I @-@ 178 under Hidejiro Utsuki , and I @-@ 180 under Toshio Kusaka . None of these submarines survived the war ; I @-@ 177 was sunk by USS Samuel S. Miles on 3 October 1944 , I @-@ 178 by USS Patterson on 25 August 1943 , and I @-@ 180 by USS Gilmore on 26 April 1944 . Kusaka and Nakagawa were transferred to other submarines before the loss of I @-@ 180 and I @-@ 177 respectively , but Utsuki and I @-@ 178 were sunk while returning from the patrol off the coast of Australia .
In December 1943 , following official protests , the Japanese government issued a statement formally denying responsibility for the sinking of Centaur . Records provided by the Japanese following the war also did not acknowledge responsibility . Although Centaur 's sinking was a war crime , no one was tried for sinking the hospital ship . Investigations into the attack were conducted between 1944 and 1948 , and included the interrogation of the commanders of the submarines operating in Australian waters at the time , their superiors , plus junior officers and crewmen from the submarines who had survived the war . Several of the investigators suspected that Nakagawa and I @-@ 177 were most likely responsible , but they were unable to establish this beyond reasonable doubt , and the Centaur case file was closed on 14 December 1948 without any charges laid .
Historians were divided on which submarine was responsible . In Royal Australian Navy , 1942 – 1945 , published in 1968 as part of the series detailing the Australian official history of World War II , George Hermon Gill concluded that either I @-@ 178 or I @-@ 180 was responsible ; the former was more likely as she had served in Australian waters the longest of any Japanese submarine at the time , but had claimed no kills in the three @-@ month period surrounding Centaur 's sinking . In 1972 , German military historian Jürgen Rohwer claimed in Chronology of the war at sea that I @-@ 177 torpedoed Centaur , based on a Japanese report stating that I @-@ 177 had attacked a ship on 14 May 1943 in the area the hospital ship had sunk . Japanese Rear Admiral Kaneyoshi Sakamoto , who had shown Rohwer the report , stated that Nakagawa and I @-@ 177 were responsible for the attack on Centaur in his 1979 book History of Submarine Warfare .
As an official history of the Japanese Navy , Sakamoto 's work was considered to be official admission of the attacking submarine 's identity . Subsequently , most sources assumed as fact Nakagawa 's and I @-@ 177 's role in the loss of Centaur . Nakagawa refused to speak on the subject of the attack on Centaur following the war crimes investigation at the end of World War II , even to defend himself or deny the claims made by Rohwer 's and Sakamoto 's works , and died in 1991 .
= = Reaction = =
= = = Public reaction = = =
The media were notified of Centaur 's sinking on 17 May 1943 , but were ordered not to release the news until it had been announced in the South West Pacific Area 's General Headquarters dispatch at midday on 18 May , and in Parliament by Prime Minister John Curtin that afternoon . News of the attack made front pages throughout the world , including The Times of London , The New York Times , and the Montreal Gazette . In some newspapers , the news took precedence over the ' Dambuster ' raids performed in Europe by No. 617 Squadron RAF .
The initial public reaction to the attack on Centaur was one of outrage , significantly different from that displayed following the loss of Australian warships or merchant vessels . As a hospital ship , the attack was a breach of the tenth Hague Convention of 1907 , and as such was a war crime . The sinking of Centaur drew strong reactions from both Prime Minister Curtin and General Douglas MacArthur . Curtin stated that the sinking was " an entirely inexcusable act , undertaken in violation of the convention to which Japan is a party and of all the principles of common humanity " . MacArthur reflected the common Australian view when he stated that the sinking was an example of Japanese " limitless savagery " . Politicians urged the public to use their rage to fuel the war effort , and Centaur became a symbol of Australia 's determination to defeat what appeared to be a brutal and uncompromising enemy . The Australian Government produced posters depicting the sinking , which called for Australians to " Avenge the Nurses " by working to produce materiel , purchasing war bonds , or enlisting in the armed forces .
People also expressed their sympathy towards the crew , with several efforts to fund a new hospital ship established . The councillors of Caulfield , Victoria , organised a fund to replace the lost medical equipment , opening with a donation of AU £ 2 @,@ 000 . Those who worked on Centaur 's conversion contributed money towards a replacement , and employees of Ansett Airways pledged to donate an hour 's pay towards the fitting out of such a replacement .
With some people unable to believe that the Japanese would be so ruthless , rumours began to spread almost immediately after news of the attack was made public . The most common rumour was that Centaur had been carrying munitions or commandos at the time of her sinking , with the Japanese made aware of this prior to her departure . This stemmed from an incident involving the ambulance drivers ' weapons during loading in Sydney .
= = = Military reaction = = =
The attack was universally condemned by Australian servicemen , who commonly believed that the attack on Centaur had been carried out deliberately and in full knowledge of her status . Similar reactions were expressed by other Allied personnel ; United States Army Air Forces General George Kenney recalled having to talk a sergeant bombardier out of organising a retaliatory bombing run on a Japanese hospital ship known to be in their area .
Six days after the attack on Centaur , a request was made by the Australian Department of Defence that the identification markings and lights be removed from Australian hospital ship Manunda , weapons be installed , and that she begin to sail blacked out and under escort . The conversion was performed , although efforts by the Department of the Navy , the Admiralty , and authorities in New Zealand and the United States of America caused the completed conversion to be undone . The cost of the roundabout work came to £ 12 @,@ 500 , and kept Manunda out of service for three months . On 9 June 1943 , communications between the Combined Chiefs of Staff on the subject of hospital ships contained a section referring to the Manunda incident as a response to the attack on Centaur , with the conclusion that the attack was the work of an irresponsible Japanese commander , and that it would be better to wait until further attacks had been made before considering the removal of hospital ship markings .
When the consideration was made that the ambulance drivers ' weapons incident just prior to Centaur 's voyage may have been partially responsible for the attack , it led to the tightening of rules regarding who was allowed to travel on a hospital ship . Quasi @-@ medical staff , like repatriation teams , were no longer permitted on hospital ships . Ambulance drivers had to transfer from the regular Army to the Australian Army Medical Corps before they were allowed aboard , although they were still permitted to carry their unloaded weapons and ammunition .
= = = Official protests = = =
After consultation with the Australian armed forces , General MacArthur , the Admiralty , and the Australian Government , an official protest was sent . This was received by the Japanese Government on 29 May 1943 . At around the same time , the International Committee of the Red Cross sent a protest on behalf of the major Allied Red Cross organisations to the Japanese Red Cross .
On 26 December 1943 , a response to the Australian protest arrived . It stated that the Japanese Government had no information justifying the allegation made , and therefore took no responsibility for what happened . The reply counter @-@ protested that nine Japanese hospital ships had been attacked by the Allies , although these claims were directed against the United States , not Australia . Although several later exchanges were made , the lack of progress saw the British Government inform the Australian Prime Minister on 14 November 1944 that no further communications would be made on the loss of Centaur .
= = Reasons for attack = =
= = = Overview = = =
Torpedo attacks in Australian waters were common at this time , with 27 Japanese submarines operating in Australian waters between June 1942 and December 1944 . These submarines attacked almost 50 merchant vessels , with 20 ships confirmed to be sunk as result of a Japanese attack , plus 9 more unconfirmed . This was part of a concentrated effort to disrupt supply convoys from Australia to New Guinea .
Several actions on Centaur 's part may have contributed to her demise . Centaur was under orders to sail well out to sea until reaching the Great Barrier Reef ; her course keeping her between 50 and 150 nautical miles ( 90 and 280 km ; 60 and 170 mi ) from shore . Centaur 's Master , believing he had been given a route intended for a merchant vessel , set a course closer to land , but on the seaward side of 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) in depth . Also , Centaur was sailing completely illuminated , with the exception of the two bow floodlights , which had been switched off as they interfered with visibility from the bridge .
There are three main theories as to why Centaur was attacked :
= = = Theory : Centaur was believed to be a legitimate target = = =
This theory stems from the various rumours spreading after Centaur 's sinking . If Centaur had been in breach of the Hague Convention of 1907 , and someone had informed the Japanese of this , I @-@ 177 may have been under valid orders to attack . When Centaur left Sydney , her decks were packed with green @-@ uniformed men , and as Field Ambulance uniforms were only distinguishable from other Army uniforms by badge insignia and the colouration of the cloth band ringing the hat , a distant observer could have concluded that the hospital ship was transporting soldiers . Those witnessing the loading in Sydney would have seen the ambulance drivers bring their weapons aboard , and could have come to a similar conclusion . If a spy or informant had passed this information to the Japanese , I @-@ 177 could have been lying in wait . The main flaw in this theory is the question of how Nakagawa and his crew were able to predict that Centaur was taking an alternative route and how they were able to determine the new route selected .
Similar but later rumours included that during her first voyage , Centaur had transported soldiers to New Guinea , or Japanese prisoners of war back to Australia for interrogation , and consequently had been marked as a legitimate target by the Japanese . Centaur had carried 10 prisoners of war on her return voyage from New Guinea , but as they were all wounded personnel , transporting them on a hospital ship was legal .
= = = Theory : Nakagawa was unaware that Centaur was a hospital ship = = =
This theory states that Nakagawa was unaware that the vessel he was attacking was a hospital ship , and that the sinking was an unfortunate accident . This view was supported by several Japanese officers , both before and after the revelation that Nakagawa was responsible . Amongst them was Lieutenant Commander Zenji Orita , who took command of I @-@ 177 after Nakagawa . Orita did not hear anything from the crew about having sunk a hospital ship , not even rumours , and believed that if I @-@ 177 had knowingly attacked Centaur , he would have learned this from the crew 's gossip .
When compared to the other contemporary Australian hospital ships , Centaur was the smallest , approximately a third of the size of Manunda or Wanganella . Centaur was also slightly shorter than I @-@ 177 . The observation of Centaur was made through a periscope , and submarine officers attest that at 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) , the optimum range of attack for World War II – era Japanese submarines , some officers would not be able to clearly identify a target ship 's profile or hull markings . With Centaur 's bow floodlights out , and with the observation of the target made through the periscope , there is a possibility Nakagawa would not have seen the hospital ship 's markings if he had been in the wrong position . Apart from the two bow floodlights , Centaur was lit up brilliantly . To attack , I @-@ 177 would have had to approach from abeam of Centaur , which was illuminated by both its own lights and a full moon .
= = = Theory : Nakagawa knowingly attacked a protected vessel = = =
This theory states that Nakagawa was fully aware that his target was a hospital ship and decided to sink her regardless , either on his own initiative or on a poor interpretation of his orders . Researchers speculate that as Nakagawa was approaching the end of his tour in Australian waters , and had only sunk a single enemy vessel , the 8 @,@ 742 ton freighter Limerick , he did not want to return with the disgrace of a single kill . Other claims include that Nakagawa may have been acting in vengeance for casualties inflicted by the Allies during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , or may have expected praise for the sinking of an enemy naval vessel .
In February 1944 , while in command of I @-@ 37 , Nakagawa ordered the machine @-@ gunning of survivors from three British merchant vessels torpedoed by his submarine ( British Chivalry , on 22 February ; Sutlej , on 24 February ; and Ascott , on 29 February ) . His defence , that he was acting under orders from Vice Admiral Shiro Takasu , was not accepted , and he was sentenced to four years imprisonment at Sugamo Prison as a Class B war criminal . These incidents showed that Nakagawa was willing to ignore the laws of war .
= = Shipwreck = =
Following World War II , several searches of the waters around North Stradbroke and Moreton Islands failed to reveal Centaur 's location . It was believed that she had sunk off the edge of the continental shelf , to a depth at which the Royal Australian Navy did not have the capability to search for a vessel of Centaur 's size . Some parties also believed that Rippon 's calculated point of sinking was inaccurate , either intentionally or through error .
Several points were incorrectly identified as the location where Centaur sank . The first was in the War Diary Situation Report entry for the hospital ship 's sinking , which gives 27 ° 17 ′ S 154 ° 05 ′ E , 7 nautical miles ( 13 km ; 8 @.@ 1 mi ) east of Rippon 's position . According to Milligan and Foley , this likely occurred because an estimated 50 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) distance from Brisbane , included as a frame of reference , was interpreted literally . In 1974 , two divers claimed to have found the ship approximately 40 nautical miles ( 74 km ; 46 mi ) east of Brisbane , in 60 metres ( 200 ft ) of water , but did not disclose its exact location . Attempts to relocate the site between 1974 and 1992 were unsuccessful , with an associate of the divers claiming that the Navy destroyed the wreck shortly after its discovery .
= = = Dennis 's claim = = =
In 1995 , it was announced that the shipwreck of Centaur had been located in waters 9 nautical miles ( 17 km ; 10 mi ) from the lighthouse on Moreton Island , a significant distance from her believed last position . The finding was reported on A Current Affair , during which footage of the shipwreck , 170 metres ( 560 ft ) underwater , was shown . Discoverer Donald Dennis claimed the identity of the shipwreck had been confirmed by the Navy , the Queensland Maritime Museum , and the Australian War Memorial . A cursory search by the Navy confirmed the presence of a shipwreck at the given location , which was gazetted as a war grave and added to navigation charts by the Australian Hydrographic Office .
Over the next eight years , there was growing doubt about the position of Dennis ' wreck , due to the distance from both Second Officer Rippon 's calculation of the point of sinking and where USS Mugford found the survivors . During this time , Dennis had been convicted on two counts of deception and one of theft through scams . Two wreck divers , Trevor Jackson and Simon Mitchell , used the location for a four @-@ hour world record dive on 14 May 2002 , during which they examined the wreck and took measurements , claiming that the ship was too small to be Centaur . Jackson had been studying Centaur for some time , and believed that the wreck was actually another , much smaller ship , the 55 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 180 ft ) MV Kyogle , a lime freighter purchased by the Royal Australian Air Force and sunk during bombing practice on 12 May 1951 . The facts gathered on the dive were inconclusive , but the divers remained adamant it was not Centaur , and passed this information onto Nick Greenaway , producer of the newsmagazine show 60 Minutes .
On the 60th anniversary of the sinking , 60 Minutes ran a story demonstrating that the wreck was not Centaur . It was revealed that nobody at the Queensland Maritime Museum had yet seen Dennis ' footage , and when it was shown to Museum president Rod McLeod and maritime historian John Foley , they stated that the shipwreck could not be Centaur due to physical inconsistencies , such as an incorrect rudder . Following this story , and others published around the same time in newspapers , the Navy sent three ships to inspect the site over a two @-@ month period ; HMA Ships Hawkesbury , Melville , and Yarra , before concluding that the shipwreck was incorrectly identified as Centaur . An amendment was made to the gazettal , and the Hydrographic Office began to remove the mark from charts .
= = = Discovery = = =
In April 2008 , following the successful discovery of HMAS Sydney , several parties began calling for a dedicated search for Centaur . By the end of 2008 , the Australian Federal and Queensland State governments had formed a joint committee and contributed A $ 2 million each towards a search , and tenders to supply equipment ( including the search vessel , side @-@ scan sonar systems , and a remotely operated inspection submersible ) were opened in February 2009 , and awarded during the year . The search , conducted from the Defence Maritime Services vessel Seahorse Spirit and overseen by shipwreck hunter David Mearns , commenced during the weekend of 12 – 13 December 2009 . The initial search area off Cape Moreton covered 1 @,@ 365 square kilometres ( 527 sq mi ) , with the search team given 35 days to locate and film the wreck before funding was exhausted .
Six sonar targets with similar dimensions to Centaur were located between 15 and 18 December : as none of the contacts corresponded completely to the hospital ship , the search team opted to take advantage of favourable weather conditions and continue investigating the area before returning to each site and making a detailed inspection with a higher @-@ resolution sonar . On the afternoon of 18 December , the sonar towfish separated from the cable , and was lost in 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) of water , forcing the use of the high @-@ resolution sonar to complete the area search . After inspecting the potential targets , Mearns and the search team announced on 20 December that they had found Centaur that morning .
The wreck was found at 27 ° 16 @.@ 98 ′ S 153 ° 59 @.@ 22 ′ E ( 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) east of Moreton Island , and less than 1 nautical mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ; 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from Rippon 's coordinates ) , resting 2 @,@ 059 metres ( 6 @,@ 755 ft ) below sea level in a steep @-@ walled gully , 150 metres ( 490 ft ) wide and 90 metres ( 300 ft ) deep . After returning to shore for Christmas and to install a remotely operated vehicle ( ROV ) aboard Seahorse Spirit , the search team commenced efforts to document the wreck , with the first photographs taken by the ROV in the early morning of 10 January 2010 confirming that the wreck is Centaur . Conditions for documenting the hospital ship were not optimal on the first ROV dive , and three more dives were made during 11 and 12 January . During the four dives , over 24 hours of footage were collected , along with numerous photographs : features identified during the operation include the Red Cross identification number , the hospital ship markings , and the ship 's bell . The Centaur wreck site has been marked as a war grave and protected with a navigational exclusion zone under the Historic Shipwrecks Act 1976 .
= = Memorials = =
In 1948 , Queensland nurses established the " Centaur Memorial Fund for Nurses " which used the money raised to purchase an establishment and name it " Centaur House " ; a facility supporting nurses by holding convivial meetings and providing inexpensive accommodation for out @-@ of @-@ town nurses . The original Centaur House was sold in 1971 , with a new building purchased and renamed . The second Centaur House was sold in 1979 and although the fund still exists , it no longer owns a physical facility . On 15 September 1968 , a cairn was unveiled at Caloundra , Queensland , erected by the local Rotary International Club . In 1990 , a stained glass memorial window depicting Centaur , along with a plaque listing the names of those lost in the attack , was installed at Concord Repatriation General Hospital , at a cost of A $ 16 @,@ 000 . A display about Centaur was placed at the Australian War Memorial . The centrepiece of the display was a scale model of Centaur presented to the Memorial by Blue Funnel Line , and the display included items that were donated by the survivors , such as a lifejacket , a signal flare , and a medical kit . It was removed in 1992 to make way for a display related to the Vietnam War .
A memorial to Centaur was unveiled at Point Danger , Coolangatta , Queensland on 14 May 1993 , the 50th anniversary of the sinking . It consists of a monumental stone topped with a cairn , surrounded by a tiled moat with memorial plaques explaining the commemoration . The memorial is surrounded by a park with a boardwalk , overlooking the sea , with plaques for other Merchant Navy and Royal Australian Navy vessels lost during World War II . The unveiling of the memorial was performed by Minister for Veterans ' Affairs , Senator John Faulkner .
A memorial plaque was laid on the foredeck of Centaur on 12 January 2010 , during the fourth and final ROV dive on the hospital ship . This would normally be a breach of the Historic Shipwrecks Act , but a special dispensation permitted the manoeuvre , as placing the plaque on the seabed next to the ship would have seen it sink into the sediment . Following the ship 's discovery , a national memorial service at St John 's Cathedral , Brisbane on 2 March 2010 was attended by over 600 people , including Prime Minister Kevin Rudd . A second ceremony for 300 relatives of the hospital ship 's personnel was held aboard HMAS Manoora on 24 September . During the service , which occurred over the wreck site , wreaths were laid and the ashes of three survivors were scattered .
= Roy Welensky =
Sir Roland " Roy " Welensky , KCMG ( né Raphael Welensky ; 20 January 1907 – 5 December 1991 ) was a Northern Rhodesian politician and the second and last prime minister of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland .
Born in Salisbury , Southern Rhodesia ( now Harare , Zimbabwe ) to an Afrikaner mother and a Lithuanian Jewish father , he moved to Northern Rhodesia , became involved with the trade unions , and entered the colonial legislative council in 1938 . There , he campaigned for the amalgamation of Northern and Southern Rhodesia ( the latter under white self @-@ government , the former under the colonial office ) . Although unsuccessful , he succeeded in the formation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland , a state within the British Empire that sought to retain predominant power for the white minority while moving in a progressive political direction , in contrast to apartheid South Africa .
Becoming Prime Minister of the Federation in 1957 , Welensky opposed British moves towards black majority rule , and used force to suppress politically motivated violence in the territories . After the advent of black rule in two of the Federation 's three territories ( Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland , now Zambia and Malawi respectively ) , it collapsed in 1963 . Welensky retired to Salisbury , where he re @-@ entered politics and attempted to stop Rhodesia ( formerly Southern Rhodesia ) from unilaterally declaring itself independent . With the end of white rule in 1979 , and the independence of Rhodesia as Zimbabwe under Robert Mugabe in 1980 , Welensky moved to England , where he died in 1991 . A fervent admirer of Britain and the Empire , Welensky described himself as " half Jewish , half Afrikaner [ and ] 100 % British " .
= = Youth = =
Welensky was born in Pioneer Street , Salisbury , Southern Rhodesia . His father , Michael Welensky ( b. c . 1843 ) , was of Lithuanian Jewish origin , hailing from a village near Wilno ( today Vilnius ) ; a trader in Russia and horse @-@ smuggler during the Franco @-@ Prussian War , he settled in Southern Rhodesia after first emigrating to the United States , where he was a saloon @-@ keeper , and then South Africa . His mother , Leah ( born Aletta Ferreira ; c . 1865 – 1918 ) , was a ninth @-@ generation Afrikaner of Dutch ancestry . His parents , for whom Raphael or " Roy " was the 13th child , kept a " poor white " boarding house . Welensky 's mother died when he was 11 , being treated by Godfrey Huggins , a doctor who was later to become the Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia . Although not of British ancestry , Welensky was intensely pro @-@ British , a distinctive sentiment among Rhodesians . John Connell , in his foreword to Welensky 's book 4000 Days , wrote : " Welensky , who had not a drop of British blood in his veins , shared this pride and loyalty [ towards Britain ] to the full . "
After leaving school at the age of 14 , Welensky found employment with Rhodesia Railways as a fireman , while putting his physical strength to work as a boxer . He rose through the ranks of Rhodesia Railways to become a locomotive enginedriver and became involved in the trade union movement , joining the Rhodesian Railway Workers ' Union . After participating in the unsuccessful 1929 Rhodesian Railways strike Welensky was moved by management to Broken Hill , the main base of the railways in Northern Rhodesia . In 1933 he became Chairman of the Broken Hill branch of the union , and was appointed to the National Council .
While working on the railways , he became the professional heavyweight boxing champion of Southern Rhodesia at 19 and held the position until he was 21 . During this time , Welensky met his first wife , Elizabeth Henderson , who was working at a cafe in Bulawayo , Southern Rhodesia at the time . They married after a two @-@ year courtship .
= = Colonial politics = =
Welensky was elected to the Northern Rhodesian Legislative Council in the 1938 general elections . The Governor prevented Welensky from enlisting in the armed forces in World War II and appointed him Director of Manpower . In 1941 he formed his own party , the Northern Rhodesian Labour Party , with the aim of amalgamating the colony with Southern Rhodesia under a new constitution . The party won all five seats it contested in the 1941 elections . After the leader of the unofficial members in the Legislative Council , Stewart Gore @-@ Browne , resigned in 1945 and stated that black Africans had lost confidence in the whites ( due to the wish for amalgamation ) , Welensky was elected leader .
= = Amalgamation and federation = =
From the beginning , Welensky was involved in the creation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland . He had earlier wanted an amalgamation of Northern and Southern Rhodesia with a constitution similar to that of Southern Rhodesia ( that had granted responsible government to the white Rhodesians ) . After the British Government rejected this idea , he set about the creation of a federation , and against his judgement , the small colony of Nyasaland was included . His main wish for amalgamation , and later federation , was primarily so the complementary economic strengths of the Rhodesias could be put to best use . He felt that the colonies were missing out on the post @-@ war economic boom .
To this end , Welensky organised a conference in February 1949 to investigate the idea of a federation . Held at the Victoria Falls Hotel ( a common venue for Rhodesian political conferences ) , representatives from the Northern and Southern Rhodesian Governments were present , but native Africans and the British Government were not . It was agreed that continued pushes for amalgamation would fail , with both the British and native Africans opposed . Welensky suggested that the Constitution of Australia be used as a basis for the proposed federal constitution , and pushed the idea of ' partnership ' between blacks and whites . However , he insisted that " for as long as I can see , in that partnership [ the whites ] will be senior partners " .
Apart from organising the federation , Welensky won a significant political battle in Northern Rhodesia against the British South Africa Company ( BSAC ) , which controlled mineral rights and the associated royalties throughout the territory . The company , and not the British crown , had signed the treaties with African kings that surrendered mining rights , but the BSAC had stopped administering Northern Rhodesia in 1924 . Welensky argued that the territory had a right to the royalties , and petitioned the governor to take action . After many talks , the BSAC relented and agreed to surrender mineral rights in 1986 , and to pay 20 % of its profits from these rights to the government until then .
In March 1952 , the colonial and the British governments met in London to discuss federation . There , the idea for a federation was finalised and settled , although the colonial governments had , again , insisted on amalgamation . They were rebuffed by the left @-@ leaning public servant ( later Sir ) Andrew Cohen , who , after much deliberation , brought the parties to an agreement . It was acknowledged by those at the meeting that all too often the racial policies of the Rhodesias were confused with the emerging apartheid of South Africa , and Welensky himself claimed to refute these ideas when being interviewed by a South African newspaper . He was paternalistic towards native Africans , but believed in the dictum of " equal rights for all civilised men " and gradual advancement .
Behind the scenes , Welensky and the Rhodesians had been courting the Conservatives , while the native Africans had been doing the same with Labour . A British general election was held in 1951 and the Conservatives gained power . Labour , mindful of the overwhelming opposition of Africans from both Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland and of the Colonial Office mandate to oversee native interests , had been lukewarm at best to the idea of federation , and had been wholly opposed to amalgamation . After the election , the bipartisan approach to federation broke down and the British laws for its creation passed only with the support of the Conservatives , with both Liberal and Labour Parties now opposed .
= = Federation established = =
Welensky stood for the federal legislature in 1953 for the United Federal Party ( UFP ) , created by himself and Southern Rhodesian Prime Minister Sir Godfrey Huggins . The party was successful in its first election , with twice the votes of the opposition Confederate Party . Welensky himself gained more than 80 % of the vote in the federal constituency of Broken Hill and was immediately promoted to Minister for Transport .
The first few years of the federation were characterised by a relatively peaceful political atmosphere and a booming economy . The government 's coffers were kept full through revenue from Northern Rhodesia 's copper mines , and overseas investment saw the rapid expansion of the cities of Salisbury , Bulawayo and Lusaka . High @-@ standard tar roads replaced dirt tracks and the railway system was expanded . Welensky credited the high rate of development to the astute management of the federal Minister of Finance , Donald Macintyre .
The Southern Rhodesian Government , under the leadership of Garfield Todd , began removing restrictions imposed on native Africans . The civil service opened more positions to blacks , the title for male Africans was changed from ' AM ' ( African male ) to Mr. , and diners and restaurants were allowed to be multiracial ; Welensky , as Transport Minister , allowed for railway dining cars to be multiracial . However , when it came to liberalising alcohol restrictions on blacks , Welensky argued against doing so , stating that such an action would cause the UFP to lose the next election . After repeated failed attempts to secure Dominion status for the federation , Prime Minister Huggins opted not to stand again for his party 's leadership at their September 1956 conference . In October he resigned and Welensky , the second most senior figure in the federal arena , was chosen to replace him . Welensky took office on 1 November .
= = Prime minister = =
On taking office , Welensky was forced to take sides in the Suez Crisis . The government of the United Kingdom received heavy international criticism for its actions , but Welensky 's government , with those of Australia and New Zealand , nonetheless stood behind Britain . It was Welensky 's first experience in international politics . In the aftermath of the Suez debacle British colonial policy changed significantly , which would have adverse effects for the federation . It marked the decline of a gradual approach to decolonisation , and a rapid speeding up of the process . Politically , only three years after its founding , the federation began to decline .
International attitudes to the federation were critical , particularly from the Afro @-@ Asian bloc in the United Nations . At a time when most colonial powers were rushing their colonies towards independence , the federation seemed to its opponents to be an unwelcome obstacle . In Britain , Labour grew more critical , and African nationalists in the federation itself became more vocal , dissatisfied with the liberalisation that was taking place , and demanding faster moves towards African advancement . The Governor of Northern Rhodesia , Sir Arthur Benson , wrote a secret letter to his superiors in Britain , highly critical of Welensky and the federation ; this letter remained undiscovered until 1958 , when Huggins revealed it to Welensky .
= = = Nyasaland unrest = = =
The Colonial Secretary Alan Lennox @-@ Boyd visited the federation in January 1957 , while Welensky prepared to outline the difficulties regarding African advancement . Seeking to bring Africans into the established political processes , and hoping they would shun the recently formed African National Congress ( ANC ) parties , Welensky hit out at what he saw as the poor Colonial Office practice of making the situation " [ consist ] of two opposed policies , black rule and white rule . They naturally prefer to aim for black rule and hope they will experience this , which they regard as the apotheosis of Colonial Office policy " .
The Nyasaland African Congress ( NAC ) was particularly vocal about increased African representation in the Nyasaland Legislative Council , demanding in September 1957 an African majority in the council . Nyasaland 's inclusion in the federation was never a goal of its proponents , it was there primarily because it was not economically viable by itself . Welensky did not understand or appreciate the party 's goal of increased African representation or secession when it relied on the federation for its well being .
Hastings Banda , the leader of the Nyasaland nationalist cause , returned to the territory in 1958 and began organising opposition to the federation . Having lived outside the territory for more than 25 years and having great difficulty remembering his native African language , he required the assistance of interpreters to communicate with the population , whom he stirred into a frenzy with his speeches . After the Governor and the federal government refused to give Africans a majority in the Legislative Council , he embarked on a speaking tour of the territory . In January 1959 , he stated in a speech that he " put Salisbury [ the capital ] on fire ... I got Salisbury rocking , rocking , and got it awake out of its political sleep ... " , after which his followers stoned passing cars and police officers .
The federal government met with the territorial governments to plan for a response should the violence get out of hand . Welensky did not rule out deploying federal troops if the situation deteriorated . Speaking to the defence chiefs in Salisbury , he said that " during the next three months we can expect some fairly serious trouble in Nyasaland ... It is my concern to ensure that this government is in a position to exercise its responsibilities if trouble comes " .
A NAC meeting was held outside Blantyre on 25 January . It was alleged that the meeting discussed in detail a plan for the overthrow of the territorial government and the massacre of the territory 's whites and any blacks who collaborated with them . ( although a subsequent Royal Commission found there was insufficient evidence to make such a claim ) . Welensky obtained the meeting 's proceedings in early February and decided to act , calling a meeting of the federal and territorial governments . Federal troops were deployed to Nyasaland on 21 February , the Governor proclaimed a state of emergency on 3 March and the nationalist leaders were arrested and flown to jails in Southern Rhodesia . In the subsequent fortnight , riots broke out and troops used force to end the violence . Almost 50 people died in the unrest .
The main militant African nationalist parties in each territory were banned by the federal and territorial governments , but all reorganised under new names only months later . The Southern Rhodesian ANC became the National Democratic Party ( later ZAPU ) , the Northern Rhodesian ANC became the Zambian African National Congress , and the Nyasaland ANC became the Malawi Congress Party . The media 's use of the term ' police state ' to describe the response to the violence outraged the Liberals , the Church of Scotland , and leftist Conservatives , and particularly the Labour Party , in Britain . John Stonehouse , a Labour MP , had been deported prior to the declaration of the state of emergency , adding to the tension . A Royal Commission was announced to investigate the violence . Welensky was indignant when asked to contribute to the Royal Commission , and the Labour Party boycotted it .
= = = Commissions and Macmillan = = =
In addition to the Royal Commission that investigated the Nyasaland violence ( now known as the Devlin Report ) , the British Government organised a second one , known as the Monckton Report , to advise on the future of the federation . Released in October 1960 , the report advocated sweeping changes to be made to the federal structure , including African majorities in the Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesian legislatures . Welensky was outraged when the report was published , calling it the " death knell of federation " and rejecting it out of hand . African nationalist opinion was just as opposed , but on different grounds . All nationalists wanted an end to federation , and independence for the territories as black @-@ majority @-@ ruled states . Welensky was opposed to any talk of secession , and the Monckton Report suggested it in writing when it stated that the territories should have the option after five years under a new federal constitution .
Early 1960 saw British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan journey to the federation for the first and last time . There he held talks in person with Welensky and the territorial governments , and took the opportunity to gauge African opinion towards the federation . He also wished to talk to the jailed African leaders , but was met with a rebuff from Welensky . Hastings Banda discussed the probability of his release from prison with the British Government through Labour MP Dingle Foot . Welensky had Banda 's cell wired for sound and was frustrated with what he saw as the British government 's " betrayal , duplicity , appeasement , cowardice and loss of nerve " when dealing with the African nationalists and the federation . Macmillan travelled on to South Africa , where he made his ' Wind of Change ' speech to the South African Parliament , raising the attention of South African Prime Minister , Dr Hendrik Verwoerd . Welensky was informed that Banda would be released so he could join in discussions with the British Government over the future of the federation . Losing patience with the British , Welensky took a harder line against them : " I 've tried all along to behave in a reasonable and responsible manner . Now I 'm seriously wondering whether restraint has been the right policy . "
= = = New constitutions = = =
After Banda was released from prison against the wishes of Welensky , he travelled to the United Kingdom , where he took part in the Nyasaland constitutional talks . The outcome was a constitution which , through a voting system that was as complex as that of the federation itself , amounted to black majority rule for the territory . Bitter and angry at what he saw as British ignorance to the situation , Welensky did not comprehend how the British were willing to deal with Banda . In Welensky 's words , since his release from prison , " [ Banda ] was careful to appeal for calm and to condemn violence " , but Welensky was averse to Banda 's demands for black majority rule and believed that granting it to the territory would mean the end of the federation .
In Northern and Southern Rhodesia new constitutions were also enacted . The Southern Rhodesian constitution was very cautious and prolonged white rule . It had 50 A @-@ roll seats with high voting qualifications ( essentially for whites ) , and 15 B @-@ roll seats with lower qualifications ( for blacks ) . A system of ' cross voting ' meant that results in A @-@ roll seats would be affected by the B @-@ roll vote , and vice versa . All constitutions were signed by the UFP and the African nationalist party in each territory . However , there were immediate repercussions ; Ian Smith , chief whip for the UFP in the federal assembly , resigned in protest at the new Southern Rhodesian constitution , calling it " racialist " , while the nationalist National Democratic Party withdrew support for the constitution having earlier signed it .
Eventually , Welensky was comfortable with an African majority in Nyasaland and for the province to secede , seeking to preserve only a union of the two Rhodesias . But , as a Northern Rhodesian , he did not accept black majority rule for the territory and a battle was had with the British Government over its new constitution throughout 1961 – 62 . Discussing Northern Rhodesia under African rule with Smith : " I am not prepared to hand power to the blacks . Personally I could not live in a country where they were in control . "
Welensky considered a federal unilateral declaration of independence when the new Northern Rhodesian constitution appeared likely to grant an African majority in its parliament . Determined at one point to prevent changes , Welensky was convinced that if he refused , the British would use military force to remove his government . Believing that preparations were being made for an invasion from Kenya , he discussed the federation 's ability to repel an attack with his defence chiefs and plans were set in motion . In the end , the idea of a British invasion was one of many options considered , and did not make it past cabinet discussion .
= = = Congo , Katanga and Tshombe = = =
After Congo @-@ Léopoldville gained independence in 1960 , it collapsed into a state of anarchy within a fortnight . The large Belgian population of the Congo fled from the violence into neighbouring states , including the federation . Welensky dispatched the Royal Rhodesian Air Force ( RRAF ) to assist in their evacuation , but was prevented by the British government from entering the Congo itself . Refugees fled by foot to Ndola in Northern Rhodesia , where RRAF planes picked them up and flew them to camps in Salisbury . More than 6 @,@ 000 people were evacuated by the RRAF .
The president of Congo 's Katanga Province , Moise Tshombe , requested British and Rhodesian forces to enter the country to restore order . Welensky was sympathetic to the situation but unable to act ; the British government , which had ultimate jurisdiction over the federation , disallowed him from mobilising the armed forces . Tshombe declared Katanga unilaterally independent on 11 July , one day after requesting British and Rhodesian assistance . Welensky pleaded with Macmillan to deploy the Rhodesian forces but Macmillan rebuffed him , telling Welensky their hopes were pinned on the United Nations being able to restore order , and hoping for a wholly neutral or anti @-@ communist Congo . United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld , hoping to negotiate a solution to Katanga 's secession , agreed to meet Tshombe at Ndola . However , Hammarskjöld 's plane crashed close to Ndola , and he was killed . Welensky was subsequently blamed for the accident throughout the communist and Afro @-@ Asian world , becoming a hated figure and a lingering symbol of colonialism . Welensky 's attitude towards Katanga and the Congo would strain relations between the federation and the British until its dissolution .
= = = Territorial and federal elections
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first seven games to help Scunthorpe 's promotion push . After this teammate Izzy Iriekpen paid tribute to Hooper saying that " As soon as he started training you could see there was something special there . " On 28 October , league leaders , Scunthorpe suffered their first defeat in 12 games as they lost 3 – 0 to Oldham Athletic . Hooper came off with an injury in this match and it was feared he had broken his foot and may have been out for up to six months . However , scans later revealed that his foot was just badly bruised . He was labelled in the media as the latest from Scunthorpe 's " production line for talented young forwards . " He scored both goals in a win over promotion rivals Millwall on 31 January 2009 . Scunthorpe reached the final of the Football League Trophy and faced League Two Luton Town . Hooper scored the opener but Luton pulled it back to win the match 3 – 2 in extra @-@ time . At the end of the season Hooper won Scunthorpe 's Player of the Year award . He said he was delighted with the team 's performance during the season , in which he scored 24 league goals to help Scunthorpe gain promotion . He then set himself a target of 15 Championship goals for the next season . He scored 30 goals in all competitions throughout the 2008 – 09 season , just three goals short of Billy Sharp 's record 33 goals in a season for Scunthorpe .
At the start of the 2009 – 10 season , Queens Park Rangers had a £ 1 million rejected for Hooper . Coventry City were also rumoured to be interested in the striker . On 15 August , Hooper scored twice in a 3 – 2 win over Derby County . Scunthorpe manager Nigel Adkins said that he thought Hooper was a " massive threat " to the opposition and that he was worried that other teams would try to sign him before the end of the transfer window . On 22 February , captain Cliff Byrne , described Hooper as the kind of striker who could " create something out of nothing " . He also stated that he hoped Hooper would stay at the club but if he did leave it would be for a lot of money . This was just after Hooper had scored in a 2 – 2 draw with Watford , taking his seasonal tally to 13 . He scored a hat @-@ trick against Bristol City on his return from a groin injury on 17 April 2010 , and added a further two goals at Doncaster Rovers a week later . He scored 20 goals in 39 appearances in all competitions in the 2009 – 10 season , including 19 in 35 in the league , where he finished as third @-@ top goal scorer behind Peter Whittingham and Nicky Maynard who both scored 20 .
In 2012 , Scunthorpe United fans voted Hooper as the club 's best ever player .
= = = Celtic = = =
On 26 July 2010 , Scottish Premier League club Celtic signed Hooper for £ 2 @.@ 4 million . The move provided him with great experience , despite his young age of 22 when joining and kept him grounded . On 4 August 2010 , Hooper scored on his debut for the club , against Portuguese Primeira Liga club Braga in the Champions League third qualifying round . Hooper tore his calf muscle in a friendly against Blackburn Rovers just four days later on 8 August , keeping him out of action for almost six weeks .
On 22 September 2010 , Hooper made his return from injury in the League Cup , scoring in a 6 – 0 victory over Inverness Caledonian Thistle . On 25 September 2010 , Hooper made his Scottish Premier League debut in a 2 – 1 victory over Hibernian at Celtic Park . Hooper scored his Scottish Premier League goal on 2 October , in a 3 – 1 win over Hamilton Academical. and then scored a double against Dundee United at Tannadice on 17 October . One week later , he scored the opening goal in a 3 – 1 defeat to Rangers at Celtic Park . On 6 November , Hooper and strike partner Anthony Stokes each scored hat @-@ tricks in a league record 9 – 0 win over Aberdeen . The following week , he scored the winner against St Mirren .
After recovering from an injury that kept him out of action during the Christmas period , Hooper returned to the team against Hibernian on 15 January 2011 and scored the opening goal in a 3 – 0 win . On 1 February , Hooper scored the first goal in a 3 – 0 win against Aberdeen . He netted twice in Celtic 's 3 – 0 victory over Rangers on 20 February . He grabbed another brace on 6 April 2011 , in a 3 – 1 victory over Hibernian . Two weeks later , Hooper had a man of the match performance against Kilmarnock , scoring a goal and setting up another three in a 4 – 0 SPL victory . On 1 May 2011 , Hooper scored in a 4 – 1 victory over Dundee United . He then scored a brace against Hearts , and the opener in a 4 – 0 win over Motherwell , in the final Scottish Premier League match of the season . Hooper was nominated for the PFA Player of the Year award , but lost out to teammate Emilio Izaguirre and was also picked in the PFA Scotland Team of the Year . Hooper won his first medal for Celtic in the Scottish Cup after a 3 – 0 win over Motherwell in the final on 21 May 2011 . During the 2010 – 11 season , Hooper had the best strike rate of any player in Britain , scoring 20 goals in 26 games with a strike rate of 0 @.@ 77 goals per game . This was also the fourth best strike rate in Europe , behind Cristiano Ronaldo , Lionel Messi and Antonio Di Natale .
On 24 July 2011 , Hooper had a penalty saved by Graham Stack in Celtic 's first match of the 2011 – 12 season , a 2 – 0 win over Hibs . On 13 August , he scored his first goal of the season in a 5 – 1 win over Dundee United . He also picked up an ankle injury which ruled him out for the next two matches . On 25 August he made his return in Celtic 's 3 – 1 loss to FC Sion . Three days later , he scored both goals in a 2 – 0 win over St Mirren . English Premier League clubs Queens Park Rangers and Wolverhampton Wanderers expressed interest in signing Hooper on transfer deadline day of summer 2011 , however Celtic rejected their enquiries about his availability . Hooper 's regular strike partner Anthony Stokes said " He 's a top , top player . I have no doubt one day he could play at the very top level but we want to keep him here as long as possible . "
Hooper scored in Celtic 's 4 – 2 loss to rivals Rangers on 18 September 2011 . This was his fourth goal in seven Old Firm matches . He then started Celtic 's first Scottish League Cup game of the season against Ross County , scoring one goal in a 2 – 0 win for Celtic . On 29 September he played in Celtic 's 1 – 1 draw with Italian side Udinese . After three minutes he won a penalty which Ki Sung @-@ Yueng scored . He then gave away a penalty , which was converted , after 83 minutes when he fouled Neuton . A month later , he scored in Celtic 's 4 – 1 , League Cup quarter @-@ final , victory over Hibernian . On 3 November , Hooper scored his first European goal of the season , netting the final goal of Celtic 's 3 – 1 Europa League group stage win against Rennes , after coming on as a 78th @-@ minute substitute for James Forrest . Three days later , he again came on as a substitute and scored the winner in a 2 – 1 win over Motherwell . On 26 November , he scored a hat @-@ trick in a 5 – 0 win over St Mirren . After scoring five goals in November , he won the SPL Player of the Month award . On 15 December , Hooper scored in Celtic 's final Europa League group game , a 1 – 1 draw against Udinese which meant Celtic finished third in the group and didn 't qualify for the knock @-@ out stages . During the January transfer window English Championship league leaders Southampton made several bids for Hooper . However , they were rejected by Celtic and Hooper reiterated his desire to stay with the club . On 14 January , Hooper scored in a 2 – 1 win over Dundee United . He then scored in Celtic 's 4 – 0 win against Hearts on 8 February . On 29 April 2012 , Hooper scored the final goal as Celtic beat Rangers 3 – 0 at Celtic Park . This was his fifth goal in 10 appearances against Rangers . On 13 May , Hooper scored all five goals for Celtic as they beat Hearts 5 – 0 in the final SPL match of the season , securing his position as the top scorer in the Scottish Premier League with 24 goals and winning the Golden Boot .
After Southampton had won promotion to the Premier League there was speculation linking them with a £ 7m for Hooper at the start of the 2012 – 13 season . However , Hooper stated that he was happy at Celtic and was looking forward to playing Champions League football . On 1 August 2012 , Hooper started the season in scoring form , in Celtic 's 2 – 1 victory against HJK Helsinki in the first leg of the Champions League Third Qualifying Round . On 25 September 2012 , Hooper scored all 4 goals in Celtic 's Scottish League Cup tie against Raith Rovers at Celtic Park , the match finished 4 – 1 . On 29 September 2012 , Hooper scored the first goal in a 2 – 0 victory over Motherwell at Fir Park , this resulted in Celtic going to first spot in the Scottish Premier League . Hooper scored his seventh goal in four matches , against Spartak Moscow in the UEFA Champions League ; Celtic won the match 3 – 2 at Spartak Stadium ( Moscow ) , recording their first ever away victory in the UEFA Champions League proper . During January 2013 , Hooper scored braces against Hearts and Dundee United in high scoring wins at home for Celtic , and also scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 away win at Motherwell . That run of goalscoring saw him win the SPL Player of the Month Award . Celtic clinched their second successive Scottish Premier League title on 21 April 2013 with a 4 – 1 win over Inverness Caledonian Thistle at Parkhead . Hooper scored twice in the game . On 26 May 2013 , Hooper scored twice for Celtic in their 3 – 0 win over Hibernian in the Scottish Cup Final .
On 12 June 2013 , English Premier League club Hull City made an undisclosed bid , believed to be about £ 4.5m , for Hooper which Celtic rejected . As transfer speculation increased over the summer , Hooper played what proved to be his final game for Celtic on 23 July when he came on a second @-@ half substitute in a Champions League qualifier against Cliftonville . He replaced Anthony Stokes on 65 minutes and almost scored nine minutes later with an overhead kick that hit the post .
= = = Norwich City = = =
On 26 July 2013 , Hooper signed a three @-@ year contract with English Premier League club Norwich City for an undisclosed fee believed to be £ 5m with Norwich having the option of a further year to Hooper 's contract . Hooper made his competitive début for Norwich on 21 September 2013 in a Premier League 1 – 0 home loss to Aston Villa as a 63rd @-@ minute substitute . In his first start for the club , Hooper scored a brace to secure a 3 – 2 victory over Watford in the third round of the League Cup on 24 September .
On 9 November 2013 , Hooper scored his first Premier League goal from the penalty spot against West Ham United at Carrow Road to level the scores at 1 – 1 . Norwich City won the game 3 – 1 , with Hooper being voted as Man of the Match . Due to this goal , he became the first player to score in the top 4 divisions of the English league , the top division of the Scottish League and two cup competitions in each country , as well as the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League . Hooper scored his second Premier League goal and fourth goal in all competitions in just his seventh start for Norwich City , on 30 November 2013 against Crystal Palace , which Norwich City won 1 – 0 for a vital 3 points . On 7 December , Hooper scored his fifth Norwich City goal and third Premier League goal against West Bromwich Albion at The Hawthorns , a first time angled shot across goalkeeper Boaz Myhill into the corner after a through ball from Leroy Fer , the match ended in a 0 – 2 Norwich City victory . On 15 December , Hooper scored in consecutive Premier League matches , the one @-@ time Scunthorpe United frontman took one touch on his chest after a Johan Elmander lay off , before hitting a superb volley 30 yards out over Michel Vorm and into the roof of the net , levelling the score at 1 – 1 . Hooper would score again on the Boxing Day fixture against Fulham as his shot deflected off of Aaron Hughes and past goalkeeper David Stockdale , thus making Hooper the first ever Norwich City player to score in four successive Premier League matches at Carrow Road .
Hooper finished his first season at Norwich as the club 's top scorer with eight goals , but was unable to prevent his side 's relegation from the Premier League down into the Championship . A calf injury then saw Hooper miss the first couple of months of the following season . After returning to the side in October , he finally scored his first goal of the season on 22 November 2014 in a 3 – 3 draw at home against Brighton . The goals then began to flow for Hooper ; the striker scoring twice in a 6 – 1 win over Millwall on Boxing Day where he was described as " outstanding " by manager Neil Adams , then after being dropped from the side he returned to score a hat trick on 7 February 2015 in a 4 – 0 win over Blackpool , taking his total for the season to date up to nine goals . Hooper eventually scored 12 goals in the league , and helped Norwich to third place in the league . Hooper only appeared briefly as a substitute during the promotion play @-@ off ties against Ipswich Town and was an unused substitute in the play @-@ off final at Wembley against Middlesbrough . Norwich , however , won the final 2 – 0 to regain their place in the Premier League .
With Norwich back in the Premier League , Hooper was struggling to hold down a place in the team . By September 2015 he had only played ten minutes in the opening league match against Crystal Palace , and an 89th @-@ minute substitute appearance against Southampton . A loan move to Sheffield Wednesday fell through despite the Yorkshire club agreeing to pay Norwich £ 500 @,@ 000 and match Hooper 's £ 32 @,@ 000 weekly wage . Hooper denied press reports that the move collapsed due to his demand for Sheffield Wednesday to provide him with a VIP box at their stadium for his family and friends . He remained at Norwich for a few more weeks , but sustained an ankle injury in training . Sheffield Wednesday made a further attempt to sign Hooper on loan , and on 27 October he agreed to join them until January 2016 .
Hooper made his first appearance for Sheffield Wednesday on 31 October 2015 , coming on as a late substitute in a 1 – 0 win at home against Nottingham Forest in the Championship . In his seventh appearance in all competitions for the club , Hooper scored his first goal for Sheffield Wednesday in a 2 – 1 defeat at away against MK Dons . In Hooper 's final two games for Sheffield Wednesday before his loan expired , he managed to score four goals which contributed hugely in Wednesday 's victories against Bolton Wanderers and Leeds United .
= = = Sheffield Wednesday = = =
On 22 January 2016 , Hooper joined Sheffield Wednesday in a full transfer signing a three and a half year deal . The fee was undisclosed but believed to be around £ 3 million .
= = International career = =
Hooper has not represented England at any level . His paternal grandfather William Hooper was raised in the Scottish Borders , and this led to hopes that Hooper could be eligible to play for Scotland . Then Scotland head coach Craig Levein sought clarification as to the place of birth his grandfather 's birth certificate recorded , as he had been born in a hospital in the English border town Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed . The possibility was closed off when it was confirmed that his grandfather was included in the English Births Index . On 13 March 2011 , Hooper was included by Stuart Pearce in his 31 @-@ man squad for the England under @-@ 21 team to play Denmark and Iceland . However , Hooper pulled out of the squad due to injury . On 3 May 2011 , he was named in the 40 @-@ man provisional squad for the UEFA Under @-@ 21 Championship , but did not make the final selection .
In February 2012 , BBC Sport reported that the Football Association of Wales were investigating his eligibility , but Hooper was unaware of having any Welsh ancestry . Hooper declared his desire to play for Great Britain at the 2012 Summer Olympics , but was not selected .
In November 2012 , Hooper was set to join team mate Fraser Forster in the England squad for their upcoming friendly against Sweden in Stockholm , after it was revealed The Football Association had contacted Celtic about the fitness of Hooper . They were handed a bleak prognosis by Celtic 's medical team , meaning Hooper couldn 't make the squad through injury .
= = Style of play = =
Hooper has all the main attributes to play as a striker , he is strong and can hold up the ball well . He is also a good finisher , he has been described as being a ' penalty box striker ' . However , he can also pass the ball well and this allows midfielders to play @-@ off him . He has received praise since moving to Scotland . Newspaper The Daily Record described him as being one of the most skilled attackers in the SPL . They also said that he had shown that he could deal with the physical nature of the Scottish game , due to his ability to ride a challenge well . He is able to play the game at a very high tempo and has a very good first touch .
One criticism that Steve Claridge had when analysing Hooper 's game was that " [ he often ] played at either breakneck speed when involved in play or at walking pace when not " , Claridge noted that Hooper needed to work harder to make himself available to his teammates for passes , especially long balls out from defence .
While at Celtic , Hooper struck up an excellent partnership with fellow striker Anthony Stokes . They scored over 40 goals between them in their first season together and were considered to be Celtic 's best strike partnership , although on many occasions , especially for big matches , Georgios Samaras was often used alongside Hooper . Hooper expressed his disappointment at this because he felt that he worked very well with Stokes . In their partnership Hooper usually had a more advanced role , playing off the shoulder of the last defender , or in the box , and making runs in behind . His strength , pace , finishing ability and awareness made him suitably adapted to this role . Stokes usually played a deeper role , coming short to get the ball and creating space through his dribbling skill and passing . Although Hooper is more suited to an advanced role , and Stokes to a deeper one , they were capable of switching and both have the skills required to play in either role . This made it very hard for defenders to mark them .
During his time as manager at Rangers , Ally McCoist showed his players footage of a goal Hooper scored against them at Celtic Park . " He makes a run from the halfway line on the left hand side . I watched it and I showed our players it " , said McCoist , adding that " he [ Hooper ] just has a desire to run and run and just get on the end of a cross . You can 't buy that , you can 't teach that " .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 28 May 2016 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Grays Athletic
Conference South : 2004 – 05
FA Trophy : 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06
Hereford United
Football League Two promotion : 2007 – 08
Scunthorpe United
Football League One play @-@ offs : 2008 – 09
Celtic
Scottish Premier League : 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13
Scottish Cup : 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13
Norwich City
Football League Championship play @-@ offs : 2014 – 15
= = = Individual = = =
Scottish Premier League Golden Boot : 2011 – 12
PFA Scotland Team of the Year : 2010 – 11 , 2011 – 12
Celtic top scorer : 2010 – 11 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13
Scunthorpe United Greatest Ever Player : 2012
Scunthorpe United Player of the Year : 2008 – 09
Scunthorpe United top scorer : 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10
Scottish Premier League Player of the Month : November 2011 , January 2013
= River Weaver =
The River Weaver is a river , navigable in its lower reaches , running in a curving route anti @-@ clockwise across west Cheshire , northern England . Improvements to the river to make it navigable were authorised in 1720 and the work , which included eleven locks , was completed in 1732 . An unusual clause in the enabling Act of Parliament stipulated that profits should be given to the County of Cheshire for the improvement of roads and bridges , but the navigation was not initially profitable , and it was 1775 before the first payments were made . Trade continued to rise , and by 1845 , over £ 500 @,@ 000 had been given to the county .
The major trade was salt . The arrival of the Trent and Mersey Canal at Anderton in 1773 was detrimental to the salt trade at first , but ultimately beneficial , as salt was tipped down chutes from the canal into barges on the river navigation . Access to the river was improved in 1810 by the Weston Canal , which provided a link to Weston Point , where boats could reach the River Mersey at most states of the tide , as the water was deeper . The navigation was completely reconstructed between 1870 and 1900 , with the original locks being replaced by five much larger locks , capable of handling 1000 @-@ tonne coasters . With the opening of the Manchester Ship Canal , a new lock was constructed at Weston Marsh , which gave direct access to the ship canal without having to pass through the docks at Weston Point . All water from the river entered the canal nearby , and any surplus was released into the Mersey through the Weaver sluices , which were located just upstream of the junction .
A notable feature is the Anderton Boat Lift , which is near Northwich , and links the Weaver with the Trent and Mersey Canal some 50 feet ( 15 m ) above . It was opened in 1875 , to allow canal boats to reach the Weaver , and although closed on safety grounds in 1983 , it was refurbished and reopened in 2002 . Many of the structures of the navigation are of historical importance , and are grade II listed . They include the Hayhurst swing bridge and Northwich Town bridge , which are believed to be the earliest swing bridges powered by electricity . Both have a sectional pontoon , which is immersed in the river and carries about 80 per cent of the weight of the bridge . Dutton Horse Bridge , which carries the towpath over the weir stream at Dutton , is one of the earliest surviving laminated timber structures . Dutton railway viaduct , which was built by Joseph Locke and George Stephenson for the Grand Junction Railway , is grade II * listed , and a civic celebration was held on its completion , as there had been no deaths and no serious injuries to the workers during its construction .
= = Route = =
The River Weaver is slightly more than 50 miles ( 80 km ) long . From its source in the hills of west Cheshire near Peckforton Castle , it initially flows in a south @-@ easterly direction towards the border with Shropshire , fed by tributaries some of which rise in north Shropshire . The first of three canal crossings occurs just before the village of Wrenbury , when the Llangollen Canal crosses its course . After flowing through the village , it passes to the west of the Cheshire village of Audlem , where it starts to flow approximately northwards across the Cheshire Plain . Shortly afterwards , the Shropshire Union Canal is carried over it on Moss Hall aqueduct . The first significant town on the river is the market town of Nantwich , where an early 19th @-@ century stone bridge , with a single span , crosses the river . Continuing northwards , it passes under the Middlewich Branch of the Shropshire Union Canal before the village of Church Minshull . The aqueduct carrying the canal was designed by Thomas Telford and was built of brick with stone bands between 1827 and 1833 . The river flows through a central arch , and there are flood relief arches on each side of the channel . The two waterways run roughly parallel for several miles . They diverge near Winsford , the current head of navigation , and at Northwich the river turns to flow north @-@ west across north Cheshire .
Below Winsford , the course of the river has been altered several times , by the construction of cuts and locks , to enable small ships to trade on it . The river formerly joined the River Mersey at Weston Marsh , but since the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal , begun in 1887 , it has flowed into the canal , from where surplus water enters the Mersey by the Weaver sluices , just upstream of the junction . The tidal river section below Frodsham has been bypassed by the Weston Canal since 1810 , and is no longer navigable , as Frodsham Lock is derelict .
= = History = =
The river runs through the Cheshire salt @-@ producing area , but was not deep enough to allow boats to reach the salt mines . It was tidal for around 7 miles ( 11 km ) to Pickering 's wharf , and salt from the mines was carried by pack horse to the wharf , where it was loaded into barges . These used the ebbing tide to carry them back down the river . By the early 17th century , coal was being transported into the area so that it could be used to evaporate the brine , and as the industry expanded , there were calls to improve the river to simplify this trade . There was opposition to the initial schemes , however , from landowners who feared flooding and from carriers who feared a loss of trade , which resulted in Bills laid before Parliament in 1711 , 1715 , 1718 and 1720 being defeated .
= = = Construction = = =
In 1720 the first Act of Parliament to authorise improvements to the river was obtained by three gentlemen of Cheshire . The act was dated 23 March 1720 and authorised work between Frodsham bridge and Winsford bridge . Rates for tolls were set , which were to be reduced by 20 per cent once the cost of construction had been met , and profits were then to be used to maintain bridges and highways within Cheshire . Each year the Justices of the Peace were to meet to decide which structures should benefit from this source of revenue . The Act included powers to improve the Witton Brook from the Weaver to Witton Bridge . Following a plea by the owner of brine workings near Middlewich , who felt they would be disadvantaged by the new navigation , a separate Act was obtained on 7 June 1721 to authorise improvements to the River Dane , but did not result in any work being undertaken .
Progress was slow , as only Richard Vernon of the original three undertakers was actively engaged on the project , and he could not reach agreement with the Commissioners . The stalemate was broken when Vernon died in 1726 , and new undertakers were appointed . The work on the Weaver was completed by 1732 , at a cost of £ 15 @,@ 885 . Eleven timber locks and weirs had been constructed , but no work had been carried out on the Witton Brook . The river had been improved by dredging and the construction of a series of cuts , with locks and weirs to manage the drop of around 50 feet ( 15 m ) over the 20 miles ( 32 km ) between Winsford and the River Mersey . Barges of up to 40 tons could reach Winsford , and boats called Weaver flats were the predominant vessels . These either sailed up the river , or were bow @-@ hauled by teams of men .
The navigation was not initially profitable , and the amount of money owing to the undertakers gradually rose to a peak of £ 19 @,@ 659 by 1740 . Toll receipts improved , and by 1757 , the debts had been reduced to £ 9 @,@ 809 . In September 1757 , merchants from Liverpool complained about the run @-@ down state of the navigation to Liverpool Corporation , who offered to pay for a survey . The merchants then offered to take over the navigation , but the commissioners wanted to keep control of it , and paid £ 17 @,@ 000 to the undertakers , which repaid the outstanding debt and bought the navigation rights . The deal was completed on 11 October 1758 . The commissioners largely ignored the survey which had been carried out by Henry Berry , and decided to enlarge the locks to 17 @.@ 3 feet ( 5 @.@ 3 m ) wide . Work began on a new cut , lock and weir at Pickerings , but in 1759 , the navigation was cut in half by the collapse of a salt pit at Northwich . The commissioners discovered that they could not sue for damages , as the provisions of the 1721 Act no longer covered the way in which they were operating , and so a second Act of Parliament was obtained on 22 May 1760 . This changed the way in which the debts were managed , and gave the commissioners powers to sue and to appoint a management committee . It also stipulated that all locks should be 90 by 17 @.@ 3 feet ( 27 @.@ 4 by 5 @.@ 3 m ) with a draught of 4 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) , but the actual depth exceeded 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) .
Debts continued to increase , as the commissioners borrowed more money to fund the improvements . The new weir and lock at Pickerings failed in 1761 and both had to be rebuilt . Work had started on Witton Brook in 1756 , but the plans were revised in 1764 to increase the navigable depth to 4 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) , and this work was completed in 1765 .
= = = Development = = =
The proposed Trent and Mersey Canal was seen as a threat by the Trustees of the Navigation , for it ran parallel to the River Weaver for some distance near Anderton . However , the commissioners pressed on with upgrading the river , completing new locks at Barnton in 1771 and at Acton Bridge in 1778 . They also set about repaying their debts , which were liquidated in July 1775 , resulting in some of the profits being given to the County of Cheshire , as stated in the original Act .
The Trent and Mersey was completed in May 1777 , and had an immediate effect on trade , which dropped by 25 per cent , particularly in the Winsford area . The downturn was short lived , as the salt trade developed , figures reaching their former levels by 1783 , and climbing another 40 per cent to 171 @,@ 719 tons by 1790 . Ultimately , the Trent and Mersey generated significant trade for the Navigation , for in 1793 a system of chutes was constructed at Anderton , to enable salt from narrow boats on the canal to be tipped into Weaver flats moored in a dock some 50 feet ( 15 m ) below the level of the canal .
The steady increase in traffic encouraged the trustees to press on with improvements . Witton Brook was widened in 1788 , and the lock was raised , but subsidence caused by the salt mining resulted in a new lock being needed in 1826 . A longer @-@ term solution was provided by the decision to move Northwich lock to a new site below the town . When the work was finished in 1829 , Witton Brook lock was no longer necessary , and was removed . New cuts and locks were built through the 1790s at Vale Royal , Newbridge , Hartford and Hunts , and Butty Meadow lock was removed . In response to petitions , the construction of a towing path suitable for horses was started in 1792 , and was completed as far as Anderton by mid @-@ 1793 . It was later extended to Winsford , and bow @-@ hauling of boats by men was ended .
= = = The Weston Canal = = =
Below Frodsham , barges carrying salt had to negotiate a tidal section of the river to reach the Mersey , from where the cargo would be taken to Liverpool or Manchester for distribution worldwide . Water levels were inadequate for the Mersey Flats at neap tides , resulting in them having to wait for days at Frodsham . In 1796 , users of the navigation suggested that it should be extended to Weston Point , where the water was deeper . The trustees wanted to pay for this extension by raising tolls , but the users objected , and it took several years to work out a deal which suited both parties . Finally , the Trustees obtained a third Act on 8 August 1807 , which authorised the construction of a cut from Frodsham to Weston Point . The trustees insisted that their own engineer , John Johnson , should oversee the work , but the project was too large for him , and ran over time and budget . He was sacked in 1809 , after serving the navigation for 29 years , and Thomas Telford was asked to complete the work . He managed the project with Samuel Fowls as engineer . At Weston Point , a new lock connected the cut to a basin , and tide gates connect the basin to the Mersey . This cut was called the Weston Canal and was completed in 1810 . A fourth Act was obtained on 2 May 1825 , which altered some of the details of the previous Act , and an Act of 22 May 1829 noted that the Weston Canal had been completed . It stated that the Trustees had built a basin , piers and a lighthouse at Weston Point , that the Weston Canal was officially a branch of the River Weaver , and that the Trustees would make no additional charges for using the section . No tolls had been collected since 1816 , once the construction costs had been repaid .
= = = Progress = = =
The trustees investigated the idea of a junction canal from Winsford to the Middlewich branch of the Ellesmere and Chester Canal in 1830 , but felt that water supply would be a problem . New cuts were constructed at Barnton , Crowton and Aston Grange between 1832 and 1835 , and they then planned to construct a second lock beside each of the original locks . William Cubbitt was asked for advice on whether the river could be adapted for seagoing ships , and although he said it could , he did not think it would be cost effective . Work was then started on making the river 7 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) deep throughout , and building double locks suitable for 100 @-@ ton vessels which were 88 by 18 feet ( 26 @.@ 8 by 5 @.@ 5 m ) . By 1845 , Winnington , Acton and Hunts locks had been improved . Trade was good , with tolls generating £ 38 @,@ 363 in 1845 from the carriage of 778 @,@ 715 tons of goods . All of the improvements had been funded from the toll revenue , and over £ 500 @,@ 000 had been given to the County of Cheshire , in line with the original Act .
Further improvements to make the river suitable for coasters began in 1856 , when Edward Leader Williams was appointed as engineer . He oversaw the complete reconstruction of the navigation between 1870 and 1900 , a programme which was designed to ensure that the river remained attractive to carriers , and which ensured its profitability . The 12 locks of the 1830s were replaced by five much larger locks , and most of the bridges were replaced by swing bridges , which enabled coasters of up to 1000 tons to use the river .
Construction of a connection between the river and the Trent and Mersey Canal was begun in 1871 and completed in 1875 . Because of the difference in level , a vertical boat lift was designed by Edwin Clark , using counterbalanced tanks which were linked by a hydraulic system . A descending tank caused hydraulic fluid to enter the pistons which raised the other tank . The design was a success , but the fluid became contaminated , resulting in corrosion of the pistons . The lift was replaced by a new design , where each tank was attached to its own counterbalance weight by wire ropes and pulleys , with small electric motors to overcome friction . The new lift was built over the top of the old one , so that it could continue to be used until the new one was ready , and the work was carried out by staff of the Navigation , supervised by the engineer J A Saner . It was completed in 1906 , and continued in use until 1983 , when it was closed on safety grounds due to corrosion .
It had been expected that use of the chutes to transfer salt between the canal and the river would cease once the lift was opened , but by the turn of the 19th century , although there were 190 @,@ 000 tons of cargo using the lift each year , 38 @,@ 000 tons of salt were still being transferred by chute . From the middle of the 19th century , some of the salt traffic transferred to the railways , and the use of pipelines through which the brine was pumped also affected trade , but as that source of revenue declined , a chemical industry developed in the area around Northwich , which became the major source of income for the Navigation .
= = = Locks = = =
The locks on the river are paired , with two lock chambers side @-@ by @-@ side , and in most cases the larger lock also has intermediate gates , so that ships of varying length can be accommodated , without undue waste of water . The maximum size of the locks is 196 by 35 feet ( 60 by 11 m ) above the Anderton boat lift , and 213 by 37 feet ( 65 by 11 m ) below it . The lock at Weston Point Docks is slightly narrower , at 213 by 36 feet ( 65 by 11 m ) . The boat lift is designed for canal craft rather than ships , and so can hold vessels up to 72 by 14 feet ( 21 @.@ 9 by 4 @.@ 3 m ) with a draught of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) .
= = Connections = =
Access to the navigation was improved for traditional canal boats with the opening of the Runcorn and Weston Canal , which was completed in 1859 . The canal left the Weston Canal at Weston Point , and provided a link to Runcorn Docks , near which two flights of locks connected to the Bridgewater Canal . This link was severed in 1966 , when the Runcorn to Widnes road bridge was constructed . Half of the Runcorn and Weston Canal was filled in at the same time .
Significant change occurred when the Manchester Ship Canal was opened in 1894 . The tidal section of the river below Frodsham now flowed into the ship canal , rather than the River Mersey , and the exit lock from Weston Docks also joined the canal rather than the estuary . A new ship lock was constructed at Weston Marsh , which provided a more convenient route to the ship canal than the alternative route through Weston Point docks . The Weston Canal has been little used since . Although it is possible for pleasure craft to reach the Weaver from the Ship Canal , it is a commercial waterway , and most leisure users are dissuaded from doing so by the amount of paperwork and the requirements of the operating company .
Situated just below Northwich , the Anderton Boat Lift is now the normal route for leisure boats to reach the river . Following its closure in 1983 , a Trust was created to campaign for its restoration . The lift became a Scheduled Ancient Monument in 1994 , and work eventually started on its refurbishment in 1999 . It reopened in 2002 , and is once more hydraulically powered . The use of modern hydraulic fluids is expected to prevent the problem of corrosion suffered when it was originally built .
The Navigation is managed by British Waterways , as far as Winsford Bridge . Beyond this are Winsford Bottom Flash and Winsford Top Flash . Both are shallow lakes , resulting from subsidence in the underlying salt mines . It is possible for some canal boats to explore the Bottom Flash , but the depth of water is limited , and great care is needed . The Flash is used for yacht racing by the Winsford Flash Sailing Club , which is based on the 90 @-@ acre ( 36 ha ) lake .
= = Tourism = =
The Weaver is a river of contrasts , with quiet wooded reaches and heavily industrialised sites . Commercial shipping has largely ceased , but the ship @-@ sized locks remain . For leisure boaters , most of the movable bridges provide a clearance of 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) , although the swing bridge at Newbridge , on the Vale Royal cut , only has headroom of 6 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 @.@ 9 m ) . Boats which require the bridges to be opened must give prior notice . There is a salt museum at Northwich , which was renamed as the Weaver Hall Museum and Workhouse in 2010 , to reflect its expanding scope and the historic building in which it is housed , and a visitor centre at the Anderton lift , which is popular with boaters and non @-@ boaters alike . There are , however , few facilities for the recreational boater .
Rowing is popular on the River Weaver , with competitive clubs in Runcorn , Northwich , and Acton Bridge ( The Grange School ) . Fishing is another pastime which takes place along the river . Several clubs lease fishing rights for different parts of the river from British Waterways , as it holds populations of bream , three types of carp , chub , dace , eels , perch , pike , roach , rudd and tench . Fishing matches are regularly organised at weekends .
The lower reaches of the Weaver between Frodsham railway viaduct and the Manchester Ship Canal are used for sailing . The Weaver Sailing Club is based at Frodsham , and uses a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) stretch of the river for activities which include youth training and racing of several types of dinghy sailboats . Their training courses are accredited by the Royal Yachting Association .
= = Structures = =
The navigation has a number of structures which , because of their age , have historic value and are listed on the Listed Building register . At Vale Royal , the lock built in 1860 was retained as a sluice channel when a new lock was built in the 1890s . A swing bridge crosses the chamber . The sluice at the upstream end is supported by two cast iron arches on rusticated piers . A swing bridge , made of wood and iron , crosses the small lock , which was the large lock until the construction of the new large lock in the 1890s . This has three sets of gates , and could accommodate a train of four barges when the outer gates were used . Again , a swing bridge crosses the lock . The gates are opened by a Pelton water turbine mechanism , and other features include a water levelling mechanism and a system for removing rubbish from behind the gates using jets of water which are controlled mechanically . The lock keeper 's cottage is also grade II listed . It was built in the 1850s , but was moved northwards by 20 yards ( 18 m ) during the 1890 reconstruction .
Below the locks , a five @-@ arched red sandstone viaduct , constructed in 1837 , crosses the valley . It was built by Joseph Locke , and carried the Grand Junction Railway . Hunt 's locks also consist of a pair , the smaller one from the 1860s and the larger one , with three sets of gates , from the 1890s . Steel semaphore signals control access to the locks , and again the movement of the gates employs a Pelton turbine . The weir to the east of the locks has a walkway supported by rusticated piers and five cast iron arches , which also support the floodgates . The structure is Baroque in style .
Northwich railway viaduct spans both the lock cut and the weir stream , and was built in the 1860s . It consists of 48 round arches , constructed of blue bricks and red sandstone , with iron spans over the channels . It is around 980 yards ( 900 m ) long , provides 39 feet ( 12 m ) of headroom over the navigation , and also crosses the River Dane . Hayhurst swing bridge carries the A5509 road over the navigation , and was manufactured by A Handyside and Co . Ltd . , of Derby and London , in 1899 . It is an asymmetric bowstring lattice girder bridge , and its timber @-@ framed weatherboarded control cabin is also listed . This and Town bridge , which is located a little further downstream and is of a similar design , are believed to be the two earliest swing bridges in Britain to be powered by electricity . Both bridges were designed by J. A. Saner , who was the Navigation 's engineer , and incorporate a sectional pontoon , which is immersed in the river and carries about 80 per cent of the weight of the bridge . Because of the risk of subsidence from the salt workings , the bridges are fitted with screw jacks which allow the deck level to be maintained . Hayhurst bridge was refurbished in 2004 at a cost of £ 33 @.@ 5 million . Winnington bridge , the next downstream , was built between 1908 and 1909 , to replace the first bridge which was built in 1901 . The original design was flawed , and hence the bridge was replaced after only 7 years . A pedestrian walkway was later fitted on the downstream side of the new bridge .
Saltersford locks were built in 1874 , using red sandstone and limestone , and replaced a lock built on the Barnton cut between 1832 and 1835 . The Pelton turbines which control the gates were built to Stoney 's patent , and carry plates which indicate that they were manufactured by Hanna , Donald & Wilson of Paisley . Acton Bridge is a symmetrical bowstring girder swing bridge , which was built in situ between 1931 and 1933 , on an island in the centre of the river . It was first swung across the channel on 10 August 1933 . J. A. Saner was again the designer . Dutton locks are of a similar design and age to those at Saltersford , and the Pelton turbines were made by Northern Foundry Co . Ltd. of Oldham , who are described as turbine makers on the cast @-@ iron covers . Dutton sluice , some 160 yards ( 150 m ) to the north @-@ east of the lock , was built in the 1870s , in a similar Baroque style to Hunt 's weir , but is larger , with eight arches each carrying a sluice gate . Where the weir stream rejoins the main channel , the towpath is carried over it on Horse Bridge , which was designed by J. A. Saner , the Navigation 's engineer , in 1915 , and erected in 1916 . It is one of the earliest surviving laminated timber structures , and consists of two arches , both over 100 feet ( 30 m ) long . Below the locks , Joseph Locke and George Stephenson built another viaduct for the Grand Junction Railway , which was completed in 1836 and is grade II * listed . It has 20 arches , and was built at a cost of £ 54 @,@ 440 by a London civil engineering contractor called David McIntosh . A civic celebration was held on its completion , as there had been no deaths and no serious injuries to the workers during its construction . The navigation has since been re @-@ routed , and now passes through a different arch of the structure .
The weir at Frodsham was built in 1785 , although it has been altered subsequently . The main curved section is 49 yards ( 45 m ) wide , and there are two 16 @-@ foot ( 5 m ) sluices at the southern end . The adjacent lock , which was designed by Robert Pownall and George Leigh in 1781 , was modified in 1830 and later , but most traffic was using the Weston cut by the time of the 1890s upgrade , and so it retained some of its original features . It is derelict , and water flow is controlled by a concrete and steel sluice erected in the mid 20th century . A red sandstone and limestone bridge carries the A56 road over the channel below the lock . It was built in 1850 , and has three 27 @-@ yard ( 25 m ) arches . The A56 crosses the main channel on Sutton swing bridge , which was built in the 1920s . There have been problems with the stability of the road surface , and options to secure its long @-@ term future and appearance were discussed in 2010 . Frodsham viaduct , completed in 1850 and built in brown bricks with a cast @-@ iron central arch , was built for the Birkenhead , Lancs & Cheshire Junction Railway by the contractor Thomas Brassey . The engineer for the project was Alexander Rendel .
= = Oxygen levels = =
In August 2012 , oxygen levels in the river were found to be low , following the death of thousands of fish . The Environment Agency were notified and aerated the water while they investigated the cause of the problem . This was thought to result from naturally occurring algae , which deplete the oxygen on which the fish depend , and may also have been affected by a reaction between hydrogen peroxide , which is used to improve oxygen levels in the water , and traces of detergent . The reaction results in an unpleasant @-@ looking foam building up on the surface , although the foam is not hazardous . The Winsford and District Angling Association , who use the river for fishing , believe it will take many years to restore the six species of fish affected by the incident .
= = Points of interest = =
= Indiana in the American Civil War =
Indiana , a state in the Midwest , played an important role in supporting the Union during the American Civil War . Despite anti @-@ war activity within the state , and southern Indiana 's ancestral ties to the South , Indiana was a strong supporter of the Union . Indiana contributed approximately 210 @,@ 000 Union soldiers , sailors , and marines . Indiana 's soldiers served in 308 military engagements during the war ; the majority of them in the western theater , between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains . Indiana 's war @-@ related deaths reached 25 @,@ 028 ( 7 @,@ 243 from battle and 17 @,@ 785 from disease ) . Its state government provided funds to purchase equipment , food , and supplies for troops in the field . Indiana , an agriculturally rich state containing the fifth @-@ highest population in the Union , was critical to the North 's success due to its geographical location , large population , and agricultural production . Indiana residents , also known as Hoosiers , supplied the Union with manpower for the war effort , a railroad network and access to the Ohio River and the Great Lakes , and agricultural products such as grain and livestock . The state experienced two minor raids by Confederate forces , and one major raid in 1863 , which caused a brief panic in southern portions of the state and its capital city , Indianapolis .
Indiana experienced significant political strife during the war , especially after Governor Oliver P. Morton suppressed the Democratic @-@ controlled state legislature , which had an anti @-@ war ( Copperhead ) element . Major debates , which lead to violence , related to the issues of slavery and emancipation , military service for African Americans , and the draft . In 1863 , after the state legislature failed to pass a budget and left the state without the authority to collect taxes , Governor Morton acted outside his state 's constitutional authority to secure funding through federal and private loans to operate the state government and avert a financial crisis .
The American Civil War altered Indiana 's society , politics , and economy , beginning a population shift to central and northern Indiana , and contributed to a relative decline in the southern part of the state . Increased wartime manufacturing and industrial growth in Hoosier cities and towns ushered in a new era of economic prosperity . By the end of the war , Indiana had become less rural state than it previously had been . Indiana 's votes were closely split between the parties for several decades after the war , making it one of a few key swing states that often decided national elections . Between 1868 and 1916 , five Indiana politicians were vice @-@ presidential nominees on the major party tickets . In 1888 Benjamin Harrison , one of the state 's former Civil War generals , was elected president of the United States .
= = Indiana 's contributions = =
Indiana was the first of the country 's western states to mobilize for the Civil War . When news reached Indiana of the attack on Fort Sumter , South Carolina , on April 12 , 1861 , many Indiana residents were surprised , but their response was immediate . On the following day , two mass meetings were held in Indianapolis , the state capital of Indiana , and the state 's position was decided : Indiana would remain in the Union and would immediately contribute men to suppress the rebellion . On April 15 , Indiana 's governor , Oliver P. Morton , issued a call for volunteer soldiers to meet the state 's quota set by President Abraham Lincoln .
Indiana 's geographical location in the Midwest , its large population , and its agricultural production made the state 's wartime support critical to the Union 's success . Indiana , with the fifth @-@ largest population of the states that remained in the Union , could supply much @-@ needed manpower for the war effort , its railroad network and access to the Ohio River and the Great Lakes could transport troops and supplies , and its agricultural yield , which became even more valuable to the Union after the loss of the rich farmland of the South , could provide grain and livestock .
= = = Military service = = =
On April 15 , 1861 , President Lincoln called for a total of 75 @,@ 000 volunteers to join the Union army . On the same day , Governor Morton telegraphed the president offering 10 @,@ 000 Indiana volunteers . The state 's initial quota was set at six regiments ( a total of 4 @,@ 683 men ) for three months of service . Orders were issued on April 16 to form the state 's first regiments and to gather at Indianapolis . On the first day , five hundred men were encamped in the city ; within a week more than 12 @,@ 000 Hoosier volunteers had signed up to fight for the Union , nearly three times as many needed to meet the state 's initial quota .
Governor Morton and Lew Wallace , Indiana 's adjutant general , established Camp Morton at the state fairgrounds in Indianapolis as the initial gathering place and training camp for the state 's Union volunteers . ( Camp Morton was converted to a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp in 1862 . ) By April 27 , Indiana 's first six regiments were fully organized as the First Brigade , Indiana Volunteers , under the command of Brigadier General Thomas A. Morris . Members of companies not selected for these first regiments were given the option of volunteering for three years of service or returning home until they were needed ; some companies formed into regiments in the state militia and were called into federal service within a few weeks .
Indiana ranked second among the states in terms of the percentage of its men of military age who served in the Union army . Indiana contributed 208 @,@ 367 men , roughly 15 percent of the state 's total population to serve in the Union army , and 2 @,@ 130 to serve in the navy . Most of Indiana 's soldiers were volunteers ; 11 @,@ 718 were re @-@ enlistments . Deserters numbered 10 @,@ 846 .
Indiana 's volunteers responded to requests for military service in the early months of the war ; however , as the war progressed and the number of casualties increased , the state government had to resort to conscription ( the draft ) to fill its quotas . Military conscription , which began in October 1862 , was a divisive issue within the state . It was especially unpopular among Democrats , who viewed it as a threat to individual freedom and opposed legislation that allowed a man to purchase an exemption for $ 300 or pay another person to serve as his substitute . A total of 3 @,@ 003 Hoosier men were drafted in October 1862 ; subsequent drafts in Indiana brought the total to 17 @,@ 903 .
Indiana 's volunteers and draftees provided the Union army with 129 infantry regiments , 13 cavalry regiments , 3 cavalry companies , 1 regiment of heavy artillery , and 26 light artillery batteries . In addition to providing Union troops , Indiana also organized its own volunteer militia , known as the Indiana Legion . Formed in May 1861 , the Legion was responsible for protecting Indiana 's citizens from attack and maintaining order within the state .
By the end of the war , Indiana could claim 46 general officers in the Union army who had at one time resided in the state . These men included Don Carlos Buell , Ambrose Burnside , Lew Wallace , Robert H. Milroy , and Joseph J. Reynolds , among others .
More than 35 percent of the Hoosiers who joined the Union army became casualties : 24 @,@ 416 , roughly 12 @.@ 6 percent of Indiana 's soldiers who served , lost their lives in the conflict . An estimated 48 @,@ 568 soldiers , double the number of Hoosiers killed in the war , were wounded . Indiana 's war @-@ related death toll eventually reached 25 @,@ 028 ( 7 @,@ 243 from battle and 17 @,@ 785 from disease ) .
= = = Training and support = = =
Slightly more than 60 percent of Indiana 's regiments mustered into service and trained at Indianapolis . Other camps for Union soldiers were established elsewhere in the state , including Fort Wayne , Gosport , Jeffersonville , Kendallville , Lafayette , Richmond , South Bend , Terre Haute , Wabash , and in LaPorte County .
Governor Morton was called the " Soldier 's Friend " because of his efforts to equip , train , and care for Union soldiers in the field . Indiana 's state government financed a large portion of the costs involved in preparing its regiments for war , including housing , feeding , and equipping them , before their assignment to the standing Union armies . To secure arms for Indiana 's troops , the governor appointed purchasing agents to act on the state 's behalf . Early in the war , for example , Robert Dale Owen purchased more than $ 891 @,@ 000 in arms , clothing , blankets , and cavalry equipment for Indiana troops ; the state government made additional purchases of arms and supplies exceeding $ 260 @,@ 000 . To provide ammunition , Morton established a state @-@ owned arsenal at Indianapolis served the Indiana militia , home guard , and as a backup supply depot for the Union army . The state arsenal operated until April 1864 , employing 700 at its peak ; many of its employees were women . A federal arsenal was also established in Indianapolis in 1863 .
The Indiana Sanitary Commission , created in 1862 , and soldiers ' aid societies throughout the state raised funds and gathered supplies for troops in the field . Hoosiers also provided other forms of support for soldiers and their families , including a Soldiers ' Home and a Ladies ' Home , and Orphans ' Home to help meet the needs of Indiana 's soldiers and their families as they passed through Indianapolis .
During the war some women took on the added responsibility of running family farms and businesses . Hoosier women also contributed to the war effort as nurses and volunteers in charitable organizations , most commonly the local Ladies ' Aid Societies . In January 1863 Governor Morton and the Indiana Sanitary Commission began recruiting women to work as nurses in military hospitals and on ships .
Wounded soldiers were cared for at Indiana facilities in Clark County ( Port Fulton , near Jeffersonville and New Albany ) , Jefferson County ( Madison ) , Knox County ( Vincennes ) , Marion County ( Indianapolis ) , Warrick County ( Newburgh ) , and Vanderburgh County ( Evansville ) . Jefferson General Hospital at Port Fulton , Indiana , now a part of present @-@ day Jeffersonville , was briefly the third @-@ largest hospital in the United States . Between 1864 , when Jefferson General opened , and 1866 , when it closed , the hospital treated 16 @,@ 120 patients .
= = = Prison camps = = =
Indianapolis was the site of Camp Morton , one of the Union 's largest prisons for captured Confederate soldiers . Lafayette , Richmond , and Terre Haute , Indiana , occasionally held prisoners of war as well .
= = = Military cemeteries = = =
Two national military cemeteries were established in Indiana as a result of the war . In 1882 the federal government established in New Albany , Indiana , the New Albany National Cemetery , one of fourteen national cemeteries established that year . In 1866 the federal government authorized a national cemetery for Indianapolis ; Crown Hill National Cemetery was established within the grounds of Crown Hill Cemetery , a privately owned cemetery northwest of downtown .
= = Conflicts = =
Indiana troops participated in 308 military engagements , the majority of them between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains . Soldiers from Indiana were present on most of the Civil War battlefields , beginning with the first engagement involving Hoosier troops at the Battle of Philippi ( West Virginia ) on June 3 , 1861 , to the Battle of Palmetto Ranch ( Texas ) on May 13 , 1865 . Nearly all the fighting was outside of the state 's boundaries . Only one significant conflict , known as Morgan 's Raid , occurred on Indiana soil during the war . The raid , which caused a brief panic in Indianapolis and southern Indiana , was preceded by two minor incursions into Indiana .
= = = Raids = = =
On July 18 , 1862 , during the Newburgh Raid , Confederate officer Adam Johnson briefly captured Newburgh , Indiana , after convincing the town 's Union garrison that he had cannon on the surrounding hills ( they were merely camouflaged stovepipes ) . The raid convinced the federal government of the need to supply Indiana with a permanent force of regular Union Army soldiers to counter future raids .
On June 17 , 1863 , in preparation for a planned cavalry offensive by Confederate troops under the command of John Hunt Morgan , one of his officers , Captain Thomas Hines and approximately 80 men crossed the Ohio River to search for horses and support from Hoosiers in southern Indiana . During the minor incursion , which became known as Hines ' Raid , local citizens and members of Indiana 's home guard pursued the Confederates and succeeded capturing most of them without a fight . Hines and a few of his men escaped across the river into Kentucky .
Morgan 's Raid , the Confederate army 's major incursion into Indiana , occurred a month after Hines ' raid . On July 8 , 1863 , General Morgan crossed the Ohio River , landing at Mauckport , Indiana , with 2 @,@ 400 troopers . Their arrival was initially contested by a small party from the Indiana Legion , who withdrew after Morgan 's men began firing artillery from the river 's southern shore . The state militia quickly retreated towards Corydon , Indiana , where a larger body was gathering to block Morgan 's advance . The Confederates advanced rapidly on the town and engaged in the Battle of Corydon . After a brief but fierce fight , Morgan took command of high ground south of town , and Corydon 's local militia and citizens promptly surrendered after Morgan 's artillery fired two warning shots . Corydon was sacked , but little damage was done to its buildings . Morgan continued his raid north and burned most of the town of Salem .
When Morgan 's movements appeared to be headed toward Indianapolis , panic spread through the capital city . Governor Morton had called up the state militia as soon as Morgan 's intention to cross into the state was known , and more than 60 @,@ 000 men of all ages volunteered to protect Indiana against Morgan 's men . Morgan considered attacking Camp Morton , the prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp in Indianapolis , to free more than 5 @,@ 000 Confederate prisoners of war imprisoned there , but decided against it . Instead , his raiders turned abruptly east and began moving towards Ohio . With Indiana 's militia in pursuit , Morgan 's men continued to raid and pillage their way toward the Indiana @-@ Ohio border , crossing into Ohio on July 13 . By the time Morgan left Indiana , his raid had become a desperate attempt to escape to the South . He was captured on July 26 in Ohio .
= = = Indiana regiments = = =
Many of Indiana 's regiments served with distinction in the war . The 19th Indiana Volunteer Infantry Regiment , 20th Indiana Infantry Regiment , and 27th Indiana Infantry Regiment suffered the highest casualties of the state 's infantry regiments as a percentage of the regiment 's total enrollment .
Indiana 's first six regiments organized during the Civil War were the 6th , 7th , 8th , 9th , 10th , and 11th Indiana infantry regiments . The men in these regiments volunteered for three months of service at the start of the war , but their brief terms provided inadequate ; most of these soldiers re @-@ enlisted for three additional years of service .
By the end of 1861 , forty @-@ seven Indiana regiments had mustered into service ; most of the men enlisted for terms of three years . The majority of the three @-@ year regiments were deployed in the western theater . In 1862 another forty @-@ one regiments from Indiana were mustered into service ; about half were sent to the eastern theater and the other half remained in the west . During 1863 six more regiments were mustered into service to replace the casualties of the first two years ' fighting , and on July 8 , 1863 , and additional thirteen temporary regiments were established during Morgan 's Raid into southern Indiana . The men in these temporary regiments enlisted for terms of three months , but the regiments disbanded once the threat posed by Morgan 's troops was gone . In 1864 twenty @-@ one Indiana regiments mustered into service . As the fighting declined , most of Indiana 's regiments mustered out of service by the end of 1864 , but some continued to serve . During 1865 fourteen additional Indiana regiments were mustered into a year of service . On November 10 , 1865 , the 13th Regiment Indiana Cavalry became the state 's final regiment to be mustered out of the U.S. Army .
The 11th Indiana Infantry Regiment , also known as the Indiana Zouaves , under the command of Lew Wallace , was the first regiment organized in Indiana during the Civil War and the first one to march into battle . The 11th Indiana fought in the Battle of Fort Donelson , the Siege of Vicksburg , the second day of the Battle of Shiloh , and elsewhere . In 1861 the 9th Indiana Infantry Regiment became one of the first Hoosier regiments to see action in the war . The 9th Indiana fought in many major battles , including the Battle of Shiloh , the Battle of Stones River , the Atlanta Campaign , and the Battle of Nashville , among others .
The 14th Indiana Infantry Regiment was nicknamed the " Gibralter Brigade " for maintaining its position at the Battle of Antietam . It secured Cemetery Hill on the first day of the three @-@ day fight at the Battle of Gettysburg , where it lost 123 of its men . The 19th Indiana Volunteer Infantry Regiment , part of the Iron Brigade , made critical contributions to some of the most important engagements of the war , including the Second Battle of Bull Run , but was almost completely destroyed in the Battle of Gettysburg , where it sustained 210 casualties . The 19th Indiana suffered the heaviest battle losses of any Indiana unit ; 15 @.@ 9 percent of its men were killed or mortally wounded during the war . The 27th Indiana Infantry Regiment earned the nickname " giants in the cornfield " at the Battle of Antietam . The regiment also fought at the Battle of Chancellorsville , the Battle of Gettysburg , and in the Atlanta Campaign . The 27th Indiana 's casualties were 15 @.@ 3 percent of its total enrollment , nearly as many as the 19th Indiana .
Most of Indiana 's regimental units were organized within towns or counties , but ethnic units were also formed , including the 32nd Indiana , a German @-@ American infantry regiment , and the 35th Indiana , composed of Irish Americans . The 28th Regiment U.S. Colored Troops , formed at Indianapolis between December 24 , 1863 , and March 31 , 1864 , was the only black regiment formed in Indiana during the war . It trained at Indianapolis 's Camp Fremont , near Fountain Square , and included 518 enlisted men who signed on for three years of service . The regiment lost 212 men during the conflict . The 28th participated in the Siege of Petersburg and at the Battle of the Crater , where twenty @-@ two of its men were killed . At the end of the war the regiment served in Texas , where it mustered out of service on November 8 , 1865 .
The last casualty of the Civil War was a Hoosier serving in the 34th Regiment Indiana Infantry . Private John J. Williams died at the Battle of Palmetto Ranch on May 13 , 1865 .
= = Politics = =
Hoosiers voted in favor of the Republicans in 1860 , and in January 1861 , Indiana 's newly elected lieutenant governor , Oliver P. Morton , became governor after Henry Smith Lane resigned from the office to take a vacant seat in the U.S. Senate . Hoosiers also helped Abraham Lincoln win the presidency in the 1860 election and voted in favor of his re @-@ election in 1864 . Although Lincoln won only 40 percent of the country 's popular vote in the U.S. presidential election in 1860 , he earned Indiana 's 13 electoral votes with 51 @.@ 09 percent of its popular vote , compared to Stephen Douglas 's 42 @.@ 44 percent , John Breckenridge 's 4 @.@ 52 percent , and John Bell 's 1 @.@ 95 percent . In the 1864 presidential election , Lincoln once again carried the state , this time by a wider margin , earning Indiana 's electoral votes with 53 @.@ 6 percent of the state 's popular vote compared to George McClellan 's 46 @.@ 4 percent .
As one of Lincoln 's " war governors " , Morton and the president maintained a close alliance throughout the war ; however , as war casualties mounted , Hoosiers began to doubt the necessity of war and many became concerned over the increase in governmental power and the loss of personal freedom , which resulted in major conflicts between the state 's Republicans and Democrats .
= = = Southern influence = = =
The Civil War era showed the extent of the South 's influence on Indiana . Much of southern and central Indiana had strong ties to the South . Many of Indiana 's early settlers had come from the Confederate state of Virginia and from Kentucky . Governor Morton once complained to President Lincoln that " no other free state is so populated with southerners " , which Morton believed kept him from being as forceful as he wanted to be .
Due to their location across the Ohio River from Louisville , Kentucky , the Indiana cities of Jeffersonville , New Albany , and Port Fulton saw increased trade and military activity . Some of this increase was due to Kentucky 's desire to stay neutral in the war . In addition , Kentucky was home to many Confederate sympathizers . Military bases in southern Indiana were needed to support Union operations against Confederates in Kentucky , and it was safer to store war supplies in towns on the north side of the River . Jeffersonville served as an important military depot for Union troops heading south . Towards the end of the war , Port Fulton was home to the third @-@ largest hospital in the United States , Jefferson General Hospital .
In 1861 , Kentucky 's governor Beriah Magoffin refused to allow pro @-@ Union forces to mobilize in his state and issued a similar order regarding Confederate forces . Governor Morton , who repeatedly came to the military rescue of Kentucky 's pro @-@ Union government during the war and became known as the " Governor of Indiana and Kentucky " allowed Kentuckians to form Union regiments on Indiana soil . Kentucky troops , especially from Louisville , which included the 5th Kentucky Infantry and others , at Indiana 's Camp Joe Holt . Camp Joe Holt was established in Clarksville , Indiana , between Jeffersonville and New Albany .
Jesse D. Bright , who represented Indiana in the United States Senate had been a leader among the state 's Democratics for several years prior to the outbreak of the war . In January 1862 , Bright was expelled from the Senate on allegations of disloyalty to the Union . He had written a letter of introduction for an arms merchant addressed to " His Excellency , Jefferson Davis , President of the Confederation . " In the letter , Bright offered the merchant 's services as a firearms supplier . Bright 's Senate replacement was Joseph A. Wright , a pro @-@ Union Democrat and former Indiana governor . As of 2015 , Bright was the last senator to be expelled by the Senate .
= = = Political conflict = = =
Hoosiers cooperated in support of the war effort at its outset , but political differences soon erupted into the " most violent political battles " in state 's history . The major debates , which also lead to violence , related to the issues of slavery and emancipation ; military service for African Americans ; and the draft .
On April 24 , 1861 , Morton addressed a special session of the Indiana General Assembly to obtain the legislature 's approval to borrow and spend funds to purchase arms and supplies for Indiana 's troops . Morton also urged Indiana 's legislators to set aside party considerations for the duration of the war and unite in defense of the Union , but the Republicans and Democrats did not cooperate for long . Initially , the Democratic @-@ controlled legislature was supportive of Morton 's measures and passed the legislation he requested . After the state legislature adjourned in May , however , some of the state 's prominent Democrats changed their opinion about the war . In January 1862 the Democrats clarified their position at a state convention chaired by Thomas Hendricks . Indiana 's Democrats stated that their support for the integrity of the Union and the war effort , but opposed emancipation of black and the abolition of slavery .
After the elections in the fall of 1862 , Governor Morton feared that the legislature 's Democratic majority would attempt to hinder the war effort , reduce his authority , and vote to secede from the Union . After the legislative session convened in 1863 , all but four Republican legislators stayed away from Indianapolis to prevent the general assembly from attaining the quorum it needed to pass legislation , including funding the state government or making tax provisions . This rapidly led to a crisis as the state government began to run out of money to conduct its business and was nearly bankrupt . Going beyond his constitutional powers , Morton solicited millions of dollars in federal and private loans to avert the crisis . To obtain funds to run the state government , Morton turned to James Lanier , a wealthy banker from Madison , Indiana . On two occasions , Lanier provided the state with more than $ 1 million ( USD ) in unsecured loans . Morton 's move was successful , he was able to fund the state government and the war effort in Indiana . There was little the legislature could do but watch .
Indiana 's political polarity continued to worsen after the Emancipation Proclamation ( 1863 ) made freeing the slaves a war goal . Many of the formerly pro @-@ war Democrats moved to openly oppose the war , and Governor Morton began a crackdown on dissidents . During one notorious incident in May 1863 , the governor had soldiers disrupt a Democratic state convention in Indianapolis , causing what would latter be referred to as the Battle of Pogue 's Run . No regular session of the Indiana General Assembly was convened until June 1865 .
While most of the state was decidedly pro @-@ Union , a group of Southern sympathizers known as the Knights of the Golden Circle had a strong presence in northern Indiana . The group proved enough of a threat that General Lew Wallace , commander of Union forces in the region , spent considerable time countering their activities . By June 1863 , the group was successfully broken up . Many Golden Circle members were arrested without formal charges , the pro @-@ Confederate press was prevented from printing anti @-@ war material , and the writ of habeas corpus was denied to anyone suspected of disloyalty . In reaction to Governor Morton 's actions against dissenters , Indiana 's Democrats Party called him a " dictator " and an " underhanded mobster ; " Republicans countered that the Democrats were using treasonable and obstructionist tactics in the conduct of the war .
Confederate special agent Thomas Hines went to French Lick in June 1863 , seeking support for Confederate General John Hunt Morgan 's eventual raid into Indiana . Hines met with Sons of Liberty " major general " William A. Bowles , to inquire if Bowles could offer any support for Morgan 's upcoming raid . Bowles claimed he could raise a force of 10 @,@ 000 , but before the deal was finalized , Hines was informed that a Union force was approaching and fled the state . As a result , Bowles provided no support for Morgan 's raiders , which caused Morgan to harshly treat anyone in Indiana who claimed to be sympathetic to the Confederacy .
Large @-@ scale support for the Confederacy among Golden Circle members and Southern Hoosiers in general declined after Morgan 's Confederate raiders ransacked many homes bearing the banners of the Golden Circle , despite their proclaimed support for the Confederates . As Confederate Colonel Basil W. Duke recalled after the incident , " The Copperheads and Vallandighammers fought harder than the others " against Morgan 's raiders . When Hoosiers failed to support Morgan 's men in signifiant numbers , Governor Morton slowed his crackdown on Confederate sympathizers , theorizing that because they had failed to come to Morgan 's aid in large numbers , they would similarly fail to aid a larger invasion .
Although raids into Indiana were infrequent , smuggling goods into Confederate territory was common , especially in the early days of the war when the Union army had not yet pushed the front lines far to the south of the Ohio River . New Albany and Jeffersonville , Indiana , were origination points for many Northern goods smuggled into the Confederacy . The Cincinnati Daily Gazette pressured both towns to stop trading with the South , especially with Louisville , because Kentucky 's proclaimed neutrality was perceived as sympathetic to the South . A fraudulent steamboat company was established to ply the Ohio River between Madison , Indiana , and Louisville ; its boat , the Masonic Gem , made regular trips to Confederate ports .
= = = Southern sympathizers = = =
While it is believed that they were not particularly numerous , the exact number of Hoosiers to serve in Confederate armies is unknown . It is likely that most traveled to Kentucky to join Confederate regiments formed in that state . At least one Hoosier , Sgt. Henry L. Stone of Greencastle , Indiana , rode with John Hunt Morgan when he raided Indiana . Former U.S. Army officer Francis A. Shoup , who briefly led the Indianapolis Zouave militia unit , left for Florida prior to the war , and ultimately become a Confederate brigadier general .
= = = Republican legislative majority = = =
After the elections in 1864 the state 's Republican legislative majority arrived at a critical turning point , as the North was slowly tightening its blockade of the South . The new Republican @-@ controlled legislature fully supported Morton 's policies and worked to meet the state 's commitments to the war effort . In 1865 the Indiana General Assembly validated the loans Morton had secured to run the state government , assumed them as state debt , and commended Morton for his actions during the interim .
= = Aftermath = =
News of Confederate General Robert E. Lee 's surrender at Appomattox Courthouse , Virginia , reached Indianapolis at 11 p.m. on April 9 , 1865 , causing immediate and enthusiastic public celebrations that the Indianapolis Journal characterized as " demented " . A week later , the community 's excitement turned to sadness when news of Lincoln 's assassination arrived on April 15 . Lincoln 's funeral train passed through the capital city on April 30 , and 100 @,@ 000 people attended his bier at the Indiana Statehouse .
= = = Economic = = =
The Civil War forever altered Indiana 's economy . Despite hardships during the war , Indiana 's economic situation improved . Farmers received higher prices for their agricultural products , railroads and commercial businesses thrived in the state 's cities and towns , and manpower shortages gave laborers more bargaining power . The war also helped establish a national banking system to replace state @-@ chartered banking institutions ; by 1862 there were thirty @-@ one national banks in the state . Wartime prosperity was particularly evident in Indianapolis , whose population more than doubled during the war , reaching 45 @,@ 000 at the end of 1864 .
Increased wartime manufacturing and industrial growth in Hoosier cities and towns ushered in a new era of economic prosperity . By the end of the war , Indiana had become less rural that it previously had been . Overall , the war caused Indiana 's industries to grow exponentially , although the state 's southern counties experienced growth after the war at a slower rate than its other counties . The state 's population shifted to central and northern Indiana as new industries and cities began to develop around the Great Lakes and the railroad depots erected during the war . In 1876 Colonel Eli Lilly opened a new pharmaceutical laboratory in Indianapolis , founding what later became Eli Lilly and Company . Indianapolis was also the wartime home of Richard Gatling , inventor of the Gatling Gun , one of the world 's first machine guns . Although his invention was used in some Civil War @-@ era campaigns , it was not fully adopted for use by the U.S. Army until 1866 . Charles Conn , another war veteran , founded C. G. Conn Ltd. in Elkhart , Indiana , where the manufacturing of musical instruments became a new industry for the town .
Post @-@ war development was different in southern Indiana . The state 's commerce along the Ohio River was reduced during the war , especially after the closure of the Mississippi River to commercial trade with the South and increased competition from the state 's expanding railroad network . Some of Indiana 's river towns , such as Evansville , recovered by providing transport to Union troops across the Ohio River , but others did not . Before the war , New Albany was the largest city in the state , primarily due to its commerce with the South , but its trade dwindled during the war . After the war much of Indiana viewed New Albany as too friendly to the South . New Albany 's formerly robust steamboat @-@ building industry ended in 1870 ; the last steamboat built in New Albany was named the Robert E. Lee . New Albany never regained its pre @-@ war stature ; its population leveled off at 40 @,@ 000 , and only the antebellum , early @-@ Victorian Mansion Row district remains from its boom period .
= = = Political = = =
When the war ended , the state 's Democrats were upset about their wartime treatment by the Republicans , but they staged a quick comeback . Indiana became the first state after the Civil War to elect a Democratic governor , Thomas Hendricks . His rise to the governor 's office initiated a period of Democratic control in the state that reversed many of the political gains made by the Republican Party during the war .
Indiana 's U.S. senators were strong supporters of the radical Reconstruction plans proposed by Congress . Senators Oliver Morton , who was elected to the Senate after serving as Indiana 's governor , and Schuyler Colfax voted in favor of President Andrew Johnson 's impeachment . Morton was especially disappointed in Congress 's failure to remove him .
When the South returned to firm Democratic control at the end of the 1870s , Indiana , which was closely split between the two parties , was one of a few key swing state that often decided the balance of power in Congress and the presidency . Five Hoosier politicians were vice @-@ presidential nominees on the major party tickets held between 1868 and 1916 , as the nation 's political parties vied for the support of the state 's electorate . In 1888 , at the height of the state 's post @-@ war political influence , former Civil War general Benjamin Harrison was elected president , and served in that capacity from 1889 to 1893 .
= = = Social = = =
More than half of the state 's households , based on an average family size of four persons , contributed a family member to fight in the war , making the effects of the conflict widely felt throughout the state . More Hoosiers died in the Civil War than in any other conflict . Although twice as many Hoosiers served in World War II , almost twice as many died in the Civil War . After the war , veterans programs were initiated to help wounded soldiers with housing , food , and other basic needs . In addition , orphanages and asylums were established to assist women and children .
After the war , some women who had been especially active in supporting the war on the home front turned their organizational skills to other concerns , especially prohibition and woman suffrage . In 1874 , for example , Zerelda Wallace , the wife of former Indiana governor David Wallace and stepmother of General Lew Wallace , became a founder of the Indiana chapter of the Woman 's Christian Temperance Union and served as its first president .
= = = Memorials = = =
Numerous war memorials were erected to honor the Indiana veterans of the Civil War . Among the largest in Indiana is the Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Monument in downtown Indianapolis . After two decades of discussion , construction for the monument began in 1888 ; it was finally completed in 1901 .
= = = Local and regional studies = = =
Findling , John ( 2003 ) . A History of New Albany , Indiana . Indiana University Southeast .
Bodenhamer , David J. , and Robert G. Barrows , eds . ( 1994 ) . The Encyclopedia of Indianapolis . Bloomington and Indianapolis : Indiana University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 253 @-@ 31222 @-@ 1 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Holliday , John . ( 1911 ) . Indianapolis and the Civil War . E. J. Hecker .
Lipin , Lawrence M. Producer , Proletarians , and Politicians : Workers and Party Politics in Evansville and New Albany , Indiana , 1850 @-@ 1887 ( 1994 ) ;
Northern Indiana Historical Society . " Indiana History Part 5 " . Indiana Center for History . Archived from the original on 2008 @-@ 03 @-@ 11 . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 05 @-@ 19 .
Wissing , Douglas A. ; Marianne Tobias ; Rebecca W. Dolan ; Anne Ryder ( 2013 ) . Crown Hill : History , Spirit , and Sanctuary . Indianapolis : Indiana Historical Society Press . ISBN 9780871953018 .
= = = Military units and personnel = = =
Baxter , Nancy Niblack ( 1995 ) . Gallant Fourteenth : The Story of an Indiana Civil War Regiment . Emmis Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 9617367 @-@ 8 @-@ X.
Dyer , Frederick H. ( 1908 ) . A Compendium of the War of the Rebellion : Compiled and Arranged from Official Records of the Federal and Confederate Armies , Reports of the Adjutant Generals of the Several States , the Army Registers , and Other Reliable Documents and Sources . Des Moines , IA : Dyer Publishing Company . OCLC 08697590 .
Conley , Laurence D. " The Truth about Chickamauga : A Ninth Indiana Regiment 's Perspective . " Indiana Magazine of History ( 2002 ) : 113 @-@ 143 @.@ online
Foster Jr , John Michael . " " For the Good of the Cause and the Protection of the Border " : The Service of the Indiana Legion in the Civil War , 1861 – 1865 . " Civil War History 55 @.@ 1 ( 2009 ) : 31 @-@ 55 . Militia unit. summary
Fox , William F. ( 1889 ) . Regimental Losses in the American Civil War , 1861 – 1865 . Albany , NY : Albany Publishing Company .
" Indiana Civil War Camps " . Wabash Valley Visions and Voices Digital Memory Project . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 10 @-@ 22 .
Marshall , Joan E. " Aid for Union Soldiers ' Families : A Comfortable Entitlement or a Pauper 's Pittance ? Indiana , 1861 – 1865 . " Social Service Review 78 @.@ 2 ( 2004 ) : 207 @-@ 242 @.@ in JSTOR
Mowery , David L. ; Douglas W. Bostick ( 2013 ) . Morgan 's Great Raid : The Remarkable Expedition from Kentucky to Ohio . Charleston , SC : The History Press .
Parsons Jr . ; Joseph A. ( March 1958 ) . " Indiana and the Call for Volunteers , April , 1861 " . Indiana Magazine of History 54 ( 1 ) : 1 – 23 . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 10 @-@ 20 .
Pickenpaugh , Roger ( 2009 ) . Captives in Gray : The Civil War Prisons of the Union . Tuscaloosa , AL : University of Alabama Press . ISBN 9780817316525 .
Roller , Scott ( March 1992 ) . " Business as Usual : Indiana 's Response to the Confederate Invasions of the Summer of 1863 " . Indiana Magazine of History ( Bloomington : Indiana University ) 88 ( 1 ) : 1 – 15 . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 10 @-@ 19 .
Sammartino , Therese T. ( 1998 @-@ 04 @-@ 20 ) . " National Register of Historic Places Registration Form : New Albany National Cemetery " ( PDF ) . U.S. Department of the Interior , National Park Service . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 10 @-@ 21 .
Seigel , Peggy Brase ( March 1990 ) . " She Went to War : Indiana Women Nurses in the Civil War " . Indiana Magazine of History ( Bloomington : Indiana University ) 86 ( 1 ) : 2 . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 10 @-@ 26 .
Terrell , William H. H. ( 1869 ) . Indiana in the War of the Rebellion : Report of the Adjutant General of the State of Indiana I.
= = = Biographical = = =
Boomhower , Ray E. ( 2007 ) . Fighting for Equality : A Life of May Wright Sewall . Indianapolis : Indiana Historical Society Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87195 @-@ 253 @-@ 0 .
Foulke , William D. ( 1899 ) . Life of Oliver P. Morton . Bowen @-@ Merrill Company .
Gugin , Linda C. , and James E. St. Clair , eds . ( 2006 ) . The Governors of Indiana . Indianapolis : Indiana Historical Society Press and the Indiana Historical Bureau . ISBN 0 @-@ 87195 @-@ 196 @-@ 7 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
" Indiana 's Prominent Civil War Personalities " . Civil War Indiana . Archived from the original on 2007 @-@ 08 @-@ 14 . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 04 @-@ 20 .
Vogelsang , Susan ( Summer 1992 ) . " Zerelda Wallace : Indiana 's Conservative Radical " . Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History ( Indiana Historical Society ) 4 ( 3 ) : 34 – 41 .
= = = Historiography and memory = = =
Barnhart , John D. ( September 1961 ) . " The Impact of the Civil War on Indiana " . Indiana Magazine of History ( Bloomington : Indiana University ) 57 ( 3 ) : 185 – 224 . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 10 @-@ 15 .
Fuller , A. James . " Oliver P. Morton and the Politics of Historical Memory . " Indiana Magazine of History 110 @.@ 4 ( 2014 ) : 324 @-@ 356 @.@ in JSTOR
Madison , James H. " Civil War Memories and " Pardnership Forgittin ' , " 1865 – 1913 . " Indiana Magazine of History ( 2003 ) : 198 @-@ 230 @.@ online
Rodgers , Thomas E. " Dupes and Demagogues : Caroline Krout 's Narrative of Civil War Disloyalty . " Historian 61 # 3 ( 1999 ) : 621 @-@ 638 , analyzes a 1900 novel about Indiana Copperhads
Sacco , Nicholas W. " Kindling the Fires of Patriotism : The Grand Army of the Republic , Department of Indiana , 1866 @-@ 1949 " ( MA Thesis , IUPUI . 2014 ) Bibliography pp 142 @-@ 53 . , online .
Towne , Stephen E. ( Summer 2011 ) . " Tending the Soil " . Ohio Valley History 11 ( 2 ) : 41 – 55 . . Survey of recent scholarship and online resources dealing with the war and Indiana .
= Saw II =
Saw II is a 2005 American horror film , a sequel to 2004 's Saw and the second installment in the seven @-@ part Saw franchise , directed and co @-@ written by Darren Lynn Bousman . Co @-@ written with series creator Leigh Whannell , it stars Donnie Wahlberg , Franky G , Glenn Plummer , Beverley Mitchell , Dina Meyer , Emmanuelle Vaugier , Erik Knudsen , Shawnee Smith and Tobin Bell .
The film features Jigsaw being apprehended by the police , but trapping the arresting officer in one of his own games while showing another game of eight people — including the officer 's son — in progress on TV monitors at another location . It also explores some of John Kramer 's backstory , providing a partial explanation of his reason for becoming Jigsaw .
After the financial success of Saw , a sequel was immediately green @-@ lit . Leigh Whannell and James Wan were busy preparing for their next film and were unable to write or direct . Bousman wrote a script called " The Desperate " before Saw was released and was looking for a producer but many studios rejected it . Hoffman received the script and showed it to his partners Mark Burg and Oren Koules . It was decided that , with some changes , it could be made into Saw II . Whannell became available to provide rewrites of the script . The film was given a larger budget and was shot from May to June 2005 in Toronto .
Saw II was released on October 28 , 2005 and , despite mixed reviews from critics , was a financial success , with opening takings of $ 31 @.@ 9 million and grossing $ 88 million in the United States and Canada . It has remained the highest grossing Saw film in those countries . Bell was nominated for " Best Villain " at the 2006 MTV Movie Awards for his role as Jigsaw in the film . Saw II was released to DVD on February 14 , 2006 and topped charts its first week , selling more than 3 million units . At the time , it was the fastest @-@ selling theatrical DVD in Lionsgate 's history .
= = Plot = =
As police investigate the scene of a Jigsaw " game " , in which an informant named Michael Marks was killed by a spike @-@ filled mask locked to his neck , Detective Allison Kerry finds a message for her former partner and lover , Eric Matthews , and calls him in . Despite not wanting to be involved with the case , already dealing with a divorce and estrangement from his son Daniel , Eric reluctantly joins Kerry and Sergeant Rigg in leading a SWAT team to the factory which produced the lock from Marks ' trap . There they find and apprehend John Kramer , the Jigsaw Killer , who is weak from cancer . He indicates several computer monitors showing eight people trapped in a house ; among them are Amanda Young , the only known survivor , and Daniel . A nerve agent filling the house will kill them within two hours , but Kramer assures Eric that following his own game , simply sitting and chatting with Kramer , will see Daniel returned to him unharmed . At Kerry 's urging , Eric agrees in order to buy time for the tech team to arrive and trace the video signal .
The victims are informed by microcassette recorder that antidotes are hidden throughout the house ; one is in the room 's safe , and a cryptic clue is provided . Xavier ignores a warning note and uses a key on the door , which fires a bullet through the peephole and kills Gus . They search the house for more antidotes after the room lets them out , with no success : Obi , who is revealed by tape to have helped with the abductions , is burned alive in a furnace trap which contained two antidotes ; Xavier throws Amanda into a syringe @-@ filled pit intended for himself , and though she is able to retrieve the key , he is unable to unlock the steel door behind which the antidote sits before the timer expires . Throughout the game , they discuss connections between them and determine that each has been jailed before ; the sole exception is Daniel , who has nonetheless been arrested before .
Meanwhile , Kramer passes the time with both idle and cryptic chat , eventually telling Eric that his survival of a suicide attempt after his diagnosis is the true reason for his games . With the little time left to him , he wants to inspire in others the new appreciation for life he had found . Eric , not interested in any of this , runs out of patience and returns to the monitors . He destroys several of Kramer 's documents and sketches at Kerry 's suggestion , but fails to provoke Kramer . As the tech team arrives , Kramer reveals the connection between the victims : Eric has framed all of them for various crimes , and Daniel will be in danger if his identity is discovered .
Having left the others , Xavier returns to the safe room and finds a colored number on Gus ' neck . He kills Jonas , who followed him to the room , and begins hunting the others . Laura succumbs to the nerve agent after finding the clue revealing Daniel 's identity . Addison and Amanda abandon him , but Amanda returns after finding Jonas ' body . Addison finds a glass box housing an antidote , but her arms become trapped in the bladed arm holes , and Xavier leaves her to die after reading her number . Amanda and Daniel find a tunnel in the safe room which leads to a dilapidated bathroom with two rotting corpses . Daniel collapses inside just before Xavier finds them . Amanda notes that he can 't read his own number , and he cuts the skin from his neck . As he approaches , Daniel , who feigned his collapse , jumps up and slashes his neck with a hacksaw , killing him .
Having seen Xavier chasing his son , Eric brutally assaults Kramer and forces him to lead Eric to the house . Kramer 's sitting area is revealed to be a lift , which they use to leave the factory . The tech team tracks the video 's source and Rigg leads his team to a house , where they find VCRs playing previously recorded images . As Kerry realizes the game took place before they found Kramer , the timer expires and a large safe opens , revealing Daniel bound and breathing into an oxygen mask . Eric enters the house alone and eventually locates the bathroom , where he is attacked by a pig @-@ masked figure . He awakens shackled at the ankle to a pipe ; a tape recorder left by Amanda reveals that she intends to continue Kramer 's work after he dies . Amanda appears in the doorway and seals the door , leaving Eric to die . Outside , Kramer hears Eric 's screams and slowly smiles .
= = Cast = =
Donnie Wahlberg as Detective Eric Matthews
Tobin Bell as John Kramer
Shawnee Smith as Amanda Young
Erik Knudsen as Daniel Matthews
Franky G as Xavier Chavez
Emmanuelle Vaugier as Addison Corday
Dina Meyer as Detective Allison Kerry
Beverley Mitchell as Laura Hunter
Glenn Plummer as Jonas Singer
Lyriq Bent as Lieutenant Daniel Rigg
Timothy Burd as Obi Tate
Tony Nappo as Gus Colyard
Noam Jenkins as Michael Marks
= = Production = =
= = = Development and writing = = =
Saw II was immediately green @-@ lit after Saw 's successful opening weekend a year earlier . Producers needed a script for a sequel but James Wan and Leigh Whannell , director and writer of Saw , were working on Universal Pictures 's Dead Silence . Music video director Darren Lynn Bousman had just completed a script for his first film The Desperate , and was trying to sell it to studios but was getting reactions that the script was very similar to Saw . A German studio eventually approached him with an offer to produce the film for $ 1 million . Just as they were looking for a cinematographer , the American cinematographer David A. Armstrong , who had worked on Saw , arrived on the scene and suggested showing the script to Saw producer Gregg Hoffman . Hoffman read the script and called Bousman wanting to produce " The Desperate " . After Hoffman showed the script to his partners Mark Burg and Oren Koules , the two decided that " The Desperate " was the starting script they needed for Saw II and two months later , Bousman was flown to Toronto to direct .
Whannell polished the script , with input from Wan , in order to bring it into the Saw universe , but kept the characters , traps and deaths from " The Desperate " script . Bousman said , " But you could read the script for " The Desperate " and watch Saw II , and you would not be able to draw a comparison " . Wan and Whannell also served as executive producers . All the previous film 's crew members returned : editor Kevin Greutert , cinematographer Armstrong , and composer Charlie Clouser . This was to be Hoffman 's last film . He died unexpectedly on December 4 , 2005 .
Only those key cast and crew members who were involved in the film 's ending were given the full script ; the rest received only the first 88 pages . If a particular page was rewritten , the old page was shredded . Members were also required to sign confidentiality agreements requiring them not to release any plot details . Reportedly , " four or five " alternate endings were shot in order to keep the ending a surprise . Bousman gave the actors freedom to change dialogue in the script . He said that 95 % of the time , the actors went by the script , with about 5 % being adlibs , which he said " made all of the difference in the world " . Hoffman said in an interview with Fangoria that they listened to fans ' suggestions . For instance , instead of only showing the aftermath of a character violently dying in a flashback , they would allow it to unfold as it happened . This was in contrast to Saw , in which most of the violence was implied off @-@ screen .
= = = Filming and post @-@ production = = =
Saw II was given a larger production budget of $ 4 million , compared to Saw 's budget of a little over $ 1 million . The marketing budget was an additional $ 2 million . The first shot , which involved shooting police cars and a SWAT van driving around the industrial docklands outside the soundstage , was filmed on April 29 , 2005 in Toronto . After two months of pre @-@ production , principal photography took place over 25 days at Toronto 's Cinespace Film Studios from May 2 , 2005 to June 6 , 2005 . The ending was filmed on May 25 and 26 . The music and sound was recorded in July and Saw II was locked on July 16 . It was completely finished by September 9 . Visual effects were performed by C.O.R.E. Digital Pictures and post @-@ production services were provided by Deluxe .
= = = Trap designs = = =
David Hackl , the film 's production designer , took three weeks to construct 27 sets on a single sound stage . The puppet Billy , used in the series to give instructions to Jigsaw 's victims , was originally created by Wan out of paper towel rolls and papier @-@ mâché . Given the larger budget for the sequel , Billy was upgraded with remote @-@ controlled eyes and a servo @-@ driven mouth . In one trap , " The Needle Room " , Smith 's character Amanda is thrown into a pit of needles to find a key . In order for this to be done safely , four people , over a period of four days , removed the needle tips from syringes and replaced them with fiber optic tips . They modified a total of 120 @,@ 000 fake needles . However , this number was insufficient and the pit had to be filled with styrofoam and other materials to make it appear to have more needles . The needles that were apparently stuck into Smith were actually blunted syringes stuck into padding under her clothing . For certain shots , a fake arm was used .
Bousman came up with an idea whereby a character 's hands would get stuck in some sort of vessel and this resulted in the " Hand Trap " . It proved to be a challenge but after much discussion , Hackl , property master Jim Murray and art director Michele Brady came up with a suitable design . They arranged a glass box suspended by chains from the ceiling which contained a hypodermic needle with the antidote and which had two hand @-@ holes on the underside . As soon as Vaugier 's character Addison put her hands into the holes razor blades would close in on her hands and any attempt to withdraw from the trap would cause her to bleed to death . In order for the trap to be used safely , the prop builders made the handcuffs move inside the box and fake blades that would retract from the actress 's hands , thus allowing her to slide her hands out . Hackl subsequently commented that the character did not have to put her hands into the trap as there was a lock with a key on the other side box that would have opened the contraption .
The original idea for the " Furnace Trap " came from the house having been a crematorium at some point , but this would have involved turning the house into a funeral parlor , so it was instead decided that the furnace would be part of the house 's boiler system . The furnace was visualized in the form of a computer model so that Bousman could better understand how shots could be filmed . Using the computer model as a guide , the furnace was constructed in three days using cement board and tin with removable sides and top so Timothy Burd ( Obi ) could be filmed crawling inside . The furnace produced real flames and , in place of Burd , a stunt man using a fire @-@ retardant gel crawled into the fire .
= = Release = =
Saw II was released in New Zealand , the United States , and the United Kingdom on October 28 , 2005 ; and November 17 , 2005 in Australia . The original teaser poster showing two bloody , severed fingers was rejected by the Motion Picture Association of America . Since the poster was already released and managed to " slip by " the MPAA , they issued a release stating the poster was not approved and was unacceptable ; Lionsgate removed the poster from their websites . The image was used instead for the film 's soundtrack cover . Lionsgate held the second annual " Give Til It Hurts " blood drive for the Red Cross and collected 10 @,@ 154 pints of blood .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The Saw II soundtrack was released on October 25 , 2005 by Image Entertainment . The video for " Forget to Remember " was also directed by Bousman .
= = = Home media = = =
Saw II was released on DVD , VHS , and Universal Media Disc on February 14 , 2006 through Lionsgate Home Entertainment . The DVD debuted as number one selling 2 @.@ 5 million units in its first day . It went on to sell 3 @.@ 9 million units its first week , becoming the fastest selling theatrical DVD in Lionsgate 's history .
On October 24 , 2006 , an Unrated Special Edition was released , while an Unrated Blu @-@ ray edition was also released with various special features on January 23 , 2007 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Saw II opened with $ 31 @.@ 7 million on 3 @,@ 879 screens across 2 @,@ 949 theaters . The three @-@ day Halloween opening weekend set a Lionsgate record . It became at the time , the widest release for Lionsgate and one of the best opening weekends for a horror sequel . For its second weekend it fell 47 % making $ 16 @.@ 9 million . The film was closed out of theaters on January 5 , 2006 after 70 days of release .
Saw II opened in the United Kingdom with $ 3 @.@ 8 million on 305 screens , 70 % larger than the first instalment . It opened in Japan on 67 screens with $ 750 @,@ 000 . Opening to $ 1 @.@ 3 million on 173 screens it was the number one film in Australia . The film grossed $ 87 million in the United States and Canada and $ 60 @.@ 7 million in other markets for a worldwide total of $ 147 @.@ 7 million . The film is the highest @-@ grossing film of the Saw series and Lionsgate 's fourth highest @-@ grossing film in the United States and Canada . According to CinemaScore polls , 53 % of the audience were males under 25 years of age . The poll also indicated that
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episodes " Provenance " and " Providence . "
= = Reception = =
" Biogenesis " first aired in the United States on May 16 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 4 , with a 14 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 14 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 15 @.@ 86 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on July 25 , 1999 and received 0 @.@ 55 million viewers and was the eighth most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " You 've heard every theory about how man evolved ... except for one . " The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files gave the episode a positive review , writing " ' Biogenesis ' gave us a Mulder gone mad , duplicitous allies and enemies , a rising body count , and Scully on the brink of an amazing discovery . It was pure X @-@ Files and a terrific conclusion to a standout sixth season . " Den of Geek writer Nina Sordi ranked " Biogenesis , " along with " The Sixth Extinction " and " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati , " as the fifth best episode of the series , writing , " it is evident that as [ The X @-@ Files ] progressed , the episodes surrounding those storylines and the breaking points Mulder and Scully endured push them further and further towards total , irreversible defeat . This is especially poignant when viewing this anxiety inducing trio of episodes . " Monica S. Kuebler from Exclaim magazine called " Biogenesis " , along with " The Sixth Extinction " and " Amor Fati " , one of the " best " episodes during the show 's " colonization " phase . Michigan Daily reviewer Melissa Runstrom said " Biogenesis , " along with " One Son " and " Two Fathers , " were the highlights of the sixth season .
Zack Handlen awarded the episode a " B " and called it " crazy enough at the end that , if nothing else , I really want to know what happens next " . He enjoyed the basic premise , involving the idea that aliens were active in the development of humanity — comparing it to Stanley Kubrick ’ s film 2001 : A Space Odyssey and Ridley Scott ’ s movie Prometheus . However , Handlen , since he was reviewing the series retrospectively , was slightly disappointed that the plot was dropped in subsequent season . In the end , he noted that the entry was " ambitious , but it doesn ’ t exactly make sense , which is pretty much where [ The X @-@ Files ' mythology ] is at now . "
Other reviews were more critical . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . The two heavily criticized the episode for recycling story lines , writing , " With the Syndicate destroyed , this episode was widely touted as the beginning of a fresh new mythology for the show . So why does watching it give such a strong sense of déjà vu ? " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris summarized the episode as " if someone took the script to ' Anasazi ' — one of the best X @-@ Files episodes ever — changed the plot a bit , and then stripped it of virtually all human interest . "
= Winnipeg =
Winnipeg ( / ˈwɪnɪpɛɡ / ) is the capital and largest city of the province of Manitoba in Canada . It is located near the longitudinal centre of North America , at the confluence of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers .
The city is named after the nearby Lake Winnipeg ; the name comes from the Western Cree words for muddy or brackish water . The region was a trading centre for aboriginal peoples long before the arrival of Europeans . French traders built the first fort on the site in 1738 . A settlement was later founded by the Selkirk settlers of the Red River Colony in 1812 , the nucleus of which was incorporated as the City of Winnipeg in 1873 . As of 2011 , Winnipeg is the seventh most populated municipality in Canada . Being located very far inland , the local climate is extremely seasonal even by Canadian standards with average January lows of around − 21 ° C ( − 6 ° F ) and average July highs of 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) .
Known as the " Gateway to the West " , Winnipeg is a railway and transportation hub with a diversified economy . This multicultural city hosts numerous annual festivals , including the Festival du Voyageur , the Winnipeg Folk Festival , the Jazz Winnipeg Festival , the Winnipeg Fringe Theatre Festival , and Folklorama . Winnipeg was the first Canadian host of the Pan American Games . It is home to several professional sports franchises , including the Winnipeg Blue Bombers ( Canadian football ) , the Winnipeg Jets ( ice hockey ) , Manitoba Moose ( ice hockey ) and the Winnipeg Goldeyes ( baseball ) .
= = History = =
Winnipeg lies at the confluence of the Assiniboine and the Red River of the North , a location now known as " The Forks " . This point was at the crossroads of canoe routes travelled by First Nations before European contact . Winnipeg is named after nearby Lake Winnipeg ; the name is a transcription of the Western Cree words for muddy or brackish water . The area was populated for several thousands of years by First Nations peoples . Evidence provided by archaeology , petroglyphs , rock art and oral history indicates that native peoples used the area in prehistoric times for camping , harvesting , hunting , tool making , fishing , trading and , farther north , for agriculture . Estimates of the date of first settlement in this area are varied and range from 11 @,@ 500 years ago for a site southwest of the present city to 6 @,@ 000 years ago at The Forks .
In 1805 , Canadian colonists observed First Nations peoples engaged in farming activity along the Red River . The practice quickly expanded , driven by the demand by traders for provisions . The rivers provided an extensive transportation network linking northern First Peoples with those to the south along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers . The Ojibwe made some of the first maps on birch bark , which helped fur traders navigate the waterways of the area .
= = = Settlement = = =
Sieur de La Vérendrye built the first fur trading post on the site in 1738 , called Fort Rouge . French trading continued at this site for several decades before the arrival of the British Hudson 's Bay Company after France ceded the territory following its defeat in the Seven Years ' War . Many French and later British men who were trappers married First Nations women ; their mixed @-@ race children hunted , traded , and lived in the area . They gradually developed as an ethnicity known as the Métis because of sharing a traditional culture .
Lord Selkirk was involved with the first permanent settlement ( known as the Red River Colony ) , the purchase of land from the Hudson 's Bay Company , and a survey of river lots in the early 19th century . The North West Company built Fort Gibraltar in 1809 , and the Hudson 's Bay Company built Fort Douglas in 1812 , both in the area of present @-@ day Winnipeg . The two companies competed fiercely over trade . The Métis and Lord Selkirk 's settlers fought at the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816 . In 1821 , the Hudson 's Bay and North West Companies merged , ending their long @-@ standing rivalry . Fort Gibraltar was renamed Fort Garry in 1822 and became the leading post in the region for the Hudson 's Bay Company . The fort was destroyed by a flood in 1826 and was not rebuilt until 1835 . A rebuilt section of the fort , consisting of the front gate and a section of the wall , can be found near the modern @-@ day corner of Main Street and Broadway Avenue in downtown Winnipeg .
In 1869 – 70 , present @-@ day Winnipeg was the site of the Red River Rebellion , a conflict between the local provisional government of Métis , led by Louis Riel , and newcomers from eastern Canada . General Garnet Wolseley was sent to put down the uprising . The Manitoba Act of 1870 made Manitoba the fifth province of the three @-@ year @-@ old Canadian Confederation . On 8 November 1873 , Winnipeg was incorporated as a city , with the Selkirk settlement as its nucleus . Métis legislator and interpreter James McKay named the city .
Winnipeg developed rapidly after the coming of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1881 . The railway divided the North End , which housed mainly Eastern Europeans , from the richer Anglo @-@ Saxon southern part of the city . It also contributed to a demographic shift beginning shortly after Confederation that saw the francophone population decrease from a majority to a small minority group . This shift resulted in Premier Thomas Greenway controversially ending legislative bilingualism and removing funding for French Catholic Schools in 1890 .
By 1911 , Winnipeg was Canada 's third @-@ largest city . However , the city faced financial difficulty when the Panama Canal opened in 1914 . The canal reduced reliance on Canada 's rail system for international trade ; the increase in shipping traffic helped Vancouver to surpass Winnipeg in both prosperity and population by the end of World War I.
= = = 1919 strike to present = = =
More than 30 @,@ 000 workers walked off their jobs in May 1919 in what came to be known as the Winnipeg general strike . The strike was a product of postwar recession , labour conditions , the activity of union organizers and a large influx of returning World War I soldiers seeking work . After many arrests , deportations , and incidents of violence , the strike ended on 21 June 1919 ; when the Riot Act was read and a group of Royal Canadian Mounted Police officers charged a group of strikers . Two strikers were killed and at least thirty others were injured on the day that became known as Bloody Saturday ; the event polarized the population . One of the leaders of the strike , J. S. Woodsworth , went on to found Canada 's first major socialist party , the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation , which later became the New Democratic Party .
The Manitoba Legislative Building , constructed mainly of Tyndall stone , opened in 1920 ; its dome supports a bronze statue finished in gold leaf , titled " Eternal Youth and the Spirit of Enterprise " ( commonly known as the " Golden Boy " ) . The stock market crash of 1929 and the Great Depression resulted in widespread unemployment , worsened by drought and low agricultural prices . The Depression ended after the start of World War II in 1939 . In the Battle of Hong Kong , The Winnipeg Grenadiers were among the first Canadians to engage in combat against Japan . Battalion members who survived combat were taken prisoner and endured brutal treatment in prisoner of war camps . In 1942 , the Victory Loan Campaign staged a mock Nazi invasion of Winnipeg to promote awareness of the stakes of the war in Europe . When the war ended , pent @-@ up demand generated a boom in housing development , although building activity was checked by the 1950 Red River flood . The federal government estimated damage at over $ 26 million , although the province indicated that it was at least double that .
Prior to 1972 , Winnipeg was the largest of thirteen cities and towns in a metropolitan area around the Red and Assiniboine Rivers . A consolidated metropolitan " unicity " government was established on 27 July 1971 , taking effect in 1972 . The City of Winnipeg Act incorporated the current city . Winnipeg experienced a severe economic downturn in advance of the early 1980s recession , during which the city incurred closures of prominent businesses , including the Winnipeg Tribune , as well as the Swift 's and Canada Packers meat packing plants . In 1981 , Winnipeg was one of the first cities in Canada to sign a tripartite agreement with the provincial and federal governments to redevelop its downtown area , and the three levels of government contributed over $ 271 million to its development . In 1989 , the reclamation and redevelopment of the CNR rail yards turned The Forks into Winnipeg 's most popular tourist attraction . The city was threatened by the 1997 Red River flood as well as further floods in 2009 and 2011 .
= = Geography = =
Winnipeg lies at the bottom of the Red River Valley , a flood plain with an extremely flat topography . It is on the eastern edge of the Canadian Prairies in Western Canada and is known as the " Gateway to the West " . Winnipeg is bordered by tallgrass prairie to the west and south and the aspen parkland to the northeast , although most of the native prairie grasses have been removed for agriculture and urbanization . It is relatively close to many large Canadian Shield lakes and parks , as well as Lake Winnipeg ( the Earth 's 11th largest freshwater lake ) . Winnipeg contains North America 's largest extant mature urban elm forest . The city has a total area of 464 @.@ 08 km2 ( 179 @.@ 18 sq mi ) .
Winnipeg has four major rivers : the Red , Assiniboine , La Salle and Seine . The city was subject to severe flooding in the past . The Red River reached its greatest flood height in 1826 . Another large flood occurred in 1950 , which caused millions of dollars in damage and mass evacuations . This flood prompted Duff Roblin 's provincial government to build the Red River Floodway to protect the city ; the project began in 1962 and was completed in 1968 . In the 1997 flood , flood control dikes were reinforced and raised using sandbags ; Winnipeg suffered very limited damage compared to the flood 's impact on cities without such structures , such as Grand Forks , North Dakota . The generally flat terrain and the poor drainage of the Red River Valley 's clay @-@ based soil also results in many mosquitoes during wetter years .
= = = Climate = = =
Winnipeg 's location in the Canadian Prairies gives it a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfb ) Summers have a July mean average of 19 @.@ 7 ° C ( 67 @.@ 5 ° F ) . Winters are the coldest and driest time of year , with the January mean average around − 16 @.@ 4 ° C ( 2 @.@ 5 ° F ) and total winter precipitation averaging 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) . Temperatures occasionally drop below − 40 @.@ 0 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) The actual air temperature drops below − 30 ° C ( − 22 ° F ) on average 12 @.@ 6 days annually and above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) 13 @.@ 3 days of the year . On average there are 317 @.@ 8 days per year with measurable sunshine , with July seeing the most on average . With 2353 hours of sunshine per year , Winnipeg is the second sunniest city in Canada . Total annual precipitation ( both rain and snow ) is just over 20 inches ( 51 cm ) . Thunderstorms are very common during summer , and sometimes severe enough to produce tornadoes . Wind chill is an issue in the local climate . The wind chill has gone down as low as − 57 ° C ( − 71 ° F ) and on average there are 12 days of the year that can reach a wind chill below − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) .
The highest temperature ever recorded in Winnipeg was 42 @.@ 2 ° C ( 108 ° F ) on 11 July 1936 . The apparent heat can be even more extreme due to bursts of humidity and on 25 July 2007 a 47 @.@ 3 ° C ( 117 @.@ 1 ° F ) reading of the humidex was measured . The coldest temperature ever recorded was − 47 @.@ 8 ° C ( − 54 ° F ) on 24 December 1879 .
The frost @-@ free season is comparatively long for a location with such severe winters . The last spring frost is on average around May 23 , whilst the first fall frost is on September 22 .
= = = Cityscape = = =
There are officially 236 neighbourhoods in Winnipeg . Downtown Winnipeg , the city 's financial heart and economic core , is centred on the intersection of Portage Avenue and Main Street . It covers an area of about 1 square mile ( 2 @.@ 6 km2 ) and is the fastest growing high @-@ income neighbourhood in the city . More than 72 @,@ 000 people work downtown , and over 40 @,@ 000 students attend classes at its universities and colleges . The past few decades have seen the downtown undergo major revitalization efforts ; since 1999 , over C $ 1 @.@ 2 billion has been invested .
Downtown Winnipeg 's Exchange District is named after the area 's original grain exchange , which operated from 1880 to 1913 . The 30 @-@ block district received National Historic Site of Canada status in 1997 ; it includes North America 's most extensive collection of early 20th @-@ century terracotta and cut stone architecture , 62 of downtown Winnipeg 's 86 heritage structures , Stephen Juba Park , and Old Market Square . Other major downtown areas are The Forks , Central Park , Broadway @-@ Assiniboine and Chinatown . Many of Downtown Winnipeg 's major buildings are linked with the Winnipeg Walkway .
Various residential neighbourhoods surround the downtown in all directions ; expansion is greatest to the south and west , although several areas remain underdeveloped . The largest park in the city , Assiniboine Park , houses the Assiniboine Park Zoo and the Leo Mol Sculpture Garden . Other large city parks include Kildonan Park and St. Vital Park . The major commercial areas in the city are Polo Park , Kildonan Crossing , South St. Vital , Garden City ( West Kildonan ) , Pembina Strip , Kenaston Smart Centre , Osborne Village , and the Corydon strip . The main cultural and nightlife areas are the Exchange District , The Forks , Osborne Village and Corydon Village ( both in Fort Rouge ) , Sargent and Ellice Avenues ( West End ) and Old St. Boniface . Osborne Village is Winnipeg 's most densely populated neighbourhood , as well as one of the most densely populated neighbourhoods in Western Canada .
= = Demographics = =
As of the Canada 2011 Census there were 663 @,@ 617 people living in Winnipeg proper , with approximately 730 @,@ 018 living in the Winnipeg Census Metropolitan Area ( CMA ) . Thus , Winnipeg is Manitoba 's largest city and Canada 's seventh largest city . Furthermore , the city represents 54 @.@ 9 % of the population of the province of Manitoba , the highest population concentration in one city of any province in Canada . Apart from the city of Winnipeg , the Winnipeg CMA includes the rural municipalities of Springfield , St. Clements , Taché , East St. Paul , Macdonald , Ritchot , West St. Paul , Headingley , the Brokenhead 4 reserve , and Rosser and St. François Xavier . Statistics Canada 's estimate of the Winnipeg CMA population as of 1 July 2015 is 793 @,@ 428 .
As of the 2006 census , 48 @.@ 3 percent of residents were male and 51 @.@ 7 percent were female . 24 @.@ 3 percent were 19 years old or younger , 27 @.@ 4 percent were between 20 and 30 years old , and 34 @.@ 0 percent were between 40 and 64 years old . The average age of a Winnipegger in May 2006 was 38 @.@ 7 , compared to an average of 39 @.@ 5 for Canada as a whole . Between the censuses of 2006 and 2011 , Winnipeg 's population increased by 4 @.@ 8 percent , compared to 5 @.@ 2 percent for Manitoba as a whole . The population density of the city of Winnipeg averaged 1 @,@ 430 people per km2 , compared with 2 @.@ 2 for Manitoba .
Winnipeg has a significant and increasing Aboriginal population , with both the highest percentage of Aboriginal peoples ( 11 @.@ 7 % ) for any major Canadian city , and the highest total number of Aboriginals ( 76 @,@ 055 ) for any single non @-@ reserve municipality . The Aboriginal population grew by 22 % between 2001 and 2006 , compared to an increase of 3 % for the city as a whole ; this population tends to be younger and less wealthy than non @-@ Aboriginal residents . Winnipeg also has the highest Métis population in both percentage ( 6 @.@ 3 % ) and numbers ( 41 @,@ 005 ) ; the growth rate for this population between 2001 and 2006 was 30 % . The city has the greatest percentage of Filipino residents ( 8 @.@ 7 % ) of any major Canadian city , although Toronto has more Filipinos by total population . In 2006 , Winnipeg ranked seventh of the Canadian cities for percentage of residents of a visible minority . The population is 67 @.@ 5 % white as of 2011 ( down from 73 @.@ 5 % in 2006 ) , while non @-@ aboriginal visible minorities represent 21 @.@ 4 % as of 2011 ( up from 16 @.@ 3 % in 2006 ) . The city receives over 10 @,@ 000 net international immigrants per year .
More than a hundred languages are spoken in Winnipeg , of which the most common is English : 99 percent of Winnipeggers are fluent English speakers , 88 percent speak only English , and 0 @.@ 1 percent speak only French ( Canada 's other official language ) . 10 percent speak both English and French , while 1 @.@ 3 percent speak neither . Other languages spoken as a mother tongue in Winnipeg include Tagalog ( 5 @.@ 0 % ) , German ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) , and Punjabi and Ukrainian ( both 1 @.@ 4 % ) . Several Aboriginal languages are also spoken , such as Ojibwe ( 0 @.@ 3 % ) and Cree ( 0 @.@ 2 % ) .
The 2011 National Household Survey reported the religious make @-@ up of Winnipeg as : 63 @.@ 7 % Christian , including 29 @.@ 7 % Catholic , 8 @.@ 1 % United Church , and 4 @.@ 6 % Anglican ; 1 @.@ 7 % Muslim ; 1 @.@ 6 % Jewish ; 1 @.@ 5 % Sikh ; 1 @.@ 0 % Hindu ; 1 @.@ 0 % Buddhist ; 0 @.@ 3 % traditional ( aboriginal ) spirituality ; 0 @.@ 4 % other ; and 28 @.@ 9 % no religious affiliation .
= = Economy = =
Winnipeg is an economic base and regional centre . It has one of the country 's most diversified economies , with major employment in the trade ( 15 @.@ 2 % ) , manufacturing ( 9 @.@ 8 % ) , educational ( 7 @.@ 7 % ) , and health care and social assistance ( 15 @.@ 2 % ) sectors . There were approximately 21 @,@ 000 employers in the city as of 2012 .
In 2013 , The CIBC Metropolitan Economic Activity Index rated Winnipeg 's economy as fourth in a national survey of 25 city economies , behind Toronto , Calgary , and Regina . According to the Conference Board of Canada , Winnipeg is projected to experience a real GDP growth of 2 percent in 2014 . Unlike most of Canada , the city experienced a decrease in unemployment in 2013 , ending the year at a rate of 5 @.@ 8 percent . As of 2010 , median household income in the city was $ 72 @,@ 050 .
As of January 2014 , approximately 416 @,@ 700 people are employed in Winnipeg and the surrounding area . Some of Winnipeg 's largest employers are government and government @-@ funded institutions , including : the Province of Manitoba , the City of Winnipeg , the University of Manitoba , the Health Sciences Centre , and Manitoba Hydro . Approximately 54 @,@ 000 people ( 14 % of the work force ) are employed in the public sector as of 2008 . Large private sector employers include Shaw Communications , Manitoba Telecom Services , Ipsos @-@ Reid , Palliser Furniture , Great @-@ West Life Assurance , Motor Coach Industries , New Flyer Industries , Boeing Canada Technology , Magellan Aerospace , Nygård International , Canad Inns and Investors Group .
The Royal Canadian Mint , established in 1976 , is where all circulating coinage in Canada is produced . The plant , located in southeastern Winnipeg , also produces coins for many other countries .
In 2012 , Winnipeg was ranked by KPMG as the least expensive location to do business in western Canada . Like many prairie cities , Winnipeg has a relatively low cost of living . According to the Canadian Real Estate Association , the average house price in Winnipeg was $ 260 @,@ 000 as of 2013 . As of May 2014 , the Consumer Price Index was 125 @.@ 8 relative to 2002 prices , reflecting consumer costs at the Canadian average .
= = Culture = =
Winnipeg was named the Cultural Capital of Canada in 2010 by Canadian Heritage . As of 2012 , there are 26 National Historic Sites of Canada in Winnipeg . One of these , The Forks , attracts four million visitors a year . It is home to the City television studio , Manitoba Theatre for Young People , the Winnipeg International Children 's Festival , and the Manitoba Children 's Museum . It also features a 30 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 800 m2 ) skate plaza , a 8 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 790 m2 ) bowl complex , the Esplanade Riel bridge , a river walkway , Shaw Park , and the Canadian Museum for Human Rights . The Winnipeg Public Library is a public library network with 20 branches throughout the city , including the main Millennium Library .
Winnipeg the Bear , which would later become the inspiration for part of the name of Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh , was purchased in Ontario by Lieutenant Harry Colebourn of the Fort Garry Horse . He named the bear after the regiment 's home town of Winnipeg . A. A. Milne later wrote a series of books featuring the fictional Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh . The series ' illustrator , Ernest H. Shepard , created the only known oil painting of Winnipeg 's adopted fictional bear , displayed in Assiniboine Park .
The city has developed many distinct dishes and cooking styles , notably in the areas of confectionery and hot @-@ smoked fish . Both the First Nations and more recent Eastern Canadian , European , and Asian immigrants have helped shape Winnipeg 's dining scene , giving birth to dishes such as the desserts schmoo torte and wafer pie .
Winnipeg 's three largest performing arts venues , the Centennial Concert Hall , Manitoba Theatre Centre ( MTC ) and the Pantages Playhouse Theatre , are located downtown . MTC is Canada 's oldest English @-@ language regional theatre , with over 250 performances yearly . The Pantages Playhouse Theatre opened as a vaudeville house in 1913 . Other city theatres include the Burton Cummings Theatre ( a National Historic Site of Canada built in 1906 ) and Prairie Theatre Exchange . Le Cercle Molière , based in St Boniface , is the oldest theatre company in Canada ; it was founded in 1925 . Rainbow Stage is a musical theatre production company based in Kildonan Park that produces professional , live Broadway musical shows and is Canada 's longest @-@ surviving outdoor theatre . The Manitoba Theatre for Young People at The Forks is one of only two Theatres for Young Audiences in Canada with a permanent residence , and is the only Theatre for Young Audiences that offers a full season of plays for teenagers . The Winnipeg Jewish Theatre is the only professional theatre in Canada dedicated to Jewish themes . Shakespeare in the Ruins ( SIR ) presents adaptations of Shakespeare plays .
Winnipeg has hosted a number of Hollywood productions : Shall We Dance ? ( 2004 ) , Capote ( 2005 ) , The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford ( 2007 ) , and Goon ( 2011 ) among others had parts filmed in the city . The Winnipeg Film Group has produced numerous award @-@ winning films . There are several TV and film production companies in Winnipeg : the most prominent are Farpoint Films , Frantic Films , Buffalo Gal Pictures , and Les Productions Rivard . Guy Maddin 's My Winnipeg , an independent film released in 2008 , is a comedic rumination on the city 's history .
The Winnipeg Symphony Orchestra is the largest and oldest professional musical ensemble in Winnipeg . The Manitoba Chamber Orchestra runs a series of chamber orchestral concerts each year . Manitoba Opera is Manitoba 's only full @-@ time professional opera company . Among the most notable musical acts associated with Winnipeg are Bachman – Turner Overdrive , the Crash Test Dummies , The Guess Who , Neil Young , The Wailin ' Jennys , and The Weakerthans .
The Royal Winnipeg Ballet ( RWB ) is Canada 's oldest ballet company and the longest continuously operating ballet company in North America . It was the first organization to be granted a royal title by Queen Elizabeth II , and has included notable dancers such as Evelyn Hart and Mikhail Baryshnikov . The RWB also runs a full @-@ time classical dance school .
The Manitoba Museum is the largest museum in the city , and depicts the history of the city and province . The full @-@ size replica of the ship Nonsuch is the museum 's showcase piece . The Manitoba Children 's Museum is a nonprofit children 's museum located at The Forks that features twelve permanent galleries . The Winnipeg Art Gallery is Western Canada 's oldest public art gallery , founded in 1912 . It is the sixth @-@ largest in the country and includes the world 's largest public collection of contemporary Inuit art . The Canadian Museum for Human Rights is the second Canadian national museum for human rights . The federal government has contributed $ 100 million towards the estimated $ 311 @-@ million project . Construction of the museum began on 1 April 2008 , and the museum opened to the public 27 September 2014 .
The Western Canada Aviation Museum , located in a hangar at Winnipeg 's James Richardson International Airport , features military jets , commercial aircraft , Canada 's first helicopter , the " flying saucer " Avrocar , flight simulators , and a Black Brant rocket built in Manitoba by Bristol Aerospace . The Winnipeg Railway Museum is located at Via Rail Station and contains various locomotives , notably the Countess of Dufferin , the first steam locomotive in Western Canada .
Festival du Voyageur , Western Canada 's largest winter festival , celebrates the early French explorers of the Red River Valley . Folklorama is the largest and longest @-@ running cultural celebration festival in the world . The Jazz Winnipeg Festival and the Winnipeg Folk Festival both celebrate Winnipeg 's music community . The Winnipeg Music Festival offers a competition venue to amateur musicians . The Winnipeg Fringe Theatre Festival is the second @-@ largest alternative theatre festival in North America . The Winnipeg International Writers Festival ( also called THIN AIR ) brings writers to Winnipeg for workshops and readings . The LGBT community in the city is served by Pride Winnipeg , an annual gay pride festival and parade , and Reel Pride , a film festival of LGBT @-@ themed films .
= = = Sports = = =
Winnipeg has been home to several professional hockey teams . The Winnipeg Jets of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) have called the city home since 2011 . The original Winnipeg Jets , the city 's former NHL team , left for Phoenix , Arizona after the 1995 – 96 season due to mounting financial troubles , despite a campaign effort to " Save the Jets " . The Jets play at MTS Centre , which is currently ranked the world 's 19th @-@ busiest arena among non @-@ sporting touring events , 13th @-@ busiest among facilities in North America , and 3rd @-@ busiest in Canada as of 2009 . Past hockey teams based in Winnipeg include the Winnipeg Maroons , Winnipeg Warriors , three time Stanley Cup Champion Winnipeg Victorias and the Winnipeg Falcons , who were the first ever Gold Medal Olympians , representing Canada in 1920 in Antwerp , Belgium . Another team presently located in Winnipeg is the Manitoba Moose , who are the American Hockey League primary affiliate of the Winnipeg Jets and owned by the same group . In amateur hockey , the Winnipeg Blues of the Manitoba Junior Hockey League play out of the MTS Iceplex . On the international stage , Winnipeg has hosted national and world hockey championships on a number of occasions , most notably the 1999 World Junior Hockey Championship and 2007 Women 's World Hockey Championship .
The Winnipeg Blue Bombers play in the Canadian Football League . The Blue Bombers are ten @-@ time Grey Cup champions , their last championship in 1990 . From 1953 to 2012 , the Blue Bombers called Canad Inns Stadium home ; they have since moved to Investors Group Field . Due to construction delays and cost overruns , the stadium was not ready in time for the 2012 CFL season , instead opening in 2013 . The $ 200 @-@ million facility is also the home to the CIS ' University of Manitoba Bisons and the Winnipeg Rifles of the Canadian Junior Football League .
The University of Manitoba Bisons and the University of Winnipeg Wesmen represent the city in interuniversity sport . In soccer , it is represented by the Winnipeg Alliance FC in the Canadian Major Indoor Soccer League and the WSA Winnipeg in the USL Premier Development League .
Winnipeg has been home to a number of professional baseball teams , most recently the Winnipeg Goldeyes since 1994 . The Goldeyes play at Shaw Park , which was completed in 1999 . The team had led the Northern League for ten straight years in average attendance through 2010 , with more than 300 @,@ 000 annual fan visits , until the league collapsed and merged into the American Association of Independent Professional Baseball .
Winnipeg was the first Canadian city to ever host the Pan American Games , and the second city to host the event twice , in 1967 and again in 1999 . The Pan Am Pool , built for the 1967 Pan Am Games , hosts aquatic events , including diving , speed swimming , synchronized swimming and water polo . Winnipeg co @-@ hosted the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup . The city has been selected to host the 2017 Canada Summer Games .
= = Local media = =
Winnipeg has three daily newspapers : the Winnipeg Free Press , the Winnipeg Sun , and the Metro Winnipeg . There are five weekly newspapers delivered free to most Winnipeg households by region . There are also several ethnic weekly newspapers .
Television broadcasting in Winnipeg started in 1954 . The federal government refused to license any private broadcaster until the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation had created a national network . In May 1954 , CBWT went on the air with four hours of broadcasting per day . There are now five English @-@ language stations and one French @-@ language station based in Winnipeg . Additionally , some American network affiliates are available over @-@ the @-@ air . Winnipeg is home to 33 AM and FM radio stations , two of which are French @-@ language stations . CBC Radio One and CBC Radio 2 broadcast local and national programming in the city . NCI is devoted to Aboriginal programming .
= = Law and government = =
Since 1992 , the city of Winnipeg has been represented by 15 city councillors and a mayor , both elected every four years . The present mayor , Brian Bowman , was elected to office in 2014 . The city is a single @-@ tier municipality , governed by a mayor @-@ council system . The structure of the municipal government is set by the provincial legislature in the City of Winnipeg Charter Act , which replaced the old City of Winnipeg Act in 2003 . The mayor is elected by direct popular vote to serve as the chief executive of the city . At Council meetings , the mayor has one of 16 votes . The City Council is a unicameral legislative body , representing geographical wards throughout the city .
In provincial politics , Winnipeg is represented by 31 of the 57 provincial Members of the Legislative Assembly ( MLAs ) . As of 2016 , Winnipeg districts are represented by 17 members of the Progressive Conservative Party , 12 by the New Democratic Party ( NDP ) , and 2 by the Liberal Party .
In federal politics , as of 2015 Winnipeg is represented by eight Members of Parliament : seven Liberals and one New Democrat . There are six Senators representing Manitoba in Ottawa : three Liberals , two Conservatives , and one Independent .
= = = Crime = = =
From 2007 to 2011 , Winnipeg was the " murder capital " of Canada , with the highest per @-@ capita rate of homicides ; it fell to second place in 2012 , behind Thunder Bay . Winnipeg has had the highest violent crime index since 2009 . The robbery rate in 2012 was between 250 @.@ 1 and 272 @.@ 9 . Despite high overall violent crime rates , crime in Winnipeg is mostly concentrated in the inner city , which makes up only 19 % of the population but was the site of 86 @.@ 4 % of the city 's shootings , 66 @.@ 5 % of the robberies , 63 @.@ 3 % of the homicides and 59 @.@ 5 % of the sexual assaults in 2012 .
From the early 1990s to the mid @-@ 2000s , Winnipeg had a significant auto @-@ theft problem , with the rate peaking at 2 @,@ 165 @.@ 0 per 100 @,@ 000 residents in 2006 compared to 487 auto @-@ thefts per 100 @,@ 000 residents for Canada as a whole . To combat auto theft , Manitoba Public Insurance established financial incentives for motor vehicle owners to install ignition immobilizers in their vehicles , and now requires owners of high @-@ risk vehicles to install immobilizers . The auto @-@ theft rate has been on a constant drop since 2006 . Other types of property crime have also decreased , but rates are still fairly high .
Winnipeg is protected by the Winnipeg Police Service , which in 2012 had 1 @,@ 442 police officers . In November 2013 , the national police union reviewed the Winnipeg Police Force and found high average response times for several categories of calls .
= = Education = =
There are seven school divisions in Winnipeg : Winnipeg School Division , St. James @-@ Assiniboia School Division , Pembina Trails School Division , Seven Oaks School Division , Division Scolaire Franco @-@ Manitobaine , River East Transcona School Division , and Louis Riel School Division . Winnipeg also has a number of religious and secular private schools .
The University of Manitoba is the largest university in Manitoba . It was founded in 1877 , making it Western Canada 's first university . In a typical year , the university has an enrolment of 24 @,@ 500 undergraduate students and 4 @,@ 000 graduate students . Université de Saint @-@ Boniface is the city 's only French Canadian university . The University of Winnipeg received its charter in 1967 . Until 2007 , it was an undergraduate institution that offered some joint graduate studies programs ; it now offers independent graduate programs . The Canadian Mennonite University is a private Mennonite undergraduate university established in 1999 .
Winnipeg also has two independent colleges : Red River College and Booth University College . Red River College offers diploma , certificate , and apprenticeship programs and , starting in 2009 , began offering some degree programs . Booth University College is a private Christian Salvation Army university college established in 1982 . It offers mostly arts and seminary training .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Winnipeg has had public transit since 1882 , starting with horse @-@ drawn streetcars . They were replaced by electric trolley cars . The trolley cars ran from 1892 to 1955 , supplemented by motor buses after 1918 , and electric trolleybuses from 1938 to 1970 . Winnipeg Transit now runs diesel buses on its routes .
Winnipeg is a railway hub and is served by Via Rail , Canadian National Railway , Canadian Pacific Railway , Burlington Northern Santa Fe Manitoba , and the Central Manitoba Railway . It is the only major city between Vancouver and Thunder Bay with direct US connections by rail .
Winnipeg is the largest and best connected city within Manitoba , and has highways leading in all directions from the city . To the south , Winnipeg is connected to the United States via Provincial Trunk Highway 75 ( PTH 75 ) ( a continuation of I @-@ 29 and US 75 , known as Pembina Highway or Route 42 within Winnipeg ) . The highway runs 107 km ( 66 mi ) to Emerson , Manitoba , and is the busiest Canada – United States border crossing on the Prairies . The four @-@ lane Perimeter Highway , built in 1969 , serves as a Ring Road , with at @-@ grade intersections and a few interchanges . It allows travellers on the Trans @-@ Canada Highway to bypass the city . A recent study cited dangerous intersections and low efficiency as its primary shortfalls . The Trans @-@ Canada Highway runs east to west through the city ( city route ) , or circles around the city on the Perimeter Highway ( beltway ) . Some of the city 's major arterial roads include Route 80 ( Waverley St. ) , Route 155 ( McGillivray Blvd ) , Route 165 ( Bishop Grandin Blvd . ) , Route 17 ( Chief Peguis Trail ) , and Route 90 ( Brookside Blvd . , Oak Point Hwy . , King Edward St. , Century St. , Kenaston Blvd . ) .
The Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport completed a $ 585 @-@ million redevelopment in October 2011 . The development includes a new terminal , a four @-@ level parking facility , and other infrastructure improvements . Winnipeg Bus Terminal , located at Winnipeg International Airport , offers domestic and international service by Greyhound Canada , Grey Goose Bus Lines , Winnipeg Shuttle Service and Brandon Air Shuttle . Approximately 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 km2 ) of land to the north and west of the airport has been designated as an inland port , CentrePort Canada , and is Canada 's first Foreign Trade Zone . It is a private sector initiative to develop the infrastructure for Manitoba 's trucking , air , rail and sea industries . In 2009 , construction began on a $ 212 @-@ million four @-@ lane freeway that would eventually connect CentrePort with the Perimeter Highway . Named CentrePort Canada Way , it was opened in November 2013 .
Winnipeg is served by several taxi companies , the three largest being Unicity , Duffy 's Taxi and Spring Taxi . Fifty percent of Winnipeg residents use a taxi at least once during the year . Cycling is popular in Winnipeg , and there are many bicycle trails and lanes around the city . Winnipeg holds an annual Bike @-@ to @-@ Work Day and Cyclovia , and bicycle commuters may be seen year @-@ round , even in the winter . Active living infrastructure in Winnipeg encourages bicycling through the inclusion of bike lanes and sharrows .
= = = Medical centres and hospitals = = =
Winnipeg 's major hospitals include Health Sciences Centre , Concordia Hospital , Deer Lodge Centre , Grace Hospital , Misericordia Health Centre , Riverview Health Centre , Saint Boniface General Hospital , Seven Oaks General Hospital , Victoria General Hospital , and The Children 's Hospital of Winnipeg .
The National Microbiology Laboratory in Winnipeg is one of only a handful of biosafety level 4 microbiology laboratories in the world . There are also research facilities operated through hospitals and private biotechnology companies .
= = = Utilities = = =
Water and sewage services are provided by the city . The city draws its water via an aqueduct from Shoal Lake , treating and fluoridating it at the Deacon Reservoir just outside the city prior to pumping it into the Winnipeg system . The city 's system comprises over 2 @,@ 500 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 600 mi ) of underground water mains , which are subject to breakage during extreme weather conditions .
Electricity and natural gas are provided by Manitoba Hydro , a provincial crown corporation headquartered in the city ; it uses primarily hydroelectric power . The primary telecommunications carrier is MTS , although a number of other corporations offer telephone , cellular , television and internet services in the city .
Winnipeg contracts out several services to private companies , including garbage and recycling collection and street plowing and snow removal . This practice represents a significant budget expenditure and is more expansive than in comparable communities . The services have faced numerous complaints from residents in 2013 – 14 about missed service .
= = Military = =
Canadian Forces Base Winnipeg , co @-@ located at the airport , is home to many flight operations support divisions and several training schools . It is also the headquarters of 1 Canadian Air Division and the Canadian North American Aerospace Defense Command ( NORAD ) Region , as well as the home base of 17 Wing of the Canadian Forces . The Wing comprises three squadrons and six schools ; it also provides support to the Central Flying School . Excluding the three levels of government , 17 Wing is the fourth largest employer in the city . The Wing supports 113 units , stretching from Thunder Bay to the Saskatchewan – Alberta border , and from the 49th parallel to the high Arctic . 17 Wing also acts as a deployed operating base for CF @-@ 18 Hornet fighter @-@ bombers assigned to the Canadian NORAD Region .
There are two squadrons based in the city . The 402 " City of Winnipeg " Squadron flies the Canadian @-@ designed and produced de Havilland CT @-@ 142 Dash 8 navigation trainer . The 435 " Chinthe " Transport and Rescue Squadron flies the Lockheed CC @-@ 130 Hercules in airlift search and rescue roles . In addition , 435 Squadron is the only Royal Canadian Air Force squadron equipped and trained to conduct tactical air @-@ to @-@ air refueling of fighter aircraft .
For many years , Winnipeg was the home of the Second Battalion of Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry . Initially , the battalion was based at the Fort Osborne Barracks , the location of which now houses the Rady Jewish Community Centre . They eventually moved to the Kapyong Barracks located between River Heights and Tuxedo . Since 2004 , the battalion has operated out of CFB Shilo near Brandon .
= = Notable people = =
= Battle of Dong Xoai =
The Battle of Đồng Xoài ( Vietnamese : Trận Đồng Xoài ) was a major battle fought during the National Liberation Front Summer Offensive of 1965 as part of the Vietnam War . The battle took place in Phước Long Province , South Vietnam , between June 9 and 13 , 1965 .
In 1964 , General Nguyễn Khánh gained control of the South Vietnamese government after General Dương Văn Minh was overthrown in a military coup . Although General Khánh was able to gain control of the military junta , he failed to garner support from the civilian population when he implemented various laws which limited the freedoms of the South Vietnamese people . He then had a falling @-@ out with the Catholic faction within his own government , when he became increasingly reliant on the Buddhist movement to hold on to power . Consequently , on February 20 , 1965 , General Khánh was ousted from power and was forced to leave South Vietnam forever . The political instability in Saigon gave North Vietnamese leaders in Hanoi an opportunity to step up their military campaign in the south . They believed the South Vietnamese government was able to survive because it still had a strong military to combat the growing influence of the Viet Cong . With the summer campaign of 1965 , North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces aimed to inflict significant losses on the South Vietnamese military . In Phước Long Province , the Communist summer offensive culminated in the Đồng Xoài campaign .
The fight for Đồng Xoài began on the evening of June 9 , 1965 , when the Viet Cong 272nd Regiment attacked and captured the Civilian Irregular Defense Group and U.S. Special Forces camp there . In response to the sudden Viet Cong assault , the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) Joint General Staff ordered the ARVN 1st Battalion , 7th Infantry Regiment , to retake Đồng Xoài district . They arrived on the battlefield on June 10 , but were quickly overwhelmed by the Viet Cong 271st Regiment near Thuận Lợi . Later that day , Đồng Xoài was recaptured by the ARVN 52nd Ranger Battalion , who had survived an ambush while marching towards the district . On June 11 , further South Vietnamese reinforcements arrived in the form of the ARVN 7th Airborne Battalion . The South Vietnamese paratroopers , while searching for survivors of the 1st Battalion in the Thuận Lợi rubber plantation , were defeated in a deadly ambush by the Viet Cong . On June 13 U.S. Army General William Westmoreland decided to insert elements of the U.S. 173rd Airborne Brigade into a major battle for the first time , because he feared the Viet Cong could secure a major base area in Phước Long Province . By that time , however , the Viet Cong had already withdrawn from the battlefield , so the U.S. paratroopers were ordered to return to base without a fight .
= = Background = =
In January 1964 , General Khánh ousted General Dương Văn Minh as the leader of South Vietnam 's military junta in a bloodless coup . Although Khánh had made considerable efforts to consolidate his power , opposition to his rule began to grow as he tightened censorship laws , banned protests and allowed police arbitrary search and imprisonment powers . Khánh drafted a new constitution , which would have expanded his power within the military junta . In response to General Khánh 's political manoeuvres the South Vietnamese people , predominately Buddhists , held large demonstrations in the cities calling for an end to the draconian laws which had limited the people ’ s political freedom . Fearing that his power could be weakened by those demonstrations , General Khánh immediately repealed his constitution and new police powers . He promised to reinstate civilian rule and remove members of the Catholic @-@ based Cần lao from power .
Internally , the concessions made by General Khánh had the effect of unsettling Catholic officers such as Nguyễn Văn Thiệu and Trần Thiện Khiêm , because they were concerned by what they perceived to be the handing of power to Buddhist leaders . Subsequently , General Khiêm fell out with General Khánh over policy issues along religious lines , even though an alliance between both men had enabled Khánh to remove General Minh from power . As military support for his regime diminished , Khánh had to rely upon civilian Buddhist activists to maintain power . For the Americans , Khánh 's increased reliance on the Buddhists was a cause for concern , because the Buddhists favoured a political resolution to the conflict with the Communists . Thus , by the end of 1964 the Americans looked for someone to overthrow Khánh , in order to continue the military effort against the Communists . On February 20 , 1965 , Khánh was finally removed from power , and he was forced to leave South Vietnam .
From the Communist perspective , even though South Vietnam was plagued by political instability , it still had a strong army to resist the Viet Cong . So shortly after the Binh Gia campaign , North Vietnamese leaders reached a resolution to launch a summer offensive , to destroy the regular units of the South Vietnamese military . During the early stages of the Communist summer campaign , Viet Cong forces in Quảng Ngãi Province successfully destroyed a South Vietnamese task force , led by the ARVN 51st Infantry Regiment , in the village of Ba Gia . Following their victory at Ba Gia , the National Liberation Front ( known in America as Viet Cong ) turned its attention to the Mekong Delta region . To prepare for their next offensive , Major @-@ General Le Trong Tan was given the task of directing Viet Cong military operations in the provinces of Phước Long , Bình Phước . For the first time , the newly created Viet Cong 273rd and 274th Regiments was ordered to join the 271st and 272nd Regiments on the battlefield ; their objective was to destroy the regular units of the South Vietnamese military , and eliminate the strategic hamlets to enlarge what North Vietnam viewed as ' liberated zones ' .
= = Prelude = =
Since May 1965 , the Viet Cong offensive in Phước Long Province had been in full @-@ swing . Beginning on May 10 , the Viet Cong 271st Regiment , supported by the 840th Battalion and local sapper units , attacked the district town of Phước Long , capital of the province . Simultaneously , the Viet Cong 272nd Regiment overran South Vietnamese government positions in the sub @-@ sector of Phước Bình . During their brief occupation of Phước Long district , the Viet Cong destroyed several major strategic hamlets in the surrounding areas , such as Ba Ra , Thuan Kiem , Thuan Loi , Phu Rieng , Da Kia , Bu Dop , Duc Bon and Song Be .
In response to the Viet Cong occupation of Phước Long district , the ARVN 36th Ranger Battalion was ordered by the ARVN Joint General Staff to recapture government positions there . On May 11 , two companies from the battalion sustained heavy casualties in battles with Viet Cong units positioned along Inter @-@ Provincial Road 13 and National Highway 14 . On May 12 , the Viet Cong 271st Regiment and other support units withdrew from Phuoc Long district .
In the Phước Bình sub @-@ sector , the Viet Cong 272nd Regiment were able to overrun South Vietnamese government positions within 25 minutes , and they claimed to have killed 115 South Vietnamese soldiers in the process At 9 am on May 11 , the ARVN 34th Ranger Battalion was airlifted into a small town located about 14 kilometres away from Phước Bình in the south @-@ east . As the ARVN 34th Ranger Battalion marched upward towards Phước Bình , the Viet Cong 272nd and 273rd Regiment was ordered to destroy the South Vietnamese Rangers . However , by the time the 272nd Regiment arrived at the South Vietnamese staging area , the Rangers had already pulled out and successfully recaptured Phước Bình . Meanwhile , on May 15 , the Viet Cong 274th Regiment defeated two South Vietnamese Regional Force companies along Route 20 , and destroyed 20 vehicles in the process .
After those operations in Phước Long district and Phước Bình sub @-@ sector , the Viet Cong 9th Division was ordered to attack Đồng Xoài . In 1965 , Đồng Xoài was a district town situated at a road junction which connected Inter @-@ Inter @-@ Provisional Road 13 , National Highway 1 and Highway 14 . The district was defended by 200 local Vietnamese soldiers drawn from the 327th and 328th Militia Companies , and the 111th Regional Force Company . They were supported by one armoured squadron ( 6 armoured vehicles ) and two 105mm howitzers . There were also 200 Cambodian soldiers of a Civilian Irregular Defense Group , 11 United States Army Special Forces personnel , and nine U.S. Navy Seabees . Prior to the battle , the U.S Special Forces had assumed control of Đồng Xoài 's defences ; they stepped up guard and patrol activities , and ordered the construction of new defensive fortifications around the district headquarters , the Special Forces Camp , and the armoured and artillery positions on the eastern side of the district .
= = Battle = =
On the evening of June 9 , 1965 , the Viet Cong made final preparations for their assault on Đồng Xoài . While the Viet Cong assembled their formations , U.S.-led forces inside the Special Forces Camp were suddenly placed on alert , forcing the Viet Cong to commence their attack 70 minutes earlier than scheduled . At 11 : 30 pm Viet Cong heavy mortar rounds began to fall on South Vietnamese and American positions around Đồng Xoài , soon followed by an infantry assault led by the 272nd Regiment . During the initial assault , the Viet Cong sustained heavy casualties as they tried to navigate through the surrounding minefields and barb wire fences , which they had failed to pick up during previous reconnaissance missions . At about 1 : 30 am , two helicopter gunships from the U.S. Army 's 118th Aviation Company were dispatched to support the Special Forces Camp , they fired on the Viet Cong around the compound , and returned to base only after their weapons load was emptied . At around 2 : 30 am , the Americans and a few of the Cambodian soldiers retreated to the district headquarters , where other local troops were holding out . Meanwhile , at Biên Hòa Air Base , all flight crews of the 118th Aviation Company were on the flightline preparing for combat assault at first light . By that time , however , the Viet Cong had captured the Special Forces compound , and they began massing for an attack on the district headquarters .
While fighting raged inside the district , all flyable aircraft from the 118th Aviation Company flew out from Biên Hòa to Phước Vinh , a small town about 30 kilometres from Đồng Xoài . From Phước Vinh the first contingent of the ARVN 1st Battalion , 7th Infantry Regiment , was airlifted into the battlefield . At around 8 am , the UH @-@ 1 formations of the 118th Aviation Company descend on the landing zone near the Thuận Lợi rubber plantation , about 4 kilometres north of Đồng Xoài ; they immediately began to receive fire from bunkers and foxholes surrounding the area . The South Vietnamese command believed the landing zone near Thuận Lợi would be ideal to land their troops , because it was distant enough that the Viet Cong would not find and engage them immediately . However , the Viet Cong had anticipated the South Vietnamese would land troops in the area , and had prepared for an ambush . As a result , after U.S. helicopters had departed from the landing zone , soldiers of the Viet Cong 271st Regiment immediately turned their attention on the South Vietnamese . Within 15 minutes the main body of the ARVN 1st Battalion was completely destroyed .
At around 11 : 55 am the last remaining soldiers of the ARVN 1st Battalion were discharged near the original landing zone in Thuận Lợi , and they too were put out of action within three minutes of touching down on the field . During the afternoon , the Viet Cong had managed to destroy parts of the district headquarters building using their 57mm recoilless rifle . Second Lieutenant Williams then ordered 14 Americans inside the building , along with an equal number of Vietnamese women and children , to retreat to the artillery position located east of the town where they continued their resistance . Late in the afternoon on June 10 , the U.S. 118th Aviation Company was joined by other elements of the 145th Combat Aviation Battalion in their final sorties for the day ; airlifting the ARVN 52nd Ranger Battalion from Phước Vinh into Đồng Xoài , with the objective of recapturing the road junction and the Special Forces Camp . Following their last mission , the 118th Aviation Company immediately returned to Biên Hòa . During the first day of heavy fighting , every helicopter in the unit had sustained damage , including the loss of one helicopter and its entire crew .
At 3 : 20 pm the ARVN 52nd Ranger Battalion were discharged on a landing zone about 3 kilometres south of Đồng Xoài . As the South Vietnamese Rangers marched towards the town centre , their lead company was decimated in an ambush mounted by elements of the Viet Cong 271st Regiment . Undeterred by the strength of the Viet Cong , they continued their march towards the district . On the night of June 10 , the battalion began attacking Viet Cong positions around the Special Forces Camp , and they gradually recaptured the compound and much of the town . The Viet Cong eventually launched a counter @-@ attack in an attempt to win back the loss ground , but they failed to dislodge the soldiers of the ARVN 52nd Ranger Battalion . The next morning , on June 11 , the 118th Aviation Company was back at full strength in Phước Vinh . Like the previous day , they flew air @-@ support and airlifted further reinforcements from the ARVN 7th Airborne Battalion . After the South Vietnamese paratroopers were dropped off on a soccer field , the 118th Aviation Company started large @-@ scale evacuation of South Vietnamese casualties . In contrast to the previous day , the 118th Aviation Company encountered only isolated rear guard actions .
Just before the ARVN 7th Airborne Battalion landed on the battlefield , the Viet Cong had intercepted a radio conversation between the aforementioned unit and the 52nd Ranger Battalion in the district centre ; several months earlier the 7th Airborne Battalion was involved in the battle at Bình Giã , so they vowed to avenge the loss of their comrades . Thus , from the soccer field , the ARVN 7th Airborne Battalion marched up to Thuận Lợi , against only light opposition . The South Vietnamese paratroopers arrived at the area where the first group of the ARVN 1st Battalion , 7th Infantry Regiment , was dropped off and they collected seven survivors and 55 bodies . In the afternoon , as elements of the 7th Airborne Battalion moved through the Thuận Lợi rubber plantation to search for remnants of the second group of the ARVN 1st Battalion , the Viet Cong 271st Regiment started attacking the South Vietnamese paratroopers in a manner which had characterised earlier ambushes . Taking advantage of the poor weather conditions that had limited U.S. air strikes , as well as their numerical superiority , the Viet Cong broke the South Vietnamese formation into small groups and destroyed many of them . On the next day , the strength of the ARVN 7th Airborne Battalion was reduced from 470 to just 159 soldiers .
After the defeat of the ARVN 7th Airborne Battalion , U.S. General William Westmoreland concluded that the Viet Cong still had the strength to continue the attacks on Đồng Xoài . In contrast , South Vietnamese forces within the vicinity of Đồng Xoài were severely depleted , and did not have sufficient strength to defeat the Viet Cong . Furthermore , there was only one remaining battalion in South Vietnam ’ s strategic reserve , and it may not be enough to drive the Communist out from the area if it was committed .
Westmoreland was unwilling to leave the Viet Cong with a position from which they could dominate Phước Long Province . So , on June 13 , he made the decision to insert U.S. combat forces . Subsequently , 738 men of the 1st Battalion ( Airborne ) , 503rd Infantry Regiment , 173rd Airborne Brigade , were flown out to the staging area in Phước Vinh . Elements of the 3rd Battalion ( Airborne ) , 319th Artillery also followed later in the day . Upon arrival at Phước Vinh , the U.S. Army task force waited for five days , but it soon became apparent that the Viet Cong had withdrawn from the area and had no intention of holding territory . On June 18 , the 1 / 503rd Infantry was ordered to return to base .
= = Aftermath = =
In this battle both sides of the conflict had paid a heavy price to achieve their objectives . After the battle , search parties found several hundred VC bodies within small arms range of the Special Forces compound and district headquarters , and another 126 VC bodies inside these compounds . Numerous other Viet Cong casualties had been evacuated or incurred in the fighting beyond the towns borders . In their efforts to recapture the district town of Đồng Xoài , the South Vietnamese military lost 416 soldiers killed in action , 174 wounded and 233 missing . In addition , over one hundred South Vietnamese civilians were believed to have been massacred by the Viet Cong during their brief occupation of the area . Total casualties sustained by U.S. military personnel included 20 soldiers killed or wounded , and 13 missing . According to Vietnam 's official account of the Đồng Xoài campaign , the Communists claimed to have put 4 @,@ 459 enemy soldiers ( including 73 Americans ) out of action . Furthermore , 1 @,@ 652 weapons of various kinds were captured , 390 weapons and 60 vehicles were destroyed , 34 aircraft and 3 helicopters were shot down .
Even though the Viet Cong had won a clear victory over the regular units of the South Vietnamese army , they did not get away with light casualties . After the battle , a combined total of 126 Viet Cong bodies were recovered within the Special Forces compound and the district headquarters , and several hundred more were strewn all over the battlefield . Indeed , individual Viet Cong soldiers usually spare no efforts to evacuate their dead or wounded comrades ; but as military operations were conducted during the rainy season , the Viet Cong struggled to evacuate all their casualties from the battlefield as conditions on the main roads deteriorated . Despite the minor setbacks , the Đồng Xoài campaign marked the rapid maturity of the Viet Cong 9th Division as a fighting force . For their efforts during the battle , the Viet Cong 272nd Regiment received the title of ' Đồng Xoài Regiment ' to mark their achievements .
Six days after large @-@ scale fighting in Đồng Xoài had concluded there was another change of government in Saigon . South Vietnamese Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ was appointed prime minister and executive chairman of the government by the military junta , and General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu became a figurehead president . Unlike previous leaders , Air @-@ Marshal Kỳ and General Thiệu were more interested in fighting the Communists , and they intended to stop the Buddhist factions from interfering with their decision @-@ making processes . However , due to Air Marshal Kỳ 's lack of experience in civil government , the Americans were not entirely pleased with the formation of a new government with him as the leader . In contrast , General Thiệu 's appointment to the office of president was considered to be a positive development by the American Embassy and military command , because he possessed the political skills required by Saigon ’ s political establishment . Nonetheless , Kỳ 's ascension to the position of prime minister had effectively ended the cycle of military coups which had plagued Saigon since the downfall of Ngô Đình Diệm .
In a significant contrast to the political scene in South Vietnam , the North Vietnamese government in Hanoi were far more occupied with their military effort . The North Vietnamese Transportation Group 559 , then under the leadership of Major @-@ General Phan Trong Tue , was ordered to open a new transportation and communication lines through southern Laos and South Vietnam . The purpose was to facilitate the movement of troops and material through the Pathet Lao @-@ occupied section of the Ho Chi Minh trail . They were supported by 1 @,@ 500 workers from the Ministry of Transportation and 7 @,@ 600 volunteers . By the end of 1965 , the strength of Group 559 had grown to 24 @,@ 400 personnel organised in six battalions of motor vehicles , one battalion of boats , 18 battalions of combat engineers , four battalions of anti @-@ aircraft artillery and guard units . In addition to the expansion of their logistical abilities , the North Vietnamese also decided to establish five infantry divisions and one artillery in South Vietnam . Thus , the stage was set for a major military struggle with American and other allied forces .
= 2012 – 13 York City F.C. season =
The 2012 – 13 season was the ninety @-@ first season of competitive association football and seventy @-@ sixth season in the Football League played by York City Football Club , a professional football club based in York , North Yorkshire , England . Their promotion via the Conference Premier play @-@ offs in 2011 – 12 meant they played in League Two , after an eight @-@ year absence from the Football League . The season ran from 1 July 2012 to 30 June 2013 .
Manager Gary Mills signed eight players before the close of the summer transfer window . Having stood fourteenth in the league table on New Year 's Day , York were on an eleven @-@ match run without a win when Mills was sacked during March 2013 . He was replaced by former Northern Ireland manager Nigel Worthington , who led York to safety from relegation on the final day of the season . Having won four of their last five games , the team finished the season seventeenth in the table . They lost in their opening round matches in both the 2012 – 13 FA Cup and the Football League Cup , and were eliminated in the second round of the Football League Trophy .
Thirty @-@ six players made at least one appearance in nationally organised first @-@ team competition , and there were twelve different goalscorers . Goalkeeper Michael Ingham played in all 50 first @-@ team matches over the season . Ashley Chambers finished as leading scorer with ten goals , all scored in the league . The winner of the Clubman of the Year award , voted for by the club 's supporters , was Danny Parslow , who became the first player to win the award for a third time .
= = Background and pre @-@ season = =
The 2011 – 12 season was Gary Mills ' first full season as York City manager , having taken over the role in October 2010 . York finished the season with two major trophies after victories in the 2012 FA Trophy Final and the 2012 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final , both of which were staged at Wembley Stadium . The FA Trophy victory represented York 's first piece of silverware in nineteen years and was achieved with a 2 – 0 victory over York 's Conference Premier rivals Newport County . With goals from Ashley Chambers and Matty Blair , York beat Luton Town 2 – 1 in the play @-@ off final to return to the Football League after an eight @-@ year absence with promotion to League Two .
Following the previous season 's conclusion Moses Ashikodi , Matthew Blinkhorn , Eugen Bopp and Scott Brown were released , while James Meredith , Adriano Moké and Danny Pilkington departed for Bradford City , Cambridge United and Kidderminster Harriers respectively . Jon Challinor , Chambers , Chris Doig , Jamal Fyfield , Michael Ingham , Scott Kerr and Danny Parslow signed new contracts with York . New players signed ahead of the start of the season were defender Danny Blanchett from Burton Albion , midfielders Lee Bullock from Bradford City , John McReady from Darlington 1883 and Jonathan Smith from Swindon Town , winger Michael Coulson from Grimsby Town and striker Oli Johnson from Oxford United . Midfielder Tom Platt , the previous season 's youth team captain and Youth Team Player of the Year , entered the first team squad after agreeing a professional contract .
The team adopted new home and away kits , with the home kit featuring red shirts with white sleeves , light blue shorts and white socks . The away kit comprised light blue shirts with white sleeves , white shorts and light blue socks . This was accompanied by a change in shirt sponsor , with Benenden Health 's name becoming present on the team kits .
= = Review = =
= = = August = = =
York started the season away at League One club Doncaster Rovers in the first round of the League Cup . Debutant Coulson gave York the lead with a long @-@ range strike in the sixty @-@ fifth minute before Chris Brown equalised for Doncaster , scoring a penalty kick nine minutes later . The match finished 1 – 1 after extra time and York went on to lose the penalty shoot @-@ out 4 – 2 . York 's Football League return ended in defeat , with the side being beaten 3 – 1 at home to Wycombe Wanderers . Wycombe took a three @-@ goal lead before Jason Walker scored York 's consolation in the fifty @-@ fourth minute . York recorded their first point of the season after drawing 2 – 2 away at Morecambe , with Chris Smith and Chambers scoring the team 's goals in the second half . This was followed by their first league victory , with Parslow , Chambers and Coulson scoring in the first half away at Barnet in a 3 – 1 win . Two days before the transfer deadline York signed three new players ; defender Clarke Carlisle and striker Scott Dobie signed on free transfers and Charlie Taylor came on loan from Leeds United .
= = = September = = =
Coulson scored after 15 seconds to give York the lead at home to league leaders Oxford United , and with further goals from Chambers and Patrick McLaughlin the side went on to win 3 – 1 . York won 1 – 0 in their first round game of the Football League Trophy away at Rotherham United , with Blair scoring an eightieth @-@ minute winner . Walker 's equaliser in the fifth minute of stoppage time secured a 2 – 2 draw at home to Chesterfield . There had been three goals scored in a five @-@ minute period in the first half ; Chesterfield opened the scoring through Sam Hird and Coulson equalised for York before Craig Westcarr restored the visitors ' lead . York drew their next game 1 – 1 at Exeter City , having taken the lead through Coulson in the fifty @-@ second minute before the home side equalised when John O 'Flynn scored in the eighty @-@ third minute . The team 's first away defeat of the season came with a 3 – 1 defeat away at Burton Albion ; after McLaughlin gave York a ninth @-@ minute lead , Burton went on to win with goals from Lee Bell , Calvin Zola and Matt Paterson . A third draw in four games came after York drew 0 – 0 at home to Cheltenham Town . Platt and Liam Henderson were sent out to Harrogate Town and Gainsborough Trinity on three @-@ month and one @-@ month loans respectively , while Dobie was released and Taylor had his loan extended for a second month . York 's run of four games without victory came to an end after a 2 – 0 win at Aldershot Town , with Blair and Walker scoring in the second half .
= = = October = = =
The previous season 's Conference Premier champions Fleetwood Town defeated York 2 – 0 at Bootham Crescent , with goals in each half scored by Junior Brown and Steven Gillespie . Peterborough United midfielder Daniel Kearns was signed on a one @-@ month loan and made his debut as a substitute in York 's 0 – 0 home draw with Rotherham . York were knocked out of the Football League Trophy in the second round after being beaten 4 – 0 at home by League One team Coventry City . Chambers scored the opening goal in York 's first derby game with Bradford City in sixteen years , but with the home side scoring through Zavon Hines the match finished a 1 – 1 draw . Chambers and Blair scored as York beat Dagenham & Redbridge 3 – 2 at home , which was the side 's first win in four league games . York recorded a second successive victory away at Accrington Stanley , with Walker scoring an eighty @-@ third @-@ minute winner in a 1 – 0 win . Bullock was loaned out to Gateshead of the Conference Premier for a month , with his appearances in the team being limited . A 0 – 0 draw away to Southend United saw York 's run of victories come to an end .
= = = November = = =
Coulson was ruled out for the season with a cruciate ligament injury , while Kearns ' loan was extended for a further two months . York conceded an eightieth @-@ minute equaliser at home to AFC Wimbledon in the first round of the FA Cup , with Charlie Strutton the scorer , after substitute Jamie Reed had earlier given York the lead . Jonathan Smith was loaned to Conference Premier side Luton until January 2013 , with him having not started a game since September . Blair gave York the lead at home to Northampton Town , and despite playing most of the game with ten men , the away side equalised through Adebayo Akinfenwa . Winger Alex Rodman , who had previously played under Mills at Tamworth , was signed on a two @-@ month loan from Aldershot . He made his debut in York 's home league game against AFC Wimbledon , which finished as a 3 – 0 defeat , with the visitors scoring their goals in the second half .
York were knocked out of the FA Cup after a 4 – 3 extra time defeat at AFC Wimbledon in a first round replay . Jamie Reed scored in the eighty @-@ ninth @-@ minute to hand York a 2 – 2 draw at Port Vale , after Rodman had scored his first goal for the club earlier in the second half . Carlisle was loaned to divisional rivals Northampton ahead of an arranged permanent transfer in January 2013 , while Henderson joined Gateshead on loan and Bullock had his loan extended . York fell to a second successive home defeat after being beaten 2 – 0 by Torquay United , the away side scoring in each half through Danny Stevens and Joe Oastler . Despite his loan earlier being extended until January 2013 , Kearns was recalled by Peterborough , having made twelve appearances for York .
= = = December = = =
York recorded their first win in eight games after defeating Rochdale 3 – 2 away , with Michael Potts scoring twice and Walker scoring once in the first half . Youth team defender Tom Allan signed a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year professional contract with the club , with Mills saying , " Tom has come on unbelievably in the last 12 months and thoroughly deserves his first professional contract " . York fell to a 2 – 0 defeat at Plymouth Argyle , with Fyfield scoring an own goal in the forty @-@ fifth @-@ minute and Nick Chadwick scoring in the ninetieth @-@ minute . Jonathan Smith and Bullock were recalled from their loans ahead of York 's home game against Bristol Rovers . York scored four first half goals to beat Bristol Rovers 4 – 1 , with Garry Kenneth scoring an own goal , Chambers scoring twice and Walker scoring once . A second successive away defeat came at Chesterfield on Boxing Day when York were beaten 3 – 0 , with the home side scoring their goals during the second half . This run ended after a 0 – 0 draw away at Fleetwood , in which York missed a number of chances to score in the first half .
= = = January = = =
Jonathan Smith made a permanent move to Luton for a fee of £ 50 @,@ 000 shortly after the transfer window opened . York won 3 – 0 in their New Year 's Day home fixture against Burton , with Walker , McLaughlin and Blair scoring . Carlisle completed a permanent transfer to Northampton after the conclusion of his loan , while Henderson signed for Gateshead permanently after an agreement was reached over the remainder of his York contract . York were beaten 2 – 1 at home to Exeter , with a Rodman own goal giving the visitors the lead in the fourteenth @-@ minute . Potts equalised for York five minutes later , before Exeter scored the winning goal on fifty @-@ three @-@ minutes through Jimmy Keohane . Rodman 's loan from Aldershot was extended until the end of the season . Walker scored in the eighty @-@ fourth @-@ minute to secure York a 1 – 1 draw away at Cheltenham , who had taken the lead in the sixty @-@ seventh @-@ minute through Shaun Harrad . Striker Ben Everson , who last played for Breiðablik in the Icelandic Úrvalsdeild , was signed on a contract for the rest of the season . Platt was loaned out for the second time in a season , joining Conference North side FC Halifax Town for one month . Everson made his debut as a seventy @-@ first @-@ minute substitute in a 0 – 0 draw at home to Aldershot .
Blackburn Rovers defender Jack O 'Connell was signed on a one @-@ month loan , while Salford City defender Jameel Ible was signed on a contract for the rest of the season . Blanchett was released after his contract was cancelled by mutual consent . York were leading Gillingham 1 – 0 away before the home side equalised five minutes from time through Cody McDonald , with York having taken the lead in the seventeenth @-@ minute through a McLaughlin goal straight from a corner kick . Striker David McDaid was signed from League of Ireland Premier Division side Derry City on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for a small compensation fee , while defender Curtis Obeng was signed on a one @-@ month loan from Premier League side Swansea City after Lanre Oyebanjo was ruled out for around six weeks with a fractured skull .
= = = February = = =
York were beaten 4 – 1 at home to Morecambe , with Walker scoring York 's only goal with a first half penalty , before enduring their largest defeat of the season after losing 4 – 0 at Wycombe . Jamie Reed was loaned to Cambridge United for the rest of the season , with his opportunities in the team having been limited . Burton midfielder John McGrath and Aldershot striker Michael Rankine were signed on loan , with the former joining for one month and the latter for the rest of the season . Both started in York 's 0 – 0 draw at home to Gillingham . York opened the scoring against Barnet at home through a David Stephens own goal , although goals from Andy Yiadom and Jake Hyde saw the away side win 2 – 1 . Everson was loaned out to Gateshead for a month , having struggled for opportunities in the team , and Platt returned to Harrogate on loan for the remainder of the season . York drew 0 – 0 at Oxford , with the best chance of the game falling to Blair when he headed straight at goalkeeper Luke McCormick . O 'Connell 's loan was extended until the end of the season . Daniel Nardiello scored a stoppage time equaliser for Rotherham when York were leading 1 – 0 , after the away team had taken the lead through Blair earlier in the second half . Johnson was released after making seven appearances for the club , having been hindered during the season by stomach and groin problems .
= = = March = = =
Mills was sacked after nearly two and a half years in charge on 2 March 2013 after York were beaten 2 – 0 at home to Bradford , with the team sitting four points above the relegation zone after an 11 @-@ match run without a win . Former Northern Ireland manager Nigel Worthington was appointed as his successor two days later , with Fred Barber joining from Bury as his assistant . Mills ' remaining coaching staff of Darron Gee , Des Lyttle and Paul Musselwhite left the club . Following his appointment , Worthington indicated the players out on loan would return to the club , saying , " It 's only right that contracted players should be in and around the club over the next ten games as York City are paying their salaries and they should be part of anything that is going on in the next two months " . Worthington 's first signing was Sheffield Wednesday goalkeeper Arron Jameson , who joined on an emergency loan for the remainder of the season , while McGrath had his loan extended until the end of the season .
Worthington 's first game in charge was a 3 – 2 defeat away to AFC Wimbledon , in which Chris Smith scored twice , before Harry Pell scored the home side 's winner in the seventy @-@ ninth @-@ minute . York picked up their first point under Worthington after a 0 – 0 home draw with Rochdale , with both teams having few opportunities to score . Ipswich Town midfielder Josh Carson was signed on a one @-@ month loan , while Bullock was loaned to Stockport County of the Conference Premier for the rest of the season . Carson made his debut in York 's 2 – 0 home defeat to Port Vale , who scored in each half through Jennison Myrie @-@ Williams and Lee Hughes . Former York striker Richard Cresswell , who became the club 's record sale in 1999 , was signed from Sheffield United on a one @-@ month loan . He scored a penalty in the team 's 2 – 1 defeat away at Torquay , a result that saw York drop into the second relegation spot . Sunderland midfielder Adam Reed was signed on a one @-@ month loan , while Ible was released . Adam Reed made his debut as York drew 0 – 0 away at Bristol Rovers , in which the home team 's goalkeeper Steve Mildenhall made a number of saves .
= = = April = = =
York recorded their first win in seventeen games after beating Plymouth 2 – 0 at home , with Chambers and Cresswell scoring in the first half . McGrath , Rankine and Rodman were sent back to their parent clubs , having become surplus to requirements under Worthington . The team were denied a second successive win after Peter Murphy scored a stoppage time equaliser for Accrington , with the match finishing a 1 – 1 home draw , after Adam Reed had given York the lead in first half stoppage time . Carson and Kerr were ruled out for the remainder of the season through injury , with the former returning to parent club Ipswich after the expiration of his loan . York recorded a second victory in three games after winning 2 – 0 away at Northampton , who had been on a run of ten consecutive home wins , with Chambers scoring in the first half and John Johnson scoring an own goal in the second half . This result saw York rise out of the relegation zone by moving up to twentieth @-@ place in the table , having occupied twenty @-@ third @-@ place following the previous four results . Cresswell was recalled from his loan by new Sheffield United caretaker manager Chris Morgan , after making an important contribution for York in their battle against relegation .
York picked up a third win in five matches by defeating Southend 2 – 1 at home with first half goals from Adam Reed and Blair . They remained in 20th position in the league following positive results for most of the teams surrounding them , meaning their relegation fight would not be concluded until after the last game of the season . Before the Southend match Parslow was named Clubman of the Year , voted for by the York supporters , becoming the first player to win the award on three occasions . York avoided relegation on the final day of the season after beating Dagenham 1 – 0 away , with Chris Smith scoring the only goal . This meant York finished their first season back in the Football League in seventeenth place in League Two , four points clear of the relegation zone .
= = Summary and aftermath = =
York spent most of the season in mid @-@ table , rising as high as seventh place in September 2012 and dropping as low as twenty @-@ third in March 2013 . The team recorded the second lowest number of wins in the League Two season with twelve ; bottom @-@ placed Aldershot were the only side to win fewer matches with eleven victories . Ingham was the only ever @-@ present player for York , appearing in all fifty @-@ one matches . Chambers was top scorer with ten goals in the league , being the only player to reach double figures , and was followed by Walker with nine goals .
Ahead of the new season , York released Bullock , Challinor , Doig , Everson , Kerr , McDaid , McLaughlin , Potts , Jamie Reed and Walker , while Blair left to sign for Fleetwood . David McGurk , Oyebanjo , Parslow , Platt and Chris Smith signed new contracts with the club . The club signed goalkeeper Chris Kettings from Blackpool , defender Ben Davies from Preston North End , midfielders Craig Clay from Chesterfield and Lewis Montrose from Gillingham , winger Sander Puri from St Mirren and strikers Ryan Bowman from Hereford United , Cresswell from Sheffield United , Wes Fletcher from Burnley and Ryan Jarvis from Torquay . Defender Mike Atkinson and striker Chris Dickinson entered the first team squad from the youth team after agreeing professional contracts .
= = Match details = =
League positions are sourced by Statto , while the remaining information is referenced individually .
= = = Football League Two = = =
= = = League table ( part ) = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = League Cup = = =
= = = Football League Trophy = = =
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player 's contract with that club had expired before he joined York .
= = = Out = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player joined that club after his York contract expired .
= = = Loans in = = =
= = = Loans out = = =
= = Appearances and goals = =
Source :
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute .
Players with names struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Players with names in italics and marked * were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with York .
Players listed with no appearances have been in the matchday squad but only as unused substitutes .
Key to positions : GK – Goalkeeper ; DF – Defender ; MF – Midfielder ; FW – Forward
= Humpback whale =
The humpback whale ( Megaptera novaeangliae ) is a species of baleen whale . One of the larger rorqual species , adults range in length from 12 – 16 m ( 39 – 52 ft ) and weigh about 36 @,@ 000 kg ( 79 @,@ 000 lb ) . The humpback has a distinctive body shape , with long pectoral fins and a knobbly head . It is known for breaching and other distinctive surface behaviors , making it popular with whale watchers . Males produce a complex song lasting 10 to 20 minutes , which they repeat for hours at a time . Its purpose is not clear , though it may have a role in mating .
Found in oceans and seas around the world , humpback whales typically migrate up to 25 @,@ 000 km ( 16 @,@ 000 mi ) each year . Humpbacks feed only in summer , in polar waters , and migrate to tropical or subtropical waters to breed and give birth in the winter when they fast and live off their fat reserves . Their diet consists mostly of krill and small fish . Humpbacks have a diverse repertoire of feeding methods , including the bubble net technique .
Like other large whales , the humpback was a target for the whaling industry . Once hunted to the brink of extinction , its population fell by an estimated 90 % before a 1966 moratorium . While stocks have partially recovered , entanglement in fishing gear , collisions with ships and noise pollution continue to impact the population of 80 @,@ 000 .
= = Taxonomy = =
Humpback whales are rorquals ( Balaenopteridae , a family that includes the blue , fin , Bryde 's , sei and minke whales ) . The rorquals are believed to have diverged from the other families of the suborder Mysticeti as long ago as the middle Miocene . However , it is not known when the members of these families diverged from each other .
Though clearly related to the giant whales of the genus Balaenoptera , the humpback is the sole member of its genus . More recently , though , DNA sequencing analysis has indicated the humpback is more closely related to certain rorquals , particularly the fin whale ( B. physalus ) and possibly to the gray whale ( Eschrichtius robustus ) , than it is to other rorquals such as the minke whales .
The humpback was first identified as baleine de la Nouvelle Angleterre by Mathurin Jacques Brisson in his Regnum Animale of 1756 . In 1781 , Georg Heinrich Borowski described the species , converting Brisson 's name to its Latin equivalent , Balaena novaeangliae . In 1804 , Lacépède shifted the humpback from the family Balaenidae , renaming it B. jubartes . In 1846 , John Edward Gray created the genus Megaptera , classifying the humpback as Megaptera longipinna , but in 1932 , Remington Kellogg reverted the species names to use Borowski 's novaeangliae . The common name is derived from the curving of their backs when diving . The generic name Megaptera from the Greek mega- / μεγα- " giant " and ptera / πτερα " wing " , refers to their large front flippers . The specific name means " New Englander " and was probably given by Brisson due to regular sightings of humpbacks off the coast of New England .
Genetic research in mid @-@ 2014 by the British Antarctic Survey confirmed that the separate populations in the North Atlantic , North Pacific and Southern Oceans are more distinct than previously thought . Some biologists believe that these should be regarded as separate subspecies and that they are evolving independently .
= = Anatomy = =
Humpbacks can easily be identified by their stocky body , obvious hump , black dorsal coloring and elongated pectoral fins . The head and lower jaw are covered with knobs called tubercles , which are hair follicles and are characteristic of the species . The fluked tail , which typically rises above the surface when diving , has wavy trailing edges .
Humpbacks have 270 to 400 darkly colored baleen plates on each side of their mouths . The plates measure from 18 in ( 46 cm ) in the front to about 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) in the back , behind the hinge .
Ventral grooves run from the lower jaw to the umbilicus , about halfway along the underside of the body . These grooves are less numerous ( usually 14 – 22 ) than in other rorquals , but are fairly wide .
The female has a hemispherical lobe about 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter in her genital region . This visually distinguishes males and females . The male 's penis usually remains hidden in the genital slit .
= = = Size = = =
Fully grown males average 13 – 14 m ( 43 – 46 ft ) . Females are slightly larger at 15 – 16 m ( 49 – 52 ft ) ; one large recorded specimen was 19 m ( 62 ft ) long and had pectoral fins measuring 6 m ( 20 ft ) each . The largest humpback on record , according to whaling records , was a female killed in the Caribbean ; she was 27 m ( 89 ft ) long with a weight of 90 metric tons ( 99 short tons ) , although the reliability of this information is unconfirmed due to illogicality of the record . Body mass typically is in the range of 25 – 30 metric tons ( 28 – 33 short tons ) , with large specimens weighing over 40 metric tons ( 44 short tons ) .
Newborn calves are roughly the length of their mother 's head . At birth , calves measure 6 m ( 20 ft ) at 2 short tons ( 1 @.@ 8 t ) . They nurse for about six months , then mix nursing and independent feeding for possibly six months more . Humpback milk is 50 % fat and pink in color .
Females reach sexual maturity at age five , achieving full adult size a little later . Males reach sexual maturity around seven years of age .
= = = Fins = = =
The long black and white tail fin can be up to a third of body length . Several hypotheses attempt to explain the humpback 's pectoral fins , which are proportionally the longest fins of any cetacean . The higher maneuverability afforded by long fins and the usefulness of the increased surface area for temperature control when migrating between warm and cold climates possibly supported this adaptation .
= = = Identifying individuals = = =
The varying patterns on the tail flukes distinguish individual animals . A study using data from 1973 to 1998 on whales in the North Atlantic gave researchers detailed information on gestation times , growth rates and calving periods , as well as allowing more accurate population predictions by simulating the mark @-@ release @-@ recapture technique . A photographic catalogue of all known North Atlantic whales was developed over this period and is maintained by College of the Atlantic . Similar photographic identification projects operate around the world .
= = Life history / behavior = =
The lifespan of rorquals ranges from 45 to 100 years .
= = = Interactions = = =
The humpback social structure is loose @-@ knit . Typically , individuals live alone or in small , transient groups that disband after a few hours . Groups may stay together longer in summer to forage and feed cooperatively . Longer @-@ term relationships between pairs or small groups , lasting months or even years , have rarely been observed . Some females possibly retain bonds created via cooperative feeding for a lifetime . The humpback 's range overlaps with other whale and dolphin species — for instance , the minke whale .
= = = Courtship and reproduction = = =
Courtship rituals take place during the winter months , following migration toward the equator from summer feeding grounds closer to the poles . Competition is usually fierce . Unrelated males , dubbed escorts , frequently trail females , as well as cow @-@ calf pairs . Males gather into " competition groups " around a female and fight for the right to mate with her . Group size ebbs and flows as unsuccessful males retreat and others arrive . Behaviors include breaching , spyhopping , lob @-@ tailing , tail @-@ slapping , pectoral fin @-@ slapping , peduncle throws , charging and parrying .
Whale song is thought to have an important role in mate selection ; however , they may also be used between males to establish dominance .
Females typically breed every two or three years . The gestation period is 11 @.@ 5 months . The peak months for birth are January , February ( northern hemisphere ) , July and August ( southern hemisphere ) . Females wait for one- to two – years before breeding again . Recent research on mitochondrial DNA reveals that groups living in proximity to each other may represent distinct breeding pools .
= = = Interspecies interactions = = =
Humpbacks are a friendly species that interact with other cetacean species such as bottlenose dolphins . Right whales interact with humpbacks . These behaviors have been recorded in all oceans . A record of a humpback and a southern right whale demonstrating what was interpreted to be mating behaviors was documented off the Mozambique coast . Humpback whales appear in mixed groups with other species , such as the blue , fin , minke , gray and sperm whales . Interaction with gray , fin , and right whales have been observed . Teams of researchers observed a male humpback whale singing an unknown type of song and approaching a fin whale at Rarotonga in 2014 . One individual was observed playing with a bottlenose dolphin in Hawaiian waters .
= = = Song = = =
Both male and female humpback whales vocalize , but only males produce the long , loud , complex " song " for which the species is famous . Each song consists of several sounds in a low register , varying in amplitude and frequency and typically lasting from 10 to 20 minutes . Individuals may sing continuously for more than 24 hours . Cetaceans have no vocal cords . They vocalize by forcing air through their massive nasal cavities ( blowholes ) .
Whales within a large area sing a single song . All North Atlantic humpbacks sing the same song , while those of the North Pacific sing a different song . Each population 's song changes slowly over a period of years without repeating .
Scientists are unsure of the purpose of whale songs . Only males sing , suggesting one purpose is to attract females . However , many of the whales observed to approach a singer are other males , often resulting in conflict . Singing may , therefore , be a challenge to other males . Some scientists have hypothesized the song may serve an echolocative function . During the feeding season , humpbacks make unrelated vocalizations for herding fish into their bubble nets .
Humpback whales make other sounds to communicate , such as grunts , groans , " thwops " , snorts and barks .
= = = Breathing = = =
Whales are air @-@ breathing mammals who must surface to get the air they need . The stubby dorsal fin is visible soon after the blow ( exhalation ) when the whale surfaces , but disappears by the time the flukes emerge . Humpbacks have a 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , heart @-@ shaped to bushy blow through the blowholes .
They do not generally sleep at the surface , but must continue to breathe . Possibly only half of their brain sleeps at one time , allowing the other half to manage the surface / blow / dive process without awakening the other half .
= = = Migration = = =
Migratory patterns and social interactions were explored in the 1960s and by further studies in 1971 . Calambokidis et al. provided the " first quantitative assessment of the migratory structure of humpback whales in the entire North Pacific basin . "
= = Ecology = =
= = = Range and habitat = = =
Humpbacks inhabit all major oceans , in a wide band running from the Antarctic ice edge to 77 ° N latitude . The four global populations are North Pacific , Atlantic , Southern Ocean and Indian Ocean populations . These populations are distinct . Although the species has cosmopolitan distribution and is usually not considered to cross the equator line , seasonal observations at Cape Verde suggest possible interactions among populations from both hemisphere .
Whales were once uncommon in the eastern Mediterranean or the Baltic Sea , but have increased their presence in both waters as global populations have recovered . Recent increases within the Mediterranean basin , including re @-@ sightings , indicate that more whales may migrate into the inland sea in the future . They have also returned to Skagerrak and Kattegat , as well as Scandinavian fjords such as the Kvænangen , where they had not been observed for decades .
In the North Atlantic , feeding areas range from Scandinavia to New England . Breeding occurs in the Caribbean and Cape Verde . In the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans , whaless may breed off Brazil , as well the coasts of central , southern and southeastern Africa ( including Madagascar ) . Whale visits into Gulf of Mexico have been infrequent , but occurred in the gulf historically . In the South Atlantic , about 10 % of world population of the species possibly migrate to Gulf of Guinea . Comparison of songs between those at Cape Lopez and Abrolhos Archipelago indicate that trans @-@ Atlantic mixings between western and southeastern populations occur .
A large population spreads across the Hawaiian Islands every winter , ranging from the island of Hawaii in the south to Kure Atoll in the north . These animals feed in areas ranging from the coast of California to the Bering Sea . Humpbacks were first observed in Hawaiian waters in the mid @-@ 19th century and might have gained a dominance over North Pacific right whales as the right whales were hunted to near @-@ extinction .
A 2007 study identified seven individuals then wintering off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica as having traveled from the Antarctic — around 8 @,@ 300 km ( 5 @,@ 200 mi ) . Identified by their unique tail patterns , these animals made the longest documented mammalian migration . In Australia , two main migratory populations were identified , off the west and east coasts . These two populations are distinct , with only a few females in each generation crossing between the two groups .
In Panama and Costa Rica , humpback whales come from both the Southern Hemisphere ( July – October with over 2 @,@ 000 whales ) and the Northern Hemisphere ( December – March numbering about 300 . ) South Pacific populations migrating off mainland New Zealand , Kermadec Islands , and Tasmania are increasing , but less rapidly than in Australian waters because of illegal whaling by the Soviet Union in the 1970s .
Some recolonizing habitats are confirmed , especially in the North and South Atlantic ( e.g. English and Irish coasts , English Channel to coasts in the north such as the North Sea and Wadden Sea , South Pacific ( e.g. New Zealand coasts and Niue ) , pelagic islands of Chile such as Isla Salas y Gómez and the Easter Island where possibilities of undocumented wintering grounds have been considered , southern fiords of Chile and Peru ( e.g. Gulf of Penas , Strait of Magellan , Beagle Channel ) and in Asia . Areas in the Philippines such as in Babuyan Islands , Cagayan and Calayan and Pasaleng Bay , Ryukyu Islands the Volcano Islands in Japan and the Northern Mariana Islands recently , again became stable / growing wintering grounds while Marshall Islands , Vietnamese , Taiwanese and Chinese coasts show slow or no obvious recovery .
Whales again migrate off Japanese archipelagos and into the Sea of Japan . Connections between these stocks and whales seen in Sea of Okhotsk , on Kamchatka coasts and around Commander Islands have been studied . Historical wintering distributions could have been much wider , as whales were seen areas along Batanes , Sulu and Celebes Seas including off Palawan , Malaysia and Mindanao with higher densities at around today 's Cape Eluanbi and Kenting National Park . Unconfirmed sightings have been reported near Borneo in Modern . The first confirmation in modern Taiwan was of a pair off Hualien in 1994 , followed by successful escape from entanglement off Taitung in 1999 , and continuous sightings around Orchid Island in 2000 . Few / none regularly migrate into Kenting National Park . In addition , despite sightings reported almost annually at the islands of Green and Orchid Islands , relatively short stays in these waters indicate recoveries as winter foraging has not occurred . Around Hong Kong , two documented sightings were recorded in 2009 and in 2016 . One of the first documented sighting within the Yellow Sea was of a group of 3 or 4 individuals , including a cow calf pair in Changhai County in October , 2015 .
Since November 2015 , whales gather around Hachijō @-@ jima , far north from the known breeding areas in the Bonin Islands . All breeding activities except for giving births had been confirmed as of January , 2016 . That makes Hachijo @-@ jima the northernmost breeding ground in the world , north of breeding grounds such as Amami Ōshima , Midway Island , and Bermuda .
= = = = Arabian Sea population = = = =
A non @-@ migratory population in the Arabian Sea remains there year @-@ round . More typical annual migrations cover up to 25 @,@ 000 km ( 16 @,@ 000 mi ) , making it one of the most @-@ traveled mammalian species . Genetic studies and visual surveys indicate that the Arabian group is the most isolated of all humpback groups and is the most endangered , numbering possibly fewer than 100 animals .
Whales were historically common in continental and marginal waters such as Hallaniyat Islands , along Indian coasts , Persian Gulf and Gulf of Aden and recent migrations into the gulf including by cow @-@ calf pairs . It is unknown whether whales seen in the Red Sea originate in this population , however sightings increased since in 2006 even in the northern part of the sea such as in Gulf of Aqaba . Individuals may reach the Maldives , Sri Lanka , or further east .
Origins of whales occurring at Maldives are not clear as those from Arabian and south Pacific populations are possible .
= = Feeding and predation = =
Humpbacks feed primarily in summer and live off fat reserves during winter . They feed only rarely and opportunistically in their wintering waters . The humpback is an energetic hunter , taking krill and small schooling fish such as herring , salmon , capelin and American sand lance , as well as Atlantic mackerel , pollock and haddock in the North Atlantic . Krill and copepods are prey species in Australian and Antarctic waters . Humpbacks hunt by direct attack or by stunning prey by hitting the water with pectoral fins or flukes .
= = = Bubble net = = =
The humpback has the most diverse hunting repertoire of all baleen whales . Its most inventive technique is known as bubble net feeding ; a group of whales swims in a shrinking circle blowing bubbles below a school of prey . The shrinking ring of bubbles encircles the school and confines it in an ever @-@ smaller cylinder . This ring can begin near 30 m ( 98 ft ) in diameter and involve the cooperation of a dozen animals . Using a crittercam attached to a whale 's back , researchers found that some whales blow the bubbles , some dive deeper to drive fish toward the surface and others herd prey into the net by vocalizing . The whales then suddenly swim upward through the " net " , mouths agape , swallowing thousands of fish in one gulp . Pleated grooves in the whale 's mouth allow the creature to easily drain the water initially taken in , filtering out the prey .
So @-@ called lobtail feeding was observed in the North Atlantic . This technique involves the whale slapping the surface of the ocean with its tail between one and four times before creating the bubble net . Using network @-@ based diffusion analysis , the study authors argued that these whales learned the behavior from other whales in the group over a period of 27 years in response to a change in the primary form of prey .
= = = Killer whale predation = = =
Visible scars indicate that killer whales can prey upon juvenile humpbacks , though until recently hunting had never been witnessed and attacks were assumed to be superficial in nature . However , a 2014 study off Western Australia observed that when available in large numbers , young humpbacks can be attacked and sometimes killed by orcas . Moreover , mothers and ( possibly related ) adults escort neonates to deter such predation . The suggestion is that when humpbacks suffered near @-@ extinction during the whaling era , orcas turned to other prey , but are now resuming their former practice .
= = Relation to humans = =
= = = Whaling = = =
Humpback whales were hunted as early as the 18th century . By the 19th century , many nations ( the United States in particular ) , were hunting the animal heavily in the Atlantic Ocean and to a lesser extent in the Indian and Pacific Oceans . The late @-@ 19th @-@ century introduction of the explosive harpoon allowed whalers to accelerate their take . This , along with hunting in the Antarctic Ocean beginning in 1904 , sharply reduced whale populations . During the 20th century , over 200 @,@ 000 humpbacks were taken , reducing the global population by over 90 % . North Atlantic populations dropped to as low as 700 individuals .
= = = = Ban = = = =
In 1946 , the International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) was founded to oversee the industry . They imposed hunting regulations and created hunting seasons . To prevent extinction , IWC banned commercial humpback whaling in 1966 . By then , the global population had been reduced to around 5 @,@ 000 . The ban remained in force as of 2016 .
Prior to commercial whaling , populations could have reached 125 @,@ 000 . North Pacific kills alone are estimated at 28 @,@ 000 . The Soviet Union deliberately under @-@ recorded its catches ; the Soviets reported catching 2 @,@ 820 between 1947 and 1972 , but the true number was over 48 @,@ 000 .
As of 2004 , hunting was restricted to a few animals each year off the Caribbean island of Bequia in the nation of St. Vincent and the Grenadines . The take is not believed to threaten the local population . Japan had planned to kill 50 humpbacks in the 2007 / 08 season under its JARPA II research program . The announcement sparked global protests . After a visit to Tokyo by the IWC chair asking the Japanese for their co @-@ operation in sorting out the differences between pro- and antiwhaling nations on the commission , the Japanese whaling fleet agreed to take no humpback whales during the two years it would take to reach a formal agreement .
In 2010 , the IWC authorized Greenland 's native population to hunt a few humpback whales for the following three years .
In Japan , humpback , minkes , sperm and many other smaller Odontoceti , including critically endangered species such as North Pacific right , western gray and northern fin , have been targets of illegal captures . The hunts use harpoons for dolphin hunts or intentionally drive whales into nets , reporting them as cases of entanglement . Humpback meat can be found in markets . In one case , humpbacks of unknown quantities were illegally hunted in the Exclusive Economic Zones of anti @-@ whaling nations such as off Mexico and South Africa .
= = = Whale @-@ watching = = =
Whale watching is the leisure activity of observing humpbacks in the wild . Participants watch fromm shore or on touring boats . Humpbacks are generally curious about nearby objects . Some individuals , referred to as " friendlies " , approach whale @-@ watching boats closely , often staying under or near the boat for many minutes .
Because humpbacks are typically easily approachable , curious , identifiable as individuals and display many behaviors , they have become the mainstay of whale tourism around the world . Hawaii has used the concept of " ecotourism " to benefit from the species without killing them . This business brings in revenue of $ 20 million per year for the state 's economy .
= = = Famous individuals = = =
= = = = The Tay whale = = = =
In December 1883 , a male humpback swam up the Firth of Tay in Scotland , past what was then the whaling port of Dundee . The whale was exhibited to the public by a local entrepreneur , John Woods , both locally and then as a touring exhibition that travelled to Edinburgh and London . The whale was dissected by Professor John Struthers , who wrote seven papers on its anatomy and a 1889 monograph on the humpback .
= = = = Migaloo = = = =
An albino humpback whale that travels up and down the east coast of Australia became famous in local media because of its rare , all @-@ white appearance . Migaloo is the only known all @-@ white specimen and is a true albino . First sighted in 1991 , the whale was named for an indigenous Australian word for " white fella " . To prevent sightseers approaching dangerously close , the Queensland government created a 500 @-@ m ( 1600 @-@ ft ) exclusion zone around him .
= = = = Humphrey = = = =
In 1985 , Humphrey swam into San Francisco Bay and then up the Sacramento River towards Rio Vista . Five years later , Humphrey returned and became stuck on a mudflat in San Francisco Bay immediately north of Sierra Point below the view of onlookers from the upper floors of the Dakin Building .
He was twice rescued by the Marine Mammal Center and other concerned groups in California . He was pulled off the mudflat with a large cargo net and the help of the US Coast Guard . Both times , he was successfully guided back to the Pacific Ocean using a " sound net " in which people in a flotilla of boats made unpleasant noises behind the whale by banging on steel pipes , a Japanese fishing technique known as oikami . At the same time , the attractive sounds of humpback whales preparing to feed were broadcast from a boat headed towards the open ocean .
= = = Media = = =
Analyses of whale songs in the 1960s led to worldwide media interest and convinced the public that whales were highly intelligent , aiding the antiwhaling advocates .
= = Status = =
= = = Threats = = =
While whaling no longer threatens the species , individuals are vulnerable to collisions with ships , entanglement in fishing gear and noise pollution . Like other cetaceans , humpbacks can be injured by excessive noise . In the 19th century , two humpback whales were found dead near sites of repeated oceanic sub @-@ bottom blasting , with traumatic injuries and fractures in the ears .
Saxitoxin , a paralytic shellfish poisoning from contaminated mackerel , was implicated in humpback whale deaths .
= = = Conservation = = =
The worldwide population is at least 80 @,@ 000 , with 18 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 in the North Pacific , about 12 @,@ 000 in the North Atlantic and over 50 @,@ 000 in the Southern Hemisphere , down from a prewhaling population of 125 @,@ 000 . }
= = = = Least concern = = = =
In August 2008 , the IUCN changed humpback 's status from Vulnerable to Least Concern , although two subpopulations remain endangered . The United States is considering listing separate humpback populations , so smaller groups , such as North Pacific humpbacks , which are estimated to number 18 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 animals , might be delisted . This is made difficult by humpback 's migrations , which can extend 5 @,@ 157 miles ( 8 @,@ 299 km ) from Antarctica to Costa Rica . In Costa Rica , the Ballena Marine National Park is designed for humpback protection .
Areas where population data are limited and the species may be at higher risk include the Arabian Sea , the western North Pacific Ocean , the west coast of Africa and parts of Oceania .
The species was listed as vulnerable in 1996 and endangered as recently as 1988 . Most monitored stocks have rebounded since the end of commercial whaling . In the North Atlantic stocks are believed to be approaching prehunting levels . However , the species is considered endangered in some countries , including the United States .
= = = = United States = = = =
A 2008 US Department of Commerce analysis ( SPLASH ) noted that the many challenges to determining the recovery status included the lack of accurate population estimates , the unexpected complexity of population structures and their migration . The report was based on data collected from 2004 to 2006 . At the time , the North Pacific population was some 18 @,@ 302 . The estimate is consistent with a moderate rate of recovery for a depleted population , although it was considered to be a " dramatic increase in abundance " from other post @-@ 1960s estimates . By comparison , Calambokidis et al. estimated 9 @,@ 819 , covering 1991 @-@ 1993 . This represents a 4 % annual increase in population from 1993 to 2006 . The sanctuary provided by US national parks , such as Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve and Cape Hatteras National Seashore , became major factors in population recovery .
= = = = Canada = = = =
Off the west coast of Canada , the Gwaii Haanas National Marine Conservation Area Reserve covers 3 @,@ 400 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 300 sq mi ) . It is " a primary feeding habitat " of the North Pacific population . Their critical habitat overlaps with tanker shipping routes between Canada and its eastern trade partners . In 2005 the North Pacific population was listed as threatened under Canada ’ s Species at Risk Act ( SARA ) . In April 19 , 2014 the Department of the Environment recommended an amendment to SARA to downgrade their status off the Pacific coast from " threatened " to " species of special concern " . According to Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada ( COSEWIC ) , the North Pacific humpback population increased at about 4 % annually from 1992 to 2008 . Although socioeconomic costs and benefits were considered in their decision to upgrade their status , according to the University of British Columbia ’ s Marine Mammal Research Consortium 's research director , the decision was based on biology , not politics .
= = = = United Kingdom = = = =
The United Kingdom , among other countries , designated the humpback as a priority species under the national Biodiversity Action Plan .
= = = Books = = =
= Getty Villa =
The Getty Villa is one of two locations of the J. Paul Getty Museum . Located at the southerly end of the Malibu coast in the Pacific Palisades neighborhood of Los Angeles , California , USA , the Getty Villa is an educational center and museum dedicated to the study of the arts and cultures of ancient Greece , Rome , and Etruria . The collection has 44 @,@ 000 Greek , Roman , and Etruscan antiquities dating from 6 @,@ 500 BC to 400 AD , including the Lansdowne Heracles and the Victorious Youth . The UCLA / Getty Master ’ s Program in Archaeological and Ethnographic Conservation is housed on this campus . The collection is documented and presented through the online GettyGuide as well as through audio tours .
= = History = =
In 1954 , oil tycoon J. Paul Getty opened a gallery adjacent to his home in Pacific Palisades . Quickly running out of room , he built a second museum , the Getty Villa , on the property down the hill from the original gallery . The villa design was inspired by the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum and incorporated additional details from several other ancient sites . It was designed by architects Robert E. Langdon , Jr. and Ernest C. Wilson , Jr .. It opened in 1974 , but was never visited by Getty , who died in 1976 . Following his death , the museum inherited $ 661 million and began planning a much larger campus , the Getty Center , in nearby Brentwood . The museum overcame neighborhood opposition to its new campus plan by agreeing to limit the total size of the development on the Getty Center site . To meet the museum 's total space needs , the museum decided to split between the two locations with the Getty Villa housing the Greek , Roman , and Etruscan antiquities . In 1993 , the Getty Trust selected Rodolpho Machado and Jorge Silvetti to design the renovation of the Getty Villa and its campus . In 1997 , portions of the museum 's collection of Greek , Roman and Etruscan antiquities were moved to the Getty Center for display , and the Getty Villa was closed for renovation . The collection was restored during the renovation .
Starting in 2004 , the museum and the University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) hold summer institutes in Turkey , studying the conservation of Middle Eastern Art .
Reopened on January 28 , 2006 , the Getty Villa shows Greek , Roman , and Etruscan antiquities within Roman @-@ inspired architecture and surrounded by Roman @-@ style gardens . The art is arranged by themes , e.g. , Gods and Goddesses , Dionysos and the Theater , and Stories of the Trojan War . The new architectural plan surrounding the Villa – which was conceived by Boston architects Machado and Silvetti Associates ( who were also responsible for the plans for the renovated museum ) – is designed to simulate an archaeological dig . Architectural Record has praised their work on the Getty Villa as " a near miracle – a museum that elicits no smirks from the art world .... a masterful job ... crafting a sophisticated ensemble of buildings , plazas , and landscaping that finally provides a real home for a relic of another time and place . "
There has been controversy surrounding the Greek and Italian governments ' claim that objects in the collection were looted and should be repatriated . In 2006 , the Getty returned or promised to return four looted objects to Greece : a stele ( grave marker ) , a marble relief , a gold funerary wreath , and a marble statue . In 2007 , the Getty signed an agreement to return 40 looted items to Italy .
= = Facility and programs = =
Admission to the Getty Villa is free , but timed tickets must be obtained in advance via phone or the museum 's website . As of June 2010 , there is a $ 15 @.@ 00 charge for parking during the day , but parking is free for evening performances . The museum is open Wednesday to Monday , 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. It is closed Tuesday and on New Year 's Day ( January 1 ) , July 4 , Thanksgiving and Christmas ( December 25 ) .
The Getty Villa hosts live performances in both its indoor auditorium and its outdoor theatre . Indoor play @-@ readings included The Trojan Women , Aristophanes ' The Frogs , and Euripides ' Helen . Indoor musical performances , which typically relate to art exhibits , included : Musica Angelica , De Organographia , and Songs from the Fifth Age : Sones de México in Concert . The auditorium also held a public reading of Homer 's Iliad . Outdoor performances included Aristophanes ' Peace , Aeschylus 's Agamemnon , and Sophocles ' Elektra . The Getty Villa also hosts visiting exhibitions beyond its own collections . For example , in March 2011 " In Search of Biblical Lands " was a photographic exhibition which included scenes of the Middle East dating back to the 1840s .
The Getty Villa offers special educational programs for children . A special Family Forum gallery offers activities including decorating Greek vases and projecting shadows onto a screen that represents a Greek urn . The room also has polystyrene props from Greek and Roman culture for children to handle and use to cast shadows . The Getty Villa also offers children 's guides to the other exhibits .
The Getty Conservation Institute offers a Master ’ s Program in Archaeological and Ethnographic Conservation in association with the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA . Classes and research are conducted in the museum wing of the ranch house . The program was the first of its kind in the United States .
= = Campus = =
The Villa self @-@ identifies with Malibu as it is located just east of the city limits of Malibu in the city of Los Angeles in the community of Pacific Palisades . The 64 acres ( 26 ha ) museum complex sits on a hill overlooking the Pacific Ocean , which is about 100 feet ( 30 m ) from the entrance to the property . An outdoor 2 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 230 m2 ) entry pavilion is also built into the hill near the 248 @-@ car , four story , South Parking garage at the southern end of the Outer Peristyle . The Outer Peristyle is a formal garden with roses and English ivy that includes a number of Roman sculptures . To the west of the Outer Peristyle is an herb garden . Beneath the Outer Peristyle is the Central Parking Garage . To the west of the Museum is a 450 @-@ seat outdoor Greek theater where evening performances are staged , named in honor of Barbara and Lawrence Fleischman . The theater faces the west side of the Villa and uses its entrance as a stage . To the northwest of the theatre is a three @-@ story , 15 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 440 m2 ) building built into the hill that contains the museum store on the lower level , a cafe on the second level , and a private dining room on the top level . North of the Villa is a 10 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 930 m2 ) indoor 250 seat auditorium . On the hill above the museum are Getty 's original private ranch house and the museum wing that Getty added to his home in 1954 . They are now used for curatorial offices , meeting rooms and as a library . Although not open to the public , the campus includes J. Paul Getty 's grave on the hill behind his ranch house . A 200 @-@ car North Parking Garage is behind the ranch complex . The 105 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 9 @,@ 800 m2 ) museum building is arranged in a square opening into the Inner Peristyle courtyard . The 2006 museum renovation added 58 windows facing the Inner Peristyle and a retractable skylight over the atrium . It also replaced the terrazzo floors in the galleries and added seismic protection with new steel reinforcing beams and new isolators in the bases of statues and display cases . The museum has 48 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 4 @,@ 500 m2 ) of gallery space .
Architectural critic Calum Storrie describes the overall effect :
What the Getty Villa achieves , first by seclusion , then by control of access , and ultimately through the architecture , is a sense of detachment from its immediate environment .
= = Collection = =
The collection has 44 @,@ 000 Greek , Roman , and Etruscan antiquities dating from 6 @,@ 500 BC to 400 AD . Among the outstanding items is Victorious Youth , one of few life @-@ size Greek bronze statues to have survived to modern times . The Lansdowne Heracles is a Hadrianic Roman sculpture in the manner of Lysippus . The Villa also has jewelry and coin collections and an extensive 20 @,@ 000 volume library of books covering art from these periods . The Villa also displays the Getty kouros , which the museum lists as " Greek , about 530 B.C. , or modern forgery " because scientific analysis is inconclusive as to whether the marble statue can be dated to Greek times . If genuine , the Getty kouros is one of only twelve remaining intact lifesize kouroi . The Marbury Hall Zeus is a 81 in ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) tall marble statue that was recovered from ruins at Tivoli near Rome .
= = = GettyGuide = = =
Detailed information about the J. Paul Getty Museum ’ s collection at the Getty Villa is provided on " GettyGuide " . This is available both at the Museum , at various points known as " GettyGuide stations " , and externally on its website .
= = Photographs = =
= Thirteen ( Megadeth album ) =
Thirteen ( stylized as TH1RT3EN ) is the thirteenth studio album by American thrash metal band Megadeth . It was released worldwide on November 1 , 2011 , by Roadrunner Records , although the album was released on October 26 , 2011 for Japan . Thirteen is the first Megadeth studio album since The World Needs a Hero ( 2001 ) to feature bassist and founding member David Ellefson , who returned to the band in 2010 . Thirteen debuted at number 11 on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 42 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album broke into the top 20 in several other markets as well . It has sold about 120 @,@ 000 copies in the United States as of December 2012 . The album has received largely positive reviews from critics .
The album followed the successful Endgame , released two years previously , and was recorded in late spring 2011 . In addition to new material was written for the album , the band decided to rework and release several older songs , some of which had previously seen release as demos or bonus tracks . Additionally , several of the songs on the album were intended to appear on video game soundtracks , notably " Sudden Death " , which appeared as a playable song in the 2010 video game Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock .
The lead single from Thirteen was the Al Capone @-@ inspired " Public Enemy No. 1 " . This was followed by " Whose Life ( Is It Anyways ? ) " about a month later . " Sudden Death " was released as a single prior to the announcement of Thirteen to promote Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock , but was later included on the album . All three songs received Grammy Award nominations , in the " Best Metal Performance " or " Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance " categories .
= = Writing , recording and album artwork = =
In July 2010 , while being asked about the success of Megadeth 's release Endgame ( 2009 ) , drummer Shawn Drover revealed that the band had begun discussing a follow @-@ up album and said that there were a " couple of ideas " the band was starting to work on . In a later interview , frontman and guitarist Dave Mustaine stated that the album would contain a mix of songs he had written earlier in his career and new compositions written for the album .
Mustaine confirmed that Megadeth would record at the band 's own Vic 's Garage studio in California . Johnny K was chosen to produce the record because Andy Sneap , the producer of Megadeth 's previous two albums , was unavailable due to schedule conflicts . Mustaine subsequently revealed that the album would be titled Thirteen and would feature previously released tracks such as " Sudden Death " and " Never Dead " .
In an interview before a show in Auckland , New Zealand , Mustaine noted that the then @-@ upcoming record was the last one on the band 's contract with Roadrunner Records and mentioned that Roadrunner was trying to give the band a " huge new deal " . However , Mustaine expressed frustration with the label , saying " The treatment 's been terrible over the years , and I just don 't want it . " He stated that he would prefer to retire than " continue to play like that " . Nevertheless , Mustaine exclaimed the band 's new record would be " great " and the songs were " really good " .
In a December 2010 interview , bassist David Ellefson ( who was welcomed back into the band earlier that year ) commented " There 's some ideas that we 're now starting to individually compose " , but clarified the band would not be hitting the studio until 2011 . Ellefson also speculated that the album would be influenced by the band 's ( then ) recent live performances of the entire Rust in Peace album ( 1990 ) .
Mustaine initially suggested that the album was turning out to be " more like Endgame " . however he later declared the album was instead " Different , a hundred percent different , unlike anything we 've ever done before because the guitar sounds are different , it sounds really super @-@ modern . " He went on to compare the sound to " really old classic Sabbath and with a little bit of a modern edge of Queens of the Stone Age kind of thing . "
Ellefson stated the album was ready to be mixed as of July 2011 . When asked if it could be compared to any previous Megadeth album , he said the album " kind of fits in around the Countdown to Extinction album " but noted it would depend on how the album was to be mixed . Ellefson also announced the band has been considering album titles , but no release date was yet planned .
Chris Broderick compared some parts of the album specifically to Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? ( 1986 ) , Rust in Peace , or Countdown to Extinction ( 1992 ) , but also stated " I 've been likening it to a very diverse CD . It 's not one of those ones that you 'll put it on and every song sounds like the last one . It 's got everything from anthems to more radio friendly stuff to hard @-@ hitting thrash and some cool , dark @-@ sounding stuff . " In a later interview , Broderick again touted the sonic diversity of the album , noting that it is " like a cut in time from each CD of the past Megadeth discography " .
It was announced that a new song , " Never Dead " , would be included in a promotional trailer for Konami 's upcoming video game NeverDead , marking the third time in five years that the band contributed a new song towards promoting a video game ( " Gears of War " in 2006 to promote Gears of War and " Sudden Death " in 2010 for inclusion in Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock being the other two ) . " Sudden Death " though originally recorded for the Guitar Hero franchise , was also later confirmed to be included on Thirteen .
The album artwork was designed by John Lorenzi , who contributed to the covers on Megadeth 's two previous albums , Endgame and United Abominations ( 2007 ) . The title was revealed as 13 , with Mustaine commenting " I started playing guitar at 13 and this is our 13th record and I was born on the 13th . As soon as I said I was going to call it ' 13 ' , I started noticing 13 everywhere . They never used to have 13th floors in hotels but now they have them again . " One day later , the band revealed that the title would be rendered as " Th1rt3en " instead of 13 . Drover stated in a subsequent interview that " Thirteen " had originally been the working title for the album . The cover artwork and tracklist for the album were revealed on September 7 , 2011 .
According to Dave Mustaine , the band have encountered numerous mishaps and odd occurrences . In an interview with Terrorizer magazine , Mustaine , taking note of the connection to the unlucky number 13 , explained " This is our 13th studio record , and we 've already had a bunch of weird things happen . Car problems , stuff disappearing , a guy who worked for me that was the most white @-@ laced guy you could imagine falling out on drugs and disappearing ... but this one 's got me excited ! " In addition , Mustaine announced on Twitter that producer Johnny K was " suddenly struck ill " , and the band had ceased recording for the time being . However , the band resumed recording a few days later , with K having apparently recovered . In an interview , Drover had said nothing weird occurred until after he finished recording drum tracks for the album .
However , Mustaine later contradicted his previous statements " It 's been very good luck . We did this record in … in record time " . Furthermore , instead of the superstitions surrounding the number 13 , Mustaine said he was actually more concerned with the album 's release date of November 1 being a bad omen ; referring to the release of Youthanasia ( which was released on the same date in 1994 ) , when the band was " banned " from MTV , for playing the then @-@ new track " À Tout le Monde " on a televised promotional show , because MTV believed the song to be about suicide .
= = Release and promotion = =
Mustaine revealed the album 's North American release date as November 1 , 2011 . Mustaine previously said the label was " looking at November 1st . I don 't know if it 's supposed to be the 1st or the 31st for the release date , cuz [ sic ] they 're trying to get us to do a live performance some place , for this release . " This live performance Mustaine mentioned would ultimately turn out to be an appearance on the October 31 , 2011 edition of Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . The band , performing in Halloween costumes , played " Public Enemy No. 1 " and " Symphony of Destruction " , the former of which was televised . The album was released in Japan on October 26 , 2011 .
To help draw publicity for the then @-@ upcoming release , Mustaine had scheduled an appearance on the October 14 – 16 edition of the Full Metal Jackie radio show and premiered a new track from Thirteen , " Whose Life ( Is This Anyways ? ) " , on the broadcast . For a 24 @-@ hour period from October 17 to October 18 , 2011 , " Whose Life ( Is It Anyway ? ) " was released as a free download through the band 's Facebook page . Samples of all the album 's songs were available for streaming on Amazon.com from October 17 . Mustaine also made an appearance on the November 7 edition of Rockline .
= = Songs = =
Mustaine had said that thirteen songs had been written in the sessions for the album , though only twelve were originally contracted for the album ( one of which being a bonus track intended only
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at County Hall , Hertford ( which was then newly built , having only opened in 1939 ) was held to consider forming the Hertfordshire Local Defence Volunteers . Nineteen companies formed at once . They became the Hertfordshire Home Guard in December of that year .
In 1942 the 191st ( Hertfordshire and Essex Yeomanry ) Field Regiment , Royal Artillery formed for an anticipated campaign in Northern Europe . Hertfordshire was central to aircraft manufacture in the Second World War . De Havilland designed their Mosquito in Hatfield and constructed them at Leavesden , together with Halifax bombers .
Many RAF pilots were trained at Panshanger . From 1940 , No. 2 ( AC ) Squadron was stationed at RAF Sawbridgeworth , with the purpose of mounting tactical reconnaissance sorties over occupied Europe . Initially it operated the Westland Lysander , before re @-@ equipping with the more capable Curtiss Tomahawk and North American Mustang aircraft . About 4000 bombs , 107 V @-@ 1 flying bombs , and 47 V @-@ 2 rockets fell on Hertfordshire during the Second World War . American Flying Fortresses bombers of the 398th Bombardment Group ( Heavy ) mounting 195 combat missions against targets on the Continent from RAF Nuthampstead . The United States Army Air Forces used RAF Bovingdon as a training station , while the US VIII Fighter Command Headquarters was based RAF Bushey Hall .
= = = Post @-@ War = = =
After the war , Stevenage was the first town to be redeveloped under the New Towns Act 1946 . Hatfield remained closely connected with the aircraft industry , and about 10 % of the aircraft workers in England worked in Hertfordshire in the 1960s . The de Havilland Comet was developed in the town . The London Government Act 1963 created an enlarged Greater London in 1965 which took Barnet from Hertfordshire , but in exchange , the county gained Potters Bar and South Mimms from Middlesex . The county 's boundaries were revised in the reforms accompanying the Local Government Act 1972 , at which time Royston became fully a part of Hertfordshire . Camfield House , Hatfield , belonged to Barbara Cartland during this period , and Beatrix Potter lived there as well .
During the Second World War , sculptor Henry Moore moved to the village of Perry Green in Hertfordshire when his former home was bombed . The Henry Moore Foundation still operates from the village .
The character of Hertfordshire changed in the later part of the 20th century . In 1992 , it was resolved to close the aircraft manufacturing site in Hatfield . At the start of the 20th century , 83 % of the workforce were involved in agriculture , but by the end , less than 1 % remained so . Only one brewery , McMullens , is still open and there are no remaining commercial maltings or mills . Nowadays , Hertfordshire has become a service and administrative centre containing the head offices of several important companies ( see here ) and a dormitory for London . A growing trend is research and development , notably for Glaxo and at the University of Hertfordshire which , from relatively humble beginnings as Hatfield Polytechnic , now has over 23 @,@ 000 students .
On 17 October 2000 , a major rail crash took place in Hatfield . Criticism of Railtrack after the accident was rife , and the company had to pay over £ 700 million in compensation . It ceased trading owing to insolvency in 2002 .
The fire of 11 December 2005 at Buncefield , Hemel Hempstead , was a major disaster . Hertfordshire 's Chief Fire Officer , Roy Wilsher , said it was " possibly the largest in peacetime Europe . " About sixty million gallons of petrol burned , the largest of the explosions measured just under 2 @.@ 5 on the Richter scale , and the smoke darkened skies in neighbouring towns for two days before it could be extinguished .
= = Conservation = =
Hertfordshire has a larger number of listed buildings and village greens pre @-@ dating 1700 than Greater London , see for example Grade II * listed buildings in Hertfordshire which tend to be in this category . All 10 District ( or Borough ) Councils have designated conservation areas .
= = Crime and criminals = =
King Stephen held court at St Albans in 1143 . He arrested Geoffrey de Mandeville , who held shrievalty of London , Middlesex and Hertfordshire from the pretender Empress Matilda . De Mandeville surrendered his castles , including the one he had recently built at South Mimms , and went on to become a noted outlaw and bandit .
A seventeenth @-@ century highwaywoman , called the " Wicked Lady " , preyed on travellers on Nomansland Common along Watling Street to the far end of Wales . This may have been Lady Katherine Ferrers of Markyate Cell 1634 @-@ 1660 who was married to a detached husband Thomas Fanshaw ( e ) and whose body was carried across the county to be buried at Ware . By the time of a 1840 fire at the large house , a folklore rhyme had arisen : { { Near the cell there is a well
Near the well there is a tree
Near the tree the treasure be } }
In one of the last witch trials recorded , Jane Wenham , of Walkern , was convicted of witchcraft in 1712 . The accused was over the age of 70 at the time . Queen Anne pardoned Wenham , who " lived on in a cottage at Gilston " . In 1751 , John and Ruth Osborne of Gubblecot , Tring , were accused of witchcraft . A mob dragged them through the village pond until Ruth drowned . One Thomas Colley , a chimney sweep and apparently the ringleader , was hanged ; but the people disapproved of the hanging and did not come to watch .
There are records for Hitchin court from the 17th century . William Bogdani wrote in 1744 :
... these Hitchiners are the most litigious people on earth , and most of them pretty rich , so that whenever I have attempted a distress they removed the cause to a superior court , where you may believe it is not worth my while to try it for the value of perhaps a 10 shilling or 20 shilling amercement .
In 1783 the vestry organised a watch to " put a stop to the daring robberies almost nightly committed in or near the town . " The next year Vincenzo Lunardi 's first balloon flight over Britain landed in Standon Green End where a stone commemorates the achievement .
Also in the late 18th Century , Hertford 's branch of Woolworth 's ( now closed ) was formerly an inn called the Maiden Head . From this inn , Walter Clibborn , the " murderous pie man of Hertford " , operated . He pretended to be deaf , so that people would talk freely while he moved among them selling pies , overhearing their destinations and the location of their valuables ; and , with his sons who blackened their faces , would ambush them later that night . Clibborn was shot dead in 1782 by one George North on the Datchworth to Branfield road .
In 1823 , the murder of William Weare in Radlett became known as the first trial by newspaper . The murderer , who was the Mayor of Norwich 's son John Thurtell , a notorious gambler , pleaded that the sensational newspaper coverage had prejudiced the court against him . It only took 20 minutes of deliberations for the jury to sentence him to death by hanging . The crowds that gathered for the trial were so large that the judge had trouble getting to the courthouse through the gridlocked streets , and about 15 @,@ 000 people attended the hanging itself .
The murder of Mercy Nicholls in Railway Street , Hertford , in 1899 , ultimately led to a major re @-@ organisation of Hertfordshire 's police force . In a long , gradual decline in agriculture , fishing and forestry , the 2011 census recorded 1 @,@ 878 Hertfordshire workers employed in this sector .
= = Authors of Hertfordshire = =
Jane Austen ( 1775 – 1817 ) wrote about Hertfordshire . Pride and Prejudice is set in a fictionalised Hertfordshire . Sir Francis Bacon ( 1561 – 1626 ) , writer and Lord Chancellor , lived at Gorhambury near St Albans and is buried at St Michael 's . J. M. Barrie ( 1860 – 1937 ) based his character Peter Pan on Peter Llewelyn Davies , his friend 's son , after visiting their family in Berkhamsted . Dame Juliana Berners ( 1388- ? ) was the author of the Boke of St Albans , a guide to hunting , hawking and heraldry , which was printed by Abbey Press in 1486 . John Bunyan ( 1628 – 1688 ) was linked to Hitchin , and although he was gaoled outside the county in Bedford , he was a member of the Baptist Church at Kensworth ( at that time in Hertfordshire , though now in Bedfordshire ) . He preached extensively in Hertfordshire . George Chapman ( c . 1559 – 1634 ) , a poet and playwright remembered for his translations of the Iliad and the Odyssey , was born in Hitchin and lived there . Geoffrey Chaucer ( c . 1343 – 1400 ) was Clerk of the Works at Berkhamsted Castle in 1389 .
Sir Henry Chauncy ( 1632 – 1719 ) , known for his Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire ( pub . 1700 ) , was made first Recorder of Hertford in 1680 . Samuel Taylor Coleridge ( 1772 – 1834 ) was educated at Christ 's Hospital , Hitchin . William Cowper ( 1731 – 1800 ) , poet , was born and lived in Berkhamsted . He was later institutionalised in an asylum in St Albans . Charles Dickens ( 1812 – 1870 ) was often in Hertfordshire ( not least to visit his friend Edward Bulwer Lytton , who is mentioned below ) , and significant elements of his novels are set there . Sir Richard Fanshawe ( 1608 – 1666 ) was born at Ware Park and his memorial tablet is in Ware . E. M. Forster ( 1879- ? ) lived at Rook 's Nest House between Stevenage and Weston . William Godwin ( 1756 – 1836 ) , an anarchist philosopher , was a Chapel Minister in Ware ; his feminist wife Mary Wollstonecraft ( 1759 – 1797 ) , author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman , gave him a daughter , Mary Shelley ( 1797 – 1851 ) , who wrote Frankenstein . Graham Greene ( 1904 – 1991 ) was educated at Berkhamsted Grammar School , where his father was headmaster . Julian Grenfell ( 1888 – 1915 ) , the First World War poet , lived in Panshanger . Lady Caroline Lamb ( 1785 – 1827 ) lived at Brocket Hall and wrote Glenarvon there after her unhappy love affair with Lord Byron . She is buried in Hatfield .
Nathaniel Lee ( c . 1653 – 1692 ) , poet and playwright , was born in Hatfield where his father was rector . Edward Bulwer @-@ Lytton ( 1803 – 1873 ) lived at the family seat of Knebworth House where he often entertained Charles Dickens and Benjamin Disraeli , among others . John Scott , the Quaker poet and writer , moved to Great Amwell in 1740 . He gave Amwell its name ( after Emma 's Well , which is nearby and now dry ; the well has part of John Scott 's poem " Emma " inscribed near it . ) Nobel prizewinning playwright George Bernard Shaw lived in Hertfordshire until his death in 1950 . Anthony Trollope ( 1815 – 1882 ) lived in Waltham Cross . Thomas Walsingham ( ? -1422 ) , author of the Historia Anglicana and chronicler of the Peasants ' Revolt , was a monk in St Albans Abbey in the early 15th century .
= = Film @-@ making in Hertfordshire = =
In film @-@ making Melbourne @-@ Cooper born and working in Hertfordshire ( but later what became the London Borough of Barnet ) was a British film maker who witnessed the birth of the movies as an assistant / cameraman of Birt Acres ( 1854 – 1918 ) . Acres , in 1895 , co @-@ developed the first British 35 mm moving picture camera under the guidance of British engineer R.W. Paul . Cooper , for the next 20 years , made contributions to the British moving picture industry .
Elstree Studios nearby has risen to prominence ; landmark films and television that have been produced there include the first and second Star Wars films ( chronologically , i.e. Episodes IV and V ) , Indiana Jones , and Superman , The World 's End and British television shows Dancing on Ice , Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? , and Big Brother . Parts of the Harry Potter film series production took place at Leavesden Film Studios . Wild child was filmed in Balls park , Hertford .
= = Nobles and politicians of Hertfordshire = =
Æthelgifu was a Christian Saxon noblewoman who lived in the county in the late 980s , and her will is an important document for the study of the country as well as the county . It shows that Æthelgifu had three large estates in Hertfordshire . She left much of her land to the monks of St Albans , and her will shows the importance of Hitchin as a legal and administrative centre . Hitchin likely stayed in royal hands into the 10th century .
Edward Seymour was appointed Earl of Hertford in 1559 . He married Lady Catherine Grey , who was Lady Jane Grey 's sister , in 1560 . As Catherine was in line for the throne , she needed Queen Elizabeth 's permission to wed , and because this was not sought , the marriage was held in secret with Edward 's sister , Lady Jane Seymour , as the only witness . However , when Catherine became visibly pregnant , she had little option but to reveal her marriage and , at her request , Lord Robert Dudley told the Queen . An angry Elizabeth had the Earl and Countess of Hertford interned in the Tower of London and annulled their marriage .
Sarah Churchill , one of the most influential women in English history , was born as Sarah Jennings in St Albans in 1660 . She married the Duke of Marlborough , rose to high favour with the Crown , then fell out with the Queen and was dismissed , but returned to Court after the Queen 's death . She argued with many important people in the late 17th and early 18th centuries , grew very rich , toured the continent and built Blenheim Palace . Winston Churchill and Diana , Princess of Wales , were both descended from her .
A new title , the Earl of St Albans , was created in 1628 with a short and undistinguished history , effectively wiped out in the civil war shortly thereafter . Rather than revive the Earldom , Charles Beauclerk , illegitimate son of King Charles II and Nell Gwyn , was made Duke of St Albans in 1684 . This peerage is as of 2016 on its fourteenth duke .
Robert Arthur Gascoyne Talbot Cecil , the Marquess of Salisbury , was born at Hatfield House on 3 February 1830 . He also died there , 73 years later . In a distinguished political career , he would go on to become the Prime Minister three times and Foreign Secretary four times . William Lamb , ( Viscount ) Melbourne and again Prime Minister , lived in Hertfordshire and at one stage was its co @-@ Member of Parliament . He died at Brocket Hall .
After the Local Government Act 1888 , the first County Councillors in Hertfordshire were elected on 17 January 1889 .
Arthur Balfour , though born in Scotland , was educated in Hertfordshire before going to university at Cambridge . He served as MP for Hertford before being elected as Prime Minister in 1902 . He resigned as Prime Minister in 1905 , at which time he was the first Prime Minister to own a car . He later served as Foreign Secretary , when his Balfour Declaration was an important episode in the leadup to the creation of Israel .
= 1980 Eureka earthquake =
The 1980 Eureka earthquake ( also known as the Gorda Basin earthquake ) occurred on November 8 at 02 : 27 : 34 local time along the northern coastal area of California in the United States . With a moment magnitude of 7 @.@ 3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII ( Very strong ) , this strike @-@ slip earthquake was the largest to occur in California in 28 years . Although damage was considered light , several loss estimates equaled or exceeded $ 2 million , and six injuries resulted when two vehicles came down with the partial collapse of a highway overpass on US 101 in Fields Landing . The north coast of California experiences frequent plate boundary earthquakes near the Mendocino Triple Junction and intraplate events also occur within the Gorda Plate .
Due to the regional seismic risk , the nuclear portion of the Humboldt Bay Nuclear Power Plant was shut down in the 1970s . No substantial damage occurred to the two fossil @-@ fuel units that were still operational at the facility . Several types of sensors were installed at the site to capture strong motion data in this seismically @-@ active area , but the majority of records from the event were considered unreliable due to faulty equipment or inadequate maintenance . Only one piece of equipment at the facility provided data by which an estimate of the peak ground acceleration could be made .
= = Tectonic setting = =
Near Cape Mendocino , the Mendocino Triple Junction is an area of active seismicity where three tectonic plates come together . The Mendocino Fracture Zone ( also known as the Mendocino Fault east of the Gorda Ridge ) is a transform fault that separates the Pacific and Gorda Plates . To the south , the relative motion between the Pacific Plate and North American Plate is accommodated by the San Andreas Fault , and to the north , the Gorda Plate is converging with the North American Plate at the Cascadia Subduction Zone . Earthquakes within the Gorda Plate are the result of north @-@ south compression at the Mendocino Fault .
= = Earthquake = =
The left @-@ lateral strike @-@ slip earthquake was the largest to occur in California since the 1952 Kern County earthquake . The mainshock ( which was described as a multiple @-@ rupture , with four subevents in the initial 80 seconds ) and its aftershocks occurred on a northeast @-@ trending fault that extended from near the Mendocino Fault to a point northwest of Eureka . Movement along the fault is due to a north @-@ south compressional regime and the resulting intraplate deformation of the Gorda Plate . Previous events in this area were the January 1922 7 @.@ 3 Ms and the January 1923 7 @.@ 2 Ms shocks .
The earthquake occurred offshore ( to the northwest of Eureka , about 37 mi ( 60 km ) west of Patrick 's Point ) and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII ( Very strong ) . Some people reported intense shaking that lasted for 15 to 30 seconds ; tremors were felt as far south as the San Francisco Bay Area and as far north as Salem , Oregon . In the epicentral area , items were knocked off shelves and furniture was displaced , but damage was considered light ( the smaller 5 @.@ 2 ML event that occurred in June 1975 caused more damage ) .
= = = Damage = = =
While most of the damage from the Gorda Basin earthquake was considered light , there were some exceptions . Mercalli intensities in the immediate area were judged to be in the range of V ( Moderate ) to VII . In Eureka , intensity VI ( Strong ) effects included broken windows and dishes , fallen chimneys , and merchandise that fell from store shelves . Intensity VII effects affected the Fields Landing , King Salmon , Loleta , and Big Lagoon areas , and included surface cracks on the ground , soil liquefaction , small landslides and rockfalls , and numerous slumps along the Eel River . Similar effects occurred along the Old Coast Highway near Trinidad and Moonstone , where the roadway was reduced to one lane of travel in some areas . Several homes were knocked off their foundations and a highway overpass collapsed in Fields Landing . Seismic wave amplification , poor design , or inadequate construction style may have contributed to losses there .
= = = = Tompkins Hill Road overpass = = = =
The Tompkins Hill Road overpass is situated just south of Fields Landing and was built in the late 1960s . It suffered slight damage during the 1975 earthquake and was due for a retrofit in 1981 . The overpass was constructed with cement abutments on earthen ramps on either end and a series of concrete support columns in the middle . Eight 60 ft ( 20 m ) reinforced concrete spans accommodated northbound and southbound lanes of traffic , with no anchors connecting the spans with each other or to the abutments . At the time of the shock , two of the southbound spans came off their support ( a 6 in ( 15 cm ) ledge ) and six people were injured when a Volkswagen Beetle and a small pickup truck plummeted off the bridge .
= = = = Humboldt Bay Power Plant = = = =
The Humboldt Bay Power Plant is located about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of the collapsed highway overpass and operated fossil @-@ fuel and nuclear units in the 1960s and 1970s . The nuclear unit was cancelled in 1976 because of seismic safety concerns , but the two fossil @-@ fuel units remained in operation . The Nuclear Regulatory Commission performed a post @-@ event survey of the facility 's systems in late 1980 , but inspectors found only minor effects to the plant 's structure , piping , tanks , and other mechanical equipment . It was found that the two units were automatically shut down at the time of the shock for various protective concerns and that there were minor cracks in masonry and concrete , sheared bolts , pipe leaks , and slight movement of water tanks . The deformation of a reinforced masonry wall that resulted in a variable @-@ width gap was the only structural issue .
= = = Strong motion = = =
Pacific Gas and Electric initially reported that peak ground accelerations in the range of .16 – .4g were recorded on the floor of the refueling building on the plant 's strong motion instruments ( accelerometers ) . Low voltage from a faulty power supply left the instruments in a condition that was functional , but the records were not considered reliable . Three TERA Technology film recorders were also in use as a backup system , but these instruments also did not produce any usable records , because lack of maintenance had allowed dirt and grit to get inside . Only records from one instrument ( an Engdhal peak shock recorder ) was believed to be operating correctly and , with a close examination of the energy dispersed at various frequencies , an estimate of .15 – .25g was given for the event at that location .
= List of counties in Delaware =
The United States state of Delaware has only three counties : New Castle , Kent , and Sussex , the least in the United States . The origin of the county boundaries goes back to former court districts . The powers of the counties ' legislative bodies are limited to issues such as zoning and development .
= = Politics and government = =
Each county elects a legislative body ( known in New Castle and Sussex counties as the County Council , and in Kent County as the Levy Court ) . The counties are able to raise taxes and borrow money . They also have control over garbage disposal , water supply , sewerage , zoning , development , and building codes .
Most functions which are handled on a county @-@ by @-@ county basis in other states — such as court and law enforcement — have been centralized in Delaware , leading to a significant concentration of power in the Delaware state government . The counties were historically divided into hundreds , which were used as tax reporting and voting districts until the 1960s . However , the hundreds now serve no administrative role ; their only current official legal use is in real @-@ estate title descriptions .
= = History = =
Following the English conquest of 1664 , all of the land on the western side of the Delaware River and Delaware Bay was governed as part of the New York Colony and administered from the town of New Castle . During the brief recapture of the colony by the Dutch in 1673 , additional court districts were created around Upland and Whorekill . The latter was also known as Hoornkill , and is now the town of Lewes . The court at New Castle was left with the central portion of the colony . The jurisdiction left to the court at became New Castle County , and the county seat remained at New Castle until 1881 when it was moved to Wilmington . In 1680 , Whorekill District was divided into Deale County and St. Jones County . After this division , Lewes became the county seat of Deale , which was later renamed Sussex County . The former Upland District was named after the New Sweden settlement of Upland , and was renamed Chester County in 1682 . Chester County is now located within the present boundaries of Pennsylvania .
Lord Baltimore , the Proprietor of Maryland , claimed all present @-@ day Delaware , and organized its northern and eastern portions as Durham County , Maryland . However , this county existed only on paper . The southern and western portions of present @-@ day Sussex County were organized as portions of several adjacent Maryland counties and were not recognized as part of Delaware until the Mason @-@ Dixon Survey was run in 1767 . In 1791 , with the expansion of Sussex County to the south and west , the county seat was moved to Georgetown . The county seat of St. Jones ( renamed Kent County in 1681 ) is at Dover .
After 2000 , a fourth " Appoquinimink County " was proposed to be carved out of New Castle County . The motivation for this failed effort was to end the zoning restrictions of the Unified Development Code on the undeveloped farmland . The proposed boundaries extended beyond Appoquinimink Hundred to include all land south of the C & D Canal with Middletown as the proposed seat .
= = County information = =
The Federal Information Processing Standard ( FIPS ) code , which is used by the United States government to uniquely identify counties , is provided with each entry . The FIPS code for each county links to census data for that county .
= Clements Markham =
Sir Clements Robert Markham KCB FRS ( 20 July 1830 – 30 January 1916 ) was an English geographer , explorer , and writer . He was secretary of the Royal Geographical Society ( RGS ) between 1863 and 1888 , and later served as the Society 's president for a further 12 years . In the latter capacity he was mainly responsible for organising the National Antarctic Expedition of 1901 – 04 , and for launching the polar career of Robert Falcon Scott .
Markham began his career as a Royal Naval cadet and midshipman , during which time he went to the Arctic with HMS Assistance in one of the many searches for the lost expedition of Sir John Franklin . Later , Markham served as a geographer to the India Office , and was responsible for the collection of cinchona plants from their native Peruvian forests , and their transplantation in India . By this means the Indian government acquired a home source from which quinine could be extracted . Markham also served as geographer to Sir Robert Napier 's Abyssinian expeditionary force , and was present in 1868 at the fall of Magdala .
The main achievement of Markham 's RGS presidency was the revival at the end of the 19th century of British interest in Antarctic exploration , after a 50 @-@ year interval . He had strong and determined ideas about how the National Antarctic Expedition should be organised , and fought hard to ensure that it was run primarily as a naval enterprise , under Scott 's command . To do this he overcame hostility and opposition from much of the scientific community . In the years following the expedition he continued to champion Scott 's career , to the extent of disregarding or disparaging the achievements of other contemporary explorers .
All his life Markham was a constant traveller and a prolific writer , his works including histories , travel accounts and biographies . He authored many papers and reports for the RGS , and did much editing and translation work for the Hakluyt Society , of which he also became president . He received public and academic honours , and was recognised as a major influence on the discipline of geography , although it was acknowledged that much of his work was based on enthusiasm rather than scholarship . Among the geographical features bearing his name is Antarctica 's Mount Markham , named after him by Scott in 1902 .
= = Childhood = =
Markham was born on 20 July 1830 at Stillingfleet , Yorkshire , the second son of the Reverend David Markham , then vicar of Stillingfleet . The family were descendents of the Rt Hon. and Most Rev. Dr William Markham , a former Archbishop of York and royal tutor ; this Court connection led to David Markham 's appointment , in 1827 , as an honorary canon of Windsor . Markham 's mother Catherine , née Milner , was the daughter of Sir William Milner , Bt . , of Nun Appleton Hall , Yorkshire .
In 1838 David Markham was appointed rector of Great Horkesley , near Colchester , Essex . A year later Clement began his schooling , first at Cheam and later at Westminster School . Reportedly an apt pupil , he showed particular interest in geology and astronomy , and from an early age he wrote prolifically , an activity which filled much of his spare time . At Westminster , which he found " a wonderful and delightful place " , he developed a particular interest in boating , often acting as coxswain in races on the River Thames .
= = Royal Navy = =
= = = Naval cadet = = =
In May 1844 Markham was introduced by his aunt , the Countess of Mansfield , to Rear @-@ Admiral Sir George Seymour , a Lord of the Admiralty . The boy made a favourable impression on the admiral , and the meeting led to the offer of a cadetship in the Royal Navy . Accordingly , on 28 June 1844 Markham travelled to Portsmouth to join Seymour 's flagship HMS Collingwood . Collingwood was being fitted out for an extended voyage to the Pacific Ocean where Seymour was to assume command of the Pacific station . This tour of duty lasted for almost four years . The ship reached the Chilean port of Valparaíso , the headquarters of the Pacific station , on 15 December 1844 after a cruise that incorporated visits to Rio de Janeiro and the Falkland Islands , and a stormy passage in the Southern Ocean . Markham 's social connections assured him of a relatively comfortable time ; he was frequently invited to dine with the admiral , whose wife and daughters were on board .
After a few weeks ' respite in Valparaiso , Collingwood sailed again , this time for Callao , the main port on the Peruvian coast , giving Markham his first experience of a country that would figure prominently in his later career . During the next two years Collingwood cruised in the Pacific , visiting the Sandwich Islands ( Hawaii ) , Mexico , and Tahiti , where Markham attempted to assist the nationalist rebels against their French governor . On 25 June 1846 Markham passed the examination for midshipman , being placed third in a group of ten . The long periods spent in Chilean and Peruvian ports had also enabled him to learn Spanish .
Towards the end of the voyage Markham experienced growing doubts about a conventional naval career ; he now desired above all to be an explorer and a geographer . On arrival in Portsmouth in July 1848 he informed his father of his wish to leave the navy , but was persuaded to stay . After a brief period of service in the Mediterranean Markham experienced months of inactivity while based at Spithead and the Cove of Cork , which further diminished his interest in the service . However , early in 1850 he learned that a squadron of four ships was being assembled to undertake a new search for the lost Arctic expedition of Sir John Franklin . Markham used his family 's influence to secure a place in this venture , and in April 1850 was informed of his appointment to HMS Assistance , one of the squadron 's two principal vessels .
= = = First Arctic voyage 1850 – 51 = = =
Sir John Franklin had left England in May 1845 with two ships , HMS Erebus and HMS Terror , in search of the Northwest Passage . The expedition was last seen on 29 July by whalers in the northern waters of Baffin Bay , moored to an ice floe and waiting for the chance to sail westward .
The hunt for the missing ships began two years later . The relief squadron which Markham joined was commanded by Captain Horatio Austin in HMS Resolute . Markham 's ship Assistance was captained by Erasmus Ommanney . Markham , as the youngest member of the expedition and its only midshipman , had a limited role , but carefully noted every detail of expedition life in his journal . The ships sailed on 4 May 1850 .
After rounding the southernmost point of Greenland on 28 May , the squadron proceeded northwards until stopped by ice in Melville Bay on 25 June . They were held here until 18 August , when they were finally able to proceed west into Lancaster Sound , the known route taken by Franklin . Here the ships dispersed to search different areas for signs of the vanished expedition . On 23 August Ommanney sighted a cairn , and discovered packing materials nearby which bore the name of " Goldner " , Franklin 's canned meat supplier . Together with other odds and ends of abandoned equipment , these fragments were the first traces of Franklin that anyone had found . A few days later , on Beechey Island , the party came across three graves , which proved to be those of members of Franklin 's crew who had died between January and April 1846 .
Searches continued until the ships were laid up for the long Arctic winter . During this enforced rest there were lectures and classes for the crew , and various theatrical diversions in which Markham was able to display his " great histrionic talent " . He did much reading , mainly Arctic history and classical literature , and thought about a possible return visit to Peru , a country which had captivated him during the Collingwood voyage . When spring returned , a series of sledging expeditions was launched to search for further signs of the missing crews . Markham played a full part in these activities , which produced no further evidence of Franklin , but led to the mapping of hundreds of miles of previously uncharted coast . The expedition returned to England in early October 1851 .
Immediately on his return to England Markham informed his father of his determination to leave the navy . One of the reasons for his disaffection was the severity of the corporal punishment that was constantly administered for what in his view were trivial offences . He had been in trouble during his Collingwood service for attempting to prevent the flogging of a crewman . He had also become disenchanted by the idleness that had occupied long periods of his service . With some regret the elder Markham consented to his son 's request , and after taking and passing the gunnery part of the examination for the rank of lieutenant , Markham resigned from the service at the end of 1851 .
= = Peruvian journeys = =
= = = First journey 1852 – 53 = = =
In the summer of 1852 , freed from his naval obligations , Markham made plans for an extended visit to Peru . Supported by a gift from his father of £ 500 ( more than £ 40 @,@ 000 at 2008 values ) to cover expenses , Markham sailed from Liverpool on 20 August .
Markham travelled by a roundabout route , proceeding first to Halifax , Nova Scotia , then overland to Boston and New York , before taking a steamer to Panama . After crossing the isthmus he sailed for Callao , finally arriving there on 16 October . He set out for the Peruvian interior on 7 December 1852 , heading across the Andes towards his goal , the ancient Inca city of Cuzco . On the way , Markham paused for nearly a month in the town of Ayacucho , to study the local culture and increase his knowledge of the Quechua . He then travelled on towards Cuzco , and after crossing a swinging bridge ( the Apurimac Bridge ) suspended 300 feet ( 91 m ) above the raging Apurímac River , he and his party passed through fertile valleys which brought them finally to the city of Cuzco , on 20 March 1853 .
Markham remained in the city for several weeks , researching Inca history , describing in his journal the many buildings and ruins that he visited . During the course of an excursion to nearby towns and ruins he reached the area of San Miguel , La Mar , Ayacucho , where he first learned of the properties of the cinchona plant , a source of quinine , cultivated in that vicinity . He finally left Cuzco on 18 May , accompanied by a party of six who , like him , were returning to Lima . Their journey took them southwards , descending the mountains to the city of Arequipa , a former Spanish colonial settlement with a mixture of native and European architecture . The city is overlooked by the conical volcano Mount Misti , which Markham likened to Mount Fuji in Japan . On 23 June the party reached Lima , where Markham learned of the death of his father . He departed for England , where he arrived on 17 September .
= = = Cinchona mission , 1859 – 61 = = =
Six years after his first trip to Peru , Markham returned there , with a specific mission to collect cinchona plants and seeds . He had been working meantime as a civil servant in the India Office , and in 1859 he made proposals to his employers for a scheme for collecting cinchona trees from the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes , and transplanting them to selected sites in India . Cinchona bark , a source of quinine , was the first known treatment for malaria and other tropical diseases . These plans were approved and Markham was placed in charge of the operation .
Markham and his team , which included the botanist Richard Spruce and his future brother @-@ in @-@ law , the New Zealander Charles Bowen , left England for Peru in December 1859 , arriving in Lima late in January 1860 . There was danger in their enterprise ; Peru and Bolivia were on the verge of war , and Markham 's party soon experienced the hostility of Peruvian interests anxious to protect their control over the cinchona trade . This limited his sphere of operations , and prevented him from obtaining specimens of the best quality . Later Markham overcame bureaucratic obstruction to obtain the necessary export licences .
Markham returned briefly to England before sailing to India , to select suitable sites for cinchona plantations there and in Burma ( now Myanmar ) and Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) . Although many of the Indian plantations failed to flourish and were soon destroyed by insects , others survived , and were augmented by species obtained by Spruce which were more suited to Indian conditions . Twenty years after the first plantations the annual cinchona bark crop from India was estimated at 490 @,@ 000 pounds ( 220 @,@ 000 kg ) . For his work in introducing cinchona to India , Markham received a grant of £ 3 @,@ 000 ( over £ 200 @,@ 000 in 2008 terms ) from the British Government .
= = Civil servant , geographer , traveller = =
= = = India Office = = =
After the death of his father in 1853 Markham needed paid employment , and in December 1853 secured a junior clerkship in the Legacy Duty Office of the Inland Revenue at a salary of £ 90 per annum ( around £ 6 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) . He found the work tedious , but after six months was able to transfer to the forerunner of what became , in 1857 , the India Office . Here , the work was interesting and rewarding , with sufficient time to allow him to travel and pursue his geographical interests .
In April 1857 Markham married Minna Chichester , who accompanied him on the cinchona mission to Peru and India . Their only child , a daughter Mary Louise ( known as May ) , was born in 1859 . As part of his India Office duties Markham investigated and reported to the Indian government on the introduction of Peruvian cotton into the Madras Presidency , on the growth of ipecacuanha in Brazil and the possibilities for cultivating this medicinal plant in India , and on the future of the pearl industry at Tirunelveli in Southern India . He was also involved in an ambitious plan for the transplanting of Brazilian rubber trees , claiming that he would " do for the india @-@ rubber or caoutchouc @-@ yielding trees what had already been done with such happy results for the cinchona trees . " This scheme was not , however , successful .
= = = Abyssinia , 1867 – 68 = = =
In 1867 was selected to accompany Sir Robert Napier 's military expeditionary force to Abyssinia , as the expedition 's geographer . This force was despatched by the British government as a response to actions taken by the Abyssinian King Theodore . In 1862 the king had written to the British government requesting protection against Egyptian invaders , and proposing the appointment of an ambassador . Unwilling to risk giving offence to Egypt , the British government did not reply . The king reacted to this slight by seizing and imprisoning the British consul and his staff , and ordered the arrest and whipping of a missionary who had allegedly insulted the king 's mother . A belated reply to the king 's letter resulted in the capture and incarceration of the deputation that brought it . After efforts at conciliation failed , the British decided to settle the matter by sending a military expedition . Because the geography of the country was so little known , it was decided that an experienced traveller with map @-@ making skills should accompany the force , hence Markham 's appointment .
Napier 's troops arrived at Annesley Bay in the Red Sea , early in 1868 . Markham was attached to the force 's headquarters staff , with responsibility for general survey work and in particular the selection of the route to Magdala , the king 's mountain stronghold . Markham also acted as the party 's naturalist , reporting on the species of wildlife encountered during the 400 @-@ mile ( 640 km ) march southward from the coast . He accompanied Napier to the walls of Magdala , which was stormed on 10 April 1868 . As the king 's forces charged down the mountain to meet Napier 's advancing troops Markham recorded : " The Snider rifles kept up a fire no Abyssinian troops could stand . They were mown down in lines ... the most heroic struggle could do nothing in the face of such vast inequality of arms . " After the discovery of the king 's body the victorious troops , according to Markham , " gave three cheers over it , as if it had been a dead fox . " Markham added that although the king 's misdeeds had been numerous and his cruelties horrible , he had finally died as a hero .
On the orders of General Napier , Magdala was burnt to the ground and its guns destroyed . The British troops then departed , and Markham was back in England in July 1868 . For his services to this campaign Markham was created a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) in 1871 .
= = = Second Arctic voyage , 1875 – 76 = = =
Markham had , through his various activities , come to know many influential people , and during the early 1870s used these connections to make the case for a Royal Naval Arctic expedition . Prime minister Benjamin Disraeli consented , in the " spirit of maritime enterprise that has ever distinguished the English people " . When the expedition was ready to sail , Markham was invited to accompany it as far as Greenland , on HMS Alert , one of the expedition 's three ships . Markham accepted , and left with the convoy on 29 March 1875 . He was gone for three months , remaining with Alert as far as the island of Disco in Baffin Bay . He wrote of this journey : " I never had a happier cruise ... a nobler set of fellows never sailed together . " He returned to England on the support vessel HMS Valorous , although the homeward voyage was delayed after Valorous struck a reef and required substantial repairs . Markham 's extended absence from his India Office duties , together with his increasing involvement in a range of other interests , caused his superiors to request his resignation . Markham retired from his post in 1877 , his 22 years of service entitling him to a pension .
Meanwhile , the main expedition , under the command of Captain George Nares , had proceeded north with the two ships HMS Discovery and HMS Alert . On 1 September 1875 they reached 82 ° 24 ' , the highest northern latitude reached by any ship up to that date . In the following spring a sledging party led by Markham 's cousin , Commander Albert Hastings Markham , achieved a record Farthest North at 83 ° 20 ' .
= = Royal Geographical Society = =
= = = Honorary secretary = = =
In November 1854 Markham had been elected a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society . The Society soon became the centre of his geographical interests , and in 1863 he was appointed its honorary secretary , a position he was to hold for 25 years .
In addition to his work in promoting the Nares Arctic expedition , Markham followed the work of other Arctic explorers , organising a reception in 1880 for the Swedish explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld after the latter 's successful navigation of the North @-@ East Passage , and monitoring the progress of the American expeditions of Adolphus Greely and George W. DeLong . Release from the India Office provided Markham with more time for travel . He made regular trips to Europe and in 1885 went to America , where he met with President Grover Cleveland in the White House . Throughout his secretaryship Markham was a prolific writer of travel books and biographies , and of many papers presented to the RGS and elsewhere . He was the author of the Encyclopædia Britannica ( ninth edition ) article entitled " Progress of Geographical Discovery " . He also wrote popular histories . Within the RGS Markham was responsible for the revision of the Society 's standard Hints to Travellers , and for relaunching the journal Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society in a much livelier format .
In parallel with his RGS duties Markham served as secretary of the Hakluyt Society until 1886 , subsequently becoming that society 's president . As part of his work for this body , Markham was responsible for many translations from Spanish into English of rare accounts of travel , in particular those relating to Peru . In time scholars would express doubts about the quality of some of these translations , finding them prepared in haste and lacking in rigour . Nevertheless , this work ran to 22 volumes in the society 's publications . In 1873 Markham had been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society , and in subsequent years received several overseas honours , including the Portuguese Order of Christ and the Order of the Rose of Brazil . He briefly considered , but did not pursue , the idea of a parliamentary career .
Markham maintained his interest in the navy , particularly in the training of its officers . He often visited the merchant officer training vessels , HMS Conway and HMS Worcester , and became a member of the latter 's governing body . In early 1887 he accepted an invitation from his cousin Albert Markham , who now commanded the Royal Navy 's training squadron , to join the squadron at its station in the West Indies . Markham spent three months aboard the flagship HMS Active , during which , on 1 March 1887 , he had his first encounter with Robert Falcon Scott , who was serving as a midshipman aboard HMS Rover . Scott was victorious in a race between cutters , an event that was noted and remembered by Markham .
= = = President = = =
In May 1888 Markham resigned from his position as RGS Secretary , finding himself at odds with the Society 's new policies which appeared to favour education over exploration . On his retirement he was awarded the Society 's Founder 's Medal for what were described at the presentation ceremony as his " incomparable services to the Society " .
The next few years were filled with travel and writing . There were further cruises with the training squadron , and extended visits to the Baltic and the Mediterranean . In 1893 , during the course of one of these journeys , Markham was elected in absentia President of the RGS . This unexpected elevation was the result of a dispute within the Society over the question of women members , about which Markham had kept silent . When in July 1893 the issue was put to a special general meeting , the proposal to admit women was narrowly defeated despite an overwhelming postal ballot in favour . In these circumstances the Society 's President , Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant Duff , resigned his office . The 22 existing women members were allowed to remain , but no more were admitted until January 1913 when the RGS changed its policy . Although Markham was not the first choice as a replacement for Grant Duff — other notable figures were approached — he had kept out of the women members controversy and was broadly acceptable to the membership . Shortly after his accession to the presidency , in recognition of his services to geography Markham was raised in the Order of the Bath to the rank of Knight Commander ( KCB ) , and became Sir Clements Markham .
In a letter written many years later , Markham said that on the assumption of the presidency he had felt the need , after the dispute over women , to " restore the Society 's good name " by the adoption of some great enterprise . He chose Antarctic exploration as the basis for this mission ; there had been no significant Antarctic exploration by any country since Sir James Clark Ross 's expedition fifty years previously . A new impetus was provided through a lecture given to the RGS in 1893 by the oceanographer Professor John Murray , calling for " an expedition to resolve the outstanding questions still posed in the south . " In response to Murray the RGS and the Royal Society formed a joint committee , to campaign for a British Antarctic expedition .
= = = National Antarctic Expedition = = =
Murray 's call for the resumption of Antarctic exploration was taken up again two years later , when the RGS acted as host to the sixth International Geographical Congress in August 1895 . This Congress passed a unanimous resolution :
[ That ] the exploration of the Antarctic Regions is the greatest piece of geographical exploration still to be undertaken . That , in view of the additions to knowledge in almost every branch of science which would result from such a scientific exploration , the Congress recommends that the scientific societies throughout the world should urge , in whatever way seems to them most effective , that this work should be undertaken before the close of the century .
The joint committee organising the British response to this resolution contained a difference of view . Murray and the Royal Society argued for a largely civilian expedition , directed and staffed by scientists , while Markham and most of the RGS contingent saw a National Antarctic Expedition as a means of reviving naval glories , and wanted the expedition organised accordingly . Markham 's tenacity finally won the day when in 1900 he secured the appointment of his protégé Robert Falcon Scott , by then a torpedo lieutenant on HMS Majestic , as the expedition 's overall commander . In doing so he thwarted an attempt to place the leadership in the hands of Professor John Gregory of the British Museum . In the view of Markham 's critics , this represented the subordination of scientific work to naval adventure , although the Instructions to the Commander , drawn up by Markham , give equal priorities to geographical and scientific work . The " science versus adventure " arguments were renewed when , after the return of the expedition , there was criticism over the accuracy and professionalism of some of its scientific results .
Markham faced further problems in securing funding for the expedition . In 1898 , after three years ' effort , only a fraction of what was required had been promised . Meanwhile , the Anglo @-@ Norwegian explorer Carsten Borchgrevink had obtained a sum of £ 40 @,@ 000 ( over £ 3 million in 2008 ) from publisher George Newnes , to finance a private Antarctic venture . Markham was furious , believing that funds were being diverted from his own project , and denounced Borchgrevink as " evasive , a liar and a fraud " . He was equally hostile to William Speirs Bruce , the Scottish explorer who had written to Markham asking to join the National Antarctic Expedition . On receiving no confirmation of an appointment , Bruce obtained finance from the Scottish Coats family and organised his own Scottish National Antarctic Expedition . Markham accused Bruce of " mischievous rivalry " , and of attempting to " cripple the National Expedition ... in order to get up a scheme for yourself " . The Scottish expedition duly sailed , but Markham remained unforgiving towards it , and used his influence to ensure that its participants received no Polar Medals on their return .
A substantial private donation and a government grant finally allowed the National Antarctic Expedition to proceed . A new ship , the Discovery , was built , and a mainly naval crew of officers and crewmen appointed , along with a scientific staff which was later described as " underpowered " . Discovery sailed on 5 August 1901 , after an inspection by King Edward VII , at which Markham was present to introduce Scott and the officers . The ship was gone for just over three years during which time , from a base in the Ross Sea area , significant explorations of this sector of Antarctica were carried out , along with an extensive scientific programme . Although it was reported by the Times as " one of the most successful [ expeditions ] that ever ventured into the Polar regions , north or south , " it was largely ignored by the government of the day . Markham was criticised in official quarters for privately sanctioning a second season in the Antarctic , contrary to the original plan , and then being unable to raise funds for the expedition 's relief in 1904 . The cost for this had to be borne on the Treasury .
= = Later life = =
= = = Shackleton and Scott = = =
A few months after the Discovery 's return , Markham announced his retirement from the RGS presidency . He was 75 years old ; according to his biographer he felt that his active geographical life was now over . His 12 years in the presidency was the longest period on record . He remained a member of the RGS Council , a vice @-@ president , and he kept an active interest in Antarctic exploration , particularly in the two British expeditions which set out in the five years following his retirement . These were led respectively by Ernest Shackleton and Scott .
Markham had agreed to Shackleton 's appointment as Third Officer on the Discovery following a recommendation from the expedition 's principal private donor . He had given sympathy and support after Shackleton 's early return from the expedition on grounds of ill health , and had backed the latter 's unsuccessful application for a Royal Navy commission . Later , after Shackleton had confided his intention to lead an expedition of his own , Markham supplied a generous testimonial , describing Shackleton as " well @-@ fitted to have charge of men in an enterprise involving hardship and peril " , and " admirably fitted for the leader [ ship ] of a Polar Expedition . " He expressed strong support for Shackleton 's 1907 – 09 Nimrod Expedition : " ... not only my most cordial wishes for your success will accompany you , but also a well @-@ founded hope . " When news of the expedition 's achievement of a new Farthest South latitude of 88 ° 23 ' reached him , Markham publicly signified his intention to propose Shackleton for the RGS Patron 's Medal .
However , Markham had second thoughts , and was soon writing to the current RGS president , Leonard Darwin , to express disbelief about Shackleton 's claimed latitudes , repeating these doubts to Scott . Historians have surmised that Scott was Markham 's protégé , and that the old man resented polar glory going to someone else . Whatever his reason , Markham adopted a bitterness towards Shackleton which he retained for the rest of his life . He is said to have crossed out all favourable references to Shackleton in his own notes on the Discovery expedition , and to have virtually ignored Shackleton 's achievements in a 1912 address to the British Association . He was equally dismissive in his history of Antarctic exploration , The Lands of Silence ( published posthumously in 1921 ) .
By contrast , Markham remained on close personal terms with Scott and was godfather to the explorer 's son , born 14 September 1909 and named Peter Markham Scott in the old man 's honour . In his tribute to Scott in the preface to Scott 's Last Expedition ( 1913 ) , Markham describes Scott as " among the most remarkable men of our time " , and talks of the " beauty " of his character . As Scott lay dying " there was no thought for himself , only the earnest thought to give comfort and consolation to others . " In one of the last letters written from his final camp , days from death , Scott wrote : " Tell Sir Clements I thought much of him , and never regretted his putting me in command of the ' Discovery ' . "
= = = Retirement = = =
After his retirement from the RGS presidency , Markham led an active life as a writer and traveller . He wrote biographies of the English kings Edward IV and Richard III , and of his old naval friend Admiral Sir Leopold McClintock ; he also kept up his editing and translating work . He continued to produce papers for the RGS , and remained president of the Hakluyt Society until 1910 . Markham continued to travel extensively in Europe , and in 1906 cruised with the Mediterranean squadron , where Scott was acting as Flag @-@ Captain to Rear @-@ Admiral George Egerton . When in 1909 Scott announced his plans for a new Antarctic venture , the Terra Nova Expedition , Markham assisted with fundraising and served on the expedition 's organising committee , arranging the deal which brought in Lieutenant " Teddy " Evans as second @-@ in @-@ command , in return for the abandonment of Evans 's own expedition plans .
Markham was awarded honorary degrees from the Universities of Cambridge and Leeds . In conferring this latter degree , the Chancellor referred to Markham as " a veteran in the service of mankind " , and recalled that he had been " for sixty years the inspiration of English geographical science . " However , Markham did not altogether avoid controversy . In 1912 , when Roald Amundsen , conqueror of the South Pole , was invited by RGS president Leonard Darwin to dine with the Society , Markham resigned his council seat in protest .
The news of the death of Scott and his returning polar party reached Markham in February 1913 , while he was staying in Estoril . He returned to England , and assisted with the preparation of Scott 's journals for publication . Scott 's death was a heavy blow , but Markham continued to lead a busy life of writing and travelling . In 1915 he was present at the service in St Peter 's Church , Binton , near Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , where a window was dedicated to Scott and his companions ; later that year he assisted at the unveiling of the Royal Navy 's statue of Scott , in Waterloo Place , London . Markham read his last paper for the RGS on 10 June 1915 , its title being " The History of the Gradual Development of the Groundwork of Geographical Science " .
= = Death and legacy = =
On 29 January 1916 , while reading in bed by candlelight , Markham set fire to the bedclothes and was overcome by smoke . He died the following day . His last diary entry , a few days earlier , had recorded a visit from Peter Markham Scott .
The family received tributes from King George V , who acknowledged the debt the country owed to Markham 's life work of study and research ; from the Royal Geographical Society and the other learned bodies with which Markham had been associated ; from the Naval Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief at Devonport ; and from Fridtjof Nansen , the Norwegian Arctic explorer . Other messages were received from France , Italy , Denmark , Sweden , the United States , and from Arequipa in Peru .
More critical assessments of Markham 's life and work were to follow . Hugh Robert Mill , Shackleton 's first biographer and for many years the RGS librarian , referred to the dictatorial manner in which Markham had run the Society . In time , questions would be raised about the accuracy of some of his Hakluyt translations , and about the evidence of haste in the preparation of other publications . On a personal level he had made enemies as well as friends ; Frank Debenham , the geologist who served with both Scott and Shackleton , called Markham " a dangerous old man " , while William Speirs Bruce wrote of Markham 's " malicious opposition to the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition " . Bruce 's colleague Robert Rudmose @-@ Brown went further , calling Markham " that old fool and humbug " . These protestations reflected Markham 's protective attitude towards Scott ; according to Bruce , " Scott was Markham 's protégé , and Markham thought it necessary , in order to uphold Scott , that I should be obliterated " . He added that " Scott and I were always good friends , in spite of Markham . "
It has been suggested that Markham 's prejudices about polar travel , particularly his belief in the " nobility " of manhauling , had been passed to Scott , to the detriment of all future British expeditions . Mill 's measured opinion , that Markham was " an enthusiast rather than a scholar " , has been asserted as a fair summary of his strengths and weaknesses , and as the basis for his influence on the discipline of geography in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . He is commemorated by Mount Markham , 82 ° 51 ′ S 161 ° 21 ′ E , in the Transantarctic range , discovered and named by Scott on his southern march during the Discovery expedition in 1902 . The Markham River in Papua New Guinea was named after him ; Carsten Borchgrevink discovered and named Markham Island in the Ross Sea during his 1900 expedition , a gesture that was not , however , acknowledged by Markham . The name lives on in Lima , Peru , through Markham College , a private co @-@ educational school . Minna Bluff , a promontory extending into the Ross Ice Shelf , was named by Scott for Lady Markham .
Markham 's estate was valued for probate purposes at £ 7 @,@ 740 ( 2008 equivalent £ 376 @,@ 000 ) . He was survived by his wife Minna , to whom Albert Hastings Markham 's 1917 biography of Sir Clements is dedicated . Markham 's only child , May , avoided public life and devoted herself to church work in the East End of London . According to the family 's entry in Burke 's Landed Gentry she died in 1926 .
= = Writings = =
Markham was a prolific writer and diarist ; his first published work , an account of his voyage with HMS Assistance in search of Franklin , had appeared in 1853 . After his retirement from the India office in 1877 writing became his chief source of income . In addition to papers and reports for the Royal Geographical Society and other learned bodies , Markham wrote histories , biographies and travel accounts , many as full @-@ length books . He also translated many works from Spanish to English , and compiled a grammar and dictionary for the Quichua language of Peru .
His books include the following :
Franklin 's Footsteps ( 1852 ) London , Chapman and Hall
Cuzco ... and Lima ( 1856 ) London , Chapman and Hall
Travels in Peru and India ( 1862 ) London , John Murray
Contribution Toward a Grammar and Dictionary of Quichua ( 1864 ) London , Trubner & Co ,
A History of the Abyssinian Expedition ( 1869 ) London , Macmillan
A Life of the Great Lord Fairfax ( 1870 ) London , Macmillan
Ollanta : an ancient Ynca drama ( 1871 ) London , Trubner & Co
The Countess of Chinchon and the cinchona genus ( 1874 ) London , Trubner & Co
General Sketch of the History of Persia ( 1874 ) London , Longman Green
The Threshold of the Unknown Regions ( 1875 ) London , Samson Low
Narrative of the mission of George Bogle to Tibet ( 1877 ) London , Trubner & Co
A Memoir of the Indian Surveys ( 1878 ) London , W.H. Allen
Peruvian Bark ( 1880 ) London , John Murray
The Voyages of William Baffin , 1612 – 1622 ( 1881 ) London , Hakluyt Society
The War between Peru and Chile ( 1881 ) London , Samson Low
A narrative of the life of Admiral John Markham ( 1883 ) London , Low Marston Searle & Rivington
The Sea Fathers ( 1885 ) London , Cassell
Life of Robert Fairfax of Steeton , Vice @-@ admiral ( 1885 ) London , MacMillan & Co ,
The Fighting Veres ( 1888 ) London , Samson Low
The Life of John Davis the Navigator ( 1889 ) London , George Philip and Son
The Life of Christopher Columbus ( 1892 ) London , George Philip and Son
The History of Peru ( 1892 ) Chicago , Charles H Sergel
Major James Rennel and the Rise of Modern English Geography ( 1895 ) London , Cassell & Co
The paladins of Edwin the Great ( 1896 ) London , Adam & Charles Black
Richard III : his life and character ( 1906 ) London , Smith , Elder & Co
The Story of Minorca and Majorca ( 1909 ) London , Smith , Elder & Co
The Incas of Peru ( 1912 ) London , John Murray
The Lands of Silence ( completed by F.H.H. Guillemard , 1921 ) Cambridge , Cambridge University Press
= Richard Minifie =
Richard Pearman Minifie , DSC & Two Bars ( 2 February 1898 – 31 March 1969 ) was an Australian fighter pilot and flying ace of the First World War . Born in Victoria , he attended Melbourne Church of England Grammar School . Travelling to the United Kingdom , he enlisted in the Royal Naval Air Service in June 1916 . Accepted for flight training , he completed his instruction in December and joined No. 1 ( Naval ) Squadron RNAS on the Western Front in January 1917 , flying Sopwith Triplanes . He went on to score seventeen aerial victories on this type of machine throughout the year , becoming both the youngest Australian flying ace of the First World War and No. 1 ( Naval ) Squadron 's highest @-@ scoring ace on the Triplane . The unit re @-@ equipped with the Sopwith Camel late in 1917 , with Minifie going on to achieve a further four victories on the aircraft , raising his final tally to a score of twenty @-@ one aircraft shot down .
Minifie crash landed in German @-@ held territory in March 1918 , and spent the remainder of the war in prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps in Germany . He was released at the end of the war , and was demobilised as a captain in September 1919 . Returning to Australia , he joined the staff of his father 's flour milling business , James Minifie & Co . Pty Ltd . He served as a squadron leader in the Air Training Corps of the Royal Australian Air Force during the Second World War . Minifie returned to the flour milling industry after the war , becoming managing director of James Minifie & Co . Pty Ltd in 1949 . He died in 1969 at the age of seventy @-@ one .
= = Early life = =
Richard Pearman Minife was born in Alphington , Victoria , on 2 February 1898 to Englishman James Minifie , a flour miller , and his Australian wife Beatrice Kate ( née Earle ) . In his youth , Minifie attended Melbourne Church of England Grammar School , becoming a prefect in 1915 and being appointed a lieutenant in the school Cadet unit . Completing his secondary studies later that year , Minifie won a scholarship to Trinity College at the University of Melbourne .
= = First World War = =
By 1916 , Minifie was residing in Elsternwick , Victoria . That year , he decided to postpone his studies and travelled to the United Kingdom where he enlisted in the Royal Naval Air Service at Crystal Palace , London on 11 June . Accepted for flight training with the rank of probationary flight sub @-@ lieutenant , he spent the following six months at naval establishments in Eastbourne , Cranwell , East Fortune and Dover earning his wings . Granted the substantive rank of flight sub @-@ lieutenant in October , he was posted to No. 1 Wing RNAS on graduating as a pilot in October . In early 1917 , he was allotted to the Wing 's No. 1 ( Naval ) Squadron in France , flying Sopwith Triplanes , an aircraft in which he was to score heavily .
Throughout February and March 1917 , No. 1 Squadron was " continually in action " along the Somme sector of the Western Front . During April , the squadron maintained a high operational tempo with the launch of the Arras offensive . In an air battle on 29 April , Minifie was credited with his first two aerial victories , shooting down an Albatros D.III in a solo effort , before sharing in the destruction of a second with fellow Australian , Flight Sub @-@ Lieutenant Robert A. Little of No 8 ( Naval ) Squadron . Over the next two months , Minifie participated in the " highly effective " ground @-@ strafing missions on Bullecourt and during the Battle of Messines , while simultaneously adding to his tally of aircraft brought down ; he became an ace during this period . At 19 years of age , Minifie was the youngest Australian ace of the First World War . He was promoted to acting flight lieutenant in July , taking part in the Passchendaele offensive later that month . On 8 August , Minifie destroyed a German scout plane , forcing the machine down in flames and thus scoring his seventh victory . Ten days later , he executed a raid on two German aerodromes . Flying at a height of 400 feet ( 120 m ) , he fired approximated 450 rounds of ammunition into the hangars . Cited for his efforts in bringing down several German aircraft and his assaults on ground targets between April and September , Minifie was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross . The notice for the decoration was promulgated in a supplement to the London Gazette on 2 November 1917 .
Between August and October 1917 , Minifie was credited with a further eleven German aircraft , bringing his total to seventeen . He had thus far achieved all of his victories on the Sopwith Triplane , making him No. 1 Squadron 's highest @-@ scoring ace on the aircraft , besting his Commanding Officer and friend , fellow Australian ace Lieutenant Commander Roderic Dallas , by a single victory on the machine . In late October , the squadron returned to the United Kingdom in order to re @-@ equip with the Sopwith Camel . On 30 November , the London Gazette carried the announcement that Minifie had been awarded a Bar to his Distinguished Service Cross as a consequence of his " conspicuous gallantry in air fighting throughout October " , that resulted in his personal destruction of " several enemy machines " .
On returning to the Western Front , Minifie went on to score an additional four aerial victories on the Sopwith Camel . In March 1918 , he was promoted to acting flight commander . Later that month , he acted as No. 1 Squadron 's Commanding Officer during the transition of command from Dallas to Lieutenant Commander Charles Dawson Booker . On 13 March , Minifie led a party of four aircraft out on a patrol . While airborne , the group intercepted a formation of five German scout planes . In the ensuring battle , Minifie personally destroyed two of the aircraft while a third was shot down by one of his men . These two scout planes were to be Minifie 's final victories of the war , raising his ultimate tally to twenty @-@ one aircraft shot down and making him the seventh highest @-@ scoring Australian ace of the conflict . His aerial achievements were composed of ten and one shared aircraft destroyed , eight and one shared out of control , and one captured . As a result of his gallantry while operating against hostile forces , particularly in the air battle of 13 March , Minifie was awarded a second Bar to his Distinguished Service Cross . The announcement and accompanying citation was published in the London Gazette on 17 April 1918 , reading :
HONOURS FOR THE ROYAL NAVAL AIR SERVICE .
The KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the following decorations and medals to Officers and Men of the Royal Naval Air Service : —
To receive a Second Bar to the Distinguished Service Cross .
Act . Flt . Cdr . Richard Pearman Minifie , D.S.C. , R.N.A.S.
For courage and daring in the face of the enemy , particularly on the 13th March , 1918 . On that date , when on patrol with four machines , he attacked an enemy patrol of five scouts , destroying two , whilst a third was destroyed by another officer .
Act . Flt . Cdr . Minifie has now destroyed numerous hostile machines .
On 17 March 1918 , Minifie took off in his Camel on a sortie . During the flight , he was forced to crash land in German @-@ held territory near Houthulst Forest , Belgium . The exact circumstances of why he was forced to land are unknown , but it came as a result of either being shot down during a duel with Jasta 47 's Friedrich Ehmann or Minifie 's machine suffering engine failure . He was subsequently captured by German forces at Roulers , and taken as a prisoner of war ; he spent the remainder of the war at prison camps in Karlsruhe and Clausthal , Germany . Roderic Dallas later wrote to Minifie 's mother , informing her that Richard had been taken as a prisoner of war . In the letter he described Minifie as " a brilliant pilot and air fighter " , and stated that " his aerial victories were gained by clean , clever fighting and he was always so modest about his great achievements " . On 1 April , the Royal Naval Air Service and Royal Flying Corps were combined to form the Royal Air Force , with personnel from the former services transferring to the new branch ; Minifie was promoted to captain the same day . He was released from captivity following the Armistice with Germany in November 1918 , returning to the United Kingdom on 13 December 1918 . Minifie returned to Australia in May 1919 , and was placed on the Royal Air Force 's unemployed list on 1 November .
= = Post @-@ war career and later life = =
Back in Australia , Minifie took up his scholarship , studying mathematics and science at the University of Melbourne . However , he soon withdrew from the course , opting to join his father 's flour milling business , James Minifie & Co . Pty Ltd . In a ceremony at the Holy Trinity Church in Kew on 19 October 1921 , Minifie married Nellie Frances Roberts ; the couple would have four children . His father died the next year and , in collaboration with his brother James and his father 's business partner , James Gatehouse , he continued to manage and run James Minifie & Co . Pty Ltd . Over the subsequent three decades , the trio were successful in furthering their business ventures , significantly expanding the company .
On 17 June 1941 , Minifie enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force for service in the Second World War , and was accepted as an officer with the Prahran Wing of the Air Training Corps . Promoted to flying officer and granted the acting rank of squadron leader on 23 August , he was appointed in commander of No. 1 Squadron of No. 1 Cadet Wing . Returning to the flour milling business after the war , he was appointed president of the Victorian Flour Millers ' Association in 1948 . The following year , Minifie was made managing director of James Minifie & Co . Pty Ltd and its associated companies , in addition to being selected as president of the Federal Council of Flour Millowners of Australia and the flour millowners ' representative on the Australian Wheat Board . He relinquished these positions upon his retirement in 1966 . Richard Minifie died on 31 March 1969 and was cremated . He was survived by his wife , son and three daughters .
= Harriet Leveson @-@ Gower , Countess Granville =
Henrietta Elizabeth " Harriet " Leveson @-@ Gower , Countess Granville ( née Cavendish ; 29 August 1785 – 25 November 1862 ) was a British peeress and society hostess . She was born in Devonshire House as the second daughter of William Cavendish , 5th Duke of Devonshire by his wife , the political hostess Lady Georgiana Spencer . Despite her parents ' turbulent marriage , Harriet had a happy childhood . Her mother 's death in 1806 led to an unpleasant situation in which her father 's long @-@ time mistress Lady Elizabeth Foster took control of the Devonshire household ; as the unmarried eldest daughter , this should have been Harriet 's role .
To help her escape this awkward domestic situation , Harriet 's maternal aunt Henrietta arranged for her niece to marry her lover of seventeen years , Granville Leveson @-@ Gower , 1st Earl Granville . The couple 's marriage proved to be happy , and it produced five children . Granville served as his country 's ambassador to France intermittently from 1824 to 1841 , and he was awarded an earldom in 1833 . With her position , Harriet acted as hostess to Parisian society , writing detailed accounts that were later published . She died in 1862 of a stroke , having been widowed fifteen years .
= = Family and early life = =
Lady Henrietta Elizabeth Cavendish was born at Devonshire House on 29 August 1785 , the younger daughter of William Cavendish , 5th Duke of Devonshire and his wife Lady Georgiana Spencer . Known as " Harriet " or " Harryo " to her family , the baby was named after Georgiana 's sister Henrietta Ponsonby and her friend Lady Elizabeth Foster . Her parents ' marriage had been unhappy from the start ; the Duchess had difficulty bringing her pregnancies to term , suffering miscarriages during their first nine years together . Her mother distracted herself by becoming immersed in society , and was soon known as a political hostess and leader of fashion .
Despite the state of her parents ' marriage , Cavendish had a happy childhood . She was devoted to her mother , and was fond of , but rarely saw , her aloof father . Her governess Selina Trimmer was a daughter of the famous children 's writer Sarah Trimmer , and encouraged her charge to be morally principled . In May 1799 , Cavendish was confirmed in Westminster Abbey alongside her cousin , the future Lady Caroline Lamb . The historian Janet Gleeson describes Cavendish as slightly plump in appearance , in possession of a clever , funny , and perceptive personality . Her biographer , Virginia Surtees , writes that although Cavendish was " no beauty , she had wit , intelligence , and shrewdness ; her sharp eye missed little but in high croak and spirits viewed with tolerance the world of drums , dandies , gossip , and matchmaking in which she moved " .
In 1802 , Cavendish 's cousin John Ponsonby , Viscount Duncannon ( her mother 's sister 's son ) , whom she had known her entire life , began to show romantic interest in her . Cavendish was unsure whether she cared for him enough , and they agreed to wait a year before deciding " whether they liked each other well enough to marry " . Their two families , especially his mother ( and her aunt ) Lady Bessborough approved of the match , but Cavendish was still undecided . During this period , John had romantic relationships with Lady Maria Fane and others ; Cavendish presented an ultimatum that he " must promise to cure himself completely of flirting , for she could not bear it " . John angrily refused that he was not ready to marry her after all , nor " bear rules to be prescribed to him by any woman living " . He became engaged to Fane shortly thereafter . Her family later encouraged a match with another cousin John Spencer , Viscount Althorp , though , during her stay at Althorp , she stated that " no reasonable woman " could think of him as anything " but as an eager huntsman " .
The Duchess of Devonshire died in March 1806 ; and Cavendish 's life at home became unhappy . Her father had been involved in a relationship with Lady Elizabeth Foster for years . Always greatly resentful of Foster 's presence in the household , Cavendish was angered when she took control of their home , for instance disliking it when her place at the head of the table was taken by Foster . As the unmarried adult daughter , this role should have been taken by Cavendish , not by Foster ( who was not yet married to her father ) . During this period , Cavendish frequently went to live with her elder sister , Georgiana , who was recently married to the future 6th Earl of Carlisle ; Cavendish 's son Frederick later wrote that the experience " strengthened the tie of sisterly affection , which bound them together during the whole of their joint lives " . From 1801 onwards , Cavendish wrote to her sister almost daily until the latter 's death in 1858 . Three years after her mother 's 1806 death , the Duke married Foster .
= = Marriage = =
With her mother dead , Cavendish 's aunt Henrietta Ponsonby felt obligated to help her niece escape a difficult home situation . For her part , Cavendish had been critical of her aunt in the past but now turned to her for affection , support , and as a reminder of her mother . Once the Duke of Devonshire made clear his desire to marry Foster , Henrietta began searching for a suitable marriage prospect for her niece , and suggested Lord Granville Leveson @-@ Gower , as he was known at that time . Lord Granville had been Henrietta 's own lover by now for seventeen years ; she had borne him two illegitimate children during their relationship and declared once that she " loved him to idolatry . " Nevertheless , Henrietta encouraged her niece to consider marriage with the thirty @-@ seven @-@ year @-@ old Granville . Though still infatuated with him , she knew that Granville would need to eventually marry and produce legitimate offspring , and that when he did so , she would likely lose him . Getting her niece to marry him was one way of keeping him within her circle .
Cavendish had been acquainted with Lord Granville her whole life and never particularly cared for him , having disapproved alike of his lofty hauteur and his illicit liaison with her aunt . Now however , she came to appreciate Granville 's finer qualities : historians describe him as handsome , intelligent , of good family , and a member of the British parliament . The historian K. D. Reynolds writes that Granville was " considered one of the most handsome men of his time ; his curly brown hair , blue eyes , and sensuous features brought him strings of female admirers . " While eager to leave Devonshire House , the morally upright girl insisted that his affair with her aunt be truly over . Granville was unsure if he wanted the unglamorous Cavendish as a marriage partner , however , and spent his time pursuing other candidates ; their refusals , often in response to his womanising reputation , led him to ultimately choose Cavendish .
On 24 December 1809 , Cavendish married Granville with her aunt 's blessing . Though ageing , Granville maintained his handsome appearance and Cavendish was said to have " [ in ] high degree the charm of voice and manner which belongs to the Cavendish family " . Their marriage was happy ; she loved him until her death , writing in September 1810 to her sister , " I really think I am happier every hour . There never was anything so adorable as he is in every way " . Their eldest child , Susan , was born in October 1810 in London . The couple would go on to have four further children , and his two illegitimate issue with Henrietta also flourished in the happy household . Granville was made a Viscount in 1815 ; an earldom awarded in 1833 led to Harriet becoming known as Countess Granville .
The couple lived in England for their first fifteen years of marriage , sometimes travelling to the continent for short periods , but mainly dividing their time between London and the countryside . Granville rented a residence in Tixall , Staffordshire before moving to a rental in Wherstead , Suffolk , entertaining society figures at both places . During long stretches between 1824 and 1841 , Granville served as his country 's ambassador to France . The Countess helped entertain Parisian society by serving as hostess , writing detailed accounts that were later published in 1894 , 1940 , and 1990 . Granville resigned the post in 1841 only after becoming ill ; for the next two years , the family travelled across Europe before returning to England in November 1843 . They resided in houses in Brighton and London , and spent portions of their time visiting friends and family at their various country estates .
= = Widowhood = =
Lord Granville died in early 1846 , having never recovered from a stroke he suffered five years previously . He was buried at Stone , Staffordshire . His death desolated his wife . She lived henceforth in complete retirement , residing chiefly at Chiswick House , where she turned to piety for consolation . Her contacts in the outside world were chiefly her children and step @-@ children , her brother William , and the children of her sister Georgiana . She survived her husband by fifteen years , dying on 25 November 1862 of a stroke at her London home at 13 Hereford Street .
= = Issue = =
Earl and Countess Granville had five surviving children :
Lady Susan Georgiana Leveson @-@ Gower ( 25 October 1810 – 30 April 1866 ) ; married George Pitt @-@ Rivers , 4th Baron Rivers in 1833 and had issue
Lady Georgiana Charlotte Leveson @-@ Gower ( 23 September 1812 – 19 January 1885 ) ; married Alexander Fullerton
Granville Leveson @-@ Gower , 2nd Earl Granville ( 11 May 1815 – 31 March 1891 ) ; married ( 1 ) Mary Louise von Dalberg ( 2 ) Castila Rosalind Campbell
Hon. Granville William Leveson @-@ Gower ( 28 September 1816 – 26 May 1833 )
Hon. Frederick Leveson @-@ Gower ( 3 May 1819 – 30 May 1907 ) ; married Lady Margaret Compton , daughter of Spencer Compton , 2nd Marquess of Northampton
= = Ancestry = =
= Marvel 1602 =
Marvel 1602 is an eight @-@ issue comic book limited series published in 2003 by Marvel Comics . The limited series was written by Neil Gaiman , penciled by Andy Kubert , and digitally painted by Richard Isanove ; Scott McKowen illustrated the distinctive scratchboard covers . The eight @-@ part series takes place in a timeline where Marvel superheroes exist in the Elizabethan era ; faced with the destruction of their world by a mysterious force , the heroes must fight to save their universe . Many of the early Marvel superheroes — Nick Fury , the X @-@ Men , the Fantastic Four , and Spider @-@ Man — as well as villains such as Doctor Doom and Magneto appear in various roles .
Neil Gaiman had always been a fan of Marvel , and editor Joe Quesada approached Gaiman to work on a project which eventually evolved into 1602 . The success of the comic led to three sequels , entitled 1602 : New World , Marvel 1602 : Fantastick Four , and Spider @-@ Man : 1602 . There is also a short story , " Son of the Dragon " , starring the 1602 version of The Hulk in the second issue of Hulk : Broken Worlds . In 1602 : Witchhunter Angela of Marvel 's 2015 Secret Wars event , Angela appears as a hunter of witchbreed ( mutants ) .
The pocket reality seen at the end of the limited series in which the continuing Marvel 1602 universe takes place is classified as Earth @-@ 311 .
= = Background = =
Neil Gaiman stated in an afterword to the series that he had always viewed the Marvel universe as " magic " . The editors of 1602 , Nick Lowe and Joe Quesada , approached Gaiman after Quesada became Marvel 's Editor in Chief with the intent for Gaiman to work on a project for Marvel . Gaiman eventually agreed to write a Marvel comic in August 2001 , although he was not sure what it would contain . When the September 11 , 2001 attacks occurred , Gaiman decided that he did not want planes , skyscrapers , bombs or guns in his comic . " I didn 't want it to be a war story , and I didn 't want to write a story in which might made right – or in which might made anything . " On a trip to Venice soon after , Gaiman was struck by how the " past seemed very close at hand " ; he returned from the trip knowing the story he wanted to tell . The time was chosen because " it was a nice place to set the story . It gave me America and it gave me a lot of things that I wanted in terms of the way the world was changing . It also gave me the sense of wonder and magic . "
Gaiman described writing the series as odd , since he had not written comics in half a decade ; the story was trimmed down significantly as the size went from six 36 @-@ page chapters to eight 22 @-@ page segments . He also wanted to write a comic that was different from The Sandman , his most recognized work . The profits of the series went to help fund his Marvels and Miracles LLC company , which is fighting for the rights to Marvelman .
= = = Illustration = = =
Unlike usual penciled pages , Marvel 1602 used a technique called " enhanced pencils " , whereby the finished pencil drawings are sent straight to the colorist instead of to an inker first . This technique had been used before on Kubert 's Origin , and results in cleaner and more elaborate lines .
Editor Nick Lowe noticed theater posters done by Scott McKowen and decided that the " engraving ' look ' of the scratchboard would be interesting for the historical setting of this story . " Scratchboard is a technique where a sharp knife is used to scrape through a layer of black ink to a hard chalk surface underneath ; in effect , artists draw white lines on an all @-@ black surface . All McKowen 's illustrations were done by hand and then colored later in Photoshop . For inspiration , McKowen looked at seventeenth @-@ century engravings . He also added scrolls or flags to the covers for the Marvel 1602 titles , basing the designs on Renaissance paintings where scrolls are used to comment on the scenes depicted .
The hardbound edition features a scratchboard illustration depicting the main characters whispering discreetly to each other on the cover . According to McKowen , the image was inspired by a depiction of the masterminds behind the " Gunpowder Plot " , an attempt to blow up Parliament during the reign of King James . Since the characters of the story are all traitors in the eyes of King James , they were drawn in a similar fashion .
= = = Premise = = =
In the year 1602 in the Marvel Universe , for an unknown reason , superheroes have appeared about 400 years early , though they were born and bred in this era and some hold important positions in high places . When the characters come to realize that something is wrong with the universe , the heroes must solve the mystery behind their own existence , while dealing with intrigue at the courts of Elizabeth and James .
= = = Plot = = =
All over Europe , strange weather is provoking panic . Many believe the unnatural occurrences are the beginning of the Apocalypse . Dr. Stephen Strange , the court magician of Queen Elizabeth I , senses that there are unnatural forces at work . He has also been asked to watch over the secret treasure of the Knights Templar which is being brought over from Jerusalem . Elizabeth tells her head of intelligence , Sir Nicholas Fury , to bring the weapon to England safely . Fury in turn contracts blind minstrel and agent Matthew Murdoch to rendezvous with the Templar guard somewhere in Europe and secure the weapon . Later that evening , Fury and his assistant Peter Parker are attacked by an assassin whom Fury disables and locks in the Tower of London .
Meanwhile , the ship Virginia Maid arrives in England from the New World , carrying the young Virginia Dare , the first child born in Roanoke colony , as well as her hulking , fair @-@ skinned , blond Native American bodyguard Rojhaz . They are taken to meet the Queen only for a vulture @-@ like assassin to snatch Virginia . Rojhaz quickly disables the attacker , but Virginia has transformed into a white gryphon . Rojhaz subdues Virginia , and Stephen Strange bespells her to human form before Fury sees her transformed . She has strange shapeshifting powers , and Strange suspects she is the cause of the disastrous weather . Fury interrogates one of the assassins to learn who sent him . He is told that it is Otto von Doom , ruler of Latveria , but Fury is too late to stop one of Doom 's machines from killing Elizabeth with a poison gas released by dropping a pill into aqua regia .
With Elizabeth 's death , James VI of Scotland becomes ruler of both England and Scotland . James is distrustful of " witchbreed " ( people born with magical powers , mutants ) and collaborates with Spanish High Inquisitor Enrique to blame the witchbreed of England , headed by Carlos Javier , for Elizabeth 's death . Fury , a friend of Carlos and his students , is forced to take the witchbreed to the Tower . Strange , Javier , and Fury meet there and discuss how to save the world — an act which will almost surely lead to them being branded traitors by James . Strange has learned that the treasure of the Templars and its keeper Donal , and Murdoch , have been betrayed and are now in the hands of Doom . Strange also learns that Doom has been holding captive four heroes from the ship Fantastick , including Fury 's friend Sir Richard Reed . Knowing that James will never give him an army to march on Latveria , he conspires with the witchbreed , taking a ship levitated by Javier and his page John Grey across the continent .
Strange meanwhile finds himself on the moon where he meets the Watcher Uatu , who tells him that the strange events are due to an anomaly he calls the Forerunner . The Forerunner is from the future and its presence in the past has disrupted reality to the point of impending annihilation of not only Strange 's world but all other universes as well . Explaining his theory that the emergence of various superhumans on Stephen 's Earth is the result of the universe trying to save itself , the Watcher tells Strange that he will not be able to repeat what he has learned while he is alive .
Fury , Javier and his witchbreed launch a successful attack on Count Doom 's fortress . The Fantastick Four are freed , and Doom is horribly scarred by what he believes is the Templar 's treasure ; in fact , Donal 's walking stick is the true treasure , and using it Donal becomes the Norse god Thor . Having nowhere else to go , the ship of fugitives heads for the New World . In Spain , Enrique , the Inquisitor who has killed so many witchbreed , is exposed as a witchbreed himself and sentenced to be burned at the stake with his young acolytes , Petros and Sister Wanda . Enrique breaks their bonds and they escape on a ship of their own , also bound for America .
Sir Stephen Strange is executed by James , and his head put on a pike . With his magic , his spirit can still communicate in a telepathic way , allowing him to explain the warning that he received from Uatu now that he is dead and no longer bound by Uatu 's original compulsion . His wife Clea takes his head from the pike and sets off for America with Virginia and Rojhaz . Clea believes that Strange 's suspicions were wrong : Virginia is not the Forerunner , it is her blond @-@ haired , blue @-@ eyed " Native American " companion .
Rojhaz is in fact Steve Rogers , the future costumed superhero known as Captain America . After fighting against a future fascist government of the 21st century run by the President @-@ For @-@ Life , Rogers was captured . Wanting to dispose of Rogers so completely that not even his ashes would remain to inspire future rebellion , the President @-@ for @-@ Life had Rogers placed into a machine which should have killed him but instead sent him into the 1602 timeline . His presence not only brought about a rift that will destroy the universe , but it also caused the heroes of the twentieth century to appear centuries earlier to counter the Forerunner 's negative effects .
Fury and company arrive at the Roanoke colony , where they discover the rift that is tearing their universe apart . Javier , realizing that his enemy Enrique may be the key to manipulating the rift and thus saving the universe , traps him and his followers in their ship . However , it is the former Inquisitor who dictates terms .
James sends his adviser Banner and Peter Parker to America with orders to kill Fury . When they arrive in America , Fury single @-@ handedly kills all the members of their ship aside from Banner and Peter . In spite of this , Fury has almost lost the will to live : he failed to protect his Queen , he has been made a traitor to his country , and all his wealth and property has been seized and taken over by James and his favorites .
Donal meanwhile turns to alcohol , devastated at the fact that he has brought about a god who , according to Donal 's religion , should not even exist . However , Reed 's analysis leads him to believe that the final component needed to deal with the rift is lightning , and Donal is convinced to turn into the Viking god once more .
Back in England , having just been crowned King , James feels that everything is going his way , but then Murdoch breaks into his chamber and warns him in no uncertain terms of the consequences should anything happen to Fury , or Murdoch 's native Ireland .
Rojhaz , looking more like the Captain America of old ( or of the future , as the case may be ) , refuses to go back through the rift : he hopes to build a better America from the beginning . Fury tricks Rojhaz by playing on the trust that Captain America had for the Nick Fury of his own time , knocks him unconscious and carries the body back through the rift , thus going into the future himself .
The rift and the universe restore themselves , meaning the destruction of the alternate timeline ; however , Uatu the Watcher is granted a " pocket universe " by his colleagues in which the 1602 timeline remains intact , and where the powered fugitives decide to settle in the Roanoke colony , declaring it a free place for all . Meanwhile , while walking in the woods with Virginia , Peter is bitten by a spider and Banner , who shielded Peter from the energies released when Rojhaz and Fury entered the rift , has changed into a hulking gray monster . Intrigued by the continuing events , Uatu continues to watch the new universe ( later designated Earth @-@ 311 ) .
= = Characters = =
1602 features both historical figures and many of the original Marvel superheroes and villains . Some popular characters , such as Wolverine , were not added , because of Gaiman 's vision to address the heroes of the 1960s . " The territory doesn 't go much further than 1969 in terms of the characters that I picked to use , " Gaiman noted . " I couldn 't get everybody in because there are an awful lot of Marvel characters . "
Elizabeth I of England : The aging Queen of England . Already close to death , she is killed by a poisonous gas device constructed by Otto Von Doom .
James I of England : Originally King James VI of Scotland , James becomes the monarch over England as well with Elizabeth 's death . James maintains an intense hatred of witchbreed and seeks to destroy them along with any who practice sorcery or witchcraft .
Virginia Dare : The daughter of Ananias Dare , and the first English child born in the Americas . In this world , the Roanoke Colony did not disappear in the 1580s ; when Steve Rogers went into this world he saved the colony , which would have been killed by starvation . Dare touches the rift caused by Roger 's arrival . She has the ability to transform into white @-@ furred animals when frightened , which she later learns to control , and appears to be the equivalent to Alpha Flight 's Snowbird who has a similar appearance and powers , though Neil Gaiman had denied this .
Uatu , the Watcher : A younger member of a race of intelligent beings who have sworn not to interfere in the affairs of lesser races , only to watch and observe . He breaks this oath , however , by explaining the situation to an astral projection of Doctor Stephen Strange .
Sir Nicholas Fury : The Queen 's intelligence officer ( referred to as the " intelligencer " ) and responsible for foiling many past plots against the monarch . Seemingly killed when he carries an unconscious Rojhaz into the dimensional rift .
Doctor Stephen Strange : The Queen 's Physician , who is also a magician and alchemist . He allows himself to be beheaded by King James , which subsequently frees him from the restriction placed upon him by Uatu , the Watcher ( namely , that he could not reveal what he knows while still living ) .
Peter Parker : Sir Nicholas ' apprentice ; left orphaned and tended to by his aunt and uncle until Fury arrived and took the boy to London .
Matthew Murdoch : A blind Irish minstrel who moonlights as a freelance agent . Matthew acquired heightened senses from a mysterious substance he encountered as a child .
Clea Strange : Stephen Strange 's wife and assistant , Clea actually comes from another dimension . After bringing her husband 's severed head to the Roanoke colony - thus fulfilling her last promise to him - she asks the heroes to bury the head with the rest of the body and then returns to her home dimension .
Rojhaz : Virginia 's blonde @-@ haired , blue @-@ eyed Native American bodyguard , who in fact is a displaced Captain America from a dystopian future . When the government of his time captured him and attempted to execute him using advanced technology , he was accidentally sent back in time - the event which triggered the alternate timeline to begin with - thus forming the paradox of the story .
Carlos Javier : A Spaniard living in England , where he runs a " College for the Sons of Gentlefolk " , in fact a haven for " witchbreed " , or mutants . His students include Roberto Trefusis , Scotius Summerisle , Hal McCoy , Werner , and " John " Grey ( who is in fact a young woman with psychic powers rivaling that of his own ) .
The Four from the Fantastick : A band of explorers who gained powers when their ship encountered a strange energy vortex at sea . The four are Captain Benjamin Grimm , Sir Richard Reed , Susan Storm , and John Storm , Their bodies were reshaped into the four elements : Reed 's flesh became pliable like water ; Grimm 's body became solid rock ; Susan 's body became weightless and invisible like air ; and John 's body became living fire . They are eventually captured by Doom .
Grand Inquisitor Enrique : Born a Jew , a young Enrique was forcibly baptized and seduced by a Catholic priest , and thus inducted into the church . As an adult , he leads the Spanish Inquisition - a position of power through which he can further his own plans . Although ordered to execute the witchbreed , he hides those whom he can pass off as normal . Secretly a witchbreed himself , he uses his activities as a cover to form a " Brotherhood Of Those Who Will Inherit The Earth " . He is assisted by Sister Wanda and Petros , who are secretly his children . He is also aided by Toad , despite Toad 's betrayal at one point .
Banner : An advisor to King James , Banner is sent to Roanoke in order to kill Fury . When the rift is closed at the end of the story , Banner is caught within the backlash and is later seen lurking in the nearby woods as a massive gray @-@ skinned creature ( the Hulk ) .
Count Otto von Doom : Doom is the ruler of Latveria , known as Otto the Handsome due to his perfect physique and appearance . He captures the Fantastick Four in order to force Reed 's compliance in creating war machines , poisons , and various other inventions . Von Doom is later struck and badly burned by Thor 's lightning , although he survives .
Donal the Guardian of the Templar Treasure and alter ego to Thor , who is captured by Count Otto von Doom on his way to deliver the treasure of the Templars ( the hammer Mjolnir disguised as a simple walking stick ) to England . He is rescued by Sir Nicholas Fury and the witchbreed and is taken to the New World along with the Fantastick Four .
Natasha : She travels with Matthew while en route to meet Donal , who is bringing the Templar Treasure to England . Natasha is revealed to be working for Count Otto von Doom .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The first issue of 1602 was ranked first in August 2003 US comics with pre @-@ order sales of 150 @,@ 569 .
1602 received mixed praised upon its release with Comics Bulletin stating " Is 1602 good ? Yes , it 's damn good . Is it revolutionary or even ground breaking ? No . Sorry , but I can 't go so far as to call a glorified What If ? series anything more than what it is ; a well done re @-@ imagination of the Marvel Universe . " Entertainment Weekly declared that the combination of writing and moody artwork meant " the Marvel Universe hasn 't been this engrossing in ages . " ShakingThrough.net noted that fans looking for elements of Gaiman 's The Sandman would be disappointed ; " It 's not a senses @-@ shattering Marvel epic , but then it 's not meant to be . It 's nothing more or less than a chance to enjoy reinterpretations of some familiar characters . " UGO Networks concurred , stating " there doesn 't need to be a ' point ' in re @-@ imagining familiar icons — it 's simply meant to be fun . [ ... ] The result of 1602 is agreeable entertainment . " The series won several awards , including the Quill Book Award for Graphic Novels . The first issue was also awarded the 2003 Diamond Distributors Gem Award as " Comic of the Year " .
Conversely , Time Magazine listed it as the worst comic of 2003 , although the list 's composer later stated " he didn 't actually mean it was the worst comic of the year . " UGO 's Darren Latta noted as a downside to the series that " the approach maybe a little too subdued at times . " Latta also felt that despite being familiar with the setting , Gaiman never utilized the period to its full potential . Others simply felt that Gaiman 's involvement led to inflated expectations ; one review noted that while reading " I [ ... ] felt at times like maybe it was all a little bit too cute , a little bit too in @-@ jokey . "
1602 's success led to three sequels .
The first , 1602 : New World , takes place shortly after the end of 1602 , with the heroes settling down in America . The series was written by Greg Pak and illustrated by Greg Tocchini , and the first issue was published in August 2005 . During that time , Lord Iron and Captain Ross had arrived to hunt down David Banner while coming into conflict with the Spider and Virginia Dare . Meanwhile , Master Osborn tries to turn the natives against the settlers .
The second sequel , Marvel 1602 : Fantastick Four was written by Peter David and pencilled by Pascal Alixe . The story involves the Fantastic Four 's adventures in London , the return of Otto Von Doom , and the " Four Who Are Frightful " when they capture William Shakespeare to chronicle Otto von Doom 's travels to Bensaylum ( this reality 's Alantis ) .
The third sequel Spider @-@ Man : 1602 centers on the continuing adventures of the Spider and features reinterpretations of Doctor Octopus , the Lizard , and Mary Jane Watson . Also appearing are the Beast , Janet and Henry Pym , the Kingpin ( reimaged as a pirate named King 's Pin ) , Bullseye ( reimaged as an assassin and first mate of the King 's Pin ) , and Steve Rogers .
= = = Spider @-@ Verse = = =
The Marvel 1602 universe appears in a lead @-@ up to Spider @-@ Verse . Peter Parker is on stage at the Globe
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Theatre with Marion Jane Watsonne 's family when Morlun appears . Peter attempts to defend himself , but Morlun proves too powerful . Morlun brings down the Globe Theater around everyone , and absorbs Peter 's life essence . Before disappearing into another dimension , Morlun declares that all spiders will die .
= = = Secret Wars ( 2015 ) = = =
Marvel 1602 will appear in Secret Wars where its domain on Battleworld will be referred to as King James ' England . It will mostly be featured in the comic 1602 : Witch Hunter Angela ( which will feature a witch hunter version of Angela ) .
In the domain of King James ' England , King James ( a variation of Wolverine ) was its ruler until he was discovered to be a Witchbreed ( this domain 's version of Mutants ) who killed various redhaired girls . King James was seemingly killed by Sister Angela of the Holy Order who drowned him . He was succeeded is King Charles the First ( who is secretly a Witchbreed leader and a variation of Professor X ) . With the population of Witchbreed diminished , the Witch Hunters Sister Angela of the Holy Order and her partner Lady Serah Anchorton went on to hunt Faustians , people who made deals with Demons , but , before doing so , they went to the Mermaid Tavern to drink with some friends of theirs . There they attacked Captain James Barnes of Clan Buchanan whom they believed was a Witchbreed , but it revealed itself to be a Faustian after being cut in half by Angela and reanimating its two halves as hideous monsters . Lady Serah killed the upper half . As Angela killed the bottom half , it summoned its " maker " the Enchantress . Angela tried to hit her , but she couldn 't do her harm . The Enchantress threatened that Serah would die when three of her Faustians had been killed by Angela before vanishing in the air , leaving a worried Angela behind .
After telling Serah about Enchantress ' menace , Angela and her fellow Witch Hunter departed from London and found a troupe of players called the " Gardiner 's Men " ( who are this domain 's version of the Guardians of the Galaxy ) being attacked by beasts in the woods . They aided the troupe members Madam Gomorrah , Peadar O 'Cuill , Arthur Dubhghlas , Goodman Root , and Aroughcun to kill the beasts . As the creatures had traces of Enchantress ' magic on them indicating she was somewhere nearby , Angela and Serah traveled with the Gardiner 's Men to a pagan village in the outskirts of York where a marriage for the town beauty Anne Weying and the young printer 's apprentice Edwin Brocc was going to happen . As the festival proceeded , Angela realized young Edwin had enchanted his bride to marry him when she saw him giving her a potion to drink . Edwin noticed Angela had seen and panicked becoming a venomous monster and attacking her . Angela and her companions engaged him in battle and subdued him , afterwards Angela decapitated him . While leaving the town , Serah told Angela she wasn 't afraid of her fate as long as Angela was with her .
Angela and Serah then headed to Castle Caldecote in Cumberland as it was the whereabouts of the third Faustian . Her name was Anna Maria , the natural daughter of a bishop that was kept safe by Master Coulson in one of the castle 's room as instructed by her father . However , in the last new moon , she managed to escape the castle and returned somewhat different . Seeing the girl was not mad as Coulson said she was , Serah demanded the girl to be freed from her chains and told Angela to keep an eye on her . As the days passed , Serah , who had been studying about the Faerie , discovered that the Enchantress sends a sliver of herself into each of those with whom she struck a deal and that she was using stories , such as that of her victims and Christopher Marlowe 's play , to expand her power . Upon figuring it out , Serah started to devise a plan to counter that of Enchantress . Meanwhile , Angela struck a deal with Anna Maria : in exchange for a way to free her , she would tell Angela the truth about herself . The girl then told her she was born Witchbreed and that she eventually learned her touch was death . When the path to the Faerie was open , she took the opportunity to become something other than what she was , and willingly struck a deal with the Enchantress and became a Faustian . Later that night , Angela heard strange noises coming from Anna Maria 's room and went to check if everything was right . There she found the girl crying , frightened by the Enchantress ' voice inside her head . The girl asked Angela to tell her a story to calm her down , and so she did , but it was in vain as the Enchantress took control of the girl 's body and attacked Angela . The girl managed to regain consciousness though and in an attempt to be free again , used Angela 's weapon to kill herself . Serah showed up and was able to revive the girl , who was a Faustian no more . As she hadn 't died , Serah thought she was safe from the Enchantress ' wrath , but she was wrong as the Faerie rose from the blood of her lost Faustian and took Serah 's life , fulfilling her menace . With the sun setting , Angela burned her lover 's body to the ashes , recovering her skull and singing to it afterwards . Suddenly to Angela 's surprise , the skull became animated and started to talk with her .
= = = Web @-@ Warriors = = =
The Web Warriors ( Alternate versions of Spider @-@ Man ) visited the 1602 Universe to deal with the dimension 's version of Sinister Six . After apprehending the villains , they noticed the dimension 's Electro has escaped , unbeknownst to the heroes , followed them back to the Great Web .
= = Academic response = =
James Fleming has written about the use of the postmodern tradition in 1602 , and how this is employed ; as a means to respond to the post @-@ 9 / 11 world in which the comic was written ; and to propose a new model of postmodernism better suited to the post @-@ 9 / 11 world . On the one hand , 1602 is clearly postmodern , depending as it does on the mixing of tropes of both Elizabethan fiction and contemporary comics . But Fleming focuses particularly on Gaiman 's use of The Watcher as a witness that provides an epistemological grounding to the text - a grounding that , citing Brian McHale , Fleming argues is absent in traditional postmodern writing .
= = In other media = =
= = = Television = = =
The Marvel 1602 reality appeared in The Super Hero Squad Show episode " 1602 . "
In the Ultimate Spider @-@ Man animated series , an armored , medieval version of Spider @-@ Man called Spyder @-@ Knight appears , voiced by Christopher Daniel Barnes . In the " Spider @-@ Verse " mini @-@ series , the Green Goblin uses the Siege Perilous to travel to alternate worlds and find the Spider @-@ Men residing there , planning to obtain blood samples from them . Spider @-@ Man follows him into a medieval version of New York City , simply called York . There he sees the villagers having to pay ransom to a shady , cloaked Alchemist , and he provide protection from a terrible threat . Spider @-@ Man is spotted and accused of being a witch by the townspeople , and when explaining to them about the Goblin , he accused of working with a demon . They tie him up and attempt to publicly burn him . However , to his rescue is a knight with special , advanced medieval armor , who is known as the " Spyder @-@ Knight " . Believing Spider @-@ Man to be a town fool , both Spiders avoid the angry villagers . While Spider @-@ Man is harassed and distracted by the villagers , Spyder @-@ Knight is confronted by the Goblin , who is after a blood sample . While Spyder @-@ Knight briefly battles him , and is protected by his armor , he is slammed against a wall by Goblin , who extracts his blood from his exposed neck . Goblin then escapes through another portal . While Spider @-@ Man states he must leave , the village comes under attack by a massive , metal , fire @-@ breathing Octobot .
= = = Video games = = =
Spider @-@ Man 1602 is an unlockable costume in Spider @-@ Man : Shattered Dimensions .
Spider @-@ Man 1602 is playable in Spider @-@ Man Unlimited .
= Made in Japan ( Deep Purple album ) =
Made in Japan is a double live album by English rock band Deep Purple , recorded during their first tour of Japan in August 1972 . It was originally released in December 1972 , with a US release in April 1973 , and became a commercial and critical success .
The band were well known for their strong stage act , and had privately recorded several shows , or broadcast them on radio , but were unenthusiastic about recording a live album until their Japanese record company decided it would be good for publicity . They insisted on supervising the live production , including using Martin Birch , who had previously collaborated with the band , as engineer , and were not particularly interested in the album 's release , even after recording . The tour was successful , with strong media interest and a positive response from fans .
The album was an immediate commercial success , particularly in the US , where it was accompanied by the top five hit " Smoke on the Water " , and became a steady seller throughout the 1970s . A three @-@ CD set of most of the tour 's performances was released in 1993 , while a remastered edition of the album with a CD of extra tracks was released in 1998 . In 2014 , a deluxe edition was announced with further bonus material . The album had a strong critical reception and continues to attract praise . A Rolling Stone readers ' poll in 2012 ranked Made in Japan the sixth best live album of all time .
= = Background and live bootlegs = =
Deep Purple " Mk II " formed in July 1969 when founding members , guitarist Ritchie Blackmore , organist Jon Lord and drummer Ian Paice recruited singer Ian Gillan and bassist Roger Glover to progress from their earlier pop and psychedelic rock sound towards hard rock . They began touring extensively , becoming a well received live band , and had recorded several shows either to broadcast on the radio or listen to privately . However , they had rejected the idea of releasing a live album commercially as they believed it would be impossible to reproduce the quality and experience of their stage act on an LP .
Consequently , there was a demand for bootleg recordings of the band . The most notorious of these was an LP entitled H Bomb , recorded at Aachen on 11 July 1970 , which led to a subsequent court case when Virgin Records ' Richard Branson was prosecuted for selling it . An article in Melody Maker that examined the bootleg phenomenon claimed that H Bomb was the best selling one at that time . This success , along with albums from other artists such as the Who 's Live at Leeds and the Rolling Stones ' Get Yer Ya @-@ Ya 's Out convinced the band that an official live album would be commercially successful . At the time , Glover told Sounds magazine that " there are so many bootlegs of us going around , if we put out our own live set , it should kill their market . "
= = Tour and recording = =
By 1972 , Deep Purple had achieved considerable commercial success in Japan , including several hit singles , so it made sense to tour there . Three dates were booked ; the Festival Hall , Osaka on 11 and 12 May , and the Budokan , Tokyo on 16 August , though these were later changed to the 15 and 16 August , and 17 August respectively due to an earlier US tour being rescheduled . The dates sold out almost immediately , and consequently the Japanese arm of the band 's label , Warner Bros. Records , wanted to record the tour for a live album to be released in the country . The band eventually agreed to the idea , but insisted if it was going to be released , they wanted it to be done properly . Gillan recalled , " we said we would have to OK the equipment , we wanted to use our own engineer and we would have the last say on whether the tapes were released " . The band enlisted producer Martin Birch , who had worked on previous studio albums , to record the shows onto an 8 @-@ track recorder so they could subsequently be mixed .
The band 's live setlist had been revamped at the start of the year , immediately after recording the album Machine Head , and that album made up a substantial proportion of new material . Although the setlist remained the same for most of the year , opening with " Highway Star " and closing with " Lazy " and " Space Truckin ' " , the band 's musical skill and structure meant there was sufficient improvisation within the songs to keep things fresh . The original intention was the stage act would be used for about a year before being dropped , but Gillan and Glover both resigned from the band in June 1973 . When this line @-@ up reformed in 1984 , the 1972 setlist made up a significant amount of material performed in concert .
The band arrived in Japan on 9 August , a week before the tour started , to a strong reception , and were greeted with gifts and flowers . Birch was not confident that the recording quality would be satisfactory , since the equipment supplied by Warner Bros. did not have any balance control and that the recorder 's size did not appear big enough on sight to capture a commercial quality recording . The band were uninterested in the end result , concentrating on simply being able to deliver a good show . Lord later noticed however that he felt this attitude meant the spontaneity of the performances and interplay between the band members was captured well .
The second gig in Osaka was considered to be the stronger of the two , and indeed this show made up the bulk of the released LP . Only one song , " Smoke on the Water " from 15 August show was used , and this may simply have been because it was the only gig that Blackmore played the song 's opening riff as per the studio album .
The band considered the gig at Tokyo on 17 August to be the best of the tour . Glover remembered " twelve or thirteen thousand Japanese kids were singing along to ' Child in Time ' " and considered it a career highlight , as did Gillan . At the venue , a row of bodyguards manned the front of the stage . When Blackmore smashed his guitar during the end of " Space Truckin ' " and threw it into the audience , several of them clambered past fans to try and retrieve it . Blackmore was annoyed , but the rest of the band found the incident amusing . The gig was not as well recorded as the Osaka shows , though " The Mule " and " Lazy " were considered of sufficient quality to make the final release .
There were no overdubs on the album . Lord claimed once in a magazine interview that a line from " Strange Kind of Woman " had to be redubbed from a different show after Gillan had tripped over his microphone cable , but no direct evidence of this was found when the multitrack tapes were examined . According to Lord , the total budget for the recording was only $ 3 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 35 @,@ 696 in 2015 ) .
= = Release = =
The band did not consider the album to be important and only Glover and Paice showed up to mix it . According to Birch , Gillan and Blackmore have never heard the finished album . The band did not want the album to be released outside Japan and wanted full rights to the tapes , but it was released worldwide anyway .
The album was released in the UK in December 1972 , with a special offer price of £ 3 @.@ 10 , the same as a typical single LP from that period . It reached number 16 in the charts . The cover was designed by Glover and featured a colour photo of the band on the front and rear covers , and black and white photos in the inside gatefold . The release in the US was delayed , until April 1973 , because Warner Bros. wanted to release Who Do We Think We Are first . They were motivated into releasing it due to a steady flow of UK imports being purchased , and it was an immediate commercial success , reaching number 6 in the charts . Warner Brothers also released " Smoke on the Water " as a single , coupling the live recording on Made in Japan with the studio version on Machine Head , and it reached number 4 in the Billboard charts . A recording of " Black Night " from the Tokyo gig , one of the encores that was not on the album , was released as the B @-@ side to the single " Woman from Tokyo " in Europe , and as a single in its own right in Japan .
The Japanese release was titled Live in Japan and featured a unique sleeve design , with an overhead stage shot of the band , a selection of photographs from a gig at the Rainbow Theatre in London , and an insert with lyrics and a hand @-@ written message from each band member . The first pressing came with a 35mm film negative with photos of the band which buyers could develop into their own prints . The sleeve notes claimed that the recording only contained the Tokyo gig , though in fact it was musically identical to the version released in the rest of the world . Phil Collen , later to play in Def Leppard , was in the audience for the Rainbow gig as captured on the sleeve .
In Uruguay , the album was released in 1974 as a single LP ( with just the first two sides ) on Odeon Records . It used a simplistic sleeve design unlike any other release , with a rising sun on the cover .
= = Reception = =
The band as a whole had mixed feelings about the album . Gillan was critical of his own performance , yet was still impressed with the quality of the live recording . Paice gave a very positive impression , suggesting that the shows were some of the best the group had performed , and the album captured the spirit of them well . Lord listed it as his favourite Deep Purple album , saying , " The band was at the height of its powers . That album was the epitome of what we stood for in those days . "
The response from critics was favourable . John Tiven , writing in Rolling Stone said " Made in Japan is Purple 's definitive metal monster , a spark @-@ filled execution ... Deep Purple can still cut the mustard in concert " . Subsequently , a readers ' poll in the magazine declared the album to be the sixth best live album of all time , adding the band have performed " countless shows since in countless permutations , but they 've never sounded quite this perfect . "
Recent reviews have been equally positive . Allmusic 's William Ruhlmann considered the album to be " a definitive treatment of the band 's catalog and its most impressive album " . Rock author Daniel Bukszpan claimed the album is " widely acknowledged as one of the greatest live albums of all time " . Goldmine magazine said the album " defined Deep Purple even as it redefined the concept of the live album . " Deep Purple author Dave Thompson wrote " the standing of Deep Purple 's first ( and finest ) live album had scarcely diminished in the quarter @-@ century since its release " .
= = Reissues = =
The original LP was a steady seller throughout the 1970s and remained in print . The first reissue on CD was in 1988 which contained the complete double @-@ LP on a single CD .
The 8 @-@ track tapes of the three shows were carefully put in storage by Warner Bros. Japan for future use . For the album 's 21st anniversary in 1993 , Deep Purple author and archivist Simon Robinson decided to enquire via the band 's management if the tapes could be located . He discovered the entire show had been recorded well , including all the encores . In July , Robinson and Darron Goodwin remixed the tapes at Abbey Road Studios for an expanded edition , that was then mastered by Peter Mew in September . To compromise between including as much of the shows as possible and setting a realistic price that most fans would accept , they decided to release a 3 @-@ CD box set , titled Live in Japan . This included all of the three main shows except for two tracks already available on the original album . In their place were two previously unreleased encores .
Robinson subsequently oversaw a new reissue of the original album in 1998 on CD , that was also remastered by Mew . This version contained an extra CD with three tracks that had been left off the 1993 set . The colour scheme of the cover was reversed to show gold text on a black background . The remastered Made in Japan has further edits to make a contiguous performance , making it shorter than the original release . At the same time , a limited edition of 4 @,@ 000 double LPs was released on purple vinyl , while in Spain , EMI added the studio versions of the tracks making up the original album to the second CD .
In 2014 , Universal Music announced that the album would be reissued in a number of formats in May . The deluxe option is a set of four CDs or 9 LPs containing a new remix of the three concerts in full , a DVD containing previously unseen video footage , a hardback book and other memorabilia . The original LP was reissued in 180g vinyl as per the original release with the original 1972 mix , with the audio available for digital download through popular providers .
= = Cover version = =
On 13 January 2006 , progressive metal band Dream Theater played the original album in its entirety at Kokusai Forum in Tokyo , and also on the 15th at NHK Hall in Osaka . Both performances were recorded , and the latter of the two shows has been released through the band 's YtseJam Records label . It was mixed for release by Glover .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Ritchie Blackmore , Ian Gillan , Roger Glover , Jon Lord and Ian Paice except where indicated .
= = = Original release on vinyl ( 2 LP ) = = =
= = = Live in Japan 3CD set = = =
Titles already released on Made in Japan are in bold .
Disc 1
Good Morning
Recorded in Osaka on 15 August 1972
" Smoke on the Water " from the 15th is not included here but is available on the original album
The encore " Speed King " from the 15th is not included here on CD1 but is available on CD3
Disc 2
Next week , we 're turning professional
Recorded in Osaka on 16 August 1972
The two encores " Black Night " and " Lucille " from the 16th are not included here but " Black Night " has been released on compilations and " Lucille " is available on the 1998 reissue of Made in Japan on CD 2 .
Disc 3
Can we have everything louder than everything else ?
Recorded in Tokyo on 17 August 1972
" The Mule " from the 17th is not included here but is available on the main album
The two encores " Black Night " and " Speed King " from the 17th are not included here but are available on the 1998 reissue disc 2
" Speed King " on CD3 is from the 15th
= = = 25th Anniversary remastered edition ( 2CD ) = = =
Disc One
Made in Japan
Disc Two
The Encores
= = = 2014 Box Set Edition = = =
Disc 1
" Good Morning " Osaka 15 August 1972
Disc 2
" Next Week We 're Turning Professional " Osaka 16 August 1972
Disc 3
" Can We Have Everything Louder Than Everything Else ? " Tokyo 17 August 1972
Disc 4
" Good Night " Encores
Disc 5
Made in Japan Documentary DVD
Disc 6
Japanese 7 " Promo
= = = 2014 2CD Edition = = =
Disc 1
2013 Kevin Shirley Remix
Disc 2
The Encores
= = Personnel = =
Taken from the sleeve notes :
Deep Purple
Ritchie Blackmore – lead guitar
Ian Gillan – vocals , harmonica ( uncredited ) , percussion ( uncredited )
Roger Glover – bass
Jon Lord – organ , piano
Ian Paice – drums
Co @-@ ordination – Warner Pioneer
Recording Unit
Engineering – Martin Birch
Equipment – Ian Hansford , Rob Cooksey , Colin Hart , Ron Quinton
Marshall Engineer – K Flegg
Promoters – Universal Orient Promotions
Produced by Deep Purple
Mixed by Roger Glover , Ian Paice
Cover Design – Roger Glover
Photography – Fin Costello
Remastered by Peter Mew
= = Charts = =
= = Accolades = =
= Parineeti Chopra =
Parineeti Chopra ( pronounced [ pəriːniːt ̪ iː ˈtʃoːpɽaː ] ; born 22 October 1988 ) is an Indian actress who appears in Hindi films . She has received several awards and nominations , including a Filmfare and National Film Award . In addition to her acting career , Chopra is a humanitarian and is a prominent celebrity endorser for brands and products .
Chopra initially aspired to pursue a career in investment banking , but after obtaining a triple honours degree in business , finance and economics from Manchester Business School she returned to India during the 2009 economic recession and joined Yash Raj Films as a public relations consultant . Later , she signed a deal with the company as an actress . She made her acting debut in the 2011 romantic comedy Ladies vs Ricky Bahl . Chopra 's breakthrough performance in the film earned her the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut and a nomination for Best Supporting Actress .
In 2012 , she garnered wide critical acclaim for her starring role in the romantic drama Ishaqzaade , a critical and commercial success , winning the National Film Award – Special Mention and several Best Actress nominations including the Filmfare Award for Best Actress . She subsequently received praise for her performances in the successful romantic comedies Shuddh Desi Romance ( 2013 ) and Hasee Toh Phasee ( 2014 ) . Her prime accomplishments have made her one of the most promising new actresses in India .
= = Early life and work = =
Parineeti Chopra was born on 22 October 1988 in Ambala , Haryana into a Punjabi family . Her father , Pawan Chopra , is a businessman and supplier to the Indian Army at Ambala Cantonment and her mother is Reena Chopra . She has two brothers : Shivang and Saraj ; actress Priyanka Chopra , Meera Chopra and Mannara are her cousins . Chopra received her early education at the Convent of Jesus and Mary in Ambala Cantonment . In an Interview published in The Hindu , she revealed that she was a very good student and had always wanted to become an investment banker . At the age of 17 , Chopra moved to London , where she received a triple honours degree in business , finance and economics from Manchester Business School in the United Kingdom . She used to take orientation classes for new students at the University . While studying , she worked part @-@ time for the Manchester United Football Club as the team leader of the catering department .
In 2009 , she returned to India in the wake of the economic recession and moved to Mumbai to stay with her cousin , Priyanka . During a visit to Yash Raj Films studio , Priyanka ( who was shooting for Pyaar Impossible ! ) introduced Parineeti to the head of the public relations team of the company . Chopra obtained an internship in the marketing department , joining the production company as a public @-@ relations consultant . She considered it a perfect job , because she could use what she had learned and work in films . Chopra had disliked actors and acting ; to her , the profession seemed like an excuse to wear too much makeup . This changed when she observed Priyanka 's preparations for her role in 7 Khoon Maaf , which highly influenced her and changed her perception towards acting and actors . Once she learnt more about filmmaking , her respect for the profession increased .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Debut and breakthrough ( 2011 – 12 ) = = =
While working on promotions for Band Baaja Baaraat , Chopra realised that she wanted to become an actress and decided to resign from her executive position with Yash Raj Films to attend acting school . Film director Maneesh Sharma suggested signing Chopra to Aditya Chopra , vice @-@ president of Yash Raj Films . Appalled by the idea of recruiting someone from his marketing team as an actress , the vice @-@ president refused . When Parineeti Chopra told Sharma she was leaving her job to attend acting school he advised her to meet the company 's casting director , who asked her to do a " dummy audition for fun " . Chopra remembered " fooling around with a camera " and delivering lines by the character Geet from the film Jab We Met , never expecting producer Aditya Chopra to see the tape . However , when the producer saw the tape he was impressed with her acting . With Sharma describing her " phenomenal " in the screen test , Chopra was signed to a three @-@ film deal ; Chopra 's colleagues later told her she was a " misfit in an office situation " .
In 2011 , Chopra made her screen debut in the romantic comedy Ladies vs Ricky Bahl , in a supporting role with Ranveer Singh and Anushka Sharma . The film describes how three girls who are tricked by a con artist take revenge on him by plotting the same trick for him . Chopra played the Delhi @-@ based " rich and spoiled brat " Dimple Chadda , who is betrayed by the film 's central character . The film received mixed reviews from critics , and was moderately successful at the box office ; however , Chopra 's performance was praised by film critics . Komal Nahta said , " Of the three other girls , Parineeti Chopra is undoubtedly the best . She has the best role , the best lines and hers is the best performance among the three . In fact , she provides a lot of light moments in the first half and , more importantly , in the second half too " . Priyanka Roy of The Telegraph described Chopra as " natural " and wrote " Among the ladies , debutante Parineeti almost steals the show from Anushka . As a spoilt and nouveau @-@ riche Delhi girl . " The film earned her several awards , including the Filmfare Award , the Screen Award , the Apsara Award and the IIFA Award for Best Debut . Chopra also received nominations in the supporting actress category at Filmfare ) and won the Apsara and IIFA Awards in the same category .
Chopra 's second release was Habib Faisal 's romantic drama Ishaqzaade in which she played a leading role opposite Arjun Kapoor . The film revolves around two political families , whose rivalry ( and mutual hatred ) go back generations . Chopra played the boisterous and feisty tomboy Zoya , a Muslim girl who marries a Hindu boy and gives birth to new rivalry in both families . The film received positive reviews from critics , and Chopra earned critical acclaim for her performance . Taran Adarsh observed , " Parineeti Chopra is simply fantastic in this high @-@ voltage drama . Playing the part of a spirited gun @-@ toting girl , she is not the regular timid , decorous , withdrawn Hindi film heroine . She portrays the violent behavior coupled with the audacious and brash attitude with aplomb " , and Rajeev Masand labelled her the " biggest strength of the film " . The film grossed over ₹ 46 crore ( US $ 6 @.@ 8 million ) at the domestic box office , and was termed a super hit by Box Office India . Chopra earned a National Film Award – Special Mention at the 60th National Film Awards , and received first nominations for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress , Screen and Apsara Awards .
= = = 2013 – present = = =
Chopra next appeared alongside Sushant Singh Rajput and Vaani Kapoor in the romantic comedy @-@ drama Shuddh Desi Romance ( 2013 ) , her second collaboration with Maneesh Sharma . The film , set in Jaipur , received positive feedback from the critics and Chopra 's portrayal of Gayatri , an outspoken and rebellious girl , was particularly praised . CNN @-@ IBN noted that the film belonged to Chopra , who " turns Gayatri into the most real woman one have encountered on screen " , and the critic Mayank Shekhar added " Parineeti ’ s act in the film ’ s first half is nothing short of National Award winning material . " Shuddh Desi Romance collected ₹ 46 crore ( US $ 6 @.@ 8 million ) at the domestic box @-@ office and emerged as a commercial success . Chopra garnered several Best Actress nominations , including her second Filmfare nomination for Best Actress .
Chopra 's first of three releases of 2014 was Dharma Productions ' romantic comedy Hasee Toh Phasee , her first role outside the Yash Raj Films banner . She featured in the role of a mad scientist alongside Sidharth Malhotra and Adah Sharma . Directed by Vinil Matthew and jointly produced by Anurag Kashyap and Karan Johar , the film was a moderate success and received generally positive reviews . Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV wrote that Chopra was " pitch @-@ perfect with her goofball act " and Hindustan Times published that she re @-@ defined the concept of a Bollywood heroine with the film .
Habib Faisal 's dowry @-@ based social comedy film Daawat @-@ e @-@ Ishq marked Chopra 's second collaboration with Faisal . She was cast as Gulrez " Gullu " Qadir , a middle @-@ class salesgirl from Hyderabad alongside Aditya Roy Kapoor and Anupam Kher . The film received mixed reviews though Chopra was praised . Film critic Sarita A Tanwar from Daily News Analysis found Chopra to be " the best thing about the film " and added , " She shines in every scene . She does what she does every single time — rises head and shoulders above the film and her costars . " Chopra next played her first " glamorous role " in Shaad Ali 's crime film Kill Dil , co @-@ starring Govinda , Ranveer Singh and Ali Zafar . Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com found the film to be a " disaster " and wrote that " Chopra is terribly miscast and wears clothes that should have never left the wardrobe " . Both Daawat @-@ e @-@ Ishq and Kill Dil were unsuccessful at the box office .
= = = = Upcoming projects = = = =
As of July 2016 , Chopra is filming Yash Raj Film 's romantic drama Meri Pyaari Bindu opposite Ayushmann Khurana directed by debutant Akshay Roy . She has been cast as the titular character , Bindu ( an aspiring singer ) , and will be making her singing debut in the film . She has also signed Homi Adajania 's Takadum opposite Sushant Singh Rajput .
= = In the media = =
In addition to acting in films , Chopra is active in charity work and supports a number of causes . She walked the ramp at the Wills Lifestyle India Fashion Week to support the Shabana Azmi Mijwan Welfare Society , an NGO dedicated to empowering girls . Chopra said , " I don 't want it to be just about ramp walk , but I seriously and genuinely feel for what Mijwan and what Manish and Shabanaji are doing . For such an initiative , I just could not say no . I had to be a part of it . " She also appeared on NDTV 's Greenathon , an initiative to support eco @-@ friendliness and investigate poor electricity supplies in rural villages , to lend her support . Apart from charity work , she serves as an ambassador for a number of brands . Chopra endorses brands such as Kurkure , Nivea , Maaza and Spinz , WeChat , Pantene and Mahindra scooty . She became the first Bollywood star to endorse products from both Coke ( Maaza ) and PepsiCo ( Kurkure ) at the same time .
The actress ' roles and performances have been studied by critics . NDTV noted , " [ Chopra ] .... is as far removed from the standard Bollywood bombshell as it is possible for a lead actress to be . She 's more girl next door than glamour doll , with no obvious oomph in evidence , and freely confesses to a battle with the weighing scale " . Following her debut , she has been widely regarded as one of the most promising actresses in Hindi cinema . The Indian Express labelled her the " most brightest and talented " newcomer of this generation , noting " her infectious amount of energy " . While discussing her career in a 2013 article , CNN @-@ IBN noted , " [ she ] .... is one of the few actresses in the current lot who has a strong screen presence which demands absolute attention from the viewer . When she is on screen , one can 't notice other actors — Parineeti engages you in such a way " . In a 2013 interview with Hindustan Times , Chopra revealed that she intends to do films , where she has lot to perform and not the films , which has high production value . The actress appeared on Verve 's list of most powerful women in 2011 . In 2012 , she featured on Rediff.com 's annual list of Bollywood 's Best Actresses .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
Chopra is a recipient of a National Film Award – Special Mention for Ishaqzaade ( 2012 ) and a Filmfare Best Female Debut for Ladies vs Ricky Bahl ( 2011 ) . Additionally , she has been nominated for three more Filmfare Awards : Best Supporting Actress for Ladies vs Ricky Bahl ( 2011 ) and Best Actress for Ishaqzaade ( 2012 ) and Shuddh Desi Romance ( 2013 ) .
= Marc Lépine =
Marc Lépine ( French pronunciation : [ maʁk lepin ] ; October 26 , 1964 – December 6 , 1989 ) was a 25 @-@ year @-@ old Canadian man from Montreal , Quebec , who in 1989 murdered 14 women , and wounded 10 women and four men at the École Polytechnique , an engineering school affiliated with the Université de Montréal , in the École Polytechnique massacre , also known as the " Montreal Massacre " .
Lépine was born in Montreal , the son of a Canadian nurse and an Algerian businessman . His father was abusive and contemptuous of women . After his parents separated when he was seven , his mother returned to nursing to support her children . Lépine and his younger sister lived with other families , seeing their mother on weekends . Lépine was considered bright but withdrawn and having difficulties with peer and family relationships . He changed his name to Marc Lépine at the age of 14 giving as the reason his hatred of his father . Lépine 's application to the Canadian Forces was rejected , and in 1982 he began a science program at a college , switching to a more technical program after one year . In 1986 , he dropped out of the course in his final term , and was subsequently fired from his job at a hospital due to his poor attitude . He began a computer programming course in 1988 , and again abandoned it before completion . Lépine twice applied for admission to the École Polytechnique , but lacked two required compulsory courses .
After several months of planning , Lépine entered the École Polytechnique de Montréal , on the afternoon of December 6 , 1989 . He had long complained about women working in non @-@ traditional jobs , and after separating men and women in a classroom , he shot the women , claiming that he was fighting feminism . He then moved into other parts of the building , only targeting the women in classrooms he went to , before killing himself . His suicide note blamed feminists for ruining his life .
Lépine 's actions have been variously ascribed to psychiatric diagnoses such as personality disorder , psychosis , or attachment disorder , or societal factors such as poverty , isolation , powerlessness , and violence in the media . The massacre is regarded by criminologists as an example of a hate crime against women , and by feminists and government officials as misogynist attack and an example of the larger issue of violence against women .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Marc Lépine was born Gamil Rodrigue Liass Gharbi on October 26 , 1964 in Montreal , Quebec , the son of Algerian immigrant Rachid Liass Gharbi and Canadian nurse Monique Lépine . His father Rachid , who was a mutual funds salesman , was travelling in the Caribbean at the time of his son 's birth . During his absence , his mother Monique discovered evidence that her husband had been having an affair . Rachid was a non @-@ practising Muslim , and Monique a former Catholic nun who had rejected organized religion after she left the convent . Their son was baptized a Roman Catholic as an infant , but received no religious instruction during his childhood ; his mother described her son as " a confirmed atheist all his life . " Gamil 's sister , Nadia , was born in 1967 .
Instability and violence marked the family : they moved frequently , and much of Lépine 's early childhood was spent in Costa Rica and Puerto Rico , where his father was working for a Swiss mutual funds company . The family returned to Montreal permanently in 1968 , shortly before a stock market crash led to the loss of much of the family 's assets . Rachid was an authoritarian , possessive and jealous man , frequently violent towards his wife and his children . He had contempt for women and believed that they were only intended to serve men . He required his wife to act as his personal secretary , slapping her if she made any errors in typing , and forcing her to retype documents in spite of the cries of their toddler . He was also neglectful and abusive towards his children , particularly his son , and discouraged any tenderness , as he considered it spoiling . In 1970 , following an incident in which Rachid struck Gamil so hard that the marks on his face were visible a week later , his mother decided to leave . The legal separation was finalized in 1971 , and the divorce in 1976 . Following the separation , Gamil lived with his mother and younger sister Nadia ; soon after , their home and possessions were seized when Rachid defaulted on mortgage payments . Gamil was afraid of his father , and at first saw him on weekly supervised visits . The visits ended quickly , as Rachid ceased contact with his children soon after the separation . Gamil never again saw his father , and in the future refused to discuss him with others .
Rachid stopped making support payments after paying them twice , and to make ends meet , Monique returned to nursing . She subsequently started taking further courses to advance her career . During this time the children lived with other families during the week , seeing their mother only on weekends . Concerned about her children and parenting skills , she sought help for the family from a psychiatrist at St. Justine 's Hospital in 1976 ; the assessment concluded there was nothing wrong with the shy and withdrawn Gamil , but recommended therapy for his sister Nadia , who was challenging her authority .
= = = Adolescence = = =
After the divorce became final in 1976 , the children , then aged 12 and 9 , returned to live with their mother , who was director of nursing at a Montreal hospital . In 1977 , the family moved to a house purchased in the middle @-@ class Montreal suburb of Pierrefonds . Gamil Gharbi attended junior high and high school , where he was described as a quiet student who obtained average to above average marks . He developed a close friendship with another boy , but he did not fit in with other students . Taunted as an Arab because of his name , at the age of 14 he legally changed it to " Marc Lépine " , citing his hatred of his father as the reason for taking his mother 's surname . Lépine was uncommunicative and showed little emotion . He suffered from low self @-@ esteem , exacerbated by his chronic acne . Family relations remained difficult ; his younger sister Nadia publicly humiliated him about his acne and his lack of girlfriends . He fantasized about her death , and on one occasion made a mock grave for her . He was overjoyed when in 1981 she was placed in a group home because of her delinquent behaviour and drug abuse . Seeking a good male role model for Lépine , his mother arranged for a Big Brother . For two years , the experience proved positive as Lépine , often with his best friend , enjoyed the time with photography and moto @-@ cross motorcycles . However , in 1979 the meetings ceased abruptly when the Big Brother was detained on suspicion of molesting young boys . Both Lépine and his Big Brother denied that any molestation had occurred . Lépine owned an air rifle as a teenager , which he used to shoot pigeons near his home with his friend . They also enjoyed designing and building electronic gadgets . He developed an interest in World War II and an admiration of Adolf Hitler , and enjoyed action and horror movies . Lépine also took considerable responsibility at home , including cleaning and doing repairs while his mother worked .
Lépine applied to join the Canadian Forces as an officer cadet in September 1981 at the age of 17 , but was rejected during the interview process . He later told his friend it was because of difficulties accepting authority , and in his suicide letter , noted that he had been found to be " anti @-@ social " . An official statement from the military after the massacre stated that he had been " interviewed , assessed and determined to be unsuitable . "
= = = Adulthood = = =
In 1982 at the age of 18 , the family moved to Saint @-@ Laurent , closer to his mother 's work and to Lépine 's new Cégep . He lost contact with his school friend soon after the move . This period marks the beginning of the seven years which he described in his suicide note as having " brought [ him ] no joy " .
In August 1982 , Lépine began a two @-@ year pre @-@ university course in pure sciences at Cégep de Saint @-@ Laurent , failing two courses in the first semester but improving his grades considerably in the second semester . He worked part @-@ time at a local hospital where his mother was director of nursing , serving food and doing custodial work . He was seen as nervous , hyperactive , and immature by his colleagues . He developed an attraction to another employee , but he was too shy to act on his feelings . After a year at college , he switched from the university @-@ destined science program into electronics technology , a three @-@ year technical program geared more towards immediate employment . His teachers remembered him as being a model student , quiet , hardworking and generally doing well in his classes , particularly those related to electrotechnology . There was an unexplained drop in his marks in the fall 1985 term , and in February 1986 , during the last term of the program , he suddenly and without explanation stopped attending classes , as a result failing to complete his diploma .
He moved out of his mother 's home into his own apartment , and in 1986 he applied to study engineering at École Polytechnique de Montréal . He was admitted on the condition that he complete two compulsory courses , including one in solution chemistry . In 1987 , Lépine was fired from his job at the hospital for aggressive behaviour , as well as disrespect of superiors , and carelessness in his work . He was enraged at his dismissal , and at the time described a plan to commit a murderous rampage and then commit suicide . His friends noted that he was unpredictable , flying into rages when frustrated .
In the fall of 1987 , in order to complete his college diploma , Lépine took three courses , obtaining good marks in all of them , and in February 1988 , began a course in computer programming at a private college in downtown Montreal , funding his studies with government student loans . He moved into a downtown apartment with his old high school friend , and in the winter of 1989 took a CEGEP night @-@ course in solution chemistry , a prerequisite course for the École Polytechnique . Lépine wanted a girlfriend , but was generally ill at ease around women . He tended to boss women around and show off his knowledge in front of them . He spoke out to men about his dislike of feminists , career women and women in traditionally male occupations , such as the police force , stating that women should remain in the home , caring for their families . Lépine applied again to the École Polytechnique in 1989 ; however his application was rejected as he lacked required courses . In March 1989 he abandoned the course in computer programming , though he performed well in the CEGEP course , obtaining 100 % in his final exam . In April 1989 he met with a university admissions officer , and complained about how women were taking over the job market from men .
= = Massacre = =
The massacre appeared to have been planned for several months if not longer . In August 1989 , Lépine picked up an application for a firearms @-@ acquisition certificate , and in mid @-@ October , he received his permit . On November 21 , 1989 , Lépine purchased a Ruger Mini @-@ 14 semi @-@ automatic rifle at a local sporting goods store . Between October and December 1989 , Lépine was seen at least seven times at the École Polytechnique . Four days before the shooting , he brought his mother a present , though it was several weeks before her birthday ; he also brought a note and two bags of belongings , which she did not discover until long after the shooting . Lépine had previously always been very punctual paying his rent , but had not done so in December 1989 .
On December 6 , 1989 , Lépine walked into the École Polytechnique de Montréal . There , he entered a second @-@ floor classroom where he separated the men and women and then ordered the approximately 50 men to leave . Claiming that he was fighting feminism , he shot the nine women who remained , killing six and injuring the rest . After this , Lépine moved to other areas of the building , including the cafeteria , corridors and another classroom . A total of 14 women ( 12 engineering students , one nursing student , and one university employee ) were killed , and four men and ten women injured before Lépine turned the gun on himself . The event was later described as a " pseudo @-@ community " type of " pseudo @-@ commando " murder @-@ suicide , in which the perpetrator targets a specific group , usually in a public place and intending to die in " a blaze of glory . "
A three @-@ page letter was found in the pocket of his jacket . The letter was never officially made public , but was leaked in November 1990 to Francine Pelletier , and published in the newspaper La Presse . In his suicide letter , Lépine claimed political motives , blaming feminists for ruining his life . He considered himself rational and expressed admiration for Denis Lortie , who had mounted an attack on the Quebec National Assembly in 1984 for political reasons , killing three Quebec government employees . The letter also contained a list of nineteen Quebec women whom Lépine apparently wished to kill because of their feminism . Another letter , written to a friend , promised the explanation to the massacre lay by following clues left in Lépine 's apartment . The hunt led only to a suitcase of computer games and hardware .
Marc Lépine was buried in the Cimetière Notre @-@ Dame @-@ des @-@ Neiges in Montreal , a few blocks from where he committed the massacre .
= = = Rationale = = =
A police psychiatrist who interviewed Lépine 's family and entourage , and who had access to his letters , suggested that he may have had a serious personality disorder , as he chose the multiple homicide / suicide strategy ( killing oneself after killing others ) that is a characteristic of this disorder . The psychiatrist noted " extreme narcissistic vulnerability " as shown by fantasies of power and success combined with high levels of self @-@ criticism and difficulties dealing with rejection and failure . Feelings of powerlessness and incompetence were compensated for by a violent and grandiose imaginary life . Other psychiatrists suggested that Lépine was psychotic , having lost touch with reality as he tried to erase the memories of a brutal ( and absent ) father , while at the same time unconsciously identifying with a violent manhood that dominates women . Other theories were that Lépine 's experiences of abuse as a child had caused brain @-@ damage or led him to feel victimized as he faced losses and rejections in his later life .
His mother speculated that Lépine may have suffered from attachment disorder , due to the abuse and sense of abandonment he had experienced in his childhood . She also wondered whether Lépine viewed her as a feminist , and that the massacre might have been an unconscious attempt to get revenge for her neglect while she pursued her career , and for his sister 's taunts . Others take a less individualistic approach . Many feminists and governmental officials view it as an illustration of misogynist violence committed against women . Criminologists consider the massacre as an example of a hate or bias crime against women . A few antifeminists seek to rehabilitate Lépine as hero of the anti @-@ feminist cause . Others wondered if Lépine 's actions were the result of societal changes that had led to increased poverty , powerlessness , individual isolation or increased violence in the media and in society .
= = Suicide statement = =
The following is a translation of the suicide letter written by Lépine on the day of the shooting . The original letter in French is also available .
Forgive the mistakes , I had 15 minutes to write this . See also Annex .
Would you note that if I commit suicide today 89 @-@ 12 @-@ 06 it is not for economic reasons ( for I have waited until I exhausted all my financial means , even refusing jobs ) but for political reasons . Because I have decided to send the feminists , who have always ruined my life , to their Maker . For seven years life has brought me no joy and being totally blasé , I have decided to put an end to those viragos .
I tried in my youth to enter the Forces as an officer cadet , which would have allowed me possibly to get into the arsenal and precede Lortie in a raid . They refused me because asocial [ sic ] . I therefore had to wait until this day to execute my plans . In between , I continued my studies in a haphazard way for they never really interested me , knowing in advance my fate . Which did not prevent me from obtaining very good marks despite my theory of not handing in work and the lack of studying before exams .
Even if the Mad Killer epithet will be attributed to me by the media , I consider myself a rational erudite that only the arrival of the Grim Reaper has forced to take extreme acts . For why persevere to exist if it is only to please the government . Being rather backward @-@ looking by nature ( except for science ) , the feminists have always enraged me . They want to keep the advantages of women ( e.g. cheaper insurance , extended maternity leave preceded by a preventative leave , etc . ) while seizing for themselves those of men .
Thus it is an obvious truth that if the Olympic Games removed the Men @-@ Women distinction , there would be Women only in the graceful events . So the feminists are not fighting to remove that barrier . They are so opportunistic they [ do not ] neglect to profit from the knowledge accumulated by men through the ages . They always try to misrepresent them every time they can . Thus , the other day , I heard they were honoring the Canadian men and women who fought at the frontline during the world wars . How can you explain [ that since ] women were not authorized to go to the frontline ? ? ? Will we hear of Caesar 's female legions and female galley slaves who of course took up 50 % of the ranks of history , though they never existed . A real Casus Belli .
Sorry for this too brief letter .
Marc Lépine
The letter is followed by the list of 19 names , with a note at the bottom :
" Nearly died today . The lack of time ( because I started too late ) has allowed these radical feminists to survive.Alea iacta est . "
= = Memorial = =
Canadians mark the day of the killings with a National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women .
In 2008 , Lépine 's mother Monique published Aftermath , a memoir of her own journey through the grief and pain of the incident . She had stayed silent until 2006 , when she decided to speak out for the first time in the wake of that year 's Dawson College shooting .
= = In popular culture = =
Lépine 's life and death was dramatized by Adam Kelly in his controversial play The Anorak .
The shooting was dramatized by Denis Villeneuve in the 2009 film Polytechnique . Actor Maxim Gaudette won a Genie Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Lépine .
= Denard Robinson =
Denard Xavier Robinson ( born September 22 , 1990 ) , is an American football running back for the Jacksonville Jaguars of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He was drafted by the Jaguars in the fifth round of the 2013 NFL Draft . Robinson was the starting quarterback in all 26 games for the 2010 and 2011 Michigan Wolverines football teams and played at the same position as a senior for the 2012 team as well as running back and receiver in the second half of the season .
As a sophomore in 2010 , Robinson set the single @-@ season Division I FBS record for rushing yards by a quarterback and became the only player in National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) history to both pass and rush for 1 @,@ 500 yards . Robinson also broke the Big Ten Conference season record with 4 @,@ 272 yards of total offense ( 2 @,@ 570 yards passing and 1 @,@ 702 yards rushing ) and led the conference in rushing . In his second start at quarterback against Notre Dame , he set the Michigan single @-@ game record with 502 yards of total offense . He was awarded the 2010 Chicago Tribune Silver Football as the Most Valuable Player in the Big Ten Conference and was selected by the Football Writers Association of America as a first @-@ team All @-@ American . He also set the Big Ten single @-@ game record for rushing yards by a quarterback and became the only player in NCAA Division I FBS history to both pass for 200 yards and rush for 200 yards in a regular season game twice .
As a junior in 2011 , Robinson led a resurgent Michigan team to an 11 – 2 record and a victory over Virginia Tech in the 2012 Sugar Bowl . He threw for a career @-@ high 338 passing yards in a come @-@ from @-@ behind victory over Notre Dame in the first night game played at Michigan Stadium . At the end of the 2011 season , Robinson had eight of the top 10 single @-@ game total offense totals in Michigan history , including 948 yards in two games against Notre Dame . His total offense output in 2010 ( 4 @,@ 272 yards ) and 2011 ( 3 @,@ 348 yards ) rank as the top two single @-@ season totals in Michigan history . As a senior in 2012 , he extended his record with a third game with both 200 yards rushing and 200 yards passing .
As a freshman and sophomore , he also competed as a sprinter for the Michigan men 's track and field team . He has run the 40 @-@ yard dash in 4 @.@ 32 seconds , and he recorded the fastest competition time in 2010 among Michigan 's sprinters in the 60 @-@ meter dash .
= = Early life and nickname = =
Robinson was born in 1990 , the son of Thomas Robinson , Sr. , and Dorothea Robinson . Robinson began playing pee @-@ wee football by age 10 and played the game with his shoes untied , thus earning the nickname " Shoelace " as a child . Those who saw him play at Westside Park in Deerfield Beach recall :
" Kids would go for his shoes on tackles , and he 'd come up to the huddle in just socks . His coach couldn 't stand it at first and neither could his parents . They 'd tie wristbands around his shoes . When that didn 't work , they tried athletic tape . They even rolled his socks over his shoes . He was a marvel , and he wasn 't even finished with the sixth grade . "
Robinson continued to play football without tying his shoelaces and became known as " Shoelace . " One reporter who visited his family to watch a Michigan game noted , " To everyone in Deerfield Beach – everyone but his mother , that is – there is no Denard , just Shoelace . " Robinson 's high school coach , Art Taylor , explained his rationale for accepting the practice :
" After 25 years coaching , if the kid can throw it 90 yards in the air and is accurate and the kid can run as fast as he does ... as long as he feels comfortable , not lacing his shoes , fine with me . The kid 's been doing it all his life , why mess with it ? "
At the college level , his coaches at the University of Michigan also accepted Robinson 's practice . After learning that Robinson could run the 100 meters in 10 @.@ 4 seconds with his shoes untied , Michigan quarterbacks coach Rod Smith called it " the damnedest thing I 've ever seen " and added , " Anybody that runs that fast I 'm not going to tell him how to tie his shoes . " Robinson wears Adidas Reggie2 Superfly shoes with Velcro straps to secure them to his feet .
= = High school career = =
As a ninth grader , Robinson tried out for a spot as a defensive back for the varsity football team at Deerfield Beach High School in Deerfield Beach , Florida . The team 's defensive coordinator at the time was former Buffalo Bills defensive back Manny Martin , who was also Robinson 's algebra teacher . Martin later recalled that he had an experienced defensive backfield , but Robinson " was always in my ear : ' I can do it . ' " Robinson did not win a spot on the varsity team and instead played quarterback for the junior @-@ varsity team as a ninth grader .
Robinson became the starting quarterback for the Deerfield Beach varsity team as a sophomore and filled that position for three years from 2006 to 2008 . Deerfield Beach head coach Art Taylor recalled , " As soon as he stepped on that field his sophomore year playing varsity , we knew we had something special . "
In a 2007 state semifinal game played at the Orange Bowl , Robinson led his team to within two points of upsetting Miami Northwestern , the top @-@ ranked high school team in the country . While warming up , Robinson noticed that a Miami Northwestern lineman had taped a photograph of Robinson onto the front of his helmet . Robinson started laughing and told the player , " You think that scares us ? " Robinson had Deerfield ahead in the game , 12 – 7 , but Miami Northwestern completed a 99 @-@ yard touchdown drive with 18 seconds left to give them a 14 – 12 win .
In October 2008 against St. Thomas Aquinas High School , Robinson was responsible for six touchdowns in a single game , passing for 342 yards and five touchdowns and rushing for 54 yards and a touchdown . As a three @-@ year starter for Deerfield Beach , Robinson totaled nearly 6 @,@ 000 yards of total offense with 4 @,@ 784 passing yards ( 262 for 576 passing ) and 1 @,@ 132 rushing yards ( 5 @.@ 2 yards per carry ) .
Robinson also competed in track for Deerfield Beach . In March 2009 , he ran the 100 meters sprint in 10 @.@ 44 seconds , and finished third in the 100 @-@ meter dash at the 2008 Florida 4A Track & Field State Championships . He also ran the 40 @-@ yard dash in 4 @.@ 32 seconds . He was also a member of the 2008 Florida High School Athletic Association state champion 4 x 100 metres relay team .
= = College recruitment = =
As a high school senior , ESPN ranked Robinson seventh in the country as a general athlete and 101st regardless of position . Rivals.com ranked him 14th as a general athlete and 188th overall . Scout.com categorized him as a cornerback and ranked him 16th in the nation . Robinson received scholarship offers from Florida , Georgia , Kansas State , Michigan , and other programs . Michigan initially recruited Robinson as a defensive back , and Robinson declined . Robinson recalled that it was one of his goals to play quarterback at the college level . After observing his passing abilities , Michigan recruited Robinson as a quarterback . On February 4 , 2009 , Robinson announced that he had signed a National Letter of Intent to attend Michigan .
= = College career = =
= = = 2009 football season = = =
Robinson enrolled in the University of Michigan 's School of Kinesiology in the fall of 2009 . During Michigan 's 2009 summer training camp , Robinson was in competition for the starting quarterback position with fellow freshman Tate Forcier and junior Nick Sheridan . Forcier , who enrolled early and participated in spring practice , was named the starting quarterback , but Robinson saw significant playing time as a true freshman , appearing in all 12 games .
On September 5 , 2009 , in Michigan 's season opener against Western Michigan , Robinson scored a touchdown on his first collegiate ( fumbled ) snap . As the ESPN television broadcast focused on his untied shoelaces , Robinson took the snap in the shotgun formation , ran to the right , broke a tackle at the 40 @-@ yard line , then cut left and ran 43 yards for a touchdown .
Two weeks later against Eastern Michigan , he ran quarterback draw plays for touchdowns of 13 and 36 yards , though he also threw two interceptions .
In Michigan 's October 10 game against Iowa , Robinson replaced Forcier in the fourth quarter with the team trailing 30 – 21 . He led the team on a 59 @-@ yard scoring drive capped by his own 3 @-@ yard touchdown run with 3 : 16 left to cut the lead to 30 – 28 . However , on the following drive , Robinson 's threw an interception at Michigan 's 31 @-@ yard line with 44 seconds remaining in the game .
Robinson led the Wolverines on four scoring drives against Delaware State , throwing his first two collegiate touchdown passes and scoring a rushing touchdown as well . His only start of the season came on November 14 as a running back against Wisconsin .
During the 2009 season , Robinson completed 14 of 31 passes for 188 yards and two passing touchdowns . He also ran for 351 yards and five touchdowns in 69 attempts .
= = = 2010 track season = = =
Robinson also competed for the Michigan men 's track and field team during his freshman year . In January 2010 , Robinson told a reporter , " When I was getting recruited I always wanted to run track and play football . It helped me move faster on the football field . " Michigan track coach Fred LaPlante said Robinson had one of the 10 fastest 100 @-@ meter high @-@ school times in the United States in 2009 and described Robinson the sprinter as " one of the four or five best guys in the Big Ten . " LaPlante emphasized Robinson 's " quickness " :
" One thing in football that you don 't see in track is quickness . He 's incredibly quick and his lateral movement is unbelievable and his ability to go in one direction and get in another . The perception people have is that 's speed . That 's not speed , that 's quickness . "
Robinson won the 60 @-@ meter dash in his college track debut in " The Dual " against Ohio State on January 16 , 2010 . His time of 6 @.@ 81 stood up as the best by a Wolverine for the season . He finished fifth in the 60 @-@ meter dash at the Meyo Invitational on February 6 , 2010 . He finished ninth in the event at the 2010 Big Ten Indoor Championships in late February 2010 , failing to qualify for the finals by four @-@ thousandths of a second .
LaPlante recalled becoming panic @-@ stricken during a practice race when Robinson was " running so fast he was having trouble holding the turn . " Concerned about an injury to the football team 's quarterback , LaPlante yelled out , " Denard ! Please , don 't do that again ! I 'll be fired in 2 seconds ! " LaPlante recalled Robinson 's reaction : " He had that great big smile on his face . "
= = = = Personal bests = = = =
= = = 2010 football season = = =
= = = = Pre @-@ season competition = = = =
During spring practice in April 2010 , Robinson impressed coaches and observers , leading to speculation that Robinson would overtake Forcier as the starting quarterback . The competition continued through late August and early September 2010 . In early September 2010 , Angelique Chengelis profiled Robinson in The Detroit News : " The prevailing belief is that Robinson has worked hard enough and improved enough to earn the job . He took significant steps in spring practice , and from all accounts , he showed his teammates an incredible devotion to offseason conditioning and film viewing , all in the interest of honing his game and improving Michigan 's chances . "
Even on the morning of Michigan 's season opener , the Chicago Sun @-@ Times reported that " the mystery surrounding who would be the Wolverines ' No. 1 quarterback was a major story line , with coach Rich Rodriguez keeping his decision secret until the very last minute . "
= = = = A total offense record against UConn = = = =
Robinson did start Michigan 's season opener against Connecticut . In the first half , he rushed for 131 yards and a touchdown on 15 carries for an average of 8 @.@ 7 yards per carry . He finished the game with 383 yards of total offense , including 186 passing yards ( 19 of 22 passing ) and 197 rushing yards on 29 carries ( 6 @.@ 9 yards per carry ) . Robinson 's rushing yardage against UConn was the most ever by a Michigan quarterback . He also broke Michigan 's single @-@ game record for total offense with 383 yards . For his efforts Robinson earned Big Ten Conference Offensive Player of the Week , AT & T ESPN All @-@ America Player of the Week , and Walter Camp Football Foundation National Offensive Player of the Week recognition .
Less than a week after his performance in the Connecticut game , the New York Daily News wrote that Robinson had acquired " cult hero " status : " He has started only one game at quarterback for Michigan , but Denard Robinson is already a cult hero to the Wolverine faithful . "
= = = = 502 yards of total offense against Notre Dame = = = =
In his second start at quarterback , Robinson led Michigan to a 28 – 24 win over Notre Dame against its traditional rival . He finished the game with 502 of Michigan 's 532 yards of total offense ( 258 rushing yards and 244 passing yards ) , breaking the Michigan record he set in his first start . The record stood until Devin Gardner totaled 584 yards of total offense on October 19 , 2013 against Indiana . In the first half , Robinson had an 87 @-@ yard touchdown run that at the time ( surpassed on September 19 , 2015 by C. J. Prosise ) ranked as the longest run from scrimmage in Notre Dame Stadium 's 80 @-@ year history , but remains as the longest run by a visitor in Notre Dame Stadium . He also scored the winning touchdown with 27 seconds remaining on a two @-@ yard run , capping a 12 @-@ play , 72 @-@ yard drive . Robinson broke Mike Kafka 's Big Ten Conference record for rushing yards by a quarterback and became the ninth quarterback in NCAA history ( and the first since Pat White in 2006 ) to rush and pass for more than 200 yards in a single game . His rushing total also ranks as the all @-@ time best in a road game by any Michigan player , regardless of position .
After the game , Brandon Graham , who played with Robinson at Michigan in 2009 and now plays with Michael Vick on the Philadelphia Eagles told reporters that Robinson is even quicker than Vick : " Both of them are pretty fast , I just think Vick 's older ; he 's not really that fast like how Shoelace is . I think Shoelace is more quick than Vick , but Vick , he gets away . He 's pretty fast still . I think Shoelace might have got him by a couple steps . "
Robinson 's performance drew praise from the national media . The Wall Street Journal called Robinson " the breakout star of the young 2010 season " and drew attention to his " absurd rushing totals . " Columnist Mitch Albom wrote : " Denard Robinson redefined the term ' offensive weapon ' on Saturday against Notre Dame . " ESPN college football analyst Kirk Herbstreit noted the " confident aura " around Robinson :
" The body language he exudes is , ' I 'm a winner . ' He 's small in stature , but his heart you can almost see it pounding through his jersey . And then he has , like all the great ones , he plays with a swagger like , ' You can 't stop me . ' "
Gregg Doyel , national columnist for CBSSports.com , proclaimed Robinson the front @-@ runner for the Heisman Trophy : " Denard Robinson has earned the right to pole position in the Heisman race . It 's not close . And if he stays healthy , I fully expect him to walk across a stage in New York City in December and take that trophy home . "
For his performance against Notre Dame , Robinson was selected for the second consecutive week as the Walter Camp Football Foundation National Offensive Player of the Week , the AT & T ESPN All @-@ America Player of the Week , the Big Ten Offensive Player of the Week , and the CBSSports.com Player of the Day . He is the first player to earn the Walter Camp honor two weeks in a row , and the fourth to do so twice in a season . He was also named the Capital One Cup Impact Performance of the Week . CBS Sports ' Verne Lundquist joked : " He might become the first guy to win both the Davey O 'Brien and the Doak Walker . "
Robinson totaled 455 rushing yards and 885 yards of total offense in the first two games of the 2010 season , which led Division I FBS . Through the first two weeks of the season , Robinson had by himself outgained 87 of the 120 FBS teams in total offense .
= = = = Indiana : 494 yards of total offense = = = =
Playing against Indiana in the fifth game of the season , Robinson totaled 494 yards of total offense , the second @-@ highest single @-@ game total in Michigan history . He completed 10 of 16 passes for 277 yards and three touchdowns , and he gained 217 rushing yards on 19 carries for an average of 11 @.@ 4 yards per carry . On Michigan 's second play from scrimmage , Robinson ran 72 yards for a touchdown . On the second play of the second half , Robinson threw a 70 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Junior Hemingway , the longest of his career , to give Michigan a 28 – 21 lead . On Michigan 's next drive , Robinson aggravated the knee injury sustained the prior week against Bowling Green and came out of the game for the remainder of the drive . He returned to the game and led Michigan on a game @-@ winning , 65 @-@ yard touchdown drive in the final minute of the game . With 21 seconds remaining , Robinson completed a 32 @-@ yard pass to the 4 @-@ yard line . On the next play , Robinson scored on a 4 @-@ yard touchdown run with 17 seconds remaining .
With his performance against Indiana , Robinson became the first player in Division I FBS history to have two regular season games with 200 yards rushing and 200 yards passing . Seven others have accomplished the feat ( including Pat White , Vince Young and Antwaan Randle El ) , but none have done so more than once in the regular season . Vince Young accomplished this feat once in the regular season and once in the Rose Bowl .
After the Indiana game , Dari Nowkhah wrote in ESPN 's " Heisman Watch " column that Robinson was " running away with the Heisman Trophy " and compared him to 1988 Heisman Trophy winner Barry Sanders :
" We haven 't seen this type of college football playmaker since ... Barry Sanders ? I 'm not saying Robinson reminds me of Sanders . ( How could a quarterback remind me of a running back ? ) But there is a shocking resemblance between the diminutive playmakers in their speed , elusiveness and quickness . So is the effect the two have on my sense of what is right and wrong . Being that dominant on a football field somehow feels wrong . It 's unfair . "
On October 4 , 2010 , Robinson was named the Big Ten Offensive Player of the Week ( for the third time in five weeks ) , and also received the Davey O 'Brien Quarterback of the Week award ( for the second time in four weeks ) . After five games , Robinson remained the nation 's leading rusher in both total yards ( 905 ) and yards per game ( 181 ) . He also ranked fourth in the country with a quarterback rating of 180 .
= = = = Three consecutive mid @-@ season losses = = = =
After leading Michigan to a 5 – 0 record and breaking the school 's total offense records , Robinson was the front @-@ runner for the Heisman Trophy . His Heisman prospects suffered after three consecutive losses to Michigan State , Iowa and Penn State .
In a 34 – 17 loss to Michigan State in the Paul Bunyan Trophy game , Robinson completed 17 of 29 passes for 215 passing yards but threw three interceptions . He was also limited to 86 rushing yards on 21 carries . Despite a " lackluster " performance against the Spartans , Sports Illustrated selected Robinson for its " September Heisman " following the Michigan State game . He was also selected by Mark Schlabach as the Offensive MVP in ESPN.com 's Mid @-@ Season Awards .
One week after the loss to Michigan State , the Wolverines lost
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class to be launched , on 16 September , was about thirteen months away from completion when she was canceled . The last three ships were canceled while still on the slipway .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the class were 149 @.@ 80 meters ( 491 @.@ 5 ft ) long at the waterline and 155 @.@ 50 m ( 510 ft 2 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 14 @.@ 20 m ( 46 ft 7 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 01 m ( 19 ft 9 in ) forward and 6 @.@ 43 m ( 21 ft 1 in ) aft . The ships had a designed displacement of 5 @,@ 620 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 530 long tons ) , and at full combat load , they displaced 7 @,@ 486 t ( 7 @,@ 368 long tons ) . Their hulls were built with longitudinal steel frames . The hulls were divided into twenty @-@ four watertight compartments and incorporated a double bottom that extended for forty @-@ five per cent of the length of the keel . The ships had a complement of 17 officers and 542 enlisted men . They carried several smaller vessels , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies . The German Navy regarded the ships as good sea boats , having gentle motion . The ships were highly maneuverable and had a tight turning radius , and but lost speed going into a turn ; in hard turns , they lost up to sixty percent of their speed . They were stern @-@ heavy .
The ships ' propulsion systems consisted of two steam turbines powered by eight coal @-@ fired boilers and six oil @-@ fired boilers . The turbines drove a pair of three @-@ bladed screws , which were 3 @.@ 50 m ( 11 ft 6 in ) in diameter . The engines were rated at 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) for a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . On trials , Cöln reached 48 @,@ 708 shp ( 36 @,@ 322 kW ) and a top speed of 29 @.@ 3 kn ( 54 @.@ 3 km / h ; 33 @.@ 7 mph ) , while Dresden made 49 @,@ 428 shp ( 36 @,@ 858 kW ) and 27 @.@ 8 kn ( 51 @.@ 5 km / h ; 32 @.@ 0 mph ) . Coal storage was 300 t ( 300 long tons ; 330 short tons ) as designed , though up to 1 @,@ 100 t ( 1 @,@ 100 long tons ; 1 @,@ 200 short tons ) could be carried . Fuel oil was initially 200 t ( 200 long tons ; 220 short tons ) , and could be similarly increased to 1 @,@ 050 t ( 1 @,@ 030 long tons ; 1 @,@ 160 short tons ) . At a cruising speed of 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , Cöln could steam for approximately 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 900 mi ) , while Dresden could steam for 5 @,@ 400 nmi ( 10 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 200 mi ) at the same speed . At a higher speed of 25 kn ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) , the range fell considerably , to 1 @,@ 200 nmi ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) . Electrical power was provided by two turbo generators and one diesel generator , with a total output of 300 kilowatts at 220 volts . Steering was controlled by a single , large rudder .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ship was armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , four were located amidships , two on either side , and two were arranged in a super firing pair aft . Aboard Cöln , the forward pair of amidships guns were placed on the forecastle deck , while on the rest of the ships in the class , they were placed one deck lower , on the upper deck . These guns fired a 45 @.@ 3 @-@ kilogram ( 100 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 840 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 040 rounds of ammunition , for 130 shells per gun . The ships also carried three 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels , though one was removed in 1918 . These guns fired a 10 kg ( 22 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 750 to 770 m / s ( 2 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ) . She was also equipped with four 60 cm ( 23 @.@ 6 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes in deck @-@ mounted swivel launchers amidships . The ships were also outfitted to carry up to 200 mines .
The Cöln class ships were protected by an armored belt composed of Krupp cemented steel . It was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships and 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) forward . The stern was not protected by armor . The armored deck was 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick in the stern , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick amidships , and 60 mm thick forward . Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck and belt armor . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm thick roof . The main battery guns were protected with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick gun shields .
= = Ships of the class = =
= = Service history = =
After their commissioning , Cöln and Dresden joined the High Seas Fleet . They were assigned to the II Scouting Group , alongside the cruisers Königsberg , Pillau , Graudenz , Nürnberg , and Karlsruhe . The ships were in service in time for the major fleet operation to Norway in 23 – 24 April 1918 . The I Scouting Group and II Scouting Group , along with the Second Torpedo @-@ Boat Flotilla were to attack a heavily guarded British convoy to Norway , with the rest of the High Seas Fleet steaming in support . The Germans failed to locate the convoy , which had in fact sailed the day before the fleet left port . As a result , Admiral Reinhard Scheer broke off the operation and returned to port .
In October 1918 , the two ships and the rest of the II Scouting Group were to lead a final attack on the British navy . Cöln , Dresden , Pillau , and Königsberg were to attack merchant shipping in the Thames estuary while the rest of the Group were to bombard targets in Flanders , to draw out the British Grand Fleet . Großadmiral Reinhard Scheer , the commander in chief of the fleet , intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to secure a better bargaining position for Germany , whatever the cost to the fleet . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied .
During the sailors ' revolt , the crew of the battleship Markgraf refused to move out of Dresden 's way ; she aimed one of her 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) gun turrets at Dresden , but then backed down and let Dresden leave the port . The ship then went to Swinemünde , where she was partially scuttled and subsequently re @-@ floated and returned to seaworthy condition . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . When informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated , " I no longer have a navy . " Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet 's ships , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Cöln and Dresden were among the ships interned .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Cöln sank at 13 : 50 and was never raised for scrapping . Dresden also remains at the bottom of Scapa Flow .
The eight ships that were not completed by the end of the war were formally stricken from the naval register on 17 November 1919 . Wiesbaden was broken up for scrap in 1920 after she was briefly considered for completion . Magdeburg was sold on 28 October 1921 for 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 marks and broken up the next year at Kiel @-@ Nordmole . Leipzig and Rostock were sold in 1921 and scrapped in Hamburg . Frauenlob was towed to the Deutsche Werke shipyard in 1921 and broken up . Ersatz Karlsruhe was dismantled on the slipway in 1920 , and Ersatz Cöln and Ersatz Emden were sold for 400 @,@ 000 marks apiece on 21 and 25 June 1921 , respectively . They were scrapped that year in Hamburg .
= American Arts Commemorative Series medallions =
American Arts Commemorative Series medallions are a series of ten gold bullion medallions that were produced by the United States Mint from 1980 to 1984 . They were sold to compete with the South African Krugerrand and other bullion coins .
The series was proposed by North Carolina senator Jesse Helms after the United States Department of the Treasury began selling portions of the national stockpile of gold . Iowa Representative Jim Leach suggested that the medallions depict notable American artists . President Jimmy Carter signed the bill containing the authorizing legislation into law on November 10 , 1978 , despite objections from Treasury officials .
The medallions were initially sold through mail order ; purchasers were required to obtain the day 's price by telephone before ordering . Later , the Mint sold them through telemarketing . Mintage ceased after the ten different medallions approved by Congress were produced . All were struck at the West Point Bullion Depository . The series sold poorly , prompting critics to blame the involved process by which they were first marketed , and the fact that they were medallions rather than coins .
= = Background = =
On April 19 , 1978 , the United States Treasury Department announced that a portion of the national gold stockpile was to be auctioned through the General Services Administration ( GSA ) beginning on May 23 , 1978 , in the form of 400 troy ounces ( 12 kg ) bars . According to the Treasury , the sales were intended to " [ reduce ] the U.S. trade deficit , either by increasing the exports of gold or by reducing the imports of this commodity " , and to " further the U.S. desire to continue progress toward the elimination of the international monetary role of gold . " For reasons of bookkeeping , an entire bar was set as the minimum purchase , which placed the gold outside of the reach of most Americans . North Carolina senator Jesse Helms was critical of the plan , saying that he was " opposed to the sale of U.S. gold to foreign and international banks and gold dealers " and that medallions should be " produced in small size , suitable for sale to average citizens . " On the day of the Treasury announcement , Helms introduced the Gold Medallion Act of 1978 . The stated intent was to provide average consumers with affordable , small @-@ sized gold bullion to compete with the South African Krugerrand and other world bullion coins , which were becoming increasingly popular with American investors . 1 @.@ 6 million troy ounces ( 50 @,@ 000 kg ) ounces of gold had been imported into the United States in the form of Krugerrands in 1977 alone . In a hearing on August 25 , 1978 , before the United States Senate Committee on Banking , Housing , and Urban Affairs , Helms said :
In the first year after enactment the bill would require that the first 1 @.@ 5 million ounces of gold sold be made into medallions . Under the stepped @-@ up rate of gold sales , that is only two months worth of gold . The amount is about equal to last year 's importation of foreign bullion coins , mostly Krugerrands from South Africa .
Helms went on to describe the characteristics of the proposed medallions , stating :
The one @-@ ounce medallion would have on one side the head of the statue of Freedom atop the Capitol , and it would be marked with the words , " One ounce fine gold , " and the word " freedom . " The reverse of the piece would be the Great Seal of the United States and the words " United States of America , " and the year in which it was produced . The half @-@ ounce medallion would have on one side some representation of the rights of individuals and the words " Human Rights , " and " One @-@ half ounce fine gold . " The reverse would be similar to the back side of the " Freedom " medallion , with the Great Seal .
Support for the medallions grew in Congress , prompting the introdiction of more legislation . Iowa representative Jim Leach proposed that the series feature designs honoring American artists . During the Committee on Banking , Housing and Urban Affairs hearing , Leach outlined the reasons for his proposal . He noted that the House Subcommittee on Historic Preservation received many suggestions of individuals worthy to appear on the dollar coin that had previously been proposed . Leach felt that a dollar coin was not a suitable way to commemorate the individuals , as it was impossible to honor such a large group on a coin whose design was likely to remain unchanged for a long period of time . He also noted that all United States coinage until then had depicted individuals whose principal contributions had been in government and politics rather than the arts . Leach described the specifics of his proposal , stating :
I am suggesting in H.R. 13567 that we honor 10 individuals who have been distinguished contributors to the arts — music , painting , writing , architecture and the theatre . Other fields might well be chosen , or other people than I have selected within the field of arts ; but the point I want to emphasize is this : while our coinage is and should be devoted to honoring those who have contributed to our political heritage , medals offer us an opportunity to honor those who have contributed to our cultural development , our economic achievements , our technological expertise , and other accomplishments which reflect the wide dimensions of our democratic society .
The subjects designated were painter Grant Wood , contralto singer Marian Anderson , authors Mark Twain and Willa Cather , musician Louis Armstrong , architect Frank Lloyd Wright , poet Robert Frost , sculptor Alexander Calder , actress Helen Hayes and author John Steinbeck .
Though the program received widespread support in Congress , Treasury officials opposed it . In a letter , Treasury secretary W. Michael Blumenthal wrote , " I do not believe the U.S. Government should permit the erroneous impression to be created that it cannot or will not take the necessary steps to combat inflation and that the public therefore needs to buy gold as a hedge against inflation . " Blumenthal also believed that if the government were to sanction the striking of gold medallions , the public would believe that the Treasury was actively encouraging investment in gold . Despite these objections , the bill was attached to the bank omnibus bill , which President Jimmy Carter signed into law on November 10 , 1978 .
= = Production and sale = =
The Treasury lacked money to put the medallions into production , so an appropriations bill was passed giving the department the necessary funding . The GSA was tasked with determining how best to market the new issues . The GSA proposed several sales plans , including the distribution of the medallions to a network of banks for sale to the public . This was rejected in favor of requiring purchasers to make a telephone call to learn the price of the medallions on the day of purchase , after which the purchaser was to go to a post office the same day to make payment . According to the legislation , the issues were to be " sold to the general public at a competitive price equal to the free market value of the gold contained therein plus the cost of manufacture , including labor , materials , dies , use of machinery , and overhead expenses including marketing costs . "
Production began in 1980 . Struck at the West Point Bullion Depository , the medallions contained 90 % gold , and were issued in two sizes : one containing one troy ounce ( 31 g ) of gold and one containing one half @-@ ounce ( 16 g ) of the metal . The first struck were those honoring Grant Wood on the one ounce medallion and Marian Anderson on the half @-@ ounce piece . Both were designed by United States Mint Chief Engraver Frank Gasparro . Sales were poor , and in September 1980 , the Mint announced that a private firm , commodity traders J. Aron and Company , would market the medallions . The new plan involved selling the medallions through a network of bullion dealers , banks , brokerage houses and coin dealers , a system similar to that South Africa used to distribute the Krugerrand in the US . In 1981 , the second year of production , the composition of the medallions was changed ; although the 90 % gold purity was retained , the balance was altered to include silver , which was added to change their appearance . That year 's medallions depicted Mark Twain and Willa Cather . These were designed by Matthew Poloso and Sherl Winter , respectively . These first four medallions bore no notation of their metallic content or country of origin . This was done to distinguish them from federal coinage . Beginning in 1982 , this information and small , toothlike designs , known as " denticles " , were added along the inner rim of the medallions , and reeding was added to the edge . That year 's issues depicted Louis Armstrong , as designed by John Mercanti , and Frank Lloyd Wright , designed by Edgar Steever . The following year 's medallions depicted Robert Frost and Alexander Calder . The former was designed by P. Fowler , while the latter was by Michael Iacocca . The final year of production saw the mintage of medallions with designs by John Mercanti honoring Helen Hayes and John Steinbeck . The Mint terminated the contract with J. Aron and Company in 1984 , opting instead to sell the medallions through a telemarketing program . In 1985 , Mint director Donna Pope announced that the medallions would be sold in another telemarketing operation in sets of five of either one each of the one ounce medallions or one each of the half @-@ ounce pieces , beginning in September of that year and ending on December 31 , or sooner if all sets sold .
= = Reception = =
In October 1980 , Luis Vigdor , assistant vice @-@ president for bullion and numismatic operations of Manfra , Tordella & Brookes , then one of the largest coin firms in the country , compared the medallions and the efforts to market them unfavorably to the South African Krugerrand . According to Vigdor , they were difficult to market due to their lack of notation of weight , fineness and country of origin . He also criticized the marketing , asserting that people were unlikely to buy gold at the post office , and that the medallions were advertised poorly . Vigdor contrasted the medallions ' marketing program with the widespread success of the Krugerrand and the vigorous attempts to market them around the world . Commenting on the poor sale of the medallions , assistant director of marketing for the Mint Francis Frere said in 1984 : " it just hasn 't worked . They 're not selling . We 've made a strong effort , but it 's not working . "
On February 12 , 1982 , following the poor sales of the medallions , the United States Gold Commission recommended the minting of a gold coin . Donald Regan , Secretary of the Treasury and chairman of the commission , later told reporters that a gold coin could be easier to sell than medallions , because the suggested coins " could be redeemable in dollars " . The Mint issued gold coins for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles and for the centennial of the Statue of Liberty in 1986 . Both issues were successful , and the Liberty piece sold out on advance sales . As the public was receptive to the gold coins , and President Ronald Reagan had banned the importation of Krugerrands in 1985 over South Africa 's apartheid policy , Congress authorized the American Gold Eagle gold bullion coin , which entered production as legal tender in 1986 .
= = Designs and sales figures = =
= LGBT themes in comics =
LGBT themes in comics are a relatively new concept , as lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) themes and characters were historically omitted intentionally from the content of comic books and their comic strip predecessors , due to either censorship or the perception that comics were for children . With any mention of homosexuality in mainstream United States comics forbidden by the Comics Code Authority ( CCA ) until 1989 , earlier attempts at exploring these issues in the US took the form of subtle hints or subtext regarding a character 's sexual orientation . LGBT themes were tackled earlier in underground comix from the early 1970s onward . Independently published one @-@ off comic books and series , often produced by gay creators and featuring autobiographical storylines , tackled political issues of interest to LGBT readers .
Since the 1990s LGBT themes have become more common in mainstream US comics , including in a number of titles in which a gay character is the star . European comics have been more inclusive from an earlier date . The lack of censorship , and greater acceptance of comics as a medium of adult entertainment led to less controversy about the representation of LGBT characters . The popular Japanese manga tradition has included genres of girls ' comics that feature homosexual relationships since the 1970s , in the form of yaoi and yuri . These works are often extremely romantic and idealized , and include archetypal characters that often do not identify as gay or lesbian . Since the Japanese " gay boom " of the 1990s , a body of manga by queer creators aimed at LGBT customers has been established , including both bara manga for gay men and yuri aimed at lesbians , which often have more realistic and autobiographical themes . Pornographic manga also often includes sexualised depictions of lesbians and intersex people . Queer theorists have noted that LGBT characters in mainstream comic books are usually shown as assimilated into heterosexual society , whereas in alternative comics the diversity and uniqueness of LGBT culture is emphasized .
Comic strips have also dealt in subtext and innuendo , their wide distribution in newspapers limiting their inclusion of controversial material . The first openly gay characters appeared in prominent strips in the late 1970s ; representation of LGBT issues in these titles causes vociferous reaction , both praise and condemnation , to the present day . Comic strips aimed at LGBT audiences are also syndicated in gay- and lesbian @-@ targeted magazines and comics have been created to educate people about LGBT @-@ related issues and to influence real @-@ world politics , with their format and distribution allowing them to transmit messages more subtle , complex , and positive than typical education material . Portrayal of LGBT themes in comics is recognized by several notable awards , including the Gaylactic Spectrum Awards and GLAAD Media Awards for outstanding comic book and comic strip .
= = Comic strips = =
Early comic strips also avoided overt treatment of gay issues , though examples of homosexual subtext have been identified . The 1938 – 1939 edition of Milton Caniff 's Terry and the Pirates features a primary villain , Sanjak , who has been interpreted by some as a lesbian with designs on the hero 's girlfriend .
The first widely distributed comic strip to tackle LGBT themes and include a gay character was Garry Trudeau 's Doonesbury . The strip introduced the character Andy Lippincott in 1976 , and his diagnosis with HIV in 1989 and AIDS related death in 1990 was the first representation of this issue in comic strips . This storyline led to a Pulitzer Prize nomination for Trudeau , but three newspapers of the 900 carrying the strip refused to publish it as being in bad taste . Two years later , the long @-@ standing character Mark Slackmeyer was revealed to be gay , continuing a reputation for controversial content . Slackmeyer , a liberal , continues to feature in the strip , with focus on his relationship with his politically conservative partner , Chase , including their marriage in 1999 and separation in 2007 .
The 11 July 1984 installment of Bloom County had the strip 's main characters staying at Bob & Ernie ’ s Castro Street Hotel , run by a gay S & M couple .
When Lynn Johnston 's For Better or For Worse explored the coming out of a teenaged character in 1993 , it provoked a vigorous reaction from conservative groups . Readers opposed to homosexuality threatened to cancel newspaper subscriptions , and Johnston received hate mail and death threats towards herself and her family . Over 100 newspapers ran replacement strips or canceled the comic . One result of the storyline was that Johnston was made a jury @-@ selected " nominated finalist " for the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning in 1994 . The Pulitzer board said the strip " sensitively depicted a youth 's disclosure of his homosexuality and its effect on his family and friends . " Subsequent appearances of the character have not focused on his sexuality , and the creator has said that this will continue .
In most widely circulated strips , LGBT characters remained as supporting figures into the 21st century , with some , including Candorville and The Boondocks , featuring occasional appearances by gay characters . The conservative strip Mallard Fillmore occasionally approached gay issues from a critical perspective ; these storylines have been described as " insulting " to LGBT people . Many openly gay and lesbian comic creators self @-@ publish their work online as webcomics , giving them greater editorial freedom , and some of the strips are printed in collections . One example is Greg Fox 's Kyle 's Bed & Breakfast , a series focusing on a group of gay friends who live together and face realistic problems associated with their sexualities , including relationship troubles and being closeted .
Since the late 1980s specifically gay publications have also included comic strips , in which LGBT themes are ubiquitous . Local LGBT newspapers sometimes carry their own strips , like Ron Williams 's Quarter Scenes in the New Orleans paper Impact . Strips including Wendel by Howard Cruse , and Leonard and Larry by Tim Barela , have been syndicated in national gay magazines like the Advocate .
One of the best known and longest @-@ running LGBT comic strips , Dykes to Watch Out For , was written by Alison Bechdel – dubbed the " elder stateswomen of LGBT comics " – from 1983 to 2008 . Dykes to Watch Out For is known for its social and political commentary and depictions of characters from all walks of life . Bechdel 's 2006 graphic memoir Fun Home : A Family Tragicomic was lauded by many media outlets as among the best books of the year .
Other noted LGBT @-@ themed comic strips have included Doc and Raider , The Chosen Family , Chelsea Boys and The Mostly Unfabulous Social Life of Ethan Green . Ethan Green has also been adapted into a live @-@ action feature film .
= = Underground and alternative comics = =
LGBT themes were found first in underground or alternative comics , often published by small independent presses or self @-@ published . Such comics frequently advocated political positions and included depictions of sex , usually not intended solely to cause arousal but included as part of the exploration of themes including gender and sexuality .
“ Captain Pissgums and His Pervert Pirates ” by S. Clay Wilson in “ Zap ” # 3 ( 1968 ) featured explicit sexual homosexual acts and was instrumental in making other underground cartoonists approach taboo subjects . However , gay characters rarely featured in underground comics from 1968 to 1975 , and when they did they were usually lisping caricatures and comic transvestites . An instalment of “ Harold Hedd ” by Rand Holmes in 1971 stands out for attacking the homophobia of Dr Reuben ’ s sex manual Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex * ( * But Were Afraid to Ask ) , featuring explicit mutual gay sex acts , and promoting Gay Lib .
Eventually comics appeared aimed at a gay audience : the first documented example of a widely circulated underground gay comic was Gay Heart Throbs , which produced several issues in the mid @-@ 1970s , but struggled to find an audience .
Notable publications included Gay Comix , which was created in 1980 by Howard Cruse , featured the work of gay , lesbian , and transsexual artists , and had close ties with the gay liberation movement . Much of the early content was autobiographical , but more diverse themes were explored in later editions . Autobiographical themes included falling in love , coming out , repression , and sex . Gay Comix also served as a source for information about non @-@ mainstream LGBT @-@ themed comics and events . Artists producing work for Gay Comix included Mary Wings , creator of the first one @-@ off lesbian book Come Out Comix ( 1972 ) and Dyke Shorts ( 1976 ) , and Roberta Gregory , who created Dynamite Damsels ( 1976 ) the first lesbian underground serial comic book and the character Bitchy Bitch . Wimmen 's Comix also tackled issues of homosexuality on a regular basis , and the first issue was also the venue for the first ever comic strip featuring an out lesbian , called " Sandy Comes Out " , by Trina Robbins . Excerpts from Gay Comix are included in the 1989 anthology Gay Comics , one of the earliest histories of the subject .
Meatmen : An Anthology of Gay Male Comics and its sequels collect works by a range of artists and cartoonists . The work of " every gay cartoonist of note " has appeared in the series , including works by Howard Cruse , Jeff Krell , Brad Parker , John Blackburn , Jon Macy , and the stylized pornography of Tom of Finland . The contents of Meatmen are generally more explicit and lewd than the more mainstream oriented Gay Comics . Tom of Finland was a prolific fetish artist , specializing in images of men with exaggerated primary and secondary sex traits , such as extreme muscularity and improbably large penises . His drawings frequently feature two or more men either immediately preceding or during explicit sexual activity . Howard Cruse has been described as " the most important gay cartoonist " , and his work explores both pop and gay culture . His LGBT @-@ themed work is often adults @-@ only , and in addition to being featured in Meatmen and Gay Comics , has been syndicated in publications such as Heavy Metal , RAW , and Village Voice .
Creators have used the comics medium to educate readers about LGBT @-@ related issues including safe sex , examples being Strip AIDS U.S.A ; and to influence real @-@ world politics , as with the British comics book AARGH ( Artists Against Rampant Government Homophobia ) , produced by British , American , and Canadian artists in response to a law that would make " promoting homosexuality " illegal by the British government . The comic book format and humour has been described as giving such works a more positive message than typical education material . Comic strip style educational material about AIDS dates back to a chart in the French magazine Liberation from 1986 , which used simple figures to explain unsafe practices . Fiction comics produced specifically to foster AIDS prevention include the widely distributed French @-@ language La Sida ( 1995 ) , created by the Institut Alfred Fourrier as part of its " Prevention Sourire " series . La Sida was aimed at a young audience and used humour to de @-@ dramatise the subject , with HIV status indicated a metaphorical " little green monster " . Sexile , a graphic novel by Latin American writer Jaime Cortez , is based on transgender HIV activist and educator Adela Vazquez . Published through AIDS Project Los Angeles , the novel is narrated in English and Spanish while commenting on themes of gender identity , sexual experiences and HIV / AIDS awareness . Vazquez 's life is highlighted in the graphic novel , particularly her transition from the political uprising in Cuba to the vibrant LGBT community in San Francisco during the HIV / AIDS epidemic . Sexile , a work commenting on HIV / AIDS prevention , was collaborated with Gay Men 's Health Crisis .
Such educational comics have been criticised for ignoring the special relevance the subject has to the LGBT community , with homosexuality marginalized in favour of depicting HIV as a threat to conventional heterosexual relationships . This has been blamed on the continuing perception that comics are for young people , and as such should be " universalised " rather than targeting specific groups , and hence are heteronormative , failing to provide characters that LGBT @-@ identfying young people can identify with . Other educational comic books such as the Swiss Jo ( 1991 ) also exclude explicit reference to homosexuality ( as well as drug @-@ taking and prostitution ) , in spite of their target audience being older .
= = Mainstream American comic books = =
Mainstream comics have historically excluded gay characters , with superhero comics in particular and the publishing houses Marvel and DC , the two largest publishers in the genre , and were criticized for their lack of inclusivity . Transgender characters have likewise been under @-@ represented , although the common storyline of a superhero having their sex changed by magical or technological means has been regarded as an oblique reference to transgender and transsexual issues . British comics author Neil Gaiman has said that he included transgender characters in his works , such as Sandman , in response to the lack of realistic representation of such people in comics . Queer theory analyses have noted that LGBT characters in mainstream comic books are often shown as assimilated into heterosexual society , whereas in alternative comics the diversity and uniqueness of LGBT culture is at the forefront . Mainstream comics have also been labelled as " heteronormative " , in comparison to " integrationist " alternative comics .
= = = Censorship and criticism = = =
For much of the 20th century , creators were strongly discouraged from depicting gay relationships in comic books , which were regarded as a medium for children . Until 1989 the Comics Code Authority ( CCA ) , which imposed de facto censorship on comics sold through newsstands in the United States , forbade any suggestion of homosexuality , and LGBT characters were excluded from comics bearing the CCA seal . The CCA itself came into being in response to Fredric Wertham 's Seduction of the Innocent , in which comic book creators were accused of attempting to negatively influence children with images of violence and sexuality , including subliminal homosexuality . Wertham claimed that Wonder Woman 's strength and independence made her a lesbian , and stated that " The Batman type of story may stimulate children to homosexual fantasies . " Storytellers subsequently had to drop subtle hints while not stating directly a character 's orientation . Overt gay and lesbian themes were first found later in underground and alternative titles which did not carry the CCA 's seal of approval .
In recent years the number of LGBT characters in mainstream superhero comics has increased greatly . At first gay characters appeared in supporting roles , but their roles have become increasingly prominent . The trend has prompted both praise from the LGBT community and organizations like the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation ( GLAAD ) , and criticism from conservative groups . Critics have made accusations that comics are attempting to subvert readers into a " gay lifestyle " , trying to " lure young American boys into the kinky web of homosexuality and AIDS " .
= = = DC = = =
The Encyclopedia of Gay Histories and Cultures ( 2000 ) notes that gay subtext can be found in DC Comics publications as early as the Golden Age of Comic Books , with readers inferring homosexuality between superheroes and their same @-@ sex sidekicks and on the women @-@ only Paradise Island . The introduction to Sandman Mystery Theatre : The Tarantula discusses this in the case of the replacement of Dian Belmont with Sandy , the Golden Boy in The Sandman serial in Adventure Comics . Batman 's relationship with Robin has famously come under scrutiny , in spite of the majority of creators associated with the character denying that the character is gay . Psychologist Fredric Wertham , who in Seduction of the Innocent asserted that " Batman stories are psychologically homosexual , " claimed to find a " subtle atmosphere of homoeroticism which pervades the adventures of the mature ' Batman ' and his young friend ' Robin . ' " It has also been claimed that Batman is interesting to gay audiences because " he was one of the first fictional characters to be attacked on the grounds of his presumed homosexuality , " and " the 1960s TV series remains a touchstone of camp . " Frank Miller has described the Joker as a " homophobic nightmare , " and views the character as sublimating his sexual urges into crime fighting . Burt Ward has also remarked upon this interpretation in his autobiography , noting that the relationship between the two could be interpreted as a sexual one .
In the first appearance of the Nightmaster , a fat man who seems to be a closet homosexual gay basher repeatedly calls Jim Rook a " cutie pie , " compliments his hair , and grabs his girlfriend , saying ( to Rook ) " And what ? You gonna hit me with your purse ? " after which his friends start hitting Rook with a chair .
The first obviously gay character was Extraño , an effeminate Peruvian man whose name means " Strange " in Spanish , who was created by Steve Englehart and Joe Staton and appeared in Millennium and New Guardians in 1987 . New Guardians was not successful , but during its short run it also featured one team member , Jet , contracting AIDS . The series was controversial , as several characters on the team were infected with HIV through the scratch of a character called the Hemo @-@ Goblin . Many angry letters were printed in response to this misinformation about HIV transmission , along with some gay readers complaing that Extraño was too stereotypical . An official aftermath to Millennium , The Spectre ( vol . 2 ) # 11 , depicted a " mostly male and mostly gay " AIDS rally . Several characters , including the Enchantress ( describing them as " filthy disgusting men " ) and a police helicopter pilot named Ed ( screaming about " fags " ) are influenced into attempting to crush the rally by a seven @-@ headed spirit . Thanks to the actions of the Spectre , Doctor Fate , Deadman , Madame Xanadu ( later herself revealed to be bisexual ) , and Ben Turner , the men are saved . In 1988 's Wonder Woman Annual # 1 , Kevin Mayer , brother of Diana 'a late publicist Myndi Mayer , shows up at her will reading , saying she was the only member of the family who didn 't hate him for being gay . Mitch Sekofsky , mechanic for Task Force X , is a gay dad . Simon La Grieve , the organization 's head psychiatrist , refers to this as his " choice of sexuality " and wonders how Sekofsky 's son is adjusting . Priest Kramer counsels Mitch and tells him that his homosexuality is a natural part of himself that does not conflict with Christian scripture . The early 1990s saw a few more LGBT minor characters portrayed in DC titles . John Constantine dealt with gay bashers in Hellblazer # 6 and 7 and Swamp Thing # 74 ( 1988 ) . In the latter issue , Constantine , having jumped from a train at the end of Hellblazer # 6 , is found by gay bashers in a weakened state and severely beaten until rescued by Swamp Thing . While Constantine is not gay ( he is bisexual but is mostly sexually active with women ) , some of his gay friends were beaten and hospitalized , and he tried to protect them . In this case , the gay bashers were working at the behest of the demon , Nergal . Both this run and The Sandman story arcs Preludes and Nocturnes and The Kindly Ones arc featured elderly gay men . Transsexual themes were explored in the The Sandman : A Game of You story ( 1991 ) and in a 1992 storyline in Legion of Super @-@ Heroes . Notable storylines featuring LGBT themes include the coming out of Kyle Rayner 's assistant and an arc about his " gay bashing " in Green Lantern . These stories earned the writer title two GLAAD awards and a Gaylactic Spectrum Awards ( and a further nomination ) . Green Lantern also has a lesbian couple , Lee and Li , as supporting characters . An example of a gay character in a starring role is the violent vigilante superhero Midnighter , who appears in comic books published by Wildstorm , an imprint of DC Comics . The Batman @-@ like Midnighter was revealed to be in a relationship with the Superman @-@ like Apollo during their time as members of the superhero team The Authority .
The comic book Manhunter ( which focused on a female lawyer hunting down super villains who dodged trial ) was notable for featuring the gay supporting character of Damon Matthews , a well @-@ adjusted gay lawyer who later starts dating superhero Obsidian . In 2006 DC drew widespread media attention by announcing a new , lesbian incarnation of the well @-@ known character Batwoman . The number of minor DC characters being identified as LGBT continues to increase , and includes the bisexual superheroes Sarah Rainmaker and Icemaiden , and the reformed villain Pied Piper . Policewoman Renee Montoya , introduced in Batman : The Animated Series without any stated sexual preference , was eventually introduced in the comic books as a lesbian and made considerably more butch . She was a main character in Gotham Central and 52 .
In 2011 , DC launched its The New 52 program , which introduced a number of new titles . In addition to a new Batwoman series , DC released Voodoo , which featured an African American bisexual woman as the title character . Additionally , The New 52 also introduced Bunker , the first openly @-@ gay superhero ever to be featured in the Teen Titans ongoing series . Another of the changes brought about with the DC reboot was the reinvention of a classic character as an out gay man , with DC as of 2012 depicting its longtime Green Lantern Alan Scott as a gay man in stories set on the parallel world of Earth @-@ 2 .
= = = Marvel = = =
Marvel Comics ' incorporation of LGBT themes has been unfavorably compared with that of DC ; its use of gay characters has been described as " less prolific but more deliberate " . Marvel reportedly had a " No Gays in the Marvel Universe " policy during Jim Shooter 's 1980s tenure , and Marvel 's policy from the 1990s had stated that all series emphasizing solo gay characters must carry an " Adults Only " label , in response to conservative protests . However , these policies did not stop creators from slipping in gay characters and themes ; J.M. DeMatteis introduced Arnie Roth , a childhood friend of Steve Rogers , who comes to Cap seeking help in rescuing his " roommate " Michael . Later , Arnie himself is captured by Baron Zemo and forced to dress in flamboyant clothes and stage make @-@ up and give a speech about how his love for Michael is false and unnatural . Cap rescues Arnie and reassures him that his love for Michael is as genuine as Cap 's own love for his girlfriend , Sharon . The story appears to have gone under the radar purely because DeMatteis did not use the word " gay " . Subsequent official character biographies have confirmed Arnie Roth as gay . As of 2006 , these policies are no longer enforced and LGBT characters appear regularly in Marvel comics . Although same @-@ sex couples are depicted occasionally kissing , intimate or sexual scenes have not been shown , even in Marvel 's " Adult only " imprint . The use of mutants and the discrimination they face in the X @-@ Men comics has been seen as a metaphor for the real @-@ world discrimination directed at minority groups including LGBT people .
Alpha Flight 's Northstar , a member of the original Alpha Flight superhero team , was the first major gay character created by Marvel Comics . Creator John Byrne said that Northstar was planned to be gay from his inception in 1979 . The character was finally revealed to be gay in 1992 's Alpha Flight issue 106 , the only comic book issue to have been inducted into the Gaylactic Hall of Fame . Storylines involving Northstar in Alpha Flight and his limited series have generally ignored his sexuality : Criticism has been levelled at the fact that in 30 years Northstar has never been shown kissing another man , though he finally kissed his boyfriend Kyle in the first issue of the 2011 relaunch of the series . Northstar eventually became a member of the X @-@ Men . During his time in this team he became a mentor to gay teenage mutant Anole , who later became a Young X @-@ Men member along with another gay teen , Graymalkin .
Other LGBT members of Marvel 's mutant teams are the Uncanny X @-@ Men Benjamin Deeds , New Mutant Karma , X @-@ Statix 's Phat , Vivisector , and Bloke ( until their deaths ) and the villains Mystique and Destiny . In the latest incarnation of X @-@ Factor , written by Peter David , depowered mutant Rictor and his longtime friend Shatterstar ( with whom he 'd had an ambiguous relationship ) were shown in an on @-@ panel kiss . After the issue was published , Peter David confirmed Rictor and Shatterstar 's bisexuality in his blog and expressed his desire to develop the relationship between them further . Shortly after , one of Shatterstar 's creators , Rob Liefeld , expressed his disapproval of Peter David 's decision and has stated that should he get the chance , he will undo Rictor and Shatterstar 's bisexuality . Despite his complaints , however , both Peter David and Marvel editor @-@ in @-@ chief Joe Quesada have defended the development , and the story will most likely go on as planned . David went on to win the 2011 GLADD Media Award for Outstanding Comic Book for his work .
In 1997 , writer Ivan Velez , Jr . , who had previously written for the adult underground , Gay Comix , reintroduced Jennifer Kale with a closely cropped " butch " haircut in the pages of Ghost Rider , portrayed her as related to both Johnny Blaze and Daniel Ketch , and said that an issue of Howard the Duck had shown Jennifer and Doctor Strange as those who initially brought Howard to Earth @-@ 616 ( no such issue of Howard the Duck exists , and Jennifer and Doctor Strange did not meet until Man @-@ Thing ( vol . 2 ) # 4 ( May 1980 ) ) , after Howard 's series had concluded ) . In issue # 92 ( January 1998 ) , he depicted Ketch having a vision of life without Ghost Rider in which Jennifer had been in a relationship with a woman , Marie , for three years . Jennifer 's first boyfriend , Jaxon , was shown in Fear # 13 ( April 1973 ) and # 18 ( November 1973 ) and Man @-@ Thing ( vol . 2 ) # 4 ( May 1980 ) , by which point they had broken up over Jennifer 's sorcery . She was shown sharing a bed with a chubby boyfriend named Bernard Drabble in The Legion of Night ( October 1991 ) , which was written by her creator , Steve Gerber ( later writer of the GLAAD Award @-@ nominated Hard Time ) , who thought making her related to both Ghost Riders was bad writing , saying that Marvel should change its name to DC for " Deliverance Comics " for being so inbred ( he did not read the issues in question , nor was he told of Jennifer 's newfound lesbianism ) . In Witches , Brian Patrick Walsh presents her with the attitude that having slept with women makes her a " bad girl " as a direct character foil to Topaz as a " good girl " ( which does not match earlier portrayals of Topaz ) , and Satana as " the ugly . " In Marvel Zombies 4 , Topaz teasingly calls Jennifer " girlfriend " to be ironic . Her entry in the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe now states that she is bisexual .
In 2002 , Marvel revived Rawhide Kid in their Marvel MAX imprint , introducing the first openly gay comic book character to star in his own magazine . The first edition of the Rawhide Kid ’ s gay saga was called Slap Leather . The character ’ s sexuality is conveyed indirectly , through euphemisms and puns , and the comic ’ s style is campy . Conservative groups protested the gay take on the character , which they claimed would corrupt children , and the covers carried an " Adults only " label .
The Young Avengers series , which debuted in 2005 , featured two gay teenager major characters , Hulkling and Wiccan , from its inception . The characters ' sexuality was criticised by some readers and defended by the writers in an extended series of letters on the title 's letters page . The Young Avengers earned Marvel its first GLAAD Award Best Comic Book Award in 2005 . The 2013 Young Avengers by Kieron Gillen won a second GLAAD Award , awarded both to Gillen and artist Jamie McKelvie . In that series Gillen revealed nearly the entire team as some form of LGBT , including Prodigy ( David Alleyne ) , Miss America and Noh @-@ Varr .
Xavin is a non @-@ binary / genderqueer Skrull ( a race of shape @-@ shifters ) from the award @-@ winning series , Runaways . Xavin was created by author Brian K. Vaughan and artist Adrian Alphona , and debuted in Runaways vol . 2 # 7 . Xavin had first appeared to the Runaways in their masculine form , but changed into their feminine form for the sake of Karolina Dean , a lesbian hero whom they were to marry . In the series , Xavin often switches between their two forms .
In April 2015 Marvel Comics announced that its X @-@ Men character Iceman , Bobby Drake was gay . In the " All @-@ New X @-@ Men " comic book storyline , the mind @-@ reading mutant Jean Grey asks Bobby why he calls women " hot , " when she knows he is gay .
= = = Archie Comics = = =
In September 2010 Archie Comics introduced an openly gay character , Kevin Keller in Veronica # 202 , though it was only published in the U.S. and Canada . In the story , Veronica quickly falls for the new @-@ boy @-@ in @-@ town , with a sweet smile and chiseled good looks , Kevin . Kevin beats Jughead in a burger @-@ eating contest , and he tells Jughead that he 's not interested in Veronica because he 's gay . Unbeknownst to Kevin , Jughead has a score to settle with Veronica . So , when Jughead requests for Kevin not tell Veronica about his sexuality , Kevin willingly agrees . The bulk of the story is about Veronica 's cluelessness .
As widely considered traditional , predictable , and wholesome publishers to the nth degree for generations , Archie Comics ' open recognition of homosexuality through the addition of Kevin Keller came as a surprise to many readers . However , as Lyle Masaki of AfterElton.com recognizes , " There is a long @-@ standing misconception that sexuality has to be a part of a gay character , but being gay doesn 't have anything to do with sex . " Kevin went on to star in his own mini @-@ series , and now is the star of his own digest @-@ size series , and guest starred in the Life with Archie : The Married Life series , with the issue depicting his wedding becoming one of the fastest selling Archie comics in decades .
= = = Other publishers = = =
The 1990s saw the creation of a number of independent publishing houses with output that competed with the giants of mainstream comics publishing , Marvel and DC . The companies included Malibu Comics , Image Comics ( such as Hisao and Guilliame from Morning Glories ) and later , Dark Horse Comics . These companies gave greater artistic freedom to their writers and artists and chose not to ascribe to the Comics Code , allowing exploration of more mature themes . As a result , comics from these companies included a greater relative number of LGBT characters and storylines than their more traditional competitors . LGBT superhero characters include Spectral and Turbo Charge ( from Malibu comics ) , and Gen13 's Sarah Rainmaker ( created by Wildstorm for Image Comics before being taken over by DC ) . Colleen Doran 's A Distant Soil , dating back to the black and white independent movement of the 1980s , and published by Image since 1996 , featured openly gay characters as the romantic leads that gained the series a Gaylactic Spectrum Award nomination .
Dark Horse 's Buffy the Vampire Slayer @-@ related comics feature the lesbian characters of Willow , Tara and Kennedy and the closeted character Andrew from the television series . The Buffy Season Eight comics attracted media attention when the title character has a one night stand with another girl who had fallen in love with her . The encounter was repeated , but both the character and the creators denied that this made Buffy gay , with Joss Whedon saying : " We 're not going to make her gay , nor are we going to take the next 50 issues explaining that she 's not . She 's young and experimenting , and did I mention open @-@ minded ? " .
= = = Fandom and awards = = =
As the visibility of LGBT comic book creators and characters has increased , comic book fandom has taken notice . Panels discussing LGBT topics occur regularly at comic book and LGBT conventions such as Comicon and Gaylaxicon , and conventions also feature stands dedicated to LGBT comics . Ted Abenheim , event chair of Prism Comics said in 2008 , “ We ’ re in our sixth year of exhibiting at Comic @-@ Con , presenting a larger booth and more panels and events than ever before . ” A number of websites dedicated to LGBT comic book fandom and featuring content from staff writers exist , such as Prismcomics.org , Pinkkrytonite.com and Gayleague.com.
The first GLAAD Award for Best Comic Book was awarded in 1992 ( to DC 's The Flash ) . Since then , a number of GLAAD awards have been awarded to mainstream titles , including for DC 's Green Lantern and The Authority titles , and Marvel 's Young Avengers . According to Paul Lopez , LGBT fans and creators have " debated whether the awards for mainstream comics were more about media hype than the actual content of the comic 's stories . "
The Gaylactic Spectrum Awards are given to works of science fiction , fantasy or horror , and their " Other Works " category allows nomination of comic book series or individual issues . Comic book winners include issues of DC 's Green Lantern , The Authority and Gotham Central , and nominations have been given to titles from Marvel ( X @-@ Force , X @-@ Statix ) , Dark Horse ( Buffy Season 8 ) and Image Comics .
= = European comics = =
Comics from continental Europe have been described as having a greater range of " themes , narratives and forms of visual impact " than English @-@ language comics , but have been superseded in popularity by American comics since the mid @-@ 1980s , with only French comics matching the popularity of Japanese and American comics . The lack of a " comics code " equivalent to the US system has made the incorporation of LGBT themes less controversial . This is exemplified by the Kelly Green graphic novels ( 1982 – 93 ) , created by Stan Drake and Leonard Starr . Drake and Starr are American cartoonists who chose to publish in France , where they would not be limited by US censorship and " could write and draw anything they wanted " ; this included episodes in which the vigilante title character dresses as a boy to lure a gay villain into an ambush , and a stereotypically gay secondary character who ran a strip @-@ club .
At the beginning of the 20th century , French and Belgian comic strips ( " Bande Dessinée " ) had become regarded as an medium for children – this restricted their inclusion of adult and sexual themes , and lasted until at least the 1960s . However , early Franco @-@ Belgian comics for children such as The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , and The Adventures of Alix have also had sexual and LGBT subtext inferred by readers . Readers of Tintin books have speculated about his sexuality , leading to Marcel Wilmet , spokesperson of Studios Hergé , saying that Tintin is macho and not homosexual ; Tintin has many male friends , but they are not boyfriends . The Adventures of Alix comics by Jacques Martin are amongst the most prominent historical comics , and the text concerns the restoration of a moral order , but with a " homosexual subtext that may have been invisible to the original readers " , which includes the portrayal of a close relationship between Alix and his companion Enak and the full frontal depiction of teenage male bodies . Martin has disputed any gay readings of the central friendship in the books , but an article in Le Palace still called the " heroes homosexuel de notre enfance " .
Strips in the 1960s strove to break taboos , but were still censored by a law passed in 1949 that assumed comics were for children , which prevented the inclusion of explicit sexual themes , as in Barbarella album ( 1964 ) , which had to be redrawn to remove nudity . The late 1960s saw greater acceptance of comic strips as a mature artform , and their use as social commentary and satire was established in mainstream newspapers by the 1970s , although some anthologies continued to be banned as " pornographic " .
The works of French comic book creator Fabrice Neaud have been described as the " most ambitious autobiographical comics project yet published " . These include his 1994 series Ego Comme X and the ongoing Journal , of which Neaud has self @-@ published one volume every other year since 1996 . The works chronicle day to day experiences and place them in a framework that examines representation and self @-@ identity of sexual @-@ minorities and the creative process . Volumes one and three focus on the author 's homosexuality and status as a struggling gay artist in French small @-@ town life : One story arc covered Neaud 's unrequited love for a male friend . Neaud 's works have been pointed to as examples that legitimised comics as serious literature , and elevated the regard for autobiographical works within comics . The retrospective and subjective nature of the works leads to significant emotional events being afforded greater coverage , with the result that issues of sexuality and interactions between the author and other men are highlighted , reflecting the importance of sexuality to identity . This has led critic ( and character ) Dominque Goblet to dismiss the works as trivial ; such criticisms have been attributed to bias against autobiography or comics , or inability to identify with a gay character .
Frank Margerin 's most famous strips follow the lives of working class heterosexual men centered around the character of " suburban rocker " Lucien , and occasionally feature LGBT themes that show the characters ' assumptions of stereotypes . In Votez Rocky , the characters dress as the Village People and when a stereotypically gay character tries to chat @-@ up Lucien in Le Retour ( 1993 ) , he remains oblivious to the attempt . These occurrences have been noted to be about reaffirming their masculinity by comparison with non @-@ masculine gay stereotypes , rather than depictions of homophobia . The relationship between social class and sexual orientation is also explored when a character is arrested by vice police in a park along with a number of gay couples and is humiliated by the police officers homophobic insults . In Comme s 'il en Pleuvait ( 2001 ) , the same character finds that the assumption that he is gay , due to a close male friendship , is to his benefit when in fashionable literary groups , where he is seen as more interesting and trendy .
Spanish comics have been described as less conventional and more diverse than American comics . Anarcoma , by creator Nazario Luque , is a " bizarre noir thriller " starring a gay transvestite detective . Anarcoma has been " widely celebrated " as one of the foremost subversive and countercultural comics that challenges preconceptions of sexuality and gender . Luque is openly gay and also writes the underground comic El Vibora . However , Gema Pérez @-@ Sánchez says that the subversive impact of underground comics is less than one might expect , in comparison to mainstream and government @-@ subsidised comics , as the readers of underground comics are unlikely to be shocked . The " veiled " queer content that appears in the Socialist government @-@ sanctioned Madriz has a greater impact .
In Germany , the openly gay cartoonist Ralf König has created several popular comics taking an ironic but affectionate view on both gay and straight relationships . In 1979 he began creating comic strips that appeared in the Munich underground magazine Zomix and the gay periodical Rosa Flieder . In 1981 , his first comics Sarius , Das sensationelle Comic @-@ Book and SchwulComix ( GayComix ) were published by Verlag Rosa Winkel in Berlin . In 1987 he wrote his first comic with a continuous story ( Kondom des Grauens ) . These comics have a large gay fan base , and despite initial skepticism from broader comics audiences due to the work 's consistent " gay culture " setting , have also gained great popularity among heterosexual readers . Several of König 's comics have been adapted into films ; his work has sold more than 5 million copies and been translated into 14 languages .
British comics were for significant parts of the 20th century regarded as being aimed at children , hence avoiding adult themes . One exception is 2000 AD , a more mature and violent comic book . 2000 AD introduced its first openly gay hero in 1992 in the story Swimming in Blood , in the form of the camp vampire exorcist Devlin Waugh . Waugh was created by writer John Smith and artist Sean Phillips and his character 's homosexuality is frequently referenced in the strip ; in his first story he attempts to seduce one of the men he is rescuing . The character was deliberately created in opposition to such characters as Judge Dredd and Johnny Alpha , gruff , macho men . Waugh , by contrast , was camp , flippant and flamboyant . In the annual poll of readers ' opinions , Waugh became the first and last character ever to knock Judge Dredd off the top spot as Favourite Strip . However , the character was not used for seven years after his initial introduction , due to production problems . In the British small press Martin Eden launched Spandex , which claimed to be " the world 's first all @-@ gay superhero team " .
= = Japanese comics = =
Comics are an established art form in Japan , which has the biggest comic book industry in the world . Comics are respected and aimed at both child and adult audiences . Sex and violence are common , and their presence in fictional manga is regarded as a " safety valve " .
= = = Yaoi and Yuri = = =
Yaoi and Yuri ( also known as Boys ' Love and Girls ' Love , respectively ) are Japanese genres incorporating homosexual romance themes across various media . The genres emerged in the 1970s in a branch of manga aimed at girls . Yaoi and yuri have spread beyond Japan : both translated and original yaoi and yuri are now available in many countries and languages . The characters in yaoi and yuri manga do not tend to self @-@ identify as homosexual or bisexual . Famous works include Hiizuredokoro no Tenshi ( The Angel that Came from the Sun ) , an 11 @-@ volume series beginning in 1980 that reinterprets the life of the introducer of Buddhism to Japan ; and Kaze to Ki no Uta ( Poem of the Wind and the Trees ) , a 17 @-@ volume series beginning in 1976 that chronicles the relationship between two schoolboys in France .
As with much manga and anime , science fiction and fantasy tropes and environments are common : Ai no Kusabi , a 1980s yaoi light novel series described as a " magnum opus " of the Boys Love genre , involves a science fictional caste system . Simoun has been described as " a wonderful sci fi series " which does not have to rely on its yuri content to appeal to the audience . The various terminologies for both male / male pairings and female / female pairings are sometimes used to denote the level of sexual explicitness or romanticism in a work . Although yuri originated in female @-@ targeted works , today it is featured in male @-@ targeted ones as well .
Yaoi has been criticised for stereotypical and homophobic portrayals of its characters , and for failing to address gay issues . Homophobia , when it is presented as an issue at all , is often used as a plot device to " heighten the drama " , or to show the purity of the leads ’ love . Matt Thorn has suggested that as yaoi is a romance narrative , strong political themes may be a " turn off " to the readers . Critics state that the genre challenges heteronormativity via the " queer " bishōnen ( " beautiful boys " ) , and Andrew Grossman has written that the Japanese are more comfortable with writing about LGBT themes in a manga setting , in which gender is often blurred , even in " straight " manga .
= = = Bara and " gay comics " = = =
There also exists " gay manga " ( called Bara ( rose ) ) specifically targeted at gay men , with gay characters . Yaoi writers and fans distinguish these " gay manga " from yaoi , sometimes calling it " bara " . Prior to the early 2000s , the primary venue for publication of gay men 's manga was gay men 's general @-@ interest magazines , which have included manga since the inception of Barazoku in 1971 . The typical manga story in these magazines is an 8 – 24 page one @-@ shot , although some magazines , notably G @-@ men , also carry some serialized stories . McLelland , surveying gay men 's magazines from the mid to late 1990s , indicates that most manga stories were simply pornographic , with little attention to character or plot , and that even the longer , serialized stories were generally " thinly developed " . McLelland characterizes Barazoku as containing " some well @-@ crafted stories which might be better described as erotic rather than pornographic " , while the manga in G @-@ men were " more relentlessly sexual " , with less attention to characterization and mood .
The 1990s saw increased media focus on LGBT people in Japan , and a large increase in the production of such works written by gay men . Gengoroh Tagame has been called the most influential creator of gay manga in Japan to date . Most of his work first appeared in gay magazines and usually feature sexual abuse . Much of Gengoroh Tagame 's early work was published in the magazine G @-@ men , which was founded in 1994 to cater to gay men who preferred " macho fantasy " , as opposed to the sleeker , yaoi @-@ inspired styles popular in the 1980s . Like most gay men 's general @-@ interest magazines , G @-@ men included manga as well as prose stories and editorial and photographic material . G @-@ men encouraged steady readership by presenting a better @-@ defined fantasy image , and with serialized , continuing manga stories which encouraged purchase of every issue . Tagame 's depiction of men as muscular and hairy has been cited as a catalyst for a shift in fashion amongst gay men in 1995 , away from the clean @-@ shaven and slender stereotypes of Yaoi and towards a tendency for masculinity and chubbiness . Tagame 's work has been criticised by notable gay manga writer Susumu Hirosegawa for its lack of complex storylines . Susumu Hirosegawa 's early works were yaoi , but later Hirosegawa moved into gay manga . Hirosegawa 's works sometimes contain no sex at all , with greater focus on plot , but when sex is present it is often in the form of sadomasochism or rape , in which the victim learns to enjoy the experience . Bara manga 's popularity has continued to increase , with four major publishers of bara manga anthologies in today 's Japan .
= = = Other genres = = =
Pornographic manga and anime for men , frequently called hentai in the West , often contains depictions of lesbianism for the titillation of male readers , examples being Demon Beast Invasion ( 1994 ) and Twin Angels ( 1995 ) . Futanari are common character types in hentai ; they are transgender or intersex figures , often female , with penises .
Mainstream , non @-@ pornographic manga also frequently contains explorations of gender and sex roles , although usually for purposes of exoticism or comedy rather than in a realistic manner . Some supporting characters cross @-@ dress , such as Nuriko from Fushigi Yuugi , and some series are centred around the idea of changing sex , such as Ranma ½ , whose protagonist changes sex , but not gender , when splashed with cold water . IS , a manga about two intersexual characters , won the 2007 Kodansha Manga Award in the girls ' manga division . Class S is a genre of girl 's fiction that tells stories about crushes between a female upperclassman and an underclassman . Maria @-@ sama ga Miteru , a contemporary series which includes a manga adaptation , has been described as a revival of the Class S genre .
= SS Empire Miniver =
The SS Empire Miniver was a British steam merchant ship . She was originally an American merchant , launched in 1918 as SS West Cobalt . During a brief stint in the United States Navy in 1919 , she was known as USS West Cobalt ( ID @-@ 3836 ) .
SS West Cobalt was built as a steam @-@ powered cargo ship in 1918 for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) . She was part of the West boats , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the First World War war effort , and was the 11th ship built at Columbia River Shipbuilding Company in Portland , Oregon . Though she was completed too late for the war , she was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) of the United States Navy as USS West Cobalt ( ID @-@ 3836 ) in January 1919 . After her one overseas trip for the Navy — delivering grain products to Danzig — she was decommissioned in May 1919 and returned to the USSB .
West Cobalt had a relatively uneventful merchant career for the USSB and , after her 1933 sale , for the Lykes Brothers Steamship Company . In June 1940 , West Cobalt was sold to British interests and renamed Empire Miniver . Just over four months later , the ship was torpedoed and sunk by German submarine U @-@ 99 while carrying supplies to the UK in Convoy SC @-@ 7 during the Second World War . Three crewmen were killed in the attack ; the master and 34 others were rescued by a British corvette .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during the First World War . All were given names that began with the word West , like West Cobalt , the ninth of some 30 West ships built by the Columbia River Shipbuilding Company of Portland , Oregon . West Cobalt ( Columbia River Shipbuilding yard number 11 ) was launched on 26 October 1918 , and was completed in December .
West Cobalt was 5 @,@ 724 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 410 feet 1 inch ( 124 @.@ 99 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet 0 inches ( 16 @.@ 46 m ) abeam . She had a steel hull that displaced 12 @,@ 424 t with a mean draught of 24 feet 2 inches ( 7 @.@ 37 m ) . Her hold was 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) deep and she had a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 028 DWT . West Cobalt 's power plant consisted of a single steam turbine driving a single screw propeller which moved the ship at up to 11 knots ( 20 km / h ) .
= = US Navy career = =
Upon completion of West Cobalt in December 1918 , a month after the end of fighting in the First World War , she was handed over to the United States Navy for use in the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) . She was commissioned as USS West Cobalt ( ID @-@ 3836 ) on 29 December at the Puget Sound Navy Yard in Bremerton , Washington , with Lieutenant Commander Andrew Patterson , USNRF , in command .
After undergoing sea trials , West Cobalt sailed for San Pedro , California , on 11 January to load a cargo of grain on behalf of the American Relief Administration . Six days later , West Cobalt headed for Norfolk , Virginia , where she arrived on 10 February . After fuel replenishment , West Cobalt sailed on 19 February for Plymouth , where she arrived on 11 March , the Hook of Holland , and Danzig . After delivering her cargo , used to help feed the hungry in the aftermath of the war , she steamed for New York on 8 April . After reaching New York on 24 April , West Cobalt was decommissioned on 5 May and returned to the USSB .
= = Civilian career = =
Many details of West Cobalt 's post @-@ Navy career remain undiscovered , but mentions in shipping reports in contemporary newspapers offer hints at her activities . In 1924 , for example , reports in The New York Times mention a departure from New York for Manchester on 27 August , and an arrival at Liverpool on 8 September . By 1930 , West Cobalt was reported in The Washington Post as sailing on a New Orleans – London route . On 15 October of that year , the captain and four other officers of West Cobalt were arrested at New Orleans after 12 US quarts ( 11 L ) of liquor — against the law under Prohibition — were found on board the ship . The five men were held under $ 1 @,@ 000 bond each .
In 1933 , West Cobalt was sold to the Lykes Brothers Steamship Company , which assigned her to its Ripley Steamship Company subsidiary . During the 1930s , Lykes Brothers operated cargo ships between Gulf Coast and Caribbean ports , and though there is little specific information available regarding West Cobalt 's movements , it is likely that she called at Gulf coast and Caribbean ports as well . One specific mention of the ship is found in a report in The New York Times in 1937 , when the newspaper reported West Cobalt 's arrival in New York on 30 October , ten days after sailing from New Orleans .
= = Second World War = =
In June 1940 , the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) granted permission to Lykes to sell West Cobalt and three other ships to the Bank Line of Glasgow for transfer to British registry . West Cobalt , loaded with scrap iron , sailed from Hampton Roads , Virginia , on 28 June for Halifax . After arriving there on 2 July , West Cobalt sailed the next day in Convoy HX @-@ 55 for Liverpool . On the night of 15 / 16 July , West Cobalt dropped astern of the convoy and was last sighted at 01 : 00 by British merchant ship Loch Don . West Cobalt continued on , however , and reached Liverpool independently on 18 July .
Soon transferred to the Ministry of War Transport , the newly renamed ship , now named Empire Miniver , was assigned to Andrew Weir & Co. of London for operation . She sailed from Liverpool in her first wartime convoy under her new name , Convoy OB @-@ 205 , on 29 August 1940 . The convoy dispersed the next day after coming under attack from at least four German submarines : U @-@ 59 , U @-@ 38 , U @-@ 60 , and U @-@ 101 . Though three ships from the convoy were sunk , two were damaged , and a sixth was a total loss , Empire Miniver arrived at Hampton Roads , on 15 September and at Baltimore two days later .
After a nine @-@ day turnaround , Empire Miniver sailed independently to Sydney , Nova Scotia , with a cargo of 4 @,@ 500 tons of pig iron and 6 @,@ 200 tons of steel , arriving on 2 October . At Sydney , she joined the ill @-@ fated Convoy SC @-@ 7 , bound for Newport , for her return journey . The convoy had only a single escort to start with , the sloop Scarborough . The convoy was located by a wolfpack of U @-@ boats from 16 October , and they quickly overwhelmed the convoy , sinking many of the ships . Empire Miniver was torpedoed and sunk by U @-@ 99 at 22 : 06 on 18 October , while some 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ) west by south of Barra Head . Out of a total complement of 38 , three crew members were lost . The master and 34 crew members were picked up by Bluebell and were landed at Greenock on 20 October . Including Empire Miniver , 20 ships — over half of the ships in Convoy SC @-@ 7 — were sunk by 8 different U @-@ boats .
= Cerro Blanco ( volcano ) =
Cerro Blanco is a caldera in the Andes of the Catamarca Province in Argentina . Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes , it is a volcano collapse structure located at an altitude of 4 @,@ 670 metres ( 15 @,@ 320 ft ) in a depression . The caldera is associated with a less well defined caldera to the south and several lava domes .
The caldera has been active for the last eight million years and eruptions have created several ignimbrites . One of the most recent eruptions occurred 73 @,@ 000 years ago and formed the Campo de la Piedra Pómez ignimbrite layer . About 5 @,@ 000 years ago , the largest volcanic eruption of the Central Andes with a volcanic explosivity index of 7 occurred at Cerro Blanco , forming the most recent caldera as well as thick ignimbrite layers . About 110 cubic kilometres ( 26 cu mi ) of rhyolite were erupted then . The volcano is dormant since then with some deformation and geothermal activity . A major future eruption would put local communities to the south at risk .
The volcano is also known for giant ripple marks that have formed on its ignimbrite fields . Persistent wind action on the ground has shifted gravel and sand , forming wave @-@ like structures . These ripple marks have heights up to 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) and are separated by distances up to 30 metres ( 98 ft ) . Unlike dunes , they do not migrate with the wind and are stationary . These ripple marks are among the most extreme on Earth and have been compared to Martian ripple marks by geologists .
= = Geography and geology = =
= = = Regional setting = = =
The Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes is an area between 14 – 28 ° southern latitude where volcanic activity dates to the Eocene . Ignimbritic activity has occurred over the whole area , particularly north of 25 ° southern latitude where the Altiplano – Puna volcanic complex is situated . Ignimbrites are primarily rhyolite and rhyodacite and subordinate shoshonite . The more southern ignimbrites are felsic and have a low crystal content . With the exception of the Luingo caldera and Cerro Galán , most volcanism south of 25 ° southern latitude is of low volume . After a phase of pyroclastic activity in the Antofalla area during the Eocene , a number of volcanoes formed from calc @-@ alkaline magmas during the Miocene . Changes in subduction geometry including the removal of continental crust from the boundary 8 @-@ 3 mya have caused a thickening of the crust as well as an eastward shift of the volcanic front . Huaynaputina volcano in Peru is part of the Central Volcanic Zone and had a major eruption in 1600 .
Most ignimbrites of the southern sector have volumes of 50 cubic kilometres ( 12 cu mi ) or less and are associated with stratovolcanoes and small calderas . They are derived from fractional crystallization of andesitic magmas with variable crustal input .
= = = Local setting = = =
Cerro Blanco is part of the Central Volcanic Zone and is located at the southern limit of the Puna . It forms a volcanic unit together with the Aguada Alumbrera ignimbrite , at the eastern edge of the Cordillera de San Buenaventura . Rocks beneath this unit include dacitic – trachyandesitic volcanites 9 – 7 mya old and an igneous @-@ metamorphic granitic basement containing orthogneiss , quartz of Neoproterozoic @-@ early Paleozoic age , containing paleozoic mafic to ultramafic volcanic inclusions . The Cordillera de San Buenaventura is formed from lava domes and volcanic complexes of intermediary composition of Upper Miocene – Quaternary age . During the Miocene @-@ Pleistocene , the isotope and chemical composition of areal magmas has moved away from arc like magmas to distinctly water @-@ poor and unoxidized petrologies . This finding is consistent with a hot mantle forming after delamination of the crust and migration of the arc .
Nevado Tres Cruces lies to the west and Nevado Ojos del Salado lies to the southwest of the Cerro Blanco centre . East @-@ northeast running fault systems are controlled by local tectonics and may be responsible for the formation of the Cordillera de San Buenaventura . The 4 @-@ 3 @.@ 7 mya Laguna Amarga west of Cerro Blanco erupted rhyolites , unlike Cerro Blanco 's ignimbrites . The better known Cerro Galán caldera lies 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) southwest of Cerro Blanco . It forms a northwest @-@ southeast volcanic line with Cerro Blanco and Incapillo . This line was active less than 2 @.@ 5 mya ago . Another trend is defined by the Culampaja line running from Sierra Nevada over Cerro Cóndor and Cerro Peinado to Blanco . Other volcanic centres in the region are the Miocene @-@ Pliocene ignimbrites Las Juntas and Las Papas . Minor bimodal – mafic volcanic centres during the Pleistocene – Holocene include volcanoes in the Pasto Ventura , Salar de Carachi Pampa and Volcán Negro Peinado areals . Felsic centres include Chascón and Cueros de Purulla . Cerro Purulla lies northnorthwest of Cerro Blanco and the La Hoyada volcanic complex lies directly west . 4 @,@ 380 metres ( 14 @,@ 370 ft ) Cueros de Purulla and 4 @,@ 290 metres ( 14 @,@ 070 ft ) Chascón are major sources of obsidian in the Puna of Catamarca region .
The Cerro Blanco complex is formed from pyroclastic flows extending from nested calderas . The Robledo caldera is heavily eroded and has assumed a semicircular shape . The rim of the Cerro Blanco caldera proper is well @-@ preserved , with ash and block flows filling the interior . Another theory holds that the northern Cerro Blanco and the southern Robledo calderas are part of one caldera with a minimum subsidence of 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) and a dimension of 13 by 10 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi × 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . The Cerro Blanco caldera is 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) wide . On its southern rim , surrounded by ashfall deposits , lies the Holocene Cerro Blanco del Robledo lava dome ( 26 ° 46 ′ 51 ″ S 67 ° 45 ′ 27 ″ W ) . Some sources call the whole volcano Robledo and use Cerro Blanco to refer to the lava dome . The whole volcanic complex is formed from lava domes , ignimbrites , ash and block flows and unconsolidated deposits . Cerro Blanco is the largest lava dome and has a debris collapse deposit on its northern side . A hydrothermally altered area in the middle of the caldera has been linked to phreatomagmatic activity . The El Escondido crater northeast of the caldera is 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) wide and
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Gammond describes the libretto as " almost worthy of [ W.S. ] Gilbert " , and Offenbach 's score as " certainly his best so far " . The piece starred Zulma Bouffar , who began an affair with the composer that lasted until at least 1875 .
In 1867 , Offenbach had his greatest success . The premiere of La Grande @-@ Duchesse de Gérolstein , a satire on militarism , took place two days after the opening of the Paris Exhibition , an even greater international draw than the 1855 exhibition which had helped him launch his composing career . The Parisian public and the foreign visitors flocked to the new operetta . The foreign royalty who saw the piece included the King of Prussia accompanied by his chief minister , Otto von Bismarck . Halévy , with his experience as a senior civil servant , saw more clearly than most the looming threat from Prussia ; he wrote in his diary , " Bismarck is helping to double our takings . This time it 's war we 're laughing at , and war is at our gates . " La Grande @-@ Duchesse de Gérolstein was followed quickly by a series of successful pieces : Robinson Crusoé , Geneviève de Brabant ( revised version ; both 1867 ) , Le château à Toto , Le pont des soupirs ( revised version ) and L 'île de Tulipatan ( all in 1868 ) .
In October 1868 , La Périchole marked a transition in Offenbach 's style , with less exuberant satire and more human romantic interest . Lamb calls it Offenbach 's " most charming " score . There was some critical grumbling at the change , but the piece , with Schneider in the lead , did good business . It was quickly produced in Europe and both North and South America . Of the pieces that followed it at the end of the decade , Les brigands ( 1869 ) was another work that leaned more to romantic comic opera than to opéra bouffe . It was well received , but has not subsequently been revived as often as Offenbach 's best @-@ known operettas .
= = = War and aftermath = = =
Offenbach returned hurriedly from Ems and Wiesbaden before the outbreak of the Franco @-@ Prussian War in 1870 . He then went to his home in Étretat and arranged for his family to move to the safety of San Sebastián in northern Spain , joining them shortly afterwards . Having risen to fame under Napoleon III , satirised him , and been rewarded by him , Offenbach was universally associated with the old régime : he was known as " the mocking @-@ bird of the Second Empire " . When the empire fell in the wake of Prussia 's crushing victory at Sedan ( 1870 ) , Offenbach 's music was suddenly out of favour . France was swept by violently anti @-@ German sentiments , and despite his French citizenship and Légion d 'honneur , his birth and upbringing in Cologne made him suspect . His operettas were now frequently vilified as the embodiment of everything superficial and worthless in Napoleon III 's régime . La Grande @-@ Duchesse de Gérolstein was banned in France because of its antimilitarist satire .
Although his Parisian audience deserted him , Offenbach had by now become highly popular in England . John Hollingshead of the Gaiety Theatre presented Offenbach 's operettas to large and enthusiastic audiences . Between 1870 and 1872 , the Gaiety produced 15 of his works . At the Royalty Theatre , Richard D 'Oyly Carte presented La Périchole in 1875 . In Vienna , too , Offenbach works were regularly produced . While the war and its aftermath ravaged Paris , the composer supervised Viennese productions and travelled to England as the guest of the Prince of Wales .
By the end of 1871 life in Paris had returned to normal , and Offenbach ended his voluntary exile . His new works Le roi Carotte ( 1872 ) and La jolie parfumeuse ( 1873 ) were modestly profitable , but lavish revivals of his earlier successes did better business . He decided to go back into theatre management and took over the Théâtre de la Gaîté in July 1873 . His spectacular revival of Orphée aux enfers there was highly profitable ; an attempt to repeat that success with a new , lavish version of Geneviève de Brabant proved less popular . Along with the costs of extravagant productions , collaboration with the dramatist Victorien Sardou culminated in financial disaster . An expensive production of Sardou 's La haine in 1874 , with incidental music by Offenbach , failed to attract the public to the Gaîté , and Offenbach was forced to sell his interests in the Gaîté and to mortgage future royalties .
In 1876 a successful tour of the United States in connection with its Centennial Exhibition enabled Offenbach to recover some of his losses and pay his debts . Beginning with a concert at Gilmore 's Garden before a crowd of 8 @,@ 000 people , he gave a series of more than 40 concerts in New York and Philadelphia . To circumvent a Philadelphia law forbidding entertainments on Sundays , he disguised his operetta numbers as liturgical pieces and advertised a " Grand Sacred Concert by M. Offenbach " . " Dis @-@ moi , Vénus " from La belle Hélène became a " Litanie " , and other equally secular numbers were billed as " Prière " or " Hymne " . The local authorities were not deceived , and the concert did not take place . At Booth 's Theatre , New York , Offenbach conducted La vie parisienne and his recent ( 1873 ) La jolie parfumeuse . He returned to France in July 1876 , with profits that were handsome but not spectacular .
Offenbach 's later operettas enjoyed renewed popularity in France , especially Madame Favart ( 1878 ) , which featured a fantasy plot about the real @-@ life French actress Marie Justine Favart , and La fille du tambour @-@ major ( 1879 ) , which was the most successful of his operettas of the 1870s .
= = = Last years = = =
Profitable though La fille du tambour @-@ major was , composing it left Offenbach less time to work on his cherished project , the creation of a successful serious opera . Since the beginning of 1877 , he had been working when he could on a piece based on a stage play , Les contes fantastiques d 'Hoffmann , by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré . Offenbach had suffered from gout since the 1860s , often being carried into the theatre in a chair . Now in failing health , he was conscious of his own mortality and wished passionately to live long enough to complete the opera Les contes d 'Hoffmann ( " The Tales of Hoffmann " ) . He was heard saying to Kleinzach , his dog , " I would give everything I have to be at the première " . However , Offenbach did not live to finish the piece . He left the vocal score substantially complete and had made a start on the orchestration . Ernest Guiraud , a family friend , assisted by Offenbach 's 18 @-@ year @-@ old son Auguste , completed the orchestration , making significant changes as well as the substantial cuts demanded by the Opéra @-@ Comique 's director , Carvalho . The opera was first seen at the Opéra @-@ Comique on 10 February 1881 ; Guiraud added recitatives for the Vienna premiere , in December 1881 , and other versions were made later .
Offenbach died in Paris in 1880 at the age of 61 . His cause of death was certified as heart failure brought on by acute gout . He was given a state funeral ; The Times wrote , " The crowd of distinguished men that accompanied him on his last journey amid the general sympathy of the public shows that the late composer was reckoned among the masters of his art . " He is buried in the Montmartre Cemetery .
= = Works = =
In The Musical Times , Mark Lubbock wrote in 1957 :
Offenbach 's music is as individually characteristic as that of Delius , Grieg or Puccini – together with range and variety . He could write straightforward " singing " numbers like Paris ' song in La Belle Hélène , " Au mont Ida trois déesses " ; comic songs like General Boum 's " Piff Paff Pouf " and the ridiculous ensemble at the servants ' ball in La Vie Parisienne , " Votre habit a craqué dans le dos " . He was a specialist at writing music that had a rapturous , hysterical quality . The famous can @-@ can from Orphée aux Enfers has it , and so has the finale of the servants ' party … which ends with the delirious song " Tout tourne , tout danse ' " . Then , as a contrast , he could compose songs of a simplicity , grace and beauty like the Letter Song from La Périchole , " Chanson de Fortunio " , and the Grand Duchess 's tender love song to Fritz : " Dites @-@ lui qu 'on l 'a remarqué distingué " .
Among other well @-@ known Offenbach numbers are the Doll Song , " Les oiseaux dans la charmille " ( The Tales of Hoffmann ) ; " Voici le sabre de mon père " and " Ah ! Que j 'aime les militaires " ( La Grande Duchesse de Gerolstein ) ; and " Tu n 'es pas beau " in La Périchole , which Lamb notes was Offenbach 's last major song for Hortense Schneider .
= = = Operettas = = =
By his own reckoning , Offenbach composed more than 100 operas . Both the number and the noun are open to question : some works were so extensively revised that he evidently counted the revised versions as new , and commentators generally refer to all but a few of his stage works as operettas , rather than operas . Offenbach reserved the term opérette ( English : operetta ) or opérette bouffe for some of his one @-@ act works , more often using the term opéra bouffe for his full @-@ length ones ( though there are a number of one- and two @-@ act examples of this type ) . It was only with the further development of the Operette genre in Vienna after 1870 that the French term opérette began to be used for works longer than one act . Offenbach also used the term opéra @-@ comique for at least 24 of his works in either one , two or three acts .
Offenbach 's earliest operettas were one @-@ act pieces for small casts . More than 30 of these were presented before his first full @-@ scale " opéra bouffon " , Orphée aux enfers , in 1858 , and he composed over 20 more of them during the rest of his career . Lamb , following the precedent of Henseler 's 1930 study of the composer , divides the one @-@ act pieces into five categories : " ( i ) country idylls ; ( ii ) urban operettas ; ( iii ) military operettas ; ( iv ) farces ; and ( v ) burlesques or parodies . " Offenbach enjoyed his greatest success in the 1860s . His most popular operettas from the decade have remained among his best known .
Texts and word setting
The first ideas for plots usually came from Offenbach , with his librettists working on lines agreed with him . Lamb writes , " In this respect Offenbach was both well served and skilful at discovering talent . Like Sullivan , and unlike Johann Strauss II , he was consistently blessed with workable subjects and genuinely witty librettos . " He took advantage of the rhythmic flexibility of the French language , but sometimes took this to extremes , forcing words into unnatural stresses . Harding comments that he " wrought much violence on the French language " . A frequent characteristic of Offenbach 's word setting was the nonsensical repetition of isolated syllables of words for comic effect ; an example is the quintet for the kings in La belle Hélène : " Je suis l 'époux de la reine / Poux de la reine / Poux de la reine " and " Le roi barbu qui s 'avance / Bu qui s 'avance / Bu qui s 'avance . "
Musical structure
In general , Offenbach followed simple , established forms . His melodies are usually short and unvaried in their basic rhythm , rarely , in Hughes 's words , escaping " the despotism of the four @-@ bar phrase " . In modulation Offenbach was similarly cautious ; he rarely switched a melody to a remote or unexpected key , and kept mostly to a tonic – dominant – subdominant pattern . Within these conventional limits , he employed greater resource in his varied use of rhythm ; in a single number he would contrast rapid patter for one singer with a broad , smooth phrase for another , illustrating their different characters . Similarly , he often switched quickly between major and minor keys , effectively contrasting characters or situations . When he wished to , Offenbach could use unconventional techniques , such as the leitmotiv , used throughout to accompany the eponymous Docteur Ox ( 1877 ) and to parody Wagner in La carnaval des revues ( 1860 ) .
Orchestration
In his early pieces for the Bouffes @-@ Parisiens , the size of the orchestra pit had restricted Offenbach to an orchestra of 16 players . He composed for flute , oboe , clarinet , bassoon , two horns , piston , trombone , timpani and percussion and a small string section of seven players . After moving to the Salle Choiseul he had an orchestra of 30 players . The musicologist and Offenbach specialist Jean @-@ Christophe Keck notes that when larger orchestras were available , either in bigger Paris theatres or in Vienna or elsewhere , Offenbach would compose , or rearrange existing music , accordingly . Surviving scores show his instrumentation for additional wind and brass , and even extra percussion . When they were available he wrote for cor anglais , harp , and , exceptionally , Keck records , an ophicleide ( Le Papillon ) , tubular bells ( Le carnaval des revues ) , and a wind machine ( Le voyage dans la lune ) .
Hughes describes Offenbach 's orchestration as " always skilful , often delicate , and occasionally subtle . " He instances Pluton 's song in Orphée aux enfers , introduced by a three @-@ bar phrase for solo clarinet and solo bassoon in octaves immediately repeated on solo flute and solo bassoon an octave higher . In Keck 's view , " Offenbach 's orchestral scoring is full of details , elaborate counter @-@ voices , minute interactions coloured by interjections of the woodwinds or brass , all of which establish a dialogue with the voices . His refinement of design equals that of Mozart or Rossini . "
Compositional method
Offenbach often composed amidst noise and distractions . According to Keck , Offenbach would first make a note of melodies a libretto suggested to him in a notebook or straight onto the librettist ’ s manuscript . Next using full score manuscript paper he wrote down vocal parts in the centre , then a piano accompaniment at the bottom possibly with notes on orchestration . When Offenbach felt sure the work would be performed , he began full orchestration , often employing a codified system .
Parody and influences
Offenbach was well known for parodying other composers ' music . Some of them saw the joke and others did not . Adam , Auber and Meyerbeer enjoyed Offenbach 's parodies of their scores . Meyerbeer made a point of attending all Bouffes @-@ Parisiens productions , always seated in Offenbach 's private box . Among the composers who were not amused by Offenbach 's parodies were Berlioz and Wagner . Offenbach mocked Berlioz 's " strivings after the antique " , and his initial light @-@ hearted satire of Wagner 's pretensions later hardened into genuine dislike . Berlioz reacted by bracketing Offenbach and Wagner together as " the product of the mad German mind " , and Wagner , ignoring Berlioz , retaliated by writing some unflattering verses about Offenbach .
In general , Offenbach 's parodistic technique was simply to play the original music in unexpected and incongruous circumstances . He slipped the banned revolutionary anthem La Marseillaise into the chorus of rebellious gods in Orphée aux enfers , and quoted the aria " Che farò " from Gluck 's Orfeo in the same work ; in La belle Hélène he quoted the patriotic trio from Rossini 's Guillaume Tell and parodied himself in the ensemble for the kings of Greece , in which the accompaniment quotes the rondeau from Orphée aux enfers . In his one act pieces , Offenbach parodied Rossini 's " Largo al factotum " and familiar arias by Bellini . In Croquefer ( 1857 ) , one duet consists of quotations from Halévy 's La Juive and Meyerbeer 's Robert le Diable and Les Huguenots . Even in his later , less satirical period , he included a parodic quotation from Donizetti 's La fille du régiment in La fille du tambour @-@ major .
Other examples of Offenbach 's use of incongruity are noted by the critic Paul Taylor : " In La belle Hélène , the kings of Greece denounce Paris as ' un vil séducteur ' to a waltz tempo that is itself unsuitably seductive … the potty @-@ sounding phrase ' L 'homme à la pomme ' becomes the absurd nucleus of a big cod @-@ ensemble . " Another lyric set to absurdly ceremonious music is " Votre habit a craqué dans le dos " ( " Your coat has split down the back " ) in La vie parisienne . The Grand Duchess of Gérolstein 's rondo " Ah ! Que j 'aime les militaires " is rhythmically and melodically similar to the finale of Beethoven 's Seventh Symphony , but it is not clear whether the similarity is parodic or coincidental .
In Offenbach 's last decade , he took note of a change in public taste : a simpler , more romantic style was now preferred . Harding writes that Lecocq had successfully moved away from satire and parody , returning to " the genuine spirit of opéra @-@ comique and its peculiarly French gaiety . " Offenbach followed suit in a series of 20 operettas ; the conductor and musicologist Antonio de Almeida names the finest of these as La fille du tambour @-@ major ( 1879 ) .
= = = Other works = = =
Of Offenbach 's two serious operas , Die Rheinnixen , a failure , was not revived until the 21st century . His second attempt , The Tales of Hoffmann , was originally intended as a grand opera . When the work was accepted by Léon Carvalho for production at the Opéra @-@ Comique , Offenbach agreed to make it an opéra comique with spoken dialogue . It was incomplete when he died ; Faris speculates that , but for Georges Bizet 's premature death , Bizet rather than Guiraud would have been asked to complete the piece and would have done so more satisfactorily . The critic Tim Ashley writes , " Stylistically , the opera reveals a remarkable amalgam of French and German influences … Weberian chorales preface Hoffmann 's narrative . Olympia delivers a big coloratura aria straight out of French grand opera , while Antonia sings herself to death to music reminiscent of Schubert . "
Although he wrote ballet music for many of his operettas , Offenbach wrote only one ballet , Le papillon . The score was much praised for its orchestration , and it contained one number , the " Valse des rayons " , that became an international success . Between 1836 and 1875 he composed several individual waltzes and polkas , and suites of dances . They include a waltz , Abendblätter ( " Evening Papers " ) composed for Vienna with Johann Strauss 's Morgenblätter ( " Morning Papers " ) as a companion piece . Other orchestral compositions include a piece in 17th @-@ century style with cello solo , which became a standard work of the cello repertoire . Little of Offenbach 's non @-@ operatic orchestral music has been regularly performed since his death .
Offenbach composed more than 50 non @-@ operatic songs between 1838 and 1854 , most of them to French texts , by authors including Alfred de Musset , Théophile Gautier and Jean de La Fontaine , and also ten to German texts . Among the most popular of these songs was " À toi " ( 1843 ) , dedicated to the young Hérminie d 'Alcain as an early token of his love .
= = = Arrangements = = =
Although the overtures to Orphée aux enfers and La belle Hélene are well known and frequently recorded , the scores usually performed and recorded were not composed by Offenbach , but were arranged by Carl Binder and Eduard Haensch , respectively , for the Vienna premieres of the two works . Offenbach 's own preludes are much shorter .
In 1938 , Manuel Rosenthal assembled the popular ballet Gaîté Parisienne from his own orchestral arrangements of melodies from Offenbach 's stage works , and in 1953 the same composer assembled a symphonic suite , Offenbachiana , also from music by Offenbach . Jean @-@ Christophe Keck regards the 1938 work as " no more than a vulgarly orchestrated pastiche " ; in Gammond 's view , however , it does " full justice " to Offenbach .
= = Legacy and reputation = =
= = = Influence = = =
The musician and author Fritz Spiegl wrote in 1980 , " Without Offenbach there would have been no Savoy Opera … no Die Fledermaus or Merry Widow . The two creators of the Savoy operas , the librettist , Gilbert , and the composer , Sullivan , were both indebted to Offenbach and his partners for their satiric and musical styles , even borrowing plot components . For example , Faris argues that the mock @-@ oriental Ba @-@ ta @-@ clan influenced The Mikado , including its character names : Offenbach 's Ko @-@ ko @-@ ri @-@ ko and Gilbert 's Ko @-@ Ko ; Faris also compares Le pont des soupirs ( 1861 ) and The Gondoliers ( 1889 ) : " in both works there are choruses à la barcarolle for gondoliers and contadini [ in ] thirds and sixths ; Offenbach has a Venetian admiral telling of his cowardice in battle ; Gilbert and Sullivan have their Duke of Plaza @-@ Toro who led his regiment from behind . " Offenbach 's Les Géorgiennes ( 1864 ) , like Gilbert and Sullivan 's Princess Ida ( 1884 ) , depicts a female stronghold challenged by males in disguise . The best @-@ known instance in which a Savoy opera draws on Offenbach 's work is The Pirates of Penzance ( 1879 ) , where both Gilbert and Sullivan follow the lead of Les brigands ( 1869 ) in their treatment of the police , plodding along ineffectually in heavy march @-@ time . Les brigands was presented in London in 1871 , 1873 and 1875 ; for the first of these , Gilbert made an English translation of Meilhac and Halévy 's libretto .
However much the young Sullivan was influenced by Offenbach , the influence was evidently not in only one direction . Hughes observes that two numbers in Offenbach 's Maitre Péronilla ( 1878 ) bear " an astonishing resemblance " to " My name is John Wellington Wells " from Gilbert and Sullivan 's The Sorcerer ( 1877 ) .
It is not clear how directly Offenbach influenced Johann Strauss . He had encouraged Strauss to turn to operetta when they met in Vienna in 1864 , but it was not until seven years later that Strauss did so . However , Offenbach 's operettas were well established in Vienna , and Strauss worked on the lines established by his French colleague ; in 1870s Vienna , an operetta composer who did not do so was quickly called to order by the press . In Gammond 's view , the Viennese composer most influenced by Offenbach was Franz von Suppé , who studied Offenbach 's works carefully and wrote many successful operettas using them as a model .
In his 1957 article , Lubbock wrote , " Offenbach is undoubtedly the most significant figure in the history of the ' musical ' , " and traced the development of musical theatre from Offenbach to Irving Berlin and Rodgers and Hammerstein , via Franz Lehár , André Messager , Sullivan and Lionel Monckton .
= = = Reputation = = =
During Offenbach 's lifetime , and in the obituary notices in 1880 , fastidious critics ( dubbed " Musical Snobs Ltd " by Gammond ) showed themselves at odds with public appreciation . In a 1980 article in The Musical Times , George Hauger commented that those critics not only underrated Offenbach , but wrongly supposed that his music would soon be forgotten . Although most critics of the time made that erroneous assumption , a few perceived Offenbach 's unusual quality ; in The Times , Francis Hueffer wrote , " none of his numerous Parisian imitators has ever been able to rival Offenbach at his best . " Nevertheless , the paper joined in the general prediction : " It is very doubtful whether any of his works will survive . " The New York Times shared this view : " That he had the gift of melody in a very extraordinary degree is not to be denied , but he wrote currente calamo , and the lack of development of his choicest inspirations will , it is to be feared , keep them from reaching even the next generation " . After the posthumous production of The Tales of Hoffmann , The Times partially reconsidered its judgment , writing , " Les Contes de Hoffmann [ will ] confirm the opinion of those who regard him as a great composer in every sense of the word " . It then lapsed into what Gammond calls " Victorian sanctimoniousness " by taking it for granted that the opera " will uphold Offenbach 's fame long after his lighter compositions have passed out of memory . "
The critic Sacheverell Sitwell compared Offenbach 's lyrical and comic gifts to those of Mozart and Rossini . Friedrich Nietzsche called Offenbach both an " artistic genius " and a " clown " , but wrote that " nearly every one " of Offenbach 's works achieves half a dozen " moments of wanton perfection " . Émile Zola commented on Offenbach and his work in a novel ( Nana ) and an essay , " La féerie et l 'opérette IV / V " . While granting that Offenbach 's best operettas are full of grace , charm and wit , Zola blames Offenbach for what others have made out of the genre . Zola calls operetta a " public enemy " and a " monstrous beast " . While some critics saw the satire in Offenbach 's works as a social protest , an attack against the establishment , Zola saw the works as a homage to the social system in the Second Empire .
Otto Klemperer was an admirer ; late in life he reflected : " At the Kroll we did La Périchole . That 's a really delightful score . So is Orpheus in the Underworld and Belle Hélène . Those who called him ' The Mozart of the Boulevards ' were not much mistaken " . Debussy , Bizet , Mussorgsky and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov loved Offenbach 's operettas . Debussy rated them higher than The Tales of Hoffmann : " The one work in which [ Offenbach ] tried to be serious met with no success . " A London critic wrote , on Offenbach 's death :
I somewhere read that some of Offenbach 's latest work shows him to be capable of more ambitious work . I , for one , am glad he did what he did , and only wish he had done more of the same .
Efforts to present critical editions of Offenbach 's works have been hampered by the dispersion of his autograph scores to several collections after his death , some of which do not grant access to scholars .
= = = Sheet music = = =
Free scores by Jacques Offenbach in the Choral Public Domain Library ( ChoralWiki )
Free scores by Jacques Offenbach at the International Music Score Library Project
Works by Jacques Offenbach at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Jacques Offenbach at Internet Archive
= Wonder Mountain 's Guardian =
Wonder Mountain 's Guardian ( also known as Guardian or WMG ; during Halloween Haunt known as Zombies 4D ) is a 4D , interactive dark ride roller coaster at the Canada 's Wonderland amusement park located in Vaughan , Ontario , Canada . It is also the first ride part of Cedar Fair 's Amusement Dark collection . Park management first proposed a dark ride located inside Wonder Mountain around 2004 . Technology and budget limitations at the time delayed the project 's planning and design stages until 2011 . The steel track was manufactured by Art Engineering ; it is approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) long and has a maximum height of about 60 feet ( 18 m ) . The ride also has one of the largest drop tracks in the world .
Triotech designed the ride 's interactive 3D animations , which are accompanied by other special effects such as wind , adding the fourth dimension . During the park 's Halloween Haunt event in October , the animations are replaced with zombie @-@ themed effects . Delays during construction delayed the ride 's opening until May 24 , 2014 ; three weeks after the 2014 season began . Guardian was inspired by the dragon in Thunder Run — another roller coaster located in the mountain area of the park — and Starlight Spectacular — a nightly light @-@ and @-@ sound show focused on Wonder Mountain .
= = History = =
Canada 's Wonderland 's first interactive dark ride was Scooby @-@ Doo 's Haunted Mansion ( renamed Boo Blasters on Boo Hill after Cedar Fair 's purchase of the park ) , which opened in 2000 . It was designed by Sally Corporation and relies entirely on physical sets and theming rather than projected animations , and uses basic , moving props . About four years later , park management began discussing the addition of a new attraction inside Wonder Mountain . The technology available at the time meant the cost of building a more advanced dark ride was too expensive for a regional amusement park . In 2011 , as technology improved and the costs decreased , the park started planning a second interactive dark ride . Several companies were contacted to design the audio @-@ visual portion of the future ride ; park management chose Triotech to do so .
Speculation that Canada 's Wonderland would build a new attraction for the 2014 season began at the end of July 2013 when maintenance work on the western side of Wonder Mountain was discovered . On August 8 , Cedar Fair confirmed an interactive dark ride would be built at one of the company 's parks . Wonderland officially announced Wonder Mountain 's Guardian — a ten million dollar attraction — on August 30 , 2013 , on Breakfast Television , a morning news program for the Toronto area . During the International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions ( IAAPA ) Attractions Expo 2013 , the characters of the ride were revealed during president and CEO of Cedar Fair Matt Ouimet 's keynote address .
The first pieces of track and other parts from arrived at the park from Germany in mid @-@ January 2014 . A month later , installation of the track began inside the mountain . By the end of February , erection of the framing for the 3D screens began . By the beginning of March , support columns for the outside portion of the ride were installed . The lift hill was completed at the beginning of April . The park opened to the public on May 4 but the opening of Guardian was delayed . On May 23 , the park announced the ride would open the next day . The entire project involved 10 contractors and at least 47 workers .
On November 7 , 2013 , Cedar Fair announced that during Halloween Haunt , Guardian would be altered to a zombie @-@ themed ride . The name of this version of the attraction was later revealed to be Zombies 4D .
= = Ride experience = =
When Guardian first opened , Fast Lane was available to guests but within the first week of operation the Fast Lane option was removed . Riders must be at least 42 inches ( 107 cm ) tall to ride with an adult or 48 inches ( 122 cm ) to ride alone .
The rider 's experience is dependent upon the location of her or his seat on the train . Screens are located on both sides of the track but the only continuous screen on the track is on the right @-@ hand side . The train makes several tight turns during the ride ; riders facing forward experience all the animations while riders facing backward miss some scenes because of a the lack of screen space . The cars rotate 90 degrees clockwise to face the screens ; forward @-@ facing riders rotate toward the continuous screen .
= = = Wonder Mountain 's Guardian = = =
In the ride 's narrative of events preceding those that occur during the ride , King Adelsten entered the mountain to fight a dragon called Ormaar . During the battle , the king lost his crown . Stansein , one of the king 's servants , guides riders through the mountain to find and retrieve the crown . Throughout the ride , riders can score points by hitting objects on the screen with their light guns . At the end , the highest scores are placed in the ' Wonder Mountain 's Guardian Hall of Fame ' .
After the train leaves the station , it turns180 @-@ degrees right and exits the mountain , leading into a 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) chain lift hill . Once at the top , the train enters a shallow , right @-@ hand drop and runs along the side of the mountain . It makes a banked right turn back into the mountain , then a tarpaulin drops , blocking the entrance to prevent light from entering . The train slows and the cars rotate 90 degrees to face the screens . Stansein tells riders to prepare to battle the enemies . The first scene takes place in forest environment where riders fight Sneaky Spiders and Beasty Bats . At the end of the first scene , riders who began the ride facing forward see Stansein 's first appearance , in which he points in the direction riders should go next . Backward @-@ facing riders do not see this transition . In the next scene , riders — who are surrounded by a lake inside the mountain — battle Wet Ones and Crazy Crabs . The scene starts above the surface of the water but later moves downwards . As the scene ends , the train passes two waterfalls ; this transition is absent for backward @-@ facing riders .
Riders then arrive in an underground city named Draconian City , where they battle against Draconians and Archers . Nearing the finale , forward @-@ facing riders see Stansein making his final appearance , following the train . Riders are then confronted by more Draconians and Archers before entering a gold @-@ covered area where King Adelsten 's crown is found . Soon after , Ormaar arrives and breathes fire toward the ground . After a few seconds , the drop track releases the train into a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) free fall , escaping from Ormaar . As the train leaves the drop track , the trains are rotated to their original positions and all of the riders ' scores are displayed on both sides of the track . After turning left into the station , riders disembark and the next riders board . One cycle of the ride lasts approximately three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes .
= = = Zombies 4D = = =
In the ride 's Zombies 4D version , riders score points for shooting zombies and police badges found throughout the ride , but lose points if they shoot civilians .
After the train is dispatched and enters Wonder Mountain , riders find themselves in a graveyard where zombies are roaming . At the end of the scene , riders who began facing forward see a survivor directing them to the next scene . Riders who were seated backwards do not see this transition . The next scene takes place in a house overrun by the zombies and large spiders . At the end of the scene a truck crashes into the house . Riders then leave the house and pass the survivor ; this transition is again absent for backward @-@ seated riders . The train continues to a road with zombies , where three cars with zombies on them join the riders . Two of the cars crash at the end of the scene . The train then passes through a tunnel with abandoned cars ; this scene is absent for riders facing backward . Riders then battle the zombies for the final time before entering the drop track sequence . The names of the highest @-@ scoring riders are displayed on a leader @-@ board for this version of the attraction .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Trains = = =
Guardian operates with five trains , each containing two cars that were manufactured by Art Engineering . Each car seats four riders back @-@ to @-@ back in seated rows ; each train can seat eight riders . Every seat has a lap @-@ bar restraint , a light gun , and a loudspeaker that provides sound during the ride . This configuration allows the ride to theoretically carry 650 riders per hour . The cars can rotate 90 degrees in both directions . The trains ' light guns are programmed to display a unique colour on the ride 's screens to indicate where each rider is shooting and to distinguish between shooters .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Guardian is approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) long and the lift is about 60 feet ( 18 m ) high ; it was manufactured by Kubes Steel located in Stoney Creek , Ontario . The outside portion of the track is grey and has beige supports ; indoor portions of the ride 's infrastructure are painted black . When the train is inside the mountain , drive tires move the trains along the track . The drive tires and other moving parts within the track system were manufactured by Art Engineering .
At the end of the interactive part of the ride , there is a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) free @-@ fall drop track , a movable piece of track that can be released into free fall . As of 2015 , this roller coaster element has only been used on five coasters in the world . Once the train exits the drop track , the track returns to its starting position for the next train . Both Polar X @-@ plorer at Legoland Billund Resort and Thirteen at Alton Towers have vertical drop tracks that release riders into a 16 @.@ 4 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) drop . Verbolten at Busch Gardens Williamsburg has a drop track measuring 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) . The drop track used on Guardian is one of the largest drop tracks in the world .
= = = Screens = = =
Guardian uses 64 720p projectors to display interactive content on the ride 's screens . As the train enters the mountain , the cars rotate to face the screens . Because riders are seated both forwards and backwards , two sets of screens — one for each side — are required . Because Guardian makes tight turns , only the screen on the right @-@ hand side of the track continuously shows content until the end . This screen holds the record for being the longest continuous interactive screen in the world , with a length of approximately 500 feet ( 150 m ) and a height of 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) . The other screen is set up so that as one scene finishes , the transition scene that is seen on the continuous screen is skipped and the next scene begins soon after , keeping both screens in synchronization . Because no physical sets are used in the attraction , the park management can change the film and theme of Guardian at any time .
= = = Characters = = =
The Wonder Mountain 's Guardian version of the attraction features eight characters . Stansien is the riders ' guide who leads them through the mountain . Crazy Crabs are characterized as attractive but dangerous . Beasty Bats are recognizable by their oversized fangs compared to those of regular bats . Sneaky Spiders have the ability to ambush riders and their bites contain venom . Archers fight with bows and arrows , and can move around quickly . Wet Ones are reptilian creatures similar to fish but they can walk on land . These reptiles are most dangerous when they are in the water . Draconians protect Draconian City and carry swords and shields . Ormaar is the dragon that lives inside the mountain and confronts riders at the end of the ride .
In the Zombies 4D version of the ride , a survivor of the zombie apocalypse replaces Stansien as the guide character ; zombies are the enemy .
= = Reception = =
Brady MacDonald from Los Angeles Times ranked Guardian as the ninth most anticipated new ride of 2014 ; Sarah Sekula from Fox News ranked the ride in the top nine . Jody Robbins from MSN ranked Guardian in the top 11 best new attractions in Canada .
According to Triotech and Cedar Fair , the response from the public during the ride 's opening weekend was positive . Children and parents interviewed by Adam Martin @-@ Robbins from Yorkregion.com said they enjoyed the ride . Jeremy Schoolfiiled from the IAAPA said , " Cedar Fair seems to have figured out how to create a lavish dark ride on a regional theme park budget " .
During the 2014 season , attendance at Canada 's Wonderland dropped one percent — a loss of approximately 36 @,@ 000 visitors — compared to that of the 2013 season . The park 's most recent increase in attendance was in 2012 , the season Leviathan debuted , where there was a five percent increase . Wonder Mountain 's Guardian did not place in the top 50 roller coasters in the world , nor was it in the top five new roller coasters in the Golden Ticket Awards for the 2014 season .
= No Pressure ( film ) =
No Pressure is a controversial 2010 short film produced by the global warming mitigation campaign 10 : 10 , written by Richard Curtis and Franny Armstrong , and directed by Dougal Wilson . Intended for cinema and television advertisements , No Pressure is composed of scenes in which a variety of people in every @-@ day situations are graphically blown to pieces for failing to be sufficiently enthusiastic about the 10 : 10 campaign to reduce CO2 emissions . The film 's makers said that they viewed No Pressure as " a funny and satirical tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek little film in the over @-@ the @-@ top style of Monty Python or South Park " . Before its release , The Guardian described it as " attention @-@ grabbing " and " pretty edgy . "
The film was withdrawn from public circulation by 10 : 10 , on the same day it was released , due to negative publicity . Charities that had backed the film stated they were " absolutely appalled " upon seeing it , and several of 10 : 10 's corporate and strategic partners withdrew from partnership . Fox News called the film " a blood @-@ splattering display that has drawn anger from critics and sheepish embarrassment from its supporters . "
= = Background and production = =
The film was made in an attempt to challenge the " no pressure " attitude often displayed both by governments and individuals towards taking real action on climate change . 10 : 10 highlighted the urgency of action with claims that carbon dioxide emissions must be stabilised by 2014 ( within four years ) in order to avoid disaster , and that " 300 @,@ 000 real people " are already killed by climate change annually . Lizzie Gillet , 10 : 10 global campaign director , explained : " With climate change becoming increasingly threatening , and decreasingly talked about in the media , we wanted to find a way to bring this critical issue back into the headlines while making people laugh . We were therefore delighted when Richard Curtis agreed to write a short film for the 10 : 10 campaign " .
The film was shot on a location at Camden School for Girls , in the London Borough of Camden in North London . According to 10 : 10 , over 50 film professionals and more than 40 actors and extras provided their services at no cost .
= = Synopsis = =
The four @-@ minute film consists of a series of short scenes in which groups of people are asked if they are interested in participating in the 10 : 10 project to reduce carbon emissions . Those failing to show enthusiasm for the cause are gruesomely blown to pieces .
In the first scene , a bright and chirpy schoolteacher , played by Lyndsey Marshal , tells her class about the 10 : 10 campaign , and asks what they are doing to reduce their carbon footprint . She asks which students are planning to participate ; most raise their hands , but two children shrug apathetically . The teacher reassures them that this is " fine , it 's absolutely fine , it 's your choice " and there is " no pressure " , but then shifts the papers on her desk to reveal a red @-@ buttoned detonator , which she presses . The two children who did not want to participate explode , covering their screaming classmates with blood and body parts . The blood @-@ spattered teacher then goes on casually to explain the night 's homework to her horrified charges .
The second scene shows a group of white @-@ collar workers in an office meeting . The office manager similarly explains the purpose of the 10 : 10 campaign , and asks who will be participating . While most raise their hands , four raise their hands unconvinced . The manager reassures them that there is " no pressure " to participate , but he is then handed a detonator by an assistant , which he uses to blow up the four workers , splattering appalled co @-@ workers with gore .
The third scene is set on a football pitch during team training . The coach , played by David Ginola , asks the players to explain the 10 : 10 campaign that the team is participating in . They describe a range of energy @-@ saving measures which have been implemented by the team and its fans . However , the coach remains unmoved , remarking the campaign would distract him from football . A player tells him that there 's " no pressure " , produces a detonator and blows him up . Unlike the witnesses depicted in previous scenes , the team is not at all surprised , and casually jogs away to resume training .
A brief interlude with captions explains the campaign , accompanied by music from Radiohead . In the final scene , the actress Gillian Anderson is finishing the voice @-@ over for the interlude just seen . The sound engineer asks her what she is planning to do to cut her carbon footprint . Anderson irritably remarks that she thought providing the recording was a sufficient contribution . The sound engineer repeats the film 's catchphrase , " no pressure " , and detonates Anderson before picking up to leave . The film ends with a shot of Anderson 's gory remains sliding down the sound @-@ booth window with the text " Cut your carbon by 10 % . No pressure . "
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , No Pressure provoked an immediate negative reaction in the media , and the resulting controversy became widely referred to as " splattergate " by bloggers .
In The Daily Telegraph , James Delingpole wrote that the film was an " ugly , counterproductive eco @-@ propaganda movie " and that " with No Pressure , the environmental movement has revealed the snarling , wicked , homicidal misanthropy beneath its cloak of gentle , bunny @-@ hugging righteousness " . The ConservativeHome website described it as " crass , tasteless and unfunny as it gets " , while Melanie Phillips in The Spectator commented on the intended humorous aspect of the film by writing that " The joke was only about blowing dissenters to bits and raining their flesh down on terrified people . Because exterminating human beings is acceptable to greens as a joke . From which we can only assume at best indifference towards and at worst a profound loathing of the human condition " .
American environmentalist and writer Bill McKibben lamented the film on the Climate Progress website , where he wrote " The climate skeptics can crow . It 's the kind of stupidity that hurts our side , reinforcing in people 's minds a series of preconceived notions , not the least of which is that we 're out @-@ of @-@ control and out of touch — not to mention off the wall , and also with completely misplaced sense of humor " . McKibben added " There 's no question that crap like this will cast a shadow , for a time , over our efforts and everyone else who 's working on global warming . McKibben subsequently withdrew as an organisational partner of 10 : 10 . When The Daily Caller asked about the film , environmental organisation Greenpeace spokeswoman Jane Kochersperger stated that " as an organisation committed to non @-@ violence , I think you can imagine how Greenpeace views this material . At this time , the only people promoting the material are climate skeptics and think tanks funded by corporations known for lobbying against climate change legislation " . Five other environmental groups contacted by The Daily Caller did not comment on the film .
In The Independent , Dominic Lawson wrote " As often as 10 : 10 tried to pull the film off YouTube , their critics re @-@ posted it . This , at least , proves what a cataclysmic misjudgement Curtis had made . When you try to satirise the critics of your campaign , and it turns out that those very critics embrace your film as demonstrating exactly what they find unbearable about the climate @-@ obsessed eco @-@ lobby , then you know that you have kicked the ball into your own net " .
The film generated a huge reaction in the blogosphere . One comment to The Guardian read : " To suggest that people who disagree with you deserve to die is incredibly stupid . Imagine if some Christian group in the US did that to gays , Muslims or anyone else they disagree with . The outrage would be palpable . And deserved . "
The Guardian , which was a key collaborator with the 10 : 10 campaign since its launch and got exclusive rights to show the film première , responded to the criticism by stating that " the film may have been somewhat tasteless , but it was an imaginative attempt to challenge public apathy over climate change " . This statement originally ended " and , highly unusually for attempts to communicate about this subject , funny too " , but this was later redacted . A later report in the newspaper by Adam Vaughan said that the film , " intended as a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek spoof of hectoring greens " , had created a huge amount of global coverage for 10 : 10 , in print and on the web . The report said that while many people had found the film hilarious , there was a " predictable slating from climate sceptics " as well as furious reactions from some environmentalists . The report also went on to describe other , more reflective responses , which had focused on effective communication , psychology , satire , and ways of engaging with various audiences over climate change .
= = Withdrawal = =
Although originally planned to be shown in cinema and television advertisements , 10 : 10 removed the film from their website and YouTube later on 1 October 2010 . On Friday 2 October , 10 : 10 placed a notice on their website saying , " Many people found the resulting film extremely funny , but unfortunately some didn 't and we sincerely apologise to anybody we have offended . [ ... ] At 10 : 10 we 're all about trying new and creative ways of getting people to take action on climate change . Unfortunately in this instance we missed the mark . Oh well , we live and learn . " This was criticised as a non @-@ apology apology by Michelle Malkin in the Litchfield County Register and Andrew Revkin in an opinion piece in the New York Times . A spokesman for 10 : 10 also denied that the withdrawal had been planned from the beginning in order to generate publicity . After removing the video from YouTube , 10 : 10 issued a statement : " We won 't be making any attempt to censor or remove other versions currently in circulation on the internet " . Then , on Monday 5 October 10 : 10 director Eugenie Harvey issued a second , more comprehensive apology , stating : " We are ... sorry to our corporate sponsors , delivery partners and board members , who have been implicated in this situation despite having no involvement in the film 's production or release . "
ActionAid , a charity which co @-@ ordinates a schools programme with 10 : 10 , approved the decision to withdraw the film , and stated " Our job is to encourage proactive decisions at class level to reduce carbon emissions . We did it because evidence shows children are deeply concerned about climate change and because we see the impacts of it in the developing world where a lot of our work is . So we think the 10 : 10 campaign is very important , but the moment this film was seen it was clear it was inappropriate . "
In the wake of the film 's withdrawal , Richard Curtis admitted that the attempt to draw attention to the cause of lowering CO
2 emissions may have backfired . Curtis said " When you try to be funny on a serious subject , it 's obviously risky . I hope people who don 't like the little film will still think about the big issue and try to do something about it . "
= = = Withdrawal of sponsors = = =
Several sponsors withdrew their support of 10 : 10 as a result of the No Pressure film . Nick Sharples , Sony Europe 's Director of Communications , issued a statement saying , " we strongly condemn the No Pressure video which was conceived , produced and released by 10 : 10 entirely without the knowledge or involvement of Sony " , and cutting ties with 10 : 10 : " As a result we have taken the decision to disassociate ourselves from 10 : 10 at this time " . Kyocera and Eaga were removed from the list of 10 : 10 sponsors , and National Magazine Company was removed from the list of 10 : 10 media partners . At the same time , a spokesman for O2 , a partner of 10 : 10 , refused to disassociate itself from the group : " 10 : 10 is an independent organisation and we don 't ask for editorial control over the content of its campaigns . "
350.org , with whom 10 : 10 had been collaborating on the 10 October 2010 day of action , broke all current and future relations with 10 : 10 . In a press release , they said : " We respect 10 : 10 's previous work to encourage companies , schools , and churches to voluntarily cut their carbon emissions 10 % . Upon seeing the video , however , we have informed 10 : 10 that we can no longer remain partners on 10 October 2010 or any other initiative . 350.org maintains an absolute commitment to nonviolence in word and deed " .
= Tom Felton =
Thomas Andrew " Tom " Felton ( born 22 September 1987 ) is an English actor . Felton began appearing in commercials when he was 8 years old for companies such as Commercial Union and Barclaycard . He made his screen debut in the role of Peagreen Clock in The Borrowers ( 1997 ) and he portrayed Louis T. Leonowens in Anna and the King ( 1999 ) . He rose to prominence for his role as Draco Malfoy in the film adaptions of the best @-@ selling Harry Potter fantasy novels by J.K. Rowling . His performances in Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 won him two consecutive MTV Movie Awards for Best Villain in 2010 and 2011 .
Following the conclusion of the series in 2011 , Felton appeared in the 2011 film Rise of the Planet of the Apes , a reboot of the Planet of the Apes series . He had roles in minor films , appearing in the 2012 films The Apparition and From the Rough , and he starred as James Ashford in the critically acclaimed period drama film Belle ( 2013 ) , followed by roles in In Secret ( 2014 ) and Against the Sun ( 2014 ) . Felton 's 2016 films include the epic historical drama Risen , alongside Joseph Fiennes , and the period biopic A United Kingdom , alongside David Oyelowo and Rosamund Pike . In 2016 , he will appear as a series regular in The Flash .
= = Early life = =
Felton was born in Epsom , the son of Sharon and Peter Felton . He was educated at West Horsley 's Cranmore School , until the age of thirteen . He then attended The Howard of Effingham School which is a high school that is located in Effingham that specialises in Sciences . Felton is a singer and was part of a choir at the age of seven . He was a member of four school choirs and was given the chance to be part of the Guildford Cathedral Choir . He has three older brothers ; Ashley , Jonathan and Chris . Felton is the youngest of four sons .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Felton began acting in adverts for companies such as Commercial Union and Barclaycard . In 1995 , he performed the voice of James in the television series Bugs and landed his first feature film role in 1997 when he played the part of Peagreen Clock in Peter Hewitt 's film The Borrowers . Felton played witness Thomas Ingham opposite Clive Owen in Second Sight in 1999 . Felton 's role of Louis T. Leonowens in the film Anna and the King , starring Jodie Foster , was also filmed in 1999 in Malaysia . Felton made an appearance in the episode " Hide and Seek " of Second Sight 2 followed in 2000 . The Guildford Cathedral Choir also offered him a position .
= = = 2000 – present = = =
By autumn 2001 , Felton had become known internationally for his portrayal of Draco Malfoy , the bully , enemy and foil of Harry Potter in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone . He appeared in all of the Harry Potter films . Before landing the part of Malfoy , Felton had auditioned to play Harry Potter and Ron Weasley . Of the four young actors who succeeded in getting the main roles , Felton had the most extensive film experience . Thereafter Felton 's schedule began to fill with the work of filming the first four films , premieres , and contributing to articles and interviews . He also received the Disney Channel 's Kids Awards for Best DVD for Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets on 22 September 2003 . Felton started his Official Tom Felton Fan Club in 2004 and took part in autograph signing events . His fan club was reported to have attracted so many fans that Felton had to put a temporary stop to people signing up to his fan club . The autographing session in Germany drew people from Chile and one fan in Cologne summarised : " Tom is a real nice , professional young man , always happy , smiling , laughing , full of power — a real gentleman . " When the fan asked Felton what kids should do if someone like his character is bullying them , he said : " Tell someone . You do not want to keep it to yourself . "
After filming Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire , Felton made a guest appearance on Home Farm Twins in 2005 , where he played Adam Baker in the short @-@ lived series . He attended Collectormania on 30 April 2005 and London 's world premiere for Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire . On 11 November 2005 , he and Rupert Grint presented Liz Carnell with the Daily Mirror 's Pride of Britain Award for all of her work to raise awareness of the dangers of bullying . Felton worked on Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix throughout 2006 . Having read more of the Harry Potter books , Felton reflected : " I have had input into Draco . If they give me a line and I do not think it is something he would say , I suggest changing it . They do listen to you and you do feel a part of it . "
In July 2007 , Felton visited Children 's Hospital in Denver , Colorado in a pre @-@ screening charitable event of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix . He was also present at Leicester Square for the premiere of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix on 3 July 2007 .
On 12 November 2008 , Felton appeared alongside Jack Osbourne on Adrenaline Junkie as he participated in various challenges in South African , including a 200ft bungee jump on Bloukrans Bridge , took a ride in a helicopter , followed by a parachute freefall and came face @-@ to @-@ face with Great White sharks .
Felton also appeared in Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince , the sixth film of the series . When asked whether he was looking forward to playing a good guy in the future he answered : " No . Well , I don 't know . I suppose for now I 'm happy with sticking to what he is . But after the Potter legacy is over I look forward to playing a good guy , or someone different anyway ; someone not so spiteful . " Felton also played the character Simon in the 2009 horror / thriller movie The Disappeared .
Felton posted three music videos on YouTube under an account called " Feltbeats " , in which he performs fragments of original songs . Nine songs have been re @-@ recorded and are now available on iTunes : " Time Well Spent , " " Time Isn 't Healing " , " One of These Days " , " Under Stars , " " Right Place , Right Time , " " In My Arms , " " All I Need , " and " I Will Be There " join the instrumental " Silhouettes in Sunsets . " He also recorded an album titled In Good Hands . It includes the six songs " If You Could Be Anywhere " , " We Belong " , " When Angels Come " , " Convinced " , " Father of Mine " , and " If That 's Alright with You " .
In 2010 , Felton released his original song " Hawaii " on Six String Productions – an independent record label run by Felton , David Proffitt and Philip Haydn @-@ Slater promoting creative independence and ownership of artists ' material and musical talent .
In November 2010 the film White Other , which Tom played the main character , Ray Marsden , was released . Tom 's character Ray is a troubled youth in the " ends " of England and Imelda Staunton , who played Dolores Umbridge in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 , also makes an appearance as one of the other main roles in the film .
Felton had a cameo role in Get Him to the Greek , released on 4 June 2010 . In February 2010 , he was cast in the thriller film The Apparition . Felton portrays the human character Dodge Landon in the 2011 science @-@ fiction film Rise of the Planet of the Apes .
On 18 March 2011 , Felton appeared in a comedy sketch on Red Nose Day 2011 alongside James Corden , Rupert Grint , George Michael , Justin Bieber , Paul McCartney , Ringo Starr , Gordon Brown MP , Professor Robert Winston and Keira Knightley.v
In 2016 , Felton will star as CSI Julian Dorn on The Flash as a regular cast member .
= = Personal life = =
In 2003 , Felton and his brother Chris worked with Joe Babbitt , the St. Lawrence County Angler 's Association , the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Region 6 , the Chamber of Commerce , and a diverse group of other organisations to form the World Junior Carp Tournament , which involves competitive fishing for ages 11 to 18 .
In early 2015 , Felton posted an Instagram photo of himself and Jade Olivia , writing , " To the girl that has my heart . Happy 7 year anniversary . " Felton and Olivia have been together since February 2008 ; they met when filming the Harry Potter series , where Jade was an assistant .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = EPs = = =
Time Well Spent ( 2008 )
All I Need ( 2008 )
In Good Hands ( 2009 )
Hawaii ( 2011 )
= = = Singles = = =
" Silhouettes in Sunsets " ( 2008 )
" If You Could Be Anywhere " ( 2010 )
= Harta Berdarah =
Harta Berdarah ( [ harˈta bərˈdarah ] ; Indonesian for Bloody Treasure ) is a 1940 action film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) . Directed by the recently hired Rd Ariffien and R Hu for Union Films , the film was written by Saeroen and attempted to draw educated Native audiences . The film , which stars Zonder and Soelastri , tells of a young man who convinces a stingy hadji to be more charitable and , in the process , falls in love with the man 's daughter .
Released during Eid al @-@ Fitr , Harta Berdarah was advertised as a " magnificent Indonesian action hit " and used Zonder 's silat skills and Soelastri 's fame as keroncong singer to draw audiences . Reviews for the work were positive , with praise focused on its acting and story . Although Harta Berdarah was screened as late as 1944 , as with most contemporary productions it is now likely lost .
= = Plot = =
In the village of Soekasari , Mardjan ( Oedjang ) is forcefully evicting people who are unable to pay their taxes to his boss , the landlord Hadji Doerachman ( Moesa ) . Doerachman , though aware of this , is unwilling to stop him , even after his daughter , Atikah ( Soelastri ) , tries to convince him .
Mardjan and his men evict Asmadi , his wife Tjitjih ( RS Fatimah ) , and Asmadi 's sick mother . When Asmadi resists , Mardjan beats and detains him . Meanwhile , a young man named Rachmat ( Zonder ) is visiting his aunt in Soekasari . Learning of Mardjan 's dealings , Rachmat finds him at Doerachman 's home and insists that Mardjan stop . When Mardjan and his men try to fight , Rachmat overpowers them and negotiates Asmadi 's release . Afterwards , Rachmat goes back to his aunt 's home . Asmadi returns to his , only to learn that his mother had died shortly after the eviction ; he swears revenge .
One day , Rachmat hears screaming and finds Atikah , who has fainted after seeing a snake . After she regains consciousness , Atikah thanks him for rescuing her . Although Rachmat is disgusted that he has helped her after learning the identity of Atikah 's father , as Rachmat and Atikah dedicate their time to social work , they begin to fall in love . Doerachman , however , disapproves of their relationship , and refuses to fund their work ; as a result , Atikah takes her deceased mother 's jewellery and some money to pay for village development . Later , when Rachmat and Atikah are sitting together and singing romantic songs , Mardjan overhears them . Hurrying back to Doerachman 's home , Mardjan convinces his boss that Rachmat intends only to steal Doerachman 's wealth , and to let Mardjan marry Atikah . As Doerachman prepares to leave , Mardjan has the illiterate hadji put his seal on a letter .
In preparation for her marriage to Mardjan , Atikah is secluded at home . Learning of this betrothal , Rachmat goes to Doerachman and , after fighting Mardjan and his men , takes the hadji to the village where he and Atikah had initiated development programs . As they had all worked in Doerachman 's name , the villagers do not fear him , but respect him . This , and the extent of the developments , makes Doerachman realise that hoarding his wealth for himself does not make him as happy as using it for charity . The two , accompanied by Asmadi , hurry back to Doerachman 's home , only to find Mardjan and his men sitting relaxedly on the front porch .
After he is accosted by Doerachman , Mardjan reveals that the letter which Doerachman signed was actually a statement granting Mardjan all of the hadji 's wealth . Furious at Mardjan 's behaviour , Asmadi attacks him while Rachmat restrains the others . After a lengthy knife fight , Mardjan 's foot is caught in the railroad tracks , and he is soon killed by a passing train . Doerachman , pleased with the return of his wealth , destroys the letter and grants Rachmat permission to marry Atikah .
= = Production = =
Union Films was established in 1940 by ethnic Chinese businessmen Ang Hock Liem and Tjoa Ma Tjoen . After the success of its first production , Kedok Ketawa ( The Laughing Mask ) , the director Jo An Djan left for Populair 's Film . Union hired new talent , including R Hu , Rd Ariffien , and Saeroen . All three were instrumental in the production of Harta Berdarah ; Hu and Ariffien served as co @-@ directors , both in their debuts , and Saeroen – who had written the commercial successes Terang Boelan ( Full Moon ; 1937 ) and Fatima ( 1938 ) for other companies – wrote the story . Ariffien credited their hirings to Union 's interest in attracting educated Native audiences .
Harta Berdarah starred Soelastri and Zonder , and featured Moesa , Oedjang , Oesman , Haroen , and Abdullah . Many of these actors , including Soelastri and Fatimah , had had roles in Kedok Ketawa , and Moesa , though only recently signed , had previously acted for another company . Zonder , who made his film debut in Harta Berdarah , was well @-@ versed in the traditional martial art of silat , while Soelastri was also known as a keroncong singer under the stage name Miss Ning ; both made use of these skills for the film , which was scored by Hugo Dumas ' musical troupe Lief Java . Cinematography for the production was handled by KH Tjit .
= = Release and reception = =
Harta Berdarah was released in late October 1940 , to coincide with the Eid al @-@ Fitr holiday . The film , sometimes advertised under the Dutch title Bloedgeld , was billed as a " magnificent Indonesian action hit " . A novelisation , published by the Yogyakarta @-@ based Kolff @-@ Buning , was later released ; it includes several production stills .
Reception was positive . An anonymous review in De Indische Courant concluded that the film was simple yet well produced , with strong dialogue and humour . Another review , in the Soerabaijasch Handelsblad , was likewise positive ; it found the film dissimilar to earlier domestic productions , in which " a group of stiff people moved woodenly and expelled inarticulate sounds " , becoming something which could be enjoyed by anyone , " Indonesian or European alike " .
= = Legacy = =
After Harta Berdarah , Union produced a further five films ; all but one were directed by Hu or Ariffien . Saeroen wrote three of them , leaving for Star Film following Wanita dan Satria ( 1941 ) . Most of the cast remained with Union for several productions ; the company 's subsequent production , Bajar dengan Djiwa ( 1941 ) , for instance , again starred Zonder and Soelastri . Union Films was ultimately dissolved following the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies in March 1942 .
Harta Berdarah was screened as late as July 1944 . The film is likely lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . As such , American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider suggests that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and the film historian Misbach Yusa Biran writes that some Japanese propaganda films can be found at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Delaware Route 16 =
Delaware Route 16 ( DE 16 ) is an east @-@ west state highway in Delaware , mainly across northern Sussex County , with a small portion near the Maryland border in extreme southwestern Kent County . It runs from Maryland Route 16 ( MD 16 ) at the Maryland border in Hickman to the Delaware Bay at Broadkill Beach . The route runs through rural areas , passing through the towns of Greenwood , Ellendale , and Milton . DE 16 intersects U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) and DE 36 in Greenwood , US 113 in Ellendale , DE 30 and DE 5 in the Milton area , and DE 1 between Milton and Broadkill Beach . West of DE 1 , the route serves as part of a connection between the Baltimore @-@ Washington Metropolitan Area and the Delaware Beaches . DE 16 was built as a state highway during the 1920s and 1930s . By 1936 , the route was designated onto its current alignment .
= = Route description = =
DE 16 begins at the Maryland border in Hickman , Kent County , where the road continues west into that state as MD 16 . From the state line , the route heads east on two @-@ lane undivided Hickman Road , passing through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes . The road crosses into Sussex County and turns to the southeast . DE 16 comes to an intersection with DE 36 , at which point it turns east to form a concurrency with that route . The road enters Greenwood and becomes Market Street , passing several homes along with a few businesses . The highway crosses Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line before it intersects US 13 on the eastern edge of Greenwood . Past this intersection , DE 16 / DE 36 leaves Greenwood and becomes Beach Highway , crossing the Nanticoke River .
In Saint Johnstown , DE 36 splits from DE 16 by heading to the northeast on Shawnee Road . DE 16 continues east through agricultural areas and woods with some residences . Farther east , the road passes through Oakley . The route comes to an intersection with US 113 and enters Ellendale , where it becomes Main Street . In Ellendale , DE 16 runs past several homes , crossing Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line . The road leaves the town and becomes Milton @-@ Ellendale Highway , turning southeast . The route heads through woodland and farms , running immediately to the north of a Delaware Coast Line Railroad line . DE 16 turns east away from the railroad tracks and comes to an intersection with DE 30 . At this point , DE 5 Alternate ( DE 5 Alt . ) , which runs south along DE 30 , heads east along with DE 16 . The road reaches Milton , where it passes homes and businesses . DE 16 comes to an intersection with DE 5 , where DE 5 Alt. ends and the road name changes to Broadkill Road . The route leaves Milton and continues into farmland with a few residences , turning to the northeast . The road intersects DE 1 and runs through a mix of farms and woods with some homes . DE 16 turns east and northeast through marshland within the Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge before reaching the community of Broadkill Beach , where it crosses Bay Shore Drive before ending at a dead end on the Delaware Bay .
The portion of DE 16 west of DE 1 serves as part of a route connecting the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and the Baltimore @-@ Washington Metropolitan Area to the Delaware Beaches . DE 16 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 9 @,@ 886 vehicles at the eastern edge of Greenwood to a low of 1 @,@ 815 vehicles at west end of the DE 36 concurrency . None of DE 16 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now DE 16 originally existed as a county road by 1920 . By 1924 , the section of road in Greenwood was constructed as a state highway . A year later , the route between the Dupont Highway and Ellendale became a state highway . In 1929 , the road was completed as a state highway between Ellendale and Milton . A year later , the state highway was built between Owens and Ellendale . The entire road west of Milton was finished as a state highway by 1931 . By 1936 , DE 16 was designated to run from the Maryland border to Broadkill Beach along its current alignment . The portion of route east of DE 14 ( present @-@ day DE 1 ) was paved by 1942 .
= = Major intersections = =
= 200 euro note =
The two hundred euro note ( € 200 ) is the second @-@ highest value euro banknote and has been used since the introduction of the euro ( in its cash form ) in 2002 . The note is used in the 23 countries which have it as their sole currency ( with 22 legally adopting it ) ; with a population of about 332 million .
It is the second @-@ largest note , measuring 153 x 82 mm , and has a yellow colour scheme . The two hundred euro banknotes depict bridges and arches / doorways in Art Nouveau style ( 19th and 20th centuries ) .
The € 200 note contains several complex security features such as watermarks , invisible ink , holograms and microprinting that document its authenticity . In September 2011 , there were about 178 @,@ 838 @,@ 200 € 200 banknotes in circulation around the eurozone .
= = History = =
The euro was founded on 1 January 1999 , when it became the currency of over 300 million people in Europe . For the first three years of its existence it was an invisible currency , only used in accountancy . Euro cash was not introduced until 1 January 2002 , when it replaced the national banknotes and coins of the countries in eurozone 12 , such as the Finnish markka .
Slovenia joined the Eurozone in 2007 , Cyprus and Malta in 2008 , Slovakia in 2009 , Estonia in 2011 , Latvia joined on 1 January 2014 and Lithuania joined on 1 January 2015 .
= = = The changeover period = = =
The changeover period during which the former currencies ' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months , from 1 January 2002 until 28 February 2002 . The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state . The earliest date was in Germany , where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001 , though the exchange period lasted for two months after that . Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender , they continued to be accepted by national central banks for ten years or more .
= = = Changes = = =
Notes printed before November 2003 bear the signature of the first president of the European Central Bank , Wim Duisenberg , who was replaced on 1 November 2003 by Jean @-@ Claude Trichet , whose signature appears on issues from November 2003 to March 2012 . Notes issued after March 2012 bear the signature of the third president of the European Central Bank , incumbent Mario Draghi .
Until now there has been only one series of euro notes ; however a new series , similar to the current one , is planned to be released . The European Central Bank will in due course announce when banknotes of the first series lose legal tender status .
As of June 2012 , current issues do not reflect the expansion of the European Union : Cyprus is not depicted on current notes , as the map does not extend far enough east ; and Malta is also missing as it does not meet the current series ' minimum size for depiction . The European Central Bank plans to redesign the notes every seven or eight years , and a second series of banknotes is already in preparation . New production and anti @-@ counterfeiting techniques will be employed on the new notes , but the design will be of the same theme and colours identical to the current series : bridges and arches . However , they will still be recognisable as a new series .
= = Design = =
The € 200 note measures 153 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) × 82 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) and has a yellow colour scheme . All euro banknotes depict bridges and arches / doorways , each in a different historical European style : the € 200 note shows the Art Nouveau era ( 19th and 20th centuries ) . Although Robert Kalina 's original designs were intended to show real monuments , for political reasons the bridge and art are merely hypothetical examples of the architectural era .
Like all euro notes , it contains the denomination , the EU flag , the signature of the president of the ECB and the initials of that bank in different EU languages , a depiction of EU territories overseas , the stars from the EU flag and twelve security features as listed below .
= = = Security features = = =
The € 200 note is protected by :
Colour changing ink used on the numeral located on the back of the note , that appears to change colour from purple to brown when the note is tilted .
A see @-@ through number printed at the top corner of the note , on both sides , appears to combine perfectly to form the value numeral when held against the light .
A glossy stripe , at the back of the note , showing the value numeral and the euro symbol .
A hologram : the hologram image changes between the value and a window or doorway , but in the background , rainbow @-@ coloured concentric circles of micro @-@ letters appear , moving from the centre to the edges of the patch .
A EURion constellation : this is a pattern of symbols found on a number of banknote designs worldwide since about 1996 . It is added to help software detect the presence of a banknote in a digital image .
Watermarks , which appear when held up to the light .
Raised printing : in the main image , the lettering and the value numerals on the front of the banknotes will be raised .
Ultraviolet ink ; the paper itself does not glow , fibres embedded in the paper appear , and are coloured red , blue and green : the EU flag is green and has orange stars , the ECB President 's , currently Mario Draghi 's , signature turns green , the large stars and small circles on the front glow and the European map , a bridge and the value numeral on the back appear in yellow .
Microprinting : on various areas of the banknotes there is microprinting , for example , inside the " EYPΩ " ( EURO in Greek characters ) on the front . The micro @-@ text is sharp , not blurred .
A security thread , embedded in the banknote paper . The thread will appear as a dark stripe when held up to the light . The word " EURO " and the value is embedded in tiny letters on the thread .
Perforations in the hologram which will form the euro symbol . There are also small numbers showing the value .
A matted surface ; the note paper is made out of pure cotton , which feels crisp and firm , not limp or waxy .
Barcodes ,
A serial number .
= = Circulation = =
The € 200 banknote is the least used banknote in the Eurozone . As of December 2015 , there are about 206 @,@ 894 @,@ 602 € 200 banknotes in circulation around the Eurozone — some € 41 billion worth . The European Central Bank is closely monitoring the circulation and stock of the euro coins and banknotes . It is a task of the Eurosystem to ensure an efficient and smooth supply of euro notes and to maintain their integrity throughout the euro area .
= = Legal information = =
Legally , both the European Central Bank and the central banks of the eurozone countries have the right to issue the seven different euro banknotes . In practice , only the national central banks of the zone physically issue and withdraw euro banknotes . The European Central Bank does not have a cash office and is not involved in any cash operations .
= = Tracking = =
There are several communities of people in Europe , in particular EuroBillTracker , who , as a hobby , track the euro banknotes that pass through their hands , recording where they travel . The aim is to record as many notes as possible to know details about their spread , i.e. where the notes travel , and generate statistics and rankings : for example , in which countries there are more tickets . EuroBillTracker has registered over 155 million notes as of May 2016 , worth more than € 2 @.@ 897 billion .
= Hook Me Up ( song ) =
" Hook Me Up " is a song recorded by Australian duo The Veronicas for their second album of the same name ( 2007 ) . Produced by Greg Wells and Engineered by Drew Pearson , it was released as the album 's lead single on 18 August 2007 as a digital download . The down @-@ tempo , electropop @-@ dance song , is a change in direction from the pop rock sound from their previous album , The Secret Life Of ... ( 2005 ) . It was written by The Veronicas ' twin sisters , Jessica Origliasso and Lisa Origliasso , together with Shelly Peiken and Wells . The central theme of " Hook Me Up " is about escaping reality and the stresses of life .
The recording was well received by critics who praised the song for its " dance @-@ floor friendly " sound . It was commercially successful peaking at number @-@ one on the Australian ARIA Singles Charts , giving The Veronicas their first number @-@ one single . The accompanying music video portrays Jessica and Lisa in a boarding school rebellion . " Hook Me Up " was performed at the 2008 Australia Day Live Concert as well as on the Hook Me Up and Revenge Is Sweeter tours , in 2007 and 2009 , respectively . At the ARIA Music Awards of 2008 , it was nominated for " Highest Selling Single " .
= = Background and composition = =
" Hook Me Up " was written by The Veronicas ' twin sisters , Jessica and Lisa Origliasso together with Shelly Peiken and Greg Wells – Wells also produced the track . The composition was influenced by the electropop of underground bands in Los Angeles , whose sound The Veronicas were keen to incorporate into their own music . Jessica explained the lyrical content and central theme behind " Hook Me Up " : " It 's about being tired with where you 're at in life and wanting to get away and out for just a little bit of time @-@ whether it 's in a relationship or in life . I guess we went through that a little bit when things started getting full on with us . It went from one extreme , where no one knew who we were , to the complete opposite " .
" Hook Me Up " is a down @-@ tempo electropop @-@ dance song that is set in common time . It is written in the key of G minor and moves at a moderate 134 beats per minute . " Hook Me Up " begins with electronic synths and electronic pop beats , then progresses into a down @-@ tempo techno beat with synth washes played by guitars , synthesiser keyboards , and synthesised drums . " Hook Me Up " sampled elements of " Tainted Love " by Soft Cell .
= = Reception = =
Ben Norman from About.com called " Hook Me Up " " quite fun " with a " serious drive to the dance floor " . Similarly , Alex Lai from Contactmusic.com commented on the " sexy " and " sassy " track , saying that it , and the album 's fourth single " Take Me on the Floor " , " could fill dance floors " , but he noted that the latter made for " stale listening " . David James Young , from Sputnikmusic , felt it was the best song on the album , " the best thing about this song is how damn infectious it is , thus making it an excellent pop song with top harmonies and a synth hook " . Andrew Tijs from CitySearch Brisbane stated that it " has the kind of breathless , carnivorous sexuality that Madonna still keeps trying to convince us she has " , but it wasn 't " the sexual awakening that most have been waiting for [ them ] to have " . For its lyrics , Evan Sawdey from PopMatters said " Hook Me Up " " sacrifice [ s ] lyrical clarity for the sake of a good hook " .
In Australia , " Hook Me Up " debuted at number five on the ARIA Singles Chart . It spent seven weeks on the charts before reaching number @-@ one on 18 November , where it stayed for one week and became their first ever number @-@ one single . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting 70 @,@ 000 copies shipped in Australia . Upon its release it became the second most added track on Australian radio . On the ARIA end of year charts " Hook Me Up " ranked number twenty two . " Hook Me Up " was nominated for " Highest Selling Single " at the ARIA Music Awards of 2008 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The Veronicas pushed for a school revolt storyline to the music video 's director Scott Speer , after a concept which would " sex up [ Lisa and Jessica ] " was first presented to them . The Veronicas explained the concept of the music video to the Herald Sun :
We explained to him what the song was about and he said , " So , breaking out ... what about a boarding school ? " We love any movies to do with boarding schools – Cruel Intentions , The Craft . We were like " Yes , yes ! " and we all brainstormed from there [ ... ] We really had to push . A lot [ ... ] We had a lot of control over making the music on this record and we wrote " Hook Me Up " so we would have the best idea of what the video would be . So it was " Use our ideas . They 're free " [ ... ] Because the song is so different from the first record , we wanted to make a video that was young and fun that kids could relate to . The video idea that was first proposed really was not for a young market . It was a lot older .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video is based on a boarding school revolt . The video starts off with flash images of the exterior of an old school building . It then cuts to two separate lines of male and female students , the latter being led by Lisa and Jessica , marching down a school corridor . They were led by a teacher with a whip in her hand while being watched on surveillance cameras . The scene then shifts to the male students walking past a sign that says " no girls beyond this point " . The first verse then begins and the students are marching into a classroom and sit at individual tables . When the chorus begins , Lisa and Jessica are standing on a stage in front of their band performing for rows of still students who stare back blankly . When the second verse begins the students are in the classroom while guards patrol its perimeter and the teacher hits a blackboard with a pointing stick . During the second chorus Lisa and Jessica get their band members together in a toilet to start their rebellion at the school . When the bridge starts smash cuts are shown of them taking over the school 's PA system , and the students getting up from their chairs in the classrooms and throwing objects at a teacher standing in front of a blackboard . The video ends with everyone running down stairs out of the school , with Jessica and Lisa leading the way . The scenes are inter cut to scenes of Lisa and Jessica holding each other . They are dressed in tartan skirts with the former wearing a black cardigan and an open collared shirt , and the latter a black blazer and a shirt with a tartan patterned skinny tie . Both the cardigan and blazer have a striped crest with a pink " V " in the middle .
= = Live performances = =
One of the first live performances of " Hook Me Up " was at the ARIA Music Awards of 2007 , held on 21 October . Clothed in costumes similar to the music video , Lisa and Jessica appeared from a yellow school bus . During the performance Lisa and Jessica sang vocals , while the latter also played the electric guitar , with their band , as opposed to using synthesised instruments in the original recording . At the end of the performance , two streamer cannons on opposite ends of the stage , shot out pink streamers . The duo promoted the track on Australian television , including Today and Rove Live . They also performed the song at the 2008 Australia Day Live Concert in Canberra , Australia 's Funniest Home Videos , Take 40 Live Lounge , and on Video Hits in 2009 . " Hook Me Up " was added to the set lists of both the Hook Me Up and Revenge Is Sweeter tours in 2007 and 2009 , respectively .
= = Track listing = =
iTunes single
" Hook Me Up " – 2 : 57
CD single
" Hook Me Up " – 2 : 57
" Everything " – 3 : 20
" Insomnia " – 3 : 28
= = Personnel = =
Songwriting – Jessica Origliasso , Lisa Origliasso , Shelly Peiken , Greg Wells
Production – Greg Wells
Instruments and programming – Greg Wells , Fabien Waltmann , Sven Martin
Recording – Drew Pearson
Engineering – Josh Alexander
Lead and background vocals – Jessica Origliasso , Lisa Origliasso
Mixing – Greg Wells
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Adventures of Mana =
Adventures of Mana is an action role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square Enix . It is a 3D remake of the 1991 Game Boy game Final Fantasy Adventure , the first game in the Mana series . It was released worldwide for Android and iOS on February 4 , 2016 ; a PlayStation Vita version was also released on the same date in Japan , and in June 2016 in North America and Europe . In addition to these releases , Square Enix is considering developing a PlayStation 4 version .
The player takes the role of a young hero who , together with a heroine , tries to stop the Dark Lord of Glaive from destroying the Tree of Mana . The gameplay focuses on sword combat , and is seen from a top @-@ down perspective . The player traverses the game world , which is divided into several areas , and makes their way through dungeons . While fighting monster characters , a gauge is shown on the screen filling up over time and resetting when the player gets hit or attacks ; by waiting to attack until the gauge is full , the player can use a stronger attack . The player is accompanied by various non @-@ player characters , who each have different skills the player can use , and who help them defeat enemies .
The idea for the game came from the producer , Masaru Oyamada , who wanted all Mana games to be playable on modern platforms for the series ' 25th anniversary in 2016 . Initially there was some argument at Square Enix about whether the remake should be done in 2D or 3D ; they chose 3D , as it was thought to be easier to control on smartphones and because it could be used as a base for potential future Mana remakes . The game has received positive reviews , with reviewers giving particular praise to the visuals and the music , and some calling it a better Final Fantasy Adventure remake than the Game Boy Advance game Sword of Mana had been .
= = Content = =
Adventures of Mana is an action role @-@ playing game in which the player controls a young hero who , along with a heroine , tries to stop the Dark Lord of Glaive from destroying the Tree of Mana . The game is a 3D remake of the two @-@ dimensional Game Boy game Final Fantasy Adventure , containing the same content . In the smartphone versions of the game , the player controls the hero by using a customizable virtual joystick and button set .
The game is seen from a top @-@ down perspective , and focuses on sword combat . The player moves the hero through the game world , which is divided into several areas ; as the player enters one , enemy characters start to appear there . Among the areas in the game world , there are dungeons that the player needs to get through . These usually consist of a number of rooms divided across three to four floors ; in order to navigate their way through a dungeon , the player needs to break walls , unlock doors , and sometimes press down buttons and break pots .
In addition to the regular enemies , the player also needs to defeat several bosses and mini @-@ bosses throughout the game . By defeating enemies , the player gains experience points , which make the hero 's level increase ; when this happens , the player gets points to spend on four different disciplines , each of which gives the hero access to different abilities and enhances different stats associated with the discipline : Warrior is associated with physical attacks , Monk with defense and health points , Mage with magic attacks and magic points , and Sage with an increase in the weapon limit gauge . Sometimes when enemies are defeated , they drop items ; the player can carry items with them , which are grouped into stacks , each taking up one slot in the inventory .
During battles , a weapon limit gauge is shown , filling up over time ; by waiting to attack until the gauge is filled up , the player can use a more powerful attack specific to the currently equipped weapon . The gauge resets to zero whenever the player attacks or gets hit by an attack . The player is able to use various different types of weapons , such as swords , axes and flails , each having a different attack pattern : sword attacks , for example , are mid @-@ ranged swings and stabs , while flail attacks are long @-@ ranged and reach out in a straight line from the hero . Most weapons can also be used to affect the environment : the player can cut down trees with axes , for instance . There are also variants of each weapon type with bonus strengths , such as flame variations , which are effective against ice monsters . At various points in the game , the hero is accompanied by non @-@ player characters who help the player defeat enemies . These companions have different abilities that the player can use , such as Fuji 's healing spell and Watt 's shop .
= = Development and release = =
Adventures of Mana is a remake of the 1991 Game Boy game Final Fantasy Adventure , which was the first entry in the Mana series . It is the second remake of Final Fantasy Adventure , the first being the Game Boy Advance game Sword of Mana , which had removed the connections to the Final Fantasy series in favor of being more connected to the rest of the Mana series . According to Adventures of Mana 's producer , Masaru Oyamada , the development team focused on not upsetting what had made the original game good , while adding things that had not been possible to do in the original version due to hardware limitations ; they also aimed to make the game more comfortable and intuitive to play : for instance , switching armor and weapons and using items and magic was made easier , and shortcut commands were added . The game borrows some elements from the original Game Boy version , and some from Sword of Mana . For example , the first remake introduced the ability to play as the heroine , but Adventures of Mana , like the original , only has a male playable character ; conversely Adventures of Mana 's battle system , user interface and sword attack are based on Sword of Mana 's rather than the original 's . Kenji Ito , the composer for Final Fantasy Adventure , returned to create updated and more dramatic rearrangements for the remake .
The idea to develop a remake came when Oyamada , due to the Mana series ' 25th anniversary in 2016 , thought about how he would like players to be able to play through the series in sequential order on modern game platforms . The platforms – Android , iOS and PlayStation Vita – were decided on from the beginning . Initially , there were some arguments at Square Enix about whether to create the game using 2D or 3D graphics ; they settled on 3D , as Oyamada thought that 3D games are easier to control on smartphones . Additionally , the development team thought that a 3D version would be better , as it could be used as a base for potential remakes of other Mana games ; depending on the reception of Adventures of Mana , Oyamada said that he would like to develop a remake of Seiken Densetsu 3 , and would consider one of Secret of Mana depending on demand .
When the game was announced in September 2015 , development was 50 % complete ; by late December , development was 90 % complete . The game was released worldwide for Android and iOS on February 4 , 2016 ; in Japan , a PlayStation Vita version was also released on the same date . Responding to feedback , Square Enix 's European branch said that the game 's development team was examining the possibility of a Western release of the PlayStation Vita version ; the PlayStation Vita version was later released in North America and Europe on June 28 , 2016 . Square Enix has also said that they are considering a PlayStation 4 version of the game .
= = Reception = =
Adventures of Mana has been positively received by critics . Campbell Bird at 148apps found it to be a high @-@ quality example of its genre , and called it the definitive version of Final Fantasy Adventure . He still felt that some gameplay systems felt aged , and that the core gameplay , lack of guidance , and lack of explanations of the game mechanics might be off @-@ putting to some modern players . Meanwhile , Shaun Musgrave at TouchArcade felt that the sparse story set @-@ up and lack of " supervision or training " , while likely to " rub some people the wrong way " , was refreshing ; he liked the simplicity and " efficiency " of the game , and said that , as a remake , he was unsure if he could be any happier with it than he was . TouchArcade named Adventures of Mana as their " Game of the Week " , calling it a " truly wonderful remake " . Nadia Oxford at USgamer said that the game was " a very decent re @-@ construction of Final Fantasy Adventure " and less tedious than Sword of Mana . Jason Schreier of Kotaku thought that the game was excellent ; like Oxford , he preferred it over Sword of Mana , which he said felt more like a new game than like a remake . Harry Slater at Pocket Gamer , Musgrave , and Schreier all commented on the price , considering it to be high .
Bird thought that the updates to the original Game Boy game 's visuals and audio , along with the updates to the controls , made for a " great first impression " and made the game feel very well put together ; he felt that it was one of Square Enix 's best looking and sounding mobile game to date , and that all actions in the game felt and looked great . Oxford felt that the touch screen @-@ based controls were not ideal for the fast pace of the gameplay . Schreier found the touch controls to be " just fine " , but thought that the game would work better with a D @-@ pad and buttons . He praised the presentation , saying that the music was " superb " and that the game looked great . Slater thought that the game 's look was impressive and that the music was excellent . Musgrave called the music " outstanding " , and found the monster characters to look fantastic , having benefited greatly from the updated 3D graphics ; he was less sure about the art direction for the human characters , but still thought that they looked better than they did in Sword of Mana .
= Freak Out ! =
Freak Out ! is the debut album by American band The Mothers of Invention , released June 27 , 1966 on Verve Records . Often cited as one of rock music 's first concept albums , the album is a satirical expression of frontman Frank Zappa 's perception of American pop culture . It was also one of the earliest double albums in rock music ( although Bob Dylan 's Blonde on Blonde preceded it by a week ) , and the first 2 @-@ record debut . In the UK the album was originally released as a single disc .
The album was produced by Tom Wilson , who signed The Mothers , formerly a bar band called the Soul Giants . Zappa said many years later that Wilson signed the group to a record deal in the belief that they were a white blues band . The album features Zappa on vocals and guitar , along with lead vocalist / tambourine player Ray Collins , bass player / vocalist Roy Estrada , drummer / vocalist Jimmy Carl Black and guitar player Elliot Ingber , who later joined Captain Beefheart 's Magic Band under the name Winged Eel Fingerling .
The band 's original repertoire consisted of rhythm and blues covers ; though after Zappa joined the band he encouraged them to play his own original material , and the name was changed to The Mothers . The musical content of Freak Out ! ranges from rhythm and blues , doo @-@ wop and standard blues @-@ influenced
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of the game . Jen Bosier of Video Game Writers commended the soundtrack 's recreation of the time period , and felt that the music could be enjoyed outside the game . Evan Andra of SF Critic echoed these remarks , and particularly praised the final three vocal tracks of the album , calling them " a suitably enjoyable conclusion to the album " . David Smyth of London Evening Standard named the three vocal tracks " tense and beautiful " , and wrote that the overall soundtrack is " mood music of the finest calibre " . James Southall of Movie Wave wrote that the soundtrack assisted in the creation of the game 's atmosphere , and particularly praised the album 's " action music " . Simon Elchlepp of Video Game Music Online wrote that the soundtrack " successfully recreates several aspects of 1940s ' jazz and movie scores " , praising Hale 's understanding of the music type .
The soundtrack won the award for Original Music at the 8th British Academy Games Awards , and was nominated for Best Original Score for a Video Game or Interactive Media at the 2011 International Film Music Critics Association Awards . The soundtrack was also nominated for Best Score — Contemporary / Alternative from Video Game Music Online .
= = = L.A. Noire Remixed EP = = =
L.A. Noire Remixed consists of six jazz classics from the game 's era , remixed by contemporary DJs . Advertised as a " special installment " of the Verve Remixed Series , the album includes songs by artists of the period , such as Ella Fitzgerald , Lionel Hampton , Billie Holiday and Dinah Washington , remixed by DJs such as Ticklah , DJ Premier , and Moodymann . It was first released on the iTunes Store on 17 May 2011 , alongside the game 's main soundtrack .
The album received generally positive reviews . Bosier of Video Game Writers dubbed it " the gem of the collection " , stating that it invokes " the feeling of the game " , as well as involving " a nice retro @-@ vibe " . Smyth of London Evening Standard commended the soundtrack , calling the songs " tastefully modernised " . The album was nominated for Best Album – Remix from Video Game Music Online .
= Battle of Schellenberg =
The Battle of Schellenberg , also known as the Battle of Donauwörth , was fought on 2 July 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession . The engagement was part of the Duke of Marlborough 's campaign to save the Habsburg capital of Vienna from a threatened advance by King Louis XIV 's Franco @-@ Bavarian forces ranged in southern Germany . Marlborough had commenced his 250 @-@ mile ( 400 km ) march from Bedburg , near Cologne , on 19 May ; within five weeks he had linked his forces with those of the Margrave of Baden , before continuing on to the river Danube . Once in southern Germany , the Allies ' task was to induce Max Emanuel , the Elector of Bavaria , to abandon his allegiance to Louis XIV and rejoin the Grand Alliance ; but to force the issue , the Allies first needed to secure a fortified bridgehead and magazine on the Danube , through which their supplies could cross to the south of the river into the heart of the Elector 's lands . For this purpose , Marlborough selected the town of Donauwörth .
Once the Elector and his co @-@ commander , Marshal Marsin , knew of the Allies ' objective , they dispatched Count d 'Arco with an advance force of 12 @,@ 000 men from their main camp at Dillingen to strengthen and hold the Schellenberg heights above the town . Rejecting a protracted siege , Marlborough decided in favour of a quick assault , before the position could be made impregnable . After two failed attempts to storm the barricades , the Allied commanders , acting in unison , finally managed to overwhelm the defenders . It had taken just two hours to secure the bridgehead over the river in a hard fought contest , but following the victory , momentum was lost to indecision . The deliberate devastation of the Elector 's lands in Bavaria failed to bring Max Emanuel to battle or persuade him back into the Imperial fold . Only when Marshal Tallard arrived with reinforcements to strengthen the Elector 's forces , and Prince Eugene of Savoy arrived from the Rhine to bolster the Allies , was the stage finally set for the decisive action at the Battle of Blenheim the following month .
= = Background = =
The Battle of Schellenberg was part of the Grand Alliance 's campaign of 1704 to prevent the Franco @-@ Bavarian army from threatening Vienna , the capital of Habsburg Austria . The campaign began in earnest on 19 May when the Duke of Marlborough began his 250 @-@ mile ( 400 km ) march from Bedburg near Cologne towards the Elector of Bavaria 's and Marshal Marsin 's Franco @-@ Bavarian army on the Danube . Marlborough had initially deceived the French commanders – Marshal Villeroi in the Spanish Netherlands and Marshal Tallard along the Rhine – into thinking his target was Alsace or the Moselle farther to the north . However , when the Elector was notified on 5 June of Marlborough 's march from the Low Countries , he had correctly predicted that it was his principality of Bavaria that was the Allies ' real target .
Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I was keen to lure the Elector back into the Imperial fold after he had switched allegiance to fight for King Louis XIV before the war . Given this duplicity , Marlborough thought the best way to secure Bavaria for the Alliance was to negotiate from a position of strength by invading the Elector 's territories , hoping to persuade him to change sides before he could be reinforced . By 22 June Marlborough 's army had linked up with elements of the Margrave of Baden 's Imperial forces at Launsheim ; by the end of June their combined strength totalled nearly 80 @,@ 000 men ( see map on right ) . The Franco @-@ Bavarian army camped at Ulm were numerically inferior to the Allies , and a large part of the Elector 's troops were scattered about garrisons in his territories as far as Munich and the Tyrolese frontier , but his position was far from desperate : if he could hold out for a month , Tallard would arrive from the Rhine with French reinforcements .
Once the Allies had combined their forces , the Elector and Marsin moved their 40 @,@ 000 troops into the entrenched camp between Dillingen and Lauingen on the north bank of the Danube . The Allied commanders – unwilling to attack such a strong position rendered impregnable by redoubts and inundations – passed round Dillingen to the north through Balmershofen and Armerdingen in the direction of Donauwörth . If captured , the bridgehead at Donauwörth ( overlooked by the Schellenberg ) would offer new communications with the friendly states in central Germany by way of Nördlingen and Nuremberg , as well as providing a good crossing @-@ place over the Danube for re @-@ supply when the Allies were south of the river .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Schellenberg 's defences = = =
The Schellenberg heights dominate the skyline to the northeast of Donauwörth – the walled town on the confluence of the Wörnitz and Danube rivers . With one flank of the hill protected by dense , impenetrable trees of the Boschberg wood , and the river Wörnitz and marshes protecting its southern and western quarters , the Schellenberg heights offer a commanding position for any defender . However , its oval shaped summit was flat and open , and its 70 @-@ year @-@ old defences , including an old fort built by the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus during the Thirty Years ' War , were neglected and in a dilapidated state . When the unexpected attack took place the bastions , the curtain , and the ditch were fairly complete along the long eastern face from the shore of the Danube to the wooded hilltop , but in the shorter section from the wood to the fort – the angle where Marlborough 's attack was delivered – the earthwork had been more hastily made up of fascines of brushwood thinly covered with soil . The western section of the lines ran steeply downhill from the fort to the city walls . Here , there was little to show in terms of defences , but to compensate the line could be protected by a flanking fire from the town . ( See ' Schellenberg ' map below . )
In 1703 Marshal Villars had advised the Elector to fortify his towns , " ... and above all the Schellenberg , that fort above Donauwörth , the importance of which the great Gustavus taught us . " The Elector , whose relationship with Villars had since collapsed , had initially ignored the advice to repair the decaying defences , but once it was realised that Donauwörth was to be attacked , Count d 'Arco , a Piedmontese officer , was despatched from the camp at Dillingen with orders to strengthen and hold the position . D 'Arco was entrusted with 12 @,@ 000 men , most of whom were drawn from Bavaria 's best units including the Elector 's Guards and the regiment of the Prince Electoral , led by veteran officers . In total , the garrison defending the Schellenberg consisted of 16 Bavarian and seven French infantry battalions , six squadrons of French and three squadrons of Bavarian dragoons , supported by 16 guns . In addition , Donauwörth was held by a French battalion and two battalions of Bavarian militia .
= = = Initial manoeuvres = = =
On the night of 1 – 2 July , the Allies were camped at Armerdingen , 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Donauwörth . It was here when Marlborough received an urgent message from Baron Moltenburg , Prince Eugene 's Adjutant @-@ General , that Marshal Tallard was marching with 35 @,@ 000 troops through the Black Forest to reinforce the Franco @-@ Bavarian army . This news convinced Marlborough that he did not have time for a protracted siege and , despite protestations from Baden – arguing that a direct assault would incur severe casualties – the Duke planned for an outright assault on the position . D 'Arco knew of the whereabouts of the Allied camp at Armerdingen , and was confident he had at least a full day and night to prepare his defences .
At 03 : 00 on 2 July the Allied advance guard began to break camp for the march towards Donauwörth and the Schellenberg heights . Marlborough personally oversaw the advance of the initial assault force of 5 @,@ 850 @-@ foot , drawn up in groups of approximately 130 men from each battalion under his command . The Dutch General Johan Wijnand van Goor would lead this vanguard . Behind these stormers came 12 @,@ 000 Allied infantry in two echelons , each of eight battalions ( English , Dutch , Hanoverian and Hessian ) under Major General Henry Withers and Count Horn , supported by Henry Lumley 's and Graf Reynard van Hompesch 's 35 squadrons of British and Dutch cavalry and dragoons . Baden , whose wing of the army marched behind Marlborough 's , would hold a brigade of Imperial grenadiers ready for action when the opportunity came as there was insufficient room in front of the Schellenberg for them to fully deploy . In all , the Allies were deploying 22 @,@ 000 men in the operation .
Riding far ahead of the army Marlborough personally examined the enemy position , observing through his telescope preparations for a camp on the far side of the river in expectation of the arrival of the Elector 's main force the following day . There was , therefore , no time to be lost . Although the Duke had 12 hours of light remaining in the day his men were still struggling in the mud , miles away behind the river Wörnitz , and they could not hope to launch the attack before about 18 : 00 , leaving just two hours before nightfall . As the Allies marched , work on the defences of Donauwörth and the Schellenberg were proceeding in earnest . With the aid of French engineer officers d 'Arco started to repair and strengthen the two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of old entrenchments that connected the fort of Gustavus with the Danube on one side , and the town walls on the other . A French commander in Bavarian service and chronicler of the period , Colonel Jean Martin de la Colonie , later wrote – " The time left to us was too short to complete this satisfactorily . "
The Allied cavalry began to appear at about 08 : 00 , five miles ( 8 km ) or six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) away on d 'Arco 's left front to the north @-@ west , followed by the infantry . By 10 : 00 Marlborough 's Quartermaster @-@ General , William Cadogan , began to mark out land for an encampment within sight of the Schellenberg – short of the Wörnitz – to give the impression they were intending a leisurely siege . Count d 'Arco watched Cadogan 's preparations and , falling for the deception , left the supervision of the still incomplete defences to lunch with the French commander of Donauwörth , Colonel DuBordet , safe in the belief that he had the rest of the day and night to finish the defences . However , the columns marched purposefully onwards , and by mid @-@ afternoon they had crossed the river Wörnitz at Ebermorgen , intent on launching an immediate assault . The Allies were spotted by the Bavarian outposts who , after setting fire to Berg and surrounding hamlets , rushed off to sound the alarm . General d 'Arco , rudely interrupted from his lunch , rushed up the Schellenberg and called his men to arms .
= = Battle = =
= = = Marlborough 's first assault = = =
Although Marlborough knew a frontal attack on the Schellenberg would be costly , he was convinced that it was the only way of securing the speedy capture of the town : unless he captured the summit by nightfall , it would never be taken – the defences would be too strong , and the main Franco @-@ Bavarian army , which was hastening from Dillingen towards Donauwörth , would arrive to defend the position . A female dragoon , Christian Welsh ( she had disguised her true sex ) remembered , " Our vanguard did not come into sight of the enemy entrenchments til the afternoon ; however , not to give the Bavarians time to make themselves yet stronger , the duke ordered the Dutch General Goor ... to attack as soon as possible . " At about 17 : 00 , as a preliminary to the attack , Marlborough 's artillery commander , Colonel Holcroft Blood , pounded the enemy from a position near Berg ; each salvo was countered by d 'Arco 's guns from Gustavus 's fort and from just outside the Boschberg wood .
General d 'Arco now ordered de la Colonie 's French grenadiers into reserve on top of the Heights ( above the breastworks manned by the Bavarians ) , ready to plug any gaps in their defences at the appropriate time . However , due to the flatness of the summit this position offered his men limited protection from the Allied guns . This exposure was noted by Colonel Blood who , sighting his artillery upon the summit , was able to inflict serious casualties upon de la Colonie 's men . De la Colonie later recorded – " They concentrated their fire upon us , and with their first discharge carried off Count de la Bastide ... so that my coat was covered with brains and blood . " Notwithstanding this barrage , and despite losing five officers and 80 grenadiers before firing a shot , de la Colonie insisted his French regiment stayed at their post , determined as he was to maintain discipline and ensure his troops would be in good order when called into action .
There was just enough time before nightfall to storm the position on its north side ( mainly up the steepest part of the slope immediately north of Gustavus 's fort ) , but not enough time to develop simultaneous attacks from other sides . The attack went in around 18 : 00 , led by the advanced guard of the ' forlorn hope ' . This force of 80 English grenadiers from the 1st English Foot Guards , led by Viscount Mordaunt and Colonel Richard Munden , was designed to draw the enemy fire and thus enable the Allied commanders to discern the defensive strong points . The main force followed closely behind . " The rapidity of their movements , together with their loud yells , were truly alarming " , recalled la Colonie , who , in order to drown out the shouts and hurrahs , ordered his drummer to beat charge " so as to drown them with their noise , lest they should have a bad effect upon our people . "
As the range closed the Allies became easy targets for the Franco @-@ Bavarian musket- and grape @-@ shot ; the confusion exacerbated by fizzing hand @-@ grenades thrown down the slope by the defenders . To aid their assault , each Allied soldier carried a bundle of fascines ( earlier cut from the Boschberg wood ) , with which to bridge the ditches in front of the breastworks to speed their passage . However , the fascines were mistakenly thrown into a dry gully – formed by the recent summer rains – instead of the Bavarians ' defensive trench about 45 m ( 50 yards ) farther on . Nevertheless , the Allies continued to push forward , joining battle with the Bavarians in savage hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Behind the defences the Elector 's Guards and la Colonie 's men bore the brunt of the attack so that , " The little parapet which separates the two forces became the scene of the bloodiest struggle that could be conceived . " But the assault failed to penetrate the defences , and the Allies were forced to fall back to their lines . General Johan Wijnand van Goor , a favourite of Marlborough who had led the attack , numbered among the Allied fatalities .
= = = Marlborough 's second assault = = =
The second assault proved no more successful . The red @-@ coated English and the blue @-@ coated Dutch advanced side by side in perfect order for a second attempt . Requiring from them another concerted effort their general officers personally led the men from the front into a second torrent of musket @-@ shot and grenades . Again the Allies left many dead and wounded at the enemy palisade including Marshal Count von Limburg Styrum who had led the second assault . With broken ranks , and in confusion , the attacking troops fell once more back down the hill . With the Allies repulsed for a second time the exultant Bavarian grenadiers , with bayonets fixed , poured over their breastworks to pursue the attackers and drive them to defeat . But English guardsmen , aided by Lumley 's dismounted cavalrymen , prevented a total rout , compelling the Bavarians back behind their defences .
= = = Baden 's assault = = =
At this moment , having failed twice to make a breakthrough , Marlborough received intelligence that the defences linking the town walls with the breastwork on the hill were now sparsely manned ( Marlborough 's unsuccessful attacks had drawn d 'Arco 's men away from other parts of the stronghold , leaving his left flank almost defenceless and highly vulnerable ) . The other Allied commander , the Margrave of Baden ( who had entered the battle half an hour after Marlborough ) , also noticed this opportunity and was soon hurrying with his grenadiers from the hamlet of Berg , and across the Kaibach stream to assault the position .
Critically , Donauwörth 's garrison commander had withdrawn his men inside the town , locked the gates , and could now only offer scattered shots from its walls . Baden 's Imperial troops ( now supported by eight of Marlborough 's reserve battalions ) , easily breached these weakened defences , defeated the two battalions of infantry and a handful of cavalry still defending the area , and were able to form up at the foot of the Schellenberg , interposing themselves between d 'Arco and the town . Noticing the danger d 'Arco hurried to the rear to summon his dismounted French dragoons ( held back in the lee of the hill ) in an attempt to stem the advancing Imperialists marching up the glacis . However , three companies of Baden 's grenadiers confronted them with concentrated volleys , forcing the cavalry to retire . This action subsequently left d 'Arco out of position and out of contact with his main force fiercely resisting on the crest of the hill . The Franco @-@ Bavarian commander headed for the town and , according to de la Colonie – " ... had some difficulty in entering owing to the hesitation of the commandant to open the gates . "
= = = Breakthrough = = =
Aware that Imperial troops had breached the Schellenberg 's defences Marlborough launched a third assault . This time the attackers formed a broader front , requiring d 'Arco 's men to spread their fire , thus reducing the deadly effectiveness of their musketry and grenades . But the defenders , including la Colonie , ( unaware that the Imperialists had penetrated their left flank , and that d 'Arco had retreated to Donauwörth ) , were still confident in their ability to repel the enemy – " We remained steady at our post ; our fire was regular as ever , and kept our opponents in check . " It was not long , however , before the Franco @-@ Bavarian forces fighting on the hill became conscious of Baden 's infantry approaching from the direction of the town . Many of the officers , including de la Colonie , initially thought that the advancing troops were reinforcements from DuBordet 's garrison in Donauwörth , but it soon became apparent that they were in fact Baden 's troops . " They [ Baden 's Imperial grenadiers ] arrived within gunshot of our flank about 7 : 30 in the evening , without our being aware of the possibility of such a thing . " Wrote de la Colonie . " So occupied were we in defence of our own particular post ... " After establishing themselves at the summit of the Heights on the Allied right , Baden 's men now fired upon the surprised defenders of the Schellenberg , compelling them to re @-@ align in order to meet this unexpected threat . Consequently , Marlborough 's assaulting troops on the Allied left , supported by a fresh echelon of dismounted English dragoons , were able to scramble over the now weakly defended breastwork and push the defenders back to the crown of the hill . The enemy at last fell into confusion .
The outnumbered defenders of the Schellenberg had resisted the Allied assaults for two hours , but now under pressure from both Baden 's and Marlborough 's forces , their stalwart defence was over . As panic spread through the Franco @-@ Bavarian army , Marlborough unleashed 35 squadrons of cavalry and dragoons to pursue the fleeing troops , ruthlessly cutting down the enemy soldiers to the shouts of " Kill , kill and destroy ! " There was no easy escape route . A pontoon bridge over the Danube had collapsed under their weight , and many of d 'Arco 's troops , most of whom could not swim , drowned trying to cross the fast @-@ flowing river . Many others who had been cut off on the northern shore of the Danube ran for their lives amongst the reed @-@ beds , vainly endeavouring to avoid the Allied sabres . Others headed for the village of Zirgesheim , straining to escape to the wooded hills beyond . Only to the west could Marlborough detect a few Franco @-@ Bavarian battalions crossing the Danube by Donauwörth 's bridge in tolerable order , before darkness descended over the battlefield .
= = Aftermath = =
De la Colonie was one of the few to escape , but the Elector of Bavaria had lost many of his best troops which was to have a profound effect on the ability of the Franco @-@ Bavarian forces to face the Allies in the rest of the campaign . Very few of the men who had defended the Schellenberg rejoined the Elector 's and Marsin 's army . Included amongst this number , however , were the Comte d 'Arco and his second @-@ in @-@ command , the Marquis de Maffei , both of whom later defended Lutzingen at the Battle of Blenheim . Of the 22 @,@ 000 Allied troops engaged , over 5 @,@ 000 had become casualties , overwhelming the hospitals that Marlborough had set up in Nördlingen . Amongst the Allied fatalities were six lieutenant @-@ generals , four major @-@ generals , and 28 brigadiers , colonels and lieutenant @-@ colonels , reflecting the exposed positions of senior officers as they led their men forward in the assaults . No other action in the War of the Spanish Succession claimed so many lives of senior officers .
The victory produced the usual spoils of war . As well as capturing all the guns on the Schellenberg the Allies captured all the regimental colours ( apart from de la Colonie 's Grenadiers Rouge Régiment ) , their ammunition , baggage and other rich booty . But the large casualty figures caused some consternation throughout the Grand Alliance . Although the Dutch cast a victory medal showing Baden on the obverse and a Latin inscription on the other side , there was no mention of the Duke of Marlborough . The Emperor , though , wrote personally to the Duke : " Nothing can be more glorious than the celerity and vigour with which ... you forced the camp of the enemy at Donauwörth " . With the town abandoned that night by Colonel DuBordet , the Elector , who had arrived within sight of the battle with reinforcements only to see the flight and massacre of his best troops , drew his garrisons out of Neuburg and Ratisbon , and fell back behind the river Lech near Augsburg .
= = = Devastation of Bavaria = = =
Marlborough had won his bridgehead over the Danube , and had put himself between the French and Vienna ; yet the battle was followed by a curious , dragging anti @-@ climax . The Duke was determined to lure the Elector into battle before Tallard arrived with reinforcements , but since the battle on the Schellenberg neither Allied commander could agree on their next move , resulting in a protracted siege of Rain . Due to the initial lack of heavy guns and ammunition ( promised by the Empire but not delivered on time ) the town did not fall until 16 July . Nevertheless , Marlborough promptly occupied Neuburg which , together with Donauwörth and Rain , provided the Allies with enough fortified bridges across the Danube and Lech rivers to manoeuvre with ease .
The Allied commanders now marched to Friedberg , watching their enemy across the river Lech in Augsburg , at the same time preventing them from entering Bavaria or drawing from it any supplies . But the transfer of Bavaria from the party of the Two Crowns to the Grand Alliance was the prime concern to the Allies . As the Elector sat behind his defences at Augsburg Marlborough sent his troops deep into Bavaria on raids of destruction , burning buildings and destroying crops , trying to lure the Bavarian commander into battle or convince him to change his allegiance back to Emperor Leopold I. The Emperor had offered a full pardon , as well as subsidies and restoration of all his territories , with additional lands of Pfalz @-@ Neuburg and Burgau if he returned to the Imperial fold , but negotiations between the parties were making little headway .
The spoliation of Bavaria led to entreaties from the Elector 's wife , Theresa Kunegunda Sobieska , for him to divest himself of the French alliance . Although the Elector wavered somewhat in his allegiance to Louis XIV , his resolve to continue fighting against Leopold I and the Grand Alliance was stiffened when news arrived that Tallard 's reinforcements – some 35 @,@ 000 men – would soon be in Bavaria . Marlborough now intensified the policy of devastating the Elector 's territory . On 16 July the Duke wrote to his friend Heinsius , the Grand Pensionary of Holland , " We are advancing into the heart of Bavaria to destroy the country and oblige the Elector one way or the other to a compliance " . The policy compelled the Elector to send 8 @,@ 000 troops from Augsburg to defend his own property , reserving only a fraction of his army to join the French under Marsin and Tallard . But although Marlborough thought it a necessary strategy to secure success , it was of doubtful morality . The Duke himself confessed his reservations to his wife , Sarah , " This is so uneasy to my nature that nothing but an absolute necessity would have obliged me to consent to it . For these poor people suffer only for their master 's ambition . " Accounts differ as to the actual amounts of damage done . De La Colonie thought that reports of the devastation were perhaps exaggerated for propaganda purposes ; yet Christian Davies serving with Hay 's Dragoons wrote , " The allies sent parties on every hand to ravage the country ... We spared nothing , killing , burning or otherwise destroying whatever we could not carry off . " To Historian David Chandler , Marlborough must bear the full responsibility for the destruction , for although he undoubtedly found it hard to stomach it was taken under Baden 's , and the Emperor 's protests .
The failure of the Empire to provide an effective siege train had , up to this point , robbed the Allies of victory – neither Munich nor Ulm could be taken , and the Elector had neither been defeated nor compelled to change allegiance . Prince Eugene had become increasingly worried that no decisive action had followed the victory on the Schellenberg , writing to the Duke of Savoy , " ... I cannot admire their performances . They have been counting on the Elector coming to terms ... they have amused themselves with ... burning a few villages instead of ... marching straight upon the enemy . " Tallard arrived in Augsburg with French reinforcements on 5 August . Eugene , shadowing Tallard , was also heading south with 18 @,@ 000 men , but he had been forced to leave behind 12 @,@ 000 troops guarding the Lines of Stollhofen with which to prevent Villeroi bringing further French reinforcements to the Danube . Moreover , the Elector had at last sent orders to the large Bavarian contingents on the Tyrolese border to rejoin the main army . For the Allies , therefore , time was short : they must defeat the French and their allies at once , or all south Germany would be lost .
On 7 August the three Allied commanders – Marlborough , Baden and Eugene – met to decide their strategy . To give themselves another major crossing over the Danube a plan by Baden to besiege the city of Ingolstadt with a force of 15 @,@ 000 men was agreed to , despite leaving the Allied army numerically inferior . This army , totalling 52 @,@ 000 men and now without the commander who led the Imperial troops on the Schellenberg , would meet the Franco @-@ Bavarian forces , numbering 56 @,@ 000 men , in and around the small village of Blindheim . The engagement , fought on 13 August 1704 , would become known in German as the Battle of Höchstädt , and in English , as the Battle of Blenheim .
= = Cultural references = =
Joseph Addison 's poem The Campaign
= = = Primary = = =
La Colonie , Jean Martin de ( 1904 ) . The Chronicles of an Old Campaigner ( trans . W. C. Horsley ) .
= = = Secondary = = =
Barnett , Correlli ( 1999 ) . Marlborough . Wordsworth Editions Limited . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84022 @-@ 200 @-@ 5 .
Chandler , David G ( 2003 ) . Marlborough as Military Commander . Spellmount Ltd . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 86227 @-@ 195 @-@ 1 .
Churchill , Winston ( 2002 ) . Marlborough : His Life and Times , Bk . 1 , vol . II . University of Chicago Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 10633 @-@ 5 .
Falkner , James ( 2004 ) . Blenheim 1704 : Marlborough 's Greatest Victory . Pen & Sword Books Ltd . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84415 @-@ 050 @-@ 2 .
Holmes , Richard ( 2008 ) . Marlborough : England 's Fragile Genius . HarperCollins . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 722571 @-@ 2 .
Lynn , John A ( 1999 ) . The Wars of Louis XIV , 1667 – 1714 . Longman . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 582 @-@ 05629 @-@ 9 .
McKay , Derek ( 1997 ) . Prince Eugene of Savoy . Thames and Hudson Ltd . ISBN 0 @-@ 500 @-@ 87007 @-@ 1 .
Spencer , Charles ( 2005 ) . Blenheim : Battle for Europe . Phoenix . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 304 @-@ 36704 @-@ 7 .
Trevelyan , G. M. ( 1948 ) . England Under Queen Anne : Blenheim . Longmans , Green and co .
= Her Battle for Existence =
Her Battle for Existence is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The fictional drama follows Susan Dale , a young woman used to luxury . She chooses between two suitors , but her fiancé breaks the engagement off after Susan 's father loses his money and life . Susan now tries to support herself , but fails in the role and decides to kill herself . Her other suitor rushes in and stops her suicide and they get married . Little is known about the production of the film , but it was released as a split reel with Sand Man 's Cure on April 22 , 1910 . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
An official synopsis was published in the The Moving Picture World . It states , " Susan Dale has been brought up in luxury . She has two suitors , Will Emory and Jim Briggs . She chooses Will , and at the opening of the picture informs Jim of her choice . But a change comes to the fortunes of Susan 's father : an unlucky speculation claims his wealth and his life . When Will discovers that his fiancé is penniless his love cools ; he breaks the engagement and goes to Europe to avoid the girl . Susan , friendless , starts out to earn her own living . She applies for a job in a lawyer 's office , but leaves when the man insults her . She secures a place in a department store , but is discharged because , fatigued after an arduous day at the counter , she took a seat while on duty . She applies for work in a factory , but is rejected , owing to lack of experience . Finally , in desperation , she takes a place as maid in the home of Mrs. Gray . There Burg , the offensive lawyer , meets her , and in a spirit of revenge , denounces her as a thief . The mistress discharges her and Susan decides to end her life . Fortunately for Susan , Burg meets Jim Briggs , the rejected suitor , on the street and laughingly tells him how he brought about Susan 's discharge . Jim knocks the wretch down and rushes to Mrs. Gray 's residence . He arrives in time to dissuade Susan from her purpose , and all ends happily to the peal of wedding chimes . "
= = Production = =
The director of the film is not known , but two Thanhouser directors are possible . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company for a short time , moving to Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute either as the director for this particular production nor does Bowers credit a cameraman . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . Bowers does not indicate any cast roles or provides any further information into the production of this work .
= = Release and reception = =
The film was released on April 22 , 1910 . The production was a split reel , containing both Her Battle for Existence and Sand Man 's Cure , with an estimated length of 1000 feet . The American Film Institute refers more specifically to the entire reel being 998 feet in length , but does not distinguish between the lengths of the productions . A Thanhouser Filmography Analysis , provided by Thanhouser Company Film Preservation , lists the film as comprising three quarters of a reel - approximately 750 feet . The reasoning is not provided , but the previous release and the next to follow were split reels of similar lengths . Billboard would not identify the film as a split release or give the length for this and the other Thanhouser split reel that followed . The film had advertisements for theaters across the United States , locations included Missouri , Arizona , New York , Wisconsin , Vermont , and California .
The film received mixed reviews by film critics . The first review of the film in the The Moving Picture World found no fault with the acting and photography , but did not believe the ending was believable . The second review was more favorable , but again noted the scenario is a cautionary one for women without aid or occupation to support themselves in life . The New York Dramatic Mirror stated , " A number of overdrawn and inconsistent incidents in this film story do not rob it of its interesting strength . The acting is good and the scenic backgrounds appropriate . " However , the reviewer makes references to the plot that are not consistent with the official synopsis . The film is presumed lost .
= 2015 Singapore Grand Prix =
The 2015 Singapore Grand Prix ( formally known as the 2015 Formula 1 Singapore Airlines Singapore Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held on 20 September 2015 at the Marina Bay Street Circuit in Marina Bay , Singapore . The race was the thirteenth round of the 2015 season . It was the eighth time the race was run as a round of the Formula One World Championship .
Defending race winner Lewis Hamilton of Mercedes entered as the leader in the World Drivers ' Championship with 252 points , 53 points ahead of teammate Nico Rosberg and 74 points ahead of Ferrari 's Sebastian Vettel . Mercedes came into the race leading the Constructors ' Championship by 181 points ahead of Ferrari , with Williams a further 82 points back in third place .
Vettel won the race from pole position , ahead of Red Bull 's Daniel Ricciardo in second and Vettel 's Ferrari teammate Kimi Räikkönen in third . The Mercedes team struggled at Singapore ; Lewis Hamilton recorded his first retirement of the season , while Nico Rosberg managed only fourth place , closing the gap in the championship to 41 points .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Coming to Singapore , Nico Rosberg was forced to change his power unit after his engine failure at the previous race in Italy . Using his fourth unit of the season , Rosberg was one power unit change away from a possible grid penalty . Alexander Rossi made his Formula One debut after signing a five @-@ race deal to replace Roberto Merhi at Manor Marussia . Acting as race stewards at the Grand Prix were Garry Connelly from Australia and Vincenzo Spano from Venezuela , who assisted driver steward Martin Donnelly in his first appearance in this position since the 2014 Malaysian Grand Prix . Sauber brought a " heavily @-@ updated car " to the Grand Prix , featuring a shorter nose and revised front and rear wings as well as a new engine cover and brake ducts . Toro Rosso also came to Singapore with new parts , bringing a revised front wing . Red Bull introduced a new component as well : Daniil Kvyat 's car was equipped with new turning vanes installed to improve the airflow under the car and therefore create more downforce . The feature would be run by both cars at the following Japanese Grand Prix . Further updates included changes to the diffuser , rear wing , brake ducts and bodywork of the Force India VJM08B and modifications to the floor in front of the rear wheels of the Ferrari SF15 @-@ T.
The FIA approved minor changes to the layout of the Marina Bay Street Circuit ahead of the Grand Prix . The modifications ran from turn 11 to turn 13 ; drivers still turned right at turn 11 but it now kinked left slightly on entry , with the track shifting to the left @-@ hand side of Fullerton Road . This changed the profile of turn 12 , as drivers now used the other side of the Anderson Bridge , while the hairpin at turn 13 has been widened by a metre in order to increase overtaking opportunities . The drag reduction system ( DRS ) had two activation zones for the race ; the first between turns five and seven down the length of Raffles Boulevard , and the second on the start / finish straight between turn 23 to turn one .
As in the previous year 's event , and third season in a row , Pirelli , Formula One 's sole tyre supplier , brought its yellow @-@ banded soft compound tyre as the harder " prime " tyre and the red @-@ banded supersoft compound tyre as the softer " option " tyre , as well as the green @-@ banded intermediate weather and the blue @-@ banded full @-@ wet weather compounds .
With forest fires continuing to burn in neighboring Indonesia , heavy smog was a concern for the event . Unhealthy levels forced the cancellation of other events in Singapore in the week leading up to the Grand Prix . Race organisers , however , did not speculate whether the Grand Prix was also under threat of cancellation . It was later reported that the smog had lifted and that the race could go ahead without any restrictions .
Coming into the race weekend , Lewis Hamilton was leading the Drivers ' Championship with 252 points , 53 points ahead of Nico Rosberg , his teammate at Mercedes . Another 21 points behind in third was Sebastian Vettel , driving for Ferrari . In the Constructors ' Standings , Mercedes were leading on 451 points , followed by Ferrari and Williams with 270 and 188 points respectively .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2015 season , three practice sessions were held ; there were two 90 @-@ minute sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session before qualifying on Saturday . Since Singapore was a night race , the practice sessions started at a later local time ; 18 : 00 for the first and 21 : 30 for the second session on Friday . This meant that the gap between the first two practice sessions was half an hour shorter than in other races . The two Mercedes cars were fastest in the first session on Friday , with Nico Rosberg topping the time sheets at 1 : 47 @.@ 995 . Championship leader Lewis Hamilton was second , 0 @.@ 319 seconds behind , while Daniel Ricciardo was 0 @.@ 017 seconds slower in third , ahead of the two Ferraris of Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen , even though Vettel briefly left the track in turn five towards the end of the session . While Ricciardo felt he could go even faster , his teammate Daniil Kvyat was able to put in only eight laps due to a fuel system problem , and he finished the session eighteenth , just ahead of the two Manor Marussia drivers . Manor 's Alexander Rossi placed last , albeit close to teammate Will Stevens , before crashing out at turn 18 , ending the last timed runs of all other drivers left on track .
Early on in practice two , Will Stevens became the second Manor driver to make contact with the barriers , damaging his car . Teammate Rossi was limited to only three laps of running as his team spent most of the session repairing the damage from the shunt in first practice , he eventually finished almost 14 seconds down on Daniil Kvyat , who topped the session with a time of 1 : 46 @.@ 142 . The second Red Bull of Daniel Ricciardo finished third , with Räikkönen in between the two . Hamilton was the fastest Mercedes driver in fourth , while Rosberg managed only seventh fastest , behind Sebastian Vettel and Sergio Pérez . Fernando Alonso finished eighth for McLaren , also within a second of Kvyat . However , his teammate Jenson Button , who was 14th with a detuned power unit , still expressed disappointment at the team 's pace , saying he had hoped the car to be better . Several drivers made minor contact with the walls on the narrow Singapore circuit , including Pastor Maldonado and Carlos Sainz , Jr . , who suffered a left @-@ rear puncture after hitting the wall at turn five . After the performances by both Red Bull and Ferrari , Lewis Hamilton expected a " genuine challenge " from both teams over the rest of the weekend . Meanwhile , both Red Bull 's Daniel Ricciardo and Ferrari 's Sebastian Vettel were less optimistic . While Ricciardo said he was " still not looking to them [ Mercedes ] " , Vettel felt that Mercedes " looked a bit slow but I 'm sure they will change it for tomorrow " .
In the third practice session on Saturday evening , the two Ferraris were in front , with Vettel fastest at 1 : 45 @.@ 682 , while Räikkönen was almost half a second off his teammate 's pace . The two Red Bulls of Kvyat and Ricciardo were behind , followed by both Mercedes cars , who trailed Vettel by more than a second . Meanwhile , Fernando Alonso continued McLaren 's good form and finished seventh fastest . Lewis Hamilton had several problems during the session ; an early run was interrupted by him leaving the track and he was later called to drive through the pit lane to cool down his overheating car . Valtteri Bottas was the fastest Williams driver in eleventh , just in front of Nico Hülkenberg , who drove a revised version of his Force India . The two Manor Marussia cars were again last , with Rossi almost three seconds ahead of Stevens .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . During the first part of qualifying ( Q1 ) , only the Ferrari were confident enough to run only on the slower , harder tyres , while the rest of the field needed to equip the super @-@ soft compound . Daniil Kvyat topped the session with a time of 1 : 45 @.@ 340 on the supersoft tyre . Pastor Maldonado was eliminated , as were the two Manor Marussias , who were even further off the pace than usual . Both of the team 's drivers received a five @-@ place grid penalty for a gearbox change . Both Sauber drivers also did not make it into Q2 , when Jenson Button was the last to set a fast lap , edging out Felipe Nasr by less than a tenth of a second .
Vettel set the fastest time in the second part of qualifying as well , being two tenths faster than second placed Daniil Kvyat . While Max Verstappen made it into Q3 , his teammate Sainz hit the wall in turn 19 close to the end of the session , damaging his suspension and front wing , with parts of debris left on the track . With the session ending under yellow flags , both Force India and both McLaren drivers joined Sainz in elimination , with Nico Hülkenberg fastest in eleventh place on the grid . Everyone behind Sainz failed to finish their laps , including Mercedes drivers Nico Rosberg and Lewis Hamilton .
At the beginning of Q3 , Lewis Hamilton aborted his first fast lap . Mercedes seemed to struggle most in the final sector , where Hamilton lost half a second to the Red Bull of Kvyat . Hamilton later stated that the team had problems generating heat in the tyres , essential for the final sector that benefitted high traction . It was Sebastian Vettel who took pole position , having led the final two parts of qualifying , ahead of Daniel Ricciardo , who lost time in the first sector after having to back off from Valtteri Bottas in front of him . The other Ferrari and Red Bull of Räikkönen and Kvyat claimed third and fourth on the grid respectively , followed by both Mercedes cars , who were one and a half seconds down on Vettel 's pole time of 1 : 43 @.@ 885 . This was the first pole position for Ferrari since the 2012 German Grand Prix , the first in dry conditions for five years , and also prevented Lewis Hamilton from equalling Ayrton Senna 's record of eight consecutive pole positions . Vettel 's pole also brought an end to Mercedes ' 23 @-@ race long run of pole positions , and it was the first time since the beginning of the 2014 season that the first spot on the grid was not taken by a Mercedes @-@ powered car .
= = = Race = = =
Before the formation lap , Rosberg appeared to have an issue with his car , when he stopped at the end of pit lane on the way to the start grid . However , his mechanics were able to rectify the problem , described by Niki Lauda as " a glitch " , and he made it to the grid . With everyone starting on the super @-@ soft tyre compound , a race with two pit stops was expected for most drivers . At the start , all drivers at the front of the field held their positions , while further back , Nico Hülkenberg , who had a good start , and Sergio Pérez nearly collided while fighting for position . Max Verstappen 's Toro Rosso STR10 stalled on the grid and was pushed back to the pits , only to start his race shortly after , more than one lap down on the leaders . Vettel was able to build a gap to Ricciardo behind him quickly , leading the Red Bull by three seconds after the first lap . Fernando Alonso , who had enjoyed a decent start to move up into eleventh , came under pressure from Sainz by lap four , followed by Grosjean , who lost places at the start because he had to move around the stationary Verstappen . While Vettel 's lead was about five seconds on lap five , Verstappen unlapped himself by lap six and posted fast lap times . Meanwhile , Nico Rosberg held off the two Williams cars of Bottas and Massa , while Lewis Hamilton in front was able to move clear of the pack fighting for sixth place . Kimi Räikkönen in third place was held at a distance by Ricciardo , trailing him by 1 @.@ 6 seconds on lap nine . A lap later , Grosjean became the first driver to pit . More cars came in on lap eleven , leading to heavy traffic that prevented Sainz and Alonso from leaving their pit boxes , costing time . Alonso emerged from pit lane ahead of Grosjean , who moved past him into thirteenth . Felipe Massa had a slow stop of 4 @.@ 8 seconds when he pitted at the end of lap 13 . When he emerged from pit lane , Nico Hülkenberg was approaching on the racing line . Both drivers collided , with Hülkenberg being catapulted off Massa 's front right tyre , causing him to retire from the race . A Virtual Safety Car period ensued , that saw all drivers pit that had not done so before . Since Kvyat had pitted shortly before the safety car was deployed , both Mercedes cars were able to move in front of him , leaving Kvyat in sixth place . Jenson Button 's stop took a long time , dropping him to 16th place . By lap 16 , the virtual was replaced by the actual safety car , which stayed out until the end of lap 18 .
At the restart , Sainz was caught out by his car being stuck in neutral , losing many places and dropping back to 18th position , but managed to continue . The safety car had meanwhile allowed his teammate Verstappen to move closer to the pack , being about half a lap down on lap 20 . The next laps saw Vettel setting a steady pace at the front to conserve his tyres , leading Hamilton to declare that " Vettel 's backing up Ricciardo " on team radio . On lap 26 , Hamilton reported a loss of power to his crew . He subsequently lost positions rapidly , dropping back to ninth by lap 28 , eventually retiring on lap 33 . Meanwhile , Felipe Massa had problems with his car as well . Similar to Sainz , he saw his car switch to neutral . After driving through pit lane without stopping on lap 30 , he retired a lap later , with Fernando Alonso also ending his race on lap 34 with a defective gearbox . On the same lap , Daniil Kvyat came in for his second pit stop , but trouble with the tyres caused him to lose positions as he dropped to ninth . Around the same time , Vettel held a five @-@ second advantage over Ricciardo , while Pérez overtook Grosjean for ninth on lap 36 .
A second safety car period was caused on lap 37 by a man walking on the track . Several drivers again used the safety car to pit for new tyres , including Jenson Button , who emerged in tenth place . By lap 40 , Alexander Rossi was instructed to unlap himself behind the safety car , but when he failed to do so in an acceptable time , the race was resumed on lap 41 , with Rossi stuck between the front runners . By lap 42 , Button was racing Pastor Maldonado for position , when both collided in turn 15 , damaging Button 's front wing , who was forced to pit to have it exchanged . Button rejoined in 14th place , telling his team on the radio " I should have known , really , that he 's mental " , speaking about Maldonado . By lap 45 , Max Verstappen , who had started more than a lap behind , was up to ninth and set the new fastest lap of the race . One lap later , he took eighth place from Grosjean . His teammate Sainz followed two laps later , with Grosjean complaining that Sainz had left him " nowhere to go " . Meanwhile , at the front , Ricciardo set a fastest lap on lap 51 , being 2 @.@ 9 seconds behind leading man Vettel . Lap 53 saw Jenson Button become the second McLaren to retire , suffering from a gearbox issue as well . During the closing stages of the race , Valtteri Bottas in fifth experienced gearbox problems of his own , but was able to continue . On lap 60 , Grosjean ran wide and let Felipe Nasr move through into the final point scoring position , tenth . During the last lap , Toro Rosso instructed Verstappen to let his teammate Sainz pass him for eighth , but Verstappen refused and stayed in place . Sebastian Vettel crossed the line to win the race , which took the entire allowed span of two hours .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
At the podium interviews , conducted by former team owner Eddie Jordan , Sebastian Vettel described the race as one of his best ever , calling it " a great day ; we had a really great weekend " . He also revealed that his drink bottle had failed halfway into the race , causing him to become thirsty as drivers lose two to three litres in sweat during the Singapore race . Second placed Daniel Ricciardo said he felt that an undercut , overtaking Vettel by pitting earlier might have been possible had it not been for the safety car periods . Kimi Räikkönen expressed surprise at his performance , considering that he had struggled with the handling of the car both in qualifying and the race . Speaking about the track intruder , Sebastian Vettel stated at the post @-@ race press conference that he " saw him taking a picture " and continued : " I hope it was a good one at least . I hope it was in focus ! Yeah , pretty crazy , we approach that corner at around 280 – 290 klicks so , I don 't know , I wouldn 't cross the track if I was him . It was crazy , obviously [ ... ] . " The intruder was later revealed to be 27 @-@ year old British citizen Yogvitam Pravin Dhokia . He appeared in court on the Tuesday following the race and was offered a bail of S $ 15 @,@ 000 , which he was unable to pay . He was later sentenced to serve six weeks in jail .
Still during the race , the stewards handed Nico Hülkenberg a three @-@ place grid penalty for the following race in Japan for causing the collision with Felipe Massa on lap 14 . Hülkenberg was " frustrated " with the decision , saying : " The accident with Felipe was very unlucky and I don 't understand why I 've been given a penalty before there has even been the chance to discuss the incident in the stewards ' room [ ... ] In my view it was my corner and I 'm surprised Felipe backed out of it much too late , locking up just before he hit me . " Massa had a different view about the incident , stating : " I was braking for the corner and he turned his car in on mine , leaving me with nowhere to go , so we hit . " Force India decided not to appeal the decision . Williams ' Head of Vehicle Performance Rob Smedley lamented the slow pit stop of his team that preceded the incident , saying that Massa should have exited the pits safely ahead of Hülkenberg . While initial reactions in the United Kingdom agreed with the stewards ' decision , German tabloid Bild called the penalty a " joke " . Hülkenberg later accepted that he was at fault and apologised to Massa via text message . Concerning the accident between Button and Maldonado , no further action was taken by the stewards . Jenson Button however followed up on his " mental " -remark during the race , by stating that he felt Maldonado 's driving was " very strange " and that he " won 't ever change " . Maldonado answered by saying : " No driver 's happy if there 's a car in front of them and they want to get past , especially if it damages their car trying to overtake [ ... ] . We both got damage to our cars ; he was behind me trying to get past , I was defending my position . That 's racing . "
Following the controversial refusal by Max Verstappen to follow team orders and let his teammate pass in the final lap of the race , team principal Franz Tost later backed up his driver : " The team wanted to swap positions because we thought Carlos was faster with the new tyres , but this was not the case , he could not catch up . He was too far away , so Max said no , and he was right . " The Ferrari team came under criticism after the race , when team personnel broke through a barrier by security to enter parc fermé and celebrate Vettel 's victory . The team announced that they intended to " send a written unconditional apology " to the Grand Prix officials and security staff over the incident .
As a result of the race , Hamilton 's lead in the Drivers ' Championship was cut down to 41 points , with Rosberg still in second place . Sebastian Vettel moved closer as well , now being 49 points behind Hamilton . Felipe Massa 's retirement saw him drop from fourth to sixth in the standings , being overtaken by both Räikkönen and Bottas . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari closed the gap to leaders Mercedes , now trailing 310 to 463 points . This race would prove to be the only one that Lewis Hamilton did not finish on course for his third Drivers ' Championship .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Will Stevens received a five @-@ place grid penalty for an unscheduled gearbox change , but remained 19th due to Rossi 's identical penalty .
^ 2 – Alexander Rossi received a five @-@ place grid penalty for an unscheduled gearbox change .
= = = Race = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Romain Grosjean was classified despite retiring due to completing 90 % of the race distance .
^ 2 – Nico Hülkenberg was penalised with a three @-@ place grid penalty at the Japanese Grand Prix for causing the collision with Massa .
= = = Championship standings after the race = = =
Bold text indicates who still had a mathematical chance of becoming World Champion .
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Tropical Storm Becky ( 1970 ) =
Tropical Storm Becky was the second tropical cyclone and named storm of the 1970 Atlantic hurricane season . Becky formed from a tropical depression that was designated on July 19 . The next day it organized over the Yucatan Channel and became Tropical Storm Becky . Initially thought to have attained minimal hurricane status , Becky reached peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , but the storm began to deteriorate shortly thereafter . The storm made landfall on the Florida Panhandle on July 22 , and rapidly weakened over land . Overall , damage was related to heavy rainfall that caused flooding in Tallahassee , Florida ; 104 families suffered flood @-@ related losses . About $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1970 USD ) in damage was attributed to the storm . Further north , the heavy rainfall swelled rivers . Becky may have been partially responsible for spawning tornadoes that destroyed or damaged several houses .
= = Meteorological history = =
On July 16 , 1970 , a large disturbance separated from the Intertropical Convergence Zone near Panama . The broad area of convection dominated the region between Swan Island and western Cuba by July 18 . Some sources state that the area of convection was joined by a low @-@ level vortex that entered the area , eventually forming a depression . Others believe that the origins of Becky can be tracked back to a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on July 9 . A tropical depression formed on July 19 , 1970 . As the depression moved through the Yucatan Channel , the convective cloud system became better organized . On July 20 , in light of data from a Reconnaissance Aircraft flight , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Becky .
The storm moved roughly northward under the influence of the Bermuda High to the east and a low pressure area over Mexico . Reports from a Reconnaissance flight indicated that Becky was disorganized , with a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 008 mbar ( 29 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Although a fairly strong low @-@ level circulation developed , there was insufficient warming of the center to produce a significant drop in barometric pressure at the surface . Late on July 20 , a ship reported a minimum pressure of about 1 @,@ 003 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) , and another ship reported sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , which would be Becky 's peak intensity . A Reconnaissance flight and weather radars suggested the development of an eye feature , and initially it was believed that the storm attained minimal hurricane status . Later it was later confirmed that Becky remained a tropical storm , and the previously forming eye failed to persist .
On July 21 , the storm deteriorated in organization as it continued northward . The lack of banding features indicated that by early on July 22 , Becky was barely a tropical storm . The storm made landfall near Port St. Joe , Florida shortly thereafter , and weakened rapidly as it moved inland ; as a rainstorm , it progressed northward into the Midwestern United States and completely dissipated over Michigan .
= = Preparations = =
Offshore , Shell Oil removed some workers and equipment from offshore platforms . A hurricane warning was issued from Fort Walton , Florida to Port St. Joe , Florida . Similarly , a gale warning was posted for coastal areas of Alabama and Florida . A hurricane watch was issued for locations in Mississippi and Louisiana . On July 22 , a tornado watch was posted for northern Florida . Tornado warnings were also issued , and a flash flood watch was declared for parts of western North Carolina . Gale warnings were posted from Panama City , Florida to St. Marks , Florida , with the expectation of winds to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Heavy rainfall of up to 8 inches ( 200 mm ) was predicted , and tides of 2 to 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) forecast . Isolated tornadoes were possible as the storm made landfall .
Thousands of residents were evacuated from the Panhandle of Florida , including Santa Rosa Island and Destin , as well as other low @-@ lying locations . Some residents evacuated to storm shelters that were set up in various cities along the coast . A store in Destin reported increased sales in hurricane @-@ related supplies such as canned goods and flashlights . Florida Governor Claude Kirk ordered health units and law enforcement to operate on emergency alert . Small craft in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico were advised to remain in port until the high seas subsided .
= = Impact = =
Upon making landfall , a barometric pressure of 1007 mb accompanied the storm . Along the coast of the Panhandle , gale @-@ force winds and tides of 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above @-@ normal were reported . Tallahassee , Florida received 8 inches ( 0 @.@ 20 m ) of rainfall ; due to the heavy precipitation , serious flooding occurred . At Anna Marie Island in Florida , heavy rainfall and squalls accompanied by winds of 56 miles per hour ( 90 km / h ) were reported . In South Carolina , heavy precipitation led to rivers approaching flood stage . Locally heavy rainfall caused rivers to rise in North Carolina , though they remained below flood stage . Along the Cape Fear River , a boat ramp was washed out . Farther towards the north in Georgia and Alabama , the rainfall helped to relieve persistent drought conditions .
According to the Red Cross , 104 families in the Tallahassee region suffered flood @-@ related losses , and two injuries were reported . There , winds gusted to 44 miles per hour ( 71 km / h ) . Flood waters were knee @-@ deep around a county courthouse at Crawfordville , Florida . In low @-@ lying areas , flooding damaged homes , and to the southwest of Tallahassee , 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water forced the evacuation of 15 homes by rowboat . Over 100 cars were stranded in the flooding . As precautionary measures , a few secondary roads were closed in the region . Damage from Becky in the state totaled $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1970 USD ) , mostly in Leon and Wakulla counties . Two injuries were reported .
Several tornadoes were reported . Near Panacea , Florida , a tornado destroyed a house and damaged two others . Another tornado in Emanuel County , Georgia killed one person and demolished two homes . However , due to the conditions that spawned the tornadoes , they are not directly attributed to Becky .
= SMS Deutschland ( 1874 ) =
SMS Deutschland was the second and final ship of the Kaiser @-@ class ironclads ; SMS Kaiser was her sister ship . Named for Germany ( Deutschland in German ) , the ship was laid down in the Samuda Brothers shipyard in London in 1872 . The ship was launched in September 1874 and commissioned into the German fleet in July 1875 . Deutschland mounted a main battery of eight 26 cm ( 10 in ) guns in a central battery amidships . She was the last capital ship built for the German Navy by a foreign ship @-@ builder ; all subsequent ships were built in Germany .
Deutschland served with the fleet from her commissioning until 1896 , though she was frequently placed in reserve throughout her career . The ship was a regular participant in the annual fleet training maneuvers conducted with the exception of the mid @-@ 1880s , when she was temporarily replaced by newer vessels . She participated in several cruises in the Baltic and Mediterranean , often escorting Kaiser Wilhelm II on official state visits . Deutschland was rebuilt in the early 1890s as an armored cruiser , though she was too slow to perform satisfactorily in this role . Nevertheless , she spent three years in the East Asia Squadron before returning to Germany in 1900 . She was used in secondary roles after 1904 , until 1908 when she was sold and broken up for scrap .
= = Construction = =
Deutschland was ordered by the Imperial Navy from the Samuda Brothers shipyard in London , UK ; her keel was laid in 1872 . Deutschland and her sister Kaiser were ordered shortly after the end of the Franco @-@ Prussian War , under the assumption that the French would quickly attempt a war of revenge . The ship was launched on 12 September 1874 and commissioned into the German fleet on 20 July 1875 . Deutschland cost the German government 8 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 gold marks . She was the last German capital ship built by a foreign shipbuilder .
The ship was 89 @.@ 34 meters ( 293 @.@ 1 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 19 @.@ 10 m ( 62 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 39 m ( 24 @.@ 2 ft ) forward . Deutschland was powered by one 2 @-@ cylinder single expansion engine , which was supplied with steam by eight coal @-@ fired trunk boilers . The ship 's top speed was 14 @.@ 6 knots ( 27 @.@ 0 km / h ; 16 @.@ 8 mph ) , at 5 @,@ 779 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 309 kW ) . She was also equipped with a full ship rig . Her standard complement consisted of 32 officers and 568 enlisted men .
She was armed with eight 26 cm ( 10 in ) L / 20 guns mounted in a central battery amidships . As built , the ship was also equipped with a single 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) L / 22 gun . After being rebuilt in 1891 – 1895 , her armament was increased by six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 22 and one 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 30 guns , four and later twelve 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) auto @-@ cannons , and five 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted in the ship 's hull . Deutschland 's armor was made of wrought iron and backed with teak . The armored belt was 127 to 254 mm ( 5 @.@ 0 to 10 @.@ 0 in ) thick ; this was backed with 90 to 226 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 to 8 @.@ 9 in ) of teak .
= = Service history = =
Following her commissioning in July 1875 , a German crew sailed Deutschland to Germany . She arrived too late , however , to participate in the annual summer training maneuvers . The ship was ready for the 1876 maneuvers ; the squadron consisted of Deutschland , her sister Kaiser , and the older ironclads Friedrich Carl and Kronprinz , commanded by Rear Admiral Carl Ferdinand Batsch . At around the time Batch 's squadron was working up for the summer cruise , the German consul in Salonika , then in the Ottoman Empire , was murdered . Further attacks on German citizens living in the area were feared , and so Batsch was ordered to sail to the Mediterranean Sea to stage a naval demonstration in June 1876 . After arriving with the four ironclads , he was reinforced by three unarmored vessels . After the threat of violence subsided in August , Batsch departed with Kaiser and Deutschland ; the other two ironclads remained in the Mediterranean for the rest of the summer .
For the 1877 maneuvers , the new turret ironclad Preussen replaced Kronprinz . The squadron was again sent to the Mediterranean , in response to unrest in the Ottoman Empire related to the Russo @-@ Turkish War ; the violence threatened German citizens living there . The squadron , again under the command of Batsch , steamed to the ports of Haifa and Jaffa in July 1877 , but found no significant tensions ashore . Batsch then departed and cruised the Mediterranean for the remainder of the summer , returning to Germany in October . The newly commissioned Friedrich der Grosse and Grosser Kurfürst , sister ships of Preussen , replaced Deutschland and Kaiser in the 1878 maneuvers , during which Grosser Kurfürst was accidentally rammed and sank with great loss of life . Deutschland and her sister Kaiser remained in reserve for the next six years . They were reactivated in the spring of 1883 for the summer maneuvers under the command of Wilhelm von Wickede . Due to their long period out of service , their engines proved troublesome during the training cruise . Indeed , the maneuvers were temporarily put on hold when the steam plants in Deutschland , Kaiser , and Kronprinz broke down . Regardless , the 1883 cruise was the first year the German navy completely abandoned the use of sails on its large ironclads . Deutschland went into reserve during the 1884 maneuvers , which were conducted by a homogenous squadron composed of the four Sachsen @-@ class ironclads .
The ship did not see active duty again until the summer of 1889 , when Deutschland joined the fleet that steamed to Great Britain to celebrate the coronation of Kaiser Wilhelm II ; the ship joined her sister Kaiser and the turret ships Preussen and Friedrich der Grosse in the II Division . The fleet then held training maneuvers in the North Sea under command of Rear Admiral Friedrich Hollmann . Deutschland and the rest of the II Division became the training squadron for the fleet in 1889 – 1890 , the first year the Kaiserliche Marine maintained a year @-@ round ironclad force . The squadron escorted Wilhelm II 's imperial yacht to the Mediterranean ; the voyage included state visits to Italy and the Ottoman Empire . The squadron remained in the Mediterranean until April 1890 , when it returned to Germany . Deutschland participated in the ceremonial transfer of the island of Helgoland from British to German control in the summer of 1890 . She was present during the fleet maneuvers in September , where the entire eight @-@ ship armored squadron simulated a Russian fleet blockading Kiel . The II Division , including Deutschland , served as the training squadron in the winter of 1890 – 1891 . The squadron again cruised the Mediterranean , under the command of Rear Admiral Wilhelm Schröder .
During the winter of 1892 – 1893 , Deutschland participated in a training squadron alongside the old ironclad König Wilhelm and the new coastal defense ships Siegfried and Beowulf . The squadron carried over for the fleet maneuvers during the summer of 1893 , when they were joined by the four Sachsen @-@ class vessels . In November 1893 , the Deutschland , König Wilhelm , and Friedrich der Grosse were joined by the brand @-@ new pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Brandenburg , under the command of Otto von Diederichs . The squadron participated in the fall maneuvers in 1894 , which simulated a two @-@ front war against France and Russia ; Deutschland 's squadron acted as the Russian fleet during the exercises . Between 1894 and 1897 , Deutschland was rebuilt in the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven . The ship was converted into an armored cruiser ; her heavy guns were removed and replaced with lighter weapons , including eight 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns . Her entire rigging equipment was removed and two heavy military masts were installed in place of the rigging . Despite the modernization , she remained quite slow . Kaiser and the old ironclad König Wilhelm were similarly converted . Deutschland rejoined the fleet on 25 January 1897 .
Following Diederichs 's seizure of Kiautschou Bay in November 1897 , Deutschland , the protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta , and the light cruisers Gefion and Cormoran reinforced the East Asia Cruiser Division . The arrival of the four ships allowed the division to be expanded to the East Asia Squadron . Prince Heinrich , with his flag aboard Deutschland , departed Germany in December 1897 with Gefion ; the two ships arrived in Hong Kong in March 1898 . Prince Heinrich took the two ships on a tour of Asia , culminating in a state visit to Peking in April . While most of the Squadron went to the Philippines to safeguard German interests during the Spanish – American War in the summer of 1898 , Deutschland , Gefion , and Irene remained in Chinese waters . On 14 April 1899 , Diederichs left the East Asia Squadron ; command passed to Prince Henry and Deutschland became the Squadron flagship .
Deutschland remained on the East Asia station until 1900 . After returning to Germany , Deutschland was used as a harbor ship , starting on 3 May 1904 . She was renamed Jupiter on 22 November of that year . On 21 May 1906 , the ship was stricken from the naval register and used briefly as a target ship in 1907 . The Kaiserliche Marine sold the ship in 1908 for 120 @,@ 000 marks ; she was broken up for scrap the following year in Hamburg @-@ Moorburg .
= Legal Services Corp. v. Velazquez =
Legal Services Corp. v. Velazquez , 531 U.S. 533 ( 2001 ) , was a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States concerning the constitutionality of funding restrictions imposed by the United States Congress . At issue were restrictions on the Legal Services Corporation ( LSC ) , a private , non @-@ profit corporation established by Congress . The restrictions prohibited LSC attorneys from representing clients attempting to amend ( or challenge ) existing welfare law . The case was brought by Carmen Velazquez , whose LSC @-@ funded attorneys sought to challenge existing welfare provisions , believing it was the only way to get Velazquez financial relief .
The Court ruled that this specific restriction violated the free speech guarantees of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution . Because LSC facilitated " private " speech — that of its grantees — the restrictions did not simply regulate government speech . Because the restrictions blocked attempts to change only a specific area of law , the Court held , they could not be considered viewpoint @-@ neutral ; the government is prohibited from making such viewpoint @-@ based restrictions of private speech .
Reactions to the decision were mixed within Congress , with Republicans and Democrats disagreeing on the propriety of the decision . Several law review articles argued that the use of a " distortion principle " to decide violations of free speech was an unreasonable and unconstitutional rule whose conditions on funding might " distort " speech advocacy ; others contended that the Court mishandled the interpretation of the statute at issue .
= = Background = =
= = = History of funding restriction jurisprudence = = =
The first major test of the federal government 's power over funding restrictions based on speech was the 1991 case Rust v. Sullivan . In Rust , the Supreme Court upheld a restriction on the use of Department of Health and Human Services funds for counseling , referring patients to , or advocating the use of abortion services . The Court reasoned that the restriction at issue " merely [ chose ] to fund one activity to the exclusion of the other . " Here , the government was using private speakers to transmit information pertaining to the government 's own program .
Six years later , the Court reviewed another restriction , this time concerning funding restrictions imposed by a public university . In the 1997 case Rosenberger v. University of Virginia , a government supported university sought to withhold funds from religious student publications despite funding similar secular publications . While the Court said the government could seek to shape funding to support a government message , such restrictive steps could not be imposed to the exclusion of a particular viewpoint .
= = = Legal Services Corporation = = =
In 1974 the United States Congress passed the Legal Services Corporation Act , which established the LSC . The purpose of the act was to provide government @-@ funded legal aid to indigent clients , funded through grants to regional entities throughout the country . In 1996 Congress amended the act with that year 's appropriations bill , imposing restrictions on the LSC . These restrictions included prohibitions against filing class action lawsuits , providing legal assistance to immigrants in particular types of cases , collecting attorney 's fees , soliciting clients , providing advocacy training programs and attempting to reform welfare laws . The restrictions affected only a small portion of the caseload . The restrictions prohibited funding cases :
... initiating legal representation or participating in any other way , in litigation , lobbying , or rulemaking , involving an effort to reform a Federal or State welfare system , except that this paragraph shall not be construed to preclude a recipient from representing an individual eligible client who is seeking specific relief from a welfare agency if such relief does not involve an effort to amend or otherwise challenge existing welfare law in effect on the date of the initiation of the representation .
= = = Lower @-@ court proceedings = = =
In 1997 , Carmen Velazquez lost welfare benefits from the government under the provisions of the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Act ( TANF ) . An attorney from an LSC grantee , Bronx Legal Services , litigated her claim . Bronx Legal Services , on behalf of Velazquez , filed suit in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York seeking a declaration that the provision of the act prohibiting challenges to existing welfare law was unconstitutional under the First Amendment . It argued that there was no way to help Velazquez without challenging the welfare system itself , and sought to challenge the provisions of TANF under which Velazquez lost her benefits ; a challenge they could not make due to the 1996 restrictions . The district court denied an injunction .
The court 's decision was affirmed in part and reversed in part by the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit . The Second Circuit unanimously held that the welfare @-@ advocacy restriction was unconstitutional , but upheld other restrictions that Bronx Legal Services had challenged ( such as the lobbying restriction ) by a 2 – 1 vote . The Second Circuit also rejected the claim that any funding conditions would be illegitimate , instead preferring a restriction @-@ by @-@ restriction analysis . The national LSC asked the Supreme Court for review by petitioning for a writ of certiorari , arguing that the Second Circuit was wrong in striking down the welfare @-@ advocacy restriction .
= = Supreme Court decision = =
The Supreme Court heard oral arguments in the case on October 4 , 2000 , issuing its decision four months later .
The Court affirmed the decision of the Second Circuit Court of Appeals , holding that the restriction on pursuing welfare advocacy was unconstitutional under the First Amendment by a vote of 5 – 4 .
Justice Kennedy delivered the majority opinion . It distinguished a 1991 Supreme Court case , Rust v. Sullivan , which upheld a prohibition on federally funded family planning services from discussing abortion with their patients . The majority reasoned that in Rust the government was attempting to use its funds to express its own message , but the purpose of the act was to promote a diversity of private views with its funding ; not an attempt to restrict any views . The Court said that the government can only issue " content @-@ neutral " conditions on such speech , and that the specific prohibition on welfare @-@ reform litigation was viewpoint @-@ based , as it restricted only support for welfare @-@ reform advocacy . " If the restriction on speech and legal advice were to stand , the result would be two tiers of cases ... there would be lingering doubt whether the truncated representation had resulted in complete analysis of the case , full advice to the client , and proper presentation to the court . "
The Court also criticized the fact that the restriction functionally barred attorneys from participating in the courts . Any attorney receiving LSC funding would not be able to litigate welfare claims that challenged welfare rules , thereby preventing certain cases from being filed . " The restriction imposed by the statute here threatens severe impairment of the judicial function ... We must be vigilant when Congress imposes rules and conditions which , in effect , insulate its own laws from legitimate judicial challenge . "
= = = Dissent = = =
Justice Scalia dissented from the decision of the Court , due to the belief that Rust mandated a ruling upholding the restriction . Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist and Associate Justices Sandra Day O 'Connor and Clarence Thomas joined the dissent . Scalia wrote , " The [ act ] is a federal subsidy program , not a federal regulatory program ... regulations directly restrict speech ; subsidies do not . " He disagreed with the majority 's contention that there was viewpoint discrimination , arguing that no specific viewpoint was restricted . Scalia was also concerned with dicta within the majority opinion that seemed to him to indicate a " fondness " for the concept of reform through the courts . His dissent argued that the majority 's holding was " unprecedented " because it was the first time the government would be limited in advocating its own message .
= = Reaction = =
The immediate reaction was mixed among members of Congress . Democratic supporters of the ruling were optimistic of future victories against funding restrictions , stating that , while they were glad the restriction fell , " [ the decision ] opens the LSC up to even more attacks " . Republicans in Congress condemned the decision , agreeing to work against it . Representative Steve Largent ( R @-@ OK ) said , " It 'll be on the radar screen for sure ... Why are we giving taxpayer money to sue taxpayers ? " The New York Times described the decision as the end of the " latest chapter , although almost certainly not the last , in a long political struggle over the federally financed program of civil legal services for the poor . "
Parties involved in the case also had mixed reactions . The Legal Services Corporation , which had sought to protect the restrictions , said it would " immediately review [ their ] regulations and then modify them to adhere to the Court 's ruling " , which it did quickly after the decision . Burt Neuborne , the lawyer who argued against the restriction before the Supreme Court , said the ruling " really reads like a First Amendment textbook " .
= = Subsequent developments = =
In the weeks following the Velazquez decision , the Supreme Court rejected appeals related to other LSC restrictions . LSC has engaged in welfare @-@ reform litigation since the original injunction was lifted .
The case provided the basis for other challenges to restrictions imposed on LSC , such as bans against lobbying or class action . These challenges were rejected by the Ninth Circuit and the Second Circuit in separate suits . The challenges failed because the relevant provisions do not regulate a specific type of advocacy ; for example , the restriction on LSC grantees from collecting attorney 's fees would not raise a speech issue because there is no speech involved in such a process . The argument raised in these challenges was that the Court articulated a new " conditions " principle in Velazquez — a distortion @-@ of @-@ speech test — which , they argued , would require the restrictions to be struck down . Both courts of appeal reviewing this claim have rejected this reading of Velazquez . Instead of a distortion @-@ of @-@ speech test , the decision was based on the application of limited public forum principles : when the government provides funds to an entity , and this funding 's purpose was to encourage a diversity of private views , it must act in a viewpoint @-@ neutral way . Programs funded in this manner are treated as a public forum , where the ability of the government to restrict speech is highly limited .
The implications of these subsequent rulings mandated two new rules , one narrow and one broad . First , restrictions may be imposed on LSC so long as they do not discriminate on the basis of " viewpoint " or " opinion " . Because the other restrictions were not based on viewpoint , they were upheld . Second , on a broader scale the government may not discriminate against viewpoints in any instance where it is funding a private entity to promote a diversity of views . For this reason , the decision in Velazquez set an important precedent for how the government may act as subsidizer and speaker .
= = Analysis and commentary = =
A Journal of Law and Politics article was critical of the decision , criticizing the Court 's claimed distinction between the speech restriction in Rust and the one on the Legal Services Corporation and contending that there was no functional difference between the two . The article highlighted a problem with the Court 's interpretation of the statute 's purpose at hand , stating : " Even assuming the propriety of invoking legislative purpose in statutory interpretation , the text of the [ Act ] does not support the Court 's understanding of the Act 's purpose . " The article noted that , although the Court looked at a section of the Act discussing attorneys " protecting the best interest of their clients " , the same section noted that the program must be free of " political pressures " . Because a factor in the Court 's reasoning was its understanding of the Act 's purpose , this alleged error purportedly misguided the rest of the Court 's analysis .
Further criticism from the article was that the Court unduly rested its decision on a separation of powers determination . The Court held in Velazquez that the restriction on welfare advocacy cases disrupted the " vital relationship between the bar and the judiciary " . This finding , the article argued , is baseless because there is no connection between preventing some government lawyers from arguing a single point and the deprivation of due process rights . It concluded that the fundamental problems of statutory interpretation and a lack of a credible distinction with Rust in Justice Kennedy 's analysis renders the opinion " unconvincing " .
An article in the Maryland Law Review authored by Christopher Gozdor ( a lawyer in the Maryland Attorney General 's office ) was also critical of the decision , although he was concerned instead with an alleged lack of clarity in the majority opinion . It discussed the case law relating to government speech and examined what it described as the " conditions doctrine " , where certain conditions on receiving federal funds were upheld or struck down . The article then turned to the Rust distinction . Gozdor explained : " The Court distinguished Velazquez from Rust because Rust involved a subsidy to facilitate private expression of the government 's message , while Velazquez involved LSC funding that was designed [ for ] private speech . " The critical question for the court was the characterization of the speech that the law promoted . Because advocacy by LSC grantees to change welfare laws was not in advance of the government 's own message , the restriction placed on it essentially prohibited a form of private speech . The relationship , Gozdor asserted , that the Court set forth was that the restriction " distorted " private speech . This " distortion principle " was the main criticism of the article ( as was Scalia 's dissent ) . Gozdor , agreeing with Scalia 's dissent , wrote that the restriction did not create such a distortion of private speech because Congress had still permitted LSC to form affiliate organizations which would be considered " legally separate " . Notwithstanding the difficulty of an organization to classify itself as an " affiliate entity " of LSC , Gozdor argued that there was no real prevention of speech when there were ample alternative means of relaying the message .
Further , in attacking the distortion principle 's application , Gozdor also argued against the principle as a legal concept in the first place . He wrote , " Regardless of the Court 's rationale for its distortion principle , determining a First Amendment violation by measuring whether the government used a subsidy ' in ways which distorted the medium 's usual functioning ' suggests that forum functions become unchangeable once created . " He claimed the unworkability of the distortion principle in a hypothetical example , which would moot the very existence of the Legal Services Corporation . " Taking the Velazquez rationale to its logical ends " , he wrote , " the LSC subsidy itself could become an unconstitutional speech restriction . If Congress substantially increased LSC appropriations in order to allow LSC to take all of its cases ... the functioning of the legal system would be distorted because such a subsidy likely would result in a dramatic increase in the federal courts ' caseloads . " With this in mind , he concluded with a process by which the Court should have decided the case : a process leading to the upholding of the restriction by finding that LSC 's purpose was in promoting the government 's message , in contrast to a diversity of private views .
An article in the North Carolina Law Review argued that Kennedy 's majority opinion wrongly set forth the understanding of the role of an attorney . The author , Jessica Sharpe , criticized the Court 's thesis that the role of the attorney is that of an advocate such that a restriction on the attorney served as a direct restriction of advocacy . This rationale , Sharpe argued , could undermine the balance of abortion restrictions because state regulations on abortion access also could be seen as an intrusion into doctor – patient speech . Because Velazquez " blurred " this distinction , the privileged nature of doctor – patient conversations could be subjected to future regulations and limitations .
= 1980 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1980 Atlantic hurricane season was tied with 1932 , 1969 , and 1994 for most named storms in Atlantic Ocean during the month of November – only to be surpassed in 2001 and 2005 . The season officially began on June 1 , 1980 , and lasted until November 30 , 1980 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic Ocean .
The season was fairly active , with fifteen tropical cyclones forming . It was the first time since the 1971 season that there were no active tropical cyclones in the Atlantic basin during the month of June . The season was neutral , having neither an El Niño nor a La Niña . Three tropical cyclones during in the Atlantic Ocean in 1980 were notable . Hurricane Allen was then the earliest Category 5 hurricane on record and also devastated portions of the Caribbean Sea , Mexico , and the United States . Tropical Storm Hermine caused significant flooding in Mexico , which resulted in at least 38 fatalities . Hurricane Jeanne was one of only four tropical cyclones at hurricane intensity to enter the Gulf of Mexico and not make landfall .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , though the first tropical depression did not develop until July 17 . During the season , 15 tropical depressions formed . Eight of the depressions attained tropical storm status , and eight of these attained hurricane status . Two of the hurricanes further strengthened to become major hurricanes . Only Allen made landfall at hurricane strength during the season , although Hurricane Charley and tropical storms Danielle and Hermine also caused damage and fatalities . Those three cyclones collectively caused 337 deaths and $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( 1980 USD ) in damage . The last storm of the season , Hurricane Karl , dissipated on November 27 , only three days before the official end date of November 30 .
The 1980 Atlantic hurricane season had a rather slow beginning , with only one tropical depression developing prior to the month of August . In contrast , August was an active month , with five tropical cyclones forming , three of which became hurricanes . During that month , Hurricane Allen became the earliest known Category 5 hurricane on August 5 , a record later broken by only Hurricane Emily on July 16 , 2005 . September also had five tropical cyclones , all of which became named storms . Tropical cyclogenesis abruptly halted in October , with only Hurricane Ivan developing in that month . However , the month of November was considered to be very active , with three storms forming during that month . Two of the systems became named storms , a record that was tied with 1932 , 1969 , and 1994 , but later surpassed when three tropical storms existed in the Atlantic in November 2001 and November 2005 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 149 , which is classified as " above normal " . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Although officially , subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total , the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One = = =
A decaying cold front entered into Gulf of Mexico , and developed a low @-@ pressure area of July 17 . Later that day , the low @-@ pressure area developed into Tropical Depression One almost halfway between Louisiana and the Yucatan Peninsula . The depression moved northwestward , and minimal intensification occurred , as it approached the Gulf Coast of the United States . The depression made landfall in Texas near the Galveston area , and dissipated by July 21 . Minimal impact was recorded from the depression , and light rainfall was reported in Texas and western Louisiana , peaking at 3 @.@ 77 in ( 96 mm ) in Refugio , Texas .
= = = Hurricane Allen = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa on July 30 and quickly developed into Tropical Depression Two about two days later . By August 2 , the depression had strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Allen . The storm steadily intensified and became a hurricane on August 3 . Thereafter , Allen rapidly deepened , and was a major hurricane only 24 hours later . While it was becoming a Category 3 hurricane , and a Category 4 hurricane , shortly after , Allen passed through the Windward Islands . Upon entering the Caribbean Sea , Allen continued to strengthen and became a Category 5 hurricane on August 5 , while about halfway between Puerto Rico and Venezuela . Allen briefly curved northwestward and approached the Tiburon Peninsula of Haiti . Shortly thereafter , Allen weakened significantly on August 6 , but was still a Category 4 when it bypassed Jamaica . While paralleling the south coast of Cuba , Allen re @-@ strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane . Later that day , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 190 mph ( 305 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 899 mbar ( 26 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Immediately following peak intensity , Allen entered the Gulf of Mexico and weakened back to a Category 4 hurricane on August 8 . On the day next , Allen re @-@ intensified into a Category 5 hurricane while approaching Texas . However , just offshore Allen abruptly weakened to a low @-@ end Category 3 hurricane prior to landfall near Brownsville , Texas on August 10 . The storm quickly weakened inland and dissipated about 36 hours after striking land .
Although 500 houses were either damaged or destroyed on Barbados , losses totaled to only $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1980 USD ) . Having passed only 8 miles ( 13 km ) south of St. Lucia , Allen produced sustained winds as high as 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) on the island . The storm caused 27 fatalities and $ 88 million ( 1980 USD ) in damage on that island . In addition , one death was reported in Guadeloupe . High winds and flooding in Haiti left 836 @,@ 200 people homeless . In addition , 220 deaths were reported and damage exceeded $ 400 million ( 1980 USD ) . To the east in Dominican Republic , effects were less severe , though seven deaths were reported and damage was estimated at $ 47 million ( 1980 USD ) . On the island of Cuba , three fatalities occurred and losses were unknown . In northeastern Mexico , heavy rainfall occurred , though damage was minimal and no fatalities were reported . Damage was most significant in the United States , especially in the state of Texas . In Corpus Christi , gravel blew off the roofs , which broke windows throughout the city . Several tornadoes were spawned in Texas , one of which caused $ 100 million ( 1980 USD ) in damage in Austin . Rainfall in the state of Texas exceeded 20 inches ( 510 mm ) in some locations . 24 fatalities occurred in the United States – seven in Texas and seventeen in Louisiana – most resulting from the crash of a helicopter evacuating workers from an offshore platform . Damage in United States totaled to $ 860 million ( 1980 USD ) . Overall , Hurricane Allen caused $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( 1980 USD ) in losses and caused 290 deaths .
= = = Tropical Depression Four = = =
The third tropical depression of the season developed east of Cape Verde on August 13 . However , the National Hurricane Center did not initiate advisories until August 16 . As a result , the system was classified as Tropical Depression Four . After forming on August 13 , the depression crossed through the Cape Verde Islands . The depression tracked northwestward and strengthened minimally , with winds never exceeding 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Thereafter , the depression curved and approached the eastern portion of the Azores . Tropical Depression Four moved through the islands shortly later . By early on August 17 , the depression dissipated near Santa Maria Island in the Azores .
= = = Hurricane Bonnie = = =
Starting on August 13 , a tropical wave in the vicinity of the Cape Verde began organizing into a tropical cyclone . Early on the following day , the system had developed into Tropical Depression Four while nearly halfway between the west coast of Africa and the Windward Islands . However , in post @-@ analysis , it was revealed that the previous tropical depression had actually developed before Bonnie . Thus , those two depressions were operationally numbered incorrectly . Two reports of gale force winds were received from ships later that day . As a result , the depression was re @-@ classified as Tropical Storm Bonnie about twelve hours after developing . Bonnie turned in a general northward direction , possibly due to interaction with nearby Tropical Depression Three .
Based on satellite estimates , Bonnie was upgraded to a hurricane at 0000 UTC on August 16 . The storm strengthened slightly further and attained its peak intensity with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . After attaining peak intensity on August 16 , Bonnie slowly weakened as it continued in an unusual northward direction . On the following day , Bonnie weakened slightly to a minimal Category 1 hurricane . The storm remained at that intensity for 72 hours as it accelerated northward across the open Atlantic . By 1800 UTC on August 19 , Bonnie transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while almost halfway between the southern tip of Greenland and the Azores .
= = = Hurricane Charley = = =
An extratropical low pressure system was centered over the Mid @-@ Atlantic United States , though it tracked southeastward and emerged into the Atlantic on August 20 . Later that day , satellite imagery indicated that a well @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation . As a result , it was determine that the system developed into a subtropical depression at 1200 UTC , while located about 150 miles ( 240 km ) east @-@ northeast of Hatteras , North Carolina . Initially , the depression tracked east @-@ southeastward , though it curved east @-@ northeastward by August 21 . Shortly thereafter , the depression strengthened into a subtropical storm . By early on August 23 , the storm had intensified and acquired enough tropical characteristics to be re @-@ classified as Hurricane Charley .
At 1200 UTC on August 23 , Charley attained its peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 989 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) . Following peak intensity , Charley completed a cyclonic loop and began weakening as it headed almost due @-@ east . Charley was downgraded to a tropical storm early on August 24 . The storm continued eastward and by August 26 , Charley became unidentifiable as it merged with an intense extratropical cyclone , while located about 790 miles ( 1 @,@ 270 km ) southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . While a tropical cyclone , Charley produced rip currents along the Outer Banks of North Carolina , which drowned seven people .
= = = Tropical Depression Six = = =
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean on August 22 . The system developed into Tropical Depression Six , while centered to the west of Cape Verde at 0000 UTC on August 25 . The depression tracked westward with minimal intensification . By 1800 UTC on August 26 , the depression reached 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and did not strengthen further . On the following day , the depression curved northwestward and slowly began to weaken . The depression degenerated into a tropical wave while well northeast of Puerto Rico on August 29 . The remnants of Tropical Depression Six continued westward and interacted with a low @-@ pressure system over Florida . Eventually , the system developed into Tropical Depression Eight on September 4 , which later became Tropical Storm Danielle .
= = = Hurricane Georges = = =
On August 28 , a tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic off the west coast of Africa . At 0000 UTC on September 1 , the system developed into Tropical Depression Seven , while centered roughly midway between the Lesser Antilles and the west coast of Africa . Sixteen hours later , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories on the depression . The depression tracked westward in the trade winds during the following three days , without any intensification . After curving northwestward an Air Force reconnaissance flight found little evidence of a closed circulation , while satellite imagery also showed a disorganized and elongated cloud pattern on September 4 . As a result , it was determined that the depression degenerated into a tropical disturbance at 0600 UTC on that day . However , the National Hurricane Center did not discontinue advisories until 2200 UTC .
On September 5 , satellite imagery suggested a surface circulation had developed , possibly due to interaction with a cold low . As a result , the system regenerated into a subtropical depression at 1200 UTC on that day , while centered about 360 miles ( 580 km ) southwest of Bermuda . Ten hours later , the National Hurricane Center resumed advisories on the subtropical depression . While the subtropical depression was curved northeastward , it strengthened and acquired tropical characteristics . At 0000 UTC on September 7 , the subtropical depression became Tropical Storm Georges . The storm continued to intensify while tracking northeastward and was upgraded to a hurricane about 24 hours after becoming a tropical storm . Simultaneously , Georges attained its peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 993 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . However , later that day , Georges transitioned into an extratropical cyclone near Cape Race , Newfoundland . While bypassing Newfoundland , Georges dropped light rainfall , with amounts under 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of precipitation .
= = = Tropical Storm Danielle = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on August 22 . The system developed into Tropical Depression Six on August 25 . However , the depression did not strengthen further , and about four days later , it degenerated back into a tropical wave . Tracking westward , the system crossed Florida and entered into the Gulf of Mexico on September 2 . Two days later , the system developed into Tropical Depression Eight while offshore of Louisiana . The depression gradually strengthened and became Tropical Storm Danielle late on September 5 . After peaking with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , further intensification was halted , as Danielle soon made landfall in eastern Texas . Danielle steadily weakened inland and dissipated two days later .
A barge in the Gulf of Mexico capsized due to rough seas , sending 11 of the crewmen overboard ; one person drowned as a result . Danielle produced widespread rainfall in Louisiana , though few areas reported more than 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of precipitation . Damage in that state was minimal . Rainfall was heavier in Texas , peaking at 18 @.@ 29 inches ( 465 mm ) . Much of the damage caused by the storm was as a result of flooding . In Port Arthur , twelve homes were damaged , while Interstate 10 was inundated by flood waters . One fatality occurred in Texas due to an automobile accident in Beaumont . Danielle also spawned five tornadoes in Texas , three of which collectively caused $ 277 @,@ 500 in damage ( 1980 USD ) . Outside of Texas and Louisiana , the storm also dropped light rainfall in Oklahoma and Mississippi , though minimal damage occurred in either state . Overall , Danielle caused two fatalities and $ 277 @,@ 500 ( 1980 USD ) in losses .
= = = Hurricane Earl = = =
Between September 2 and September 3 , a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa and entered the Atlantic Ocean . Satellite imagery indicated that the system had rapidly organized and was classified as a tropical depression on September 4 . The depression quickly strengthened and by early on September 2 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Earl . Because convection associated with the storm waxed and waned significantly , Earl was operationally considered a tropical depression until September 6 . On the following day , Earl curved north @-@ northwestward and accelerated due to an upper @-@ level low pressure trough in the central Atlantic Ocean .
After evidence of an eye feature appeared , Earl was upgraded to a hurricane on September 8 . Six hours later , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . Under the influence of an upper cold low , Earl began re @-@ curving and accelerated to the northeast . By 1200 UTC on September 10 , Earl weakened to a tropical storm . Six hours later , Earl transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , while centered about halfway between the Azores and Greenland .
= = = Hurricane Frances = = =
A strong low pressure system moved off the African coast on September 5 . By the following day , it developed into Tropical Depression Ten while a short distance off the west coast of Africa . About 18 hours later , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Frances . The National Hurricane Center did not issue advisories until 1600 UTC on September 7 , at which time the system was already a tropical storm . By early on September 8 , Frances had reached hurricane status , though it was not operationally upgraded until about 16 hours later . After becoming a hurricane , Frances began to rapidly strengthen , and became a Category 2 hurricane later that day . Early on September 9 , the storm further intensified to a Category 3 hurricane . At 0600 UTC on that day , Frances attained its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 958 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) .
After peak intensity , Frances began to weaken and was downgraded to a Category 2 hurricane later on September 9 . Following day , the storm fluctuated between Category 2 and Category 1 hurricane strengthen . While curving northwestward on September 13 , Frances remained steady in intensity as a Category 2 hurricane . Eventually , Frances re @-@ curved northward , thereby avoiding any land . After minimal change in intensity , Frances weakened to a Category 1 hurricane while tracking northeastward on September 17 . After briefly heading northward , the storm re @-@ curved back to the northeast . Early on September 20 , Frances weakened to a tropical storm , before merging with a frontal low while centered about halfway between Greenland and Iceland . Reports of strong tropical storm force winds were received from ships , but no damage was reported except for minor squalls in Cape Verde .
= = = Tropical Storm Hermine = = =
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on September 11 and tracked westward with minimal development until reaching the Caribbean Sea . By September 20 , a low @-@ level circulation had developed and the system was then classified as Tropical Depression Eleven , while located almost midway between Panama and Jamaica . While heading almost due westward , the depression steadily intensified
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, becoming Tropical Storm Hermine on September 21 , 18 hours after forming . Later on September 21 , the storm passed only 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) offshore of Honduras . Hermine curved west @-@ northwestward and nearly strengthened into a hurricane before landfall in northern British Honduras ( present @-@ day Belize ) on September 22 . After crossing the Yucatan Peninsula , Hermine emerged into the Bay of Campeche on the following day .
Once again , the storm intensified to near hurricane strength , though Hermine made landfall near Coatzacoalcos , Veracruz , Mexico on September 24 . After moving inland , the storm steadily weakened while tracking south @-@ southwestward toward the Pacific Ocean . However , by early on September 26 , Hermine dissipated near the southwestern coast of Mexico . In Mexico , many areas reported at least 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of precipitation , while a few locations experienced more than 30 inches ( 760 mm ) of rain . As a result of torrential rainfall , at least 30 fatalities occurred , with dozens more missing , and leaving 25 @,@ 000 homeless . Additionally , landslides triggered by Hermine in Guatemala killed at least eight people .
= = = Hurricane Ivan = = =
In late September , a cold @-@ core low persisted off the coast of Portugal , moving southwestward . The system gradually developed tropical characteristics as it turned northwestward and executed a loop near the Azores . Eventually , the system organized enough to be designated as a tropical depression on October 4 , while just east of the Azores . Shortly thereafter , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Ivan . However , the National Hurricane Center did not initiate advisories on Ivan until late on October 5 . Ivan moved largely in tandem with the upper @-@ level low above it , while its southwest movement was caused by a building ridge to its north . Late on October 5 , an eye developed , and Ivan was upgraded to a hurricane on the following day .
It de @-@ accelerated as the ridge to its north weakened , and 18 hours after becoming a hurricane , Ivan peaked with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Between October 6 and October 7 , Ivan executed a tight loop , followed by a motion to the west @-@ northwest . Ultimately , the intensity did not change for about 90 hours . During that time , the eye fluctuated occasionally as the convection waxed and waned . On October 9 , Ivan turned to the north in advance of an approaching cold front and extratropical storm , while slowly weakening as it accelerated over cooler waters of the far northern Atlantic Ocean . By October 12 , the cold front absorbed Ivan , which was about 665 miles ( 1 @,@ 070 km ) west of Ireland .
= = = Hurricane Jeanne = = =
An area of disturbed weather organized into a tropical depression late on November 8 . The depression slowly intensified as it tracked north @-@ northwestward into the northwestern Caribbean Sea . Shortly before entering the Yucatan Channel , the depression had strengthened enough to be upgraded to Tropical Storm Jeanne on November 9 . Further intensification was still gradual in the Gulf of Mexico , though the rate of deepening accelerated as the storm began to curve westward . By November 11 , Jeanne was upgraded to a hurricane while paralleling the northern coast of the Yucatan Peninsula . Early on the following day , Jeanne peaked as a 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) Category 2 hurricane . Thereafter , Jeanne began to weaken due to dry air and was downgraded to a tropical storm 24 hours after peak intensity . The storm briefly tracked west @-@ northwestward and then westward , before becoming nearly stationary in the western Gulf of Mexico .
Moving slowly and erratically , Jeanne weakened further and was downgraded to a tropical depression on November 15 . The storm curved southward and completed a cyclonic loop , before being absorbed by a cold front on November 16 . Fringe effects of Hurricane Jeanne triggered a record @-@ breaking 23 @.@ 28 inches ( 591 mm ) of rain at Key West , Florida within a 24 @-@ hour period . As a result of heavy precipitation , schools were and numerous businesses were closed , flights at Key West International Airport were grounded , and power outages and disruptions in telephone service occurred in Key West . In Texas , high tides caused flooding along much of the coast of the state , especially in Galveston . Offshore , several ships were caught off guard by the late season storm .
= = = Tropical Depression Fourteen = = =
While Jeanne meandered through the Gulf of Mexico , Tropical Depression Fourteen developed north of Panama on November 12 . Steered northward by deep southerly flow southeast of Jeanne , the depression oscillated in organization while tracking west @-@ northwestward . The cloud pattern between Jeanne and the depression briefly merged , with a line of thunderstorms moving across the Florida peninsula between the two systems . Westerly vertical wind shear increased on the depression in the process . By November 15 , the depression reorganized its convective organization while making landfall in western Cuba early on November 16 . Once again , vertical wind shear increased , causing convection to detach from the center of the depression .
Late on November 17 , the depression was absorbed by an intense " winter type storm " that was moving across the Southeastern United States . Shortly thereafter , the remnants of the depression crossed Central and North Florida . While crossing Cuba , the depression dumped heavy rainfall . No other impact is known to have occurred on the island . The depression impact from both while tropical and a remnant system . In Key West , sustained winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) and gusts to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) were reported . Across much of Florida , light rainfall was reported , peaking at 4 @.@ 81 inches ( 122 mm ) in Brooksville .
= = = Hurricane Karl = = =
A low pressure area formed along a frontal boundary near the southeastern United States . The system slowly strengthened and developed into a separate vortex . Early on November 25 , it became a subtropical storm while centered about 825 miles ( 1 @,@ 328 km ) southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . Shortly thereafter , the storm executing a tight counterclockwise loop as it rotated within the larger cyclone . About 18 hours later , the storm intensified and acquired enough tropical characteristics to be designated a hurricane . After being classified as a hurricane , Karl gradually strengthened while tracking eastward , eventually attaining its peak intensity with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 985 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) .
Karl maintained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) for approximately 18 hours and later weakened slightly while accelerating northeastward . On November 27 , the eye of Karl became ragged while passing within 230 miles ( 370 km ) of the Azores and started to show signs of deterioration . A trough over the North Atlantic developed into the dominant low pressure area , causing Karl to turn northward around its periphery . By November 27 , Karl merged with another approaching system and was declared extratropical by November 28 , while it was centered roughly halfway between Cape Race , Newfoundland and Spain .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1980 . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 1986 season . It was the first use for all of these names since the post @-@ 1978 naming change , except for Frances , which had been used in 1961 , 1968 , and 1976 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . The World Meteorological Organization retired one name in the spring of 1981 : Allen . It was replaced by Andrew in 1986 .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1980 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damages , and death totals . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low , and all of the damage figures are in 1980 USD .
= Sakura Haruno =
Sakura Haruno ( 春野 サクラ , Haruno Sakura ) is a fictional character in the Naruto manga and anime series created by Masashi Kishimoto . In the anime and manga , Sakura is a kunoichi affiliated with the village of Konohagakure , and part of Team 7 , which consists of herself , Naruto Uzumaki , Sasuke Uchiha , and their sensei , Kakashi Hatake . Sakura initially has an infatuation for Sasuke , praising him at every juncture , and heaping scorn upon the less skilled Naruto . Over the course of the series , she begins to shed this singularly driven persona , and grows more appreciative and accepting of Naruto . Sakura has appeared in several pieces of Naruto media , including the nine feature films in the series , all of the original video animations , and several video games .
Sakura has become the series ' female lead , although she was not immediately intended for the role . Kishimoto has had difficulty in drawing her , resulting in Kishimoto inadvertently emphasizing certain parts of her appearance , including her large forehead . Chie Nakamura voices the character in the animated adaptations of the series , while Kate Higgins plays her in the English dub .
Numerous anime and manga publications have praised and criticized Sakura 's character . She was initially noted to be a stereotypical shōnen character , serving as a love interest for the protagonist , and served little purpose in the series initially beyond being comic relief . Her emergence from this stereotype as the series progressed , however , has been celebrated by reviewers . Amongst the Naruto reader base , Sakura has been popular , placing high in some polls . Several pieces of merchandise have been released in Sakura 's likeness , including a plush doll and key chains .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Naruto = = =
Sakura is a young ninja who is part of Team 7 alongside Naruto Uzumaki and Sasuke Uchiha under the leadership from Kakashi Hatake . Within Sakura resides " Inner Sakura , " a manifestation of her inner emotions . In addition to comic relief , Inner Sakura represents Sakura 's actual opinion on things when she outwardly displays something opposite . As Sakura has a deep infatuation for Sasuke many of her earlier appearances are dedicated to her continuing effort to win his affection . She accompanies the rest of Team 7 during all of its early missions , though she does little to contribute to the battles that take place . Sakura lacks any unique traits that set her apart from the rest of Team 7 although Kakashi notes that she has an excellent control over her chakra early in Part I. As a result , Sakura sits on the sidelines , content in allowing her teammates to protect her and defeat their opponents . During the Chunin Exams , when the rest of Team 7 is left in need of her protection , Sakura realizes that relying on others to fight her battles has been unwise . She resolves to better her ninja abilities from that point further , and throughout the rest of the series takes a more active role in Team 7 's battles . After Sasuke 's defection from Konoha at the end of Part I , Naruto 's failure to bring him back , and Sakura 's inability to help either of them , she becomes Tsunade 's apprentice so that she can do more for her teammates in the future . Since then , Sakura makes it her personal goal to bring Sasuke home .
After training under Tsunade for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , Sakura acquires the ability to heal wounds , becoming one of the most experienced medical ninja . In order to secure her survival to heal other , Sakura also developed superhuman strength by building up chakra in her fists . Thanks to this , Sakura joins Team 7 as medical ninja to save Gaara from the criminal group Akatsuki . With help from the elder Chiyo , Sakura defeats the Akatsuki member Sasori who gives her hints of Sasuke 's whereabouts . Naruto , Sakura , and the new members of Team 7 use this intelligence to track Sasuke down , but they are once again unable to prevent him from escaping . While disappointed in their failure , Team 7 tries once again to find Sasuke , though after almost apprehending him they lose his trail and are forced to return home . As they search for Sasuke during Part II , Sakura learns of the various hardships Naruto faces : the Nine @-@ Tailed Demon Fox creature inside him which is being pursued by Akatsuki . Saddened by the impact both forces have had on his life , Sakura becomes protective of Naruto and tries to do whatever she can to help him overcome these obstacles . Sakura later resolves to kill Sasuke after understanding he is becoming a menace to the villages . However , when she fails to do it , Naruto decides to settle things with Sasuke himself . When a war against the remaining Akatsuki is announced , Sakura participates as a medical ninja . She moves to fighting side when Akatsuki releases the Ten Tails creature and she battles it alongside Naruto and Sasuke .
= = = Post Naruto = = =
After Sasuke is pardoned of his crimes , Sakura sees him off as he decides to travel the world in search for redemption and shows signs that he finally accepts her feelings for him . In the epilogue , set years after the end of the Fourth Ninja War , it is shown that Sakura and Sasuke had married and had a daughter , Sarada . Sasuke 's travels keep him away from their daughter , his whereabouts becoming a touchy subject for Sakura who insists over the years that Sasuke will return home once having completed his mission . After punching the ground in a fit of rage over Sarada asking if her and Sasuke are married , Sakura wakes to discover her daughter has left the village in search of Sasuke . By the time she catches up to the two , they are in the presence of Shin Uchiha , who Sakura attacks and in doing so is teleported away with to his hideout where she declines to assist him with her medical skills and pretends to be helpless in order to gain information on him , returning to the village after his defeat and seeing Sasuke off . She later serves as a spectator for Sarada while she participates in the Chunin Exams and saves both herself and other onlookers from falling debris , afterward healing Hinata .
= = = In other media = = =
Sakura has made several appearances outside of the Naruto anime and manga . She is in all ten of the featured films in the series : in the first movie , she battles Mizore Fuyukuma , and later defeats him ; in the second she helps Naruto and Shikamaru Nara in their battle against Haido and his subordinates ; the third has Sakura battling the hired ninja Karenbana , whom she defeats using her enhanced strength ; in the fourth , Sakura , alongside Naruto , Rock Lee , and Neji Hyuga are assigned to escort the maiden Shion ; in the fifth , Sakura is assigned alongside Naruto and Hinata Hyuga to help a girl , Amaru , and her sensei , Shinnō , return to their village and in the process learning of an upcoming invasion of the Sky Country ; the sixth has Sakura with Naruto desperately following and trying to bring back their sensei , Kakashi who has gone on a suicide mission to prevent the Fourth Great Ninja World War ; in the seventh , Sakura and the rest of Team Kakashi are sent to capture a missing nin , Mukade ; in the eighth , Sakura assists in the battle against the demon Satori who has been released from the Box of Enlightenment ; in the ninth , Sakura and Naruto are transported to an illusion world by Obito Uchiha in which instead of Naruto 's parents , it were Sakura 's parents who had sacrificed their lives in preventing the Nine Tails from destroying Konoha as thus deemed as the village 's heroes ; and finally , in the tenth , Sakura , in her young adult years , sets out alongside Naruto , Sai , Shikamaru , and Hinata to rescue a kidnapped Hanabi Hyuga , Hinata 's younger sister . She is also present in all three of the original video animations produced for the series , helping Naruto and Konohamaru to find a four leaf clover in the first original video animation , joining her team in escorting a ninja named Shibuki to his village and helping him fight the missing @-@ nin that stole the village 's " Hero 's Water " in the second , and participating in a tournament in the third . A light novel titled Sakura Hiden : Thoughts of Love , Riding Upon a Spring Breeze , written by Tomohito Osaki and illustrated by Kishimoto , focuses on Sakura sometime after the events of The Last : Naruto the Movie , where she , now a celebrated medical ninja who is in the middle of opening a new mental clinic with Ino , becomes worried when a conspiracy that threatens to destroy Konoha is using Sasuke as a scapegoat , potentially ruining his chance at redemption amongst the villagers .
Sakura is a playable character in nearly all Naruto video games , including the Clash of Ninja series and the Ultimate Ninja series . In some games , she uses " Inner Sakura " in combat , as well as numerous different genjutsu . Naruto Shippūden : Gekitō Ninja Taisen ! EX marks the first appearance of Sakura in her Part II appearance in a video game , with the second one being Naruto Shippūden : Ultimate Ninja 4 . Meanwhile , Naruto Shippuden : Ultimate Ninja Storm 4 would mark the first appearance of Sakura post @-@ Part II ; specifically , her appearance in The Last : Naruto the Movie , set two years after Chapter 699 of the manga .
= = Creation and conception = =
Although Sakura is the most recurring female character in Naruto , Masashi Kishimoto did not originally intend for Sakura to be the heroine of the series . Kishimoto attributes this to his being unable to draw good heroine characters , and fashioned Sakura as a girl who cannot understand men , the best example of a heroine he could come up with . Sakura 's creation is a result of Kishimoto 's desire to make a somewhat irritating character who was well @-@ intentioned . Despite these elements , Kishimoto is fond of Sakura , as he feels that many of her personality traits are common among all people , thus giving her a sense of real humanity . When asked in an interview if there is something about Sakura 's background that was never revealed , Kishimoto explains that he has never thought of Sakura as she is a " normal girl . "
When designing Sakura , Kishimoto focused on her silhouette and created a costume as simple as possible . This is a divergence from the other main characters of the series , whose costumes are very detailed . The leggings are the most notable aspect of her design , as they are meant to show that she is very active . At the start of the series her leggings extended below her knees and closely resembled trousers . As Part I progressed , the leggings became increasingly shorter and tighter . Similar to his inexperience with drawing heroines , Kishimoto lacked the experience needed to make Sakura " cute " when he first began drawing her . Although he implies that her appearance has become cuter since then , Kishimoto and much of the Naruto manga staff agree that Sakura was " far from cute " at the start of the series .
Sakura 's most well @-@ known physical characteristic is her broad forehead . Because of this , Kishimoto at times focuses too much effort on drawing it in scenes or promotional artwork where Sakura is featured prominently . This results in her forehead appearing too large . When designing Sakura in her Part II appearance , Kishimoto decided to change her clothes to a more lively karate suit style . The upper part , though , still has a Chinaesque feeling to it , so as to make her more feminine .
= = Reception = =
In the Weekly Shōnen Jump character popularity polls , Sakura has many times been placed in the top ten and reached the top five once ; however , she was ranked twelfth in the most recent poll . In an interview , Kate Higgins , who does the voice acting for Sakura in the English dub , notes the development of Sakura in the series , remarking that she becomes a more complex character as she becomes more sensitive and caring . Numerous pieces of merchandise based on Sakura have been released , including a plush doll , key chains of her Part I and Part II appearances , and various character patches .
Several publications for manga , anime , video games , and other related media have provided praise and criticism on Sakura 's character . IGN writer A.E. Sparrow commented that every anime and manga benefited from a strong female presence that Sakura provided for the Naruto series , although characterizing her as " stereotypically girly . " In a review of episode 110 of the anime , IGN celebrated the culmination of the development of Sakura 's character throughout the series , and the growing out of the " girly " personality . GameSpot noted that Sakura 's character has largely been used in the series as a form of comic relief , as well as often stating the obvious . T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews considered Sakura to be a stereotypical echo of similar love interests of protagonists in other shōnen manga , and that she was not likable . On the other hand , she was also regarded as " an interesting character to throw into the mix [ of Naruto ] " by Mania Entertainment 's Dani Moure due to how her differences with Sasuke and Naruto help to balance Team 7 . In the book New Media Literacies and Participatory Popular Culture Across Borders , Amy A. Zenger notes Sasuke and Sakura 's relationship to be popular within fans of the series even though the former does not reciprocate to the latter 's feelings .
The character 's change in Part II has been praised for being one of the most developed ones in the series by Anime News Network 's Casey Brienza , as she has become stronger than her Part I counterpart which was considerably weaker than Naruto and Sasuke . This allows her to take a more active and appealing role in the series . Major praise has been given to her encounters with Sasori and Sasuke owing to her fighting skills and mature reactions , respectively . Sakura 's love confession to Naruto in later parts has been commented to be one of the deepest ones parts from its story arc , for bringing confusion regarding whether or not she is serious as she intended to stop Naruto 's suffering . It also came as a surprise as fans wondered what were Sakura 's real intention regarding Sasuke who had become a dangerous criminal during such time of the series . Jason Thompson believes Sakura 's feelings were well @-@ handled by Kishimoto .
Critic Yukari Fujimoto says that Sakura is an example of Naruto showing a conservative view of women . Ino , Sakura and Hinata place priority on love , treating it as more important than exceling as ninja . Fujimoto states that during the ninja examinations , Sakura 's climactic fight with Ino , her love rival , is conducted on a purely physical level , contrasting this level of skill with the supernatural abilities displayed by her male classmates at this point . When the medical ninja Tsunade is introduced , Sakura takes on a daughter @-@ like role , learning to heal others from Tsunade , which Fujimoto regards as reinforcing a conservative idea of women - that women do not belong on the battlefield as warriors , only as nurses .
= The Disasters of War =
The Disasters of War ( Spanish : Los desastres de la guerra ) are a series of 82 prints created between 1810 and 1820 by the Spanish painter and printmaker Francisco Goya ( 1746 – 1828 ) . Although Goya did not make known his intention when creating the plates , art historians view them as a visual protest against the violence of the 1808 Dos de Mayo Uprising , the subsequent Peninsular War of 1808 – 14 and the setbacks to the liberal cause following the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in 1814 . During the conflicts between Napoleon 's French Empire and Spain , Goya retained his position as first court painter to the Spanish crown and continued to produce portraits of the Spanish and French rulers . Although deeply affected by the war , he kept private his thoughts on the art he produced in response to the conflict and its aftermath . He was in poor health and almost deaf when , at 62 , he began work on the prints . They were not published until 1863 , 35 years after his death . It is likely that only then was it considered politically safe to distribute a sequence of artworks criticising both the French and restored Bourbons . In total over a thousand sets have been printed , though later ones are of lower quality , and most print room collections have at least some of the set .
The name by which the series is known today is not Goya 's own . His handwritten title on an album of proofs given to a friend reads : Fatal consequences of Spain 's bloody war with Bonaparte , and other emphatic caprices ( Spanish : Fatales consequencias de la sangrienta guerra en España con Buonaparte , Y otros caprichos enfáticos ) . Aside from the titles or captions given to each print , these are Goya 's only known words on the series . With these works , he breaks from a number of painterly traditions . He rejects the bombastic heroics of most previous Spanish war art to show the effect of conflict on individuals . In addition he abandons colour in favour of a more direct truth he found in shadow and shade .
The series was produced using a variety of intaglio printmaking techniques , mainly etching for the line work and aquatint for the tonal areas , but also engraving and drypoint . As with many other Goya prints , they are sometimes referred to as aquatints , but more often as etchings . The series is usually considered in three groups which broadly mirror the order of their creation . The first 47 focus on incidents from the war and show the consequences of the conflict on individual soldiers and civilians . The middle series ( plates 48 to 64 ) record the effects of the famine that hit Madrid in 1811 – 12 , before the city was liberated from the French . The final 17 reflect the bitter disappointment of liberals when the restored Bourbon monarchy , encouraged by the Catholic hierarchy , rejected the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and opposed both state and religious reform . Goya 's scenes of atrocities , starvation , degradation and humiliation have been described as the " prodigious flowering of rage " The serial nature in which the plates unfold has led some to see the images as similar in nature to photography .
= = Historical background = =
Napoleon I of France declared himself First Consul of the French Republic on 18 February 1799 , and was crowned Emperor in 1804 . Because Spain controlled access to the Mediterranean , it was politically and strategically important to the French . The reigning Spanish sovereign , Charles IV , was internationally regarded as ineffectual , and his position at the time was threatened by his pro @-@ British heir , Crown Prince Ferdinand . Napoleon took advantage of Charles 's weak standing by suggesting the two nations conquer Portugal — the spoils to be divided equally between France , Spain and the Spanish Prime Minister , Manuel de Godoy , who would take the title " Prince of the Algarve " . Seduced by the French offer , Godoy accepted , failing to detect the true motivations of either Napoleon or Ferdinand , who both intended to use the invasion as a ploy , to seize power in Spain .
Under the guise of reinforcing the Spanish armies , 23 @,@ 000 French troops entered Spain unopposed in November 1807 . Even when their intentions became clear the following February , the occupying forces faced little resistance besides isolated actions in disconnected areas . In 1808 , a popular uprising — incited by Ferdinand 's supporters — saw Godoy captured and left Charles with no choice but to abdicate ; he did so on 19 March 1808 , allowing his son to ascend the throne as Ferdinand VII . Ferdinand had been seeking French patronage , but Napoleon and his principal commander , Marshal Joachim Murat , believed that Spain would benefit from rulers who were more progressive and competent than the Bourbons . They decided that Napoleon 's brother , Joseph Bonaparte , should be king . Under a pretext of mediation , Napoleon summoned Charles and Ferdinand to Bayonne , France , where they were coerced into relinquishing their rights to the throne in favour of Joseph .
Like other Spanish liberals , Goya was left in a difficult position after the French invasion . He had supported the initial aims of the French Revolution , and hoped its ideals would help liberate Spain from feudalism to become a secular , democratic political system . There were two conflicts being fought in Spain : the resistance against the French threat , and a domestic struggle between the ideals of liberal modernisation and the pre @-@ political incumbent ruling class . The latter divide became more pronounced — and the differences far more entrenched — following the eventual withdrawal of the French .
Several of Goya 's friends , including the poets Juan Meléndez Valdés and Leandro Fernández de Moratín , were overt afrancesados : the supporters ( or collaborators , in the view of many ) of Joseph Bonaparte . He maintained his position as court painter , for which an oath of loyalty to Joseph was necessary . However , Goya had an instinctive dislike of authority , and witnessed first @-@ hand the subjugation of his countrymen by French troops . During these years he painted little aside from portraits of figures from all parties , including an allegorical painting of Joseph Bonaparte in 1810 , Wellington from 1812 to 1814 , and French and Spanish generals . Meanwhile , Goya was working on drawings that would form the basis for The Disasters of War . He visited many battle sites around Madrid to witness the Spanish resistance . The final plates are testament to what he described as " el desmembramiento d 'España " — the dismemberment of Spain .
= = Plates = =
Art historians broadly agree that The Disasters of War is divided into three thematic groupings — war , famine , and political and cultural allegories . This sequence broadly reflects the order in which the plates were created . Few of the plates or drawings are dated ; instead , their chronology has been established by identifying specific incidents to which the plates refer , and the different batches of plates used , which allow sequential groups to be divined . For the most part , Goya 's numbering agrees with these other methods . However , there are several exceptions . For example , plate 1 was among the last to be completed , after the end of the war .
In the early plates of the war grouping , Goya 's sympathies appear to lie with the Spanish defenders . These images typically show patriots facing hulking , anonymous invaders who treat them with fierce cruelty . As the series progresses , the distinction between the Spanish and the imperialists becomes ambiguous . In other plates , it is difficult to tell to which camp the distorted and disfigured corpses belong . Some of the titles deliberately question the intentions of both sides ; for example , Con razon ó sin ella can mean with or without reason , rightly or wrongly , or for something or for nothing . Critic Philip Shaw notes that the ambiguity is still present in the final group of plates , saying there is no distinction between the " heroic defenders of the Fatherland and the barbaric supporters of the old regime " . There have been a variety of English translations offered for the plate titles . In many instances , the satirical and often sardonic ambiguity and play on Spanish proverbs found in Goya 's carefully worded original titles is lost .
= = = War = = =
Plates 1 to 47 consist mainly of realistic depictions of the horrors of the war fought against the French . Most portray the aftermath of battle ; they include mutilated torsos and limbs mounted on trees , like " fragments of marble sculpture " . Both French and Spanish troops tortured and mutilated captives ; evidence of such acts is minutely detailed across a number of Goya 's plates . Civilian death is also captured in detail . Spanish women were commonly victims of assault and rape . Civilians often followed armies to battle scenes . If their side won , women and children would search the battlefield for their husbands , fathers and sons . If they lost , they fled in fear of being raped or murdered . In plate 9 , No quieren ( They do not want to ) , an elderly woman is shown wielding a knife in defence of a young woman who is being assaulted by a soldier .
The group begins with Tristes premoniciones de lo que ha de acontecer ( Gloomy premonitions of what must come to pass ) , in which a man kneels in the darkness with outstretched arms . The following plates describe combat with the French , who — according to art critic Vivien Raynor — are depicted " rather like Cossacks , bayoneting civilians " , while Spanish civilians are shown " poleaxing the French . " Plates 31 to 39 focus on atrocities and were produced on the same batch of plates as the famine group . Others are based on drawings Goya had completed in his Sketchbook @-@ journal , in studies where he examined the theme of the grotesque body in relation to the iconography of the tortured or martyred one . In his India ink wash drawing We cannot look at this ( 1814 – 24 ) , he examined the idea of a humiliated inverted body with pathos and tragedy , as he did to comical effect in The Straw Mannequin ( 1791 – 92 ) .
Unlike most earlier Spanish art , Goya 's rejects the ideals of heroic dignity . He refuses to focus on individual participants ; though he drew from many classic art sources , his works pointedly portray the protagonists as anonymous casualties , rather than known patriots . The exception is plate 7 , Que valor ! ( What courage ! ) , which depicts Agustina de Aragón ( 1786 – 1857 ) , the heroine of Zaragoza , who brought food to the cannoneers at the city defensive walls during the siege in which 54 @,@ 000 Spaniards died . When all the cannoneers had been killed , Agustina manned and fired the cannons herself . Although it is agreed that Goya could not have witnessed this incident , Robert Hughes believes it may have been his visit to Zaragoza in the lull between the first and second phases of the siege that inspired him to produce the series .
= = = Famine = = =
The second group , plates 48 to 64 , detail the effects of the famine which ravaged Madrid from August 1811 until after Wellington 's armies liberated the city in August 1812 . Starvation killed 20 @,@ 000 people in the city that year . In these plates , Goya 's focus is directed away from the generalised scenes of slaughter of anonymous , unaligned people in unnamed regions of Spain ; he turns towards a specific horror unfolding in Madrid . The famine was a result of many factors . For example , French invaders and Spanish guerrillas and bandits blocked paths and roads into the city , hampering the provision of food .
Goya does not focus on the reasons for the shortage , nor does he apportion blame to any one party . Instead , he is concerned only with its effect on the population . Although the images in the group were based on the experience of Madrid , none of the scenes depict specific events , and there are no identifiable buildings to place the scenes . Goya 's focus is on the darkened masses of dead and barely alive bodies , men carrying corpses of women , and bereaved children mourning for lost parents . Hughes believes plate 50 , Madre infeliz ! ( Unhappy mother ! ) , to be the most powerful and poignant of the group . He suggests that the space between the small girl sobbing and the corpse of her mother represents " a darkness that seems to be the very essence of loss and orphanhood " . This group of plates was probably completed by early 1814 . A scarcity of materials during the famine may have accounted for the freer application of aquatint in these prints ; Goya was sometimes forced to use defective plates or reuse old plates after they were burnished .
= = = Bourbons and clergy = = =
Plates 65 to 82 were named " caprichos enfáticos " ( " emphatic caprices " ) in the original series title . Completed between 1813 and 1820 and spanning Ferdinand VII 's fall and return to power , they consist of allegorical scenes that critique post @-@ war Spanish politics , including the Inquisition and the then @-@ common judicial practice of torture . Although peace was welcomed , it produced a political environment that was in ways more repressive than before . The new regime stifled the hopes of liberals such as Goya , who used the term " fatal consequences " to describe the situation in his title for the series . Hughes refers to the group as the " disasters of peace " .
After the six years of absolutism that followed Ferdinand 's return to the throne on 1 January 1820 , Rafael del Riego initiated an army revolt with the intent of restoring the 1812 Constitution . By March , the king was forced to agree , but by September 1823 , after an unstable period , a French invasion supported by an alliance of the major powers had removed the constitutional government . The last prints were probably not completed until after the Constitution was restored , though certainly before Goya left Spain in May 1824 . Their balance of optimism and cynicism makes it difficult to relate them directly to particular moments in these rapidly moving events .
Many of these images return to the savage burlesque style seen in Goya 's earlier Caprichos . Plate 75 Farándula de charlatanes ( Troupe of charlatans ) shows a priest with a parrot 's head performing before an audience of donkeys and monkeys . In plate 77 , a pope walking a tightrope was " prudently reduced " to a cardinal or bishop in the print published in 1863 . Some prints showing animal scenes seem to draw from a satirical verse fable by Giovanni Battista Casti , published in Italian in 1802 ; the Animal Farm of its day . In plate 74 , the wolf , representing a minister , quotes from the fable — " Miserable humanity , the fault is thine " — and signs with Casti 's name . The print " lays the blame for their rulers ' barbarity on the victims ' own acceptance of it " .
A number of plates in this group reveal a scepticism towards idolatry of religious images . There are instances in the group where early Christian iconography , in particular statues and processional images , are mocked and denigrated . Plate 67 , Esta no lo es menos ( This is no less curious ) , shows two statues carried by two stooped members of clergy . One statue is recognisable as the " Virgin of Solitude " . In Goya 's image , the statue is not carried vertically in processional triumph , rather it lies flat and undignified on the backs of the two almost crouched men . Shown horizontal , the object loses its aura , and becomes a mere everyday object . Art critics Victor Stochita and Anna Maria Coderch wrote , " It is in effect a deposed , toppled image , stripped of its powers and its connotations . " Goya is making a general statement : that the Church 's attempts to support and restore the Bourbons were " illusory , since what they proposed was nothing more than the adoration of an empty form " .
The published edition of The Disasters of War ends as it begins ; with the portrayal of a single , agonized figure . The last two plates show a woman wearing a wreath , intended as a personification of Spain , Truth , or the Constitution of 1812 — which Ferdinand had rejected in 1814 . In plate 79 , Murió la Verdad ( The Truth has died ) , she lies dead . In plate 80 , Si resucitará ? ( Will she live again ? ) , she is shown lying on her back with breasts exposed , bathed in a halo of light before a mob of " monks and monsters " . In plate 82 , Esto es lo verdadero ( This is the true way ) , she is again bare @-@ breasted and apparently represents peace and plenty . Here , she lies in front of a peasant .
= = Execution = =
Many of Goya 's preparatory drawings , mostly in red chalk , have survived and are numbered differently from the published prints . He produced two albums of proofs — among many individual proof impressions — of which only one is complete . The full album consists of 85 works , including three small Prisioneros ( " Prisoners " ) made in 1811 which are not part of the series . Goya gave the copy of the full album , now in the British Museum , to his friend Juan Agustín Ceán Bermúdez . It contains a title @-@ page inscription in Goya 's hand , is signed at the page edges , and has numbers and titles to the prints written by Goya . These were copied on the plates when the published edition was prepared in 1863 . By then , 80 had passed from Goya 's son , Javier — who had stored them in Madrid after his father left Spain — to the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando ( Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando ) , of which Goya had been director . Numbers 81 and 82 rejoined the others in the Academy in 1870 , and were not published until 1957 .
As the series progressed , Goya evidently began to experience shortages of good quality paper and copper plates , and was forced to take what art historian Juliet Wilson @-@ Bareau calls the " drastic step " of destroying two depicting landscapes , from which very few impressions had been printed . These were cut in half to produce four of The Disasters of War 's prints . Partly because of the material shortages , the sizes and shapes of the plates vary somewhat , ranging from as small as 142 × 168 mm ( 5 @.@ 6 × 6 @.@ 6 in ) to as large as 163 × 260 mm ( 6 @.@ 4 × 10 @.@ 2 in ) .
Goya completed 56 plates during the war against France , and these are often viewed as eye @-@ witness accounts . A final batch — including plate 1 , several in the middle of the series , and the last 17 plates — are likely to have been produced after the end of the war , when materials were more abundant . The titles of some plates , written beneath each , indicate his presence : I saw this ( plate 44 ) and One can not look ( plate 26 ) . While it is unclear how much of the conflict Goya witnessed , it is generally accepted that he observed first @-@ hand many of the events recorded in the first two groups . A number of other scenes are known to have been related to him second hand . It is known that he used a sketchbook when visiting battle sites ; at his studio , he set to work on copper plate once he had absorbed and assimilated meaning from his sketches . All drawings are from the same paper , and all the copper plates are uniform .
The titles of a number of scenes link pairs or larger groups , even if the scenes themselves are not related . Examples include plates 2 and 3 ( With or without reason and The same ) , 4 and 5 ( The women are courageous and And they are fierce ) , and 9 , 10 and 11 ( They do not want to , Nor these and Or these ) . Other plates show scenes from the same story or incident , as in plates 46 and 47 ( This is bad and This is how it happened ) , in which a monk is murdered by French soldiers looting church treasures ; a rare sympathetic image of the clergy , who are generally shown to be on the side of oppression and injustice .
The Bermúdez album was borrowed by the Academy for the 1863 edition . The original titles or captions were etched onto the plates , even with Goya 's spelling mistakes . One title was changed , one plate had work added , and the printing was carried out with much more ink on the plates ( producing " surface tone " ) than in the proofs , in accordance with mid @-@ century taste . The Bermúdez set is considered " uniquely important ... because it shows the series as Goya must have intended to publish it , and the way he intended the plates to be printed " . There is therefore a distinction between the published edition of 1863 , with 80 plates , and the full series in the album , which contains 82 ( ignoring the three small Prisioneros ) .
The Disasters of War was not published during Goya 's lifetime , possibly because he feared political repercussions from Fernando VII 's repressive regime . Some art historians suggest that he did not publish because he was sceptical about the use of images for political motives , and instead saw them as a personal meditation and release . Most , however , believe the artist preferred to wait until they could be made public without censorship . A further four editions were published , the last in 1937 , so that in total over 1 @,@ 000 impressions of each print have been printed , though not all of the same quality . As with his other series , later impressions show wear to the aquatint . The 1863 edition had 500 impressions , and editions followed in 1892 ( 100 ) before which the plates were probably steel @-@ faced to prevent further wear , 1903 ( 100 ) , 1906 ( 275 ) , and 1937 . Many sets have been broken up , and most print room collections will have at least some of the set . Examples , especially from later editions , are available on the art market .
In 1873 , Spanish novelist Antonio de Trueba published the purported reminiscences of Goya 's gardener , Isidro , on the genesis of the series. de Trueba claims to have spoken to Isidro in 1836 , when the gardener recalled accompanying Goya to the hill of Principe Pio to sketch the victims of the executions of 3 May 1808 . Goya scholars are sceptical of the account ; Nigel Glendinning described it as a " romantic fantasy " , and detailed its many inaccuracies .
= = Technique and style = =
Detailing and protesting the ugliness of life is a common theme throughout the history of Spanish art , from the dwarves of Diego Velázquez to Pablo Picasso 's Guernica ( 1937 ) . Reflecting on The Disasters of War , biographer Margherita Abbruzzese notes that Goya asks that the truth " be seen and ... shown to others ; including those who have no wish to see it .... And the blind in spirit stay their eyes on the outward aspect of things , then these outward aspects must be twisted and deformed until they cry out what they are trying to say . " The series follows a wider European tradition of war art and the examination of the effect of military conflict on civilian life — probably mostly known to Goya via prints . This tradition is reflected especially in Dutch depictions of the Eighty Years ' War with Spain , and in the work of 16th @-@ century German artists like Hans Baldung . It is believed Goya owned a copy of a famous set of 18 etchings by Jacques Callot known as Les Grandes Misères de la guerre ( 1633 ) , which record the devastating impact on Lorraine of Louis XIII 's troops during the Thirty Years ' War .
The dead man in plate 37 , Esto es peor ( This is worse ) , forms a mutilated body of a Spanish fighter spiked on a tree , surrounded by the corpses of French soldiers . It is based in part on the Hellenistic fragment of a male nude , the Belvedere Torso by the Athenian " Apollonios son of Nestor " . Goya had earlier made a black wash drawing study of the statue during a visit to Rome . In Esto es peor he subverts the classical motifs used in war art through his addition of a degree of black theatre – the branch piercing the body through the anus , twisted neck and close framing . The man is naked ; a daring factor for Spanish art in the 19th century , during the time of the Spanish Inquisition . Art critic Robert Hughes remarked that the figures in this image " remind us that , if only they had been marble and the work of their destruction had been done by time rather than sabres , neo @-@ classicists like Menges would have been in aesthetic raptures over them . "
Goya abandons colour in the series , believing that light , shade and shadow provide for a more direct expression of the truth . He wrote , " In art there is no need for colour . Give me a crayon and I will ' paint ' your portrait . " He uses line not so much to delineate shape but , according to art historian Anne Hollander , " to scratch forms into existence and then splinter them , as a squinting , half blind eye might apprehend them , to create the distorting visual detritus that shudders around the edge of things seen in agonized haste .... This ' graphic ' kind of clarity can be most sharp when it is most jagged . " The immediacy of the approach suited his desire to convey the primitive side of man 's nature . He was not the first to work in this manner ; Rembrandt had sought a similar directness , but did not have access to aquatint . William Blake and Henry Fuseli , contemporaries of Goya 's , produced works with similarly fantastical content , but , as Hollander describes , they muted its disturbing impact with " exquisitely applied linearity ... lodging it firmly in the safe citadels of beauty and rhythm . "
In his 1947 book on Goya 's etchings , English author Aldous Huxley observed that the images depict a recurrent series of pictorial themes : darkened archways " more sinister than those even of Piranesi 's Prisons " ; street corners as settings for the cruelty of the disparities of class ; and silhouetted hilltops carrying the dead , sometimes featuring a single tree serving as gallows or repository for dismembered corpses . " And so the record proceeds , horror after horror , unalleviated by any of the splendors which other painters have been able to discover in war ; for , significantly , Goya never illustrates an engagement , never shows us impressive masses of troops marching in column or deployed in the order of battle .... All he shows us is war 's disasters and squalors , without any of the glory or even picturesqueness . "
The Disasters of War is the second of Goya 's four major print series , which constitute almost all of his most important work in the medium . He also created 35 prints early in his career — many of which are reproductions of his portraits and other works — and about 16 lithographs while living in France . Goya created his first series , the 80 @-@ plate Caprichos , between 1797 and 1799 to document " the innumerable foibles and follies to be found in any civilized society , and ... the common prejudices and deceitful practices which custom , ignorance , or self @-@ interest have made usual . " Caprichos was put on sale in 1799 , but was almost immediately withdrawn after threats from the Inquisition . In The Disasters of War 's first two groups of prints , Goya largely departs from the imaginative , synthetic approach of Caprichos to realistically depict life @-@ and @-@ death scenes of war . In the last group , the Caprichos sense of the fantastic returns .
Between 1815 and 1816 , Goya produced the Tauromachia , a series of 33 bullfighting scenes , during a break from The Disasters of War . Tauromachia was not politically sensitive , and was published at the end of 1816 in an edition of 320 — for sale individually or in sets — without incident . It did not meet with critical or commercial success . In France , Goya completed a set of four larger lithographs , Los toros de Burdeos ( The Bulls of Bordeaux ) . His final series , known as Los Disparates ( The Follies ) , Proverbios ( Proverbs ) , or Sueños ( Dreams ) , contains 22 large plates and at least five drawings that are seemingly part of the series but which were never etched . All these were left in Madrid — apparently incomplete and with only a handful of proofs printed — when Goya went to France in 1823 . One plate is known to have been etched in 1816 , but little else is established about the chronology of the works , or Goya 's plans for the set .
Goya worked on The Disasters of War during a period when he was producing images more for his own satisfaction than for any contemporary audience . His work came to rely less on historical incidents than his own imagination . Many of the later plates contain fantastical motifs which can be seen as a return to the imagery of the Caprichos . In this , he is relying on visual clues derived from his inner life , rather than anything that could be recognised from real events or settings .
= = Interpretation = =
In The Disasters of War , Goya does not excuse any purpose to the random slaughter — the plates are devoid of the consolation of divine order or the dispensation of human justice . This in part a result of the absence of melodrama or consciously artful presentation that would distance the viewer from the brutality of the subjects , as found in Baroque martyrdom . In addition , Goya refuses to offer the stability of traditional narrative . Instead , his composition tends to highlight the most disturbing aspects of each work .
The plates are set spaces without fixed boundaries ; the mayhem extends outside the frames of the picture plane in all directions . Thus , they express the randomness of violence , and in their immediacy and brutality they have been described as analogous to 19th- and 20th @-@ century photojournalism . According to Robert Hughes , as with Goya 's earlier Caprichos series , The Disasters of War is likely to have been intended as a " social speech " ; satires on the then prevailing " hysteria , evil , cruelty and irrationality [ and ] the absence of wisdom " of Spain under Napoleon , and later the Inquisition . It is evident Goya viewed the Spanish war with disillusionment , and despaired both for the violence around him and for the loss of a liberal ideal he believed was being replaced by a new militant unreason . Hughes believed Goya 's decision to render the images through etchings , which by definition are absent of colour , indicates feelings of utter hopelessness .
His message late in life is contrary to the humanistic view of man as essentially good but easily corrupted . He seems to be saying that violence is innate in man , " forged in the substance of what , since Freud , we have called the id . " Hughes believed that in the end there is only the violated emptiness of acceptance of our fallen nature : like the painting of Goya 's dog , " whose master is as absent from him as God is from Goya . "
The Disasters of War plates are preoccupied with wasted bodies , undifferentiated body parts , castration and female abjection . There are dark erotic undertones to a number of the works . Connell notes the innate sexuality of the image in plate 7 — Agustina de Aragón 's igniting a long cannon . The art historian Lennard Davis suggests that Goya was fascinated with the " erotics of dismemberment " , while Hughes mentions plate 10 in Los disparates , which shows a woman carried in the grip of a horse 's mouth . To Hughes , the woman 's euphoria suggests , among other possible meanings , orgasm .
= = Legacy = =
Despite being one of the most significant anti @-@ war works of art , The Disasters of War had no impact on the European consciousness for two generations , as it was not seen outside a small circle in Spain until it was published by Madrid 's Royal Academy of San Fernando in 1863 .
Since then , interpretations in successive eras have reflected the sensibilities of the time . Goya was seen as a proto @-@ Romantic in the early 19th century , and the series ' graphically rendered dismembered carcasses were a direct influence on Théodore Géricault , best known for the politically charged Raft of the Medusa ( 1818 – 19 ) . Luis Buñuel identified with Goya 's sense of the absurd , and referenced his works in such films as the 1930 L 'Âge d 'Or , on which he collaborated with Salvador Dalí , and his 1962 The Exterminating Angel .
The series ' impact on Dalí is evident in Soft Construction with Boiled Beans ( Premonition of Civil War ) , painted in 1936 in response to events leading to the Spanish Civil War . Here , the distorted limbs , brutal suppression , agonised expressions and ominous clouds are reminiscent of plate 39 , Grande hazaña ! Con muertos ! ( A heroic feat ! With dead men ! ) , in which mutilated bodies are shown against a backdrop barren landscape .
In 1993 , Jake and Dinos Chapman of the Young British Artists movement created 82 miniature , toy @-@ like sculptures modelled on The Disasters of War . The works were widely acclaimed and purchased that year by the Tate gallery . For decades , Goya 's series of etching served as a constant point of reference for the Chapman brothers ; in particular , they created a number of variations based on the plate Grande hazaña ! Con muertos ! . In 2003 , the Chapman brothers exhibited an altered version of The Disasters of War . They purchased a complete set of prints , over which they drew and pasted demonic clown and puppy heads . The Chapmans described their " rectified " images as making a connection between Napoleon 's supposed introduction of Enlightenment ideals to early @-@ 19th @-@ century Spain and Tony Blair and George W. Bush purporting to bring democracy to Iraq .
= = Gallery = =
Media related to The Disasters of War at Wikimedia Commons
= Asylum of the Daleks =
" Asylum of the Daleks " is the first episode of the seventh series of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who , broadcast on BBC One on 1 September 2012 . It was written by executive producer Steven Moffat and directed by Nick Hurran .
The episode features the alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) being captured by the Daleks , along with his companions Amy ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory ( Arthur Darvill ) , who are about to divorce . They are sent by the Daleks to the Asylum , a planet where insane Daleks are exiled , to enable the Asylum to be destroyed before the insane Daleks can escape . The Doctor is helped along the way by Oswin Oswald ( Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman ) , a woman whose spaceship had crashed on the planet a year ago and has been trapped there since then .
" Asylum of the Daleks " incorporates many of the different varieties of Daleks seen throughout the programme 's 50 @-@ year history , and was intended to make the Daleks scary again . Coleman makes her first appearance in Doctor Who in this episode , before returning as the Doctor 's new companion in the 2012 Christmas special ; her appearance was successfully kept a secret from the general public prior to the episode 's broadcast , as her casting as the new companion had already been announced . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 33 million viewers in the UK , and received attention on BBC iPlayer and international broadcasts . Critical reception was positive , though some critics questioned the circumstances behind Amy and Rory 's divorce .
= = Plot = =
= = = Prequels = = =
A prequel was released to iTunes on 1 September 2012 , and to Zune and Amazon Video on 2 September 2012 . In the prequel , a hooded messenger informs the Doctor that a woman , Darla von Karlsen , requests his help for her daughter . The messenger provides space @-@ time coordinates to the planet Skaro , home planet of the Daleks .
In addition , Pond Life is an earlier five @-@ part mini serial prequel to this episode , which was released serially in the week leading up to the premiere . The fifth part hints at Amy and Rory 's divorce .
= = = Synopsis = = =
In the ruins of Skaro , homeworld of the Daleks , the Doctor is approached by Darla von Karlsen , who requests his help in freeing her daughter from a Dalek prison camp . The Doctor 's suspicions are confirmed when Darla turns out to be a humanoid Dalek puppet and teleports him to the spaceship housing the Parliament of the Daleks . There he is reunited with a now divorced Amy and Rory , who have been similarly kidnapped from present @-@ day Earth , just after Rory has delivered Amy their divorce papers . The Doctor is surprised when , rather than exterminate him as he expects , the Daleks ask him for help .
The Dalek Prime Minister explains that they have a planet known as the Asylum - which the Parliament is currently orbiting - where they keep battle @-@ scarred Daleks that have gone insane . They are unwilling to kill these Daleks , as destroying such pure hatred would contravene their sense of beauty - something which sickens the Doctor . The Parliament has received a transmission of the Habanera Aria from the heart of the Asylum . The Doctor makes contact with the source of the transmission : a woman named Oswin Oswald , who states that she was Junior Entertainment Manager on the starliner Alaska , which crashed into the Asylum . Oswin claims to have been fending off Dalek attacks for a year , occupying herself by making soufflés , which intrigues the Doctor as he wonders where she got the milk and eggs . The crash had ruptured the planet 's force @-@ field , thus risking escape of the planet 's inmates . To prevent this , the Parliament wishes to destroy the planet remotely , but the force @-@ field is not ruptured sufficiently to allow that . The force @-@ field can only be deactivated from the planet itself , but afraid to face such a mission themselves , the Daleks task the Doctor , Amy and Rory with doing so .
The three are given bracelets to protect them from the planet 's nanogene cloud , which would convert them into Dalek puppets to serve the facility 's security systems , before being dropped through the force @-@ field breach onto the surface of the planet via a gravity tunnel . The Doctor and Amy land close to each other , and are discovered by Harvey , another survivor from the Alaska . Rory , however , is dropped to the bottom of a long shaft into the Asylum . There he accidentally awakens some of its inhabitants , but is guided to a safe room by Oswin , who has accessed the computers . Meanwhile , Harvey guides the Doctor and Amy to his Alaska escape pod , where he attacks them after being revealed as a Dalek puppet , converted by the nanogene cloud . A similar fate has befallen the corpses of other Alaska survivors , who re @-@ animate and attack the Doctor and Amy , stealing Amy 's nano @-@ field bracelet just before the pair are saved by Oswin , who also guides them to Rory through a hatch in the bottom of the pod . Now unprotected against the nanogenes , Amy begins to be converted , experiencing memory loss and hallucinations .
The Doctor guesses that the Daleks will destroy the planet as soon as he deactivates the force @-@ field , but he realises that Rory 's hideout is a telepad , via which they can teleport onto the Dalek Parliament ship . Oswin agrees to deactivate the force @-@ field in return for the Doctor coming to rescue her . While the Doctor is gone , Rory tries to give Amy his bracelet . The Doctor had stated that love slows the Dalek puppet conversion , so Rory argues that he would be converted more slowly because he has always loved Amy more than she loves him , referring his 2000 @-@ year vigil in " The Big Bang " . Amy angrily replies that she loves him equally , but gave him up since she is unable to have children as a result of the events of " A Good Man Goes to War " . They realise that the Doctor had secretly slipped his bracelet onto her without telling them ( since as a Time Lord he is probably immune to the nanogenes ) to possibly get them to discuss their feelings .
The Doctor makes his way to Oswin , venturing through the " intensive care section " , which holds Daleks who survived encounters with him . They begin to re @-@ activate , but he is saved by Oswin , who deletes the Doctor from the Daleks ' collective telepathically @-@ shared knowledge , leaving them with no memory of him . The Doctor has never been able to hack into their hive intelligence , let alone remove anything from it , and is confused to how she has done so . The Doctor enters Oswin 's chamber , only to discover to his horror that she is really a Dalek . It turns out that Oswin had been captured by Daleks after the Alaska crashed on the Asylum and , to preserve her genius @-@ level intellect for Dalek use , was turned into a full Dalek rather than a standard puppet . Unable to cope with her conversion , her mind retreated into a fantasy of survival as a human . The Doctor had suspected that something was wrong from the beginning , however , as one of the things Oswin had kept herself busy with while in hiding had been making soufflés , which the Doctor noticed would be impossible to get the ingredients for . Oswin is nearly overcome by her Dalek personality at this revelation , but she still possesses human emotions and is unable to kill the Doctor . Her confrontation causes the Doctor to reflect that the Daleks ' many achievements — including their parliamentary discourse and newfound diversity — have been developed in fearful response to his threat to their existence . Oswin fulfils her promise of deactivating the force @-@ field , making her final request that the Doctor remember her as the human she once was : " Run . Run , you clever boy , and remember ... " . The Doctor returns to Amy and Rory , and they teleport back to the TARDIS just as the planet is destroyed . The Daleks fail to recognise the Doctor due to his removal from their hive intelligence . He jubilantly leaves the ship , and drops the reunited Amy and Rory back home . He then departs alone , delighting in the Dalek Parliament 's closing question to him : " Doctor Who ? " .
= = = Continuity = = =
Some of the Daleks are survivors of previous encounters with the Doctor on Spiridon ( Planet of the Daleks ) , Kembel ( The Daleks ' Master Plan ) , Exxilon ( Death to the Daleks ) , Aridius ( The Chase ) , and Vulcan ( The Power of the Daleks ) . The Special Weapons Dalek that appears in Remembrance of the Daleks appears in a cameo . In her opening speech , Darla refers to the Doctor faking his death in the episodes " The Impossible Astronaut " and " The Wedding of River Song " . The concept of nanogenes - microscopic machines - is mentioned in the two @-@ parter " The Empty Child " / " The Doctor Dances " , also written by Moffat . In the closing exchange in the Parliament , the Doctor refers to one of his nicknames as " The Oncoming Storm " , first mentioned in the episode " The Parting of the Ways " . The final question of " Doctor who ? " , besides being a callback to the programme 's title , is the " question that must never be answered " that Dorium asks at the end of " The Wedding of River Song " .
= = Production = =
Executive producer Steven Moffat announced in 2011 that he intended to give a " rest " to the Daleks . The reason for the rest was that Moffat felt their frequent appearances made them the " most reliably defeatable enemies in the universe " . Moffat recalled that the Daleks were remembered for being scary , but due to their legacy as British icons they had become " cuddly " over the years and their true menace forgotten ; with " Asylum " he intended to make them scary again , reminding the audience of their intentions . He thought the best way to do this would be to show Daleks that were considered even madder than usual . Gillan admitted that she had not been scared of the Daleks before working on the episode . It is also the first Dalek story Moffat has written for the show ; he stated that he " couldn 't resist " the opportunity .
In March 2012 , it was announced that Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman would replace Gillan and Darvill as the next companion , first appearing in the 2012 Christmas special . It was Moffat 's idea to have her appear in " Asylum of the Daleks " as the character of Oswin ; it was not originally planned , and Coleman assumed it was part of her audition at first to see which character fitted her best . He intended to keep her appearance a secret , and thanked the press and fans that it was not leaked . Coleman 's scenes were filmed over six days on a closed set with a green screen which she acted to . Whether her later character was the same as Oswin was not confirmed at the time , but her appearance in " The Snowmen " makes it clear that there is a connection . Coleman played each version of the character as individuals with " trust that there would be a payoff " to her mystery .
" Asylum of the Daleks " was directed by Nick Hurran , who directed " The Girl Who Waited " and " The God Complex " of the previous series , as well as the fifth episode of the seventh series . " Asylum of the Daleks " contains many of the Dalek types that the Doctor has faced over the years , including the Special Weapons Dalek from the 1988 story , Remembrance of the Daleks . According to The Daily Telegraph , the production team located the remaining models of the various versions of the Daleks and shipped them to the studios in Cardiff Bay . This included a Dalek owned by Russell T Davies , Moffat 's predecessor . Executive producer Caroline Skinner knew Davies well and asked to borrow his replica . She stated that he was " thrilled " that it was canonised . The total number of different Daleks was around 25 , with models from 1963 to 2010 ; Skinner said that " there was just a real magic and sense of history about having them " . Moffat was concerned about how all the different Daleks would look together , but was pleased once he saw them ; he commented that the diversity made them look like a species , rather than identical robots . Many of the props were built from scratch . The snow scenes on the asylum planet were filmed in Spain during the production of " A Town Called Mercy " . Music featured in the episode are the " Habanera " from the Georges Bizet opera Carmen , which is used diegetically , and " Feel the Love " by Rudimental is also featured . The Doctor Who logo in the title sequence featured the texture of a Dalek , in keeping with the varied " blockbuster " themes for each of the opening titles of the first half of the series .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Asylum of the Daleks " was preview screened at BFI Southbank on 14 August 2012 , and at the MediaGuardian Edinburgh International Television Festival during 23 – 25 August . On 25 August it was also screened in New York City and Toronto . The episode was broadcast to the public on 1 September on BBC One in the United Kingdom , BBC America in the United States , and on Space in Canada , and on 2 September on the ABC iView service . It premiered on 8 September 2012 on ABC1 in Australia , and on 13 September on Prime TV in New Zealand .
Overnight viewing figures for the UK showed that the episode was watched by 6 @.@ 4 million viewers , the lowest overnight figure for a premiere episode of the revived series ; however , viewing patterns indicate that fewer people watch Doctor Who live , and it won its timeslot . The final consolidated rating was 8 @.@ 33 million viewers , ranking third for the week on BBC One . It was also the most @-@ viewed episode on BBC 's online iPlayer the day that it aired , and ended September in the number one spot , with 2 @.@ 2 million requests . " Asylum of the Daleks " achieved an Appreciation Index of 89 , the highest for a series opener of Doctor Who .
Viewing figures in the US on BBC America showed that the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 555 million viewers . It was the # 1 cable program in its timeslot , and the most watched telecast in the history of the network . The episode also garnered a 0 @.@ 6 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . " Asylum of the Daleks " also was viewed 75 @,@ 000 times on ABC 's iView in Australia , a record audience , and 620 @,@ 000 watched the premiere on Space in Canada , Doctor Who 's second @-@ best ratings for the channel . On Prime in New Zealand , the episode attracted 171 @,@ 690 viewers , Doctor Who 's second @-@ highest rating on the channel and the highest rated show on the channel that day .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Asylum of the Daleks " received positive reviews from critics . Dan Martin of The Guardian praised Moffat 's " script packed with ace curveballs and zappy dialogue " and Nick Hurran 's direction . Martin also notes that " more happened in the opening episode than has been covered in most recent two @-@ parters – and events were also dealt with in a lot more depth . " He also was pleased that the asylum setting could explore the Daleks while making it reminiscent of the classic series . The Daily Telegraph reviewer Gavin Fuller gave it four out of five stars , describing it as a " confident opener " and highlighting the concept and set design of the asylum . He particularly praised Coleman , whom he called " the star of the episode " . Michael Hogan , also writing for The Telegraph , gave " Asylum of the Daleks " a slightly higher rating of four and a half stars out of five , also commending Coleman as well as many details of the script .
Neela Debnath of The Independent commented positively on the show 's continuing exploration of the Daleks and the more " adult tone " , praising the performance of the three leads . Radio Times writer Patrick Mulkern stated that it " ticks all [ his ] boxes as a Doctor Who fan of more than 40 years standing " , describing it as " clever , fast , funny , eerie , surprising and tearjerking " . Nick Setchfield of SFX gave the episode five out of five stars , calling it a " strong , cinematically @-@ minded series opener " which succeeded in making the Daleks scary . He also praised Coleman 's debut , Smith 's performance , the special effects , and Amy and Rory 's emotional subplot. io9 reviewer Charlie Jane Anders noted that the plot " is mostly just an excuse to explore the Doctor 's ongoing relationship with the Daleks , and to show how sad it 's gotten " . Both Anders and Mulkern ( the latter citing a Doctor Who veteran , Katy Manning ) noted that Oswin 's fascination with eggs , required for making soufflés , is really just a mental trick to block out the " exterminate " ( " eggs @-@ terminate " ) conditioning ; this literary device is woven throughout the episode as a series of subtle hints , as Rory is confused by a dormant Dalek , initially misinterpreting him as saying " eggs " .
Digital Spy 's Morgan Jeffery also awarded it five stars , though he felt Amy and Rory 's breakup was " a little difficult to buy " as it was resolved quickly , even if the situation was " sensitively handled " and " deftly performed " . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club graded " Asylum of the Daleks " as a " B + " , also writing that he had a " quibble " with the Ponds ' marriage issue as it had not been foreshadowed , but ultimately felt that the episode " gets the season off to a great start while creating a sense that anything could happen " . IGN 's Matt Risley rated the episode as 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , finding that the " only downside " was that " it felt less a tale about the Daleks than an adventure that just happened to have them in it " . Maureen Ryan , writing for The Huffington Post , felt it was a " ripping start to the season " that redeemed the Daleks from " Victory of the Daleks " . While she commended Gillan and Darvill 's acting during Amy and Rory 's emotional confrontation , she noted that they were not a couple that would break up because of infertility .
The episode was nominated for the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form ) , alongside " The Angels Take Manhattan " and " The Snowmen " .
= Kew Gardens – Union Turnpike ( IND Queens Boulevard Line ) =
Kew Gardens – Union Turnpike is an express station on the IND Queens Boulevard Line of the New York City Subway . Located at Union Turnpike and Queens Boulevard on the border of Kew Gardens and Forest Hills , Queens , it is served by the E and F trains at all times . Despite the station 's name , Union Turnpike forms the border between Kew Gardens and Forest Hills , and the station straddles that border , with multiple entrances located in each neighborhood .
= = History = =
The Queens Boulevard Line was one of the first lines built by the city @-@ owned Independent Subway System ( IND ) , and stretches between the IND Eighth Avenue Line in Manhattan and 179th Street and Hillside Avenue in Jamaica , Queens . The Queens Boulevard Line was in part financed by a Public Works Administration ( PWA ) loan and grant of $ 25 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . One of the proposed stations would have been located at Union Turnpike . A map from June 1925 shows a proposed alternate routing for the Queens Boulevard Line , that would have had the line turn via Kew Gardens Road after the Union Turnpike station instead of continuing via Queens Boulevard . After proceeding via Kew Gardens Road the line would have turned via Hillside Avenue . If this route were used , then Kew Gardens Road would have had to been widened to accommodate the four track line . This alternate routing would have provided for better access to Richmond Hill . In 1930 , in anticipation of growth due to the building of the Queens Boulevard Line , several blocks of land along Queens Boulevard were rezoned so that fifteen @-@ story apartment buildings could be built .
On December 31 , 1936 , the IND Queens Boulevard Line was extended by eight stops , and 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) , from its previous terminus at Roosevelt Avenue to Union Turnpike . The construction of the extension to Kew Gardens brought significant growth to Queens , specifically in Forest Hills and Kew Gardens . New apartment buildings were being built as a result of the subway line , and it transformed both Forest Hills and Kew Gardens from quiet residential communities of one @-@ family houses to active population centers . Following the line 's completion , there was an increase in the property values of buildings around Queens Boulevard . On April 24 , 1937 , the IND Queens Boulevard Line was extended four stops to 169th Street , with 169th Street and Parsons Boulevard serving as terminals .
On November 23 , 1941 , the Q37 bus operated by Green Bus Lines was extended to the station to provide a transfer to the subway .
In the 1970s , when the New York City Subway was at an all @-@ time low , following the general trend of a decrease in ridership , the amount of passengers using the Union Turnpike station decreased by 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 passengers .
As part of the MTA 's 1975 – 1981 transit program , station lighting at Kew Gardens was improved .
= = Station layout = =
This express station has four tracks and two island platforms . The F train stops on the outer local tracks at all times while the E stops on the center express tracks weekdays ( Manhattan @-@ bound from approximately 6 : 00 a.m. to 6 : 00 p.m. , Jamaica @-@ bound from 7 : 30 a.m. to 7 : 45 p.m. ) and on the outer tracks at all other times . During weekdays this is the easternmost transfer point between the E and F trains before they branch off toward their eastern terminals .
The platforms have teal blue columns , with yellow and black borders , as well as " Union Turnpike " text posted underneath on the platform walls .
The station is near the Queens Borough Hall , the Queens Criminal Court , and the Kew @-@ Forest School . It is also close to the Forest Hills Tower , which has housed Plaza College since 2014 and also contains administrative offices for FEMA ; it formerly housed the headquarters of JetBlue Airways and a public relations office for Con Edison , but the JetBlue office has since moved to the Brewster Building in Long Island City . At the east end of Queens Borough Hall on 82nd Avenue , a retired IRT redbird , R33 car # 9075 , is on display with its rollsign set as the 7 train 's . The Redbird car was formerly a visitor center for the Queens Borough Hall , but the visitor center closed in 2015 due to low patronage , and the car is now used as a landmark and for movie shoots .
= = = Mezzanines = = =
This station is unusual in that its mezzanine is split in two halves . This is because at this location , Union Turnpike and the Jackie Robinson Parkway cross under Queens Boulevard but over the Queens Boulevard Line tracks ; the mezzanine is at the level of Union Turnpike , one half on either side , with no connection between the two outside of fare control .
Previously a grade @-@ level intersection , the underpass was constructed simultaneously with the subway station costing $ 250 @,@ 000 . The construction of the underpass with a subway station underneath was a massive undertaking . Three levels were required in order for the underpass and the subway station to be built . The upper level that was built was Queens Boulevard , which carries traffic east and west . The second level is an underpass that carries four lanes of Union Turnpike ( and now also the Jackie Robinson Parkway ) under the Boulevard . The tunnel is in between the two mezzanines and it would rest atop the roof of the subway station platform .
Several stairs lead down from sidewalk level to walkways on either side of the turnpike , which themselves lead to one of the mezzanines . Automobiles and buses were formerly allowed to drop off and pick up passengers along those walkways ( similar to stations on the IND Concourse Line ) , but car access is currently blocked . This was stopped because the cars caused traffic backups . The underpass is graded east to allow for natural drainage . The lower level contains the subway tracks , which are located about 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) below the underpass that carries the turnpike .
The eastern ( railroad north ) half of the mezzanine contains the station 's full @-@ time token booth . In the late 2000s , the MTA undertook a $ 13 @.@ 9 million refurbishment of the station , which was completed in July 2008 ; during that time , the station was upgraded with cube @-@ glass walls , as well as an elevator and ramp in this part of the mezzanine , which serves riders of the Q10 and Q37 buses . The elevator and ramp make the station wheelchair @-@ accessible and compliant with the guidelines of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 . Other improvements that were part of the project included the addition of station agent booths that catered to wheelchair users , as well as new railings , station signs , station payphones , tactile yellow strips along the platforms , and platform fillings to reduce gaps between trains and platforms .
However , the western ( railroad south ) half , which serves riders of the heavily used Q46 bus line that runs along Union Turnpike , had its token booth closed and removed ( with signage indicating asbestos condemnation ) . A piece of artwork , Underground Skies @-@ Cloud Forest , that was designed by artist Krystyna Spisak @-@ Madejczyk and architect Anna Chmura was installed in this half of the station mezzanine . This was a project of the Polish American Artist Society , and it was sponsored by the MTA Arts for Transit / Creative Stations Program .
= = Track layout = =
A signal and switch tower is located at the north end of the northbound platform and is active only on weekdays .
There are two diamond crossovers near this station : one is located at the eastern end , for eastbound trains , and the other is located at the western end , for westbound trains . Each switch allow trains to cross @-@ over between the local and express tracks in the same direction . There is a punch box located at the eastern end of the Jamaica @-@ bound platform , allowing trains to continue along the Queens Boulevard line to 179th Street or to switch to the IND Archer Avenue Line .
East of the station there is a flying junction that connects to the Jamaica Yard via a wye that curves east from the yard towards Briarwood . A second side of the wye curves west to become a lower level of the subway just west of the station . The yard itself is situated just north of the station in the southern portion of Flushing Meadows – Corona Park , between the Grand Central Parkway and the Van Wyck Expressway .
= Peter Bynoe =
Peter Charles Bernard Bynoe ( born March 20 , 1951 ) is a Chicago attorney and businessman , formerly the only African @-@ American equity partner in the Chicago office of DLA Piper . In 1989 , he and his business partner Bertram Lee were the first African @-@ Americans to buy a controlling interest in a National Basketball Association ( NBA ) team , when they purchased a 37 @.@ 5 % share of the Denver Nuggets basketball team , and he is among the most influential minority figures in sports law and management .
Bynoe kept the Chicago White Sox from leaving Chicago by developing a New Comiskey Park ( now known as U.S. Cellular Field ) . He has become a negotiator for professional sports teams ' venues . In addition , he was involved in the development of the 1996 and 2012 Summer Olympics . Bynoe serves on several boards of directors .
= = Personal Background = =
Born in Boston , Massachusetts , Bynoe came from a well @-@ respected family . His father Victor C. Bynoe , had emigrated from his native Barbados at age 13 , and after graduating from Northeastern University with degrees in Civil Engineering and Law , became a successful attorney . ( At one point , he represented Boston Celtics star Bill Russell . ) At a time when few blacks were being promoted to important positions in government , Victor Bynoe was named to Boston Mayor John B. Hynes ' cabinet in 1950 , serving on the Street Commission . He later became commissioner of Veterans ' Services in Boston , and served on the board of the Boston Housing Authority . Peter 's mother Ethel was American ; she was praised by the black newspapers for her community involvement and volunteerism . Peter also had an uncle John Bynoe , who was active in the fight for civil rights , serving as the regional civil rights director for the United States Department of Health , Education and Welfare .
Bynoe attended William Lloyd Garrison Elementary School , and graduated from Boston Latin School in 1968 . He credited his parents with instilling high standards and expecting him to achieve in school . He also had a love of sports , growing up as a regular Boston Celtics and Boston Red Sox fan ; but although both teams had black players , racial relations in Boston at that time were still tense , and black fans like Bynoe were hesitant to attend the games .
Bynoe 's entire post @-@ secondary education was at Harvard University in Cambridge , Massachusetts . He obtained his bachelor 's degree cum laude at Harvard College in 1972 . He then received his master 's degree , an M.B.A. in 1976 , with an emphasis on finance and marketing , from Harvard Business School . His Juris Doctor from Harvard Law School had a focus on corporate planning and regulation . In addition to being admitted to the practice of law before the Illinois State Bar , Bynoe is a licensed real estate broker in Illinois .
In late November 1987 , he married Linda Jean Walker , who was then vice @-@ president of the fixed @-@ income division of Morgan Stanley in New York .
= = Business career = =
Bynoe began his professional career in 1976 at Citibank . After deciding he didn 't like working for a large corporation , he left New York and moved to Chicago in 1977 . He was hired by James Lowry , a management consultant whom he had met at Harvard . While with Lowry 's firm , Bynoe made a name for himself as someone who could break down racial barriers and get diverse groups to work together . He also became known for his work in minority business development . By 1982 , Bynoe passed the Illinois bar examination . He left Lowry and Associates in 1982 , at which time he founded and managed Telemat Ltd . , a business consulting firm .
His career path changed in 1987 when Harold Washington , whose election campaign he had worked for and contributed to , called Bynoe to inform him that the Chicago White Sox were threatening to leave Chicago . From January 1988 to June 1992 , Bynoe served as the Executive Director of the Illinois Sports Facilities Authority , a joint venture of the City of Chicago and State of Illinois , which gave him complete supervisory , planning and executing responsibility for the $ 250 million construction of New Comiskey Park for the Chicago White Sox , which was completed as scheduled and well within its budget . He also became known in Chicago for his business relationships with such influential sports stars as Michael Jordan , a former client with whom he remained friends .
In November 1989 , Bynoe and Bertram Lee purchased the Denver Nuggets . Lee and Bynoe had worked together in Boston years earlier , and Bynoe thought of Lee as a mentor . They had kept in touch , and were involved in several real estate dealings together . But the Nuggets deal was problematic from the start . In fact , it almost fell through because Lee did not have the resources everyone , Bynoe among them , thought he had . Media reports depicted Lee as a wealthy and successful businessman who was a financier with offices in two cities , and formerly part owner of Boston 's WNEV @-@ TV . But Lee and Bynoe were unable to meet the deadline to purchase the team from then @-@ owner Sidney Shlenker . It would later be revealed that Lee had problems raising the needed capital . It was Bynoe , with the assistance of David Stern , Jay Pritzker , and Jerrold Wexler , who salvaged the transaction over the course of six months . The mainstream media reported that Lee and Bynoe were now the first two blacks to own a major sports team , but several of the black newspapers pointed out that the two men were actually managing general partners rather than owners , because the revised agreement to purchase the team meant they owned only a 37 @.@ 5 % stake in the team . Bynoe sold his interest in the franchise in August 1992 . Communications Satellite Corporation 's ( COMSAT ) Video Enterprises subsidiary put up 62 @.@ 5 % of the $ 65 million needed to purchase the Nuggets .
Bynoe was hired in 2008 by Chicago @-@ based Loop Capital Markets LLC . Bynoe serves as Managing Director of Corporate Finance .
In August 2013 , Bynoe left his executive role at Loop Capital Markets LLC to become CEO of Rewards Network , a company controlled by investor Sam Zell that offers loyalty programs for restaurants .
= = Other Achievements = =
Bynoe served as a consultant to the Atlanta @-@ Fulton County Recreation Authority and the Atlanta Committee to Organize the Olympic Games to plan the 85 @,@ 000 seat Centennial Olympic Stadium within a $ 210 million construction budget . The stadium has been converted to the 45 @,@ 000 seat Turner Field baseball stadium for the Atlanta Braves who use it under a lease agreement Bynoe negotiated . Bynoe became a partner at DLA Piper Rudnick Gray Cary LLP ( US ) in 1995 when he joined the firm and remains a member of the firm 's Executive Committee . Bynoe as head of DLA Piper 's Sports Facilities Practice Group negotiated new facilities for the Cincinnati Reds and Bengals , Miami Heat , Washington Redskins , Milwaukee Brewers , and Columbus Blue Jackets . He specialized in infrastructure projects and represented institutional clients such as : The Boeing Company , Sara Lee Corporation , Essence Communications , and CNA Insurance . Bynoe also was involved in the 2012 Summer Olympics , and was a backer of Barack Obama .
In addition , Bynoe is a Director of Frontier Communications Corporation [ 1 ] , Covanta Holding Company www.covantaenergy.com and Signature Group Holdings , Inc . [ 2 ] . He is a Trustee of the Goodman Theatre , the Rush University Medical Center and The CORE Center for the Research and Cure of Infectious Diseases . He formerly served as Chairman of the Chicago Plan Commission Chicago Plan Commission , the Chicago Landmarks Commission Chicago Commission Landmarks , and the Illinois Sports Facilities Authority , and was a director of Jacor Communications and Blue Chip Broadcasting . Bynoe has been a director of Covanta since 2004 . In 2007 , Bynoe was announced as a director for Citizens Communications ( which later changed its name to Frontier Communications ) . In the past , Bynoe has been a member of the Harvard Board of Overseers . He has also served as a director for Uniroyal Technology Corporation , Jacor Communications ( acquired by Clear Channel Communications ) , J & G Industries , Huffman @-@ Koos , Inc . , the River Valley Savings Bank , and Blue Chip Broadcasting ( acquired by Radio One , Inc ) .
= = Honors = =
Bynoe has been designated an Illinois " Super Lawyer " for 2005 and 2006 based on research jointly conducted by Law & Politics and Chicago magazines .
= Jamila dan Sang Presiden =
Jamila and the President ( Indonesian : Jamila dan Sang Presiden ) is a 2009 Indonesian film directed by Ratna Sarumpaet and starring Atiqah Hasiholan and Christine Hakim . It follows the story of a prostitute sentenced to death for killing a government minister .
The film was adapted from a stage play entitled Pelacur dan Sang Presiden ( The Prostitute and the President ) , which Sarumpaet had written after receiving a grant from UNICEF to study child trafficking trends in Indonesia and promote awareness of the problem . In preparing the script , she spent several months interviewing prostitutes in several cities ; the film itself spent three years in production and featured much of the same cast and crew as the original play .
Released on 30 April 2009 , the film received mixed to positive reception in Indonesia . Internationally the film featured in several film festivals and won awards in France , Italy , and Taiwan . It was submitted to the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film , but not nominated .
= = Plot = =
Jamila and the President opens with narration from Jamila ( Atiqah Hasiholan ) , a victim of human trafficking , followed by several scenes showing her living a glamorous yet unfulfilling night life . After hearing a news report that a government minister , Nurdin ( Adjie Pangestu ) , has been murdered , Jamila surrenders herself to the police . This surprises her would @-@ be boyfriend , Ibrahim ( Dwi Sasono ) , who feels badly for Jamila and begins working towards freeing her . Under the orders of the president , Jamila is placed in a prison outside Jakarta , where she receives rough treatment at the hands of the guards and warden , Ria ( Christine Hakim ) .
In the prison , Ria reads Jamila 's diary and learns her backstory . Jamila was sold by her mother to a middleman , who then sold her to a rich family . While living with the family , Jamila is raped by both the father and son in succession ; Jamila kills the son and runs away , while the mother ( Jajang C. Noer ) , aware of their actions , kills her husband . Jamila becomes a worker at a market , but once again must escape when she learns that some local men plan to rape her . She escapes to a discothèque , and when it is raided by the police she is thought to be a prostitute and arrested . After being released , Jamila is raised by a kind @-@ hearted prostitute named Susi ( Ria Irawan ) , who was also caught in the raid .
In the present day , several groups are demanding that Jamila be given the death sentence . One male guard , ( Surya Saputra ) , takes pity on Jamila and tries to help her . However , Jamila ignores him . Ria , although slowly becoming more sympathetic to Jamila , gets into an argument with her over Nurdin 's murder ; this results in Jamila being placed in isolation .
Several days later , the court finds Jamila guilty of murder and sentences her to death , a sentence which will be carried out in 36 hours . Ria visits Jamila in her cell to check on her , and Ria explains that she intends to ask the president for a stay . Jamila refuses , then tells Ria about her experience looking for her sister Fatimah in Borneo , how she killed the man who had put Fatimah in a brothel but was unable to find her sister .
The day before Jamila 's execution , Ibrahim meets with Susi , who tells him about Jamila 's romantic involvement with Nurdin . Jamila became pregnant with Nurdin 's child and insisted that he take responsibility , but instead Nurdin told her he was marrying someone else and humiliated her in public . When the two met in a hotel , Nurdin threatened Jamila with a pistol ; in self @-@ defence , Jamila killed him with the pistol . In the modern day , Jamila walks towards her execution ; the president has not responded to the request for stay . The screen fades to black as a gunshot goes off , and afterwards , statistics about child trafficking and prostitution are shown .
= = Production = =
Jamila and the President was directed by Ratna Sarumpaet , a women 's rights activist . The film , Sarumpaet 's directorial debut , was based on a theatrical drama she had previously made entitled Pelacur dan Sang Presiden ( The Prostitute and the President ) , which was put on in 2006 in five cities by Satu Merah Panggung Theatre Troup . She was inspired write the story in 2005 after UNICEF approached her to do a survey of child trafficking in Southeast Asia and promote awareness of the problem . While writing the original script , Sarumpaet interviewed prostitutes in Surabaya , Surakarta , Garut , and Borneo over a period of six months . This research carried over into the film .
Sarumpaet cast her daughter , Atiqah Hasiholan , in the lead role . Initially Hasiholan viewed her character as a " regular slutty prostitute " , but after thinking of the character more thoroughly , she considered Jamila a " victim of life " . To better play her character , Hasiholan visited several prostitution districts and spoke with sex workers there , learning their motivations ; she drew the conclusion that poverty was a deciding factor . Senior actress Christine Hakim – a close friend of Sarumpaet 's – was cast as Ria ; it was her first antagonistic role . Sarumpaet 's brother Sam was assistant director , and helped calm his sister when technical glitches occurred .
Much of the cast and crew , including star Hasiholan , had previously acted in the stage play . Sarumpaet reported that the film cost Rp.6.5 billion ( US $ 800 @,@ 000 ) to produce ; She originally had difficulty finding sponsors . The film spent three years in production .
= = Themes = =
Sarumpaet described the film as being " about how awful the effect of poverty on human ’ s morality and lives is " ; in an interview with Tempo magazine , she stated that she did not have a political message , but intended to just show the facts . Nauval Yazid , in a review for The Jakarta Post , wrote that the film was of the " women @-@ who @-@ suffer @-@ continuously " genre , common in Indonesian cinema ; he compared the theme to Ponirah Terpidana ( Ponirah is Convicted ; 1984 ) , starring Hakim and Slamet Rahardjo . Anissa S. Febrina , also writing for The Jakarta Post , described the film as depicting " the grim reality of those whose existence [ viewers ] are rarely aware of : victims of child and women trafficking . "
= = Style = =
The majority of the film takes place inside the prison . A review for the Jakarta Globe notes that the film has a " spartan feel " , as supported by its cinematography . It uses periods of silence to evoke an emotional response from viewers , with flashbacks used to drive the story . The president is never shown ; instead , he is represented by long shots of Merdeka Palace , a presidential residence in Jakarta .
= = Release and reception = =
Jamila and the President was originally intended to be released on 10 December 2007 , in commemoration of Human Rights Day . However , due to production difficulties it was delayed for almost two years . The film premiered at FX Plaza in Jakarta on 27 April 2009 , with a wide release three days later . It received mixed reception . Yazid wrote that the film was " easily one of the most noteworthy Indonesian films in recent years " and praised Hakim 's acting ; however , he found Hasiholan 's acting overly theatrical . A review for the Jakarta Globe described the film as " engaging because of its dramatic subject and well @-@ measured pace " , but ultimately leaving the audience with unanswered questions due to the number of characters introduced . Marcel Thee and Armando Siahaan , writing in the same newspaper in December 2009 , selected Jamila and the President as the best Indonesian film of 2009 , noting that the titular character 's struggle " provides an emotional roller @-@ coaster ride . " Aguslia Hidayah , writing for Tempo , stated the film came across as without a climax , with Hasiholan 's acting at times overly theatrical and Hakim 's coming across flat . Eko Hendrawan Sofyan , reviewing for Kompas , wrote that the film reminded viewers that poverty and prostitution were still major issues , and had to be dealt with before Indonesia could further develop .
In Indonesia , Jamila and the President was nominated for several awards . At the 2009 Indonesian Film Festival , the film received six nominations , for Best Picture , Best Director , Best Adapted Screenplay , Best Editing , Best Sound Arrangement , and Best Artistic Arrangement ; it did not win any . Internationally , Jamila and the President was screened at several film festivals , including in Bangkok , Hong Kong , and Australia ; at the Asiatica Film Mediale in Rome , it won a NETPAC Award . It later won an award for best editing at the 53rd Asia Pacific Film Festival in Taipei , Taiwan . Jamila and the President was chosen by the Indonesian Filmmakers and Television Association to represent Indonesia at the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film . However , the film was not nominated . At the Vesoul International Film Festival of Asian Cinema in Vesoul , France , Jamila and the President won two awards , the Prix de Public and Prix Jury Lyceen ; according to The Jakarta Post , the film shocked young French audiences unused to child trafficking , a common subject in Southeast Asian cinema .
= The Understudy ( Inside No. 9 ) =
" The Understudy " is the fifth episode of British dark comedy anthology series Inside No. 9 . It was first broadcast on 5 March 2014 on BBC Two . The episode was written by and starred Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , and guest @-@ starred Lyndsey Marshal , Julia Davis , Rosie Cavaliero , Roger Sloman , Di Botcher , Richard Cordery , Bruce Mackinnon and Jo Stone @-@ Fewings . Pemberton plays actor Tony , who is starring as Macbeth in a West End production of Shakespeare 's Macbeth , and Shearsmith plays Jim , Tony 's understudy . The plot of " The Understudy " partially mirrors the story of Macbeth , exploring the theme of power and the lives of actors .
The episode took longer to write than any other in the first series of Inside No. 9 , and was redrafted several times owing to the writers ' uncertainty as to whether the characters should be amateurs or professionals . It is presented in five separate acts , mirroring theatrical norms . Critics responded positively to " The Understudy " , praising it as an improvement upon the previous week 's episode " Last Gasp " . They stressed the links between " The Understudy " and Macbeth , but said that viewers would not need to be familiar with Shakespeare 's work in order to enjoy the episode . On its first showing , " The Understudy " was watched by 720 @,@ 000 viewers ( 4 @.@ 1 % of the market ) ; this was the lowest viewership of the series so far .
= = Production = =
Writers Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , who had previously worked together on The League of Gentlemen and Psychoville , took inspiration for Inside No. 9 from " David and Maureen " , episode 4 of the first series of Psychoville . This episode , in turn , was inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Rope . " David and Maureen " took place entirely in a single room , and was filmed in only two shots . At the same time , the concept of Inside No. 9 was a " reaction " to Psychoville , with Shearsmith saying that " We 'd been so involved with labyrinthine over @-@ arcing , we thought it would be nice to do six different stories with a complete new house of people each week . That 's appealing , because as a viewer you might not like this story , but you 've got a different one next week . " As an anthology series with horror themes , Inside No. 9 also pays homage to Tales of the Unexpected , The Twilight Zone , and Alfred Hitchcock Presents .
As the format of Inside No. 9 requires new characters each week , the writers were able to attract actors who may have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . In addition to Pemberton and Shearsmith , who played lead actor Tony and understudy Jim respectively , the episode starred Lyndsey Marshal as Laura , Julia Davis as Felicity , Rosie Cavaliero as Kirstie , Roger Sloman as Bill , Di Botcher as Jean , and Richard Cordery as Nick . In addition , Bruce Mackinnon provided the voice of an actor playing Malcolm in Macbeth , and Jo Stone @-@ Fewings provided the voice of an actor playing Macduff .
The episode was written and is presented in a five @-@ act structure to mirror theatrical norms . This allowed for jumps in time within the episode , as well as marking it out from others in the series . The plot is essentially based on Macbeth , leading Pemberton to suggest that the episode might be used " on an O Level syllabus " in the future . Unlike other episodes in the series , " The Understudy " did not take place in a family home , and for this reason , the writers were keen not to alienate viewers . After the initial idea of a group of characters backstage at a production of Macbeth , the writers re @-@ scripted several times , unsure of whether the characters should be amateurs , members of a touring company or professionals . This meant that the script @-@ writing took longer for " The Understudy " than for any other episode of the first series of Inside No. 9 . The script eventually settled on actors at a West End theatre . For Shearsmith , it mattered that the actors had a " real chance " and that there were high stakes . The episode , he suggested , reflected happenings in a real theatre , rather than a television version . Pemberton said that the West End setting allowed for the " agonising " scene of a post @-@ performance visit from audience members .
= = Plot = =
Act 1
Tony Warner is starring in the lead role of Macbeth at the Duke of Cambridge Theatre . Coming back to his dressing room after a performance , he is visited by his understudy Jim . When invited to attend the understudy rehearsal , Tony makes an excuse about having a voiceover job at that time ; and the pair are joined by Tony 's neighbours Jean and Bill , who have just watched Tony 's performance . Tony leaves with them , and Jim puts on Tony 's prop crown , imagining himself in the leading role .
Act 2
Before the understudy rehearsal , Jim 's fiancée Laura ( the understudy for Lady Macbeth ) helps him learn lines in Tony 's dressing room . Company manager Felicity arrives and scolds them for using the room . While Jim is absent , Felicity flirts with Laura . Laura asks Tony 's dresser , Kirstie , what he earns , before opening Tony 's payslip to see for herself . She is determined for Jim to appear as Macbeth , which would allow them to save for their wedding . Laura cuts herself on a pin that Kirstie left in the Lady Macbeth dress , and after she and Kirstie leave the room , Jim sees a drop of blood on the floor grow into a large puddle . When he looks again , it has gone .
Act 3
During a Friday night performance , Tony is drunk as he comes backstage during the interim between his part in Acts IV and V. Felicity is angry that Tony , a recovering alcoholic , got drunk again ; she has had to issue several refunds because of his drunken behaviour on stage . She sends him into the shower to sober up , and summons Jim . He is unsure whether he knows the lines well enough to go onstage in Tony 's place , but Laura encourages him to take the chance . As she hands him a prop dagger , he sees blood all over the dagger and her hands . Tony comes out of the shower and wants to finish the performance , so Jim allows him to go . Laura berates Jim for his lack of ambition . She is left alone in the dressing room and hears noises coming from the shower ; but when she goes to look , it is empty . A scream is then heard from the stage .
Act 4
Jim has taken over the role of Macbeth . It is mentioned that Tony fell off the battlements on stage , and is in hospital . Felicity has been sacked after she was accused of sexual harassment . Laura arrives to congratulate Jim , and he thanks her for encouraging him . He is distant , eventually asking her to leave him to prepare alone . As he puts on his crown in front of the mirror , he hears the sound of whispering , and sees blood pouring from both his eyes and the mirror .
Act 5
Nineteen months later , Jim is a famous actor playing the title role in Richard III at the theatre , using the same , now redecorated , dressing room . A paralysed Tony comes backstage to visit him and talks about how far Jim 's career has come . Jim broke up with Laura and has not seen her since his run in Macbeth . After Tony leaves , Kirstie arrives to see Jim . She is now Tony 's full @-@ time carer . She has watched Jim 's performance every day of the week , and says she knew that he just needed " a little push " to achieve greatness . She tells him that Laura committed suicide by slitting her wrists in the dressing room 's shower . Jim did not know about this , because he was overseas filming a role in Game of Thrones at the time . He believes that Laura pushed Tony off the battlements and could not live with her guilt . Kirstie reveals that she herself is the one who pushed Tony , and spiked his juice with alcohol backstage . She also got Felicity sacked because Felicity would not let Jim perform as Macbeth . Kirstie is wearing the engagement ring that she took from Laura 's corpse . She tells Jim that she is waiting for him " in the wings ... like an understudy " . She leaves , and as Jim prepares to go onstage , he sees bloody visions of Laura 's death .
= = Reception = =
Critics responded very positively to " The Understudy " , with several drawing attention to the improvement over " Last Gasp " , the previous week 's episode . Bruce Dessau called it a " striking return to form " on his website , and Gerard Gilbert , writing in The Independent , called it " a return to form " after the previous week 's " misfire " . Writers in The Sunday Times called the episode " [ a ] nother exquisite short story " , Ben Lawrence , writing in the Daily Telegraph , called it a " gloriously OTT tale " , and John Robinson , writing for The Guardian , described it as an " excellent instalment " of the series . He identified the themes of the episode by calling it " a spooky and highly satirical take on actors , Shakespeare and power " .
Critics stressed that a knowledge of Macbeth was not necessary to enjoy the episode . " Knowing the text " , suggested Jack Seale of Radio Times , " will take you only halfway and , in any case , the clever plot is really just a vehicle for characters sketched fully in only a few lines , and a torrent of fruity luvvie gags about jealousy , superstition and stage @-@ hogging hams . " Dessau agreed , saying that " [ y ] ou don 't need to be a literary scholar to get the gags " . Critic Jane Simon , writing in the Daily Mirror , suggested that " even a hazy knowledge of the Scottish play will tip you the wink what might lie ahead " . David Chater in The Times and an anonymous reviewer in the Sunday Herald both praised the plot 's divergence from Shakespeare , with the latter saying that " the script cleverly offers parallels with The Scottish Play , just to whip them away again " . Dessau felt that the complex plot meant that the guest stars did " not get quite as much screen time as they deserve " , but that this was no complaint , as it was " very much Pemberton and Shearsmith 's instalment and they are both brilliant " .
On its first showing , " The Understudy " was watched by 720 @,@ 000 viewers ( 4 @.@ 1 % of the market ) . This was lower than " Last Gasp " , the previous episode , which in turn had had the lowest viewership of the series on its first airing , with 872 @,@ 000 viewers ( 4 @.@ 9 % of the audience ) . " The Understudy " was immediately preceded in most listings by Line of Duty , which was watched by a series high of 2 @.@ 3 million viewers ( 9 @.@ 9 % of the audience ) .
= Henry ( bishop of Finland ) =
Henry ( Finnish : Henrik ; Swedish : Henrik ; Latin : Henricus ; died c . 20 January 1156 ) was a medieval English clergyman . He came to Sweden with cardinal Nicholas Breakspeare in 1153 and was probably designated to be the new Archbishop of Uppsala , but the independent church province of Sweden could be established only in 1164 after the civil war was over , and Henry would have been sent to organize the Church in Finland , where Christians had existed already at least two centuries . According to legend , he entered Finland together with King Eric the Saint of Sweden and died as a martyr , becoming a central figure in the local Roman Catholic Church . However , the authenticity of the accounts of his life , ministry , and death are widely disputed and there are no historical records of his death nor existence .
Together with his alleged murderer Lalli , Henry remains one of the most recognized people from the early history of Finland . His feast is celebrated by the majority Lutheran Church of Finland , as well as by the Roman Catholic Church of Finland . He is commemorated in the liturgical calendars of several Protestant and Anglican churches .
= = Legend = =
= = = Vita and miracula = = =
The legend of Bishop Henry 's life , or his Vita , was written at the end of the 13th century . It contains little concrete information about Henry . He is said to have been an English @-@ born bishop in Uppsala at the time of King Eric the Saint of Sweden in the mid @-@ 12th century , ruling the peaceful kingdom with the king in heavenly co @-@ existence . To tackle the perceived threat from the non @-@ Christian Finns , Eric and Henry were forced to battle them . After they had conquered Finland , baptized the people and built many churches , the victorious king returned to Sweden while Henry ( Henricus ) remained with the Finns , more willing to live the life of a preacher than that of a high bishop .
The legend draws to a conclusion as Henry attempted to give a canonical punishment to a murderer . The accused man became enraged and killed the bishop , who was thus considered to be a martyr .
The legend strongly emphasizes that Henry was a Bishop of Uppsala , not a Bishop of Finland which became a conventional claim later on , also by the church itself . He stayed in Finland out of pity , but was never appointed as a bishop there . The legend does not state whether there had been bishops in Finland before his time or what happened after his death ; it does not even mention his burial in Finland . The vita is so void of any concrete information about Finland that it could have been created anywhere . The Latin is scholastic and the grammar is in general exceptionally good .
Henry 's Vita is followed by the more local miracula , a list of eleven miracles that various people were said to have experienced sometime after the bishop 's death . With the exception of a priest in Skara who suffered a stomach ache after mocking Henry , all miracles seem to have taken place in Finland . The other miracles , which usually occurred following prayer to Bishop Henry , were :
The murderer lost his scalp when he put the bishop 's hat on his head
The Bishop 's finger was found the next Spring
A boy was raised from the dead in Kaisala
A girl was raised from the dead in Vehmaa
A sick woman was healed in Sastamala
A Franciscan called Erlend had his headache healed
A blind woman got back her eyesight in Kyrö
A man with a paralyzed leg could walk again in Kyrö
A sick girl was healed
A group of fishermen from Kokemäki survived a storm
Most versions of Henry 's legend only include a selection of these miracles .
= = = Development of the legend = = =
Henry and his crusade to Finland were also a part of the legend of King Eric . However , the oldest surviving version of Eric 's legend is from about 1270 , yet there is no information on either Henry or the crusade . The appendix of the early 13th century Västgötalagen , which has a short description of Eric 's memorable deeds , also makes no reference to Henry or the crusade . Henry and the crusade are both fully present only in a version of Eric 's legend that dates to 1344 . Similarities in the factual content and phraseology regarding the common events indicate that either one of the legends has acted as the model for the other . Henry 's legend is commonly considered to have been written during the 1280s or 1290s at the latest , for the consecration of the Cathedral of Turku in 1300 , when his alleged remains were translated there from Nousiainen , a parish not far from Turku . Yet , even as late as in the 1470s , the crusade legend was ignored in the Chronica regni Gothorum , a chronicle of the history of Sweden , written by Ericus Olai , the Canon of the Uppsala cathedral .
Noteworthy in the development of the legend is that the first canonically elected Bishop of Turku , a certain Johan ( 1286 – 1289 ) of Polish origin , was elected as the Archbishop of Uppsala in 1289 , after three years in office in Turku . The Swedish bishops of Finland before him , Bero , Ragvald and Kettil , had apparently been selected by the King of Sweden . Related to the new situation was also the appointment of the king 's brother as the Duke of Finland in 1284 , which challenged the Bishop 's earlier position as the sole authority on all local matters . Johan was followed in Turku by Bishop Magnus ( 1291 – 1308 ) , who had been born in Finland .
The first mention of Bishop Henry in historical sources is from 1298 , when he is mentioned along with king Eric in a document from a provincial synod of Uppsala in Telge . The first mention of Henry of Uppsala being the patron saint of Turku cathedral is from 14 August 1320 , when he is mentioned as the second patron of the cathedral after Virgin Mary . So when he is later addressed by Pope Boniface IX as the patronus of the Cathedral of Turku along with the Virgin Mary , it is actually from the year 1391 . Boniface also called him a " saint " . In 1291 a longish document by the cathedral chapter makes no reference to Henry even though it mentions the cathedral and election of the new bishop many times . A papal letter by Pope Nicholas IV from 1292 has the Virgin Mary as the sole patrona in Turku . The legend itself is first referred to in a letter by Archbishop of Uppsala in 1298 . Eric and Henry are mentioned together as martyrs who needed to be prayed to for the sake of the situation in Karelia , thus associating their alleged crusade to Finland with the new expeditions against Novgorod . The war between Novgorod and Sweden for the control of Karelia had started in 1293 . The first certain appearance of Henry 's image in the seal of the Bishop of Turku is from 1299 .
Thus , Henry 's veneration as a saint and his relation to King Eric seem to have emerged in the historical record at the same time in the mid @-@ 1290s with strong support from the church . This correlates with the start of the war against Novgorod . Sources do not support the popular assumption , that Henry 's cult had developed in Nousiainen and gradually spread among ordinary people before official adoption . Although Nousiainen had Henry as its patronus , that is first mentioned only in 1452 . Still in 1232 , the church in Nousiainen was consecrated to the Virgin Mary only .
Some sources claim that Henry was canonized in 1158 , but this information has been traced to a late publication by Johannes Vastovius in 1623 and is generally regarded as a fabrication .
= = = Veneration = = =
Despite the high profile start of Henry 's cultus , it took more than 100 years for the veneration of Saint Henry to gain widespread acceptance throughout Sweden . As of 1344 there were no relics of the bishop in the Cathedral of Uppsala . According to one biographer , Henry 's veneration was rare outside the Diocese of Turku throughout the 14th century . Vadstena Abbey near Linköping seems to have played a key role in establishment of Henry 's legend elsewhere in Sweden in the early 15th century . Henry never received the highest totum duplex veneration in Uppsala nor was he made a patronus of the church there , which status he had both in Turku and Nousiainen .
At the end of the Roman Catholic era in Sweden , Henry was well established as a local saint . The dioceses in Sweden and elsewhere venerating Henry were as follows , categorized by his local ranking :
Totum duplex : Turku , Linköping , Strängnäs
Duplex : Uppsala , Lund ( Denmark ) , Västerås , Växjö
Semiduplex : Nidaros ( Norway )
Simplex : Skara
Henry seems to have been known in northern Germany , but he was largely ignored elsewhere in the Roman Catholic world .
In the Bishopric of Turku , the annual feast day of Henry was January 20 ( talviheikki , " Winter Henry " ) , according to traditions the day of his death . Elsewhere his memorial was held already on January 19 , since more prominent saints were already commemorated on January 20 . After the Reformation , Henry 's day was moved to the 19th in Finland as well . The existence of the feast day is first mentioned in 1335 , and is known to have been marked in the liturgical calendar from the early 15th century onwards . Another memorial was held on June 18 ( kesäheikki , " Summer Henry " ) which was the day of the translation of his relics to the Cathedral of Turku .
Gaudeamus omnes ( " Let all rejoice " ) , a Gregorian introit for the Mass in honor of Henry has survived within the late 14th or early 15th century Graduale Aboense .
= = = Political dimensions = = =
According to legend , establishment of the church of Finland was entirely the work of the saint @-@ king Eric of Sweden , assisted by the bishop from the most important diocese in the country . The first half of the legend describes how the king and the bishop ruled Sweden like ' two great lights ' with feelings of ' internal love ' toward each other , emphasizing the peaceful coexistence of the secular and ecclesiastical rule during a happy era when ' predatory wolves ' could not hit their ' poisonous teeth against the innocent ' . The reality was quite different – Eric 's predecessor , Eric himself and two of his successors were all murdered almost within a decade , one of the bloodiest times for the Swedish royalty . In the 1150s , the Bishop of Uppsala was also in a bitter fight with the Bishop of Linköping over which see would become archiepiscopal . The crusade itself is described as a brief and bloodless event that was only performed to bring the " blind and evil heathen people of Finland " under Christian order .
The writer of the legend seems to have been especially interested in presenting the bishop as a humble martyr . He has fully ignored his place of death and burial and other " domestic " Finnish interests , which were much more apparent in folk traditions . The legend and folk traditions eventually influenced each other , and the church gradually adopted many additional details to its saint bishop .
= = Folk traditions = =
Among the many folk traditions about Henry , the most prominent is the folk poem " The Death @-@ lay of Bishop Henry " ( Piispa Henrikin surmavirsi ) . The poem almost completely ignores Henry 's life and ministry and concentrates on his death .
= = = Henry 's origins = = =
According to the poem , Henry had grown up in " Cabbage Land " ( Kaalimaa ) , which has puzzled Finnish historians for centuries . The name might be connected to a coastal area in northern Finland Proper called Kaland , which is also mentioned in conjunction with an unrelated early preacher in Vesilahti , upper Satakunta , whose local name was " Fish of Kaland " ( Kalannin kala , also known as Hunnun herra ) . Bishop Mikael Agricola wrote in his Se Wsi Testamenti in 1548 , that the earliest Swedish settlers in Finland had come from Gotland to the islets on the coast of Kaland , being harassed by Finns and seeking help from their relatives in Sweden .
It has also been suggested that the name might be related to Gaelic , which would presumably have referred to the bishop 's Scottish origins , though the legend gives him as a native Englishman .
Folk traditions have no information on the crusade whatsoever . King Eric is briefly mentioned in the death @-@ lay 's preface as Henry 's concerned " brother " . Henry appears as a lone preacher who moved around southwestern Finland more or less on his own . Besides the name , he has only little in common with the Henry in the church vita .
Kokemäki is often mentioned in traditions as a place where Henry preached . Kokemäki was later one the central parishes in Satakunta . This province was first mentioned in historical documents in 1331 .
= = = Death and burial = = =
The death @-@ lay 's version of the bishop 's death was different from the vita . The bishop 's killer was called Lalli . Lalli 's wife Kerttu falsely claimed to him that upon leaving the manor , their ungrateful guest Henry , travelling around on his own in the middle of winter , had without permission or recompense , through violence , taken food , cake from the oven and beer from the cellar , for himself and hay for his horse , and left nothing but ashes . This is supposed to have enraged Lalli so that he immediately grabbed his skis and went in pursuit of the thief , finally chasing Henry down on the ice of Lake Köyliönjärvi . There he killed him on the spot with an axe . Lalli then proceeded to steal the late holy man ’ s hat , called a mitre , and place it on his own head . When Lalli ’ s mother questioned him about where he found the hat , he attempted to take it off , but with it came his scalp . Lalli then died a painful death . The 17th century lay version smugly comments that :
Now the bishop is in joy ,
Lalli in evil torture . The bishop sings with the angels , Performs a joyful hymn . Lalli is skiing down in hell . His left ski slides along . Into the thick smoke of torture . With his staff he strikes about : Demons beset him cruelly . In the swelter of hell They assail his pitiful soul .
The 17th century lay version of the tale was intended to be performed during the annual pilgrimage along Henrik ’ s final route .
In some versions of the poem , considered older , Lalli 's weapon was a sword . The axe was the murder weapon of Saint Olaf , who was very popular in Finland and may have influenced Henry 's legend . However , since Lalli is not portrayed as a member of the upper class , it is unlikely that he possessed an expensive weapon like a sword , and the axe is a more historically likely choice for Henry 's murder .
Before his death , Henry instructed the coachman to gather his remaining body parts in a cloth tied with blue string , place it in a cart drawn by a stallion . When the stallion broke , he was to replace it with an ox , and when the ox stopped , he was to build a church . This is where Henrik ’ s remains were to be buried .
Medieval folk traditions enumerate the pestilences and misfortunes which befell Lalli after his slaying of the bishop . His hair and scalp are said to have fallen out as he took off the bishop 's cap , taken as a trophy . Removing the bishop 's ring from his finger , just bones remained . Eventually he ran into a lake and drowned himself .
= = = Development of folk traditions = = =
Basically the death @-@ lay is a simple story of a short @-@ tempered man who falls victim of his " bad @-@ mouthed wife 's " sharp tongue . The poem has no pity for Lalli , and he is not depicted as a hero in a story whose true antagonist is Kerttu . The depiction of Henry 's death built on an independent tradition that was once in direct competition with that of the legend , which is largely forgotten today . It remains unknown whether the two traditions were built around the same person .
The poem , following the traditional Kalevala metre , has survived as several 17th and 18th century literations from various parts of Finland . Some of its elements appear in earlier works , but it hardly dates older than the vita . There is debate on whether the original poem was constructed by one or more individuals . The writer has however had superficial understanding of the church legends .
Both Lalli ( Laurentius ) and Kerttu ( Gertrud ) are originally German names , which might indicate that the poem was partly constructed on foreign models , whose influence is visible in other aspects , too . The way Lalli is manipulated to commit the crime and what happens to him later seem to be taken from a medieval Judas fable . Extensive borrowing from unrelated Finnish legends from the pre @-@ Christian era has taken place as well , leaving quite little original material left at all .
Based on finds from medieval church ruins in the tiny island of Kirkkokari ( " Church Rock " , previously known as the " Island of Saint Henry " ) in Lake Köyliönjärvi , the bishop 's veneration began in the latter half of the 14th century , well after Henry had received his official status as a local saint , and 200 years after his alleged death . A small granary in the nearby Kokemäki , claimed to have been the bishop 's place of rest the night before his death , could not be dated earlier than the late 15th century in dendrochronological examinations .
However , the poem 's claim that Henry was buried in Nousiainen was already held to be true around 1300 , when his alleged bones were translated from Nousiainen to the Cathedral of Turku . A mid @-@ 15th century Chronicon episcoporum Finlandensium also confirmed Köyliö as the place of his death . Neither place is mentioned in the vita in any way . The church seems to have gradually complemented its own legends by adopting elements from the folk traditions , especially during the 15th century .
= = Historical sources = =
Today , the legend of Henry is challenged by historians to the point of being labelled as pure imagination . Completely invented saints were not exceptional in Europe , and in the lack of evidence of either the crusade or Henry , that possibility may not be fully denied .
The bishop 's violent death itself was nothing exceptional and could well have happened . Many bishops were murdered during the turmoils of the 12th and 13th centuries , although most were not elevated to sainthood . Saxo Grammaticus said of the Battle of Fotevik in 1134 that never had so many bishops been killed at the same time . Notable bishops that died violently included the Archbishop of Uppsala in 1187 , Bishop of Estonia in 1219 and Bishop of Linköping in 1220 .
= = = Bishop of Uppsala = = =
There is no historical record of a Bishop of Uppsala called Henry during the reign of King Eric ( about 1156 – 1160 ) . Early phases of the diocese remain obscure up to the point of Stefan , who was appointed as the archbishop in 1164 .
A certain Henry is mentioned in Incerti scriptoris Sueci chronicon primorum in ecclesia Upsalensi archiepiscoporum , a chronicle of Uppsala archbishops , before Coppmannus and Stefan , but after Sverinius ( probably mentioned in German sources in 1141 / 2 as " Siwardus " ) , Nicolaus and Sweno . Besides the name , the chronicle knows that he was martyred and buried in Finland in the Cathedral of Turku . Latest research dates the chronicle to the early 15th century when Henry 's legend was already established in the kingdom , leaving only little significance to its testimony .
A late 15th century legenda nova claimed that Henry had come to Sweden in the retinue of papal legate Nicholas Breakspear , the later Pope Adrian IV , and appointed as the Bishop of Uppsala by him . Even though legenda nova states 1150 as the year of the crusade , it is certain from other sources that Nicholas really was in Sweden in 1153 . It
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is not known whether this was just an inference by the writer , based on the fact that also Nicholas was an Englishman . However , there is no information about anyone called as Henry accompanying the legate in any source describing the visit , nor him appointing a new bishop in Uppsala . Another claim by legenda nova was that Henry was translated to Turku cathedral already in 1154 , which certainly was false since the cathedral was built only in the 1290s . In the late 16th century , Bishop Paulus Juusten claimed that Henry had been the Bishop of Uppsala for two years before the crusade . Based on these postulates , early 20th @-@ century historians assembled 1155 as the year of the crusade and 1156 as the year of Henry 's death . Historians from different centuries have also suggested various other years from 1150 to 1158 .
Contradicting these claims , the medieval Annales Suecici Medii Aevi and the 13th century legend of Saint Botvid mention some Henry as the Bishop of Uppsala ( Henricus scilicet Upsalensis ) in 1129 , participating in the consecration of the saint 's newly built church . He is apparently the same Bishop Henry who died at the Battle of Fotevik in 1134 , fighting along with the Danes after being banished from Sweden . Known from the Chronicon Roskildense written soon after his death and from Saxo Grammaticus ' Gesta Danorum from the early 13th century , he had fled to Denmark from Sigtuna , the see of the early Uppland bishops before it was moved a few kilometers to its later location in Uppsala sometime before 1164 . He is ignored in all Swedish bishop chronicles , unless he is the same Henry who was later redated to the 1150s . That would make the claim about him coming to Finland with King Eric a late innovation , where memory about a killed bishop in Uppsala sometime in the 12th century was reused in a new context .
Noteworthy also , is a story written down by Adam of Bremen in his Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum ( Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church ) from 1075 / 6 about a certain foreigner called Hericus , who was slain and martyred while preaching among the Sueones . Adam had heard the story from King Sweyn II of Denmark . According to some historians , resemblance to later legend about an English @-@ born Henricus , who was allegedly slain and martyred in Finland , is too striking to be a coincidence .
= = = Bishop of Finland = = =
No historical source remains that would confirm the existence of a bishop named Henry in Finland . However , papal letters mentioning an unidentified Bishop of Finland in 1209 , 1221 , 1229 and 1232 have survived . Some copies of another papal letter from 1232 call the bishop as " N. " , but the letter " N " may originally have also been something resembling it . The first certainly known Bishop of Finland is Thomas , who is first mentioned in 1234 . It is however possible , that Fulco , the Bishop of Estonia mentioned in sources from 1165 and 1171 , was the same as Folquinus , a legendary Bishop of Finland at the end of the 12th century , but this remains only a theory .
No Bishop or Diocese of Finland is mentioned in a papal letter from 1171 ( or 1172 ) by the seemingly well @-@ informed Pope Alexander III , who otherwise addressed the situation of the church in Finland . The Pope mentions that there were preachers , presumably from Sweden , working in Finland and was worried about their bad treatment by the Finns . The Pope had earlier in 1165 authorized the first missionary Bishop of Estonia to be appointed , and was a close acquaintance of both Eskil , the Archbishop of Lund , and Stefan , the Archbishop of Uppsala , who both had spent time with him in France where he had been exiled in the 1160s . Following the situation in Estonia , the Pope personally interfered in the Estonian mission in 1171 , ordering assistance for the local Bishop Fulco from Norway .
No surviving list of bishops or dioceses under the Archbishop of Uppsala from 1164 , 1189 , 1192 , 1233 , 1241 or 1248 contains any reference to Finland , neither factual or propagandist . No claim about a Swedish bishop in Finland is made in any other source from the era prior to the so @-@ called Second Swedish Crusade in 1249 .
The first mention of a bishop in Finland is from a papal letter in 1209 . It was sent to Archbishop Anders of Lund by Pope Innocent III as a reply to the Archbishop 's earlier letter which has not survived . According to the Archbishop , the Bishop of the newly established church in Finland was dead , apparently from natural causes since his passing away is mentioned to have been " lawful " , and the see had been vacant for some time . The Archbishop had complained to the Pope how difficult it was to get anyone to be a bishop in Finland and planned to appoint someone without formal adequacy , who was already working in Finland . The Pope approved of Archbishop 's suggestion without questioning his opinions . It is noteworthy that the Archbishop of Uppsala , Valerius ( 1207 – 1219 / 1224 ) , was also in Denmark at the time , temporarily exiled from Sweden after having allied with the deposed King Sverker , yet another exile in Denmark .
Whether the appointment of the said preacher ever took place , remains unknown . Note should be taken that the King of Sweden at the time was Eric , a grandson of his better known namesake Eric the Saint . Eric had taken over Sweden in 1208 and was crowned king two years later . The Pope who had strongly sided with Sverker , ignored him at first , but finally recognized him in 1216 , commenting many requests that he had apparently made ever since having taken the office . Based on the papal letter that year , Eric seems to have had a plan to invade some country that allegedly had been " taken from the heathens by his predecessors " and was allowed to install a bishop there . Similar letters were sent to the King of Denmark in 1208 and 1218 , who is known to have meant Estonia both times . Sweden also attacked Estonia in 1220 . Eric died of illness 1216 . Almost nothing is known about his time as the king .
Nevertheless , someone was eventually appointed and installed as the new bishop , since Pope Honorius III sent a letter directly to an unnamed Bishop of Finland in 1221 . According to the letter , Archbishop Valerius had followed the situation in Finland and sent a report to the Pope , worried about a threat from unidentified " barbarians " . It is notable that when the Pope quoted Valerius in his letter , he calls the church in Finland to have been established " newly " , the same claim that Anders had made 12 years earlier . The list of Swedish bishops which survives from this era is from king John Sverkerson 's coronation from the year 1219 and it mentions the bishops which have been present at the coronation . Finland as well as Wäxjö are not among those five , which so seem to have been all the bishops of the Swedish realm at that time . So the Finnish bishop 's possible position under Uppsala 's primacy is highly improbable .
Despite so many high @-@ ranking church representatives being involved in the 1209 / 1221 arrangements , later chronicles are fully ignorant on the situation in Finland at the time , or if there was even a bishop then . The first 13th @-@ century bishop is said to have been Thomas , and his predecessor remains unknown . According to 15th and 16th century chronicles , Henry was followed by bishops Rodulff and Folquinus , after whom there was a 25 – 30 @-@ year gap before Thomas . However , according to the papal letter Ex tuarum no such gap has ever existed , since the archbishop of Lund was given the right to anoint a new bishop to Finland in 1209 after the death of the previous . So the logic and datings of the sixteenth @-@ century writers must be esteemed as false . The date 1209 is far too early for a Dominican like Thomas to step into the office , and so Rodolphus , the first real bishop of Finland and his successor Folquinus must be considered as 13th @-@ century bishops nominated and appointed by the Danish and not by the Swedes . As an extra proof of this the ancient Finnish taxation system of church taxes has its roots in Denmark , not in Sweden . And the same goes to lay taxes especially in the Åland Islands and to the old Finnish monetary system . As J. W. Ruuth already nearly a hundred years ago pointed out , Finland was at that time a Danish and not a Swedish mission territory , where the Danes according to the Danish annals made there expeditions in 1191 , 1202 and possible even 1210
= = Legacy = =
= = = Relics = = =
Henry was allegedly buried in Nousiainen , from where his bones — or at least something that was thought to be his bones — were transported to Turku in 1300 . In addition to traditions , the only source connecting Nousiainen to early bishops is a letter signed by Bishop Thomas in Nousiainen in 1234 . Archaeological excavations of pre @-@ Catholic cemeteries in Nousiainen and surrounding parishes show a clear discontinuation of traditions in the early 13th century , but no abrupt changes are apparent in the religious environment among the 12th century finds .
Whatever the case , the bishop 's grave seems to have been traced to Nousiainen latest after his elevation to sainthood . A number of medieval documents mention that the bishop 's grave continued to be located in the local church , presumably meaning that all the bones had not been translated to Turku . The church was later adorned with a grandiose 15th century cenotaph , whose replica can be found in the National Museum of Finland in Helsinki .
Most of the bones in Turku were still in place in 1720 when they were catalogued for a transfer to Saint Petersburg during the Russian occupation of Finland in the Great Northern War . The man behind the idea was the infamous Swedish Count Gustaf Otto Douglas who had defected to the Russian side during the war and was in charge of the grim occupation of Finland . What happened to the bones after that , remains unknown . According to some sources , the Russian vessel transporting the relics sank on the way . However , it is generally acknowledged that a piece of Henry 's ulna had been placed in Bishop Hemming 's reliquarium that was built in 1514 and treasured in the cathedral . Also enclosed was a piece of parchment stating the bone belonged to Henry . During the restoration work of the cathedral , the relic was relocated to the National Board of Antiquities .
In the 1990s , the National Board of Antiquities claimed the relic as its own on the basis of the Finnish law on ancient objects , though it was contradicted by the Lutheran Cathedral Parish of Turku . However , the Board ultimately had the relic relocated to the Cathedral of Saint Henry in Helsinki , the oldest church in the modern Catholic Diocese of Finland , because Catholics still actively venerate the relic as sacred . Since then , it has been located inside the altar of the Catholic cathedral .
In 1924 , several other bones , including a jawless skull , were found in a sealed closet in the Cathedral of Turku . These are also referred to as Henry 's relics in popular media and even by the church , even though that designation remains speculative and the bones may have belonged to some other saint . The bones are currently stored in the Cathedral of Turku .
= = = Henry 's status today = = =
Although Henry has never been officially canonized , he has been referred to as a saint since as early as 1296 according to a papal document of the time , and continues to be called as such today as well . On the basis of the traditional accounts of Henry 's death , his recognition as saint took place prior to the founding of the Congregation for the Causes of the Saints and the official canonization process of the Roman Catholic Church . Henry is currently commemorated on January 19 on the calendar of commemorations of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada . January 19 is also Henry 's name day in Sweden and Finland . He continues to be remembered as a local observance in the Catholic Church of Finland , where the cathedral church is dedicated to Henry 's memory . The cathedral was consecrated in 1860 and is headed by fr . Marco Pasinato .
The Kirkkokari island in Lake Köyliönjärvi remains the only Catholic place of pilgrimage in Finland , with a memorial service held every year on second Sunday in June before the Midsummer festival . Also the medieval 140 km countryside route , the Saint Henry 's Way , from Köyliö to Nousiainen has been marked all the way for people willing to walk through it . Association of " Ecumenical pilgrimage of St. Henry " has been organized around the event .
Based on folk traditions about the bishop 's activities , the municipalities of Nousiainen , Köyliö and Kokemäki use images from Henry 's legend in their coats of arms .
Today , Henry and his alleged murderer Lalli remain two of the best @-@ known persons from the mediaeval history of Finland .
= 1983 – 84 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1983 – 84 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season featured above normal activity and several deadly storms . There was steady storm activity from December through April due to favorable conditions , such as warm sea surface temperatures and an active monsoon . The first named storm – Andry – was tied for the strongest with Bakoly , Jaminy , and Kesiny . Cyclone Andry passed near Agaléga island within Mauritius , damaging or destroying every building there and killing one person . It later struck Madagascar , the first of three storms to strike the nation within two months , which collectively caused $ 25 million in damage and 42 deaths . The third of these storms , Tropical Storm Domoina , caused deadly flooding in southeastern Africa that killed 242 people and caused $ 199 million in damage . The storm destroyed more than 50 small dams in Madagascar and caused the worst flooding in Swaziland in 20 years . In addition three of the first storms affecting Madagascar , Cyclone Bakoly in December left $ 21 million in damage on Mauritius .
Less than two weeks after Domoina caused severe flooding in South Africa , Tropical Storm Imboa produced additional rainfall and high seas in the country , killing four people . The final storm of the season was Cyclone Kamisy , which caused $ 250 million in damage and 68 deaths when it made landfalls in northern and northwestern Madagascar . The cities near landfall were largely destroyed , and about 100 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . The penultimate storm , Jaminy , was tied for the strongest storm in the basin after it crossed from the Australian region , where it was named Annette . Cyclone Fanja in January also crossed from the Australian region , where it was named Vivienne .
= = Season summary = =
During the season , the Réunion Meteorological Service tracked storms in the basin , using the Dvorak technique to estimate tropical cyclone intensities via satellite imagery . The agency later became Météo @-@ France 's meteorological office at Réunion ( MFR ) . At the time , the basin extended from the east coast of Africa to 80 ° E. Eleven storms were named by the Mauritius Meteorological Service and the Madagascar Meteorological Service . The rest of the naming list was Lalao , Monja , Nora , Olidera , Pelazy , Rija , Saholy , Tsira , Vaosolo , Wilfredy , Yannika , and Zozo . The 11 named storms were slightly above the normal of 9 , most of which formed in January and February . There were four intense tropical cyclones , which is twice the average . The increased activity of the season was in part due to enhanced easterlies , a strong monsoon trough , and warm water temperatures around 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) which extended to 25 ° S.
In addition to the 11 named storms , there were two additional storms in the season , classified by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . The first developed in July in the Australian basin , and briefly crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on July 14 . Soon after it re @-@ entered the Australian basin and dissipated . The other formed just southeast of Diego Garcia on November 20 . It tracked to the southwest , and the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute sustained winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . The storm dissipated on November 25 northeast of Mauritius . In addition , Cyclone Daryl , which formed in the Australian basin on March 6 , crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on March 16 as a weakening storm without being renamed . Two days later it re @-@ entered the Australian basin before dissipating .
In December and January , three storms – Andry , Caboto , and Domoina – struck Madagascar in short succession . Collectively they dropped heavy rainfall , and some areas of the country reported precipitation totals that were 220 % above normal . The storms damaged roads , bridges , dams , and croplands , wrecking 10 @,@ 000 tons of rice . Damage from the three storms was estimated at $ 25 million , and 13 @,@ 560 people were left homeless . The storms cumulatively killed 42 people . After seven cyclones struck or affected the country , causing 23 @.@ 9 billion Malagasy francs ( $ 200 million 1984 USD ) in crop damage , the African Development Bank approved a loan of 559 million Malagasy francs ( $ 1 @.@ 35 million 1989 USD ) to rebuild the damaged water infrastructure . The program lasted until December 22 , 1993 , and consisted of repairing irrigation systems and dams .
= = Storms = =
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Andry = = =
On December 5 , an area of convection persisted between Agaléga and Diego Garcia , which corresponded to a satellite @-@ derived Dvorak rating of T2.0 ; on this basis , MFR assessed the system as a tropical disturbance , and later that day , JTWC also initiated advisories . The Réunion Meteorological Service named the system Andry . On December 7 , the storm intensified into a tropical cyclone , the same day that the JTWC upgraded Andry to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane . After having moved to the west , the cyclone turned more to the west @-@ southwest , and while doing so it passed just south of the Agaléga islands , producing wind gusts of 174 km / h ( 108 mph ) . The storm damaged or destroyed every house on the island , leaving the 350 residents without power , food , water , or shelter . Andry also downed most of the coconut trees on the island , which was the source of employment for most residents . High waves flooded wells and contaminated the water supply . The cyclone injured 30 people , and killed one . The Mauritius government later evacuated residents to structures that were not destroyed . Following the storm , various countries donated to the country to assist , including France who sent crews from Réunion to set up shelter and provide care for the residents . The island was largely rebuilt after about two years .
Cyclone Andry reached peak winds of December 9 , when MFR estimated winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) . The next day , JTWC estimated 1 minute winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) . Around that time , Andry was passing just north of the northernmost tip of Madagascar at Diego @-@ Suarez , where the storm produced wind gusts of 250 km / h ( 160 mph ) . The cyclone weakened while curving to the southwest and later to the south , making landfall on western Madagascar near Majunga with wind gusts of 198 km / h ( 123 mph ) . While over land and turning to the southeast , Andry rapidly weakened into a tropical depression , which later passed near the capital Antananarivo . The storm emerged back into the Indian Ocean on December 14 , by which time the system was disorganized . That day , MFR estimated that Andry dissipated , although the JTWC assessed that the system re @-@ intensified slightly and turned sharply southwestward before dissipating over Madagascar on December 16 .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Bakoly = = =
On December 19 , a tropical disturbance formed near Diego Garcia , which initially tracked to the south @-@ southeast before turning to the southwest . Later that day , the system intensified to moderate tropical storm status , prompting the Mauritius Meteorological Service to name it Bakoly . The storm gradually intensified into an intense tropical cyclone , reaching peak winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) on December 23 . After maintaining that intensity for about 12 hours , Bakoly weakened below cyclone status as it turned to the south @-@ southeast . On December 25 , the storm passed between Réunion and Mauritius , and later resumed its south @-@ southwest trajectory . After executing a small loop , Bakoly turned to the southeast and dissipated on December 30 .
On Mauritius , Bakoly produced 197 km / h ( 122 mph ) wind gusts and heavy rainfall , reaching 507 mm ( 20 @.@ 0 in ) at Midlands . The high winds caused roof damage , and eight people were injured on the island . Bakoly caused power outages and damaged 4 % of the telephone network . Damage was estimated at RS300 million ( $ 21 million USD ) . Passing within 100 km ( 60 mi ) of Réunion , Bakoly produced 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) winds and dropped 300 mm ( 12 in ) of rainfall .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Caboto = = =
MFR began tracking a tropical disturbance in the Mozambique channel on January 4 . The next day , the agency estimated the system intensified into a moderate tropical storm , prompting the Madagascar Meteorological Service to name it Caboto . The storm moved southward along Madagascar 's western coast , reaching peak winds of about 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Caboto made landfall on January 7 to the north of the mouth of the Mangoky River , and crossed the southern portion of the country , emerging near Farafangana into the Indian Ocean . Winds associated with the storm reached 43 km / h ( 27 mph ) at Morondava on the west coast and 63 km / h ( 39 mph ) at Farafangana on the east coast . A developing ridge caused Caboto to slow after it reached open waters , executing a partial loop southwest of Réunion before turning to the south and dissipating on January 10 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Domoina = = =
Domoina developed on January 16 off the northeast coast of Madagascar . With a ridge to the north , the storm tracked generally westward and later southwestward . On January 21 , Domoina struck eastern Madagascar . After crossing the country , Domoina strengthened in the Mozambique channel to peak winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . On January 28 , the storm made landfall in southern Mozambique , and slowly weakened over land . Domoina crossed into Swaziland and later eastern South Africa before dissipating on February 2 .
In Mozambique , Domoina dropped heavy rainfall in the capital Maputo that accounted for 40 % of the annual total . Floods in the country destroyed over 50 small dams and left widespread crop damage just before the summer harvest .
Later , the rains caused the worst flooding in over 20 years in Swaziland , which damaged or destroyed more than 100 bridges . Disrupted transport left areas isolated for several days . In South Africa , rainfall peaked at 950 mm ( 37 in ) , which flooded 29 river basins , notably the Pongola River which altered its course after the storm . Flooding caused the Pongolapoort Dam to reach 87 % of its capacity ; when waters were released to maintain the structural integrity , additional flooding occurred in Mozambique , forcing thousands to evacuate . Throughout the region , Domoina caused widespread flooding that damaged houses , roads , and crops , leaving about $ 199 million in damage . There were 242 deaths in southeastern Africa .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Edoara = = =
A circulation developed south of Diego Garcia on January 20 , and the next was classified as a tropical disturbance by MFR . Given the name Edoara by the Mauritius Meteorological Service , it quickly intensified into a moderate tropical storm , although it never strengthened beyond winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . While maintaining a southwest track , Edoara passed southeast of Rodrigues , Mauritius , and Réunion . On Rodrigues , the storm produced wind gusts of 131 km / h ( 81 mph ) , and heavy rainfall reaching 253 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) at Baie aux Huîtres . After moving away from the islands , Edoara dissipated on January 25 .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Vivienne @-@ Fanja = = =
The origins of Vivienne @-@ Fanja are unclear as a result of sparseness of data , due to a disruption in satellite imagery coverage . It is estimated that a tropical low formed on January 23 west of Christmas Island in the Australian basin . The Bureau of Meteorology named the storm Vivienne , which gradually intensified while moving to the west . On January 27 , the cyclone crossed 80 ° E into the southwest Indian Ocean , at which time it was renamed Fanja . While in the basin , the storm reached peak winds of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . It continued moving to the southwest before dissipating on January 30 .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Galy = = =
On January 29 , a circulation developed between Agaléga and Tromelin island . Initially the system moved to the southwest , followed by a turn to the southeast . Given the name Galy , the storm attained winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) on January 30 , but weakened into a tropical disturbance the next day . By that time , Galy turned to the west toward the Madagascar coastline , and on February 1 re @-@ intensified into a moderate tropical storm . The next day , Galy made landfall near Mananjary , but soon after recurved to the southeast and emerged into the Indian Ocean near Fort Dauphin . On February 4 , the storm dissipated in a polar trough . While over land , Galy dropped light rainfall of around 44 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 75 in ) .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Haja = = =
A tropical depression formed on February 7 south of Diego Garcia . For about a week , the system remained weak and changed directions several times ; after an eastward movement , it turned to the northwest , curved to the southeast , and later began a steady track to the southwest . On February 13 , it intensified into a moderate tropical storm , and quickly attained peak winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Given the name Haja , the storm passed southeast of Rodrigues and Réunion . Haja approached the southeast coast of Madagascar , but turned to the southeast and weakened , dissipating on February 19 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Imboa = = =
On February 10 , MFR began tracking a tropical disturbance in the Mozambique channel near Juan de Nova Island . The system tracked generally south @-@ southwestward , gradually intensifying . Given the name Imboa , the storm reached peak winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) on February 13 while passing near Europa Island . After executing a small loop , Imboa turned toward the southeastern African coastline and approached the eastern coasts of Mozambique and South Africa as a weakened system . A ridge caused the storm to turn to the east and northeast , dissipating on February 19 .
Early in its duration , Imboa produced winds of 111 km / h ( 69 mph ) at Maintirano while passing off the west coast of Madagascar . While offshore South Africa , Imboa dropped heavy rainfall along the coast just weeks after Domoina flooded the region , reaching over 350 mm ( 14 in ) in some locations . The rains caused flooding along the Mhlatuze and Mfuluzone rivers , which destroyed a temporary bridge along the Umfolozi River built after Domoina . Along the coast , Imboa produced high tides that caused beach erosion . There were four deaths in the country .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Annette @-@ Jaminy = = =
Cyclone Annette developed simultaneously with Cyclone Willy in the Australian basin and Cyclone Haja in the south @-@ west Indian . On February 3 , a tropical low formed northeast of the Cocos Islands . Steered by a ridge to the south , it moved generally southwestward and intensified into Tropical Cyclone Annette , named by the Bureau of Meteorology . After executing a loop , Annette crossed 80 E into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on February 16 . Upon crossing into the basin , the storm was renamed Jaminy by the Mauritius Meteorological Service . Around that time , the cyclone attained peak winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Jaminy moved generally southwestward and weakened below cyclone status on February 20 . The next day , it turned to the southeast , later dissipating on February 24 .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Kamisy = = =
A tropical disturbance formed near Diego Garcia on April 3 and subsequently moved westward , intensifying into a moderate tropical storm two days later . Given the name Kamisy , the storm gradually intensified into an intense tropical cyclone by April 9 . Kamisy reached winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) before making landfall in extreme northern Madagascar near Diego Suarez . It weakened upon entering the Mozambique channel , but briefly re @-@ intensified on April 10 . That day while passing near Mayotte , the cyclone turned to the southeast , striking Madagascar again near Majunga . Kamisy quickly crossed the country and quickly weakened into a tropical disturbance . After emerging into the Indian Ocean off the east coast of Madagascar , the system re @-@ intensified into a moderate tropical storm before dissipating on April 16 .
In northern Madagascar , Kamisy produced wind gusts of 250 km / h ( 160 mph ) , which destroyed 80 % of the city of Diego Suarez . About 39 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the area , and there were five deaths . In western Madagascar , the cyclone dropped 232 @.@ 2 mm ( 9 @.@ 14 in ) of rainfall in 24 hours in Majunga , which damaged rice fields in the region after causing widespread river flooding . The storm destroyed about 80 % of Majunga where the storm struck . Throughout the country , Kamisy caused $ 250 million in damage and 68 deaths , with 215 people injured and 100 @,@ 000 left homeless . Kamisy also affected Mayotte with winds of over 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) , which left about 25 @,@ 000 homeless and left widespread damage . One death was reported on the island .
= Sierra Leone at the 2004 Summer Olympics =
Sierra Leone competed at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , Greece , from 13 to 29 August 2004 . This was the nation 's eighth appearance at the Summer Olympics since its debut in the 1968 Summer Olympics . The Sierra Leone delegation included two track and field athletes ; Lamin Tucker and Hawanatu Bangura , both of whom were sprinters that were selected via winning an event in Freetown , as the nation had no athletes that met the " A " or " B " standards in any event . Bangura was selected as flag bearer for the opening ceremony . Neither of the two athletes progressed beyond the heats .
= = Background = =
Sierra Leone participated in eight Summer Olympic games between its debut in the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City , Mexico and the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , with the exception of the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich , and the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , the latter because of a boycott relating to the New Zealand national rugby union team touring South Africa .
The Sierra Leone National Olympic Committee ( NOC ) selected two athletes via wildcards . Usually , an NOC would be able to enter up to 3 qualified athletes in each individual event as long as each athlete met the " A " standard , or 1 athlete per event if they met the " B " standard . However , since Sierra Leone had no athletes that met either standard , they were allowed to select two athletes , one of each gender , as wildcards . The Sierra Leone NOC decided to host an event in Freetown , where the fastest man and woman in the event would be selected to compete at the Athens Games . The two athletes that won and therefore were selected to compete in the Athens games were Lamin Tucker and Hawanatu Bangura . They competed in the track and field Men 's 100 meters and in the Women 's 100 meters respectively . Bangura was flag bearer for the opening ceremony .
= = Athletics = =
Making his Summer Olympic debut , Lamin Tucker qualified for the Athens Games via winning an event in Freetown . He competed on 21 August in the Men 's 100 meters against eight other athletes in the seventh heat . He finished the race in 10 @.@ 72 seconds , ranking sixth . He ranked ahead of American Samoa 's Kelsey Nakanelua ( 11 @.@ 25 seconds ) and behind Canada 's Pierre Browne ( 10 @.@ 32 seconds ) , in a heat led by Jamaica 's Asafa Powell ( 10 @.@ 06 seconds ) . Overall , Tucker placed 61st out of the 84 athletes that competed and was 0 @.@ 38 seconds slower than the slowest athlete that progressed to the next round . Therefore , that was the end of his competition .
Competing at her first Summer Olympics , Hawanatu Bangura was notable for holding the Sierra Leone flag at the opening ceremony and for becoming the youngest ever competitor to represent Sierra Leone at the Olympics aged 16 , a record that still stands today . She qualified for the Athens Games via winning an event in Freetown . She competed on 20 August in 100 meters in the seventh heat against seven other athletes . She ran a time of 12 @.@ 11 seconds , finishing seventh . Bangura ranked ahead of Iraq 's Alaa Jassim ( 12 @.@ 70 seconds ) and behind Papua New Guinea 's Mae Koime ( 12 @.@ 00 seconds ) , in a heat led by France 's Christine Arron and Ghana 's Vida Anim ( 11 @.@ 14 seconds ) . Overall , Bangura was 0 @.@ 68 seconds behind the slowest athlete that progressed to the quarter @-@ finals and therefore she did not advance .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= Einstein – Szilárd letter =
The Einstein – Szilárd letter was a letter written by Leó Szilárd and signed by Albert Einstein that was sent to the United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt on August 2 , 1939 . Written by Szilárd in consultation with fellow Hungarian physicists Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner , the letter warned that Germany might develop atomic bombs and suggested that the United States should start its own nuclear program . It prompted action by Roosevelt , which eventually resulted in the Manhattan Project developing the first atomic bombs .
= = Origin = =
The discovery of uranium fission in December 1938 , reported in the January 6 , 1939 issue of Die Naturwissenschaften by Otto Hahn , and Fritz Strassmann , and its correct identification as nuclear fission by Lise Meitner in the February 11 , 1939 issue of Nature , generated intense interest among physicists . Even before publication , the news was brought to the United States by Danish physicist Niels Bohr , who opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics with Enrico Fermi on January 26 , 1939 . The results were quickly corroborated by experimental physicists , most notably Fermi and John R. Dunning at Columbia University .
The Hungarian physicist Leó Szilárd , who was living in the United States at the time , realized that the neutron @-@ driven fission of heavy atoms could be used to create a nuclear chain reaction that could yield vast amounts of energy for electric power generation or atomic bombs . Such a reaction using neutrons was an idea he had first formulated in 1933 , upon reading Ernest Rutherford 's disparaging remarks about generating power from his team 's 1932 experiment using protons to split lithium . However , Szilárd had not been able to achieve a neutron @-@ driven chain reaction with neutron @-@ rich light atoms . In theory , if in a neutron @-@ driven chain reaction the number of secondary neutrons produced was greater than one , then each such reaction could trigger multiple additional reactions , producing an exponentially increasing number of reactions .
Szilárd teamed up with Fermi to build a nuclear reactor from natural uranium at Columbia University , where they were fortunate in having a sympathetic head of the physics department in George B. Pegram . At the time there was disagreement about whether it was uranium @-@ 235 , which made up less than 1 % of natural uranium , or the more abundant uranium @-@ 238 isotope , as Fermi maintained , that was primarily responsible for fission . Fermi and Szilárd conducted a series of experiments , and concluded that a chain reaction in natural uranium could be possible if they could find a suitable neutron moderator . They found that the hydrogen atoms in water slowed neutrons , but tended to capture them . Szilárd then suggested using carbon as a moderator . They now needed large quantities of carbon and uranium to create a reactor . Szilárd was convinced that they would succeed if only they could get the materials .
Szilárd was concerned that German scientists might also attempt this experiment . The German nuclear physicist Siegfried Flügge published two influential articles on the exploitation of nuclear energy in 1939 . After discussing this prospect with fellow Hungarian physicist Eugene Wigner , they decided that they should warn the Belgians , as the Belgian Congo was the best source of uranium ore . Wigner suggested that Albert Einstein might be a suitable person to do this , as he knew the Belgian Royal Family .
The connection between Einstein and Szilárd pre @-@ dates the letter . They knew each other in Berlin in the early 1920s , and in 1926 jointly invented the Einstein @-@ Szilárd refrigerator .
= = The letter = =
On July 12 , 1939 , Szilárd and Wigner drove in Wigner 's car to Cutchogue on New York 's Long Island , where Einstein was staying . When they explained about the possibility of atomic bombs , Einstein replied : Daran habe ich gar nicht gedacht ( I did not even think about that ) . Szilárd dictated a letter in German to the Belgian Ambassador to the United States . Wigner wrote it down , and Einstein signed it . At Wigner 's suggestion , they also prepared a letter for the State Department explaining what they were doing and why , giving it two weeks to respond if it had any objections .
This still left the problem of getting government support for uranium research . Another friend of Szilárd 's , the Austrian economist Gustav Stolper , suggested approaching Alexander Sachs , who had access to President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Sachs told Szilárd that he had already spoken to the President about uranium , but that Fermi and Pegram had reported that the prospects for building an atomic bomb were remote . He told Szilárd that he would deliver the letter , but suggested that it come from someone more prestigious . For Szilárd , Einstein was again the obvious choice . Sachs and Szilárd drafted a letter riddled with spelling errors and mailed it to Einstein .
Szilárd set out for Long Island again on August 2 . Wigner was unavailable , so this time Szilárd co @-@ opted another Hungarian physicist , Edward Teller , to do the driving . Einstein dictated the letter in German . On returning to Columbia University , Szilárd dictated the letter in English to a young departmental stenographer , Janet Coatesworth . She later recalled that when Szilárd mentioned extremely powerful bombs , she " was sure she was working for a nut " . Ending the letter with " Yours truly , Albert Einstein " did nothing to alter this impression . Both the letter and a longer explanatory letter were then posted to Einstein .
The letter warned that :
In the course of the last four months it has been made probable — through the work of Joliot in France as well as Fermi and Szilárd in America — that it may become possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction in a large mass of uranium , by which vast amounts of power and large quantities of new radium @-@ like elements would be generated . Now it appears almost certain that this could be achieved in the immediate future .
This new phenomenon would also lead to the construction of bombs , and it is conceivable — though much less certain — that extremely powerful bombs of a new type may thus be constructed . A single bomb of this type , carried by boat and exploded in a port , might very well destroy the whole port together with some of the surrounding territory . However , such bombs might very well prove to be too heavy for transportation by air .
It also specifically warned about Germany :
I understand that Germany has actually stopped the sale of uranium from the Czechoslovakian mines which she has taken over . That she should have taken such early action might perhaps be understood on the ground that the son of the German Under @-@ Secretary of State , von Weizsäcker , is attached to the Kaiser @-@ Wilhelm @-@ Institut in Berlin where some of the American work on uranium is now being repeated .
= = Delivery = =
The letter was signed by Einstein and posted back to Szilárd , who received it on August 9 . Szilárd gave both the short and long letters , along with a letter of his own , to Sachs on August 15 . Sachs asked the White House staff for an appointment to see the President , but before one could be set up , the administration became embroiled in a crisis due to Germany 's invasion of Poland , which started World War II . Sachs delayed his appointment until October so that the President would give the letter due attention , securing an appointment on October 11 . On that date he met with the President , the President 's secretary , Brigadier General Edwin " Pa " Watson , and two ordnance experts , Army Lieutenant Colonel Keith F. Adamson and Navy Commander Gilbert C. Hoover . Roosevelt summed up the conversation as : " Alex , what you are after is to see that the Nazis don 't blow us up . "
Roosevelt sent a reply thanking Einstein , and informing him that
I found this data of such import that I have convened a Board consisting of the head of the Bureau of Standards and a chosen representative of the Army and Navy to thoroughly investigate the possibilities of your suggestion regarding the element of uranium .
Einstein sent two more letters to Roosevelt , on March 7 , 1940 , and April 25 , 1940 , calling for action on nuclear research . Szilárd drafted a fourth letter for Einstein 's signature that urged the President to meet with Szilárd to discuss policy on nuclear energy . Dated March 25 , 1945 , it did not reach Roosevelt before his death on April 12 , 1945 .
= = Results = =
Roosevelt decided that the letter required action , and authorized the creation of the Advisory Committee on Uranium . The committee was chaired by Lyman James Briggs , the Director of the Bureau of Standards , with Adamson and Hoover as its other members . It convened for the first time on October 21 . The meeting was also attended by Fred L. Mohler from the Bureau of Standards , Richard B. Roberts of the Carnegie Institution of Washington , and Szilárd , Teller and Wigner . Adamson was skeptical about the prospect of building an atomic bomb , but was willing to authorize $ 6 @,@ 000 ( 101344 current dollars ) for the purchase of uranium and graphite for Szilárd and Fermi 's experiment .
The Advisory Committee on Uranium was the beginning of the US government 's effort to develop an atomic bomb , but it did not vigorously pursue the development of a weapon . It was superseded by the National Defense Research Committee in 1940 , and then the Office of Scientific Research and Development in 1941 . The Frisch – Peierls memorandum and the British Maud Reports eventually prompted Roosevelt to authorize a full @-@ scale development effort in January 1942 . The work of fission research was taken over by the United States Army Corps of Engineers 's Manhattan District in June 1942 . It directed an all @-@ out bomb development program .
Einstein did not work on the Manhattan Project . The Army denied him the work clearance needed in July 1940 , saying his pacifist leanings made him a security risk , although he was allowed to work as a consultant to the United States Navy 's Bureau of Ordnance . He had no knowledge of the atomic bomb 's development , and no influence on the decision for the bomb to be dropped . According to Linus Pauling , Einstein later regretted signing the letter because it led to the development and use of the atomic bomb in combat , adding that Einstein had justified his decision because of the greater danger that Nazi Germany would develop the bomb first . In 1947 Einstein told Newsweek magazine that " had I known that the Germans would not succeed in developing an atomic bomb , I would have done nothing . "
= Revolver ( song ) =
" Revolver " is a song by American recording artist Madonna from her third greatest hits compilation , Celebration ( 2009 ) . It was released on December 14 , 2009 by Warner Bros. Records and marked her final single release with the label , which had been her record company since 1982 . The song features American rapper Lil Wayne and was written by Madonna , Carlos Battey , Steven Battey , Dwayne Carter , Justin Franks and Brandon Kitchen . It was produced by Madonna and DJ Frank E.
The single release included remixes by David Guetta and Afrojack , which won the Grammy Award for Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical category at the 53rd Grammy Awards . This version also appears on the deluxe version of Guetta 's album One More Love ( 2010 ) . The single also included mixes by Paul van Dyk , Tracy Young and included remixes of " Celebration " by Akon and Felguk . The original album version does not appear on any formats of the release and some versions are credited as " Madonna vs. David Guetta " .
An electropop song , " Revolver " features Madonna singing the whole song , with a guest appearance by Wayne near the end . The lyrics talk about juxtaposing love with weaponry . Contemporary critics gave a mixed review of the song . Some praised the chorus line " My love ’ s a revolver " while others felt that it was underwhelming and not on par with Madonna 's previous songs . The single charted in the lower regions of the official charts of Belgium , Canada , Finland and the United Kingdom while reaching number four on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart of United States . The song was performed on The MDNA Tour in 2012 , where Madonna wielded a Kalashnikov rifle onstage . The use of weapons in front of the audience generated controversy , after the 2012 Aurora shooting .
= = Background = =
On March 2009 , Madonna 's representative Liz Rosenberg confirmed that Madonna was planning to release a greatest hits album by fall 2009 . She also added that Madonna had plans to go to the studio and record new material for the album . The next day , Madonna 's manager , Guy Oseary , asked fans on his Twitter for input regarding the track listing of the greatest hits album . It was later confirmed that she wrote three new tracks for the album , with Paul Oakenfold being confirmed as producer for two of the new songs . Warner Bros. Records reported the title of the greatest hits to be Celebration through Madonna 's official website . They also reported that the final song on the collection was to be " Revolver " , a collaboration with Lil Wayne and whose demo version was already present in the net . It was present alongside the title track . Before the album was released on September 29 , 2009 , the original version of " Revolver " was released on the internet ; the track had previously appeared in May as a demo recording . In December 2009 , NME confirmed " Revolver " as the second single from Celebration . The song was released digitally in the United Kingdom on December 14 , 2009 by Warner Bros. Records along with a digital maxi single release worldwide on December 29 , 2009 , featuring remixes by David Guetta and Afrojack , Paul van Dyk and Tracy Young .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Revolver " was written by Madonna , Carlos Battey , Steven Battey , Lil Wayne , Justin Franks and Brandon Kitchen , and produced by Madonna and DJ Frank E. In an interview with Hiphopupdate.com , Frank E recalled that he had gone to the recording session two hours before his scheduled meeting with Madonna to set up and give the audio files to the recording engineer , and he said that the ensuing wait was incredibly nerve @-@ racking for him . After Madonna arrived , they recorded her vocals and the song was finished the next day . Reminiscing about the session , he said : " I will never forget the feeling of leaving that session after vocal producing Madonna , and thinking to myself , ' It can ’ t it really get any harder than this . ' I 've taken that mentality into every other session I 've been in , and it 's helped me make the session and song more of a success . Unfortunately , the mix sounded like crap and the song flopped , but hey , you win some and you lose some . "
The audio mixing was done by Demacio Castellon while the Pro Tools editing was arranged by Ron Taylor from Warner Bros. Records . The chorus of the song has Madonna singing the line " My love 's a revolver , my sex is a killer , do you wanna die happy ? " Wayne has a verse towards the end of the song , and sings the lines with reference to ammunitions , and Auto @-@ Tune is used in his vocals . According to Houston Chronicle , the song is electropop in its composition style . The song is set in the time signature of common time , with a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute . As per the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing Co . , Inc . , the song is composed in the key of B ♭ minor , with Madonna 's voice spanning from the tonal nodes of A ♭ 3 to E ♭ 5 . " Revolver " follows in the basic sequence of B ♭ m – D ♭ – A ♭ – B ♭ m – D ♭ – A ♭ as its chord progression .
= = Critical reception = =
Shaheem Reid from MTV called the song a " sugary ditty " and said that " Guest @-@ verse sniper Weezy F. Baby ( Lil Wayne ) comes in later and gives himself loads of big @-@ ups when it comes to the women . " After the original version of " Revolver " leaked onto the net , Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone commented that " this cleaned @-@ up version with its sirenesque synths is more befitting of the Queen of Pop . " He also called it the most violent love song ever . Rob Sheffield from the same magazine said that " [ Madonna 's ] hitmaking genius is unmatched and — with the new Eurocheese blast ' Celebration ' and the Lil Wayne duet ' Revolver ' — undiminished . "
Joseph Brannigan Lynch from Entertainment Weekly was disappointed with the track and called it underwhelming . He added : " Anyone hoping this collaboration with Wayne would mean a new direction for [ Madonna ] will be disappointed . ' Revolver ' is pretty standard Top 40 background listening — more of the same electro R & B she played around with on Hard Candy . [ ... ] It ’ s not bad by any stretch , but it certainly won ’ t end up on the next greatest @-@ hits collection she releases ten years from now . " However , he praised the chorus line calling it Madonna 's " unnerring knack for writing charmingly frivolous lyrics . " While reviewing the album , Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly called the song " glitched @-@ out dance @-@ floor stomper " and called the chorus a " lyrical come @-@ on " .
Joey Guerra of Houston Chronicle said that the track was " more filler than truly fascinating . " Douglas Wolk from Pitchfork Media commented that the presence of " Revolver " on the Celebration compilation disc was pale compared to Madonna 's previous sex @-@ themed songs like " Justify My Love " and " Erotica " ( 1992 ) . Eric Henderson from Slant Magazine called the song a clumsy collaboration . Sarah Crompton from The Daily Telegraph said that " Revolver " shows off Lil Wayne 's skills as a singer better than Madonna 's . The One Love Club mix of the song , by David Guetta , won a Grammy in the Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical category of the 53rd Grammy Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
The song charted on the Canadian Hot 100 for one week at position 95 on the issue dated October 17 , 2009 , but fell off the chart the next week . On the Billboard issue dated January 16 , 2010 , the song made a re @-@ entry on the chart at a higher position of 47 , and was the highest debut of the chart . It made a top @-@ 20 debut on the official chart of Finland , at position nineteen and moved to 18 after two weeks . In the United Kingdom , the song was initially positioned at number 188 , but after a few weeks it jumped up to a position 130 on the UK Singles Chart . The One Love remix of " Revolver " , featuring David Guetta , debuted on the Belgian Singles Chart at Flanders region at position 37 . After a few weeks , the song reached number 26 on the Flanders chart and 25 on the Wallonia chart . The song debuted at number 41 on Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Songs chart on the issue dated January 16 , 2010 as the highest debut of that week , and reached a peak of four , staying for two weeks at the same position . In Italy , the song debuted at number 16 on the singles chart and was certified gold by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry ( FIMI ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies of the single . The song also charted in Ireland , at position 41 . In Spain the song reached 39 on the chart , for one week only . In the Czech Republic , " Revolver " debuted at number 66 , and reached a peak of number 22 after seven weeks . In Italy , the song reached a peak of 16 .
= = Live performance and controversy = =
Madonna performed " Revolver " as the second song on The MDNA Tour in 2012 . She performed it while holding a Kalashnikov rifle , a common weapon among many rebels , while one of her dancers held an Israeli Uzi submachine gun . Madonna and four dancers then participated in a faux fight and pretended to shoot their weapons and fire bullets . During the performance Lil Wayne appeared on the backdrop screens to perform his verse . It was noted that during the performance Madonna resembled a gunfighter in the style of Kill Bill . During her concert in Phoenix , Madonna pointed her rifle to their fans , while in Miami , she faked murdering her masked dancers . According to Jane Stevenson from Jam ! , " [ Madonna ] really got our attention as she and her dancers wielded guns " . The wardrobe for the performance consisted of a black outfit fitted with an ample cleavage , gloves of the same color and heeled boots . After the tour was finished , the singer stated she would auction all the outfits she wore on tour to help Hurricane Sandy victims .
The use of fake weapons generated controversy . After the concert in Colorado , Madonna was criticised over the use of fake weapons , since the public was sensitized by the 2012 Aurora shooting , which occurred at the premiere of The Dark Knight Rises . Peter Burns , a radio broadcaster in the region , told The Hollywood Reporter that " You could see people kinda looking at each other . I heard the word ' Colorado ' , you know , ' Aurora ' , ' shooting ' . You could hear people talking about it , and it was little bit unsettling . I saw two or three people get up and grab their stuff and actually leave their seats " . Ray Mark Rinaldi from Reverb website said that Madonna was " dancing with guns and shooting up bad guys during ' Revolver ' . It was a bloody scene , particularly tasteless in Colorado these days , but all cartoon ; if folks got upset , they were supposed to " . Daniel Brokman from The Phoenix said : " Madonna took the capacity crowd into a dark place that few were expecting minutes earlier from this queen of ' 80s pop music " . In a review of the concert , Ross Raihala from Twin Cities mentioned that there was " darkness hung over much of the first half of the show " because of the performances of " Revolver " and " Gang Bang . "
Meanwhile , Madonna commented on a letter published in Billboard : " I do not condone violence or the use of guns . Rather they are symbols of wanting to appear strong and wanting to find a way to stop feelings that I find hurtful or damaging . In my case , it 's wanting to stop the lies and hypocrisy of the church , the intolerance of many narrow minded cultures and societies I have experienced throughout my life and in some cases the pain I have felt from having my heart broken . "
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of the Celebration CD and " Revolver " Remixes Maxi @-@ Single .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Chandramukhi =
Chandramukhi ( English : Moon @-@ faced beauty ) is a 2005 Indian Tamil @-@ language horror comedy film written and directed by P. Vasu , and was produced and distributed by Ramkumar Ganesan of Sivaji Productions . The film features Rajinikanth , Prabhu , Jyothika and Nayantara leading an ensemble cast that includes Vadivelu , Nassar , Sheela , Vijayakumar , Vinaya Prasad , Sonu Sood , Vineeth , Malavika and K. R. Vijaya . The film is a remake of Vasu 's Kannada film Apthamitra ( 2004 ) , which itself is a remake of the Malayalam film Manichitrathazhu ( 1993 ) . The soundtrack album and background score were composed by Vidyasagar . Cinematography was handled by Sekhar V. Joseph and editing was done by Suresh Urs . Chandramukhi 's plot revolves around a woman who suffers from dissociative identity disorder that affects a family , and a psychiatrist who intends to solve the case while risking his life .
The film was made on a budget of ₹ 190 million . Principal photography began on 24 October 2004 and was completed in March 2005 . It was released on 14 April 2005 on the eve of the Tamil New Year . The film received positive reviews and was a major box office success . It was the longest running South Indian film , with a theatrical run of 890 days , until its record was overtaken by the Telugu film Magadheera ( 2009 ) which completed a theatrical run of 1000 days . The film won five Tamil Nadu State Film Awards , four Film Fans ' Association Awards and two Filmfare Awards . Jyothika and Vadivelu were each awarded a Kalaimamani Award for their work on the film .
Chandramukhi was dubbed in Telugu and was simultaneously released with the same title as the Tamil version . It was also dubbed and released in Bhojpuri under the title Chandramukhi Ke Hunkaar . It became the first Tamil film to be dubbed into German . It was released in Germany under the title Der Geisterjäger ( English : The Ghost Hunters ) . The film was also dubbed into Turkish . Chandramukhi was dubbed in Hindi and released on 29 February 2008 by Dilip Dhanwani , owner of the production house Royal Film Company . The Hindi version was released in collaboration with producer A. M. Rathnam . The other language versions of the film were also successful .
= = Plot = =
Saravanan ( Rajinikanth ) , a psychiatrist , visits India on vacation . He meets up with his foster brother Senthilnathan , alias Senthil ( Prabhu ) , and his wife Ganga ( Jyothika ) . Senthil 's mother Kasthuri ( K. R. Vijaya ) wanted Senthil to marry Priya ( Malavika ) , the daughter of his father 's cousin Kandaswamy ( Nassar ) , to reunite the two branches of the family after 30 years of separation because Senthil 's father ( Sivaji Ganesan ) chose to marry Kasthuri instead of Kandaswamy 's sister , Akhilandeshwari ( Sheela ) . Saravanan learns that Senthil had bought the Vettaiyapuram mansion , despite attempts by the local village elders to dissuade them , and moves in with them . Akhilandeshwari is jealous of Saravanan and plots to kill him with the help of her assistant Oomaiyan ( Sonu Sood ) .
When the family visits a temple , the chief priest reveals the reason everyone fears the Vettaiyapuram mansion . A hundred @-@ and @-@ fifty years ago , a king named Vettaiyan travelled to Vijayanagaram in Andhra Pradesh , where he met and fell in love with a dancer named Chandramukhi . However , she did not reciprocate his feelings as she was already in love with a dancer named Gunashekaran . As a result , Vettaiyan took her back to his palace by force . Unknown to him , Chandramukhi made Gunashekaran stay in a house nearby and had meetings with him secretly . When Vettaiyan discovered this , he beheaded Gunashekaran on Durgashtami and burnt Chandramukhi alive . As a result , Chandramukhi 's ghost tried to take revenge on Vettaiyan , who with the help of various priests and sorcerers from all over the country , tames the ghost by locking it up in a room located in the palace 's south @-@ west corner . Later , Vishwanathan ( Vineeth ) , a dance professor , and Priya 's love is supported by Saravanan , who asks Kandaswamy to arrange their marriage .
After hearing Chandramukhi 's story , Ganga , who thinks that the story was fabricated to scare thieves from stealing treasures in the room , wants to go there . She gets the room key from the gardener 's granddaughter Durga ( Nayantara ) and opens the door . Subsequently , strange things begin to happen in the household ; a ghost frightens the people in the house , things inexplicably break , and Ganga 's sari catches fire . Suspicion turns towards Durga . Senthil calls Saravanan to solve the case . As soon as Saravanan returns , a mysterious being tries to kill Priya . Attempts to kill Senthil are made with poison and by pushing a fish tank . A mysterious voice sings during the night . Saravanan investigates these incidents .
Ganga mysteriously disappears during Priya and Viswanathan 's wedding reception . Saravanan notices her absence and searches for her , but he is almost killed by Oomaiyan — who has been sent by Akhilandeshwari . Saravanan subdues Oomaiyan and with Senthil 's help finds Ganga , who is supposedly being sexually harassed by Viswanathan . Saravanan reveals to Senthil and Viswanathan that Ganga suffers from split personality disorder . Saravanan explains to them how she became affected by it and how she took up Chandramukhi 's identity . He tells them Ganga tried to kill Priya and Senthil , and framed Viswanathan for sexual harassment because from Chandramukhi 's view , Viswanathan is her lover Gunashekaran since he stays at the same place Gunashekaran did . The only way to stop Chandramukhi is to make her believe Vettaiyan is dead since Saravanan impersonated Vettaiyan and disrupted one of the pujas conducted by the exorcist Ramachandra Acharya ( Avinash ) by conversing with the ghost to know its wish .
Akhilandeshwari overhears Saravanan 's idea of self @-@ sacrifice and apologises to him . Later , in the dance hall , the family and Ramachandra Acharya allow Chandramukhi to burn Saravanan alive . Ramachandra Acharya blows smoke and ash on Ganga 's face when she is given a torch to burn Saravanan . Senthil then opens a trapdoor to let Saravanan escape , and an effigy of Vettaiyan gets burnt instead . Convinced that Vettaiyan is dead , Chandramukhi leaves Ganga 's body , curing her . The two families are reunited after 30 years ; Saravanan and Durga fall in love , and Swarna ( Suvarna Mathew ) and Murugesan ( Vadivelu ) become parents after eight years of marriage .
= = Cast = =
Director P. Vasu , producer Ramkumar Ganesan and Raj Bahaddur make guest appearances in the song " Devuda Devuda " .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Chandramukhi was the 50th film produced by Sivaji Productions . During the success meet of Mannan ( 1992 ) , Rajinikanth announced that he would act in Sivaji Productions ' 50th film . In September 2004 , Rajinikanth congratulated P. Vasu on the success of Apthamitra ( 2004 ) and was impressed with the film 's screenplay . Vasu narrated a story of the film to Rajinikanth . Rajinikanth later called Ramkumar Ganesan and asked him to do the film in Tamil under Ramkumar 's home production banner , Sivaji Productions .
Ramkumar telephoned Vasu , who was offering worship in a temple in Guruvayoor at that time , informing him of Rajinikanth 's wish to do Apthamitra in Tamil under his direction . Vasu reworked the script he wrote for Apthamitra to suit Rajinikanth 's style of acting . The film dealt mainly with the concept of dissociative identity disorder , commonly known as " multiple personality disorder " ( MPD ) or " split personality syndrome " . Another film titled Anniyan ( 2005 ) , which featured Vikram in the lead role , and was released two months after Chandramukhi , was also based on the same disorder .
Thota Tharani was the film 's art director , and also designed the costumes used in the film . Regarding the designing of the Vettaiyapuram palace , he watched both Manichitrathazhu and Apthamitra to get the basic idea of the film 's plot . Manichitrathazhu was shot in a palace in Kochi . Vasu wanted Tharani to make the sets more colourful and grand and did not want the realistic look of the original film . Tharani designed Chandramukhi 's room and placed a corridor in it , which was quite different from the original and its Kannada remake . The corridor resembled those commonly seen in palaces in Kerala . Sidney Sladen did additional costume designing in the film .
= = = Casting = = =
Rajinikanth played the roles of Dr. Saravanan and King Vettaiyan . He sported a wig for his role . Both Rajinikanth and P. Vasu discussed every scene featuring the former and added necessary inputs before they were shot . Rajinikanth appears in the beginning of the film unlike Manichitrathazhu , where the same character , played by Mohanlal , appears in the middle of the film . Rajinikanth requested Vasu to change the dancer 's name from Nagavalli , which was the name of the danseuse in Apthamithra , to Chandramukhi since the latter sounded more royal . While Vishnuvardhan uttered " Haula Haula " in the original , Rajinikanth used " Lakka Lakka " , which was the mannerism of a villain in a Marathi play Rajinikanth watched in his childhood days . Ramkumar 's brother Prabhu played Senthilnathan , a civil engineer and owner of Ganesh Constructions . Prabhu co @-@ produced the film with Ramkumar .
For the roles of Ganga and Chandramukhi , Soundarya was initially selected to reprise her role from Apthamithra , but her death led the director to choose Simran and he shaped the character to suit her . In November 2004 , Simran refused to do the project , as her role required a lot of dancing and cited her pregnancy at that time as another main reason for her refusal . Aishwarya Rai Bachchan was offered the role but she declined the offer due to date problems . Sadha and Reemma Sen were also considered as replacements . The role finally went to Jyothika , who gave 50 days of her schedule for the film . Vasu wanted Jyothika to perform her scenes in a manner different from that of Shobana 's role in Manichitrathazhu , enacting the scenes himself before they were shot featuring Jyothika . Nayantara was selected to portray Rajinikanth 's love interest , Durga , after Vasu was impressed with her performance in her debut film Manassinakkare ( 2003 ) .
Vadivelu portrayed the comic role of Murugesan , Akhilandeswari 's and Kandaswamy 's younger brother . Rajinikanth , at the film 's 200th day theatrical run celebration function , said that it was he who recommended Vadivelu to Vasu for the role and had asked Ramkumar Ganesan to get Vadivelu 's dates before planning the filming schedules . Nassar played Kandaswamy , Murugesan 's older brother . Sheela , who was known for her role in the Malayalam film , Chemmeen ( 1965 ) , played Akhilandeswari , the intimidating older sister of Kandaswamy and Murugesan . When Sheela was signed on for the role , she was requested by the producers not to divulge details about her role to the media .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography commenced on 24 October 2004 with a puja ceremony for the muhurat shot at Annai Illam , the residence of Sivaji Ganesan . Ramkumar Ganesan said the filming would be finished by 15 February 2005 , giving the crew two months to complete the post @-@ production work , including visual effects . The first shooting schedule began two days later with a fight scene choreographed by Thalapathy Dinesh and filmed at Ramavaram in Chennai . More than 25 Toyota Qualis and 30 stunt artists were involved in the fight sequence that featured Rajinikanth . The Vettaiyapuram mansion was erected in Hyderabad . The song sequences , one picturised on Rajini alone , two songs in which he appears with the other principal cast members , and the climax song , which was picturised on Jyothika , were filmed in Ramoji Film City . Vasu said the film had taken only 78 days to be completed instead of the planned 120 days .
The picturisation of the song " Devuda Devuda " focused on a variety of professions , especially janitors , sewage cleaners , farmers and washer folk . According to Ramji , who helped the production unit look for locations for the song " Konjam Neram " , Australia and Russia were the initial choices for filming locations for the song sequence , but Ramkumar Ganesan and Vasu chose Turkey , making Chandramukhi the first Tamil film to be shot there . The production unit flew to Istanbul from Chennai via Dubai on 25 February 2005 . The filming of the song was completed after the audio launch . " Konjam Neram " was shot in segments in Ephesus and Pamukkale . Shooting in Ephesus took six hours . The segment in Pamukkale was filmed in an amphitheatre in the ancient city of Hierapolis , which is located close to Pamukkale . The last segment was shot in the Cappadoccia region , a 10 @-@ hour drive by bus from Istanbul . " Raa Raa " was choreographed by Kala and took four days to be completed instead of the planned seven days .
= = Music = =
Vidyasagar composed the soundtrack album and the background score of Chandramukhi . The soundtrack album consists of six tracks . Vaali , Yugabharathi , Pa . Vijay , Na . Muthukumar and Bhuvana Chandra wrote the lyrics for the Tamil version . Bhuvanachandra , Suddala Ashok Teja , Vennelakanti and Vaali wrote the lyrics for the dubbed Telugu version . The track " Raa Raa " was based on the Surya raaga , which is also known as the Sallabham raaga . Asha Bhosle was engaged to sing a song for the film and to attend the film 's audio launch . The audio rights for the film were sold to Sanjay Wadhwa of AnAK audio for ₹ 11 million . Tata Indicom and Sunfeast Biscuits were the sponsors for the audio launch and marketing . The album cover depicts Rajinikanth in the song " Devuda Devuda " .
The album was released on 5 March 2005 at the Taj Connemara hotel in Chennai . An overseas audio launch took place the next day in Malaysia . At the Music World shop in Chennai , 437 cassettes and 227 compact discs were sold on the first day of its stock release . The cassettes were priced at ₹ 45 each and CD 's at ₹ 99 each . The original soundtrack of the film and a video CD titled " The making of Chandramukhi " , were released on 27 September 2005 in Chennai . The film 's background score was released as a separate album .
The album received positive reviews from critics . Siddhu Warrier of Rediff said that " Devuda Devuda " " finds S. P. Balasubramanian in top form " . He called " Konjam Neram " " melodious in a forgettable kind of way " , " Athinthom " a " soft , melodious song " , " Kokku Para Para " as " insipid " , " Raa Raa " " a rather listenable track " , and said " Annonda Pattu " is " vintage Rajni , and gets your feet tapping . One can almost picture Rajni brandishing his trademark cigarette and sunglasses as he gyrates to the beat . If one is a die @-@ hard Rajni fan , then one is likely to go beserk dancing to this . " G. Dhananjayan , in his book The Best of Tamil Cinema , said all of the songs became popular and contributed to the success of the film , and also said " Raa Raa " became an evergreen number among music lovers . Singer Charulatha Mani , writing for The Hindu called the song " Konjam Neram " , which was based on the Sriranjani raga , an " attractive take on the raga " and said the song " is contemporary in feel and traditional at the roots " .
= = = Track list = = =
Original track list
Telugu version
= = Release = =
The length of the film was 4 @,@ 575 metres ( 15 @,@ 010 ft ) . The film was released on 14 April 2005 — Tamil New Year 's Day — alongside Kamal Haasan 's Mumbai Express and Vijay 's Sachein . Chandramukhi was released in 37 theatres in Malaysia , 15 in Europe , nine in Sri Lanka , seven in the United States , four each in Canada and the Gulf countries and two each in Australia and Singapore . The film was released with 23 prints in Coimbatore , 12 more than Rajinikanth 's Padayappa ( 1999 ) .
The producers entered into a business dealing with Tata Indicom to promote the film ; ringtones of the songs from the film 's soundtrack and special screensavers were issued . Giant cutouts of Rajinikanth and movie release posters were posted all over the state as a run @-@ up for the release . The promotional campaign started in early March 2005 and continued mid @-@ May that year . The movie was screened in eight city theatres in Chennai . The theatrical rights of the film in the Coimbatore and Nilgiris districts combined were sold to local theatre owners Tirupur Balu and Seenu for ₹ 2 @.@ 25 crore ( US $ 330 @,@ 000 ) .
Chandramukhi was screened at the 18th Tokyo International Film Festival in Japan on 23 October 2005 and 28 October 2005 as part of the ' Winds of Asia ' section . It was the first public screening of the film in Japan . It was met with positive response from audiences there . The film opened the 7th IIFA Awards Film Festival held at the Dubai International Convention Centre in Dubai , United Arab Emirates , becoming the first South Indian film to open the Film Festival . In November 2011 , it was screened at the International Tamil Film Festival held in Uglich , Russia alongside Thillana Mohanambal ( 1968 ) , Sivaji ( 2007 ) , Angadi Theru ( 2010 ) , Boss Engira Bhaskaran ( 2010 ) , Thenmerku Paruvakaatru ( 2010 ) and Ko ( 2011 ) .
Though the film was a remake , Madhu Muttam , who wrote the story for Manichithrathazhu , was not mentioned in either the opening or closing credits . Instead , the story was credited to the director P. Vasu . Vasu defended himself by stating the script was not a scene @-@ by @-@ scene remake of the original and that only the basic plot was used .
= = = Home media = = =
The film 's original negative was damaged because of poor care and ill treatment . AP International started a restoration project , which scanned the film frame @-@ by @-@ frame in a 2K workflow . They were able to remove all wear and tear and retain the natural film grain . This restored version was released on 2 August 2012 on Blu @-@ ray format . The television rights for the film were sold to Sun TV .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received positive reviews from critics . Writing for The Hindu , Malathi Rangarajan said , " As you watch the film you cannot but admire the ingenuity of writer @-@ director P. Vasu in choosing a story that is bound to sell and at the same time helping Rajini maintain his image of an invincible hero " , before concluding that , " The ' Mannan ' team proves a winner again " . Another critic from The Hindu , Sudhish Kamath , said Rajinikanth is " at his vintage best " .
A reviewer from The Times of India called the film " Entertaining , stylish , respectful of ritual , and always massively larger than life " . Arun Ram of India Today said , " With Chandramukhi , Rajnikant revives his fading career and fortunes of Tamil cinema " . G. Ulaganathan , writing for the Deccan Herald praised the chemistry between Rajinikanth and Vadivelu , saying " Rajinikanth is back in full form , comedy comes naturally to him and he finds an able ally in Vadivelu . Some of the best scenes in the movie are when both are together . "
Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan said in its review , " Rajni 's films normally revolve around him but in this case , Rajni is in a script which goes around several people ... Rajni as Vettaiyan is the highlight of the film ... After many years , Rajni has shown that he does not confine to his personality cage through this film . " and gave the film 40 marks out of 100 . Dhananjayan in his book , The Best of Tamil Cinema : 1977 to 2010 , said the film was " a family entertainer " . Behindwoods said , " Rajini belies his age on the screen and performs his antics with enthusiasm . His comic interludes with Vadivelu are the highlight of the movie . Shankar Josheph ’ s camera work is impressive . Vidyasagar ’ s music has enriched the songs which are soothing . "
Sify wrote , " ... Rajnikanth ’ s Chandramukhi is far better than his last film Baba , yet it leaves you with somewhat mixed feeling . Undoubtedly the plot is nothing but Fazil ’ s Manichitrathazhu from Malayalam . But Chandramukhi is a remake of P. Vasu ’ s Apthamitra from Kannada with some additional songs , fights and comedy scenes thrown in to further boost the superstar ’ s image " . A. Ganesh Nadar of Rediff said the film would become " a certain hit " and , " [ t ] he star will be happy , his fans will be happy and producer Prabhu will giggle all the way to the bank " .
V. Gangadhar of The Tribune wrote , " As in all Rajni films , Chandramukhi is a one @-@ star attraction and Rajni plays to the gallery , There are no political messages in the film and that should come as some relief . With Nayan Tara and Jyotika in the female leads , there is plenty of glamour in the film . But the message is clear , King Rajni is back . His legion of fans can not ask for more . " Karthiga Rukmanykanthan writing for Daily News Sri Lanka said , " ... the long anticipated delight Chandramukhi has made itself the box @-@ office hit of the year " . Grady Hendrix of Slate appreciated Rajinikanth 's characterisation in the film , calling the character , Saravanan 's ability to read minds " well @-@ trained " before concluding , " Rajinikanth 's movies are crammed with comedy , action , and musical numbers and they take great delight in kicking narrative logic in the face . "
= = = Box office = = =
Chandramukhi was a box office success , selling 20 million tickets worldwide and earning ₹ 150 million in salary and profit share for Rajinikanth . The film 's distributors made a 20 per cent profit over the ₹ 25 million for which they bought the rights to the film . Its 365th day was celebrated at Shanthi theatre in Chennai ; the celebrations were organised by Life Insurance Corporation of India .
The film 's 804th day celebration function was held at Kamaraj Arangam in Chennai on 25 June 2007 . The then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu , M. Karunanidhi , director K. Balachander , film producer and owner of AVM Productions M. Saravanan , Kamal Haasan and Sridevi attended the function . Karunanidhi presented the " Shivaji " sword to the film 's cast and crew , and awards were given to everyone involved in the film .
= = = = India = = = =
Chandramukhi grossed ₹ 8 @.@ 4 million in 11 days in eight screens in Chennai . In the Santham screen of Sathyam Cinemas , around 22 @,@ 000 tickets were sold for the first 10 days of its release . The Telugu @-@ dubbed version topped the box office charts in its first week of release . Chandramukhi grossed ₹ 30 million in Coimbatore , beating the ₹ 24 @.@ 5 million record set there by Padayappa . Chandramukhi received ₹ 60 million as Minimum Guarantee ( MG ) from theatres in North Arcot , South Arcot and Chengalpattu districts collectively . It was also a hit in Kerala where it grossed ₹ 711 @,@ 545 in four days , doing better than the Mohanlal starrer Chandrolsavam , which also released on 14 April 2005 , but grossed ₹ 523 @,@ 340 during the same period of time .
The film 's theatrical run lasted 890 days at Sivaji Ganesan 's family @-@ owned Shanthi theatre , beating the 62 @-@ year record set by the 1944 film Haridas , which ran for 770 days at the Broadway theatre . According to Krishna Gopalan of Business Today , the film grossed ₹ 750 million ( US $ 16 @.@ 6 million in 2005 ) in its lifetime run . The New Indian Express conversely states that it grossed ₹ 650 million ( US $ 14 @.@ 3 million in 2005 ) . The Telugu version ran in theatres for 100 days . In the multiplexes of Mumbai and Delhi , the film was screened with subtitles ; it had a successful theatrical run and attracted the audience there . This was the first Tamil film to exceed the box office record set by Ghilli ( 2004 ) , which grossed ₹ 330 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 6 million in 2005 ) . The record was beaten two years later by Sivaji ( 2007 ) . It was the longest running South Indian film , until its record was overtaken the Telugu film Magadheera ( 2009 ) , which completed a theatrical run of 1000 days in April 2012 .
= = = = Overseas = = = =
Chandramukhi was screened in Tokyo in October 2005 to packed houses . In the US , it became the highest grossing South Indian film at that time . Chandramukhi completed a 100 @-@ day theatrical run in South Africa . It collectively earned ₹ 43 million in Malaysia , UAE and the US during the first month of its theatrical run . The film collected ₹ 62 @.@ 78 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 4 million in 2005 ) in Malaysia ; it was the only Indian film to feature in that country 's top ten grossing films of the year .
= = Accolades = =
The awards for the film mainly went to Vadivelu and Jyothika for their performances . Rajinikanth won a Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Actor for his dual role . In an interview with The Hindu , Binny Krishnakumar said :
I will forever remain indebted to composer Vidyasagar , who gave me the song when I was a nobody in playback singing . I had given a cassette of my songs to Vidyasagar , who knew Krishnakumar . Then , about six months later , Vidyasagar invited me to record " Ra ra ... " . The way that song has helped me in my career — both as a playback and classical singer — has been incredible . I was lucky I got a
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song in a Rajnikanth film so early in my career and the Filmfare award for my very first song . "
= = Legacy = =
In an interview with film journalist Sreedhar Pillai , Rajinikanth attributed the success of the film mainly to Vasu 's script and the performance of his co @-@ artistes . He said his comedy track with Vadivelu went a long way in making the film a successful venture and that their perfect timing clicked , bringing audiences to the theatres to watch the film more than once . He also said female viewers loved the portrayal of the female cast . Behindwoods rated Chandramukhi as " 2005 's summer blockbuster of the decade ( from 2003 to 2013 ) " .
Split personality syndrome became better known after the release of the film . MIOT hospital , in a blog description of the syndrome , called it The Chandramukhi syndrome . Film artist , trainer and film @-@ maker L. Satyanand said Chandramukhi is a classic example of the subgenre " horror of the demonic " and of " brilliance " , ranking it alongside The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Psycho ( 1960 ) . The film became a trendsetter for later comedy horror films such as the Muni series , Yaamirukka Bayamey ( 2014 ) , Aranmanai ( 2014 ) and Darling ( 2015 ) .
In a seminar on revisiting psychiatric disorders which centred around Chandramukhi and Anniyan , psychiatrist Asokan noted that there were many logical faults in both films . Responding to this , Vasu said that he did not know anything about psychiatric disorders : " I never had a brush with a ghost . Anyone watching films could come to a conclusion that ghosts have uniform--white saree and a pale face . My family saw the Malayalam film Manichitrathazu . Next day I saw a shadow moving in front of my bedroom and when I asked who was it , pat came the reply from my 4 @-@ year @-@ old daughter that it was ' Nagavalli ' , the ghostly character in the film . "
Sivaji Productions joined Galatta Media and eBay for an online auction of the film 's memorabilia , becoming the first South Indian film to auction film merchandise . Ramkumar Ganesan said the proceeds of the auction would be given to the Sivaji Prabhu Charity Trust and that ₹ 300 @,@ 000 ( US $ 6 @,@ 650 in 2005 ) would be given to Papanchatram Middle School . Sophie Atphthavel from France bought Rajinikanth 's sunglasses , which he sported in the film , for ₹ 25 @,@ 000 ( US $ 554 in 2005 ) . According to Girish Ramdas , chief operating officer of Galatta Media , all the items had certificates of authenticity signed by the film 's producers . Bidding for the items ranged between ₹ 10 @,@ 000 ( US $ 222 in 2005 ) and ₹ 20 @,@ 000 ( US $ 444 in 2005 ) .
In a statement by eBay , the articles made available for bidding were Rajinikanth 's blue shirt worn in the song " Devuda Devuda " , Jyothika 's saree worn for the climax scenes , the peach @-@ coloured saree worn by Nayantara in the song " Konja Neram " , and the Vettaiyan Raja costume and ornaments worn on set by Rajinikanth . Rajinikanth 's dress , which he wore in " Devuda Devuda " , was sold for ₹ 25 @,@ 000 ( US $ 554 in 2005 ) . His Vettaiyan costume and ornament set were sold for ₹ 32 @,@ 000 ( US $ 709 in 2005 ) . The saree worn by Nayantara in the song " Kokku Para Para " was also auctioned .
= = In popular culture = =
Some scenes , dialogues and expressions from the film , such as the " Lakka Lakka ... " sound that Rajnikanth 's character makes , became very popular , especially with children . Vadivelu 's expressions and scenes — especially those with Rajinikanth — and dialogues including " Maapu ... Vachittandaa Aapu ! ! ! " , which means " Son @-@ in @-@ law ... he has trapped me ! ! ! " , also became popular . A dialogue spoken by Rajinikanth to Prabhu , Naan gunda irundha nalla irukkadhu ... nee elachcha nalla irukkadhu , which translates into " I won 't look good if I put on weight ... but you won 't look good if you have reduced weight " evoked a lot of laughter among audiences .
Prabhu 's dialogue , " Enna kodumai Saravanan idhu ? " , which means " What atrocity is this , Saravanan ? " became popular . It is usually used to express irony or surprise . The line was often parodied by actor Premgi Amaren , who altered it slightly to " Enna Kodumai , Sir Idhu ? " . This altered line was frequently used in Chennai 600028 ( 2007 ) , Goa ( 2010 ) and Mankatha ( 2011 ) . Prabhu said in an interview with Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu , " I hope I get to play light roles . Incidentally , I quite like the way in which these young actors have made a joke of my serious line in Chandramukhi — ' Enna Kodumai Saravana Idhu ' " .
= = = Parodies = = =
Chandramukhi was parodied in various films . In a comedy scene from Englishkaran ( 2005 ) , Theeppori Thirumugam ( Vadivelu ) invents an idea to frighten Thamizharasu ( Sathyaraj ) but the ruse backfires on him as he witnesses Thamizharasu in a garb similar to that of Chandramukhi 's . Chandramukhi was parodied along with Anniyan in the Telugu film Rajababu ( 2006 ) . In a scene from Thalaimagan ( 2006 ) , Erimalai ( Vadivelu ) , after entering an old abandoned bungalow , gets frightened when he hears the " Lakka Lakka " sound , and says Yaaro Telugula Koopuddrangga ! ( English : " Someone is calling in Telugu ! " ) . In Vallavan ( 2006 ) , Vallavan ( Silambarasan ) is seen singing " Konja Neram " to Swapna ( Nayantara ) . In Sivaji ( 2007 ) , Thamizhselvi ( Shriya Saran ) would be seen dancing for the song " Raa Raa " , Sivaji ( Rajinikanth ) and Arivu ( Vivek ) are seen uttering the last lines of the song . Livingston who appears as a police inspector , utters the sound " Lakka Lakka " which Rajinikanth makes in Chandramukhi . Rajinikanth and Nayantara 's characters act in a film titled Chandramukhi 2 in a scene from Kuselan ( 2008 ) , which P. Vasu also directed .
In Thamizh Padam ( 2010 ) . Shiva ( Shiva ) would be seen imitating the film 's introduction scene by stretching his leg when it is revealed that Siva has a split seam in his pants . Sundar C. ' s role in the film Aranmanai ( 2014 ) was inspired by Rajinikanth 's role in Chandramukhi . Chandramukhi was parodied in the Star Vijay comedy series Lollu Sabha , in an episode named Sappamookki .
= = Remakes = =
Chandramukhi was dubbed in Telugu and was simultaneously released with the same title as the Tamil version . It was also dubbed and released in Bhojpuri under the title Chandramukhi Ke Hunkaar . It is the first Tamil film to be dubbed into German . It was released in Germany under the title , Der Geisterjäger ( English : The Ghost Hunters ) . The film was also dubbed and released in Turkish . Despite the release of Bhool Bhulaiyaa ( 2007 ) , Chandramukhi was dubbed in Hindi and released on 29 February 2008 by Dilip Dhanwani , owner of the production house Royal Film Company . The Hindi version was released in collaboration with producer A. M. Rathnam . All the film 's language versions were box @-@ office successes .
Below is a character map of the lead characters in the story of Manichithrathazhu and its remakes .
= = Sequel = =
A stand @-@ alone sequel to Chandramukhi titled Nagavalli was made in Telugu . The sequel was also directed by P. Vasu and stars Daggubati Venkatesh as the male lead , and Anushka Shetty , Richa Gangopadhyay , Shraddha Das , Poonam Kaur , and Kamalinee Mukherjee as the female leads . It was released on 16 December 2010 .
= Radon =
Radon is a chemical element with symbol Rn and atomic number 86 . It is a radioactive , colorless , odorless , tasteless noble gas , occurring naturally as a decay product of radium . Its most stable isotope , 222Rn , has a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 8 days . Radon is one of the densest substances that remains a gas under normal conditions . It is also the only gas under normal conditions that has no stable isotopes , and is considered a health hazard due to its radioactivity . Intense radioactivity has also hindered chemical studies of radon and only a few compounds are known .
Radon is formed as one intermediate step in the normal radioactive decay chains through which thorium and uranium slowly decay into lead . Thorium and uranium are the two most common radioactive elements on earth ; they have been around since the earth was formed . Their naturally occurring isotopes have very long half @-@ lives , on the order of billions of years . Thorium and uranium , their decay product radium , and its decay product radon , will therefore continue to occur for tens of millions of years at almost the same concentrations as they do now . As radon itself decays , it produces other radioactive elements called radon progeny ( also known as radon daughters ) or decay products . Unlike the gaseous radon itself , radon daughters are solids and stick to surfaces , such as dust particles in the air . If such contaminated dust is inhaled , these particles can stick to the airways of the lung and increase the risk of developing lung cancer .
Unlike all the other intermediate elements in the aforementioned decay chains , radon is gaseous and easily inhaled . Thus , naturally @-@ occurring radon is responsible for the majority of the public exposure to ionizing radiation . It is often the single largest contributor to an individual 's background radiation dose , and is the most variable from location to location . Despite its short lifetime , some radon gas from natural sources can accumulate to far higher than normal concentrations in buildings , especially in low areas such as basements and crawl spaces due to its density . It can also occur in water where the water comes from a ground source -e.g. in some spring waters and hot springs .
Epidemiological studies have shown a clear link between breathing high concentrations of radon and incidence of lung cancer . Thus , radon is considered a significant contaminant that affects indoor air quality worldwide . According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency , radon is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer , after cigarette smoking , causing 21 @,@ 000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United States . About 2 @,@ 900 of these deaths occur among people who have never smoked . While radon is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer , it is the number one cause among non @-@ smokers , according to EPA estimates .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Radon is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas and therefore not detectable by human senses alone . At standard temperature and pressure , radon forms a monatomic gas with a density of 9 @.@ 73 kg / m3 , about 8 times the density of the Earth 's atmosphere at sea level , 1 @.@ 217 kg / m3 . Radon is one of the densest gases at room temperature and is the densest of the noble gases . Although colorless at standard temperature and pressure , when cooled below its freezing point of 202 K ( − 71 ° C ; − 96 ° F ) , radon emits a brilliant radioluminescence that turns from yellow to orange @-@ red as the temperature lowers . Upon condensation , radon glows because of the intense radiation it produces . Radon is sparingly soluble in water , but more soluble than lighter noble gases . Radon is appreciably more soluble in organic liquids than in water .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Being a noble gas , radon is chemically not very reactive . However , the 3 @.@ 8 @-@ day half @-@ life of radon @-@ 222 makes it useful in physical sciences as a natural tracer .
Radon is a member of the zero @-@ valence elements that are called noble gases . It is inert to most common chemical reactions , such as combustion , because the outer valence shell contains eight electrons . This produces a stable , minimum energy configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly bound . 1037 kJ / mol is required to extract one electron from its shells ( also known as the first ionization energy ) . In accordance with periodic trends , radon has a lower electronegativity than the element one period before it , xenon , and is therefore more reactive . Early studies concluded that the stability of radon hydrate should be of the same order as that of the hydrates of chlorine ( Cl
2 ) or sulfur dioxide ( SO
2 ) , and significantly higher than the stability of the hydrate of hydrogen sulfide ( H
2S ) .
Because of its cost and radioactivity , experimental chemical research is seldom performed with radon , and as a result there are very few reported compounds of radon , all either fluorides or oxides . Radon can be oxidized by powerful oxidizing agents such as fluorine , thus forming radon difluoride . It decomposes back to elements at a temperature of above 250 ° C. It has a low volatility and was thought to be RnF
2 . Because of the short half @-@ life of radon and the radioactivity of its compounds , it has not been possible to study the compound in any detail . Theoretical studies on this molecule predict that it should have a Rn – F bond distance of 2 @.@ 08 Å , and that the compound is thermodynamically more stable and less volatile than its lighter counterpart XeF
2 . The octahedral molecule RnF
6 was predicted to have an even lower enthalpy of formation than the difluoride . The higher fluorides RnF4 and RnF6 have been claimed , and are calculated to be stable , but it is doubtful whether they have yet been synthesized . The [ RnF ] + ion is believed to form by the following reaction :
Rn ( g ) + 2 [ O
2 ] + [ SbF
6 ] − ( s ) → [ RnF ] + [ Sb
2F
11 ] − ( s ) + 2 O
2 ( g )
Radon oxides are among the few other reported compounds of radon ; only the trioxide has been confirmed . Radon carbonyl RnCO has been predicted to be stable and to have a linear molecular geometry . The molecules Rn
2 and RnXe were found to be significantly stabilized by spin @-@ orbit coupling . Radon caged inside a fullerene has been proposed as a drug for tumors . Despite the existence of Xe ( VIII ) , no Rn ( VIII ) compounds have been claimed to exist ; RnF8 should be highly unstable chemically ( XeF8 is thermodynamically unstable ) . It is predicted that the most stable Rn ( VIII ) compound would be barium perradate ( Ba2RnO6 ) , analogous to barium perxenate . The instability of Rn ( VIII ) is due to the relativistic stabilization of the 6s shell , also known as the inert pair effect .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Radon has no stable isotopes . Thirty @-@ six radioactive isotopes have been characterized , with atomic masses ranging from 193 to 228 . The most stable isotope is 222Rn , which is a decay product of 226Ra , a decay product of 238U . A trace amount of the ( highly unstable ) isotope 218Rn is also among the daughters of 222Rn .
Three other radon isotopes have a half @-@ life of over an hour : 211Rn , 210Rn and 224Rn . The 220Rn isotope is a natural decay product of the most stable thorium isotope ( 232Th ) , and is commonly referred to as thoron . It has a half @-@ life of 55 @.@ 6 seconds and also emits alpha radiation . Similarly , 219Rn is derived from the most stable isotope of actinium ( 227Ac ) — named " actinon " — and is an alpha emitter with a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 96 seconds . No radon isotopes occur significantly in the neptunium ( 237Np ) decay series , though a trace amount of the ( extremely unstable ) isotope 217Rn is produced .
= = = = Daughters = = = =
222Rn belongs to the radium and uranium @-@ 238 decay chain , and has a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 8235 days . Its four first products ( excluding marginal decay schemes ) are very short @-@ lived , meaning that the corresponding disintegrations are indicative of the initial radon distribution . Its decay goes through the following sequence :
222Rn , 3 @.@ 8 days , alpha decaying to ...
218Po , 3 @.@ 10 minutes , alpha decaying to ...
214Pb , 26 @.@ 8 minutes , beta decaying to ...
214Bi , 19 @.@ 9 minutes , beta decaying to ...
214Po , 0 @.@ 1643 ms , alpha decaying to ...
210Pb , which has a much longer half @-@ life of 22 @.@ 3 years , beta decaying to ...
210Bi , 5 @.@ 013 days , beta decaying to ...
210Po , 138 @.@ 376 days , alpha decaying to ...
206Pb , stable .
The radon equilibrium factor is the ratio between the activity of all short @-@ period radon progenies ( which are responsible for most of radon 's biological effects ) , and the activity that would be at equilibrium with the radon parent .
If a closed volume is constantly supplied with radon , the concentration of short @-@ lived isotopes will increase until an equilibrium is reached where the rate of decay of each decay product will equal that of the radon itself . The equilibrium factor is 1 when both activities are equal , meaning that the decay products have stayed close to the radon parent long enough for the equilibrium to be reached , within a couple of hours . Under these conditions each additional pCi / L of radon will increase exposure , by 0 @.@ 01 WL ( Working Level -a measure of radioactivity commonly used in mining . A detailed explanation of WL is given in Concentration Units ) . These conditions are not always met ; in many homes , the equilibrium fraction is typically 40 % ; that is , there will be 0 @.@ 004 WL of daughters for each pCi / L of radon in air . 210Pb takes much longer ( decades ) to come in equilibrium with radon , but , if the environment permits accumulation of dust over extended periods of time , 210Pb and its decay products may contribute to overall radiation levels as well .
Because of their electrostatic charge , radon progenies adhere to surfaces or dust particles , whereas gaseous radon does not . Attachment removes them from the air , usually causing the equilibrium factor in the atmosphere to be less than one . The equilibrium factor is also lowered by air circulation or air filtration devices , and is increased by airborne dust particles , including cigarette smoke . In high concentrations , airborne radon isotopes contribute significantly to human health risk . The equilibrium factor found in epidemiological studies is 0 @.@ 4 .
= = History and etymology = =
Radon was the fifth radioactive element to be discovered , in 1900 by Friedrich Ernst Dorn , after uranium , thorium , radium and polonium . In 1900 Dorn reported some experiments in which he noticed that radium compounds emanate a radioactive gas he named Radium Emanation ( Ra Em ) . Before that , in 1899 , Pierre and Marie Curie observed that the gas emitted by radium remained radioactive for a month . Later that year , Robert B. Owens and Ernest Rutherford , at McGill University in Montreal , noticed variations when trying to measure radiation from thorium oxide . Rutherford noticed that the compounds of thorium continuously emit a radioactive gas that retains the radioactive powers for several minutes , and called this gas emanation ( from Latin " emanare " — to elapse and " emanatio " — expiration ) , and later Thorium Emanation ( Th Em ) . In 1901 , he demonstrated that the emanations are radioactive , but credited the Curies for the discovery of the element . In 1903 , similar emanations were observed from actinium by André @-@ Louis Debierne and were called Actinium Emanation ( Ac Em ) .
Several names were suggested for these three gases : exradio , exthorio , and exactinio in 1904 ; radon , thoron , and akton in 1918 ; radeon , thoreon , and actineon in 1919 , and eventually radon , thoron , and actinon in 1920 . The likeness of the spectra of these three gases with those of argon , krypton , and xenon , and their observed chemical inertia led Sir William Ramsay to suggest in 1904 that the " emanations " might contain a new element of the noble gas family .
In 1910 , Ramsay and Robert Whytlaw @-@ Gray isolated radon , determined its density , and determined that it was the heaviest known gas . They wrote that " L 'expression de l 'émanation du radium est fort incommode " , ( the expression ' radium emanation ' is very awkward ) and suggested the new name niton ( Nt ) ( from the Latin " nitens " meaning " shining " ) to emphasize the radioluminescence property , and in 1912 it was accepted by the International Commission for Atomic Weights . In 1923 , the International Committee for Chemical Elements and International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) chose among the names radon ( Rn ) , thoron ( Tn ) , and actinon ( An ) . Later , when isotopes were numbered instead of named , the element took the name of the most stable isotope , radon , while Tn was renamed 220Rn and An was renamed 219Rn . As late as the 1960s , the element was also referred to simply as emanation . The first synthesized compound of radon , radon fluoride , was obtained in 1962 .
The danger of high exposure to radon in mines , where exposures reaching 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Bq / m3 can be found , has long been known . In 1530 , Paracelsus described a wasting disease of miners , the mala metallorum , and Georg Agricola recommended ventilation in mines to avoid this mountain sickness ( Bergsucht ) . In 1879 , this condition was identified as lung cancer by Herting and Hesse in their investigation of miners from Schneeberg , Germany . The first major studies with radon and health occurred in the context of uranium mining in the Joachimsthal region of Bohemia . In the US , studies and mitigation only followed decades of health effects on uranium miners of the Southwestern United States employed during the early Cold War ; standards were not implemented until 1971 .
The presence of radon in indoor air was documented as early as 1950 . Beginning in the 1970s research was initiated to address sources of indoor radon , determinants of concentration , health effects , and approaches to mitigation . In the United States , the problem of indoor radon received widespread publicity and intensified investigation after a widely publicized incident in 1984 . During routine monitoring at a Pennsylvania nuclear power plant , a worker was found to be contaminated with radioactivity . A high contamination of radon in his home was subsequently identified as responsible for the contamination .
= = Occurrence = =
= = = Concentration units = = =
All discussions of radon concentrations in the environment refer to 222Rn . While the average rate of production of 220Rn ( from the thorium decay series ) is about the same as 222Rn , the amount of 220Rn in the environment is much less than that of 222Rn because of the short half @-@ life of 220Rn ( 55 seconds , versus 3 @.@ 8 days respectively ) .
Radon concentration in the atmosphere is usually measured in becquerel per cubic meter ( Bq / m3 ) , the SI derived unit . Another unit of measurement common in the US is picocuries per liter ( pCi / L ) ; 1 pCi / L = 37 Bq / m3 . Typical domestic exposures average about 48 Bq / m3 indoors , though this varies widely , and 15 Bq / m3 outdoors .
In the mining industry , the exposure is traditionally measured in working level ( WL ) , and the cumulative exposure in working level month ( WLM ) ; 1 WL equals any combination of short @-@ lived 222Rn daughters ( 218Po , 214Pb , 214Bi , and 214Po ) in 1 liter of air that releases 1 @.@ 3 × 105 MeV of potential alpha energy ; one WL is equivalent to 2 @.@ 08 × 10 − 5 joules per cubic meter of air ( J / m3 ) . The SI unit of cumulative exposure is expressed in joule @-@ hours per cubic meter ( J · h / m3 ) . One WLM is equivalent to 3 @.@ 6 × 10 − 3 J · h / m3 . An exposure to 1 WL for 1 working month ( 170 hours ) equals 1 WLM cumulative exposure . A cumulative exposure of 1 WLM is roughly equivalent to living one year in an atmosphere with a radon concentration of 230 Bq / m3 .
Radon ( 222Rn ) , decays to 210Pb and other radioisotopes . The levels of 210Pb can be measured . The rate of deposition of this radioisotope is weather @-@ dependent .
Radon concentrations found in natural environments are much too low to be detected by chemical means . A 1000 Bq / m3 ( relatively high ) concentration corresponds to 0 @.@ 17 picogram per cubic meter . The average concentration of radon in the atmosphere is about 6 × 10 − 20 atoms of radon for each molecule in the air , or about 150 atoms in each ml of air . The radon activity of the entire Earth 's atmosphere originates from only a few tens of grams of radon , consistently replaced by decay of larger amounts of radium and uranium .
= = = Natural = = =
Radon is produced by the radioactive decay of radium @-@ 226 , which is found in uranium ores , phosphate rock , shales , igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granite , gneiss , and schist , and to a lesser degree , in common rocks such as limestone . Every square mile of surface soil , to a depth of 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 km2 to a depth of 15 cm ) , contains approximately 1 gram of radium , which releases radon in small amounts to the atmosphere . On a global scale , it is estimated that 2 @,@ 400 million curies ( 90 EBq ) of radon are released from soil annually .
Radon concentration varies widely from place to place . In the open air , it ranges from 1 to 100 Bq / m3 , even less ( 0 @.@ 1 Bq / m3 ) above the ocean . In caves or aerated mines , or ill @-@ aerated houses , its concentration climbs to 20 – 2 @,@ 000 Bq / m3 .
Radon concentration can be much higher in mining contexts . Ventilation regulations instruct to maintain radon concentration in uranium mines under the " working level " , with 95th percentile levels ranging up to nearly 3 WL ( 546 pCi 222Rn per liter of air ; 20 @.@ 2 kBq / m3 , measured from 1976 to 1985 ) . The concentration in the air at the ( unventilated ) Gastein Healing Gallery averages 43 kBq / m3 ( 1 @.@ 2 nCi / L ) with maximal value of 160 kBq / m3 ( 4 @.@ 3 nCi / L ) .
Radon mostly appears with the decay chain of the radium and uranium series ( 222Rn ) , and marginally with the thorium series ( 220Rn ) . The element emanates naturally from the ground , and some building materials , all over the world , wherever traces of uranium or thorium can be found , and particularly in regions with soils containing granite or shale , which have a higher concentration of uranium . Not all granitic regions are prone to high emissions of radon . Being a rare gas , it usually migrates freely through faults and fragmented soils , and may accumulate in caves or water . Owing to its very short half @-@ life ( four days for 222Rn ) , radon concentration decreases very quickly when the distance from the production area increases . Radon concentration varies greatly with season and atmospheric conditions . For instance , it has been shown to accumulate in the air if there is a meteorological inversion and little wind .
High concentrations of radon can be found in some spring waters and hot springs . The towns of Boulder , Montana ; Misasa ; Bad Kreuznach , Germany ; and the country of Japan have radium @-@ rich springs that emit radon . To be classified as a radon mineral water , radon concentration must be above 2 nCi / L ( 74 kBq / m3 ) . The activity of radon mineral water reaches 2 @,@ 000 kBq / m3 in Merano and 4 @,@ 000 kBq / m3 in Lurisia ( Italy ) .
Natural radon concentrations in the Earth 's atmosphere are so low that radon @-@ rich water in contact with the atmosphere will continually lose radon by volatilization . Hence , ground water has a higher concentration of 222Rn than surface water , because radon is continuously produced by radioactive decay of 226Ra present in rocks . Likewise , the saturated zone of a soil frequently has a higher radon content than the unsaturated zone because of diffusional losses to the atmosphere .
In 1971 , Apollo 15 passed 110 km ( 68 mi ) above the Aristarchus plateau on the Moon , and detected a significant rise in alpha particles thought to be caused by the decay of 222Rn . The presence of 222Rn has been inferred later from data obtained from the Lunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer .
Radon is found in some petroleum . Because radon has a similar pressure and temperature curve to propane , and oil refineries separate petrochemicals based on their boiling points , the piping carrying freshly separated propane in oil refineries can become radioactive because of decaying radon and its products .
Residues from the petroleum and natural gas industry often contain radium and its daughters . The sulfate scale from an oil well can be radium rich , while the water , oil , and gas from a well often contains radon . Radon decays to form solid radioisotopes that form coatings on the inside of pipework .
= = = Accumulation in buildings = = =
High concentrations of radon in homes were discovered by chance in 1985 after the stringent radiation testing conducted at a nuclear power plant entrance revealed that Stanley Watras , an engineer entering the plant , was contaminated by radioactive substances . Typical domestic exposures are of approximately 100 Bq / m3 ( 2 @.@ 7 pCi / L ) indoors . Some level of radon will be found in all buildings . Radon mostly enters a building directly from the soil through the lowest level in the building that is in contact with the ground . High levels of radon in the water supply can also increase indoor radon air levels . Typical entry points of radon into buildings are cracks in solid foundations , construction joints , cracks in walls , gaps in suspended floors , gaps around service pipes , cavities inside walls , and the water supply . Radon concentrations in the same location may differ by a factor of two over a period of 1 hour . Also , the concentration in one room of a building may be significantly different from the concentration in an adjoining room .
The distribution of radon concentrations will generally change from room to room , and the readings are averaged according to regulatory protocols . Indoor radon concentration is usually assumed to follow a lognormal distribution on a given territory . Thus , the geometric mean is generally used for estimating the " average " radon concentration in an area .
The mean concentration ranges from less than 10 Bq / m3 to over 100 Bq / m3 in some European countries . Typical geometric standard deviations found in studies range between 2 and 3 , meaning ( given the 68 – 95 – 99 @.@ 7 rule ) that the radon concentration is expected to be more than a hundred times the mean concentration for 2 to 3 % of the cases .
The highest average radon concentrations in the United States are found in Iowa and in the Appalachian Mountain areas in southeastern Pennsylvania . Some of the highest readings ever have been recorded in the Irish town of Mallow , County Cork , prompting local fears regarding lung cancer . Iowa has the highest average radon concentrations in the United States due to significant glaciation that ground the granitic rocks from the Canadian Shield and deposited it as soils making up the rich Iowa farmland . Many cities within the state , such as Iowa City , have passed requirements for radon @-@ resistant construction in new homes .
In a few locations , uranium tailings have been used for landfills and were subsequently built on , resulting in possible increased exposure to radon .
Since radon is a colorless , odorless gas the only way to know how much is present in the air or water is to perform tests . In the United States radon test kits are available to the public at retail stores , such as hardware stores , for home use and testing is available through licensed professionals , who are often home inspectors . Efforts to reduce indoor radon levels are called radon mitigation . In the U.S. the Environmental Protection Agency recommends all houses be tested for radon .
= = = Industrial production = = =
Radon is obtained as a by @-@ product of uraniferous ores processing after transferring into 1 % solutions of hydrochloric or hydrobromic acids . The gas mixture extracted from the solutions contains H
2 , O
2 , He , Rn , CO
2 , H
2O and hydrocarbons . The mixture is purified by passing it over copper at 720 ° C to remove the H
2 and the O
2 , and then KOH and P
2O
5 are used to remove the acids and moisture by sorption . Radon is condensed by liquid nitrogen and purified from residue gases by sublimation .
Radon commercialization is regulated , but it is available in small quantities for the calibration of 222Rn measurement systems , at a price of almost $ 6 @,@ 000 per milliliter of radium solution ( which only contains about 15 picograms of actual radon at a given moment ) . Radon is produced by a solution of radium @-@ 226 ( half @-@ life of 1600 years ) . Radium @-@ 226 decays by alpha @-@ particle emission , producing radon that collects over samples of radium @-@ 226 at a rate of about 1 mm3 / day per gram of radium ; equilibrium is quickly achieved and radon is produced in a steady flow , with an activity equal to that of the radium ( 50 Bq ) . Gaseous 222Rn ( half @-@ life of about four days ) escapes from the capsule through diffusion .
= = = Concentration scale = = =
= = Applications = =
= = = Medical = = =
An early @-@ 20th @-@ century form of quackery was the treatment of maladies in a radiotorium . It was a small , sealed room for patients to be exposed to radon for its " medicinal effects " . The carcinogenic nature of radon due to its ionizing radiation became apparent later on . Radon 's molecule @-@ damaging radioactivity has been used to kill cancerous cells , but it does not increase the health of healthy cells . The ionizing radiation causes the formation of free radicals , which results in genetic and other cell damage , resulting in increased rates of illness , including cancer .
Exposure to radon , a process known as radiation hormesis , has been suggested to mitigate auto @-@ immune diseases such as arthritis . As a result , in the late 20th century and early 21st century , " health mines " established in Basin , Montana attracted people seeking relief from health problems such as arthritis through limited exposure to radioactive mine water and radon . The practice is discouraged because of the well @-@ documented ill effects of high @-@ doses of radiation on the body .
Radioactive water baths have been applied since 1906 in Jáchymov , Czech Republic , but even before radon discovery they were used in Bad Gastein , Austria . Radium @-@ rich springs are also used in traditional Japanese onsen in Misasa , Tottori Prefecture . Drinking therapy is applied in Bad Brambach , Germany . Inhalation therapy is carried out in Gasteiner @-@ Heilstollen , Austria , in Świeradów @-@ Zdrój , Czerniawa @-@ Zdrój , Kowary , Lądek Zdrój , Poland , in Harghita Băi , Romania , and in Boulder , United States . In the US and Europe there are several " radon spas " , where people sit for minutes or hours in a high @-@ radon atmosphere in the belief that low doses of radiation will invigorate or energize them .
Radon has been produced commercially for use in radiation therapy , but for the most part has been replaced by radionuclides made in accelerators and nuclear reactors . Radon has been used in implantable seeds , made of gold or glass , primarily used to treat cancers . The gold seeds were produced by filling a long tube with radon pumped from a radium source , the tube being then divided into short sections by crimping and cutting . The gold layer keeps the radon within , and filters out the alpha and beta radiations , while allowing the gamma rays to escape ( which kill the diseased tissue ) . The activities might range from 0 @.@ 05 to 5 millicuries per seed ( 2 to 200 MBq ) . The gamma rays are produced by radon and the first short @-@ lived elements of its decay chain ( 218Po , 214Pb , 214Bi , 214Po ) .
Radon and its first decay products being very short @-@ lived , the seed is left in place . After 12 half @-@ lives ( 43 days ) , radon radioactivity is at 1 / 2000 of its original level . At this stage , the predominant residual activity originates from the radon decay product 210Pb , whose half @-@ life ( 22 @.@ 3 years ) is 2000 times that of radon ( and whose activity is thus 1 / 2000 of radon 's ) , and its descendants 210Bi and 210Po .
In the early part of the 20th century in the US , gold contaminated with 210Pb entered the jewelry industry . This was from gold seeds that had held 222Rn that had been melted down after the radon had decayed .
= = = Scientific = = =
Radon emanation from the soil varies with soil type and with surface uranium content , so outdoor radon concentrations can be used to track air masses to a limited degree . This fact has been put to use by some atmospheric scientists . Because of radon 's rapid loss to air and comparatively rapid decay , radon is used in hydrologic research that studies the interaction between ground water and streams . Any significant concentration of radon in a stream is a good indicator that there are local inputs of ground water .
Radon soil @-@ concentration has been used in an experimental way to map buried close @-@ subsurface geological faults because concentrations are generally higher over the faults . Similarly , it has found some limited use in prospecting for geothermal gradients .
Some researchers have investigated changes in groundwater radon concentrations for earthquake prediction . Radon has a half @-@ life of approximately 3 @.@ 8 days , which means that it can be found only shortly after it has been produced in the radioactive decay chain . For this reason , it has been hypothesized that increases in radon concentration is due to the generation of new cracks underground , which would allow increased ground water circulation , flushing out radon . The generation of new cracks might not unreasonably be assumed to precede major earthquakes . In the 1970s and 1980s , scientific measurements of radon emissions near faults found that earthquakes often occurred with no radon signal , and radon was often detected with no earthquake to follow . It was then dismissed by many as an unreliable indicator . As of 2009 , it was under investigation as a possible precursor by NASA .
Radon is a known pollutant emitted from geothermal power stations because it is present in the material pumped from deep underground . It disperses rapidly , and no radiological hazard has been demonstrated in various investigations . In addition , typical systems re @-@ inject the material deep underground rather that releasing it at the surface , so its environmental impact is minimal .
In the 1940s and ' 50s , radon was used for industrial radiography , Other X @-@ ray sources , which became available after World War II , quickly replaced radon for this application , as they were lower in cost and had less hazard of alpha radiation .
= = Health risks = =
= = = In mines = = =
Radon @-@ 222 decay products have been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as being carcinogenic to humans , and as a gas that can be inhaled , lung cancer is a particular concern for people exposed to elevated levels of radon for sustained periods . During the 1940s and ' 50s , when safety standards requiring expensive ventilation in mines were not widely implemented , radon exposure was linked to lung cancer among non @-@ smoking miners of uranium and other hard rock materials in what is now the Czech Republic , and later among miners from the Southwestern United States and South Australia . Despite these hazards being known in the early 1950s , this occupational hazard remained poorly managed in many mines until the 1970s . During this period , several entrepreneurs opened former uranium mines in the USA to the general public and advertised alleged health benefits from breathing radon gas underground . Health benefits claimed including pain , sinus , asthma and arthritis relief but these were proven to be false .
Since that time , ventilation and other measures have been used to reduce radon levels in most affected mines that continue to operate . In recent years , the average annual exposure of uranium miners has fallen to levels similar to the concentrations inhaled in some homes . This has reduced the risk of occupationally induced cancer from radon , although health issues may persist for those who are currently employed in affected mines and for those who have been employed in them in the past . As the relative risk for miners has decreased , so has the ability to detect excess risks among that population .
In addition to lung cancer , researchers have theorized a possible increased risk of leukemia due to radon exposure . Empirical support from studies of the general population is inconsistent , and a study of uranium miners found a correlation between radon exposure and chronic lymphocytic leukemia .
Miners ( as well as milling and ore transportation workers ) who worked in the uranium industry in the United States between the 1940s and 1971 may be eligible for compensation under the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act ( RECA ) . Surviving relatives may also apply in cases where the formerly employed person is deceased .
= = = Domestic @-@ level exposure = = =
Radon exposure ( mostly radon daughters ) has been linked to lung cancer in numerous case @-@ control studies performed in the United States , Europe and China . There are approximately 21 @,@ 000 deaths per year in the US due to radon @-@ induced lung cancers . One of the most comprehensive radon studies performed in the United States by Dr. R. William Field and colleagues found a 50 % increased lung cancer risk even at the protracted exposures at the EPA 's action level of 4 pCi / L. North American and European Pooled analyses further support these findings .
Most models of residential radon exposure are based on studies of miners , and direct estimates of the risks posed to homeowners would be more desirable . Because of the difficulties of measuring the risk of radon relative to smoking , models of their effect have often made use of them .
Radon has been considered the second leading cause of lung cancer and leading environmental cause of cancer mortality by the United States Environmental Protection Agency . Others have reached similar conclusions for the United Kingdom and France . Radon exposure in homes and offices may arise from certain subsurface rock formations , and also from certain building materials ( e.g. , some granites ) . The greatest risk of radon exposure arises in buildings that are airtight , insufficiently ventilated , and have foundation leaks that allow air from the soil into basements and dwelling rooms .
= = = Action and reference level = = =
WHO presented in 2009 a recommended reference level ( the national reference level ) , 100 Bq / m3 , for radon in dwellings . The recommendation also says that where this is not possible , 300 Bq / m3 should be selected as the highest level . A national reference level should not be a limit , but should represent the maximum acceptable annual average radon concentration in a dwelling .
The actionable concentration of radon in a home varies depending on the organization doing the recommendation , for example , the United States Environmental Protection Agency encourages that action be taken at concentrations as low as 74 Bq / m3 ( 2 pCi / L ) , and the European Union recommends action be taken when concentrations reach 400 Bq / m3 ( 11 pCi / L ) for old houses and 200 Bq / m3 ( 5 pCi / L ) for new ones . On 8 July 2010 the UK 's Health Protection Agency issued new advice setting a " Target Level " of 100 Bq / m3 whilst retaining an " Action Level " of 200 Bq / m3 . The same levels ( as UK ) apply to Norway from 2010 ; in all new housings preventative measures should be taken against radon accumulation .
= = = Relationship to smoking = = =
Results from epidemiological studies indicate that the risk of lung cancer increases with exposure to residential radon . A well @-@ known example of source of error is smoking . In addition , smoking is the most important risk factor for lung cancer . In the West , tobacco smoke is estimated to cause about 90 % of all lung cancers . There is a tendency for other hypothetical lung cancer risks to drown in the risk of smoking . Results from epidemiological studies must always be interpreted with caution .
According to the EPA , the risk of lung cancer for smokers is significant due to synergistic effects of radon and smoking . For this population about 62 people in a total of 1 @,@ 000 will die of lung cancer compared to 7 people in a total of 1 @,@ 000 for people who have never smoked . It can not be excluded that the risk of non @-@ smokers should be primarily explained by a combination effect of radon and passive smoking ( see below ) .
Radon , like other known or suspected external risk factors for lung cancer , is a threat for smokers and former smokers . This was demonstrated by the European pooling study . A commentary to the pooling study stated : " it is not appropriate to talk simply of a risk from radon in homes . The risk is from smoking , compounded by a synergistic effect of radon for smokers . Without smoking , the effect seems to be so small as to be insignificant . "
According to the European pooling study , there is a difference in risk from radon between histological types . Small cell lung carcinoma , which practically only affects smokers have high risk from radon . For other histological types such as adenocarcinoma , the type that primarily affects never smokers , the risk from radon appears to be lower .
A study of radiation from post mastectomy radiotherapy shows that the simple models previously used to assess the combined and separate risks from radiation and smoking need to be developed . This is also supported by new discussion about the calculation method , LNT , which routinely has been used .
= = = Relationship to passive smoking = = =
An important question is if also passive smoking can cause a similar synergy effect with residential radon . This has been insufficiently studied . The basic data for the European pooling study makes it impossible to exclude that such synergy effect is an explanation for the ( very limited ) increase in the risk from radon that was stated for non @-@ smokers .
A study from 2001 , which included 436 cases ( never smokers who had lung cancer ) , and a control group ( 1649 never smokers ) showed that exposure to radon increased the risk of lung cancer in never smokers . But the group that had been exposed to passive smoking at home appeared to bear the entire risk increase , while those who were not exposed to passive smoking did not show any increased risk with increasing radon level .
= = = In drinking water = = =
The effects of radon if ingested are similarly unknown , although studies have found that its biological half @-@ life ranges from 30 – 70 minutes , with 90 percent removal at 100 minutes . In 1999 National Research Council investigated the issue of radon in drinking water . The risks associated with ingestion was considered almost negligible . Water from underground sources may contain significant amounts of radon depending on the surrounding rock and soil conditions , whereas surface sources generally do not .
As well as being ingested through drinking water , radon is also released from water when temperature is increased , pressure is decreased and when water is aerated . Optimum conditions for radon release and exposure occur during showering . Water with a radon concentration of 104 pCi / L can increase the indoor airborne radon concentration by 1 pCi / L under normal conditions .
= = = Testing and mitigation = = =
There are relatively simple tests for radon gas . In some countries these tests are methodically done in areas of known systematic hazards . Radon detection devices are commercially available . Digital radon detectors provide ongoing measurements giving both daily , weekly , short @-@ term and long @-@ term average readouts via a digital display . Short @-@ term radon test devices used for initial screening purposes are inexpensive , in some cases free . There are very important protocols for taking short @-@ term radon tests and it is imperative that they be strictly followed . The kit includes a collector that the user hangs in the lowest habitable floor of the house for 2 to 7 days . The user then sends the collector to a laboratory for analysis . Long term kits , taking collections for up to one year or more , are also available . An open @-@ land test kit can test radon emissions from the land before construction begins . Radon concentrations can vary daily , and accurate radon exposure estimates require long @-@ term average radon measurements in the spaces where an individual spends a significant amount of time .
Radon levels fluctuate naturally , due to factors like transient weather conditions , so an initial test might not be an accurate assessment of a home 's average radon level . Radon levels are at a maximum during the coolest part of the day when pressure differentials are greatest . Therefore , a high result ( over 4 pCi / L ) justifies repeating the test before undertaking more expensive abatement projects . Measurements between 4 and 10 pCi / L warrant a long term radon test . Measurements over 10 pCi / L warrant only another short term test so that abatement measures are not unduly delayed . Purchasers of real estate are advised to delay or decline a purchase if the seller has not successfully abated radon to 4 pCi / L or less .
Because the half @-@ life of radon is only 3 @.@ 8 days , removing or isolating the source will greatly reduce the hazard within a few weeks . Another method of reducing radon levels is to modify the building 's ventilation . Generally , the indoor radon concentrations increase as ventilation rates decrease . In a well ventilated place , the radon concentration tends to align with outdoor values ( typically 10 Bq / m3 , ranging from 1 to 100 Bq / m3 ) .
The four principal ways of reducing the amount of radon accumulating in a house are :
Sub @-@ slab depressurization ( soil suction ) by increasing under @-@ floor ventilation ;
Improving the ventilation of the house and avoiding the transport of radon from the basement into living rooms ;
Installing a radon sump system in the basement ;
Installing a positive pressurization or positive supply ventilation system .
According to the EPA the method to reduce radon " ... primarily used is a vent pipe system and fan , which pulls radon from beneath the house and vents it to the outside " , which is also called sub @-@ slab depressurization , active soil depressurization , or soil suction . Generally indoor radon can be mitigated by sub @-@ slab depressurization and exhausting such radon @-@ laden air to the outdoors , away from windows and other building openings . " EPA generally recommends methods which prevent the entry of radon . Soil suction , for example , prevents radon from entering your home by drawing the radon from below the home and venting it through a pipe , or pipes , to the air above the home where it is quickly diluted " and " EPA does not recommend the use of sealing alone to reduce radon because , by itself , sealing has not been shown to lower radon levels significantly or consistently " .
Positive @-@ pressure ventilation systems can be combined with a heat exchanger to recover energy in the process of exchanging air with the outside , and simply exhausting basement air to the outside is not necessarily a viable solution as this can actually draw radon gas into a dwelling . Homes built on a crawl space may benefit from a radon collector installed under a " radon barrier " ( a sheet of plastic that covers the crawl space ) . For crawlspaces , the EPA states " An effective method to reduce radon levels in crawlspace homes involves covering the earth floor with a high @-@ density plastic sheet . A vent pipe and fan are used to draw the radon from under the sheet and vent it to the outdoors . This form of soil suction is called submembrane suction , and when properly applied is the most effective way to reduce radon levels in crawlspace homes . "
= Otis Redding =
Otis Ray Redding , Jr . ( September 9 , 1941 – December 10 , 1967 ) was an American singer , songwriter , record producer , arranger , and talent scout . He is considered one of the greatest singers in the history of American popular music and a seminal artist in soul music and rhythm and blues . His singing style influenced many other soul artists of the 1960s . During his lifetime , his recordings were produced by Stax Records , based in Memphis , Tennessee , and exemplify the sound of Stax .
Born and raised in the US state of Georgia , Redding quit school at age 15 to support his family , working with Little Richard 's backing band , the Upsetters , and performing at talent shows for prize money . In 1958 , he joined Johnny Jenkins 's band , the Pinetoppers , with whom he toured the Southern states as a singer and driver . An unscheduled appearance on a Stax recording session led to a contract and his first single , " These Arms of Mine , " in 1962 . Stax released Redding 's debut album , Pain in My Heart , two years later .
Initially popular mainly with African @-@ Americans , Redding later reached a wider American pop music audience . Along with his group , he first played small gigs in the American South . He later performed at the popular Los Angeles night club Whisky a Go Go and toured Europe , performing in London , Paris and other major cities . He also performed at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967 .
Shortly before his death in a plane crash , Redding wrote and recorded his iconic " ( Sittin ' on ) The Dock of the Bay " with Steve Cropper . The song became the first posthumous number @-@ one record on both the Billboard Hot 100 and R & B charts . The album The Dock of the Bay was the first posthumous album to reach number one on the UK Albums Chart .
Redding 's premature death devastated Stax . Already on the verge of bankruptcy , the label soon discovered that Atlantic Records owned the rights to his entire song catalog .
Redding received many posthumous accolades , including the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award and induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and the Songwriters Hall of Fame . In addition to " ( Sittin ' on ) The Dock of the Bay , " " Respect " and " Try a Little Tenderness " are among his best @-@ known songs .
= = Early life = =
Redding was born in Dawson , Georgia , the fourth of six children , and the first son , of Otis Redding , Sr. , and Fannie Mae Redding . Redding senior was a sharecropper and then worked at Robins Air Force Base , near Macon , and occasionally preached in local churches . When Otis was three the family moved to Tindall Heights , a predominantly African @-@ American public housing project in Macon . At an early age , Redding sang in the Vineville Baptist Church choir and learned guitar and piano . From age 10 , he took drum and singing lessons . At Ballard @-@ Hudson High School , he sang in the school band . Every Sunday he earned $ 6 by performing gospel songs for Macon radio station WIBB . His passion was singing , and he often cited Little Richard and Sam Cooke as influences . Redding said that he " would not be here " without Little Richard and that he " entered the music business because of Richard – he is my inspiration . I used to sing like Little Richard , his Rock ' n ' Roll stuff ... My present music has a lot of him in it . "
At age 15 , Redding left school to help financially support his family ; his father had contracted tuberculosis and was often hospitalized , leaving his mother as the family 's primary income earner . He worked as a well digger , as a filling ( gas ) station attendant and occasionally as a musician . Pianist Gladys Williams , a locally well @-@ known musician in Macon and another who inspired Redding , often performed at the Hillview Springs Social Club , and Redding sometimes played piano with her band there . Williams hosted Sunday talent shows , which Redding attended with two friends , singers Little Willie Jones and Eddie Ross .
Redding 's breakthrough came in 1958 on disc jockey Hamp Swain 's " The Teenage Party , " a talent contest at the local Roxy and Douglass Theatres . Johnny Jenkins , a locally prominent guitarist , was in the audience and , finding Redding 's backing band lacking in musical skills , offered to accompany him . Redding sang Little Richard 's " Heebie Jeebies . " The combination enabled Redding to win Swain 's talent contest for fifteen consecutive weeks ; the cash prize was $ 5 . Jenkins later worked as lead guitarist and played with Redding during several later gigs . Redding was soon invited to replace Willie Jones as frontman of Pat T. Cake and the Mighty Panthers , featuring Johnny Jenkins . Redding was then hired by the Upsetters when Little Richard abandoned rock and roll in favor of gospel music . Redding was well paid , making about $ 25 per gig , but did not stay long .
At age 19 , Redding met 15 @-@ year @-@ old Zelma Atwood at " The Teenage Party . " She gave birth to their son Dexter in the summer of 1960 and married Redding in August 1961 . In mid @-@ 1960 , Otis moved to Los Angeles with his sister , Deborah , where he wrote his first songs , including " She 's Allright , " " Tuff Enuff , " " I 'm Gettin ' Hip " and " Gamma Lamma " ( which he recorded as a single in 1962 , under the title " Shout Bamalama " ) .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
A member of Pat T. Cake and the Mighty Panthers , Redding toured the Southern United States on the chitlin ' circuit , a string of venues that were hospitable to African @-@ American entertainers during the era of racial segregation , which lasted into the early 1960s . Johnny Jenkins left the band to become the featured artist with the Pinetoppers . Around this time , Redding met Phil Walden , the future founder of the recording company Phil Walden and Associates , and later Bobby Smith , who ran the small label Confederate Records . He signed with Confederate and recorded his second single , " Shout Bamalama " ( a rewrite of " Gamma Lamma " ) and " Fat Girl " , together with his band Otis and the Shooters . Around this time he and the Pinetoppers attended a " Battle of the Bands " show in Lakeside Park . Wayne Cochran , the only solo artist signed to Confederate , became the Pinetoppers ' bassist .
When Walden started to look for a record label for Jenkins , Atlantic Records representative Joe Galkin showed interest and around 1962 sent him to the Stax studio in Memphis . Redding drove Jenkins to the session , as the latter did not have a driver 's license . The session with Jenkins , backed by Booker T. & the M.G. ' s , was unproductive and ended early ; Redding was allowed to perform two songs . The first was " Hey Hey Baby " , which studio chief Jim Stewart thought sounded too much like Little Richard . The second was " These Arms of Mine " , featuring Jenkins on piano and Steve Cropper on guitar . Stewart later praised Redding 's performance , saying , " Everybody was fixin ' to go home , but Joe Galkin insisted we give Otis a listen . There was something different about [ the ballad ] . He really poured his soul into it . " Stewart signed Redding and released " These Arms of Mine " , with " Hey Hey Baby " on the B @-@ side . The single was released by Volt in October 1962 and charted in March the following year . It became one of his most successful songs , selling more than 800 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Apollo Theater and Otis Blue = = =
" These Arms of Mine " and other songs from the 1962 – 1963 sessions were included on Redding 's debut album , Pain in My Heart . " That 's What My Heart Needs " and " Mary 's Little Lamb " were recorded in June 1963 . The latter is the only Redding track with both background singing and brass . It became his worst @-@ selling single . The title track , recorded in September 1963 , sparked copyright issues , as it sounded like Irma Thomas 's " Ruler of My Heart " . Despite this , Pain in My Heart was released on January 1 , 1964 , and peaked at number 20 on the R & B chart and at number 85 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
In November 1963 , Redding , accompanied by his brother Rodgers and an associate , former boxer Sylvester Huckaby ( a childhood friend of Redding 's ) , traveled to New York to perform at the Apollo Theater for the recording of a live album for Atlantic Records . Redding and his band were paid $ 400 per week , but had to pay $ 450 for sheet music for the house band , led by King Curtis , which left them in financial difficulty . The trio asked Walden for money . Huckaby 's description of their circumstances living in the " big old raggedy " Hotel Theresa is quoted by Peter Guralnick in his book Sweet Soul Music . He noted meeting Muhammad Ali and other celebrities . Ben E. King , who was the headliner at the Apollo when Redding performed there , gave him $ 100 when he learned about Redding 's financial situation . The resulting album featured King , the Coasters , Doris Troy , Rufus Thomas , the Falcons and Redding . Around this time Walden and Rodgers were drafted by the army ; Walden 's younger brother Alan joined Redding on tour , while Earl " Speedo " Simms replaced Rodgers as Redding 's road manager .
Most of Redding 's songs after " Security " , from his first album , had a slow tempo . Disc jockey A. C. Moohah Williams accordingly labeled him " Mr. Pitiful " , and subsequently Cropper and Redding wrote the eponymous song . That and top 100 singles " Chained and Bound " , " Come to Me " and " That 's How Strong My Love Is " were included on Redding 's second studio album , The Great Otis Redding Sings Soul Ballads , released in March 1965 . Jenkins began working independently from the group out of fear Galkin , Walden and Cropper would plagiarize his playing style , and so Cropper became Redding 's leading guitarist . Around 1965 , Redding co @-@ wrote " I 've Been Loving You Too Long " with Jerry Butler , the lead singer of the Impressions . That summer , Redding and the studio crew arranged new songs for his next album . Ten of the eleven songs were written in a 24 @-@ hour period on July 9 and 10 in Memphis . Two songs , " Ole Man Trouble " and " Respect " , had been finished earlier , during the Otis Blue session . " Respect " and " I 've Been Loving You " were later recut in stereo . The album , entitled Otis Blue : Otis Redding Sings Soul , was released in September 1965 . Redding also released his much @-@ loved cover of " A Change Is Gonna Come " in 1965 .
= = = Whisky a Go Go and " Try a Little Tenderness " = = =
Redding 's success allowed him to buy a 300 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) ranch in Georgia , which he called the " Big O Ranch . " Stax was also doing well . Walden signed more musicians , including Percy Sledge , Johnnie Taylor , Clarence Carter and Eddie Floyd , and together with Redding they founded two production companies . " Jotis Records " ( derived from Joe Galkin and Otis ) released four recordings , two by Arthur Conley and one by Billy Young and Loretta Williams . The other was named Redwal Music ( derived from Redding and Walden ) , which was shut down shortly after its creation . Since Afro @-@ Americans still formed the majority of fans , Redding chose to perform at Whisky a Go Go on the Sunset Strip in Los Angeles . Redding was one of the first soul artists to perform for rock audiences in the western United States . His performance received critical acclaim , including positive press in the Los Angeles Times , and he penetrated mainstream popular culture . Bob Dylan attended the performance and offered Redding an altered version of one of his songs , " Just Like a Woman " .
In late 1966 , Redding returned to the Stax studio and recorded several tracks , including " Try a Little Tenderness " , written by Jimmy Campbell , Reg Connelly and Harry M. Woods in 1932 . This song had previously been covered by Bing Crosby and Frank Sinatra , and the publishers unsuccessfully tried to stop Redding from recording the song from a " negro perspective " . Today often considered his signature song , Jim Stewart reckoned , " If there 's one song , one performance that really sort of sums up Otis and what he 's about , it 's ' Try a Little Tenderness ' . That one performance is so special and so unique that it expresses who he is . " On this version Redding was backed by Booker T. & the M.G. ' s , while staff producer Isaac Hayes worked on the arrangement . " Try a Little Tenderness " was included on his next album , Complete & Unbelievable : The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul . The song and the album were critically and commercially successful — the former peaked at number 25 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and at number 4 on the R & B chart .
The spring of 1966 marked the first time that Stax booked concerts for its artists . The majority of the group arrived in London on March 13 , but Redding had flown in days earlier for interviews , such as at " The Eamonn Andrews Show " . When the crew arrived in London , the Beatles sent a limousine to pick them up . Booking agent Bill Graham proposed that Redding play at the Fillmore Auditorium in late 1966 . The gig was commercially and critically successful , paying Redding around $ 800 to $ 1000 a night . It prompted Graham to remark afterwards , " That was the best gig I ever put on in my entire life . " Redding began touring Europe six months later .
= = = Carla Thomas = = =
In March 1967 , Stax released King & Queen , an album of duets between Redding and Carla Thomas , which became a certified gold record . It was Jim Stewart 's idea to produce a duet album , as he expected that " [ Redding 's ] rawness and [ Thomas 's ] sophistication would work " . The album was recorded in January 1967 , while Thomas was earning her M.A. in English at Howard University . Six out of ten songs were cut during their joint session ; the rest were overdubbed by Redding in the days following , because of his concert obligations . Three singles were lifted from the album : " Tramp " was released in April , followed by " Knock on Wood " and " Lovey Dovey " . All three reached at least the top 60 on both the R & B and Pop charts . The album charted at number 5 and 36 on the Billboard Pop and R & B charts , respectively .
Redding returned to Europe to perform at the Paris Olympia . The live album Otis Redding : Live in Europe was released three months later , featuring this and other live performances in London and Stockholm , Sweden . His decision to take his protege Conley ( whom Redding and Walden had contracted directly to Atco / Atlantic Records rather than to Stax / Volt ) on the tour , instead of more established Stax / Volt artists such as Rufus Thomas and William Bell , produced negative reactions .
= = = Monterey Pop = = =
In 1967 , Redding performed at the influential Monterey Pop Festival as the closing act on Saturday night , the second day of the festival . He was invited through the efforts of promoter Jerry Wexler . Until that point , Redding was still performing mainly for black audiences . His act , which included his own song " Respect " and a version of the Rolling Stones ' " Satisfaction " , was well received by the audience . Redding and his backing band ( Booker T. & the M.G. ' s with the Mar @-@ Keys horn section ) opened with Cooke 's " Shake " , after which he delivered an impulsive speech , asking the audience if they were the " love crowd " and looking for a big response . The ballad " I 've Been Loving You " followed . The last song was " Try a Little Tenderness " , including an additional chorus . " I got to go , y 'all , I don 't wanna go " , said Redding and left the stage of his last major concert . According to Booker T. Jones , " I think we did one of our best shows , Otis and the MG 's . That we were included in that was also something of a phenomenon . That we were there ? With those people ? They were accepting us and that was one of the things that really moved Otis . He was happy to be included and it brought him a new audience . It was greatly expanded in Monterey . " According to Sweet Soul Music , musicians such as Brian Jones and Jimi Hendrix were captivated by his performance ; Robert Christgau wrote in Esquire , " The Love Crowd screamed one 's mind to the heavens . "
Before Monterey , Redding wanted to record with Conley , but Stax was against the idea . The two moved from Memphis to Macon to continue writing . The result was " Sweet Soul Music " ( based on Cooke 's " Yeah Man " ) , which peaked at number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 . By that time Redding had developed polyps on his larynx , which he tried to treat with tea and lemon or honey . He was hospitalized in September 1967 at Mt . Sinai Hospital in New York to undergo surgery .
= = = " Dock of the Bay " = = =
In early December 1967 , Redding again recorded at Stax . One new song was " ( Sittin ' on ) The Dock of the Bay " , which was written with Cropper while they were staying with their friend , Earl " Speedo " Simms , on a houseboat in Sausalito . Redding was inspired by the Beatles album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band and tried to create a similar sound , against the label 's wishes . His wife Zelma disliked its atypical melody . The Stax crew were also dissatisfied with the new sound ; Stewart thought that it was not R & B , while bassist Donald " Duck " Dunn feared it would damage Stax 's reputation . However , Redding wanted to expand his musical style and thought it was his best song , correctly believing it would top the charts . He whistled at the end , either forgetting Cropper 's " fadeout rap " or paraphrasing it intentionally .
= = Death = =
By 1967 the band was traveling to performances in Redding 's Beechcraft H18 . On December 9 , 1967 , they appeared on the Upbeat television show produced in Cleveland . They played three concerts in two nights at a club called Leo 's Casino . After a phone call with Zelma and their children , Redding 's next stop was Madison , Wisconsin ; the next day they were to play at the Factory nightclub , near the University of Wisconsin .
Although the weather was poor , with heavy rain and fog , and despite warnings , the plane took off . Four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from their destination at Truax Field in Madison , the pilot radioed for permission to land . Shortly thereafter , the plane crashed into Lake Monona . Bar @-@ Kays member Ben Cauley , the accident 's only survivor , was sleeping shortly before the accident . He woke just before impact to see bandmate Phalon Jones look out a window and exclaim , " Oh , no ! " Cauley said the last thing he remembered before the crash was unbuckling his seat belt . He then found himself in frigid water , grasping a seat cushion to keep afloat . A non @-@ swimmer , he was unable to rescue the others . The cause of the crash was never determined . James Brown claimed in his autobiography The Godfather of Soul that he had warned Redding not to fly in the plane .
Aretha Franklin stated , " I heard it on the TV . My sister Caroline and I stopped everything and stayed glued to the TV and radio . It was a tragedy . Shocking . "
The other victims of the crash were four members of the Bar @-@ Kays — guitarist Jimmy King , tenor saxophonist Phalon Jones , organist Ronnie Caldwell and drummer Carl Cunningham ; their valet , Matthew Kelly ; and the pilot , Richard Fraser .
Redding 's body was recovered the next day when the lake was searched . The family postponed the funeral from December 15 to December 18 so that more could attend . The service took place at the City Auditorium in Macon . More than 4 @,@ 500 people came to the funeral , overflowing the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ seat hall , although many did not know who he was . Johnny Jenkins and Isaac Hayes did not attend , fearing their reaction would be worse than Zelma Redding 's . Redding was entombed at his ranch in Round Oak , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of Macon . Jerry Wexler delivered the eulogy . Redding died just three days after recording " The Dock of the Bay " . He was survived by Zelma and three children , Otis III , Dexter and Karla . Otis , Dexter and cousin Mark Lockett later founded the Reddings , a band managed by Zelma . She also maintained or worked at the janitorial service Maids Over Macon , several nightclubs and booking agencies . On November 8 , 1997 , a memorial plaque was placed on the lakeside deck of the Madison convention center , Monona Terrace .
= = = Posthumous releases and proposed recordings = = =
" ( Sittin ' on ) The Dock of the Bay " was released in January 1968 . It became Redding 's only single to reach number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and the first posthumous number @-@ one single in U.S. chart history . It sold approximately four million copies worldwide and received more than eight million airplays . The album The Dock of the Bay was the first posthumous album to reach the top spot on the UK Albums Chart .
Shortly after Redding 's death , Atlantic Records , distributor of the Stax / Volt releases , was purchased by Warner Bros. Stax was required to renegotiate its distribution deal and was surprised to learn that Atlantic actually owned the entire Stax / Volt catalog . Stax was unable to regain the rights to its recordings and severed its Atlantic relationship . Atlantic also held the rights to all unreleased Otis Redding masters . It had enough material for three studio albums — The Immortal Otis Redding ( 1968 ) , Love Man ( 1969 ) , and Tell the Truth ( 1970 ) — all issued on its Atco Records label . A number of successful singles emerged from these LPs , among them " Amen " ( 1968 ) , " Hard to Handle " ( 1968 ) , " I 've Got Dreams to Remember " ( 1968 ) , " Love Man " ( 1969 ) , and " Look at That Girl " ( 1969 ) . Singles were also lifted from two live Atlantic @-@ issued Redding albums , In Person at the Whisky a Go Go , recorded in 1966 and issued in 1968 on Atco , and Monterey International Pop Festival , a Reprise Records release featuring some of the live performances at the festival by the Jimi Hendrix Experience on side one and Redding on side two .
In September 2007 , the first official DVD anthology of Redding 's live performances was released by Concord Music Group , then owners of the Stax catalog . Dreams to Remember : The Legacy of Otis Redding featured 16 full @-@ length performances and 40 minutes of new interviews documenting his life and career . On May 18 , 2010 , Stax Records released a two @-@ disc recording of three complete sets from his Whisky a Go Go date in April 1966 .
Carla Thomas claimed that the pair had planned to record another duet album in December the same year , but Phil Walden denied this . Redding had proposed to record an album featuring cut and rearranged songs in different tempos ; for example , ballads would be uptempo and vice versa . Another suggestion was to record an album entirely consisting of country standards .
= = Personal life and wealth = =
Redding , who was 6 feet 1 inch ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) tall and weighed 220 pounds ( 100 kg ) , was an athletic family man who loved football and hunting . He was described as vigorous , trustworthy , full of fun and a successful businessman . He was active in philanthropic projects . His keen interest in black youth led to plans for a summer camp for disadvantaged children .
Redding 's music made him wealthy . According to several advertisements , he had around 200 suits and 400 pairs of shoes , and he earned about $ 35 @,@ 000 per week for his concerts . He spent about $ 125 @,@ 000 in the " Big O Ranch " . As the owner of Otis Redding Enterprises , his performances , music publishing ventures and royalties from record sales earned him more than a million dollars in 1967 alone . That year , one columnist said , " he sold more records than Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin combined . " After the release of Otis Blue , Redding became a " catalogue " artist , meaning his albums were not immediate blockbusters , but rather sold steadily over time .
= = Musicianship = =
= = = Style = = =
Early on Redding copied the rock and soul style of his role model Little Richard . He was also influenced by soul musicians such as Sam Cooke , whose live album Sam Cooke at the Copa was a strong influence , but later explored other popular genres . He studied the recordings of the Beatles and Bob Dylan . His song " Hard to Handle " has elements of rock and roll and influences of Eric Clapton and Jimi Hendrix . Most of his songs were categorized as Southern soul and Memphis soul .
His hallmark was his raw voice and ability to convey strong emotion . Richie Unterberger of Allmusic noted his " hoarse , gritty vocals , brassy arrangements , an emotional way with both party tunes and aching ballads . " In the book Rock and Roll : An Introduction , authors Michael Campbell and James Brody suggested that " Redding 's singing calls to mind a fervent black preacher . Especially in up @-@ tempo numbers , his singing is more than impassioned speech but less than singing with precise pitch . " According to the book , " Redding finds a rough midpoint between impassioned oratory and conventional singing . His delivery overflows with emotion " in his song " I Can 't Turn You Loose " . Booker T. Jones described Redding 's singing as energetic and emotional , but said that his vocal range was limited , reaching neither low nor high notes . Peter Buckley , in The Rough Guide to Rock , describes his " gruff voice , which combined Sam Cooke 's phrasing with a brawnier delivery " and later suggested he " could testify like a hell @-@ bent preacher , croon like a tender lover or get down and dirty with a bluesy yawp " .
Redding received advice from Rufus Thomas about his clumsy stage appearance . Jerry Wexler said Redding " didn 't know how to move " , and stood still , moving only his upper body , although he acknowledged that Redding was well received by audiences for his strong message . Guralnick described Redding 's painful vulnerability in Sweet Soul Music , as an attractive one for the audience , but not for his friends and partners . His early shyness was well known .
= = = Songwriting = = =
In his early career Redding mostly covered songs from popular artists , such as Richard , Cooke and Solomon Burke . Around the mid @-@ 1960s he began writing his own songs — always taking along his cheap red acoustic guitar — and sometimes asked for Stax members ' opinion of his lyrics . He often worked on lyrics with other musicians , such as Simms , Rodgers , Huckaby , Phil Walden and Cropper . During his recovery from his throat operation , Redding wrote about 30 songs in two weeks . Redding was the sole copyright holder on all of his songs .
In " ( Sittin ' on ) The Dock of the Bay " he abandoned familiar romantic themes for " sad , wistful introspections , amplified by unforgettable descending guitar riffs by Cropper " . The website of the Songwriters Hall of Fame noted that the song " was a kind of brooding , dark voicing of despair , ( ' I 've got nothin ' to live for / Look like nothin ' gonna come my way ' ) " although " his music , in general , was exultant and joyful . " According to journalist Ruth Robinson , author of the liner notes for the 1993 box set , " It is currently a revisionist theory to equate soul with the darker side of man 's musical expression , blues . That fanner of the flame of ' Trouble 's got a hold on me ' music , might well be the father of the form if it is , the glorified exaltation found in church on any Sunday morning is its mother . " The Songwriters Hall of Fame website adds that " glorified exaltation indeed was an apt description of Otis Redding 's songwriting and singing style . " Booker T. Jones compared Redding with Leonard Bernstein , stating , " He was the same type person . He was a leader . He 'd just lead with his arms and his body and his fingers . "
Redding favored short and simple lyrics ; when asked whether he intended to cover Dylan 's " Just Like a Woman " , he responded that the lyrics contained " too much text " . Furthermore , he stated in an interview ,
Basically , I like any music that remains simple and I feel this is the formula that makes " soul music " successful . When any music form becomes cluttered and / or complicated you lose the average listener 's ear . There is nothing more beautiful than a simple blues tune . There is beauty in simplicity whether you are talking about architecture , art or music .
Redding also authored his ( sometimes difficult ) recordings ' horn arrangements , humming to show the players what he had in mind . The recording of " Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa ( Sad Song ) " captures his habit of humming with the horn section .
= = Legacy = =
Redding has been called the " King of Soul " , an honorific also given to Brown and Cooke . He remains one of the genre 's most recognized artists . His lean and powerful style exemplified the Stax sound ; he was said to be " the heart and soul of Stax " , while artists such as Al Jackson , Dunn and Cropper helped to expand its structure . His open @-@ throated singing , the tremolo / vibrato , the manic , electrifying stage performances and perceived honesty were particular hallmarks , along with the use of interjections ( such as " gotta , gotta , gotta " ) , some of which came from Cooke . Producer Stewart thought the " begging singing " was stress @-@ induced and enhanced by Redding 's shyness .
Artists from many genres have named Redding as a musical influence . George Harrison called " Respect " an inspiration for " Drive My Car " . The Rolling Stones also mentioned Redding as a major influence . Other artists influenced by Redding include Led Zeppelin , Grateful Dead , Lynyrd Skynyrd , the Doors , and virtually every soul and R & B musician from the early years , such as Al Green , Etta James , William Bell , Aretha Franklin , Marvin Gaye and Conley . Musicians have covered or mixed his songs , notably Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z in their Grammy Award – winning song " Otis " . Janis Joplin was influenced by his singing style , according to Sam Andrew , a guitarist in her band Big Brother and the Holding Company . She stated that she learned " to push a song instead of just sliding over it " after hearing Redding .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inducted Redding in 1989 , declaring his name to be " synonymous with the term soul , music that arose out of the black experience in America through the transmutation of gospel and rhythm and blues into a form of funky , secular testifying . " Readers of the British music newspaper Melody Maker voted him the top vocalist of 1967 , superseding Elvis Presley , who had topped the list for the prior 10 years . In 1988 , he was inducted into the Georgia Music Hall of Fame . Five years later , the United States Post Office issued a 29 @-@ cent commemorative postage stamp in his honor . Redding was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1994 , and in 1999 he received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award . The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame included three Redding recordings , " Shake " , " ( Sittin ' on ) The Dock of the Bay " , and " Try a Little Tenderness , " on its list of " The 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll . " American music magazine Rolling Stone ranked Redding at number 21 on their list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " and eighth on their list of the " 100 Greatest Singers of All Time " . Q ranked Redding fourth among " 100 Greatest Singers " , after only Frank Sinatra , Franklin and Presley .
Five of his albums , Otis Blue : Otis Redding Sings Soul , Dreams to Remember : The Otis Redding Anthology , The Dock of the Bay , Complete & Unbelievable : The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul and Live in Europe , were ranked by Rolling Stone on their list of the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . The first album was singled out for praise by music critics ; apart from the Rolling Stone listing at number 74 , NME ranked it 35 on their list of the " Greatest Albums of All Time " . Music critic Robert Christgau said that Otis Blue was " the first great album by one of soul 's few reliable long @-@ form artists " , and that Redding 's " original LPs were among the most intelligently conceived black albums of the ' 60s " .
In 2002 , the city of Macon honored its native son by unveiling a memorial statue ( 32 ° 50 ′ 19 @.@ 05 ″ N 83 ° 37 ′ 17 @.@ 30 ″ W ) in the city 's Gateway Park . The park is next to the Otis Redding Memorial Bridge , which crosses the Ocmulgee River . The Otis Redding Memorial Library is also housed in the city . The Rhythm and Blues Foundation named Redding as the recipient of its 2006 Pioneer Award . Billboard awarded Redding the " Otis Redding Excellence Award " the same year . A year later he was inducted into the Hollywood 's Rockwalk in California . On August 17 , 2013 , in Cleveland , Ohio , the city where he did his last show at Leo 's Casino , Redding was inducted into the inaugural class of the Official Rhythm & Blues Music Hall of Fame at Cleveland State University .
= = Discography = =
= Halo 2 =
Halo 2 is a 2004 first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Bungie Studios . Released for the Xbox video game console on November 9 , 2004 , the game is the second installment in the Halo franchise and the sequel to 2001 's critically acclaimed Halo : Combat Evolved . A Microsoft Windows version of the game was released on May 31 , 2007 , developed by an internal team at Microsoft Game Studios known as Hired Gun . The game features a new game engine , as well as using the Havok physics engine ; added weapons and vehicles , and new multiplayer maps . The player alternately assumes the roles of the human Master Chief and the alien Arbiter in a 26th @-@ century conflict between the human United Nations Space Command and genocidal Covenant .
After the success of Combat Evolved , a sequel was expected and highly anticipated . Bungie found inspiration in plot points and gameplay elements that had been left out of their first game , including multiplayer over the Internet through Xbox Live . Time constraints forced a series of cutbacks in the size and scope of the game , including a cliffhanger ending to the game 's campaign mode that left many in the studio dissatisfied . Among Halo 2 's marketing efforts was an alternate reality game called " I Love Bees " that involved players solving real @-@ world puzzles .
On release , Halo 2 was the most popular video game on Xbox Live , holding that rank until the release of Gears of War for the Xbox 360 nearly two years later . By June 20 , 2006 , more than 500 million games of Halo 2 had been played and more than 710 million hours have been spent playing it on Xbox Live ; by May 9 , 2007 , the number of unique players had risen to over five million . Halo 2 is the best @-@ selling first @-@ generation Xbox game with at least 6 @.@ 3 million copies sold in the United States alone . The game received critical acclaim , with most publications lauding the strong multiplayer component . The campaign however , was the focus of criticism for its cliffhanger ending .
A high @-@ definition remake of Halo 2 was released as part of Halo : The Master Chief Collection on November 11 , 2014 , for the Xbox One .
= = Gameplay = =
Halo 2 is a shooter game , with players predominantly experiencing gameplay from a first @-@ person perspective . Players use a combination of human and alien weaponry and vehicles to progress through the game 's levels . The player 's health bar is not visible , but players are instead equipped with a damage @-@ absorbing shield that regenerates when not taking fire .
Certain weapons can be dual @-@ wielded , allowing the player to trade accuracy , the use of grenades and melee attacks for raw firepower . The player can carry two weapons at a time ( or three if dual @-@ wielding ; one weapon remains holstered ) , with each weapon having advantages and disadvantages in different combat situations . For example , most Covenant weapons eschew disposable ammo clips for a contained battery , which cannot be replaced if depleted . However , these weapons can overheat if fired continuously for prolonged periods . Human weapons are less effective at penetrating shields and require reloading , but cannot overheat due to prolonged fire . The player can carry a total of eight grenades ( four human grenades , four Covenant ) to dislodge and disrupt enemies . New in Halo 2 is the ability to board enemy vehicles that are near the player and traveling at low speeds . The player or AI latches onto the vehicle and forcibly ejects the other driver from the vehicle .
= = = Campaign = = =
The game 's " Campaign " mode offers options for both single @-@ player and cooperative multiplayer participation . In campaign mode , the player must complete a series of levels that encompass Halo 2 's storyline . These levels alternate between the Master Chief and a Covenant Elite called the Arbiter , who occupy diametrically opposed roles in the story 's conflict . Aside from variations in storyline , the Arbiter differs from Master Chief only in that his armor lacks a flashlight ; instead , it is equipped with a short duration rechargeable form of active camouflage that disappears when the player attacks or takes damage .
There are four levels of difficulty in campaign mode : Easy , Normal , Heroic , and Legendary . An increase in difficulty will result in an increase in the number , rank , health , damage , and accuracy of enemies ; a reduction of duration and an increase in recharge time for the Arbiter 's active camouflage ; a decrease in the player 's health and shields ; and occasional changes in dialog .
There is hidden content within the game , including Easter eggs , messages , hidden objects , and weapons . The most well known of the hidden content are the skulls hidden on every level . The skulls , which can be picked up like a weapon , are located in hard @-@ to @-@ reach places . Many are exclusive to the Legendary mode of difficulty . Once activated , each skull has a specific effect on gameplay . For example , the " Sputnik " skull found on the Quarantine Zone level alters the mass of objects in the game ; thus resulting in explosions being able to launch these objects across larger distances . Skull effects can be combined to provide various new levels of difficulty and / or novelty .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Like Halo : Combat Evolved , the Xbox version of Halo 2 features a multiplayer system that allows players to compete with each other in split @-@ screen and system link modes ; in addition , it adds support for online multiplayer via Xbox Live .
Halo 2 introduced an entirely new paradigm for matchmaking players together . In earlier games , one person specifies a game type and map and configures other settings , before setting up his or her device as a game server and advertising the game to the world at large . Halo 2 introduced a " playlist " system that automated this process to keep a steady flow of games available at all times , and layered a skill @-@ ranking system on top .
The Xbox Live multiplayer and downloadable content features of the Xbox version of Halo 2 were supported until the discontinuation of the service in April 2010 . The online multiplayer of Halo 2 for Windows Vista uses Games for Windows – Live . In January 2013 , it was reported that the PC multiplayer servers would be taken offline on February 15 , 2013 , due to inactivity . On February 12 , 2013 , it was announced that the multiplayer servers for Halo 2 on PC would remain online until June , while further support options would be investigated .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Halo 2 takes place in the 26th century . Humans , under the auspices of the United Nations Space Command or UNSC , have developed faster @-@ than @-@ light slipspace travel and colonized numerous worlds . According to the game 's backstory , the outer colony world of Harvest was decimated by a collective of alien races known as the Covenant in 2525 . Declaring humanity an affront to their gods , the Forerunners , the Covenant begin to systemically obliterate the humans with their superior numbers and technology . After the human bastion at the planet Reach is destroyed , a single ship , The Pillar of Autumn , follows protocol and initiates a random slipspace jump to lead the Covenant away from Earth . The crew discovers a Forerunner ringworld called Halo , which the Covenant wants to activate because of their religious belief that the activation of the ring will bring about a " Great Journey , " sweeping loyal Covenant to salvation . Leading a guerilla insurgency on the ring 's surface , the humans discover that the rings are actually weapons of last resort built to contain a terrifying parasite called the Flood . The human supersoldier Master Chief Petty Officer John @-@ 117 and his AI companion Cortana learn from Halo 's AI monitor , 343 Guilty Spark , that activation of the Halos will prevent the spread of the Flood by destroying all sentient life the parasite can subsist on in the galaxy . Instead of activating the ring , however , the Master Chief evades Guilty Spark and his robots and detonates the Pillar of Autumn 's engines , destroying the installation and preventing the escape of the Flood . The Master Chief and Cortana race back to Earth to warn of an impending invasion by Covenant forces .
= = = Plot = = =
Taking place shortly after the events of the novel Halo : First Strike , Halo 2 opens with the trial of Thel ' Vadam , a Covenant Elite commander aboard the Covenant 's mobile capital city of High Charity . The Elite is stripped of his rank , branded a heretic for failing to stop the humans from destroying Halo , and is tortured by Tartarus , the Chieftain of the Covenant Brutes . On Earth , the Master Chief and Sergeant Avery Johnson are commended for their actions at Halo . Lord Terrence Hood awards the soldiers alongside Commander Miranda Keyes , who accepts a medal on behalf of her deceased father , Captain Jacob Keyes .
A Covenant fleet appears outside Earth 's defensive perimeter and begins an invasion of the planet . While the UNSC repels most of the fleet , a single Covenant cruiser carrying an important member of the Covenant hierarchy , the High Prophet of Regret , assaults the city of New Mombasa , Kenya . The Master Chief assists in clearing the city of Covenant ; with his fleet destroyed , Regret makes a hasty slipspace jump , and Keyes , Johnson , Cortana and the Master Chief follow aboard the UNSC ship In Amber Clad . The crew discover another Halo installation ; realizing the danger the ring presents , Keyes sends the Master Chief to kill Regret while she and Johnson find Halo 's key to activation , the Index .
Meanwhile , the disgraced Covenant commander is presented before the Prophet Hierarchs , who acknowledge that though the destruction of Halo was his fault , he is no heretic . They offer him the honored position of Arbiter so that he can continue to fight for the Covenant . On his first mission to kill a heretic , the Arbiter discovers 343 Guilty Spark , who the Covenant calls an " oracle , " and brings him back to High Charity . Responding to Regret 's distress call , High Charity and the Covenant fleet arrive at the new Halo , Installation 05 , just before the Master Chief kills Regret . Bombarded from space , the Chief falls into a lake and is rescued by a mysterious tentacled creature .
Regret 's death triggers discord among the races of the Covenant , as the Hierarchs have given the Brutes the Elites ' traditional job of protecting them in the wake of the death . The Arbiter is sent to find Halo 's Index and captures it , Johnson , and Keyes before being confronted by Tartarus . He reveals to the Arbiter that the Prophets have ordered the annihilation of the Elites , and sends the Arbiter falling down a deep chasm .
The Arbiter is saved by the tentacled creature and meets the Master Chief in the bowels of the installation . The creature , Gravemind , is the leader of the Flood on Installation 05 . The Gravemind reveals to the Arbiter that the Great Journey would destroy Flood , humans , and Covenant altogether , and sends both the Arbiter and Master Chief to different places to stop Halo 's activation . The Master Chief is teleported into High Charity , where a civil war has broken out among the Covenant ; In Amber Clad crashes into the city , and Cortana realizes that Gravemind used them as a distraction to infest In Amber Clad and spread the Flood . As the parasite overruns the city , consuming the Prophet of Mercy in the process , the Prophet of Truth orders Tartarus to take Keyes , Johnson , and Guilty Spark to Halo 's control room and activate the ring . The Master Chief follows Truth aboard a Forerunner ship leaving the city ; Cortana remains behind to destroy High Charity and Halo if Tartarus succeeds in activating the ring .
The Arbiter is sent to the surface of Halo , where he rallies his allies to assault the Brute 's position . With the help of Johnson , he confronts Tartarus in Halo 's control room . When the Arbiter tries to convince Tartarus that the Prophets have betrayed them both , Tartarus angrily activates the ring , and a battle ensues . The Arbiter and Johnson manage to kill Tartarus while Keyes removes the Index . Instead of shutting down the ring entirely , a system wide fail @-@ safe protocol is triggered , putting Installation 05 and all the other Halo rings on standby for activation from a remote location , which Guilty Spark refers to as " the Ark " . As Truth 's ship arrives amidst a raging battle on Earth , Hood asks the Master Chief what he is doing aboard the ship . The Chief replies , " Sir , finishing this fight . "
In a post @-@ credits scene , Gravemind is seen arriving on High Charity , where Cortana agrees to answer the Flood intelligence 's questions .
= = Development = =
Halo had never been planned as a trilogy , but with the critical and commercial success of Combat Evolved , a sequel was expected . Bungie writer and cinematic director Joseph Staten recalled that during Combat Evolved 's development , Bungie " certainly had strong ideas for extending the story and gameplay experience that we knew we couldn 't fit into one game " . The added publisher support for a sequel allowed greater leeway and the ability to return to more ambitious ideas lost during Combat Evolved 's development .
An important feature for Halo 2 was multiplayer . Multiplayer in Combat Evolved was accomplished via System Link , and only came together weeks before the game was released . Most players never played large maps , while a subset greatly enjoyed 16 @-@ player action via four networked consoles . " We looked at the small set of fans who were able to do this , " said engineering lead Chris Butcher , " and just how much they were enjoying themselves , and asked ourselves if we could bring that to everybody . That would be something really special , really unique . "
The story for Halo 2 grew out of all the elements that were not seen in Halo : Combat Evolved . Jason Jones organized his core ideas for the sequel 's story and approached Staten for input . According to Staten , among the elements that did not make it to the finished game was a " horrible scene of betrayal " where Miranda Keyes straps a bomb to the Master Chief 's back and throws him into a hole ; " Jason was going through a rather difficult breakup at the time and I think that had something to do with it , " he said .
Halo 2 was officially announced in September 2002 with a cinematic trailer , subsequently packaged with Halo : Combat Evolved DVDs . A real @-@ time gameplay video was shown at E3 2003 , which was the first actual gameplay seen by the public ; it showcased new features such as dual @-@ wielding and improved graphics . Many elements of the trailer , however , were not game @-@ ready ; the entire graphics engine used in the footage had to be discarded , and the trailer 's environment never appeared in the final game due to limitations on how big the game environments could be . The restructuring of the engine meant that there was no playable build of Halo 2 for nearly a year , and assets and environments produced by art and design teams could not be prototyped .
In order to ship the game , Bungie began paring back their ambitions for the single- and multiplayer parts of the game . Chris Butcher commented , " For Halo 2 we had our sights set very high on networking . ... Going from having no Internet multiplayer to developing a completely new online model was a big challenge to tackle all at once , and as a result we had to leave a lot of things undone in order to meet the ship date commitment that we made to our fans . " With only a year to go until release , Bungie went into the " mother of all crunches " in order to finish the game ; in a 2007 interview , Jamie Griesemer , one of Halo 's design leads , said that this lack of a " polish " period near the end of the development cycle was the main reason for Halo 2 's shortcomings . Butcher retrospectively described Halo 2 's multiplayer mode as " a pale shadow of what it could and should have been if we had gotten the timing of our schedule right " ; the campaign mode 's abrupt cliffhanger ending also resulted from the frenzy to ship on time .
= = = Windows version = = =
On February 9 , 2006 , Nick Baron announced that a version of Halo 2 would be released on PC , exclusively for the Windows Vista operating system . While this was a deliberate decision by Microsoft to push sales of Vista , the game could be enabled to play on Windows XP through an unauthorized third @-@ party patch . The game was ported by a small team at Microsoft Game Studios ( codenamed Hired Gun ) who worked closely with Bungie . As one of the launch titles of Games for Windows – Live , the game offered Live features not available in the Xbox version , such as guide support and achievements . The Windows port also added two exclusive multiplayer maps and a map editor .
Halo 2 for Windows Vista was originally scheduled for release on May 8 , 2007 , but the release was pushed back to May 31 on the discovery of partial nudity in the game 's map editor – a photograph of a man mooning the camera was presented as part of the " .ass " error message . Microsoft offered patches to remove the nude content and revised the box ratings .
= = = Cheating and updates = = =
A common complaint regarding Halo 2 's online play was widespread cheating , which began occurring almost immediately after the game 's release . Users exploited bugs in the game and vulnerabilities of the network to win ranked games and thus increase their matchmaking rank .
Some players used " standbying " to cheat , in which the player hosting the game intentionally presses the standby button on his or her modem ; this results in all players except the cheaters freezing in place . This way , the cheater would be given time to accomplish an objective in the game . " Dummying " involves using an Elite character and a vehicle , exploiting a glitch which would cause a doppelganger of the player to appear . Cheating also includes softmodding , in which a player uses devices such as Action Replay and computer programs to gain unfair advantages , and bridging , which uses computer programs to give a player " host " status , and therefore the ability to disconnect other players from the game session . A game exploitation called " superbouncing " or " superjumping " is labeled cheating by many in the Xbox Live community , and Bungie employees have described it as cheating when used in matchmaking . Another exploit called " BXR " allowed players to melee , cancel the animation , and quickly attack for an instant kill ; this exploit and many others were removed from the game 's sequel .
Bungie released several map packs for Halo 2 , both over Xbox Live and on game discs . The Multiplayer Map Pack is an expansion pack intended to make Xbox Live content and updates available to offline players , and was released on July 5 , 2005 . The disk contains the game 's software update , all nine new multiplayer maps , a documentary about the making of the maps , and a bonus cinematic called " Another Day on the Beach " , among other features .
On March 30 , 2007 , Bungie announced that two new maps would be available on April 17 , 2007 . Bungie 's own Frank O 'Connor confirmed that both Xbox and Xbox 360 users would have access to the content . The two new maps were remakes of maps from the original Halo : Combat Evolved , " Hang em ' High " and " Derelict " . Due to issues with distribution of the maps , the updates which made the maps mandatory was released on May 9 , 2007 , later than planned . Bungie also reset all ranks for Halo 2 at the same time . On July 7 , also known as " Bungie Day " , Bungie released the map pack called the " Blastacular Map Pack " for free .
= = Soundtrack = =
Halo 2 's soundtrack was composed primarily by Martin O 'Donnell and his musical partner Michael Salvatori , the team that had composed the critically acclaimed music of Halo . O 'Donnell noted in composing the music for Halo 2 that " Making a sequel is never a simple proposition . You want to make everything that was cool even better , and leave out all the stuff that was weak . " O 'Donnell made sure that no part of the game would be completely silent , noting " Ambient sound is one of the main ways to immerse people psychologically . A dark room is spooky , but add a creaking floorboard and rats skittering in the walls and it becomes really creepy . " Halo 2 , unlike its predecessor , was mixed to take full advantage of Dolby 5 @.@ 1 Digital surround sound .
In the summer of 2004 , producer Nile Rodgers and O 'Donnell decided to release the music from Halo 2 on two separate CDs ; the first ( Volume One ) would contain all the themes present in the game as well as music " inspired " by the game ; the second would contain the rest of the music from the game , much of which was incomplete , as the first CD was shipped before the game was released . The first CD was released on November 9 , 2004 , and featured guitar backing by Steve Vai . Additional tracks included various outside musicians , including Steve Vai , Incubus , Breaking Benjamin , and Hoobastank . The Halo 2 Original Soundtrack : Volume Two CD , containing the game music organized in suite form , was released on April 25 , 2006 .
= = Release = =
The release of Halo 2 was preceded with numerous promotions , product tie @-@ ins , and movie trailer @-@ like commercials . There was a Halo 2 Celebrity Pre @-@ Release Party at E3 2004 , in which a private home was transformed to replicate the world of Halo , complete with camouflaged Marines and roaming Cortanas .
In addition to more traditional forms of promotion , Halo 2 was also part of an elaborate Alternate Reality Game project titled " I Love Bees , " which cost an estimated one million dollars . This " game " centered on a hacked website , supposedly a site about beekeeping , where an AI from the future was residing . The project garnered significant attention from sites including Slashdot and Wired News ; Wired noted that the game was drawing attention away from the 2004 Presidential Election . The game won an award for creativity at the 5th annual Game Developers Choice Awards and was nominated for a Webby award . On the morning of October 14 , 2004 , a leak of the French version of the game was posted on the Internet , and circulated widely .
Halo 2 was sold in both a standard and " Limited Collector 's Edition " . The Collector 's Edition features the regular edition and includes several promotional offers , a special cover and a special DVD of the making of Halo 2 . The instructional booklet is also written from the Covenant point of view rather than from the UNSC point of view used in the regular edition . Also enclosed is the " Conversations from the Universe " booklet that contains additional information from both the human and the Covenant side of the Halo storyline ; transcripts are available online . The game is enclosed in an aluminum case with the Halo 2 logo .
The first official release of Halo 2 was in Canada , Australia , New Zealand and the United States on November 9 , 2004 . Anticipation for the game was high ; three weeks before this release , a record 1 @.@ 5 million copies had already been pre @-@ ordered . Massive lines formed at midnight releases of the game ; the event garnered significant media attention . This was followed by releases on November 10 , 2004 in France and other European countries , and November 11 in the UK . The game sold 2 @.@ 4 million copies and earned up to US $ 125 million in its first 24 hours on store shelves , thus out @-@ grossing the film Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest as the highest grossing release in entertainment history . The game sold 260 @,@ 000 units in the United Kingdom in its first week , making it the third fastest @-@ selling title in that territory . On June 20 , 2006 , Xbox.com reported that more than a half @-@ billion games of Halo 2 have been played on Xbox Live since its debut . Halo 2 is the best @-@ selling first @-@ generation Xbox game with 8 @.@ 46 million copies sold by November 2008 . As of September 25 , 2007 , Halo 2 was the fifth best @-@ selling video game in the United States with 6 @.@ 3 million copies sold , according to the NPD Group . From the day of its initial release and up until mid @-@ November 2006 , Halo 2 was the most popular video game on Xbox Live , even after the release of the Xbox 360 ; its position was eventually surpassed in 2006 by the 360 @-@ exclusive Gears of War . Halo and Halo 2 are still some of the most played games for the Xbox console .
= = Reception = =
Halo 2 received critical acclaim . On review aggregate sites GameRankings and Metacritic , the game has attained overall scores of 94 @.@ 57 % and 95 out of 100 , respectively . Halo 2 received multiple awards , including Best Console game and Best Sound Design from the Interactive Achievement Awards . According to Xbox.com , the game has received more than 38 individual awards .
Many reviewers praised the audio for being especially vivid . Multiplayer especially was noted in being the best on Xbox Live at the time . Game Informer , along with numerous other publications , rated it higher than Halo : Combat Evolved , citing enhanced multiplayer and less repetitive gameplay . Most critics noted that Halo 2 stuck with the formula that made its predecessor successful , and was alternatively praised and faulted for this decision . Edge 's review concluded that Halo 2 could be summed up with a line from its script : " It 's not a new plan . But we know it 'll work . "
The game 's campaign mode received some criticism for being too short , and for featuring an abrupt cliffhanger ending . GameSpot noted that although the story 's switching between the Covenant and human factions made the plot more intricate , it distracted the player from Earth 's survival and the main point of the game ; while Edge labeled the plot " a confusing mess of fan @-@ fiction sci @-@ fi and bemusing Episode @-@ II @-@ style politics . "
The Windows version of the game received mixed reviews , with IGN rating it a 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , and GameSpot giving it a 7 @.@ 0 / 10 . Most criticism was due to the late release date , and the graphics being dated . It received an aggregate score of 72 @.@ 67 % from GameRankings and 72 out of 100 from Metacritic .
= = = Legacy = = =
Several publications have listed Halo 2 's innovative matchmaking technology as one of the turning points in the gaming industry during the 2000s . Television channel G4 's Sterling McGarvey wrote that " Bungie 's sequel was a shot in the arm for Xbox Live subscriptions and previewed many of the features that would set the standard for Microsoft 's online service on the next machine " . The editors of Popular Mechanics listed Halo 2 as one of the top fifteen events of the decade , crediting the game with bringing online multiplayer to the console masses . The Province 's Paul Chapman concurred , writing that games like Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 2 would not be as enjoyable to play if not for the ground Halo 2 broke .
= Hidden Treasures ( EP ) =
Hidden Treasures is an EP by American thrash metal band Megadeth , released on July 18 , 1995 by Capitol Records . The album features songs that first appeared on movie soundtracks and tribute albums . Four of the tracks were released as singles , and three have received Grammy Award nominations for Best Metal Performance . Despite having garnered mediocre or negative reviews , the material on the EP has been credited with helping expand the group 's MTV audience in the early 1990s .
= = Background and songs = =
Hidden Treasures is a rarities compilation that features songs that Megadeth had recorded for a number of projects , but had not released on one of the band 's studio albums . Most of these were contributions to film soundtracks . In 1989 , Megadeth recorded a version of Alice Cooper 's " No More Mr. Nice Guy " for the soundtrack to the Wes Craven @-@ directed horror film Shocker . It marks drummer Nick Menza 's recording debut with the band . The recording was released as a single and peaked at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart in 1990 . " Go to Hell " appeared on the Bill and Ted 's Bogus Journey soundtrack in 1991 . The song features the same prayer used in " Enter Sandman " by Metallica , and can be heard at the beginning of the track .
The band contributed three songs to soundtracks in 1993 . " Angry Again " , recorded during the sessions for Countdown to Extinction , appeared on the soundtrack to Last Action Hero and received a nomination for " Best Metal Performance " at the 1993 Grammy Awards . The song has appeared on several of the band 's compilations . " Breakpoint " appeared on the soundtrack for the Super Mario Bros. film . " 99 Ways to Die " was recorded for the soundtrack to The Beavis and Butt @-@ head Experience and released as a single and a music video . It was nominated in the " Best Metal Performance " category at the 1995 Grammy Awards .
" Diadems " was released on the Demon Night soundtrack in 1995 . In addition to soundtrack contributions , the band submitted a cover of Black Sabbath 's " Paranoid " for the tribute album Nativity in Black in 1994 . It was nominated for " Best Metal Performance " at the 1996 Grammy Awards . " Problems " is a Sex Pistols cover and was previously unreleased .
= = Release and reception = =
While initially released in Europe as a bonus disc for a special edition of Youthanasia , Hidden Treasures was released as a stand @-@ alone EP in Japan and the US on July 18 , 1995 . It debuted at number 90 on the Billboard 200 chart and sold 13 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . By December 2005 , Hidden Treasures sold 286 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It also appeared on album charts in the UK and Japan , but did not achieve notable success . The album has gone out of print in the US , but was reissued in 2007 for the Japanese and European markets .
The EP has received generally mediocre reaction from critics . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that the EP doesn 't have many " first @-@ rate songs " and that only " 99 Ways to Die " made an impression . The Rolling Stone Album Guide was dismissive of the EP ; the staff reviewer commented that the album is worth hearing only for " 99 Ways to Die " . Dean Golemis of the Chicago Tribune wrote that the album is " typical Megadeth " featuring " fast @-@ forward riffing " and " snooty snarling " vocals .
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admitted to hospital . Rotavirus infections occur primarily during cool , dry seasons . The number attributable to food contamination is unknown .
Outbreaks of rotavirus A diarrhoea are common among hospitalised infants , young children attending day care centres , and elderly people in nursing homes . An outbreak caused by contaminated municipal water occurred in Colorado in 1981 . During 2005 , the largest recorded epidemic of diarrhoea occurred in Nicaragua . This unusually large and severe outbreak was associated with mutations in the rotavirus A genome , possibly helping the virus escape the prevalent immunity in the population . A similar large outbreak occurred in Brazil in 1977 .
Rotavirus B , also called adult diarrhoea rotavirus or ADRV , has caused major epidemics of severe diarrhoea affecting thousands of people of all ages in China . These epidemics occurred as a result of sewage contamination of drinking water . Rotavirus B infections also occurred in India in 1998 ; the causative strain was named CAL . Unlike ADRV , the CAL strain is endemic . To date , epidemics caused by rotavirus B have been confined to mainland China , and surveys indicate a lack of immunity to this species in the United States .
Rotavirus C has been associated with rare and sporadic cases of diarrhoea in children , and small outbreaks have occurred in families .
= = Prevention = =
Because improved sanitation does not decrease the prevalence of rotaviral disease , and the rate of hospitalizations remains high despite the use of oral rehydrating medicines , the primary public health intervention is vaccination . Two vaccines against Rotavirus A infection are safe and effective in children : Rotarix by GlaxoSmithKline and RotaTeq by Merck . Both are taken orally and contain attenuated live virus . In 2009 , the World Health Organization ( WHO ) recommended that rotavirus vaccine be included in all national immunisation programmes . The incidence and severity of rotavirus infections has declined significantly in countries that have acted on this recommendation . In Mexico , which in 2006 was among the first countries in the world to introduce rotavirus vaccine , diarrhoeal disease death rates dropped during the 2009 rotavirus season by more than 65 percent among children age two and under . In Nicaragua , which in 2006 became the first developing country to introduce a rotavirus vaccine , severe rotavirus infections were reduced by 40 percent and emergency room visits by a half . In the United States , rotavirus vaccination since 2006 has led to drops in rotavirus @-@ related hospitalizations by as much as 86 percent . The vaccines may also have prevented illness in non @-@ vaccinated children by limiting the number of circulating infections .
Rotavirus vaccines are licensed in more than 100 countries , but only 28 countries have introduced routine rotavirus vaccination . Following the introduction of routine rotavirus vaccination in the US in 2006 , the health burden of rotavirus gastroenteritis " rapidly and dramatically reduced " despite lower coverage levels compared to other routine infant immunizations . Clinical trials of the Rotarix rotavirus vaccine in South Africa and Malawi , found that the vaccine significantly reduced severe diarrhoea episodes caused by rotavirus , and that the infection was preventable by vaccination . Safety and efficacy trials of Rotarix and RotaTeq in Africa and Asia found that the vaccines dramatically reduced severe disease among infants in developing countries , where the majority of rotavirus deaths occur . A 2012 Cochrane review of 41 clinical trials that included 186 @,@ 263 participants concluded Rotarix and RotaTeq are effective vaccines . Additional rotavirus vaccines are under development . In September 2013 , the vaccine was offered to all children in the UK , aged between two and three months , and it is expected to halve the cases of severe infection and reduce the number of children admitted to hospital because of the infection by 70 percent .
International non @-@ governmental organization PATH , the WHO , the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , and the GAVI Alliance are working to bring rotavirus vaccines to developing countries , where children face the greatest burden . Through the Rotavirus Vaccine Program and the Accelerating Vaccine Introduction initiative , these groups are partnering with research institutions and governments to reduce child morbidity and mortality from diarrhoeal disease by making a vaccine against rotavirus available for use in developing countries .
= = Infections of other animals = =
Rotaviruses infect the young of many species of animals and they are a major cause of diarrhoea in wild and reared animals worldwide . As a pathogen of livestock , notably in young calves and piglets , rotaviruses cause economic loss to farmers because of costs of treatment associated with high morbidity and mortality rates . These rotaviruses are a potential reservoir for genetic exchange with human rotaviruses . There is evidence that animal rotaviruses can infect humans , either by direct transmission of the virus or by contributing one or several RNA segments to reassortants with human strains .
= = Virology = =
= = = Types of rotavirus = = =
There are eight species of rotavirus , referred to as A , B , C , D , E , F , G , and H. Humans are primarily infected by species A , B and C , most commonly by species A. A – E species cause disease in other animals . Within rotavirus A there are different strains , called serotypes . As with influenza virus , a dual classification system is used based on two proteins on the surface of the virus . The glycoprotein VP7 defines the G serotypes and the protease @-@ sensitive protein VP4 defines P serotypes . Because the two genes that determine G @-@ types and P @-@ types can be passed on separately to progeny viruses , different combinations are found .
= = = Structure = = =
The genome of rotavirus consists of 11 unique double helix molecules of RNA which are 18 @,@ 555 nucleotides in total . Each helix , or segment , is a gene , numbered 1 to 11 by decreasing size . Each gene codes for one protein , except genes 9 , which codes for two . The RNA is surrounded by a three @-@ layered icosahedral protein capsid . Viral particles are up to 76 @.@ 5 nm in diameter and are not enveloped .
= = = Proteins = = =
There are six viral proteins ( VPs ) that form the virus particle ( virion ) . These structural proteins are called VP1 , VP2 , VP3 , VP4 , VP6 and VP7 . In addition to the VPs , there are six nonstructural proteins ( NSPs ) , that are only produced in cells infected by rotavirus . These are called NSP1 , NSP2 , NSP3 , NSP4 , NSP5 and NSP6 .
At least six of the twelve proteins encoded by the rotavirus genome bind RNA . The role of these proteins play in rotavirus replication is not entirely understood ; their functions are thought to be related to RNA synthesis and packaging in the virion , mRNA transport to the site of genome replication , and mRNA translation and regulation of gene expression .
= = = = Structural proteins = = = =
VP1 is located in the core of the virus particle and is an RNA polymerase enzyme . In an infected cell this enzyme produces mRNA transcripts for the synthesis of viral proteins and produces copies of the rotavirus genome RNA segments for newly produced virus particles .
VP2 forms the core layer of the virion and binds the RNA genome .
VP3 is part of the inner core of the virion and is an enzyme called guanylyl transferase . This is a capping enzyme that catalyses the formation of the 5 ' cap in the post @-@ transcriptional modification of mRNA . The cap stabilises viral mRNA by protecting it from nucleic acid degrading enzymes called nucleases .
VP4 is on the surface of the virion that protrudes as a spike . It binds to molecules on the surface of cells called receptors and drives the entry of the virus into the cell . VP4 has to be modified by the protease enzyme trypsin , which is found in the gut , into VP5 * and VP8 * before the virus is infectious . VP4 determines how virulent the virus is and it determines the P @-@ type of the virus .
VP6 forms the bulk of the capsid . It is highly antigenic and can be used to identify rotavirus species . This protein is used in laboratory tests for rotavirus A infections .
VP7 is a glycoprotein that forms the outer surface of the virion . Apart from its structural functions , it determines the G @-@ type of the strain and , along with VP4 , is involved in immunity to infection .
= = = = Nonstructural viral proteins = = = =
NSP1 , the product of gene 5 , is a nonstructural RNA @-@ binding protein . NSP1 also blocks the interferon response , the part of the innate immune system that protects cells from viral infection . NSP1 causes the proteosome to degrade key signaling components required to stimulate production of interferon in an infected cell and to respond to interferon secreted by adjacent cells . Targets for degradation include several IRF transcription factors required for interferon gene transcription .
NSP2 is an RNA @-@ binding protein that accumulates in cytoplasmic inclusions ( viroplasms ) and is required for genome replication .
NSP3 is bound to viral mRNAs in infected cells and it is responsible for the shutdown of cellular protein synthesis . NSP3 inactivates two translation initiation factors essential for synthesis of proteins from host mRNA . First , NSP3 ejects poly ( A ) -binding protein ( PABP ) from the translation initiation factor eIF4F . PABP is required for efficient translation of transcripts with a 3 ' poly ( A ) tail , which is found on most host cell transcripts . Second , NSP3 inactivates eIF2 by stimulating its phosphorylation . Efficient translation of rotavirus mRNA , which lacks the 3 ' poly ( A ) tail , does not require either of these factors .
NSP4 is a viral enterotoxin that induces diarrhoea and was the first viral enterotoxin discovered .
NSP5 is encoded by genome segment 11 of rotavirus A. In virus @-@ infected cells NSP5 accumulates in the viroplasm .
NSP6 is a nucleic acid binding protein and is encoded by gene 11 from an out @-@ of @-@ phase open reading frame .
This table is based on the simian rotavirus strain SA11 . RNA @-@ protein coding assignments differ in some strains .
= = = Replication = = =
Rotaviruses replicate mainly in the gut , and infect enterocytes of the villi of the small intestine , leading to structural and functional changes of the epithelium . The triple protein coats make them resistant to the acidic pH of the stomach and the digestive enzymes in the gut .
The virus enter cells by receptor mediated endocytosis and form a vesicle known as an endosome . Proteins in the third layer ( VP7 and the VP4 spike ) disrupt the membrane of the endosome , creating a difference in the calcium concentration . This causes the breakdown of VP7 trimers into single protein subunits , leaving the VP2 and VP6 protein coats around the viral dsRNA , forming a double @-@ layered particle ( DLP ) .
The eleven dsRNA strands remain within the protection of the two protein shells and the viral RNA @-@ dependent RNA polymerase creates mRNA transcripts of the double @-@ stranded viral genome . By remaining in the core , the viral RNA evades innate host immune responses called RNA interference that are triggered by the presence of double @-@ stranded RNA .
During the infection , rotavirus produces mRNA for both protein biosynthesis and gene replication . Most of the rotavirus proteins accumulate in viroplasm , where the RNA is replicated and the DLPs are assembled . Viroplasm is formed around the cell nucleus as early as two hours after virus infection , and consists of viral factories thought to be made by two viral nonstructural proteins : NSP5 and NSP2 . Inhibition of NSP5 by RNA interference results in a sharp decrease in rotavirus replication . The DLPs migrate to the endoplasmic reticulum where they obtain their third , outer layer ( formed by VP7 and VP4 ) . The progeny viruses are released from the cell by lysis .
= = History = =
In 1943 , Jacob Light and Horace Hodes proved that a filterable agent in the faeces of children with infectious diarrhoea also caused scours ( livestock diarrhoea ) in cattle . Three decades later , preserved samples of the agent were shown to be rotavirus . In the intervening years , a virus in mice was shown to be related to the virus causing scours . In 1973 , Ruth Bishop and colleagues described related viruses found in children with gastroenteritis .
In 1974 , Thomas Henry Flewett suggested the name rotavirus after observing that , when viewed through an electron microscope , a rotavirus particle looks like a wheel ( rota in Latin ) ; the name was officially recognised by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses four years later . In 1976 , related viruses were described in several other species of animals . These viruses , all causing acute gastroenteritis , were recognised as a collective pathogen affecting humans and animals worldwide . Rotavirus serotypes were first described in 1980 , and in the following year , rotavirus from humans was first grown in cell cultures derived from monkey kidneys , by adding trypsin ( an enzyme found in the duodenum of mammals and now known to be essential for rotavirus to replicate ) to the culture medium . The ability to grow rotavirus in culture accelerated the pace of research , and by the mid @-@ 1980s the first candidate vaccines were being evaluated .
In 1998 , a rotavirus vaccine was licensed for use in the United States . Clinical trials in the United States , Finland , and Venezuela had found it to be 80 to 100 % effective at preventing severe diarrhoea caused by rotavirus A , and researchers had detected no statistically significant serious adverse effects . The manufacturer , however , withdrew it from the market in 1999 , after it was discovered that the vaccine may have contributed to an increased risk for intussusception , a type of bowel obstruction , in one of every 12 @,@ 000 vaccinated infants . The experience provoked intense debate about the relative risks and benefits of a rotavirus vaccine . In 2006 , two new vaccines against rotavirus A infection were shown to be safe and effective in children , and in June 2009 the World Health Organization recommended that rotavirus vaccination be included in all national immunisation programmes to provide protection against this virus .
In 2015 , India unveiled a cheaper vaccine with support of US National Institute of Health .
= The Historian =
The Historian is the 2005 debut novel of American author Elizabeth Kostova . The plot blends the history and folklore of Vlad Țepeș and his fictional equivalent Count Dracula . Kostova 's father told her stories about Dracula when she was a child , and later in life she was inspired to turn the experience into a novel . She worked on the book for ten years and then sold it within a few months to Little , Brown and Company , which bought it for US $ 2 million .
The Historian has been described as a combination of genres , including Gothic novel , adventure novel , detective fiction , travelogue , postmodern historical novel , epistolary epic , and historical thriller . Kostova was intent on writing a serious work of literature and saw herself as an inheritor of the Victorian style . Although based in part on Bram Stoker 's Dracula , The Historian is not a horror novel , but rather an eerie tale . It is concerned with history 's role in society and representation in books , as well as the nature of good and evil . As Kostova explains , " Dracula is a metaphor for the evil that is so hard to undo in history . " The evils brought about by religious conflict are a particular theme , and the novel explores the relationship between the Christian West and the Islamic East .
Little , Brown and Company heavily promoted the book and it became the first debut novel to become number one on The New York Times bestseller list in its first week on sale . As of 2005 , it was the fastest @-@ selling hardback debut novel in U.S. history . In general , the novel received mixed reviews . While some praised the book 's description of the setting , others criticized its structure and lack of tonal variety . Kostova received the 2006 Book Sense award for Best Adult Fiction and the 2005 Quill Award for Debut Author of the Year . Sony has bought the film rights and , as of 2007 , was planning an adaptation .
= = Plot summary = =
The Historian interweaves the history and folklore of Vlad Țepeș , a 15th @-@ century prince of Wallachia known as " Vlad the Impaler " , and his fictional equivalent Count Dracula together with the story of Paul , a professor ; his 16 @-@ year @-@ old daughter ; and their quest for Vlad 's tomb . The novel ties together three separate narratives using letters and oral accounts : that of Paul 's mentor in the 1930s , that of Paul in the 1950s , and that of the narrator herself in the 1970s . The tale is told primarily from the perspective of Paul 's daughter , who is never named .
= = = Part I = = =
Part I opens in 1972 Amsterdam . The narrator finds an old vellum @-@ bound book with a woodcut of a dragon in the center associated with Dracula . When she asks her father Paul about it , he tells her how he found the handmade book in his study carrel when he was a graduate student in the 1950s . Paul took the book to his mentor , Professor Bartholomew Rossi , and was shocked to find that Rossi had found a similar handmade book when he was a graduate student in the 1930s . As a result , Rossi researched Țepeș , the Dracula myth surrounding him , and the mysterious book . Rossi traveled as far as Istanbul ; however , the appearance of curious characters and unexplained events caused him to drop his investigation and return to his graduate work . Rossi gives Paul his research notes and informs him that he believes Dracula is still alive .
The bulk of the novel focuses on the 1950s timeline , which follows Paul 's adventures . After meeting with Paul , Rossi disappears ; smears of blood on his desk and the ceiling of his office are the only traces that remain . Certain that something unfortunate has befallen his advisor , Paul begins to investigate Dracula . While in the university library he meets a young , dark @-@ haired woman reading a copy of Bram Stoker 's Dracula . She is Helen Rossi , the daughter of Bartholomew Rossi , and she has become an expert on Dracula . Paul attempts to convince her that one of the librarians is trying to prevent their research into Dracula , but she is unpersuaded . Later , the librarian attacks and bites Helen . Paul intervenes and overpowers him , but he wriggles free . The librarian is then run over by a car in front of the library and apparently killed .
Upon hearing her father 's story , the narrator becomes interested in the mystery and begins researching Dracula as she and her father travel across Europe during the 1970s . Although he eventually sends her home , she does not remain there . After finding letters addressed to her that reveal he has left on a quest to find her mother ( previously believed to be dead ) , she sets out to find him . As is slowly made clear in the novel , Helen is the narrator 's mother . The letters continue the story her father has been telling her . The narrator decides to travel to a monastery where she believes her father might be .
= = = Part II = = =
Part II begins as the narrator reads descriptions of her father and Helen 's travels through Eastern Europe during the 1950s . While on their travels , Helen and Paul conclude that Rossi might have been taken by Dracula to his tomb . They travel to Istanbul to find the archives of Sultan Mehmed II , which Paul believes contain information regarding the location of the tomb . They fortuitously meet Professor Turgut Bora from Istanbul University , who has also discovered a book similar to Paul 's and Rossi 's . He has access to Mehmed 's archive , and together they unearth several important documents . They also see the librarian who was supposedly killed in the United States – he has survived because he is a vampire and he has continued following Helen and Paul . Helen shoots the vampire librarian but misses his heart and consequently , he does not die .
From Istanbul , Paul and Helen travel to Budapest , Hungary , to further investigate the location of Dracula 's tomb and to meet with Helen 's mother , who they believe may have knowledge of Rossi – the two had met during his travels to Romania in the 1930s . For the first time Helen hears of her mother and Rossi 's torrid love affair . Paul and Helen learn much , for example that Helen 's mother , and therefore Helen herself and the narrator , are descendants of Vlad Țepeș .
= = = Part III = = =
Part III begins with a revelation by Turgut Bora that leads the search for Dracula 's tomb to Bulgaria . He also reveals that he is part of an organization formed by Sultan Mehmed II from the elite of the Janissaries to fight the Order of the Dragon , an evil consortium later associated with Dracula . In Bulgaria , Helen and Paul seek the assistance of a scholar named Anton Stoichev . Through information gained from Stoichev , Helen and Paul discover that Dracula is most likely buried in the Bulgarian monastery of Sveti Georgi .
After many difficulties Paul and Helen discover the whereabouts of Sveti Georgi . Upon reaching the monastery they find Rossi 's interred body in the crypt and are forced to drive a silver dagger through his heart to prevent his full transformation into a vampire . Before he dies , he reveals that Dracula is a scholar and has a secret library . Rossi has written an account of his imprisonment in this library and hidden it there . Paul and Helen are pursued to the monastery by political officials and by the vampire librarian – all of them are seeking Dracula 's tomb , but it is empty when they arrive .
Paul and Helen move to the United States , marry , and Helen gives birth to the narrator . However , she becomes depressed a few months afterwards . She later confesses that she feared the taint of the vampiric bite that she acquired earlier would infect her child . The family travels to Europe in an attempt to cheer her up . When they visit the monastery Saint @-@ Matthieu @-@ des @-@ Pyrénées @-@ Orientales , Helen feels Dracula 's presence and is compelled to jump off a cliff . Landing on grass , she survives and decides to hunt him down and kill him in order to rid herself of his threat and her fears .
When the narrator arrives at Saint @-@ Matthieu @-@ des @-@ Pyrénées @-@ Orientales , she finds her father . Individuals mentioned throughout the 1970s timeline converge in a final attempt to defeat Dracula . He is seemingly killed by a silver bullet fired into his heart by Helen .
In the epilogue , which takes place in 2008 , the narrator attends a conference of medievalists in Philadelphia , and stops at a library with an extensive collection of material related to Dracula . She accidentally leaves her notes and the attendant rushes out and returns them to her , as well as a book with a dragon printed in the center , revealing that either Dracula is still alive or one of his minions is imitating the master .
= = Background and publication = =
= = = Biographical background = = =
Kostova 's interest in the Dracula legend began with the stories her father told her about the vampire when she was a child . The family moved from the U.S. to Ljubljana , Slovenia in 1972 , while her father was teaching for a year at a local university . During that year , the family traveled across Europe . According to Kostova , " It was the formative experience of my childhood . " She " was fascinated by [ her father 's Dracula stories ] because they were ... from history in a way , even though they weren 't about real history , but I heard them in these beautiful historic places . " Kostova 's interest in books and libraries began early as well . Her mother , a librarian , frequently took her and her sisters to the public library – they were each allowed to check out 30 books and had a special shelf for their library books .
She listened to recordings of Balkan folk music as a child and became interested in the tradition . Later , she sang in and directed a Slavic chorus while an undergraduate at Yale University . She and some friends traveled to Eastern Europe in 1989 , specifically Bulgaria and Bosnia , to study local musical customs . The recordings they made will be deposited in the Library of Congress . While Kostova was in Europe , the Berlin Wall collapsed , heralding the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe , events which shaped her understanding of history .
= = = Composition and publication = = =
Five years later , in 1994 , when Kostova was hiking in the Appalachian Mountains with her husband , she had a flashback to those storytelling moments with her father and asked herself " what if the father were spinning his Dracula tales to his entranced daughter and Dracula were listening in ? What if Dracula were still alive ? " She immediately scratched out seven pages of notes into her writer 's notebook . Two days later , she started work on the novel . At the time she was teaching English as a second language , creative writing and composition classes at universities in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . She moved to Ann Arbor , Michigan , entered the writing program at the University of Michigan and finished the book as she was obtaining her Master of Fine Arts degree .
Kostova did extensive research about Eastern Europe and Vlad Țepeș . She found a vampire @-@ killing kit at the Mercer Museum , which included a pistol , silver bullets , a crucifix , a wooden stake , and powdered garlic .
As she was writing , she posted maps of Eastern Europe in her office and constructed a chart to help her keep track of the book 's timelines . Her husband , whom she had met in Bulgaria , assisted her with related geographical descriptions and diction . It took her ten years to finish the novel .
Kostova finished the novel in January 2004 and sent it to a potential literary agent in March . Two months later and within two days of sending out her manuscript to publishers , Kostova was offered a deal – she refused it . The rights to the book were auctioned off and Little , Brown and Company bought them for US $ 2 million ( US $ 30 @,@ 000 is typical for a first novel from an unknown author ) . Publishers Weekly explained the high price as a result of a bidding war between firms ' believing that they might have the next Da Vinci Code within their grasp . One vice @-@ president and associate publisher said , " Given the success of The Da Vinci Code , everybody around town knows how popular the combination of thriller and history can be and what a phenomenon it can become . " Little , Brown and Company subsequently sold the rights in 28 countries . The book was published in the United States on 14 June 2005 .
= = Genre and style = =
The Historian has been described as a combination of genres , including the Gothic novel , the adventure novel , the detective novel , the travelogue , the postmodern historical novel , the epistolary epic , and the historical thriller .
Kostova wanted to write a serious literary novel , with scholarly heroes , that was at the same time reminiscent of 19th @-@ century adventures . She was inspired by Victorian writers such as Wilkie Collins ; his novel The Moonstone ( 1868 ) , with its plot twists and bevy of narrators , was " a major model " . The primary literary ancestor of The Historian , however , is Bram Stoker 's Dracula ( 1897 ) . For example , in The Historian and Dracula , the protagonist is both fascinated and repulsed by Dracula . Both are told through a series of letters and memoirs . The Historian also includes many intertextual references to Stoker 's work – Dracula even owns a copy of the novel . Yet , Kostova shapes Dracula into her own character . While Stoker 's vampire is the focus of his novel , Kostova 's is at the edges . Moreover , the blend of the fictional Dracula and the historical Vlad " adds a sinister and frightening edge " to the character , according to scholar Stine Fletcher .
Despite its Gothic roots , The Historian is not suffused with violence nor is it a horror novel . Kostova aimed to write a " chilling " Victorian ghost story , and her realistic style is what creates this effect . Marlene Arpe of The Toronto Star praises Kostova 's imagery in particular , quoting the following passage :
A smell rose from its pages that was not merely the delicate scent of aging paper and cracked vellum . It was a reek of decay , a terrible , sickening odor , a smell of old meat or corrupted flesh . I had never noticed it before and I leaned closer , sniffing , unbelieving , then shut the book . I reopened it , after a moment , and again stomach @-@ churning fumes arose from its pages . The little volume seemed alive in my hands , yet it smelled like death .
As Peter Bebergal explains in The Boston Globe , " Instead of fetishizing blood , Kostova fetishizes documents ( manuscripts , maps , letters ) and the places that house them ( libraries , archives and monasteries ) . " As one critic explains , " the real horror rests in the possibility of what Dracula truly is " . For example , the narrator comments :
The thing that most haunted me that day , however , as I closed my notebook and put my coat on to go home , was not my ghostly image of Dracula , or the description of impalement , but the fact that these things had – apparently – actually occurred . If I listened too closely , I thought , I would hear the screams of the boys , of the ' large family ' dying together . For all his attention to my historical education , my father had neglected to tell me this : history 's terrible moments were real . I understand now , decades later , that he could never have told me . Only history itself can convince you of such a truth . And once you 've seen that truth – really seen it – you can 't look away .
The novel 's tone and structure place it within the serious literary tradition for which Kostova was aiming . For example , the alternating timelines are suggestive of A. S. Byatt 's Possession ( 1990 ) and the intermingling of academia and the occult suggests Arturo Perez @-@ Reverte 's The Club Dumas ( 1993 ) . Although many reviewers compared The Historian to Dan Brown 's historical thriller The Da Vinci Code ( 2003 ) , Kostova has said her book " is part of a tradition where literary craft and experiments in form are all as important as action ... the only overlap is this idea of people searching for something in history . I 'm still surprised when people make this comparison , I 'm very grateful my publisher has never pushed it . " Moreover , the only real historical personage in her novel is Vlad Țepeș and she changed the name of some locations " fearing some readers might confuse fantasy and reality , as they have with Brown 's novels " .
Reviewers praised Kostova 's lush descriptions of the setting and the fascinating European cities and countries which the story traverses : Amsterdam , Slovenia , Romania , Bulgaria , Turkey , France , Oxford , Switzerland and Italy .
= = Themes = =
History and questions about its role in society pervade The Historian . In particular , the novel argues that knowledge of history is power , particularly as it is written in books . The title can refer to any of the major characters , including Dracula . As Nancy Baker explains in The Globe and Mail , the novel is " about the love of books " and the knowledge and comfort they offer the characters – even Dracula himself is a bibliophile . As one critic explains , the novel is specifically about the love of scholarship . At the heart of the novel is an exploration of " the power and price of scholarly obsession " . As Paul explains in the novel :
It is a fact that we historians are interested in what is partly a reflection of ourselves we would rather not examine except through the medium of scholarship ; it is also true that as we steep ourselves in our interests , they become more and more a part of us . Visiting an American university ... I was introduced to one of the first of the great American historians of Nazi Germany . He lived in a comfortable house at the edge of the campus , where he collected not only books on his topic but also the official china of the Third Reich . His dogs , two enormous German shepherds , patrolled the front yard day and night . Over drinks with other faculty members , he told me in no uncertain terms how he despised Hitler 's crimes and wanted to expose them in the greatest possible detail to the outside world . I left the party early , walking carefully past those big dogs , unable to shake my revulsion .
The novel explores questions of good and evil and as Jessica Treadway states in The Chicago Tribune , it " is intriguing for its thorough examination of what constitutes evil and why it exists " . For example , Dracula at one point asks Rossi :
History has taught us that the nature of man is evil , sublimely so . Good is not perfectible , but evil is . Why should you not use your great mind in service of what is perfectible ? ... There is no purity like the purity of the sufferings of history . You will have what every historian wants : history will be reality to you . We will wash our minds clean with blood .
As Kostova explains , " Dracula is a metaphor for the evil that is so hard to undo in history . " For example , he is shown influencing Eastern European tyrants and supporting national socialism in Transylvania . He is " vainglorious , vindictive , [ and ] vicious " . As Michael Dirda explains in The Washington Post , the novel conveys the idea that " Most of history 's worst nightmares result from an unthinking obedience to authority , high @-@ minded zealotry seductively overriding our mere humanity . " It is in the figure of the vampire that Kostova reveals this , since " our fear of Dracula lies in the fear of losing ourselves , of relinquishing our very identities as human beings " . In fact , the narrator is never named in the novel , suggesting , as one critic explains , " that the quest for the dark side of human nature is more universal than specific to a concrete character " .
Religion is also a dominant theme of The Historian . Dracula is Christian and , as Bebergal explains , " Much of what is frightening in the novel is the suggestion of heretical Christian practices and conspiratorial monks . " Kostova herself notes that the world is still " wracked by religious conflict " , therefore historical fiction about the topic is relevant . The portions of the novel set in Istanbul , for example , highlight the extent to which the real Vlad detested the Ottomans , waging holy war upon them . More specifically , Amir Taheri in Asharq Alawsat argues that the novel highlights the relationship between the West and Turkey . The West , which is laden with the " dead " weight of this past ( represented by the vampires ) needs the help of Turkey ( and perhaps the entire Muslim world ) to recover . As Taheri points out , one of the most appealing characters in the novel is Professor Bora , a Turkish professor who is part of an ancient Ottoman society dedicated to defeating Dracula . Taheri emphasizes that the novel highlights that " Western civilisation and Islam have common enemies represented by ' vampires ' such as postmodernism in Europe and obscurantism in the Muslim world " .
= = Reception = =
Little , Brown and Company spent $ 500 @,@ 000 heavily promoting The Historian . In what Publishers Weekly called a " carefully calibrated advertising campaign " , 7 @,@ 000 advance copies were sent to booksellers , and in January 2005 Kostova began her book promotion tour six months before the novel 's publication . She met with book retailers who , impressed with her presentation , bought large numbers of the book . As an article in The Age explains , " By the time it arrived in the bookstores , The Historian had already made the news several times " . As soon as the book was published in June , Kostova went on a 15 @-@ city tour , including book signings and readings , which prompted further media reports on it . She appeared on ABC 's Good Morning America on 28 June , and there were stories about the novel in USA Today , Entertainment Weekly and Newsweek . Kostova was billed as the next literary phenomenon , the next Alice Sebold or Susanna Clarke .
The Historian was the first debut novel to land at number one on The New York Times bestseller list in its first week on sale , and as of 2005 was the fastest @-@ selling hardback debut novel in U.S. history . The book sold more copies on its first day in print than The Da Vinci Code – 70 @,@ 000 copies were sold in the first week alone . As of the middle of August 2005 , the novel had already sold 915 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S. and had gone through six printings . ( For comparison , according to Publishers Weekly , only ten fiction books sold more than 800 @,@ 000 hardcover copies in the US in 2004 . ) Little , Brown and Company also released an edition of Dracula in September 2005 with an introduction by Kostova , thinking her readers would want to delve into the original novel after reading hers . Kostova is one of the few female bestselling authors , but her popularity is unusual because it is founded on a literary novel .
Reviews of the novel were " at best , mixed " . Several reviewers noted that Kostova described the setting of her novel well ; Laura Miller of Salon.com , for example , wrote that " Kostova has a genius for evoking places " . Malcolm Jones of Newsweek wrote that the novel was " strikingly fresh and unformulaic " . Baker praised Kostova 's prose , saying that it " has a leisurely grace " . Francis Atkinson of The Age praised the " Gothic sensuality " of the novel . However , some thought the book was too long , or criticized Kostova 's lack of tonal variety ; Janet Maslin wrote in The New York Times that the book was " ponderous " and had a " contorted narrative structure " . Jane Stevenson of The Observer agreed , noting that the multiple timelines and narrators of the novel were not sufficiently differentiated . Several reviewers complained that the climax of the novel was a disappointment and that Dracula was not terrifying .
According to Paul Wagenbreth of The News @-@ Gazette , the novel 's fundamental weakness is that after the slow buildup , " there is a final shying away from a full rendering of the nature of the beast . ... there 's a curious holding back here as elsewhere from a really probing look at the seductive appeal of vampirism , particularly the sensuality at its core . " Susanna Sturgis , agreed , writing in the Women 's Review of Books that the plot dragged and that " the reader loses interest " in the core mysteries of the novel . Ong Sor Fern of The Straits Times criticized Kostova 's portrayal of women , writing that her unnamed female narrator " feels even more drab and colourless than Stoker 's idealised female , Mina Harker " . Sturgis criticized Kostova 's characterization in general , contending that the major characters seemed more like " disembodied tour guides " . Polly Shulman of Newsday also argued that the book " fail [ s ] to grapple with its supposed themes : evil , death and history " . She saw " little of the terror of these periods " in the novel and little of the tension between the Islamic East and the Christian West .
= = Awards = =
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Audio book = = =
The 12 @-@ hour abridged audio book , released by Time Warner , is narrated by six different actors ( Joanne Whalley , Martin Jarvis , Dennis Boutsikaris , Jim Ward , Rosalyn Landor and Robin Atkin Downes ) . Boutsikaris ' voicing of Paul has been called " flat " while Publishers Weekly complained that it was " nonchalant and impersonal " . They also singled out the voicing of Dracula for criticism , writing that " his accent and delivery is exactly the stereotypical vampire voice used by everyone from Bela Lugosi to Sesame Street 's the Count " . There is swelling orchestral music at the beginning and end of each chapter , of which the reviewers approved .
The 26 @-@ hour unabridged audio book , released by Books on Tape ( a division of Random House ) , is narrated by Justine Eyre and Paul Michael . According to Booklist , they " do an incredible job voicing an array of characters with European accents ranging from Dutch , French , and German " . Noting that the book is particularly suited for audio because it is told in letters , they praise Eyre 's " earnest and innocent " tone in her voicing of the narrator and Michael 's " clear characterizations " .
= = = Film = = =
In 2005 , prior to its publication , Sony bought the film rights to the novel for $ 1 @.@ 5 million , but has yet to go into production .
= Roger Miller =
Roger Dean Miller , Sr. ( January 2 , 1936 – October 25 , 1992 ) was an American singer , songwriter , musician and actor , best known for his honky @-@ tonk @-@ influenced novelty songs . His most recognized tunes included the chart @-@ topping country / pop hits " King of the Road " , " Dang Me " and " England Swings " , all from the mid @-@ 1960s Nashville sound era .
After growing up in Oklahoma and serving in the United States Army , Miller began his musical career as a songwriter in the late 1950s , penning such hits as " Billy Bayou " and " Home " for Jim Reeves and " Invitation to the Blues " for Ray Price . He later began a recording career and reached the peak of his fame in the mid @-@ 1960s , continuing to record and tour into the 1990s , charting his final top 20 country hit " Old Friends " with Willie Nelson in 1982 . Later in his life , he wrote the music and lyrics for the 1985 Tony @-@ award winning Broadway musical Big River , in which he acted .
Miller died from lung cancer in 1992 , and was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame three years later . His songs continued to be recorded by younger artists , with covers of " Tall , Tall Trees " by Alan Jackson and " Husbands and Wives " by Brooks & Dunn , each reaching the number one spot on country charts in the 1990s . The Roger Miller Museum in his home town of Erick , Oklahoma , is a tribute to Miller .
= = Early life = =
Roger Miller was born in Fort Worth , Texas , the third son of Jean and Laudene ( Holt ) Miller . Jean Miller died from spinal meningitis when Roger was a year old . Unable to support the family during the Great Depression , Laudene sent her three sons to live with three of Jean 's brothers . Thus , Roger grew up on a farm outside Erick , Oklahoma with Elmer and Armelia Miller .
As a boy , Miller did farm work , such as picking cotton and plowing . He would later say he was " dirt poor " and that as late as 1951 the family did not own a telephone . He received his primary education at a one @-@ room schoolhouse . Miller was an introverted child , and would often daydream or compose songs . One of his earliest compositions went : " There 's a picture on the wall . It 's the dearest of them all , Mother . "
Miller was a member of the National FFA Organization in high school . He listened to the Grand Ole Opry and Light Crust Doughboys on a Fort Worth station with his cousin 's husband , Sheb Wooley . Wooley taught Miller his first guitar chords and bought him a fiddle . Wooley , Hank Williams , and Bob Wills were the influences that led to Miller 's desire to be a singer @-@ songwriter . He began to run away and perform in Oklahoma and Texas . At 17 , he stole a guitar out of desperation to write songs ; however , he turned himself in the next day . He chose to enlist in the United States Army to avoid jail . He later quipped , " My education was Korea , Clash of ' 52 . " Near the end of his military service , while stationed in Atlanta , Georgia , Miller played fiddle in the " Circle A Wranglers , " a military musical group started by Faron Young . While Miller was stationed in South Carolina , an army sergeant whose brother was Kenneth C. " Jethro " Burns from the musical duo Homer and Jethro , persuaded him to head to Nashville after his discharge .
= = Career = =
= = = Nashville songwriter = = =
On leaving the Army , Miller traveled to Nashville to begin his musical career . He met with Chet Atkins , who asked to hear him sing , loaning him a guitar since Miller did not own one . Out of nervousness , Miller played the guitar and sang a song in two different keys . Atkins advised him to come back later , when he had more experience . Miller found work as a bellhop at Nashville 's Andrew Jackson Hotel , and he was soon known as the " singing bellhop , " He was finally hired by Minnie Pearl to play the fiddle in her band . He then met George Jones , who introduced him to music executives from the Starday Records label , who scheduled an audition . The executives were impressed and set up a recording session with Jones in Houston . Jones and Miller collaborated to write " Tall , Tall Trees " and " Happy Child . "
After marrying and becoming a father , Miller put aside his music career and became a fireman in Amarillo , Texas . A fireman by day , he performed at night . Miller said that during his time as a fireman , he saw only two fires , one in a " chicken coop " and the other that he " slept through , " after which the department " suggested that ... [ he ] seek other employment . " Miller met Ray Price , and became a member of his Cherokee Cowboys . He returned to Nashville , and wrote " Invitation to the Blues , " which was covered by Rex Allen and later by Ray Price , whose recording was a number three hit on country charts . Miller then signed with Tree Publishing on a salary of $ 50 a week . He wrote : " Half a Mind " for Ernest Tubb , " That 's the Way I Feel " for Faron Young ; and his first number one , " Billy Bayou , " which along with " Home " were recorded by Jim Reeves . Miller became one of the biggest songwriters of the 1950s . However , Bill Anderson would later remark that " Roger was the most talented , and least disciplined , person that you could imagine " citing the attempts of Miller 's Tree Publishing boss , Buddy Killen to force him to finish a piece . He was known to give away lines , inciting many Nashville songwriters to follow him around since , according to Killen , " everything he said was a potential song . "
= = = Recording career = = =
Miller signed a recording deal with Decca Records in 1958 . He was paired with singer Donny Lytle , who later gained fame under the name Johnny Paycheck , to perform the Miller @-@ penned " A Man Like Me " , and later " The Wrong Kind of Girl . " Both songs were honky @-@ tonk @-@ style and did not chart . His second single with the label , featuring the B @-@ side " Jason Fleming , " foreshadowed Miller 's future style . To make money , Miller went on tour with Faron Young 's band as a drummer , although he had never drummed . During this period , he signed a record deal with Chet Atkins at RCA Victor , for whom Miller recorded " You Don 't Want My Love " ( also known as " In the Summertime " ) in 1960 , which marked his first appearance on country charts , peaking at No. 14 . The next year , he would make an even bigger impact , breaking through the top 10 with his single " When Two Worlds Collide " , co @-@ written with Bill Anderson . But Miller soon tired of writing songs , divorced his wife and began a party lifestyle that earned him the moniker " wild child . " He was dropped from his record label and began to pursue other interests .
After numerous appearances on late night comedy shows , Miller decided that he might have a chance in Hollywood as an actor . Short of money , he signed with the up @-@ and @-@ coming label Smash Records , asked the label for $ 1 @,@ 600 in cash , in exchange for recording 16 sides . Smash agreed to the proposal , and Miller performed his first session for the company early in 1964 , when he recorded the hits " Dang Me " and " Chug @-@ a @-@ Lug " . Both were released as singles , peaking at No. 1 and No. 3 respectively on country charts ; both fared well on the Billboard Hot 100 reaching No. 7 and No. 9 . The songs transformed Miller 's career , although the former was penned by Miller in just four minutes . Later that year , he recorded the No. 15 hit " Do @-@ Wacka @-@ Do , " and soon after the biggest hit of his career " King of the Road " , which topped Country and Adult Contemporary charts while peaking at No. 4 on the Billboard 100 . The song was inspired by a sign in Chicago that read " Trailers for Sale or Rent " and a hobo happened upon by Miller at an airport in Boise , but took months for Miller to write . The song was certified gold in May 1965 after selling a million copies . It won numerous awards , and earned a royalty check of $ 160 @,@ 000 that summer . Later in the year Miller scored hits with " Engine Engine No. 9 " , " Kansas City Star " ( a Top Ten country hit in 1965 about a local television children 's show personality who would rather stay in the safety and security of his success in Kansas City rather than become a bigger star – or risk failure – in Omaha ) and " England Swings " ( an adult contemporary No. 1 ) . He began 1966 with the hit " Husbands and Wives . "
Miller was given his own TV show on NBC in September 1966 but it was canceled after 13 weeks in January 1967 . During this period Miller recorded songs written by other songwriters . The final hit of his own composition was " Walkin in the Sunshine , " which reached No. 7 and No. 6 on the country and adult contemporary charts in 1967 . Later in the year he scored his final top 10 hit with a lowkey cover of Bobby Russell 's " Little Green Apples " . The next year , he was first to cover Kris Kristofferson 's " Me and Bobby McGee , " taking the song to No. 12 on country charts . In 1970 , Miller recorded the album A Trip in the Country , honky @-@ tonk @-@ style standards penned by Miller , including " Tall , Tall Trees . " Later that year , after Smash Records folded , Miller was signed by Columbia Records , for whom he released Dear Folks : Sorry I Haven 't Written Lately in 1973 . Later that year , Miller wrote and performed three songs in the Walt Disney animated feature Robin Hood as the rooster / minstrel Allan @-@ a @-@ Dale , including " Whistle @-@ Stop " which was sampled for use in the popular Hampster Dance web site . The other songs are Oo @-@ De @-@ Lally and Not In Nottingham . He provided the voice of Speiltoe , the equine narrator of the Rankin / Bass holiday special Nestor the Long @-@ Eared Christmas Donkey in 1978 . Miller collaborated with Willie Nelson on an album titled Old Friends . The title track was based on a song he had previously penned for his family in Oklahoma . The song , with guest vocals from Ray Price , was the last hit of Miller 's career , peaking at No. 19 on country charts in 1982 .
= = = Late career = = =
He continued to record for different record labels and charted a few songs , but stopped writing in 1978 , feeling that his more " artistic " works were not appreciated . This was the time when his only visit to England led him to Kippax , he played the social club there but was outdone by 17 Elvis performers . He was absent from the entertainment business following the release of Old Friends in 1981 , but returned after receiving an offer to write a Broadway score for a musical based upon Mark Twain 's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn . Although he had not read the novel , Miller accepted the offer after discovering how the story brought him back to his childhood in rural Oklahoma . It took a year and a half to write the opening , but he eventually finished . The work , entitled Big River premiered at Eugene O 'Neill Theatre in New York on April 25 , 1985 . The musical received glowing reviews , earning seven Tony Awards including " Best Score " for Miller . He acted the part of Huck Finn 's father Pap for three months after the exit of actor John Goodman , who left for Hollywood . In 1983 , Miller played a dramatic role on an episode of Quincy ME . He played a country and western singer who is severely burned while freebasing cocaine .
Miller left for Santa Fe to live with his family following the success of Big River . He co @-@ wrote Dwight Yoakam 's hit " It Only Hurts When I Cry " from his 1990 album If There Was a Way , and supplied background vocals . The song was released as a single in 1991 , peaking at No. 7 on country charts . He began a solo guitar tour in 1990 , ending the following year after being diagnosed with lung cancer . His last performance on television occurred on a special tribute to Minnie Pearl which aired on TNN on October 26 , 1992 , the day after Miller 's death .
= = Style = =
Although he is usually grouped with country music singers , Miller 's unique style defies easy classification . Many of his recordings were humorous novelty songs with whimsical lyrics , coupled with scat singing or vocalese riffs filled with nonsense syllables . Others were sincere ballads , which caught the public 's fancy , none more so than his signature song , " King of the Road . " The biographical book Ain 't Got No Cigarettes described Miller as an " uncategorizable talent " , and stated that many regarded him as a genius .
On his own style , Miller remarked that he " tried to do " things like other artists but that it " always came out different " so he got " frustrated " until realizing " I 'm the only one that knows what I 'm thinking . " He commented that the favorite song that he wrote was " You Can 't Rollerskate in a Buffalo Herd . " Johnny Cash discussed Miller 's bass vocal range in his 1997 autobiography . He commented that it was the closest to his own that he had heard .
= = Personal life and death = =
Miller was married three times , and fathered seven children . Miller 's first wife Barbara bore his first child , Michael , who later died . The couple had three more children subsequent to Michael 's death — Alan , Rhonda and Shari . By the time Shari was born , Miller 's career was blossoming into national popularity . The family remained in Inglewood for a short time after Miller found fame . The increasing interest in Miller caused struggles for the performer : He suffered from depression and insomnia , and had a drug addiction which contributed to the end of his first and second marriages . Miller was known to walk off shows and to fight .
After the divorce from his first wife , he married Leah Kendrick . She gave birth to two children , Shannon and Dean Miller , who like his father , went on to become a singer @-@ songwriter . The Christmas song " Old Toy Trains " was written by Miller about his son , who was two years old when it was released in 1967 .
After divorcing Leah , Miller married Mary Arnold , whom he met through Kenny Rogers . Arnold was a member of The First Edition , a band that included Rogers . They adopted two children : Taylor and Adam . After the break @-@ up of The First Edition , she performed with her husband Miller on tours , including a White House performance for President Gerald Ford . In 2009 , she was inducted into the Iowa Rock 'n Roll Hall of Fame , She currently manages Roger Miller 's estate . She sued Sony for copyright infringement in the 2007 case Roger Miller Music , Inc. v. Sony / ATV Publishing , LLC , which went to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit . Arnold was ultimately awarded nearly $ 1 million in royalties and rights to the songs Miller wrote in 1964 .
Miller was a lifelong cigarette smoker . During a television interview , Miller explained that he composed his songs from " bits and pieces " of ideas he wrote on scraps of paper . When asked what he did with the unused bits and pieces , he half @-@ joked , " I smoke ' em ! " Miller died of lung and throat cancer in 1992 , at age 56 , shortly after the discovery of a malignant tumor under his vocal cords . His remains were cremated .
A main street in Erick , Oklahoma was named Roger Miller Boulevard in his memory .
= = In popular culture = =
In 1969 , Miller appeared on the television show Daniel Boone as American folk hero Johnny Appleseed . In Miller 's version of Appleseed , singing was quite common.Daniel Boone tv series season 6 episode 140 , " A Very Small Rifle . "
In 1987 , a rambling , drunken rendition of " King of the Road " was included on R.E.M. ' s collection of B @-@ sides , Dead Letter Office ( album ) .
The refrain in his song " England Swings " was used in 1998 in BBC Radio program 15 Minutes of Misery .
The same song was used in the soundtrack of film Shanghai Knights .
In 2007 , music of " King of the Road " was used in a scene in the film Into The Wild , where a character in the film makes a mention of the song in writing a letter .
He composed and performed a number of songs in the Disney production of the cartoon Robin Hood . The Roger Miller song " Whistle @-@ Stop " was whistled by the rooster character Alan @-@ a @-@ Dale . Other Miller songs sung by him included " Oo @-@ De @-@ Lally " in two versions and " Not In Nottingham " .
The " Hampster Dance " single in 2000 was based on the melody of " Whistle Stop " . The Internet Meme that the " Hampster Dance " was based on used a sped @-@ up version of Roger Miller 's recording . The commercial song for Hampton the Hamster was altered to a sound @-@ alike sample when the producers failed to obtain the rights to the original song .
In the 2010 film Jackass 3 , Miller 's song " You Can 't Rollerskate in a Buffalo Herd " is featured during the stunt which illustrates the songs title .
In 2015 , his song " Oo @-@ De @-@ Lally " was featured in the popular Android television commercial titled " Friends Furever . "
= = Discography = =
= = = Main albums = = =
Roger and Out ( 1964 )
The Return of Roger Miller ( 1965 )
The 3rd Time Around ( 1965 )
Words and Music ( 1966 )
Walkin ' in the Sunshine ( 1967 )
A Tender Look at Love ( 1968 )
Roger Miller ( 1969 )
Roger Miller Featuring Dang Me ! ( 1969 )
A Trip in the Country ( 1970 )
Roger Miller 1970 ( 1970 )
Dear Folks , Sorry I Haven 't Written Lately ( 1973 )
Celebration ( 1976 )
Painted Poetry ( 1977 )
Off the Wall ( 1978 )
Waterhole No. 3 ( 1978 )
Making a Name for Myself ( 1979 )
Old Friends ( with Willie Nelson ) ( 1982 )
The Country Side of Roger Miller ( 1986 )
Green Green Grass of Home ( 1994 )
King of the Road : The Genius of Roger Miller ( 1995 )
= = = # 1 singles = = =
Released and recorded by Miller
" Dang Me " ( 1964 )
" King of the Road " ( 1965 )
" England Swings " ( 1966 )
Recorded and released by other artists
" Billy Bayou " – Jim Reeves ( 1958 )
" Don 't We All Have the Right " – Ricky Van Shelton ( 1988 )
" Tall , Tall Trees " – Alan Jackson ( 1995 )
" Husbands and Wives " – Brooks & Dunn ( 1998 )
= = Awards = =
In addition to 11 Grammy Awards , Roger Miller won Broadway 's Tony Award for writing the music and lyrics for Big River , which won a total of 7 Tony 's including best musical in 1985 . He was voted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1973 and the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1995 . Miller 's 11 Grammy Awards held the record as the most won by a single artist until Michael Jackson 's 1982 album Thriller . In Erick , Oklahoma where he grew up , a thoroughfare was renamed " Roger Miller Boulevard " and a museum dedicated to Miller was built on the road in 2004 .
Below is a list of awards won by Miller :
1964 — Grammy Award : Best Country Song : " Dang Me "
1964 — Grammy Award : Best New Country and Western Artist
1964 — Grammy Award : Best Country and Western Recording , Single : " Dang Me "
1964 — Grammy Award : Best Country and Western Performance , Male : " Dang Me "
1964 — Grammy Award : Best Country and Western Album : " Dang Me " / " Chug @-@ a @-@ Lug "
1965 — Jukebox Artist of the Year
1965 — Grammy Award : Best Country Song : " King of the Road "
1965 — Grammy Award : Best Country Vocal Performance , Male : " King of the Road "
1965 — Grammy Award : Best Country and Western Recording , Single : " King of the Road "
1965 — Grammy Award : Best Contemporary Vocal Performance , Male : " King of the Road "
1965 — Grammy Award : Best Contemporary ( Rock ' N Roll ) , Single : " King of the Road "
1965 — Grammy Award : Best Country and Western Album : " The Return of Roger Miller "
1965 — Academy of Country and Western Music : " Best Songwriter "
1965 — Academy of Country and Western Music : " Man of the Year "
1973 — Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame
1985 — Tony Award for Best Score and Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyrics for Big River
1988 — Academy of Country Music : Pioneer Award
1995 — Country Music Hall of Fame
1997 — Grammy Hall of Fame Song : " Dang Me "
1998 — Grammy Hall of Fame Song : " King of the Road "
2003 — CMT 's 40 Greatest Men of Country Music : Ranked No. 23 .
= Upnor Castle =
Upnor Castle is an Elizabethan artillery fort located on the west bank of the River Medway in Kent . It is in the village of Upnor , opposite and a short distance downriver from the Chatham Dockyard , at one time a key naval facility . The fort was intended to protect both the dockyard and ships of the Royal Navy anchored in the Medway . It was constructed between 1559 – 67 on the orders of Elizabeth I , during a period of tension with Spain and other European powers . The castle consists of a two @-@ storeyed main building protected by a curtain wall and towers , with a triangular gun platform projecting into the river . It was garrisoned by about 80 men with a peak armament of around 20 cannon of various calibres .
Despite its strategic importance , the castle and the defences of the Thames and Medway were badly neglected during the 17th century . The Dutch Republic mounted an unexpected naval raid in June 1667 , and the Dutch fleet was able to breach the defences , capturing two warships and burning others at anchor in the river at Chatham , in one of the worst defeats suffered by the Royal Navy . Upnor Castle acquitted itself better than many of the other defensive sites along the upper Medway , despite its lack of provisioning . Gun fire from the fort and from adjoining emplacements forced a Dutch retreat after a couple of days , before they were able to burn the dockyard itself .
The raid exposed the weaknesses of the Medway defences and led to the castle losing its role as an artillery fortification . New and stronger forts were built further downriver over the following two centuries , culminating in the construction of massive casemated forts such as Garrison Point Fort , Hoo , and Darnet Forts . Upnor Castle became a naval ammunition depot , storing great quantities of gunpowder , ammunition , and cannon to replenish the warships that came to Chatham for repair and resupply . It remained in military use until as late as 1945 . The castle was subsequently opened to the public and is now an English Heritage property .
= = History = =
= = = Strategic context = = =
The River Medway is a major tributary of the Thames , merging at an estuary about 35 miles ( 56 km ) east of London . Its upper reaches from Rochester to the confluence with the Thames at Sheerness meander between sand and mud banks for about 10 miles ( 16 km ) . The water flows slowly without strong currents and is free of rocks , while the surrounding hills provide shelter from the south @-@ west wind . These characteristics made the section of the river below Rochester Bridge a desirable anchorage for large ships , as they could be anchored safely and grounded for repairs . The complexity of the channel 's navigation also provided it with defensive advantages .
During Henry VIII 's reign , the upper Medway gradually became the principal anchorage for ships of the Royal Navy while they were " in ordinary , " or out of commission . They were usually stripped of their sails and rigging while in this state and the opportunity was taken to refit and repair them . Storehouses and servicing facilities were built in the Medway towns of Gillingham and Chatham which eventually became the nucleus of the Chatham Dockyard . By the time Elizabeth I came to the throne in 1558 , most of the royal fleet used this section of the Medway , known as Chatham and Gillingham Reaches , as an anchorage .
Although the Thames had been defended from naval attack since Henry VIII 's time , when five blockhouses were built as part of the Device Forts chain of coastal defences , there were no equivalents on the Medway . Two medieval castles – Rochester Castle and Queenborough Castle – existed along the river 's south bank , but both were intended to defend landward approaches and were of little use for defence . There was thus a pressing need for proper defences to protect the vulnerable ships and shore facilities on the upper Medway .
= = = Construction = = =
Upnor Castle was commissioned in 1559 by order of Queen Elizabeth and her Privy Council . Six " indifferent persons " chose a site opposite St Mary 's Creek in Chatham , on 6 acres ( 24 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land belonging to a Thomas Devinisshe of Frindsbury . It was acquired by the Crown – possibly compulsorily purchased – for the sum of £ 25 . Military engineer Sir Richard Lee was given the task of designing the new fortification , but he appears to have been fully occupied with working on the defences of Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed , and the project was carried out by others to his designs . His deputy Humphrey Locke took the role of overseer , surveyor , and chief carpenter , while Richard Watts , the former Rochester mayor and victualler to the navy , managed the project on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis and handled the accounting .
The castle 's original appearance differed significantly from that of today . The arrow @-@ shaped Water Bastion facing into the Medway and the main block behind it were part of the original design . There were also towers at either end of the water frontage , though these were subsequently replaced by towers of a different design . The gatehouse and moat were later additions . A number of derelict buildings in Rochester Castle , Aylesford , and Bopley were pulled down to provide stone for the castle . The main structure had been completed by 1564 , but it took another three years and an infusion of extra funds to finish the project . The total cost came to £ 4 @,@ 349 .
= = = Improvements and repairs = = =
During the late 16th century , tensions grew between Protestant England and Catholic Spain , leading ultimately to the undeclared Anglo @-@ Spanish War of 1585 – 1604 . Spain was in a strong position to attack the south of England from its possessions in the Spanish Netherlands . New fortifications were erected along the Medway , including a chain stretched across the width of the river below Upnor Castle . The castle itself was poorly manned until Lord High Admiral Charles Howard , 1st Earl of Nottingham highlighted this and recommended that the garrison should be increased . By 1596 , it was garrisoned by eighty men who were each paid eight pence per day ( equivalent to £ 6 today ) .
Continued fears of a Spanish incursion led to the castle 's defences being strengthened between 1599 – 1601 at the instigation of Sir John Leveson . An arrowhead @-@ shaped timber palisade was erected in front of the Water Bastion to block any attempted landings there . An enclosing ditch some 5 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 ft ) deep and 9 @.@ 8 metres ( 32 ft ) wide was dug around the castle . Flanking turrets were constructed to protect the bastion on the site of the present north and south towers . The bastion itself was raised and a high parapet was added to its edge . A gatehouse and drawbridge were also built to protect the castle 's landward side .
A survey conducted in 1603 recorded that Upnor Castle had 20 guns of various calibres , plus another 11 guns split between two sconces or outworks , known as Bay and Warham Sconces . The castle 's armament consisted of a demi @-@ cannon , 7 culverin , 5 demi @-@ culverin , a minion , a falconet , a saker , and four fowlers with two chambers each . Bay Sconce was armed with 4 demi @-@ culverin , while Warham Sconce had 2 culverin and 5 demi @-@ culverin . Eighteen guns were recorded as being mounted in the castle twenty years later . The garrison 's armament included 34 longbows , an indication that archery was still of military value even at this late date . By this time , however , the castle was in a state of disrepair . The drawbridge and its raising mechanism were broken , the gun platforms needed repairs , and the courtyard wall had collapsed . A new curtain wall had to be built to protect the landward side of the castle . The foundations of Warham Sconce were reported to have been washed away by the tide , and it appears that both sconces were allowed to fall into ruin .
Upnor Castle fell into Parliamentary hands without a fight when the English Civil War broke out in 1642 , and was subsequently used to intern Royalist officers . In May 1648 , a Royalist uprising took place in Kent and Essex , with the royalists seizing a number of towns , including Gravesend , Rochester , Dover , and Maidstone . The Royalists were defeated in the Battle of Maidstone on 1 June , and the castle was restored to Parliamentary hands . Parliamentary commander @-@ in @-@ chief Sir Thomas Fairfax inspected the castle and ordered further repairs and strengthening of the gun platforms . It appears that the height of the gatehouse was also increased at this time , and the north and south towers were built up . They appear to have been left open at the back ( on the landward side ) , but this was remedied in 1653 in the course of further repairs , making them suitable for use as troop accommodation .
= = = Raid on the Medway = = =
The castle only saw action once in its history , during the Dutch Raid on the Medway in June 1667 , part of the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War . The Dutch , under the nominal command of Lieutenant @-@ Admiral Michiel de Ruyter , bombarded and captured the town of Sheerness , sailed up the Thames to Gravesend , then up the Medway to Chatham . They made their way past the chain that was supposed to block the river , sailed past the castle , and towed away HMS Royal Charles and Unity , as well as burning other ships at anchor . The Dutch anchored in the Medway overnight on 12 June , while the Duke of Albemarle took charge of the defences and ordered the hasty construction of an eight @-@ gun battery next to Upnor Castle , using guns taken from Chatham . The castle 's guns , the garrison 's muskets , and the new battery were all used to bombard the Dutch ships when they attempted a second time to sail past Upnor to Chatham . The Dutch were able to burn some more ships in the anchorage , but they were unable to make further progress and had to withdraw . The outcome of the raid has been described as " the worst naval defeat England has ever sustained . "
The castle had acquitted itself well in the eyes of contemporary observers , despite its inability to prevent the raid , and the dedication of its garrison was praised . The pro @-@ government London Gazette reported that " they were so warmly entertained by Major Scot , who commanded there [ at Upnor ] , and on the other side by Sir Edward Spragg , from the Battery at the Shoare , that after very much Dammage received by them in the shattering of their ships , in sinking severall of their Long Boats manned out by them , in the great number of their Men kill 'd , and some Prisoners taken , they were at the last forced to retire . " Military historian Norman Longmate observes tartly , " in presenting damning facts in the most favourable light Charles [ II 's ] ministers were unsurpassed . " Samuel Pepys , secretary of the Navy Board , got closer to the truth when he noted in his diary that the castle 's garrison were poorly provisioned : " I do not see that Upnor Castle hath received any hurt by them though they played long against it ; and they themselves shot till they had hardly a gun left upon the carriages , so badly provided they were . "
= = = Usage as a magazine and naval facility = = =
Upnor Castle had been neglected previously , but the Dutch attack prompted the government to order that it be maintained " as a fort and place of strength " . In the end , the raid marked the end of the castle 's career as a fortress . New and more powerful forts were built farther down the Medway and on the Isle of Grain with the aim of preventing enemies reaching Chatham , thus making the castle redundant . It was converted into " a Place of Stores and Magazines " in 1668 with a new purpose of supplying munitions to naval warships anchored in the Medway or the Swale . Guns , gun carriages , shot , and gunpowder were stored in great quantities within the main building of the castle , which had to be increased in height and its floors reinforced to accommodate the weight . By 1691 , it was England 's leading magazine , with 164 iron guns , 62 standing carriages , 100 ships ' carriages , 7 @,@ 125 pieces of iron shot , over 200 muskets of various types , 77 pikes , and 5 @,@ 206 barrels of powder . This was considerably more than was held at the next largest magazine , the Tower of London .
Upnor Castle ceased to be used as a magazine after 1827 and was converted into an Ordnance Magazine . No gunpowder or explosives were stored there after 1840 , though other magazines continued to be built nearby . It was linked to Chattenden Barracks , originally the School of Military Railways , via a 2 ft 6in ( 76 cm ) narrow @-@ gauge line built for steam locomotives . In 1891 , the castle and its associated depot came under the full control of the Admiralty , ending an arrangement in which the War Office had managed the site with the Admiralty providing the funding . It became a Royal Naval Armaments Depot ( RNAD ) , one of a group of such facilities around the country . The castle and magazine were used for a time as a proofyard for testing firearms and explosives .
The castle remained in military ownership , but it became more of a museum from the 1920s onwards . During the Second World War , the castle was still in service as part of the Magazine Establishment and was damaged by two enemy bombs which fell in 1941 . The bombing dislodged pieces of plaster in the castle 's south tower and gatehouse , under which were discovered old graffiti , including a drawing of a ship dated to around 1700 .
= = = The castle today = = =
Following the end of the war in 1945 , the Admiralty gave approval for Upnor Castle to be used as a Departmental Museum and to be opened to the public . It subsequently underwent a degree of restoration . The castle was scheduled as an Ancient Monument in January 1960 and is currently managed by English Heritage . It remains part of the Crown Estate .
= = Description = =
Upnor Castle 's buildings were constructed from a combination of Kentish ragstone and ashlar blocks , plus red bricks and timber . Its main building is a two @-@ storeyed rectangular block that measures 41 m ( 135 ft ) by 21 m ( 69 ft ) , aligned in a north @-@ east / south @-@ west direction on the west bank of the Medway . Later known as the Magazine , it has been changed considerably since its original construction . It would have included limited barrack accommodation , possibly in a small second storey placed behind gun platforms on the roof . After the building was converted into a magazine in 1668 many changes were made which have obscured the earlier design . The second storey appears to have been extended across the full length of the building , covering over the earlier rooftop gun platforms . This gave more room for storage in the interior . The ground floor was divided into three compartments with a woodblock floor and copper @-@ sheeted doors to reduce the risk of sparks . Further stores were housed on the first floor , with a windlass to raise stores from the waterside .
A circular staircase within the building gives access to the castle 's main gun platform or water bastion , a low triangular structure projecting into the river . The castle 's main armament was mounted here in the open air ; this is now represented by six mid @-@ 19th century guns that are still on their original carriages . There are nine embrasures in the bastion , six facing downstream and three upstream , with a rounded parapet designed to deflect shot . The water bastion was additionally protected by a wooden palisade that follows its triangular course a few metres further out in the river . The present palisade is a modern recreation of the original structure .
A pair of towers stand on the river 's edge a short distance on either side from the main building . They were originally two @-@ storyed open @-@ backed structures with gun platforms situated on their first floors , providing flanking fire down the line of the ditch around the castle 's perimeter . They were later adapted for use as accommodation , with their backs closed with bricks and the towers increased in height to provide a third storey . Traces of the gun embrasures can still be seen at the point where the original roofline was . The South Tower was said to have been for the use of the castle 's governor , though their lack of comfort meant that successive governors declined to live there . The two towers are linked to the main building by a crenallated curtain wall where additional cannon were emplaced in two embrasures on the north parapet and one on the south .
The castle 's principal buildings are situated on the east side of a rectangular courtyard within which stand two large Turkey oaks , said to have been grown from acorns brought from Crimea after the Crimean War . A stone curtain wall topped with brick surrounds the courtyard , standing about 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) thick and 4 m ( 13 ft ) high . The courtyard is entered on the north @-@ western side through a four @-@ storeyed gatehouse with gun embasures for additional defensive strength . It was substantially rebuilt in the 1650s after being badly damaged in a 1653 fire , traces of which can still be seen in the form of scorched stones on the first floor walls . A central gateway with a round arch leads into a passage that gives access to the courtyard . Above the gateway is a late 18th century clock that was inserted into the existing structure . A wooden bellcote was added in the early 19th century and a modern flagpole surmounts the building .
The curtain wall is surrounded by a dry ditch which was originally nearly 10 m ( 33 ft ) wide by 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) deep , though it has since been partially infilled . Visitors to the castle crossed a drawbridge , which is no longer extant , to reach the gatehouse . A secondary entrance to the castle is provided by a sally port in the north wall . On the inside of the curtain wall the brick foundations of buildings can still be seen . These were originally lean @-@ to structures , constructed in the 17th century to provide storage facilities for the garrison .
A short distance to the south @-@ west of the castle is a barracks block and associated storage buildings , constructed soon after 1718 . Built to replace the original barrack accommodation within the castle when it was redeveloped to convert it into a magazine , it has changed little externally in the last 300 years . It is a rare surviving example of an 18th @-@ century building of this type and was one of the first distinct barracks to be built in England .
Depot buildings formerly associated with the castle still survive in the area immediately to the north @-@ east and remain in Ministry of Defence hands . They were constructed on top of earlier gun emplacements , of which earthwork traces can still be seen in the form of a broad bank running north @-@ east from the castle towards the depot .
= VR Class Sm3 =
The Sm3 Pendolino ( originally branded as Pendolino S220 , and usually referred to simply as the Pendolino ) is a class of high @-@ speed body @-@ tilting trains operated by VR Group . It is a member of the Pendolino train family ; its design is based on the ETR 460 . The first two trainsets were assembled in Finland by Rautaruukki @-@ Transtech in the mid @-@ 1990s . The rest of the series of eighteen EMUs were built by FIAT Ferroviaria ( later Alstom ) between 2000 and 2006 . The trains serve most of Finland 's major cities such as Helsinki , Turku , Oulu and Joensuu with a maximum speed of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) , although this speed is only attained between Kerava and Lahti . The train has a power output of 4 @,@ 000 kW ( 5 @,@ 400 hp ) and weighs 328 tonnes ( 323 long tons ; 362 short tons ) .
The Sm3 had a long prototype phase before the main series was ordered , with reliability issues being brought up by the press from time to time . Negative reporting continues to haunt the series ' reputation . Reliability problems cannot be proven , as no statistics of specific train types are available . The train has not managed to cope with harsh Finnish weather conditions , and the time benefit of the tilting mechanism will not be taken into account in timetables of winter 2011 – 2012 . Nevertheless , the Sm3 has also received positive feedback from passengers and has led to increased operating speeds on the Finnish rail network .
= = History = =
= = = 1992 : Ordering = = =
VR announced its 2 billion Finnish Mark Pendolino order on 7 February 1992 , consisting of two firm orders and twenty @-@ three options . ABB 's X 2000 was considered in addition of the Italian train ; the latter was chosen due to its lower price ( 70 million FIM per unit ) and because it was already running . Only these two tilting trains were considered due to the twisting nature Finland 's railway network . Thanks to its tilting mechanism , the Pendolino – unlike such other European high @-@ speed trains like the TGV , Thalys , and AVE – does not need to run on specialised high @-@ speed lines , which was important to VR ; instead , it runs on existing lines , and was expected to surpass the speed attained by traditional trains by 35 % . This has both beneficial and negative consequences . The trains cannot run at as high a speed as , for example , the TGV , due to the lines . However , the Pendolino can also run alongside normal non @-@ tilting trains , allowing for greater use of the railway . Building trains that could ensure passenger comfort at high speed on these routes by tilting through the curves was seen as a much cheaper solution than reconstructing the railway network itself due to Finland 's low population and long distances . The train was originally called the Sm200 , but in May 1995 it was officially named Sm3 according to VR 's nomenclature for multiple units .
It was expected that the train would , as in Italy , run at a maximum speed of 250 kilometres per hour ( 160 mph ) and significantly shorten the travel times between major cities . As an example , the 2 hour and 7 minute travel time between Helsinki and Turku was expected to drop to 1 : 28 by 2010 ; however , the top speed of the train was limited to 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) and the advertised times were never achieved . As of July 2011 , 1 : 44 is the fastest train link between the two cities ( on the S 126 ) .
= = = 1993 – 1997 : Testing the prototypes = = =
A test carriage from an ETR 460 arrived by boat into Finland from Italy in March 1993 . It was used to test how the Pendolino would cope with Finland 's winter and rail network by running it in Northern Carelia between Nurmes and Vieki . The carriage had to be fitted with new bogies over night at Hanko as it was designed for standard gauge instead of the broader Finnish 1 @,@ 524 mm ( 5 ft ) gauge . Another carriage was built by Transtech according to the specifications of the new train ( nomenclature KOEV from koevaunu , test carriage ) . It was later included in the first completed unit as the fourth car , TT 7401 . Before a full trainset was finished , some test runs were made with only the first three carriages of the train in late 1994 .
The first finished train was unveiled to the press on 14 October 1994 , and the first two trainsets started their regular test traffic on 27 November 1995 between Helsinki and Turku on the coastal track . Test traffic was stopped only after three months , at the end of February 1996 , due to technical difficulties with the trains . Testing later resumed , and VR announced in 1997 that it would start normal operations with the Pendolino despite electrical problems . The ability of the train to cope with the Finnish winter was put into question , but VR denied that coldness had been a factor in the electrical failures .
= = = 1997 – 2006 : The main series = = =
Testing ended in August 1997 , after the two trainsets had covered a total of 815 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 506 @,@ 000 mi ) during 3 @,@ 870 trips between Helsinki and Turku . Only six of three thousand journeys were terminated due to technical issues . VR 's CEO Henri Kuitunen was positive about the new train in 1998 , stating that passengers feel it has been a good purchase . Passenger numbers rose by 17 % between Helsinki and Turku in 1997 .
Eight additional Pendolinos were ordered at the end 1997 at the price of FIM 77 million per train ( € 13 million ) . They were delivered between 2000 and 2002 . The main series trains differed in various ways from the prototypes . The new trains allowed Pendolino traffic to extend : they started running between Helsinki and Jyväskylä on 22 October 2001 . In June 2002 , the network was expanded further , and routes were continued from Tampere onwards to Oulu and from Jyväskylä to Kuopio . One of the main series trains ( number 7x08 ) was damaged during maritime transport in October 2001 . The badly secured train had come loose during a storm on the Atlantic , almost causing the loss of M / S Traden , the ship carrying it . Thanks to good actions of the ship 's crew , it was able to reach Le Havre and the train was sent back to Italy to be repaired .
Not all passengers were happy with the new train . In 2005 , a delegation of commuters between Helsinki and Tampere collected criticism from fellow passengers on the Internet and delivered it to VR 's head of passenger transport Antti Jaatinen . The delegation 's leader , Kaj @-@ Erik Fohlin , had made 30 trips between the two cities in January 2005 using the Pendolino , 12 of which had been on schedule .
The last eight trains were ordered in 2002 and delivered in 2004 – 2006 , finalising the fleet of 18 trains . At that point it had become clear that the speed limits on the rail network were mostly too low for the trains to run at their maximum operating speed , even though they were chosen specifically to prevent the costly work of straightening existing lines . Work on lines has continued , and , on modernised lines , the speed difference between the Pendolino and non @-@ tilting trains has become minimal . The Sm3 was able to attain its maximum operating speed in regular traffic only in 2006 , when a new rail line was opened between Kerava and Lahti and the full Pendolino fleet was available . Seven of the original 23 options never came to be .
= = = 2006 onwards : The New Train Era = = =
VR advertised the arrival of the full Pendolino fleet with the slogan " New Train Era " ( Finnish : Uusi juna @-@ aika ) . It started on 3 September 2006 , when the line between Kerava and Lahti was officially opened and timetables changed to take the full potential of the Sm3 into account . Travel times between Helsinki and eastern Finland were cut by up to an hour .
The Pendolino has received bad publicity since the first units were taken in service for its serious reliability issues , mostly caused by technical problems with the tilting system and the couplers . The coupling problems grew particularly important with the expansion of the Pendolino network in 2006 , requiring rapid on @-@ the @-@ fly coupling of two trains at intersection stations . Because the units often could not be coupled the train units had to be run as two separate trains running one after another . This consumed one extra train slot on the heavily used rail sections causing cascading timetable delays . Sometimes two trains would not separate after coupling them , caused by moisture in the couplers . Due to the problems VR ended the practice of coupling Pendolino trains on @-@ the @-@ fly at the two intersection stations ; in Tampere in late 2007 and in Kouvola during autumn 2008 .
VR has given mixed statements about the fault @-@ sensitivity of the train . Pentti Kuokkanen , project coordinator of VR Engineering downplayed the problems when questioned about the reliability of another Fiat Ferroviaria multiple unit , the Sm4 , in 1999 . According to him , the Pendolino had been VR 's most reliable passenger train during winter 1998 – 1999 . In 2006 , VR 's CEO Henri Kuitunen affirmed that the Pendolino was causing serious image problems to VR Group . In 2010 , the company 's head of traffic control Mauno Haapala stated that the Sm3 was not more fault @-@ sensitive than their other trains . However during winter 2011 , VR Group 's head of service and production department Pertti Saarela gave a totally different answer , saying that Pendolinos are more prone to failures especially during winter . It is impossible to know if the train has more problems than VR 's other rolling stock , as the company does not give out punctuality statistics for specific train types .
In the 2010s , the novelty of the Pendolino has worn off and VR has even used the train in regional traffic between Oulu and Rovaniemi due to rail works in summer 2011 . The problematic tilting mechanism was not used during winter 2010 – 2011 and the time benefit of the tilting was not taken into account in timetables of winter 2011 – 2012 .
On 19 August 2011 , VR announced it would start a refurbishment of all its Sm3 units to improve the operating conditions during winter . The work will be done between 2012 and 2014 and will cost 10 million Euros . Alstom will cover half of the expenses . The problematic couplers will be changed to allow trains to be coupled on @-@ the @-@ fly again at intermediate stations . Heaters will be installed in the trains ' undercarriages to prevent the formation of ice during the winter . In addition to these modifications , the tilt angle of the bogies will be lowered from the current eight degrees . The operating speed of the train will remain the same . As of January 2013 , new couplers have been installed in at least Sm3 units 7x12 and 7x18 .
Pendolino traffic on the coastal track ended in December 2012 . The two remaining services were replaced with InterCity trains , which run at similar speeds .
= = Technical information = =
With its eight asynchronous three @-@ phase AC motors delivering 4 @,@ 000 kW ( 5 @,@ 400 hp ) to move its weight of 328 tonnes ( 323 long tons ; 362 short tons ) , the Sm3 does not accelerate particularly fast , reaching 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) from a standstill only after 3 minutes and 13 seconds and a distance of 6 @.@ 8 km ( 4 @.@ 2 mi ) . The tilting mechanism lets the body tilt up to 8 ° at speeds of over 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) , which helps to lessen the G @-@ forces in the corners and allows the train to achieve its maximum speed of 220 kilometres per hour ( 140 mph ) . According to VR , the tilting system enables a 30 to 40 % higher speed compared to traditional trains . The highest speed ever reached by the class has been 242 km / h ( 150 mph ) during testing .
Each train consists of six cars , from front to back : IM , CM , TTC , TT , CM and IM . The IM class carriages at each end of the train are powered and fitted with a driver 's compartment . The CM class is a powered passenger car . Class TTC is unpowered , it is equipped with a pantograph and a restaurant . The TT class is an unpowered passenger car which has also a pantograph on its roof . Each of the powered carriages is fitted with one motor on each of the two bogies . If needed , two trains can be coupled together .
The prototype and series trains have various differences . The number of seats was increased from 264 to 309 by changing the seat configuration in second class from 2 + 1 to 2 + 2 . The information screens on the outside of the carriages were moved from the center of the carriages to next to the doors . There are also differences with the light switch logic , which often leads to the trains running with both front and tail lights on at the same end . The prototypes differed also originally by their restaurant car and Extra class features . They were modified in the mid @-@ 2000s to be similar to the series trains .
The doors of the two prototype trains were changed in 1999 as they were not working properly .
VR does the maintenance work of the trains itself , getting expert advice from Alstom as needed . The work is done in Helsinki and Turku .
= = Services = =
The Pendolino is designed as a premium facility train . The seats are fitted with audio sockets for radio and music channels ; however the radio service was dropped in 2010 due to low usage . All seats have electricity sockets for laptops and mobile phones . All Sm3 trains offer a free onboard Wi @-@ Fi Internet access since 2010 . The passenger information monitors over the aisle in the carriages show a clock and the train 's current speed in addition to VR 's marketing material and station information . They are also used to convey passenger information for the deaf . The train is accessible for wheelchairs , contains pet spaces and seats for allergic passengers .
The train has an onboard bistro , named Prego . It has an Italian theme and serves Italian @-@ style beverage and food in addition to more common Finnish snack bar dishes . Extra class passengers have access to a self @-@ service counter with coffee , tea and the day 's newspapers . Each train has also a closed @-@ off conference compartment for business groups .
= = Routes = =
The trains are distinguished in Finnish railway timetables by the letter S. The Pendolino network radiates out from the capital Helsinki . Five main routes serve most of Finland 's big cities :
Regular service
Helsinki – Oulu ( – Rovaniemi )
Helsinki – Vaasa
Helsinki – Jyväskylä – Kuopio
Helsinki – Kouvola – Kuopio
Helsinki – Joensuu
Former routes
Helsinki – Turku from 27 November 1995 to 8 December 2012
The newest service between Helsinki and Vaasa started on 12 December 2011 , with the completion of the electrification work on the Seinäjoki – Vaasa line .
The trains can run at speeds up to 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) on routes between Helsinki and Seinäjoki , Helsinki and Turku and Lahti and Luumäki as lines are being upgraded . Only the line between Kerava and Lahti permits operation at the maximum speed of 220 kilometres per hour ( 140 mph ) .
= = Livery = =
At least two livery variants were tested on scale models , which were later exposed at VR 's conference centre at Helsinki central railway station : one has a red strip for the whole length of the train , with the window backgrounds painted grey . The other is more similar to the final result , but the front of the train includes more red and no grey paint at all . VR finally settled to a combination of both of them , which bore resemblance to the company 's InterCity livery . The bottom of the carriages is dark grey , with a red stripe distinguishing it from the white base colour . The top of the carriages is painted grey . Red colouring at the end of each car forms red parallelograms when the carriages are combined . When asked why the trains were not blue and white , VR 's CEO answered that red and white fits the train and its design the best .
The trains were originally marked with only a V instead of the full VR logo to symbolise the company 's high speed transport . The same logo was also used on the Sr2 locomotive . The text " Pendolino S220 " was written on the units according to the train 's original branding . On later units , VR 's logo was fully painted ( the same happened with the Sr2 ) and " S220 " dropped .
Since 2009 , VR has been repainting its fleet in new colours according to its changed visual identity . Green colour has replaced red , and each car now has two green parallelograms instead of one larger figure between carriages . Artwork showcasing Finnish nature decorates them . As of December 2012 , Sm3 units 7x01 to 7x04 , 7x06 to 7x10 and 7x12 have been repainted in the new livery .
= = Incidents and accidents = =
On 9 January 2003 an improperly locked door came loose in a high speed tunnel at Perniö . No @-@ one was injured in the accident . The settings of all Sm3 doors were checked by the operator in the following days .
A Sm3 derailed near Karjaa on 25 July 2003 due to a defect in a turnout . The train derailed at a low speed after mechanics turned the turnout blades manually into the correct position , but forgot to check the turnout frog , which was set to a diverging track . The first three carriages of the train derailed completely , in addition to the first bogie of the fourth car .
= = Sm6 Allegro = =
In December 2010 , Karelian Trains , a joint venture by VR and RZhD , started a new service linking Helsinki to St. Petersburg , Russia using a new model of the Pendolino called the Sm6 Allegro . The Sm6 is technically based on the Pendolino Nuovo , but its looks are similar to the Sm3 . The most significant difference is that an Sm6 unit is composed of seven carriages . The train is capable of dual @-@ voltage running due to differences between the electric systems of the Finnish and Russian rail network and is equipped with four pantographs .
The Sm6 is reserved for international passengers and therefore cannot be used to travel inside of Finland . There are four trains per day in each direction .
= Mount Edziza volcanic complex =
The Mount Edziza volcanic complex is a large and potentially active north @-@ south trending complex volcano in Stikine Country , northwestern British Columbia , Canada , located 38 kilometres ( 24 mi ) southeast of the small community of Telegraph Creek . It occupies the southeastern portion of the Tahltan Highland , an upland area of plateau and lower mountain ranges , lying east of the Boundary Ranges and south of the Inklin River , which is the east fork of the Taku River . As a volcanic complex , it consists of many types of volcanoes , including shield volcanoes , calderas , lava domes , stratovolcanoes , and cinder cones .
Most of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex is encompassed within a large provincial park called Mount Edziza Provincial Park . Named after Mount Edziza , this 2 @,@ 660 @.@ 95 km2 ( 1 @,@ 027 @.@ 40 sq mi ) park was established in 1972 to preserve the volcanic and cultural treasures unique to the northern British Columbia area . The Mount Edziza volcanic complex is remote , and , without roads , accessible only along trails . The easiest access is from Highway 37 and a spur road from Dease Lake to Telegraph Creek . From Kinaskan Lake , on Highway 37 , a poorly maintained trail extends west for 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) into the heart of the complex . From Telegraph Creek another trail extends east for 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) to the north slope of Mount Edziza .
= = Geology = =
= = = Origins = = =
The Mount Edziza volcanic complex began forming about 7 @.@ 5 million years ago and has grown steadily since then . Like other volcanoes in northwestern British Columbia , the Mount Edziza volcanic complex has its origins in continental rifting — a long divergent plate boundary where the lithosphere is being pulled apart . Here , the continental crust of the North American Plate is being stretched at a rate of about 2 cm ( 1 in ) per year . This incipient rifting has formed as a result of the Pacific Plate sliding northward along the Queen Charlotte Fault , on its way to the Aleutian Trench , which extends along the southern coastline of Alaska and the adjacent waters of northeastern Siberia off the coast of Kamchatka Peninsula . As the continental crust stretches , the near @-@ surface rocks fracture along steeply dipping cracks parallel to the rift known as faults . Hot basaltic magma rises along these fractures to create passive lava eruptions , known as effusive eruptions .
The rift zone has existed for at least 20 million years , and has created a line of volcanoes called the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province , also called the Stikine Volcanic Belt , stretching from the Alaska @-@ Yukon border to near Prince Rupert , British Columbia . Several presently dormant volcanoes in the province are potentially active , three of them having erupted in the last few hundred years , two witnessed by First Nations and placer miners during the 18th and 19th centuries . The Tseax Cone , which last erupted in the 18th century , is the southernmost historically active volcano in the province , while Prindle Volcano in easternmost @-@ central Alaska , which erupted during the Pleistocene period , is generally considered the northernmost .
= = = Structure = = =
The Mount Edziza volcanic complex is Canada 's second largest volcano of young volcanic activity , with an area of 1 @,@ 000 km2 ( 390 sq mi ) , exceeded only by Level Mountain north of Edziza , which has an area of 1 @,@ 800 km2 ( 690 sq mi ) . Four central volcanoes , known as Armadillo Peak , Spectrum Range , Ice Peak , and Mount Edziza , lie along the northerly trending axis of an oval , composite shield volcano . The composite shield volcano consists of overlapping shields , two of which are clearly noticeable on maps . The composite shield volcano forms a broad lava plateau , 65 kilometres ( 40 mi ) long and 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) wide , mainly made of basaltic lava flows ; it is dotted with cinder cones and surrounded by steep ridges called escarpments , which expose layers of black columnar basaltic lava flows with distal rock fragments and pyroclastic deposits . More light @-@ coloured magmas of mainly trachyte and comendite with very little aluminum are mainly confined to the four central volcanoes and associated lava dome . The lava plateau is flanked by Klastline River to the north , Mess Creek and larger Stikine River to the west and the Iskut River to the east . Elevations of the lava plateau are 1 @,@ 500 to 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 – 5 @,@ 900 ft ) with volcanic mountains rising 2 @,@ 590 metres ( 8 @,@ 500 ft ) above sea level . Three sections of the lava plateau have official names ; these are the Arctic Lake , Big Raven , and Kitsu plateaus . The history of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex includes at least two periods of regional glaciation , when deep ice sheets covered the land , and several lesser advances of mountain glaciers .
= = = = Stratovolcano composition = = = =
The steep @-@ sided , symmetrical stratovolcanoes in the region were built by repeated eruptions of thick , slow @-@ moving lava that have commonly flowed only a few kilometres from the vent . Explosive eruptions are often associated with these volcanoes , depositing alternating layers of volcanic ash , cinders , blocks , and globes of molten rock called volcanic bombs or lava bombs , which are added to its slopes to create the stratovolcano . Edziza 's stratovolcanoes contain a fine @-@ grained silica @-@ rich volcanic rock called trachyte ; they have not erupted for thousands of years , allowing erosion to destroy the original cone , creating craggy ridges and rock outcrops of more resistant materials .
= = = = Caldera composition = = = =
Circular calderas in the Mount Edziza volcanic complex were formed as a result of emptying the magma chamber beneath a volcano . If enough magma is erupted , the emptied chamber will not be able to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it . A roughly circular fracture — a " ring fault " — develops around the edge of the chamber . These ring fractures serve as feeders for fault intrusions that are also known as ring dikes . Secondary volcanic vents form above the ring fracture . As the magma chamber empties , the centre of the volcano within the ring fracture begins to collapse . The collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic eruption , or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions . These caldera collapses are relatively small compared to most other caldera collapses . The largest caldera at the Mount Edziza volcanic complex is about 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) in diameter while most calderas are at least 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) in diameter . Volcanic eruptions accompanying these collapses produced trachyte and a white , sodic rhyolite called comendite .
= = = = Lava dome composition = = = =
Edziza 's rounded , steep @-@ sided lava domes were built by eruptions of very thick light @-@ coloured magma , including trachyte . Such magmas are typically too thick to move far from the vent it extrudes from , causing it to solidify quickly and build on previous volcanic extrusions , creating a characteristic dome @-@ like shape . The thickness of the magma is attributed to high levels of silica , a naturally occurring silicon dioxide found in various crystalline and amorphous forms . Edziza 's domes reach heights of several hundred metres , and grew slowly and steadily for months to years . The sides of these structures are composed of unstable rock debris . Due to the possibility of the building of gas pressure , the dome can experience more explosive eruptions over time . When part of a lava dome collapses while it still contains molten rock and gases , it can produce a pyroclastic flow , a super @-@ heated mix of gas , ash , and pumice .
Characteristics of lava dome eruptions include shallow , long @-@ period and hybrid seismic activity , which is attributed to excess fluid pressures in the contributing vent chamber . Other characteristics of lava domes include their spherical dome shape , cycles of dome growth over long periods , and sudden onsets of violent explosive activity . The average rate of dome growth may be used as a rough indicator of magma supply , but it shows no systematic relationship to the timing or characteristic of lava dome explosions .
= = = = Cinder cone composition = = = =
The steep conical cinder cones of Edziza were formed by lava fountain eruptions , emitting particles and blobs of congealed lava from a single vent . As the gas @-@ charged lava is blown violently into the air , it breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as cinder around the vent to form a circular or oval cone . Edziza 's cinder cones have bowl @-@ shaped craters at their summits and rise more than a hundred metres above their surroundings . Cinder cones are widespread in British Columbia as well as throughout other volcanic terrains of the world .
Eve Cone , a black cinder cone of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex , is one of the most famous symmetrical and best preserved cinder cones in Canada , reaching a height of 1 @,@ 740 metres ( 5 @,@ 710 ft ) and a topographic prominence of 150 metres ( 490 ft ) .
= = = = Shield volcano composition = = = =
Edziza 's shield volcanoes are built almost entirely of fluid lava flows . They formed as a result of lava flowing out in all directions from central summit vents and from groups of vents , building a broad , gently sloping cone of flat , domical shape . They are built up slowly by the accretion of thousands of lava flows of highly fluid basaltic lava , which spread widely over great distances , and then cool as thin , gently dipping sheets . In some shield volcano eruptions , basaltic lava has poured out quietly from fissure vents instead of central vents , flooding the surrounding countryside with lava flow upon lava flow , forming Edziza 's broad lava plateau .
Lava plateaus similar to Edziza 's can be found elsewhere in North America , including the Snake River Plain in Idaho , and the Columbia River Basalt Group in southeastern Washington , and eastern Oregon , United States ; they can also be found in Iceland .
= = = = Subglacial mound composition = = = =
Subglacial mounds ( SUGM ) of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex are an unusual type of subglacial volcano formed when subglacial eruptions began melting overlying glacial ice at a time when this region was covered by glacial ice during the Pleistocene and early Holocene periods . These subglacial eruptions were not hot enough to melt a vertical pipe right through the overlying glacial ice , instead forming mounds of hydrated volcanic rock made up of volcanic fragments called hyaloclastite and lava that solidified into pillow @-@ shaped masses called pillow lava deep beneath the glacial ice field . Once the glaciers had retreated , the subglacial volcanoes would be revealed , with a unique shape as a result of their confinement within glacial ice .
= = = Eruptive history = = =
The lava domes , calderas , stratovolcanoes , subglacial mounds and cinder cones forming the volcanic complex were constructed in five phases , each of which began with the effusion of dark olivine basalt which formed the flat @-@ lying shield volcanoes and concluded with the eruption of light @-@ coloured magma . This cyclical behavior is attributed to the episodic rise of basic , mantle @-@ derived alkali basalt both to the surface and partly into crustal reservoirs where the light @-@ coloured magmas with very little aluminum were created by prolonged crystal fractionation . The silica @-@ rich trachyte and comendite lavas are similar to those associated with the most violent eruptions on Earth .
= = = = Armadillo Peak eruptive period = = = =
The first phase of activity resulted in the creation of Armadillo Peak seven million years ago , today represented by an eroded remnant of a small caldera flanked by steep @-@ sided light @-@ coloured secondary lava domes , including Cartoona Peak , Tadeda Peak , IGC Centre , and Sezill Volcano , and a thick pile of interlayered light @-@ coloured lava flows , pyroclastic flows , air @-@ fall pumice , and epiclastic deposits . It is the most central of the four central volcanoes and its 2 @,@ 210 metres ( 7 @,@ 250 ft ) summit is capped by 180 metres ( 590 ft ) of fine @-@ grained silica @-@ rich trachyte lava flows which were ponded inside the caldera to produce a lava lake six million years ago during its final stage of activity .
= = = = Spectrum Range eruptive period = = = =
The second phase of activity began three million years ago , emplacing rhyolitic magma 150 metres ( 490 ft ) thick and 13 metres ( 43 ft ) long during a single event of activity . A broad circular lava dome was eventually created called the Spectrum Range . This is the southernmost of the four central volcanoes and is over 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) wide and up to 650 metres ( 2 @,@ 130 ft ) thick on the southwestern flank of Armadillo Peak and north of the Arctic Lake Plateau . Named for its extensive colourful alteration , it overlies a basal shield volcano and contains deeply carved circular valleys displaying portions of massive silica @-@ rich comendite and trachyte lava flows which comprise the lava dome . The deeply carved circular valleys also display the bounding faults of a buried , cogenetic caldera approximately 4 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 8 mi ) across . More than 100 cubic kilometres ( 24 cu mi ) of rhyolite and trachyte was erupted during the Spectrum Range dome eruptive period , with its activity ending 2 @,@
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08 Leipzig Game Convention in August 2008 . At the convention , The Creative Assembly announced that the game was out of the alpha development phase , and that they were aiming for a release date of 6 February 2009 .
On 28 October 2008 , it was announced that the game would be released on Valve Corporation 's content delivery system Steam on the official release date of 6 February ; the game requires Steam to install and run for both retail and electronic versions and is integrated into Valve 's Steamworks programme to allow updates and multiplayer to function more efficiently . The game 's release was delayed in December 2008 to allow for the development of extended multiplayer features , with a new release date for March 2009 . A demonstration of the game , featuring the Battle of Brandywine and the Battle of Lagos , was released over Steam on 20 February 2009 . The game was released on 3 March 2009 . Since release , Empire : Total War has been subject to updates delivered through the Steam system , aimed at optimising performance and removing any bugs remaining in the game .
James Russell , the lead designer on the project , stated in an interview that the 18th century was chosen as the setting as " it 's a fabulously colourful period ... the 18th century is the great age of fighting sail , and it 's the obvious arena in which to set our spectacular new sea battles . " Russell also stated that the dynamic and far @-@ reaching changes of the era , from political revolutions such as the French Revolution , economic revolutions such as the Industrial Revolution to military revolutions such as the widespread use of gunpowder , gave the " opportunity to develop some really interesting new features and gameplay dynamics that make for a lot of variation " . Motion capture animation was used extensively to make characters seem more lifelike . For increased authenticity , research was conducted into 18th @-@ century aspects such as duels , although designers also observed the choreography of actors in related films and TV series , such as Sharpe .
Empire : Total War ships with nine different versions of box art , eight of which represent the major faction for the market the game is sold in , and one general international version . For instance , German customers are presented artwork displaying colours with the Prussian eagle and Prussian army uniforms , whilst the American artwork shows the American revolutionaries and the Betsy Ross flag . A special edition version of Empire : Total War entitled Special Forces incorporates six elite faction @-@ specific units : HMS Victory , the French Irish Brigade , Spanish guerillas , Gurkha infantry , Rogers ' Rangers and the Ottoman Ribauldequin . Additionally , three retailers were provided with a special unit for customers to receive ; Amazon.com customers were given the Dahomey Amazons , buyers from Best Buy were able to receive the USS Constitution and customers buying from Game received the Death 's Head Hussars . A further 14 units were added with the objective of increasing graphical and unit variety among the factions . These 14 units were released as part of the game 's 1 @.@ 3 patch in June 2009 ; accompanying the update was a second set of 14 units , released as downloadable content for purchase .
= = Release = =
Empire : Total War was released on 3 March 2009 to the North American market , and three days later in Europe . The game has become the fastest selling Total War title to date ; Empire topped British video game sales charts for all platforms in the week of release , the first PC exclusive title to do so in a year and a half . The game was reported to have sold nearly double the number of Rome : Total War and Medieval II : Total War . In the United States , Empire : Total War and its Special Forces edition were ranked as first and second respectively in the PC sales charts for the week of release . The game 's Australian version debuted as the top PC game ; across all platforms Empire : Total War was ranked fourth , behind Halo Wars , Wii Fit and Killzone 2 . Sega reported the game sold 810 @,@ 000 units worldwide during their last fiscal year period of 2008 . However , consumer response was hampered by technical problems arising from incompatibility with certain Nvidia drivers released after the game 's development was completed and reports of installation problems with the Steam content delivery system . In an interview with IGN , Studio Communications Manager Kieran Brigden discussed the problems inherent in developing such a huge and ambitious game , saying : " Are there some issues with Empire ? Yes there are . " As part of its post @-@ release support , he said that The Creative Assembly is planning on addressing issues with stability and performance , as well as adding improvements for gameplay and artificial intelligence .
Mike Simpson , The Creative Assembly 's studio director , started a blog in October 2009 , in a deliberate attempt to engage with the game 's user community and counter some of the negative reaction which the game had received . He explained The Creative Assembly " were not entirely happy with the state of Empire : Total War when it went out " , but felt the Metacritic user rating of 67 percent was unfair , stating that his reason for blogging was a concern that the negative ratings could even damage the amount of money available for developing future games . In later posts he described the February 2009 release date as " commercial reality " , and explained why they had hit significant problems with the game 's AI close to release . Simpson describes the campaign AI as " by far the most complex code edifice I ’ ve ever seen in a game " , and said that they had reached a tipping point where consideration of too many factors led to an AI which " disagrees with itself chronically and often ends up paralysed by indecision " . It was only after patch 1 @.@ 5 — six months after the original release — that Simpson felt comfortable sending it to friends of his , having previously been too embarrassed about the flaws . With regard to the battle AI , Simpson said that the lead battle AI programmer had left to return to his family just before the end of the project . The battle AI at that stage struggled to beat good players even with an obvious level of handicapping , and it had taken some time for other programmers to understand three years ' worth of code ; progress had been " frustratingly slow " as they strived for a game where real world tactics would work .
= = Expansion = =
In September 2009 , an expansion titled The Warpath Campaign was announced for release the following month , as was the next game in the series , Napoleon : Total War . The campaign , released as downloadable content , focuses on the battles of the Europeans and Native Americans throughout most of North and Central America . The new campaign expands the North American territories and features 5 new playable factions : Iroquois , Cherokee , Huron , Pueblo and Plains Nations . New researchable technologies were also added , along with the new scout and shaman agents and new faction @-@ specific objectives . Napoleon : Total War , released February 2010 , focuses on the life of Napoleon Bonaparte , building upon the technology used for Empire : Total War . Napoleon was released as a standalone game rather than an expansion for a number of reasons , mostly to do with technical limitations ; according to Mike Simpson " the level of detail required to successfully depict the Napoleonic Wars is an order of magnitude greater than we were working to with Empire : Total War " . Empire and Napoleon Total War Collection - Game of the Year was then released on 1 October 2010 joining both games together , including all of the available downloadable content .
= = Reception = =
Empire : Total War was recipient to a strong critical response within the video game industry , holding aggregate review scores of 88 percent and 90 percent on GameRankings and Metacritic respectively . Reviewers praised the large scope of the game 's strategy map , PC Gamer UK noted that the game " takes a great deal of its design philosophy from the events and trends of its era " , which enabled the game to reasonably reflect the challenges faced by the factions ' historical counterparts . Praise was also given to the extensive number of factions , down to very small factions such as the Knights of St. John and a renegade pirate settlement . Kieron Gillen , reviewing for Eurogamer , described the campaign map as " endless " and due to the large amount of content , observed that he had managed to complete the entire campaign without even visiting the Indian theatre of play ( approximately a full one fourth of the playable game world ) ; a factor that enhanced the game 's replayability . Other reviews echoed this sentiment ; GameSpot stated that " even a short , 50 @-@ year campaign can take a good amount of time to complete , given that each turn requires strategic thinking on multiple fronts " . Praise was further bestowed on the refined interface , introduction of a technology tree and level of strategic thinking required for the campaign map . However , some reviewers noted inconsistent behaviour with the campaign artificial intelligence ; 1UP.com noted that it could perform illogical choices , such as " the occasional suicidal war between Dagestan and Russia " , while GamePro was critical of the artificial intelligence in a number of areas , including the inability to mount a naval invasion or utilise effective strategies on the campaign map .
The real @-@ time land battles in Empire were considered well constructed . Expressing that The Creative Assembly had effectively implemented what it had learned since Shogun : Total War , GameSpy described the addition of personal firearms and friendly fire as something that " changes the tactical nature of the game much as it did in real life " , and noting that the player controls and enemy AI were " competent " . IGN felt that the real @-@ time aspects captured " the cinematic brilliance of it all without ever falling back on obvious exaggerations or pretenses " and that the controls , specifically in relation to unit formation , were much improved . GameSpot put the real @-@ time land battles as " enjoyable to command and enjoyable to watch " , particularly commending the amount of detail in each model and animation for every soldier , points carried in several other reviews . However , GameSpot thought that the artificial intelligence could appear " confused " in some circumstances , and the Game Informer " second opinion " review said that " the enemy AI falls apart from time to time " . In addition , Eurogamer felt that units ' pathfinding abilities in fort sieges were insufficient , and Game Informer also criticised pathfinding around obstacles .
Naval combat was subject to more criticism than land battles . PC Format described the visuals in a naval battle as " incredible " , but stated that the controls were " frustrating ; genuine naval tactics fast disappear out of the window as [ the player ] struggles to bring [ their ] navy ’ s cannons to bear on the enemy " . PC Gamer UK reciprocated this view , but noted that naval strategy was a " deeply difficult task " for a developer , and that " The Creative Assembly have done the best that their game template would allow " . IGN praised the graphical quality of the naval battles and stated that " trying to line ships up correctly , making the most of the wind and choosing targets appropriately is very rewarding " , but that " the formations and pathfinding leave a lot to be desired " . GameSpot commented that " the AI seems incapable of managing [ a naval battle ] with much success " .
Despite criticisms , most reviews were ultimately favourable to Empire : Total War . While IGN felt that the game " drags a bit and there are some small , rough edges in the tactical battles " , the game still " deserves to be mentioned in the same breath as the greatest names in gaming history " . 1UP.com finished by saying " For all its problems , it 's undoubtedly progress " , while Eurogamer felt that issues " limit [ the game ] to being merely one of the games of the year , " but implied that a post @-@ release patch could deal with these flaws . GameSpot summarised that the game was " complex and rewarding " and GameSpy praised the game for " the simplified interface elements , great campaign , and much @-@ improved map and information screens [ that ] make this the most accessible Total War yet , and a great place for those unfamiliar with the series to get started " . Crispy Gamer , while acclaiming the game " spectacular " and " lovingly historical " , criticised the documentation and concluded that the game falls apart due to its bad AI . The Game Informer reviewers criticised the AI , but still described the overall game experience as " fantastic " and " outstanding " . GamePro provided a dissenting opinion ; although describing Empire : Total War as a game with a potential that " with some extra tweaking , could have proven itself an excellent title " , noted that it " has a heap of problems that need resolving " with bugs and crashes . PC Gamer UK enthusiastically proclaimed the game as " one of the most playable , important and accomplished games ever created " .
The downloadable content The Warpath Campaign was criticised by Strategy Informer for not integrating into the original campaign and for only adding a few new units . Concerns were also voiced about the difficulty curve , though the reviewer felt the DLC provided players a challenge by playing as the technologically backward Native Americans against the European interlopers . Games Radar praised the focus on stealth and new tactics , and was complimentary about the low price of the DLC , but was critical of the campaign 's historical accuracy .
= Royal Maundy =
Royal Maundy / ˈmɔːndi / is a religious service in the Church of England held on Maundy Thursday , the day before Good Friday . At the service , the British Monarch or a royal official ceremonially distributes small silver coins known as " Maundy money " ( legally , " the Queen 's Maundy money " ) as symbolic alms to elderly recipients . The coins are legal tender but do not circulate because of their silver content and numismatic value . A small sum of ordinary money is also given in lieu of gifts of clothing and food that the sovereign once bestowed on Maundy recipients .
The name " Maundy " and the ceremony itself derive from an instruction , or mandatum , of Jesus Christ at the Last Supper that his followers should love one another . In the Middle Ages , English monarchs washed the feet of beggars in imitation of Jesus , and presented gifts and money to the poor . Over time , additional money was substituted for the clothing and other items that had once been distributed .
Beginning in 1699 the monarch did not attend the service , sending an official in his place . The custom of washing the feet did not survive the 18th century . In 1931 Princess Marie Louise was at Royal Maundy , and afterwards suggested that her cousin , King George V , make the distributions the following year , which he did , beginning a new royal custom . Traditionally , the service was held in or near London , in most years in the early 20th century at Westminster Abbey . Today , Queen Elizabeth II almost always attends ( she has been absent only four times in her reign ) , and the service is held in a different church ( usually a cathedral ) every year . Recipients were once chosen for their poverty and were entitled to remain as Maundy recipients for life ; today new recipients are chosen every year for service to their churches or communities , on the recommendation of clergymen of various Christian denominations . Generally , recipients live in the diocese where the service is held , although this was altered for the 2011 and 2012 services .
Maundy money is struck in denominations of one penny , two pence , three pence , and four pence . Until the 18th century the coins given were from the circulating coinage , and it was not until the latter half of the century that the four Maundy coins developed as distinct , noncirculating pieces . The obverse design of the coins features the reigning monarch . The reverse , with a crowned numeral enclosed by a wreath , derives from a design first used during the reign of William and Mary , and which has been virtually unaltered since 1822 . In most years there are fewer than 2 @,@ 000 complete sets of Maundy money ; they are highly sought after by collectors .
= = Origins ; early and medieval history = =
The word Maundy derives from the command or mandatum by Christ at the Last Supper , to love one another . The Gospels relate that on the eve of his Crucifixion , Jesus Christ ate a meal with his disciples . After the meal , it is recorded that Jesus washed their feet , and gave them the following mandatum or command : " If I then , your Lord and Master , have washed your feet , ye also ought to wash one another 's feet . For I have given you an example , that ye should do as I have done unto you . " Mandatum is the derivation of the word " Maundy " , and the Royal Maundy service evolved from Jesus ' command to his disciples .
By the fourth or fifth century a ceremony had been developed following Holy Communion on Maundy Thursday , in which high Church leaders washed the feet of the poor . The ceremony , known as the pedilavium , was performed daily in some monasteries ; in 992 , Bishop Oswald of Worcester died during its performance .
The first English monarch to be recorded as distributing alms at a Maundy service was on 15 April 1210 , when John donated garments , forks , food , and other gifts to the poor of Knaresborough , Yorkshire . John is also the first English monarch to be recorded as giving gifts of small silver coins to the poor when in 1213 he gave 13 pence to each of 13 poor men at a ceremony in Rochester — the number being symbolic of the Twelve Apostles together with either Jesus or an angel . Few details of the 13th century Maundy survive ; they are known to have existed from records which show the spending necessary for the gifts to the poor . The monarch was not alone in performing the rituals of the Maundy service ; Henry III 's children assisted him as part of their political and religious training . Henry 's son , Edward I , was the first monarch to keep the Maundy only on or about Maundy Thursday ; before Edward , additional Maundys might be kept during the year . According to Virginia Cole in her study of royal children 's role in the 13th century Maundy , the service had a political purpose as well , as needing to humble himself by doing the pedilavium proclaimed the monarch 's greatness . Attendance at a Maundy service became an obligation for all major European ruling houses .
By 1363 the British monarch performed the pedilavium and also gave gifts : that year , fifty @-@ year @-@ old Edward III gave fifty pence to each of fifty poor men . It is not known , however , whether it was as yet the practice each year to have the number of pence and the number of recipients track the monarch 's age : Henry IV was the first monarch to decree that the number of pence given be determined by the monarch 's age . The ceremony was not always performed on Maundy Thursday ; it could be postponed a day to Good Friday by royal command , as it was in 1510 . Nobles could hold their own Maundy distributions , as did Henry Percy , 5th Earl of Northumberland in the early 16th century , according to a contemporary record : " My Lord useth and accustomyth yerly uppon the said Maundy Thursday when his Lordshipe is at home to gyf yerly as manny Pursses of Lether ... with as manny Penys in every purse to as many poore men as his Lordshipe is Yeres of Aige and one for the Yere of my Lords Aige to come . "
Although Mary I and Elizabeth I differed religiously , both performed elaborate Maundy ceremonies . Records from 1556 show that Mary washed the feet of forty @-@ one poor women ( reflecting her age ) while " ever on her knees " , and gave them forty @-@ one pence each , as well as gifts of bread , fish , and clothing , donating her own gown to the woman said to be poorest of all . In 1572 disliking the scenes as each woman tried to secure a piece of the royal gown , Queen Elizabeth granted a sum of £ 1 to each recipient in lieu of the gown , giving it in a red purse . Contemporary writer William Lambarde noted that the money was substituted for the gown " to avoid trouble of suite , which accustomabile was made for that perferment " . In years in which plague was rife , the monarch did not attend , sending an official , usually the Lord High Almoner , to make the distributions and perform the pedilavium . Even though scented water was used to disguise any unpleasant odours from the poor , the feet were washed three times before the monarch performed the pedilavium , once by a menial and twice by Court officials . In later years , sweet @-@ smelling nosegays were used to disguise odours — the nosegays are still carried today .
= = Post @-@ Restoration = =
Charles I rarely attended the Royal Maundy service . Author Brian Robinson , who traced the development of Royal Maundy , suggests that after the Restoration , his son Charles II attempted to gain popularity by assiduous attendance ( and distribution of money ) at the service . Charles II even attended during the plague years of 1661 and 1663 . His brother and successor , James II performed the ceremony as well . Although there is a record of William III doing so in 1698 , most sources state that James was the last to wash the feet of the poor himself , in 1685 . There is no record of any attendance by a monarch at the Royal Maundy ceremony after 1698 until 1932 , but pre @-@ 1725 records are vague . The Lord High Almoner continued to perform the pedilavium at the Maundy ceremony until 1737 . Today , the only traces of the pedilavium at Royal Maundy are the nosegays and the linen towels worn by several of the officials .
The service was usually held somewhere near London . This was done to suit the monarch 's convenience : in medieval times , it was held in Windsor , Eton , Richmond , Greenwich , or wherever the monarch happened to be at Eastertime . In 1714 , with the monarch no longer present at the ceremony , the service was moved to the Chapel Royal , Whitehall , where it remained until 1890 , when the Chapel was given to the Royal United Services Institute . After 1890 , by order of Queen Victoria , it was moved to Westminster Abbey , though in years when there was a Coronation and the Abbey was closed for preparations , the service was held at St. Paul 's Cathedral . From 1954 to 1970 , it was held in even @-@ numbered years at Westminster , and in odd @-@ numbered years at provincial cathedrals ; since then it has , in most years , been held outside London . When the service was confined to London , recipients were customarily householders who had met their financial obligations to society , but had since fallen on hard times .
The number of recipients continued to track the monarch 's age . Until the joint reign of William and Mary , the recipients were of the same sex as the monarch . During that reign , each of the monarchs made gifts to poor people of their sex , but after the death of Mary , only men received gifts from King William . Beginning with the reign of George I ( 1714 – 1727 ) , both men and women have received gifts , each sex in a number corresponding to the monarch 's age , each recipient receiving that number of pence . Despite the monarch 's absence , the ceremony was held each year , with the Lord High Almoner or the Sub @-@ Almoner deputising for the sovereign .
The gift of clothing was eliminated for women beginning in 1724 , as the recipients immediately tried on the gifts and exchanged ill @-@ fitting ones with each other , a practice thought unseemly in a church . The women were instead given 35 shillings ( decimalised as £ 1 @.@ 75 ) . For men , the clothing gift was replaced by woollen cloth that year . Men continued to be given cloth until 1883 , when royal officials realised that many of the recipients were too poor to have the cloth made into garments and were instead selling it . Men were given 45 shillings ( decimalised as £ 2 @.@ 25 ) in lieu of the cloth , an amount increased in 1973 to £ 3 for both men and women .
There is a record of the 1802 Royal Maundy ; it notes that the recipients were given 4 pounds ( 1 @.@ 8 kg ) of beef and four threepenny loaves . After the 1837 Maundy , King William IV ordered that as the recipients were selling the food gift for less than its full value — they were to be given 30 shillings in food which was sometimes sold by the recipients for as little as five shillings — it was to be replaced by a money gift of 30 shillings . This amount ( decimalised into £ 1 @.@ 50 ) , is still given . The same year , a report on the Civil List written for the House of Commons proposed eliminating the Royal Maundy : " Considering that the sum distributed annually as alms and charity is applied in a manner suited rather to ancient than modern times and is attended with some expense , it may not be inexpedient to consider whether the purpose of the Royal benevolence might not be more fully attained if some other and better mode of distribution were adopted . " King William 's death at the age of 71 that year and the accession of 18 @-@ year @-@ old Queen Victoria resulted in a dramatic drop in the number of Maundy recipients . As at that time , a Maundy recipient continued in that status for life , the surplus recipients were placed on waiting lists , and given royal charity through other means . One vacancy occurred a week before the 1838 Maundy when recipient Elizabeth Love died at the age of 110 .
In 1843 , The Illustrated London News described a Maundy ceremony :
On the day alluded to a certain number of poor men and women , of each the exact number of our sovereign 's age , attends divine worship in the Royal Chapel , Whitehall in the morning and afternoon . Bread , meat and fish is distributed to them in large wooden bowls , and a procession formed of the royal almoner or sub @-@ almoner , with other officers , who are decorated with white scarfs and sashes , and each carrying a bouquet of flowers ; one of the officers supports a large gold dish or salver , on which are placed small red and white leather bags , the red containing a sovereign , the white the pieces ... termed Maundy Money . One of each of these bags is given to the persons selected to receive the royal bounty ; they have likewise given to them cloth , linen , shoes & c . , as well as a small maple cup , out of which previous to the termination of the ceremony they drink the Queen 's health ... These small pieces are , by an order of Government declared current coins of the realm , therefore no one dare refuse to take them if offered in payment , still they are not in reality intended for that purpose .
The drinking of the monarch 's health , which is believed to have originated with the custom of the loving cup , was abolished in the 19th century , though the exact date is uncertain . In the early 20th century , members of the Royal Family sometimes attended the Royal Maundy service — Queen Alexandra twice was present . Most Royal Maundy ceremonies in the first part of the century were attended by Princess Helena or by her daughter Princess Marie Louise . In 1931 , Marie Louise was present at Royal Maundy and suggested , after the service , that her cousin King George V make the distributions the following year . King George did so in 1932 , the only time he was at the service during his reign . In 1936 , the year of King George 's death , the new king , Edward VIII made the distribution . George VI ( who succeeded King Edward on his abdication late in 1936 ) did not attend until 1940 , and then not again until 1944 , his place being taken in most years by the Lord High Almoner , Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury . Queen Elizabeth II has been present for all but four Royal Maundy services of her long reign . She was absent twice following childbirth , and twice because she was visiting other parts of the Commonwealth . She first attended Royal Maundy as Princess Elizabeth of York in 1935 . Until 1956 a recipient once chosen for the Maundy service had the right to continue to be a recipient for life . In 1957 , with the service leaving London for the first time in over two centuries ( it was held in 1957 at St. Albans ) , this became impractical and it was decided that , in future years , recipients would attend once only . To honour the promise to the surviving lifetime appointees , they were given the opportunity to attend whenever the service was held in London , and were sent an equivalent sum by post in years when it was not .
= = Royal Maundy today = =
Queen Elizabeth II views the service as an important part of her devotional life . It is the only occasion on which the Queen visits others to make awards , as recipients of honours usually come to her . According to Ronald Allison and Sarah Riddell in their The Royal Encyclopedia , the service " has become the occasion of a royal pilgrimage to different parts of the country " . The Queen has directed that the service not be held in London more often than once in ten years . Westminster Abbey was the site of the 2001 Royal Maundy , and again in 2011 , the first ever televised .
Today the recipients are pensioners , chosen on an interdenominational basis from various Christian churches for their service to their churches and communities . In most years , recipients are nominated by Christian clergy of various denominations in the diocese where the service is held . In 2011 , however , as well as recipients representing Westminster Abbey , forty recipients came from the Anglican Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe , which covers continental Europe , and forty from the Diocese of Sodor and Man , which consists of the Isle of Man . Robert Patterson , Bishop of Sodor and Man , while at a conference of Anglican bishops had invited the Queen to his cathedral for Maundy services ; he received word that this would be too difficult , but that his diocese could nominate recipients . For 2012 , in honour of the Queen 's Diamond Jubilee , recipients were selected from all 44 dioceses in the United Kingdom for the service at York Minster .
The Yeomen of the Guard are present at the ceremony and serve as " Indoor Guard " ; the choir of the Chapel Royal is also present . Six wandsmen , whose original function is uncertain , guide the recipients to their places and render any other help which is needed . Present at the ceremony are four Maundy Children ( formally " Children of the Royal Almonry " ) , two boys and two girls . The original Maundy Children were four old men , charity recipients , whose sole duty was to attend at the Royal Maundy service wearing linen scarves . As their fees for the service amounted to over twenty pounds per year , this was deemed an abuse of charity , and in 1808 the old men were pensioned off and replaced by actual children . The first children appointed from 1808 did not personally attend the service , but their parents received five guineas per year to aid in their education until the age of fourteen , and four other children , from schools in the City of Westminster represented them at the service . Today , the Maundy Children are chosen from religious and state schools , and receive a set of Maundy coins for their participation . Officials in the Maundy service wear towels over their clothing , worn over the shoulder and tied at the waist . The linen towels were once retained by their wearers , but since 1883 , the same towels , laundered each year , have been used .
Until 1979 , the Queen made two distributions of money in leather purses to each recipient . The first distribution , given to women in green purses and to men in white , was of an allowance in lieu of the clothing formerly given . The white purses used for the clothing allowance may be distinguished from the white purses which contained Maundy money , as the former was tied with a short green string ; the latter bears a long red string . The clothing allowance purses had been introduced in 1936 ; prior to that , the clothing allowance was distributed in a paper packet . In the second distribution two purses were given by the monarch ; the red one contained £ 1 @.@ 50 for provisions , once given in kind , and the additional sum of £ 1 mandated by Elizabeth I. The white purses contained the Maundy money . After 1979 , the separate distribution of the clothing allowance was discontinued — the gifts have now been consolidated , and recipients now receive two purses in a single distribution , one white containing the Maundy coins , and one red containing the other money . The distributions were consolidated so as to reduce the physical strain of the ceremony on the Queen as she aged . The red purse contains £ 1 representing the money for redemption of the monarch 's gown , £ 3 in lieu of the clothing once given , and £ 1 @.@ 50 in place of the food once presented , totalling £ 5 @.@ 50 . In 2015 , for the ceremony at Sheffield Cathedral , the £ 5 @.@ 50 not given in Maundy money took the form of a £ 5 coin commemorating the 50th anniversary of the death of Sir Winston Churchill and a 50p piece for the 75th anniversary of the Battle of Britain .
One man and one woman are chosen for each year the Queen has lived ( including the year she is currently living ) , and they receive Maundy money equivalent in pence to that number of years . Recipients attend a " Maundy Lecture " in the cathedral in advance of the service to familiarise them with what will happen . The cathedral is designated the Royal Chapel for the day of the service , and the Royal Standard flies . The purses are carried into the church by the Yeomen on silver dishes , held above their heads . The origin of this custom is uncertain but apparently dates from the times when provisions were distributed to the poor ; some experts believe the dishes were carried high to stop the poor from grabbing at the food prematurely ; others believe that the position was to prevent the congregation from being overwhelmed by the smell of fish .
The Order of Service for Royal Maundy is a simple one . It begins with the reading of John 13 : 34 , which contains the mandatum from which Royal Maundy evolved . It contains two lessons , the first of which ( John 13 ) also recalls the mandatum . The second reading contains that portion of Matthew 25 which describes the Last Judgment . The Queen makes half of the presentations after the first lesson , and half after the second . Anthems , led by the Chapel Royal choir and the local choir , are sung while the distribution is going on , concluding with George Frideric Handel 's coronation anthem Zadok the Priest . The Royal Maundy service concludes with prayers , " God Save the Queen " and the blessing . Two hymns are sung ; there is no address . Six silver dishes are used to hold the gifts ; one , the traditional Maundy Dish , forms part of the Royal Regalia and is held at the Tower of London when not in use . All six dishes date from the reign of Charles II ; five of the six have been added to the service since 1971 . They are held by the Yeomen as the Queen walks about , greeting recipients and giving them their gifts . The Lord High Almoner receives his only recompense for his position if he attends the Royal Maundy service — a small fee , though payable in Maundy money .
The Pope still performs the pedilavium , as does the Archbishop of Canterbury . In recent years , the pedilavium has become more popular across Christian denominations , and even as a gesture of humility among those serving the poor . Today , the Royal Maundy ceremony involves a considerable security operation , with drains in the area checked . Two 17 @-@ year @-@ old boys were arrested in Wakefield in 2005 for popping balloons in the area of the service ; as the sound might be mistaken for gunfire .
The Queen interacts informally with the Maundy recipients , it is said , some of whom have given her gifts in return — one participant handed her a jar of marmalade . Mercia Tapsell , a 71 @-@ year @-@ old Maundy recipient who participated in the 1992 ceremony at Chester for her work with the Salvation Army , spoke of the ceremony before her death in July of that year :
It surpassed anything that I ever thought . I didn 't ever think that I should be in the cathedral with the Queen and all the dignitaries that were there . And the singing , the organ , the Queen , just everything and everybody . It 's really been out of this world . Just to hear Zadok the Priest , I think , has lifted me to Cloud Nine , because it 's something that I love . And to hear that and to have the Queen pass so close to me . And yes , she smiled . She smiled at me .
= = Maundy coinage = =
= = = Development and design = = =
Sets of 1d ( one penny ) to 4d silver coins are known from the time of Charles II onwards . However , as there is no record of any denomination higher than 1d ( then struck for circulation in silver ) being used in the Maundy gift before 1731 , sets from before then are most likely ordinary circulation strikes . At that time , coins used for the Maundy money distribution were indistinguishable from those struck for circulation . It was not until 1752 that coins not struck for circulation were used for the Maundy distribution . At times when little silver was being struck by the Royal Mint , the coins distributed might bear a previous year 's date . To evade statutory prohibitions on the striking of silver coin during the Napoleonic Wars , all Maundy pieces issued from 1800 to 1815 bear the date 1800 , though most were struck later . When the date was finally changed in 1816 , after the prohibition ended , the size of the coins was slightly reduced , as the Royal Mint increased the amount struck from one troy pound of sterling silver from 62 to 66 shillings of silver coin . The last year in which no Maundy coins were struck was 1821 .
In 1689 , the Royal Mint began using a design for the reverse of the four low @-@ denomination silver coins depicting a crowned numeral . The designer is unknown ( Richard Lobel , in his catalogue of British coins , suggests the artist was George Bower , an employee of the Royal Mint whose medals bear similar characteristics ) but his work has endured , in a revised form , for over 300 years . In 1822 an amended reverse was introduced , and has been struck every year since then in all four denominations . The 1822 reverse design , which places the crowned numeral within an oak wreath , was created by Jean Baptiste Merlen . This design is still struck each year , though the crown was altered in 1888 , as was the appearance of the numeral " 2 " on the twopence . These changes were made by Royal Mint engraver Leonard Charles Wyon . A proposal by the Royal Mint in 1950 to return to the pre @-@ 1888 " 2 " as more artistic was refused by George VI , who felt the current numeral was stylistically similar to the numerals on the other coins , and the pre @-@ 1888 " 2 " was not .
Beginning in 1834 , threepence ( 3d ) pieces were struck for circulation , bearing the same design as the Maundy 3d . The circulation pieces were initially struck for use in the West Indies , but beginning in 1845 , were coined for use in Britain as well . Many of the 3d pieces presented to impoverished Maundy recipients were spent , and these are rarer than the other values today . Maundy 3ds may sometimes be distinguished from currency 3ds as dies with a more polished field were used for the Maundy pieces . The design of the circulation 3d remained the same as that of the Maundy 3d until 1928 , when a new design was introduced for the circulating coins . Twopence coins identical to Maundy pieces , intended for colonial use , were struck in 1838 , 1843 , and 1848 .
The original composition of the coins was sterling ( 0 @.@ 925 ) silver . In common with all British silver coins , the fineness was reduced to 0 @.@ 500 in 1921 . In 1947 silver was removed from all circulating British coinage in favour of cupronickel , but as it was felt to be inappropriate to strike Maundy coins in base metal , their fineness was restored to 0 @.@ 925 . On Decimal Day , 15 February 1971 , the pound sterling became decimalised , with 100 new pence instead of 20 shillings of 12 pence ( 240 pence ) in a pound . No change was made to the design of the Maundy pieces , and all Maundy pieces , both pre- and post @-@ Decimal Day , are by law deemed denominated in new pence , more than doubling the face value of the pre @-@ 1971 pieces . The Maundy pieces continue to use the original obverse design for Queen Elizabeth II by Mary Gillick , although the bust of the Queen on other British coins has been repeatedly replaced as she ages . At the time of decimalisation , the Royal Mint Advisory Commission recommended the retention out of affection for the Gillick design ; this was accepted by the Queen .
= = = Distribution and resale = = =
In the 19th century , as many as sixty times the number of pieces needed for the ceremony were struck , due to public interest in the ceremony and the pieces . Beginning in 1846 , Queen Victoria requested pieces for her private use , as much as £ 10 ( 2 @,@ 400 pence ) per year . Many sets were purchased by coin dealers , others by Mint officials as gifts . Small quantities of Maundy twopences and fourpences ( principally the latter ) were obtained by colleges at the University of Cambridge for use in making token annual payments . These requests were fulfilled until the middle of the 20th century , after which the Royal Mint refused them ; the colleges thereafter used obsolete circulation groats ( fourpences ) , or dispensed with the custom .
According to Robinson , the practice of recipients being asked to sell their gifts " is of long standing " . Robinson recounts a description of the scenes after a Maundy service at the turn of the 19th century :
[ A ] s soon as the service is over , crowds of buyers flock eagerly around the old people , who take a price for their coins . The rate they usually charge is four or five times the face value of the coins . The purses are sometimes disposed of at from one to two shillings each , depending on the market .
By 1897 , Maundy recipients were being urged to sell the small pieces at a premium ; there are tales of Americans paying high prices for a set that year , wanting a souvenir of Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee .
In 1903 , the Royal Mint made its first effort to cut back on the number of pieces distributed , eliminating 200 Mint workers ( principally charwomen and labourers ) from the distribution list . Until 1908 Maundy sets could be ordered through banks . Beginning in 1909 , however , distribution of the pieces was restricted to Maundy recipients and certain officials . Mintage of sets of Maundy money dropped from 9 @,@ 929 in 1908 to 2 @,@ 428 the following year . By 1932 , Maundy recipients were routinely selling the coins to dealers at a premium . There was little official response to this until the 1960s , when questions were asked in the House of Lords after the press reported that recipients were being approached by dealers after the service and being offered cash for their gifts . In response , the Royal Mint decreased the number of sets available to officials , though Royal Mint employees of long service are offered the opportunity , every few years , to purchase a set . A number of sets are used as prizes for students at Westminster School , a practice said to have begun with Elizabeth I , though this now occurs only in years when the service is held at Westminster Abbey . Sets distributed by the Royal Mint in these ways are not given in purses , but in presentation cases .
In recent years , approximately 1 @,@ 600 – 1 @,@ 900 sets have been minted . Additional sets have been struck for inclusion in special silver proof sets marketed by the Royal Mint in 1996 , 2000 and 2006 , with a special issue in gold as part of a gold proof set in 2002 . Individual Maundy recipients have realised as much as £ 100 per set of four pieces by selling them on eBay .
= There 's No Disgrace Like Home =
" There 's No Disgrace Like Home " is the fourth episode of The Simpsons ' first season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 28 , 1990 . In the episode , Homer becomes ashamed of his family after a catastrophic company picnic and decides to enroll them in therapy . The therapist struggles to solve their problems but eventually gives up and refunds their payment .
It was an early episode , showing early designs for a few recurring characters . The episode is inspired by the comedy of Laurel and Hardy and features cultural references to films such as Citizen Kane and Freaks as well as the Batman and Twilight Zone television series . Critics noted that the characters acted differently from the way they would in later seasons . In November 1996 , The BBC chose it as the first episode to be aired , when they started showing the series , later being beat in the ratings by Sabrina .
= = Plot = =
Homer takes his family to a company picnic organized by his boss , Mr. Burns , and hopes they will not embarrass him . After Bart , Lisa and Marge all misbehave , Homer is embarrassed by their behavior . Later on , he notices that Burns is drawn to a " normal " family that treats one another with respect and shows his blatant disgust for his own family . Homer wonders why he is cursed with a troubled family who misbehave and disrespects anyone , especially after the man from the normal perfect family admits he pities Homer .
Determined to improve his family 's behavior , Homer attempts to get them to sit at the table properly , which goes awry as the family prefers to eat while watching TV . When Marge , Bart and Lisa claim there 's nothing wrong with them , he decides to prove to them that there is something wrong . He takes them on a tour of the neighborhood , peeking through living room windows to observe how happy families spend time together . The rest of the Simpsons are unnerved by Homer 's sudden rash behavior along with unnecessarily spying on their neighbors and retreat quickly back to the safety of their own home . Depressed by the outing , he stops by Moe 's Tavern for a drink . After getting into a fight with Barney , Homer later sees a commercial for Dr. Marvin Monroe 's Family Therapy Center . Dr. Monroe guarantees " family bliss or double your money back . " This gives Homer an idea to improve his family 's behavior .
Homer makes an appointment at the clinic and pays for it by pawning their television . This only frustrates the rest of the Simpsons as he takes them to the scheduled appointment . In the waiting room , they claim the family doesn 't have a problem and are silenced by Homer . Dr. Monroe encourages them to express their unhappiness with a series of exercises . The first is a drawing exercise , which he encourages them to draw out the source of their problems . Most the Simpsons vent out their anger by drawing Homer as they see him . When Dr. Monroe observes it , he realizes that Homer is likely the source of their issues in the family . This is evident when he proves his own inattentive nature in being lost in the exercise and having the family view him as such , including being too strict as a disciplinarian . The other methods in getting the family to talk to each other in a normal matter fails . Dr. Monroe finally takes matters into his own hands and sends them all to a generator room , allowing them to deliver electric shocks to each other . The family shocks one another to the point of causing a power drain on the city . Unable to help them , Dr. Monroe gives the Simpsons double their money back . With a fresh sense of family unity , they use the money to buy a new television set .
= = Production = =
The episode shows telltale signs of being one of the earliest produced . The characters act completely differently from later seasons ; Lisa , for example , is an undisciplined brat , Marge gets drunk and is inattentive , while Homer is the voice of reason . These roles are reversed in later episodes . It was an early episode for Mr. Burns , who was voiced by Christopher Collins in the previous episode , " Homer 's Odyssey " . Originally , the character was influenced by Ronald Reagan , a concept which was later dropped . The idea that he would greet his employees using index cards was inspired by the way Reagan would greet people . The episode marks the first time Burns refers to " releasing the hounds " .
The episode marked the first appearance of Dr. Marvin Monroe and Itchy & Scratchy ; the latter had previously appeared in the shorts . It also marked the first appearance of yellow Smithers , who was drawn as an African @-@ American in the previous episode . Eddie and Lou also appeared for the first time , although Lou was mistakenly animated with yellow instead of black , as he would later become . Lou was named after Lou Whitaker , a former Major League Baseball player .
The idea behind the shock therapy scene was based on Laurel and Hardy throwing pies at each other . The scene was rearranged in the editing room ; it played out differently when first produced . The edits to this scene were preliminary , but well @-@ received , and remained unchanged in the finished product .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's title is a parody of the famous phrase " There 's no place like Home " from " Home ! Sweet Home ! " , an 1823 song by Henry Bishop and John Howard Payne . The scene in which the family enters Burns ' Manor contains two cultural references . The Manor resembles Charles Foster Kane 's mansion from the 1941 film Citizen Kane . The characters refer to it as " stately Burns Manor " , a reference to the Batman TV series . In addition , there is a reference to Freaks , the Tod Browning cult horror film , in the repetition of the line " one of us " . When Marge gets drunk , she sings Dean Martin 's " Hey , Brother , Pour the Wine " .
The shock therapy scene is reminiscent of the 1971 film A Clockwork Orange . The shock therapy scene appeared in the 1990 film Die Hard 2 .
The Paul Mauriat version of the 1967 song L 'amour est bleu can be briefly heard in the episode .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " There 's No Disgrace Like Home " finished forty @-@ fifth in ratings for the week of January 22 – 28 , 1990 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 2 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 3 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Married ... with Children . Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , note : " It 's very strange to see Homer pawning the TV set in an attempt to save the family ; if this episode had come later Marge would surely have taken this stance . "
They continue , " A neat swipe at family counseling with some great set pieces ; we 're especially fond of the perfect version of the Simpsons and the electric @-@ shock aversion therapy . " In a DVD review of the first season , David B. Grelck gave the episode a rating of 2 @.@ 0 / 5 @.@ 0 , placing it as one of the worst of the season . Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that the episode is " [ his ] least favorite episode of Season One " and further commented : " Homer feels embarrassed by the others ? Marge acts poorly in public and doesn ’ t care about the upkeep of the family ? Lisa ( Yeardley Smith ) engages in pranks and silliness ? This ain ’ t the family we ’ ve grown to know and love . "
This episode was one of the first seen by British viewers . It was the first episode to be broadcast on terrestrial television by the BBC on November 23 , 1996 on a Saturday at 5 : 30pm , because the episodes were shown out of order . The episode was screened with five million viewers , slightly less than the show , Dad 's Army , which previously held the timeslot . The episode also faced competition from ITV 's screening of Sabrina the Teenage Witch .
= = Home release = =
The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom , as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection ; the episode was paired with season one episode " Bart the General " . It was released in the US on the VHS release The Best of The Simpsons , Vol . 1 ( 1997 ) , paired with " Life on the Fast Lane " . It was later re @-@ released in the US in a collector 's edition boxed set of the first three volumes of The Best of The Simpsons collections . It was re @-@ released in the UK as part of VHS boxed set of the complete first season , released in November 1999 . The episode 's debut on the DVD format was as a part of The Simpsons season one DVD set , which was released on September 25 , 2001 . Groening , Jean , and Reiss participated in the DVD 's audio commentary . A digital edition of the series ' first season was published December 20 , 2010 in the United States containing the episode , through Amazon Video and iTunes .
= Rhyolite , Nevada =
Rhyolite is a ghost town in Nye County , in the U.S. state of Nevada . It is in the Bullfrog Hills , about 120 miles ( 190 km ) northwest of Las Vegas , near the eastern edge of Death Valley . The town began in early 1905 as one of several mining camps that sprang up after a prospecting discovery in the surrounding hills . During an ensuing gold rush , thousands of gold @-@ seekers , developers , miners and service providers flocked to the Bullfrog Mining District . Many settled in Rhyolite , which lay in a sheltered desert basin near the region 's biggest producer , the Montgomery Shoshone Mine .
Industrialist Charles M. Schwab bought the Montgomery Shoshone Mine in 1906 and invested heavily in infrastructure , including piped water , electric lines and railroad transportation , that served the town as well as the mine . By 1907 , Rhyolite had electric lights , water mains , telephones , newspapers , a hospital , a school , an opera house , and a stock exchange . Published estimates of the town 's peak population vary widely , but scholarly sources generally place it in a range between 3 @,@ 500 and 5 @,@ 000 in 1907 – 08 .
Rhyolite declined almost as rapidly as it rose . After the richest ore was exhausted , production fell . The 1906 San Francisco earthquake and the financial panic of 1907 made it more difficult to raise development capital . In 1908 , investors in the Montgomery Shoshone Mine , concerned that it was overvalued , ordered an independent study . When the study 's findings proved unfavorable , the company 's stock value crashed , further restricting funding . By the end of 1910 , the mine was operating at a loss , and it closed in 1911 . By this time , many out @-@ of @-@ work miners had moved elsewhere , and Rhyolite 's population dropped well below 1 @,@ 000 . By 1920 , it was close to zero .
After 1920 , Rhyolite and its ruins became a tourist attraction and a setting for motion pictures . Most of its buildings crumbled , were salvaged for building materials , or were moved to nearby Beatty or other towns , although the railway depot and a house made chiefly of empty bottles were repaired and preserved . From 1988 to 1998 , three companies operated a profitable open @-@ pit mine at the base of Ladd Mountain , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Rhyolite . The Goldwell Open Air Museum lies on private property just south of the ghost town , which is on property overseen by the Bureau of Land Management .
= = Names = =
The town is named for rhyolite , an igneous rock composed of light @-@ colored silicates , usually buff to pink and occasionally light gray . It belongs to the same rock class , felsic , as granite but is much less common . The Amargosa River , which flows through nearby Beatty , gets its name from the Spanish word for " bitter " , amargo . In its course , the river takes up large amounts of salts , which give it a bitter taste .
" Bullfrog " was the name Frank " Shorty " Harris and Ernest " Ed " Cross , the prospectors who started the Bullfrog gold rush , gave to their mine . As quoted by Robert D. McCracken in A History of Beatty , Nevada , Harris said during a 1930 interview for Westways magazine , " The rock was green , almost like turquoise , spotted with big chunks of yellow metal , and looked a lot like the back of a frog . " The Bullfrog Mining District , the Bullfrog Hills , the town of Bullfrog , and other geographical entities in the region took their name from the Bullfrog Mine .
" Bullfrog " became so popular that Giant Bullfrog , Bullfrog Merger , Bullfrog Apex , Bullfrog Annex , Bullfrog Gold Dollar , Bullfrog Mogul , and most of the district 's other 200 or so mining companies included " Bullfrog " in their names . The name persisted and , decades later , was given to the short @-@ lived Bullfrog County .
Beatty is named after " Old Man " Montillus ( Montillion ) Murray Beatty , a Civil War veteran and miner who bought a ranch along the Amargosa River just north of what became the town of Beatty . In 1906 , he sold the ranch to the Bullfrog Water , Power , and Light Company . " Shoshone " in " Montgomery Shoshone Mine " refers to the Western Shoshone people indigenous to the region . In about 1875 , the Shoshone had six camps along the Amargosa River near Beatty . The total population of these camps was 29 , and because game was scarce , they subsisted largely on seeds , bulbs and plants gathered throughout the region , including the Bullfrog Hills .
= = Geology = =
The Bullfrog Hills are at the western edge of the southwestern Nevada volcanic field . Extensionally faulted volcanic rocks , ranging in age from about 13 @.@ 3 million years to about 7 @.@ 6 million years , overlie the region 's Paleozoic sedimentary rocks . The prevailing rocks , which contain the ore deposits , are a series of rhyolitic lava flows that built to a combined thickness of about 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) above the more ancient rock . After the flows ceased , tectonic stresses fractured the area into many separate fault blocks . Most of these blocks tilt to the east , and the horizontal banding of individual flows shows clearly on their western scarps . Within the blocks , the ore deposits tend to occur in nearly vertical mineralized faults or fault zones in the rhyolite . Most of the lodes in the Bullfrog Hills are not simple veins but rather fissure zones with many stringers of vein material .
= = Geography and climate = =
Rhyolite is at the northern end of the Amargosa Desert in Nye County in the U.S. state of Nevada . Nestled in the Bullfrog Hills , about 120 miles ( 190 km ) northwest of Las Vegas , it is about 60 miles ( 97 km ) south of Goldfield , and 90 miles ( 140 km ) south of Tonopah . Roughly 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the east lie Beatty and the Amargosa River . To the west , roughly 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from Rhyolite , the Funeral and Grapevine Mountains of the Amargosa Range rise between the Amargosa Desert in Nevada and Death Valley in California . State Route 374 , passing about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) south of Rhyolite , links Beatty to Death Valley via Daylight Pass . Rhyolite is about 25 miles ( 40 km ) west of Yucca Mountain and the proposed Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository , which is adjacent to the Nevada Test Site .
Bordered on three sides by ridges but open to the south , the ghost town is at 3 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) above sea level . The high points of the ridges are Ladd Mountain to the east , Sutherland Mountain to the west , and Busch Peak to the north . Sawtooth Mountain , the highest point in the Bullfrog Hills , rises to 6 @,@ 002 feet ( 1 @,@ 829 m ) above sea level about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) northwest of Rhyolite . The hills form a barrier between the Amargosa Desert and Sarcobatus Flat to the north . Most of the primary mining communities in the Beatty – Rhyolite area during the gold @-@ rush boom of 1904 – 08 were either in or on the edge of the Bullfrog Hills . Of these and many smaller towns and camps in the Bullfrog district , only Beatty survived as a populated place . Prior to its demise , the rival town of Bullfrog lay about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) southwest of Rhyolite , and the Montgomery Shoshone Mine was on the north side of Montgomery Mountain , about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) northeast of Rhyolite .
Nevada 's main climatic features are bright sunshine , low annual precipitation , heavy snowfall in the higher mountains , clean , dry air , and large daily temperature ranges . Strong surface heating occurs by day and rapid cooling by night , and usually even the hottest days have cool nights . The average percentage of possible sunshine in southern Nevada is more than 80 percent . Sunshine and low humidity in this region account for an average evaporation , as measured in evaporation pans , of more than 100 inches ( 2 @,@ 500 mm ) of water a year .
Beatty , about 500 feet ( 150 m ) lower in elevation than Rhyolite , receives only about 6 inches ( 152 mm ) of precipitation a year . July is the hottest month in Beatty , when the average high temperature is 97 ° F ( 36 ° C ) and the average low is 61 ° F ( 16 ° C ) . December and January are the coolest months with an average high of 54 ° F ( 12 ° C ) and an average low of 27 ° F ( − 3 ° C ) in December and 28 ° F ( − 2 ° C ) in January . Rhyolite is high enough in the hills to have relatively cool summers , and it has relatively mild winters . However , it is far from sources of water .
= = History = =
= = = Boom = = =
On August 9 , 1904 , Cross and Harris found gold on the south side of a southwestern Nevada hill later called Bullfrog Mountain . Assays of ore samples from the site suggested values up to $ 3 @,@ 000 a ton , or about $ 79 @,@ 000 a ton in 2016 dollars when adjusted for inflation . Word of the discovery spread to Tonopah and beyond , and soon thousands of hopeful prospectors and speculators rushed to what became known as the Bullfrog Mining District .
Within the district , gold rush settlements quickly arose near the mines , and Rhyolite became the largest . It sprang up near the most promising discovery , the Montgomery Shoshone Mine , which in February 1905 produced ores assayed as high as $ 16 @,@ 000 a ton , equivalent to $ 421 @,@ 000 a ton in 2016 . Starting as a two @-@ man camp in January 1905 , Rhyolite became a town of 1 @,@ 200 people in two weeks and reached a population of 2 @,@ 500 by June 1905 . By then it had 50 saloons , 35 gambling tables , cribs for prostitution , 19 lodging houses , 16 restaurants , half a dozen barbers , a public bath house , and a weekly newspaper , the Rhyolite Herald . Four daily stage coaches connected Goldfield , 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the north , and Rhyolite . Rival auto lines ferried people between Rhyolite and Goldfield and the rail station in Las Vegas in Pope @-@ Toledos , White Steamers , and other touring cars .
Ernest Alexander " Bob " Montgomery , the original owner , and his partners sold the mine to industrialist Charles M. Schwab in February 1906 . Schwab expanded the operation on a grand scale , hiring workers , opening new tunnels and drifts , and building a huge mill to process the ore . He had water piped in , paid to have an electric line run 100 miles ( 160 km ) from a hydroelectric plant at the foot of the Sierras to Rhyolite , and contracted with the Las Vegas and Tonopah Railroad to run a spur line to the mine . Three railroads eventually served Rhyolite . The first was the Las Vegas and Tonopah Railroad ( LVTR ) , which began running regular trains to the city on December 14 , 1906 . Its depot , built in California @-@ mission style , cost about $ 130 @,@ 000 , equivalent to about $ 3 @,@ 420 @,@ 000 in 2016 . About a half @-@ year later , the Bullfrog Goldfield Railroad ( BGR ) began regular service from the north . By December 1907 , the Tonopah and Tidewater Railroad ( TTR ) began service to Rhyolite on tracks leased from the BGR . The TTR was built to reach the borax @-@ bearing colemanite beds in Death Valley as well as the gold fields .
By 1907 , about 4 @,@ 000 people lived in Rhyolite , according to Richard E. Lingenfelter in Death Valley & the Amargosa : A Land of Illusion . Russell R. Elliott cites an estimated population of 5 @,@ 000 in 1907 – 08 in Nevada 's Twentieth @-@ Century Mining Boom , noting that " accurate population figures during the boom are impossible to obtain " . Alan H. Patera in Rhyolite : The Boom Years states published estimates of the peak population have been " as high as 6 @,@ 000 or 8 @,@ 000 , but the town itself never claimed more than 3 @,@ 500 through its newspapers " . The newspapers estimated that 6 @,@ 000 people lived in the Bullfrog mining district , which included the towns of Rhyolite , Bullfrog , Gold Center , and Beatty as well as camps at the major mines .
Rhyolite in 1907 had concrete sidewalks , electric lights , water mains , telephone and telegraph lines , daily and weekly newspapers , a monthly magazine , police and fire departments , a hospital , school , train station and railway depot , at least three banks , a stock exchange , an opera house , a public swimming pool and two formal church buildings . Most prominent was the three @-@ story John S. Cook and Co . Bank on Golden Street . Finished in 1908 , it cost more than $ 90 @,@ 000 , equivalent to $ 2 @,@ 370 @,@ 000 in 2016 . Much of the cost went for Italian marble stairs , imported stained @-@ glass windows , and other luxuries . The building housed brokerage offices , and a post office , as well as the bank . Other large buildings included the train depot , the three @-@ story Overbury Block , and the two @-@ story eight @-@ room school . A miner named Tom T. Kelly built the Bottle House in February 1906 from 50 @,@ 000 discarded beer and liquor bottles . Another building housed the Rhyolite Mining Stock Exchange , which opened on March 25 , 1907 , with 125 members , including brokers from New York , Philadelphia , Los Angeles , and other large cities . The small , modestly equipped storefront listed shares of 74 Bullfrog companies and a similar number of companies in nearby mining districts . Sixty thousand shares changed hands on the first day , and by the end of the second week the number had topped 750 @,@ 000 .
= = = Bust = = =
Although the mine produced more than $ 1 million ( equivalent to about $ 24 million in 2009 ) in bullion in its first three years , its shares declined from $ 23 a share ( in historical dollars ) to less than $ 3 . In February 1908 , a committee of minority stockholders , suspecting that the mine was overvalued , hired a British mining engineer to conduct an inspection . The engineer 's report was unfavorable , and news of this caused a sudden further decline in share value from $ 3 to 75 cents . Schwab expressed disappointment when he learned that " the wonderful high @-@ grade [ ore ] that had brought [ the mine ] fame was confined to only a few stringers and that what he had actually bought was a large low @-@ grade mine . " Although the mine was still profitable , by 1909 no new ore was being discovered , and the value of the remaining ore steadily decreased . In 1910 , the mine operated at a loss for most of the year , and on March 14 , 1911 , it was closed . By then , the stock , which had fallen to 10 cents a share , slid to 4 cents and was dropped from the exchanges .
Rhyolite began to decline before the final closing of the mine . At roughly the same time that the Bullfrog mines were running out of high @-@ grade ore , the 1906 San Francisco earthquake diverted capital to California while interrupting rail service , and the financial panic of 1907 restricted funding for mine development . As mines in the district reduced production or closed , unemployed miners left Rhyolite to seek work elsewhere , businesses failed , and by 1910 , the census reported only 675 residents . All three banks in the town closed by March 1910 . The newspapers , including the Rhyolite Herald , the last to go , all shut down by June 1912 . The post office closed in November 1913 ; the last train left Rhyolite Station in July 1914 , and the Nevada @-@ California Power Company turned off the electricity and removed its lines in 1916 . Within a year the town was " all but abandoned " , and the 1920 census reported a population of only 14 . A 1922 motor tour by the Los Angeles Times found only one remaining resident , a 92 @-@ year @-@ old man who died in 1924 .
Much of Rhyolite 's remaining infrastructure became a source of building materials for other towns and mining camps . Whole buildings were moved to Beatty . The Miners ' Union Hall in Rhyolite became the Old Town Hall in Beatty , and two @-@ room cabins were moved and reassembled as multi @-@ room homes . Parts of many buildings were used to build a Beatty school .
= = = Ghost town = = =
The Rhyolite historic townsite , maintained by the Bureau of Land Management , is " one of the most photographed ghost towns in the West " . Ruins include the railroad depot and other buildings , and the Bottle House , which the Famous Players Lasky Corporation , the parent of Paramount Pictures , restored in 1925 for the filming of a silent movie , The Air Mail . The ruins of the Cook Bank Building were used in the 1964 film The Reward and again in 2004 for the filming of The Island . Orion Pictures used Rhyolite for its 1987 science @-@ fiction movie Cherry 2000 depicting the collapse of American society . Six @-@ String Samurai ( 1998 ) was another movie using Rhyolite as a setting . The Rhyolite @-@ Bullfrog cemetery , with many wooden headboards , is slightly south of Rhyolite .
Tourism flourished in and near Death Valley in the 1920s , and souvenir sellers set up tables in Rhyolite to sell rocks and bottles on weekends . In the 1930s , Revert Mercantile of Beatty acquired a Union Oil distributorship , built a gas station in Beatty , and supplied pumps in other locations , including Rhyolite . The Rhyolite service station consisted of an old caboose , a storage tank , and a pump , managed by a local owner . In 1937 , the train depot became a casino and bar called the Rhyolite Ghost Casino , which was later turned into a small museum and curio shop that remained open into the 1970s . In 1984 , Belgian artist Albert Szukalski created his sculpture The Last Supper on Golden Street near the Rhyolite railway depot . The art became part of the Goldwell Open Air Museum , an outdoor sculpture park near the southern entrance to the ghost town .
= = = Barrick Bullfrog Mine = = =
Mining in and around Rhyolite after 1920 consisted mainly of working old tailings until a new mine opened in 1988 on the south side of Ladd Mountain . A company known as Bond Gold built an open @-@ pit mine and mill at the site , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Rhyolite along State Route 374 . LAC Minerals acquired the mine from Bond in 1989 and established an underground mine there in 1991 after a new body of ore called the North Extension was discovered . Barrick Gold acquired LAC Minerals in 1994 and continued to extract and process ore at what became known as the Barrick Bullfrog Mine until the end of 1998 . The mine used a chemical extraction process known as vat leaching involving the use of a weak cyanide solution . The process , like heap leaching , makes it possible to process ore profitably that otherwise would not qualify as mill @-@ grade . Over its entire life , the mine processed about 2 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 short tons ( 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 t ) of ore and produced about 690 @,@ 000 ounces ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) of gold .
= Nikita Zotov =
Count Nikita Moiseevich Zotov ( Russian : Никита Моисеевич Зотов , tr . Nikita Moiseevich Zotov ; IPA : [ nʲ 'kʲta moɨ 'sʲɛɪvʲɪt ͡ ɕ ' zotv ] ) ( 1644 – December 1717 ) was a childhood tutor and lifelong friend of Russian Tsar Peter the Great . Historians disagree on the quality of Zotov 's tutoring . Robert K. Massie , for example , praises his efforts , but Lindsey Hughes criticizes the education that he gave to the future tsar .
Not much is known about Zotov 's life aside from his connection to Peter . Zotov left Moscow for a diplomatic mission to Crimea in 1680 and returned to Moscow before 1683 . He became part of the " Jolly Company " , a group of several dozen of Peter 's friends that eventually became The All @-@ Joking , All @-@ Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters . Zotov was mockingly appointed " Prince @-@ Pope " of the Synod , and regularly led them in games and celebrations . He accompanied Peter on many important occasions , such as the Azov campaigns and the torture of the Streltsy after their uprising . Zotov held a number of state posts , including from 1701 a leading position in the Tsar 's personal secretariat . Three years before his death , Zotov married a woman 50 years his junior . He died in December 1717 of unknown causes .
= = Tutelage of Peter I = =
= = = Background = = =
Alexis I , Tsar of Russia , married twice in his lifetime , first to Maria Miloslavskaya and then to Natalia Naryshkina after Maria 's death . Peter I was born to Natalia Naryshkina on 30 May 1672 . After the death of Tsar Alexis on 8 February 1676 , Peter 's half @-@ brother and godfather Feodor , the " semi @-@ invalid eldest surviving son of Maria Miloslavskaya " , became the Tsar of Russia . Ivan Miloslavsky , Feodor 's uncle , returned to Moscow from virtual exile as Governor of Astrakhan to become Chief Minister . His family had not been in power for some time as a result of Tsar Alexis ' remarriage . As a result , Ivan Miloslavsky hated the Naryshkin family , which included Peter , Natalia Naryshkina , and Natalia 's foster father , Artamon Matveyev . When a new ruling family took over , the previous ruling family was usually banished to a ceremonial position somewhere far from Moscow . Instead , Ivan Miloslavsky tried to arrest the Naryshkins , but Feodor would only permit him to exile Artamon Matveyev . Feodor was fond of his half @-@ brother Peter and Peter 's mother , and both were allowed to remain in the Kremlin in private apartments .
Most 17th @-@ century Muscovites received little education , and there were low levels of literacy even among the nobility , education for whom typically consisted of a little reading , writing , and a small amount of history and geography . Religious scholars were usually the exception to this rule and were often also taught grammar , mathematics , and foreign languages . Two of Tsar Alexis ' children — Feodor , and his sister Tsarevna Sophia — received a thorough education from the religious scholars of Kiev , and could speak Latin and Polish .
At the age of three , in 1674 or 1675 , Peter received a primer from Tsar Alexis to help him learn the alphabet ; two years later , Tsar Feodor suggested to Peter 's mother that he begin his studies . Estimates of the exact year when Peter 's tutoring began range widely ; numerous authors refer to a starting date as early as 1677 , and as late as 1683 , though multiple references specifically identify 12 March 1677 as the beginning of Peter 's tutoring . Nikita Zotov , a former church clerk , or " Duma secretary " from the tax @-@ collection department of the governmental bureaucracy , was chosen to teach Peter to read and write .
= = = Appointment and instruction = = =
Zotov was not a religious scholar , but he knew the Bible well — an important qualification for Tsaritsa Natalia . Although he did not expect it , he was well rewarded before he had even started his work , receiving from Feodor and the Tsaritsa , as well as Patriarch Joachim , gifts including a set of apartments , two new sets of clothing , and 100 rubles . He was also raised to the rank of a minor nobleman . Zotov was deeply humbled and overwhelmed by the Tsaritsa 's request , and was enthralled at the prospect of teaching Peter . Zotov and Peter quickly became good friends , and Zotov remained close to Peter until the former 's death .
Peter 's first lesson began the morning after Zotov was appointed . After the books were sprinkled with holy water , Zotov began his instruction ; first in the alphabet , and then the Prayer Book . He taught the Bible , from which Peter learned long passages that he could still recite from memory forty years later . Zotov also taught his student to sing , and in his later years Peter often spontaneously accompanied choirs at church services . Although initially tasked only to teach reading and writing , Zotov found Peter to be intellectually curious , and interested in all that he could impart . Peter asked for lessons on Russian history , battles , and heroes . At Zotov 's request , the Tsaritsa ordered engravings of " foreign cities and palaces , sailing ships , weapons and historical events " to be brought from the Ordnance Office . Zotov placed them in the study room , along with a somewhat accurate globe for the time , to divert Peter when he became bored with his studies . Other informal " makeshift " tutors ( foreign and domestic ) and servants , were brought in for rowdy outdoor games with live ammunition . They were also to instruct Peter in other subjects such as royal and military history , blacksmithing , carpentry , joinery , printing , and , unusually for Russian nobility at the time , sailing and shipbuilding .
= = = Impact = = =
Zotov became one of Peter 's first friends , and the two remained close throughout Zotov 's life . Lindsey Hughes , a 20th @-@ century historian , has criticized Zotov for giving Peter an education that did not teach what a future tsar ought to know . Her contemporary , Robert K. Massie , has argued that the education was the best possible one for a curious boy like Peter , because it was unlikely that he would ever become tsar , as his half @-@ brother , Ivan V , was before him in the line of succession . According to Massie , although Zotov may have not taught Peter at the highest possible level , he delivered " the best education for a mind like Peter 's " , as it " stimulated [ Peter 's ] curiosity " and allowed him to become " in large part , a self @-@ taught man " . Zotov 's closeness to the Tsar later became a source of worry to others in government , many of whom — including even the powerful Menshikov — feared his influence .
In 1680 , Zotov embarked on a three @-@ year diplomatic mission to the Crimea ; sources disagree on whether this was before or after he tutored Peter . When Peter left the Kremlin to spend his childhood at Preobrazhenskoye , two years after Zotov 's departure , his memories of the tutors who had taught his siblings , Feodor and Sophia , were so negative that he cut himself off from traditional academic subjects for a time . He later resumed his studies under Afanassyi Nesterov and Zotov after the latter 's return from the Crimea . Although Peter sought to learn of nature and military matters rather than literature or theology , he nevertheless learned a great deal of the latter from his tutors . Zotov ( and later his sons ) later worked with Peter to translate books about fortification from a Western European language into Russian . Peter did not learn , or forgot , a great deal about mathematics , a subject that he had to learn properly in his late teens for use in siege warfare and fortification . In later years , Peter regretted his lack of a fuller education , and sought to give his daughters Anne and Elizabeth educations equivalent of any European princess .
= = Prince @-@ Pope of Drunken Synod = =
In 1692 , Peter , who by then was Tsar of Russia , organized himself and several dozen of his friends into The All @-@ Joking , All @-@ Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters , a " synod " that parodied religion . Although he had a reputation for sobriety and fasting , Zotov was appointed the " Prince @-@ Pope " of the Synod because of that very fact . He was sometimes even referred to as Patriarch Bacchus . Peter forced him to participate in the parties even when Zotov claimed sickness and exhaustion .
However , Zotov soon grew to be a key participant in the mocking celebrations . After first drinking to everyone 's health , he " blessed " the group with the Sign of the Cross , using two long Dutch pipes . On holidays , the games were played on the streets of Moscow , and at Christmas , the Jolly Company rode around the city singing on sleighs , with Zotov at their head , on a sleigh pulled by twelve bald men . Zotov wore a highly unusual costume — his outfit was adorned with playing cards ; he wore a tin hat ; and he sat upon a barrel . During the first week of Lent , a procession of " penitents " followed Zotov through the city on donkeys , oxen , and sleighs pulled by goats , pigs , and bears .
= = High office = =
In 1695 and 1696 , Peter the Great mounted two campaigns against the Turkish garrison of Azov . Though the campaign in 1695 was ultimately unsuccessful , the 1696 one succeeded . The Russians surrounded the city with both men and ships and breached the wall , causing the Pasha of Azov to " surrender under honorable conditions " . The people of Moscow were amazed by the news of the surrender ; not since the reign of Peter 's father Alexis had a Russian army been victorious . Peter delayed his return home to allow Andrew Vinius , another member of the All @-@ Joking Company , time to set up a victory parade through the capital . The army returned home on 10 October , but instead of a traditional Orthodox reception , the army marched through an arch seemingly supported by Hercules and Mars . Contrary to the custom for a tsar , Peter did not ride at the head of the procession , but instead allowed it to be led by 18 horsemen leading carriages carrying Zotov and the war hero Fedor Golovin .
While on a tour of Europe in 1698 , Peter learned that the Streltsy had rebelled , and immediately rushed home from Vienna . After defeating the rebellious regiments , Peter angrily ordered the torture of those who had incited the Streltsy to rebel . For almost a month and a half , men from Peter 's Jolly Company , including Fyodor Romodanovsky , Boris Golitsyn , and Zotov , led the torture in secret .
In 1701 , Zotov was made the head of the Tsar 's newly created Privy Council , a committee akin to the defunct Duma . In 1710 , Peter made Zotov a count , and a year later when Peter set up the Governing Senate , he appointed Zotov to oversee the Senate .
= = Personal life = =
Nikita Zotov was twice married , and had three sons from his first marriage . One was Vasily Zotov ( d . 1729 ) , who was educated outside of Russia and became the Revisor @-@ General of Ukazes ( Inspector General of Decrees ) in November 1715 . As Inspector General , it was Vasily 's job to preside over the Senate , enforce its decrees , and report absent senators to Peter . Vasily had little political power however , and so was unable to fulfill his role in opposition to the wishes of some of the most powerful men in the Russian empire . The second son was Ivan Zotov ( 1687 – 1723 ) , who lived and studied in France , where he worked as a translator . The third son , Konon Zotov ( 1690 – 30 December 1742 ) , studied in England , and served in various positions in the Russian Navy and in the Russian judicial system .
According to Robert K. Massie and Lindsey Hughes , Peter told Zotov in October 1713 that he intended to have him marry a second time , to Anna Pashkova , a widow 50 years Zotov 's junior , despite Zotov 's wish to spend his final years in a monastery . However , the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary and Sergey Solovyov say that Zotov came up with the idea to marry Pashkova in 1714 , and that his plan to become a monk was merely a joke .
The wedding was described by Friedrich Christian Weber , the ambassador of Hanover , as " solemnized by the court in masks " . Guests were instructed to pre @-@ register in groups of three with their costumes so as not to look too similar to other guests . Witnesses described the event , which took place on 27 and 28 January 1715 , and which had been prepared for three months , as a " world turned upside @-@ down " . The Jolly Company dressed in ridiculous regalia , and many people behaved exactly opposite to the norm ; " invitations to the guests were delivered by stammerers , the bridesmen were cripples , the runners were fat men with gout , the priest was allegedly one hundred years old " ( and blind ) . Hughes notes that the event may have been a " variation on the Western charivari or shaming ceremonies " , through which the Tsar could demonstrate how much power he had over his subjects ' lives . During the wedding , the Drunken Synod routinely sang carols in the streets of Moscow and demanded money , which became a New Year tax for the wealthy .
= = Death = =
Nikita Zotov died in December 1717 of unknown causes . Peter wasted no time in moving on , at least publicly ; he replaced Zotov as " Prince @-@ Pope " with Peter Buturlin by " electing " him on 28 December 1717 , and appointing him on 10 January 1718 . Peter even ordered that Zotov 's widow be married to Buturlin in the fall of 1721 . There was a disagreement between Konon Zotov and his stepmother over the division of Nikita Zotov 's estate ; Konon tried to declare Nikita 's second marriage illegitimate , to avoid having to give any money to his stepmother 's family .
= Synthpop =
Synthpop ( also known as electropop and technopop ) is a genre of popular music that first became prominent in the late 1970s which features the synthesizer as the dominant musical instrument . It was prefigured in the 1960s and early 1970s by the use of synthesizers in progressive rock , electronic , art rock , disco , and particularly the " Krautrock " of bands like Kraftwerk . It arose as a distinct genre in Japan and the United Kingdom in the post @-@ punk era as part of the new wave movement of the late @-@ 1970s to the mid @-@ 1980s .
Early synthpop pioneers included Japanese group Yellow Magic Orchestra and British bands Ultravox and The Human League ; the latter largely used monophonic synthesizers to produce music with a simple and austere sound . After the breakthrough of Gary Numan and his band Tubeway Army in the British Singles Chart in 1979 , large numbers of artists began to enjoy success with a synthesizer @-@ based sound in the early 1980s , including Soft Cell , Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark and Depeche Mode in the United Kingdom , while in Japan , Yellow Magic Orchestra 's success opened the way for synthpop bands such as P @-@ Model , Plastics , and Hikashu . The development of inexpensive polyphonic synthesizers , the definition of MIDI and the use of dance beats , led to a more commercial and accessible sound for synthpop . This , its adoption by the style @-@ conscious acts from the New Romantic movement , together with the rise of MTV , led to success for large numbers of British synthpop acts , including Duran Duran and Spandau Ballet , in the United States .
In the late 1980s , duos such as Erasure and Pet Shop Boys adopted a sound that was highly successful on the US dance charts , but by the end of the decade synthpop had largely been abandoned . Interest began to be revived in the indietronica and electroclash movements in the late 1990s and , in the first decade of the 21st century , it enjoyed a widespread revival with commercial success for acts including La Roux , Lady Gaga , Kesha , Owl City , M83 and Chvrches .
The genre has received criticism for alleged lack of emotion and musicianship ; prominent artists have spoken out against detractors who believed that synthesizers themselves composed and played the songs . Some artists like Depeche Mode , who helped popularise the genre , were criticised for gender bending . Synthpop helped to establish the place of the synthesizer as a major element of pop and rock music , directly influenced subsequent genres including house music and Detroit techno , and has indirectly influenced many other genres and individual recordings .
= = Characteristics = =
Synthpop was defined by its primary use of synthesizers , drum machines and sequencers , sometimes using them to replace all other instruments . Borthwick and Moy have described the genre as diverse but " ... characterised by a broad set of values that eschewed rock playing styles , rhythms and structures " , which were replaced by " synthetic textures " and " robotic rigidity " , often defined by the limitations of the new technology , including monophonic synthesizers ( only able to play one note at a time ) . Many synthpop musicians had limited musical skills , relying on the technology to produce or reproduce the music . The result was often minimalist , with grooves that were " typically woven together from simple repeated riffs often with no harmonic ' progression ' to speak of " . Early synthpop has been described as " eerie , sterile , and vaguely menacing " , using droning electronics with little change in inflection . Common lyrical themes of synthpop songs were isolation , urban anomie , and feelings of being emotionally cold and hollow .
In its second phase in the 1980s , the introduction of dance beats and more conventional rock instrumentation made the music warmer and catchier and contained within the conventions of three @-@ minute pop . Synthesizers were increasingly used to imitate the conventional and clichéd sound of orchestras and horns . Thin , treble @-@ dominant , synthesized melodies and simple drum programmes gave way to thick , and compressed production , and a more conventional drum sound . Lyrics were generally more optimistic , dealing with more traditional subject matter for pop music such as romance , escapism and aspiration . According to music writer Simon Reynolds , the hallmark of 1980s synthpop was its " emotional , at times operatic singers " such as Marc Almond , Alison Moyet and Annie Lennox . Because synthesizers removed the need for large groups of musicians , these singers were often part of a duo where their partner played all the instrumentation .
Although synthpop in part arose from punk rock , it abandoned punk 's emphasis on authenticity and often pursued a deliberate artificiality , drawing on the critically derided forms such as disco and glam rock . It owed relatively little to the foundations of early popular music in jazz , folk music or the blues , and instead of looking to America , in its early stages , it consciously focused on European and particularly Eastern European influences , which were reflected in band names like Spandau Ballet and songs like Ultravox 's " Vienna " . Later synthpop saw a shift to a style more influenced by other genres , such as soul music .
= = History = =
= = = Precursors = = =
Electronic musical synthesizers that could be used practically in a recording studio became available in the mid @-@ 1960s , around the same time as rock music began to emerge as a distinct musical genre . The Mellotron , an electro @-@ mechanical , polyphonic sample @-@ playback keyboard was overtaken by the Moog synthesizer , created by Robert Moog in 1964 , which produced completely electronically generated sounds . The portable Mini @-@ moog , which allowed much easier use , particularly in live performance was widely adopted by progressive rock musicians such as Richard Wright of Pink Floyd and Rick Wakeman of Yes . Instrumental prog rock was particularly significant in continental Europe , allowing bands like Kraftwerk , Tangerine Dream , Can and Faust to circumvent the language barrier . Their synthesizer @-@ heavy " Kraut rock " , along with the work of Brian Eno ( for a time the keyboard player with Roxy Music ) , would be a major influence on subsequent synth rock .
In 1971 the British movie A Clockwork Orange was released with a synth soundtrack by American Wendy Carlos . It was the first time many in the United Kingdom had heard electronic music . Philip Oakey of the Human League and Richard H. Kirk of Cabaret Voltaire , as well as music journalist Simon Reynolds , have cited the soundtrack as an inspiration . Electronic music made occasional moves into the mainstream , with jazz musician Stan Free , under the pseudonym Hot Butter , having a top 10 hit in the United States and United Kingdom in 1972 , with a cover of the 1969 Gershon Kingsley song " Popcorn " using a Moog synthesizer , which is recognised as a forerunner to synthpop and disco .
The mid @-@ 1970s saw the rise of electronic art musicians such as Jean Michel Jarre , Vangelis , and Tomita . Tomita 's album Electric Samurai : Switched on Rock ( 1972 ) featured electronic renditions of contemporary rock and pop songs , while utilizing speech synthesis and analog music sequencers . In 1975 , Kraftwerk played their first British show and inspired concert attendees Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark to throw away their guitars and become a synth act . Kraftwerk had its first hit UK record later in the year with " Autobahn " , which reached number 11 in the British Singles Chart . The group was described by the BBC Four program Synth Britannia as the key to synthpop 's future rise there . Italy 's Giorgio Moroder paired up with Donna Summer in 1977 to release the electronic disco song " I Feel Love " , and its programmed beats would be a major influence on the later synthpop sound . David Bowie 's Berlin Trilogy , comprising the albums Low ( 1977 ) , " Heroes " ( 1977 ) , and Lodger ( 1979 ) , all featuring Brian Eno , would also be highly influential .
= = = Origins ( 1977 – 80 ) = = =
Early guitar @-@ based punk rock that came to prominence in the period 1976 – 77 was initially hostile to the " inauthentic " sound of the synthesizer , but many new wave and post @-@ punk bands that emerged from the movement began to adopt it as a major part of their sound . British punk and New wave clubs were open to what was then considered an " alternative " sound . The do it yourself attitude of punk broke down the progressive rock era 's norm of needing years of experience before getting up on stage to play synthesizers . The American duo Suicide , who arose from the post @-@ punk scene in New York , utilised drum machines and synthesizers in a hybrid between electronics and post @-@ punk on their eponymous 1977 album .
The Cat Stevens album Izitso , released in April 1977 , updated his pop rock style with the extensive use of synthesizers , giving it a more synthpop style ; " Was Dog a Doughnut " in particular was an early techno @-@ pop fusion track , which made early use of a music sequencer . Izitso reached No. 7 on the Billboard 200 chart , while the song " ( Remember the Days of the ) Old Schoolyard " was a top 40 hit . That same month , The Beach Boys released their album Love You , performed almost entirely by bandleader Brian Wilson with Moog and ARP synthesizers , and with arrangements somewhat inspired by Wendy Carlos 's Switched @-@ On Bach ( 1968 ) . Although it was highly praised by some critics and musicians ( including Patti Smith and Lester Bangs ) , the album met with poor commercial reception . The album has been considered revolutionary in its use of synthesizers , while others described Wilson 's extensive use of the Moog synthesizer as a " loopy funhouse ambience " and an early example of synthpop . In July 1977 , Donna Summer released " I Feel Love " , written and produced by Giorgio Moroder , pioneering the Hi @-@ NRG genre , and influencing later synthpop acts such as Divine and Dead or Alive . Around this time , Ultravox member Warren Cann purchased a Roland TR @-@ 77 drum machine , which was first featured in their October 1977 single release " Hiroshima Mon Amour " .
Be @-@ Bop Deluxe released Drastic Plastic in February 1978 , leading off with the single " Electrical Language " with Bill Nelson on guitar synthesizer and Andy Clark on synthesizers . Japanese band Yellow Magic Orchestra ( YMO ) with their self @-@ titled album ( 1978 ) and Solid State Survivor ( 1979 ) , developed a " fun @-@ loving and breezy " sound , with a strong emphasis on melody . They introduced the TR @-@ 808 rhythm machine to popular music , and the band would be a major influence on early British synthpop acts . 1978 also saw the release of UK band The Human League 's début single " Being Boiled " , and in the US Devo began moving towards a more electronic sound . At this point synthpop gained some critical attention , but made little impact on the commercial charts .
British punk @-@ influenced band Tubeway Army , intended their debut album to be guitar driven . In 1978 , Gary Numan , a member of the group , found a minimoog left behind in the studio by another band , and started experimenting with it . This led to a change in the album 's sound to electronic new wave . Numan later described his work on this album as a guitarist playing keyboards , who turned " punk songs into electronic songs " . A single from the album , " Are Friends Electric ? " , topped the UK charts in the summer of 1979 . The discovery that synthesizers could be employed in a different manner from that used in progressive rock or disco , prompted Numan to go solo . On his futuristic album The Pleasure Principle ( 1979 ) , he played only synths , but retained a bass guitarist and a drummer for the rhythm section . A single from the album , " Cars " topped the charts .
Giorgio Moroder collaborated with the band Sparks on their album No. 1 In Heaven ( 1979 ) . That same year in Japan , the synthpop band P @-@ Model made its debut with the album In a Model Room . Other Japanese synthpop groups emerging around the same time included the Plastics and Hikashu . This zeitgeist of revolution in electronic music performance and recording / production was encapsulated by then would @-@ be record producer Trevor Horn of The Buggles in the international hit " Video Killed the Radio Star " ( 1979 ) .
1980 also saw the release of where " Video Killed the Radio Star " came from , the Buggles ' debut album The Age of Plastic , which some writers have labeled as the first landmark of another electropop era , as well as what for many is the defining album of Devo 's career , the overtly synthpop Freedom of Choice .
= = = Commercial success ( 1981 – 85 ) = = =
The emergence of synthpop has been described as " perhaps the single most significant event in melodic music since Mersey @-@ beat " . By the 1980s synthesizers had become much cheaper and easier to use . After the definition of MIDI in 1982 and the development of digital audio , the creation of purely electronic sounds and their manipulation became much simpler . Synthesizers came to dominate the pop music of the early 1980s , particularly through their adoption by bands of the New Romantic movement .
The New Romantic scene had developed in the London nightclubs Billy 's and The Blitz and was associated with bands such as Duran Duran , Visage , and Spandau Ballet . They adopted an elaborate visual style that combined elements of glam rock , science fiction and romanticism . Duran Duran have been credited with incorporating dance beats into synthpop to produce a catchier and warmer sound , which provided them with a series of hit singles . They would soon be followed into the British charts by a large number of bands utilising synthesizers to create catchy three @-@ minute pop songs . A new line @-@ up for the Human League along with a new producer and a more commercial sound led to the album Dare ( 1981 ) , which produced a series of hit singles . These included " Don 't You Want Me " , which reached number one in the UK at the end of 1981 .
Synthpop reached its commercial peak in the UK in the winter of 1981 – 2 , with bands such as Soft Cell , Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark , Japan , Ultravox , Depeche Mode and even Kraftwerk , enjoying top ten hits . In early 1982 synthesizers were so dominant that the Musicians Union attempted to limit their use . By the end of 1982 , these acts had been joined in the charts by synth @-@ based singles from Thomas Dolby , Blancmange , and Tears for Fears . The proliferation of acts led to an anti @-@ synth backlash , with groups including Spandau Ballet , Human League , Soft Cell and ABC incorporating more conventional influences and instruments into their sounds .
In the US , where synthpop is considered a subgenre of new wave and was described as " technopop " by the press at the time , the genre became popular due to the cable music channel MTV , which reached the media capitals of New York City and Los Angeles in 1982 . It made heavy use of style @-@ conscious New Romantic synthpop acts , with " I Ran ( So Far Away ) " ( 1982 ) by A Flock of Seagulls generally considered the first hit by a British act to enter the Billboard Top Ten as a result of exposure through video . The switch to a " new music " format in US radio stations was also significant in the success of British bands . The success of synthpop and other British acts would be seen as a Second British Invasion . Synthpop was taken up across the world , with international hits for acts including Men Without Hats and Trans X from Canada , Telex from Belgium , Peter Schilling , Sandra , Modern Talking , Propaganda and Alphaville from Germany , and Yello from Switzerland .
In the mid @-@ 1980s , key artists included solo performer Howard Jones , who S.T. Erlewine has stated to have " merged the technology @-@ intensive sound of new wave with the cheery optimism of hippies and late- ' 60s pop " , ( although with notable exceptions including the lyrics of " What Is Love ? " – " Does anybody love anybody anyway ? " ) and Nik Kershaw , whose " well @-@ craft synthpop " incorporated guitars and other more traditional pop influences that particularly appealed to a teen audience . Pursuing a more dance @-@ orientated sound were Bronski Beat whose album The Age of Consent ( 1984 ) , dealing with issues of homophobia and alienation , reached the top 20 in the UK and top 40 in the US. and Thompson Twins , whose popularity peaked in 1984 with the album Into The Gap , which reached No.1 in the UK and the US top ten and spawned several top ten singles . Initially dismissed in the music press as a " teeny bop sensation " were Norwegian band a @-@ ha , whose use of guitars and real drums produced an accessible form of synthpop , which , along with a MTV friendly video , took single " Take On Me " ( 1985 ) to number two in the UK and number one in the US .
= = = Declining popularity ( 1986 – 2000 ) = = =
Synthpop continued into the late 1980s , with a format that moved closer to dance music , including the work of acts such as British duos Pet Shop Boys , Erasure and The Communards . The Communards ' major hits were covers of disco classics " Don 't Leave Me This Way " ( 1986 ) and " Never Can Say Goodbye " ( 1987 ) . After adding other elements to their sound , and with the help of a gay audience , several synthpop acts had success on the US dance charts . Among these were American acts Information Society who had two top 10 singles in 1988 , Anything Box , and Red Flag . British band When In Rome scored a hit with their debut single " The Promise " . Several German synthpop acts of the late 1980s included Camouflage , Cetu Javu , CCCP and Celebrate the Nun . Canadian duo Kon Kan had major success with their debut single , " I Beg Your Pardon " .
An American backlash against European synthpop has been seen as beginning in the mid @-@ 1980s with the rise of heartland rock and roots rock . In the UK the arrival of indie rock bands , particularly The Smiths , has been seen as marking the end of synth @-@ driven new wave and the beginning of the guitar @-@ based music that would dominate rock into the 1990s . By 1991 , in the United States synthpop was losing its commercial viability as alternative radio stations were responding to the popularity of grunge rock . Exceptions that continued to pursue forms of synthpop or rock in the 1990s were Savage Garden , The Rentals , and The Moog Cookbook . Electronic music was also explored from the early 1990s by indietronica bands like Stereolab and Disco Inferno , who mixed a variety of indie and synthesizer sounds .
= = = 21st century revival = = =
Indietronica began to take off in the new millennium as the new digital technology developed , with acts such as Broadcast from the UK , Justice from France , Lali Puna from Germany , and Ratatat and The Postal Service from the US , mixing a variety of indie sounds with electronic music , largely produced on small independent labels . Similarly , the electroclash subgenre began in New York at the end of the 1990s , combining synthpop , techno , punk and performance art . It was pioneered by I @-@ F with their track " Space Invaders Are Smoking Grass " ( 1998 ) , and pursued by artists including Felix da Housecat , Peaches , Chicks on Speed , and Fischerspooner . It gained international attention at the beginning of the new millennium and spread to scenes in London and Berlin , but rapidly faded as a recognizable genre as acts began to experiment with a variety of forms of music .
In the new millennium , renewed interest in electronic music and nostalgia for the 1980s led to the beginnings of a synthpop revival , with acts including Adult and Fischerspooner . In 2003 – 04 it began to move into the mainstream with Ladytron , the Postal Service , Cut Copy , the Bravery and The Killers all producing records that incorporated vintage synthesizer sounds and styles that contrasted with the dominant genres of post @-@ grunge and nu metal . In particular , The Killers enjoyed considerable airplay and exposure and their debut album Hot Fuss ( 2004 ) reached the top ten of the Billboard 200 . The Killers , the Bravery and the Stills all left their synthpop sound behind after their debut albums and began to explore classic 1970s rock , but the style was picked up by a large number of performers , particularly female solo artists . Following the breakthrough success of Lady Gaga with her single " Just Dance " ( 2008 ) , the British and other media proclaimed a new era of female synthpop stars , citing artists such as Roisin Murphy , Little Boots , La Roux , and Ladyhawke . Male acts that emerged in the same period include Calvin Harris , Empire of the Sun , Frankmusik , Hurts , Kaskade , LMFAO , and Owl City , whose single " Fireflies " ( 2009 ) topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart . In 2009 , an underground subgenre with direct stylistic origins to Synthpop became popular , Chillwave . It sprouted new stars in the independent music scene like Washed Out , Neon Indian , and Toro Y Moi .
American singer @-@ songwriter Kesha has also been described as a synthpop artist , with her synthesized debut single " Tik Tok " topping the Billboard Hot 100 for nine weeks in 2010 . She also used the genre on her comeback single " Die Young " . Mainstream female recording artists who have had success in the genre in the 2010s are Madonna , Katy Perry , Jessie J , Christina Aguilera , and Beyonce .
In Japan , girl @-@ group Perfume , along with producer Yasutaka Nakata of capsule , produced technopop music combining 1980s synthpop with chiptunes and electro house from 2003 . Their breakthrough came in 2008 with the album Game , which led to a renewed interest in technopop within mainstream Japanese pop music . Other Japanese female technopop artists soon followed , including Aira Mitsuki , immi , Mizca , SAWA , Saoriiiii and Sweet Vacation . Model @-@ singer Kyary Pamyu Pamyu also shared the same success as Perfume 's under Nakata 's production with the album Pamyu Pamyu Revolution in 2012 , which topped electronic charts on iTunes as well as the Japanese Albums chart . Much like Japan , Korean pop music has also become dominated by synthpop , particularly with girl groups such as Girls ' Generation and Wonder Girls . Other 2010s synthpop acts include Chvrches , M83 and The C.I.P.
= = Criticism = =
Synthpop has received considerable criticism and even prompted hostility among musicians and in the press . It has been described as " anaemic " and " soulless " . Synthpop 's early steps , and Gary Numan in particular , were also disparaged in the British music press of the late 1970s and early 1980s for their German influences and characterised by journalist Mick Farren as the " Adolf Hitler Memorial Space Patrol " . In 1983 , Morrissey of The Smiths stated that " there was nothing more repellent than the synthesizer " . During the decade , objections were raised to the quality of compositions and the limited musicianship of artists . Gary Numan observed " hostility " and " a lot of ignorance " toward synthpop , with detractors erroneously believing that " machines did it " .
Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark frontman Andy McCluskey recalled a great many people " who thought that the equipment wrote the song for you " , and asserted : " Believe me , if there was a button on a synth or a drum machine that said ' hit single ' , I would have pressed it as often as anybody else would have – but there isn 't . It was all written by real human beings , and it was all played by hand " .
According to Simon Reynolds , in some quarters synthesizers were seen as instruments for " effete poseurs " , in contrast to the phallic guitar . The association of synthpop with an alternative sexuality was reinforced by the images projected by synthpop stars , who were seen as gender bending , including Phil Oakey 's asymmetric hair and use of eyeliner , Marc Almond 's " pervy " leather jacket , skirt wearing by figures including Martin Gore of Depeche Mode and the early " dominatrix " image of Annie Lennox of the Eurythmics . In the US this led to British synthpop artists being characterised as " English haircut bands " or " art fag " music . Although some audiences were overtly hostile to synthpop , it achieved an appeal among those alienated from the dominant heterosexuality of mainstream rock culture , particularly among gay and female audiences .
= = Influence = =
By the mid @-@ 1980s , synthpop had helped establish the synthesizer as a primary instrument in mainstream pop music . It also influenced the sound of many mainstream rock acts , such as Bruce Springsteen , ZZ Top and Van Halen . It was a major influence on house music , which grew out of the post @-@ disco dance club culture of the early 1980s as some DJs attempted to make the less pop @-@ oriented music that also incorporated influences from Latin soul , dub , rap music , and jazz .
Musicians such as Juan Atkins , using names including Model 500 , Infinity and as part of Cybotron , developed a style of electronic dance music influenced by synthpop and funk that led to the emergence of Detroit techno in the mid @-@ 1980s . The continued influence of 1980s synthpop could be seen in various incarnations of 1990s dance music including trance . Hip hop artists such as Mobb Deep have sampled 1980s synthpop songs . Popular artists such as Rihanna , UK stars Jay Sean and Taio Cruz , as well as British pop star Lily Allen on her second album , have also embraced the genre .
= = Artists = =
= Interstate 8 =
Interstate 8 ( I @-@ 8 ) is an Interstate Highway in the southwestern United States . It runs from the southern edge of Mission Bay at Sunset Cliffs Boulevard , in San Diego , California , almost at the Pacific Ocean , to the junction with I @-@ 10 , just southeast of Casa Grande , Arizona . In California , the freeway travels through the San Diego metropolitan area as the Ocean Beach Freeway and the Mission Valley Freeway before traversing the Cuyamaca Mountains and providing access through the Imperial Valley , including the city of El Centro . Crossing the Colorado River into Arizona , I @-@ 8 continues through the city of Yuma across the Sonoran Desert to Casa Grande , in between the cities of Phoenix and Tucson .
The first route over the Cuyamaca Mountains was dedicated in 1912 , and a plank road served as the first road across the Imperial Valley to Yuma ; east of there , the Gila Trail continued east to Gila Bend . These were later replaced by U.S. Route 80 ( US 80 ) across California and part of Arizona , and Arizona State Route 84 ( SR 84 ) between Gila Bend and Casa Grande . The US 80 freeway through San Diego was largely complete by the time it was renumbered as I @-@ 8 in the 1964 state highway renumbering ; east of San Diego , the US 80 roadway was slowly replaced by I @-@ 8 as construction progressed in the Imperial Valley . The Arizona portion of the road was built starting in the 1960s . Several controversies erupted during the construction process ; questionable labor practices in Imperial County led to the federal conviction of mobster Jimmy Fratianno , and the Arizona government was found to have mismanaged financial resources by the U.S. House of Representatives subcommittee .
The route was completed in 1975 through California , and by 1977 through Arizona , though the bridge over the Colorado River was not completed until 1978 . Since then , the freeway through San Diego has been widened due to increasing congestion , and another portion in Imperial County had to be rebuilt following Tropical Storm Kathleen .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 8 is part of the National Highway System , a network of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The freeway from the eastern junction with California State Route 98 ( SR 98 ) to the eastern end is designated as part of the Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail auto tour route , promoted by the National Park Service .
= = = San Diego to Arizona border = = =
The freeway begins at the intersection of Sunset Cliffs Boulevard and Nimitz Boulevard in San Diego . For its first few miles , it parallels the San Diego River floodway . Near Old Town San Diego , I @-@ 8 intersects with I @-@ 5 as well as with Rosecrans Avenue , the former routing of SR 209 . As the freeway enters Mission Valley , it continues eastward , bisecting the area known as " Hotel Circle " that has several hotels . I @-@ 8 then has interchanges with SR 163 , I @-@ 805 , and I @-@ 15 and its continuation , SR 15 , before making a small bend to the north . In La Mesa , the route intersects SR 125 . I @-@ 8 continues into El Cajon , where it intersects with SR 67 before it ascends into the mountains and the Cleveland National Forest , traveling through towns such as Alpine and Pine Valley , and passing near the Viejas Casino . A U.S. border patrol interior checkpoint was constructed in 1995 near Alpine , for westbound traffic on I @-@ 8 ; however , this resulted in smugglers driving the wrong way on I @-@ 8 at high speeds in order to avoid the checkpoint , causing several accidents , even after concrete barriers were installed . The freeway intersects with SR 79 in the national forest before passing through the La Posta and Campo Indian reservations . In Boulevard , I @-@ 8 has an interchange with the eastern end of SR 94 .
I @-@ 8 straddles the San Diego — Imperial county line for a few miles before turning east . At the Mountain Springs / In Ko Pah grade , the freeway is routed down two separate canyons , as it descends 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) in 11 miles ( 18 km ) . In places , the median is over 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) wide . This portion of the road is known for high winds through the canyons that have made driving difficult , sometimes resulting in closure of the freeway ; in 1966 , the California Highway Patrol estimated that winds blew at speeds of up to 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) . The route enters the Imperial Valley , where it intersects with SR 98 , a highway leading to Calexico , and passes near the Desert View Tower . I @-@ 8 then goes through Coyote Wells before entering the city of El Centro several miles later .
In El Centro , I @-@ 8 intersects with SR 86 and SR 111 , both north – south routes which connect to I @-@ 10 in the Coachella Valley , north of the Salton Sea . SR 115 and SR 98 end at I @-@ 8 east of El Centro . The route also has the lowest above @-@ ground elevation of any Interstate at 52 feet ( 16 m ) below sea level near El Centro . The freeway then traverses the Imperial Sand Dunes Recreation Area and intersects with SR 186 leading south to Baja California Norte , Mexico . I @-@ 8 runs parallel to the All @-@ American Canal across the desert for roughly 55 miles ( 89 km ) . At points in eastern Imperial County , the Mexican border is less than half a mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) south of the Interstate . I @-@ 8 then passes through Felicity and Winterhaven before crossing the Colorado River on a bridge into Yuma , Arizona .
I @-@ 8 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System from I @-@ 5 to the western junction of SR 98 , though it is not an official state scenic highway . It is officially known as the Border Friendship Route from San Diego to the Arizona state line . The Interstate is also signed as the Ocean Beach Freeway west of I @-@ 5 , and as the Kumeyaay Highway , after the local Native American tribe , for the entire length within San Diego County . Between Old Town and El Cajon , I @-@ 8 is called the Mission Valley Freeway . In 2013 , I @-@ 8 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 11 @,@ 400 between Bonds Corner Road and SR 115 , and 234 @,@ 000 between I @-@ 805 and I @-@ 15 , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway in California .
= = = Yuma to Casa Grande = = =
I @-@ 8 enters Arizona from California at the Colorado River bridge at Yuma . It initially heads south through Yuma until the interchange with US 95 , where the freeway begins to turn to the east and passes through eastern Yuma and Fortuna Foothills , briefly paralleling US 95 . West of Wellton , the highway takes a northeasterly course , paralleling the Gila River and passing to the south of Roll . Through this part of Arizona , I @-@ 8 passes along the northern edge of the Barry M. Goldwater Air Force Range and to the south of the Yuma Proving Ground . It keeps a northeastern heading , passing through the community of Dateland , until it reaches Gila Bend . There , the freeway intersects SR 85 heading north to Phoenix and south to the Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument .
After leaving Gila Bend , I @-@ 8 takes a southeastern course as it passes through the Sonoran Desert National Monument . Exiting the national monument grounds , the highway continues on an easterly bearing to a junction with SR 84 , a highway that parallels I @-@ 8 to the north and goes through Casa Grande , while I @-@ 8 passes to the south of both Stanfield and Casa Grande . I @-@ 8 reaches its eastern terminus southeast of Casa Grande Mountain Park at an interchange with I @-@ 10 , which continues south to Tucson , and north to Phoenix .
The combination of SR 85 between I @-@ 10 and I @-@ 8 as well as I @-@ 8 between SR 85 and I @-@ 10 in Casa Grande has been promoted as a bypass of the Phoenix area for long @-@ distance travelers on I @-@ 10 . In 2013 , I @-@ 8 had an AADT of 5 @,@ 100 between Butterfield Trail and Freeman Road , and 41 @,@ 400 between SR 280 and Araby Road east of Yuma , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway in Arizona . In the early 2010s , I @-@ 8 from Casa Grande to Gila Bend was sometimes used for smuggling both drugs and humans .
= = History = =
The I @-@ 8 designation was accepted as a chargeable Interstate by the American Association of State Highway Officials in 1957 , and was added to the state highway system in 1964 by the California State Legislature ; the US 80 designation was removed at that time .
= = = San Diego area = = =
The freeway that would become I @-@ 8 was constructed in the mid @-@ 20th century through the San Diego area . The section west of I @-@ 5 was originally part of SR 109 , and was added to I @-@ 8 in 1972 . In later years , Caltrans made efforts to widen the freeway as congestion increased .
= = = = Initial construction = = = =
Much of Alvarado Canyon Road from San Diego to La Mesa was originally built between 1947 and 1950 , a bypass of the old US 80 routing along El Cajon Boulevard and La Mesa Boulevard . Work began to convert the original US 80 divided highway into a freeway in 1960 , and the freeway was complete west of El Cajon by April 1962 . Priority was given to planning US 80 in 1962 by the California Chamber of Commerce . In 1964 , I @-@ 8 was officially designated by the California State Legislature , and the US 80 designation was removed . By 1965 , I @-@ 8 from Fairmount Avenue to El Cajon Boulevard was one of the first freeway stretches in the county to have a center barrier installed in the median .
The Ocean Beach Freeway section west of I @-@ 5 was authorized as Route 286 in 1959 . In 1962 , four alternate routes were proposed for this part of the freeway , and for Rosecrans Street . Route 286 was renumbered to SR 109 in the 1964 renumbering . Plans for the Old Town interchange between I @-@ 5 ( formerly US 101 ) , I @-@ 8 ( formerly US 80 ) , SR 209 ( Rosecrans Street ) , and SR 109 date from 1962 , although several concerns had to be taken into account , including the preservation of historical Old Town and keeping traffic through the area moving during construction . The goal was to begin the process in 1966 , and complete the interchange in 1969 . There were concerns about a $ 3 million shortfall in funding ( about $ 40 million in 2015 dollars ) during May 1966 , which caused the San Diego Chamber of Commerce Highway Committee to recommend the completion of SR 109 as a project . This was projected to be the final highway project before I @-@ 5 was completed in San Diego County .
The building phase started on September 22 , 1966 , on the interchange that was to replace the intersection of Pacific Highway and Rosecrans Street . The cost of the interchange was projected to be $ 10 @.@ 86 million ( about $ 140 million in 2015 dollars ) . SR 109 was planned to follow Camino del Rio up to the Frontier traffic circle , where the city of San Diego would resume construction ; both SR 109 and SR 209 were to be built in the future . The eight @-@ lane freeway was projected to relieve traffic in the Frontier Street area coming from the San Diego Sports Arena . Bidding for the SR 109 contract was to begin in 1968 , after the City Council endorsed the route in December 1967 . Completion of both the interchange and SR 109 was planned for early 1969 . An interchange was planned at Midway Drive , and the western end of the freeway was to be at Sunset Cliffs and Nimitz boulevards . The cost of the SR 109 project was estimated to be $ 2 @.@ 3 million ( about $ 27 million in 2015 dollars ) .
The ramp from south I @-@ 5 to Camino del Rio opened in February 1968 , and a second ramp from southbound I @-@ 5 to eastbound I @-@ 8 opened in August 1968 , with the remainder of the project to be completed in summer 1969 . The groundbreaking for the Ocean Beach Freeway took place on September 23 , 1968 , with the estimated completion to take place within 15 months . However , rain in February 1969 delayed many construction projects across the county , including the SR 109 extension . The entire project was completed in September , with the road scheduled to open in October . The routing of SR 109 was officially added to I @-@ 8 in 1972 .
= = = = Subsequent expansion = = = =
Even before the freeway was complete in California , bidding began in 1964 on widening I @-@ 8 from six to eight lanes between near Fairmount Avenue and Spring Street , in San Diego and La Mesa . Three years later , a contract was granted for the widening of the Fairmount Avenue to Ward Road stretch , adding two lanes to the freeway . In 1974 , the San Diego City Council reached an agreement with state officials to improve I @-@ 8 from east of Pacific Highway to Texas Street , over the objections of Councilman Floyd Morrow , who objected to solving traffic issues by continuing to expand freeways . The cost was estimated to be $ 8 million ( about $ 62 million in 2015 dollars ) .
The La Mesa City Council asked the state to modify the interchange with SR 125 in 1974 ; the original interchange did not allow for access to SR 125 from I @-@ 8 east or to I @-@ 8 west from SR 125 . Widening of the portion from SR 125 to El Cajon Boulevard to five lanes in each direction was under way in October . By 1981 , the environmental impact report had been completed , and the $ 50 million ( about $ 200 million in 2015 dollars ) project to add ramps and widen I @-@ 8 was awaiting clearance from the Federal Highway Administration . Additional ramps to SR 67 were nearing completion in May 1985 , and were completed to I @-@ 15 north in October . In 1986 , the project revamping the SR 125 interchange was under way , at a cost of $ 80 million ( about $ 234 million in 2015 dollars ) ; it would add two more lanes to I @-@ 8 from Jackson Drive to Fuerte Drive , and allow for SR 125 to be extended north past I @-@ 8 .
By 1977 , traffic had reached 172 @,@ 300 vehicles a day , which had increased by nearly 10 percent over the previous year . It was hoped that the construction of SR 52 would help to reduce the congestion . A revised Mission Gorge Road eastbound exit opened in 1979 , merging with traffic from I @-@ 15 . Traffic reached 212 @,@ 000 vehicles a day by February 1981 , and Caltrans declared I @-@ 8 east of I @-@ 805 the busiest highway in the region . In 1987 , Caltrans determined that I @-@ 8 west between College Avenue and Waring Road had the highest ratio of cars to number of lanes worldwide , at 2400 cars per hour . Plans to add another lane to I @-@ 8 west from College Avenue to I @-@ 15 began in March 1992 .
Caltrans proposed the installation of a metered traffic signal on I @-@ 8 west in Lakeside during 1987 , in order to improve traffic flow in the mornings by inserting a short delay before entering San Diego should the rate exceed 2 @,@ 000 vehicles per hour . However , the state put its plans on hold shortly thereafter , following several concerns from the public , and from state senator Jim Ellis .
= = = Cuyamaca Mountains = = =
= = = = Early road = = = =
A stagecoach road existed into the 19th century that passed through the mountains east of San Diego . Before the freeway was constructed , the automobile road through the mountains east of San Diego was narrow and wound through the mountains ; it was officially dedicated in 1912 . This trip was known to take up to four hours , and frequently resulted in the radiator boiling over , flat tires , or broken fan belts ; inclement weather would result in cars becoming mired in the mud . The road was paved in 1926 , and was open by 1927 ; remnants of this road were still present in the late twentieth century . Another road was built in the early 1930s , to remove curves and widen the lanes . This was a two @-@ lane road that still had many switchbacks , with one popularly known as " Dead Man 's Curve " . Construction of I @-@ 8 took place atop much of the roadbed of the highway from the early 1930s . The delay in extending a road to San Diego caused increased development in Los Angeles and resulted in that city becoming the trade and population center of Southern California , according to the San Diego Union .
= = = = Planning and construction = = = =
Completion of the freeway was the second highest priority according to the Highway Development Association in May 1963 , after the I @-@ 5 freeway . Bidding began on the portion from Broadway in El Cajon to Harritt Road in September 1963 . This section of the freeway was to parallel US 80 to the south up to Lakeview Road , and then to the north . This portion of the freeway was scheduled to be complete by May 1965 . By January 1965 , I @-@ 8 had been completed from I @-@ 5 east to an interchange with Lake Jennings Park Road , just south of the latter 's intersection with the southern terminus of Harritt Road . The part of the freeway from west of Harritt Road to west of Alpine was up for bidding in October 1964 , and the Highway Commission set aside $ 2 @.@ 1 million ( about $ 33 million in 2015 dollars ) for this 1 @.@ 6 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) stretch in February 1965 . A contract for $ 1 @.@ 42 million ( about $ 21 million in 2015 dollars ) was issued in August 1965 . The entire six @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) stretch from Lake Jennings Road to Harbinson Canyon Road was under construction by September 1965 and was scheduled to be complete by the next year .
In the Mountain Springs pass between San Diego and Imperial counties , the eastbound lanes traverse the pass on the former roadbed of US 80 near Myers Creek . The westbound lanes were placed on a different routing through Devil 's Canyon that had been constructed by November 1963 . A contract for paving the 9 @.@ 7 miles ( 15 @.@ 6 km ) from the San Diego – Imperial county line to SR 98 , including the eastbound lanes , was given to the Isbell Construction Company for $ 3 @.@ 69 million ( about $ 61 million in 2015 dollars ) in May 1963 . This portion was completed in May 1965 " through some of the most rugged , hottest sections of San Diego and Imperial counties , " according to the San Diego Union . Construction ran into difficulties following concerns regarding potential landslides . The westbound lanes were built first , and temporarily contained both directions of traffic while the old highway was converted into the eastbound lanes . The Los Angeles Times described the stretch east of Mountain Springs as follows : " Through it the freeway engineers have hacked two separate roadways night even in sight of each other , but so overpowering in the sheer magnitude of the cuts through the mountains that it is almost impossible to believe human beings could have so overpowered hostile nature ... " While using nuclear explosions to conduct blasting operations in the Laguna Mountains was considered as a possibility , the proposal was not considered to be practical at the time . Two cables and a hook were used to move girders into place ; this was the first use of a cable in Southern California road construction .
The portion from Boulevard to near the Imperial County line was included in the California Highway Commission budget for 1965 – 1966 . A 6 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 8 km ) extension from Mountain Springs west to what was then
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known as Road J @-@ 35 was given $ 3 @.@ 3 million ( about $ 48 million in 2015 dollars ) in funding by the Highway Commission in May 1965 . The 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) section in between this one and the Mountain Springs pass section was in planning by that September , and was scheduled to begin the building phase shortly thereafter , with the section extending west of Boulevard to follow . That section , from Crestwood to Boulevard , was to begin construction soon after the $ 3 million ( about $ 40 million in 2015 dollars ) contract was given out in January 1966 . The coming of the freeway from both west and east of Jacumba was projected to be a significant event in the history of the town . Cafes and gas stations went out of business once the freeway bypassed the town ; however , many retired adults relocated into the town since the high traffic levels were gone . The labeling of the town Boulevard as Manzanita on I @-@ 8 signs raised controversy and forced the Division of Highways to obscure the name on the signs until the issue was resolved .
Construction continued with the issuing of a $ 6 @.@ 55 million contract ( about $ 84 million in 2015 dollars ) to widen a 5 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 2 km ) section of I @-@ 8 through Alpine , from Harbinson Canyon to east of West Victoria Drive , and to begin construction in April or May 1967 , to be completed in 1969 . This would leave only a 30 @-@ mile ( 48 km ) stretch of I @-@ 8 that was not at freeway standards . As the process continued , concerns about increased smog from the additional traffic were raised in October 1967 . A 3 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) section to the east of Alpine was scheduled to have bidding opened in November of that year , and was to be finished in 1968 ; this would produce a continuous freeway from San Diego to the eastern terminus of this route . Both of these projects were underway by May 1968 . An additional contract was given out for $ 7 @.@ 8 million ( about $ 93 million in 2015 dollars ) in August to continue the freeway east from Alpine Street to Japatul Valley Road ; this would bring the freeway near Descanso Junction . Roughly 5 @.@ 5 million cubic yards of dirt and rock were to be generated by all three of these construction projects , since half of a mountain would have to be removed with a million pounds of dynamite . The third project was built near the site of an abandoned attempt to build a tunnel for the old highway after World War II , which proved to be too expensive .
By mid @-@ February 1969 , one segment of the freeway running through Alpine was nearing completion and was scheduled to open on February 21 ; another section was scheduled to open in April . However , although dirt and rocks were transported on a conveyor belt across US 80 to become part of an embankment for the Sweetwater River bridge , the grading of the mountain near Viejas Grade and the Sweetwater River had not been completed on the final link . The historic Ellis Grade radiator stop was to be removed and replaced with one at Vista Point . On April 19 , 1969 , the part 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) east of Alpine opened to traffic . All of the Alpine part of I @-@ 8 opened on May 22 , 1969 , after a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony ; yet the Viejas Grade segment was now projected to be completed by 1972 . The bridge over the Sweetwater River was under construction by 1970 , and the entire segment cost $ 22 @.@ 1 million ( about $ 235 million in 2015 dollars ) . By May , this segment was estimated to be completed in the later part of that year . The leveling of the grade resulted in the second highest fill in the state at 360 feet ( 110 m ) .
= = = = Finishing the freeway = = = =
The final portion of I @-@ 8 in California , between Japatul Valley Road and west of Boulevard , was prioritized in the 1969 – 1970 state budget . Due to financial concerns , it was announced in September 1968 that the target date for completing the Interstate Highway System would be extended until 1974 , from 1972 . The missing portion of I @-@ 8 was expected to cost $ 45 million and be constructed in three parts , with one part being started each year . The segments between Japatul Valley Road and west of Laguna Junction , and from La Posta Road to west of Boulevard , were delayed for an entire year at the end of 1969 due to a nationwide effort to fight inflation by reducing spending . A 6 @.@ 6 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 6 km ) segment from Buckman Springs to Crestwood received funding in May 1970 , which would leave only an 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) stretch of the freeway uncompleted when built . The drive time from San Diego to El Centro had been reduced to two hours , according to the California Division of Highways . By August 1970 , the remainder of the freeway had been funded , with the part from Japutal Valley Road to Laguna Junction costing $ 22 million ( about $ 234 million in 2015 dollars ) , and the Laguna Junction to Crestwood portion costing $ 15 million ( about $ 159 million in 2015 dollars ) .
In May 1971 , El Centro Mayor Alex Gay requested that passing lanes be added to the remaining two @-@ lane part of I @-@ 8 in between El Centro and San Diego due to the frequent traffic jams in between Japatul Valley and Crestwood . At this time , this was the only missing link through the mountains . Bidding took place on the $ 16 @.@ 5 million ( about $ 164 million in 2015 dollars ) La Posta Road to Crestwood Road and the Japtatul Valley Road to Sunrise Highway portions in November 1971 . As part of this series of projects , the highest concrete bridge in the state at the time was to be built at 430 feet ( 130 m ) over Pine Valley Creek on the segment between Japatul Valley Road and Sunrise Highway . The contract came in at $ 22 @.@ 6 million ( about $ 206 million in 2015 dollars ) , over $ 5 million ( about $ 46 million in 2015 dollars ) beyond budget due to the difficulty of the bridge construction . All three of the projects to complete I @-@ 8 were projected to be complete by mid @-@ 1974 . However , in March 1972 , it was announced that the La Posta Road portion of the project would be delayed due to budget troubles .
By the beginning of 1974 , the new projected completion date for I @-@ 8 was mid @-@ 1975 , with 22 miles ( 35 km ) of two @-@ lane highway remaining . The Pine Valley Creek bridge and the segment extending from Japtul Valley Road to Pine Valley was dedicated on November 24 , 1974 , and was scheduled to open on November 26 ; this left 8 miles ( 13 km ) of freeway to be constructed . The final stretch of I @-@ 8 in California , from Sunrise Highway to La Posta Road , was completed in May 1975 .
The Buckman Springs rest area opened in January 1979 in eastern San Diego County . In 1987 , the first 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) speed limit sign was posted east of El Cajon , the first one in the state ; the speed limit on all I @-@ 8 east of El Cajon , except for the Mountain Springs Grade portion , was raised similarly . By 1996 the limit increased to the present 70 .
= = = Imperial Valley = = =
= = = = Construction = = = =
The highway through Imperial Valley was originally a plank road made of pieces of wood that were tied together . The Ocean @-@ to @-@ Ocean Bridge across the Colorado River was open in 1915 . Following this , US 80 was built through the valley as the main east – west route . Plans for a new freeway across the southernmost reaches of California date from before 1950 . The bridge over the Colorado River was replaced in 1956 , at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 2 million , and was in use until 1978 , when the I @-@ 8 bridge was built . In 1957 , the City of El Centro expressed a desire for the new freeway to replace US 80 to be routed along the southern limits of the city . Caltrans engineer Jacob Dekema stated at the time that the four @-@ lane freeway would not be constructed on the US 80 routing due to possible expansion of the Naval Air Facility El Centro .
In October 1964 , the portion of I @-@ 8 between Imperial Avenue in El Centro to SR 111 appeared in the state budget . By December , a route for the part of I @-@ 8 just west of the Colorado River was being examined by the California Highway Commission . Construction was underway on the stretch from Seeley to SR 111 by June 1966 , and the entire portion through the county was planned for completion by 1968 . This 12 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 19 @.@ 6 km ) portion , extending west to Drew Road , was planned for completion by early 1967 , at a cost of $ 200 million ( about $ 2 @.@ 57 billion in 2015 dollars ) ; however , by then the date for completion of the freeway had slipped to 1972 . The state ordered the building of the portion from west of Coyote Wells to just east of Drew Road in September 1967 . The next year , Dekema indicated that the goal was to have I @-@ 8 completed by 1973 , citing a deadline in order to have the federal government pay for up to ninety percent of the costs ; the other freeways in the region were to be delayed because of this .
In early 1970 , the portion of the freeway from west of Ogilby Road to east of Algodones Road was under construction , and projections were to have this portion completed by later that year . This $ 5 @.@ 2 million ( about $ 55 million in 2015 dollars ) project also included resurfacing the freeway that had already been built through the Colorado Desert Sandhills ; this part of the freeway had been built between 1961 and 1965 . By this time , it was estimated that the drive from San Diego to El Centro now took two hours , as opposed to the three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours required two decades earlier , and the two days required in the pioneer era . This part of the freeway was opened in July 1970 . As the freeway was constructed through the valley , it caused a break in many north – south roads . These breaks were located where access to the part of the road on the other side of the freeway was cut off . Plans were put in place to build frontage roads to improve access through the region .
The 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) portion of I @-@ 8 bypassing Holtville began construction in December 1969 , and was nearing completion in May 1971 , to result in a continuous freeway that connected two existing segments from Crestwood in San Diego County to just west of Winterhaven . It was estimated that the bypass would save travelers 20 minutes of travel time through the Imperial Valley . The cost of this project was $ 11 @.@ 2 million ( about $ 124 million in 2015 dollars ) . However , Holtville residents raised concerns about SR 115 providing the only access to the eastern part of the city , notably the narrow and curved portion leading from the freeway into town . Work on the Holtville portion began at 3 : 30 a.m. daily during the summer in order to avoid the desert heat . In addition to this , construction of the Highline Canal overpass involved a 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) steel span that was prefabricated and made of girders that were hoisted into position by barges . The Matich Construction Company attempted to set the world record for laying the most concrete in a day , aided by the level terrain , but failed to do so after the concrete mixer malfunctioned . That same year , bids for an Arizona plant inspection station near Winterhaven , next to the California agricultural inspection station , were submitted .
The last 6 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) part of the California portion , from near Algodones Road to west of the Arizona state line , was to enter the bidding phase in early 1972 . I @-@ 8 was scheduled to be completed in the summer of 1975 between San Diego and Yuma , although there would be a break in the freeway around Yuma ; this occurred by October 1975 . At the time the California portion was completed , it was the preferred route to Phoenix from some areas of Los Angeles , since I @-@ 10 had not been completed .
The missing portion of the highway was the new bridge over the Colorado River , which was built at a cost of $ 7 @.@ 4 million ( about $ 53 million in 2015 dollars ) . In June 1975 , there were concerns regarding the state delaying new construction projects due to financial concerns , and the effects this would have on the bridge . The bid for the project was awarded to Novo @-@ Rados Construction in October 1975 , as one of the final projects before the construction freeze . The new bridge , which replaced the old US 80 bridge , was dedicated on August 18 , 1978 ; this completed I @-@ 8 from San Diego to Casa Grande . The Arizona Department of Transportation and the City of Yuma assisted in the planning process . By the time the California portion of the freeway was complete , the average cost was $ 1 million per mile ( about $ 5 million in 2015 dollars ) . The bridge opened on September 20 , 1978 . The State of California was responsible for the bridge erection , even though the State of Arizona owned half of the bridge .
= = = = Fratianno allegations = = = =
Jimmy Fratianno was associated with Frank Bompensiero , the San Diego mafia leader , in a criminal lawsuit involving the Fratianno Trucking Company and the Miles and Sons Trucking Company in 1966 ; he was known to law enforcement as " the Mafia 's West Coast executioner , " with up to 16 deaths that he was potentially responsible for . Both companies were awarded the contracts to transport dirt during the construction of I @-@ 8 in El Centro . Drivers were coerced to agree to buy the trucks , although the Fratianno Company still retained the ownership ; they also had portions of their wages withheld from them . Following this , the drivers were loaned money from Leo Moceri , another mafia leader . An investigation in early 1966 after complaints from the drivers led to state charges against the two firms as well as five people in August . There were concerns that John Erreca , the state director of public works , had a conflict of interest with Fratianno and did not enforce the law ; however , both Transportation Administrator Robert Bradford ( upon a request for investigation from then- ( and now ) Governor Jerry Brown ) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation found that there was no conflict of interest .
The truck drivers were given $ 36 @,@ 000 ( about $ 463 thousand in 2015 dollars ) in back pay from the state government . Fratianno and Bompensiero were charged with fraud , as well as state labor and public utility code violations . While charges were dropped against Bompensiero , Fratianno was found guilty . The Imperial County Supervisors estimated that $ 25 @,@ 000 ( about $ 6 @.@ 04 million in 2015 dollars ) in damage to county roads took place due to overloaded trucks . The federal government fined him $ 10 @,@ 000 ( about $ 119 thousand in 2015 dollars ) , which he never paid , and placed him on probation for three years ; he was imprisoned when he did not pay , but was released in September 1969 . His ex @-@ wife , Jewell , as well as the company , were fined $ 4 @,@ 014 ( about $ 40 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) individually for their responsibility in the matter . For the state charges , he was sentenced in 1969 to one to three years in prison , after pleading guilty to the charges . He was incarcerated in Chico State Prison following a parole violation until 1973 .
= = = = Storm damage = = = =
Following Tropical Storm Kathleen in September 1976 , a flood eroded 400 pieces of the roadway from westbound I @-@ 8 near Ocotillo , resulting in the construction of a detour . The freeway reopened to traffic in February 1978 after the damage was repaired and a new bridge was built , at a cost of $ 1 million ( about $ 5 million in 2015 dollars ) . But in 1982 , the freeway was closed again near Ocotillo due to flooding following another storm .
= = = Arizona = = =
Between Yuma and Gila Bend , I @-@ 8 runs alongside the routes of both the Gila Trail and the Butterfield Overland Mail Company line . The latter was a stagecoach line that went between Tipton , Missouri and San Francisco , with several stations in between , and was used to transport passengers across the country at five miles per hour ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) between 1858 and 1861 . In later years , the Southern Pacific Railroad was constructed , paralleling the Gila River east of Fortuna ; by 1877 , the tracks were complete to Yuma . The next year , work continued , and by 1880 , the tracks were extended to Tucson from Yuma .
This portion of the route of I @-@ 8 was originally part of the proposed state system of highways in 1921 . By 1926 , this section became part of the cross @-@ country highway US 80 . The route was not paved at this time , but was a gravel road along the entire corridor . By 1928 , the portion of I @-@ 8 between Gila Bend and Casa Grande was designated as SR 84 . A small portion of the highway was paved near Yuma and SR 84 was under construction by the next year . SR 84 was completed by 1930 , but not paved , and the segment of US 80 between Aztec and Sentinel had been paved .
Paving of SR 84 had commenced by 1934 , with the portion of the highway in Maricopa County being paved . A group of San Diego citizens raised concerns about the road from Yuma to Gila Bend not being paved in 1934 , due to the impact that this would have on tourism in San Diego , and made a request to the federal government to have it paved . The entire future corridor of I @-@ 8 had been paved from Yuma to Casa Grande by 1935 . Drivers were told to bring spare fan belts , radiator hoses , and additional drinking water for the journey traversing the desert . A " Shortcuts Association " began in 1952 to promote SR 84 as a route to bypass Phoenix on the way to San Diego .
With the coming of the Interstate Highways , the corridor was to be upgraded to Interstate standards . In late 1958 , a group of motel owners whose properties were located on SR 84 strongly objected to any routing of I @-@ 8 that would not go through the city of Casa Grande . Motel owners in Yuma proposed their own alternative in 1961 to the four routings of I @-@ 8 through the city that had been proposed , raising concerns about losing revenue from tourism . In January 1962 , the alternatives were narrowed down to two , with one of them being the route supported by the motel owners . However , nearby school officials expressed concerns regarding that route , because 1200 students would no longer be able to walk to school if the freeway was constructed along that route . Later that year , a new route had been proposed , along the Southern Pacific Railroad tracks and the Colorado River . By 1963 , work was in progress , with portions of the highway between Mohawk and Gila Bend , and between Gila Bend and near Stanfield upgraded . Other merchants objected to the routing , and met with the Yuma County Board of Supervisors to raise their concerns following the final approval of the route in 1964 . A new park was to be built east of the Colorado River crossing , just opposite downtown ; city officials hoped that this would give an improved look to the town as drivers first arrived .
Nevertheless , there was controversy over the work in Arizona as well . In 1964 , a U.S. House of Representatives investigation discovered that poor management and lack of efficiency were prevalent in four of the projects constructing the I @-@ 8 freeway . The Arizona Highway Department was specifically cited in the report for not taking into account protecting government interests when selecting labor for the projects . Several errors were discovered , and one of them , adding too much clay to the gravel mixture , cost the state of Arizona $ 26 @,@ 278 ( about $ 435 thousand in 2015 dollars ) to fix . By that year , construction had begun on the freeway west of Casa Grande , while the rest of the Arizona routing was in the design stages .
In 1965 , a $ 1 @.@ 46 million ( about $ 21 million in 2015 dollars ) contract was granted to build the 5 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 2 km ) portion from near Araby Road east through Fortuna Wash . Two years later , it was estimated that construction would be complete by 1969 , except for the Colorado River bridge . The highway was in progress through the Telegraph Pass east of Yuma , and the portions from Avenue 9 @-@ E to 4 @-@ E , from there to 4th Street in Yuma , and to the river were estimated to cost $ 9 @.@ 69 million ( about $ 125 million in 2015 dollars ) in total . Following local complaints , Francis Turner , the executive director of the federal Bureau of Public Roads , agreed to look at constructing an interchange at Trekell Road in Casa Grande again , after an earlier decline to do so . Work began on the Casa Grande part of the freeway in March 1968 , at a cost of $ 3 million ( about $ 36 million in 2015 dollars ) . That year , many gas station , motel , and restaurant owners noticed a drop in business , possibly due to concerns regarding construction traffic due to I @-@ 8 ; however , they hoped for increased business following completion of the freeway . The Yuma County Chamber of Commerce made plans to promote tourism in the town following the completion of I @-@ 8 by late 1968 .
Bidding on the last portion of the freeway to be completed in Casa Grande , from Midway Road to I @-@ 10 , was to begin in January 1969 . By November , the freeway east of Yuma was under construction , at a cost of $ 3 @.@ 7 million ( about $ 41 million in 2015 dollars ) . On June 15 , 1970 , eastbound traffic began on I @-@ 8 in Casa Grande , with an exit at both Trekell and Thorton roads , with westbound traffic soon to follow . Businesses did not notice much change with the opening of the eastbound lanes . In 1971 , I @-@ 8 was nearly complete , including a new alignment east of Yuma built parallel and to the south of the original US 80 alignment . A new alignment was also built to the south of the SR 84 alignment at the eastern end of the highway from southwest of Stanfield to the eastern terminus at I @-@ 10 southeast of Casa Grande . The only portions of I @-@ 8 not completed at this time were the Gila Bend bypass and the western end near Yuma . The portion east of 16th Street in Yuma was completed in June 1972 ; the Arizona State Highway Commission authorized the $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( about $ 28 million in 2015 dollars ) contract to construct the six @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) portion through Gila Bend in August . Some Yuma businesses had noticed a decrease in revenue at this time ; the Arizona Highway Department agreed to modify some signs to eliminate any confusion . The part of I @-@ 8 between 16th and 4th streets was under construction in 1976 , which was the only incomplete part of the freeway , along with the bridge over the Colorado River . The water treatment plant in Yuma was to be moved due to the potential of an accident with a vehicle carrying hazardous materials flying off the bridge and contaminating the water supply . The freeway in both states was completed with the opening of the bridge on September 20 , 1978 .
As the Interstate was completed , the highways that it replaced were removed from the state highway system . In 1973 , the SR 84 designation was removed from the highway from Gila Bend to the split where I @-@ 8 followed a new alignment southwest of Stanfield . In 1977 , the US 80 designation was removed from this stretch in favor of I @-@ 8 .
= = Exit list = =
= = Auxiliary routes = =
There are no three @-@ digit Interstates that are related to I @-@ 8 . However , there are four signed business routes related to I @-@ 8 that provide additional access to particular towns or cities :
El Cajon Boulevard passes through downtown El Cajon .
The El Centro business loop runs along Adams Avenue in downtown El Centro .
The Yuma business loop begins in Winterhaven before crossing the Colorado River into Yuma and providing access to the downtown area .
The Gila Bend business loop connects with Arizona State Route 85 .
= Stamford Canal =
Stamford Canal , now disused , is one of the earliest post @-@ Roman canals in England . It opened in 1670 , around 100 years before the start of the Industrial Revolution which brought about the " golden age " for canals in Britain . Parts of the route can be traced on the ground , though only one lock survives intact . It was part of the Welland Navigation in Lincolnshire . First authorised in 1571 , during the reign of Elizabeth I , construction did not start until 1664 , under powers granted in 1620 and ratified by James I. It ran for 9 @.@ 5 miles ( 15 @.@ 3 km ) from Stamford to Market Deeping and had 12 locks , two of which were on the river section at Deeping St James . No plans of its construction survive , although one of the locks was documented by a visiting water engineer in 1699 . It contributed to the wealth of Stamford , allowing barley to be transported to the town for malting .
Plans to link it westwards to the Oakham Canal , northwards to the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain and southwards to the River Nene in 1809 came to nothing , and it closed in 1863 , soon after the arrival of the Midland Railway in the area . Although Stamford Corporation attempted to sell it after closure , its ownership was disputed , and they were unable to do so . Its course and some of its structures can still be traced in the landscape . These include warehouses at the terminus in Stamford , and a weir which regulated water levels on the River Gwash , which it crossed on the level .
= = History = =
The River Welland was one of the earlier on which improvements , in this case to allow navigation to Stamford , were authorised by an act of Parliament . The act was granted in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I in 1571 , and the preamble explained how Stamford had prospered as a result of the river , but also stated that mills built between Stamford and Deeping had resulted in it no longer being navigable , as they had diverted the water . Powers were granted to restore the river using either the old channel or the new one , although it is not clear exactly what was meant by this . There is no evidence that any work was carried out under the terms of the act .
However , the powers were revived in 1620 , when Stamford Corporation was given permission by the Commission of Sewers to build a new artificial cut , which would run from the eastern edge of Stamford near Hudd 's Mill , to Market Deeping , where it would rejoin the river . The corporation estimated that it would cost £ 2 @,@ 000 to carry out the work , and the act enabled them to charge tolls for its use , set initially at three pence ( 1 @.@ 25 p ) per lock , which could be charged once the work was completed . The decision was ratified in 1623 by a grant of James I , and the corporation expected to have the work completed by 1627 . However , they were unable to find a suitable contractor to carry out the work , and failed to reach agreement on terms with David Cecil in 1636 , and two other potential contractors after that . Nothing happened until 1664 , when an Alderman from Stamford called Daniel Wigmore took the job . He built the cut and 12 locks , which included the High Lock and the Low Lock on the river at Deeping St James , at a cost of £ 5 @,@ 000 . In return for his expenditure , he was given the lease of the tolls for the next 80 years , for which he paid a rent of one shilling ( five pence ) . The cut was the longest canal with locks in the country , when it was opened in 1670 . Its construction preceded the ' canal age ' by around 100 years , making it one of England 's earliest post @-@ Roman canals .
There are no known contemporary documents describing the design or methods of construction of the canal and nothing about its opening . However , a report from 1632 on alterations to the river noted that 600 men were involved in the work , so presumably there was sufficient labour locally for such tasks . Wigmore probably used handbills at local inns to recruit his workers , since there were no newspapers to carry advertisements . The work would have been done using pickaxes , shovels and wheelbarrows . The excavated ditch was then lined with blue clay to make it watertight . Excavations for a sewer in 1974 and work on a rubbish tip in 1979 revealed the layers of blue clay , and there were clay pits near Stamford , which supported a pottery industry , although their precise location is unknown .
The canal enabled goods to reach Stamford from The Wash , which was 34 miles ( 55 km ) away , by way of Spalding and Crowland . The lower 24 @.@ 4 miles ( 39 @.@ 3 km ) used the course of the Welland , after which the two river locks and weirs at Deeping St James were encountered . Beyond Market Deeping , the course consisted of an artificial cut with 10 more locks , by which it reached the eastern edge of Stamford , after which it rejoined the river to reach the town wharf . The length of the cut was 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) , although the length of the canal is usually quoted as 9 @.@ 5 miles ( 15 @.@ 3 km ) , to include the improved river sections at both ends . Just below Stamford , the canal crossed the River Gwash on the level . There was a weir on a bypass channel and a sluice on the main river channel , which enabled the river levels to be controlled , so that barges could cross .
= = = Operation = = =
Trade thrived , for Richard Blome recorded the prosperous Stamford malt trade in 1673 , which depended on barley being carried by boat . With the death of Daniel Wigmore , his son @-@ in @-@ law Charles Halford became the owner of the toll rights . In 1695 , he was receiving between £ 400 and £ 500 per year , most of it derived from the carriage of sea coal . The trade amounted to 3 @,@ 000 chaldrons that year , and he tried to get the tax on sea coal , which Parliament had approved , reversed . He did not succeed , and failed again in 1706 , by which time he stated that the tax had decreased the amount of coal carried to just 500 chaldrons . Besides coal , the canal carried malt and agricultural produce , groceries , timber , slate and stone . Boats used on the canal were small lighters , 35 feet ( 11 m ) long by around 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) wide , capable of carrying from seven to fourteen tons , and normally worked in trains of four vessels .
Although there are no known records from the time the canal was constructed , the lock at Hudd 's Mill was documented by Thomas Surbey in 1699 . Surbey was a water engineer , and made notes and drawings when he visited it , during a journey from London to York . The lock chamber was 86 feet ( 26 @.@ 2 m ) long and 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) wide . The gates were hung on stone piers , but the banks between them were of earth . The gates were conventional ' V ' gates , similar to modern ones , which included some sort of paddle , but did not include balance beams . Instead , a chain or rope was attached to the mid @-@ stream edge of the gate and to the bank . While this would have made opening the gates possible , it is not obvious how they were shut . The measurements match those of the surviving structures , with the exception of Briggin 's lock , which appears to only be 56 feet ( 17 m ) long . There is no visible evidence that it was shortened at some point , nor any obvious reason why it would have been built shorter than all the others .
= = = Expansion = = =
When the Melton Mowbray Navigation was being planned in 1785 , there were discussions of a link to Oakham , which eventually became the Oakham Canal , and onwards to Stamford . The idea of a canal from Stamford to Oakham , 11 miles ( 18 km ) due west , was revived in 1809 , with plans for a 7 @-@ mile ( 11 km ) link from Stamford to the Nene at Peterborough , and a connection from near Market Deeping northwards to the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain , from where Boston could be reached . A bill for this , together with one for a rival scheme to link Stamford to the Grand Junction Canal , which also included a connection to the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain , were put before Parliament in 1811 , but neither met with any success . The idea was raised again in 1815 and 1828 , but no further action was taken .
= = = Decline = = =
With the arrival of the railways , river trade declined . The Midland Railway reached Peterborough in 1846 , and opened their line to Melton Mowbray , passing through Stamford , in 1848 . Carriage of coal on the canal stopped , as the railways brought cheaper coal from the Midlands . The locks quickly deteriorated , and there were problems with leakage . By April 1863 , all traffic had ceased , and Stamford Corporation tried to sell the line at auction , but failed because their ownership of it was disputed .
Since its closure , the canal has largely disappeared but some parts are still viewable on maps and on the ground . The foundations of the two river locks are visible in the Deepings .
The River Welland is currently only navigable to Crowland but plans for the Fens Waterways Link include a new link from above Crowland to above the Dog in a Doublet sluice on the River Nene . There are currently no plans to restore navigation to Stamford . The Dog in a Doublet sluice near Peterborough was built in 1937 ; the Nene is tidal below it .
= = Route = =
Stamford Wharf was the upper limit of navigation , and was situated below Town Bridge , which carries the A43 road over the river at Stamford . There were buildings associated with the canal on both sides of the river , including a large warehouse next to the bridge , parts of which date from 1671 , and which is Grade II listed . Barges followed the river down past the ruins of St Leonard 's Priory , established in 1090 by the Benedictines , to Hudds Mill , where the cut began , on the north side of the mill . Hudds Mill Lock was almost at the start of the cut . The canal flowed initially to the east , but turned to the north east to cross the River Gwash at right angles . It then entered Uffington Park , where the remains of the weir that regulated river levels at the crossing can still be seen . The Gwash now has much less flow than it did when the canal was active , since the construction of the reservoir at Rutland Water further upstream . The earthworks of the canal continue through the park .
The route of the canal is just to the north of the river , and a public footpath follows it through Uffington Park until it reaches the Uffington to Barnack road . The adjacent bridge over the River Welland has three arches and dates from the seventeenth century but the canal bridge has been filled in to protect its structure . There were three locks in open countryside on this section before the canal reached Tallington where Tallington Village Lock was located just to the north of St Lawrence Church , parts of which date from the 12th to 15th centuries , with later additions . Remains of bridge piers were uncovered during archaeological excavations carried out in 1998 when a water pipeline running from Tallington to West Deeping was installed . No details of the bridge have survived , but the levels suggest that it was probably a movable bridge . The canal then passed close to Tallington Mill , a water mill dating from around 1700 , to reach Horse Holmes Lock . A railway line crossed the tail of the lock , but after the demise of the canal , the line was widened , and the lock is thought to be buried beneath the embankment .
The canal then looped around the northern edge of Horse Marsh to reach West Deeping , where there was another lock . There are visible remains of this lock , indicating that it had stone piers at both ends to support the gates , with turf sides between them . It then crossed King Street . An enclosure map dating from 1810 shows that the road crossed the canal by a ford , but that there was also a footbridge to allow pedestrians to cross the canal without getting wet . From West Deeping to Market Deeping , the canal was close to the northern bank of the northern river channel . There were two more locks in open countryside , and another at the western edge of the town , after which the cut rejoined the river . The final two locks were built on the River Welland , Briggins Lock in Deeping St James , and Low Lock to the south @-@ east of the village .
Points of interest
= Marietta @-@ class monitor =
The Marietta class monitors were a pair of ironclad river monitors laid down in the summer of 1862 for the United States Navy during the American Civil War . Construction was slow , partially for lack of labor , and the ships were not completed until December 1865 , after the war was over . However the navy did not accept them until 1866 and immediately laid them up . They were sold in 1873 without ever having been commissioned .
= = Design and description = =
The Marietta @-@ class monitors were part of a large program of armored ships ordered after the Battle of Hampton Roads caused the navy to favor monitors over the previous casemate ironclads of the City class . They were built to gain control of the Mississippi River and its many tributaries .
The original plans for the Marietta @-@ class ships resembled the river monitor USS Ozark in many ways . The gun turret was at the bow and they had a deckhouse aft . There were also twin smokestacks similar to the Mississippi River steamboat designs . The original plans also called for a forward , pyramidal pilothouse , similar to the one on USS Monitor , however it is believed that the pilothouse was moved to the top of the turret before construction was completed . The Marietta class ships were 177 feet ( 53 @.@ 9 m ) long overall . They had a beam of 50 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 m ) and a draft of 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) . They displaced 479 long tons ( 487 t ) . The ships had four steam boilers powering two western steamboat @-@ type engines that drove a single propeller . The Marietta @-@ class ships had a maximum speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) and they carried a maximum of 150 long tons ( 150 t ) of coal .
The ships ' main armament consisted of two smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in a single gun turret . Each gun weighed approximately 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 kg ) . They could fire a 136 @-@ pound ( 61 @.@ 7 kg ) shell up to a range of 3 @,@ 650 yards ( 3 @,@ 340 m ) at an elevation of 15 ° . The turret and the pilothouse were protected by 6 inches ( 152 mm ) of wrought iron armor while the deck and hull had 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 32 mm ) of armor .
= = Construction = =
The contract for the two ships was awarded to Tomlinson and Hartupee Co. on 16 May 1862 . Construction was at their yard in Pittsburgh , PA . Progress was slow , delayed by labor shortages and changes by the navy . The US government allocated $ 188 @,@ 000 each for the construction of the Marietta and Sandusky , but the final cost rose to $ 235 @,@ 039 after charges for extra work .
= = History = =
Marietta was laid down in 1862 , launched on 4 January 1865 and completed 16 December 1865 . " She was accepted by the Navy on 25 April 1866 . She was never commissioned . Soon after her acceptance Marietta was laid up at Mound City , Illinois . Renamed Circe on 15 June 1869 , the gunboat carried that name only until 10 August , when she was again named Marietta . Remaining at Mound City , Marietta was sold 12 April 1873 to David Campbell " for $ 16 @,@ 000 .
Sandusky was launched in mid @-@ January 1865 ; " she was not completed until 26 December 1865 , and was accepted by the Navy on 25 April 1866 . Never commissioned , she was renamed Minerva on 15 June 1869 ; but resumed the name Sandusky on 10 August 1869 . The monitor was sold at Mound City , Illinois , on 17 April 1873 to David Campbell " for $ 18 @,@ 000 .
= Benedict Arnold 's expedition to Quebec =
In September 1775 , early in the American Revolutionary War , Colonel Benedict Arnold led a force of 1 @,@ 100 Continental Army troops on an expedition from Cambridge , Massachusetts to the gates of Quebec City . Part of a two @-@ pronged invasion of the British Province of Quebec , his expedition passed through the wilderness of what is now Maine . The other expedition , led by Richard Montgomery , invaded Quebec from Lake Champlain .
Unanticipated problems beset the expedition as soon as it left the last significant colonial outposts in Maine . The portages up the Kennebec River proved grueling , and the boats frequently leaked , ruining gunpowder and spoiling food supplies . More than a third of the men turned back before reaching the height of land between the Kennebec and Chaudière rivers . The areas on either side of the height of land were swampy tangles of lakes and streams , and the traversal was made more difficult by bad weather and inaccurate maps . Many of the troops lacked experience handling boats in white water , which led to the destruction of more boats and supplies in the descent to the Saint Lawrence River via the fast @-@ flowing Chaudière .
By the time Arnold reached the French settlements above the Saint Lawrence River in November , his force was reduced to 600 starving men . They had traveled about 350 miles ( 560 km ) through poorly charted wilderness , twice the distance they had expected to cover . Assisted by the local French @-@ speaking Canadiens , Arnold 's troops crossed the Saint Lawrence on November 13 and 14 and attempted to put Quebec City under siege . Failing in this , they withdrew to Point @-@ aux @-@ Trembles until Montgomery arrived to lead an unsuccessful attack on the city . Arnold was rewarded for his effort in leading the expedition with a promotion to brigadier general .
Arnold 's route through northern Maine has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Arnold Trail to Quebec , and some geographic features in the area bear names of expedition participants .
= = Background = =
On May 10 , 1775 , shortly after the American Revolutionary War began , Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen led an expedition that captured Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain in the British Province of New York . Allen and Arnold were aware that Quebec was lightly defended ; there were only about 600 regular troops in the entire province . Arnold , who had done business in the province before the war , also had intelligence that the French @-@ speaking Canadiens would be favorably disposed toward a colonial force .
Arnold and Allen each made arguments to the Second Continental Congress that Quebec could and should be taken from the British , pointing out that the British could use Quebec as a staging area for attacks down Lake Champlain and into the Hudson River valley . Congress did not want to alarm the people of Quebec , and rejected these arguments . In July 1775 , amid concerns that the British might use Quebec as a base for military movements into New York , they changed their position , and authorized an invasion of Quebec via Lake Champlain , assigning the task to Major General Philip Schuyler of New York .
= = Planning = =
Arnold , who had hoped to lead the invasion , decided to pursue a different approach to Quebec . He went to Cambridge , Massachusetts in early August 1775 , and approached George Washington with the idea of a second eastern invasion force aimed at Quebec City . Washington approved of the idea in principle , but sent a message to General Schuyler on August 20 to ensure his support of the endeavor , since the two forces would need to coordinate their efforts .
Arnold 's plan called for the expedition to sail from Newburyport , Massachusetts along the coast and then up the Kennebec River to Fort Western ( now Augusta , Maine ) . From there , they would use shallow @-@ draft river boats called bateaux to continue up the Kennebec River , cross the height of land to Lake Mégantic , and descend the Chaudière River to Quebec . Arnold expected to cover the 180 miles ( 290 km ) from Fort Western to Quebec in 20 days , despite the fact that little was known about the route . Arnold had acquired a map ( copy pictured at left ) and journal made by British military engineer John Montresor in 1760 and 1761 , but Montresor 's descriptions of the route were not very detailed , and Arnold did not know that the map contained some inaccuracies or that some details had been deliberately removed or obscured .
Washington introduced Arnold to Reuben Colburn , a boat builder from Gardinerstown , Maine , who was in Cambridge at the time . Colburn offered his services , and Arnold requested detailed information about the route , including potential British naval threats , Indian sentiment , useful supply opportunities , and an estimate of how long it would take to construct bateaux sufficient for the contemplated force . Colburn left for Maine on August 21 to fulfill these requests . Colburn asked Samuel Goodwin , the local surveyor in Gardinerston , to provide maps for Arnold . Goodwin , who was known to have Loyalist sympathies , provided maps that were inaccurate in the routes , distances and other important features they described .
On September 2 , Washington received a letter from General Schuyler in reply to his August 20 message . Schuyler agreed with the suggested plan , and Washington and Arnold immediately began to raise troops and place orders for supplies .
= = Recruitment and preparations for departure = =
Because there had been little direct action at Boston after the Battle of Bunker Hill in June , many units stationed in the American camps besieging the town were bored with garrison life and eager for action . Arnold selected a force of 750 men from the large number who expressed interest in the proposed expedition . Most of these were divided into two battalions : one commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Roger Enos and the other by Lieutenant Colonel Christopher Greene . The rest were placed in a third battalion under Daniel Morgan that included three companies — 250 men — of Continental riflemen from Virginia and the Pennsylvania Rifle Regiment . These frontiersmen , from the Virginia and Pennsylvania wilderness , were better suited to wilderness combat than to a siege , and had been causing trouble since arriving outside Boston . The entire force numbered about 1 @,@ 100 . Among the volunteers were other men who rose to later prominence during and after the war , including Aaron Burr , Return J. Meigs , Henry Dearborn , and John Joseph Henry .
Washington and Arnold were concerned about Indian support for ( or opposition to ) the effort , as well as the reception Arnold 's forces might receive from the Canadians once they arrived near the Saint Lawrence River . On August 30 , Washington wrote to General Schuyler of a meeting he held with an Abenaki chief , " [ The chief ] says the Indians of Canada in general , and also the French , are greatly in our favor , and determined not to act against us . " Four Abenakis accompanied the expedition as scouts and guides .
= = Cambridge to Fort Western = =
On September 2 , as soon as General Schuyler 's agreement with the expedition was known , Arnold wrote a letter to Nathaniel Tracy , a merchant of his acquaintance in Newburyport . He asked Tracy to acquire sufficient shipping to transport the expedition to Maine without drawing attention to Royal Navy ships patrolling the area . The sea voyage was viewed by both Arnold and Washington as the most dangerous part of the expedition , because British patrols were highly effective at interfering with colonial shipping at the time .
The expedition began its departure from Cambridge on September 11 , marching to Newburyport . The first units to leave were composed largely of men from that area , to whom Arnold had given extra time so that they would be able to see their families once more before the expedition left Newburyport . The last troops marched off on September 13 ; Arnold rode from Cambridge to Newburyport on September 15 after making final purchases of supplies .
Headwinds and fog delayed the departure of the expedition from Newburyport until September 19 . In twelve hours , they reached the mouth of the Kennebec River . They spent the next two days negotiating the island channels near its mouth and sailing up the river . Arriving in Gardinerston on the 22nd , they spent the next few days at Reuben Colburn 's house , organizing supplies and preparing the boats they would use for the rest of the expedition . Arnold inspected Colburn 's hastily constructed bateaux , finding them , in a portent of troubles to come , to be " very badly built " , and " smaller than the directions given " . Colburn and his crew spent the next three days building additional bateaux .
Arnold 's troop movements did not escape British notice . General Thomas Gage in Boston was aware that Arnold 's troops were " gone to Canada and by way of Newburyport " , but he believed the target to be Nova Scotia , which was at the time virtually undefended . Francis Legge , the governor of Nova Scotia , declared martial law , and on October 17 sent a message to England laden with rumors about American actions that turned out to be false . Admiral Samuel Graves eventually received intelligence about Arnold 's activities , reporting on October 18 that the American troops " went up the Kennebec River , and ' tis generally believed are for Quebec " .
= = Scouting = =
As the troop transports arrived , Arnold dispatched some of the men in the already @-@ constructed bateaux up the Kennebec River 10 miles ( 16 km ) to Fort Western , and the others by foot on a track leading to Fort Halifax , 45 miles ( 72 km ) up the Kennebec . While waiting for the bateaux to be completed , Arnold received word from scouts Colburn had sent out to reconnoiter the proposed route . Their reports included rumors of a large Mohawk force near the southernmost French settlements on the Chaudière River . The source of these rumors was Natanis , a Norridgewock Indian believed to be spying for Quebec 's governor , General Guy Carleton ; Arnold discounted the reports .
Arnold and most of the force had reached Fort Western by September 23 . The next day , Arnold sent two small parties up the Kennebec . One , under Pennsylvania Lieutenant Archibald Steele , was ordered to scout as far as Lake Mégantic to gather intelligence . The second , under Lieutenant Church , was to survey the route as far as the Dead River , at a place known to the local Indians as the Great Carrying Place , so that Arnold might better estimate how far the column would need to travel each day .
= = Early troubles = =
The full expedition set out from Fort Western on September 25 . Morgan 's riflemen led the way , blazing trails when necessary . Colburn and a crew of boatwrights came in the rear , to repair bateaux as needed . Morgan 's group traveled relatively lightly , as they would be working to make the trail , while the last group , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Enos , carried the bulk of the supplies . The expedition arrived at its first target , Fort Halifax , a decaying relic of the French and Indian War , on the second day . There was a rough track from Fort Western , so some of the men and supplies had moved overland rather than in the bateaux that had to be portaged around the falls above Fort Western to begin the trip . Arnold , rather than traveling in a heavy bateau , traveled in a lighter canoe so that he might move more rapidly among the troops along the travel route .
Arnold reached Norridgewock Falls , location of the last settlements on the Kennebec , on October 2 . Even at this early date , problems were apparent . The bateaux were leaking , resulting in spoiled food and a continual need for repairs . The men were constantly wet , due not only to the leakage but also the frequent need to pull the heavy boats upstream . As temperatures began to drop below freezing , colds and dysentery set in , reducing the effectiveness of the force .
The portage around Norridgewock Falls , a distance of about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , was accomplished with the assistance of oxen provided by the local settlers , but it took almost a week to complete ; Arnold did not depart from there until October 9 . Colburn 's crew devoted some of this time to making repairs on the bateaux . Most of the expedition reached the Great Carrying Place on October 11 , and Arnold arrived the next day . This stretch of the trek was complicated by heavy rains , rendering the portages difficult due to extremely muddy conditions .
= = The Great Carrying Place = =
The Great Carrying Place was a portage of roughly 12 miles ( 19 km ) , bypassing an unnavigable section of the Dead River , the tributary of the Kennebec that the expedition was to follow . The portage included a rise in elevation of about 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) to the high points of the carry , with three ponds along the way . Lieutenant Church , the leader of the survey team , described the route as a " bad road but capable of being made good " , an assessment that turned out to be somewhat optimistic .
The vanguard of the main body , led by Daniel Morgan , met Lieutenant Steele 's advance scouting party en route to the first pond . This party had successfully scouted the route to the height of land above the Dead River , but the men were near starvation . Their supplies had been depleted , and they were largely subsisting on a protein @-@ rich diet of fish , moose , and duck . Most of the men continued to supplement their meager supplies with the local wildlife as the expedition continued .
Church , in his description of the route , had failed to account for the heavy rains and the generally boggy conditions between the first and second ponds . Rain and snow slowed the long portage , and the expedition had its first casualty when a falling tree killed one of the party . Some of the men who drank the brackish waters along the way became violently ill , forcing Arnold to order construction of a shelter at the second pond as cover for the sick , and to send some men back to Fort Halifax for supplies that had been cached there .
The first two battalions finally reached the Dead River on October 13 , and Arnold arrived three days later . At this point , Arnold wrote a number of letters informing Washington and Montgomery of his progress . Several letters intended for Montgomery were intercepted and turned over to Quebec 's Lieutenant Governor Hector Theophilus de Cramahé , giving Quebec its first notice that the expedition was on its way . Arnold also dispatched the survey team again , this time to mark the trail all the way to Lake Mégantic .
= = Ascending the Dead River = =
Progress up the Dead River was extremely slow . Contrary to its name , which supposedly described the speed of its currents , the river was flowing rapidly enough that the men had trouble rowing and poling against the current . The leaky boats spoiled more of the food , forcing Arnold to put everyone on half rations . Then , on October 19 , the skies opened , and the river began to rise in the pouring rain . Early on October 22 , the men awoke to discover that the river had risen to the level of their camp , and they had to scramble to even higher ground for safety . When the sun rose they were surrounded by water .
After spending most of that day drying out , the expedition set off on October 23 . Precious time was lost when some of the men mistakenly left the Dead River and ascended one of its branches , having been fooled by the high water . Soon after , seven bateaux overturned , spoiling the remaining food stores . This accident compelled Arnold to consider turning back . He called together his nearby officers for a council of war . Arnold explained that although the situation was grim , he thought that the expedition should continue . The officers agreed , and decided to pick an advance party that would proceed as rapidly as possible to French settlements on the Chaudière , and work to bring supplies back . The sick and infirm were to retreat to American settlements in Maine .
Further back on the route , Lieutenant Colonel Greene and his men were starving . They had little flour , and were consuming candle wax and shoe leather to supplement their minimal rations . On October 24 , Greene attempted to catch up with Arnold , but was unable to do so because Arnold had moved too far ahead . When he returned to camp , Lieutenant Colonel Enos had arrived , and they held their own council . Enos 's captains were united in wanting to turn back despite Arnold 's most recent orders , which were to press ahead . In the council , Enos cast a tie @-@ breaking vote in favor of continuing , but in a meeting with his captains after the council , announced that because they were insistent on returning , he was acceding to their decision , and would return . After giving Greene 's men some of his supplies , Enos and 450 men turned back .
= = Lake Mégantic = =
The impact of the inaccurate maps was felt when the expedition reached the height of land . Portions of the advance party became lost in swampy bogs ( the area surrounding Spider Lake on the topographic map shown above ) that were not on those maps , resulting in delays reaching Lake Mégantic . Although this part of the party crossed the height of land on October 25 , it was not until two days later that they reached the lake . On October 28 , the advance party descended the upper Chaudière , destroying three of their bateaux when they turned over and crashed into rocks above some falls on the river . The next day they encountered several Penobscot Indians , who confirmed that they were not far from Sartigan , the southernmost French settlement on the Chaudière .
Arnold , when he reached Lake Mégantic , sent a man back to the two remaining battalions with instructions on how to navigate the swampy lands above the lake . However , the way Arnold described the route included information from the incorrect maps that he had not seen on the route . As a result , some elements of the expedition spent two days lost in swamps before the majority finally reached the falls on the upper Chaudière on October 31 . Along the way , Captain Henry Dearborn 's dog was eaten , an event recorded in his diary : " [ They ate ] every part of him , not excepting his entrails ; and after finishing their meal , they collected the bones and carried them to be pounded up , and to make broth for another meal . "
= = Arrival at Quebec = =
Arnold first made contact with the local population on October 30 . Sympathetic to his plight , they supplied provisions and cared for the sick ; some were well paid for their aid , while others refused payment . Arnold distributed copies of a letter written by Washington asking the habitants to assist the expedition , and Arnold added promises to respect the persons , property , and religion of the locals . Jacques Parent , a Canadien from Pointe @-@ Levi , notified Arnold that Lieutenant Governor Cramahé had ordered the destruction of all boats on the southern banks of the Saint Lawrence after receiving the intercepted communications .
On November 9 the expedition finally reached the Saint Lawrence at Pointe @-@ Levi , across the river from Quebec . Arnold had about 600 of his original 1 @,@ 100 men , and the journey had turned out to be 350 miles ( 560 km ) , not the 180 that Arnold and Washington had thought it would be . From John Halstead , a New Jersey @-@ born businessman who operated a mill near Pointe @-@ Levi , Arnold learned of the arrest of his courier and the interception of some of his letters . Halstead 's mill became the organizing point for the crossing of the Saint Lawrence . Some of Arnold 's men purchased canoes from the habitants and the local Saint Francis Indians , and then transported them from the Chaudière to the mill site . The forces crossed the Saint Lawrence on the night of November 13 – 14 after three days of bad weather , likely crossing the mile @-@ wide river between the positions of HMS Hunter and HMS Lizard , two Royal Navy ships that were guarding the river against such a crossing .
The city of Quebec was then defended by about 150 men of the Royal Highland Emigrants under Lieutenant Colonel Allen Maclean , supported by about 500 poorly organized local militia and 400 marines from the two warships . When Arnold and his troops finally reached the Plains of Abraham on November 14 , Arnold sent a negotiator with a white flag to demand their surrender , to no avail . The Americans , with no cannons or other field artillery , and barely fit for action , faced a fortified city . After hearing rumors of a planned sortie from the city , Arnold decided on November 19 to withdraw to Pointe @-@ aux @-@ Trembles to wait for Montgomery , who had recently captured Montreal .
= = Aftermath = =
When Montgomery arrived at Pointe @-@ aux @-@ Trembles on December 3 , the combined force returned to the city and began a siege , finally assaulting it on December 31 . The battle was a devastating loss for the Americans ; Montgomery was killed , Arnold was wounded , and Daniel Morgan was captured along with more than 350 men . Arnold did not learn until after the battle that he had been promoted to brigadier general for his role in leading the expedition .
The invasion ended with a retreat back to Fort Ticonderoga , Montgomery 's starting point , during the spring and summer of 1776 . Arnold , who commanded the army 's rear guard in the later stages of the retreat , was able to delay the British advance sufficiently to prevent them from attempting to reach the Hudson River in 1776 .
Enos and his detachment arrived back in Cambridge late in November . Enos was court @-@ martialed , charged with " quitting his commanding officer without leave " . He was acquitted , and returned to service as Lieutenant Colonel of the 16th Connecticut Regiment .
John Sullivan , the court @-@ martial President , made public a written statement in support of Enos ' conduct , and other officers also issued a public circular to support Enos , including William Heath , John Stark , Joseph Reed , and James Reed .
Enos subsequently moved to Vermont , where he served in the militia as Colonel , Brigadier General and Major General , including commanding troops on the Vermont side of Lake Champlain during the Saratoga campaign to deter John Burgoyne from foraying into Vermont .
Reuben Colburn was never paid for his work , despite promises made by Arnold and Washington ; the expedition ruined him financially .
Henry Dearborn settled on the Kennebec River after the war , and represented the area in the U. S. Congress before Thomas Jefferson appointed him Secretary of War . Private Simon Fobes , who kept one of the many journals of the expedition , was captured in the Battle of Quebec . He and two others escaped captivity in August 1776 and retraced the trek in the opposite direction , once again with meager resources . They benefited from better weather and equipment the expedition had abandoned along the way . Fobes reached his home near Worcester , Massachusetts at the end of September , and eventually rejoined the army . Captain Simeon Thayer kept a journal which was published by the Rhode Island Historical Society in 1867 as The invasion of Canada in 1775 . After being captured at Quebec , Thayer was exchanged on July 1 , 1777 and returned to the Continental Army with the rank of major . He distinguished himself during the Siege of Fort Mifflin in November 1777 and briefly assumed command after the post 's commandant was wounded .
= = Legacy = =
A number of geographic features along the route of the expedition bear names related to the expedition . East Carry Pond , Middle Carry Pond , and West Carry Pond , are all on the route of the portage at the Great Carrying Place , which is in the Carrying Place Town Township [ sic ] of Maine . Arnold Pond is the last pond on the Dead River before crossing the height of land . Mount Bigelow in Maine was named for Major Timothy Bigelow , one of Arnold 's officers .
The wilderness portion of the route through Maine , roughly from Augusta to the Quebec border , was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969 as the " Arnold Trail to Quebec " . The Major Reuben Colburn House , which served as Arnold 's headquarters , is now a state historic site administered by the non @-@ profit Arnold Expedition Historical Society , and is also listed on the National Register . Both Fort Western and Fort Halifax are National Historic Landmarks , primarily for their age and their role in earlier conflicts .
An historical marker in Danvers , Massachusetts commemorates Arnold 's expedition , placed by the Massachusetts Society , Sons of the American Revolution . There is also an historical marker in Moscow , Maine placed in 1916 by the Kennebec chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution , and two at Skowhegan Island in Maine placed in 1912 and 2000 by the Eunice Farnsworth Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution . In Eustis , Maine , on the western shore of Flagstaff Lake stands a marker commemorating the expedition . The lake was created in the 20th century by damming the Dead River , inundating part of the expedition route . Mount Bigelow , whose first recorded ascent was by Timothy Bigelow , stands just south of the lake .
= Star Trek : First Contact =
Star Trek : First Contact is a 1996 American science fiction film released by Paramount Pictures . It is the eighth feature film in the Star Trek film franchise , and the second film in the series to star the cast of the television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . In the film 's plot , the crew of the USS Enterprise @-@ E travel back in time to the 21st century to save their future after the cybernetic Borg conquered Earth by changing the timeline .
After the release of the seventh film , Star Trek Generations ( 1994 ) , Paramount tasked writers Brannon Braga and Ronald D. Moore with developing a sequel . Braga and Moore wanted to feature the Borg in the plot , while producer Rick Berman wanted a story involving time travel . The writers combined the two ideas ; they initially set the film during the European Renaissance , but changed the time period the Borg corrupted to the mid @-@ 21st century after fearing the Renaissance idea would be too kitsch . After two better known directors turned down the job , cast member Jonathan Frakes was chosen to direct to make sure the task fell to someone who understood Star Trek . It was Frakes ' first theatrical film .
The script required the creation of new starship designs , including a new USS Enterprise . Production designer Herman Zimmerman and illustrator John Eaves collaborated to make a sleeker ship than its predecessor . Principal photography began with weeks of location shooting in Arizona and California before production moved to new sets for the ship @-@ based scenes . The Borg were redesigned to appear as though they were converted into machine beings from the inside @-@ out ; the new makeup sessions took four times as long as on the television series . Effects company Industrial Light & Magic rushed to complete the film 's special effects in less than five months . Traditional optical effects techniques were supplemented with computer @-@ generated imagery . Jerry Goldsmith and his son Joel collaborated to produce the film 's score .
First Contact was the highest @-@ grossing film on its opening weekend , making $ 30 @.@ 7 million . The film made $ 92 million in the United States and an additional $ 54 million in other territories , for a worldwide total of $ 146 million . Critical reception was mostly positive ; critics including Roger Ebert considered it one of the best Star Trek films . The Borg and the special effects were lauded , while characterization was less evenly received . First Contact was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Makeup and won three Saturn Awards . The film has been released on videotape , LaserDisc , DVD and Blu @-@ ray home video formats . Scholarly analysis of the film has focused on Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard 's parallels to Herman Melville 's Ahab and the nature of the Borg .
= = Plot = =
Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard wakes from a nightmare in which he relived his assimilation by the cybernetic Borg six years earlier ( shown in the television episode " The Best of Both Worlds " ) . Starfleet informs him of a new Borg attack against Earth , but orders the USS Enterprise @-@ E to patrol the Romulan Neutral Zone so as not to introduce an " unstable element " to the fight . Learning that the fleet is losing the battle , the Enterprise crew disobeys orders and heads for Earth , where a single , damaged Borg Cube opposes a group of Starfleet vessels . The Enterprise arrives in time to save the crew of the USS Defiant which is being commanded by Lieutenant Commander Worf . After Picard hears Borg communications in his mind , he orders the fleet to concentrate its firepower on a seemingly non @-@ vital section of the Borg ship . The Cube is destroyed after launching a smaller sphere ship towards the planet .
The Borg sphere generates and enters a temporal vortex . As the Enterprise is enveloped in the vortex , the crew briefly glimpses an Earth populated entirely by Borg . Picard realizes that the Borg have used time travel to change history , and orders the Enterprise to follow . The Enterprise arrives in the past , on April 4 , 2063 , the day before humanity 's first encounter with alien life after Zefram Cochrane 's historic warp flight . The Borg sphere fires on the planet ; the Enterprise crew then destroy the sphere and , realizing that the Borg were trying to prevent first contact , send an away team to the Montana missile complex where Cochrane is building his ship , the Phoenix , to look for survivors . Picard sends Cochrane 's assistant Lily Sloane to the Enterprise for medical attention , then returns to the ship and leaves Commander William Riker on Earth to make sure the Phoenix 's flight proceeds as planned . The Enterprise crew sees Cochrane as a legend , but the real man is reluctant to assume his historical role .
Borg survivors invade the Enterprise , and begin to assimilate its crew and modify the ship , planning to use it to attack and conquer Earth . Picard and a team attempt to reach engineering to disable the Borg with corrosive coolant used in the warp core , but the android Data is captured and meets the queen of the Borg Collective , who gains his trust by giving part of him human skin . A frightened Sloane seizes the captain but he gains her trust , and they escape the Borg @-@ infested area of the ship by using the holodeck . Picard , Worf , and the ship 's navigator , Lieutenant Hawk , stop the Borg from calling reinforcements with the deflector dish , but Hawk is assimilated . As the Borg continue to assimilate , Worf suggests destroying the ship , but Picard angrily calls him a coward and vows to continue the fight . Sloane confronts the captain and , reminding him of Moby @-@ Dick 's Captain Ahab , makes him realize he 's acting irrationally . Picard activates the ship 's self @-@ destruct mechanism , orders the crew to abandon ship , and then apologizes to Worf . While the crew heads to escape pods , Picard remains aboard to rescue Data .
As Cochrane , Riker , and engineer Geordi La Forge prepare to activate the warp drive on the Phoenix , Picard confronts the Borg Queen and discovers she has grafted human skin onto Data , giving him an array of new sensations . She has presented this modification as a gift to the android , hoping to obtain his encryption codes to the Enterprise computer . Although Picard offers himself in Data 's place , the android refuses to leave . He deactivates the self @-@ destruct sequence and fires torpedoes at the Phoenix , but they miss and the Queen realizes Data betrayed her . Data ruptures a coolant tank , and the corrosive substance fatally dissolves the Borg 's biological components . Cochrane completes his warp flight , and that night , April 5 , 2063 , the crew watches as Vulcans , attracted by the Phoenix warp flight , land and greet Cochrane . Having repaired history , the Enterprise crew returns to the 24th century .
= = Cast = =
First Contact is the first film in the Star Trek film series in which none of the main cast of Star Trek : The Original Series appear ; instead , the main cast of Star Trek : The Next Generation fill the main roles . Patrick Stewart plays Jean @-@ Luc Picard , the captain of the USS Enterprise @-@ E who is haunted by his time as a member of the Borg Collective . Stewart was one of the few cast members who had an important role in developing the script , offering suggestions and comments . Picard 's character was changed from the " angst @-@ ridden character [ viewers have ] seen before " , to an action hero type . Stewart noted that Picard was more physically active in the film compared with his usual depiction .
Other Enterprise crewmembers include the ship 's first officer William Riker , played by director Jonathan Frakes . Frakes said he did not have much difficulty directing and acting at the same time , having done so on the television series . Brent Spiner portrays the android Data ; rumors before the film 's release suggested that since Data 's skin had been largely removed at the end of the story , it would allow another actor to assume the role . LeVar Burton plays Geordi La Forge , the ship 's chief engineer . La Forge is a blind character , and for the television series and previous film had worn a special visor to see . Burton lobbied for many years to have his character 's visor replaced so that people could see his eyes , since the " air filter " he wore prevented the audience from seeing his eyes and limited his acting ability . Moore finally agreed , giving the character ocular implants that were never explained in the film , beyond showing they were artificial . Gates McFadden plays Beverly Crusher , the ship 's doctor . McFadden considered Star Trek women finally on par with the men : " We 've come a long way since Majel Barrett was stuck in the sick bay as Nurse Chapel in the [ 1960s ] and made to dye her hair blond . " Crusher was instrumental in helping Picard set the auto @-@ destruct sequence , to prevent the Borg from completely assimilating the Enterprise and Earth . Ship 's counselor Deanna Troi is portrayed by Marina Sirtis . The actress missed working on the television show , and was acutely aware that expectations and stakes for First Contact were high : " we were scared that people thought we couldn 't cut it without the original cast " , she said . Other Starfleet members included former Enterprise chief of security , and commander of the USS Defiant , Worf ( Michael Dorn ) . The Defiant is badly damaged in the battle with the Borg but is left salvageable . An early screenplay draft called for the Defiant to be destroyed , but Deep Space Nine executive producer Ira Steven Behr objected to the destruction of his show 's ship and so the idea was dropped . Neal McDonough plays Sean Hawk , the Enterprise helmsman who aids in the defense of the ship until he is assimilated and killed . McDonough was cavalier about his role as an expendable " redshirt " , saying that since one of the characters in the deflector dish battle had to die , " that would be me " .
James Cromwell was cast as Zefram Cochrane , the pilot and creator of Earth 's first warp capable vessel . The character of Zefram Cochrane had first appeared in the Original Series episode " Metamorphosis " , played by Glenn Corbett . Cromwell 's Cochrane is much older and has no real resemblance to Corbett , which did not bother the writers . They wanted to portray Cochrane as a character going through a major transition ; he starts out as a cynical , selfish drunk who is changed by the characters he meets over the course of the film . Although the character was written with Cromwell in mind , Tom Hanks , a big fan of Star Trek , was approached for the role by Paramount first , but he had already committed to the film That Thing You Do ! and had to reject the part . Frakes commented that it would have been a mistake to cast Hanks as Cochrane due to him being so well known . Cromwell had a long previous association with Star Trek , having played characters in The Next Generation episodes " The Hunted " and " Birthright " , as well as a role in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . " [ Cromwell ] actually came in and read for the part " , Frakes said . " He nailed it . " Cromwell described his method of portraying Cochrane as always playing himself . Part of the actor 's interest in the film was his involvement in Steven M. Greer 's Center for the Study of Extraterrestrial Intelligence , which offers training for first contact scenarios . In this film , Cromwell 's Cochrane became the first character to use the phrase " star trek " in the history of the franchise ( " You 're all astronauts , on some kind of star trek . " )
Alfre Woodard plays Lily Sloane , Cochrane 's assistant . When Frakes first moved to Los Angeles , Woodard was one of the first people he met . During a conversation at a barbecue , Woodard said she would become Frakes ' godmother , as he did not have one . Through this relationship , Frakes was able to cast Woodard in the film ; he considered it a coup to land an Academy Award @-@ nominated actress . Woodard considered Lily to be the character most like herself out of all the roles she has played .
The Borg Queen is portrayed by Alice Krige . Casting for the part took time , as the actress needed to be sexy , dangerous and mysterious . Frakes cast Krige after finding that she had all of the mentioned qualities , and being impressed by her performance in Ghost Story ; the director considers her the sexiest Star Trek villain of all time . Krige suffered a large amount of discomfort filming her role ; her costume was too tight , causing blisters , and the painful silver contact lenses she wore could only be kept in for four minutes at a time . Krige would later reprise her role as the Borg Queen in the Star Trek : Voyager series finale " Endgame " .
The ominous voice of the Borg , which delivered the now @-@ iconic film line , " Resistance is futile " , was performed by Jeff Coopwood .
The film also features minor roles for many of The Next Generation 's recurring characters ; Dwight Schultz reprised his role of Lieutenant Reginald Barclay , while Patti Yasutake briefly appeared as Nurse Alyssa Ogawa . Whoopi Goldberg was not asked to return as Guinan , a wise bartender whose homeworld was destroyed by the Borg . Goldberg only learned about the decision through the newspapers . " What can I say ? I wanted to do it because I didn 't think you could do anything about the Borg without [ my character ] " , she said , " but apparently you can , so they don 't need me . " Michael Horton appears as a bloodied and stoic Starfleet defender ; his character would be given the name of Daniels in the next Star Trek film .
The third draft of the script added cameos by two actors from the sister television series Star Trek : Voyager . Robert Picardo appears as the Enterprise 's Emergency Medical Hologram ; Picardo played the holographic Doctor on Voyager . His line " I 'm a doctor , not a door stop " , is an allusion to the Star Trek original series character Dr. Leonard McCoy . Picardo 's fellow Voyager actor Ethan Phillips , who played Neelix , cameos as a nightclub Maitre d ' in the holodeck scene . Phillips recalled that the producers wanted the fans to be left guessing whether he was the person who played Neelix or not , as he did not appear in the credits ; " It was just kind of a goofy thing to do . " During production there were incorrect rumors that Avery Brooks would reprise his role as Star Trek : Deep Space Nine captain Benjamin Sisko . As with many Star Trek productions , new , disposable redshirt characters are killed off over the course of the plot .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In February 1995 , two months after the release of Star Trek : Generations , Paramount decided to produce another Star Trek feature for a winter holiday 1996 release . Paramount wanted writers Brannon Braga and Ronald D. Moore , who had written the Generations script and a number of Next Generation episodes , to pen the screenplay . Producer Rick Berman told Braga and Moore that he wanted them to think about doing a story involving time travel . Braga and Moore , meanwhile , wanted to use the Borg . " Right on the spot , we said maybe we can do both , the Borg and time travel , " Moore recalled . The Borg had not been seen in full force since the fourth season episode of The Next Generation , " The Best of Both Worlds " , and had never been heavily featured in the series due to budget constraints and the fear that they would lose their scare factor . " The Borg were really liked by the fans , and we liked them , " Moore said . " They were fearsome . They were unstoppable . Perfect foils for a feature story . "
In deciding to combine the two story ideas , the writers decided that the time travel element could play out as the Borg attempt to prevent humanity from ever reaching space and becoming a threat . " Our goals at that point were to create a story that was wonderful and a script that was [ ... ] producible within the budget confines of a Star Trek film " , said Berman . One major question was identifying the time period to which the Borg would travel . Berman 's suggestion was the Renaissance ; the Borg would attempt to prevent the dawn of modern European civilization . The first story draft , titled Star Trek : Renaissance , had the crew of the Enterprise track the Borg to their hive in a castle dungeon . The film would have featured sword fights alongside phasers in 15th @-@ century Europe , while Data became Leonardo da Vinci 's apprentice . Moore was afraid that it risked becoming campy and over @-@ the @-@ top , while Stewart refused to wear tights . Braga , meanwhile , wanted to see the " birth of Star Trek " , when the Vulcans and humans first met ; " that , to me , is what made the time travel story fresh " , he said .
With the idea of Star Trek 's genesis in mind , the central story became Cochrane 's warp drive test and humanity 's first contact . Drawing on clues from previous Star Trek episodes , Cochrane was placed in mid @-@ 21st century Montana , where humans recover from a devastating world war . In the first script with this setting , the Borg attack Cochrane 's lab , leaving the scientist comatose ; Picard assumes Cochrane 's place to continue the warp test and restore history . In this draft Picard has a love interest in the local photographer Ruby , while Riker leads the fight against the Borg on the Enterprise . Another draft included John de Lancie 's omnipotent character Q. Looking at the early scripts , the trio knew that serious work was needed . " It just didn 't make sense [ ... ] that Picard , the one guy who has a history with the Borg , never meets them , " Braga recalled . Riker and Picard 's roles were swapped , and the planetside story was shortened and told differently . Braga and Moore focused the new arc on Cochrane himself , making the ideal future of Star Trek come from a flawed man . The idea of Borg fighting among period costumes coalesced into a " Dixon Hill " holographic novel sequence on the holodeck . The second draft , titled Star Trek : Resurrection , was judged complete enough that the production team used it to plan expenses . The film was given a budget of $ 45 million , " considerably more " than Generations ' $ 35 million price tag ; this allowed the production to plan a larger amount of action and special effects .
Braga and Moore intended the film to be easily accessible to any moviegoer and work as a stand @-@ alone story , yet still satisfy the devoted Star Trek fans . Since much of Picard 's role made a direct reference to his time as a Borg in The Next Generation episodes " The Best of Both Worlds " , the opening dream sequence was added to explain what happened to him in the show . The pair discarded an opening which would have established what the main characters had been doing since the last film in favor of quickly setting the story . While the writers tried to preserve the idea of the Borg as a mindless collective in the original draft , Paramount head Jonathan Dolgen felt that the script was not dramatic enough . He suggested adding an individual Borg villain with whom the characters could interact , which led to the creation of the Borg Queen .
Cast member Frakes was chosen to direct . Frakes had not been the first choice for director ; Ridley Scott and John McTiernan reportedly turned down the project . Stewart met a potential candidate and concluded that " they didn 't know Star Trek " . It was decided to stay with someone who understood the " gestalt of Star Trek " , and Frakes was given the job . Frakes reported to work every day at 6 : 30 am . A major concern during the production was security — the script to Generations had been leaked online , and stronger measures were taken to prevent a similar occurrence . Some script pages were distributed on red paper to foil attempted photocopies or faxes ; " We had real trouble reading them , " Frakes noted .
Frakes had directed multiple episodes of The Next Generation , Deep Space Nine and Voyager , but First Contact was his first feature film . Whereas Frakes had seven days of preparation followed by seven days of shooting for a given television episode , the director was given a ten @-@ week preparation period before twelve weeks of filming , and had to get used to shooting for a 2 @.@ 35 : 1 anamorphic ratio instead of the television standard 1 @.@ 33 : 1 . In preparation , he watched Jaws , Close Encounters of the Third Kind , 2001 : A Space Odyssey and the works of James Cameron and Ridley Scott .
Throughout multiple script revisions a number of titles were considered , including Star Trek : Borg , Star Trek : Destinies , Star Trek : Future Generations and Star Trek : Generations II . The planned title of Resurrection was scrapped when Fox announced the title of the fourth Alien film ; the movie was rebranded First Contact on May 3 , 1996 .
= = = Design = = =
First Contact was the first Star Trek film to make significant use of computer @-@ generated starship models , though physical miniatures were still used for the most important vessels . With the Enterprise @-@ D destroyed during the events of Generations , the task of creating a new starship fell to veteran Star Trek production designer Herman Zimmerman . The script 's only guide on the appearance of the vessel was the line " the new Enterprise sleekly comes out of the nebula " . Working with illustrator John Eaves , the designers conceived the new Sovereign Class Enterprise @-@ E as " leaner , sleeker , and mean enough to answer any Borg threat you can imagine " . Braga and Moore intended it to be more muscular and militaryesque . Eaves looked at the structure of previous Enterprise iterations , and designed a more streamlined , capable war vessel than the Enterprise @-@ D , reducing the neck area of the ship and lengthening the nacelles . Eaves produced 30 to 40 sketches before he found a final design he liked and began making minor changes . Working from blueprints created by Paramount 's Rick Sternbach , the model shop at effects house Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) fabricated a 10 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) miniature over a five @-@ month period . Hull patterns were carved out of wood , then cast and assembled over an aluminum armature . The model 's panels were painted in an alternating matte and gloss scheme to add texture . The crew had multiple difficulties in prepping the miniature for filming ; while the model shop originally wanted to save time by casting windows using a clear fiberglass , the material came out tacky . ILM instead cut the windows using a laser . Slides of the sets were added behind the window frames to make the interior seem more dimensional when the camera tracked past the ship .
In previous films , Starfleet 's range of capital ships had been predominantly represented by the Constitution class Enterprise and just five other ship classes : the Miranda class from Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan ( represented by the USS Reliant ) , the Excelsior and the Oberth class Grissom from Star Trek III : The Search for Spock , and the Galaxy and Nebula classes from The Next Generation . ILM supervisor John Knoll insisted that First Contact 's space battle prove the breadth of Starfleet 's ship configurations . " Starfleet would probably throw everything it could at the Borg , including ships we 've never seen before " , he reasoned . " And since we figured a lot of the background action in the space battle would need to be done with computer @-@ generated ships that needed to be built from scratch anyway , I realized there was no reason not to do some new designs . " Alex Jaeger was appointed visual effects art director to the film and assigned the task of creating four new starships . Paramount wanted ships that would look different from a distance , so the director devised multiple hull profiles . Knoll and Jaeger had decided that the ships had to obey certain Star Trek ship precedents , with a saucer @-@ like primary hull and elongated warp nacelles in pairs . The Akira class featured the traditional saucer section and nacelles combined with a catamaran @-@ style double hull ; the Norway class was based on the USS Voyager ; the Saber class was a smaller ship with nacelles trailing off the tips of its saucer section ; and the Steamrunner class featured twin nacelles trailing off the saucer and connected by an engineering section in the rear . Each design was modeled as a three @-@ dimensional digital wire @-@ frame model for use in the film .
The film also required a number of smaller non @-@ Starfleet designs . The warp ship Phoenix was conceived as fitting inside an old nuclear missile , meaning that the ship 's nacelles had to fold into a space of less than 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Eaves made sure to emphasize the mechanical aspect of the ship , to suggest it was a highly experimental and untested technology . The Phoenix 's cockpit labels came from McDonnell @-@ Douglas space shuttle manuals . Eaves considered the Vulcan ship a " fun " vessel to design . Only two major Vulcan ships had been previously seen in Star Trek , including a courier vessel from The Motion Picture . Since the two @-@ engine ship format had been seen many times , the artists decided to step away from the traditional ship layout , creating a more artistic than functional design . The ship incorporated elements of a starfish and a crab . Because of budget constraints , the full ship was realized as a computer @-@ generated design . Only a boomerang @-@ shaped landing foot was fabricated for the actors to interact with .
The Enterprise interior sets were mostly new designs . The bridge was designed to be comfortable @-@ looking , with warm colors . Among the new additions was a larger holographic viewscreen that would operate only when activated , leaving a plain wall when disabled . New flatscreen computer monitors were used for displays , using less space and giving the bridge a cleaner look . The new monitors also allowed for video playback that could simulate interaction with the actors . The designers created a larger and less spartan ready room , retaining elements from the television series ; Zimmerman added a set of golden three @-@ dimensional Enterprise models to a glass case in the corner . The observation lounge was similar to the design in the Enterprise @-@ D ; the set itself was re @-@ used from the television show , the only such set not to be struck following the filming of Generations , though it was expanded and underwent a color change . Engineering was simulated with a large , three @-@ story set , corridors , a lobby , and the largest warp core in the franchise to date . For its Borg @-@ corrupted state , the engineering section was outfitted with Borg drone alcoves , conduits and Data 's " assimilation table " where he is interrogated by the Queen . Some existing sets were used to save money ; sickbay was a redress of the same location from Voyager , while the USS Defiant scenes used Deep Space Nine 's standing set . Some set designs took inspiration from the Alien film series , Star Wars and 2001 : A Space Odyssey .
The spacewalk scene on the Enterprise exterior was one of the most challenging sets to envision and construct for the film . The production had to design a space suit that looked practical rather than exaggerated . Fans were built into the helmets so that the actors would not get overheated , and neon lights built into the front so that the occupant 's faces could be seen . When the actors first put the helmets on , the fully enclosed design made it hard to breathe ; after a minute of wearing the suit Stewart became ill , and shooting was discontinued . The set for the ship 's outer hull and deflector dish were built on gimbals at Paramount 's largest sound stage , surrounded by bluescreen and rigged with wires for the zero gravity sequences . The stage was not large enough to accommodate a full @-@ sized replica of the Enterprise dish , so Zimmerman had to scale down the plans by 15 percent .
= = = Costumes and makeup = = =
The Starfleet uniforms were redesigned for the film by longtime Star Trek costumer Bob Blackman to give a more militaristic feel , with grey padded shoulders & department coloured undershirts . Since Blackman was also handling the costumes for the television series , non @-@ Starfleet design clothes were delegated to Deborah Everton , a newcomer to Star Trek who was responsible for more than 800 costumes during production . Everton was tasked with updating the Borg 's costumes to something new , but reminiscent of the television series . The bulky suits were made sleeker and outfitted with fiber optic lights . The time @-@ travel aspect of the story also required period costumes for the mid 21st century and the 1940s " Dixon Hill " nightclub holodeck recreation . Everton enjoyed designing Woodard 's costumes because the character went through many changes during the course of the film , switching from a utilitarian vest and pants in many shots to a glamorous dress during the holodeck scene .
Everton and makeup designers Michael Westmore , Scott Wheeler , and Jake Garber wanted to upgrade the pasty white look the Borg had retained since The Next Generation 's second season , born out of a need for budget @-@ conscious television design . " I wanted it to look like they were [ assimilated or " Borgified " ] from the inside out rather than the outside in , " Everton said . Each Borg had a slightly different design , and Westmore designed a new one each day to make it appear that there was an army of Borg ; in reality , between eight and twelve actors filled all the roles as the costumes and makeup were so expensive to produce . Background Borg were simulated by half @-@ finished mannequins . Westmore reasoned that since the Borg had traveled the galaxy , they would have assimilated other races besides humans . In the television series , much of the Borg 's faces had been covered by helmets , but for First Contact the makeup artist removed the head coverings and designed assimilated versions of familiar Star Trek aliens such as Klingons , Bolians , Romulans , Bajorans , and Cardassians . Each drone received an electronic eyepiece . The blinking lights in each eye were programmed by Westmore 's son to repeat a production member 's name in Morse code .
The makeup time for the Borg expanded from the single hour needed for television to five hours , in addition to the 30 minutes necessary to get into costume and 90 minutes to remove the makeup at the end of the day . While Westmore estimated that a fully staffed production would have around 50 makeup artists , First Contact had to make do with fewer than ten people involved in preparation , and at most 20 artists a day . Despite the long hours , Westmore 's teams began to be more creative with the prosthetics even as they decreased their preparation times . " They were using two tubes , and then they were using three tubes , and then they were sticking tubes in the ears and up the nose , " Westmore explained . " And we were using a very gooey caramel coloring , maybe using a little bit of it , but by the time we got to the end of the movie we had the stuff dripping down the side of [ the Borg 's ] faces — it looked like they were leaking oil ! So , at the very end [ of the film ] , they 're more ferocious . "
The Borg Queen was a challenge because she had to be unique among Borg but still retain human qualities ; Westmore was conscious of avoiding comparisons to films like Alien . The final appearance involved pale gray skin and an elongated , oval head , with coils of wire rather than hair . Krige recalled the first day she had her makeup applied : " I saw everyone cringing . I thought , great ; they made this , and they 've scared themselves ! " Frakes noted that the Queen ended up being alluring in a disturbing way , despite her evil behavior and appearance . Zimmerman , Everton and Westmore combined their efforts to design and create the Borgified sections of the Enterprise to build tension and to make the audience feel that " [ they are being fed ] the Borg " .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography took a more leisurely pace than on The Next Generation because of a less hectic schedule ; only four pages of script had to be filmed each day , as opposed to eight on the television series . First Contact saw the introduction of cinematographer Matthew F. Leonetti to the Star Trek franchise ; Frakes hired him out of admiration for some of his previous work on films such as Poltergeist and Strange Days . Leonetti was unfamiliar with the Star Trek mythos when Frakes approached him ; to prepare for the assignment , he studied the previous four films in the franchise , each with a different cinematographer — The Voyage Home ( Donald Peterman ) , The Final Frontier ( Andrew Laszlo ) , The Undiscovered Country ( Hiro Narita ) , and Generations ( John Alonzo ) . The cameraman also spent several days at the sets of Voyager and Deep Space Nine to observe filming .
Leonetti devised multiple lighting methods for the Enterprise interiors for ship standard operations , " Red alert " status , and emergency power . He reasoned that since the ship was being taken over by a foreign entity , it required more dramatic lighting and framing . While much of the footage was shot at 50 – 70 mm focal lengths using anamorphic lenses , 14 mm spherical lenses were used for Borg 's @-@ eye @-@ view shots . Leonetti preferred shooting with long lenses to provide a more claustrophobic feel , but made sure the length did not flatten the image . Handheld cameras were used for battle sequences so that viewers were brought into the action and the camera could follow the movements of the actors . The Borg scenes were received positively by test screening audiences , so once the rest of the film had been completed , a Borg assimilation scene of the Enterprise crew was added in using some of the money left in the budget to add action .
Since so many new sets had to be created , the production commenced filming with location photography . Four days were spent in the Titan Missile Museum , south of Tucson , Arizona — the disarmed nuclear missile was fitted with a fiberglass capsule shell to stand in for the Phoenix 's booster and command module . The old missile silo provided a large set that the budget would have prohibited building from scratch , but the small size created difficulties . Each camera move was planned in advance to work around areas where the lighting would be added , and electricians and grips donned rock @-@ climbing harnesses to move down the shaft and attach the lights . To give greater dimension to the rocket and lend the missile a futuristic appearance , Leonetti chose to offset the missile 's metallic surface with complementary colors . Using different @-@ colored gels made the rocket appear longer than it actually was ; to complete the effect , shots from the Phoenix 's nose downwards and from the engines up were filmed with a 30 mm lens to lengthen the missile .
After the completion of the Phoenix shots , the crew moved to two weeks of nighttime shooting in the Angeles National Forest . Zimmerman created a village of fourteen huts to stand in for Montana ; the cast enjoyed the scenes as a chance to escape their uniforms and wear " normal " clothes . The last location shoot was at an art deco restaurant in Los Angeles ' Union Station , which stood in for the Dixon Hill holonovel ; Frakes wanted a sharp contrast with the dark , mechanical Borg scenes . While the cinematographer wanted to shoot the scene in black and white , Paramount executives deemed the test footage " too experimental " and the idea was dropped . The site made using high @-@ wattage lights impractical , so Leonetti opted to use dimmer master lights near the ceiling and took advantage of a large window to shine diffused lights through . To give the scene a black @-@ and @-@ white feel , Leonetti made sure to use light without any coloration . " I like creating separation with lighting as opposed to using color , " he explained . " You can 't always rely on color because the actor might start to melt into the background . " By separating the backlights , Leonetti made sure that the principal actors stood out of the backdrop . The shoot used a ten @-@ piece orchestra , 15 stuntmen , and 120 extras to fill the seats . Among the nightclub patrons were Braga , Moore , and the film 's stunt coordinator , Ronnie Rondell .
After location shooting was completed , shooting on the new Engineering set began May 3 . The set lasted less than a day in its pristine condition before it was " Borgified " . Filming then proceeded to the bridge . During normal operation scenes , Leonetti chose to cast crosslighting on the principals ; this required the ceiling of the set to be removed and lighting grids to be situated around the sides . These lights were then directed towards the actors ' faces at 90 @-@ degree angles . The set was lined with window paneling backed by red lights , which would blink intermittently during red @-@ alert status . These lights were supplemented by what Leonetti called " interactive light " ; these were off @-@ stage , red @-@ gelled lights that cast flashing rims on the bridge set and heads of the crew . For the Borg intrusion , the lighting originated solely from instrument panels and red @-@ alert displays . The fill light on these scenes was reduced so that the cast would pass through dark spots on the bridge and interiors out of the limited range of these sources . Small 30 and 50 watt lights were used to throw localized shafts of light onto the sets .
Next came the action sequences and the battle for the Enterprise , a phase the filmmakers dubbed " Borg Hell " . Frakes directed the Borg scenes similar to a horror film , creating as much suspense as possible . To balance these elements he added more comedic elements to the Earth scenes , intended to momentarily relieve the audience of tension before building it up again . Leonetti reconfigured the lighting to reflect the takeover of the ship interiors . " When the ship gets Borgified , everything is changed into more of a squared @-@ off , robotic look with sharp edges but rounded images , " he explained . To give the corridor walls more shape , Leonetti lit them from underneath . Since the halls were so small and the ceilings would be visible in many of the shots , special attention was paid to hiding the light fixtures .
For the live @-@ action spacewalk scenes , visual @-@ effects supervisor Moore spent two weeks of bluescreen photography at the deflector set . Frakes regarded filming the scene to be the most tedious in the film because of the amount of preparation it took for each day 's shoot . Since the rest of the Enterprise @-@ E , as well as the backdrop of Earth , were to be added later in post @-@ production , it became confusing to coordinate shots . Moore used a laptop with digital reproductions of the set to orient the crew and help Frakes understand what the finished shot would look like . A one @-@ armed actor portrayed the Borg whose arm Worf slices off to accurately portray the effect intended , and the actors ' shoes were fitted with lead weights to remind the actors they were to move slowly as if actually wearing gravity boots . McDonough recalled that he joined Stewart and Dorn in asking whether they could do the shots without the 10 @-@ to @-@ 15 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 8 kg ) weights , as " they hired us because we are actors " , but the production insisted on using them .
The last scene filmed was the film 's first , Picard 's Borg nightmare . One camera shot begins inside the iris of Picard 's eyeball and pulls back to reveal the captain aboard a massive Borg ship . The shot continues to pull back and reveal the exterior of a Borg ship . The scene was inspired by a New York City production of Sweeney Todd , the Demon Barber of Fleet Street in which the stage surrounded the audience , giving a sense of realism . The shot was filmed as three separate elements merged with digital effects . The crew used a 50 @-@ mm lens to make it easier for the effects team to dissolve the closeup shots with the other elements . Starting from Stewart 's eye , the camera pulled back 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) , requiring the key light to increase in intensity up to 1000 footcandles so that there was enough depth to keep the eye sharp . The surface of the stage proved too uneven to accomplish the smooth dolly pullback required by the effects team , who needed a steady shot to blend a computer @-@ generated version of Picard 's eye with the pullback . The 135 @-@ foot ( 41 m ) dolly track was raised off the stage floor and layered with pieces of double @-@ thick birch plywood , chosen for its smooth finish . The entire set for the scene was 100 feet ( 30 m ) wide and 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high ; gaps left by the dolly reveal were filled in later digitally . Principal photography finished on July 2 , 1996 , two days over schedule but still under budget .
= = = Effects = = =
The majority of First Contact 's effects were handled by Industrial Light and Magic under the direction of John Knoll . Smaller effects sequences , such as phaser fire , computer graphics , and transporter effects , were delegated to a team led by visual @-@ effects supervisor David Takemura . Accustomed to directing episodes for the television series , Frakes was frequently reminded by effects artist Terry Frazee to " think big , blow everything up " . Most of the effects sequences were planned using low @-@ resolution computer @-@ generated animatics . These rough animated storyboards established length , action and composition , allowing the producers and director to ascertain how the sequences would play out before they were shot .
First Contact was the last film to feature a physical model of the Enterprise . For the ship 's dramatic introduction , the effects team combined motion control shots of the Enterprise model with a computer @-@ generated background . Sequence supervisor Dennis Turner , who had created Generations ' energy ribbon and specialized in creating natural phenomena , was charged with creating the star cluster , modeled after the Eagle Nebula . The nebular columns and solid areas were modeled with basic wireframe geometry , with surface shaders applied to make the edges of the nebula glow . A particle render that ILM had devised for the earlier tornado film Twister was used to create a turbulent look within the nebula . Once the shots of the Enterprise had been captured , Turner inserted the ship into the computer @-@ generated background and altered its position until the images matched up .
The opening beauty pass of the new Enterprise was the responsibility of visual @-@ effects cinematographer Marty Rosenberg , who handled all the other miniatures , explosions , and some live @-@ action bluescreen elements . Rosenberg had previously shot some of the Enterprise @-@ D effects for Generations , but had to adjust his techniques for the new model ; the cinematographer used a 50 mm lens instead of the 35 mm used for Generations because the smaller lens made the new Enterprise 's dish appear stretched out . Knoll decided to shoot the model from above and below as much as possible ; side views made the ship appear too flat and elongated . Rosenberg preferred motion @-@ control passes of ships over computer @-@ generated versions , as it was much easier to capture a high level of detail with physical models rather than trying to recreate it by computer graphics .
For the Borg battle , Knoll insisted on closeup shots that were near the alien vessel , necessitating a physical model . ILM layered their 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) model with an additional five inches of etched brass over a glowing neon lightbox for internal illumination . To make the Borg vessel appear even larger than it was , Knoll made sure that an edge of it was facing the camera like the prow of a ship and that the Cube broke the edges of the frame . To give the Cube greater depth and texture , Rosenberg shot the vessel with harsher light . " I created this really odd , raking three @-@ quarter backlight coming from the right or left side , which I balanced out with nets and a couple of little lights . I wanted it to look scary and mysterious , so it was lit like a point , and we always had the camera dutched to it ; we never just had it coming straight at us , " he said . Small lights attached to the Cube 's surface helped to create visual interest and convey scale ; the model was deliberately shot with a slow , determined pacing to contrast with the Federation ships engaged in battle with the Borg . The impact of Federation weaponry on the Borg Cube was simulated using a 60 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) model of the Cube . The model had specific areas which could be blown up multiple times without damaging the miniature . For the final explosion of the Cube , Rosenberg shot ten 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) Cube miniatures with explosive @-@ packed lightweight skins . The Cubes were suspended from pipes sixty feet above the camera on the ground . Safety glass was placed over the lens to prevent damage , while the camera was covered with plywood to protect it from bits of plastic that rained down after each explosion . The smaller Borg sphere was a 12 @-@ inch ( 30 cm ) model that was shot separately from the Cube and digitally added in post @-@ production . The time @-@ travel vortex the Sphere creates was simulated with a rocket re @-@ entry effect ; bowshock forms in front of the ship , then streams backwards at high speed . Interactive lighting was played across the computer @-@ generated Enterprise model for when the ship is caught in the time vortex .
The miniature Enterprise was again used for the spacewalk sequence . Even on the large model , it was hard to make the miniature appear realistic in extreme close @-@ up shots . To make the pullback shot work , the camera had to be within one @-@ eighth of an inch from the model . Painter Kim Smith spent several days on a tiny area of the model to add enough surface detail for the close @-@ up , but even then the focus was barely adequate . To compensate , the crew used a wider @-@ angle lens and shot at the highest f @-@ stop they could . The live @-@ action scenes of the spacewalking crew were then digitally added . Wide shots used footage of photo doubles walking across a large bluescreen draped across ILM 's parking lot at night .
ILM was tasked with imagining what the immediate assimilation of an Enterprise crewmember would look like . Jaeger came up with a set of cables that sprang from the Borg 's knuckles and buried themselves in the crewmember 's neck . Wormlike tubes would course through the victim 's body and mechanical devices break the skin . The entire transformation was created using computer @-@ generated imagery . The wormlike geometry was animated over the actor 's face , then blended in with the addition of a skin texture over the animation . The gradual change in skin tone was simulated with shaders .
Frakes considered the entrance of the Borg Queen — where her head , shoulders , and steel spine are lowered by cables and attached to her body — as the " signature visual effect in the film " . The scene was difficult to execute , taking ILM five months to finish . Jaeger devised a rig that would lower the actress on the set , and applied a prosthetic spine over a blue suit so that ILM could remove Krige 's lower body . This strategy enabled the filmmakers to incorporate as many live @-@ action elements as possible without resorting to further digital effects . To make the prosthetics appear at the proper angle when her lower body was removed , Krige extended her neck forward so it appeared in line with the spine . Knoll did not want it to seem that the Queen was on a hard , mechanical rig ; " we wanted her to have the appropriate ' float ' , " he explained . Using separate motion control passes on the set , Knoll shot the lower of the upper torso and the secondary sequence with Krige 's entire body . A digital version of the Borg body suit was used for the lowering sequence , at which point the image was morphed back to the real shot of Krige 's body . The animated claws of the suit were created digitally as well using a detailed model . As reference to the animators , the shot required Krige to realistically portray " the strange pain or satisfaction of being reconnected to her body " .
= = = Music = = =
Film composer Jerry Goldsmith scored First Contact , his third Star Trek feature . Goldsmith wrote a sweeping main title which begins with Alexander Courage 's classic Star Trek fanfare . Instead of composing a menacing theme to underscore the Borg , Goldsmith wrote a pastoral theme linked to humanity 's hopeful first contact . The theme uses a four @-@ note motif used in Goldsmith 's Star Trek V : The Final Frontier score , which is used in First Contact as a friendship theme and general thematic link . A menacing march with touches of synthesizers was used to represent the Borg . In addition to composing new music , Goldsmith used music from his previous Star Trek scores , including his theme from The Motion Picture . The Klingon theme from the same film is used to represent Worf .
Because of delays with Paramount 's The Ghost and the Darkness , the already @-@ short four @-@ week production schedule was cut to just three weeks . While Berman was concerned about the move , Goldsmith hired his son , Joel , to assist . The young composer provided additional music for the film , writing three cues based on his father 's motifs and a total of 22 minutes of music . Joel used variations of his father 's Borg music and the Klingon theme as Worf fights hand @-@ to @-@ hand ( Joel said that he and his father decided to use the theme for Worf separately ) . When the Borg invade sickbay and the medical hologram distracts them , Joel wrote what critic Jeff Bond termed " almost Coplandesque " material of tuning strings and clarinet , but the cue was unused . While Joel composed many of the film 's action cues , his father contributed to the spacewalk and Phoenix flight sequences . During the fight on the deflector dish , Goldsmith used low @-@ register electronics punctuated by stabs of violent , dissonant strings .
In a break with Star Trek film tradition , the soundtrack incorporated two licensed songs : Roy Orbison 's " Ooby Dooby " and Steppenwolf 's " Magic Carpet Ride " . GNP Crescendo president Neil Norman explained that the decision to include the tracks was controversial , but said that " Frakes did the most amazing job of integrating those songs into the story that we had to use them " .
GNP released the First Contact soundtrack on December 2 , 1996 . The album contained 51 minutes of music , with 35 minutes of Jerry Goldsmith 's score , 10 minutes of additional music by Joel Goldsmith , " Ooby Dooby " and " Magic Carpet Ride " . The compact disc shipped with CD @-@ ROM features only accessible if played on a personal computer , including interviews with Berman , Frakes , and Goldsmith .
On April 2 , 2012 GNP Crescendo Records announced a limited @-@ edition collector ’ s CD featuring the complete score by Jerry Goldsmith ( with additional music by Joel Goldsmith ) , newly remastered by recording engineer Bruce Botnick , with an accompanying 16 @-@ page booklet including informative notes by Jeff Bond and John Takis . The expanded album [ GNPD 8079 ] runs 79 minutes and includes three tracks of alternates .
= = Themes = =
Frakes believes that the main themes of First Contact — and Star Trek as a whole — are loyalty , friendship , honesty and mutual respect . This is evident in the film when Picard chooses to rescue Data rather than evacuate the ship with the rest of the crew . The film makes a direct comparison between Picard 's hatred of the Borg and refusal to destroy the Enterprise and that of Captain Ahab in Herman Melville 's novel Moby @-@ Dick . The moment marks a turning point in the film as Picard changes his mind , symbolized by his putting down his gun . A similar Moby @-@ Dick reference was made in Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan , and although Braga and Moore did not want to repeat it , they decided it worked so well they could not leave it out .
In First Contact , the individually inscrutable and faceless Borg fulfill the role of the equally unreadable titular white whale in Melville 's work . Picard , like Ahab , has been hurt by his nemesis , and author Elizabeth Hinds said it makes sense that Picard should " opt for the perverse alternative of remaining on board ship to fight " the Borg rather than take the only sensible option left , to destroy the ship . Several lines in the film refer to the 21st @-@ century dwellers being primitive , with the people of the 24th century having evolved to a more utopian society . In the end it is Lily ( the 21st @-@ century woman ) who shows Picard ( the 24th @-@ century man ) that his quest for revenge is the primitive behavior that humans had evolved to not use . Lily 's words cause Picard to reconsider , and he quotes Ahab 's words of vengeance , recognizing the death wish embedded therein .
The nature of the Borg , specifically as seen in First Contact , has been the subject of critical discussion . Author Joanna Zylinska notes that while other alien species are tolerated by humanity in Star Trek , the Borg are viewed differently because of their cybernetic alterations and the loss of personal freedom and autonomy . Members of the crew who are assimilated into the Collective are subsequently viewed as " polluted by technology " and less than human . Zylinska draws comparisons between the technological distinction of humanity and machine in Star Trek and the work of artists such as Stelarc . Oliver Marchart drew parallels between the Borg 's combination of many into an artificial One and Thomas Hobbes 's concept of the Leviathan . The nature of perilous first contact between species , as represented by films such as Independence Day , Aliens and First Contact , is a marriage of classic fears of national invasion and the loss of personal identity .
= = Release = =
1996 marked the 30th anniversary of the Star Trek franchise . First Contact was heavily marketed , to an extent not seen since the release of Star Trek : The Motion Picture in 1979 . Several novelizations of the film were written for different age groups . Playmates Toys produced six- and nine @-@ inch action figures in addition to ship models and a phaser . Two " making of " television specials premiered on HBO and the Sci @-@ Fi Channel , as well as being promoted during a 30th @-@ anniversary television special on UPN . The theatrical trailer to the film was included on a Best of Star Trek music compilation , released at the same time as the First Contact soundtrack . Simon & Schuster Interactive developed a Borg @-@ themed video game for Macintosh and Windows personal computers . The game , Star Trek : Borg , functioned as an interactive movie with scenes filmed at the same time as First Contact 's production . Paramount heavily marketed the film on the internet via a First Contact web site , which averaged 4 @.@ 4 million hits a week during the film 's opening run , the largest amount of traffic ever on a motion @-@ picture site .
The film premiered on November 18 , 1996 , at Mann 's Chinese Theater in Hollywood , Los Angeles . The main cast save Spiner were in attendance , as were Moore , Braga , Jerry Goldsmith , and producer Marty Hornstein . Other Star Trek actors present included DeForest Kelley , René Auberjonois , Avery Brooks , Colm Meaney , Armin Shimerman , Terry Farrell , Kate Mulgrew , Roxann Dawson , Jennifer Lien , Robert Duncan McNeill , Ethan Phillips , Tim Russ , Garrett Wang and Robert Picardo . After the screening , 1 @,@ 500 guests crossed the street to the Hollywood Colonnade , where the interiors had been dressed to match settings from the film : the holodeck nightclub , part of the bridge , a " star room " , the Borg hive and the " crash ' n ' burn lounge " . The film received a royal premiere in the United Kingdom , with the first screening attended by Charles , Prince of Wales .
= = = Box office = = =
First Contact opened in 2 @,@ 812 theaters beginning November 22 , grossing $ 30 @.@ 7 million its first week and making it the top movie at the US box office . The film was knocked out of the top place the following week by 101 Dalmatians , earning $ 25 @.@ 5 million . The film went on to gross $ 77 million in its first four weeks , remaining in the top ten box office during that time . It closed with a domestic gross of $ 92 @,@ 027 @,@ 888 and an international gross of $ 54 million for a total of $ 146 million worldwide . The film was the best @-@ performing Star Trek film in international markets until 2009 's Star Trek film , and Paramount 's best showing in markets such as New Zealand , making $ 315 @,@ 491 from 28 sites by year 's end .
= = = Critical response = = =
First Contact garnered positive reviews on release . Ryan Gilbey of The Independent considered the film wise to dispense with the cast of The Original Series : " For the first time , a Star Trek movie actually looks like something more ambitious than an extended TV show , " he wrote . Conversely , critic Bob Thompson felt that First Contact was more in the spirit of the 1960s television series than any previous installment . The Globe and Mail 's Elizabeth Renzeti said that First Contact succeeded in improving on the " stilted " previous entry in the series , and that it featured a renewed interest in storytelling . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote , " First Contact does everything you 'd want a Star Trek film to do , and it does it with cheerfulness and style . " Adrian Martin of The Age noted that the film was geared towards pleasing fans : " Strangers to this fanciful world first delineated by Gene Roddenberry will just have to struggle to comprehend as best they can , " he wrote , but " cult @-@ followers will be in heaven " . The New York Times ' Janet Maslin said that the " film 's convoluted plot will boggle all but hard @-@ core devotees " of the series , while Variety 's Joe Leydon wrote that the film did not require intimate knowledge of the series and that fans and non @-@ fans alike would enjoy the film . While Renzetti considered the lack of old characters from the previous seven movies a welcome change , Maslin said that without the original stars , " The series now lacks [ ... ] much of its earlier determination . It has morphed into something less innocent and more derivative than it used to be , something the noncultist is never less likely to enjoy . " Conversely , Roger Ebert called First Contact one of the best Star Trek films , and James Berardinelli found the film the most entertaining Star Trek feature in a decade ; " It has single @-@ handedly revived the Star Trek movie series , at least from a creative point of view , " he wrote .
The film 's acting met with mixed reception . Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly appreciated that guest stars Woodard and Cromwell were used in " inventive contrast " to their better @-@ known images , as a " serious dramatic actress " and " dancing farmer in Babe " , respectively . Lloyd Rose of The Washington Post felt that while Woodard and Cromwell managed to " take care of themselves " , Frakes ' direction of other actors was not inspired ; Steve Persall of the St. Petersburg Times opined that only Cromwell received a choice role in the film , " so he steals the show by default " . A couple of reviews noted that Data 's interactions with the Borg Queen were among the most interesting parts of the film ; critic John Griffin credited Spiner 's work as providing " ambivalent frisson " to the feature . Empire magazine 's Adam Smith wrote that some characters , particularly Troi and Crusher , were lost or ignored , and that the rapid pacing of the film left no time for those unfamiliar with the series to know or care about the characters . Likewise , Emily Carlisle of the BBC praised Woodard 's , Spiner 's , and Stewart 's performances , but felt the film focused more on action than characterization . Stewart , whom Thompson and Renzetti considered overshadowed by William Shatner in the previous film , received praise from Richard Corliss of Time : " As Patrick Stewart delivers [ a ] line with a majestic ferocity worthy of a Royal Shakespeare Company alumnus , the audience gapes in awe at a special effect more imposing than any ILM digital doodle . Here is real acting ! In a Star Trek film ! "
The special effects were generally praised . Jay Carr of The Boston Globe said that First Contact successfully updated Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry 's concept with more elaborate effects and action . Thompson 's assessment mirrored Carr 's ; he agreed that the film managed to convey much of the original 1960s television show , and contained enough " special effects wonders and interstellar gunplay " to sate all types of viewers . Ebert wrote that while previous films had often looked " clunky " in the effects department , First Contact benefited from the latest in effects technology . A dissenting opinion was offered by Scott , who wrote that aside from the key effects sequences , Frakes " aims to distract Trekkers from the distinctly cheap @-@ looking remainder " .
Critics reacted favorably to the Borg , describing them as akin to creatures from Hellraiser . Renzetti credited them with breathing " new life " into the crew of the Enterprise while simultaneously trying to kill them . The Borg Queen received special attention for her combination of horror and seduction ; Ebert wrote that while the Queen " looks like no notion of sexy I have ever heard of " , he was inspired " to keep an open mind " . Carr said , " She proves that women with filmy blue skin , lots of external tubing and bad teeth can be sleekly seductive . "
= = = Accolades = = =
First Contact earned an Academy Award @-@ nomination for Best Makeup , losing to The Nutty Professor . At the Saturn Awards , the film was nominated in ten categories including Best Science Fiction Film , Best Actor for Patrick Stewart , and Best Director for Jonathan Frakes . It won three , for Best Costumes , Best Supporting Actor ( Brent Spiner ) , and Best Supporting Actress ( Alice Krige ) . Jerry Goldsmith won a BMI Film Music Award for his score , and the film was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation .
= = = Home media = = =
First Contact was released on VHS in late 1997 as one of several titles expected to boost sluggish sales at video retailers . A LaserDisc version was also released . First Contact was among the first titles announced for the DVD @-@ alternative rental system Digital Video Express in 1998 . It was launched with five other test titles in the select markets of Richmond , Virginia and San Francisco .
When Paramount announced its first slate of DVD releases in August 1998 , First Contact was one of the first ten titles released in October , announced in a conscious effort to showcase effects @-@ driven films . This version contained the feature and two trailers , but no other special features . The film was presented in a 2 @.@ 35 : 1 anamorphic aspect ratio , with a surround sound Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 audio mix .
A First Contact " Special Collector 's Edition " two @-@ disc set was released in 2005 at the same time as three other Next Generation films and Star Trek : Enterprise 's fourth season , marking the first time that every film and episode of the franchise was available on home video . In addition to the feature , presented with the same technical specifications as the previous release and a new DTS soundtrack , the first disc contains Frakes ' director 's commentary and a track by Moore and Braga . As with other special edition DVD releases , the disc includes a text track by Michael and Denise Okuda that provides production trivia and relevant facts about the Star Trek universe . The second disc contains six making @-@ of featurettes , storyboards , and trailers .
Paramount announced that all four The Next Generation films would be released on high @-@ definition Blu @-@ ray on September 22 , 2009 . First Contact is presented in 1080p high definition enhanced for widescreen television . The Blu @-@ ray transfer features 5 @.@ 1 Dolby TrueHD audio in English , French , and Spanish languages . In addition to previous content , the version contains " Scene Deconstruction " featurettes and new commentary by writers Damon Lindelof and Anthony Pascale .
= Ian Meckiff =
Ian Meckiff ( born 6 January 1935 ) is a former cricketer who represented Australia in 18 Tests between 1957 and 1963 . A left @-@ arm fast bowler , he is best known for two matters that were unrelated to his skill as a player : He was the batsman run out by Joe Solomon in 1960 , causing the first Tied Test in cricket history ; and in December 1963 , his career was sensationally ended when he was called for throwing in the First Test against South Africa by Australian umpire Col Egar . During the late 1950s and early 1960s , there had been a media frenzy about the perceived prevalence of illegal bowling actions in world cricket . The controversy and speculation that dogged Meckiff in the years preceding his final match caused sections of the cricket community to believe that he had been made a scapegoat by the Australian cricket authorities to prove their intent to stamp out throwing .
With an unconventional front @-@ on bowling action , Meckiff progressed through the district cricket ranks at South Melbourne Cricket Club , making his first @-@ class debut for Victoria in 1956 – 57 . After a productive first season , Meckiff was named in a new @-@ look Australian team for the 1957 – 58 tour of South Africa . This was the result of a generational change in the Australian Test team after a decline in performances in the 1950s . The shift saw Meckiff open the bowling in his debut Test , where he performed strongly to take eight wickets . Generating his pace from an unusual bent @-@ arm action which involved a flick of the wrist , Meckiff reached his peak in the Second Test of the 1958 – 59 season against England at the Melbourne Cricket Ground . He took 6 / 38 in the second innings as England were dismissed
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, Hitler , Rudolf Hess , Alfred Rosenberg , and Ernst Röhm . Hitler later recalled his early association with Göring :
I liked him . I made him the head of my SA . He is the only one of its heads that ran the SA properly . I gave him a dishevelled rabble . In a very short time he had organised a division of 11 @,@ 000 men .
Hitler and the Nazi Party held mass meetings and rallies in Munich and elsewhere during the early 1920s , attempting to gain supporters in a bid for political power . Inspired by Benito Mussolini 's March on Rome , the Nazis attempted to seize power on 8 – 9 November 1923 in a failed coup known as the Beer Hall Putsch . Göring , who was with Hitler heading up the march to the War Ministry , was shot in the leg . Fourteen Nazis and four policemen were killed ; many top Nazis , including Hitler , were arrested . With Carin 's help , Göring was smuggled to Innsbruck , where he received surgery and was given morphine for the pain . He remained in hospital until 24 December . This was the beginning of his morphine addiction , which lasted until his imprisonment at Nuremberg . Meanwhile , the authorities in Munich declared Göring a wanted man . The Görings — acutely short of funds and reliant on the good will of Nazi sympathizers abroad — moved from Austria to Venice . In May 1924 they visited Rome , via Florence and Siena . Göring met Mussolini , who expressed an interest in meeting Hitler , who was by then in prison .
Personal problems continued to multiply . By 1925 , Carin 's mother was ill . The Görings — with difficulty — raised the money in the spring of 1925 for a journey to Sweden via Austria , Czechoslovakia , Poland , and Danzig ( now Gdańsk ) . Göring had become a violent morphine addict ; Carin 's family were shocked by his deterioration . Carin , who was ill with epilepsy and a weak heart , had to allow the doctors to take charge of Göring ; her son was taken by his father . Göring was certified a dangerous drug addict and was placed in Långbro asylum on 1 September 1925 . He was violent to the point where he had to be confined to a straitjacket , but his psychiatrist felt he was sane ; the condition was caused solely by the morphine . Weaned off the drug , he left the facility briefly , but had to return for further treatment . He returned to Germany when an amnesty was declared in 1927 and resumed working in the aircraft industry . Hitler , who had written Mein Kampf while in prison , had been released in December 1924 . Carin Göring , ill with epilepsy and tuberculosis , died of heart failure on 17 October 1931 .
Meanwhile , the NSDAP was in a period of rebuilding and waiting . The economy had recovered , which meant fewer opportunities for the Nazis to agitate for change . The SA was reorganised , but with Franz Pfeffer von Salomon as its head rather than Göring , and the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) was founded in 1925 , initially as a bodyguard for Hitler . Membership in the party increased from 27 @,@ 000 in 1925 to 108 @,@ 000 in 1928 and 178 @,@ 000 in 1929 . In the May 1928 elections the party only obtained twelve seats out of an available 491 . Göring was elected as a representative from Bavaria . The Wall Street Crash of 1929 led to a disastrous downturn in the German economy , and in the next election , the NSDAP won 6 @,@ 409 @,@ 600 votes and 107 seats in the Reichstag . In May 1931 , Hitler sent Göring on a mission to the Vatican , where he met the future Pope Pius XII .
In the July 1932 election , the Nazis won 230 seats to become far and away the largest party in the Reichstag . Per longstanding tradition , the Nazis were thus entitled to select the President of the Reichstag , and were able to elect Göring for the post .
= = Reichstag fire = =
The Reichstag fire occurred on the night of 27 February 1933 . Göring was one of the first to arrive on the scene . Marinus van der Lubbe — a communist radical — was arrested and claimed sole responsibility for the fire . Göring immediately called for a crackdown on communists .
The Nazis took advantage of the fire to advance their own political aims . The Reichstag Fire Decree , passed the next day on Hitler 's urging , suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial . Activities of the German Communist Party were suppressed , and some 4 @,@ 000 communist party members were arrested . Göring demanded that the detainees should be shot , but Rudolf Diels , head of the Prussian political police , ignored the order . Some researchers , including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock , are of the opinion that the NSDAP itself was responsible for starting the fire .
At the Nuremberg trials , General Franz Halder testified that Göring admitted responsibility for starting the fire . He said that , at a luncheon held on Hitler 's birthday in 1942 , Göring said , " The only one who really knows about the Reichstag is I , because I set it on fire ! " In his own Nuremberg testimony , Göring denied this story .
= = Second marriage = =
During the early 1930s , Göring was often in the company of Emmy Sonnemann , an actress from Hamburg . They were married on 10 April 1935 in Berlin ; the wedding was celebrated on a huge scale . A large reception was held the night before at the Berlin Opera House . Fighter aircraft flew overhead on the night of the reception and the day of the ceremony . Göring 's daughter , Edda , was born on 2 June 1938 .
= = Nazi potentate = =
When Hitler was named chancellor of Germany in January 1933 , Göring was appointed as minister without portfolio , Minister of the Interior for Prussia , and Reich Commissioner of Aviation . Wilhelm Frick was named Reich Interior Minister . Frick and head of the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) Heinrich Himmler hoped to create a unified police force for all of Germany , but Göring on 30 November 1933 established a Prussian police force , with Rudolf Diels at its head . The force was called the Geheime Staatspolizei , or Gestapo . Göring , thinking that Diels was not ruthless enough to use the Gestapo effectively to counteract the power of the SA , handed over control of the Gestapo to Himmler on 20 April 1934 . By this time , the SA numbered over two million men .
Hitler was deeply concerned that Ernst Röhm , the chief of the SA , was planning a coup . Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich plotted with Göring to use the Gestapo and SS to crush the SA . Members of the SA got wind of the proposed action and thousands of them took to the streets in violent demonstrations on the night of 29 June 1934 . Enraged , Hitler ordered the arrest of the SA leadership . Röhm was shot dead in his cell when he refused to commit suicide ; Göring personally went over the lists of detainees — numbering in the thousands — and determined who else should be shot . At least 85 people were killed in the period of 30 June to 2 July , which is now known as the Night of the Long Knives . Hitler admitted in the Reichstag on 13 July that the killings had been entirely illegal , but claimed a plot had been underway to overthrow the Reich . A retroactive law was passed making the action legal . Any criticism was met with arrests .
One of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , which had been in place since the end of World War I , stated that Germany was not allowed to maintain an air force . After the 1926 signing of the Kellogg – Briand Pact , police aircraft were permitted . Göring was appointed Air Traffic Minister in May 1933 . Germany began to accumulate aircraft in violation of the Treaty , and in 1935 the existence of the Luftwaffe was formally acknowledged , with Göring as Reich Aviation Minister .
During a cabinet meeting in September 1936 , Göring and Hitler announced that the German rearmament programme must be sped up . On 18 October , Hitler named Göring as Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan to undertake this task . Göring created a new organisation to administer the Plan and drew the ministries of labour and agriculture under its umbrella . He bypassed the economics ministry in his policy @-@ making decisions , to the chagrin of Hjalmar Schacht , the minister in charge . Huge expenditures were made on rearmament , in spite of growing deficits . Schacht resigned on 8 December 1937 , and Walther Funk took over the position , as well as control of the Reichsbank . In this way , both of these institutions were brought under Göring 's control under the auspices of the Four Year Plan . In July 1937 , the Reichswerke Hermann Göring was established under state ownership – though led by Göring – with the aim of boosting steel production beyond the level which private enterprise could economically provide .
In 1938 , Göring was involved in the Blomberg – Fritsch Affair , which led to the resignations of the War Minister , Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg , and the army commander , General Werner von Fritsch . Göring had acted as witness at Blomberg 's wedding to Margarethe Gruhn , a 26 @-@ year @-@ old typist , on 12 January 1938 . Information received from the police showed that the young bride was a prostitute . Göring felt obligated to tell Hitler , but also saw this event as an opportunity to dispose of the field marshal . Blomberg was forced to resign . Göring did not want Fritsch to be appointed to that position and thus be his superior . Several days later , Heydrich revealed a file on Fritsch that contained allegations of homosexual activity and blackmail . The charges were later proven to be false , but Fritsch had lost Hitler 's trust and was forced to resign . Hitler used the dismissals as an opportunity to reshuffle the leadership of the military . Göring asked for the post of War Minister , but was turned down ; he was appointed to the rank of field marshal . Hitler took over as supreme commander of the armed forces and created subordinate posts to head the three main branches of service .
As minister in charge of the Four Year Plan , Göring became concerned with the lack of natural resources in Germany , and began pushing for Austria to be incorporated into the Reich . The province of Styria had rich iron ore deposits , and the country as a whole was home to many skilled labourers that would also be useful . Hitler had always been in favour of a takeover of Austria , his native country . He met on 12 February 1938 with Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg , threatening invasion if peaceful unification was not forthcoming . The Nazi party was made legal in Austria to gain a power base , and a referendum on reunification was scheduled for March . When Hitler did not approve of the wording of the plebiscite , Göring telephoned Schuschnigg and Austrian head of state Wilhelm Miklas to demand Schuschnigg 's resignation , threatening invasion by German troops and civil unrest by the Austrian Nazi Party members . Schuschnigg resigned on 11 March and the plebiscite was cancelled . By 5 : 30 the next morning , German troops that had been massing on the border marched into Austria , meeting no resistance .
Although Joachim von Ribbentrop had been named Foreign Minister in February 1938 , Göring continued to involve himself in foreign affairs . That July , he contacted the British government with the idea that he should make an official visit to discuss Germany 's intentions for Czechoslovakia . Neville Chamberlain was in favour of a meeting , and there was talk of a pact being signed between Britain and Germany . In February 1938 , Göring visited Warsaw to quell rumours about the upcoming invasion of Poland . He had conversations with the Hungarian government that summer as well , discussing their potential role in an invasion of Czechoslovakia . At the Nuremberg Rally that September , Göring and other speakers denounced the Czechs as an inferior race that must be conquered . Chamberlain met with Hitler in a series of meetings that led to the signing of the Munich Agreement ( 29 September 1938 ) , which turned over control of the Sudetenland to Germany .
= = World War II = =
= = = Success on all fronts = = =
Göring and other senior officers were concerned that Germany was not yet ready for war , but Hitler insisted on pushing ahead as soon as possible . The invasion of Poland , the opening action of World War II , began at dawn on 1 September 1939 . Later in the day , speaking to the Reichstag , Hitler designated Göring as his successor as Führer of all Germany , " If anything should befall me . " Big German victories followed one after the other in quick succession . With the help of the Luftwaffe , the Polish Air Force was defeated within a week . The Fallschirmjäger seized vital airfields in Norway and captured Fort Eben @-@ Emael in Belgium . Göring 's Luftwaffe played critical roles in the Battles of the Netherlands , Belgium and France in the spring , 1940 .
After the Fall of France , Hitler awarded Göring the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross for his successful leadership . During the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony , Hitler promoted Göring to the rank of Reichsmarschall des Grossdeutschen Reiches ( Reich Marshal of the Greater German Reich ) , a special rank which made him senior to all field marshals in the military , including the Luftwaffe . As a result of his promotion , he was then the top ranking soldier of all Germany until the end of the war . Göring had already received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 30 September 1939 as Commander in Chief of the Luftwaffe .
The UK had declared war on Germany immediately after the invasion of Poland . In July 1940 , Hitler began preparations for an invasion of Britain . As part of the plan , the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) had to be neutralized . Bombing raids commenced on British air installations and on cities and centres of industry . Göring had by then already announced in a radio speech , " Wenn auch nur ein feindliches Flugzeug unser Reichsgebiet überfliegt , will ich Meier heißen ! " ( " If as much as a single enemy aircraft flies over German soil , my name is Meier ! " ) , something that would return to haunt him , when the RAF began bombing German cities on 11 May 1940 . Though he was confident the Luftwaffe could defeat the RAF within days , Göring , like Admiral Erich Raeder , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Kriegsmarine ( Navy ) , was pessimistic about the chance of success of the planned invasion ( codenamed Operation Sea Lion ) . Göring hoped that a victory in the air would be enough to force peace without an invasion . The campaign failed , and Sea Lion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September 1940 . After their defeat in the Battle of Britain , the Luftwaffe attempted to defeat Britain via strategic bombing . On 12 October 1940 Hitler cancelled Sea Lion due to the onset of winter . By the end of the year , it was clear that British morale was not being shaken by the Blitz , though the bombings continued through May 1941 .
= = = Decline on all fronts = = =
In spite of the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact , signed in 1939 , Nazi Germany began Operation Barbarossa — the invasion of the Soviet Union — on 22 June 1941 . Initially the Luftwaffe was at an advantage , destroying thousands of Soviet aircraft in the first month of fighting . Hitler and his top staff were sure that the campaign would be over by Christmas , and no provisions were made for reserves of men or equipment . But , by July , the Germans had only 1 @,@ 000 planes remaining in operation , and their troop losses were over 213 @,@ 000 men . The choice was made to concentrate the attack on only one part of the vast front ; efforts would be directed at capturing Moscow . After the long , but successful , Battle of Smolensk , Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to halt its advance to Moscow and temporarily diverted its Panzer groups north and south to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev . The pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilize fresh reserves ; historian Russel Stolfi considers it to be one of the major factors that caused the failure of the Moscow offensive , which was resumed in October 1941 with the Battle of Moscow . Poor weather conditions , fuel shortages , a delay in building aircraft bases in Eastern Europe , and overstretched supply lines were also factors . Hitler did not give permission for even a partial retreat until mid @-@ January 1942 ; by this time the losses were comparable to those of the French invasion of Russia in 1812 .
Hitler decided that the summer 1942 campaign would be concentrated in the south ; efforts would be made to capture the oilfields in the Caucasus . The Battle of Stalingrad , a major turning point of the war , began on 23 August 1942 with a bombing campaign by the Luftwaffe . The Sixth Army entered the city , but because of its location on the front line , it was still possible for the Soviets to encircle and trap it there without reinforcements or supplies . When the Sixth Army was surrounded by the end of November in Operation Uranus , Göring promised that the Luftwaffe would be able to deliver a minimum of 300 tons of supplies to the trapped men every day . On the basis of these assurances , Hitler demanded that there be no retreat ; they were to fight to the last man . Though some airlifts were able to get through , the amount of supplies delivered never exceeded 120 tons per day . The remnants of the German Sixth Army — some 91 @,@ 000 men out of an army of 285 @,@ 000 — surrendered in early February 1943 ; only 5 @,@ 000 of these captives survived the Russian prisoner of war camps to see Germany again .
= = = War over Germany = = =
Meanwhile , the strength of the American and British bomber fleets had increased . Based in Britain , they began operations against German targets . The first thousand @-@ bomber raid was staged on Cologne on 30 May 1942 . Air raids continued on targets further from Britain after auxiliary fuel tanks were installed on American fighter aircraft . Göring refused to believe reports that American fighters had been shot down as far east as Aachen in winter 1943 . His reputation began to decline .
The American P @-@ 51 Mustang , with a range of 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) , began to accompany the bombers in large numbers to and from the target area in early 1944 . From that point onwards , the Luftwaffe began to suffer casualties in aircrews it could not sufficiently replace . By targeting oil refineries and rail communications , Allied bombers crippled the German war effort by late 1944 . German civilians blamed Göring for his failure to protect the homeland . Hitler began excluding him from conferences , but continued him in his positions at the head of the Luftwaffe and as plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan . As he lost Hitler 's trust , Göring began to spend more time at his various residences . On D @-@ Day ( 6 June 1944 ) , the Luftwaffe only had some 300 fighters and a small number of bombers in the area of the landings ; the Allies had a total strength of 11 @,@ 000 aircraft .
= = = End of the war = = =
As the Soviets approached Berlin , Hitler 's efforts to organize the defence of the city became ever more meaningless and futile . His last birthday , celebrated at the Führerbunker in Berlin on 20 April 1945 , was the occasion for leave @-@ taking for many top Nazis , Göring included . By this time , Carinhall had been evacuated , the building destroyed , and its art treasures moved to Berchtesgaden and elsewhere . Göring arrived at his estate at Obersalzberg on 22 April , the same day that Hitler , in a lengthy diatribe against his generals , first publicly admitted that the war was lost and that he intended to remain in Berlin to the end and then commit suicide . He also stated that Göring was in a better position to negotiate a peace settlement . In 1941 — a week after the start of the Soviet invasion — Hitler had issued a decree naming Göring his successor in the event of his death .
OKW operations chief Alfred Jodl was present for Hitler 's rant , and notified Göring 's chief of staff , Karl Koller , at a meeting a few hours later . Sensing its implications , Koller immediately flew to Berchtesgaden to notify Göring , who feared being accused of treason if he tried to take power . On the other hand , if he did nothing , he feared being accused of dereliction of duty . After some hesitation , Göring reviewed his copy of the 1941 decree naming him Hitler 's successor . It not only placed Göring first in the line of succession , but also stated that , if Hitler ever lost his freedom of action , Göring had complete authority to act on Hitler 's behalf as his deputy . After conferring with Koller and Hans Lammers , the state secretary of the Reich Chancellery , Göring concluded that , by remaining in Berlin to face certain death , Hitler had incapacitated himself from governing . All agreed that Göring therefore had a clear duty to take power in Hitler 's stead . He was also motivated by fears that his rival , Martin Bormann , would seize power upon Hitler 's death and would have him killed as a traitor . With this in mind , Göring sent a carefully worded telegram asking Hitler for permission to take over as the leader of Germany , stressing that he would be acting as Hitler 's deputy . He added that , if Hitler did not reply by 22 : 00 that night ( 23 April ) , he would assume that Hitler had indeed lost his freedom of action , and would assume leadership of the Reich .
The telegram was intercepted by Bormann , who convinced Hitler that Göring was a traitor and that the telegram was a demand to resign or be overthrown . Hitler sent a reply to Göring — prepared with Bormann 's help — informing him that , unless he resigned immediately , he would be executed for high treason . Soon afterward , Hitler removed Göring from all of his offices and ordered Göring , his staff and Lammers placed under house arrest at Obersalzberg . Bormann made an announcement over the radio that Göring had resigned for health reasons .
By 26 April , the complex at Obersalzberg was under attack by the Allies , so Göring was moved to his castle at Mauterndorf . In his last will and testament , Hitler expelled Göring from the party and formally rescinded the decree making him his successor . He then appointed Karl Dönitz , the Navy 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief , as president of the Reich and commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces . Hitler and his wife , Eva Braun , committed suicide on 30 April 1945 , a few hours after a hastily arranged wedding . Göring was freed on 5 May by a passing Luftwaffe unit , and he made his way to the American lines in hopes of surrendering to them rather than to the Russians . He was taken into custody near Radstadt on 6 May by elements of the 36th Infantry Division of the United States Army . This move likely saved Göring 's life ; Bormann had ordered him executed if Berlin had fallen .
= = Trial and death = =
Göring was flown to Camp Ashcan , a temporary prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp housed in the Palace Hotel at Mondorf @-@ les @-@ Bains , Luxembourg . Here he was weaned off dihydrocodeine ( a mild morphine derivative ) — he had been taking the equivalent of three or four grains ( 260 to 320 mg ) of morphine a day — and was put on a strict diet ; he lost 60 pounds ( 27 kg ) . His IQ was tested while in custody and found to be 138 . Top Nazi officials were transferred in September to Nuremberg , which was to be the location of a series of military tribunals beginning in November .
Göring was the second @-@ highest @-@ ranking Nazi official tried at Nuremberg , behind Reich President ( former Admiral ) Karl Dönitz . The prosecution levelled an indictment of four charges , including a charge of conspiracy ; waging a war of aggression ; war crimes , including the plundering and removal to Germany of works of art and other property ; and crimes against humanity , including the disappearance of political and other opponents under the Nacht und Nebel ( Night and Fog ) decree ; the torture and ill @-@ treatment of prisoners of war ; and the murder and enslavement of civilians , including what was at the time estimated to be 5 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 Jews . Not permitted to present a lengthy statement , Göring declared himself to be " in the sense of the indictment not guilty " . The trial lasted 218 days ; the prosecution presented their case from November through March , and Göring 's defence — the first to be presented — lasted from 8 to 22 March . The sentences were read out on 30 September 1946 . Göring , forced to remain silent while seated in the dock , communicated his opinions about the proceedings using gestures , shaking his head , or laughing . He constantly took notes and whispered with the other defendants , and tried to control the erratic behaviour of Hess , who was seated beside him . During breaks in the proceedings , Göring tried to dominate the other defendants , and he was eventually placed in solitary confinement when he attempted to influence their testimony .
Captain Gustave Gilbert , a German @-@ speaking American intelligence officer and psychologist , interviewed Göring and the others in prison during the trial . Gilbert kept a journal , which he later published as Nuremberg Diary . Here he describes Göring on the evening of 18 April 1946 , as the trials were halted for a three @-@ day Easter recess :
Sweating in his cell in the evening , Göring was defensive and deflated and not very happy over the turn the trial was taking . He said that he had no control over the actions or the defense of the others , and that he had never been anti @-@ Semitic himself , had not believed these atrocities , and that several Jews had offered to testify on his behalf .
On several occasions over the course of the trial , the prosecution showed films of the concentration camps and other atrocities . Everyone present , including Göring , found the contents of the films shocking ; he said that the films must have been faked . Witnesses , including Paul Koerner and Erhard Milch , tried to portray Göring as a peaceful moderate . Milch stated it had been impossible to oppose Hitler or disobey his orders ; to do so would likely have meant death for oneself and one 's family . When testifying on his own behalf , Göring emphasised his loyalty to Hitler , and claimed to know nothing about what had happened in the concentration camps , which were under Himmler 's control . He gave evasive , convoluted answers to direct questions and had plausible excuses for all his actions during the war . He used the witness stand as a venue to expound at great length on his own role in the Reich , attempting to present himself as a peacemaker and diplomat before the outbreak of the war . During cross @-@ examination , chief prosecutor Robert H. Jackson read out the minutes of a meeting that had been held shortly after Kristallnacht , a major pogrom in November 1938 . At the meeting , Göring had plotted to confiscate Jewish property in the wake of the pogrom . Later , David Maxwell @-@ Fyfe proved it was impossible for Göring not to have known about the Stalag Luft III murders — the shooting of fifty airmen who had been recaptured after escaping from Stalag Luft III — in time to have prevented the killings . He also presented clear evidence that Göring knew about the extermination of the Hungarian Jews .
Göring was found guilty on all four counts and was sentenced to death by hanging . The judgment stated :
There is nothing to be said in mitigation . For Göring was often , indeed almost always , the moving force , second only to his leader . He was the leading war aggressor , both as political and as military leader ; he was the director of the slave labour programme and the creator of the oppressive programme against the Jews and other races , at home and abroad . All of these crimes he has frankly admitted . On some specific cases there may be conflict of testimony , but in terms of the broad outline , his own admissions are more than sufficiently wide to be conclusive of his guilt . His guilt is unique in its enormity . The record discloses no excuses for this man .
Göring made an appeal asking to be shot as a soldier instead of hanged as a common criminal , but the court refused . Defying the sentence imposed by his captors , he committed suicide with a potassium cyanide capsule the night before he was to be hanged .
One theory as to how Göring obtained the poison holds that U.S. Army Lieutenant Jack G. Wheelis , who was stationed at the Nuremberg Trials , retrieved the capsules from their hiding place among Göring 's personal effects that had been confiscated by the Army and handed them over to the prisoner , after being bribed by Göring , who gave him his gold watch , pen , and cigarette case . In 2005 , former U.S. Army Private Herbert Lee Stivers , who served in the 1st Infantry Division 's 26th Infantry Regiment — the honour guard for the Nuremberg Trials — claimed he gave Göring " medicine " hidden inside a fountain pen that a German woman had asked him to smuggle into the prison . Stivers later said that he did not know what was in the pill until after Göring 's suicide .
Göring 's body , as those of the other executed men , was displayed at the execution ground for the witnesses of the executions . The bodies were cremated at Ostfriedhof ( Munich ) and the ashes were scattered in the Isar River .
= = Personal properties = =
The confiscation of Jewish property gave Göring the opportunity to amass a personal fortune . Some properties he seized himself or acquired for a nominal price . In other cases , he collected bribes for allowing others to steal Jewish property . He took kickbacks from industrialists for favourable decisions as Four Year Plan director , and money for supplying arms to the Spanish Republicans in the Spanish Civil War via Pyrkal in Greece ( although Germany was supporting Franco and the Nationalists ) .
Göring was appointed Reich Master of the Hunt in 1933 and Master of the German Forests in 1934 . He instituted reforms to the forestry laws and acted to protect endangered species . Around this time he became interested in Schorfheide Forest , where he set aside 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 km2 ) as a state park , which is still extant . There he built an elaborate hunting lodge , Carinhall , in memory of his first wife , Carin . By 1934 , her body had been transported to the site and placed in a vault on the estate . The main lodge had a large art gallery where Göring displayed works that had been plundered from private collections and museums around Europe from 1939 onward . Göring worked closely with the Einsatzstab Reichsleiter Rosenberg ( Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce ) , an organisation tasked with the looting of artwork and cultural material from Jewish collections , libraries , and museums throughout Europe . Headed by Alfred Rosenberg , the task force set up a collection centre and headquarters in Paris . Some 26 @,@ 000 railroad cars full of art treasures , furniture , and other looted items were sent to Germany from France alone . Göring repeatedly visited the Paris headquarters to review the incoming stolen goods and to select items to be sent on a special train to Carinhall and his other homes . The estimated value of his collection — numbering some 1 @,@ 500 pieces — was $ 200 million .
Göring was known for his extravagant tastes and garish clothing . He had various special uniforms made for the many posts he held ; his Reichsmarschall uniform included a jewel @-@ encrusted baton . Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel , the top Stuka pilot of the war , recalled twice meeting Göring dressed in outlandish costumes : first , a medieval hunting costume , practicing archery with his doctor ; and second , dressed in a red toga fastened with a golden clasp , smoking an unusually large pipe . Italian Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano once noted Göring wearing a fur coat that looked like what " a high grade prostitute wears to the opera " . He threw lavish housewarming parties each time a round of construction was completed at Carinhall , and changed costumes several times throughout the evenings .
Göring was noted for his patronage of music , especially opera . He entertained frequently and sumptuously , and hosted elaborate birthday parties for himself . Armaments minister Albert Speer recalled that guests brought expensive gifts such as gold bars , Dutch cigars , and valuable artwork . For his birthday in 1944 , Speer gave Göring an oversize marble bust of Hitler . As a member of the Prussian Council of State , Speer was required to donate a considerable portion of his salary towards the Council 's birthday gift to Göring without even being asked . Field Marshal Erhard Milch told Speer that similar donations were required out of the Air Ministry 's general fund . For his birthday in 1940 , Italian Foreign Minister Count Ciano decorated Göring with the coveted Collar of Annunziata . The award reduced him to tears .
The design of the Reichsmarschall standard , on a light blue field , featured a gold German eagle grasping a wreath surmounted by two batons overlaid with a swastika . The reverse side of the flag had the Großkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ( " Grand Cross of the Iron Cross " ) surrounded by a wreath between four Luftwaffe eagles . The flag was carried by a personal standard @-@ bearer at all public occasions .
Though he liked to be called " der Eiserne " ( the Iron Man ) , the once dashing and muscular fighter pilot had become corpulent . He was one of the few Nazi leaders who did not take offense at hearing jokes about himself , " no matter how rude " , taking them as a sign of popularity . Germans joked about his ego , saying that he would wear an admiral 's uniform to take a bath , and his obesity , joking that " he sits down on his stomach " . One joke claimed that he had sent a wire to Hitler after his visit to the Vatican : " Mission accomplished . Pope unfrocked . Tiara and pontifical vestments are a perfect fit . "
= = Complicity in the Holocaust = =
Goebbels and Himmler were far more antisemitic than Göring , who mainly adopted that attitude because party politics required him to do so . His own deputy , Erhard Milch , had a Jewish parent . But Göring supported the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 , and later initiated economic measures unfavourable to Jews . He required the registration of all Jewish property as part of the Four Year Plan , and at a meeting held after Kristallnacht was livid that the financial burden for the Jewish losses would have to be made good by German @-@ owned insurance companies . He proposed that the Jews be fined one billion marks .
At the same meeting , options for the disposition of the Jews and their property were discussed . Jews would be segregated into ghettos or encouraged to emigrate , and their property would be seized in a programme of Aryanization . Compensation for seized property would be low , if any was given at all . Detailed minutes of this meeting and other documents were read out at the Nuremberg trial , proving his knowledge of and complicity with the persecution of the Jews . He told Gilbert that he would never have supported the anti @-@ Jewish measures if he had known what was going to happen . " I only thought we would eliminate Jews from positions in big business and government , " he claimed .
In July 1941 , Göring issued a memo to Reinhard Heydrich ordering him to organise the practical details of a solution to the " Jewish Question " . By the time that this letter was written , many Jews and others had already been killed in Poland , Russia , and elsewhere . At the Wannsee Conference , held six months later , Heydrich formally announced that genocide of the Jews of Europe was now official Reich policy . Göring did not attend the conference , but he was present at other meetings where the number of people killed was discussed .
= = Support of anti @-@ Nazi brother = =
Göring 's younger brother Albert despised Nazism , and offered active resistance to the regime , including helping prisoners escape from concentration camps . He was arrested four times , but Hermann secured his release each time . Hermann 's daughter Edda told The Guardian that Albert " could certainly help people in need himself financially and with his personal influence , but as soon as it was necessary to involve higher authority or officials , then he had to have the support of my father , which he did get . "
= = Decorations and awards = =
German
Iron Cross
2nd Class on 15 September 1914
1st Class on 22 March 1915
Clasp to the Iron Cross
2nd Class on 30 September 1939
1st Class on 30 September 1939
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 30 September 1939
Grand Cross of the Iron Cross for " the victories of the Luftwaffe in 1940 during the French campaign " ( the only award of this decoration – 19 July 1940 )
Golden Party Badge
Pour le Mérite ( May 1918 )
Knight of the House Order of Hohenzollern
Knight of the Military Karl @-@ Friedrich Merit Order
Blood Order ( Commemorative Medal of 9 November 1923 )
Danzig Cross , 1st and 2nd class
Foreign
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun ( Japan )
Member First Class of the Order of Michael the Brave ( Kingdom of Romania )
Knight of the Order of St Stephen ( Kingdom of Hungary )
Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword ( Kingdom of Sweden ) ( 1939 )
Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation ( Kingdom of Italy ) ( 1940 )
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus ( Kingdom of Italy ) ( 1940 )
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy ( Kingdom of Italy ) ( 1940 )
= Episode 2 ( Twin Peaks ) =
" Episode 2 " , also known as " Zen , or the Skill to Catch a Killer " , is the third episode of the first season of the American mystery television series Twin Peaks . The episode was written by series creators David Lynch and Mark Frost , and directed by Lynch . It features series regulars Kyle MacLachlan , Michael Ontkean , Ray Wise and Richard Beymer ; and introduces Michael J. Anderson as The Man from Another Place , Miguel Ferrer as Albert Rosenfield and David Patrick Kelly as Jerry Horne .
Twin Peaks centers on the investigation into the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) , in the small rural town in Washington state after which the series is named . In this episode , Federal Bureau of Investigation agent Dale Cooper ( MacLachlan ) tells Sheriff Truman ( Ontkean ) and his deputies about a unique method of narrowing down the suspects in Palmer 's death . Meanwhile , Cooper 's cynical colleague Albert Rosenfield ( Ferrer ) arrives in town , and Cooper has a strange dream that elevates the murder investigation to a new level .
" Episode 2 " was first broadcast on April 19 , 1990 , on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network , and was watched by an audience of 19 @.@ 2 million households in the United States , equating to roughly 21 percent of the available audience . " Episode 2 " has been well @-@ received since its initial broadcast , and is regarded by critics as a ground @-@ breaking television episode . It has since influenced , and been parodied by , several subsequent television series . Academic readings of the episode have highlighted its depiction of heuristic , a priori knowledge , and the sexual undertones of several characters ' actions .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
The small fictional town of Twin Peaks , Washington , has been shocked by the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) and the attempted murder of her classmate Ronette Pulaski ( Phoebe Augustine ) . Federal Bureau of Investigation special agent Dale Cooper ( Kyle MacLachlan ) has come to the town to investigate , and initial suspicion has fallen upon Palmer 's boyfriend Bobby Briggs ( Dana Ashbrook ) and the man with whom she was cheating on Briggs , James Hurley ( James Marshall ) . However , other inhabitants of the town have their own suspicions : the violent , drug @-@ dealing truck driver Leo Johnson ( Eric Da Re ) is seen as a possible suspect .
= = = Events = = =
The Horne family — Ben ( Richard Beymer ) , Audrey ( Sherilyn Fenn ) , and Johnny ( Robert Bauer ) — are eating dinner when they are interrupted by Ben 's brother Jerry ( David Patrick Kelly ) . The brothers share brie and butter baguettes while Ben tells Jerry of Laura Palmer 's murder and the failing of the Ghostwood project . They decide to visit One Eyed Jacks , a casino and brothel across the Canadian border , where Ben wins a coin flip to determine who will be the first to sleep with the newest prostitute .
Bobby Briggs and Mike Nelson ( Gary Hershberger ) drive into the woods to pick up a hidden delivery of cocaine , but are ambushed by Leo Johnson , who demands the $ 10 @,@ 000 the pair owe him . Leo also hints that he suspects someone has been sleeping with his wife Shelly ( Mädchen Amick ) , then scares the pair off . When Bobby visits Shelly at her home the next day , he discovers that Leo has beaten her .
Dale Cooper receives a phone call from Hawk ( Michael Horse ) about a one @-@ armed man seen at Ronette Pulaski 's hospital bed . The next morning , Cooper gathers together Sheriff Truman ( Michael Ontkean ) , Deputies Hawk and Brennan ( Harry Goaz ) , and Lucy Moran ( Kimmy Robertson ) in a forest clearing to demonstrate his unusual approach to eliminating suspects from their investigation . As each suspect 's name is read from a list , Cooper throws a stone at a bottle placed 60 feet 6 inches ( 18 @.@ 44 m ) away . Each time he hits the bottle with a stone , he considers the previous name read out to be of interest to the case . The method points his suspicion at Leo Johnson and psychiatrist Lawrence Jacoby ( Russ Tamblyn ) . Dale 's fellow FBI agent Albert Rosenfield ( Miguel Ferrer ) arrives later , while Truman and Cooper review evidence , and immediately causes friction between himself and Truman .
James Hurley and Donna Hayward ( Lara Flynn Boyle ) discuss their new relationship , and kiss passionately on Donna 's sofa . Elsewhere , Leland Palmer ( Ray Wise ) , still mourning Laura 's death , dances in his living room , sobbing and holding a portrait of Laura as he does so . He breaks open the picture 's frame , cutting his hands , as his wife Sarah ( Grace Zabriskie ) screams at him to stop .
Cooper retires to bed at his hotel room , and experiences a strange dream featuring the one @-@ armed man , who identifies himself as MIKE , and BOB , who vows to " kill again " . Cooper then dreams he is in a room hung with red curtains . The Man from Another Place ( Michael J. Anderson ) and Laura Palmer speak to him in a jarring and disjointed manner , before Laura leans over to whisper in his ear . Cooper wakes up , telephones Harry , and declares that he knows who the murderer is .
= = Production = =
" Episode 2 " was the second episode of the series to have been directed by series creator David Lynch , who had also helmed " Pilot " , and would direct a further four episodes during Twin Peaks ' run . The episode was written by both Lynch and co @-@ creator Mark Frost ; the pair had co @-@ written the prior two episodes . Frost would pen a further eight scripts for the series after " Episode 2 " , while Lynch would write just one episode — the second season opening installment , " Episode 8 " .
" Episode 2 " introduces the character of The Man from Another Place , played by Michael J. Anderson . The Red Room seen in the episode 's final scene was created from scratch by Lynch for the European release of " Pilot " , and was not originally intended to be a part of the American series . Lynch was so pleased with the result that he decided to incorporate it into the regular series . The Red Room would later be revealed as a waiting room for the Black Lodge , a mystical dimension bordering the town of Twin Peaks . Lynch claims to have conceived most of the sequence while leaning against his car on a cold night while its chassis was hot , and free @-@ associating ideas . The director first met Anderson in 1987 while continuing work on Ronnie Rocket , a planned film project about " electricity and a three @-@ foot guy with red hair " which was ultimately scrapped . He thought of Anderson immediately upon conceiving the Black Lodge .
Miguel Ferrer , who made his first appearance as Albert Rosenfield in this episode , had met Lynch while working on another film project that was also never made . Lynch remembered Ferrer when casting Twin Peaks , and sent him the scripts for both " Episode 1 " and " Episode 2 " . Ferrer found the scripts difficult to understand until Frost gave him a recording of " Pilot " , which cleared up the actor 's confusion .
Dialogue heard in the dream sequence uses a distinctive reversed manner of speech . This was achieved by recording the actors ' line phonetically reversed , and playing this audio backwards . David Lynch had begun experimenting with the technique in 1971 , and had originally planned to use it in his 1977 debut feature , Eraserhead , before it finally found use in this episode . Describing the process of learning his lines backwards , Anderson notes that he first worked out the phonemes of each word rather than simply reading it back to front , and disregarded the inflection of any given word as this helped bolster the discordant effect of the end result . The reversed audio was also altered with a slight reverb effect . The actors were required to perform their movements backwards , as elements of the scene would be reversed entirely .
Frank Byers , the episode 's director of photography , has stated that the chief inspiration for his choice to use wide @-@ angle lenses and soft lighting throughout the episode was the 1958 Orson Welles film Touch of Evil . Byers also eschewed the use of additional lighting beyond that which he felt was necessary , and chose to work mainly with the natural light of the location or set in question , and to light the scene from the floor when additional light was needed . The location used for One Eyed Jacks appeared in only one other episode of the series after its appearance here , with footage for both filmed on the same day . When the setting was revisited in the series ' second season , a set was built to represent another part of the building instead . The female cast members were deliberately lit with soft lighting from a close range , as this helped to create a " veneer of innocence and comfort " .
Kimmy Robertson — who plays sheriff 's office receptionist Lucy Moran — has described Lynch 's directorial style as hypnotic , finding that his question @-@ and @-@ answer approach of discussing scenes with the cast was unique among directors she had worked with . Robertson also noted that during the filming of Cooper 's stone @-@ throwing , Lynch " sat [ the cast ] down and told Kyle he was going to hit the bottle ... Kyle hit it , and everybody freaked out . It was like David used the power of the universe " .
= = Themes = =
Scenes in " Episode 2 " — especially the rock @-@ throwing scene in the forest — have been cited as introducing a spiritual side to the character of Dale Cooper , which would also be expounded in the later " Episode 16 " . Simon Riches , in an essay included in The Philosophy of David Lynch , has noted that the Red Room dream sequence is an example of the difficulty in rationalizing a priori knowledge — the " lack of empirical evidence that ... a faculty of intuition exists " in the mind is here represented by the " nonphysical " , dreamlike Red Room . Cooper 's heuristic approach " pointedly avoids the routine deductive apparati of logic , clues or muscle " . The fact that the series ' protagonist embraces this intuitive manner of deduction sets Twin Peaks " at odds with the naturalistic trend in analytic philosophy " . This dreamlike approach is a hallmark of Lynch , who , according to Greg Olson in his book Beautiful Dark , " has always identified himself as an artist first , a man fascinated by spiritual realms who 's committed to expressing his inner life " .
The episode 's reliance on surrealism has also been seen as symptomatic of " a broader move away from social realism within television drama " . The episode makes use of strong color cues and unusual camera angles — in particular , the brown color palette and low @-@ angle shots used to represent the character of Leland Palmer have been described by Helen Wheatley , author of Gothic Television , as creating " a mood of domestic terror " , which serves to cue the audience to his eventual outing as his daughter 's killer . Palmer 's dance while holding his daughter 's picture has been seen as " a time @-@ honored metaphor for marriage " , an " incestuous roundelay " which hints towards his abusive past . Both incest and violent sexuality would become recurring themes for the series , examples of which include Palmer 's later murder and possible molestation of his niece Maddy and Benjamin Horne 's unwitting brush with incest with his masked daughter in the One @-@ Eyed Jacks brothel .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Episode 2 " first aired on the ABC Network on April 19 , 1990 . The initial broadcast was viewed by 12 @.@ 1 million households in the United States — which represented 21 percent of the available audience and 13 @.@ 1 percent of all households in the country . This represented a drop in viewing figures from the previous episode , " Episode 1 " , which was seen by 14 @.@ 9 million households , or 27 percent of the available audience . The broadcast inspired several complaints about the sexual overtones of the scene in which the characters of Ben and Jerry Horne eat baguette sandwiches .
The episode has been well @-@ received critically . Writing for The Boston Globe , Gail Caldwell compared Lynch and Frost 's script for the episode to the works of mid @-@ 20th century American writers Sherwood Anderson , Flannery O 'Connor and Truman Capote , describing it as an " excavation of the fear and madness poised behind an ordinary small @-@ town veneer " . Caldwell also praised Lynch 's direction , finding that several of the episode 's " nerve @-@ wracking " scenes lasted just the right amount of time to be effective , and noting that " the line between confronting the abyss and exploiting it is one Lynch walks again and again " . Writing for The A.V. Club , Keith Phipps rated the episode an A , calling it " one of the most peculiar hours of television ever to air on a network " . He praised the episode 's portrayal of the Black Lodge , called the dream sequence " some of the most disquieting filmmaking Lynch has ever done " , and described its depiction as " a weirdly All @-@ American [ sic ] supernatural system " that seems " completely terrifying " . Fellow A.V. Club writer Noel Murray felt that the episode pushed " into previously unexplored television territory " , and that the climactic Black Lodge dream sequence came to be seen as " the signature moment in the entirety of Twin Peaks " . Den of Geek 's Doralba Picerno has called the episode " truly groundbreaking TV material " , noting the use of " surreal imagery with its roots in psychoanalysis " .
Writing for AllMovie , Andrea LeVasseur rated the episode four out of five stars , called it " memorable and pivotal " , and described the Red Room dream as " unforgettable " . Jen Chaney , writing for The Washington Post , has called the episode " the best in the series " . Chaney described it , and the dream sequence specifically , as having " turned Twin Peaks into a water @-@ cooler phenomenon " , and noted that it may have inspired later series such as The Sopranos and Lost to " feel comfortable taking risks with their audience " . The Washington Post 's Tom Shales has described the dream sequence as " the scene that separated the men from the boys " , noting that it further polarized the series ' audience , attracting loyal viewers and putting off others . The sequence , and the episode as a whole , attracted negative criticism from The Boston Globe 's Ed Siegel , who felt that the series " lost its magic " by this point . Siegel added that " anyone with less than a semester 's worth of either Postminimalism 101 or Absurdism 102 can come up with dancing dwarves , one @-@ armed men , psychic detectives , psycho killers , llamas in the waiting room and hints of incest and necrophilia " , and felt that a reliance on surrealism made Lynch seem to be a " one trick pony " .
The episode 's ending was parodied in " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " , a 1995 two @-@ part episode of The Simpsons , in which Dale Cooper and The Man from Another Place were replaced by the characters of Chief Wiggum and Lisa Simpson , respectively . The backwards speech and unexplained shadow moving across a wall were included in the parody , which takes place in a detailed recreation of the Black Lodge .
= Hurricane Barbara ( 2013 ) =
Hurricane Barbara was the easternmost landfalling Pacific hurricane on record . As the first hurricane of the 2013 Pacific hurricane season , Barbara developed from a low @-@ pressure area while located southeast of Mexico on May 28 . It headed slowly north @-@ northeastward and strengthened into a tropical storm early on the following day . After recurving to the northeast , Barbara intensified into a Category 1 hurricane on May 29 and made landfall in Chiapas at peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a barometric pressure estimated at 983 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 03 inHg ) . When the hurricane made landfall , it was the second earliest landfalling hurricane in the basin since reliable records began in 1966 . Barbara then moved across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and dissipated within the mountainous terrain of Sierra Madre de Chiapas on May 30 .
The precursor of Hurricane Barbara brought light to moderate rainfall to El Salvador . Many homes were damaged , roads were flooded , and several trees were downed . One fatality was reported in the country . Landslides caused by rainfall in Guatemala forced 30 people to flee their homes . In Mexico , tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued in anticipitation of the storm . Many shelters opened in Chiapas , Oaxaca and Guatemala while schools and ports were temporarily closed during the storm . Torrential rains and power outages were reported in the area . In the state of Chiapas alone , 2 @,@ 000 houses were damaged . About 57 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Significant impact to agriculture was also reported , with 10 @,@ 000 ha ( 25 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops destroyed . Overall , Barbara caused 5 fatalities and at least $ 1 million ( 2013 USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa on May 16 and crossed Central America into the Pacific Ocean on May 24 . That day , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring an area of disturbed weather about 150 mi ( 240 km ) southwest of the Costa Rican coastline . At that time , this system was associated with a monsoon trough embedded within the Intertropical Convergence Zone . Despite being disorganized , gradual development of this system was anticipated by the NHC . On May 25 , a broad low pressure area formed southwest of Nicaragua , after the tropical wave interacted with an eastward @-@ moving Kelvin wave . Convection soon became organized around the newly formed low , and the NHC noted that the formation of a tropical cyclone within the subsequent 48 hours was likely . The NHC estimated that Tropical Depression Two @-@ E developed at 1200 UTC on May 28 about 125 mi ( 205 km ) south @-@ southeast of Puerto Ángel , Oaxaca .
With warm water temperatures of over 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) and low wind shear , the newly formed tropical depression was able to quickly intensify . It developed a well @-@ defined center with concentrated deep convection . Continued organization prompted the NHC to upgrade the depression to Tropical Storm Barbara at 0000 UTC on May 29 . Post @-@ analysis indicated that Barbara intensified into a tropical storm six hours earlier than originally assessed . Barbara began exhibiting an eye @-@ like feature , and intensity estimates using the Dvorak Technique reached 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . At this time , Barbara had begun to recurve to the northeast , within a gap of the subtropical ridge . By midnight , the eye @-@ like feature developed into a central dense overcast ( CDO ) , embedded within the deep convection . The rainbands of Barbara wrapped around much of the circulation , and radar imagery indicated the eyewall was consistently becoming better defined . Thereafter , the storm entered a phase of intensification as it began to accelerate towards the Chiapan coastline .
Barbara strengthened into a hurricane around 1800 UTC on May 29 while located about 65 mi ( 105 km ) east @-@ southeast of Salina Cruz , Mexico . At its peak intensity as it was making landfall , it had maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a barometric pressure estimated at 983 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 03 inHg ) . With this intensity , Barbara made landfall on the coast of Tonalá , Chiapas at approximately 1950 UTC . This marked both the easternmost and second earliest landfalling hurricane in the basin since reliable records began in 1966 . As Barbara moved inland within the Isthmus of Tehuantepec , rapid dissipation occurred . The cloud tops warmed and Barbara degenerated into a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on May 30 . This was followed by a downgrade to tropical depression nine hours later as Barbara 's low @-@ level circulation was disrupted by the mountainous terrain . Very early on May 31 , the surface circulation of Barbara soon dissipated about 25 mi ( 40 km ) north @-@ northwest of Coatzacoalcos , Mexico , prior to emerging into the Gulf of Mexico .
= = Preparations = =
Immediately after developing into a tropical cyclone on May 28 , a tropical storm warning was issued by the Servicio Meteorológico Nacional along the coast of southern Mexico spanning from Lagunas de Chacahua National Park in Oaxaca to Boca de Pijijiapan , Chiapas . When the storm threatened to become a hurricane , a hurricane warning was declared for this region at 1025 UTC on May 29 . In Campeche , a blue ( minimal ) alert was issued . In Guatemala , a " preventive " alert was issued ; Barbara was similar to Hurricane Mitch and Tropical Storm Agatha ( both which devastated the nation ) and thus had the potential to produce flash floods . A yellow alert ( moderate risk ) was declared for central and southern Oaxaca and western Chiapas . For the southeastern and eastern part of Oaxaca and southwestern and central @-@ western Chiapas , a red ( high risk ) alert was issued .
Many shelters were opened adjacent to rivers . In Chiapas , 122 shelters opened , having a grand capacity of 300 @,@ 000 people though only 147 people used these shelters . In these shelters , officials set up 57 health centers . In Oaxaca , shelters were set up in 20 towns and hamlets . In all , coastal residents and marine interests were advised to take extreme caution in the states of Chiapas , Oaxaca , and Guerrero . In addition , classes were suspended in Oaxaca . Both large and small boats were anchored in Playa Manzanillo , to prevent being sunk by strong winds and rough seas , and water sports were suspended in Acapulco . Ports in Chiapas were also closed because of the storm .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = Central America = = =
The precursor disturbance brought light to moderate rainfall to El Salvador . Many homes were damaged , roads were flooded , and several trees were downed . A 44 @-@ year @-@ old woman died when a tree fell on her . Strong winds and high waves damaged four homes in Barrio Playa , in the municipality of Acajutla . As a result , shelters were opened , though only seven people sought refuge in them . This same disturbance brought landslides to Guatemala ; consequently , 30 people moved to shelters .
= = = Mexico = = =
Starting early on May 29 , the outer rainbands of Tropical Storm Barbara brought torrential rains to several states and power outages to Oaxaca , Chiapas , Guerrero , and Veracruz . Rainfall in the country peaked at 19 in ( 470 mm ) . In Ocosingo , 10 in ( 220 @.@ 5 mm ) fell in a 24 ‑ hour period . Upon making landfall , Barbara struck a largely undeveloped stretch of coastal lagoons , containing small fishing villages . In Acapulco , however , torrential rains caused severe flooding on roads leading to resorts , while damaging some highways . In all , considerable damage was reported .
Four people were killed in Oaxaca . A 61 @-@ year @-@ old American drowned offshore from rough seas . A 26 @-@ year @-@ old man died from drowning after attempting to cross a river . The third death was a 60 @-@ year @-@ old man in Salina Cruz . Furthermore , 14 fishermen went missing off the coast of Tapanatepec two of which were quickly found alive . Within a few days following Barbara , eight of the remaining missing had been found alive . Of the four fishermen still unaccounted for , one was presumed to have died . The towns of Tonala and Arriaga were the worst affected by the hurricane , where dozens of trees , poles , billboards and roofs were damaged due to strong winds . Many restaurants were also destroyed because of high waves . Several homes were flooded . Many homes were destroyed , leaving many homeless . Throughout the rest of Chiapas , however , damage was minor . Statewide , 50 people were evacuated and 2 @,@ 000 homes were damaged . Throughout the region , 57 @,@ 000 people were homeless and 10 @,@ 000 ha ( 25 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops were destroyed . Approximately 3 @,@ 500 ha ( 8 @,@ 600 acres ) of mango crops , accounting for a total yield of 22 @,@ 751 @.@ 88 t ( 50 @,@ 159 @,@ 300 lb ) of mangoes , were destroyed , with losses estimated at 10 – 15 million pesos ( $ 750 @,@ 000 – $ 1 @.@ 1 million USD ) .
Following the storm , which affected 19 @,@ 000 people , 16 medical centers were opened , containing a combined 127 doctors and 318 nurses to provide medical care to devastated municipalities . A state of emergency was declared for 36 municipalities in Chiapas and for 5 municipalities in Oaxaca .
= Ron Taylor ( actor ) =
Ronald James " Ron " Taylor ( October 16 , 1952 – January 16 , 2002 ) was an American actor , singer and writer . He grew up in Galveston , Texas and later moved to New York to attend the American Academy of Dramatic Arts . After graduating , Taylor began working in musical theater , appearing in The Wiz ( 1977 ) , before getting his break with the 1982 off @-@ Broadway production Little Shop of Horrors . Taylor voiced the killer plant Audrey II in the show , which ran for five years and over 2 @,@ 000 performances .
Taylor created and starred in the musical revue It Ain 't Nothin ' But the Blues , which charted the history of blues music from its African origin to American success . Originally performed at high schools in Denver as a 45 @-@ minute piece , the revue was expanded to two hours , played around the country and opened on Broadway in 1999 . It was met with critical acclaim , ran for eight months , and saw Taylor receive two Tony Award nominations .
He also had numerous television roles , appearing in The Simpsons , Twin Peaks , Ally McBeal and L.A. Law . His performance in the latter , as a singer who performed the American national anthem " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " at baseball games , led him to perform the anthem at several real @-@ life sporting events . Taylor was married and had one son . He died in January 2002 after suffering a heart attack .
= = Early life = =
Ronald James Taylor was born on October 16 , 1952 in Galveston , Texas to Marian and Robert " Bruno " Taylor and had two sisters , Roberta and Frances . He attended O 'Connell High School , and Wharton County Junior College , where he was a football player , and a participant in the school choir and theater . The choir teacher suggested he join after overhearing him singing The Temptations . He favoured music over football , and at the age of 19 attended the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York , intending to become a singer .
= = Career = =
= = = Theater = = =
= = = = Early theater work = = = =
Taylor , a " barrel @-@ chested bass @-@ baritone " , had an extensive career in musical theater . Upon graduating from the American Academy of Dramatic Arts , Taylor was unable to read sheet music and could " barely " play the piano , but found work as a singer . In 1977 he played the Cowardly Lion in a national touring production of The Wiz . Taylor subsequently played Great Big Baby in the 1978 Broadway production Eubie ! and Caiaphas in a performance of Jesus Christ Superstar .
He voiced Audrey II , the " street @-@ smart , funky , conniving " talking killer plant which is an " anthropomorphic cross between a Venus flytrap and an avocado " , in the original off @-@ Broadway production of Howard Ashman and Alan Menken 's " black @-@ comedy musical " Little Shop of Horrors from 1982 . Audrey II was played by four increasingly large puppets , operated by Martin P. Robinson , while Taylor sat in a box at the back of the stage to voice the role , standing to perform his musical numbers . The two kept in close proximity to ensure " that voice and action are always synchronized " and " developed a rapport " which was " the only thing that allow [ ed ] the character to really bloom . " Taylor disliked sitting in the box as it left him feeling disconnected from the audience . The part was his break and was described by Jesse McKinley of The New York Times as " a role Mr. Taylor 's booming voice was made for ... [ he ] soon put his stamp on Audrey 's signature line : ' Feed me , feed me ! ' " Members of the public often used the line when they saw Taylor . Little Shop of Horrors was performed over 2000 times before it closed in 1987 . At the 1983 Drama Desk Awards , Taylor won the award for Outstanding Special Effects for his performance , which he shared with Robinson .
In the 1984 Broadway production of The Three Musketeers at The Broadway Theatre , Taylor played Porthos , one of the three title characters . After fifteen preview performances , the show ran just nine times before closing . Frank Rich wrote that the musketeers were " professionally played " by Taylor and his co @-@ stars Brent Spiner and Chuck Wagner but felt the three had " little dialogue and often seem like interchangeable stand @-@ ins for the Three Stooges . " A similar view was held by William B. Collins of the Philadelphia Inquirer who said they " speak as in one voice and behave like comedians who have been stranded without good material . "
= = = = It Ain 't Nothin ' But the Blues = = = =
Taylor created and starred in the musical revue It Ain 't Nothin ' But the Blues , which charted the history of blues music from its African origin to American success . He conceived the original idea for the show when he played blues musician Rufus Payne in a 1987 production of Lost Highway , a play about singer Hank Williams at the Denver Center for the Performing Arts in Denver , Colorado . He proposed the idea to director Randal Myler who eventually accepted it in 1994 . Taylor co @-@ wrote the revue with Myler , Lita Gaithers , Charles Bevel and Dan Wheetman , and also served as its associate producer . Taylor was the revue 's lead singer and acted as its narrator ; his numbers included " I 'm Your Hoochie Coochie Man " , " The Thrill is Gone " , " Blues Man " and " Let the Good Times Roll " . It was initially performed as a 45 @-@ minute production at 25 local high schools . Because of their positive reception , the show was expanded to two hours and 50 songs , with three people being added to the original cast of four , and was regularly performed at the Denver Center .
Taylor described the performance as " very cordial " , with the audience close to performers , and that " one show is never the same as the next because of the songs , of what they are . Blues is about how you feel today . One day , you 're down ; another day is real happy and giddy . We 're all laughing . Randy 's direction captures that . It 's always so personal , bringing the audience into the piece . " As well as African music , the revue includes " country , gospel , the old blues , Appalachian music , " featuring music by Patsy Cline , Brenda Lee , Mahalia Jackson , Jimmy Rogers , Nina Simone and Muddy Waters .
In 1995 , the revue ran for a month at the Cleveland Play House , in conjunction with the opening of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum , before touring at other regional theaters . It played at the Crossroads Theatre in New Jersey for seven weeks in November 1998 and opened off @-@ Broadway at New York 's New Victory Theater in March 1999 , presented by Crossroads Theatre , in association with San Diego Repertory Theatre and Alabama Shakespeare Festival . It was met with critical and audience acclaim and the following month moved to Broadway to the Vivian Beaumont Theater . New York Times critic Lawrence Van Gelder wrote that the show had a " cornucopia of splendidly interpreted song , " and " is a potent blend of visual eloquence and historical sweep that engages the eye and touches the heart while its songs soothe the ear , occasionally work mischief on the funny bone , and always raise the spirits . "
A week after opening at the Beaumont , the show received four Tony Award nominations , with Taylor being nominated for Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical and Best Book of a Musical . The cast 's performance on the live Tony Awards show on CBS was bumped due to limited time , sparking controversy , costing the show potential revenue , and damaging its prospects for survival . The cast performed two days later on the CBS talkshow Late Show with David Letterman , while media attention and radio coverage of the Tony snub boosted the show 's takings for the following two weeks . This did not last and did not " build a long @-@ lasting audience like the Tonys could " , leading to dwindling attendance . A large word @-@ of @-@ mouth networking campaign to advertise the performance was set up by the producers and the show moved to the Ambassador Theatre , where the box office takes began to break even . The show closed in January 2000 after a total run of eight months on Broadway .
For the rest of the year , It Ain 't Nothin ' But the Blues again toured at regional theaters , running in Atlanta , San Diego , and the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington D.C. , and returning to New York in August 2000 at the B.B. King Blues Club and Grill for a month @-@ long run . Jim Trageser of The Press @-@ Enterprise , in a review of one of the San Diego performances , praised Taylor , saying he " has the lung power to simply take over any show , especially his own " and " shows surprising grace and athleticism as well as the kind of leonine masculinity that certain big men ( Orson Welles , Babe Ruth ) possess " . Trageser also praised the writing , calling it " a superb job not only of selecting the songs , but in choosing arrangements that blow away all the cobwebs history has laid on many of them . "
It Ain 't Nothin ' But the Blues was the longest @-@ running show Taylor appeared in , as well as his final Broadway appearance . Taylor planned an IMAX film version of the production ; and nine years after his death , it was revived by the New Haarlem Arts Theater at the Aaron Davis Hall on the City College of New York campus .
= = = Film , television and music = = =
Taylor had numerous television roles . He voiced jazz musician " Bleeding Gums " Murphy on The Simpsons , appearing in the first season episode " Moaning Lisa " ( 1990 ) and returning for the character 's death in the season six episode " ' Round Springfield " ( 1995 ) . He was one of the first people to guest star on the show . Taylor was supposed to reprise his role in the season two episode " Dancin ' Homer " , but was in New York and unable to record his part . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club said the role gave Taylor " television immortality " . He also reprised the role on a recording of Billie Holiday 's song " God Bless the Child " on the 1990 The Simpsons ' album The Simpsons Sing the Blues . He appeared as a Klingon chef in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , and played wrestling instructor Coach Wingate in Twin Peaks . He received an in memoriam at the end of " Sweets and Sour Marge , " with an image of the Bleeding Gums Murphy character and the text " Ron Taylor 1952 @-@ 2002 " ( season 13 , episode 9 ) . This was the first episode after his death and unrelated to the episode topic of " big sugar . " Other television roles included guest spots on NYPD Blue , ER , Profiler , Family Matters , Home Improvement and Ally McBeal . Taylor also had a recurring part in the 2000 series City of Angels , and played a blues singer in a two @-@ part episode of Matlock , a role that was written for him . He also appeared in more than 20 films . These included Trading Places , Amos & Andrew , A Rage in Harlem ( as Hank ) , The Mighty Quinn and Rush Hour 2 .
After a 1991 appearance on the series L.A. Law , on which he played a singer sacked by a baseball team for " embellish [ ing ] " his performances of the American national anthem " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " , Taylor received several invitations to sing it before sports events , although never expected anything to happen when he had taken the part . He sang it before the Major League Baseball game between the Baltimore Orioles and Detroit Tigers on July 1 , 1991 . His rendition did not mimic that of his character : " the song is self @-@ explanatory . I 'm just going to sing the song straightforwardly and that 's that . " Taylor received travel and accommodation expenses but no other payment for his performance . He also sang for a Los Angeles Kings National Hockey League game , and on August 5 , 1995 he sang the anthem before the MLB match between the Cleveland Indians and Chicago White Sox .
Taylor was part of the blues group The Nervis Bros and performed across the United States . He also sang with Billy Joel , Bruce Springsteen , Etta James , Slash and Sheila E ..
= = Personal life = =
Taylor met DeBorah Sharpe in 1977 during the production of The Wiz where she was the understudy for Dorothy . They married in 1980 and had a son , Adamah . In his spare time , Taylor often helped teach vulnerable young people through a variety of projects , including at the George Street Playhouse in New Jersey . He noted " things have come out of the air for me ... I 'm grateful ; that 's why I work with kids . I 've had a blessing in my career , to have gone as far as I 've gone . " A 1995 piece in The Plain Dealer described Taylor as " A jolly giant of a man , he looks like a natural force – a mountain , perhaps , who can tell great stories . " Taylor was a Christian .
Taylor suffered a small stroke in 1999 ; he was able to perform again in It Ain 't Nothin ' But the Blues 73 days later . He died of a heart attack aged 49 , on January 16 , 2002 , at his home in Los Angeles , California . His funeral took place on January 28 at the New Christ Memorial Church of God and Christ .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
Ready 2 Rumble Boxing – voice ( 1999 )
= History of Aston Villa F.C. ( 1874 – 1961 ) =
The history of Aston Villa Football Club between 1874 and 1961 covers their time from the club 's foundation , through the first two major periods of success ( the late 1880s , and the early 1900s ) and the club 's League Cup success .
Aston Villa Football Club were formed in March 1874 , by four members of the Villa Cross Wesleyan Chapel ( known as early as 1867 as Aston Villa Wesleyan Chapel ) in Handsworth . The four founders were Jack Hughes , Frederick Matthews , Walter Price and William Scattergood . The first match was against the local Aston Brook St Mary 's Rugby team . As a condition of the match , the Villa side had to agree to play the first half under rugby rules and the second half under football rules . The club were soon playing the modern version of football though and the club won its first FA Cup in 1887 . Aston Villa were one of the dozen teams that competed in the inaugural Football League in 1888 with one of the club 's directors , William McGregor being the league 's founder . Aston Villa emerged as the most successful English club of the Victorian era . By the end of Villa 's " Golden Age " at the start of the First World War , the club had won the League Championship six times and the FA Cup five times .
Aston Villa won their sixth FA Cup in 1920 . For the remainder of the inter @-@ war years though , Villa were on a slow decline that would lead to them being relegated to the Second Division in 1936 for the first time in their history . They returned to the top @-@ tier of English football by the outbreak of the Second World War . As with many clubs , the war brought much change to Villa Park and remainder of the 1940s were spent rebuilding the team . By 1957 , Villa were a Cup winning side once again with the clubs seventh FA Cup win . Even though Villa won the inaugural League Cup in 1960 , the club were to enter into a very unsuccessful period . The 1960s saw much change at Villa Park . By the end of the 1960s , Villa were languishing in the Second Division and fan pressure led to the resignation of the Board and the introduction of Doug Ellis as Villa Chairman .
= = Formation by Villa Cross Cricketers = =
Club folklore has it that Aston Villa Football Club was formed by four players from the Villa Cross Wesleyan Chapel cricket team . It is said that they " met in 1874 under a gas @-@ light in Heathfield Road " to set about forming a new club . They were looking for something to keep them occupied during the winter . The club 's official history states that they chose football after witnessing an " impromptu game on a meadow off Heathfield Road " . The four founders of Aston Villa were Jack Hughes , Frederick Matthews , Walter Price and William Scattergood . Their first match was played against the local Aston Brook St Mary 's Rugby team on Wilson Road , Aston . As a condition of the match , the Villa side had to agree to play the first half under rugby rules , and the second half under football rules . The game was a scoreless draw at half time but Jack Hughes scored a goal in the second half to ensure that Villa won their first ever game . Villa moved to their first official home , Wellington Road in Perry Barr , in 1876 after their captain , George Ramsay , noted that in order to progress , Villa would need to move into an enclosed ground to be able to collect gate money . The site was taken on a three @-@ year lease at a rent of £ 7 @,@ 10 shillings for the first year , rising to £ 15 and £ 20 in subsequent years . By the late 1870s , Villa were improving greatly and by 1880 , Villa won their first senior honour when they won the Birmingham Senior Cup under the captaincy of Scotsman Ramsay .
= = Rise to prominence = =
The club won its first FA Cup in 1887 , under the captaincy of another Scotsman , Archie Hunter . They beat West Bromwich Albion 2 – 0 in the final held at The Oval . Up until 1885 , football had remained an amateur sport . It turned professional in 1885 , when the FA legalized professional football , but with a national wage limit . However , the Scottish draper and director of Aston Villa , William McGregor had become frustrated with watching his team in one @-@ sided friendly matches and low attendances for all games but FA Cup ties . He saw that in order to keep interest in the game alive , the top teams needed to play each other in a league much like American baseball teams did . McGregor wrote to the twelve leading clubs in England proposing the formation of a league . The reason the Football League was never called the English League is because McGregor intended that Scottish and Welsh teams would eventually join . In the end , some Welsh teams joined , most notably Cardiff City , but Scottish teams did not . Aston Villa were one of the dozen teams that competed in the inaugural Football League in 1888 . Villa 's first League game came on 8 September 1888 , when they drew 1 – 1 Wolverhampton Wanderers as Tom Green scored the club 's first League goal . Villa finished runners @-@ up to Preston North End in that inaugural season .
= = Victorian and Edwardian eras = =
It did not take long for Villa to lift their first League Championship trophy , and this was achieved in 1893 – 94 . Villa were soon attracting large crowds ; the club could regularly expect 25 @,@ 000 people to attend home games . This was at a time when the FA Cup Final would attract only about 20 @,@ 000 . With poor spectator facilities and an uneven pitch , the Wellington Road ground was increasingly unsuitable , and in 1897 Villa 's financial secretary Frederick Rinder negotiated the purchase of their current home ground , the Aston Lower Grounds . In the 1899 @-@ 1900 season Billy Garraty became the top goalscorer in world football scoring 27 goals in just 33 league games and a total 30 goals in 39 league and cup games . The name of Villa Park was not used until about 1900 . It came about through fan usage and no official declaration was made that listed the name as Villa Park . The ground was not purchased outright until 1911 .
Villa began the 20th century as champions but the gap that distinguished them from their competitors was diminishing . Football in England was becoming more competitive as more teams formed . Villa did remain a significant force in the game though . Despite a run of four victories at the start of the 1900 – 01 season , Villa finished fourth from bottom . In the 1902 – 03 season Villa won 12 of their last 15 games to finish only one point behind champions Sheffield Wednesday . In 1905 , Villa won the FA Cup with a then record crowd of 101 @,@ 117 watching the match at Crystal Palace , where Villa beat Newcastle United 2 – 0 . In the same season , Villa finished fourth and this helped to boost the coffers at the club . After the success of 1905 , Villa went through a barren patch and it was not until the 1909 – 10 season that Villa threatened to regain the title . In that season , they beat the reigning champions Manchester United 7 – 1 . Villa won the championship for the first time in 10 years to take a then record , sixth title . The 1910 – 11 season was very close and the title was decided on the last day of the season when Villa lost to Liverpool and Manchester United beat Sunderland to take the title . The following season , Villa finished sixth . Yet in 1913 , Villa won the FA Cup for a then record @-@ equalling fifth time . By the end of what was to be called Villa 's golden era , when the First World War began , the club had won the League Championship six times and the FA Cup five times . This included the League and Cup Double in 1896 – 97 , a feat which would not be repeated for more than 60 years .
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
Football resumed after the war for the 1919 – 20 season and Villa won their sixth FA Cup at the end of season , beating Huddersfield Town 1 – 0 at Stamford Bridge . In November 1923 , Villa 's centre @-@ half Tommy Ball was killed by his neighbour , thus becoming the only active Football League player to have been murdered . In their Golden Jubilee season of 1923 – 24 , Villa got through to the second final to be held at the then new Wembley Stadium , where they lost 2 – 0 to Newcastle United . This Cup final was to be something of a pinnacle though as Villa then had League finishes of sixth and tenth in the following seasons . The Directors attempted to stop the slump with transfer dealings . In 1927 , they bought both Jimmy Gibson and Eric Houghton . In 1928 , they bought in one of the most prolific goalscorers to have ever played in the English football league . When Villa signed Tranmere Rovers striker Tom Waring for £ 4 @,@ 700 , he was relatively unknown . Waring scored a record 49 league goals in the 1930 – 31 season as Villa finished runners @-@ up to Arsenal . One of the other purchases , Eric Houghton , scored 30 goals .
The team were playing well and scoring many goals . In the 1933 – 34 season , Villa had no fewer than fourteen full internationals and they continued to challenge for honours being second in the League in 1933 . Yet this success did not last and the complacency at Villa Park led to a slump in form . This slump culminated in their relegation from the first tier of English football for the first time in their history in the 1935 – 36 season . The relegation coincided with the decision to appoint their first manager . Before the 1935 – 36 season , the team had been appointed by a committee and the team was coached by a " secretary " to the committee . The relegation though was largely due a dismal defensive record , they conceded 110 goals , 7 of them coming from Arsenal 's Ted Drake in an 1 – 7 defeat at Villa Park . Villa came ninth in their first season in the Second tier of English football but they were crowned Second Division Champions in 1937 – 38 under the guidance of Jimmy Hogan . By the outbreak of the Second World War , Aston Villa were back in the top @-@ flight of English football .
Their Aston Villa reserves ( or seconds ) team enlisted in the army and were captured at the Dunkirk evacuation in June 1940 . In December in an Eastern German camp , a German Guard regiment challenged British prisoners of war to a game of football ; the guards were being defeated 27 @-@ 0 when they stopped the game , only then learning these prisoners were Aston Villa 's second team .
= = Post @-@ war rebuilding = =
For Villa , as with all English clubs , the Second World War brought about the loss of seven seasons , and several careers were brought to a premature end by the conflict . The first game played at Villa Park after the cessation of hostilities was against Middlesbrough and Villa lost 1 – 0 in front of a crowd of 50 @,@ 000 . Aston Villa went about rebuilding the team , under the guidance of former player Alex Massie for the remainder of the 1940s . Massie made some bold signings in his time with the club , the first of which was 23 @-@ year @-@ old Wales international Trevor Ford , who was bought from Swansea for £ 9 @,@ 500 in 1946 , when Villa finished eighth in the League . Ford would go on to score 60 times in his four seasons at Villa Park , before he was sold in the 1950 – 51 season to Sunderland for a then British record of £ 30 @,@ 000 ( £ 900 @,@ 000 today ) .
For the remainder of the 1940s and early 1950s , Massie continued to bring in new players whilst the team regularly had mid @-@ table finishes . One of the more influential signings was Danny Blanchflower in 1951 for £ 15 @,@ 000 . Villa had a good start to the 1951 – 52 season when , after eight games , Villa were second behind Manchester United . This was their best start of the last 19 years , and they eventually finished in sixth place . After a mid @-@ table finish in the 1952 – 53 season , the following season , saw the return of Eric Houghton , this time in a managerial capacity . One of his first actions was to introduce 19 – year – old Peter McParland to the first team . His first season in charge ended with Villa in 13th place . Nevertheless , " Houghton had done well to guide a transitional Villa team to a respectable position in the top flight . " Under Houghton 's stewardship , Villa won the 1957 FA Cup Final against Manchester United 's celebrated Busby Babes . Peter McParland scored both goals in a 2 – 1 victory , in a record @-@ equalling ninth FA Cup final . It was Aston Villa 's first trophy for 37 years .
= = Fluctuating fortunes = =
The success of the previous season proved to be something of a false dawn though , with the team finishing 14th , seven points above relegation . After refusing to resign , Eric Houghton was sacked when relegation seemed imminent in 1958 – 59 . His successor Joe Mercer was unable to prevent the club being relegated in 1959 , for only the second time in its history . The fact that Villa reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup only served to highlight the complacency that had set in at the club that led to Villa being relegated . Villa only spent one season in the Second Division , returning as Champions in 1960 . The 1960 – 61 season was a successful one ; it saw Villa reach the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup , finish ninth in the League , and win the inaugural League Cup . This was helped by the emergence of an exciting group of youth players , who became known as " Mercer 's Minors " .
= WALL @-@ E =
WALL @-@ E ( stylized with an interpunct as WALL · E ) is a 2008 American computer @-@ animated science @-@ fiction comedy film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . Directed by Andrew Stanton , the story follows a robot named WALL @-@ E , who is designed to clean up an abandoned , waste @-@ covered Earth far in the future . He falls in love with another robot named EVE , who also has a programmed task , and follows her into outer space on an adventure that changes the destiny of both his kind and humanity . Both robots exhibit an appearance of free will and emotions similar to humans , which develop further as the film progresses .
After directing Finding Nemo , Stanton felt Pixar had created believable simulations of underwater physics and was willing to direct a film set largely in space . WALL @-@ E has minimal dialogue in its early sequences ; many of the characters do not have voices , but instead communicate with body language and robotic sounds , which were designed by Ben Burtt . It is also Pixar 's first animated feature with segments featuring live @-@ action characters .
WALL @-@ E was released in the United States and Canada on June 27 , 2008 . It grossed $ 23 @.@ 2 million on its opening day , and $ 63 @.@ 1 million during its opening weekend in 3 @,@ 992 theaters , ranking number one at the box office . This ranks as the fifth highest @-@ grossing opening weekend for a Pixar film . Following Pixar tradition , WALL @-@ E was paired with a short film , Presto , for its theatrical release .
WALL @-@ E was met with critical acclaim , scoring an approval rating of 96 % on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes . It grossed $ 521 @.@ 3 million worldwide , won the 2008 Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film , the 2009 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Long Form , the final Nebula Award for Best Script , the Saturn Award for Best Animated Film , and the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature as well as being nominated for five other Academy Awards at the 81st Academy Awards . WALL @-@ E ranks first in TIME 's " Best Movies of the Decade " . The film is seen as a critique on larger societal issues . It addresses consumerism , corporatism , nostalgia , environmental problems , waste management , human impact on the environment , and risks to human civilization and the planet Earth .
= = Plot = =
In 2805 , Earth is abandoned and covered in heaps of garbage left over from decades of mass consumerism facilitated by the megacorporation Buy ' n ' Large ( BnL ) . Seven hundred years earlier , BnL evacuated Earth 's population in fully automated starliners , leaving behind WALL @-@ E trash compactor robots to clean the planet for humanity 's eventual return . The plan failed , however , and all WALL @-@ E units are now inactive except one , which has developed sentience after decades of life experience . He manages to remain in operation by repairing himself using parts from other inactive units .
One day , WALL @-@ E discovers a growing seedling . Later , a spaceship lands and deploys EVE , an advanced robot probe sent from the BnL starliner Axiom to search for vegetation on Earth . WALL @-@ E falls in love with the initially cold and hostile EVE , who gradually softens and befriends him . When WALL @-@ E brings EVE to his home and shows her his collection , she sees the plant , automatically stores it inside herself , and goes into standby mode waiting for her ship to retrieve her . WALL @-@ E , confused why EVE seems to have shut down , tries numerous methods to reactivate her . When EVE 's ship returns and collects EVE , WALL @-@ E clings to its hull and thus travels through space to the Axiom , which is hidden behind a nebula .
On the Axiom , the descendants of the ship 's original passengers have become morbidly obese after centuries of microgravity effects and relying on the ship 's automated systems for their every need , with their only way of movement being hovering chairs . The ship 's current captain , McCrea , leaves most of the ship 's operations under the control of its robotic autopilot , AUTO .
WALL @-@ E follows EVE to the bridge of the Axiom , where the captain learns that by putting the plant in the ship 's holo @-@ detector to verify Earth 's habitability , the Axiom will make a hyperjump back to Earth so the passengers can recolonize it . However , AUTO orders McCrea 's robotic assistant GO @-@ 4 to steal the plant as part of his own no @-@ return directive A113 , which was issued to BnL autopilots after the corporation concluded in 2110 that the planet could not be saved .
With the plant missing , EVE is considered defective and taken to the repair bay along with WALL @-@ E for cleaning . WALL @-@ E mistakes the cleaning procedure performed on EVE for torture and tries to save her , accidentally releasing a quarantined horde of malfunctioning robots . The on @-@ board security systems then designate both WALL @-@ E and EVE as " rogue robots " . Fed up with WALL @-@ E 's disruptions , EVE takes him to the escape pod bay to send him home . There , they witness GO @-@ 4 disposing of the missing plant by placing it inside a pod which is set to self @-@ destruct mode . WALL @-@ E enters the pod to retrieve the plant , but GO @-@ 4 jettisons the pod into space . WALL @-@ E escapes with the plant before the pod explodes and uses a fire extinguisher to propel himself back toward the Axiom , where he and EVE reconcile and celebrate with a dance in space .
When the plant is brought to the captain , EVE 's recordings of Earth are analyzed and the captain concludes that mankind must return to restore the planet . However , AUTO reveals his directive and stages a mutiny . When WALL @-@ E tries to protect the plant , AUTO tasers and severely damages him . EVE realizes the only parts available to repair WALL @-@ E are in his truck back on Earth . She helps him bring the plant to the holo @-@ detector to activate the ship 's hyperjump . McCrea , fighting AUTO for control of the ship , manages to open the detector 's access hatch . AUTO partially crushes WALL @-@ E by closing the hatch before McCrea , who was forced to walk after being incapacitated by AUTO , can finally disable the autopilot . EVE places the plant in the holo @-@ detector , freeing WALL @-@ E and instantly setting the Axiom to hyperjump to Earth .
Upon arrival , EVE rushes WALL @-@ E back to his home where she repairs and reactivates him . However , his memory is erased and resumes his original programming as a waste compactor . Heartbroken , EVE gives WALL @-@ E an electrical farewell kiss , which restores his memory and personality . WALL @-@ E and EVE reunite as the humans and robots of the Axiom restore Earth and its environment .
= = Cast and characters = =
Ben Burtt produced the voice of WALL @-@ E ( Waste Allocation Load Lifter – Earth @-@ class ) , the title character . WALL @-@ E , a robot who has developed sentience , is the only robot of his kind shown to be still functioning on Earth . He is a small mobile compactor box with all @-@ terrain treads , three @-@ fingered shovel hands , binocular eyes , and retractable solar cells for power . Although working diligently to fulfill his directive to clean up the garbage ( all the while accompanied by his cockroach friend Hal and music playing from his on @-@ board recorder ) he is distracted by his curiosity , collecting trinkets of interest . He stores and displays these " treasures " such as a birdcage full of rubber ducks , a Rubik 's Cube , Zippo lighters , disposable cups filled with plastic cutlery and a golden trophy at his home where he examines and categorizes his finds while watching a video cassette of Hello , Dolly ! via an iPod viewed through a large Fresnel lens .
Burtt is also credited for the voice of M @-@ O ( Microbe Obliterator ) , as well as most of the other robots . M @-@ O is a tiny , obsessively clean maintenance robot with rollers for hands who keeps Axiom clean .
Elissa Knight as EVE ( Extraterrestrial Vegetation Evaluator ) , a sleek robot probe whose directive is to locate vegetation on Earth and verify habitability . She has a glossy white egg @-@ shaped body and blue LED eyes . She moves using antigravity technology and is equipped with scanners , specimen storage and a " quasar ion cannon " in her arm , which she is quick to use .
Jeff Garlin as Captain B. McCrea , the commander , and apparently only officer , on the Axiom . His duties as captain are daily routines , with the ship 's autopilot handling all true command functions .
Fred Willard as Shelby Forthright , historical CEO of the Buy n Large Corporation , shown only in videos recorded around the time of the Axiom 's initial launch . Constantly optimistic , Forthright proposed the evacuation plans , then to clean up and recolonize the planet . However , the corporation gave up after realizing how toxic Earth had become . Forthright is the only live action character with a speaking role , the first in any Pixar film .
MacInTalk , the text @-@ to @-@ speech program for the Apple Macintosh , was used for the voice of Auto , the rogue autopilot artificial intelligence built into the ship . Unlike other robots in the film , Auto is not influenced by WALL @-@ E , instead following directive A113 , which is to prevent the Axiom and the humans from returning to Earth because of the toxicity , and it works to prevent anyone from deviating from it .
John Ratzenberger and Kathy Najimy as John and Mary , respectively . John and Mary both live on the Axiom and are so dependent on their personal video screens and automatic services that they are oblivious to their surroundings , for instance not noticing that the ship features a giant swimming pool . However , they are brought out of their trances after separate encounters with WALL @-@ E , eventually meeting face @-@ to @-@ face for the first time .
Sigourney Weaver as the voice of the Axiom 's computer . Stanton joked about the role with Weaver , saying , " You realize you get to be ' Mother ' now ? " referring to the name of the ship 's computer in the film Alien , which also starred Weaver .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Andrew Stanton conceived WALL @-@ E during a lunch with fellow writers John Lasseter , Pete Docter , and Joe Ranft in 1994 . Toy Story was near completion and the writers brainstormed ideas for their next projects – A Bug 's Life , Monsters , Inc . , and Finding Nemo – at this lunch . Stanton asked , " What if mankind had to leave Earth and somebody forgot to turn off the last robot ? " Having struggled for many years with making the characters in Toy Story appealing , Stanton found his simple Robinson Crusoe @-@ esque idea of a lonely robot on a deserted planet strong . Stanton made WALL @-@ E a waste collector as the idea was instantly understandable , and because it was a low @-@ status menial job that made him sympathetic . Stanton also liked the imagery of stacked cubes of garbage . He did not find the idea dark because having a planet covered in garbage was for him a childish imagining of disaster .
Stanton and Pete Docter developed the film under the title of Trash Planet for two months in 1995 , but they did not know how to develop the story and Docter chose to direct Monsters , Inc. instead . Stanton came up with the idea of WALL @-@ E finding a plant , because his life as the sole inhabitant on a deserted world reminded Stanton of a plant growing among pavements . Before they turned their attention to other projects , Stanton and Lasseter thought about having WALL @-@ E fall in love , as it was the necessary progression away from loneliness . Stanton started writing WALL @-@ E again in 2002 while completing Finding Nemo . Stanton formatted his script in a manner reminiscent of Dan O 'Bannon 's Alien . O 'Bannon wrote his script in a manner Stanton found reminded him of haiku , where visual descriptions were done in continuous lines of a few words . Stanton wrote his robot dialogue conventionally , but placed them in brackets . In late 2003 , Stanton and a few others created a story reel of the first twenty minutes of the film . Lasseter and Steve Jobs were impressed and officially began development , though Jobs stated he did not like the title , originally spelled " W.A.L.-E. "
While the first act of WALL @-@ E " fell out of the sky " for Stanton , he had originally wanted aliens to plant EVE to explore Earth and the rest of the film was different . When WALL @-@ E comes to the Axiom , he incites a Spartacus @-@ style rebellion by the robots against the remnants of the human race , which were cruel alien Gels ( completely devolved , gelatinous , boneless , legless , see @-@ through , green creatures that resemble Jell @-@ O ) . James Hicks , a physiologist , mentioned to Stanton the concept of atrophy and the effects prolonged weightlessness would have on humans living in space for an inordinately extended time period . Therefore , this was the inspiration of the humans degenerating into the alien Gels , and their ancestry would have been revealed in a Planet of the Apes @-@ style ending . The Gels also spoke a made @-@ up gibberish language , but Stanton scrapped this idea because he thought it would be too complicated for the audience to understand and they could easily be driven off from the storyline . The Gels had a royal family , who host a dance in a castle on a lake in the back of the ship , and the Axiom curled up into a ball when returning to Earth in this incarnation of the story . Stanton decided this was too bizarre and unengaging , and conceived humanity as " big babies " . Stanton developed the metaphorical theme of the humans learning to stand again and " grow [ ing ] up " , wanting WALL @-@ E and EVE 's relationship to inspire humanity because he felt few films explore how utopian societies come to exist . The process of depicting the descendants of humanity as the way they appear in the movie was slow . Stanton first decided to put a nose and ears on the Gels so the audience could recognize them . Eventually , fingers , legs , clothes , and other characteristics were added until they arrived at the concept of being fetus @-@ like to allow the audience to see themselves in the characters .
In a later version of the film , Auto comes to the docking bay to retrieve EVE 's plant . The film would have its first cutaway to the captain , but Stanton moved that as he found it too early to begin moving away from WALL @-@ E 's point @-@ of @-@ view . As an homage to Get Smart , Auto takes the plant and goes into the bowels of the ship into a room resembling a brain where he watches videos of Buy n Large 's scheme to clean up the Earth falling apart through the years . Stanton removed this to keep some mystery as to why the plant is taken from EVE . The captain appears to be unintelligent , but Stanton wanted him to just be unchallenged ; otherwise he would have been unempathetic . One example of how unintelligent the captain was depicted initially is that he was seen to wear his hat upside @-@ down , only to fix it before he challenges Auto . In the finished film , he merely wears it casually atop his head , tightening it when he assumes real command of the Axiom .
Originally , EVE would have been electrocuted by Auto , and then be quickly saved from ejection at the hands of the WALL @-@ A robots by WALL @-@ E. He would have then revived her by replacing her power unit with a cigarette lighter he brought from Earth . Stanton reversed this following a 2007 test screening , as he wanted to show EVE replacing her directive of bringing the plant to the captain with repairing WALL @-@ E , and it made WALL @-@ E even more heroic if he held the holo @-@ detector open despite being badly hurt . Stanton also moved the moment where WALL @-@ E reveals his plant ( which he had snatched from the self @-@ destructing escape pod ) from producing it from a closet to immediately after his escape , as it made EVE happier and gave them stronger motivation to dance around the ship . Stanton felt half the audience at the screening believed the humans would be unable to cope with living on Earth and would have died out after the film 's end . Jim Capobianco , director of the Ratatouille short film Your Friend the Rat , created an end credits animation that continued the story – and stylized in different artistic movements throughout history – to clarify an optimistic tone .
= = = Design = = =
WALL @-@ E was the most complex Pixar production since Monsters , Inc. because of the world and the history that had to be conveyed . Whereas most Pixar films have up to 75 @,@ 000 storyboards , WALL @-@ E required 125 @,@ 000 . Production designer Ralph Eggleston wanted the lighting of the first act on Earth to be romantic , and that of the second act on the Axiom to be cold and sterile . During the third act , the romantic lighting is slowly introduced into the Axiom environment . Pixar studied Chernobyl and the city of Sofia to create the ruined world ; art director Anthony Christov was from Bulgaria and recalled Sofia used to have problems storing its garbage . Eggleston bleached out the whites on Earth to make WALL @-@ E feel vulnerable . The overexposed light makes the location look more vast . Because of the haziness , the cubes making up the towers of garbage had to be large , otherwise they would have lost shape ( in turn , this helped save rendering time ) . The dull tans of Earth subtly become soft pinks and blues when EVE arrives . When WALL @-@ E shows EVE all his collected items , all the lights he has collected light up to give an inviting atmosphere , like a Christmas tree . Eggleston tried to avoid the colors yellow and green so WALL @-@ E – who was made yellow to emulate a tractor – would not blend into the deserted Earth , and to make the plant more prominent .
Stanton also wanted the lighting to look realistic and evoke the science fiction films of his youth . He thought that Pixar captured the physics of being underwater with Finding Nemo and so for WALL @-@ E , he wanted to push that for air . While rewatching some of his favorite science fiction films , he realized that Pixar 's other movies had lacked the look of 70 mm film and its barrel distortion , lens flare , and racking focus . Producer Jim Morris invited Roger Deakins and Dennis Muren to advise on lighting and atmosphere . Muren spent several months with Pixar , while Deakins hosted one talk and was requested to stay on for another two weeks . Stanton said Muren 's experience came from integrating computer animation into live @-@ action settings , while Deakins helped them understand not to overly complicate their camerawork and lighting . 1970s Panavision cameras were used to help the animators understand and replicate handheld imperfections like unfocused backgrounds in digital environments . The first lighting test included building a three @-@ dimensional replica of WALL @-@ E , filming it with a 70 mm camera , and then trying to replicate that in the computer . Stanton cited the shallow lens work of Gus Van Sant 's films as an influence , as it created intimacy in each close @-@ up . Stanton chose angles for the virtual cameras that a live @-@ action filmmaker would choose if filming on a set .
Stanton wanted the Axiom 's interior to resemble Shanghai and Dubai . Eggleston studied 1960s NASA paintings and the original concept art for Tomorrowland for the Axiom , to reflect that era 's sense of optimism . Stanton remarked " We are all probably very similar in our backgrounds here [ at Pixar ] in that we all miss the Tomorrowland that was promised us from the heyday of Disneyland , " and wanted a " jet pack " feel . Pixar also studied the Disney Cruise Line and visited Las Vegas , which was helpful in understanding artificial lighting . Eggleston based his Axiom designs on the futuristic architecture of Santiago Calatrava . Eggleston divided the inside of the ship into three sections ; the rear 's economy class has a basic gray concrete texture with graphics keeping to the red , blue , and white of the BnL logo . The coach class with living / shopping spaces has " S " shapes as people are always looking for " what 's around the corner " . Stanton intended to have many colorful signs , but he realized this would overwhelm the audience and went with Eggleston 's original idea of a small number of larger signs . The premier class is a large Zen @-@ like spa with colors limited to turquoise , cream , and tan , and leads on to the captain 's warm carpeted and wooded quarters and the sleek dark bridge . In keeping with the artificial Axiom , camera movements were modeled after those of the steadicam .
The use of live action was a stepping stone for Pixar , as Stanton was planning to make John Carter of Mars as his next project . Storyboarder Derek Thompson noted introducing live action meant that they would make the rest of the film look even more realistic . Eggleston added that if the historical humans had been animated and slightly caricaturized , the audience then would not have been able to recognize how serious their devolution was . Stanton cast Fred Willard as the historical Buy n Large CEO because " [ h ] e 's the most friendly and insincere car salesman I could think of . " The CEO says " stay the course " , which Stanton used because he thought it was funny . Industrial Light & Magic did the visual effects for these shots .
= = = Animation = = =
WALL @-@ E went undeveloped during the 1990s partly because Stanton and Pixar were not confident enough yet to have a feature length film with a main character that behaved like Luxo Jr. or R2 @-@ D2 . Stanton explained there are two types of robots in cinema : " human [ s ] with metal skin " , like the Tin Man , or " machine [ s ] with function " like Luxo and R2 . He found the latter idea " powerful " because it allowed the audience to project personalities onto the characters , as they do with babies and pets : " You 're compelled ... you almost can 't stop yourself from finishing the sentence ' Oh , I think it likes me ! I think it 's hungry ! I think it wants to go for a walk ! ' " He added , " We wanted the audience to believe they were witnessing a machine that has come to life . " The animators visited recycling stations to study machinery , and also met robot designers , visited NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory to study robots , watched a recording of a Mars rover , and borrowed a bomb detecting robot from the San Francisco Police Department . Simplicity was preferred in their performances as giving them too many movements would make them feel human .
Stanton wanted WALL @-@ E to be a box and EVE to be like an egg . WALL @-@ E 's eyes were inspired by a pair of binoculars Stanton was given when watching the Oakland Athletics play against the Boston Red Sox . He " missed the entire inning " because he was distracted by them . The director was reminded of Buster Keaton and decided the robot would not need a nose or mouth . Stanton added a zoom lens to make WALL @-@ E more sympathetic . Ralph Eggleston noted this feature gave the animators more to work with and gave the robot a childlike quality . Pixar 's studies of trash compactors during their visits to recycling stations inspired his body . His tank treads were inspired by a wheelchair someone had developed that used treads instead of wheels . The animators wanted him to have elbows , but realized this was unrealistic because he is only designed to pull garbage into his body . His arms also looked flimsy when they did a test of him waving . Animation director Angus MacLane suggested they attach his arms to a track on the sides of his body to move them around , based on the inkjet printers his father designed . This arm design contributed to creating the character 's posture , so if they wanted him to be nervous , they would lower them . Stanton was unaware of the similarities between WALL @-@ E and Johnny 5 from Short Circuit until others pointed it out to him .
Stanton wanted EVE to be at the higher end of technology , and asked iPod designer Jonathan Ive to inspect her design . He was very impressed . Her eyes are modelled on Lite @-@ Brite toys , but Pixar chose not to make them overly expressive as it would be too easy to have her eyes turn into hearts to express love or something similar . Her limited design meant the animators had to treat her like a drawing , relying on posing her body to express emotion . They also found her similar to a manatee or a narwhal because her floating body resembled an underwater creature . Auto was a conscious homage to HAL 9000 from 2001 : A Space Odyssey , and the usage of Also sprach Zarathustra for the showdown between the captain and Auto furthers that . The manner in which he hangs from a wall gives him a threatening feel , like a spider . Originally , Auto was designed entirely differently , resembling EVE , but masculine and authoritative ; the Steward robots were also more aggressive Patrol @-@ bots . The majority of the robot cast were formed with the Build @-@ a @-@ bot program , where different heads , arms and treads were combined together in over a hundred variations . The humans were modelled on sea lions due to their blubbery bodies , as well as babies . The filmmakers noticed baby fat is a lot tighter than adult fat and copied that texture for the film 's humans .
To animate their robots , the film 's story crew and animation crew watched a Keaton and a Charlie Chaplin film every day for almost a year , and occasionally a Harold Lloyd picture . Afterwards , the filmmakers knew all emotions could be conveyed silently . Stanton cited Keaton 's " great stone face " as giving them perseverance in animating a character with an unchanging expression . As he rewatched these , Stanton felt that filmmakers – since the advent of sound – relied on dialogue too much to convey exposition . The filmmakers dubbed the cockroach WALL @-@ E keeps as a pet " Hal " , in reference to silent film producer Hal Roach ( as well as being an additional reference to HAL 9000 ) . They also watched 2001 : A Space Odyssey , The Black Stallion and Never Cry Wolf , films that had sound but were not reliant on dialogue . Stanton acknowledged Silent Running as an influence because its silent robots were a forerunner to the likes of R2 @-@ D2 , and that the " hopeless romantic " Woody Allen also inspired WALL @-@ E.
= = = Sound = = =
Producer Jim Morris recommended Ben Burtt as sound designer for WALL @-@ E because Stanton kept using R2 @-@ D2 as the benchmark for the robots . Burtt had completed Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith and told his wife he would no longer work on films with robots , but found WALL @-@ E and its substitution of voices with sound " fresh and exciting " . He recorded 2500 sounds for the film , which was twice the average number for a Star Wars film , and a record in his career . Burtt began work in 2005 , and experimented with filtering his voice for two years . Burtt described the robot voices as " like a toddler [ ... ] universal language of intonation . ' Oh ' , ' Hm ? ' , ' Huh ! ' , you know ? "
During production Burtt had the opportunity to look at the items used by Jimmy MacDonald , Disney 's in @-@ house sound designer for many of their classic films . Burtt used many of MacDonald 's items on WALL @-@ E. Because Burtt was not simply adding sound effects in post @-@ production , the animators were always evaluating his new creations and ideas , which Burtt found an unusual experience . He worked in sync with the animators , returning their animation after adding the sounds to give them more ideas . Burtt would choose scientifically accurate sounds for each character , but if he could not find one that worked , he would choose a dramatic if unrealistic noise . Burtt would find hundreds of sounds by looking at concept art of characters , before he and Stanton pared it down to a distinct few for each robot .
Burtt saw a hand @-@ cranked electrical generator while watching Island in the Sky , and bought an identical , unpacked device from 1950 on eBay to use for WALL @-@ E moving around . Burtt also used an automobile self starter for when WALL @-@ E goes fast , and the sound of cars being wrecked at a demolition derby provided for WALL @-@ E 's compressing trash in his body . The Macintosh computer chime was used to signify when WALL @-@ E has fully recharged his battery . For EVE , Burtt wanted her humming to have a musical quality . Burtt was only able to provide neutral or masculine voices , so Pixar employee Elissa Knight was asked to provide her voice for Burtt to electronically modify . Stanton deemed the sound effect good enough to properly cast her in the role . Burtt recorded a flying 10 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) radio @-@ controlled jet plane for EVE 's flying , and for her plasma cannon , Burtt hit a slinky hung from a ladder with a timpani stick . He described it as a " cousin " to the blaster noise from Star Wars .
MacInTalk was used because Stanton " wanted Auto to be the epitome of a robot , cold , zeros & ones , calculating , and soulless [ and ] Stephen Hawking 's kind of voice I thought was perfect . " Additional sounds for the character were meant to give him a clockwork feel , to show he is always thinking and calculating .
Burtt had visited Niagara Falls in 1987 and used his recordings from his trip for the sounds of wind . He ran around a hall with a canvas bag up to record the sandstorm though . For the scene where WALL @-@ E runs from falling shopping carts , Burtt and his daughter went to a supermarket and placed a recorder in their cart . They crashed it around the parking lot and then let it tumble down a hill . To create Hal ( WALL @-@ E 's pet cockroach ) ' s skittering , he recorded the clicking caused by taking apart and reassembling handcuffs .
= = = Music = = =
Thomas Newman recollaborated with Stanton on WALL @-@ E since the two got along well on Nemo , which gave Newman the Annie Award for Best Music in an Animated Feature . He began writing the score in 2005 , in the hope that starting this task early would make him more involved with the finished film . But , Newman remarked that animation is so dependent on scheduling he should have begun work earlier on when Stanton and Reardon were writing the script . EVE 's theme was arranged for the first time in October 2007 . Her theme when played as she first flies around Earth originally used more orchestral elements , and Newman was encouraged to make it sound more feminine . Newman said Stanton had thought up many ideas for how he wanted the music to sound , and he generally followed them as he found scoring a partially silent film difficult . Stanton wanted the whole score to be orchestral , but Newman felt limited by this idea especially in scenes aboard the Axiom , and used electronics too .
Stanton originally wanted to juxtapose the opening shots of space with 1930s French swing music , but he saw The Triplets of Belleville ( 2003 ) and did not want to appear as if he were copying it . Stanton then thought about the song " Put On Your Sunday Clothes " from Hello , Dolly ! , since he had portrayed the sidekick Barnaby Tucker in a 1980 high school production . Stanton found that the song was about two naive young men looking for love , which was similar to WALL @-@ E 's own hope for companionship . Jim Reardon suggested WALL @-@ E find the film on video , and Stanton included " It Only Takes a Moment " and the clip of the actors holding hands , because he wanted a visual way to show how WALL @-@ E understands love and conveys it to EVE . Hello Dolly ! composer Jerry Herman allowed the songs to be used without knowing what for ; when he saw the film , he found its incorporation into the story " genius " . Coincidentally , Newman 's uncle Lionel worked on Hello , Dolly !
Newman travelled to London to compose the end credits song " Down to Earth " with Peter Gabriel , who was one of Stanton 's favorite musicians . Afterwards , Newman rescored some of the film to include the song 's composition , so it would not sound intrusive when played . Louis Armstrong 's rendition of " La Vie en rose " was used for a montage where WALL @-@ E does not get EVE 's attention on Earth . The script also specified using Bing Crosby 's " Stardust " for when the two robots dance around the Axiom , but Newman asked if he could score the scene himself . A similar switch occurred for the sequence in which WALL @-@ E attempts to wake EVE up through various means ; originally , the montage would play with the instrumental version of " Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head " , but Newman wanted to challenge himself and scored an original piece for the sequence .
= = Themes = =
This movie is widely recognized as a critique on society . It brings up real issues that the world , and especially densely populated areas , are dealing with today and even more so in the future . Katherine Ellison asserts that “ Americans produce nearly 400 million tons of solid waste per year but recycle less than a third of it , according to a recent Columbia University study . ” Landfills are filling up so quickly that the UK may run out of landfill space by the year 2017 .
= = = Environment and waste = = =
Because WALL @-@ E overtly critiques consumerism , it also critiques Disney 's production values and aesthetic , without being too obvious . In the DVD commentary , Stanton said that he has been asked
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Lung Association . He was a member of the community advisory board at Rhode Island College , the Providence Heritage Commission , and the Commission on Medal of Honor Recipients from Rhode Island , and was a director of the Smith Hill Center . He served as commander of the American Legion and as detachment commander and state commandant of the Marine Corps League .
He was a member of Disabled American Veterans , Veterans of Foreign Wars , Past Department Commanders , the National Association of Postmasters of the United States , the Federal Executive Council ( he was its first chairman ) , Butler Hospital 's capital development committee , and the 1976 Easter Seal Telethon Committee of Meeting Street School . He served on the Rhode Island Bicentennial Commission and was general chairman of its Armenian Heritage subcommittee and a member of the Veterans Affairs subcommittee .
He was chairman of the federal department of the United Fund from 1962 to 1981 , and was a former president of Local 105 , National Association of Postal Supervisors , and Branch 35 , National Association of Postmasters of the United States , and received numerous postal awards . He was chairman of the March of Dimes in 1962 and 1963 , the February Heart Month of the Rhode Island Heart Association in 1974 , the Pilot Program for the United Way of Southeastern New England 1977 – 1978 , the Rhode Island Employer Support of the Guard and Reserve , 1982 – 1986 , and The Postman 's March from 1974 through 1982 . Kizirian served as a member of the Blue Cross corporation from 1972 to 1975 , and was a trustee of the Ocean State Charities Trust from 1981 to 1986 .
Kizirian , who was active in the Armenian community , was a member of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation and the Govdoon Youth of America . He was also a member of the local Saint Vartanants Armenian Apostolic Church .
In retirement , he worked part @-@ time as a consultant to a messenger service in Providence and continued heading dinner committees . He was also active with Big Brothers , the Veterans Home in Bristol , and the Heart Association .
= = Quotations = =
When asked what went through his mind when he was blown into the air by enemy bombardment , Kizirian responded :
I wondered if I was ever going to get down again ... I would have made a poor angel , you know ... angels without wings are as uncommon up there as a Marine without guts down here .
His advice to youth was :
Let me say this to young people . War is awful . There 's no way to describe it . Nobody wins a war . Don 't let any historian tell you differently .
= Snow =
Snow is precipitation in the form of flakes of crystalline water ice that falls from clouds .
Since snow is composed of small ice particles , it is a granular material . It has an open and therefore soft , white , and fluffy structure , unless subjected to external pressure . Snowflakes come in a variety of sizes and shapes . Types that fall in the form of a ball due to melting and refreezing , rather than a flake , are hail , ice pellets or snow grains .
The process of precipitating snow is called snowfall . Snowfall tends to form within regions of upward movement of air around a type of low @-@ pressure system known as an extratropical cyclone . Snow can fall poleward of these systems ' associated warm fronts and within their comma head precipitation patterns ( called such due to the comma @-@ like shape of the cloud and precipitation pattern around the poleward and west sides of extratropical cyclones ) . Where relatively warm water bodies are present , for example because of water evaporation from lakes , lake @-@ effect snowfall becomes a concern downwind of the warm lakes within the cold cyclonic flow around the backside of extratropical cyclones . Lake @-@ effect snowfall can be heavy locally . Thundersnow is possible within a cyclone 's comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands . In mountainous areas , heavy snow is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation , if the atmosphere is cold enough . Snowfall amount and its related liquid equivalent precipitation amount are measured using a variety of different rain gauges .
= = Forms = =
Once on the ground , snow can be categorized as powdery when light and fluffy , fresh when recent but heavier , granular when it begins the cycle of melting and refreezing , and eventually ice once it comes down , after multiple melting and refreezing cycles , into a dense mass called snow pack . When powdery , snow moves with the wind from the location where it originally landed , forming deposits called snowdrifts that may have a depth of several meters . After attaching itself to hillsides , blown snow can evolve into a snow slab — an avalanche hazard on steep slopes . The existence of a snowpack keeps temperatures lower than they would be otherwise , as the whiteness of the snow reflects most sunlight , and any absorbed heat goes into melting the snow rather than increasing its temperature . The water equivalent of snowfall is measured to monitor how much liquid is available to flood rivers from meltwater that will occur during the following spring . Snow cover can protect crops from extreme cold . If snowfall stays on the ground for a series of years uninterrupted , the snowpack develops into a mass of ice called glacier . Fresh snow absorbs sound , lowering ambient noise over a landscape because the trapped air between snowflakes attenuates vibration . These acoustic qualities quickly minimize and reverse , once a layer of freezing rain falls on top of snow cover . Walking across snowfall produces a squeaking sound at low temperatures .
The energy balance of the snowpack itself is dictated by several heat exchange processes . The snowpack absorbs solar shortwave radiation that is partially blocked by cloud cover and reflected by snow surface . A long @-@ wave heat exchange takes place between the snowpack and its surrounding environment that includes overlying air mass , tree cover and clouds . Heat exchange takes place by convection between the snowpack and the overlaying air mass , and it is governed by the temperature gradient and wind speed . Moisture exchange between the snowpack and the overlying air mass is accompanied by latent heat transfer that is influenced by vapor pressure gradient and air wind . Rain on snow can add significant amounts of thermal energy to the snowpack . A generally insignificant heat exchange takes place by conduction between the snowpack and the ground . The small temperature change from before to after a snowfall is a result of the heat transfer between the snowpack and the air . As snow degrades , its surface can develop characteristic ablation textures such as suncups or penitentes .
The term snow storm can describe a heavy snowfall , while a blizzard involves snow and wind , obscuring visibility . Snow shower is a term for an intermittent snowfall , while flurry is used for very light , brief snowfalls . Snow can fall more than a meter at a time during a single storm in flat areas , and meters at a time in rugged terrain , such as mountains . When snow falls in significant quantities , travel by foot , car , airplane and other means becomes severely restricted , but other methods of mobility become possible , such as the use of snowmobiles , snowshoes and skis . When heavy snow occurs early in the fall ( or , on rarer occasions , late in the spring ) , significant damage can occur to trees still in leaf . Areas with significant snow each year can store the winter snow within an ice house , which can be used to cool structures during the following summer . A variation on snow has been observed on Venus , though composed of metallic compounds and occurring at a substantially higher temperature .
= = Cause = =
Extratropical cyclones can bring cold and dangerous conditions with heavy rain and snow with winds exceeding 119 km / h ( 74 mph ) , ( sometimes referred to as windstorms in Europe ) . The band of precipitation that is associated with their warm front is often extensive , forced by weak upward vertical motion of air over the frontal boundary , which condenses as it cools off and produces precipitation within an elongated band , which is wide and stratiform , meaning falling out of nimbostratus clouds . When moist air tries to dislodge an arctic air mass , overrunning snow can result within the poleward side of the elongated precipitation band . In the Northern Hemisphere , poleward is towards the North Pole , or north . Within the Southern Hemisphere , poleward is towards the South Pole , or south .
Within the cold sector , poleward and west of the cyclone center , small scale or mesoscale bands of heavy snow can occur within a cyclone 's comma head pattern . The cyclone 's comma head pattern is a comma @-@ shaped area of clouds and precipitation found around mature extratropical cyclones . These snow bands typically have a width of 20 to 50 miles ( 32 to 80 kilometers ) . These bands in the comma head are associated with areas of frontogenesis , or zones of strengthening temperature contrast .
Southwest of extratropical cyclones , curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across the relatively warm water bodies can lead to narrow lake @-@ effect snow bands . Those bands bring strong localized snowfall , which can be understood as follows : Large water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature differences ( larger than 13 ° C [ 23 ° F ] ) between the water surface and the air above . Because of this temperature difference , warmth and moisture are transported upward , condensing into vertically oriented clouds ( see satellite picture ) that produce snow showers . The temperature decrease with height and cloud depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large @-@ scale environment . The stronger the temperature decrease with height , the deeper the clouds get , and the greater the precipitation rate becomes .
In mountainous areas , heavy snowfall accumulates when air is forced to ascend the mountains and squeeze out precipitation along their windward slopes , which in cold conditions , falls in the form of snow . Because of the ruggedness of terrain , forecasting the location of heavy snowfall remains a significant challenge .
= = Snowflakes = =
Snow crystals form when tiny supercooled cloud droplets ( about 10 μm in diameter ) freeze . These droplets are able to remain liquid at temperatures lower than − 18 ° C ( 0 ° F ) , because to freeze , a few molecules in the droplet need to get together by chance to form an arrangement similar to that in an ice lattice . Then the droplet freezes around this " nucleus " . Experiments show that this " homogeneous " nucleation of cloud droplets only occurs at temperatures lower than − 35 ° C ( − 31 ° F ) . In warmer clouds an aerosol particle or " ice nucleus " must be present in ( or in contact with ) the droplet to act as a nucleus . Ice nuclei are very rare compared to that cloud condensation nuclei on which liquid droplets form . Clays , desert dust and biological particles may be effective , although to what extent is unclear . Artificial nuclei include particles of silver iodide and dry ice , and these are used to stimulate precipitation in cloud seeding .
Once a droplet has frozen , it grows in the supersaturated environment — one where air is saturated with respect to ice when the temperature is below the freezing point . The droplet then grows by diffusion of water molecules in the air ( vapor ) onto the ice crystal surface where they are collected . Because water droplets are so much more numerous than the ice crystals due to their sheer abundance , the crystals are able to grow to hundreds of micrometers or millimeters in size at the expense of the water droplets by a process known as the Wegner @-@ Bergeron @-@ Findeison process . The corresponding depletion of water vapor causes the ice crystals to grow at the droplets ' expense . These large crystals are an efficient source of precipitation , since they fall through the atmosphere due to their mass , and may collide and stick together in clusters , or aggregates . These aggregates are snowflakes , and are usually the type of ice particle that falls to the ground . Guinness World Records list the world 's largest snowflakes as those of January 1887 at Fort Keogh , Montana ; allegedly one measured 38 cm ( 15 in ) wide . Although the ice is clear , scattering of light by the crystal facets and hollows / imperfections mean that the crystals often appear white in color due to diffuse reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the small ice particles .
The shape of the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed . The most common snow particles are visibly irregular . Planar crystals ( thin and flat ) grow in air between 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) and − 3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) . Between − 3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) and − 8 ° C ( 18 ° F ) , the crystals will form needles or hollow columns or prisms ( long thin pencil @-@ like shapes ) . From − 8 ° C ( 18 ° F ) to − 22 ° C ( − 8 ° F ) the shape reverts to plate @-@ like , often with branched or dendritic features . At temperatures below − 22 ° C ( − 8 ° F ) , the crystal development becomes column @-@ like , although many more complex growth patterns also form such as side @-@ planes , bullet @-@ rosettes and also planar types depending on the conditions and ice nuclei . If a crystal has started forming in a column growth regime , at around − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) , and then falls into the warmer plate @-@ like regime , then plate or dendritic crystals sprout at the end of the column , producing so called " capped columns " .
A snowflake consists of roughly 1019 water molecules , which are added to its core at different rates and in different patterns , depending on the changing temperature and humidity within the atmosphere that the snowflake falls through on its way to the ground . As a result , it is extremely difficult to encounter two identical snowflakes . Initial attempts to find identical snowflakes by photographing thousands their images under a microscope from 1885 onward by Wilson Alwyn Bentley found the wide variety of snowflakes we know about today . It is more likely that two snowflakes could become virtually identical if their environments were similar enough . Matching snow crystals were discovered in Wisconsin in 1988 . The crystals were not flakes in the usual sense but rather hollow hexagonal prisms .
= = Types = =
Types of snow can be designated by the shape of the flakes , the rate of accumulation , and the way the snow collects on the ground . Types that fall in the form of a ball due to melting and refreezing cycles , rather than a flake , are known as graupel , with ice pellets and snow pellets as types of graupel associated with wintry precipitation . Once on the ground , snow can be categorized as powdery when fluffy , granular when it begins the cycle of melting and refreezing , and eventually ice once it packs down into a dense drift after multiple melting and refreezing cycles . When powdery , snow drifts with the wind from the location where it originally fell , forming deposits with a depth of several meters in isolated locations . Snow fences are constructed in order to help control snow drifting in the vicinity of roads , to improve highway safety . After attaching to hillsides , blown snow can evolve into a snow slab , which is an avalanche hazard on steep slopes . A frozen equivalent of dew known as hoar frost forms on a snow pack when winds are light and there is ample low @-@ level moisture over the snow pack .
Snowfall 's intensity is determined by visibility . When the visibility is over 1 kilometer ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) , snow is considered light . Moderate snow describes snowfall with visibility restrictions between 0 @.@ 5 and 1 km . Heavy snowfall describes conditions when visibility is less than 0 @.@ 5 km . Steady snows of significant intensity are often referred to as " snowstorms " . When snow is of variable intensity and short duration , it is described as a " snow shower " . The term snow flurry is used to describe the lightest form of a snow shower .
A blizzard is a weather condition involving snow and has varying definitions in different parts of the world . In the United States , a blizzard occurs when two conditions are met for a period of three hours or more : A sustained wind or frequent gusts to 35 miles per hour ( 56 km / h ) , and sufficient snow in the air to reduce visibility to less than 0 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 25 mi ) . In Canada and the United Kingdom , the criteria are similar . While heavy snowfall often occurs during blizzard conditions , falling snow is not a requirement , as blowing snow can create a ground blizzard .
= = Colours = =
While snow in its pure form is white in colour , different colours can be caused by several factors including algae and air pollution . In numerous cases , yellow , black , red ( or pink ) , blue , brown and orange snow has been reported .
= = = Yellow = = =
Yellow snow is commonly known as , and indeed often the result of , animal urine marks .
However , it can also occur as a result of pollen or pine in the snow , certain air pollutants or sunlight hitting the snow . It may already be yellow as it falls from the sky when sand particles , other cloud seeds or industrial waste is present in the air .
In some of these cases , yellow snow may cause health hazards .
= = Density = =
Snow remains on the ground until it melts or sublimates . Sublimation of snow directly into water vapor is most likely to occur on a dry and windy day such as when a strong downslope wind , such as a Chinook wind , exists .
Once the snow is on the ground , it will settle under its own weight ( largely due to differential evaporation ) until its density is approximately 30 % of water . Increases in density above this initial compression occur primarily by melting and refreezing , caused by temperatures above freezing or by direct solar radiation . In colder climates , snow lies on the ground all winter . By late spring , snow densities typically reach a maximum of 50 % of water . When the snow does not all melt in the summer it evolves into firn , where individual granules become more spherical in nature , evolving into a glacier as the ice flows downhill .
= = = Snow water equivalent = = =
The snow water equivalent is the product of snow depth and the snow bulk density . It is a quantity of type columnar mass density , having units of area density ( kg / m2 ) , though it is usually reported normalized by the volumetric density of liquid water ( units kg / m3 ) , thus being expressed in units of length ( e.g. , millimeter or inches ) . It corresponds to the depth of a layer of water that would accumulate in an area , if all the snow and ice were melted in that given area . For example , if the snow covering a given area has a water equivalent of 50 centimeters ( 20 in ) , then it will melt into a pool of water 50 centimeters ( 20 in ) deep covering the same area . This is a much more useful measurement to hydrologists than snow depth , as the density of cool freshly fallen snow widely varies . New snow commonly has a density of around 8 % of water . This means that 33 centimeters ( 13 in ) of snow melts down to 2 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 1 in ) of water . Cloud temperatures and physical processes in the cloud affect the shape of individual snow crystals . Highly branched or dendritic crystals tend to have more space between the arms of ice that form the snowflake and this snow will therefore have a lower density , often referred to as " dry " snow . Conditions that create columnar or plate @-@ like crystals will have much less air space within the crystal and will therefore be denser and feel " wetter " .
= = Acoustic properties = =
Newly fallen snow acts as a sound @-@ absorbing material , which minimizes sound over its surface . This is due to the trapped air between the individual crystalline flakes , trapping sound waves and dampening vibrations . Once it is blown around by the wind and exposed to sunshine , snow hardens and its sound @-@ softening quality diminishes . Snow cover as thin as 2 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick changes the acoustic properties of a landscape . Studies concerning the acoustic properties of snow have revealed that loud sounds , such as from a pistol , can be used to measure snow cover permeability and depth . Within motion pictures , the sound of walking through snow is simulated using cornstarch , salt , or cat litter . When the temperature falls below − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) , snow will squeak when walked upon due to the crushing of the ice crystals within the snow . If covered by a layer of freezing rain , the hardened frozen surface acts to echo sounds , similar to concrete .
From under water , snowfall has a unique sound when compared to other forms of precipitation , and the sound varies little with differences in the snowflakes ' size and shape .
= = Snowfall measurement = =
Snowfall is defined by the U.S. National Weather Service as a being the maximum depth of snow on a snowboard ( typically a piece of plywood painted white ) observed during a six @-@ hour period . At the end of the six @-@ hour period , all snow is cleared from the measuring surface . For a daily total snowfall , four six @-@ hour snowfall measurements are summed . Snowfall can be very difficult to measure due to melting , compacting , blowing and drifting .
The liquid equivalent of snowfall may be evaluated using a snow gauge or with a standard rain gauge having a diameter of 100 mm ( 4 in ; plastic ) or 200 mm ( 8 in ; metal ) . Rain gauges are adjusted to winter by removing the funnel and inner cylinder and allowing the snow / freezing rain to collect inside the outer cylinder . Antifreeze liquid may be added to melt the snow or ice that falls into the gauge . In both types of gauges once the snowfall / ice is finished accumulating , or as its height in the gauge approaches 300 mm ( 12 in ) , the snow is melted and the water amount recorded .
Another type of gauge used to measure the liquid equivalent of snowfall is the weighing precipitation gauge . The wedge and tipping bucket gauges will have problems with snow measurement . Attempts to compensate for snow / ice by warming the tipping bucket meet with limited success , since snow may sublimate if the gauge is kept much above the freezing temperature . Weighing gauges with antifreeze should do fine with snow , but again , the funnel needs to be removed before the event begins . At some automatic weather stations an ultrasonic snow depth sensor may be used to augment the precipitation gauge .
Spring snow melt is a major source of water supply to areas in temperate zones near mountains that catch and hold winter snow , especially those with a prolonged dry summer . In such places , water equivalent is of great interest to water managers wishing to predict spring runoff and the water supply of cities downstream . Measurements are made manually at marked locations known as snow courses , and remotely using special scales called snow pillows .
When a snow measurement is made , various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet , such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE . If a network is not available in the area where one lives , the nearest local weather office will likely be interested in the measurement .
= = Records = =
The world record for the highest seasonal total snowfall was measured in the United States at Mount Baker Ski Area , outside of the town Bellingham , Washington during the 1998 – 1999 season . Mount Baker received 2 @,@ 896 cm ( 95 @.@ 01 ft ) of snow , thus surpassing the previous record holder , Mount Rainier , Washington , which during the 1971 – 1972 season received 2 @,@ 850 cm ( 93 @.@ 5 ft ) of snow .
The world record for the highest average yearly snowfall is 1 @,@ 764 cm ( 57 @.@ 87 ft ) , measured in Sukayu Onsen , Japan for the period of 1981 – 2010 .
The North American record for the highest average yearly snowfall is 1 @,@ 630 cm ( 53 @.@ 5 ft ) , measured on Mount Rainier , Washington .
The world record for snow depth is 1 @,@ 182 cm ( 38 @.@ 78 ft ) . It was measured on the slope of Mt . Ibuki in Shiga Prefecture , Japan at altitude of 1 @,@ 200 m ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) on February 14 , 1927 .
The North American record for snow depth is 1 @,@ 150 cm ( 37 @.@ 7 ft ) . It was measured at Tamarack , California at altitude of 2 @,@ 100 m ( 7 @,@ 000 ft ) in March 1911 .
The world 's snowiest city with a population over one million is Sapporo , Japan , with an average yearly snowfall of 595 cm ( 19 @.@ 52 ft ) .
= = Snow blindness = =
Fresh snow reflects 90 % or more of ultraviolet radiation , which causes snow blindness , also reducing absorption of sunlight by the ground . Snow blindness ( also known as ultraviolet keratitis , photokeratitis or niphablepsia ) is a painful eye condition , caused by exposure of unprotected eyes to the ultraviolet ( UV ) rays in bright sunlight reflected from snow or ice . This condition is a problem in polar regions and at high altitudes , as with every 300 meters ( 980 ft ) of elevation ( above sea level ) , the intensity of UV rays increases by 4 % . Snow 's large reflection of light makes night skies much brighter , since reflected light is directed back up into the sky . However , when there is also cloud cover , light is then reflected back to the ground . This greatly amplifies light emitted from city lights , causing the ' bright night ' effect . A similar brightening effect occurs when no snow is falling and there is a full moon and a large amount of snow .
= = Relation to river flow = =
Many rivers originating in mountainous or high @-@ latitude regions receive a significant portion of their flow from snowmelt . This often makes the river 's flow highly seasonal resulting in periodic flooding during the spring months and at least in dry mountainous regions like the mountain West of the US or most of Iran and Afghanistan , very low flow for the rest of the year . In contrast , if much of the melt is from glaciated or nearly glaciated areas , the melt continues through the warm season , with peak flows occurring in mid to late summer .
= = Effects on human society = =
Substantial snowfall can disrupt public infrastructure and services , slowing human activity even in regions that are accustomed to such weather . Air and ground transport may be greatly inhibited or shut down entirely . Populations living in snow @-@ prone areas have developed various ways to travel across the snow , such as skis , snowshoes , and sleds pulled by horses , dogs , or other animals and later , snowmobiles . Basic utilities such as electricity , telephone lines , and gas supply can also fail . In addition , snow can make roads much harder to travel and vehicles attempting to use them can easily become stuck . Snowfall can have a small negative effect on yearly yield from solar photovoltaic systems .
The combined effects can lead to a " snow day " on which gatherings such as school or work are officially canceled . In areas that normally have very little or no snow , a snow day may occur when there is only light accumulation or even the threat of snowfall , since those areas are unprepared to handle any amount of snow . In some areas , such as some states in the United States , schools are given a yearly quota of snow days ( or " calamity days " ) . Once the quota is exceeded , the snow days must be made up . In other states , all snow days must be made up . For example , schools may extend the remaining school days later into the afternoon , shorten spring break , or delay the start of summer vacation .
Accumulated snow is removed to make travel easier and safer , and to decrease the long @-@ term impact of a heavy snowfall . This process utilizes shovels , snowplows and snow blowers and is often assisted by sprinkling salt or other chloride @-@ based chemicals , which reduce the melting temperature of snow . In some areas with abundant snowfall , such as Yamagata Prefecture , Japan , people harvest snow and store it surrounded by insulation in ice houses . This allows the snow to be used through the summer for refrigeration and air conditioning , which requires far less electricity than traditional cooling methods .
= = = Agriculture = = =
Snowfall can be beneficial to agriculture by serving as a thermal insulator , conserving the heat of the Earth and protecting crops from subfreezing weather . Some agricultural areas depend on an accumulation of snow during winter that will melt gradually in spring , providing water for crop growth . If it melts into water and refreezes upon sensitive crops , such as oranges , the resulting ice will protect the fruit from exposure to lower temperatures .
= = = Recreation = = =
Many winter sports , such as skiing , snowboarding , snowmobiling , and snowshoeing depend upon snow . Where snow is scarce but the temperature is low enough , snow cannons may be used to produce an adequate amount for such sports . Children and adults can play on a sled or ride in a sleigh . Although a person 's footsteps remain a visible lifeline within a snow @-@ covered landscape , snow cover is considered a general danger to hiking since the snow obscures landmarks and makes the landscape itself appear uniform .
One of the recognizable recreational uses of snow is in building snowmen . A snowman is created by making a man shaped figure out of snow – often using a large , shaped snowball for the body and a smaller snowball for the head which is often decorated with simple household items – traditionally including a carrot for a nose , and coal for eyes , nose and mouth ; occasionally including old clothes such as a top hat or scarf .
Snow can be used to make snow cones , also known as snowballs , which are usually eaten in the summer months . Flat areas of snow can be used to make snow angels , a popular pastime for children .
Snow can be used to alter the format of outdoor games such as Capture the flag , or for snowball fights . The world 's biggest snowcastle , the SnowCastle of Kemi , is built in Kemi , Finland every winter . Since 1928 Michigan Technological University in Houghton , Michigan has held an annual Winter Carnival in mid @-@ February , during which a large Snow Sculpture Contest takes place between various clubs , fraternities , and organizations in the community and the university . Each year there is a central theme , and prizes are awarded based on creativity . Snowball softball tournaments are held in snowy areas , usually using a bright orange softball for visibility , and burlap sacks filled with snow for the bases .
= = Damage = =
When heavy , wet snow with a snow @-@ water equivalent ( SWE ) ratio of between 6 : 1 and 12 : 1 ( in extreme cases , as heavy as 4 : 1 ) and a weight in excess of 10 pounds per square foot ( ~ 40 kg / m2 ) piles onto trees or electricity lines – particularly if the trees have full leaves or are not adapted to snow – significant damage may occur on a scale usually associated with hurricanes . An avalanche can occur upon a sudden thermal or mechanical impact upon snow that has accumulated on a mountain , which causes the snow to rush downhill en masse . Preceding an avalanche is a phenomenon known as an avalanche wind caused by the approaching avalanche itself , which adds to its destructive potential . Large amounts of snow which accumulate on top of man @-@ made structures can lead to structural failure . During snowmelt , acidic precipitation which previously fell into the snow pack is released , which harms marine life .
There is a popular misconception that snow becomes heavier when it starts to melt , so many people take risks by climbing on roofs to remove snow when the weather starts to get warmer , for fear that the roofs will collapse . In fact , when snow starts to melt , its volume decreases as the ice crystals and meltwater move into the spaces between the crystals , which makes the density of wet , melting snow greater than that of freshly @-@ fallen snow . This makes it feel heavier to shovel , but its mass does not increase . In fact , it decreases when meltwater runs off the roof , so the weight of snow on a roof actually decreases when it starts to melt .
= = Design of structures considering snow load = =
The designs of all structures and buildings use the ground snow load determined by professional engineers and designers . Data on ground snow in the U.S.A. are provided by the American Society of Civil Engineers ( ASCE7 @-@ latest edition ) for most jurisdictions . This load is typically the governing design factor on roofs and structural elements exposed to the effects of snow in the northern United States . Closer to the Equator , the snow load becomes less important and may or may not be the governing factor .
= = Extraterrestrial snow = =
Very light snow is known to occur at high latitudes on Mars . A " snow " of hydrocarbons is also theorized to occur on Saturn 's moon Titan .
While there is little or no water on Venus , there is a phenomenon which is quite similar to snow . The Magellan probe imaged a highly reflective substance at the tops of Venus 's highest mountain peaks which bore a strong resemblance to terrestrial snow . This substance arguably formed from a similar process to snow , albeit at a far higher temperature . Too volatile to condense on the surface , it rose in gas form to cooler higher elevations , where it then fell as precipitation . The identity of this substance is not known with certainty , but speculation has ranged from elemental tellurium to lead sulfide ( galena ) .
= Madison Rayne =
Ashley Nichole Lomberger ( née Simmons ; born February 5 , 1986 ) is an American professional wrestler currently signed to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) under the ring name Madison Rayne .
Simmons began her wrestling career on the independent circuit , wrestling under the names Ashley Lane and Lexi Lane . She joined the all @-@ female promotion Shimmer Women Athletes in 2007 , where she was one half of the first @-@ ever Shimmer Tag Team Champions , along with Nevaeh . In 2009 , she signed with TNA , aligning herself with Angelina Love and Velvet Sky as part of the villainous The Beautiful People stable . In March 2010 , she , along Lacey Von Erich and Velvet Sky , won the TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship , with the three defending the title under the Freebird Rule . In April 2010 , she won her first of five TNA Knockouts Championships . In addition , she was the first TNA Knockout to hold both titles simultaneously . She has also made appearances in Wrestlicious as Amber Lively .
= = Early life = =
Simmons was born in Columbus , Ohio , but grew up in West Lafayette , Ohio , with her two older brothers . During high school , Simmons was the Homecoming Queen and a varsity cheerleader . She also ran track , and was a member of the drama club .
After high school , Simmons began training for fitness competitions , although she never entered any . Initially , she studied Radiology at college part @-@ time while wrestling on the independent circuit . She later left college to pursue a full @-@ time wrestling career . At the time she left school , Simmons had a 4 @.@ 0 GPA .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Training ( 2005 ) = = =
Simmons first became involved professional wrestling shortly after graduating from high school . She saw a poster for a local independent promotion , contacted the promoter , and began training a shortly after under the ring name Lexi Lane . After completing her training under Jeff Cannon , she began her wrestling career in her home state of Ohio . Her first match was in her former high school and was refereed by former WWE Diva Ivory . In October 2006 , she competed in World Xtreme Wrestling 's Elite 8 Tournament . In Ohio , Lane wrestled Nevaeh in several promotions as part of a scripted rivalry between the two .
= = = Ohio Championship Wrestling ( 2005 – 09 ) = = =
Lane made her debut for Ohio Championship Wrestling ( OCW ) on March 13 , 2005 event in Coshocton , Ohio , where she teamed up with trainer Jeff Cannon in a losing effort to Cruz Sangria and Jayme Braxton in a mixed tag team match . The following month , Lane made her singles match debut and defeated Jayme Braxton with Ivory as the special guest referee . At the June 18 , 2005 event , Lane defeated Brian Biggs in an intergender match . The following month , Lane competed against Jayme Braxton , losing to her twice . At the OCW event on August 13 , Lane teamed up with Scotty Sabre in a winning effort against Jayme Braxton and Matt Masonalso in a mixed tag team match . On November 12 , Lane defeated Hailey Hatred in a singles match . On February 11 , Lane competed against Shantelle Taylor in a winning effort . On the March 11 , Lane unsuccessfully challenged Shark Boy for the OCW Cruiserweight Championship in a five @-@ person match , which was won by Vic Montana . On May 12 and 13 , Lane competed against Heather Owens in a losing effort .
Lane entered a feud with Jessicka Havok on June 10 , after Lane defeated Havok by disqualification . On October 7 and 8 , Lane defeated Havok in singles matches . On November 11 , Lane teamed up with Traci Brooks in a winning effort against Havok and ODB in a tag team match . At the OCW Stairway to Stardom event on January 13 , 2007 , Lane competed against Havok in a singles match which ended in a no @-@ contest .
At the March 13 OCW Ladies Night event , Lane defeated ODB in finals of the tournament to become the promotion 's first ever OCW Women 's Champion . On April 27 , Lane made her first title defense against Sassy Stephie . The following month , Lane once again defeated Stephie in another title match . At the OCW Fan Appreciation Night , Lane successfully defended her title against Angel Dust . On August 25 , Lane successfully retained her title against Stephie and Dust in a triple threat match . The following month , Lane teamed up with Nevaeh in a losing effort to Stephie and Dust in a tag team match . On November 24 , Lane lost the Women 's Championship to Nevaeh . Lane regained it in May 2008 , but lost it to Sara Del Rey in February 2009 .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2006 – 09 ) = = =
Lane made her debut for Mad @-@ Pro Wrestling ( MPW ) on the March 2 , 2006 at the MPW Crowning A Champion event in Chillicothe , Ohio , where she accompied Lotus where he competed in the MPW Heavyweight Championship tournament . Later that event , Lane made her in @-@ ring debut competing against Portia Perez . At the MPW One Year Anniversary event on May 25 , Lane fought Nevaeh to a no @-@ contest in a dark match . Lane made her debut for Far North Wrestling ( FNW ) on July 15 , 2006 event in Kittanning , Pennsylvania , where she defeated Jessicka Havok . At the MPW No Escape event on July 22 , Lane competed in a four @-@ way match against Neveah , Portia Perez and Daizee Haze , which was won by Perez .
Lane made her debut for New Era Pro Wrestling ( NWPW ) on the December 2 , 2006 at the NEPW Hostile Holidays event , where she competed against Jessicka Havok in a winning effort . Lane made her debut for Cleveland All @-@ Pro Wrestling ( CAPW ) at the St. Valentine 's Day Mat Massacre event on February 11 , 2007 , where she was defeated by Lorelei Lee in a triple threat match also involving Havok . On the March 10 , 2007 CAPW event , Lane teamed up with Portia Perez in a losing effort to Hailey Hatred and Havok . At the CAPW April Armageddon event , Lane competed against Havok in a losing effort .
Lane made her debut for PRIME Wrestling ( PWO ) on November 27 , 2007 at the PWO Television episode 5 , where she defeated Sassy Stephie . Lane made her return on the May 24 , 2008 episode of PWO Television episode 15 , where she defeated Hobo Joe in a singles match . On the June 21 episode of PWO Television , Lane teamed up with Josh Prohibition in a winning effort defeating Jimmy DeMarco and Marion Fontaine in a mixed tag team match .
= = = Shimmer Women Athletes ( 2007 – 09 ; 2011 ) = = =
On October 13 , 2007 , she made her debut in Shimmer Women Athletes as Ashley Lane . At Volume 15 , Lane teamed with Lorelei Lee in a losing effort to Portia Perez and Nicole Matthews . At Volume 16 , Lane lost to Alexa Thatcher .
Lane then formed a tag team with Nevaeh , and they made their debut in loss to The Experience ( Lexie Fyfe and Malia Hosaka ) at Volume 17 , but then scored a win against The Minnesota Homewrecking Crew ( Lacey and Rain ) at Volume 18 . At Volume 19 , Lane competed in a battle royal , which was won by Jetta . Later that night , Lane teamed up with Nevaeh where they defeated the duo of Veronika Vice and Cat Power , but lost to The International Home Wrecking Crew ( Rain and Jetta ) at Volume 20 . On October 19 , Lane and Nevaeh emerged victorious from a six @-@ team tag team gauntlet match to crown the first Shimmer Tag Team Champions . Later that evening , they successfully defended the titles against the Canadian NINJAs ( Portia Perez and Nicole Matthews ) . At Volume 23 , Lane and Neveah successfully defended their titles against The International Home Wrecking Crew ( Rain and Jetta ) in a two out of three falls match . At Volume 25 , Lane and Neveah successfully defended their championships against Amazing Kong and Sara Del Rey . At Volume 26 on May 3 , 2009 , Lane and Nevaeh lost the Shimmer Tag Team Championship to the Canadian NINJAs .
At Volume 27 , Lane and Nevaeh lost to the team of Melanie Cruise and Wesna Busic in a tag team match . At Volume 28 , Lane and Naveah defeated Kacey Diamond and Sassy Stephie . Because of agreement with Shimmer and Ring of Honor ( ROH ) , Lane made her debut for ROH on April 19 , 2008 , where she competed in a Four Corner Survival match against Daizee Haze , Lacey , and MsChif , which was won by MsChif . Lane made a second appearance at Southern Hostility pay @-@ per @-@ view on December 6 in a match against Haze , Sara Del Rey , and Serena Deeb . Lane later left ROH after debuting in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) in January 2009 .
On October 1 , 2011 , Lane returned to Shimmer as fan favorite , calling out former partner Nevaeh for turning on MsChif and Jessie McKay during a tag team match . Nevaeh in turn claimed that Lane had turned her back on Shimmer by leaving the promotion in 2009 , which led to a brawl between the two . Later that night , Nevaeh defeated Lane in her return match . At Volume 44 , Lane teamed with Mia Yim in a losing effort against Nevaeh and Sassy Stephie .
= = = Wrestlicious ( 2009 – 10 ) = = =
In 2009 , Lane took part in the first season of Wrestlicious , which began airing on television in March 2010 . In the promotion , she played in the role of " Cheerleader " Amber Lively . She debuted in the third episode of Takedown ( aired on March 17 ) , teaming with Lacey Von Erich and winning by disqualification against the team of Draculetta and White Magic . On the April 7 episode of Takedown , Lively participated in a Hoedown Throwdown battle royal to determine the top two contenders for the Wrestlicious Championship , but failed to advance .
= = = Other promotions ( 2010 – 12 ) = = =
As Madison Rayne , she made her debut for Remix Pro Wrestling ( RPW ) on April 24 , 2010 at the Remix Pro Throw Down For The Pound 2 event in Marietta , Ohio , where she defeated Nevaeh and Sojournor Bolt in a triple threat match . Rayne made her debut for Purks International Championship Wrestling ( PICW ) on August 10 event in Cedartown , Georgia , where she defeated Tracy Taylor . On April 2 , 2011 at the Remix Pro Throw Down @-@ Hoedown For The Pound 3 event , she defeated Sara Del Rey in a singles match .
Rayne made her debut for Family Wrestling Entertainment ( FWE ) at the FWE Fallout pay @-@ per @-@ view , where she was defeated by Tara with Christy Hemme as the special guest referee . On September 22 , 2012 , Rayne made her debut for Northeast Wrestling , teaming up with Rosita to defeat The Beautiful People ( Angelina Love and Velvet Sky ) in a tag team match . Rayne made her debut for National Wrestling Superstars ( NWS ) on December 12 , 2012 at the NWS Jingle Brawl , where she , along with Danny Demanto , accompanied Nikki Addams where Addams competed against Nikki Richardson . Later that night , Rayne teamed up with Demanto in a losing effort to Chris D 'Andrea and Rosita in a mixed tag team match . The following night , Rayne teamed up with Demanto in a winning effort defeating D 'Andrea and Rosita in a rematch .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling = = =
= = = = The Beautiful People ( 2009 – 10 ) = = = =
Lane debuted in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) as Madison Rayne on the January 8 , 2009 episode of TNA Impact ! , where she was defeated by Awesome Kong . She returned on the February 12 episode of Impact ! in a Knockouts gauntlet match , and was one of the finalists , but was eliminated by Sojo Bolt . The following week , she began her first storyline by slapping and walking out on her tag team partner Taylor Wilde in a match against The Beautiful People ( Angelina Love and Velvet Sky ) , and her character became villainous in the process . On the March 5 episode of Impact ! , Rayne aligned herself with The Beautiful People after assisting them in winning a four @-@ way tag team match . At Destination X in March , Rayne made her pay @-@ per @-@ view debut , teaming with Love and Sky against The Governor , Taylor Wilde and Roxxi in a losing effort .
Rayne 's hazing continued after The Beautiful People won an Impact ! tag team match against Awesome Kong and Raisha Saeed , after which Rayne tried to cut the braided hair of the TNA Knockouts Champion Kong . With Sky in her corner , Angelina Love faced Kong and perennial nemesis Taylor Wilde in a three @-@ way cage match for the Knockout Championship at Lockdown , which Love would win . The following week on Impact ! , Mi Pi Sexy had a celebration with male dancers and named Rayne an official member of the Beautiful People . However , the celebration was cut short by Kong . Kong continued her attack on Mi Pi Sexy and proved her dominance by making her way through Rayne , Sky and Cute Kip , who Love brought back to stop her , in stretcher matches on the following weeks of Impact ! .
At Hard Justice in August , Rayne cost Love her Knockouts Championship when her interference in the match backfired . On the following episode of Impact ! , Rayne was scheduled to face Love in a match , but before it started , Love attacked her from behind . After Love had pinned Rayne , Sky showed up holding a brown paper bag and put it on Rayne 's head to humiliate her . Rayne was then saved by Tara and Christy Hemme . On the September 10 episode of Impact ! , Rayne and partner Roxxi lost to The Beautiful People in a match that was part of a tournament to crown the inaugural Knockouts Tag Team Champions .
The following week , Rayne , after helping Love and Sky advance to the finals of the tournament , was welcomed back into The Beautiful People . At No Surrender , Rayne replaced Love , who had been released from her contract due to work visa issues prior to the event , and teamed up with Sky in the tournament finals , where they were defeated by the team of Sarita and Taylor Wilde .
On the October 1 episode of Impact ! , The Beautiful People apologized to the TNA fans and Knockouts for their behavior , blaming their past actions on Love . They invited the Knockouts Tag Team Champions , Taylor Wilde and Sarita , down to the ring to prove their apology was genuine , and expressed their desire for a competitive match at Bound for Glory . The Beautiful People shook their hands , but then attacked them . As they began to lose the advantage in the assault , the debuting Lacey Von Erich took out Wilde and Sarita . The three then posed in the ring , welcoming Von Erich into The Beautiful People . Rayne gained her first victory in TNA on the October 8 episode of Impact ! by scoring the deciding fall in an eight @-@ Knockout elimination match where she , Sky , Alissa Flash and Traci Brooks defeated Sarita , Taylor Wilde , Hamada and Christy Hemme after the interference from Von Erich .
The three then won their first match as a team , defeating ODB , Tara and Awesome Kong , but was unsuccessful in their Knockout 's Tag Team title rematch at Bound For Glory . On the October 22 episode of Impact ! , The Beautiful People began appearing in backstage segments they dubbed as their reality show " The Meanest Girls " , an allusion to the 2004 teen comedy Mean Girls .
In the pilot episode , The Beautiful People attacked Taylor Wilde and Sarita , and engaged in a food fight , with The Beautiful People coming out on top . In the sequel , which aired on the November 5 episode of Impact ! , the Beautiful People attacked ODB , setting up a six @-@ Knockout tag team match at Turning Point , for both the Knockouts Championship and the Knockouts Tag Team Championship . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view , the Beautiful People were unsuccessful , as ODB pinned Rayne to win the match for the reigning champions . Around this time , the Beautiful People began using a weapon dubbed Lacey 's Ugly Stick , a pink baton .
Angelina Love returned to the company on the January 14 , 2010 episode of Impact ! , but instead of re @-@ joining The Beautiful People , she attacked them . Several weeks later on March 8 , Rayne and Velvet Sky defeated the teams of Love and Tara , and Sarita and Taylor Wilde in a three @-@ way match to win the vacant Knockouts Tag Team Championship . Under the Freebird Rule , all three members of The Beautiful People were considered champions , and any combination of two members were permitted to defend the title . At Lockdown in April , Rayne and Sky partnered against Tara and Angelina Love in a tag team cage match , during which Rayne pinned Tara to win Love 's Knockouts Championship . With the win , she became the first person to hold both the Knockout Championship and the Knockouts Tag Team Champiobnship simultaneously . The following month at Sacrifice , Rayne defeated Tara in a Title vs. Career match , causing Tara to retire from TNA and ending the storyline rivalry between Tara and The Beautiful People . At Slammiversary VIII Rayne retained her title against Roxxi in another Title vs. Career match .
= = = = Championship reigns ( 2010 – 11 ) = = = =
On July 11 at the Victory Road pay @-@ per @-@ view , Rayne lost the Knockouts Championship to Angelina Love in another Title vs. Career match by disqualification due to outside interference from a person incognito in a motorcycle helmet . Prior to the match , it was announced that the title would change hands by disqualification , if either Velvet Sky or Lacey Von Erich interfered in the match . However , the title was returned to Rayne on the July 22 episode of Impact ! , when it was declared that there was no proof that the person who had interfered in the match was either Sky or Von Erich , making Rayne a two @-@ time Knockouts Champion .
After weeks of arguing amongst each other over Rayne 's attitude , the Beautiful People agreed to a truce on the July 29 episode of Impact ! . However , on the following episode of Impact ! , Rayne and the mystery woman inadvertently cost Sky and Von Erich the Knockouts Tag Team Championship in a match against Hamada and Taylor Wilde , when their interference backfired . The following week , Rayne lost the Knockouts Championship to Angelina Love , after a distraction caused by Velvet Sky attacking the mystery woman . Rayne received her rematch for the title on the following week 's episode of Impact ! , but was again defeated by Love , after an interference from Velvet Sky . After the match Rayne and the mystery woman beat down Love and Sky . Rayne 's mysterious ally was finally unmasked and revealed as Tara on the September 2 episode of Impact ! , when the two of them defeated the Beautiful People in a tag team match . At the No Surrender pay @-@ per @-@ view , Rayne was defeated by Velvet Sky in a singles match . On the September 16 episode of Impact ! , Rayne and Tara turned on Lacey Von Erich , after she and Rayne failed to regain the Knockouts Tag Team Championship from Hamada and Taylor Wilde . Von Erich was then saved by Love and Sky , who took her back into the Beautiful People . On the September 30 episode of Impact ! , Rayne signed a waiver to allow Tara to return to the ring , after losing a Title vs. Career match , which was supposed to end her TNA career .
Rayne attempted to regain the Knockout Championship in a four corners match with Love , Sky and Tara on October 10 at the Bound for Glory pay @-@ per @-@ view , but was unsuccessful , when Tara pinned Sky to win the title . After the match , the outraged Rayne went after special guest referee Mickie James , but ended up being laid out by her . On the October 14 episode of Impact ! , Tara laid down for Rayne and let her pin her to win the championship back , making her a three @-@ time Knockout Champion . On the December 16 episode of Impact ! , Rayne and Tara defeated Mickie James and Miss Tessmacher to advance to the finals of a tournament for the vacated Knockouts Tag Team Championship . The following week , they were defeated in the finals by the team of Angelina Love and Winter .
In 2011 , Rayne would start a rivalry with Mickie James over the Knockouts Championship , and would successfully defend the title against her at Genesis , and at Against All Odds in a Last Knockout Standing match , both times after interference from Tara . Afterwards , Rayne , claiming to now be done with James , announced the beginning of an open challenge series intended to find her new opponents , and , as part of it , successfully defended the Knockout Championship against former Knockouts ODB , Roxxi and Alissa Flash . However , during the storyling , Tara began claiming that Rayne had gone too far in her brutality towards James , but was forced to follow her orders due to being under exclusive contract with Rayne and not with TNA . After Rayne lost her title to James at Lockdown , ending her reign at 188 days , James agreed to give her a rematch for it on the condition that if she is unable to regain the title , Tara would be released from her contract with Rayne . On May 15 at Sacrifice , Tara turned on Rayne during her match with James , costing her the Knockout Championship and guaranteeing herself a release from her contract with Rayne . Rayne attacked Tara on the June 9 episode of Impact Wrestling , costing her and Mickie James their tag team match against Angelina Love and Winter . The two faced each other in a singles match on the July 14 episode of Impact Wrestling , where Tara was victorious after distracting Rayne with her pet tarantula Poison . Rayne returned on the September 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating Tara to earn a shot at the Knockouts Championship at Bound for Glory .
= = = = Alliance with Gail Kim and hiatus ( 2011 – 13 ) = = = =
On October 16 at the Bound for Glory pay @-@ per @-@ view , Rayne was defeated by Velvet Sky in the four @-@ way title match , which also included Mickie James and Winter . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne aligned herself with the returning Gail Kim and the Vice President of the Knockouts Division , Karen Jarrett .
On the November 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne and Kim defeated TnT ( Brooke Tessmacher and Tara ) to win the Knockouts Tag Team Championship . The following week , they made their first title defense , defeating Mickie James and Velvet Sky . On December 11 at the Final Resolution pay @-@ per @-@ view , Rayne caused a distraction during a Knockouts Championship match between Gail Kim and Mickie James , costing James the title . After Karen Jarrett was , in storyline , fired from TNA on the December 15 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne took over her role as the Vice President of the Knockouts Division , until Sting revoked her power on December 29 episode of Impact Wrestling . Later that same night , Rayne interfered in the main event between Gail Kim and Mickie James , once again costing James the Knockouts Championship . On the January 5 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne and Kim retained their titles against James and Traci Brooks . On the January 19 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne was defeated by James in a steel cage match . After walking out on Gail Kim at the Against All Odds pay @-@ per @-@ view , Rayne became the number one contender to her Knockouts Championship by winning a battle royal on the February 16 episode of Impact Wrestling . In the following weeks , tension between Rayne and Kim began show , with the two negatively interfering in each other 's matches . On the March 8 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim and Rayne lost the Knockouts Tag Team Championship to Eric Young and ODB . On March 18 at the Victory Road pay @-@ per @-@ view , Rayne failed to capture the Knockouts Championship from Kim . On the March 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim and Rayne reconciled and remained together as a team .
The July 5 episode of Impact Wrestling saw the culmination of a several month long storyline , when Rayne revealed referee Earl Hebner as her secret crush . On the August 2 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hebner helped Rayne win a four @-@ way match over Gail Kim , Mickie James and Tara to become the number one contender to the Knockouts Championship . On August 12 at the Hardcore Justice pay @-@ per @-@ view , Hebner helped Rayne defeat Miss Tessmacher to win the Knockouts Championship for the fourth time . Rayne lost the title back to Tessmacher on the following episode of Impact Wrestling in a match refereed by the debuting Taryn Terrell .
Rayne returned to TNA on the November 15 episode of Impact Wrestling , where competed in a Knockouts battle royal to become the number one contender to the Knockouts Championship , but failed to win after being eliminated by ODB . Rayne faced off against the returning Velvet Sky on the December 13 episode of Impact Wrestling , where she was defeated by Sky . On March 17 , 2013 , Rayne made an appearance at TNA 's Knockouts Knockdown pay @-@ per @-@ view to congratulate and crown her former tag team partner Gail Kim , who was named " Queen of the Knockouts " . Rayne would later stop appearing on television due to being on a legitimate maternity leave . On July 3 , Rayne announced on her Twitter account that her contract with TNA had expired .
= = = Return to TNA = = =
= = = = Championship pursuits ( 2013 – 15 ) = = = =
Rayne returned to TNA on the December 12 episode of Impact Wrestling , saving ODB , who was being attacked by Lei 'D Tapa and Rayne 's former partner , the Knockouts Champion Gail Kim , establishing herself as a face in the process . Rayne made her in @-@ ring return on the December 19 episode of Impact Wrestling , when she teamed with ODB to defeat Lei 'D Tapa and Gail Kim , after Rayne pinned Kim . On the January 2 , 2014 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne defeated Kim in an open challenge match , thus earning a match for the Knockouts Championship . On January 16 at the Impact Wrestling : Genesis special episode , Rayne defeated Kim to win the Knockouts Championship for a record @-@ tying fifth time . On the January 30 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne and her former The Beautiful People partner Velvet Sky teamed up in a tag team match , which they won against Kim and Tapa . The rivalry between Kim and Rayne continued as the two competed in a street fight on the February 20 episode of Impact Wrestling , which Kim would win after a distraction by Lei 'D Tapa . The following week on the February 27 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne once again reunited with Sky in a tag team match against Tapa and Alpha Female , which they would lose when Tapa pinned Rayne . On March 2 , both Rayne and Gail Kim were part of a group of TNA wrestlers that took part in Wrestle @-@ 1 's Kaisen : Outbreak event in Tokyo , Japan . During the event , Kim defeated Rayne in a non @-@ title match . A week later at the Lockdown pay @-@ per @-@ view , Rayne defeated Kim in a steel cage match to retain the Knockouts Championship .
After ending her rivalry with Kim , Rayne entered a storyline with Angelina Love , who returned on the March 13 episode of Impact Wrestling , with the intent to reunite The Beautiful People . On the March 20 episode of Impact Wrestling , Velvet Sky would accept Love 's offer , while Rayne would decline and was attacked by Love as a result . On the March 27 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne was defeated by Love due to interference from Sky . On the April 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne teamed with Brittany against The Beautiful People , and came out on the losing side when Love pinned Brittany . On April 27 at the Sacrifice pay @-@ per @-@ view , Rayne lost the Knockout Championship to Love , ending her reign at 101 days . After this , Rayne would enter a storyline in which Brittany would attempt to get involved in Rayne 's feud with The Beautiful People , only to be repeatedly rejected . On the May 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , after Rayne refused to be Brittany 's tag team partner , Brittany would confront Rayne and confess her attraction towards her , only to be rejected . On the June 5 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne received her rematch clause against Love in a losing effort , after a distraction by Sky . On the June 12 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne was defeated by Gail Kim in a number one contender 's match , which also involved Brittany . On the July 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , during an in @-@ ring segment , Rayne was attacked by Brittany after she promised to remain friends with Rayne . The feud between Brittany and Rayne culminated in an no count @-@ out , no disqualification match on the July 17 episode of Impact Wrestling , which Rayne won .
Rayne competed in a # 1 Contender 's match against Taryn Terrell on the August 27 episode of Impact Wrestling , but was unsuccessful , despite showing signs of a villainous turn . On the October 8 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne became the number one contender to Havok 's Knockouts Championship , after defeating Angelina Love and Taryn Terrell in a three – way match . After the match , Rayne continued displaying her heel persona when she left Terrell to be attacked by Havok . Rayne received her title opportunity on the following week 's episode of Impact Wrestling but was unsuccessful in winning the championship from Havok . On the October 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne turned into a villainess by attacking Taryn Terrell during their tag team match against The Beautiful People , allowing Love and Sky to win .
On the January 30 , 2015 , episode of Impact Wrestling , the villainous Rayne unsuccessfully challenged Taryn Terrell for the Knockouts Championship in a three – way match , also involving Gail Kim . On the TKO : Night of Knockouts edition of Impact Wrestling on April 24 , Rayne competed in a four @-@ way number one contender 's match against Angelina Love , Brooke and Gail Kim , which was ultimately won by Brooke .
= = = = The Beautiful People reunion ( 2015 – 16 ) = = = =
On the September 2 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne and Angelina Love came to the aid of Velvet Sky , who was being beaten down by Dollhouse members Rebel , Jade and Marti Bell , turning face and reforming The Beautiful People in the process . During October and November ( taped in July ) , she participated in the TNA World Title Series , where she ended third of her block , tied with Brooke , failing to advance to the finals . Due to the departures of both Angelina and Velvet towards the middle of 2016 , The Beautiful People were once again disbanded , leaving Madison on her own once more .
= = = = Return to singles competition ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
Rayne started competing individually after winning a match against Velvet Sky for a title shot against Gail Kim . She participated in a three – way match against Gail Kim and Jade for the TNA Knockouts Championship , which was won by Jade .
On the July 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne turned villainous by attacking Gail Kim during the State of the Knockouts Division address .
= = Personal life = =
Simmons married Jesse Cabot on February 8 , 2011 . On March 17 , 2013 , Simmons announced her pregnancy , and her first child , a girl named Charley , was born on August 29 . Simmons and Cabot later got divorced , and in August 2015 , Simmons married TNA commentator Josh Lomberger , better known by his ring name Josh Mathews .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
As Madison Rayne
Rayne Drop ( Inverted overdrive ) – 2011 – 14
Rayne Check ( Guillotine drop ) – 2014 – 15
Spear , sometimes while diving – 2014 ; used as a signature move in 2013
Rolling cutter – 2016 – present
As Ashley Lane
Running big boot
Standing shiranui
As Lexi Lane
Dys @-@ Lexi @-@ a ( Reverse STO )
Lexi @-@ canrana ( Hurricanrana )
Signature moves
Arm drag , as a wheelbarrow bodyscissors counter
Big boot to the head of a bent over opponent
Bridging Northern Lights suplex
Calf kick
Corner foot choke
Diving crossbody
Facebreaker knee smash
Headscissors takedown
Inverted swinging facebuster
Multiple pinning variations
Backslide
Grapevine cradle
Roll @-@ up
Victory roll
Scissor Stomp ( Figure @-@ four headscissors , transitioned into multiple push @-@ up facebusters )
Senton
Swinging neckbreaker , sometimes preceded by a snap suplex
With Nevaeh
Double team finishing moves
STO ( Nevaeh ) / Running big boot ( Lane ) combination
Double team signature moves
Double wrist @-@ lock followed into a double dropkick
With Velvet Sky
Double team signature moves
Double straight jacket slam
Double Russian legsweep
Managers
Lacey Von Erich
Tara
Karen Jarrett
Wrestlers managed
Johnny Gargano
Angelina Love
Velvet Sky
Tara
Gail Kim
Nicknames
" Sexy "
" Cheerleader "
" The Queen Bee "
" The Killer Queen "
Entrance themes
" Angel on My Shoulder " by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; March 12 , 2009 – August 5 , 2010 , January 30 , 2014 – March 20 , 2014 , July 28 , 2015 – April 22 , 2016 ; used as a member of The Beautiful People )
" Killa Queen " ( Instrumental ) by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; October 10 , 2010 – January 6 , 2011 )
" Killa Queen " by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; January 9 , 2011 – March 17 , 2013 , December 12 , 2013 – February 13 , 2014 )
" Killa Queen " ( Remix ) by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; February 20 , 2014 – March 28 , 2016 )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Dynamite Championship Wrestling
DCW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Ohio Championship Wrestling
OCW Women 's Championship ( 2 times )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her # 5 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female Top 50 in 2011
Shimmer Women Athletes
Shimmer Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Nevaeh
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA Knockouts Championship ( 5 times )
TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Lacey Von Erich and Velvet Sky ( 1 ) 1 and Gail Kim ( 1 )
Queen of the Knockouts ( 2014 )
1Rayne defended the title with either Von Erich or Sky under the Freebird Rule .
= = = Luchas de Apuestas = = =
= Finale ( The Office ) =
" Finale " is the last episode of the American comedy television series The Office . It serves as the 24th and 25th episodes of the ninth season , and the 200th and 201st episodes of the series overall . The episode was written by series developer and executive producer Greg Daniels and directed by Ken Kwapis , who directed the series ' pilot episode . It originally aired on NBC on May 16 , 2013 , preceded by an hour @-@ long series retrospective .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , which takes place almost a year after the previous episode " A.A.R.M. " , present and past employees of Dunder Mifflin gather for the wedding of Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) . In addition , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) and Jim finally decide to pursue Jim 's dream of working in sports marketing . Finally , everyone comes together for a final round of interviews and goodbyes .
The initial idea for the finale , involving the Q & A , was thought of by Daniels during production of the third season . The episode features the return of many recurring characters , as well as Carell , whose return was kept secret for many months . Many members of the show 's crew — such as episode writer Daniels — made cameos in the episode as various background characters . Jennie Tan , the founder of the largest Office fansite OfficeTally appears in the episode as a fictional version of herself asking the members of the office questions .
The episode was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 69 million viewers and received 3 @.@ 0 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , making it the highest @-@ rated episode of the series since the eighth season entry , " Pool Party " . " Finale " received critical acclaim from critics and fans , with many critics complimenting the writers for wrapping up storylines for most of the ensemble cast . Critics also gave praise to Carell 's cameo in the episode , with many arguing that it was perfectly executed . This episode received three Primetime Emmy Award nominations for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards , and won for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
One year since the documentary has aired , the crew has returned to gain more footage for the DVD bonus features . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) are about to get married . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) , after being humiliated with his talent show audition tape going viral on the internet , has found a job at his alma mater Cornell University in the Admissions Office . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) has helped expand Athlead , now named Athleap , opening a branch in Austin , Texas . Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) is enjoying retirement in Florida and Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) tries to get Stanley 's replacement Malcolm ( Malcolm Barrett ) fat on chocolates to make him look like Stanley . After being fired by Dwight , Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) bought a bar and Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) started a career as an author in New York . Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) has moved to Poland . Creed Bratton ( Creed Bratton ) had faked his death but was then revealed to be a wanted fugitive , so Dwight replaced him with former employee Devon White ( Devon Abner ) . Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) is preparing to run for a State Senate seat and is now Phillip 's godfather . Andy , Darryl , Stanley , Toby , and Nellie return to Scranton for the wedding as well as a panel for the documentary .
Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) has been appointed best man at the wedding and proceeds to plan a series of " good surprises " ( " Guten Pranken " ) for Dwight during his bachelor party , which consists of most of the current and former male employees . At the bachelor party , the group has Dwight fire a bazooka and receive a lap dance from Elizabeth the Stripper ( Jackie Debatin ) , though Dwight thinks she is their waitress and remains oblivious . At the bachelorette party , with the current and former female employees plus Angela 's sister Rachael ( Rachael Harris ) , the group is shocked to see that the stripper hired for entertainment is Meredith Palmer 's ( Kate Flannery ) son Jake ( Spencer Daniels ) . Angela is then kidnapped by Dwight 's cousin Mose ( Michael Schur ) . After hearing about Angela 's kidnapping , Dwight and the male employees visit the bar that Kevin owns , where Dwight , at Jim 's insistence to bury the hatchet , is forced to apologize to Kevin and confirm that his firing was based on his job performance , which cheers him up . The two decide to make amends . Mose then leads Dwight and Jim out to his car where Angela is stuck in the trunk and finally let out .
The following day , a panel is held for the office so that audience members can ask them questions . Dunder Mifflin CEO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) openly states his distaste for the documentary . Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) is pressed with questions about why she did not allow Jim to follow his dream after he has paid her so many romantic gestures . Jim attempts repeatedly to disperse the resulting tension . Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) finally meets her birth parents ( Ed Begley , Jr. and Joan Cusack ) who had put her up for adoption .
At the wedding , Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) arrives with her husband Ravi ( Sendhil Ramamurthy ) , where Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) surprises them with a baby , his son Drake , that he had with a former girlfriend who then abandoned them both . Jim tells Dwight that under Schrute tradition , he is not allowed to be best man as he is younger than him . Jim surprises him with the arrival of Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) . The wedding proceeds in Schrute tradition with Michael as Dwight 's new best man . At the reception , Michael shows Pam pictures of his kids with Holly Flax , and Pam notes that he is paying for two phones just to hold all the pictures . Ryan deliberately gives Drake an allergic reaction so that Ravi , a pediatrician , can attend and Ryan can steal Kelly away . Kevin tells Ravi that Ryan wanted him to keep Drake so that Ryan can have Kelly and the two can start a new life together . Ravi then gives Kevin the baby to give to Child Services before leaving , but Nellie , who has still been wanting a child , takes Drake instead .
When Jim and Pam briefly return home , Jim is surprised to find Carol Stills ( Nancy Carell ) showing their house to another couple . Pam comes clean and admits she has been showing the house for two months . She wants to repay Jim for all his romantic gestures and says she wants him to go to Athleap in Austin , at which point the couple seeing the house make an offer . Jim and Pam go to an after party at the warehouse where they inform an elated Darryl of their plans , with Jim being able to rejoin the company with no change . Pam unveils a new painted mural featuring the history of their branch . A final picture is taken with the employees and the camera crew before the employees go back up to the office for a final toast . Jim and Pam tell Dwight they are quitting , but Dwight fires them instead so he can give them hefty severance packages , as a last gesture of friendship . The employees are surprised to find Creed , who has been living in Ryan 's old closet since faking his death , in the office . Creed sings a song on the guitar for the office before being arrested . The employees give one last round of interviews before leaving , with Pam taking her watercolor of the office building that Michael bought from her in the third season episode " Business School " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and filming = = =
" Finale " was written by series developer and showrunner Greg Daniels , making it his second writing credit for the year , after the season debut " New Guys " , and his 12th writing credit overall . The episode was directed by Ken Kwapis . Kwapis had originally directed the series ' pilot episode . Daniels joked that Kwapis was " the country vet who birthed this puppy " and had come " back to put it down " . His last directorial credit for the series , prior to " Finale " , however , was the fifth season episode " Company Picnic " . The initial idea for the finale was thought of by Daniels during production of the third season , described as " a reunion show " , in the fashion of the post @-@ competition cast rehashes familiar from reality shows like Survivor " . Daniels , at one point , approached Jeff Probst , the host of Survivor , to appear in the finale as a moderator for the fictional reunion , although he declined . The initial table read for the episode took place on March 4 , 2013 . Filming commenced on March 6 . According to Jenna Fischer , the episode took nine days to film , with the cast devoting 12 hours a day to the episode . The finale was described as " ambitious " , featuring multiple location shoots , including one in an AT & T Office Building , which stood in for the Scranton Cultural Center . Filming for the episode and series as a whole came to an end on March 16 , 2013 . Wilson later tweeted a picture of the empty set after all filming had been finished .
Originally , the episode was supposed to be the 23rd and 24th episodes of the season , which would have meant that the series aired exactly 200 episodes . However , the series ' penultimate episode was elongated into 2 separate episodes , resulting in " Finale " being the 24th and 25th episodes of the season . This meant that the last part of " Finale " is the series ' 201st episode . Once filming finished Daniels , in an interview with TVLine , expressed his hope to expand the episode , stating , " I was very excited with the footage we got ... It 's very big . I ’ m going to beg NBC to super @-@ size it or extend it . " Daniels later commented that when the editors cut together the first act , it was 23 minutes long ; this is much longer than a normal first act for an hour long episode of television . In response , OfficeTally — the largest fan site for the series — started an online petition to supersize the finale , similar to the petition to expand the second season finale , " Casino Night " . By May 2 , the petition had received over 20 @,@ 000 signatures . On May 7 , it was announced that NBC had extended the episode by 15 minutes , meaning that the episode would air in a 75 @-@ minute time slot . The episode is approximately 52 minutes in length .
= = = Casting = = =
The series finale guest stars Rachael Barrett , Dakota Johnson , Joan Cusack , Ed Begley , Jr . , and Malcolm Barrett . The episode features the return of several of the series ' actors and actresses , including former series writers and stars B. J. Novak and Mindy Kaling , as well as Andy Buckley , Robert R. Shafer , Michael Schur , and Matt L. Jones . Other minor recurring characters also make appearances , such as Nancy Carell as Carol Stills ( who played the recurring role as Michael 's real @-@ estate agent and short @-@ time girlfriend ) , Sendhil Ramamurthy as Ravi ( who first appeared in the eight season episode " Angry Andy " ) , Eric Wareheim as Gabor ( who first appeared in the earlier ninth season episode " Junior Salesman " ) , James Urbaniak as Rolf ( who first appeared in the fifth season episode " Company Picnic " ) , Jackie Debatin as Elizabeth ( who first appeared in the third season episode " Ben Franklin " ) , Devon Abner as Devon ( who was a former Dunder Mifflin employee fired in second season episode " Halloween " ) , and Spencer Daniels as Jake Palmer ( who first played Meredith 's son in the second season episode " Take Your Daughter to Work Day " ) . The episode also features Bill Hader and Seth Meyers playing themselves .
Many members of the show 's crew made cameos in the episode . Documentary crewman 's voice that speaks to Dwight was played by camera operator Matt Sohn . The " frat boy " who mocks Andy at the restaurant was Greg Daniels ' former assistant , Jonah Platt . Jay Falk , a script editor for the series , and his wife stood in for the couple buying Jim and Pam 's house . Jennifer Celotta , a series writer and director , makes an appearance at Dwight 's wedding . The episode 's call sheet listed her character as " Jen Celotta Schrute " . Producer and writer Graham Wagner also makes a cameo in both Mose 's group , as well as at the wedding . Many of the individuals who asked questions were writers on the show : Brent Forrester asked about seeing their lives on TV , Amelie Gillette asked the question regarding Jim giving up Athlead , Steve Burgess asked if the camera changed the characters ' behavior , Steve Hely asked if life has no meaning , Allison Silverman made the statement that Jim is attractive , and Dan Sterling asked what was in the teapot . Daniels ' wife , Susanne Daniels , was the Q & A moderator . Daniels himself appeared during the documentary after @-@ party along with executive producer Howard Klein , editors David Rogers and Claire Scanlon , script supervisor Veda Semarne , first assistant director Rusty Mahmood , prop master Phil Shea , and casting director Allison Jones . The remaining extras in the scene were members of the crew of The Office .
Jennie Tan , the founder of the largest The Office fansite OfficeTally appears in the episode as a fictional version of herself asking the members of the office questions . She initially emailed Daniels , asking if she could appear in the background in one of the scenes . He , however , hired her as a day actor and wrote her seven lines . During the filming , Daniels re @-@ wrote part of Tan 's line to make it more " pointed " . Tan called the experience " surreal " , because she was " playing [ herself ] but talking to Jim and Pam " , rather than Krasinski and Fischer .
Early during production for the season , Kinsey and Wilson also noted that the cast and crew were hoping for a return of former lead actor Carell . In mid @-@ December , Krasinski later revealed that he was optimistic about a return ; in an interview with E ! Online Krasinski said that the producers were supposedly " still trying to figure out [ Carell 's ] schedule " and that the finale " just wouldn 't be the same without him " . However , NBC chairman Robert Greenblatt later admitted during an interview that while he was " hopeful " , he did not think Carell would return ; he noted that Carell was satisfied with his character 's exit and did not want to tarnish it . On January 16 , Daniels revealed that Carell would not appear in the finale in any capacity , a decision that Carell later reiterated . Several months later , however , the producers for The Office mounted " an 11th hour effort " to get Carell to make a cameo in the show 's final episode , according to TVLine . According to the article , " while no one is confirming that the final diplomatic push proved successful , no one is denying it either . " Carell 's personal representative confirmed that Carell was on the set for the final episode , but that he did not film any scenes . However , an anonymous source close to the show cryptically said " don 't rule anything out " . TVLine later reported on May 6 , that Carell would appear in a cameo , although NBC declined to comment and Carell 's representatives continued to deny the reports . A month after the episode aired , Carell explained in an interview with TVLine that he " lied for months to the press , to almost everyone , really " . He noted that he " felt terribly for the cast and for [ executive producer ] Greg Daniels , because they all lied , too . " Krasinski , on the other hand , explained that " It was so thrilling . We all just flat @-@ out lied ... It was just one of those things that we all vowed and had to protect " . Even at the initial table read for the script , Carell 's appearance was not revealed . In fact , his first line was not included in the read at all , and his second was scripted to be delivered by Creed Bratton .
= = = Deleted scenes = = =
The Season Nine DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include : more scenes from the Q & A panel ; Pete discussing what he learned working at Dunder Mifflin ; Angela 's sister , Phyllis , and Andy giving toasts at the wedding ; more scenes with Erin and her biological parents in which they reconnect ; further shots of the office members reminiscing about shared memories ; and the office taking one of the potted plants outside and planting it in actual soil . The episode originally was scripted to begin with a different cold open ; it would have entailed a prank on Dwight by Jim , in which Dwight is led to believe that he is actually living in the Matrix , a computer @-@ simulation from the eponymous 1999 film of the same name . The scene was either not filmed , or cut from the episode and not included with the other deleted scenes . A table read of it — along with the rest of the episode — was included as a bonus feature on the ninth season DVD .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode makes a reference to Creed being a member of the rock band The Grass Roots . In fact , Creed Bratton , who portrays a fictionalized version of himself on the show , actually did play with the band from 1967 to 1969 . The song he performs near the end is titled " All the Faces " , which he wrote himself . Andy mentions that both the " Double Rainbow Guy " and the " Star Wars Kid " reached out to help him after his viral video mishap . Both Hader and Meyers appear in a fictional Saturday Night Live Weekend Update sketch involving Andy 's viral fame . After Pam compares her and Jim 's relationship to a great book that never ends , Tan 's character asks if it is comparable to the Harry Potter series . Dwight claims that Google Inc. is actually a front for either the United States government or " the government of other countries " .
The episode also features several callback references to previous episodes . Oscar saying " Whazzup ! " serves as a reference to a scene from " Pilot " between Michael , Dwight , and Jim . Jim 's description in his final talking head of his job is a direct quote from his first talking head in " Pilot " . Dwight hires Devon back after Creed quits , a reference to " Halloween " , when Creed convinced Michael to fire Devon . Pam sits at reception one final time and answers the phone , saying " Dunder Mifflin , this is Pam . " This is a reference to Pam 's former role as office receptionist and a common phrase that she said during the early seasons . Pam 's painting of the office building , introduced in " Business School " , plays a prominent role in the final scene .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Finale " originally aired on May 16 , 2013 , on NBC in a 75 @-@ minute timeslot , preceded by a one @-@ hour retrospective . The retrospective was viewed by 4 @.@ 37 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 / 7 % rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The finale itself was viewed by 5 @.@ 69 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 8 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 0 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a significant increase , of over one million viewers , in the ratings from the previous episode , " A.A.R.M. " . It also ranks as the highest rated episode of the season , as well as the highest @-@ rated episode for the series since the eighth season entry , " Pool Party " , which was viewed by 6 @.@ 02 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 0 / 7 % share . The episode ranked second in its timeslot , being beaten by the ABC medical drama series , Grey 's Anatomy . NBC increased their usual ad price by 200 percent for " Finale " , asking for $ 400 @,@ 000 per commercial . This was largely due to the anticipated increase in viewership that the finale would bring . Via DVR viewing , the episode was watched by an additional 2 @.@ 38 million viewers with an added 18 – 49 rating of 1 @.@ 4 , bringing the total to 8 @.@ 07 million viewers and an 18 – 49 rating of 4 @.@ 4 .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Finale " was met with acclaim from television critics . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix gave the episode a highly positive review and called it " a tremendously satisfying conclusion to a show that could make us gasp with laughter , but that could also make us cry or smile " . Sepinwall noted that , despite the inconsistency in the last few seasons , " the world was rich enough to fuel a lovely 75 @-@ minute trip through the past , present and future of The Office . Ultimately , he noted that the " biggest emotional moments " belonged to Jim and
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= = Track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= Wells , Somerset =
Wells ( / wɛlz / ) is a cathedral city and civil parish in the Mendip district of Somerset , on the southern edge of the Mendip Hills . Although the population recorded in the 2011 census was only 10 @,@ 536 , it has had city status since medieval times , because of the presence of Wells Cathedral . Often described as England 's smallest city , it is second only to the City of London in area and population , though not part of a larger urban agglomeration .
The name Wells comes from three wells dedicated to Saint Andrew , one in the market place and two within the grounds of the Bishop 's Palace and cathedral . A small Roman settlement surrounded them , which grew in importance and size under the Anglo @-@ Saxons when King Ine of Wessex founded a minster church there in 704 . The community became a trading centre based on cloth making and Wells is notable for its 17th century involvement in both the English Civil War and Monmouth Rebellion . In the 19th century , transport infrastructure improved with stations on three different railway lines . However , since 1964 the city has been without a railway link .
The cathedral and the associated religious and architectural history have made Wells a tourist destination , which provides much of the employment . The city has a variety of sporting and cultural activities and houses several schools including The Blue School , a state coeducational comprehensive school originally founded in 1641 and the independent Wells Cathedral School , which was founded possibly as early as 909 and is one of the five established musical schools for school @-@ age children in the United Kingdom . The historic architecture of the city has also been used as a location for several films and television programmes .
= = History = =
The city was a Roman settlement but only became an important centre under the Anglo @-@ Saxons when King Ine of Wessex founded a minster church in 704 . Two hundred years later , in 909 , this became the seat of the newly formed bishopric of Wells ; but in 1090 , this had been removed to Bath . This caused severe arguments between the canons of Wells and the monks of Bath until 1245 when the bishopric was renamed as the Diocese of Bath and Wells , to be elected by both religious houses . With the construction of the current cathedral and the bishop 's palace in the first half of the 13th century , under the direction of Bishop Reginald and later Bishop Jocelin , a native of the city , Wells became the principal seat of the diocese .
Wells was listed in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Welle , from the Old English wiells , which was not listed as a town , but included four manors with a population of 132 , which implies a population of 500 – 600 . Earlier names for the settlement have been identified which include Fontanetum , in a charter of 725 granted by King Ina to Glastonbury and Fontanensis Ecclesia . Tidesput or Tithesput furlang relates to the area east of the bishops garden in 1245 . Wells was part of , and gave its name to , the hundred of Wells Forum .
Wells had been granted charters to hold markets by Bishop Robert ( 1136 – 66 ) and free burgage tenure was granted by Bishop Reginald ( 1174 @-@ 1191 ) . Wells was recognised as a free borough by a Royal charter of King John in 1201 . The city remained under episcopal control until its charter of incorporation from Queen Elizabeth I in 1589 . City status was most recently confirmed by Queen Elizabeth II by letters patent issued under the Great Seal dated 1 April 1974 , which granted city status specifically to the civil parish ; on that date major local government reorganisation came into effect , which involved the abolition of the municipal borough of Wells .
During the English Civil War ( 1642 – 1651 ) , at what became known as the " Siege of Wells " , the city found itself surrounded by Parliamentarian guns on the Bristol , Glastonbury and Shepton Mallet sides . Col. William Strode had 2 @,@ 000 men and 150 horse . The Royalists evacuated the city . Parliamentarian troops then used the cathedral to stable their horses and damaged much of the ornate sculpture by using it for firing practice .
William Penn stayed in Wells shortly before leaving for America ( 1682 ) , spending a night at The Crown Inn . Here he was briefly arrested for addressing a large crowd in the market place , but released on the intervention of the Bishop of Bath and Wells . During the Monmouth Rebellion ( 1685 ) the rebel army attacked the cathedral in an outburst against the established church and damaged the west front . Lead from the roof was used to make bullets , windows were broken , the organ smashed and horses stabled in the nave . Wells was the final location of the Bloody Assizes on 23 September 1685 . In a makeshift court lasting only one day , over 500 men were tried and the majority sentenced to death .
There was a port at Bleadney on the River Axe in the 8th century that enabled goods to be brought to within 3 miles ( 5 km ) of Wells . In the Middle Ages overseas trade was carried out from the port of Rackley . In the 14th century a French ship sailed up the river and by 1388 Thomas Tanner from Wells used Rackley to export cloth and corn to Portugal , and received iron and salt in exchange . Wells had been a centre for cloth making , however in the 16th and 17th centuries this diminished , but the city retained its important market focus . Wells in the 19th century had the largest cheese market in the west of England .
Wells has had three railway stations . The first station , Priory Road , opened in 1859 and was on the Somerset Central Railway ( later the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway ) as the terminus of a short branch from Glastonbury . A second railway , the East Somerset , opened a branch line from Witham in 1862 and built a station to the east of Priory Road . In 1870 , a third railway , the Cheddar Valley line branch of the Bristol and Exeter Railway from Yatton , reached Wells and built yet another station , later called Tucker Street . Matters were somewhat simplified when the Great Western Railway acquired both the Cheddar Valley and the East Somerset lines and built a link between the two that ran through the S & DJR 's Priory Road station . In 1878 , when through trains began running between Yatton and Witham , the East Somerset station closed , but through trains did not stop at Priory Road until 1934 . Priory Road closed to passenger traffic in 1951 when the S & DJR branch line from Glastonbury was shut , though it remained the city 's main goods depot . Tucker Street closed in 1963 under the Beeching Axe , which closed the Yatton to Witham line to passengers . Goods traffic to Wells ceased in 1964 . A Pacific SR West Country , West Country Class steam locomotive no 34092 built by the British Railways Board was named City of Wells following a ceremony in the city 's Priory Road station in 1949 . It was used to draw the Golden Arrow service between London and the Continent . It was withdrawn from service in 1964 , and rescued from a scrapyard in 1971 . It is now undergoing a complete restoration on the Keighley and Worth Valley Railway in Yorkshire .
During World War II , Stoberry Park in Wells was the location of a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp , housing Italian prisoners from the Western Desert Campaign , and later German prisoners after the Battle of Normandy . Penleigh Camp on the Wookey Hole Road was a German working camp .
= = Governance = =
Wells City Council is a parish council , with a membership of sixteen councillors , elected from three parish wards . They are ( with the number of parish councillors each elects , in brackets ) : Central ( four ) , St. Thomas ' ( six ) and St. Cuthbert 's ( six ) .
The civil parish of Wells was formed in 1933 upon the merger of Wells St Cuthbert In and Wells St Andrew ( the latter being the historic liberty of the cathedral , the bishop 's palace , etc . , amounting to just 52 acres ( 21 ha ) ) . Wells is the successor parish for Wells Municipal Borough , which existed from the creation of municipal boroughs in 1835 to their abolition in 1974 . The parish has held the city status of Wells since 1 April 1974 ( previously held by the municipal borough ) and the member of the City Council who chairs the council holds the historic office of Mayor of Wells , typically for one year . The current mayor ( for the 2014 @-@ 15 municipal year ) is Councillor Chris Briton , who is the 641st Mayor of Wells . Another historic position is that of the Town Crier .
The City Council has responsibility for local issues , including setting an annual precept ( local rate ) to cover the council 's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny . They also evaluate local planning applications and work with the local police , district council officers , and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime , security , and traffic . This includes city centre management including CCTV , an alcohol ban and regulating street trading permissions including the two funfairs held in the Market Place in May and November each year and the Wells In Bloom competition . The city council 's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of city facilities , as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance , repair , and improvement of highways , drainage , footpaths , public transport , and street cleaning . They are involved in the management of the Community Sports Development Centre at the Blue School , the skateboard park and allotments in the grounds of the Bishop 's Palace , Burcott Road and Barnes Close . Conservation matters ( including trees and listed buildings ) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council .
The Town Hall was built in 1778 , with the porch and arcade being added in 1861 and the balcony and round windows in 1932 . It is a Grade II listed building . It replaced the former on the site of the Market and Assize Hall in the Market Place , and a Canonical House also known as ' The Exchequer ' , on the authority of an Act of Parliament dated 1779 . The building also houses the magistrates courts and other offices . The Assize court last sat here in October 1970 .
Wells elects five councillors to Mendip District Council from the same three wards as are used for the City Council ( two are returned from St Cuthbert 's , two from St Thomas ' and one from Central ) . The Mendip district was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 and the district council is responsible for local planning and building control , local roads , council housing , environmental health , markets and fairs , refuse collection and recycling , cemeteries and crematoria , leisure services , parks , and tourism .
Wells is an electoral division ( with the same boundaries as the civil parish ) of Somerset and returns one councillor to Somerset County Council , which is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education , social services , libraries , main roads , public transport , policing and fire services , trading standards , waste disposal and strategic planning . Wells is part of the UK Parliament constituency of Wells . Since 2015 the Member of Parliament for Wells is James Heappey of the Conservatives . Wells is within the South West England constituency of the European Parliament which elects six Members of the European Parliament using the d 'Hondt method of party @-@ list proportional representation .
= = = Coat of Arms = = =
The Wells city arms show an ash tree surrounded by three water wells , crested with a gold mural crown , with the Latin motto Hoc fonte derivata copia ( translated : " the fullness that springs from this well " ) .
= = = Freedom of the City = = =
HMS Somerset , Mary Bignal @-@ Rand , Danny Nightingale , The Rifles and the late Harry Patch have the Freedom of the City . The Somerset Light Infantry received the freedom of the City of Wells following their return from Cyprus in 1956 .
= = Geography = =
Wells lies at the foot of the southern escarpment of the Mendip Hills where they meet the Somerset Levels . The hills are largely made of carboniferous limestone , which is quarried at several nearby sites . In the 1960s , the tallest mast in the region , the Mendip UHF television transmitter , was installed on Pen Hill above Wells , approximately 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the centre the city .
Streams passing through caves on the Mendip Hills , including Thrupe Lane Swallet and Viaduct Sink ( approximately 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) east of the city ) , emerge at Saint Andrew 's Well in the garden of the Bishop 's Palace , from where the water fills the moat around the Place and then flows into Keward Brook , which carries it for approximately a mile west to the point where the brook joins the River Sheppey in the village of Coxley .
Along with the rest of South West England , the Mendip Hills have a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of England . The annual mean temperature is about 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) with seasonal and diurnal variations , but due to the modifying effect of the sea , the range is less than in most other parts of the United Kingdom . January is the coldest month with mean minimum temperatures between 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) and 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) . July and August are the warmest months in the region with mean daily maxima around 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) . In general , December is the dullest month and June the sunniest . The south west of England enjoys a favoured location , particularly in summer , when the Azores High extends its influence north @-@ eastwards towards the UK .
Cloud often forms inland , especially near hills , and reduces exposure to sunshine . The average annual sunshine totals around 1600 hours . Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection . In summer , convection caused by solar surface heating sometimes forms shower clouds and a large proportion of the annual precipitation falls from showers and thunderstorms at this time of year . Average rainfall is around 800 – 900 mm ( 31 – 35 in ) . About 8 – 15 days of snowfall is typical . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , with June to August having the lightest . The predominant wind direction is from the south west .
The civil parish of Wells is entirely surrounded by the parish of St Cuthbert Out .
= = Demography = =
The population of the civil parish , recorded in the 2011 census , is 10 @,@ 536 . Of this number 97 @.@ 5 % are ethnically White ( with the more specific White British category recorded at 93 @.@ 5 % ) and 66 @.@ 5 % described themselves as Christian . The mean average age in 2011 was 41 @.@ 9 years ( the median age being 43 ) . The population recorded for the Wells civil parish in the 2001 census was 10 @,@ 406 .
= = Economy = =
Following construction of the A39 / A371 bypass , the centre of the city has returned to being that of a quiet market town . It has all the modern conveniences plus shops , hotels and restaurants . Wells is a popular tourist destination , due to its historical sites , its proximity to Bath , Stonehenge and Glastonbury and its closeness to the Somerset coast . Also nearby are Wookey Hole Caves , the Mendip Hills and the Somerset Levels . Somerset cheese , including Cheddar , is made locally . Wells is part of the Wells & Shepton Mallet Travel to Work Area which also includes Glastonbury , Cheddar and surrounding areas .
= = Transport = =
Wells is situated at the junction of three numbered routes . The A39 goes north @-@ east to Bath and south @-@ west to Glastonbury and Bridgwater . The A371 goes north @-@ west to Cheddar and east to Shepton Mallet . The B3139 goes west to Highbridge and north @-@ east to Radstock . Wells is served by FirstGroup bus services to Bristol , Bristol Temple Meads , Bath , Frome , Shepton Mallet , Yeovil , Street , Bridgwater , Taunton , Burnham on Sea and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , as well as providing some local service . Some National Express coach services call at Wells . The bus station is in Princes Road . The Mendip Way and Monarch 's Way long @-@ distance footpaths pass through the city , as does National Cycle Route 3 .
Webberbus connects Wells to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , Highbridge and Bridgwater .
= = Railways = =
Wells had two stations which were closed by the Beeching Axe in the 1960s such as Wells ( Tucker Street ) railway station and Wells ( Priory Road ) railway station . The nearest head of steel is located on the East Somerset Railway at Mendip Vale .
= = Education = =
The Blue School , founded in 1654 , is a state coeducational comprehensive school and has been awarded Specialist science college status . It has 1 @,@ 453 students aged 11 – 18 of both sexes and all ability levels .
Wells Cathedral School , founded in 909 , is an independent school that has a Christian emphasis and is one of the five established musical schools for school @-@ age children in Britain . The school teaches over 700 pupils between the ages of 3 and 18 . The school 's boarding houses line the northern parts of the city and the music school retains close links with Wells Cathedral . The primary schools in Wells are Stoberry Park School , St Cuthbert 's Church of England Infants School , St Cuthbert 's Church of England Junior School and St Joseph and St Teresa Catholic Primary School .
= = Culture = =
Wells and Mendip Museum includes many historical artefacts from the city and surrounding Mendip Hills . Wells is part of the West Country Carnival circuit .
Wells Film Centre shows current releases and , in conjunction with the Wells Film Society shows less well known and historical films . The previous cinema , The Regal in Priory Road , closed in 1993 and is now Kudos Nightclub . It was built in 1935 by ES Roberts from Flemish bond brickwork with Art Deco features . It is a Grade II listed building , and was on the Buildings at Risk Register until its restoration which included the restoration and repair of the stained glass façade . Wells Little Theatre is operated by a voluntary society which started in 1902 . In 1989 they took over the old boy 's building of Wells Blue School , where they put on a variety of operatic and other productions .
Milton Lodge is a house overlooking the city . It has a terraced garden , which was laid out in the early 20th century , is listed as Grade II on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England .
= = = Town twinning = = =
Wells is twinned with :
Paray @-@ le @-@ Monial , Burgundy , France
Bad Dürkheim , Rhineland @-@ Palatinate , Germany
Fontanellato , Emilia @-@ Romagna , Italy
= = Religious sites = =
A walled precinct , the Liberty of St Andrew , encloses the twelfth century Cathedral , the Bishop 's Palace , Vicar 's Close and the residences of the clergy who serve the cathedral . Entrances include the Penniless Porch , The Bishop 's Eye and Brown 's Gatehouse which were all built around 1450 .
The cathedral is the seat of the Church of England Diocese of Bath and Wells . Wells has been an ecclesiastical city of importance since at least the early 8th century . Parts of the building date back to the tenth century , and it is a grade I listed building . It is known for its fine fan vaulted ceilings , Lady Chapel and windows , and the scissor arches which support the central tower . The west front is said to be the finest collection of statuary in Europe , retaining almost 300 of its original medieval statues , carved from the cathedral 's warm , yellow Doulting stone . The Chapter House , at the top of a flight of stone stairs , leading out from the north transept is an octagonal building with a fan @-@ vaulted ceiling . It is here that the business of running the cathedral is still conducted by the members of the Chapter , the cathedral 's ruling body . Wells Cathedral clock is famous for its 24 @-@ hour astronomical dial and set of jousting knights that perform every quarter @-@ hour . The cathedral has the heaviest ring of ten bells in the world . The tenor bell weighs just over 56 CWT ( 6 @,@ 272 lb , 2 @,@ 844 kg ) .
The Bishop 's Palace has been the home of the bishops of the Diocese of Bath and Wells for 800 years . The hall and chapel date from the 14th century . There are 14 acres ( 5 @.@ 7 ha ) of gardens including the springs from which the city takes its name . Visitors can also see the Bishop 's private chapel , ruined great hall and the gatehouse with portcullis and drawbridge beside which mute swans ring a bell for food . The Bishop 's Barn was built in the 15th century .
The Vicars ' Close is the oldest residential street in Europe . The Close is tapered by 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) to make it look longer when viewed from the bottom . When viewed from the top , however , it looks shorter . The Old Deanery dates from the 12th century , and St John 's Priory from the 14th .
The Church of St Cuthbert ( which tourists often mistake for the cathedral ) has a fine Somerset stone tower and a superb carved roof . Originally an Early English building ( 13th century ) , it was much altered in the Perpendicular period ( 15th century ) . The nave 's coloured ceiling was repainted in 1963 at the instigation of the then Vicar 's wife , Mrs Barnett . Until 1561 the church had a central tower which either collapsed or was removed , and has been replaced with the current tower over the west door . Bells were cast for the tower by Roger Purdy .
= = Sport = =
The city has two football clubs , one being Wells City F.C. , past winners of the Western League . Belrose FC play their football in the Mid @-@ Somerset Football League at Haybridge Park . Wells Cricket Club runs eight sides across senior , junior and women 's cricket ; they are based at South Horrington . Wells Wanderers Cricket Club are based in Meare . Rowdens Road Cricket Ground was a first @-@ class venue , no longer a cricket ground , now occupied in part by Wells FC .
Mid Somerset Hockey Club and Wells City Acorns Hockey Club both play on the Astroturf pitches at the Blue School , where several other sports clubs are based . Wells Leisure Centre has a 25 metres ( 82 ft ) swimming pool , gymnasium , sports hall , sauna , steam room , relaxation area and solarium . The 18 hole Wells Golf Club is on the outskirts of the city and also has a 24 bay driving range with optional grass tees .
= = In popular culture = =
Elizabeth Goudge used Wells as a basis for the fictional cathedral city of Torminster , in her book A City of Bells .
Wells has been used as the setting for several films including : The Canterbury Tales ( 1973 ) , A Fistful of Fingers ( 1994 ) , The Gathering ( 2003 ) , The Libertine ( 2004 ) , The Golden Age ( 2007 ) , and Hot Fuzz ( 2007 , as Sandford ) . The cathedral interior stood in for Southwark Cathedral during filming for the Doctor Who episode The Lazarus Experiment , and was also used as an interior location in the film Jack the Giant Slayer ( 2013 ) .
= = Notable people = =
Hugh of Wells – native of Wells , Bishop , elder brother of Jocelin of Wells .
Jocelin of Wells – native of Wells , Bishop , aided in creation of Magna Carta and largely responsible for the construction of the cathedral .
Mary Hamilton – 18th century fraudster and cross @-@ dresser
Herbert E. Balch – cave explorer and founder of Wells Museum . His name was given to Balch Road , a council estate that was built in the 1950s .
Mary Bignall @-@ Rand – Gold medalist and world record breaker in the long jump at the 1964 Summer Olympics .
Harry George Crandon – awarded the Victoria Cross during the Boer War .
Sir Chris Clarke – county councillor for Wells from 1985 to 2005 .
Alexander Davie – born in Wells 1847 , became 7th Premier of British Columbia .
Elizabeth Goudge – author of novels , short stories and children 's books , was born in Wells in 1900 .
Roger Hollis – Director General of MI5 .
John Holloway – Governor of Newfoundland ( 1807 – 1809 ) and Admiral of the Blue .
John Keate – born in Wells 1773 , went on to become headmaster at Eton where he restored discipline with the birch , and once flogged 80 boys in one day .
Julia Somerville OBE – born in Wells 1947 , newsreader and journalist who is working with BBC and ITN and co @-@ presenter of Rip Off Britain
James Keene – professional footballer formerly of Portsmouth F.C. , playing for IF Elfsborg in Sweden .
Harry Patch – last trench veteran of World War I , and at 111 , briefly the oldest man in Europe and 3rd oldest man in the world . He was born in the nearby village of Combe Down and at the time of his death in July 2009 he was living in local care home Fletcher House .
Kris Marshall – actor , raised in the city and currently lives nearby .
Edgar Wright – film and television director . Directed Hot Fuzz , which was filmed in the city .
= 2003 Cricket World Cup Final =
The 2003 Cricket World Cup Final was a One Day International match played between Australia and India on 23 March 2003 at the Wanderers Stadium , Johannesburg , South Africa . It marked the culmination of the 2003 Cricket World Cup , the eighth edition of the tournament . It was the first time that these two teams had met at this stage of a World Cup . Australia won the match by 125 runs to claim the title for the third time , and second in succession .
After winning the toss , India captain Sourav Ganguly elected to field first . Australia captain Ricky Ponting ( 140 not out ) and Damien Martyn ( 88 not out ) were involved in a record partnership of 234 runs in the team total of 359 runs . India 's Harbhajan Singh took all two wickets of Australia , conceding 49 runs . In response , India lost their wickets at regular intervals and were eventually bowled out for 234 runs in 39 @.@ 2 overs . Ponting was adjudged " Man of the match " , while India 's Sachin Tendulkar , the tournament 's leading run @-@ scorer , was awarded the " Man of the Series " title .
= = Background = =
The 2003 Cricket World Cup was the eighth World Cup , organized by the International Cricket Council ( ICC ) . The competition took place between 9 February and 23 March 2003 , lasting 43 days . The matches were restricted to 50 overs per side . Co @-@ hosted by South Africa , Zimbabwe and Kenya , the World Cup was the first to be played in Africa . The competition had 14 teams , the largest number of participants in a World Cup until then . Apart from the 10 Test @-@ playing teams , four associate teams were qualified to participate in the competition . Kenya , by virtue of its ODI status , automatically qualified for the tournament while Canada , Namibia and Netherlands , the top three teams of the 2001 ICC Trophy , formed the rest .
The structure of the tournament was similar to the 1999 World Cup . The 14 teams were assigned to two different groups of seven each . The top three contestants from each group qualified for the Super Sixes stage , a format which was introduced in the 1999 tournament . The teams carried forward their results in their group stage , where each qualifier from either of the groups played each qualifier of the other group exactly once . The top four teams of the Super Sixes qualified for the semi @-@ finals , and the winners of those matches contested the final . All in all , there were a total of 54 matches played in the tournament .
Having won 15 out of their 18 ODIs prior to the start of the tournament , the defending champion Australia was called the " favourite " to win the title . Several critics and analysts unanimously favoured Australia 's win . They had previously won the World Cup in 1987 and 1992 . India had won the competition once , in 1983 . Prior to the World Cup , India lost an ODI series against West Indies at home , and were defeated heavily in a tour of New Zealand .
A day before the start of the tournament , Australia 's key player Shane Warne , who won the " man of the match " awards in the semi @-@ final and final of the 1999 tournament , was sent home after he was found positive in a drug test ; Warne was found guilty of using a banned diuretic drug during an ODI series , which was held prior to the World Cup in Australia . He was banned by the Australian Cricket Board from playing cricket for one year . Australia 's fast bowler Jason Gillespie was ruled out from the tournament following a tendon injury .
= = = Group stage = = =
Australia and India were both grouped under " Pool A " of the competition . Australia won all their matches in the group stage . Except for the win against England , where they had to recover from 135 for 8 to reach the target of 205 runs , they won all the matches comfortably .
India had a " shaky " start to the tournament . In their opening match , against the Netherlands , they were bowled out for 204 runs . Sachin Tendulkar scored India 's only half @-@ century . In reply , Indian bowlers Javagal Srinath and Anil Kumble took four wickets each to dismiss the Netherlands for 136 runs . Despite winning the game , their batting received severe criticism as their batting order collapsed before the completion of 50 overs . Following that , in their next match against Australia , they were dismissed for 125 runs and lost the match by eight wickets . This led to angered fans in India burning the effigies of Indian players . Mohammad Kaif 's house and Rahul Dravid 's car were vandalised . Following the incident , Tendulkar issued a press statement requesting calm and patience from the fans . India won their next games against Zimbabwe , Pakistan , Namibia and England . India found a new opening pair in Tendulkar and Sehwag in the match against Zimbabwe .
Australia , India and Zimbabwe finished the group as the top three teams and qualified for the " Super Sixes " from Pool A. In " Pool B " , Sri Lanka , Kenya and New Zealand qualified for the next stage .
= = = Super Sixes = = =
In the first match of the Super Sixes , Australia played against Sri Lanka . Batting first , Australia made 319 for 5 . Ricky Ponting and Adam Gilchrist scored 114 not out and 99 respectively . Sri Lanka in reply managed 223 runs in 47 @.@ 4 overs . Aravinda de Silva top @-@ scored with 92 while Brett Lee took three wickets for Australia . Australia played New Zealand in their next match . Shane Bond 's spell of six wickets for 23 runs reduced Australia to 84 for 7 . However , Michael Bevan and Andrew Bichel took the total to 208 runs . In reply , New Zealand were bowled out for 112 runs . Lee claimed five wickets for 42 runs as Australia won the match by 96 runs . Australia won their final game by five wickets after bowling Kenya out for 174 runs .
India faced Kenya in their first match . The latter had won the toss and made 225 for 6 in the first innings . India lost three wickets for 24 runs when Dravid joined Sourav Ganguly . The two added 84 runs before the Dravid was dismissed , leaving the score at 108 runs for the loss of four wickets . Ganguly then partnered with Yuvraj Singh and the pair took India to victory in 47 @.@ 5 overs . They made 107 not out and 58 not out respectively . In the next game against Sri Lanka , India won by a huge margin of 183 runs . In their final match of the stage , India played New Zealand . After winning the toss , India elected to bowl first . New Zealand were dismissed for 146 runs . Zaheer Khan took career @-@ best figures of 4 wickets for 42 runs . Though India lost 3 wickets for 21 runs , the 129 @-@ run partnership between Dravid and Kaif ensured a seven @-@ wicket win . The match marked the seventh consecutive victory for India in the tournament .
= = = Semi @-@ finals = = =
= = = = First semi @-@ final = = = =
The first semi @-@ final was played between Australia and Sri Lanka on 18 March at St. George 's Park , Port Elizabeth . Australia won the toss and opted to bat first . They managed 212 runs for the loss of 7 wickets at the end of 50 overs . Symonds top @-@ scored for Australia with 91 not out , while Chaminda Vaas picked up 3 wickets for 34 runs . With 213 runs needed for victory , Sri Lanka lost both the openers after which the play was interrupted by rain . The target was revised to 172 runs from 38 @.@ 1 overs using the Duckworth – Lewis method . Sri Lanka managed to score only 123 runs in the allotted overs . Kumar Sangakkara and Vaas made 47 runs together for the eighth wicket , the highest partnership of the innings . Australia progressed into the final as Sri Lanka fell 48 runs short of the target .
= = = = Second semi @-@ final = = = =
The second semi @-@ final was played between India and Kenya on 20 March 2003 at Kingsmead , Durban . Kenya became the first non @-@ Test team to play in a World Cup semi @-@ final . India won the toss and made 270 runs for 4 wickets . Ganguly and Tendulkar made 111 not out and 83 respectively . In reply , Kenya were bowled out for 179 in 46 @.@ 2 overs . Steve Tikolo , their captain , top @-@ scored with 56 runs . Zaheer ended with bowling figures of 3 wickets for 14 runs . Ganguly was adjudged the Man of the match .
= = Build up = =
Prior to this game , the two teams had faced each other eight times in World Cups ; Australia had won six of these matches . In the tournament , Australia had won all their matches up until this point while India managed to win all their matches except the one against Australia in the group stage . A day before the final , Ponting had told the press that on crucial matches his team " tries to reach another level " . The Indian fans had high expectations on Tendulkar , the tournament 's top @-@ scorer .
= = Final = =
= = = Summary = = =
The final was played on 23 March 2003 at the Wanderers Stadium , Johannesburg . Ganguly won the toss and elected to field first . India played seven batsmen and excluded leg spinner Kumble from the playing XI . Zaheer opened the bowling for India along with Srinath . The Australian openers started scoring aggressively right from the beginning of the innings as Khan conceded 15 runs in the first over . Gilchrist in particular hit both Khan and Srinath for a lot of runs . As soon as he reached his 50 ( off 40 balls ) , Ganguly turned to his spin bowlers as early as the tenth over . Gilchrist slowed down his scoring rate as the innings progressed . In the fourteenth over Harbhajan Singh was brought back into the attack . With just two fielders outside the circle , Gilchrist tried hitting him through mid @-@ wicket , but was beaten by the extra @-@ bounce and was caught in the deep by Virender Sehwag . Gilchrist ( 57 off 48 balls ) along with Matthew Hayden scored 105 runs for the first wicket . Hayden was dismissed by Harbhajan soon afterwards , having made 37 runs off 54 balls . The score was 125 runs for 2 wickets in the twentieth over . Ponting was accompanied by Damien Martyn after Hayden 's departure . Martyn scored at about a run @-@ a @-@ ball rate and completed his half @-@ century in 46 balls . Ponting on the other hand scored at a slow rate reaching his 50 off 74 balls with one four . After that he started attacking the Indian bowlers . He started off by hitting Harbhajan Singh for two sixes , and Ashish Nehra for a " one @-@ handed " six . The pair added 100 runs off 109 balls for the third wicket . He completed his century in quick time as his second fifty came off 29 balls . At the end of the innings , Australia scored 359 runs for 2 wickets ; Ponting and Martyn made 140 not out ( off 121 balls ; four fours and eight sixes ) and 88 not out ( off 84 balls ; seven fours and pne six ) respectively . Ponting 's innings is the highest individual score by a captain in a World Cup final , while Australia 's total is the highest by a team in a World Cup final as of the 2015 competition . The 234 @-@ run stand between Ponting and Marytn was a record partnership for Australia in ODIs at that point . The Indian bowlers conceded 37 extras . Srinath conceded 87 runs without taking a wicket , in what was ultimately his last international game .
India came out to bat with Tendulkar and Sehwag . Glenn McGrath opened the bowling for Australia . Tendulkar hit a boundary off the fourth ball of the over but was dismissed off the next delivery . Ganguly joined Sehwag and the pair scored at a run @-@ a @-@ ball rate before the former was dismissed by Lee in the tenth over . Kaif , the next man , was dismissed in the same over with the score reading 59 runs for 3 wickets . Dravid and Sehwag scored steadily from then on until the seventeenth over , when rain interrupted play with the score at 103 runs . After the play resumed , Ponting brought in Australia 's spinners , Brad Hogg and Darren Lehmann . Sehwag was more aggressive against both , hitting Lehmann for three consecutive fours and Hogg for a four and six . Dravid on the other hand played second fiddle to Sehwag pushing for singles often . However , both were dismissed in quick succession after making 82 ( off 81 balls ) and 47 ( off 57 balls ) respectively . Following that , India began to lose wickets at regular intervals . Except for Yuvraj Singh ( 24 ) and Dinesh Mongia ( 12 ) , the rest of the players got out for single @-@ digit scores . India were bowled out for 234 runs in 39 @.@ 2 overs . Australia won the match by 125 runs , the largest margin of victory by runs in a World Cup final . It was their second successive World Cup trophy and their third overall . Ponting was given the " Man of the match " honour for his 140 not out .
= = = Scorecard = = =
1st innings
Fall of wickets : 1 – 105 ( Gilchrist , 13 @.@ 6 ov ) , 2 – 125 ( Hayden , 19 @.@ 5 ov )
2nd innings
Fall of wickets : 1 – 4 ( Tendulkar , 0 @.@ 5 ov ) , 2 – 58 ( Ganguly , 9 @.@ 5 ov ) , 3 – 59 ( Kaif , 10 @.@ 3 ov ) , 4 – 147 ( Sehwag 23 @.@ 5 ov ) , 5 – 187 ( Dravid 31 @.@ 5 ov ) , 6 – 208 ( Yuvraj Singh 34 @.@ 5 ov ) , 7 – 209 ( Mongia ( 35 @.@ 2 ov ) , 8 – 223 ( Harbhajan Singh 37 @.@ 1 ov ) , 9 – 226 ( Srinath 38 @.@ 2 ov ) , 10 – 234 ( Khan 39 @.@ 2 ov )
Match officials
On @-@ field umpires : Steve Bucknor ( West Indies ) and David Shepherd ( England )
Third umpire : Rudi Koertzen ( South Africa )
Match referee : Ranjan Madugalle ( Sri Lanka )
Reserve umpire : Billy Bowden ( New Zealand )
= = Aftermath = =
At the post @-@ match press conference , Ponting said the Indians showed no signs of winning the match at any point in time . On Australia 's win , he said " It 's not that we think we are ahead of the others . It 's just the way we play . " Further , he added that India and Australia were the best two teams in the tournament and complimented the Indian players by saying that they " deserved to be in the final " .
Ganguly 's decision to bowl first was criticized by the media ; The New York Times , for instance , said it " backfired horribly " . Former Pakistan captain Imran Khan while denouncing Ganguly 's decision , also criticized his idea of going into the match with an unchanged side . He further stated that India should have played Kumble as the ball was " gripping [ in ] the surface " . Meanwhile , Ganguly defended his decision saying that the pitch looked favourable to the bowlers , but they failed to utilize it properly . However , he credited the Australian batting and further added that they had played like " real champions " . On the other hand , Ponting said that he would have opted to bat first had they won the toss . His team @-@ mate Symonds , in an interview later , recalled that India 's decision to bowl first gave them an impression that they were not " confident enough to take the fight " .
Australia were rewarded with a prize money of US $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , while India received US $ 800 @,@ 000 . Tendulkar 's aggregate of 673 runs in the tournament fetched him the " Man of the series " accolade . Ponting 's 140 was placed among the " Best Innings " of the tournament by Rediff . Tendulkar and Hayden were included among the " highest impact World XI " , a World Cup team released by the India edition of Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack . Srinath , who conceded 87 runs in the match and who was India 's leading wicket @-@ taker in ODIs , retired a few months after the competition . The match also marked the end of India coach John Wright 's contract . However , on his request the Board of Control for Cricket in India retained his position which he continued to serve until 2005 .
= Joan of Arc =
Joan of Arc ( French : Jeanne d 'Arc , IPA : [ ʒan daʁk ] ; 6 January c . 1412 – 30 May 1431 ) , nicknamed " The Maid of Orléans " ( French : La Pucelle d 'Orléans ) , is considered a heroine of France for her role during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years ' War , and was canonized as a Roman Catholic saint . Joan of Arc was born to Jacques d 'Arc and Isabelle Romée , a peasant family , at Domrémy in north @-@ east France . Joan said she received visions of the Archangel Michael , Saint Margaret , and Saint Catherine of Alexandria instructing her to support Charles VII and recover France from English domination late in the Hundred Years ' War . The uncrowned King Charles VII sent Joan to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief mission . She gained prominence after the siege was lifted only nine days later . Several additional swift victories led to Charles VII 's coronation at Reims . This long @-@ awaited event boosted French morale and paved the way for the final French victory .
On 23 May 1430 , she was captured at Compiègne by the Burgundian faction , which was allied with the English . She was later handed over to the English and put on trial by the pro @-@ English Bishop of Beauvais Pierre Cauchon on a variety of charges . After Cauchon declared her guilty she was burned at the stake on 30 May 1431 , dying at about nineteen years of age .
In 1456 , an inquisitorial court authorized by Pope Callixtus III examined the trial , debunked the charges against her , pronounced her innocent , and declared her a martyr . In the 16th century she became a symbol of the Catholic League , and in 1803 she was declared a national symbol of France by the decision of Napoleon Bonaparte . She was beatified in 1909 and canonized in 1920 . Joan of Arc is one of the nine secondary patron saints of France , along with St. Denis , St. Martin of Tours , St. Louis , St. Michael , St. Rémi , St. Petronilla , St. Radegund and Ste . Thérèse of Lisieux .
Joan of Arc has remained a popular figure in literature , painting , sculpture , and other cultural works since the time of her death , and many famous writers , filmmakers and composers have created works about her . Cultural depictions of her have continued in films , theater , television , video games , music , and performances to this day .
= = Background = =
The Hundred Years ' War had begun in 1337 as an inheritance dispute over the French throne , interspersed with occasional periods of relative peace . Nearly all the fighting had taken place in France , and the English army 's use of chevauchée tactics ( destructive " scorched earth " raids ) had devastated the economy . The French population had not recovered to its size previous to the Black Death of the mid @-@ 14th century , and its merchants were isolated from foreign markets . Prior to the appearance of Joan of Arc , the English had nearly achieved their goal of a dual monarchy under English control and the French army had not achieved any major victories for a generation . In the words of DeVries , " The kingdom of France was not even a shadow of its thirteenth @-@ century prototype . "
The French king at the time of Joan 's birth , Charles VI , suffered from bouts of insanity and was often unable to rule . The king 's brother Louis , Duke of Orléans , and the king 's cousin John the Fearless , Duke of Burgundy , quarreled over the regency of France and the guardianship of the royal children . This dispute included accusations that Louis was having an extramarital affair with the queen , Isabeau of Bavaria , and allegations that John the Fearless kidnapped the royal children . The conflict climaxed with the assassination of the Duke of Orléans in 1407 on the orders of the Duke of Burgundy .
The young Charles of Orléans succeeded his father as duke and was placed in the custody of his father @-@ in @-@ law , the Count of Armagnac . Their faction became known as the " Armagnac " faction , and the opposing party led by the Duke of Burgundy was called the " Burgundian faction " . Henry V of England took advantage of these internal divisions when he invaded the kingdom in 1415 , winning a dramatic victory at Agincourt on 25 October and subsequently capturing many northern French towns . In 1418 Paris was taken by the Burgundians , who massacred the Count of Armagnac and about 2 @,@ 500 of his followers . The future French king , Charles VII , assumed the title of Dauphin — the heir to the throne — at the age of fourteen , after all four of his older brothers had died in succession . His first significant official act was to conclude a peace treaty with the Duke of Burgundy in 1419 . This ended in disaster when Armagnac partisans assassinated John the Fearless during a meeting under Charles 's guarantee of protection . The new duke of Burgundy , Philip the Good , blamed Charles for the murder and entered into an alliance with the English . The allied forces conquered large sections of France .
In 1420 the queen of France , Isabeau of Bavaria , signed the Treaty of Troyes , which granted the succession of the French throne to Henry V and his heirs instead of her son Charles . This agreement revived suspicions that the Dauphin may have been the illegitimate product of Isabeau 's rumored affair with the late duke of Orléans rather than the son of King Charles VI . Henry V and Charles VI died within two months of each other in 1422 , leaving an infant , Henry VI of England , the nominal monarch of both kingdoms . Henry V 's brother , John of Lancaster , 1st Duke of Bedford , acted as regent .
By the time Joan of Arc began to influence events in 1429 , nearly all of northern France and some parts of the southwest were under Anglo @-@ Burgundian control . The English controlled Paris and Rouen while the Burgundian faction controlled Reims , which had served as the traditional coronation site for French kings since 816 . This was an important consideration since neither claimant to the throne of France had been officially crowned yet . In 1428 the English had begun the siege of Orléans , one of the few remaining cities still loyal to Charles VII and an important objective since it held a strategic position along the Loire River , which made it the last obstacle to an assault on the remainder of the French heartland . In the words of one modern historian , " On the fate of Orléans hung that of the entire kingdom . " No one was optimistic that the city could long withstand the siege .
= = Life = =
Joan was the daughter of Jacques d 'Arc and Isabelle Romée in Domrémy , a village which was then in the French part of the duchy of Bar . Joan 's parents owned about 50 acres ( 20 hectares ) of land and her father supplemented his farming work with a minor position as a village official , collecting taxes and heading the local watch . They lived in an isolated patch of eastern France that remained loyal to the French crown despite being surrounded by pro @-@ Burgundian lands . Several local raids occurred during her childhood and on one occasion her village was burned .
At her trial , Joan stated that she was about nineteen years old , which implies she thought she was born around 1412 . She later testified that she experienced her first vision in 1425 at the age of 13 , when she was in her " father 's garden " and saw visions of figures she identified as Saint Michael , Saint Catherine , and Saint Margaret , who told her to drive out the English and bring the Dauphin to Reims for his coronation . She said she cried when they left , as they were so beautiful .
At the age of sixteen , she asked a relative named Durand Lassois to take her to the nearby town of Vaucouleurs , where she petitioned the garrison commander , Robert de Baudricourt , for permission to visit the French Royal Court at Chinon . Baudricourt 's sarcastic response did not deter her . She returned the following January and gained support from two of Baudricourt 's soldiers : Jean de Metz and Bertrand de Poulengy . According to Jean de Metz , she told him that " I must be at the King 's side ... there will be no help ( for the kingdom ) if not from me . Although I would rather have remained spinning [ wool ] at my mother 's side ... yet must I go and must I do this thing , for my Lord wills that I do so . " Under the auspices of Metz and Poulengy , she was given a second meeting , where she made a prediction about a military reversal at the Battle of Rouvray near Orléans several days before messengers arrived to report it . Given the distance of the battle 's location , Baudricourt felt Joan could only have known about the French defeat by Divine revelation , and this convinced him to take her seriously .
= = = Rise = = =
Robert de Baudricourt granted Joan an escort to visit Chinon after news from Orleans confirmed her assertion of the defeat . She made the journey through hostile Burgundian territory disguised as a male soldier , a fact which would later lead to charges of " cross @-@ dressing " against her , although her escort viewed it as a normal precaution . Two of the members of her escort said they and the people of Vaucouleurs provided her with this clothing , and had suggested it to her .
After arriving at the Royal Court she impressed Charles VII during a private conference . During this time Charles ' mother @-@ in @-@ law Yolande of Aragon was planning to finance a relief expedition to Orléans . Joan asked for permission to travel with the army and wear protective armor , which was provided by the Royal government . She depended on donated items for her armor , horse , sword , banner , and other items utilized by her entourage . Historian Stephen W. Richey explains her attraction to the royal court by pointing out that they may have viewed her as the only source of hope for a regime that was near collapse :
After years of one humiliating defeat after another , both the military and civil leadership of France were demoralized and discredited . When the Dauphin Charles granted Joan 's urgent request to be equipped for war and placed at the head of his army , his decision must have been based in large part on the knowledge that every orthodox , every rational option had been tried and had failed . Only a regime in the final straits of desperation would pay any heed to an illiterate farm girl who claimed that the voice of God was instructing her to take charge of her country 's army and lead it to victory .
Upon her arrival , Joan effectively turned the longstanding Anglo @-@ French conflict into a religious war , a course of action that was not without risk . Charles ' advisers were worried that unless Joan 's orthodoxy could be established beyond doubt — that she was not a heretic or a sorceress — Charles ' enemies could easily make the allegation that his crown was a gift from the devil . To circumvent this possibility , the Dauphin ordered background inquiries and a theological examination at Poitiers to verify her morality . In April 1429 , the commission of inquiry " declared her to be of irreproachable life , a good Christian , possessed of the virtues of humility , honesty and simplicity . " The theologians at Poitiers did not render a decision on the issue of divine inspiration ; rather , they informed the Dauphin that there was a " favorable presumption " to be made on the divine nature of her mission . This was enough for Charles , but they also stated that he had an obligation to put Joan to the test . " To doubt or abandon her without suspicion of evil would be to repudiate the Holy Spirit and to become unworthy of God 's aid " , they declared . They recommended that her claims should be put to the test by seeing if she could lift the siege of Orléans as she had predicted .
She arrived at the besieged city of Orléans on 29 April 1429 . Jean d 'Orléans , the acting head of the ducal family of Orléans on behalf of his captive half @-@ brother , initially excluded her from war councils and failed to inform her when the army engaged the enemy . However , his decision to exclude her did not prevent her presence at most councils and battles .
The extent of her actual military participation and leadership is a subject of debate among historians . On the one hand , Joan stated that she carried her banner in battle and had never killed anyone , preferring her banner " forty times " better than a sword ; and the army was always directly commanded by a nobleman , such as the Duke of Alençon for example . On the other hand , many of these same noblemen stated that Joan had a profound effect on their decisions since they often accepted the advice she gave them , believing her advice was Divinely inspired . In either case , historians agree that the army enjoyed remarkable success during her brief time with it .
= = = Military campaigns = = =
The appearance of Joan of Arc at Orléans coincided with a sudden change in the pattern of the siege . During the five months before her arrival , the defenders had attempted only one offensive assault , which had ended in defeat . On 4 May , however , the Armagnacs attacked and captured the outlying fortress of Saint Loup ( bastille de Saint @-@ Loup ) , followed on 5 May by a march to a second fortress called Saint @-@ Jean @-@ le @-@ Blanc , which was found deserted . When English troops came out to oppose the advance , a rapid cavalry charge drove them back into their fortresses , apparently without a fight . The Armagnacs then attacked and captured an English fortress built around a monastery called Les Augustins . That night , Armagnac troops maintained positions on the south bank of the river before attacking the main English stronghold , called " les Tourelles " , on the morning of 7 May . Contemporaries acknowledged Joan as the heroine of the engagement . She was wounded by an arrow between the neck and shoulder while holding her banner in the trench outside les Tourelles , but later returned to encourage a final assault that succeeded in taking the fortress . The English retreated from Orléans the next day , and the siege was over .
At Chinon and Poitiers , Joan had declared that she would provide a sign at Orléans . The lifting of the siege was interpreted by many people to be that sign , and it gained her the support of prominent clergy such as the Archbishop of Embrun and the theologian Jean Gerson , both of whom wrote supportive treatises immediately following this event .
The sudden victory at Orléans also led to many proposals for further offensive action . Joan persuaded Charles VII to allow her to accompany the army with Duke John II of Alençon , and she gained royal permission for her plan to recapture nearby bridges along the Loire as a prelude to an advance on Reims and the coronation of Charles VII . This was a bold proposal because Reims was roughly twice as far away as Paris and deep within enemy territory . The English expected an attempt to recapture Paris or an attack on Normandy .
The Duke of Alençon accepted Joan 's advice concerning strategy . Other commanders including Jean d 'Orléans had been impressed with her performance at Orléans and became her supporters . Alençon credited her with saving his life at Jargeau , where she warned him that a cannon on the walls was about to fire at him . During the same siege she withstood a blow from a stone that hit her helmet while she was near the base of the town 's wall . The army took Jargeau on 12 June , Meung @-@ sur @-@ Loire on 15 June , and Beaugency on 17 June .
The English army withdrew from the Loire Valley and headed north on 18 June , joining with an expected unit of reinforcements under the command of Sir John Fastolf . Joan urged the Armagnacs to pursue , and the two armies clashed southwest of the village of Patay . The battle at Patay might be compared to Agincourt in reverse . The French vanguard attacked a unit of English archers who had been placed to block the road . A rout ensued that decimated the main body of the English army and killed or captured most of its commanders . Fastolf escaped with a small band of soldiers and became the scapegoat for the humiliating English defeat . The French suffered minimal losses .
The French army left Gien on 29 June on the march toward Reims and accepted the conditional surrender of the Burgundian @-@ held city of Auxerre on 3 July . Other towns in the army 's path returned to French allegiance without resistance . Troyes , the site of the treaty that tried to disinherit Charles VII , was the only one to put up even brief opposition . The army was in short supply of food by the time it reached Troyes . But the army was in luck : a wandering friar named Brother Richard had been preaching about the end of the world at Troyes and convinced local residents to plant beans , a crop with an early harvest . The hungry army arrived as the beans ripened . Troyes capitulated after a bloodless four @-@ day siege .
Reims opened its gates to the army on 16 July 1429 . The coronation took place the following morning . Although Joan and the Duke of Alençon urged a prompt march on Paris , the royal court preferred to negotiate a truce with Duke Philip of Burgundy . The duke violated the purpose of the agreement by using it as a stalling tactic to reinforce the defense of Paris . The French army marched through towns near Paris during the interim and accepted several peaceful surrenders . The Duke of Bedford led an English force and confronted the French army in a standoff at the battle of Montépilloy on 15 August . The French assault at Paris ensued on 8 September . Despite a wound to the leg from a crossbow bolt , Joan remained in the inner trench of Paris until she was carried back to safety by one of the commanders . The following morning the army received a royal order to withdraw . Most historians blame French Grand Chamberlain Georges de la Trémoille for the political blunders that followed the coronation . In October , Joan was with the royal army when it took Saint @-@ Pierre @-@ le @-@ Moûtier , followed by an unsuccessful attempt to take La @-@ Charité @-@ sur @-@ Loire in November and December . On 29 December , Joan and her family were ennobled by Charles VII as a reward for her actions .
= = = Capture = = =
A truce with England during the following few months left Joan with little to do . On 23 March 1430 , she dictated a threatening letter to the Hussites , a dissident group which had broken with the Catholic Church on a number of doctrinal points and had defeated several previous crusades sent against them . Joan 's letter promises to " remove your madness and foul superstition , taking away either your heresy or your lives . "
The truce with England quickly came to an end . Joan traveled to Compiègne the following May to help defend the city against an English and Burgundian siege . On 23 May 1430 she was with a force that attempted to attack the Burgundian camp at Margny north of Compiègne , but was ambushed and captured . When the troops began to withdraw toward the nearby fortifications of Compiègne after the advance of an additional force of 6 @,@ 000 Burgundians , Joan stayed with the rear guard . Burgundian troops surrounded the rear guard , and she was pulled off her horse by an archer . She agreed to surrender to a pro @-@ Burgundian nobleman named Lionel of Wandomme , a member of Jean de Luxembourg 's unit .
Joan was imprisoned by the Burgundians at Beaurevoir Castle . She made several escape attempts , on one occasion jumping from her 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) tower , landing on the soft earth of a dry moat , after which she was moved to the Burgundian town of Arras . The English negotiated with their Burgundian allies to transfer her to their custody , with Bishop Pierre Cauchon of Beauvais , an English partisan , assuming a prominent role in these negotiations and her later trial . The final agreement called for the English to pay the sum of 10 @,@ 000 livres tournois to obtain her from Jean de Luxembourg , a member of the Council of Duke Philip of Burgundy .
The English moved Joan to the city of Rouen , which served as their main headquarters in France . Historian Pierre Champion notes that the Armagnacs attempted to rescue her several times by launching military campaigns toward Rouen while she was held there . One campaign occurred during the winter of 1430 – 1431 , another in March 1431 , and one in late May shortly before her execution . These attempts were beaten back . Champion also quotes 15th @-@ century sources that say Charles VII threatened to " exact vengeance " upon Burgundian troops whom his forces had captured and upon " the English and women of England " in retaliation for their treatment of Joan .
= = = Trial = = =
The trial for heresy was politically motivated . The tribunal was composed entirely of pro @-@ English and Burgundian clerics , and overseen by English commanders including the Duke of Bedford and the Earl of Warwick . Legal proceedings commenced on 9 January 1431 at Rouen , the seat of the English occupation government . The procedure was suspect on a number of points , which would later provoke criticism of the tribunal by the chief inquisitor who investigated the trial after the war .
Under ecclesiastical law , Bishop Cauchon lacked jurisdiction over the case . Cauchon owed his appointment to his partisan support of the English government , which financed the trial . The low standard of evidence used in the trial also violated inquisitorial rules . Clerical notary Nicolas Bailly , who was commissioned to collect testimony against Joan , could find no adverse evidence . Without such evidence the court lacked grounds to initiate a trial . Opening a trial anyway , the court also violated ecclesiastical law by denying Joan the right to a legal adviser . In addition , stacking the tribunal entirely with pro @-@ English clergy violated the medieval Church 's requirement that heresy trials be judged by an impartial or balanced group of clerics . Upon the opening of the first public examination , Joan complained that those present were all partisans against her and asked for " ecclesiastics of the French side " to be invited in order to provide balance . This request was denied .
The Vice @-@ Inquisitor of Northern France ( Jean Lemaitre ) objected to the trial at its outset , and several eyewitnesses later said he was forced to cooperate after the English threatened his life . Some of the other clergy at the trial were also threatened when they refused to cooperate , including a Dominican friar named Isambart de la Pierre . These threats , and the domination of the trial by a secular government , were violations of the Church 's rules and undermined the right of the Church to conduct heresy trials without secular interference .
The trial record contains statements from Joan that the eyewitnesses later said astonished the court , since she was an illiterate peasant and yet was able to evade the theological pitfalls the tribunal had set up to entrap her . The transcript 's most famous exchange is an exercise in subtlety : " Asked if she knew she was in God 's grace , she answered , ' If I am not , may God put me there ; and if I am , may God so keep me . ' " The question is a scholarly trap . Church doctrine held that no one could be certain of being in God 's grace . If she had answered yes , then she would have been charged with heresy . If she had answered no , then she would have confessed her own guilt . The court notary Boisguillaume later testified that at the moment the court heard her reply , " Those who were interrogating her were stupefied . "
Several members of the tribunal later testified that important portions of the transcript were falsified by being altered in her disfavor . Under Inquisitorial guidelines , Joan should have been confined in an ecclesiastical prison under the supervision of female guards ( i.e. , nuns ) . Instead , the English kept her in a secular prison guarded by their own soldiers . Bishop Cauchon denied Joan 's appeals to the Council of Basel and the Pope , which should have stopped his proceeding .
The twelve articles of accusation which summarized the court 's findings contradicted the already doctored court record . The illiterate defendant signed an abjuration document that she did not understand under threat of immediate execution . The court substituted a different abjuration in the official record .
= = = Cross @-@ dressing charge = = =
Heresy was a capital crime only for a repeat offense , therefore a repeat offense of " cross @-@ dressing " was now arranged by the court , according to the eyewitnesses . Joan agreed to wear feminine clothing when she abjured , which created a problem . According to the later descriptions of some of the tribunal members , she had previously been wearing male ( i.e. military ) clothing in prison because it gave her the ability to fasten her hosen , boots and tunic together into one piece , which deterred rape by making it difficult to pull her hosen off . She was evidently afraid to give up this outfit even temporarily because it was likely to be confiscated by the judge and she would thereby be left without protection . A woman 's dress offered no such protection . A few days after her abjuration , when she was forced to wear a dress , she told a tribunal member that " a great English lord had entered her prison and tried to take her by force . " She resumed male attire either as a defense against molestation or , in the testimony of Jean Massieu , because her dress had been taken by the guards and she was left with nothing else to wear .
Her resumption of male military clothing was labeled a relapse into heresy for cross @-@ dressing , although this would later be disputed by the inquisitor who presided over the appeals court that examined the case after the war . Medieval Catholic doctrine held that cross @-@ dressing should be evaluated based on context , as stated in the Summa Theologica by St. Thomas Aquinas , which says that necessity would be a permissible reason for cross @-@ dressing . This would include the use of clothing as protection against rape if the clothing would offer protection . In terms of doctrine , she had been justified in disguising herself as a pageboy during her journey through enemy territory , and she was justified in wearing armor during battle and protective clothing in camp and then in prison . The Chronique de la Pucelle states that it deterred molestation while she was camped in the field . When her soldiers ' clothing wasn 't needed while on campaign , she was said to have gone back to wearing a dress . Clergy who later testified at the posthumous appellate trial affirmed that she continued to wear male clothing in prison to deter molestation and rape .
Joan referred the court to the Poitiers inquiry when questioned on the matter . The Poitiers record no longer survives , but circumstances indicate the Poitiers clerics had approved her practice . She also kept her hair cut short through her military campaigns and while in prison . Her supporters , such as the theologian Jean Gerson , defended her hairstyle for practical reasons , as did Inquisitor Brehal later during the appellate trial . Nonetheless , at the trial in 1431 she was condemned and sentenced to die .
= = = Execution = = =
Eyewitnesses described the scene of the execution by burning on 30 May 1431 . Tied to a tall pillar at the Vieux @-@ Marché in Rouen , she asked two of the clergy , Fr Martin Ladvenu and Fr Isambart de la Pierre , to hold a crucifix before her . An English soldier also constructed a small cross that she put in the front of her dress . After she died , the English raked back the coals to expose her charred body so that no one could claim she had escaped alive . They then burned the body twice more , to reduce it to ashes and prevent any collection of relics , and cast her remains into the Seine River . The executioner , Geoffroy Thérage , later stated that he " greatly feared to be damned . "
= = Posthumous events = =
The Hundred Years ' War continued for twenty @-@ two years after her death . Charles VII succeeded in retaining legitimacy as the king of France in spite of a rival coronation held for Henry VI at Notre @-@ Dame cathedral in Paris on 16 December 1431 , the boy 's tenth birthday . Before England could rebuild its military leadership and force of longbowmen lost in 1429 , the country lost its alliance with Burgundy when the Treaty of Arras was signed in 1435 . The Duke of Bedford died the same year and Henry VI became the youngest king of England to rule without a regent . His weak leadership was probably the most important factor in ending the conflict . Kelly DeVries argues that Joan of Arc 's aggressive use of artillery and frontal assaults influenced French tactics for the rest of the war .
In 1452 , during the posthumous investigation into her execution , the Church declared that a religious play in her honor at Orléans would allow attendees to gain an indulgence ( remission of temporal punishment for sin ) by making a pilgrimage to the event .
= = = Retrial = = =
A posthumous retrial opened after the war ended . Pope Callixtus III authorized this proceeding , also known as the " nullification trial " , at the request of Inquisitor @-@ General Jean Bréhal and Joan 's mother Isabelle Romée . The purpose of the trial was to investigate whether the trial of condemnation and its verdict had been handled justly and according to canon law . Investigations started with an inquest by Guillaume Bouillé , a theologian and former rector of the University of Paris ( Sorbonne ) . Bréhal conducted an investigation in 1452 . A formal appeal followed in November 1455 . The appellate process involved clergy from throughout Europe and observed standard court procedure . A panel of theologians analyzed testimony from 115 witnesses . Bréhal drew up his final summary in June 1456 , which describes Joan as a martyr and implicated the late Pierre Cauchon with heresy for having convicted an innocent woman in pursuit of a secular vendetta . The technical reason for her execution had been a Biblical clothing law . The nullification trial reversed the conviction in part because the condemnation proceeding had failed to consider the doctrinal exceptions to that stricture . The appellate court declared her innocent on 7 July 1456 .
= = Canonization = =
Joan of Arc became a symbol of the Catholic League during the 16th century . When Félix Dupanloup was made bishop of Orléans in 1849 , he pronounced a fervid panegyric on Joan of Arc , which attracted attention in England as well as France , and he led the efforts which culminated in Joan of Arc 's beatification in 1909 . Pope Benedict XV canonized Joan on 16 May 1920 .
= = Legacy = =
Joan of Arc became a semi @-@ legendary figure for the four centuries after her death . The main sources of information about her were chronicles . Five original manuscripts of her condemnation trial surfaced in old archives during the 19th century . Soon , historians also located the complete records of her rehabilitation trial , which contained sworn testimony from 115 witnesses , and the original French notes for the Latin condemnation trial transcript . Various contemporary letters also emerged , three of which carry the signature Jehanne in the unsteady hand of a person learning to write . This unusual wealth of primary source material is one reason DeVries declares , " No person of the Middle Ages , male or female , has been the subject of more study . "
Joan of Arc came from an obscure village and rose to prominence when she was a teenager , and she did so as an uneducated peasant . The French and English kings had justified the ongoing war through competing interpretations of inheritance law , first concerning Edward III 's claim to the French throne and then Henry VI 's . The conflict had been a legalistic feud between two related royal families , but Joan transformed it along religious lines and gave meaning to appeals such as that of squire Jean de Metz when he asked , " Must the king be driven from the kingdom ; and are we to be English ? " In the words of Stephen Richey , " She turned what had been a dry dynastic squabble that left the common people unmoved except for their own suffering into a passionately popular war of national liberation . " Richey also expresses the breadth of her subsequent appeal :
The people who came after her in the five centuries since her death tried to make everything of her : demonic fanatic , spiritual mystic , naive and tragically ill @-@ used tool of the powerful , creator and icon of modern popular nationalism , adored heroine , saint . She insisted , even when threatened with torture and faced with death by fire , that she was guided by voices from God . Voices or no voices , her achievements leave anyone who knows her story shaking his head in amazed wonder .
From Christine de Pizan to the present , women have looked to Joan as a positive example of a brave and active woman . She operated within a religious tradition that believed an exceptional person from any level of society might receive a divine calling . Some of her most significant aid came from women . King Charles VII 's mother @-@ in @-@ law , Yolande of Aragon , confirmed Joan 's virginity and financed her departure to Orléans . Joan of Luxembourg , aunt to the count of Luxembourg who held custody of her after Compiègne , alleviated her conditions of captivity and may have delayed her sale to the English . Finally , Anne of Burgundy , the duchess of Bedford and wife to the regent of England , declared Joan a virgin during pretrial inquiries .
Three separate vessels of the French Navy have been named after her , including a helicopter carrier that was retired from active service on 7 June 2010 . At present , the French far @-@ right political party Front National holds rallies at her statues , reproduces her image in the party 's publications , and uses a tricolor flame partly symbolic of her martyrdom as its emblem . This party 's opponents sometimes satirize its appropriation of her image . The French civic holiday in her honour is the second Sunday of May .
During World War I , she was frequently used as an icon in musical works . Some notable songs include " Joan of Arc " , " Joan of Arc , They Are Calling You " , and " Joan of Arc 's Answer Song " .
= = Visions = =
Joan of Arc 's religious visions have remained an ongoing topic of interest . She identified Saint Margaret , Saint Catherine , and Saint Michael as the source of her revelations , although there is some ambiguity as to which of several identically named saints she intended .
Analysis of her visions is problematic since the main source of information on this topic is the condemnation trial transcript in which she defied customary courtroom procedure about a witness ' oath and specifically refused to answer every question about her visions . She complained that a standard witness oath would conflict with an oath she had previously sworn to maintain confidentiality about meetings with her king . It remains unknown to what extent the surviving record may represent the fabrications of corrupt court officials or her own possible fabrications to protect state secrets . Some historians sidestep speculation about the visions by asserting that her belief in her calling is more relevant than questions about the visions ' ultimate origin .
A number of more recent scholars attempted to explain her visions in psychiatric or neurological terms . Potential diagnoses have included epilepsy , migraine , tuberculosis , and schizophrenia . None of the putative diagnoses have gained consensus support , and many scholars have argued that she didn 't display any of the objective symptoms that can accompany the mental illnesses which have been suggested , such as schizophrenia . Dr. Philip Mackowiak dismissed the possibility of schizophrenia and several other disorders ( Temporal Lobe Epilepsy and ergot poisoning ) in a chapter on Joan of Arc in his book " Post @-@ Mortem " in 2007 .
Dr. John Hughes rejected the idea that Joan of Arc suffered from epilepsy in an article in the academic journal ' Epilepsy & Behavior ' .
Two experts who analysed the hypothesis of temporal lobe tuberculoma in the medical journal Neuropsychobiology expressed their misgivings about this claim in the following statement :
It is difficult to draw final conclusions , but it would seem unlikely that widespread tuberculosis , a serious disease , was present in this " patient " whose life @-@ style and activities would surely have been impossible had such a serious disease been present .
In response to another such theory alleging that her visions were caused by bovine tuberculosis as a result of drinking unpasteurized milk , historian Régine Pernoud wrote that if drinking unpasteurized milk could produce such potential benefits for the nation , then the French government should stop mandating the pasteurization of milk .
Joan of Arc gained favor in the court of King Charles VII , who accepted her as sane . He would have been familiar with the signs of madness because his own father , Charles VI , had suffered from it . Charles VI was popularly known as " Charles the Mad " , and much of France 's political and military decline during his reign could be attributed to the power vacuum that his episodes of insanity had produced . The previous king had believed he was made of glass , a delusion no courtier had mistaken for a religious awakening . Fears that King Charles VII would manifest the same insanity may have factored into the attempt to disinherit him at Troyes . This stigma was so persistent that contemporaries of the next generation would attribute to inherited madness the breakdown that England 's King Henry VI was to suffer in 1453 : Henry VI was nephew to Charles VII and grandson to Charles VI . The court of Charles VII was shrewd and skeptical on the subject of mental health . Upon Joan 's arrival at Chinon the royal counselor Jacques Gélu cautioned ,
One should not lightly alter any policy because of conversation with a girl , a peasant ... so susceptible to illusions ; one should not make oneself ridiculous in the sight of foreign nations .
She remained astute to the end of her life and the rehabilitation trial testimony frequently marvels at her astuteness :
Often they [ the judges ] turned from one question to another , changing about , but , notwithstanding this , she answered prudently , and evinced a wonderful memory .
Her subtle replies under interrogation even forced the court to stop holding public sessions .
Some psychiatrists have also urged that a distinction should be made between different types of experiences . Ralph Hoffman , professor of psychology at Yale University , argues that visionary and creative states , including " hearing voices " , are not necessarily signs of mental illness .
= = Alleged relics = =
In 1867 , a jar was found in a Paris pharmacy with the inscription " Remains found under the stake of Joan of Arc , virgin of Orleans . " They consisted of a charred human rib , carbonized wood , a piece of linen and a cat femur — explained as the practice of throwing black cats onto the pyre of witches . They are now in the Museum of Art and History in Chinon . In 2006 , Philippe Charlier , a forensic scientist at Raymond Poincaré Hospital ( Garches ) was authorized to study the relics . Carbon @-@ 14 tests and various spectroscopic analyses were performed , and the results determined that the remains come from an Egyptian mummy from the sixth to the third century BC . The charred appearance was the result of the embalming substances , not from combustion . Large amounts of pine pollen were also found , consistent with the presence of resin used in mummification and some unburned linen was found and was determined to be similar to that used to wrap mummies . The noted perfumers Guerlain and Jean Patou said that they could smell vanilla in the remains , also consistent with mummification . Apparently the mummy was part of the ingredients of medieval pharmacopoeia and it was relabeled in a time of French nationalism .
In March 2016 a ring believed to have been worn by Joan , which has passed through the hands of a cardinal , a king , an aristocrat and the daughter of a British physician , was sold at auction to the Puy du Fou , a historical theme park , for £ 300 @,@ 000 . There is no conclusive proof that she owned the ring , but its unusual design closely matches Joan 's own words about her ring at her trial .
= = Revisionist theories = =
The accuracy of the standard accounts of the life of Joan of Arc has been questioned by revisionist authors .
= X @-@ ray crystallography =
X @-@ ray crystallography is a tool used for identifying the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal , in which the crystalline atoms cause a beam of incident X @-@ rays to diffract into many specific directions . By measuring the angles and intensities of these diffracted beams , a crystallographer can produce a three @-@ dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal . From this electron density , the mean positions of the atoms in the crystal can be determined , as well as their chemical bonds , their disorder and various other information .
Since many materials can form crystals — such as salts , metals , minerals , semiconductors , as well as various inorganic , organic and biological molecules — X @-@ ray crystallography has been fundamental in the development of many scientific fields . In its first decades of use , this method determined the size of atoms , the lengths and types of chemical bonds , and the atomic @-@ scale differences among various materials , especially minerals and alloys . The method also revealed the structure and function of many biological molecules , including vitamins , drugs , proteins and nucleic acids such as DNA . X @-@ ray crystallography is still the chief method for characterizing the atomic structure of new materials and in discerning materials that appear similar by other experiments . X @-@ ray crystal structures can also account for unusual electronic or elastic properties of a material , shed light on chemical interactions and processes , or serve as the basis for designing pharmaceuticals against diseases .
In a single @-@ crystal X @-@ ray diffraction measurement , a crystal is mounted on a goniometer . The goniometer is used to position the crystal at selected orientations . The crystal is illuminated with a finely focused monochromatic beam of X @-@ rays , producing a diffraction pattern of regularly spaced spots known as reflections . The two @-@ dimensional images taken at different orientations are converted into a three @-@ dimensional model of the density of electrons within the crystal using the mathematical method of Fourier transforms , combined with chemical data known for the sample . Poor resolution ( fuzziness ) or even errors may result if the crystals are too small , or not uniform enough in their internal makeup .
X @-@ ray crystallography is related to several other methods for determining atomic structures . Similar diffraction patterns can be produced by scattering electrons or neutrons , which are likewise interpreted by Fourier transformation . If single crystals of sufficient size cannot be obtained , various other X @-@ ray methods can be applied to obtain less detailed information ; such methods include fiber diffraction , powder diffraction and ( if the sample is not crystallized ) small @-@ angle X @-@ ray scattering ( SAXS ) . If the material under investigation is only available in the form of nanocrystalline powders or suffers from poor crystallinity , the methods of electron crystallography can be applied for determining the atomic structure .
For all above mentioned X @-@ ray diffraction methods , the scattering is elastic ; the scattered X @-@ rays have the same wavelength as the incoming X @-@ ray . By contrast , inelastic X @-@ ray scattering methods are useful in studying excitations of the sample , rather than the distribution of its atoms .
= = History = =
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1993 – 2000 : Championship franchise = = = =
Under Lemaire , the team played during the 1993 – 94 regular season with a lineup that included defensemen Scott Stevens , Scott Niedermayer and Ken Daneyko ; forwards Stephane Richer , John MacLean , Bobby Holik and Claude Lemieux ; and goaltenders Chris Terreri and Martin Brodeur , the latter goaltender was honored as the NHL 's top rookie with the Calder Memorial Trophy . The Devils scored 330 times in the regular season and set a franchise record with 106 points , second behind the New York Rangers in the Atlantic Division . The Devils and Rangers met in an Eastern Conference Finals match @-@ up , which went seven games . Going into Game 6 in New Jersey , the Devils led the series three games to two . Before the game , Rangers captain Mark Messier guaranteed that the Rangers would win Game 6 . Messier led his team back , netting a hat @-@ trick to help the Rangers overcome an early 2 – 0 Devils lead and force a decisive content . In Game 7 , the Devils ' Valeri Zelepukin tied the score at 1 – 1 with 7 @.@ 7 seconds remaining , but the Devils were defeated in double overtime on a goal by Stéphane Matteau .
Despite the setback , the team returned to the Eastern Conference Finals during the lockout @-@ shortened 1994 – 95 season and defeated the Philadelphia Flyers four games to two . They swept the heavily favored Detroit Red Wings to win New Jersey 's first @-@ ever Stanley Cup , as they brought the Cup across the Hudson River from New York , after the Rangers had won it the year before . The 1995 Devils team became the first to give the players a day with the Stanley Cup , a tradition that lives on with each Cup winner . Claude Lemieux was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoffs MVP . The success came amid constant rumors that the team would move for the third time in its history to Nashville . Staring at the prospect of losing the team , the state agreed to fund a renovation of the Devils ' arena .
The Devils missed the playoffs by two points the following season , with a 37 – 33 – 12 record . They were beaten by the Tampa Bay Lightning for the last playoff spot in the East on the last day of the season , after a 5 – 2 loss to the Ottawa Senators in a must @-@ win game . It marked the first time in 26 years that a defending Cup champion failed to reach the playoffs . For the remainder of the decade , the Devils won at least 45 games every season , but were unable to make a deep playoff run . Despite posting 104 points in the 1996 – 97 season and 107 in 1997 – 98 , they were ousted by the Rangers four games to one in the second round of the 1997 playoffs and in the first round by the Senators four games to two a year later . Lemaire resigned after that season and was replaced by assistant Robbie Ftorek . However , the next season ended as the previous one , with a first @-@ round loss , this time to the Pittsburgh Penguins .
Late in the 1999 – 2000 season , Lamoriello made the decision to fire Ftorek and replace him with Assistant Coach Larry Robinson , which the New York Post 's Mark Everson described as " pure panic " at the prospect of another early @-@ round playoff elimination . The Devils were in position to reach the playoffs , but Lamoriello reacted to a stretch of 17 games in which the team went 5 – 10 – 2 . New Jersey followed the move by defeating the Florida Panthers , the Toronto Maple Leafs and the Philadelphia Flyers during the post @-@ season to make the Finals . In the Finals , the Devils reached the top again , defeating the defending champion Dallas Stars in six games to win the Stanley Cup for the second time . Veterans such as Stevens , Holik , Niedermayer and Brodeur were joined by new players acquired in the intervening five years , including Patrik Elias , Petr Sykora , Jason Arnott , Alexander Mogilny and Calder Trophy recipient Scott Gomez . The Devils ' second championship run included a come @-@ from @-@ behind victory in the Conference Finals . They trailed the Flyers three games to one , but rebounded to win three @-@ straight games and the series . This was the first time in NHL Conference Finals history that a 3 – 1 series deficit was surmounted . This series featured a hit that captain Scott Stevens laid on Flyers center Eric Lindros in the seventh game , which effectively ended Lindros ' career in Philadelphia . Stevens was named the winner of the Conn Smythe Trophy , as the Devils clinched the Stanley Cup on Arnott 's goal in double @-@ overtime of Game 6 in Dallas .
In 2000 , McMullen sold the team to Puck Holdings , an affiliate of YankeeNets , for $ 176 million . The owners wanted to program Devils games on what eventually became the YES Network and move the team to a new arena in Newark . Neither of these proposals became reality under Puck Holdings ' ownership . For the start of the next season , Lamoriello was appointed CEO of both the Devils and the New Jersey Nets National Basketball Association team . He remained at the helm of the basketball team until it was sold with the intention of moving it to Brooklyn in 2004 .
= = = = 2001 – 2007 : Third Cup and lockout = = = =
Led by the Elias @-@ Arnott @-@ Sykora line ( The A Line ) on offense and the goaltending of Brodeur ( who appeared in a record 97 games between the regular season and playoffs ) , the Devils reached the Stanley Cup Finals for the second @-@ straight year in 2001 . They lost the series to the Colorado Avalanche despite leading 3 – 2 . John Madden became the first player in franchise history to win the Frank J. Selke Trophy for top defensive forward . In the 2001 – 02 season , they were expected to be contenders once again , and they finished the season as the third @-@ best team in the Atlantic Division , with 95 points . The Devils entered the playoffs as a sixth seed , but lost in the first round to the third @-@ seeded Carolina Hurricanes .
In 2003 , the Devils finished first in the Atlantic Division with 108 points . Their playoff run included a seven @-@ game Conference Final series victory , decided in the final three minutes on a goal by forward Jeff Friesen , over the Ottawa Senators . In the Stanley Cup Finals , the Devils and Mighty Ducks of Anaheim had a back @-@ and @-@ forth battle , as both teams won all of their home games . The Devils brought the Stanley Cup to New Jersey for a third time , defeating the Mighty Ducks in the seventh game of the Finals in New Jersey . After the series , Daneyko , a long @-@ time fan favorite , announced his retirement . Brodeur was awarded the Vezina Trophy as outstanding goaltender in the regular season for the first time in his career , having won 41 games in the regular season to top the NHL .
In the 2003 – 04 season , Brodeur took home the Vezina Trophy again . Despite losing team captain Scott Stevens in the 38th game of the season to a concussion , the Devils finished second in the Atlantic Division with 100 points . With the sixth seed in the Stanley Cup playoffs , the Devils lost to the Philadelphia Flyers four games to one . In March 2004 , near the end of the season , Lehman Brothers executive Jeff Vanderbeek purchased a controlling interest from Puck Holdings and resigned from Lehman Brothers to assume full @-@ time ownership . He had been a minority owner since the 2000 sale . Like Puck Holdings / YankeeNets , Vanderbeek largely left the Devils in Lamoriello 's hands .
Vanderbeek was a strong proponent of the proposed arena in Newark , which first received funding from the city council during Puck Holdings ' ownership in 2002 . After legal battles over both eminent domain and the city 's financial participation in the arena project , the final deal was approved by council in October 2004 , during the early months of the lockout , and the groundbreaking occurred almost exactly a year later . Nonetheless , in January 2006 , financial issues threatened to halt the deal , as the Devils did not provide the city with a required letter of credit until the last possible day .
Though construction was well underway , in late summer 2006 , new Mayor of Newark Cory Booker promised to reevaluate the deal and considered backing out . In October , Booker conceded there would be " a first @-@ class arena built in the city of Newark , whether we like it or not , " and soon after the Devils struck a deal including both property and monetary givebacks that appeased city officials . The arena , which was named the Prudential Center when Newark @-@ based Prudential Financial purchased naming rights in early 2007 , opened shortly after the start of the 2007 – 08 season .
The 2004 – 05 season was canceled due to the lockout ; many Devils players played in European leagues and in the hockey world championships . Patrik Elias , who was playing in the Russian Superleague , contracted hepatitis A. Faced with Elias ' indefinite recovery timetable , plus the loss of defensive stalwarts Scott Niedermayer to free agency and Scott Stevens to retirement , Lamoriello signed veteran defenseman Dan McGillis and two former Devils , winger Alexander Mogilny and defenseman Vladimir Malakhov , none of whom finished the season on the ice . In July 2005 , the team announced that Head Coach Pat Burns would not return for the 2005 – 06 season after being diagnosed with cancer for the second time in little more than a year . Assistant Coach Larry Robinson , the team 's head coach from 2000 to 2002 , was promoted to start the season .
The Devils struggled early in the 2005 – 06 season , ending the 2005 calendar year with a 16 – 18 – 5 record . Robinson resigned as head coach on December 19 , and Lamoriello moved down to the bench . Once Elias returned from his bout with hepatitis , the team quickly turned around , finishing 46 – 27 – 9 after a season @-@ ending 11 @-@ game winning streak capped with a 4 – 3 win over the Montreal Canadiens . During that final victory , which clinched the Devils ' sixth division title , Brian Gionta set a new team record for goals in a season with 48 , topping Pat Verbeek 's 46 . The win streak to close the year was also an NHL record . The Devils won their first round Stanley Cup playoff series against the Rangers four games to none , but were eliminated by the Carolina Hurricanes in the next round .
In the off @-@ season , the Devils hired former Montreal Canadiens head coach Claude Julien to replace Lamoriello behind the bench . However , in the last week of the 2006 – 07 Devils season , with just three games left , Julien was fired , and Lamoriello once again reprised his coaching role . The Devils went on to win their seventh Atlantic Division title and earn the second seed in the Eastern Conference after finishing ahead of the Pittsburgh Penguins by two points . They then defeated the Tampa Bay Lightning in six games in the first round , but fell to the Ottawa Senators in the Eastern Conference Semi @-@ finals in five . The conclusion of the series marked the end of the Devils ' time at the Continental Airlines Arena .
= = = = 2007 – 2013 : Move to Newark and return to Finals = = = =
Before the move to Newark , the Devils hired their 14th coach in a 26 @-@ season span , Brent Sutter . As the Devils ' pre @-@ season came to an end , prospects Nicklas Bergfors and David Clarkson made the final roster . The Devils opened their new arena , the Prudential Center , on October 27 , 2007 , against Ottawa after opening the season with a nine @-@ game road trip . The game ended with a 4 – 1 win for Ottawa . In the last game of the 2007 – 08 season against the Rangers , the Devils won in a shootout , giving them home ice advantage over the Rangers in the playoffs . The Devils lost the series against the Rangers 4 – 1 , losing all three games at home . Brodeur won the Vezina Trophy for the fourth time in five years for his performance in the regular season .
For the 2008 – 09 season , the Devils signed Brian Rolston and Bobby Holik , both making their second stints with the team . The Devils were forced to play without Brodeur for over three months after he tore a biceps tendon in November , but strong play by backup goalie Scott Clemmensen kept the Devils atop the Atlantic Division . After his return , Brodeur broke Patrick Roy 's record for regular season wins on March 17 , 2009 , with his 552nd victory , while Patrik Elias became the franchise 's all @-@ time leading scorer with his 702nd point . The season also served as a break @-@ out year for 24 @-@ year old Zach Parise , who led the team with an impressive 45 goals and 94 points . In the opening round of the 2009 playoffs , the Devils were eliminated in a Game 7 loss in which the Hurricanes scored two goals in the last minute and twenty seconds to erase a 3 – 2 Devils lead .
In the off @-@ season , the Devils announced that Sutter was stepping down from his position , citing personal and family reasons ; he became the coach of the Calgary Flames shortly afterward . Jacques Lemaire returned to the head coach position . During the 2009 – 10 season , the Devils made a trade to acquire star left wing Ilya Kovalchuk from the Atlanta Thrashers . The Devils had their 12th 100 @-@ point season in their last 15 attempts . They finished the season in first place in the Atlantic Division , second in the Eastern Conference , and played in the post @-@ season for the 13th @-@ straight time . Their seeding matched them up against Philadelphia in the first round , and they were eliminated four games to one .
After Lemaire retired from coaching , the Devils announced that the team 's all @-@ time leading scorer , John MacLean , would become their new head coach . During the off @-@ season , the Devils signed Kovalchuk to a 15 @-@ year , $ 100 million contract , keeping him in New Jersey until the conclusion of the 2024 – 25 season ; the move came after the NHL had rejected a 17 @-@ year contract for allegedly circumventing the NHL Collective Bargaining Agreement ( CBA ) . The League still penalized the Devils for trying to circumvent the NHL salary cap with a money fine , a third @-@ round draft pick in 2011 and one future first @-@ round pick within the next four seasons . MacLean led the team to a record of 9 – 22 – 2 , and after sitting in last place in the NHL on December 23 , he was removed in favor of Lemaire , coming out of retirement for his third stint as head coach of the Devils and second in less than two seasons . Just a few days later , struggling captain Jamie Langenbrunner was traded back to Dallas after nine seasons with New Jersey . With the injured Parise missing most of the regular season , the team struggled offensively , finishing last in goals scored . Despite this , the Devils managed a mid @-@ season turnaround , winning 22 out of the next 25 games . However , the Devils still failed to qualify for the playoffs for the first time since 1996 , ending their 13 @-@ year streak .
In the 2011 off @-@ season , Lemaire once again retired and was replaced by former Florida Panthers head coach Peter DeBoer . DeBoer 's new system helped develop a strong offense , which had seven 40 @-@ point scorers by the season 's end and broke an NHL record for the best regular season penalty kill since before the Expansion Era . Four players – Kovalchuk , Elias , David Clarkson and newly named captain Zach Parise – scored 30 or more goals , with Kovalchuk and Elias also finishing the season among the NHL 's top ten @-@ point scorers . Rookie forward Adam Henrique totaled 51 points and earned a Calder Trophy nomination for rookie of the year . As the sixth seed in the Eastern Conference , the Devils defeated Southeast champions Florida before overcoming both divisional rivals , the Flyers and Rangers , to win the Conference and return to the Finals after nine years . Facing the Los Angeles Kings in the Finals , the Devils managed to not be swept after losing the first three games in the series , but still lost the Cup in six games .
During the 2012 off @-@ season , Zach Parise signed a 13 @-@ year , $ 98 million contract with the Minnesota Wild , leaving the Devils after one season as team captain . The Devils entered the lockout @-@ shortened season with Bryce Salvador as their new captain . However , the Devils failed to repeat the performance of the prior year , finishing 19 – 19 – 10 in 48 games and missed the playoffs .
= = = = 2013 – present : Harris – Blitzer era = = = =
The Devils ' longtime financial struggles worsened during the 2012 – 13 season , and at one point the team needed to borrow $ 30 million to meet their payroll . This prompted owner Jeff Vanderbeek to sell the team . Andrew Barroway , the attorney who loaned the team the $ 30 million , was one potential buyer . Ultimately , the team was sold to Josh Harris , owner of the NBA 's Philadelphia 76ers , and David S. Blitzer , for over $ 320 million . The sale was formally announced on August 15 , 2013 . During the offseason , Kovalchuk announced he would retire from the NHL , expressing a desire to return home to Russia along with his family . In addition , 30 @-@ goal scorer David Clarkson also left the Devils , signing a 7 @-@ year deal with Toronto . With the departures of Parise and now Kovalchuk and Clarkson , the Devils were in desperate need of offensive help . In an effort to full the void , the Devils signed veteran Jaromir Jagr , who despite being 41 years old , led the team scoring in the 2013 – 14 season . During the 2013 NHL Entry Draft , hosted in Newark , the Devils acquired goaltender Cory Schneider from Vancouver in exchange for the Devils ' first round draft pick . Schneider split goaltending duties with the 41 @-@ year @-@ old Brodeur , which led to some controversy over who should be the starting goalie for the Devils . Despite Schneider 's 1 @.@ 97 goals against average leading the NHL , the Devils missed the playoffs by five points due to lagging offensive production . In the 2014 offseason , the Devils saw the departure of NHL all @-@ time wins leader Martin Brodeur , who was not re @-@ signed and subsequently joined the St. Louis Blues . Brodeur , who had spent his entire 21 @-@ year career with the Devils , played only seven games with St. Louis before announcing his retirement .
The 2014 – 15 season opened with the Devils ' roster suffering with injuries , and consequently the team accumulated losses . On December 26 , Peter DeBoer was fired from the head coach position . To replace him , Lamoriello invested in two head coaches , former Devils player Scott Stevens ( who had been DeBoer 's assistant for two years ) and Adam Oates , with Lamoriello himself supervising the team during the first months . The Devils finished the season as the sixth @-@ worst team in the League , 20 points away from a playoff spot and with just one victory in the last 11 games .
During the 2015 offseason , Ray Shero was named the Devils ' new general manager , and John Hynes was named as the new head coach . Lou Lamoriello resigned as team president and became the general manager of the Toronto Maple Leafs , replacing Dave Nonis , who was fired at the end of the season .
= = Season @-@ by @-@ season record = =
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Devils . For the full season @-@ by @-@ season history , see List of New Jersey Devils seasons
Note : GP
= Games played , W =
Wins , L
= Losses , T =
Ties , OTL
= Overtime Losses , Pts =
Points , GF
= Goals for , GA =
Goals against
= = Team identity = =
= = = Logo = = =
The Devils ' logo is a monogram of the letters " N " , and " J " , rendered with devil horns at the top of the " J " and a pointed tail at the bottom . The monogram was red with a green outline when the team began playing in New Jersey , but the outline color was changed to black in 1992 , due to difficulties in making the green color consistent between its logo and jerseys . The logo sits inside an open black circle , and lies on a field of white in the middle of the chest on both uniforms . Before the Devils ' move from Colorado in 1982 , then @-@ owner John McMullen 's wife designed a prototype logo , which was then modified by a professional graphic design and marketing firm , and became the green @-@ and @-@ red logo used by the team for the first ten years in New Jersey .
= = = Jerseys = = =
The team colors are red , black and white , and they can be seen on both the home and road jerseys . The home jersey , which was the team 's road jersey until the NHL swapped home and road colors in 2003 , is dominantly red in color . There are three black and white stripes , one across each arm and one across the waist . The road jersey ( the team 's former home jersey ) is white in color with a similar design , except that the three stripes are black and red . The shoulders are draped with black on both uniforms . Before the 1992 – 93 season , the uniforms were green and red with slightly different striping , leading some fans to affectionately refer to them as " Christmas colors . " The Devils have yet to introduce a third jersey and are one of only two NHL teams ( Detroit is the other ) never to have worn one . Lamoriello had stated that he did not ever intend to introduce a third jersey for the Devils , saying , " I don 't believe in it " , Lamoriello said . " I strongly believe that you have to have one identity as a team . We want to create a feeling that our home and away jerseys are special and that it means something special to wear one . " Unlike most teams , the Devils kept the same uniform design when the NHL switched to the Rbk Edge jerseys by Reebok for the 2007 – 08 season .
On August 20 , 2009 , Lamoriello announced that the Devils would wear their classic red , white and green jerseys on their Saint Patrick 's Day 2010 game against the Pittsburgh Penguins . Lamoriello stated , " The original red , green and white jerseys are a part of our history here in New Jersey . We have always been an organization that takes great pride in its tradition . This is something we believe our fans will enjoy for that one special night . " Martin Brodeur wore a special replica helmet of the one from his first NHL game , as the Devils defeated the Penguins , 5 – 2 . The throwback jerseys were used seven more times , three of which took place on St. Patrick 's Day . In 2014 , they were used twice : January 26 against the Rangers in the 2014 NHL Stadium Series , and March 18 against the Bruins .
= = = Mascot = = =
The mascot is " NJ Devil " , a 7 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) tall devil who plays into the myth of the Jersey Devil . NJ Devil keeps the crowd excited , signs autographs , participates in entertainment during the intermissions , skates across the ice , throws T @-@ shirts and runs throughout the aisles of the arena to high five fans . Prior to 1993 , the mascot was " Slapshot " , a large Devils hockey puck that interacted with the fans . The man inside the costume resigned after he was accused of touching three women inappropriately while in costume . The lawsuit and all charges were dropped as nothing could be proven . To remove the stigma of the lawsuit , Slapshot was retired and has not returned since .
= = = Style of play = = =
The Devils have been known as a defense @-@ first team since Head Coach Jacques Lemaire 's first tenure , although the Devils have twice led the Eastern Conference in goals scored , once leading the NHL in goals scored ( 295 goals for in 2000 – 01 ) . Lemaire gave the Devils their defensive mantra when he implemented a system commonly called the " neutral zone trap . " This system is designed to force teams to turn over the puck in the neutral zone leading to a counterattack . This style of play led the team to be chastised by the media and hockey purists for " making the NHL boring . " Nevertheless , the Devils were successful using this style of play , and Devils Head Coach Larry Robinson asserted that the Montreal Canadiens teams he played on in the 1970s ( who also won the Cup many times ) used a form of the trap , though it did not have a name .
Under Head Coach Brent Sutter , the team adopted less of a trap and more of a transitional , aggressive forechecking style of play which also emphasized puck possession and instilled the cycle to start the 2007 – 08 season . This led to many high scoring games early in the season for New Jersey . The Devils went on to score 244 goals in the 2008 – 09 season , the most the team had scored in eight seasons . However , with the return of Lemaire as head coach , the Devils resumed a more defense @-@ oriented playing style , scoring just 222 goals and allowing only 191 , an NHL best in the 2009 – 10 season , earning Martin Brodeur his fifth William M. Jennings Trophy .
Lemaire has since re @-@ entered retirement , and was replaced by former Florida Head Coach Peter DeBoer on July 19 , 2011 . The team showed greater offensive prowess during the 2011 – 12 season , employing a more aggressive forecheck centered on Ilya Kovalchuk . Under DeBoer 's system , according to Lamoriello , the Devils ' defenseman were often sent into the offensive zone to apply pressure on the opposing team 's defense . After DeBoer 's dismissal , Adam Oates had a similar approach improving the Devils ' offense , investing on the versatility of the forwards .
= = = Rivalries = = =
The Devils developed strong rivalries with two teams out of geographical proximity and frequent playoff confrontations . The " Battle of the Hudson River " with the New York Rangers is so @-@ called as the Devils ' arenas in the New York metropolitan area were always less than ten miles and across the Hudson River from Madison Square Garden . New Jersey 's proximity with Pennsylvania also led to a rivalry with the Philadelphia Flyers , the " Battle of the Jersey Turnpike . " The Flyers have a large following in South Jersey and train in Voorhees Township . Both teams had the most titles of the Atlantic Division prior to the 2013 realignment , with nine to the Devils and six to the Flyers .
= = Players and personnel = =
= = = Roster = = =
Updated July 6 , 2016 .
= = = Honored members = = =
= = = = Retired numbers = = = =
The Devils have retired four numbers , all representing key players on their three Stanley Cup @-@ winning teams in the late 1990s and early 2000s .
Notes
1 Daneyko holds the record for most games played in a Devils uniform with 1 @,@ 283 ( and spent his entire career with the team ) .
2 Stevens spent 13 seasons with the Devils , captaining the team for 12 of those seasons ( 1992 – 2004 ) .
3 Niedermayer spent the first 13 seasons of his career with the Devils , winning the James Norris Memorial Trophy in 2004 .
= = = = Hall of Fame honorees = = = =
Eight Devils players have been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . Peter Šťastný , who played for the Devils from 1989 – 93 , was inducted in 1998 . A center who defected from Czechoslovakia , Šťastný was one of the NHL 's top goal scorers in the 1980s . In 2001 , Šťastný was joined in the Hall of Fame by Devils defenseman Viacheslav Fetisov , who was one of the first Soviet players in the NHL . Fetisov played for the team in the 1989 – 90 season and again from 1990 to 1995 . Scott Stevens , a Devils defenseman from 1991 to 2004 and long @-@ time team captain , was inducted in 2007 in his first year of eligibility . In December 2014 , Stevens returned as head coach for the Devils ' defense . Igor Larionov , a forward with a 15 @-@ year career in the NHL who spent the 2003 – 04 season with the Devils , was inducted in 2008 . Two Devils centers were inducted in 2011 : Doug Gilmour , who had played for the team from 1996 to 1998 , and Joe Nieuwendyk , a member of the club from 2001 to 2003 . In 2013 , the Hall of Fame again inducted two former Devils players : left wing Brendan Shanahan , who had played for the team from 1987 to 1991 and again for the 2008 – 09 season , and defenseman Scott Niedermayer , who was a Devil from 1992 to 2004 .
In 2009 , Lou Lamoriello , Devils president and general manager from 1987 to 2015 , was inducted into the Hall as a Builder . Two Devils head coaches have also been inducted in the category . Herb Brooks , who coached the 1980 U.S. Olympic team to victory in the " Miracle on Ice " and served as Devils head coach in the 1992 – 93 season , was inducted in 2006 . Pat Burns , head coach from 2002 to 2004 , was inducted posthumously in 2014 . Longtime Devils broadcaster Mike Emrick was the 2008 recipient of the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award .
Three Devils head coaches had been inducted as players prior to joining the Devils organization . Jacques Lemaire , a 12 @-@ season NHL veteran forward who played primarily for the Canadiens , was inducted in 1984 and served as Devils head coach from 1993 to 1998 and 2009 to 2011 . Larry Robinson , who spent most of his 20 @-@ season career with the Canadiens , was inducted in 1995 and subsequently served as Devils head coach from 2000 – 02 and in 2005 . Adam Oates , a center with 19 seasons in the NHL who was inducted in 2012 , began serving as the Devils head coach for offense in December 2014 .
= = = Team captains = = =
This list does not include the former captains of the Kansas City Scouts and Colorado Rockies .
= = = General managers = = =
= 1959 National League tie @-@ breaker series =
The 1959 National League tie @-@ breaker series was a best @-@ of @-@ three playoff series at the conclusion of Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 1959 regular season to decide the winner of the National League ( NL ) pennant . The games were played on September 28 and 29 , 1959 , between the Los Angeles Dodgers and the Milwaukee Braves . The first game was played at Milwaukee County Stadium and the second took place at Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum . The playoff series was necessary after both teams finished the season with identical win – loss records of 86 – 68 . The Dodgers won a coin flip late in the season that gave them home field advantage for the series , although the series did not reach a third game .
Following a rain @-@ delayed start , the Dodgers won Game 1 by a close 3 – 2 score , with a home run by John Roseboro providing the margin of victory . The Dodgers then won the series and the pennant with another close victory in Game 2 ; they came back from a three @-@ run deficit to tie the game in the ninth and then ultimately defeated the Braves , 6 – 5 , in extra innings . This victory advanced the Dodgers to the 1959 World Series , in which they defeated the Chicago White Sox , four games to two . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker series counted as the 155th and 156th regular @-@ season games for both teams , with all events in the series added to regular @-@ season statistics .
= = Background = =
The Dodgers had a poor 1958 season , posting a 71 – 83 win @-@ loss record , finishing in seventh place ( out of eight teams ) in the NL , and never holding the league lead . By contrast the Braves won the NL that year with a 92 – 62 record and advanced to the 1958 World Series where the New York Yankees defeated them in seven games . Despite their success the Braves made several changes leading into the 1959 season . First , they selected Jim Pisoni in the Rule 5 draft from the Yankees in December 1958 , although he returned to the Yankees by May 1959 . The Braves then traded with the Philadelphia Phillies for Ted Kazanski , Stan Lopata , and Johnny O 'Brien just prior to the season . Finally , the Braves traded for Mickey Vernon from the Cleveland Indians and selected Bobby Ávila , Ray Boone , and Enos Slaughter off of waivers during the 1959 season . The Dodgers traded for Rip Repulski and Wally Moon during the offseason and then acquired Chuck Churn , Solly Drake , and Chuck Essegian during the year .
The NL race was tight throughout the 1959 season between the Braves , Dodgers , and San Francisco Giants . Neither the Giants nor the Braves ever fell five or more games back of the league leader , and the Dodgers never faced a deficit of six or more . The Dodgers had the best record in games played amongst the three , posting a combined 26 – 18 record against the other two before the tie @-@ breaker . However , the Dodgers spent just 21 days with at least a share of the lead while the Braves and Giants each led the league for 86 days .
The Giants led the National League by two games on September 17 , 1959 over the Dodgers and Braves who were tied . However , the Giants were swept by the Dodgers over their next three games , including a doubleheader which the Los Angeles Times described as a " breeze " for Los Angeles . Giants ' starting pitcher Sam Jones threw a no @-@ hitter on September 26 , 1959 which was cut short by rain in the eighth inning for his 21st win of the season . The Giants had considered pitching Jack Sanford in that game due to Jones ' recent heavy pitching workload . Because the game was shortened to less than nine innings it is no longer considered an official no @-@ hitter . The rain also forced the second game of the Giants ' scheduled doubleheader that day to be moved , leaving them with two games to play on the final day of the season . The Giants needed to win both games and have the Braves and Dodgers both lose to tie for the lead , but the Giants lost both . Jones ' no @-@ hitter was the Giants ' only win for the season after September 17 as the team went 1 – 7 over that span , going from a two @-@ game lead to a three @-@ game deficit by season 's end . The Braves and Dodgers went 6 – 4 over that period to maintain their tie . This included a five @-@ hit complete game by Warren Spahn to win the Braves ' final game of the season 3 – 2 . This was Spahn 's 21st win of the season and 267th of his career , breaking Eppa Rixey 's record for most wins by a left @-@ handed pitcher .
Both the Dodgers and Braves finished the regularly scheduled 154 @-@ game season tied with records of 86 – 68 , forcing a tie @-@ breaker to decide the pennant winner . The two team 's managers flipped a coin to decide home field advantage and Dodgers ' manager Walt Alston won . The Dodgers opted to play the second and third ( if necessary ) games at home , choosing to play Game 1 in Milwaukee . The tie @-@ breaker was scheduled for the 28th , 29th , and the 30th if necessary , which required moving the start of the World Series from the 30th to October 1 . The Giants falling out of the pennant race avoided a potentially disruptive situation involving their home field . Candlestick Park was under construction during the 1959 season and the Giants would not begin play there until 1960 . However , Giants vice president Chub Feeney had said earlier in the season that if the Giants won the pennant they would play their World Series home games in Candlestick . Several potential problems were suggested with this move including a lack of seating , lack of toilet facilities , and insufficient access roads to the stadium .
The Dodgers were 12 – 10 against the Braves overall for the season , though the Braves actually outscored them by a single run ( 96 to 95 ) in those games . The Braves were a 5 – 8 betting favorite in Las Vegas on September 25 to win the pennant while the Dodgers had 6 – 5 odds . The World Series odds were evenly split , with 11 – 10 odds available at that time for either the Chicago White Sox ( the American League champion ) or the eventual NL pennant winner .
= = Series summary = =
= = = Game 1 = = =
Box score for Monday September 28 , 1959 – 2 : 17 pm ( CST ) at Milwaukee County Stadium in Milwaukee
Chicago White Sox manager Al Lopez watched the game along with his pitching coach to scout their potential NL opponents for the World Series . The start of Game 1 was delayed 45 minutes due to rain , leaving only 18 @,@ 297 fans in the stadium once the game was underway . The Dodgers opened the game quickly as Charlie Neal singled with one out , advanced to second base on a ground out , and scored on a single by Norm Larker to give the Dodgers an early 1 – 0 lead . Dodgers starter Danny McDevitt held the Braves scoreless in the first inning , but was driven from the game in the second . After a line out to open the inning Johnny Logan walked , Del Crandall singled , and Bill Bruton singled to bring home Logan and tie the game at 1 . Larry Sherry entered in relief of McDevitt , who pitched just 11 ⁄ 3 innings . Carl Willey , the Braves ' pitcher , reached base on an error to load the bases . Crandall then scored on a ground out by Bobby Ávila to give the Braves a 2 – 1 lead before Sherry finished out the second .
The Dodgers re @-@ tied the game the next inning , however . Neal singled with one out and Wally Moon grounded into a force out at second base . Moon then advanced to second on a Larker single and scored on a Gil Hodges single to make the score 2 – 2 . Don Demeter hit a single , the third consecutive and fourth of the inning , to load the bases but John Roseboro flew out to end the inning without further scoring . Sherry held the Braves scoreless in the bottom of the third , opening the inning with a walk but then inducing a double play and a foul out to quickly close it . Sherry and Willey traded scoreless innings in the fourth and fifth although the Braves threatened against Sherry in both innings , allowing two base @-@ runners each time but escaping with no runs . Roseboro led off the top of the sixth inning with a home run to give the Dodgers a 3 – 2 lead . Roseboro had also hit a home run the day before against the Chicago Cubs , a game the Dodgers won to force the tie @-@ breaker . Willey put out the next three batters to quickly end the inning , but the damage had been done .
Sherry pitched a perfect top of the sixth and Don McMahon relieved Willey in the bottom of the frame . The Dodgers could not add to their lead in facing McMahon , he held their run total at three . Sherry , however , was nearly perfect for the remainder of the game , allowing just one single to the Braves over the final three innings . The Los Angeles Times labeled Sherry and Roseboro the " heroes " of the game . Sherry 's only " horrible moment " , according to the Times , was a long fly ball by Bill Bruton to the deepest part of center field which Demeter managed to haul in for the first out of the bottom of the ninth .
= = = Game 2 = = =
Box score for Tuesday September 29 , 1959 – 2 : 00 pm ( PST ) at Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in Los Angeles , California
The Dodgers had proposed playing Game 2 at night to allow a longer rest period following the travel from Milwaukee to Los Angeles . The Braves took issue with this prior to the start of the series , however , and NL president Warren Giles insisted the game be played during the day . The afternoon crowd was 36 @,@ 528 , short of the over @-@ 90 @,@ 000 seating capacity of the Coliseum .
The Braves opened the scoring in the top of the first inning . Eddie Mathews drew a one out walk and Hank Aaron followed that with a double . Aaron 's double drew some argument , however , as outfielder Duke Snider recovered Aaron 's ball quickly and threw to second . Dodgers ' second baseman Charlie Neal believed he had easily tagged out Aaron , but umpire Augie Donatelli said Neal had missed the tag entirely . Frank Torre then singled to score the two runners and give the Braves the early 2 – 0 lead . The Dodgers responded in their half of the inning , however . Neal hit a deep fly ball to right center field with one out , reaching third base " easily " for a triple as outfielder Bill Bruton missed catching the ball on a difficult play . Wally Moon then singled to score Neal , but was caught stealing for the second out and Snider struck out to end the first inning . Johnny Logan led off the second for the Braves with a single . Then , after two outs , Logan scored on an odd error charged to Snider in center field . The Braves ' starting pitcher Lew Burdette hit a single up the middle and Logan had attempted to advance from first to third base on the play . Snider threw the ball in from center to third baseman Jim Gilliam , but Gilliam 's vision was " obstructed " and the throw " escaped " him , allowing Logan to score and Burdette to advance to third . Bruton grounded out to end the inning with the Braves in a 3 – 1 lead .
The game went scoreless in the third inning , but Neal led off the bottom of the fourth with a home run to make the score 3 – 2 . The Dodgers threatened further that inning , getting runners on first and second base , though did not score additional runs . Dodgers ' starter Don Drysdale recorded the first out of the top of the fifth but then gave up a solo home run to Mathews and walked Aaron before being relieved by Johnny Podres . Podres escaped without further scoring , putting out Torre and Andy Pafko who pinch hit for Lee Maye . The sixth inning was uneventful , though the Braves then threatened in the top of the seventh . After the first out Mathews singled to start the offense . Aaron followed that with a single , Mathews was put out trying to advance to third base on a " brilliant throw " by Moon , and Aaron moved to second on the throw . Then Podres threw a wild pitch as Torre batted , allowing Aaron to move to third . Finally , Podres walked Torre and was replaced by Chuck Churn . Enos Slaughter pinch hit for Pafko but hit a flyout to end the threat and the inning . John DeMerit then replaced Slaughter defensively in the bottom of the seventh and Norm Larker singled leading off . However , John Roseboro hit into a ground ball double play to end that threat . Roseboro crashed into Logan , the Braves ' shortstop , trying to break up the double play and Logan had to be carried from the field on a stretcher . Félix Mantilla , the second baseman , moved to play shortstop and Red Schoendienst entered to play second . Finally Churn struck out Burdette to end the seventh .
The Braves scored their fifth run in the eighth as Del Crandall hit a one @-@ out triple and then scored on a sacrifice fly by Mantilla . Don Demeter pinch hit for Churn , the pitcher , in the bottom half of the inning but the Dodgers were put out in order . Sandy Koufax pitched the top of the ninth for the Dodgers and though he loaded the bases with three successive walks to Aaron , Torre , and DeMerit he did not allow any runs . Moon and Snider led off the bottom of the frame with successive singles . Bob Lillis pinch ran for Snider and Gil Hodges hit another single to load the bases . Don McMahon relieved Burdette , but allowed a fourth consecutive single to Norm Larker which scored Moon , Lillis , and advanced Hodges to third leaving the score 5 – 4 . Warren Spahn relieved McMahon , Carl Furillo pinch hit for Roseboro , and Joe Pignatano pinch ran for Larker . Furillo tied the game , hitting a sacrifice fly which scored Hodges . Spahn allowed a single to Wills and was pulled in favor of Joey Jay . Ron Fairly grounded out as a pinch hitter and Gilliam flew out , leaving the game tied at five runs apiece and forcing extra innings .
Following the heavy substitutions in the bottom of the ninth the Dodgers made several defensive moves in the top of the tenth . Stan Williams entered as the pitcher , Pignatano came in as the catcher , Moon moved from right to left field , and Fairly and Furillo took over center and right field respectively . The tenth went by quickly with only a single baserunner , but both teams threatened in the eleventh . Mathews was walked with one out in the top half . Aaron grounded into a force out at second , then advanced to second on a passed ball to Torre . The Braves intentionally walked Torre and Al Spangler then drew a pinch hit walk to load the bases , but Joe Adcock ground out to end the half @-@ inning . Pignatano was hit by a pitch and Furillo walked to open the bottom half . After two flyball outs Joey Jay walked Gilliam , loading the bases , but Bob Rush relieved him and got Neal to ground out ending the inning . The Braves went quickly again in the twelfth , retired in order . Rush recorded the first two outs of the twelfth , but then walked Hodges . Hodges then advanced to second on a Pignatano single . Finally he scored on a single by Furillo followed by a throwing error by the shortstop Mantilla to give the Dodgers a 6 – 5 walk @-@ off victory and the National League pennant .
The Chicago Tribune noted the impact of Johnny Logan 's seventh inning injury as it was his replacement , Mantilla , who made the costly final error . Mantilla was " close to tears " after the game , saying he made the error because the ball " took a crazy bounce ... before I got it . " However , Braves ' manager Fred Haney insisted Mantilla " didn 't make a bad play , " that he was " lucky to stop the ball at all , " and that the run would have scored even if Mantilla had delivered a perfect throw .
= = Aftermath = =
The Dodgers ' win earned the franchise its 10th playoff berth , the first since the team moved to Los Angeles the previous year . In the playoffs they faced the Chicago White Sox in the 1959 World Series which they won in six games . The Dodgers faced another tie @-@ breaker in 1962 , but lost to the Giants , who would lose to the New York Yankees in the 1962 World Series in seven games . The Dodgers have appeared in five of the eight NL tie @-@ breakers , more tie @-@ breaker appearances than any franchise in either league . The Dodgers ' most recent playoff appearance came in 2009 where they lost in the League Championship Series to the Philadelphia Phillies .
The Braves ' high @-@ water mark while in Milwaukee had been their World Series win in 1957 . They had also appeared in the 1958 Series , losing to the Yankees . After failing to win the pennant in 1959 , the Braves would not play for a championship again until they moved to Atlanta . They next returned to post @-@ season play in 1969 , their fourth season in Atlanta , where they were swept in the League Championship Series . The Braves returned to the World Series again in the 1990s , losing the 1991 , 1992 , 1996 , and 1999 World Series but winning in 1995 .
In baseball statistics tie @-@ breakers count as regular season games , with all events in them added to regular season statistics . For example , Eddie Mathews overtook Ernie Banks of the Chicago Cubs for the league lead in home runs , hitting his 46th of the season in Game 2 . Banks won the NL Most Valuable Player Award but Mathews , Hank Aaron , and Wally Moon finished 2nd , 3rd , and 4th respectively in the voting . Aaron , Del Crandall , Gil Hodges , and Charlie Neal all won Gold Gloves for their fielding ability . MLB played two All @-@ Star Games in 1959 . Five Braves and two Dodgers were named to the first while six Braves and four Dodgers played in the second . Five future Hall of Famers were on the Braves roster in 1959 ( Aaron , Mathews , Schoendienst , Slaughter , Spahn ) while the Dodgers had three ( Drysdale , Koufax , Snider ) . Dodgers ' manager Walt Alston was also inducted to the Hall as a manager in 1983 .
= Major League Soccer =
Major League Soccer ( MLS ) is a men 's professional soccer league , sanctioned by U.S. Soccer , that represents the sport 's highest level in both the United States and Canada . MLS constitutes one of the major professional sports leagues of the United States and Canada . The league is composed of 20 teams — 17 in the U.S. and 3 in Canada . The MLS regular season runs from March to October , with each team playing 34 games ; the team with the best record is awarded the Supporters ' Shield . The post season includes twelve teams competing in the MLS Cup Playoffs through November and December , culminating in the championship game , the MLS Cup . MLS teams also play in other domestic competitions against teams from other divisions in the U.S. Open Cup and in the Canadian Championship . MLS teams also compete against continental rivals in the CONCACAF Champions League .
Major League Soccer was founded in 1993 as part of the United States ' successful bid to host the 1994 FIFA World Cup . The first season took place in 1996 with ten teams . MLS experienced financial and operational struggles in its first few years : The league lost millions of dollars , teams played in mostly empty American football stadiums , and two teams folded in 2002 . Since then , MLS has expanded to 20 teams , owners built soccer @-@ specific stadiums , average MLS attendance exceeds that of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) and National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , MLS secured national TV contracts , and the league is now profitable .
Instead of operating as an association of independently owned teams , MLS is a single entity in which each team is owned and controlled by the league 's investors . The investor @-@ operators control their teams as owners control teams in other leagues , and are commonly ( but inaccurately ) referred to as the team 's owners . The league has a fixed membership , like most sports leagues in the United States and Canada , which makes it one of the world 's few soccer leagues that does not use promotion and relegation , a practice that is uncommon in the two countries . MLS headquarters is located in New York City .
= = Competition format = =
Major League Soccer 's regular season runs from March to October . Teams are divided into the Eastern and Western Conferences . Teams play 34 games in an unbalanced schedule : 24 matches against teams within their conference , plus 10 matches against teams from the other conference . Midway through the season , teams break for the annual All @-@ Star Game , a friendly game between the league 's finest players and a major club from a different league . At the end of the regular season , the team with the highest point total is awarded the Supporters ' Shield .
Unlike some soccer leagues around the world , but similar to other leagues in the Americas , the MLS regular season is followed by the 12 @-@ team MLS Cup Playoffs in November , ending with the MLS Cup championship final in early December . Although some commentators have argued that playoffs reduce the importance of the regular season , Commissioner Don Garber has explained " Our purpose is to have a valuable competition , and that includes having playoffs that are more meaningful . "
Major League Soccer 's spring @-@ to @-@ autumn schedule results in scheduling conflicts with the FIFA calendar and with summertime international tournaments such as the World Cup and the Gold Cup , causing several players to miss some MLS matches . While MLS has looked into changing to an autumn @-@ to @-@ spring format , there are no current plans to do so . If the league were to change its schedule , a winter break would be needed , especially with several teams in colder climates , which some believe would lead to a disadvantage . It would also have to compete with the more popular National Football League ( NFL ) , National Hockey League ( NHL ) , and National Basketball Association ( NBA ) .
= = = Other competitions = = =
MLS teams also play in other competitions . Every year , up to five MLS teams play in the CONCACAF Champions League against other clubs from the CONCACAF region ( Mexico , Central America , and the Caribbean ) . Two U.S.-based MLS teams qualify based on MLS regular @-@ season results : the winner of the Supporters ' Shield and the winner of the other conference . The third U.S. team to qualify is the winner of the MLS Cup . A fourth U.S.-based MLS team can qualify via the U.S. Open Cup , where U.S. based teams compete against lower division U.S. clubs . Canadian MLS clubs play against lower division Canadian clubs in the Canadian Championship for the one Champions League spot allocated to Canada . No MLS club has won the Champions League since it began its current format in 2008 , with Mexican clubs dominating the competition , but MLS teams have twice reached the final : Real Salt Lake in 2011 and the Montreal Impact in 2015 .
= = Teams = =
MLS 's 20 teams are divided between the Eastern and Western Conference . Each club is allowed up to 30 players on its first team roster . All 30 players are eligible for selection to each 18 @-@ player game @-@ day squad during the regular season and playoffs .
Since the 2005 season , MLS has added many new clubs . During this period of expansion , Los Angeles became the first two @-@ team market , and the league pushed into Canada in 2007 . The league will expand from 20 teams today to 22 teams in 2017 with the additions of Atlanta and either Los Angeles or Minnesota , and then to 23 teams in 2018 with the addition of Minnesota or Los Angeles , depending which team joins the league the preceding year . The league plans to have 24 teams by 2020 .
In the history of MLS , twenty @-@ three different clubs have competed in the league , with ten having won at least one MLS Cup , and ten winning at least one Supporters ' Shield . The same club has won both trophies six times .
Several teams compete annually for secondary MLS rivalry cups that are typically contested by two teams , usually geographic rivals ( e.g. , Portland vs. Seattle vs. Vancouver ) . Each cup is awarded to the team with the better regular @-@ season record in games played between the two teams . The concept is comparable to minor trophies played for by American college football teams .
Beginning with the 2015 season , teams are aligned as follows :
= = History = =
Major League Soccer is the most recent of a series of men 's premier professional national soccer leagues established in the United States and Canada . The predecessor of MLS was the North American Soccer League ( NASL ) , which played from 1968 until 1984 .
= = = Establishment = = =
In 1988 , in exchange for FIFA awarding the right to host the 1994 World Cup , U.S. Soccer promised to establish a Division 1 professional soccer league . In 1993 , U.S. Soccer selected Major League Professional Soccer ( the precursor to MLS ) as the exclusive Division 1 professional soccer league . Major League Soccer was officially formed in February 1995 as a limited liability company .
MLS began play in 1996 with ten teams . The first game was held on April 6 , 1996 , as the San Jose Clash defeated D.C. United before 31 @,@ 000 fans at Spartan Stadium in San Jose in a game broadcast on ESPN . The league had generated some buzz by managing to lure some marquee players from the 1994 World Cup to play in MLS — including U.S. stars such as Alexi Lalas , Tony Meola and Eric Wynalda , and foreign players such as Mexico 's Jorge Campos and Colombia 's Carlos Valderrama . D.C. United won the MLS Cup in three of the league 's first four seasons . The league added its first two expansion teams in 1998 — the Miami Fusion and the Chicago Fire ; the Chicago Fire won its first title in its inaugural season .
After its first season , MLS suffered from a decline in attendance . The league 's low attendance was all the more apparent in light of the fact that eight of the original ten teams played in large American football stadiums . One aspect that had alienated fans was that MLS experimented with rules deviations in its early years in an attempt to " Americanize " the sport . The league implemented the use of shootouts to resolve tie games . MLS also used a countdown clock and halves ended when the clock reached 0 : 00 . The league realized that the rule changes had alienated some traditional soccer fans while failing to draw new American sports fans , and the shootout and countdown clock were eliminated after the 1999 season . The league 's quality was cast into doubt when the U.S. men 's national team , which was made up largely of MLS players , finished in last place at the 1998 World Cup .
Major League Soccer lost an estimated $ 250 million during its first five years , and more than $ 350 million between its founding and 2004 . The league 's financial problems led to Commissioner Doug Logan being replaced by Garber , a former NFL executive , in August 1999 . MLS announced in January 2002 that it had decided to contract the Tampa Bay Mutiny and Miami Fusion , leaving the league with ten teams .
Despite the financial problems , though , MLS did have some accomplishments that would set the stage for the league 's resurgence . Columbus Crew Stadium was built in 1999 , becoming MLS 's first soccer @-@ specific stadium . This began a trend among MLS teams to construct their own venues instead of leasing American football stadiums . In 2000 , the league won an antitrust lawsuit , Fraser v. Major League Soccer , that the players had filed in 1996 . The court ruled that MLS 's policy of centrally contracting players and limiting player salaries through a salary cap and other restrictions were a legal method for the league to maintain solvency and competitive parity .
= = = Resurgence = = =
The 2002 FIFA World Cup , in which the United States unexpectedly made the quarterfinals , coincided with a resurgence in American soccer and MLS . MLS Cup 2002 drew 61 @,@ 316 spectators to Gillette Stadium , the largest attendance in an MLS Cup final . MLS limited teams to three substitutions per game in 2003 , and adopted International Football Association Board ( IFAB ) rules in 2005 .
MLS underwent a transition in the years leading up to the 2006 World Cup . After marketing itself on the talents of American players , the league lost some of its homegrown stars to prominent European leagues . For example , Tim Howard was transferred to Manchester United for $ 4 million in one of the most lucrative contract deals in league history . Many more American players did make an impact in MLS . In 2005 , Jason Kreis became the first player to score 100 career MLS goals .
The league 's financial stabilization plan included teams moving out of large American football stadiums and into soccer @-@ specific stadiums . From 2003 to 2008 , the league oversaw the construction of six additional soccer @-@ specific stadiums , largely funded by owners such as Lamar Hunt and Phil Anschutz , so that by the end of 2008 , a majority of teams were now in soccer @-@ specific stadiums .
It was also in this era that MLS expanded for the first time since 1998 . Real Salt Lake and Chivas USA began play in 2005 , with Chivas USA becoming the second club in Los Angeles . By 2006 the San Jose Earthquakes owners , players and a few coaches moved to Texas to become the expansion Houston Dynamo , after failing to build a stadium in San Jose . The Dynamo became an expansion team , leaving their history behind for a new San Jose ownership group that formed in 2007 .
= = = Arrival of Designated Players = = =
In 2007 the league expanded beyond the United States ' borders into Canada with the Toronto FC expansion team . Major League Soccer took steps to further raise the level of play by adopting the Designated Player Rule , which helped bring international stars into the league . The 2007 season witnessed the MLS debut of David Beckham . Beckham 's signing had been seen as a coup for American soccer , and was made possible by the Designated Player Rule . Players such as Cuauhtémoc Blanco ( Chicago Fire ) and Juan Pablo Ángel ( New York Red Bulls ) , are some of the first Designated Players who made major contributions to their clubs . The departures of Clint Dempsey and Jozy Altidore , coupled with the return of former U.S. national team stars Claudio Reyna and Brian McBride , highlighted the exchange of top prospects to Europe for experienced veterans to MLS .
By 2008 , San Jose had returned to the league under new ownership , and in 2009 , the expansion side Seattle Sounders FC began play in MLS . The 2010 season ushered in an expansion franchise in the Philadelphia Union and their new PPL Park stadium . The 2010 season also brought the opening of the New York Red Bulls ' soccer @-@ specific stadium , Red Bull Arena , and the debut of French striker Thierry Henry .
The 2011 season brought further expansion with the addition of the Vancouver Whitecaps FC , the second Canadian MLS franchise , and the Portland Timbers . Real Salt Lake reached the finals of the 2010 – 11 CONCACAF Champions League . During the 2011 season , the Galaxy signed another international star in Republic of Ireland all @-@ time leading goalscorer Robbie Keane . MLS drew an average attendance of 17 @,@ 872 in 2011 , higher than the average attendances of the NBA and NHL . In 2012 , the Montreal Impact became the league 's 19th franchise and the third in Canada , and made their home debut in front of a crowd of 58 @,@ 912 , while the New York Red Bulls added Australian all @-@ time leading goalscorer Tim Cahill .
= = = 2013 – present = = =
In 2013 , MLS introduced New York City FC as its 20th team , and Orlando City Soccer Club as its 21st team , both of which would begin playing in 2015 . In 2013 , the league implemented its " Core Players " initiative , allowing teams to retain key players using retention funds instead of losing the players to foreign leagues . Among the first high @-@ profile players re @-@ signed in 2013 using retention funds were U.S. national team regulars Graham Zusi and Matt Besler . Beginning in summer of 2013 and continuing in the run up to the 2014 World Cup , MLS began signing U.S. stars based abroad , including Clint Dempsey from the English Premier League to Seattle , DaMarcus Beasley from the Liga MX to Houston , Jermaine Jones from the German Bundesliga to New England and Michael Bradley who returned from Italy to join Toronto who also signed England International Striker Jermain Defoe . By the 2014 season , fifteen of the nineteen MLS head coaches had previously played in MLS . By 2013 , the league 's popularity had increased to the point where MLS was as popular as Major League Baseball among 12- to 17 @-@ year @-@ olds , as reported by the 2013 Luker on Trends ESPN poll , having jumped in popularity since the 2010 World Cup .
In 2014 , the league announced Atlanta United FC as the 22nd team to start playing in 2017 . Even though New York City FC and Orlando City were not set to begin play until 2015 , each team made headlines during the summer 2014 transfer window by announcing their first Designated Players – Spain 's leading scorer David Villa and Chelsea 's leading scorer Frank Lampard to New York , and Ballon d 'Or winner Kaká to Orlando . The 2014 World Cup featured 21 MLS players on World Cup rosters and a record 11 MLS players playing for foreign teams – including players from traditional powerhouses Brazil ( Júlio César ) , playing for Toronto FC on loan from Queens Park Rangers FC , and Spain ( David Villa ) , on loan to Melbourne City FC from New York City FC ; in the U.S. v. Germany match the U.S. fielded a team with seven MLS starters .
On September 18 , 2014 , MLS unveiled their new logo as part of the " MLS Next " branding initiative . In addition to the new crest logo , MLS teams display versions in their own colors that are displayed on their jerseys at every game . This change represents the first time that the MLS logo has been changed since the league 's inception . Chivas USA folded following the 2014 season , while New York City FC and Orlando City SC joined the league in 2015 as the 19th and 20th teams . Sporting Kansas City and the Houston Dynamo moved from the Eastern Conference to the Western Conference in 2015 to make two 10 @-@ team conferences .
In early 2015 , the league announced that two teams — Los Angeles FC and Minnesota United — would join MLS in either 2017 or 2018 . The 20th season of MLS saw the arrivals of several players who have starred at the highest levels of European club soccer and in international soccer : Giovanni Dos Santos , Kaká , Andrea Pirlo , Frank Lampard , Steven Gerrard , Didier Drogba , David Villa , and Sebastian Giovinco . On December 6 , 2015 , MLS announced its intent to expand to 28 teams .
= = League championships = =
MLS Cup titles and Supporters ' Shield Wins
= = Organization = =
= = = Ownership = = =
Major League Soccer operates under a single @-@ entity structure in which teams and player contracts are centrally owned by the league . Each team has an investor @-@ operator that is a shareholder in the league . In order to control costs , MLS shares revenues and holds players contracts instead of players contracting with individual teams . In Fraser v. Major League Soccer , a lawsuit filed in 1996 and decided in 2002 , the league won a legal battle with its players in which the court ruled that MLS was a single entity that can lawfully centrally contract for player services . The court also ruled that even absent their collective bargaining agreement , players could opt to play in other leagues if they were unsatisfied .
Having multiple clubs owned by a single owner was a necessity in the league 's first ten years . At one time Phil Anschutz 's AEG owned six MLS clubs and Lamar Hunt 's Hunt Sports owned three franchises . In order to attract additional investors , in 2002 the league announced changes to the operating agreement between the league and its teams to improve team revenues and increase the incentives to be an individual club owner . These changes included granting owners the rights to a certain number of players they develop through their club 's academy system each year , sharing the profits of Soccer United Marketing , and being able to sell individual club jersey sponsorships .
As MLS appeared to be on the brink of overall profitability in 2006 and developed significant expansion plans , MLS announced that it wanted each club to have a distinct operator . The league has attracted new ownership that have injected more money into the league . Examples include Red Bull 's purchase of the MetroStars from AEG in 2006 for over $ 100 million .
The league now has 20 investor @-@ operators for its 20 clubs . Hunt Sports owns only one team ( FC Dallas ) . AEG owns the LA Galaxy and retained a 50 % interest in the Houston Dynamo until December 2015 . For the 2014 season , the league owned the former Chivas USA club , which had suffered from mismanagement and poor financial results under its individual operator relationship . The league eventually dissolved the team , in favor of awarding rights to a second soccer club in the Los Angeles area to a new ownership group on October 30 , 2014 .
= = = Player acquisition and salaries = = =
The average salary for MLS players is $ 316 @,@ 777 , lower than the average salaries in England 's second @-@ tier Football League Championship ( $ 420 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , Holland 's Eredivisie ( $ 445 @,@ 000 ) , or Mexico 's Liga MX ( $ 418 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . The league 's minimum player salary will increase in 2016 from $ 60 @,@ 000 to $ 62 @,@ 500 for most players , and roster players # 25 – 28 will see their minimum salary increase from $ 50 @,@ 000 to $ 51 @,@ 500 .
MLS salaries are limited by a salary cap , which MLS has had in place since the league 's inception in 1996 . The purpose of the salary cap is to prevent the team 's owners from unsustainable spending on player salaries — a practice that had doomed the North American Soccer League during the 1980s — and to prevent a competitive imbalance among teams . The salary cap survived a legal challenge by the players in the Fraser v. Major League Soccer lawsuit . The 2016 salary cap is increasing from $ 3 @.@ 49 million to $ 3 @.@ 66 million per team .
Teams may augment their squads by signing players from other leagues . MLS has two transfer windows — the primary pre @-@ season transfer window lasts three months from mid February until mid May , and the secondary mid season transfer window runs one month from early July to early August . All MLS teams have a limited number of international roster slots that they can use to sign non @-@ domestic players . However MLS teams regularly obtain green cards for their non @-@ domestic players in order to qualify them for domestic status and free up international roster slots . In 2015 48 @.@ 97 % of MLS players were born outside of the U.S. and Canada , with players from 58 countries represented .
MLS has also introduced various initiatives and rules intended to improve quality of players while still maintaining the salary cap . Rules concerning Designated Players , Generation Adidas players , home grown players , and allocation money all allow for additional wage spending that is exempt from the salary cap . These initiatives have brought about an increase in on @-@ field competition .
The designated player ( DP ) rule allows teams to sign a limited number of players whose salary exceeds the maximum cap , each DP player only counts as $ 457 @,@ 500 ( the maximum non @-@ DP salary ) against the cap in 2016 . Instituted in 2007 , England 's David Beckham was the first signing under the DP rule . The DP rule has led to large income inequality in MLS with top DPs earning as much as 180 times more than a player earning the league minimum . In the 2013 season 21 % of the league 's wage spending went to just 5 players , this stretched to 29 % on the top 6 players in the 2014 season .
The league 's " Core Players " initiative allows teams to re @-@ sign players using retention funds that do not count against the salary cap . Retention funds were implemented in 2013 as a mechanism for MLS to retain key players ; among the first high @-@ profile players re @-@ signed using retention funds were U.S. national team regulars Graham Zusi and Matt Besler . MLS teams can also obtain allocation money , which is money that the team can use on player salaries that does not count against the cap , and teams can earn allocation money in several ways , such as from the transfer fees earned by selling players to teams in other leagues . MLS teams can also use Targeted Allocation Money ( often referred to as TAM ) , an initiative announced in 2015 . Teams can use TAM funds to attract high @-@ profile players by " buying down " contracts of players to below the Designated Player level . High @-@ profile players for which TAM funds were used include Omar Gonzalez .
The league operates a Generation Adidas program , which is a joint venture between MLS and U.S. Soccer that encourages young American players to enter MLS . The Generation Adidas program has been in place since 1997 , and has introduced players such as Landon Donovan , Clint Dempsey , Tim Howard and Michael Bradley into MLS . Players under the Home Grown Player rule are signed to Generation Adidas contracts , all players on Generation Adidas contracts are " off budget players " and their salaries do not count against the cap .
MLS has required all of its teams to operate youth development programs since 2008 . MLS roster rules allow teams to sign an unlimited number players straight from their academies and bypassing the draft process . There is also supplementary salary budget made by MLS only for homegrown players that are registered using senior roster slots called homegrown player funds . One of the most prominent and lucrative examples of success in " home @-@ grown " development was Jozy Altidore , who rose to prominence as a teenager in MLS before his record transfer fee $ 10 million move to Villarreal in Spain in 2008 . The various MLS teams ' development academies play matches in a U.S. Soccer developmental league against youth academies from other leagues such as the Division II North American Soccer League ( NASL ) and Division III USL Pro , the latter of which has now rebranded itself as the United Soccer League .
MLS formerly operated a reserve league which gave playing time to players who were not starters for their MLS teams . The Reserve League was formed in 2005 , and operated through 2014 ( with the exception of the 2009 & 2010 seasons ) . MLS began integrating its Reserve League with the league then known as USL Pro in 2013 , and after the 2014 season folded the Reserve League , with MLS now requiring all teams to either affiliate with a USL team or field their own reserve side in that league .
= = = Stadiums = = =
Since 1999 , the league has overseen the construction of twelve stadiums specifically designed for soccer . The development of soccer @-@ specific stadiums owned by the teams has generated a better gameday experience for the fans . The soccer @-@ specific stadiums have yielded positive financial results as teams were no longer required to pay to rent out facilities and gained control over revenue streams such as concessions , parking , naming rights , and the ability to host non MLS events . Several teams have doubled their season @-@ tickets following the team 's move into a soccer @-@ specific stadium . The establishment of soccer @-@ specific stadiums is considered the key to the league and the ability of teams to turn a profit . In 2006 , Tim Leiweke , then CEO of Anschutz Entertainment Group , described the proliferation of soccer @-@ specific stadiums as the turning point for MLS .
Columbus Crew owner Lamar Hunt started this trend in 1999 by constructing Columbus Crew Stadium , now known as Mapfre Stadium , as MLS 's first soccer @-@ specific stadium . The Los Angeles Galaxy followed four years later with the opening of The Home Depot Center , now StubHub Center , in 2003 . FC Dallas opened Pizza Hut Park , now Toyota Stadium , in 2005 , and the Chicago Fire began playing their home games in Toyota Park in 2006 . The 2007 season brought the opening of Dick 's Sporting Goods Park for the Colorado Rapids and BMO Field for Toronto FC .
Near the end of the 2008 season , Rio Tinto Stadium became the home of Real Salt Lake , which meant that for the first time in MLS history a majority of MLS 's teams ( 8 out of 14 ) played in soccer @-@ specific stadiums . Red Bull Arena , the new home of the New York Red Bulls opened for the start of the 2010 season , and the Philadelphia Union opened PPL Park , since renamed Talen Energy Stadium , in June 2010 , midway through their inaugural season . The following season , in 2011 , the Portland Timbers made their MLS debut in a newly renovated Jeld @-@ Wen Field , now renamed Providence Park , which was originally a multi @-@ purpose venue but turned into a soccer @-@ specific facility . Also in 2011 , Sporting Kansas City moved to new Livestrong Sporting Park , now Children 's Mercy Park . The Houston Dynamo relocated to their new home at BBVA Compass Stadium in 2012 . In the same year , the Montreal Impact joined the league in an expanded Stade Saputo , which reopened June 2012 , when renovations pushed the seating capacity to over 20 @,@ 000 . The Impact has used Olympic Stadium for early season matches and for games that require a larger capacity . The San Jose Earthquakes , who had played at Buck Shaw Stadium from 2008 until 2014 , opened their new Avaya Stadium before the 2015 season .
The development of additional MLS stadiums is in progress . The Orlando City SC expansion team intended to begin constructing Orlando City Stadium , a soccer @-@ specific stadium , in 2014 to be completed in 2015 . Delays caused by changes to the stadium plans pushed back the new venue 's opening , first to late in the 2016 season and finally to the start of the 2017 season . Orlando City have been playing at the Florida Citrus Bowl Stadium , now Camping World Stadium , while awaiting the opening of their new venue .
Three teams have announced their desire to build a soccer @-@ specific stadium , although these teams have not finalized the stadium site and received all necessary government approvals . D.C. United plays home games at a former NFL and Major League Baseball venue , RFK Stadium ; in 2013 , D.C. United announced the signing of a public @-@ private partnership term sheet to build a 25 @,@ 000 @-@ seat new soccer stadium in Washington , D.C. , and a final deal was reached in late 2014 . The New York City FC expansion team will play their games at Yankee Stadium , a Major League Baseball venue , although they intend to move into a soccer specific stadium in the future . The New England Revolution play home games at a National Football League venue , Gillette Stadium , but are currently in discussion with the City of Boston regarding a potential soccer @-@ specific stadium in South Boston .
Several remaining clubs play in stadiums not originally built for MLS and have not announced plans to move . The Seattle Sounders play at CenturyLink Field , a dual @-@ purpose facility used for both American football and soccer . The Vancouver Whitecaps FC joined the league with Portland in 2011 and temporarily held matches at Empire Field before moving into the refurbished BC Place in October 2011 , a retractable @-@ roof stadium that hosts Canadian football as well as soccer .
= = = Media coverage = = =
= = = = United States = = = =
As of the 2015 season , MLS matches are broadcast nationally by ESPN networks and Fox Sports in English , and Univision networks in Spanish under an eight @-@ year contract . Each broadcaster has a window for national regular season matches , with UniMas airing a game on Friday nights in Spanish and additional matches on Univision Deportes Network , and ESPN and Fox Sports 1 airing games on Sunday evenings in English . ESPN , FS1 , and Univision will share in coverage of the playoffs , while ESPN and FS1 will alternate broadcasting the MLS Cup final in English . In total , at least 125 matches will be aired per @-@ season across all three networks , and the three contracts have an average estimated value of $ 90 million per season — five times larger than the average $ 18 million value of the previous contracts with ESPN , Univision , and NBC Sports . 7 . Matches not televised nationally are broadcast regionally , often by regional sports networks , such as the LA Galaxy and Time Warner Cable SportsNet .
From 2012 to 2014 , MLS matches were previously broadcast by NBC Sports , with 40 matches per year — primarily on NBCSN , and select matches broadcast on the NBC network . The move from Fox Soccer to the more widely distributed NBCSN proved successful , with viewership numbers doubling for the 2012 season over those of Fox Soccer .
= = = = Canada = = = =
Coverage of MLS expanded into Canada in 2007 with the addition of Toronto FC . Currently , English @-@ language national MLS broadcast rights in Canada are through the TSN networks with a six @-@ year deal for the 2011 – 2016 seasons . TSN and TSN2 broadcast a minimum of 30 games during each season , all featuring at least one Canadian team . French @-@ language sister networks RDS and RDS2 have similar broadcast rights . The networks also carry additional games not involving Canadian teams . GolTV Canada carries selected all @-@ U.S. MLS matchups .
As in the United States , the individual Canadian teams also have separate broadcast deals for games not aired under the TSN / RDS national contract . TSN and Sportsnet split coverage of Toronto FC non @-@ national games ( TSN and Sportsnet 's parent companies own a joint majority stake in the team through Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment ) , TVA Sports airs Montreal Impact games , and TSN broadcasts the Vancouver Whitecaps in a separate deal .
= = = = International = = = =
MLS signed an international television contract in 2008 through 2013 with sports media company MP & Silva . The figure is reportedly an " eight @-@ figure deal . " MP & Silva explained that high @-@ profile , international players who were lured to MLS by the Designated Player Rule have raised the popularity of MLS in international markets . ESPN International purchased the rights to broadcast MLS in the U.K. in 2009 , and other ESPN networks around the world also broadcast games . MLS also entered into a four @-@ year contract with Sky Sports to broadcast two MLS matches per week in the UK from 2015 – 2019 . Eurosport will also broadcast MLS between 2015 and 2019 , with four matches per week being screened live to its continental audience .
= = = = Video games = = = =
Major League Soccer is a playable league in both the FIFA and the Football Manager series . The league made its video game debut in 1999 with FIFA 2000 . In 2001 , Konami released ESPN MLS ExtraTime 2002 , which , to date , is the only soccer title to be based solely on MLS . The league made its first appearance in the management series Football Manager 2005 in 2004 .
= = = Profitability and revenues = = =
Major League Soccer began to demonstrate positive signs of long @-@ term profitability as early as 2004 with the single @-@ entity ownership structure , salary cap , and the media and marketing umbrella Soccer United Marketing ( SUM ) all contributing towards MLS 's financial security . As soccer @-@ specific stadiums are built , ownership expands , and television coverage increases , MLS has seen its revenues increase while controlling costs .
Television coverage and revenue have increased since the league 's early years . In 2006 , MLS reached an 8 @-@ year TV deal with ESPN spanning the 2007 – 2014 seasons , and marked the first time that MLS earned rights fees , reported to be worth $ 7 – 8 million annually . In September 2012 the league extended its distribution agreement with London @-@ based Media rights agency MP & Silva until 2014 in a deal worth $ 10 million annually . Total league TV revenues are over $ 40 million annually . In 2011 , MLS earned $ 150 million when it sold a 25 % stake in SUM .
In early 2005 , MLS signed a 10 @-@ year , $ 150 million sponsorship deal with Adidas . In 2007 , MLS teams started selling ad space on the front of jerseys to go along with the league @-@ wide sponsorship partners who had already been advertising on the back of club jerseys , following the practice of international sport , specifically soccer . MLS established a floor of $ 500 @,@ 000 per shirt sponsorship , with the league receiving a flat fee of $ 200 @,@ 000 per deal . As of July 2014 , sixteen teams had signed sponsorship deals to have company logos placed on the front of their jerseys ( and another team is directly owned by its shirt sponsor ) , and the league average from jersey sponsors was about $ 2 @.@ 4 million . As of February 2016 , all teams in MLS have jersey sponsors .
The Los Angeles Galaxy made a profit in 2003 in their first season at The Home Depot Center , and FC Dallas turned a profit after moving into Pizza Hut Park in 2005 . For each season between 2006 – 2009 , two to three MLS clubs ( generally clubs with a soccer @-@ specific stadium ) were reported as profitable by the league .
By 2012 , the league had shown a marked improvement in its financial health . In November 2013 , Forbes published its first valuation of MLS teams since 2008 , and revealed that ten of the league 's nineteen teams earned an operating profit in 2012 , while two broke even and seven had a loss . Forbes estimated that the league 's collective annual revenues were $ 494 million , and that the league 's collective annual profit was $ 34 million . Forbes valued the league 's franchises to be worth $ 103 million on average , almost three times as much as the $ 37 million average valuation in 2008 . The Seattle Sounders FC franchise was named the most valuable at $ 175 million , a 483 % gain over the $ 30 million league entrance fee it paid in 2009 .
The trend in increased team values has continued with MLS teams seeing a strong 52 % increase in franchise values from 2012 to 2014 . In August 2015 , Forbes released the updated list of MLS franchise values with the most profitable team weighing in at $ 245 million and the least at $ 105 million . The average value jumped from $ 103 to $ 157 million .
= = = Rules and officials = = =
MLS follows the rules and standards of the International Football Association Board ( IFAB ) . The playoff extra time structure follows IFAB standards : two full 15 @-@ minute periods , followed by a penalty shootout if necessary . Away goals apply to the playoff stage of the competition , but do not apply to overtime in the second leg of any two @-@ legged playoff series .
U.S. Soccer hired the first full @-@ time professional referees in league history in 2007 as part of the league 's " Game First " initiatives . Major League Soccer has been implementing fines and suspensions since the 2011 season for simulation ( diving ) through its Disciplinary Committee , which reviews plays after the match . The first player fined under the new rule was Charlie Davies , fined $ 1 @,@ 000 for intentionally deceiving match officials .
= = = Team names = = =
For more information on MLS team names , see the individual team entries .
Originally , in the style of other U.S. sports leagues , teams were given nicknames at their creation . Examples include the Columbus Crew , the San Jose Clash and the Los Angeles Galaxy . Several of the club names in MLS originated with earlier professional soccer clubs , such as the 1970s @-@ era NASL team names San Jose Earthquakes , Seattle Sounders , Portland Timbers and Vancouver Whitecaps .
D.C. United and Miami Fusion F.C. were the only two MLS teams to adopt European naming conventions during the 1990s . However , European @-@ style names have increased in MLS , with expansion teams such as Real Salt Lake and Toronto FC , in addition to 2015 entrants New York City FC and Orlando City S.C. , along with several re @-@ brandings such as the Dallas Burn ( now FC Dallas ) and Kansas City Wizards ( now Sporting Kansas City ) .
The beverage company Red Bull GmbH owns the New York Red Bulls as well as other sports teams .
= = Player records = =
Statistics below are for all @-@ time leaders . Statistics are for regular season only . Bold indicates active MLS players .
Updated July 26 , 2016
= = = Player records ( active ) = = =
Statistics below are for all @-@ time leaders who are still playing . Statistics are for regular season only .
Updated July 26 , 2016
= = MLS commissioners = =
Doug Logan ( 1996 – 99 )
Don Garber ( 1999 – present )
= = MLS awards = =
At the conclusion of each season , the league presents several awards for outstanding achievements , mostly to players , but also to coaches , referees , and teams . The finalists in each category are determined by voting from MLS players , team employees , and the media .
= Tropical Storm Lucille =
Tropical Storm Lucille was the first tropical cyclone to have its name retired in the Western Pacific basin . Lucille was identified as a weak tropical depression on May 25 , 1960 , to the east of the Philippines . Tracking northwestward , the system failed to develop and warnings on it were discontinued on May 27 . At the same time , a second system began organizing along the west coast of Luzon . The two systems ultimately merged into one over the Philippines between May 28 and 29 . Now tracking northeastward , the system re @-@ intensified and became a tropical storm on May 30 . Lucille attained its peak intensity later that day with winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . As it accelerated over open waters , the system brushed the islands of Iwo Jima and Chichi @-@ jima before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on June 1 . The remnants of Lucille were last noted on June 4 near the International Date Line .
Between May 27 and 29 , heavy rains fell across much of Luzon as Lucille developed . These rains , amounting to 406 mm ( 16 in ) in the suburbs of Manila , triggered destructive floods that left some areas under 4 @.@ 6 m ( 15 ft ) of water . The worst of the floods took place during the overnight hours of May 28 to 29 . During that time , hundreds of homes were swept away and an estimated 300 – 500 people , including at least 80 children , were killed . Monetary losses from the floods exceeded $ 2 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
On May 24 , 1960 , a possible area of low pressure was identified to the west of Koror in the Republic of Palau . Tracking generally to the northwest , the system gradually developed . Despite only having winds around 30 km / h ( 15 mph ) , it was classified as a tropical depression early the next day and assigned the name Lucille by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . Around the same time , a second , less organized low pressure system developed off the west coast of Luzon , Philippines . That system remained almost stationary over the South China Sea as Lucille accelerated northwestward . Early on May 27 , the JTWC issued their final advisory on the depression as it approached the Philippines . After degenerating , the remnants of Lucille moved over the Visayas .
Shortly after the JTWC issued their final advisory on Lucille , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began monitoring the system near Luzon as a tropical depression . By May 28 , radiosonde data from Clark Air Base in Luzon indicated that the second system acquired a closed circulation at the 500 mb level and began moving northeastward . While crossing the northern Philippines , the two systems merged and became a single cyclone , retaining the name Lucille . During its passage of the country , winds up to 63 km / h ( 39 mph ) were reported in Manila . Once back over open waters , the system intensified as it accelerated northeastward , attaining tropical storm intensity early on May 30 .
Tropical Storm Lucille attained its peak intensity late on May 30 with winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) and an estimated barometric pressure of 985 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) . At this time , the China Meteorological Administration assessed Lucille to have been a stronger system , attaining typhoon status with two @-@ minute sustained winds estimated at 125 km / h ( 78 mph ) . Around 1700 UTC on May 31 , the storm tracked approximately 65 km ( 40 mi ) west of Iwo Jima . Roughly five hours later , it moved within 15 km ( 10 mi ) of Chichi @-@ jima where a pressure of 992 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 30 inHg ) was measured . Sustained winds on Chichi @-@ jima reached 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) ; however , these were determined to be unrepresentative of Lucille 's actual intensity due to natural funneling on the island . On June 1 , the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it turned west @-@ northwestward and continued over open waters . The remnants of Lucille were last noted by the JMA on June 4 as it crossed the International Date Line .
= = Impact = =
Prior to transitioning into an extratropical cyclone , Lucille brushed the Japanese islands of Iwo Jima and Chichi @-@ jima . On the former , winds reached 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) while on the latter , gusts peaked at 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . The gusts on Chichi @-@ jima caused the USS Cayuga County to broach in the harbor .
Due to the significant loss of life caused by the storm , the name Lucille was retired . This marked the first time that a tropical cyclone in the Western Pacific had its name removed following its usage . For unknown reasons it was not replaced with any particular name , making it one of two storms in the basin to not have a replacement , although Lucy took the name 's place in 1962 .
= = = Philippines = = =
Across the northern Philippines , torrential rains associated with Lucille , the secondary low , and a subsequent southwesterly monsoon caused extensive flooding . The heaviest rains took place between May 27 and 28 , with conditions similar to a tropical storm occurring during the overnight hours . During a 24 @-@ hour span on May 27 , 218 mm ( 8 @.@ 6 in ) of rain fell in Manila . In surrounding areas , more than 406 mm ( 16 in ) of rain fell . Gale @-@ force winds toppled trees and billboards and brought down telephone lines . The city of Manila was brought to a virtual standstill as three quarters of the city became submerged in at least 0 @.@ 3 m ( 1 ft ) of water . Transportation was shut down and businesses were deserted the day after the floods . Taking place mainly in the suburban communities surrounding Manila , rivers over @-@ topped their banks and inundated " squatter " areas . The hardest @-@ hit areas were submerged in up to 4 @.@ 6 m ( 15 ft ) of water . Residents reported that homes were swept off their foundations by the water and were brought downstream . Others reported seeing bodies floating amid debris . In Tondo , floodwaters reaching 1 @.@ 8 m ( 6 ft ) deep killed at least seven people . Hundreds of homes were swept away in Manila , resulting in many deaths . Numerous homes were washed away in Quezon City . The heart of Manila was spared flooding as the river running through the city began to recede after nearly over @-@ topping the concrete dike surrounding it .
Throughout the Philippines , officials confirmed that 108 people , including 80 children , had been killed and a further 150 were missing by May 30 . Later reports on the storm stated that approximately 300 people lost their lives . Some news reports indicated that as many as 500 people may have been killed . Additionally , more than 20 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Losses amounted to roughly $ 2 million . The floods were regarded as the nation 's worst since 1947 . The flooding caused by Lucille was also considered the worst ever in the country by some until September 2009 when Typhoon Ketsana devastated Manila .
In the immediate aftermath of the floods , the entire Manila police force was mobilized to assist residents and begin relief operations . On May 29 , Quezon City mayor Norberto S. Amoranto sent an emergency request to the Philippine Air Force to rescue people trapped on rooftops .
= Our Song ( Taylor Swift song ) =
" Our Song " is a country song performed by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . The song was written by Swift and produced by Nathan Chapman . It was released on September 9 , 2007 by Big Machine Records as the third single from Swift 's eponymous debut album , Taylor Swift ( 2006 ) . Swift solely composed " Our Song " for the talent show of her freshman year in high school , about a boyfriend who she did not have a song with . It was included on Taylor Swift as she recalled its popularity with her classmates . The uptempo track is musically driven mainly by banjo and lyrically describes a young couple who use the events in their lives in place of a regular song .
" Our Song " was met with acclaim from contemporary critics , some who deemed it one of Swift 's best singles , and commercial success . The song charted within the top 30 and top 20 on the Canadian Hot 100 and Billboard Hot 100 , respectively . In the United States , it became Swift 's first number one single on the Hot Country Songs Chart , maintaining the position for six consecutive weeks , and was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . A music video accompanying " Our Song " was directed by Trey Fanjoy and features Swift performing in various settings , including a front porch . The video won both nominations for " Video of the Year " and " Female Video of the Year " at the 2008 CMT Music Awards . Swift has performed the song at an abundance of venues , some while supporting as opening act for various country artists ' concert tours . She also performed it as part of the Fearless Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) , her first headlining tour .
= = Background = =
Swift self @-@ penned " Our Song " for the talent show of her freshman year in high school with no intentions of including it on her debut album . She thought to herself that to be appropriate for the talent show , the song she would write needed to be upbeat and relatable to her classmates . " I wrote it about this guy I was dating , and how we didn 't have a song . So I went ahead and wrote us one " , she said . The writing process , as with her lead single " Tim McGraw " , took place in approximately 20 minutes . Several months after performing it at the talent show , some of her peers approached her to inform her that they enjoyed the song she played at the talent show , singing a few lines . " They 'd only heard it once , so I thought , ' There must be something here ! ' " , Swift recalled . When choosing tracks to record for Taylor Swift , Swift " stood by " " Our Song " , repeatedly insisting album producers to record it with her . She claimed she " knew there was something about it . " She concluded , " I think there 's just some sort of magic in the way the track sounds like it 's bouncing . " Swift said she desired for the song to be placed as the closing track on Taylor Swift due to its last lyrics repeating the phrase " Play it again " , which she thought would subliminally request audiences to replay the album . Big Machine Records executives chose " Our Song " to be the third single from Taylor Swift , which Swift was surprised yet glad about .
= = Composition = =
" Our Song " is a country song with a length of three minutes and 24 seconds . It is set in half time and has a tempo of 89 beats per minute . However , Sean Dooley of About.com described " Our Song " as a snappy midtempo number . The song is written in the key of D major and Swift 's vocals span one octave , from G3 to B4 . Jody Rosen of Slant Magazine considers Swift 's vocal performance to be twangful . It follows the chord progression D – Em7 – G – A. The song 's instrumentation relies mainly on banjo and , after the completion of the break , a fiddle solo arrives .
The lyrics are in first person . In the first verse , the protagonist realizes she and her boyfriend do not have a song of their own as he drives his car . The young couple come to using the events in their lives in place of a regular song in the song 's refrains . Those events are described in sharp detail and include slamming screen doors to sneak out late . Dooley identified Swift 's role in " Our Song " to be a narrator .
= = Critical reception = =
" Our Song " received hugely positive reviews from contemporary critics . Sean Dooley of About.com listed " Our Song " as Swift 's fifth best song to date . He identified Swift 's " uncanny ability , especially at such a young age , to write a compelling narrative " as the song 's highlight , referencing the opening lines " I was riding shotgun with my hair undone in the front seat of his car / He 's got a one @-@ hand feel on the steering wheel / The other on my heart . " Rob Sheffield of Blender magazine described the track as gem that hit hard . Rick Bell of Country Standard Time said Taylor Swift 's best efforts were Swift self @-@ penned song , including " Our Song " , which " she sings with stirring conviction . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine said the song " follow [ s ] time @-@ tested narrative conventions and , more often than not , build to massive pop hooks . " Fiona Chua of MTV Asia selected the track as a choice cut from Swift 's second studio album , Fearless . Kate Kiefer of Paste magazine recognized the song to be Swift 's " first great hit " and believed it became many couples ' song . In 2008 , " Our Song " was listed as a " Winning Song " by Broadcast Music Incorporated ( BMI ) .
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending October 13 , 2007 , " Our Song " debuted at number eighty @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 . In the following week , the song ascended to number sixty @-@ seven on the chart and , on the week ending January 19 , 2008 , reached its peak at number sixteen , became her second top twenty hit . " Our Song " spent a total of thirty @-@ six weeks upon the Billboard Hot 100 . The single was certified quadruple platinum in August 2014 by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . As of November 2014 , " Our Song " has sold 3 @.@ 2 million copies in the United States .
On Billboard Hot Country Songs , it debuted at number fifty @-@ five and charted at number six on the week ending December 15 , 2007 . In the succeeding week , the song jumped to number one on Billboard Hot Country Songs , becoming the largest leap the top position since Tim McGraw 's " Just to See You Smile " in January 1998 , which also ascended from number six to number one . The song 's appearance at number one on Billboard Hot Country Songs also became Swift 's first and made Swift , then 18 , the youngest sole writer and singer of a number one country song . " Our Song " remained in the top position on Billboard Hot Country Songs for six consecutive weeks , the longest @-@ running chart @-@ topper there since Carrie Underwood 's " Jesus , Take the Wheel " reigned for the same period in January 2006 . " Our Song " charted on Hot Country Songs for a total of 24 weeks . It also peaked at number eighteen in Billboard Pop Songs and charted for fifteen weeks .
" Our Song " also appeared in Canada . It debuted at number ninety @-@ one and reached its peak at number thirty on its fifteenth week , becoming Swift 's best @-@ charting single from Taylor Swift in Canada . It was certified platinum by Music Canada for sales of 80 @,@ 000 digital downloads .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Our Song " was directed by Trey Fanjoy . While listening to " Our Song " , Fanjoy shared her ideals for a music video with Swift . " She had this idea for a front porch performance and then a field of flowers for another performance , then a black @-@ and @-@ white performance shot . It all came together in her head . She was able to translate that so well onto film . It just shows what a truly great director she is " , Swift informed CMT News . The video was conceptualized to be very fantasy @-@ like and surreal . The video begins with a shot of Swift 's toenails as she paints them . Swift , casually wearing a blue tank top , white hot pants , and straightened hair , is revealed to be engaging in a phone conversation in a bedroom . A cut @-@ scene shows Swift affront her bedroom mirror , which she writes the word " Love " , before furtively approaching a front porch , seen in a blue dress and curly hair . Swift then sits near the edge and performs " Our Song " . The scene transitions to Swift lying on a bed of flowers and wearing an orange evening gown . She holds a card that spells her first name . Then , clothed by a long , black dress , black cowboy boots , and black gloves , Swift sings with a microphone and a backup band behind her in front of a white backdrop . Throughout the remainder of the video , scenes alternate between previous settings and concludes with Swift giggling while sitting on the front porch .
The video premiered on September 14 , 2007 on CMT . The video received a nomination for " Number One Streamed Music Video " at the web @-@ hosted 2008 CMT Online Awards , but lost to Carrie Underwood 's video for " All @-@ American Girl " . At the 2008 CMT Music Awards , the video won the CMT Music Award for " Video of the Year " and " Female Video of the Year " . To date , the video has over 122 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
She performed " Our Song " as she opened for Rascal Flatts on several dates , from October 19 to November 3 , 2006 , included on the Me and My Gang Tour ( 2006 – 07 ) . Swift opened the concert with the song and dressed in a black , knee @-@ length dress and red cowboy boots with a design of a skull and cross bones across it , playing an acoustic guitar . She also performed the song when she served as opening act on twenty dates for George Strait 's 2007 United States tour , and selected dates for Brad Paisley 's Bonfires & Amplifiers Tour in 2007 . During mid @-@ 2007 , Swift engaged as the opening act on several dates for Tim McGraw 's and Faith Hill 's joint tour , Soul2Soul II Tour ( 2006 – 07 ) , where she again performed " Our Song " . Swift performed the song while she was again opening for Rascal Flatts for their Still Feels Good Tour in 2008 . Swift 's first televised performance of " Our Song " was on October 10 , 2007 on Regis & Kelly . She continued promotion for track at the 2007 Country Music Association Awards , The Engine
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's provinces .
= = = First term = = =
Upon election to the presidency , Ravalomanana sought to mitigate the negative economic impact of the eight @-@ month political standoff with Ratsiraka , which had cost Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure , including bombed bridges and buildings damaged by arson . He enacted a series of new laws , policies and reforms that sought to efface remaining traces of Ratsiraka 's socialist ideology and replace it with a firmly capitalist , market @-@ driven economic environment . In a break with tradition , the new head of state moved away from reliance on its principal trading partner , France , and cultivated relationships with partners such as Germany , the United States and South Korea as part of his strategy for Madagascar 's economic development . He partnered with advisers at Harvard University to launch a rapid results initiative designed to spur rapid economic growth . In 2004 the World Bank approved his administration 's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper , entitled Madagascar Naturellement ( Madagascar Naturally ) , in which he enshrined the principle of environmental conservation as inseparable from sustainable economic growth . The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana 's progressive economic and political policies , which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism , facilitated foreign direct investment and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally .
At the 2003 Durban World Parks Congress he pledged to more than triple protected natural areas on the island from 1 @.@ 6 million hectares ( 6 @,@ 200 sq mi ) to 6 million hectares ( 23 @,@ 000 sq mi ) – ten per cent of the country 's land surface – over five years . In 2004 he established BIANCO ( Bureau Indépendant Anti @-@ Corruption ) , an anti @-@ corruption bureau , which resulted in reduced corruption among Antananarivo 's lower @-@ level bureaucrats in particular , although high @-@ level officials have not been prosecuted by the bureau . That same year , the International Monetary Fund agreed to write off half Madagascar 's debt . Having met a set of stringent economic , governance and human rights criteria , in 2005 Madagascar became the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account , a new development fund managed by the United States . Legal reforms strengthened state institutions , particularly the judiciary , and produced improvements in human rights , civil liberties and the business climate . Consequently , the economy grew at an average annual rate of seven per cent throughout his presidency . Under his administration , hundreds of kilometers of roads were paved in formerly isolated rural areas . Dramatic improvements in education and health were also achieved under his administration . During Ravalomanana 's first term , thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed , older buildings were renovated and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained . Primary school fees were eliminated and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students . Logging in protected areas was outlawed until January 2009 .
After being elected president in 2002 , Ravalomanana remained a prominent player in the private sector . The 2003 privatisation of SINPA ( Societe d 'lnteret National Malgache des Produits Agricoles ) , the state agricultural corporation , and SOMACODIS ( Société Malgache de Collecte et de Distribution ) , the national trading corporation , provided Ravalomanana the opportunity to purchase both entities , which he incorporated under Tiko . He also created a public roads construction company , Asa Lalana Malagasy .
The benefits of economic growth during the Ravalomanana administration were not evenly distributed , leading to higher costs of living for all Malagasy and a deepening poverty among much of the population with fewer able to increase their wealth . Detractors indicate a decline in purchasing power and dramatic inflation early in Ravalomanana 's presidency as evidence of a failure to reduce poverty . Ravalomanana 's critics remarked that the greatest beneficiary of his reforms and policies was the president himself , giving the example of road construction projects that enabled Tiko to distribute more efficiently as well as the farmers and other small businesspeople targeted by the initiative . Furthermore , his own companies tended to be awarded most of the government contracts for which they bid , although this occurred transparently and legally , due to a weak legal framework around conflict of interest . Critics condemned his tendency to make unilateral decisions and disregard the views of his entourage , a number of whom resigned or were dismissed . Many joined an opposition movement that had gained considerable strength by late 2007 .
On 18 November 2006 , Ravalomanana 's jet was forced to divert from Madagascar 's capital during a return trip from Europe following reports of a coup underway in Antananarivo and shooting near the airport . The attempted coup was ultimately unsuccessful .
= = = Presidential election of 2006 = = =
Ravalomanana ran for a second term in the presidential election held on 3 December 2006 . According to official results , he won the election with 54 @.@ 79 per cent of the vote in the first round ; his best results were in Antananarivo Province , where he received the support of 75 @.@ 39 per cent of voters . He was sworn in for his second term on 19 January 2007 .
= = = Second term = = =
During his second term , Ravalomanana oversaw revisions to the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper . Renamed the Madagascar Action Plan ( MAP ) , this new strategy was intended to build on the successes of his first term to accelerate and expand national development . The plan focused on " the eight commitments " : accountable governance , more extensive and interconnected infrastructure , agriculture based rural development , family planning and health ( particularly fighting HIV / AIDS ) , strong economic growth , environmental protection , and the traditional principle of fihavanana ( solidarity ) . The plan 's targets were aligned with the United Nations ' Millennium Development Goals .
As construction of schools and hiring of teachers continued in Ravalomanana 's second term , additional measures were adopted to improve education quality , including a shift to Malagasy as the language of instruction in grades one to five , expansion of primary schools to house grades six and seven for greater access to lower secondary schooling and an overhaul of the national curriculum , which had been modified piecemeal since independence from France in 1960 . In the Constitution of 2007 , English was added to Malagasy and French as an official language , in reflection of Ravalomanana 's goal to increase Madagascar 's participation in the global market .
In the later half of his second term , Ravalomanana was criticized by domestic and international observers , who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption .
= = = Confrontation with Rajoelina = = =
On 13 December 2008 , the government closed Viva TV , owned by mayor of Antananarivo Andry Rajoelina , stating that a Viva interview with exiled former head of state Didier Ratsiraka was " likely to disturb peace and security " . This move catalyzed the political opposition and a public already dissatisfied with other recent actions undertaken by Ravalomanana , including a July 2008 deal with Daewoo Logistics to lease half the island 's arable land for South Korean cultivation of corn and palm oil , and the November 2008 purchase of a second presidential jet at a cost of 60 million U.S. dollars . Within a week , Rajoelina met with twenty of Madagascar 's most prominent opposition leaders ( referred to in the press as the " Club of 20 " ) , to develop a joint statement demanding that the Ravalomanana administration improve its adherence to democratic principles . The demand was broadcast at a press conference , where Rajoelina promised to dedicate a politically open public space in the capital , which he would call Place de la democratie ( " Democracy Square " ) .
Beginning in January 2009 , Rajoelina led a series of political rallies in downtown Antananarivo where he gave voice to the frustration that Ravalomanana 's policies had triggered , particularly among the economically marginalized and members of the political opposition . On 3 February , Ravalomanana dismissed Rajoelina as mayor of Antananarivo and appointed a special delegation headed by Guy Randrianarisoa to manage the affairs of the capital . Rajoelina incited demonstrators on 7 February to occupy the president 's office in Ambohitsorohitra Palace in central Antananarivo . The presidential guard opened fire on the advancing crowd , killing 31 and wounding more than 200 . Ravalomanana became the third president since independence ( after Ratsiraka and Philibert Tsiranana ) to allow the defense forces to shoot at civilians ; several months later , at a demonstration led by Ravalomanana supporters , Rajoelina would become the fourth president to authorize such an action . Popular disapproval of Ravalomanana intensified and polarized some in favor of his resignation , although perceptions of Rajoelina as an alternative remained mixed . Conflicts between pro @-@ Rajoelina demonstrators and security forces continued over the following weeks , resulting in several additional deaths .
On 11 March , following a declaration of neutrality by army leadership , pro @-@ opposition soldiers from the Army Corps of Personnel and Administrative and Technical Services ( CAPSAT ) stormed the army headquarters and forced the army chief of staff to resign . Over the next several days the army deployed forces to enable the opposition to occupy key ministries , the chief of military police transferred his loyalty to Rajoelina and the army sent tanks against the president 's Iavoloha Palace . Rajoelina rejected Ravalomanana 's offer on 15 March to hold a national referendum to determine whether the president should resign , and called on security forces to arrest the president . The following day , the army stormed the Ambohitsorohitra Palace and captured the Central Bank . Hours later , Ravalomanana transferred his power to a group of senior army personnel , an act described by the opposition as a voluntary resignation . Ravalomanana later declared he had been forced at gunpoint to relinquish power . The military council would have been charged with organizing elections within 24 months and re @-@ writing the constitution for the " Fourth Republic " . However , Vice Admiral Hyppolite Ramaroson announced on 18 March that the council would transfer power directly to Rajoelina , making him president of the opposition @-@ dominated High Transitional Authority ( HAT ) that he had appointed weeks earlier . With the military 's backing , the HAT was charged with taking up the tasks previously accorded to Ravalomanana 's proposed military directorate . Madagascar 's constitutional court deemed the transfer of power , from Ravalomanana to the military board and then to Rajoelina , to be legal ; the court 's statement did not include a justification for its decision . Rajoelina was sworn in as President on 21 March at Mahamasina Municipal Stadium before a crowd of 40 @,@ 000 supporters , a transfer of power that was considered illegitimate and unconstitutional by the international community and widely described in the press as a coup d 'état .
= = Post @-@ presidency = =
After coming to power , Rajoelina 's HAT pursued legal action against Ravalomanana . On 2 June 2009 , Ravalomanana was fined 70 million US dollars ( 42 million British pounds ) and sentenced to four years in prison for alleged abuse of office which , according to HAT Justice Minister Christine Razanamahasoa , included the December 2008 purchase of a presidential jet worth $ 60 million . Razanamahasoa claimed Ravalomanana " mixed public interests with his personal interests " . The former head of state was in exile in South Africa at the time , having been prevented from returning to Madagascar the previous month . Additionally , on 28 August , Ravalomanana was sentenced in absentia to hard labour for life for his role in the protests and ensuing deaths . Arrest warrants were also issued for General Heriniaina Roelina and Colonel Anatole Ramlamboarison . Ravalomanana 's Tiko Group faced heavy pressure from the transitional government , which in April 2009 demanded that the company pay 35 million US dollars in back taxes or risk being shut down .
Both Ravalomanana and Rajoelina were requested by the Southern African Development Community ( SADC ) to renounce participation in the 2013 Malagasy presidential elections in order to hasten an end to the ongoing political crisis . On 10 December 2012 , Ravalomanana announced that he would not participate in the elections , and encouraged Rajoelina to follow suit , in line with SADC recommendations . Rajoelina complied ; however , when Ravalomanana 's wife Lalao submitted her candidacy several months later , Rajoelina resubmitted his candidacy , declaring that Marc Ravalomanana sought to govern by proxy through his wife . In August 2013 , a special electoral court invalidated the candidacy of Lalao Ravalomanana , as well as her chief competitors Rajoelina and Ratsiraka . TGV candidate Hery Rajaonarimampianina was elected president in January 2014 , defeating Jean @-@ Louis Robinson , the candidate of Marc Ravalomanana 's camp . Upon attempting to return to Madagascar in October 2014 Ravalomanana was arrested , having been sentenced in absentia to lifelong hard labour for abuses of power by the Rajoelina administration . After his sentence was lifted and he was freed from house arrest in May 2015 , Ravalomanana recommenced broadcasts at his MBS radio station , announced the re @-@ opening of the TIKO business group , and was re @-@ elected the president of TIM .
= = Other activities = =
Ravalomanana is known for his fervent Christian faith . As a young adult he gradually took on increasingly responsible leadership roles within his church community . In early 2000 he replaced a member of the eastern Antananarivo synod in its Christian Men 's Committee and was quickly elected its president . In August the same year he was elected as head layman and Vice @-@ President of the FJKM . In 2005 , he was quoted as saying that he " dream [ s ] of a Christian nation " , a vision that critics considered a violation of the constitution , which described the state as secular . A 2007 constitutional referendum removed this descriptor , among other changes . While Ravalomanana enjoyed strong support from the FJKM and other church organizations early in his political career , these organizations placed increasing pressure on him over time , viewing his policies as inadequately effective in reducing poverty across the island .
Ravalomanana owns media group Malagasy Broadcasting System ( MBS ) , which operates radio and television stations .
= = Honours = =
Grand Commander of the Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean from the Republic of Mauritius
Special class of the Grand Cross ( Sonderstufe des Großkreuzes ) of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany in 2006
Honorary Doctorate of Law from Abilene Christian University of Texas in 2008
Honorary Doctorate from University of Antananarivo in 2007
= Citroën C3 Picasso =
The Citroën C3 Picasso is a mini MPV produced by the French motor company Citroën since 2008 . It was first unveiled at the 2008 Paris Motor Show as a concept car named " Drooneel " , and was designed by Donato Coco and Jean @-@ Pierre Ploué . The Picasso is the mini MPV version of the Citroën C3 and the successor of the Citroën Xsara Picasso , and was designed to compete with the Opel Meriva , Nissan Note , Renault Modus and Ford Fusion .
The vehicle is a mini Sport Utility Vehicle version of the C3 Picasso for the Latin America market , where it has been sold as the Citroën C3 Aircross since 2010 .
The first C3 Picasso was assembled in December 2007 at the PSA Trnava Plant in west Slovakia , which Citroën announced from France in July 2008 would be the sole manufacturer of the model . Citroën presented the finished product to the Slovak press and public on 25 September before it was unveiled to the world in October at the 2008 Paris Motor Show . The Trnava Plant by then was expected to be building 28 cars per hour as the C3 Picasso went on sale in France in February 2009 for € 14 @,@ 950 . The company began to sell the car in other European markets in March 2009 .
When launched in Spain in 2009 , only three trims were available : LX , SX , or Exclusive . The LX was the most basic and least expensive model , with a 95 bhp ( 71 kW ; 96 PS ) VTi engine , priced at € 12 @,@ 590 , while the Exclusive model was most expensive with a 110 bhp ( 82 kW ; 112 PS ) HDi Airdream engine at € 18 @,@ 650 . The C3 Picasso was launched in the United Kingdom on 9 April 2009 , where it went on sale for £ 11 @,@ 495 for the 1 @.@ 4 @-@ litre VTi , the most basic model with 44 mpg @-@ imp ( 6 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 37 mpg @-@ US ) , while the most expensive was the ' Exclusive ' with a 1 @.@ 6 @-@ litre HDi engine and 62 mpg @-@ imp ( 4 @.@ 6 L / 100 km ; 52 mpg @-@ US ) at £ 15 @,@ 595 . A redesigned version of the car was shown at the 2012 Paris Motor Show on 27 September 2012 and was on sale in Europe by November .
= = Models = =
Exclusive is consistently the most expensive trim for each market , with the biggest choice of engines and features . It is the only model to feature a folding front passenger seat , making the storage space into the whole interior of the car except the driver 's seat . Extras for the trim include : tinted windows , rear parking sensors , automatic windscreen wipers , a leather and chrome interior , pollen filter , and dual @-@ zone automatic climate control , which allows for two varying temperature settings simultaneously in the vehicle .
= = = Limited and Special Edition = = =
Blackcherry is a limited edition trim , available in the UK since November 2010 and based on the VTR + . It was sold with the 1 @.@ 6 @-@ litre High @-@ pressure Direct Injection ( HDi ) diesel engine . It was discontinued and replaced with the Code Red and Code White in January 2012 , which have the same engine .
90th Anniversary ; the release of the Limited Edition 90th Anniversary C3 Picasso in August 2009 was the UK 's third limited edition model . It was created to commemorate 90 years of Citroën and has similar features to the Exclusive trim , sold at the same price and features the MyWay SatNav system , leather upholstery , and a commemorative badge on the dashboard emblazoned with the wording " 90 Years " . As bonus , it came equipped with £ 1 @,@ 000 of extras and was released in an advertising campaign of Anniversary trims for other Citroën models at the same time as the launch of the Limited Edition Millennium trim in France . The model was limited to 150 cars in the UK , of which only one has been sold and registered for use .
Millennium ; several trims were released in France under the Millennium moniker , including the : C1 , C4 , C4 Picasso , C5 and C5 Tourer . The model has 16 @-@ inch ( 41 cm ) alloy wheels , the MyWay SatNav system and radio with built @-@ in Bluetooth and dual @-@ zone automatic climate control . The car was available in a metallic or pearlescent finish .
Code Red / Code White was released in January 2012 . The limited edition C3 Picasso Code Red and Code White replaced the Blackcherry in the UK . The Code has the same engine as the Blackcherry and has been finely tuned for a marginally increased fuel economy and lower carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions . It features obsidian black bumpers and 17 @-@ inch ( 43 cm ) Polar White or Cherry Red " clover " alloy wheels , and can be equipped with extra features , which include roof bars , curtain airbags , cruise control and a speed limiter . Body colours exclusive to the trim are Belle Ile Blue , Shark Grey and Cherry Red .
Passion Bleus was released in France to celebrate the 2012 European Football Championship . The name is a tribute to the French national football team , which Citroën supports as a partner of the French Football Federation . The advertising campaign for the Passion Bleus involved French footballers , rallying champion Sébastien Loeb , and an online Facebook game " Le Pilote et le Bleu " ( The Pilot and Blue ) . Other Citroën vehicles to receive a Passion Bleus trim were the : C1 , C3 , C4 , C4 Picasso , and the Berlingo Multispace .
Music Touch was launched in January 2013 in France . Created through a partnership with Samsung and Universal Music Group , the C3 Picasso Music Touch comes with a free white Samsung Galaxy Tab 16 GB . The obvious styling differences are the additional chrome trims and mirror covers , and white pearlescent paint . The Music Touch special series was also added to the C4 Picasso , C4 Aircross and Berlingo Multispace vehicles .
= = Design and features = =
All C3 Picasso models have an anti @-@ lock braking system ( ABS ) , Electronic brakeforce distribution ( EBD ) , child locks , remote central locking and two front airbags . Electronic Stability Control ( ESC ) , once an option , is now included across the range . The vehicle is only available as a 5 @-@ seater , but with all models the three rear seats can be folded flat to increase the boot capacity from 385 litres ( 13 @.@ 6 cu ft ) or 500 litres ( 18 cu ft ) including the hidden compartment to store the parcel shelf , up to a maximum of 1 @,@ 506 litres ( 53 @.@ 2 cu ft ) . The Exclusive model features a folding front passenger seat to increase the storage space further . All models in the range have a " Mistral Maxi Taylor " woven cloth interior ; according to Citroën , top European engineers and designers including Donato Coco and Jean @-@ Pierre Ploué were involved in designing the vehicle .
Optional accessories are available for the range , including an aluminium roof rack capable of carrying 60 kg ( 132 lb ) and kerbside lights in the door mirrors . Also available are : 16 @-@ inch ( 41 cm ) and 17 @-@ inch ( 43 cm ) alloy wheels with a choice of two patterns , chrome mouldings for the bumpers and doors , front fog lamps and cruise control , rear parking sensors , automatic lights ( standard on some variants ) , and a speed limitation device – which are commonly used for safety reasons or to reduce fuel bills . A seatbelt reminder , which can be added to the passenger and rear seats , is fitted to the driver 's seat as standard .
The chassis platform used for the C3 Picasso is a modified version of that in the Citroën C3 and the Peugeot 207 , giving it a comparable wheelbase . The reuse of automobile platforms is commonplace , especially for Citroën because the Trnava plant builds the Peugeot 207 and the C3 Picasso . The parent company PSA Peugeot Citroën pools resources and manufacturing for some vehicles , and sometimes rebadges vehicles , combining design teams between two or more brands to create a shared product . The advantage is the designing and testing vehicles at a reduced cost for the participating brands , but creates multiple , identical @-@ looking vehicles for the market , sometimes with minor styling differences . Examples include : the Fiat Scudo , Peugeot Expert and Citroën Dispatch , the Toyota Aygo , Peugeot 107 and Citroën C1 , and the Peugeot Partner and Citroën Berlingo . Citroën placed a contractual obligation on the manufacturers to use green materials for the C3 Picasso range . These comprise ≥ 11 % of the 170 kg ( 374 @.@ 8 lb ) of polymers on the vehicle , including the mudguards , parcel shelf and boot carpet . Citroën recommends the vehicle is serviced at least every two years , or at every 20 @,@ 000 miles ( 32 @,@ 000 km ) for petrol models and 12 @,@ 500 miles ( 20 @,@ 100 km ) for the HDi diesel models .
= = = Engines = = =
When equipped with the 1 @.@ 6 @-@ litre VTi engine , the C3 Picasso Exclusive and VTR + models are capable of a top speed of 117 mph ( 188 km / h ) in 10 @.@ 6 seconds and 120 bhp ( 89 kW ; 122 PS ) . This 1 @.@ 6 litre and a smaller 1 @.@ 4 litre VTi petrol engine , were developed by PSA Peugeot Citroën and BMW , along with a 1 @.@ 6 L diesel engine and the two 1 @.@ 6 L HDi Airdream engines . Every model came with a 5 @-@ speed manual gearbox until 2011 , when 6 @-@ speed manual and automatic ( EGS6 ) manual versions were introduced , along with an eco @-@ friendly start @-@ stop system and regenerative braking technology in certain models , notably the Exclusive and Tendance models for the German market . According to Citroën , these two new features reduce CO2 emissions significantly and their introduction coincided with the release of a higher specification Airdream engine , the European emission standards ( Euro 5 ) carbon dioxide emissions limits were lowered and the addition of low @-@ rolling resistance tyres were added to the entire range . The tyres are specially designed to minimize wasted energy when the tyre rolls and have been estimated by the California Energy Commission to save 1 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 % of fuel in a typical car .
At first Citroën decided not to offer their new automatic EGS6 gearbox version in the UK due to the unfavourable exchange rate and costs , although this changed after a small number were privately imported for insurance classification purposes . The EGS6 gearbox became an option for the 1 @.@ 6 L VTi engine models shortly after .
Starting with June 2015 production , Citroen replaced the older petrol engines with a 1 @.@ 2 litre Pure Tech 110 motor . This new 3 cylinder 110 hp engine is paired with 5 speed manual transmission . CO2 emissions are 115g / km . A 73kW BlueHDi 100 diesel coupled to a 5 speed manual transmission replaced the earlier offerings . The EGS6 automatic transmission is no longer available .
The complete vehicle lineup includes multiple models and engine configurations , all with different specifications and tuning :
= = Safety = =
The European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP ) tested a C3 Picasso Confort 90 bhp ( 67 kW ; 91 PS ) model with standard equipment , including : a single forward airbag for each front seat , a speed limitation device , but no ESC . The vehicle was scored on the basis of : child and adult injury , including whiplash risk from the seating , a pedestrian front impact rating , safety equipment and clear labels detailing how to disable some features . The results of the front end tests were mixed , with the bumper scoring all available points , but the vehicle was penalised for the lack of protection and the potential damage caused if a pedestrian is struck by the bonnet . Protection inside the car was scored highly for almost every seat , and for adult and child protection ; it lost points for its use of forward @-@ facing restraints , which can be fatal in an accident if an infant is hit by an airbag . The C3 Picasso was also penalised for offering very poor whiplash protection in the driver 's seat – scoring nothing in two of the three tests and then losing points for the position of the unadjusted restraint . Overall , the vehicle scored four of five stars , less than most vehicles the Euro NCAP compares it with , which were released around the same time .
= = = Recalls and Watchdog investigation = = =
On 20 June 2010 , 611 C3 Picassos built between January and March 2010 were recalled due to incorrectly routed fuel pipes , which were believed to have been in contact with the heat shield . This fault may have caused chafing and may lead to a fuel leak . The models were built between January and March 2010 and were sold in the UK . On 24 August 2010 , all 13 @,@ 234 Picassos sold in the UK were recalled because the windscreen trim could deteriorate , and could eventually detach , leading to a loose @-@ fitting windscreen .
In May 2011 , all 24 @,@ 091 C3 Picassos in the UK were recalled for a safety modification , following complaints and an investigation by BBC consumer affairs programme Watchdog into brakes that could be activated on the passenger side of the right @-@ hand drive vehicles . The problem occurred because of the way the vehicles were modified for right @-@ hand @-@ drive . The investigation showed that although the brake pedal had been moved to the right , it was still connected to a mechanism on the passenger side . This was covered by felt carpet and meant that both the front passenger and driver could activate the brakes . A further investigation by Watchdog later found the same problem in other Citroën models and some vehicles produced by Renault and Peugeot , some of which were registered in 2002 . All three manufacturers worked with the Vehicle and Operator Services Agency ( VOSA ) to identify the severity of the problem but no vehicles were found to be affected enough to issue recalls .
8 @,@ 815 Picassos built between January and May 2011 for the UK market were recalled on 2 September 2011 when it was discovered that the battery cable was too short and could cause gearbox failures and in turn stall the engine . The faulty earth return cable was replaced . Despite the recalls , the vehicle continued to sell well in the UK and has won numerous awards .
= = Reviews = =
Critics praised the Citroen C3 Picasso in reviews for its ergonomics , Bauhaus @-@ inspired styling , ease of use and the amount of space offered , many reviewers criticised the interior , which they said felt " cheap " . The quality and reliability of the petrol engines was criticised by most reviewers as " sluggish " and struggling to carry the weight of the vehicle , although the diesel engines feedback was more positive as they are able to cope much better and run smoother . Reviewers ' comments about the tight turning radius of the vehicle were favourable . The combination of the panoramic three @-@ part windscreen , thin door pillars and high seats , which together increase the visibility of the road – led one reviewer to compare it with a greenhouse .
The car has three monitors on the dashboard , the first monitors the status of important components , while the second controls the sound system , and the last is a rev counter , digital speedometer and the fuel gauge . CNET described the speed gauge monitor as clear and " close to the driver 's natural line of sight " , but criticized the other two monitors for being unreadable and possibly dangerous if used by the driver while the car is moving . Some reviewers complained about the vehicle 's soundproofing , which could not adequately conceal the screech of the wind . The engine at high speed received mixed reviews , while a number of reviewers reported a fault with the screenwash bottle , which can freeze in cold weather and blow a fuse when used . The reviewer for European Car of the Year 2010 called the nominated C3 Picasso fuel efficient , but said it had " dull steering " .
= = = Awards = = =
UK publication Top Gear Magazine awarded the C3 Picasso " Family Car of the Year " in 2008 , stating " This is what a 21st century family car should look like " . Michael Harvey , the Editorial Director of the magazine admitted they had taken a chance as the model was not available in the United Kingdom until the following year . In 2009 when the car was finally launched the awards increased , first with " Best MPV " at What Diesel 's Car of the Year Awards , " Scottish MPV of the Year " at the Scottish Car of the Year Awards , " Best Supermini MPV of the year " at " Auto Express New Car Awards " and finally " Design of the Year " at the Fleet World Honours . The vehicle was nominated for European Car of the Year in 2010 , but received the lowest overall score of any candidate , finishing last , in seventh place . The JD Power survey in 2011 announced the C3 Picasso as the best MPV on the market , with a satisfaction rating of 83 @.@ 1 % and five stars overall , but with the lowest rating given to the exterior quality at three stars . Many reviewers had complained of poor fitting and the finish used on the exterior .
= = Advertising = =
" DOG " ; was created by H Suresnes advertising agency in France and released in June 2010 . The advertisement shows a dog made up of various items , including a purse , swimming goggles , blow @-@ dryer and shoes , wandering around the streets to the song " Somebody Come And Play " by Joseph G Raposo . In the last scene the dog is invited into the boot of a C3 Picasso by a family leaving for a holiday ; the dog fits into the car with enough space to seat everyone comfortably . The advertisement was shown in the French market using the English @-@ language song " Somebody Come and Play " by Joe Raposo .
Another advertisement for the vehicle range was " Ghostbusters Reloaded " , which was produced by Euro RSCG Paris . It shows three futuristic Ghostbusters in a C3 Picasso battling a monster in the style of the Ghostbuters character Stay Puft Marshmallow Man . The monster is the size of a tall building and is made up of items including bicycles , suitcases and tyres . As the monster is defeated , it disassembles and the items fit into the boot of the Picasso . The music used is a remix of the Ray Parker Ghostbusters theme tune performed by the Street Life DJs . The advertisement 's strapline is ; " The New Citroën C3 Picasso : The Spacebox " .
= = C3 Aircross variant = =
In September 2010 , Citroën do Brasil launched the Citroën C3 Aircross in Brazil and Argentina . The car is a C3 Picasso @-@ based mini Sport Utility Vehicle with styling differences including : raised suspension , chrome roof bars and mirror covers , side skirts , and a rear spare tyre .
= = 2012 facelift = =
The facelift of the Citroën C3 Picasso appeared first at the 2012 Paris Motor Show on 27 September . The new eMyWay SatNav system , located on the central console , is more functional than the previous model , allowing connection to a reversing camera ( available as an extra ) , which displays on the console screen . LED daytime running lamps and fog lamps with built @-@ in cornering lamps , which illuminate the roadside , are also non @-@ standard features on the facelifted C3 Picasso . In addition , Citroën has added two new exterior paint colour options ; " Pearlescent white " and " Ink blue " to the vehicle . The front grille now features Citroën 's new branding , joining the two chrome chevron badge in the form of a crown .
The Spanish market launch took place in November 2012 with four trim choices , the least expensive being the Attraction with a 95 bhp ( 71 kW ; 96 PS ) VTi engine at € 12 @,@ 250 and the most expensive being the Exclusive with a 115 bhp ( 86 kW ; 117 PS ) HDi engine at € 18 @,@ 475 . The UK launch was in December 2012 .
= = Worldwide sales and production figures = =
= Mattress ( Glee ) =
" Mattress " , also known as " Once Upon a Mattress " , is the twelfth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on December 2 , 2009 . It was written by series creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Elodie Keene . In " Mattress " , the glee club discovers that they are going to be omitted from the school yearbook . Club member Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) has the team cast in a local mattress commercial in an attempt to raise their social status . Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) discovers that his wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) has been faking her pregnancy .
The episode features cover versions of four songs , studio recordings of three of which were released as singles , available for digital download , and are also included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 2 . " Mattress " was watched by 8 @.@ 15 million US viewers , Glee 's series high at that point . It received mixed reviews from critics . The conclusion of the fake pregnancy storyline attracted praise , as did Gilsig and Morrison 's acting , however Liz Pardue of Zap2it expressed dismay that so few songs were performed , while Raymund Flandez of the Wall Street Journal deemed " Jump " " the only memorable song of the episode " .
= = Plot = =
Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) convinces Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) not to include a photograph of the glee club in the school yearbook , as in previous years , glee club photographs have been heavily defaced in the library copy of the yearbook by fellow students . Club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) personally buys a meager section of advertising space in the book so that a photograph featuring at least two members can be included . Fearing unpopularity , the club nominates Rachel ( Lea Michele ) to represent them in the photograph . Rachel convinces Finn ( Cory Monteith ) to appear alongside her , but after being teased by his peers , he drops out . When it transpires that the school photographer ( John Ross Bowie ) is soon to direct a commercial for his brother @-@ in @-@ law , a local mattress store owner , Rachel convinces him to cast the glee club in it , believing that local celebrity status will prevent the other students from mocking them .
Will is dismayed to learn that his close friend , guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , has arranged to marry her fiancé , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) , on the same day the glee club will compete at sectionals . Will goes on to discover that his wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) has been lying to him for months about her supposed pregnancy . She actually experienced a hysterical pregnancy and hid the truth from him by wearing a pregnancy pad under her clothes , while planning to secretly adopt Quinn 's ( Dianna Agron ) baby . Will walks out on her and spends the night at the school , sleeping on one of the mattresses given to the glee club in payment for their commercial .
Sue informs Will that the club receiving payment for the commercial revokes their amateur status , and thus their eligibility to compete at sectionals . Quinn , who has been trying to convince Sue to let her appear in the cheerleaders ' photographs despite being removed from the team due to her pregnancy , reminds Sue that as their coach she has often given the cheerleaders perks which would also render them ineligible for competition . She demands that Sue sacrifice one of the cheerleaders ' six pages in the yearbook to the glee club . Sue agrees , and accepts Quinn back onto the cheerleading team , but Quinn tells her she no longer wishes to be a cheerleader . Will announces that he will not be accompanying the club to sectionals , as he was the one who accepted payment , and as such they will only be allowed to compete without his involvement . The glee club then has their group photograph taken for the yearbook , but the copy in the library is subsequently defaced by hockey player Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) and football player Azimio ( James Earl ) .
= = Production = =
" Mattress " was written by series creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Elodie Keene . Recurring characters who appear in the episode are glee club members Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) , Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) , local news anchors Rod Remington ( Bill A. Jones ) and Andrea Carmichael ( Earlene Davis ) , hockey player Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) and football player Azimio ( James Earl ) . John Ross Bowie guest @-@ stars as school photographer Dennis , and Chuck Spitler plays his brother @-@ in @-@ law , mattress store owner Randy Cusperberg .
The episode features cover versions of " Smile " by Lily Allen , " Jump " by Van Halen , " Smile " by Charlie Chaplin , and " When You 're Smiling " by Louis Armstrong . Studio recordings of each of the songs except " When You 're Smiling " were released as singles , available for digital download , and are also included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 2 . Jenna Ushkowitz deemed " Jump " one of her favorite songs on the album , explaining that it was fun to perform on mattresses and comparing it to " Proud Mary " , performed in the episode " Wheels " , which utilized wheelchairs as props .
Jessalyn Gilsig referred to the confrontation between Terri and Will in " Mattress " as " The Reckoning " . She described it as sad to shoot , as she and Morrison were so invested in the storyline , and explained : " What I hope is conveyed is that you see the child inside Terri . You see the fear . " Gilsig commented that viewers had been wondering why Will was taking so long to discover Terri was not actually pregnant , explaining : " I think people have been asking ' How slow is this guy ? ! ' . But [ in " Mattress " ] Will finally reflects that he is a fully evolved human being and puts two and two together . " She noted that while Will and Emma " are adorable together " , she still believes in Terri and Will as a couple as : " I think that she really loves him . People do crazy things out of deep , deep insecurity . She 's obviously flawed , but I think she has love in her heart . " While fan reaction to her character had previously resulted in a backlash Gilsig found " tough " , she hoped that " Mattress " would be the episode in which " anti @-@ Terri fans joined Team Terri " .
= = Reception = =
" Mattress " was watched by 8 @.@ 15 million US viewers , Glee 's series high in the 2009 – 10 television season at the time of its original broadcast . It achieved a 3 @.@ 6 / 10 rating / share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , again the show 's season high at the time , and a 4 @.@ 3 / 12 rating / share with adults 18 @-@ 34 , both its series high and the highest rating in the demographic for the night of broadcast . In Canada , it was the ninth most watched show for the week of broadcast , attaining 1 @.@ 8 million viewers . The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Entertainment Weekly 's Dan Snierson wrote that " Mattress " " felt like a step forward after last week 's all @-@ over @-@ the @-@ place hair toss " , and called the " poignant " ending " one of Glee 's best " . In contrast , Mike Hale of the New York Times wrote that with " Mattress " , Glee appeared to be " taking a break " ahead of the midseason finale episode " Sectionals " . Liz Pardue of Zap2it was relieved that " Mattress " brought the fake pregnancy storyline to an end . She noted , however , that she was still unsatisfied with the episode , as the conclusion to the storyline should have come sooner , and there were too few songs featured .
Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle called the episode " pretty good " noting that he " wasn 't crazy about any of the songs " but enjoyed the plot development , particularly the confrontation between Terri and Will . Raymund Flandez of the Wall Street Journal was happy to see the " convoluted " fake pregnancy storyline end , and called the performance of " Jump " " lively " and the stunts " incredible " , though he wrote that it was " the only memorable song of the episode " . Gerrick Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times noted that in previous reviews , he had " never been shy of [ his ] disdain for Mrs. Schuester " , but that his hatred of Terri " vanished " once the lie was over , praising the confrontation between Will and Terri . MTV 's Aly Semigran praised both actors , especially " a devastated Matthew Morrison " for having " nailed just what a scary , sad , and life @-@ altering moment " it was . She deemed " Jump " both " delightful " and the " giddiest musical number on the show to date " .
= 1962 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1962 Atlantic hurricane season was the least active since 1939 , with only five named storms . Although the season officially began on June 15 , the first storm did not form until August 26 . Hurricane Alma brushed the Outer Banks before becoming extratropical southeast of New England , destroying hundreds of boats and producing beneficial rainfall . In late August , Tropical Storm Becky developed unusually far east in the Atlantic Ocean , becoming the easternmost storm on record to recurve to the northeast . Celia followed in the September , forming east of the Lesser Antilles and executing a loop near Bermuda before dissipating . Hurricane Daisy was the costliest of the season , leaving about $ 1 @.@ 1 million in damage in New England ( 1962 USD ) . The storm dropped the highest rainfall total on record in Maine , and its precipitation caused 22 traffic fatalities . The final hurricane – Ella – was also the strongest , remaining offshore of the eastern United States but causing two deaths .
In addition to the five named storms , there were three non @-@ developing tropical depressions . The first struck Texas in August , causing street flooding and killing three . The second of three formed off the west coast of Florida and flooded widespread areas after 1 in 100 year rainfall . The floods affected 5 @,@ 000 houses and caused millions in damage . The third of three non @-@ developing storms moved across the Caribbean before striking Nicaragua in October . The season officially ended on November 15 .
= = Season activity = =
The hurricane season officially began on June 15 , 1962 . The National Hurricane Center began operations with no new equipment , and the warning agency instead opted to improve with the existing equipment . The agency had access to a system of radars that extended from Brownsville , Texas to Eastport , Maine , which was set up in 1961 . Although satellite imagery technology was available , the system was not fully active to provide daily images of Atlantic hurricanes . The season officially ended on November 15 .
During the season , three hurricanes developed from five named storms . This was below the average of 10 storms per season , and represented the fewest tropical storms since 1939 . Four of the five storms developed from the intertropical convergence zone . The decreased activity is partially due to the westerlies extending further south than usual , as well as a persistent ridge . In addition , temperatures in the eastern United States were cooler than usual . Activity through September 10 was the quietest in 30 years .
The only region of the United States threatened by hurricanes was New England , although no stations recorded hurricane @-@ force winds in the country . This was the first such occurrence during the 20th century that no tropical storms or hurricanes hit the country . Overall damage was the lowest in several years .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Alma = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression along the southeast Florida coast on August 26 . It moved northward along the coast , located beneath an anticyclone that aided in its intensification . The depression began a motion to the northeast on August 27 , and that day it strengthened into Tropical Storm Alma about 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of the Florida / Georgia border . This marked the latest development of the first storm since 1941 . Alma steadily intensified as it paralleled the coastline of the Carolinas , becoming a hurricane on August 28 a few miles off the coast of Cape Hatteras . Despite its proximity , the storm produced peak wind gusts of only 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) in Nags Head . Wind gusts downed a power pole in Hatteras , which caused an hour long power outage for one @-@ third of the town . There , the storm tide was 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal , which resulted in some erosion . The highest rainfall total from Alma in the United States was a report of 10 @.@ 38 inches ( 264 mm ) in Cape Hatteras . Damage in the state amounted to $ 35 @,@ 000 .
After passing the Outer Banks , Alma continued to intensify further , reaching peak winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) about 85 mi ( 135 km ) south of Nantucket . Despite its intensity , the hurricane never developed a well @-@ defined eye . Alma quickly weakened to a tropical storm as it made its closest approach to New England , due to cooler water temperatures . In Rhode Island and Massachusetts along the coast , the storm produced northerly winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , and one house was damaged by a fallen tree . Tides reached 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) above normal , which resulted in minor coastal flooding . However , Alma produced strong waves that destroyed over 100 boats . Damage from the storm was estimated at less than $ 1 million , though its rains were beneficial to drought @-@ stricken areas of New England . Precipitation extended northward through Maine , and storm damage was reported as far north as Portsmouth , New Hampshire . Slick roads resulted in several traffic accidents , although there were no deaths . After moving by the region , Alma turned to the southeast due to a high pressure system to its north . It became extratropical on August 30 .
= = = August tropical depression = = =
On August 26 , a tropical depression formed in the western Gulf of Mexico about 280 mi ( 450 km ) northeast of Tampico , Tamaulipas . It moved slowly to the north @-@ northwest around a ridge without intensifying beyond winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) . The system encountered wind shear throughout its duration , which displaced the convection from the center to its northeast . The depression struck just west of the Texas / Louisiana border on August 29 before dissipating on August 30 . Rainfall in Texas was minimal , estimated around 1 in ( 25 mm ) . However , heavy amounts of precipitation fell across Louisiana , peaking at 23 @.@ 13 in ( 588 mm ) near Hackberry . Rainfall extended northeastward through Arkansas and Missouri . On August 29 as the depression moved ashore , heavy rainfall caused street flooding in Cameron , Louisiana . Two tornadoes were reported in the town , one of which produced winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The storms damaged 115 houses or trailers , of which one was destroyed . There were 30 people injured , of whom 18 required hospital attention , and there were three deaths .
= = = Tropical Storm Becky = = =
A tropical disturbance emerged from Africa in late August and developed into a weak tropical depression on August 27 . For about 30 hours , the system affected the Cape Verde islands with rainfall , during which it moved slowly to the west and west @-@ northwest . Late on August 28 , it was estimated that the depression intensified into a tropical storm . The next day , satellite imagery observed a well @-@ developed tropical cyclone in the far eastern Atlantic Ocean . In addition , a ship reported winds of force 9 on the Beaufort scale , suggesting winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . On that basis , the Weather Bureau initiated advisories on Tropical Storm Becky , despite the agency only issuing advisories for storms west of 35 ° W. Around that time , the storm moved over an area of anomalously warm water temperatures , which allowed for its intensification . On August 30 , Becky turned to the north and northeast due to an approaching trough , becoming the easternmost cyclone since 1886 that a storm began a motion to the north . A Hurricane Hunters flight on August 31 indicated that Becky became extratropical about 70 mi ( 110 km ) south of Santa Maria Island in the Azores . The storm 's remnants continued to the northeast , dissipating on September 1 about 320 mi ( 520 km ) west of Spain .
= = = Tropical Storm Celia = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on September 12 , about 1000 mi ( 1600 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . However , satellite imagery indicated that it could have become a tropical cyclone a day earlier . Late on September 12 , a ship reported winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , which provided the basis for the San Juan Weather Bureau to initiate advisories on Tropical Storm Celia . The storm quickly attained peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , and on September 13 a hurricane watch was issued for the northern Leeward Islands . However , Celia passed beneath a mid- to upper @-@ level trough and quickly weakened . By late on September 14 , a hurricane hunters flight indicated that the storm 's structure no longer resembled that of a tropical cyclone . The next day , Celia weakened to a tropical depression , and the Weather Bureau discontinued tropical cyclone advisories . It turned to the north and later to the east , passing well southeast of Bermuda . On September 18 , Celia began executing a loop to the north , during which it re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm , as reported by ships . It attained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) on September 19 , but again weakened to a tropical depression the next day . Celia became extratropical on September 21 , without having affected land .
= = = September Gulf of Mexico tropical depression = = =
An upper @-@ level low spawned a tropical depression off the west coast of Florida on September 20 . The depression moved very slowly to the north @-@ northwest , which produced heavy rainfall from Naples to Tampa , Florida . The highest total was 16 @.@ 60 in ( 422 mm ) in Sarasota , although precipitation of over 1 in ( 25 mm ) extended into Georgia and extreme southern South Carolina . A developing cyclone off the Carolinas caused the dissipation of the depression on September 23 .
The rains in Sarasota were the highest since 1945 , and some locations experienced 1 in 100 year rainfall totals . The rains resulted in 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of floodwaters across western Florida , and both the Manatee River and the Phillippi Creek experienced record crests . The flooding entered over 5 @,@ 000 houses , which forced the evacuation of more than 100 families . The floods also caused schools to close in three counties . In addition , floodwaters affected thousands of acres of farmlands in six counties , and some did not dry out for several weeks . Wind gusts reached 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) in eastern Florida , and more than 20 @,@ 000 people were left without power . There was one death in the state related to the storm , and damage was estimated at $ 2 @.@ 78 million .
= = = September Caribbean tropical depression = = =
On September 27 , a tropical depression developed east of the Lesser Antilles . It moved through the islands without intensifying beyond winds of 30 mph ( 40 km / h ) . The depression later crossed the entirety of the Caribbean Sea . On October 3 , it struck northeastern Nicaragua , before becoming a remnant low pressure area the following day over Guatemala .
= = = Hurricane Daisy = = =
On September 29 , reconnaissance aircraft indicated the formation of a tropical depression to the east of the Lesser Antilles . For several days it moved to the west @-@ northwest , passing just north of the islands without intensifying further . This was due to its presence beneath an upper @-@ level trough , although the system began intensifying as the trough dissipated . On October 2 , after turning to the northwest between two high pressure areas , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Daisy . Developing an anticyclone aloft , the storm continued to gradually intensify , reaching hurricane strength on October 3 . Two days later , Daisy turned to the north @-@ northeast and attained peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . While passing west of Bermuda , the hurricane weakened slightly , although it re @-@ intensified to its peak strength late on October 6 . Cool air imparted weakening as Daisy turned northwestward , and on October 8 , the hurricane slowed as it turned eastward , striking Yarmouth , Nova Scotia with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . It became extratropical later that day , and Daisy dissipated on October 9 south of Newfoundland .
In New England , Hurricane Daisy 's outer rainbands combined with an approaching nor 'easter to drop torrential rainfall over the region for 65 hours , producing upwards of 12 in ( 300 mm ) in portions of Massachusetts . The highest total from Daisy alone was 9 @.@ 47 in ( 241 mm ) at Portland International Jetport in Maine ; this was the state 's highest tropical cyclone rainfall total between 1950 and 2011 . Across the region , the rains caused widespread flood damage . In Maine , wind gusts reaching 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) destroyed hundreds of small boats , along with high waves from the storm . In New England , Daisy left five injuries , one direct death , and about $ 1 @.@ 1 million in damage . Slick roads , however , resulted in 22 traffic fatalities . In Nova Scotia , winds gusted to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) , which destroyed three boats and left two towns without power service . Rough seas killed six people in the province .
= = = Hurricane Ella = = =
In the middle of October , an area of disturbed weather persisted across the Turks and Caicos Islands , associated with an upper @-@ level low . On October 14 , a tropical depression developed and moved northward . A day after forming , it intensified into Tropical Storm Ella as it began a track to the northwest , located east of a weakening upper @-@ level trough . On October 17 , Ella strengthened further into a hurricane as an anticyclone was gradually developing . An approaching trough turned the hurricane to the east @-@ northeast on October 19 , and later that day Ella attained its peak intensity of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) ; that made it the strongest hurricane of the season . It gradually weakened over cooler waters while accelerating to the northeast , and its eye grew to an unusually large diameter of 100 mi ( 160 km / h ) . Ella became extratropical on October 22 over the northern Atlantic as it interacted with an approaching cold front . Shortly thereafter its remnants moved over Newfoundland before dissipating on October 23 .
Ella is historically notable for its role in the Cuban Missile Crisis . The storm greatly complicated naval operations relating to the ' quarantine ' blockade of Cuba and badly damaged several Soviet nuclear @-@ armed submarines en route to the island , contributing to the escalation of the B @-@ 59 Incident . Early in its duration , Hurricane Ella briefly threatened to strike the North Carolina coastline . Although it remained offshore , the hurricane produced significant beach erosion along the coast . There were two associated deaths from a missing motor boat that left Charleston , South Carolina . The crew of two was declared deceased after a Coast Guard , Navy , and Air Force search failed to locate their bodies . There was no damage in Canada from its remnants .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1962 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . Because of the season 's relatively low impact , no storms were retired during the 1962 season , and none of the storms below were used for the first time .
= Lou Phillips =
Louis Augustus " Lou " Phillips ( 24 February 1878 – 14 March 1916 ) was a Welsh rugby player , who played half @-@ back for Newport RFC , and won four caps for Wales . He was also a talented amateur golfer .
Born in Newport , Monmouthshire , Phillips was educated at Monmouth Grammar School , leaving to become an architect . He played rugby at school and then at Newport , earning a place in the 1st XV after several players retired or defected to rugby league . He made 90 appearances for Newport , during which he developed a famous half @-@ back partnership with Llewellyn Lloyd . His debut for Wales , playing alongside Lloyd , was against England in 1900 , when Wales won the Triple Crown . He earned selection again in 1901 but was forced to retire from rugby after incurring an injury playing Scotland .
Phillips enlisted in the 20th ( Service ) Battalion Royal Fusiliers at the start of the First World War . He was deployed to the Western Front in November 1915 . He was shot dead while out on a wiring party on the night of 14 March 1916 , near Cambrin , France .
= = Early life = =
Louis Augustus Phillips was born at Stow Hill , Newport , Monmouthshire on 24 February 1878 . He was educated at Monmouth Grammar School . After serving his articles with Huberston and Fawkner , architects , he began practising in 1907 .
= = Rugby career = =
Phillips began playing rugby while at Monmouth Grammar School . He went on to play for Newport RFC , earning selection for the first team in 1897 . His first season at Newport was disappointing for the club , which lost seven games , after the previous six consecutive years of success . Several players had moved to Yorkshire to play rugby league , while others had married and retired . Nevertheless , Phillips was one of four new players in the team to ' make an impact ' , alongside George Boots , Jehoida Hodges and Reg Skrimshire .
= = = Half @-@ back partnership with Llewellyn Lloyd = = =
The 1897 – 8 season at Newport saw the beginning of a ' historic ' partnership at half @-@ back between Phillips and Llewellyn Lloyd that lasted till 1901 . Phillips and Lloyd were thought of as a pair , both playing along similar lines and sharing the work of scrum @-@ half and outside @-@ half . While Lloyd was a smarter runner , Phillips was a better kick , but both of them could drop goals , and were remarkable in their kicks to touch .
In the 1898 – 9 season , Newport suffered from further retirements : Boots and Phillips were the only 2 players to appear in all 24 matches of the season . During the following season , 1899 – 1900 , with Lloyd as captain , the club was reinvigorated and scored 416 points compared with 192 in the previous season . Phillips and Lloyd were adjudged to be the half @-@ back pair of the season at both club and international level , even if there were some more brilliant individuals . In total , Phillips appeared 90 times for Newport , scoring 9 tries , 2 drop goals and 1 penalty . Townsend Collins remarked : ' He had no tricks or subtleties , but he played the orthodox game of the day with supreme success.'
= = = Wales = = =
Phillips , who was a strong runner and tackled well , made his international debut for Wales against England on 6 January 1900 at Gloucester . His initial selection was principally due to his partnership at Newport with Lloyd , who also made selection for Wales . Lloyd had already played in 1896 against Ireland , and against Scotland and Ireland in 1899 . During the game , which Wales won 3 – 13 , Phillips displayed ' special smartness ' and used ' the acme of judgment ' in his first international appearance , proving also to be a ' splendid defender ' . He was reckoned to be amongst the best of the backs , and the combination with Lloyd was excellent . In the following match , against Scotland at Swansea on 27 January , the half @-@ back partnership of Phillips and Lloyd continued to perform : their defensive play was ' sound ' , and in attack , Phillips ' ' splendid ' fielding and kicking to touch , matched Lloyd 's ' cleverness ' and ' dodging ability ' . Wales was again victorious , 12 – 3 . For the next game , away to Ireland at Belfast on 17 March , Lloyd was replaced by Selwyn Biggs of Cardiff . The half @-@ back combination was not as good as with Lloyd but worked better than pundits had expected . The 0 – 3 victory over the Irish earned the Welsh the Triple Crown .
Phillips missed the opening match of the 1901 international season against England due to an injury to his knee : he was replaced at the last moment by Bala Jones of Aberavon RFC . Thinking that he had recovered , Phillips was back for the following match , against Scotland on 9 February at Inverleith , but within ten minutes he was almost helpless . He played on , and ' his last match was a tragic end to a great if short career . ' The Scottish half @-@ backs , Jimmy Gillespie and Frank Fasson , outplayed Lloyd and Phillips , and prevented the Welsh backline from receiving much ball . Scotland beat Wales 18 – 8 , and the Welsh defeat was blamed on the half @-@ backs .
= = = International appearances = = =
= = Golf = =
In 1907 and again in 1912 , Phillips was Welsh Amateur golf champion . He was also runner @-@ up for the Irish Amateur Open Championship in 1913 , and in the following year , 1914 , he was beaten in the sixth round of The Amateur Championship . Phillips also represented the Wales golf team , facing Ireland in August 1913 .
= = Military service and death = =
At the start of the First World War , Phillips enlisted in the 20th ( Service ) Battalion Royal Fusiliers , and after refusing a commission , served as a Sergeant . The 20th Royal Fusiliers was one of four battalions of the regiment raised in 1914 by the Public Schools and University Men ’ s Force . Phillips was deployed to France with his unit on 16 November 1915 . On the night of 14 March 1916 , while out on a wiring party , he was shot through the chest and killed , near Cambrin , France .
He is buried in Cambrin Churchyard Extension ( Grave L1 10B ) .
= Surf Ninjas =
Surf Ninjas is a 1993 American comedic family film involving martial arts , directed by Neal Israel and written by Dan Gordon . The film stars Ernie Reyes , Jr . , Rob Schneider , Nicolas Cowan and Leslie Nielsen . Surf Ninjas follows two teenage surfers from Los Angeles who discover that they are crown princes of the Asian kingdom Patusan and reluctantly follow their destinies to dethrone an evil colonel that rules over the kingdom .
Surf Ninjas was filmed in Los Angeles , Hawaii and Thailand . A video game was also developed and released in conjunction with the film . Surf Ninjas was released in the United States on August 20 , 1993 , becoming popular but being received generally unfavorably by critics . The film was released on VHS in December 1993 and re @-@ released on DVD in September 2002 .
= = Plot = =
Johnny and Adam are teenage surfers who live in Los Angeles with their father , Mac . Two weeks before Johnny 's 16th birthday , ninjas attack the teenagers , but they are defeated by Zatch , a mysterious warrior with an eye patch . A follow @-@ up attack results in Mac 's kidnapping , though Zatch is able to protect the teenagers and their friend Iggy from the ninjas . Adam discovers that the video game on his Sega Game Gear matches the events happening around him and finds he can control some events through his Sega . Zatch reveals to Johnny and Adam that they are actually the sons of the king of Patusan , whose land and monarchy was overthrown by the evil Colonel Chi when the boys were young . It is their destiny to return to Patusan , overthrow Colonel Chi , and free the people . Zatch takes them to the Patusani district in Los Angeles , where Johnny is introduced to a Patusani princess , Ro @-@ May , who has been betrothed to Johnny since they were infants .
Ninjas again attack , but Johnny 's abilities as a warrior prince emerge and he defeats several of his foes . Johnny , Adam , Iggy , Zatch , and Ro @-@ May decide to return to Patusan . They are followed by a Los Angeles detective , Lieutenant Spence , who had been investigating the ninja attacks . They reach Patusan and discover what Colonel Chi 's rule has wrought , including a burned village and a chain gang of political prisoners . The guards spot them and they are forced to fight . Johnny and Adam defeat them and free the villagers from their captivity .
Zatch leads the crew to a hidden cave in which the ancient weapons of the Patusani monarchy are preserved . Zatch arms Johnny and attacks him to prepare him for future challenges . Johnny is beaten repeatedly , but he is finally able to disarm Zatch . They rally the villagers and they travel to the coast opposite from an island that houses the royal city and Colonel Chi 's dungeon . Unable to go by boat due to an impassable reef , Johnny and Adam tell the Patusanis to make surfboards . They then paddle to the unguarded side of the island .
Landing on the island , Johnny and Zatch lead the attack on the royal city , taking down Chi 's henchmen and freeing Mac . Johnny confronts Colonel Chi , successfully defeating him by knocking him into a body of water with the help of Adam and his Game Gear . With Chi 's rule undone , peace is restored to Patusan . Johnny is seated as the heralded warrior prince with Ro @-@ May as his princess and Adam as a prince . Johnny declares the monarchy to be dissolved and announces that Patusan will operate as a democracy .
= = Cast = =
= = Production and video game = =
Surf Ninjas was filmed during the summer of 1992 . Filming locations included Thailand and Hawaii . The second half of the film was shot first , and the crew moved to Los Angeles to film the first half . New Line Cinema and Sega of America established a financial relationship in which a Sega Game Gear video game would be developed for the film . Game designers began developing the video game Surf Ninjas when the film was only in its scripting phase , receiving creative input from director Neal Israel . In turn , Sega partially financed the film . Screenwriter Dan Gordon said that he wrote action sequences that would both suit the film and serve as a springboard for the video game . In the film , one of the lead characters is shown playing the Surf Ninjas video game on a Sega Game Gear . The video game was released before the film 's release , and it was considered the first movie @-@ based video game to be developed concurrent with the movie and it was also the first to precede the film itself .
Surf Ninjas video games were also released for the Amiga 1200 computer and related CD32 console in 1994 by Flair Software / MicroValue . These versions received mostly negative reviews .
= = Release = =
The studio New Line Cinema released Surf Ninjas two weeks earlier than its commercial release date in Evansville , Indiana and Lubbock , Texas as part of a test of regional markets . The early release marked the first time that a major film was released in Evansville before its national opening without any local ties . The president of theatrical marketing at New Line , Chris Pula , selected Evansville for its family @-@ oriented audiences . Pula explained : " Evansville is traditionally a strong family market . Also , we have a strong relationship with the exhibitors in that area " . The president said that the studio was testing the film in a larger market than usual due to its uncertainty about the film 's reception , and that the studio would measure its marketing success with ticket receipts .
Surf Ninjas was widely released in 1 @,@ 321 theaters in the United States on August 20 , 1993 . Over its opening weekend , the film grossed $ 2 million , placing 13th in box office rankings ahead of Manhattan Murder Mystery . Surf Ninjas ultimately grossed $ 4 @.@ 9 million in the United States . The film was released on VHS on December 29 , 1993 . It was subsequently released on DVD on September 3 , 2002 .
= = Critical reaction = =
Janet Maslin of The New York Times called most of Surf Ninjas " only mindlessly watchable " and called the film " another of Hollywood 's efforts to prove that the American mall mentality is at home in any corner of the globe " . Maslin also found the film to lack in actual surfing content . Lynn Voedisch of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times described Surf Ninjas as " a marriage of pop icons that simply was fated to be " , citing children 's love for ninjas , especially the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles , and for the surf culture . Voedisch considered Rob Schneider 's presence as comic relief unfunny , believing that Leslie Nielsen should have received more screen time as the dictator . Calvin Wilson of The Kansas City Star called the film " a disgrace ... even by Hollywood standards " , seeing it as a mess of child lead roles , unfunny cameo roles by Schneider and Nielsen , martial arts action , and lame jokes . Wilson considered the story " stale and uninspired " that involved " people we don 't care about doing things we can 't believe " .
Stephen Hunter of The Baltimore Sun thought the film 's lead , Ernie Reyes , Jr . , was too old and too muscular to be received believably as a 15 @-@ year @-@ old . Hunter otherwise found the Reyes to impress with their fighting skills , though the film 's martial arts sequences were " bloodless and absurd " . Hunter also criticized the director for depriving the film of personality , with its lack of danger , seriousness , or spontaneity . Richard Harrington of The Washington Post found the film to be " a harmless summer 's entertainment " for young people who enjoyed the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles films and 3 Ninjas . Harrington enjoyed Reyes , Jr. as the protagonist but found Nielsen to be disappointing . Paul Sherman of the Boston Herald thought that Surf Ninjas was " little more than a succession of dudespeak , surfing , skateboarding , video games , generic rock soundtrack and strained knucklehead humor " . Sherman admired the story arc in which the protagonists learn to accept their destinies , but he thought that " the manufactured thrills along the way get obnoxious " . Sherman thought that the film would only appeal to children under 12 years old , though the film 's locations in Thailand in the second half added an exotic atmosphere .
Desmond Ryan of The Philadelphia Inquirer thought that Leslie Nielsen was deceptively portrayed in a major role similar to that of Lieutenant Frank Drebin from the The Naked Gun films , instead having merely " a running and unfunny gag about his malfunctioning answering machine and generally wasted otherwise " . Ryan also found the film 's dialogue to be " painful " and considered Surf Ninjas to be " beyond airheaded " . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle considered the story of Surf Ninjas to be " harmless and painfully dull " . LaSalle thought that the pacing of the film was too long with only " two smirks over the course of 90 minutes " . Sean Piccoli of The Washington Times thought that the film 's " dull stretch " was buoyed by the presence of Rob Schneider . Piccoli compared the martial arts choreography in the film to the " cartoon fantasies that little boys re @-@ enact on neighbors ' lawns : the good guys , alone and outnumbered by the charging horde , air @-@ punch their way to glory " .
Ron Weiskind of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette perceived Reyes , Jr. as " a likable presence on screen " and Schneider to be occasionally humorous in his series of gaffes . Weiskind thought that even with the abundance of martial arts in the film , the scenes were generally too lifeless . Joe Holleman of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch thought that Surf Ninjas pushed " the right buttons to guarantee adolescent enjoyment " . Holleman acknowledged that the film was " not exactly a milestone in cinematic achievement " , but he applauded the acrobatic choreography and the delivery of Schneider 's throwaway lines in " the movie 's funniest moments " . Sean P. Means of The Salt Lake Tribune described the film as a Toys " R " Us version of Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom , with " the cartoonish martial @-@ arts sequences [ owing ] their entire existence to the villains ' stupidity " . Means thought that the film was ultimately " as silly as it is forgettable " .
= Lead =
Lead ( / lɛd / ) is a chemical element in the carbon group with symbol Pb ( from Latin : plumbum ) and atomic number 82 . It is a soft , malleable and heavy post @-@ transition metal . Freshly cut , solid lead has a bluish @-@ white color that soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air ; the liquid metal has shiny chrome @-@ silver luster . Lead has the highest atomic number of any non @-@ radioactive element ( two radioactive elements , namely technetium and promethium , are lighter ) , although the next higher element , bismuth , has one isotope with a half @-@ life that is long enough ( over one billion times the estimated age of the universe ) to be considered stable . Lead 's four stable isotopes each have 82 protons , a magic number in the nuclear shell model of atomic nuclei . The isotope lead @-@ 208 also has 126 neutrons , another magic number , and is hence double magic , a property that grants it enhanced stability : lead @-@ 208 is the heaviest known stable nuclide .
Lead is used in building construction , lead @-@ acid batteries , bullets and shot , weights , as part of solders , pewters , fusible alloys , and as a radiation shield .
If ingested or inhaled , lead and its compounds are poisonous to animals and humans . Lead is a neurotoxin that accumulates both in soft tissues and the bones , damaging the nervous system and causing brain disorders . Excessive lead also causes blood disorders in mammals . Lead poisoning has been documented since ancient Rome , ancient Greece , and ancient China .
= = Physical characteristics = =
= = = Bulk properties = = =
Lead is a bright silvery metal with a very slight shade of blue in a dry atmosphere . It tarnishes on contact with air , forming a complex mixture of compounds whose color and composition depend on conditions , sometimes with significant amounts of carbonates and hydroxycarbonates . Lead 's characteristic properties include high density , softness , ductility , malleability , poor electrical conductivity compared to other metals , high resistance to corrosion , and ability to react with organic chemicals .
Various traces of other metals significantly change its properties : adding small amounts of antimony or copper increases the lead alloy 's hardness and improves resistance to sulfuric acid corrosion . Some other metals , such as cadmium , tin , and tellurium , improve hardness and fight metal fatigue . Sodium and calcium also have this ability , but they reduce the alloy 's chemical stability . Finally , zinc and bismuth simply impair the corrosion resistance . Adding small amounts of lead improves the ductility of steel , but lead impurities mostly worsen the quality of industrial materials .
Lead has only one common allotrope , which is face @-@ centered cubic , with the length of an edge of a unit cell being 349 pm . Unlike the other elements in its group , it does not have a diamond cubic allotrope . At 327 @.@ 5 ° C ( 621 @.@ 5 ° F ) , lead melts ; the melting point exceeds that of tin ( 232 ° C , 449 @.@ 5 ° F ) , but is significantly below that of germanium ( 938 ° C , 1721 ° F ) . The boiling point of lead is 1749 ° C ( 3180 ° F ) , below those of both tin ( 2602 ° C , 4716 ° F ) and germanium ( 2833 ° C , 5131 ° F ) . Densities increase down the group : the values of germanium and tin ( 5 @.@ 23 and 7 @.@ 29 g · cm − 3 , respectively ) are significantly below that of lead : 11 @.@ 32 g · cm − 3 .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Lead has four observationally stable isotopes , lead @-@ 204 , lead @-@ 206 , lead @-@ 207 , and lead @-@ 208 . The relative multitude of its stable isotopes relies on the fact that lead 's atomic number of 82 is even . With its high atomic number , lead is the second @-@ heaviest element that occurs naturally in the form of isotopes that could be treated as stable for any practical applications : bismuth has a higher atomic number of 83 , but its only primordial isotope was found in 2003 to be actually very slightly radioactive . The four stable isotopes of lead could theoretically undergo alpha decay to isotopes of mercury with release of energy as well , but this has not been observed for any of them : accordingly , their predicted half @-@ lives are extremely long , ranging up to over 10100 years . As such , lead is often quoted as the heaviest stable element .
Three of these isotopes also found in three of the four major decay chains : lead @-@ 206 , lead @-@ 207 , and lead @-@ 208 are the final decay products of uranium @-@ 238 , uranium @-@ 235 , and thorium @-@ 232 , respectively ; the decay chains are called the uranium series , actinium series , and thorium series , respectively . Since the amounts of them in nature depend also on the presence of other elements , the isotopic composition of natural lead varies between samples : in particular , the relative amount of lead @-@ 206 may vary between 20 @.@ 84 % and 27 @.@ 78 % , and the relative amount of lead @-@ 208 may vary between 52 @.@ 4 % in normal samples to 90 % in thorium ores . ( For this reason , the atomic weight of lead is given with such imprecision , to only one decimal place . ) As time passes , relative amounts of lead @-@ 206 and lead @-@ 207 to that of lead @-@ 204 increase , since the former two are supplemented by radioactive decay of heavier elements and the latter is not ; this allows for lead – lead dating . Analogously , as uranium decays ( eventually ) into lead , their relative amounts change ; this allows for uranium – lead dating .
Apart from the stable isotopes , which make up almost all of lead that exists naturally , there are trace quantities of a few radioactive isotopes . One of them is lead @-@ 210 ; although it has a half @-@ life of 22 @.@ 3 years , a period too short to allow any primordial lead @-@ 210 to still exist , some small non @-@ primordial quantities of it occur in nature , because lead @-@ 210 is found in the uranium series : thus , even though it constantly decays away , its amount is also constantly regenerated by decay of its parent , polonium @-@ 214 , which , while also constantly decaying , is also supplied by decay of its parent , and so on , all the way up to original uranium @-@ 238 , which has been present for billions of years on Earth . Lead @-@ 210 is particularly well known for helping to identify ages of samples containing it , which is performed by measuring lead @-@ 210 to lead @-@ 206 ratios ( both isotopes are present in a single decay chain ) . Lead @-@ 214 is also present in the decay chain of natural uranium @-@ 238 , lead @-@ 212 is present in that of natural thorium @-@ 232 , and lead @-@ 211 is present in that of natural uranium @-@ 235 ; therefore , traces of all three of these isotopes exist naturally as well . Lastly , very minute traces of lead @-@ 209 are also present from the cluster decay of radium @-@ 223 , one of the daughter products of natural uranium @-@ 235 . Hence , natural lead consists of not only the four stable isotopes , but also minute traces of another five short @-@ lived radioisotopes .
In total , thirty @-@ eight isotopes of lead have been synthesized , those with mass numbers of 178 – 215 . Lead @-@ 205 is the most stable radioisotope of lead , with a half @-@ life of around 1 @.@ 5 × 107 years . The second @-@ most stable radioisotope is the synthetic lead @-@ 202 , which has a half @-@ life of about 53000 years , longer than any of the natural trace radioisotopes . Additionally , 47 nuclear isomers ( long @-@ lived excited nuclear states ) , corresponding to 24 lead isotopes , have been characterized . The longest @-@ lived isomer is lead @-@ 204m2 ( half @-@ life of about 1 @.@ 1 hours ) .
= = Chemical characteristics = =
A lead atom has 82 electrons , arranged in an electronic configuration of [ Xe ] 4f145d106s26p2 . The first and second ionization energies — energies required to remove an electron from a neutral atom and an electron from a resulting singly charged ion — of lead combined are close to those of tin , its upper group 14 neighbor ; this proximity is caused by the 4f shell — no f shell is present in previous group 14 elements atoms — and the thereby following lanthanide contraction . However , the first four ionization energies of lead combined exceed those of tin , opposite to what the periodic trends would predict . For that reason , unlike tin , lead is reluctant to form the + 4 oxidation state in inorganic compounds .
Such unusual behavior is rationalized by relativistic effects , which are increasingly stronger closer to the bottom of the periodic table ; one of such effects is the spin – orbit interaction , particularly the inert pair effect , which stabilizes the 6s orbital . The inert pair effect in lead comes from the great difference in electronegativity between lead and the anions ( oxide , halides , nitrides ) , which results in positive charge on lead and then leads to a stronger contraction of the 6s orbital than the 6p orbital , making the 6s orbital rather inert . ( However , this is not applicable to compounds in which lead forms covalent bonds ; as such , lead , similarly to carbon , is dominantly tetravalent in organolead compounds . ) The spin – orbit interaction not only stabilizes the 6s electron levels , but also two of the six 6p levels ; and lead has just two 6p electrons . This effect takes part in making lead slightly less reactive chemically .
The figures for electrode potential show that lead is only slightly easier to oxidize than hydrogen . Lead thus can dissolve in acids , but this is often impossible due to specific problems ( such as the formation of insoluble salts ) . Electronegativity , although often thought to be constant for each element , is a variable property ; lead shows a high electronegativity difference between values for lead ( II ) and lead ( IV ) — 1 @.@ 87 and 2 @.@ 33 , accordingly . This marks the reversal of the trend of stability of the + 4 oxidation state in group 14 down the group from increasing to decreasing ; tin , for comparison , has electronegativities of 1 @.@ 80 and 1 @.@ 96 .
= = = Reactivity = = =
Powdered lead burns with a bluish @-@ white flame . As with many metals , finely divided powdered lead exhibits pyrophoricity . Bulk lead released to the air forms a protective layer of insoluble lead oxide , which covers the metal from undergoing further reactions . Other insoluble compounds , such as sulfate or chloride , may form the protective layer if lead is exposed to a different chemical environment .
Fluorine reacts with lead at room temperature , forming lead ( II ) fluoride . The reaction with chlorine is similar , although it requires heating : the chloride layer diminishes the reactivity of the elements . Molten lead reacts with all the chalcogens .
Presence of carbonates or sulfates results in the formation of insoluble lead salts , which protect the metal from corrosion . So does carbon dioxide , as the insoluble lead carbonate is formed ; however , an excess of the gas leads to the formation of the soluble bicarbonate , which makes the use of lead pipes dangerous . Water in the presence of oxygen attacks lead to start an accelerating reaction . Lead also dissolves in quite concentrated alkalis ( ≥ 10 % ) because of the amphoteric character and solubility of plumbites .
The metal is normally not attacked by sulfuric acid ; however , concentrated acid does dissolve lead thanks to complexation . Lead does react with hydrochloric acid , albeit slowly , and nitric acid , quite actively , to form nitrogen oxides and lead ( II ) nitrate . Organic acids , such as acetic acid , also dissolves lead , but this reaction requires oxygen as well .
= = = Inorganic compounds = = =
In a vast majority of its compounds , lead occurs in oxidation states + 2 or + 4 . Lead ( II ) compounds are normally ionic but lead ( IV ) compounds are often covalent . Even the strongest oxidizing elements ( oxygen , fluorine ) oxidize lead to only lead ( II ) initially .
= = = = Lead ( II ) = = = =
Most inorganic compounds that lead forms are lead ( II ) compounds . This includes binary compounds ; lead forms such compounds with many nonmetals , but not with all of them , as for example there is no known lead carbide .
Even though most lead ( II ) compounds are ionic , they are not as ionic as those of many other metals . In particular , many lead ( II ) compounds are water @-@ insoluble . In solution , lead ( II ) ions are colorless , but under specific conditions , lead is capable of changing its color . Unlike tin ( II ) ions , these do not react as reducing agents in solution .
Lead monoxide exists in two allotropes , red α @-@ PbO and yellow β @-@ PbO , the latter being stable only from around 488 ° C. It is the most commonly applicable compound of lead . However , its hydroxide counterpart , lead ( II ) hydroxide , is not capable of existence outside solutions ; in solution , it is known to form anions , plumbites . Lead commonly reacts with the heavier chalcogens . Lead sulfide can only be dissolved in strong acids . It is a semiconductor , a photoconductor , and an extremely sensitive infrared radiation detector . A mixture of the monoxide and the monosulfide when heated forms the metal . The other two chalcogenides are photoconducting as well .
Lead dihalides are known and well @-@ characterized ; this refers to not only the binary halides ( even including the diastatide ) , but also mixed ones , such as PbFCl , etc . The difluoride is the first ionically conducting compound to have been discovered . The other dihalides decompose on exposure to ultraviolet or visible light , especially notably for the diiodide . There are anion counterparts for the heavier three dihalides , such as PbCl4 −
6 . Many pseudohalides are also known .
= = = = Lead ( IV ) = = = =
Few lead ( IV ) compounds are known . Inorganic lead ( IV ) compounds are typically strong oxidants or exist only in highly acidic solutions . Lead ( II ) oxide gives a mixed oxide on further oxidation , Pb
3O
4 . It is described as lead ( II , IV ) oxide , or structurally 2PbO • PbO
2 , and is the best @-@ known mixed valence lead compound . Lead dioxide is a strong oxidizing agent , capable of oxidizing hydrochloric acid . Like lead monoxide , lead dioxide is capable of forming anions , plumbates . Lead tetrafluoride , a yellow crystalline powder , is stable , but less stable than the difluoride . Lead tetrachloride decomposes at room temperature , lead tetrabromide is less stable still and the existence of lead tetraiodide is questionable . Lead disulfide , like the monosulfide , is a semiconductor . Lead ( IV ) selenide is also known .
= = = = Other oxidation states = = = =
A few compounds exist in oxidation states other than + 2 and + 4 , but they do not have a great impact on lead chemistry from either theoretical or industrial perspective . Lead ( III ) may be obtained under specific conditions as an intermediate between lead ( II ) and lead ( IV ) , in larger organolead complexes rather than by itself . This oxidation state is not specifically stable , as the lead ( III ) ion ( as well as , consequently , larger complexes containing it ) is a radical ; the same applies for lead ( I ) , which can also be found in such species . Negative oxidation states can occur as Zintl phases , as either free lead anions , for example , in Ba
2Pb , with lead formally being lead ( − IV ) , or cluster ions , for example , in a Pb5 −
2 ion , where two lead atoms are lead ( − I ) and three are lead ( 0 ) : this illustrates lead 's proclivity towards catenation , an ability shared with tin .
= = = Organolead = = =
Since lead is a heavier carbon homolog , it shares with carbon the property of being able to build long chains of atoms , bonded via single or multiple bonds : catenation . Lead may therefore behave in a similar way to carbon with regards to covalent chemistry . Lead atoms can build metal – metal bonds of order up to three , although lower orders are also possible . Alternatively , lead is also known to build bonds to carbon ; the carbon – lead bonds are covalent , and compounds containing such bonds thus resemble typical organic compounds . Compound containing the lead – carbon bond are called organolead compounds . In general , such compounds are not very stable chemically .
The simplest lead analog of an organic compound is plumbane , the lead analog of methane . It is unstable against heat , decaying in heated tubes , and thermodynamically ; in general , little is known about chemistry of plumbane , as it is so unstable . A lead analog of the next alkane , ethane , is not known . Two simple plumbane derivatives , tetramethyllead and tetraethyllead , are the best @-@ known organolead compounds . These compounds are relatively unstable against heating — tetraethyllead starts to decompose at only 100 ° C ( 210 ° F ) — as well as sunlight or ultraviolet light . General oxidizing nature of organolead compounds find its use in chemistry : tetraethyllead is produced in larger quantities than any other organometallic compound ; lead tetraacetate is an important laboratory reagent for oxidation in organic chemistry . Other organolead compounds , including homologs of the said compounds , are still less chemically stable .
Lead readily forms an equimolar alloy with sodium metal that reacts with alkyl halides to form organometallic compounds of lead such as tetraethyllead . Plumbane may be obtained in a reaction between metallic lead and atomic ( not molecular ) hydrogen . Atoms of chlorine or bromine displace alkyls in tetramethyllead and tetraethyllead ; hydrogen chloride , a by @-@ product of the previous reaction , further reacts with the halogenated molecules to complete mineralization — a chemical reaction or a series of reactions transforming an organic compound into an inorganic one — of the original compounds , yielding lead dichloride .
= = Origin and occurrence = =
= = = In space = = =
Primordial lead — the isotopes lead @-@ 204 , lead @-@ 206 , lead @-@ 207 , and lead @-@ 208 — was created by the s @-@ process and the r @-@ process . The letter " s " stands for " slow " or " slow neutron capture " , and the letter " r " stands for " rapid neutron capture " : in the s @-@ process another capture takes a long time , centuries or millennia , while the r @-@ process takes only tens of seconds to result in a heavy nuclide of lead 's mass . In the s @-@ process , a nucleus in a star captures another slow neutron , and if the resulting nucleus is unstable , it typically undergoes a beta decay to become an element of the next atomic number . Lead @-@ 204 is created from short @-@ lived thallium @-@ 204 ; on capturing another neutron , it becomes lead @-@ 205 , which , while unstable , is stable enough to generally last longer than a capture takes ( its half @-@ life is around 15 million years ) . Further captures result in lead @-@ 206 , lead @-@ 207 , and lead @-@ 208 . On capturing another neutron , lead @-@ 208 becomes lead @-@ 209 , which quickly decays into bismuth @-@ 209 , which on capturing another neutron becomes bismuth @-@ 210 , which either undergoes an alpha decay to result in thallium @-@ 206 , which would beta decay into lead @-@ 206 , or a beta decay to yield polonium @-@ 210 , which would inevitably alpha decay into lead @-@ 206 as well , and the cycle ends at lead @-@ 206 , lead @-@ 207 , lead @-@ 208 , and bismuth @-@ 209 . As a result , relative abundances of the three have stable lead isotopes are multiplied by a " cycling factor " , which depends on the conditions of the process . Furthermore , lead @-@ 208 and bismuth @-@ 209 have a very low cross section towards neutron capture because of their closed neutron shell at neutron number 126 . Lead and bismuth are thus very common in stars , in which nucleosynthesis mostly happens through the s @-@ process .
Apart from the s @-@ process , the latter three isotopes have been synthesized as a result of the r @-@ process ( lead @-@ 204 is not produced in this manner because its isobar mercury @-@ 204 is stable , and it is not formed as a decay product of r @-@ process products ) . The r @-@ process happens in mediums of great electron density . In such conditions , beta decay is blocked , because the high electron density fills all available free electron states up to a Fermi energy which is greater than the energy of nuclear beta decay . But nuclear capture of those free neutrons can still occur , and it causes neutron enrichment of matter . This results an extremely high density of free neutrons which cannot decay , and , correspondingly , a large neutron flux and high temperatures , which is the reason why neutron capture occurs much faster than beta decay . However , the r @-@ process does not directly form as much lead as the s @-@ process , because neutron @-@ rich nuclei with mass numbers 206 – 208 that would decay to lead are not magic , unlike those that reach the closed neutron shell at neutron number 126 and decay to the platinum group metals around mass number 194 . This effect is nevertheless masked , because these lead isotopes are also located at the end of three major decay chains ( see above ) , they are created by the decay of the heavier elements , which are also created by the r @-@ process . Nuclides with mass numbers between 210 and 231 inclusive , as well as 233 and 234 ( polonium through actinium , as well as protactinium ) , quickly undergo alpha and beta decay to stable lead and bismuth isotopes . However , nuclides with mass numbers 232 as well as 235 and above soon decay to the extremely long @-@ lived isotopes of thorium and uranium , which decay very slowly to lead . Hence , the amount of lead in the universe is still slowly increasing .
The isotopes at the end of the chains make up around 98 @.@ 02 % lead in the universe , with non @-
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@ radiogenic lead @-@ 204 making up slightly less than two percent . Lead is not an abundant element in general — its per @-@ particle abundance in the Universe is 0 @.@ 06 ppb — still , it is an order of magnitude more abundant than mercury , and further exceeds those of most other elements of similar atomic numbers . After element 40 ( zirconium ) , no element is at least twofold as abundant as lead , and there is no element as abundant as lead starting after element 56 ( barium ) . Lead is three times as abundant as platinum , ten times as mercury , and twenty times as gold . Per mass , lead 's abundance is 10 ppb — the difference between the per @-@ mass and per @-@ particle abundances is justified by mass difference between lead isotopes and the most common elements : the most common nuclide in the Universe , hydrogen @-@ 1 , has a mass of approximately one atomic mass unit , while those of lead isotopes have masses of over 200 atomic mass units .
= = = On Earth = = =
Since lead commonly reacts with sulfur ( see above ) , it is classified as a chalcophile using the Goldschmidt classification . Lead is likely to form minerals that do not sink into the core but that stay above on Earth in its crust , even though without sinking deep into it . Lead 's abundance in the Earth 's crust is 16 ppm . This results in a great availability of lead minerals and easy extraction of the metal ; for this reason , the mineral form of its sulfide , galena , has been known for millennia , as was the metal itself ( see below ) . Lead 's pronounced chalcophilic character is close to those of zinc and copper ; as such , it is usually found in ore and extracted together with these metals . Metallic lead does occur in nature , but it is rare . As a result of lead 's chemistry , it occurs in primary minerals exclusively as lead ( II ) , unlike tin , which always occurs as tin ( IV ) . Lead deposits can be hydrothermal vein , impregnation , and replacement deposits ; volcanogenic sedimentary deposits ; and hydrothermal or marine sedimentary deposits . World resources of lead exceed 2 billion tons . Massive resources are located in Australia , China , Ireland , Mexico , Peru , Portugal , Russia , and the United States . World reserves — resources ready to be mined for which that would be economically feasible — totaled 89 million tons in 2015 , of which Australia had 35 million , China had 15 @.@ 8 million , and Russia had 9 @.@ 2 million .
The main lead mineral is galena ( PbS ) . Galena is mostly found with other minerals , mostly zinc ores . Most other lead minerals are normally related to galena in some way ; for example , boulangerite , Pb
5Sb
4S
11 , is a mixed sulfide derived from galena ; anglesite , PbSO
4 , is a product of galena oxidation ; cerussite or white lead ore , PbCO
3 , is a decomposition product of galena . Zinc , copper , arsenic , tin , anitmony , silver , gold , and bismuth are common impurities in lead minerals .
Typical background concentrations of lead do not exceed 0 @.@ 1 μg / m3 in the atmosphere ; 100 mg / kg in soil ; 5 μg / L in freshwater and seawater .
= = History = =
Lead has been commonly used for thousands of years because it is widespread , easy to extract , and easy to work with . It is highly malleable and easily smeltable . Metallic lead beads dating back to 7000 – 6500 BCE , if not before that , have been found in Asia Minor ; this indicates lead was the first metal to be ever smelted . Since then , the metal has been used by many ancient peoples . A major reason for the spread of lead production was its association with silver , which may be obtained by burning galena , a widespread lead mineral . The Ancient Egyptians are thought to have used lead for sinkers in fishing nets , in glazes , glasses and enamels , and for ornaments ; they also were the first to use lead for cosmetics , a use that would continue through millennia to Ancient Greece and far beyond . Various civilizations of the Fertile Crescent used lead as a writing material , as currency , and for construction . The Ancient Chinese used lead as a stimulant in the royal court , a currency , and a contraceptive ; lead also had a few uses , such as making amulets , for the Indus Valley civilization and the Mesoamericans . Peoples of eastern and southern Africa are known to exercise wire drawing .
Lead mines were worked in 2000 BCE in the Iberian peninsula by the Phoenicians ; and also in Athens , Carthage , and Sicily . Lead was mined in Ancient China before 1000 BCE . With the development of mining and its territorial expansion in Europe and across the Mediterranean , Rome became the greatest producer of lead during the classical era , with an estimated annual output equaling 80 @,@ 000 tonnes . The Romans obtained lead mostly as a by @-@ product of extensive silver smelting . Lead mining occurred in Central Europe , Britain , the Balkans , Greece , Anatolia , and Hispania , which alone accounted for 40 % of world production . Lead was used for making water pipes in the Roman empire and consequently the Latin word for the metal , plumbum , was the origin of the English word " plumbing " and its derivatives — even though some Romans , such as Vitruvius , were able to recognize its danger for health . Nevertheless , a number of researchers suggest lead poisoning was one of the reasons behind the fall of Rome . Lead poisoning — a condition in which one becomes dark and cynical — was called " saturnine " , after the ghoulish god of Saturn ; the metal was also considered the father of all metals . It was easily available in the Roman society , and as such , its social status was low .
During the ancient and classical eras , ( and even far beyond them , until the 17th century ) , tin was often not distinguished from lead or seen as a different kind of the metal that lead is : Romans called lead plumbum nigrum ( literally , " black lead " ) , while tin was called plumbum candidum ( literally , " bright lead " ) . Their association through history can also be seen in other languages : the word olovo in Czech translates to " lead " , but in Russian the cognate олово ( olovo ) means " tin " . In addition to that , lead also bore a close relation to antimony : Both elements commonly occur as sulfides ( galena and stibnite ) , often together . Pliny declared stibnite would give lead on heating , whereas the mineral on heating actually produces antimony . The originally South Asian surma — " galena " in English — spread across Asia with that meaning , and also gave its name to antimony in a number of Central Asian languages , as well as Russian .
Lead plumbing in Western Europe may have been continued beyond the fall of the Western Roman Empire into the medieval era , but lead mining in Europe in general fell into decline , and the largest lead production was conducted in South and East Asia , where lead output underwent a strong growth . In European alchemy , lead continued its status of the oldest metal and its association with Saturn — this time , the planet named after the Roman god rather than the god himself . Alchemists accordingly used Saturn 's symbol ( the scythe , ♄ ) to refer to lead . During the period , lead has become increasingly more used as for wine adulteration . This practice was declared forbidden in 1498 by a papal bull , but it continued long past the date , being a reason of various mass poisonings up to late 18th century . In the wake of the Renaissance , the printing press was invented , and lead served as a key material for its parts , starting with the Johannes Gutenberg 's press ; however , lead dust also was commonly inhaled by operators , causing lead poisoning . Additionally , firearms were invented approximately at the same time , and lead , despite its expense over iron , became a chief material for making bullets , because it made less damage to iron gun barrels , had a higher density ( which allowed better retaining velocity and energy ) , and its lower melting point made production much easier : bullets could be made on wooden fire . Lead was extensively used in cosmetics at the time in Western Europe by the aristocracy , as whitened faces were seen as a sign of modesty . The practice eventually expanded to white wigs and eyeliners , and it only faded out with the French Revolution in the late 18th century ; one effect of such prolonged contacts with lead was teeth rotting and teeth replacements often were also made of lead ( which temporarily gave sweet breath ) , inducing further damage to the organism . ( A similar fashion appeared in Japan in the 18th century with the emergence of the geishas , with the practice continuing long into the 20th century and the white face becoming a " symbol of a Japanese woman " ; lead was commonly used as a face whitener . )
In the New World , lead was first produced soon after the European settlers had arrived ; the earliest recorded lead production dates to 1621 , in the Colony of Virginia that had been founded fourteen years earlier . In Australia , mining was introduced by the colonists as well , and they opened the first mine on the continent — a lead mine — in 1841 . However , centuries before the Europeans were able to start the colonization of Africa in the late 19th century , lead mining was known in the Benue Trough and the lower Congo basin , where lead was used for trade with the Europeans and as a currency .
In the second half of the 18th century , Britain and later continental Europe and then the United States entered the Industrial Revolution . During the period , lead mining proved important ; the Industrial Revolution was the first time to have greater lead production rates than those of Rome . Britain was the leading producer during the period , losing the status of the greatest producer by the mid @-@ 19th century with depletion of its mines and development of lead mining in Germany , Spain , and the United States . The United States took the lead by 1900 ; other non @-@ European nations — in particular , Canada , Mexico , and Australia — started their massive lead production , and by 1900 , Europe 's output of lead fell below that elsewhere . A great share of demand of lead came from plumbing and painting — lead paints had been invented and regularly used ; with invention of gasoline in late 19th century , lead was extensively used as an additive . At this time , more people — the working class — contacted the metal , and this led to the increase of the numbers of those poisoned by lead . This also led to research of effects of lead intake : lead was proven to be more dangerous in its fume form than as a solid metal ; lead poisoning and gout were linked ( Alfred Baring Garrod noted a third of his gout patients was plumbers and painters ) ; effects of chronic ingestion of lead , including mental disorders , were all studied in the 19th century . The first political acts to decrease the degree of lead poisoning in factories followed in the 1870s and 1880s in the United Kingdom .
Further evidence of the threat lead posed to human organisms were revealed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries — mechanisms of the harm were better realized , and lead blindness was documented — and countries in Europe and the United States started efforts to reduce the amount of lead a regular person contacts with . The last major innovation to impose contact with lead on humans was adding tetraethyllead to gasoline , invented in the United States in 1921 ; it was phased out in the U.S. and the European Union by 2000 . Most European countries banned usage of lead paint for interiors by 1930 . The result of many regulations and bans put on lead products was significant : in the last quarter of the 20th century , percentage of people with excessive lead blood levels dropped from over three quarters of the population to slightly over two percent in the U.S. By the end of the 20th century , the main good made of lead was the lead – acid battery , which possesses no direct threat to humans . That allowed for a consistent lead production in the industrialized countries . From 1960 to 1990 , lead output in the Western Bloc grew by 31 % . The share of the world 's lead production of the Eastern Bloc increased from 10 % and 30 % from 1950 to 1990 , with the Soviet Union being world 's largest producer during the mid- and late 1970s and the 1980s , and China started a massive lead production in the late 20th century . Unlike the European communist countries , China was largely unindustrialized by mid @-@ 20th century ; in 2004 , China surpassed Australia as the largest producer of lead . However , in part similarly to the European industrialization , lead does have a negative effect on the global health in the country .
= = Production = =
Production and consumption of lead is increasing worldwide . Lead production generally is divided into two major categories , primary and secondary : the primary production is the production from concentrate from the previously mined ores , and the secondary production is the production from scrap . In 2013 , 4 @.@ 74 million metric tons came from the primary production , and 5 @.@ 74 million tons came from secondary production . The top mining countries for lead in 2013 were China , Australia , Russia , India , Bolivia , Sweden , North Korea , South Africa , Poland , and Ireland . The top lead producing countries were China , United States , India , South Korea , Germany , Mexico , United Kingdom , Canada , Japan , and Australia . According to the International Resource Panel 's Metal Stocks in Society report of 2010 , the global per capita stock of lead in use in society is 8 kg . Much of this is in more developed countries ( 20 – 150 kg per capita ) rather than less developed countries ( 1 – 4 kg per capita ) .
= = = Primary production = = =
Most lead ores contain only a very low percentage of lead , which must be concentrated during processing . During initial ore processing , ores typically undergo crushing , dense @-@ medium separation , grinding , froth flotation , and drying of the resulting concentrate . The resulting concentrate is the initial quantitative metric of mined lead . Sulfide ores are roasted , producing primarily lead oxide and a mixture of sulfates and silicates of lead and other metals contained in the ore . Lead oxide from the roasting process is reduced in a coke @-@ fired blast furnace to the metal . Sulfate concentrate is more common for subsequent lead production than oxide concentrate ; it commonly has a lead content fraction of 50 % – 60 % , occasionally varying to up to 30 % or 80 % .
Additional layers separate in the process and float to the top of the metallic lead . These are slag ( silicates containing 1 @.@ 5 % lead ) , matte ( sulfides containing 15 % lead ) , and speiss ( arsenides of iron and copper ) . These wastes contain concentrations of copper , zinc , cadmium , and bismuth that can be recovered economically , as can their content of unreduced lead .
Metallic lead that results from the roasting and blast furnace processes still contains significant contaminants of arsenic , antimony , bismuth , zinc , copper , silver , and gold . The melt is treated in a reverberatory furnace with air , steam , and sulfur , which oxidizes the contaminants except silver , gold , and bismuth . The oxidized contaminants are removed by drossing , where they float to the top and are skimmed off . Since lead ores contain significant concentrations of silver , the smelted metal also is commonly contaminated with silver . Metallic silver as well as gold is removed and recovered economically by means of the Parkes process , in which zinc is added to lead and adsorbs silver , which dissolves in zinc many times more actively than in lead . Desilvered lead is freed of bismuth according to the Betterton @-@ Kroll process by treating it with metallic calcium and magnesium , which forms a bismuth dross that can be skimmed off . Very pure lead can be obtained by processing smelted lead electrolytically by means of the Betts process . The process uses anodes of impure lead and cathodes of pure lead in an electrolyte of silica fluoride . Once electrical potential is applied , impure lead at the anode dissolves and then plates out in the cathode , while the impurities remain in the solution .
= = = Secondary production = = =
= = Applications = =
Contrary to popular belief , pencil leads in wooden pencils have never been made from lead . The term comes from the Roman stylus , called the penicillus , a small brush used for painting . When the pencil originated as a wrapped graphite writing tool , the particular type of graphite being used was named plumbago ( lit. act for lead , or lead mockup ) .
= = = Elemental form = = =
Lead metal has a number of mechanical properties that make using it advantageous in comparison with many alternatives : high density , low melting point , ductility , and relative inertness against oxygen attacks . While many metals are superior to lead in some of these aspects , lead is also more common than most of these metals ; moreover , lead minerals are easier to mine and then lead is easier to extract from its ores than many other metals , which makes the resulting metal relatively inexpensive . One disadvantage of using lead , however , is its chemical toxicity , and it has been a reason why lead was or is being phased out for some uses .
Lead has been used for bullets since their invention ( see above ) ; however , with the development of firearms , round bullets became pointed and later , lead was jacketed with , for example , copper . The low melting point makes casting of lead easy , and therefore small arms ammunition and shotgun pellets can be cast with minimal technical equipment . It is also inexpensive and denser than other common metals . Lead is sometimes alloyed with tin or antimony : this increases the cost and time of making the bullet , but increasing the hardness of the bullet , this makes the bullet more effective against hard targets , eases the tension on the gun barrel and does not contaminate it with lead , as simple lead bullets do . However , concerns have been raised over whether lead bullets used for hunting can damage the environment .
Because of its high density and resistance to corrosion , lead is used for the ballast keel of sailboats . Its high density allows it to counterbalance the heeling effect of wind on the sails while at the same time occupying a small volume and thus offering the least underwater resistance . For the same reason , it is used in scuba diving weight belts to counteract the diver 's natural buoyancy and that of his equipment .
Lead is alloyed with copper and its alloys ( namely , brass and bronze ) to increase their machinability and to reduce machine tool wear . Lead does not form a solid solution with copper and is found as granules within copper . It acts as a lubricant in copper ; in low concentrations , it also acts as a chip breaker .
It is also used to form glazing bars for stained glass or other multi @-@ lit windows . The practice has become less common , not for danger but for stylistic reasons . Lead , or sheet @-@ lead , is used as a sound deadening layer in some areas in wall , floor and ceiling design in sound studios where levels of airborne and mechanically produced sound are targeted for reduction or virtual elimination . It is the traditional base metal of organ pipes , mixed with varying amounts of tin to control the tone of the pipe .
Lead has many uses in the construction industry ( e.g. , lead sheets are used as architectural metals in roofing material , cladding , flashing , gutters and gutter joints , and on roof parapets ) . Detailed lead moldings are used as decorative motifs used to fix lead sheet . Lead is still widely used in statues and sculptures . Lead is often used to balance the wheels of a car ; this use is being phased out in favor of other materials for environmental reasons .
Apart from its mechanical properties , lead is also useful in batteries , namely lead – acid batteries . The reactions in the battery between lead , lead dioxide , and sulfuric acid provides a reliable source of voltage . This , since lead in batteries undergoes no direct contact with humans ( and thus no toxicity ) , is a use not threatened by toxicity concerns , and has been the largest use of lead in early 21th cetnury .
Lead is also used as electrodes in the process of electrolysis . It is used in solder for electronics , although this usage is being phased out by some countries to reduce the amount of environmentally hazardous waste , and in high voltage power cables as sheathing material to prevent water diffusion into insulation . Lead is one of three metals used in the Oddy test for museum materials , helping detect organic acids , aldehydes , and acidic gases . It is also used as shielding from radiation ( e.g. , in X @-@ ray rooms ) . Molten lead is used as a coolant ( e.g. , for lead cooled fast reactors ) .
= = = Compounds = = =
Lead compounds are used as a coloring element in ceramic glazes , notably in the colors red and yellow .
Lead tetraacetate ( LTA ) and lead dioxide have been used as oxidizing agents in organic chemistry . Geminal diols are cleaved to a pair of carbonyl compounds by stoichiometric LTA . LTA also is a selective oxidant of 5 @-@ methyl groups in 5 @-@ methylpyrrole @-@ 2 @-@ carboxylic esters , leading to 5 @-@ acetoxymethyl groups or 5 @-@ formyl groups with one or two equivalents of oxidant , respectively , to provide important intermediates for porphyrin synthesis .
Lead is frequently used in polyvinyl chloride ( PVC ) plastic , which coats electrical cords .
Lead is used in some candles to treat the wick to ensure a longer , more even burn . Because of the dangers , European and North American manufacturers use alternatives such as zinc . Lead glass is composed of 12 – 28 % lead oxide . It changes the optical characteristics of the glass and reduces the transmission of ionizing radiation .
Some artists using oil @-@ based paints continue to use lead carbonate white , citing its properties in comparison with the alternatives . Tetraethyl lead is used as an anti @-@ knock additive for aviation fuel in piston @-@ driven aircraft . Lead @-@ based semiconductors , such as lead telluride , lead selenide and lead antimonide are finding applications in photovoltaic ( solar energy ) cells and infrared detectors .
= = Biological and environmental effects = =
= = = Biological = = =
Lead is a highly poisonous metal ( whether inhaled or swallowed ) , affecting almost every organ and system in the body . The component limit of lead ( 1 @.@ 0 μg / g ) is a test benchmark for pharmaceuticals , representing the maximum daily intake an individual should have . Even at this level , a prolonged intake can be hazardous to human beings . Much of its toxicity comes from how Pb2 + ions are confused for Ca2 + ions , and lead as a result gets into bones .
In the human body , lead inhibits porphobilinogen synthase and ferrochelatase , preventing both porphobilinogen formation and the incorporation of iron into protoporphyrin IX , the final step in heme synthesis . This causes ineffective heme synthesis and subsequent microcytic anemia . At lower levels , it acts as a calcium analog , interfering with ion channels during nerve conduction . This is one of the mechanisms by which it interferes with cognition . Acute lead poisoning is treated using disodium calcium edetate : the calcium chelate of the disodium salt of ethylene @-@ diamine @-@ tetracetic acid ( EDTA ) . This chelating agent has a greater affinity for lead than for calcium and so the lead chelate is formed by exchange . This is then excreted in the urine leaving behind harmless calcium . According to the Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry , a small amount of ingested lead ( 1 % ) will store itself in bones , and the rest will be excreted by an adult through urine and feces within a few weeks of exposure . However , only about 32 % of lead will be excreted by a child .
Exposure to lead and lead chemicals occurs primarily through ingestion , to a lesser extent through inhalation and occasionally by direct contact .
Ingestion of lead @-@ based paint is the major source of lead exposure for children . As lead paint deteriorates , it peels , is pulverized into dust and then enters the body through hand @-@ to @-@ mouth contact or through contaminated food , water or alcohol . Ingesting certain home remedy medicines may also expose people to lead or lead compounds . Lead can be ingested through fruits and vegetables contaminated by high levels of lead in the soils they were grown in . Soil is contaminated through particulate accumulation from lead in pipes , lead paint and residual emissions from leaded gasoline that was used before the Environment Protection Agency issued the regulation in 1980 . The use of lead for water pipes is problematic in areas with soft or ( and ) acidic water . Hard water forms insoluble layers in the pipes while soft and acidic water dissolves the lead pipes .
Inhalation is the second major pathway of exposure , especially for workers in lead @-@ related occupations . Almost all inhaled lead is absorbed into the body , the rate is 20 – 70 % for ingested lead ; children absorb more than adults .
Dermal exposure may be significant for a narrow category of people working with organic lead compounds , but is of little concern for general population , as most countries stopped using leaded gasoline by 2007 . The rate of skin absorption is also low for inorganic lead .
The main target for lead toxicity is the nervous system , both in adults and children . Long @-@ term exposure of adults can result in decreased performance in some tests that measure functions of the nervous system . Long @-@ term exposure to lead or its salts ( especially soluble salts or the strong oxidant PbO2 ) can cause nephropathy , and colic @-@ like abdominal pains . It may also cause weakness in fingers , wrists , or ankles . Lead exposure also causes small increases in blood pressure , particularly in middle @-@ aged and older people and can cause anemia . Exposure to high lead levels can cause severe damage to the brain and kidneys in adults or children and ultimately cause death . In pregnant women , high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage . Chronic , high @-@ level exposure has been shown to reduce fertility in males . Lead also damages nervous connections ( especially in young children ) and causes blood and brain disorders . Lead poisoning typically results from ingestion of food or water contaminated with lead , but may also occur after accidental ingestion of contaminated soil , dust , or lead @-@ based paint . It is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and is believed to have adverse effects on the central nervous system , the cardiovascular system , kidneys , and the immune system . The treatment for lead poisoning consists of dimercaprol and succimer .
The concern about lead 's role in cognitive deficits in children has brought about widespread reduction in its use ( lead exposure has been linked to learning disabilities ) . Most cases of adult elevated blood lead levels are workplace @-@ related . High blood levels are associated with delayed puberty in girls . Lead has been shown many times to permanently reduce the cognitive capacity of children at extremely low levels of exposure .
Despite the toxicity of lead in significant amounts , there is some evidence that trace amounts of lead are beneficial in pigs and rats , and that its absence causes deficiency signs including depressed growth , anemia , and disturbed iron metabolism . If true in humans as well , this would make lead by far the heaviest essential element , since its atomic number ( 82 ) is much greater than that of the second @-@ heaviest such element , iodine ( element 53 ) . Nevertheless , these findings are still uncertain , and even if lead does turn out to be beneficial in small quantities , the threshold of toxicity is so low that lead toxicity would remain a much higher priority to address than lead deficiency .
= = = Environmental = = =
The extraction , production , use and disposal of lead and its products have caused significant contamination of the Earth ’ s soils and waters , posing a hazard to living organisms because of its toxicity . Atmospheric emissions of lead were at their peak during the Industrial Revolution and the period of leaded petrol in the second half of the twentieth century ; although these periods are over , elevated concentrations of lead persist in soils and sediments in post @-@ industrial and urban areas . Meanwhile , industrial emissions continue in many parts of the world .
= = = = Remediation = = = =
Fish bones are being researched for their ability to bioremediate lead in contaminated soil . The fungus Aspergillus versicolor is both greatly effective and fast at removing lead ions . Several bacteria have been researched for their ability to reduce lead ; including the sulfate reducing bacteria Desulfovibrio and Desulfotomaculum ; which are highly effective in aqueous solutions .
In the Netherlands , the use of lead shot for hunting and sport shooting was banned in 1993 , which caused a large drop in lead emission , from 230 tonnes in 1990 to 47 @.@ 5 tonnes in 1995 , two years after the ban .
= = = Restriction of lead usage = = =
During the 20th century , the use of lead in paint pigments was sharply reduced because of the danger of lead poisoning , especially to children . By the mid @-@ 1980s , a significant shift in lead end @-@ use patterns had taken place . Much of this shift was a result of the U.S. lead consumers ' compliance with environmental regulations that significantly reduced or eliminated the use of lead in non @-@ battery products , including gasoline , paints , solders , and water systems . Lead use is being further curtailed by the European Union 's RoHS directive . Lead may still be found in harmful quantities in stoneware , vinyl ( such as that used for tubing and the insulation of electrical cords ) , and Chinese brass . Old houses may still contain substantial amounts of lead paint . White lead paint has been withdrawn from sale in industrialized countries , but the yellow lead chromate is still in use . Old paint should not be stripped by sanding , as this produces inhalable dust .
People can be exposed to lead in the workplace by breathing it in , swallowing it , skin contact , and eye contact . In the United States , the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for lead exposure in the workplace as 0 @.@ 050 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday , which applies to metallic lead , inorganic lead compounds , and lead soaps . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 0 @.@ 050 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday , and recommends that workers ' blood concentrations of lead stay below 0 @.@ 060 mg per 100 g blood . At levels of 100 mg / m3 , lead is immediately dangerous to life and health .
= Elliott Fitch Shepard =
Elliott Fitch Shepard ( July 25 , 1833 – March 24 , 1893 ) was a New York lawyer , banker , and owner of the Mail and Express newspaper , as well as a founder and president of the New York State Bar Association . Shepard was married to Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt , who was the granddaughter of philanthropist , business magnate , and family patriarch Cornelius Vanderbilt . Shepard 's Briarcliff Manor residence Woodlea and the Scarborough Presbyterian Church , which he founded nearby , are contributing properties to the Scarborough Historic District .
Shepard was born in Jamestown , New York , one of three sons of the president of a banknote @-@ engraving company . He attended the City University of New York , and practiced law for about 25 years . During the American Civil War , Shepard was a Union Army recruiter and earned the rank of colonel . He was later a founder and benefactor of several institutions and banks . When Shepard moved to the Briarcliff Manor hamlet of Scarborough @-@ on @-@ Hudson , he founded the Scarborough Presbyterian Church and built Woodlea ; the house and its land are now part of Sleepy Hollow Country Club .
= = Early life = =
Shepard was born July 25 , 1833 in Jamestown in Chautauqua County , New York . He was the second of three sons of Fitch Shepard and Delia Maria Dennis ; the others were Burritt Hamilton and Augustus Dennis . Fitch Shepard was president of the National Bank Note Company ( later consolidated with the American and Continental Note Companies ) , and Elliott 's brother Augustus became president of the American Bank Note Company . Fitch , son of Noah Shepard , was a descendant of Thomas Shepard ( a Puritan minister ) and James Fitch ( son @-@ in @-@ law of William Bradford ) . Delia Maria Dennis was a descendant of Robert Dennis , who emigrated from England in 1635 . Elliott was described in 1897 's Prominent Families of New York as " prominent by birth and ancestry , as well as for his personal qualities " . He attended public schools in Jamestown and the college @-@ preparatory University Grammar School ( then located in the City University of New York building ) , and graduated from the university in 1855 . Shepard began studying law under Edwards Pierrepont , and was admitted to the bar in the city of Brooklyn in 1858 .
= = Civil War service = =
At the outbreak of the American Civil War Shepard became an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Union Army General Edwin D. Morgan , with the rank of colonel . Shepard never entered the field , but was involved in recruiting volunteers . In 1862 he visited Jamestown to inspect , equip and provide uniforms for the Chautauqua regiment , his first return since age twelve , and was welcomed by a group of prominent citizens . Shepard recruited and organized the 51st Regiment , New York Volunteers , which was named the Shepard Rifles in his honor . George W. Whitman , brother of the poet Walt Whitman and a member of the regiment , was notified by Shepard of a promotion ; Shepard may have influenced his subsequent promotion to major in 1865 . In addition , Shepard was involved in correspondence with Walt Whitman .
Shepard was placed in charge of the recruiting station in Elmira , and enlisted 47 @,@ 000 men from the surrounding area . Although President Abraham Lincoln offered him a promotion to brigadier general , Shepard declined in deference to officers who had seen field service .
= = Career = =
In 1864 , Shepard was a member of the executive committee and chair of the Committee on Contributions from Without the City for the New York Metropolitan Fair . He chaired lawyers ' committees for disaster relief , including those in Portland , Maine and Chicago after the 1866 Great Fire and the 1871 Great Chicago Fire respectively , and was a member of the municipal committee for victims of the 1889 Johnstown Flood .
In 1867 Shepard was presented to Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt at a reception given by Governor Morgan ; their difficult courtship was opposed by Margaret 's father , William Henry Vanderbilt . A year later , on February 18 , 1868 , they were married in the Church of the Incarnation in New York City . After an 1868 trip to Tarsus , Mersin he helped found Tarsus American College , agreeing to donate $ 5 @,@ 000 a year to the school and leave it an endowment of $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 2 @.@ 63 million in 2015 ) . He became one of the school 's trustees and vice president of the board .
In 1868 , Shepard became a partner of Judge Theron R. Strong in Strong & Shepard , continuing the business after Strong 's death . He continued to practice law for the next 25 years ; he helped found the New York State Bar Association in 1876 , and in 1884 was its fifth president . In 1875 Shepard drafted an amendment establishing an arbitration court for the New York Chamber of Commerce , serving on its five @-@ member executive committee the following year . In 1880 , the New York City Board of Aldermen appointed Shepard and Ebenezer B. Shafer to revise and codify the city 's local ordinances to form the New @-@ York Municipal Code ; the last revision was in 1859 .
During the 1880s he helped found the American Savings Bank , the Bank of the Metropolis and the Columbian National Bank . On March 20 , 1888 , Shepard purchased the Mail and Express newspaper ( founded in 1836 , with an estimated value of $ 200 @,@ 000 ( $ 5 @.@ 27 million in 2015 ) from Cyrus W. Field for $ 425 @,@ 000 ( $ 11 @.@ 2 million in 2015 ) . Deeply religious , Shepard placed a verse from the Bible at the head of each edition 's editorial page . As president of the newspaper company until his death , he approved every important decision or policy . In the same year , Shepard became the controlling stockholder of the Fifth Avenue Stage Company to force it to halt work on Sundays ( the Christian Sabbath ) .
When Margaret 's father died in 1885 , she inherited $ 12 million ( $ 316 million in 2015 ) . The family lived at 2 West 52nd Street in Manhattan , one of three houses of the Vanderbilt Triple Palace which were built during the 1880s for William Henry Vanderbilt and his two daughters . After Elliott 's death Margaret transferred the house to her sister 's family , who combined their two houses into one . The houses were eventually demolished ; the nine @-@ story De Pinna Building was built there in 1928 and was demolished around 1969 . 650 Fifth Avenue is the building currently on the site .
Shepard and his family toured the world in 1884 , visiting Asia , Africa , and Europe . He documented his 1887 trip from New York to Alaska in The Riva . : New York and Alaska taken by himself , his wife and daughter , six other family members , their maid , a chef , butler , porter and conductor . According to Shepard , the family traveled 14 @,@ 085 miles ( 22 @,@ 668 km ) on 26 railroads and stayed at 38 hotels in nearly five months . After the 1884 trip , aware of the opportunity for church work in the territory , he founded a mission and maintained it with his wife for about $ 20 @,@ 000 ( $ 526 @,@ 700 in 2015 ) a year . For some time Shepard worshiped at the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church under John Hall , and was a vice president of the Presbyterian Union of New @-@ York . Shepard was president of the American Sabbath Union for five years , and he also served as the chairman of the Special Committee on Sabbath Observance .
= = = Briarcliff Manor developments = = =
During the early 1890s Shepard moved to Scarborough @-@ on @-@ Hudson in present @-@ day Briarcliff Manor , purchasing a Victorian house from J. Butler Wright . He had a mansion ( named Woodlea , after Wright 's house ) built south of the house , facing the Hudson River , and improved its grounds . Construction of the mansion began in 1892 , and was completed three years later . Shepard died in 1893 , leaving Margaret to oversee its completion . The finished house has between 65 @,@ 000 and 70 @,@ 000 square feet ( 6 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 500 m2 ) , making it one of the largest privately @-@ owned houses in the United States .
After Shepard 's death Margaret lived there in the spring and fall , with her visits becoming less frequent . By 1900 she began selling property to Frank A. Vanderlip and William Rockefeller , selling them the house in 1910 . Vanderlip and Rockefeller assembled a board of directors to create a country club ; they first met at Vanderlip 's National City Bank Building office at 55 Wall Street ( Vanderlip was president of the bank at the time ) . Sleepy Hollow Country Club was founded , with Woodlea becoming its clubhouse and the J. Butler Wright house as its golf house .
Shepard established a small chapel on his Briarcliff Manor property , and founded the Scarborough Presbyterian Church in 1892 . The church and its manse were donated by Margaret after his death . It was designed by Augustus Haydel ( a nephew of Stanford White ) and August D. Shepard , Jr . ( a nephew of Elliott Shepard and William Rutherford Mead ) . The church , dedicated on May 11 , 1895 in Shepard 's memory , was briefly known as Shepard Memorial Church .
= = Family and personal life = =
Shepard and Margaret had five daughters and one son : Florence ( 1869 – 1869 ) , Maria Louise ( 1870 – 1948 ) , Edith ( 1872 – 1954 ) , Marguerite ( 1873 – 1895 ) , Alice ( 1874 – 1950 ) and Elliott Jr . ( 1877 – 1927 ) . The children attended Sunday school and church , and were educated by private tutors and governesses . Shepard also employed a private chef for his family . Shepard was a strict father known to beat his son , who was described as being as wild as his father was rigid and moralizing .
Shepard was tall , with a pleasant expression and manner , and The New York Times called him the " perfect type of well @-@ bred clubman " . He had thick hair , manicured nails , a well @-@ trimmed beard and an athletic figure . An opponent of antisemitism , he attended dinners publicizing the plight of Russian Jews and regularly addressed Jewish religious and social organizations avoided by others . He rented pews in many New York churches , supported about a dozen missionaries and was described as a generous donor to hospitals and charitable societies . Shepard was politically ambitious , and decided to build Woodlea as a symbol of power and influence . Shepard had horses and carriages which were ridden by the family in parks , and he prided himself on his equestrianism .
Shepard was a supporter of the Republican Party , contributing $ 75 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @.@ 98 million in 2015 ) to the 1888 Presidential campaign fund and $ 10 @,@ 000 ( $ 263 @,@ 400 in 2015 ) to the state committee for the Fassett campaign . He furnished Shepard Hall , at Sixth Avenue and 57th Street in New York City , offering it rent @-@ free to the Republican Club . Shepard belonged to a number of organizations : the New York State Bar Association , the American Museum of Natural History , the National Academy of Design , the Sons of the American Revolution , the New York Yacht Club , the New York Athletic Club , the New York Press Club , the Lawyers ' Club of New York , the Republican Club , the Manhattan Athletic Club , the Riding Club , the Twilight Club , the Union League Club of New York , the New England Society of New York , the Adirondack League and the Union League of Brooklyn .
= = Later life , death , and legacy = =
In 1892 , the City University of New York gave Shepard a Master of Laws degree and the University of Omaha gave him a Doctor of Laws degree . On January 11 , 1893 , Shepard addressed the House Committee on the Columbian Exposition in an effort to convince the committee not to open the exposition on a Sunday - the Sabbath . Shepard himself attended , having spent $ 25 @,@ 000 ( $ 658 thousand in 2015 ) on September 7 , 1891 in reserving sixteen rooms with board at the Auditorium Hotel for six months during the fair .
Shepard died unexpectedly during the afternoon of March 24 , 1893 at his Manhattan residence . Two doctors were attempting to remove a bladder stone from him ; they gave him ether at 12 : 45 p.m. For a few minutes Shepard did not seem to react , though soon afterward his color started changing and his respiration and pulse dimmed , so administration of ether was stopped , however not enough ether was given to continue with the operation . His condition started to worsen again ; the doctors suspected food or vomit was blocking his windpipe or bronchial tubes . The doctors then administered oxygen , which helped temporarily ; however , at 4 : 00 p.m. his pulse became steadily more feeble , he fell unconscious , and died at 4 : 10 p.m. His cause of death was edema and congestion of the lungs , after the administration of ether , but due to an unknown cause . Shepard was first buried in the Vanderbilt mausoleum in Moravian Cemetery . On November 17 , 1894 one of his daughters , his wife , and her brother George Vanderbilt oversaw the transfer of his remains and those of his daughter Florence to a new Shepard family tomb .
Shepard 's estate included the $ 100 @,@ 000 Tarsus American College endowment , $ 850 @,@ 000 in real estate and $ 500 @,@ 000 in personal property for a total of $ 1 @.@ 35 million ( $ 35 @.@ 6 million in 2015 ) . His will distributed money and property to his wife and children , his brother Augustus , and religious organizations . Shepard funded a number of scholarships and prizes , including one at the City University of New York and New York University 's annual Elliott F. Shepard Scholarship , and donated a large collection of books from lawyer Aaron J. Vanderpoel 's library to the New York University School of Law .
When the wife of Chicago publisher Horace O 'Donoghue read him the news of Shepard 's death four days after the event , he picked up a razor and slit his throat . Although his suicide was first thought to be impulsive , it was later learned that the likely cause was O 'Donoghue 's large debts to Chicago publishing houses .
= = Selected works = =
Shepard , Elliott Fitch ; Shafer , Ebenezer B. ( 1881 ) . Ordinances of the Mayor , Aldermen and Commonalty of the City of New York : In Force January 1 , 1881 . New York , New York . OCLC 680539530 .
Shepard , Elliott Fitch ( 1886 ) . Labor and Capital are One ( 10th ed . ) . New York , New York : American Bank Note Company . OCLC 43539083 .
= Ezra Pound =
Ezra Weston Loomis Pound ( 30 October 1885 – 1 November 1972 ) was an expatriate American poet and critic , and a major figure in the early modernist movement . His contribution to poetry began with his development of Imagism , a movement derived from classical Chinese and Japanese poetry , stressing clarity , precision and economy of language . His best @-@ known works include Ripostes ( 1912 ) , Hugh Selwyn Mauberley ( 1920 ) and the unfinished 120 @-@ section epic , The Cantos ( 1917 – 69 ) .
Working in London in the early 20th century as foreign editor of several American literary magazines , Pound helped discover and shape the work of American and Irish contemporaries such as T. S. Eliot , James Joyce , Robert Frost , and Ernest Hemingway . He arranged for the 1915 publication of Eliot 's " The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock " and the serialization from 1918 of Joyce 's Ulysses . Hemingway wrote of him in 1925 : " He defends [ his friends ] when they are attacked , he gets them into magazines and out of jail . ... He introduces them to wealthy women . He gets publishers to take their books . He sits up all night with them when they claim to be dying ... he advances them hospital expenses and dissuades them from suicide . "
Outraged by the carnage of World War I , Pound lost faith in England and blamed the war on usury and international capitalism . He moved to Italy in 1924 . Through the 1930s and 1940s he embraced Benito Mussolini 's Italian Fascism , expressed support for Adolf Hitler , and wrote for publications owned by British fascist Oswald Mosley . During World War II , he was paid by the Italian government to make hundreds of radio broadcasts criticizing the United States , Franklin D. Roosevelt , and Jews . As a result , he was arrested by American forces in Italy in 1945 on charges of treason , and was kept for months in detention in a U.S. military camp in Pisa . He was held for three weeks in a six @-@ by @-@ six @-@ foot outdoor steel cage , which he said triggered a mental breakdown , " when the raft broke and the waters went over me . " Deemed unfit to stand trial , Pound was incarcerated in St. Elizabeths psychiatric hospital in Washington , D.C. , for over 12 years .
While in custody in Italy , Pound had begun work on sections of The Cantos . These were published as The Pisan Cantos ( 1948 ) , for which he was awarded the Bollingen Prize in 1949 by the Library of Congress , triggering enormous controversy .
Largely due to a campaign by his fellow writers , he was released from St. Elizabeths in 1958 , and returned to live in Italy until his death . His political views ensure that his work remains as controversial now as it was during his lifetime ; in 1933 Time magazine called him " a cat that walks by himself , tenaciously unhousebroken and very unsafe for children . " Hemingway wrote : " The best of Pound 's writing – and it is in the Cantos – will last as long as there is any literature . "
= = Early life ( 1885 – 1908 ) = =
= = = Background = = =
Pound was born in a small , two @-@ story house in Hailey , Idaho Territory , the only child of Homer Loomis Pound ( 1858 – 1942 ) and Isabel Weston ( 1860 – 1948 ) . His father had worked in Hailey since 1883 as registrar of the General Land Office .
Both parents ' ancestors had emigrated from England to North America in the 17th century . On his mother 's side , Pound was descended from William Wadsworth ( 1594 – 1675 ) , a Puritan who emigrated from England to Boston on the Lion in 1632 . The Wadsworths married into the Westons of New York . Harding Weston and Mary Parker were the parents of Isabel Weston , Ezra 's mother . Harding apparently spent most of his life without work , so his brother , Ezra Weston and his wife , Frances , looked after Mary and Isabel 's needs .
On his father 's side , the immigrant ancestor was John Pound , a Quaker who arrived from England around 1650 . Ezra 's grandfather , Thaddeus Coleman Pound ( 1832 – 1914 ) , was a Republican Congressman from northwest Wisconsin who had made and lost a fortune in the lumber business . Thaddeus 's son Homer , Pound 's father , worked for Thaddeus in the lumber business , until Thaddeus secured him the appointment as registrar of the Hailey land office .
Homer and Isabel married the following year , and Homer built for her a home in Hailey . Isabel was unhappy in Hailey and took Ezra with her to New York in 1887 when he was 18 months old . Homer followed and in 1889 found a job as an assayer at the Philadelphia Mint . The family moved to Jenkintown , Pennsylvania and in 1893 bought a six @-@ bedroom house in Wyncote .
= = = Education = = =
Pound 's education began in a series of dame schools , some of them run by Quakers : Miss Elliott 's school in Jenkintown in 1892 , the Heathcock family 's Chelten Hills School in Wyncote in 1893 , and the Florence Ridpath school from 1894 , also in Wyncote . His first published poem ( " by E. L. Pound , Wyncote , aged 11 years " ) was a limerick in the Jenkintown Times @-@ Chronicle about William Jennings Bryan , who had just lost the 1896 presidential election : " There was a young man from the West , / He did what he could for what he thought best ; / But election came round , / He found himself drowned , / And the papers will tell you the rest . "
Between 1897 and 1900 Pound attended Cheltenham Military Academy , sometimes as a boarder , where he specialized in Latin . The boys wore Civil War @-@ style uniforms and studied English , history , and arithmetic , as well as marksmanship , military drilling , and the importance of submitting to authority . Pound made his first trip overseas in the summer of 1898 when he was 13 , a three @-@ month tour of Europe with his mother and Frances Weston ( Aunt Frank ) ; they went to England , Belgium , Germany , Switzerland and Italy . After the academy he may have attended Cheltenham Township High School for one year . In 1901 at the age of 15 , he was admitted to the University of Pennsylvania 's College of Liberal Arts .
Pound wrote in 1913 , in " How I Began " :
I resolved that at thirty I would know more about poetry than any man living ... that I would know what was accounted poetry everywhere , what part of poetry was ' indestructible ' , what part could not be lost by translation and – scarcely less important – what effects were obtainable in one language only and were utterly incapable of being translated .
In this search I learned more or less of nine foreign languages , I read Oriental stuff in translations , I fought every University regulation and every professor who tried to make me learn anything except this , or who bothered me with " requirements for degrees " .
While at the university he met Hilda Doolittle , the daughter of the professor of astronomy . She developed as the poet known as H.D. She followed him to Europe in 1908 , leaving her family , friends and country , and worked with Pound in developing the Imagism movement in London . He sought her hand and in February that year asked her father , the astronomy professor Charles Doolittle , for his permission to marry . Doolittle was a curt man , described as " donnish " and intimidating . He was aware of Pound 's reputation as a ladies ' man , and unimpressed by his career as a poet , and constant moving . Doolittle 's response was dismissive , he replied , " What ! … Why you 're nothing but a nomad ! " Pound asked Hilda to marry him in the summer of 1907 , and though rejected , wrote several poems for her between 1905 and 1907 . He hand @-@ bound 25 of these , calling them Hilda 's Book . He was seeing two other women at the same time – Viola Baxter and Mary Moore – later dedicating a book of poetry , Personae ( 1909 ) , to the latter . He asked Mary to marry him that summer too , but she turned him down .
His parents and Frances Weston took Pound on another three @-@ month European tour in 1902 , after which he transferred , in 1903 , to Hamilton College in Clinton , New York , possibly because of poor grades . Signed up for the Latin – Scientific course , he studied the Provençal dialect with William Pierce Shephard and Old English with Joseph D. Ibbotson ; with Shephard he read Dante . From this study he began thinking of an idea for a long poem in three parts – of emotion , instruction and contemplation – planting the seeds for The Cantos . He graduated in 1905 with a PhB .
Pound returned to the University of Pennsylvania for graduate work , studying Romance languages under Hugo A. Rennert , and obtained an MA in the spring of 1906 . He registered to write a PhD thesis on the jesters in Lope de Vega 's plays . A Harrison fellowship covered his tuition fees and gave him a grant of $ 500 , which he used to return to Europe .
Pound spent three weeks in Madrid in various libraries , including one in the royal palace . He happened to be standing outside the palace on 31 May 1906 during the attempted assassination by anarchists of King Alfonso , and left the country for fear he would be identified with them . After Spain he spent two weeks in Paris attending lectures at the Sorbonne , followed by a week in London . In July he returned to the United States . In September 1906 his first essay , " Raphaelite Latin " , was published in Book News Monthly .
He took courses in the English department at Penn in 1907 , where he annoyed Felix Schelling , the department head , with silly remarks during lectures . One day he said that George Bernard Shaw was better than Shakespeare , and wound an enormous tin watch very slowly while Schelling spoke . As a result , his fellowship was not renewed at the end of the year . Schelling told Pound that he was wasting his own time and that of the institution . Pound left without finishing his doctorate .
= = = Teaching = = =
From the fall of 1907 Pound taught Romance languages at Wabash College in Crawfordsville , Indiana , a conservative town that he called the sixth circle of hell . The equally conservative college dismissed him after he deliberately provoked the college authorities . Smoking was forbidden , but he would smoke cigarillos in his office down the corridor from the president 's . He annoyed his landlords by entertaining friends , including women , and was forced out of one house after two " stewdents found me sharing my meagre repast with the lady – gent impersonator in my privut apartments , " as he told a friend . He was eventually caught in flagrante , although the details remain unclear and he denied any wrongdoing . The incident involved a stranded chorus girl to whom he offered tea and his bed for the night when she was caught in a snowstorm ; when she was discovered the next morning by the landladies , his insistence that he had slept on the floor was met with disbelief and he was asked to leave the college . Glad to be free of the place , he left for Europe soon after , sailing from New York in March 1908 .
= = London ( 1908 – 20 ) = =
= = = Introduction to the literary scene = = =
Pound arrived in Gibraltar on 23 March 1908 , where for a few weeks he earned $ 15 a day working as a guide to American tourists . By the end of April he was in Venice , living over a bakery near the San Vio bridge . In July he self @-@ published his first book of poetry , A Lume Spento ( With Tapers Spent ) . The London Evening Standard called it " wild and haunting stuff , absolutely poetic , original , imaginative , passionate , and spiritual . " The title was from the third canto of Dante 's Purgatorio , which alluded to the death of Manfred , King of Sicily . The book was dedicated to his friend , the Philadelphia artist William Brooke Smith , who had recently died of tuberculosis .
In August he moved to London , where he lived almost continuously for the next 12 years ; he told his university friend William Carlos Williams : " London , deah old Lundon , is the place for poesy . " English poets such as Maurice Hewlett , Rudyard Kipling and Alfred Lord Tennyson had made a particular kind of Victorian verse – stirring , pompous and propagandistic – popular with the public . According to modernist scholar James Knapp , Pound rejected the idea of poetry as " versified moral essay " ; he wanted to focus on the individual experience ; the concrete rather than the abstract .
Arriving in the city with just ₤ 3 , he moved into lodgings at 48 Langham Street , near Great Titchfield Street , a penny bus @-@ ride from the British Museum . The house sat across an alley from the Yorkshire Grey pub , which he referred to indirectly in the Pisan Cantos , " concerning the landlady 's doings / with a lodger unnamed / az waz near Gt Titchfield St. next door to the pub " . He spent his mornings in the British Museum Reading Room , and lunched at the Vienna Café on Oxford Street . He persuaded the bookseller Elkin Mathews to display A Lume Spento , and in October 1908 caught the attention of the literati . That December he published a second collection , A Quinzaine for This Yule . After the death of a lecturer at the Regent Street Polytechnic , he took a position lecturing in the evenings on " The Development of Literature in Southern Europe " .
Ford Madox Ford described Pound – somewhat tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek – as " approach [ ing ] with the step of a dancer , making passes with a cane at an imaginary opponent . Pound was a flamboyant dresser at this stage , and had trousers made of green billiard cloth , a pink coat , a blue shirt , a tie hand @-@ painted by a Japanese friend and an immense sombrero . All this was accompanied by a flaming beard cut to a point and a single , large blue earring . "
= = = Meeting Dorothy Shakespear , Personae = = =
At a literary salon in January 1909 , Pound met the novelist Olivia Shakespear – Yeats ' former lover – and was introduced to her daughter Dorothy . They married several years later in 1914 . Through Olivia Shakespear he was introduced to W. B. Yeats – the greatest living poet in Pound 's view – and they became close friends , although Yeats was older by 20 years . Pound had sent Yeats a copy of A Lume Spento the previous year , before he left for Venice . Yeats had apparently found it charming .
Pound was also introduced to sculptor Henri Gaudier @-@ Brzeska , painter Wyndham Lewis , and to the cream of London 's literary circle , including the poet T. E. Hulme . The American heiress Margaret Lanier Cravens ( 1881 – 1912 ) became a patron ; after knowing him a short time she offered a large annual sum to allow him to focus on his work . Cravens committed suicide in 1912 . Walter Rummel , a pianist and friend of Pounds , had long been a love but married someone else . She may also have been discouraged by Pound 's engagement to Dorothy .
In June 1909 the Personae collection was the first of Pound 's works to have any commercial success . It was favorably reviewed ; one review said it was " full of human passion and natural magic " . Rupert Brooke was unimpressed , complaining that Pound had fallen under the influence of Walt Whitman , writing in " unmetrical sprawling lengths " . In September he published 27 poems as Exultations . Around the same time Pound moved into new rooms at Church Walk , off Kensington High Street , where he lived most of the time until 1914 .
In June 1910 Pound returned to the United States for eight months ; his arrival coincided with the publication of his first book of literary criticism , The Spirit of Romance , based on his lecture notes at the polytechnic . His essays on America were written during this period . They were compiled as Patria Mia and not published until 1950 . He loved New York but felt the city was threatened by commercialism and vulgarity , and he no longer felt at home there . He found the New York Public Library , then being built , especially offensive . According to Paul L. Montgomery , Pound visited the architects ' offices almost every day to shout at them .
Pound persuaded his parents to finance his passage back to Europe . It was nearly 30 years before he visited the United States again . On 22 February 1911 he sailed from New York on the R.M.S. Mauretania , arriving in Southampton six days later . After only a few days in London he went to Paris , where he worked on a new collection of poetry , Canzoni ( 1911 ) , panned by the Westminster Gazette as a " medley of pretension " . When he returned to London in August 1911 , A. R. Orage , editor of the socialist journal The New Age , hired him to write a weekly column , giving him a steady income .
= = = Imagism = = =
Hilda Doolittle arrived in London from Philadelphia in May 1911 with the poet Frances Gregg and Gregg 's mother ; when they returned in September , Doolittle decided to stay on . Pound introduced her to his friends , including the poet Richard Aldington , whom she would marry in 1913 . Before that the three of them lived in Church Walk , Kensington – Pound at no . 10 , Doolittle at no . 6 , and Aldington at no . 8 – and worked daily in the British Museum Reading Room .
At the museum Pound met regularly with the curator and poet Laurence Binyon , who introduced him to the East Asian artistic and literary concepts that inspired the imagery and technique of his later poetry . The museum 's visitors ' books show that Pound was often found during 1912 and 1913 in the Print Room examining Japanese ukiyo @-@ e , some inscribed with Japanese waka verse , a genre of poetry whose economy and strict conventions likely contributed to Imagist techniques of composition . He was working at the time on the poems that became Ripostes ( 1912 ) , trying to move away from his earlier work ; he wrote that the " stilted language " of Canzoni had reduced Ford Madox Ford to rolling on the floor with laughter . He realized with his translation work that the problem lay not in his knowledge of the other languages , but in his use of English :
What obfuscated me was not the Italian but the crust of dead English , the sediment present in my own available vocabulary ... You can 't go round this sort of thing . It takes six or eight years to get educated in one 's art , and another ten to get rid of that education .
Neither can anyone learn English , one can only learn a series of Englishes . Rossetti made his own language . I hadn 't in 1910 made a language , I don 't mean a language to use , but even a language to think in .
While living at Church Walk in 1912 , Pound , Aldington and Doolittle started working on ideas about language . While in the British Museum tearoom one afternoon , they decided to begin a ' movement ' in poetry , called Imagism . Imagisme , Pound would write in Riposte , is " concerned solely with language and presentation " . The aim was clarity : a fight against abstraction , romanticism , rhetoric , inversion of word order , and over @-@ use of adjectives . They agreed in the spring or early summer of 1912 on three principles :
1 . Direct treatment of the " thing " whether subjective or objective .
2 . To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation .
3 . As regarding rhythm : to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase , not in sequence of a metronome .
Superfluous words , particularly adjectives , should be avoided , as well as expressions like " dim lands of peace " , which Pound thought dulled the image by mixing the abstract with the concrete . He wrote that the natural object was always the " adequate symbol " . Poets should " go in fear of abstractions " , and should not re @-@ tell in mediocre verse what has already been told in good prose .
A typical example is Pound 's " In a Station of the Metro " ( 1913 ) , inspired by an experience on the Paris Underground , about which he wrote , " I got out of a train at , I think , La Concorde , and in the jostle I saw a beautiful face , and then , turning suddenly , another and another , and then a beautiful child 's face , and then another beautiful face . All that day I tried to find words for what this made me feel . " He worked on the poem for a year , reducing it to its essence in the style of a Japanese haiku . Like other modernist artists of the period , Pound was inspired by Japanese art , but the aim was to re @-@ make – or as Pound said , " make it new " – and blend cultural styles instead of copying directly or slavishly . He may have been inspired by a Suzuki Harunobu print he almost certainly saw in the British Library ( Richard Aldington mentions the specific prints he matched to verse ) , and probably attempted to write haiku @-@ like verse during this period .
= = = Ripostes and translations = = =
Ripostes , published in October 1912 , begins Pound 's shift toward minimalist language . Michael Alexander describes the poems as showing a greater concentration of meaning and economy of rhythm than his earlier work . It was published when Pound had just begun his move toward Imagism ; his first use of the word Imagiste appears in his prefatory note to the volume . The collection includes five poems by Hulme and a translation of the 8th @-@ century Old English poem The Seafarer – although not a literal translation . It upset scholars , as would Pound 's other translations from Latin , Italian , French and Chinese , either because of errors or because he lacked familiarity with the cultural context . Alexander writes that in some circles , Pound 's translations made him more unpopular than the treason charge , and the reaction to The Seafarer was a rehearsal for the negative response to Homage to Sextus Propertius in 1919 . His translation from the Italian of Sonnets and ballate of Guido Cavalcanti was also published in 1912 .
Pound was fascinated by the translations of Japanese poetry and Noh plays which he discovered in the papers of Ernest Fenollosa , an American professor who had taught in Japan . Fenollosa had studied Chinese poetry under Japanese scholars ; in 1913 his widow , Mary McNeil Fenollosa , decided to give his unpublished notes to Pound after seeing his work ; she was looking for someone who cared about poetry rather than philology . Pound edited and published Fenellosa 's The Chinese Written Character as a Medium for Poetry in 1918 .
The title page of the collection Cathay ( 1915 ) , refers to the poet " Rihaku " , the pronunciation in Japanese of the Tang dynasty Chinese poet , Li Bai , whose poems were much beloved in China and Japan for their technical mastery and much translated in the West because of their seeming simplicity . Alexander thinks this is the most attractive of Pound 's work . Chinese critic Wai @-@ lim Yip writes of it : " One can easily excommunicate Pound from the Forbidden City of Chinese studies , but it seems clear that in his dealings with Cathay , even when he is given only the barest details , he is able to get into the central concerns of the original author by what we may perhaps call a kind of clairvoyance . "
Pound could understand Chinese himself . Some specialist critics see his work as among the best English translations of Chinese poetry , but others have complained that it contains many mistakes . Cathay was the first of many translations Pound would make from the Chinese . Pound used Fenollosa 's work as a starting point for what he called the ideogrammic method , which proceeded on Fenellosa 's entirely mistaken but fruitful idea that each character represented an image or pictograph , based on sight rather than sound . Robert Graves recalled " I once asked Arthur Waley how much Chinese Pound knew ; Waley shook his head despondently . " Steven Yao , scholar of American and Asian literature , sees Cathay as a " major feat " ; a work where Pound shows that translation is possible without a thorough knowledge of the source language . Yao does not view Pound 's lack of Chinese as an obstacle , and states that the poet 's trawl through centuries of scholarly interpretations resulted in a genuine understanding of the original poem .
= = = Marriage , Blast = = =
In August 1912 Harriet Monroe hired Pound as a regular contributor to Poetry . He submitted his own poems , as well as poems by James Joyce , Robert Frost , D. H. Lawrence , Yeats , H.D. and Aldington , and collected material for a 64 @-@ page anthology , Des Imagistes ( 1914 ) . The Imagist movement began to attract attention from critics . In November 1913 Yeats , whose eyesight was failing , invited Pound to stay with him as his secretary in Stone Cottage , Sussex , where Yeats had rented rooms . They stayed there for 10 weeks , reading and writing , walking in the woods and fencing . It was the first of three winters they spent together at Stone Cottage ; two included Dorothy after she and Pound married on 20 April 1914 .
The marriage had proceeded despite opposition from her parents , who worried about his meager income earned from contributions to literary magazines ; it probably was less than £ 300 a year . Dorothy 's annual income was £ 50 , aided by £ 150 from her family . Her parents eventually consented , perhaps out of fear that she was getting older with no other suitor in sight . Pound 's concession to marry in church helped convince them . Afterward he and Dorothy moved into an apartment with no bathroom at 5 Holland Place Chambers , near Church Walk , with the newly wed Hilda ( H.D. ) and Richard Aldington living next door .
Pound wrote for Wyndham Lewis ' literary magazine Blast , although only two issues were published . An advertisement in The Egoist promised it would cover " Cubism , Futurism , Imagisme and all Vital Forms of Modern Art " . Pound took the opportunity to extend the definition of Imagisme to art , naming it Vorticism : " The image is a radiant node or cluster ; it is ... a VORTEX , from which , and through which , and into which , ideas are constantly rushing . " Reacting to the magazine , the poet Lascelles Abercrombie called for the rejection of Imagism and a return to the traditionalism of William Wordsworth ; Pound challenged him to a duel on the basis that " Stupidity carried beyond a certain point becomes a public menace " . Abercrombie suggested their choice of weapon be unsold copies of their own books . The publication of Blast was celebrated at a dinner attended by New England poet Amy Lowell , then in London to meet the Imagists . But Hilda and Richard were already beginning to go in a different direction than Pound 's understanding of the movement , as he aligned more with Wyndham Lewis 's ideas . When Lowell agreed to finance an anthology of Imagist poets , Pound 's work was not included . Upset at Lowell , he began to call Imagisme " Amygism " , and in July 1914 declared it dead , asking only that the term be preserved , although Lowell eventually Anglicized it .
= = = World War I , disillusionment = = =
Between 1914 and 1916 Pound assisted in the serialisation of James Joyce 's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in The Egoist , then helped to have it published in book form . In 1915 he persuaded Poetry to publish T. S. Eliot 's " The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock " . Eliot had sent " Prufrock " to almost every editor in England , but was rejected . He eventually sent it to Pound , who instantly saw it as a work of genius and submitted it to Poetry . " [ Eliot ] has actually trained himself AND modernized himself ON HIS OWN " , Pound wrote to Monroe in October 1914 . " The rest of the promising young have done one or the other but never both . Most of the swine have done neither . "
After the publication in 1915 of Cathay , Pound mentioned he was working on a long poem , casting about for the correct form . He told a friend in August : " It is a huge , I was going to say , gamble , but shan 't , " and in September described it as a " cryselephantine poem of immeasurable length which will occupy me for the next four decades unless it becomes a bore . " About a year later , in January 1917 , he had the first three trial cantos , distilled to one , as Canto I published in Poetry . He was now a regular contributor to three literary magazines . From 1917 he wrote music reviews for The New Age under the pen name William Atheling , and weekly pieces for The Egoist and The Little Review – many of the latter directed against provincialism and ignorance . However the volume of writing exhausted him and he feared he was wasting his time writing outside poetry , exclaiming that he " MUST stop writing so much prose " .
Pound was deeply affected by the war . He was devastated when Gaudier @-@ Brzeska , from whom he had commissioned a sculpture two years earlier , was killed in the trenches in 1915 . He published Gaudier @-@ Brzeska : A Memoir the following year , in reaction to what he saw as an unnecessary loss . In the autumn of 1917 his depression worsened . He blamed American provincialism for the seizure of the October issue of The Little Review . The New York Society for the Suppression of Vice applied the Comstock Laws against an article Lewis wrote , describing it as lewd and indecent . Around the same time , Hulme was killed by shell @-@ fire in Flanders , and Yeats married Georgie Hyde @-@ Lees . In 1918 , after a bout of illness which was presumably the Spanish influenza , Pound decided to quit writing for The Little Review , mostly because of the volume of work . He asked the publisher for a raise to hire 23 @-@ year @-@ old Iseult Gonne as a typist – causing rumors Pound was having an affair with her – but was turned down .
In 1919 he published a collection of his essays for The Little Review as Instigations , and in the March 1919 issue Poetry , he published Poems from the Propertius Series , which appeared to be a translation of the Latin Poet Sextus Propertius . When he included this in his next poetry collection in 1921 , he had renamed it Homage to Sextus Propertius in response to criticism of his translation skills . " Propertius " is not a strict translation ; biographer David Moody describes it as " the refraction of an ancient poet through a modern intelligence " . Harriet Monroe , editor of Poetry , published a letter from a professor of Latin , W. G. Hale , saying that Pound was " incredibly ignorant " of the language , and alluded to " about three @-@ score errors " in Homage . Monroe did not publish Pound 's response , which began " Cat @-@ piss and porcupines ! ! " and continued , " The thing is no more a translation than my ' Altaforte ' is a translation , or than Fitzgerald 's Omar is a translation " . But she interpreted his silence after that as his resignation as foreign editor .
= = = Hugh Selwyn Mauberley = = =
His poem Hugh Selwyn Mauberley consists of 18 short parts , and describes a poet whose life , like his own , has become sterile and meaningless . Published in June 1920 , it marked his farewell to London . He had become disgusted by the massive loss of life during the war and was unable to reconcile to it . Stephen Adams writes that , just as Eliot denied he was Prufrock , so Pound denied he was Mauberley , but the work can nevertheless be read as autobiographical . It begins with a satirical analysis of the London literary scene , before turning to social criticism , economics , and an attack on the causes of the war ; here the word usury appears in his work for the first time . The critic F. R. Leavis saw this poem to be Pound 's major achievement .
The war had shattered Pound 's belief in modern western civilization . He saw the Vorticist movement as finished and doubted his own future as a poet . He had only the New Age to write for ; his relationship with Poetry was finished , The Egoist was quickly running out of money because of censorship problems caused by the serialization of Joyce 's Ulysses , and the funds for The Little Review had dried up . Other magazines ignored his submissions or refused to review his work . Toward the end of 1920 he and Dorothy decided their time in London was over , and resolved to move to Paris .
Orage wrote in the January 1921 issue of The New Age : " Mr. Pound has been an exhilarating influence for culture in England ; he has left his mark upon more than one of the arts , upon literature , music , poetry and sculpture , and quite a number of men and movements owe their initiation to his self @-@ sacrificing stimulus . "
= = Paris ( 1921 – 24 ) = =
The Pounds settled in Paris in January 1921 in an inexpensive apartment at 70 bis , rue Notre Dame des Champs . He became friendly with Marcel Duchamp , Tristan Tzara , Fernand Léger and others of the Dada and Surrealist movements , as well as Basil Bunting , Ernest Hemingway and his wife Hadley . He spent most of his time building furniture for his apartment and bookshelves for the bookstore Shakespeare and Company , and in 1921 the volume Poems 1918 – 1921 was published . In 1922 Eliot sent him the manuscript of The Waste Land , then arrived in Paris to edit it with Pound , who blue @-@ inked the manuscript with comments like " make up yr. mind ... " and " georgian " . Eliot wrote : " I should like to think that the manuscript , with the suppressed passages , had disappeared irrecoverably ; yet , on the other hand , I should wish the blue pencilling on it to be preserved as irrefutable evidence of Pound 's critical genius . "
In 1924 Pound secured funding for Ford Madox Ford 's The Transatlantic Review from American attorney John Quinn . The Review published works by Pound , Ernest Hemingway and Gertrude Stein , as well as extracts from Joyce 's Finnegans Wake , before the money ran out in 1925 . It also published several Pound music reviews , later collected into Antheil and the Treatise on Harmony .
Hemingway asked Pound to blue @-@ ink his short stories . Although Hemingway was 14 years younger , the two forged what would become a lifelong relationship of mutual respect and friendship , living on the same street for a time , and touring Italy together in 1923 . " They liked each other personally , shared the same aesthetic aims , and admired each other 's work " , writes Hemingway biographer Jeffrey Meyers , with Hemingway assuming the status of pupil to Pound 's teaching . Pound introduced Hemingway to Lewis , Ford , and Joyce , while Hemingway in turn tried to teach Pound to box , but as he told Sherwood Anderson , " [ Ezra ] habitually leads with his chin and has the general grace of a crayfish or crawfish " .
Pound was 36 when he met the 26 @-@ year @-@ old American violinist Olga Rudge in Paris in the fall of 1922 , beginning a love affair that lasted 50 years . Biographer John Tytell believes Pound had always felt that his creativity and ability to seduce women were linked , something Dorothy turned a blind eye to over the years . He complained shortly after arriving in Paris that he had been there for three months without having managed to find a mistress . He was introduced to Olga at a musical salon hosted by American heiress Natalie Barney in her home at 20 Rue Jacob , near the Boulevard Saint @-@ Germain . The two moved in different social circles : Olga was the daughter of a wealthy Youngstown , Ohio , steel family , living in her mother 's Parisian apartment on the Right Bank , socializing with aristocrats , while his friends were mostly impoverished writers of the Left Bank . The two spent the following summer in the south of France , where he worked with George Antheil to apply the concept of Vorticism to music , and managed to write two operas , including Le Testament de Villon . He wrote pieces for solo violin , which Olga performed .
= = Italy ( 1924 – 45 ) = =
= = = Birth of the children = = =
The Pounds were unhappy in Paris ; Dorothy complained about the winters and Ezra 's health was poor . At a dinner a guest had randomly tried to stab him , and to Pound it underlined that their time in France was over . Hemingway observed that Pound " indulged in a small nervous breakdown " , leading to two days in an American hospital . They decided to move to a quieter place , and chose Rapallo , Italy , a town with a population of 15 @,@ 000 . " Italy is my place for starting things " , he told a friend . During this period they lived on Dorothy 's income , supplemented by dividends from stock she had invested in .
Olga Rudge , pregnant with Pound 's child , followed them to Italy . She showed little interest in raising a child , but may have felt that having one would maintain her connection to him . In July 1925 she gave birth to a daughter , Mary . She placed her with a German @-@ speaking peasant woman whose own child had died , and who agreed to raise Mary for 200 lire a month .
When Pound told Dorothy about the birth , she separated from him for much of that year and the next . In December 1925 , she left on an extended trip to Egypt . On her return in March , Pound realized that his wife was pregnant . In June , she and Pound left Rapallo for Paris for the premiere of Le Testament de Villon , without mentioning the pregnancy to his friends or parents . In September , Hemingway drove Dorothy to the American Hospital of Paris for the birth of a son , Omar Pound . In a letter to his parents in October Pound wrote , " next generation ( male ) arrived . Both D & it appear to be doing well " . Dorothy gave the baby son to her mother , Olivia , who raised him in London until he was old enough to go to boarding school . When Dorothy went to England each summer to see Omar , Pound would spend the time with Olga , whose father had bought her a house in Venice . The arrangement meant his children were raised very differently . Mary had a single pair of shoes , and books about Jesus and the saints , while Omar was raised in Kensington as an English gentleman by his sophisticated grandmother .
In 1925 the literary magazine This Quarter dedicated its first issue to Pound , including tributes from Hemingway and Joyce . Pound published Cantos XVII – XIX in the winter editions . In March 1927 he launched his own literary magazine , The Exile , but only four issues were published . It did well in the first year , with contributions from Hemingway , E. E. Cummings , Basil Bunting , Yeats , William Carlos Williams and Robert McAlmon ; some of the poorest work in the magazine were Pound 's rambling editorials on Confucianism and or in praise of Lenin , according to biographer J. J. Wilhelm . He continued to work on Fenollosa 's manuscripts , and in 1928 won The Dial 's poetry award for his translation of the Confucian classic Great Learning ( Dà Xué , transliterated as Ta Hio ) . That year his parents Homer and Isabel visited him in Rapallo , seeing him for the first time since 1914 . By then Homer had retired , so they decided to move to Rapallo themselves . They took a small house , Villa Raggio , on a hill above the town .
Pound began work on The Cantos in earnest after relocating to Italy . The poems concern good and evil , a descent into hell followed by redemption and paradise . Its hundreds of characters fall into three groupings : those who enjoy hell and stay there ; those who experience a metamorphosis and want to leave ; and a few who lead the rest to paradiso terrestre . Its composition was difficult and involved several false starts , and he abandoned most of his earlier drafts , beginning again in 1922 . The first three appear in Poetry in June – August 1917 . The Malatesta Cantos appeared in The Criterion in July 1923 , and two further cantos were published in The Transatlantic Review in January 1924 . Pound published 90 copies in Paris in 1925 of A Draft of XVI . Cantos of Ezra Pound for the Beginning of a Poem of some Length now first made into a Book .
= = = Turn to fascism , World War II = = =
Pound came to believe that the cause of World War I was finance capitalism , which he called " usury " , that the solution lay in C.H. Douglas 's idea of social credit , and that fascism was the vehicle for reform ; he had met Douglas in the New Age offices and had been impressed by his ideas . He gave a series of lectures on economics , and made contact with politicians in the United States on matters including education , interstate commerce and international affairs . Although Hemingway advised against it , on 30 January 1933 Pound met Benito Mussolini . Olga Rudge played for Mussolini and told him about Pound , who had earlier sent him a copy of Cantos XXX . During the meeting Pound tried to present Mussolini with a digest of his economic ideas , but Mussolini brushed them aside , though he called the Cantos " divertente " ( entertaining ) . The meeting was recorded in Canto XLI : " ' Ma questo ' / said the boss , ' è divertente . ' " Pound said he had " never met anyone who seemed to GET my ideas so quickly as the boss " .
When Olivia Shakespear died in October 1938 in London , Dorothy asked Pound to organize the funeral , where he saw their 12 @-@ year @-@ old son Omar for the first time in eight years . He visited Eliot and Wyndham Lewis , who produced a now @-@ famous portrait of Pound reclining . In April 1939 he sailed for New York , believing he could stop America 's involvement in World War II , happy to answer reporters ' questions about Mussolini while he lounged on the deck of the ship in a tweed jacket . He traveled to Washington , D.C. where he met senators and congressmen . His daughter , Mary , said that he had acted out of a sense of responsibility , rather than megalomania ; he was offered no encouragement , and was left feeling depressed and frustrated .
In June 1939 he received an honorary doctorate from Hamilton College , and a week later returned to Italy from the States and began writing antisemitic material for Italian newspapers . He wrote to James Laughlin that Roosevelt represented Jewry , and signed the letter with " Heil Hitler " . He started writing for Action , a newspaper owned by the British fascist Sir Oswald Mosley , arguing that the Third Reich was the " natural civilizer of Russia " . After war broke out in September that year , he began a furious letter @-@ writing campaign to the politicians he had petitioned six months earlier , arguing that the war was the result of an international banking conspiracy and that the United States should keep out of it .
= = = Radio broadcasts = = =
Tytell writes that by the 1940s no American or English poet had been so active politically since William Blake . Pound wrote over a thousand letters a year during the 1930s and presented his ideas in hundreds of articles , as well as in The Cantos . Pound 's greatest fear was an economic structure dependent on the armaments industry , where the profit motive would govern war and peace . He read George Santayana and The Law of Civilization and Decay by Brooks Adams , finding confirmation of the danger of the capitalist and usurer becoming dominant . He wrote in The Japan Times that " Democracy is now currently defined in Europe as a ' country run by Jews , ' " and told Oswald Mosley 's newspaper that the English were a slave race governed since Waterloo by the Rothschilds .
Pound broadcast over Rome Radio , though the Italian government was at first reluctant , concerned that he might be a double agent . He told a friend : " It took me , I think it was , TWO years , insistence and wrangling etc . , to GET HOLD of their microphone . " He recorded over a hundred broadcasts criticizing the United States , Roosevelt , Roosevelt 's family , and the Jews , and rambling about his poetry , economics , and Chinese philosophy . The first was in January 1935 , and by February 1940 he was broadcasting regularly ; he traveled to Rome one week a month to pre @-@ record the 10 @-@ minute broadcasts , for which he was paid around $ 17 , and they were broadcast every three days . The broadcasts required the Italian government 's approval , though he often changed the text in the studio . Tytell wrote that Pound 's voice had assumed a " rasping , buzzing quality like the sound of a hornet stuck in a jar " . The politics apart , Pound needed the money ; his father 's pension payments had stopped – his father died in February 1942 – and Pound had his mother and Dorothy to look after .
The broadcasts were monitored by the United States Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service listening station at Princeton University , and Pound was indicted in absentia for treason in July 1943 . He answered the charge by writing a letter to Attorney General Francis Biddle , which Tytell describes as " long , reasoned , and temperate " , defending his right to free speech . He continued to broadcast and write under pseudonyms until April 1945 , shortly before his arrest .
= = = Arrest for treason = = =
The war years threw Pound 's domestic arrangements into disarray . Olga lost possession of her house in Venice and took a small house with Mary above Rapallo at Sant ' Ambrogio . In 1943 Pound and Dorothy were evacuated from their apartment in Rapallo . His mother Isabel 's apartment was too small , and the couple moved in with Olga . Mary , then 19 and finished with convent school , was quickly sent back to Gais in Switzerland , leaving Pound , as she would later write , " pent up with two women who loved him , whom he loved , and who coldly hated each other . "
Pound was in Rome early in September when Italy surrendered . He borrowed a pair of hiking boots and a knapsack and left the city , having finally decided to tell Mary about his wife and son . He walked 450 miles north , spending a night in an air raid shelter in Bologna , then took a train to Verona and walked the rest of the way . Mary almost failed to recognize him when he arrived , he was so dirty and tired . He told her everything about his other family ; she later admitted she felt more pity than anger .
He returned home to Rapallo , where on 3 May 1945 , four days after Mussolini was shot , armed partisans arrived at the house to find Pound alone . He stuffed a copy of Confucius and a Chinese dictionary in his pocket before he was taken to their headquarters in Chiavari . He was released shortly afterwards ; then with Olga gave himself up to an American military post in the nearby town of Lavagna .
Pound was transferred to U.S. Counter Intelligence Corps headquarters in Genoa , where he was interrogated by Frank L. Amprin , an FBI agent assigned by J. Edgar Hoover . Pound asked to send a cable to President Truman to offer to help negotiate peace with Japan . He also asked to be allowed a final broadcast , a script called " Ashes of Europe Calling " , in which he recommended peace with Japan , American management of Italy , the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine , and leniency toward Germany . His requests were denied and the script was forwarded to Hoover .
On 8 May , the day Germany surrendered , Pound told an American reporter , Ed Johnston , that Hitler was " a Jeanne d 'Arc , a saint " , and that Mussolini was an " imperfect character who lost his head " . On 24 May he was transferred to the United States Army Disciplinary Training Center north of Pisa , where he was placed in one of the camp 's " death cells " , a series of six @-@ by @-@ six @-@ foot outdoor steel cages lit up at night by floodlights ; engineers reinforced his cage with heavier steel for fear the fascists would try to break him out . He spent three weeks in isolation in the heat , sleeping on the concrete , denied exercise and communication , except for conversations with the chaplain . After two and a half weeks he began to break down under the strain . Richard Sieburth wrote that Pound recorded it in Canto LXXX , where Odysseus is saved from drowning by Leucothea : " hast 'ou swum in a sea of air strip / through an aeon of nothingness , / when the raft broke and the waters went over me . " Medical staff moved him out of the cage the following week . On 14 and 15 June he was examined by psychiatrists , one of whom found symptoms of a mental breakdown , after which he was transferred to his own tent and allowed reading material . He began to write , drafting what became known as The Pisan Cantos . The existence of a few sheets of toilet paper showing the beginning of Canto LXXXIV suggests he started it while in the cage .
= = United States ( 1945 – 58 ) = =
= = = St Elizabeths Hospital = = =
On 15 November 1945 Pound was transferred to the United States . An escorting officer 's impression was that " he is an intellectual ' crackpot ' who imagined that he could correct all the economic ills of the world and who resented the fact that ordinary mortals were not sufficiently intelligent to understand his aims and motives . " He was arraigned in Washington D.C. on charges of treason on the 25th of that month . The charges included broadcasting for the enemy , attempting to persuade American citizens to undermine government support of the war , and strengthening morale in Italy against the United States .
He was admitted to St. Elizabeths Hospital and in June the following year Dorothy was declared his legal guardian . He was held for a time in the hospital 's prison ward – Howard 's Hall , known as the " hell @-@ hole " – a building without windows in a room with a thick steel door , and nine peepholes to allow the psychiatrists to observe him as they tried to agree on a diagnosis . Visitors were admitted for only 15 minutes at a time , while patients wandered around screaming and frothing at the mouth .
Pound 's lawyer , Julien Cornell , whose efforts to have him declared insane are credited with having saved him from life imprisonment , requested his release at a bail hearing in January 1947 . The hospital 's superintendent , Winfred Overholser , agreed instead to move him to the more pleasant surroundings of Chestnut Ward , close to Overholser 's private quarters , which is where he spent the next 12 years . The historian Stanley Kutler was given access in the 1980s to military intelligence and other government documents about Pound , including his hospital records , and wrote that the psychiatrists believed Pound had a narcissistic personality , but they considered him sane . Kutler believes that Overholser protected Pound from the criminal justice system because he was fascinated by him .
Tytell writes that Pound was in his element in Chestnut Ward . He was at last provided for , and was allowed to read , write , and receive visitors , including Dorothy for several hours a day . He took over a small alcove with wicker chairs just outside his room , and turned it into his private living room , where he entertained his friends and important literary figures . He began work on his translation of Sophocles 's Women of Trachis and Electra , and continued work on The Cantos . It reached the point where he refused to discuss any attempt to have him released . Olga Rudge visited him twice , once in 1952 and again in 1955 , and was unable to convince him to be more assertive about his release . She wrote to a friend : " E.P. has – as he had before – bats in the belfry but it strikes me that he has fewer not more than before his incarceration . "
Pound 's contemporaries did all they could to get him out of confinement . Robert Frost obtained legal advocacy and successfully campaigned to get Pound out of St. Elizabeths . In 1955 , Hemingway said “ . . . Whatever he did has been punished greatly and I believe he should be freed to go and write poems in Italy where he is loved and understood . ”
= = = The Pisan Cantos , Bollingen Prize = = =
James Laughlin had " Cantos LXXIV – LXXXIV " ready for publication in 1946 under the title The Pisan Cantos , and gave Pound an advance copy , but he held back , waiting for an appropriate time to publish . A group of Pound 's friends – Eliot , Cummings , W. H. Auden , Allen Tate , and Julien Cornell – met Laughlin to discuss how to get him released . They planned to have Pound awarded the first Bollingen Prize , a new national poetry award by the Library of Congress , with $ 1 @,@ 000 prize money donated by the Mellon family .
The awards committee consisted of 15 fellows of the Library of Congress , including several of Pound 's supporters , such as Eliot , Tate , Conrad Aiken , Amy Lowell , Katherine Anne Porter and Theodore Spencer . The idea was that the Justice Department would be placed in an untenable position if Pound won a major award and was not released .
Laughlin published The Pisan Cantos on 30 July 1948 , and the following year the prize went to Pound . There were two dissenting voices , Francis Biddle 's wife , Katherine Garrison Chapin , and Karl Shapiro , who said that he could not vote for an antisemite because he was Jewish himself . Pound responded to the award by saying , " No comment from the bughouse . "
There was uproar . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette quoted critics who said " poetry [ cannot ] convert words into maggots that eat at human dignity and still be good poetry . " Robert Hillyer , a Pulitzer Prize winner and president of the Poetry Society of America , attacked the committee in The Saturday Review of Literature , telling journalists that he " never saw anything to admire in Pound , not one line " . Congressman Jacob K. Javits demanded an investigation into the awards committee . It was the last time the prize was administered by the Library of Congress .
= = = Release = = =
Although Pound repudiated his antisemitism in public , he maintained his views in private . He refused to talk to psychiatrists with Jewish @-@ sounding names , dismissed people he disliked as " Jews " , and urged visitors to read the Protocols of the Elders of Zion ( 1903 ) , a forgery claiming to represent a Jewish plan for world domination . He struck up a friendship with the conspiracy theorist and antisemite Eustace Mullins , believed to be associated with the Aryan League of America , and author of the 1961 biography This Difficult Individual , Ezra Pound .
Even more damaging was his friendship with John Kasper , a far @-@ right activist and Ku Klux Klan member . Kasper had come to admire Pound during literature classes at university , and after he wrote to Pound in 1950 the two had become friends . Kasper opened a bookstore in Greenwich Village in 1953 called " Make it New " , reflecting his commitment to Pound 's ideas ; the store specialized in far @-@ right material , including Nazi literature , and Pound 's poetry and translations were displayed on the window front . Kasper and another follower of Pound 's , David Horton , set up a publishing imprint , Square Dollar Series , which Pound used as a vehicle for his tracts about economic reform .
Wilhelm writes that there were a lot of conventional people visiting Pound too , such as the classicist J.P. Sullivan and the writer Guy Davenport , but it was the association with Mullins and Kasper that stood out . The relationships delayed his release from St Elizabeths . In an interview for the Paris Review in 1958 , when asked by interviewer George Plimpton about Pound 's relationship with Kasper , Hemingway replied that Pound should be released and Kasper jailed . Kasper was eventually jailed for the 1957 bombing of the Hattie Cotton School in Nashville , targeted because a black girl had registered as a student .
Pound 's friends continued to try to get him out . Shortly after Hemingway won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954 , he told Time magazine that " this would be a good year to release poets " . The poet Archibald MacLeish asked him in June 1957 to write a letter on Pound 's behalf ; Hemingway believed Pound was unable to abstain from awkward political statements or from friendships with people like Kasper , but he signed a letter of support anyway , and pledged $ 1 @,@ 500 to be given to Pound when he was released . In 1957 several publications began campaigning for his release . Le Figaro published an appeal entitled " The Lunatic at St Elizabeths " . The New Republic , Esquire and The Nation followed suit ; The Nation argued that Pound was a sick and vicious old man , but that he had rights . In 1958 MacLeish hired Thurman Arnold , a prestigious lawyer who ended up charging no fee , to file a motion to dismiss the 1945 indictment . Overholser , the hospital 's superintendent , supported the application with an affidavit saying Pound was permanently and incurably insane , and that confinement served no therapeutic purpose . The motion was heard on 18 April that year by the same judge who had committed Pound to St Elizabeths . The Department of Justice did not oppose the motion , and Pound was free .
= = Italy ( 1958 – 72 ) = =
Pound arrived in Naples in July , where he was photographed giving a fascist salute to the waiting press . When asked when he had been released from the mental hospital , he replied : " I never was . When I left the hospital I was still in America , and all America is an insane asylum . " He and Dorothy went to live with Mary at Castle Brunnenburg near Merano in the Province of South Tyrol – where he met his grandson , Walter , and his granddaughter , Patrizia , for the first time – then returned to Rapallo , where Olga Rudge was waiting to join them .
They were accompanied by a teacher Pound had met in hospital , Marcella Spann , 40 years his junior , ostensibly acting as his secretary and collecting poems for an anthology . The four women soon fell out , vying for control over him ; Canto CXIII : alluded to it : " Pride , jealousy and possessiveness / 3 pains of hell . " Pound was in love with Marcella , seeing in her his last chance for love and youth . He wrote about her in Canto CXIII : " The long flank , the firm breast / and to know beauty and death and despair / And to think that what has been shall be , / flowing , ever unstill . " Dorothy had usually ignored his affairs , but she used her legal power over his royalties to make sure Marcella was seen off , sent back to America .
By December 1959 he was mired in depression . He saw his work as worthless and The Cantos botched . In a 1960 interview given in Rome to Donald Hall for Paris Review , he said : " You – find me – in fragments . " Hall wrote that he seemed in an " abject despair , accidie , meaninglessness , abulia , waste " . He paced up and down during the three days it took to complete the interview , never finishing a sentence , bursting with energy one minute , then suddenly sagging , and at one point seemed about to collapse . Hall said it was clear that he " doubted the value of everything he had done in his life . "
Those close to him thought he was suffering from dementia , and in the summer of 1960 Mary placed him in a clinic near Merano when his weight dropped . He picked up again , but by the spring of 1961 he had a urinary infection . Dorothy felt unable to look after him , so he went that summer to live with Olga in Rapallo , then Venice ; Dorothy mostly stayed in London after that with Omar . Pound attended a neo @-@ Fascist May Day parade in 1962 , but his health continued to decline . The following year he told an interviewer , Grazia Levi : " I spoil everything I touch . I have always blundered ... All my life I believed I knew nothing , yes , knew nothing . And so words became devoid of meaning . "
William Carlos Williams died in 1963 , followed by Eliot in 1965 . Pound went to Eliot 's funeral in London and on to Dublin to visit Yeats 's widow . Two years later he went to New York where he attended the opening of an exhibition featuring his blue @-@ inked version of Eliot 's The Waste Land . He went on to Hamilton College where he received a standing ovation . Shortly before his death in 1972 it was proposed he be awarded the Emerson @-@ Thoreau Medal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , but after a storm of protest the academy 's council opposed it by 13 to 9 ; the sociologist Daniel Bell , who was on the committee , argued that it was important to distinguish between those who explore hate and those who approve it . Two weeks before he died , Pound read for a gathering of friends at a café : " re USURY / I was out of focus , taking a symptom for a cause . / The cause is AVARICE . "
On his 87th birthday , 30 October 1972 , he was too weak to leave his bedroom . The next night he was admitted to the Civil Hospital of Venice , where he died in his sleep of an intestinal blockage on 1 November , with Olga at his side . Dorothy was unable to travel to the funeral . Four gondoliers dressed in black rowed the body to the island cemetery , Isola di San Michele , where he was buried near Diaghilev and Stravinsky . Dorothy died in England the following year . Olga died in 1996 and was buried next to Pound .
= = Style = =
Critics generally agree that Pound was a strong yet subtle lyricist , particularly in his early work , such as " The River Merchant 's Wife " . According to Witmeyer a modern style is evident as early as Ripostes , and Nadel sees evidence of modernism even before he began The Cantos , writing that Pound wanted his poetry to represent an " objective presentation of material which he believed could stand on its own " without use of symbolism or romanticism .
Drawing on literature from a variety of disciplines , Pound intentionally layered often confusing juxtapositions , yet led the reader to an intended conclusion , believing the " thoughtful man " would apply a sense of organization and uncover the underlying symbolism and structure . Ignoring Victorian and Edwardian grammar and structure , he created a unique form of speech , employing odd and strange words , jargon , avoiding verbs , and using rhetorical devices such as parataxis .
Pound 's relationship to music is essential to his poetry . Although he was tone deaf and his speaking voice is described as " raucous , nasal , scratchy " , Michael Ingam writes that Pound is on a short list of poets possessed of a sense of sound , an " ear " for words , imbuing his poetry with melopoeia . His study of troubadour poetry – words written to be sung ( motz et son ) – led him to think modern poetry should be written similarly . He wrote that rhythm is " the hardest quality of a man 's style to counterfeit " . Ingham compares the form of The Cantos to a fugue ; without adhering strictly to the traditions of the form , nevertheless multiple themes are explored simultaneously . He goes on to write that Pound 's use of counterpoint is integral to the structure and cohesion of The Cantos , which show multi @-@ voiced counterpoint and , with the juxtaposition of images , non @-@ linear themes . The pieces are presented in fragments " which taken together , can be seen to unfold in time as music does " .
= = = Imagism and Vorticism = = =
Opinion varies about the nature of Pound 's writing style . Nadel writes that imagism was to change Pound 's poetry . Like Wyndham Lewis , Pound reacted against decorative flourishes found in Edwardian writing , saying poetry required a precise and economic use of language and that the poet should always use the " exact " word , stripping the writing down to the " barest essence " . According to Nadel , " Imagism evolved as a reaction against abstraction ... replacing Victorian generalities with the clarity in Japanese haiku and ancient Greek lyrics . " Daniel Albright writes that Pound tried to condense and eliminate " all but the hardest kernel " from a poem , such as in the two @-@ line poem " In a Station of the Metro " . However , Pound learned that Imagism did not lend itself well to the writing of an epic , so he turned to the more dynamic structure of Vorticism for The Cantos .
= = = Translations = = =
Pound 's translations represent a substantial part of his work . He began his career with translations of Occitan ballads and ended with translations of Egyptian poetry . Yao says the body of translations by modernist poets in general , much of which Pound started , consists of some the most " significant modernist achievements in English " . Pound was the first English language poet since John Dryden , some three centuries earlier , to give primacy to translations in English literature . The fullness of the achievement for the modernists is that they renewed interest in multiculturalism , multilingualism , and , perhaps of greater importance , they treated translations not in a strict sense of the word but instead saw a translation as the creation of an original work .
Michael Alexander writes that , as a translator , Pound was a pioneer with a great gift of language and an incisive intelligence . He helped popularize major poets such as Guido Cavalcanti and Du Fu , and brought Provençal and Chinese poetry to English @-@ speaking audiences . He revived interest in the Confucian classics and introduced the west to classical Japanese poetry and drama . He translated and championed Greek , Latin and Anglo @-@ Saxon classics , and helped keep them alive at a time when poets no longer considered translations central to their craft .
In Pound 's Fenollosa translations , unlike previous American translators of Chinese poetry , which tended to work with strict metrical and stanzaic patterns , Pound created free verse translations . Whether the poems are valuable as translations continues to be a source of controversy . Hugh Kenner contends that Cathay should be read primarily as a work about World War I , not as an attempt at accurately translating ancient Eastern poems . The real achievement of the book , Kenner argues , is in how it combines meditations on violence and friendship with an effort to " rethink the nature of an English poem " . These ostensible translations of ancient Eastern texts , Kenner argues , are actually experiments in English poetics and compelling elegies for a warring West . Pound scholar Ming Xie explains that Pound 's use of language in his translation of " The Seafarer " is deliberate , in that he avoids merely " trying to assimilate the original into contemporary language " .
= = = The Cantos = = =
The Cantos is difficult to decipher . In the epic poem , Pound disregards literary genres , mixing satire , hymns , elegies , essays and memoirs . Pound scholar Rebecca Beasley believes it amounts to a rejection of the 19th @-@ century nationalistic approach in favor of early @-@ 20th @-@ century comparative literature . Pound reaches across cultures and time periods , assembling and juxtaposing " themes and history " from Homer to Ovid and Dante , from Thomas Jefferson and John Adams , and many others . The work presents a multitude of protagonists as " travellers between nations " . The nature of The Cantos , she says , is to compare and measure among historical periods and cultures and against " a Poundian standard " of modernism . Pound layered ideas , cultures , and historical periods , juxtaposing modern vernacular , Classical languages , and underlying truths , often represented with Chinese ideograms and as many as 15 different languages .
Ira Nadel says The Cantos is an epic , that is " a poem including history " , and that the " historical figures lend referentiality to the text " . It functions as a contemporary memoir , in which " personal history [ and ] lyrical retrospection mingle " – most clearly represented in the Pisan Cantos . Michael Ingham sees in The Cantos an American tradition of experimental literature writing about it , " These works include everything but the kitchen sink , and then add the kitchen sink " . In the 1960s William O 'Connor described The Cantos as filled with " cryptic and gnomic utterances , dirty jokes , obscenities of various sorts " .
Allen Tate believes the poem is not about anything and is without beginning , middle or end . He argues that Pound was incapable of sustained thought and " at the mercy of random flights of ' angelic insight , ' an Icarian self @-@ indulgence of prejudice which is not checked by a total view to which it could be subordinated " . This perceived lack of logical consistency or form is a common criticism of The Cantos . Pound himself felt this absence of form was his great failure , and regretted that he could not " make it cohere " .
= = = Literary criticism and economic theory = = =
Pound 's literary criticism and essays are , according to Massimo Bacigalupo , a " form of intellectual journal " . In early works , such as The Spirit of Romance and " I Gather the Limbs of Osiris " , Pound paid attention to medieval troubadour poets – Arnaut Daniel and François Villon . The former piece was to " remain one of Pound 's principal sourcebooks for his poetry " ; in the latter he introduces the concept of " luminous details " . The leitmotifs in Pound 's literary criticism are recurrent patterns found in historical events , which , he believed , through the use of judicious juxtapositions illuminate truth ; and in them he reveals forgotten writers and cultures .
Pound wrote intensively about economic theory with the ABC of Economics and Jefferson and / or Mussolini , published in the mid @-@ 1930s right after he was introduced to Mussolini . These were followed by The Guide to Kulchur – covering 2500 years of history – which Tim Redman describes as the " most complete synthesis of Pound 's political and economic thought " . Pound thought writing the cantos meant writing an epic about history and economics , and he wove his economic theories throughout ; neither can be understood without the other . In these pamphlets and in The ABC of Reading , he sought to emphasize the value of art and to " aestheticize the political " – written forcefully , according to Nadel , and in a " determined voice " . In form his criticism and essays are direct , repetitive and reductionist , his rhetoric minimalist , filled with " strident impatience " , according to Pound scholar Jason Coats , and frequently failing to make a coherent claim . He rejected traditional rhetoric and created his own , although not very successfully , in Coats 's view .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
In 1922 the literary critic Edmund Wilson reviewed Pound 's latest published volume of poetry , Poems 1918 – 21 , and took the opportunity to provide an overview of his estimation of Pound as poet . In his essay on Pound , titled " Ezra Pound 's Patchwork " , Wilson wrote :
Ezra Pound is really at heart a very boyish fellow and an incurable provincial . It is true that he was driven to Europe by a thirst for romance and color that he could scarcely have satisfied in America , but he took to Europe the simple faith and pure enthusiasm of his native Idaho . ... His sophistication is still juvenile , his ironies are still clumsy and obvious , he ridicules Americans in Europe not very much simpler than himself ...
According to Wilson , the lines in Pound 's poems stood isolated , with fragmentary wording contributing to poems that " do not hang together " . Citing Pound 's first seven cantos , Wilson dubbed the writing " unsatisfactory " . He found The Cantos disjointed and its contents reflecting a too @-@ obvious reliance on the literary works of other authors , and an awkward use of Latin and Chinese translations as a device inserted among reminiscences of Pound 's own life .
The rise of New Criticism during the 1950s , in which author is separated from text , secured Pound 's poetic reputation . Nadel writes that the publication of T.S. Eliot 's Literary Essays in 1954 " initiated the recuperation of Ezra Pound " . Eliot 's essays coincided with the work of Hugh Kenner , who visited Pound extensively at St. Elizabeths . Kenner wrote that there was no great contemporary writer less read than Pound , adding that there is also no one to appeal more through " sheer beauty of language " . Along with Donald Davie , Kenner brought a new appreciation to Pound 's work in the 1960s and 1970s . Donald Gallup 's Pound bibliography was published in 1963 and Kenner 's The Pound Era in 1971 . In the 1970s a literary journal dedicated to Pound studies ( Paideuma ) was established , and Ronald Bush published the first dedicated critical study of The Cantos , to be followed by a number of research editions of The Cantos .
Following Mullins ' biography , described by Nadel as " partisan " and " melodramatic " , was Noel Stock 's factual 1970 Life of Ezra Pound – although the material included was subject to Dorothy 's approval . The 1980s saw three significant biographies : John Tytell 's " neutral " account in 1987 , followed by Wilhelm 's multi @-@ volume biography . Humphrey Carpenter 's sprawling narrative , a " complete life " , built on what Stock began ; unlike Stock , Carpenter had the benefit of working without intervention from Pound 's relatives . In 2007 David Moody published the first of his multi @-@ volume biography , combining narrative with literary criticism , the first work to link the two .
In the 1980s Mary de Rachewiltz released the first dual @-@ language edition of The Cantos , including " Canto LXXII " and " Canto LXXIII " . These cantos had originally been published in fascist magazines , and are characterized by 21st @-@ century literary scholars as no more than war @-@ time propaganda . In 1991 a complete facsimile edition of Pound 's prose and poetry was published , now considered a " fundamental research tool " , according to Nadel . Scholarship in the 1990s turned toward in @-@ depth investigations of his antisemitism and Rome years . Tim Redman writes about Pound 's fascism and his relationship with Mussolini , and Leon Surrette about Pound 's economic theories , especially during the Italian period , investigating how Pound the poet became Pound the fascist . In 1999 Surrette wrote about the state of Pound criticism , that " the effort to uncover coherence in a ... crazy quilt of verse styles , critical principles , crankish economic theories and distasteful political affiliations has made it difficult to perceive the genesis and development of any of these components . " He emphasized that Pound 's " economic and political opinions have not been properly dated , nor has the suddenness of his radicalization been appreciated . "
Nadel 's 2010 Pound in Context is a contextual literary approach to Pound scholarship . Pound 's life , " the social , political , historical , and literary developments of his period " , is fully investigated , which , according to Nadel is " the grid for reading Pound 's poetry . " In 2012 Matthew Feldman wrote that the more than 1 @,@ 500 documents in the " Pound files " held by the FBI have been ignored by scholars , and almost certainly contain evidence that " Pound was politically cannier , was more bureaucratically involved with Italian Fascism , and was more involved with Mussolini 's regime than has been posited " .
= = = Legacy = = =
Pound helped advance the careers of some of the best @-@ known modernist writers of the early 20th century . In addition to Eliot , Joyce , Lewis , Frost , Williams , Hemingway and Conrad Aiken , he befriended and helped Marianne Moore , Louis Zukofsky , Jacob Epstein , Basil Bunting , E.E. Cummings , Margaret Anderson , George Oppen , and Charles Olson . Hugh Witemeyer argues that the Imagist movement was the most important in 20th @-@ century English @-@ language poetry because it affected all the leading poets of Pound 's generation and the two generations after him . In 1917 Carl Sandburg wrote in Poetry : " All talk on modern poetry , by people who know , ends with dragging in Ezra Pound somewhere . He may be named only to be cursed as wanton and mocker , poseur , trifler and vagrant . Or he may be classed as filling a niche today like that of Keats in a preceding epoch . The point is , he will be mentioned . "
The outrage after Pound 's wartime collaboration with Mussolini 's regime was so deep that the imagined method of his execution dominated the discussion . Arthur Miller considered him worse than Hitler : " In his wildest moments of human vilification Hitler never approached our Ezra ... he knew all America 's weaknesses and he played them as expertly as Goebbels ever did . " The response went so far as to denounce all modernists as fascists , and it was only in the 1980s that critics began a re @-@ evaluation . Macha Rosenthal wrote that it was " as if all the beautiful vitality and all the brilliant rottenness of our heritage in its luxuriant variety were both at once made manifest " in Ezra Pound .
Pound 's antisemitism has soured evaluation of his poetry . Pound scholar Wendy Stallard Flory writes that separating the poetry from the antisemitism is perceived as apologetic . She believes the positioning of Pound as " National Monster " and " designated fascist intellectual " made him a stand @-@ in for the silent majority in Germany , occupied France and Belgium , as well as Britain and the United States , who , she argues , made the Holocaust possible by aiding or standing by .
Later in his life , Pound analyzed what he judged to be his own failings as a writer attributable to his adherence to ideological fallacies . Allen Ginsberg states that , in a private conversation in 1967 , Pound told the young poet , " my poems don 't make sense . " He went on to supposedly call himself a " moron " , to characterize his writing as " stupid and ignorant " , " a mess " . Ginsberg reassured Pound that he " had shown us the way " , but Pound refused to be mollified :
'Any good I 've done has been spoiled by bad intentions – the preoccupation with irrelevant and stupid things , ' [ he ] replied . Then very slowly , with emphasis , surely conscious of Ginsberg 's being Jewish : ' But the worst mistake I made was that stupid , suburban prejudice of anti @-@ semitism.'
= = Works = =
= Albert Dock =
The Albert Dock is a complex of dock buildings and warehouses in Liverpool , England . Designed by Jesse Hartley and Philip Hardwick , it was opened in 1846 , and was the first structure in Britain to be built from cast iron , brick and stone , with no structural wood . As a result , it was the first non @-@ combustible warehouse system in the world .
At the time of its construction the Albert Dock was considered a revolutionary docking system because ships were loaded and unloaded directly from / to the warehouses . Two years after it opened it was modified to feature the world 's first hydraulic cranes . Due to its open yet secure design , the Albert Dock became a popular store for valuable cargoes such as brandy , cotton , tea , silk , tobacco , ivory and sugar . However , despite the Albert Dock 's advanced design , the rapid development of shipping technology meant that within 50 years , larger , more open docks were required , although it remained a valuable store for cargo .
During the Second World War , the Albert Dock was requisitioned by the Admiralty serving as a base for boats of the British Atlantic Fleet . The complex was damaged during air raids on Liverpool , notably during the May Blitz of 1941 . In the aftermath of the war , the financial problems of the owners and the general decline of docking in the city meant that the future of the Albert Dock was uncertain . Numerous plans were developed for the re @-@ use of the buildings but none came to fruition and in 1972 the dock was finally closed . Having lain derelict for nearly ten years , the redevelopment of the dock began in 1981 , when the Merseyside Development Corporation was set up , with the Albert Dock being officially re @-@ opened in 1984 .
Today the Albert Dock is a major tourist attraction in the city and the most visited multi @-@ use attraction in the United Kingdom , outside London . It is a vital component of Liverpool 's UNESCO designated World Heritage Maritime Mercantile City and the docking complex and warehouses also comprise the largest single collection of Grade I listed buildings anywhere in the UK .
= = History = =
= = = Grand beginnings and early history = = =
The history of the Albert Dock dates back to 1837 , when Jesse Hartley first began the development of plans for a combined dock and warehouse system . The plans drawn up by Hartley and fellow civil engineer Philip Hardwick for the Albert Dock were at the time considered quite ' radical ' , as they envisioned the loading and unloading of ships directly from the warehouses . However , this idea was not new , and as far back as the 1803 Warehousing Act , legislation had been passed to allow this form of development to occur , whilst the concept was first actually used in the construction of St Katharine 's Dock in London , which was opened in 1828 . As part of the development process , Hartley was eager to test the fire resistance of any particular design by constructing an 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) by 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) dummy structure , filling it with timber and tar , and setting it alight . After testing several structural designs he settled on the combination of cast iron , brick , sandstone and granite . The design was submitted for planning permission in 1839 although it wasn 't until 1841 , when the bill authorising the design of the dock was eventually passed by Parliament , that construction was allowed to begin .
The site chosen for the dock to be built on was an area of land bordered by Salthouse Dock to the east , the entrance channel to Canning Dock to the north and by Dukes Dock to the south . The land earmarked for the site had to be cleared , with 59 tenants being evicted and numerous premises demolished including a pub , several houses and the Dock Trustee 's Dockyard . Upon the clearance of this land both the Salthouse and Canning dock 's were drained to allow entrance passages into the Albert Dock to be constructed , whilst hundreds of ' Navvies ' were employed to dig out the dock basin and construct the new river wall . The dock basin was completed by February 1845 , allowing the first ships to enter the Albert Dock , although with the warehouses still under construction this was merely to allow these boats to ' lay @-@ up ' .
The dock complex was officially opened in 1846 by Albert , Prince Consort , husband of Queen Victoria and the man in honour of whom it was named . This event marked the first occasion in Liverpool 's history in which a member of the Royal Family had made a state visit to the city and as a result the occasion was marked with a major celebrations . Many thousands of people turned out for the Royal visit with the newspaper The Pictorial Times noting the reception Prince Albert received :
" His reception was most enthusiastic ; balconies were erected along the line of procession , and these and the windows of houses were filled with gay and animated parties . There was a most brilliant display of flags , banners & c . [ sic ] . All business is suspended . There are 200 @,@ 000 strangers in town , and all the inhabitants are in the streets . All is gaiety and splendour . " ( The Pictorial Times , 1846 ) .
The Prince was taken on a processional tour through the city , including a visit to the town hall where the royal address was made , before departing aboard the ferry across to the Cheshire side of the Mersey and then northwards towards the Albert Dock . Again this stage of the procession route was laden with onlookers with The Pictorial Times describing the Prince 's entrance into the Albert Dock :
" From the Cheshire side of the river the Fairy crossed to the Liverpool side , and returned along the line of docks amidst the cheers of assembled thousands and the roar of artillery . The sight was really magnificent , all the ships in the docks were decked out in gayest colours and the river was crowded with boats filled with people . At half @-@ past two the fairy entered the dock , where were assembled two thousand ladies and gentlemen , the elite of the town ; they cheered enthusiastically , which his Royal Highness returned , and in order to gratify the crowd sailed round the dock . " ( The Pictorial Times , 1846 ) .
Despite the official opening occurring in 1846 , the construction of the Albert Dock was not fully completed until 1847 . In 1848 , a new dock office was built and the dock itself was upgraded to feature a hydraulic cargo handling hoist system , the first of its kind in the world . Over the next decade several more buildings where added including houses for the piermaster , his assistant & the warehouse superintendent ; and a cooperage . Warehousing in the dock was also expanded to meet the increasing demand by joining together the eastern and western ends of the Southern Stack .
= = = Changing fortunes and role in the Second World War = = =
The enclosed design of the Albert Dock and the direct loading and unloading of goods from warehouses meant that the complex was more secure than other docks within Liverpool . As a result it became a popular store for valuable cargoes including brandy , cotton , tea , silk , tobacco , ivory and sugar . At the same time their openness to natural light and well ventilated stores meant natural goods such as hemp or sugar could be kept fresher , for longer . The dock came to dominate Liverpool 's far eastern trade , with over 90 % of the city 's silk imports from China coming through it and more generally half of all the far eastern trade income .
Despite the great prosperity the dock afforded the city , within 20 years of its construction the Albert Dock was beginning to struggle . Designed and constructed to handle sailing ships of up to 1 @,@ 000 tonnes , by the start of the 20th century only 7 % of ships into the Port of Liverpool were sailing vessels . The development of steam ships in the later 19th century meant that soon the dock simply wasn 't large enough , as its narrow entrances prevented larger vessels from entering it . Its lack of quayside was also becoming an issue . Generally steamships could be loaded and unloaded far quicker than sailing ships , and in a cruel twist of irony , the dockside warehouses that had once made the Albert Dock so attractive , were now hindering its future development . Nonetheless the Albert Dock remained an integral part of the dock system in Liverpool and in 1878 the pump house was built as part of redevelopment that saw the majority of the cranes converted to hydraulic use , whilst in 1899 , part of the north stack was converted to allow for ice production and cold storage .
By the 1920s virtually all commercial shipping activity had ceased at the dock , although its warehouses did remain in use for the storage of goods transported by barge , road or rail . The onset of the Second World War in 1939 saw the Albert Dock being ' requisitioned ' by the Admiralty and used as base for the British Atlantic fleet including submarines , small warships and landing craft . During the war the dock was struck on several occasions including a bombing raid in 1940 that damaged ships within it , and more destructively during the May Blitz of 1941 when German bombing caused extensive damage to the south west stack . By the end of the war almost 15 % of the Albert Dock 's floor space was out of use because of bomb damage .
= = = Post War history and decline = = =
By the time the Second World War had finished the Albert Dock 's future looked bleak . The owners of the dock , the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board ( MDHB ) were in financial crisis and chose not to repair any of the wartime bomb damage , adopting an attitude of ' if its not broke don 't fix it and if it is broke we still won 't fix it ' . At the same time a change in geo @-@ political orientation towards Europe , coupled with the advent of containerisation meant the whole docking system in the city of Liverpool suffered as newer , stronger ports emerged elsewhere in the UK . Nonetheless the architectural and technological value of the docks was recognised in 1952 when the Albert Dock was granted Grade I listed building status .
Despite this recognition , the increasing debts of the MDHB meant that by the 1960s the company was eager to get rid of the Albert Dock . Having considered demolishing the buildings and redeveloping the land , the MDHB soon entered negotiations to sell the land to Oldham Estates , a property developer owned by Harry Hyams . Many plans for the site were developed including one that envisioned the development of a mini city that would provide 10m sq feet of letting space , hotels , restaurants , bars and underground parking in the drained dock basin . With the council reluctant to allow such a grandiose development to occur and with the huge public opposition to it ( inspired at least in part by the work of Quentin Hughes ) , Oldham Estates were forced into scaling @-@ down the plan and so in 1970 returned with a new vision known as ' Aquarius City ' , which had as its centrepiece a 44 @-@ storey skyscraper . Once again the plan failed to develop and no sooner had it been announced , than the MDHB 's financial problems reached crisis point , Oldham Estates withdrew their deposit and the whole scheme fell through .
With the MDHB on the verge of bankruptcy a decision was taken to shut down and sell off the whole of the south docks system . The warehouses were emptied and in 1972 the Albert Dock finally closed down . The Brunswick Dock gates , which separated the South Docks system from the River Mersey , were opened allowing tidal movements in and the process of the clogging up the docks with sewage polluted silt began . In many senses just as the Albert Dock 's development had symbolised the prosperity in the Liverpool at the time of its construction , its subsequent decline after the Second World War symbolised the collapse of the local economy as a whole .
Throughout the early 1970s plans continued to emerge for the redevelopment of the Albert Dock site and the whole of the south docks system in general . Many of these plans were quite extreme including Liverpool City Council 's suggestion to use the dock basin as a landfill site . The Mersey Docks and Harbour Company ( MDHC ) , the reincarnation of the now defunct Mersey Docks and Harbour Board , however felt it could get more money by filling in the dock basin with sand and selling it as developable land and not derelict land . One plan for the Albert Dock that was taken more seriously was the idea that it become the new home of Liverpool Polytechnic ( now John Moores University ) . The government was even willing to provide £ 3m in funding but like so many other plans this too fell by the wayside .
The creation of Merseyside County Council ( MCC ) in 1974 brought new hope that the Albert Dock could be redeveloped , with the MCC placing a high priority on its development . They soon entered negotiations with the MDHC and in 1979 eventually negotiated a deal to take over the running of the south docks . Despite this seeming step forward political wrangling between the MDHC ( the dock owners ) , Liverpool City Council ( the local planning authority ) and Merseyside County Council ( the group now responsible for redeveloping the docks ) continued to hinder any development plans . Fed up with the in fighting the newly elected Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher decided that the city was incapable of handling regeneration initiatives itself and under the guidance of the ' Minister for Merseyside ' Michael Heseltine , set up the Merseyside Development Corporation in 1981 to take over the responsibility of regenerating and redeveloping Liverpool 's south docks .
= = = The MDC and regeneration of the Albert Dock = = =
The creation of the Merseyside Development Corporation ( MDC ) in 1981 was part of a new initiative launched by the then Conservative government that earmarked the regeneration of some 800 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 km2 ) of Liverpool 's south docks , by using public sector investment to create infrastructure within an area that could then in turn be used to attract private sector investment . Thus the MDC was not directly responsible for regeneration programmes but rather acted as a spearhead , guiding the development process . Upon its formation it immediately created an initial strategy for the area placing a high priority on restoring those buildings that could be restored & demolishing the rest , restoring a water regime within the dock system ( including the removal of up to 40 ft ( 12 m ) of silt ) and general environmental landscaping . As part of the strategy two flagship schemes were set up : the redevelopment of a site in Otterspool for the International Garden Festival and the regeneration of the Albert Dock .
In 1982 the MDC entered into negotiations with London @-@ based developers Arrowcroft in order to secure much needed private sector investment . On a visit to the site , Arrowcroft 's chairman Leonard Eppel spoke of how the buildings " talked to him " and upon his return to London set about persuading the company 's board to take on the project . In September 1983 a deal was signed between Arrowcroft plc and the MDC leading to the creation of the Albert Dock Company , which could now start the process of regenerating the Albert Dock .
One of the first priorities of the regeneration was the restoration of the dock system , which had deteriorated rapidly since the Brunswick Dock gates had been left open . Contaminated silt was removed from the dock basin , dock gates were replaced & bridges restored , whilst the dock walls were repaired . The Albert Dock company appointed Tarmac to renovate the dock 's
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had its premiere CD release in 2009 . ) In 2002 haute @-@ contre Jean @-@ Paul Fouchécourt added his version , while Marc Minkowski brought out a period instrument performance with Richard Croft in the title role in 2004 . In April 2010 , a concert performance recorded in Madrid two years earlier by tenore di grazia Juan Diego Flórez , was finally released . There is also a DVD of the 1993 Australian Opera production , directed by Stefanos Lazaridis , with Australian haute @-@ contre David Hobson as Orphée .
= Henri Toivonen =
Henri Pauli Toivonen ( 25 August 1956 – 2 May 1986 ) was a Finnish rally driver born in Jyväskylä , the home of Rally Finland . His father , Pauli , was the 1968 European Rally Champion for Porsche and his brother , Harri , became a professional circuit racer .
Toivonen 's first World Rally Championship victory came with a Talbot Sunbeam Lotus at the 1980 Lombard RAC Rally in Great Britain , just after his 24th birthday . He had the record of being the youngest driver ever to win a world rally until his countryman Jari @-@ Matti Latvala won the 2008 Swedish Rally at the age of 22 . After driving for Opel and Porsche , Toivonen was signed by Lancia . Despite nearly ending up paralysed at the Rally Costa Smeralda early in 1985 , he returned to rallying later that year . He won the last event of the season , the RAC Rally , as well as the 1986 season opener , the Monte Carlo Rally , which his father had won exactly 20 years earlier .
Toivonen , driving a Lancia Delta S4 , died in an accident on 2 May 1986 while leading the Tour de Corse rally in Corsica . His American co @-@ driver , Sergio Cresto , also died when the Lancia plunged down a ravine and exploded . The fatal accident had no close witnesses and the only remains of the car were the blackened spaceframe , making it impossible to determine the cause of the accident . Within hours of the accident , Jean @-@ Marie Balestre , then President of the FISA , had banned the powerful Group B rally cars from competing the following season , ending rallying 's popular supercar era .
Toivonen started his career in circuit racing and was also very competitive on tarmac . He raced successfully in two World Sportscar Championship events , achieved praise from Eddie Jordan , in whose Formula Three team Toivonen made a few guest appearances , and impressed in his Formula One test for March Grand Prix . The annual Race of Champions , originally organised in Toivonen 's memory , awards the winning individual driver the Henri Toivonen Memorial Trophy .
= = Early career = =
Toivonen had strong ties to rallying at an early age . He was born in Jyväskylä , the city which has hosted the Rally Finland since 1951 . His father , Pauli Toivonen , was a successful international rally driver who would go on to win the Monte Carlo , 1000 Lakes and Acropolis rallies and become the 1968 European Rally Champion . Henri Toivonen learned to drive when he was five years old , but despite his rallying connections , started competition in circuit racing . He began with karts and won the Finnish Cup in touring cars before switching to Formula Vee , winning one round of the Scandinavian Championship in his first year . Toivonen graduated to Formula Super Vee the following year and won a round of the European Championship , as well as becoming the 1977 Finnish Champion in the Formula Vee class . Due to his family 's concerns about the safety of circuit racing , he switched to rallying full @-@ time . Toivonen 's kart was purchased by the parents of a 6 @-@ year @-@ old Mika Häkkinen , who would later be a two @-@ time Formula One World Drivers ' Champion .
Due to Finnish legislation , which at that time limited new drivers to a top speed of 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) on open roads , Toivonen was unable to compete in rallying until he was 19 years old . With Antero Lindqvist as his co @-@ driver , he made his World Rally Championship debut at the 1975 1000 Lakes Rally ( now the Neste Oil Rally Finland ) , driving a privately entered Simca Rallye 2 . He retired from the rally during the 36th special stage due to a broken sump . While still focusing on his circuit racing career , he competed in his second world rally two years later and finished fifth in the 1977 1000 Lakes in a Chrysler Avenger .
Toivonen started his 1978 season at the Arctic Rally , the second round of both the European Rally Championship and World Rally Championship 's " FIA Cup for Drivers " , the predecessor to the official drivers ' world championship which was established in 1979 . He finished second , 3 : 41 minutes behind Ari Vatanen , and over seven minutes ahead of Markku Alén , who would go on to win the Cup . Toivonen went on to compete in two world championship rallies for Citroën . Although he did not finish either event , his driving attracted attention ; a private Porsche team offered Toivonen a car for the 1000 Lakes Rally , as did Chrysler for the Lombard RAC Rally . At his home event , Toivonen had to retire due to an engine failure , but he finished ninth at the RAC Rally . That same year , Toivonen captured his first rally win at the Nordic Rally , an event in the Finnish Rally Championship . In the 1979 season , he gathered rallying experience by competing in 15 rallies in the British , Finnish and European championships . Toivonen also competed in two WRC events : the 1000 Lakes with a Fiat 131 Abarth and the RAC with a Ford Escort RS . He retired from both , but at his home event he had been matching the pace of the leaders before leaving the road . These performances led to a contract with the factory Talbot Competition team for the 1980 season .
= = Works career = =
= = = Talbot ( 1980 – 81 ) = = =
Toivonen 's first season driving for a major car manufacturer 's ' works ' team was largely a trial year . He started the season by winning the Arctic Rally in January , but only drove his Talbot Sunbeam Lotus in four selected World Rally Championship events . His exuberant driving style often led to crashes , and his results were often not representative of his pace . In hopes of better results , the team partnered Toivonen with three different co @-@ drivers during the season : Antero Lindqvist , Paul White and Neil Wilson . At the 1000 Lakes Rally , Toivonen retired due to an accident during the 11th special stage . At the next rally in Sanremo with Lindqvist , Toivonen finished fifth . In late November , Toivonen , this time partnered by White , surprised both experts and spectators by winning the Lombard RAC Rally , over four minutes ahead of runner @-@ up Hannu Mikkola . Neither Toivonen nor Talbot were expected to be competitive in the rally . In an interview published in Autosport three days before the rally started , Toivonen himself had not expected to challenge for the win :
" I don ’ t think that I have done enough events to win the rally just by driving skill , for instance . If I win , it will be because I have a little bit of luck and some of the others have trouble . I mean , Hannu Mikkola knows the forests like the back of his hand so there is no use trying to drive to beat him . You have to wait for him to have trouble . Then you are in with a chance . "
At 24 years and 86 days , he remained the youngest driver to win a WRC event until his countryman Jari @-@ Matti Latvala won the 2008 Swedish Rally at the age of 22 . Latvala stated that " It 's a super feeling , it 's almost unbelievable . Henri ( Toivonen ) was one of my idols and secretly I 've always wanted to beat his record as the youngest winner . " Over 20 years after the 1980 RAC , Paul White ( nicknamed " Chalkie " by Toivonen ) commented that he still receives questions about the rally and Henri Toivonen . He noted that the Talbot team , run by Des O 'Dell and 15 full @-@ time personnel , was much smaller than other works teams and " had to draft in ' mercenary ' mechanics to help . " Toivonen 's results led to another year in the Talbot squad . In the 1981 season , he was signed up for a larger WRC programme and had a new co @-@ driver , Fred Gallagher , who would later partner Juha Kankkunen and Björn Waldegård in a Toyota Celica Twincam Turbo . Toivonen 's rear @-@ wheel drive Group 2 Sunbeam Lotus was now less competitive against the Group 4 cars and the all @-@ wheel @-@ drive Audi Quattro , but despite four retirements , the second places at Rally Portugal and Sanremo , as well as a fifth place at the Monte Carlo Rally , resulted in a seventh place overall in the drivers ' world championship . Together with more consistent team mate Guy Fréquelin , he brought Talbot a surprise manufacturers ' title . He also competed in the last round of the British Open Rally Championship , the Audi Sport International Rally , and won the event .
= = = Opel ( 1982 – 83 ) = = =
For the 1982 season , Toivonen switched to the Rothmans @-@ sponsored Opel team , which was co @-@ managed by David Richards . Toivonen 's team mates were Ari Vatanen , who had won the previous year 's championship ( with Richards as his co @-@ driver ) , the 1980 and 1982 world champion Walter Röhrl and Jimmy McRae , the previous year 's British Rally Champion and father of future rally star Colin McRae . In his Ascona 400 debut in Portugal , Toivonen surprised the event favourites by leading the rally before retiring five stages from the finish . He competed in only four more WRC events , but finished on the podium twice , at the Acropolis Rally and at the RAC Rally . In the European Rally Championship , he participated in four rallies , registering three podiums and one retirement . He also made a guest appearance in one round of the British Formula Three circuit racing championship , where he finished tenth driving a Ralt RT3 . In his Formula One test for March Grand Prix at the Silverstone Circuit , Toivonen was 1 @.@ 4 seconds faster than the team 's regular driver Raul Boesel .
Toivonen continued with Opel into the 1983 season , now driving the Manta 400 , which took advantage of the new Group B regulations . Although the Manta was a Group B car , it was underpowered against the likes of the Audi Quattro A2 and Lancia 037 , which were controlling the world rally scene at the time . Toivonen achieved a win at the Manx International Rally , a round of the British Open Rally Championship and the European Rally Championship , in the Isle of Man , at his first attempt . He also finished first at the Mille Pistes rally in France , but the organisers decided to ban the Group B cars halfway through the event . Toivonen and his co @-@ driver , Ian Grindrod , received only a consolation trophy . In the World Rally Championship , he retired in three rallies , finished sixth at the Monte Carlo Rally and fourth at the Rallye Sanremo . He also drove a Ferrari 308 GTB at the San Marino Rally , where he was co @-@ driven by Juha Piironen for the first time . The pair retired from the event , but Piironen would become his main co @-@ driver for the next two seasons , and later have a long and successful partnership with four @-@ time world champion Juha Kankkunen . In late October , Toivonen again competed on the circuits . This time he entered two sportscar races , driving a Porsche 956 for Richard Lloyd Racing in the World Sportscar Championship . Partnered with Derek Bell and Jonathan Palmer , he finished fourth at Imola and third in the next race at Mugello .
= = = Porsche ( 1984 ) = = =
After a score of ten starts , two podiums , three other top six finishes and five retirements , Toivonen left Opel Team Europe for the 1984 season . He was linked to the lead drive at the Peugeot Talbot Sport , Peugeot 's new factory World Rally Championship team , but eventually signed to drive a Porsche 911 SC RS for the Rothmans @-@ sponsored Porsche factory team in the European Rally Championship . The team was run by Prodrive , a new motorsport group set up by David Richards , Toivonen 's former boss at Opel . His European season with Porsche turned out to be a success . He started with two retirements , a third and a second place , but went on to win five rallies in a row and led the championship from Italian Lancia driver Carlo Capone . As Toivonen had a contract with Lancia for the World Rally Championship , and Lancia boss Cesare Fiorio wanted Capone to win the European title , it was suggested that Fiorio might enter Toivonen in WRC events to keep him away from important ERC rounds . However , Toivonen 's title campaign ended in a back injury and a resulting enforced rest that was expected to take up to two months . He missed several events and finished second in the championship behind Capone .
Toivonen 's WRC contract with Lancia Martini consisted of five events . Fiorio stated that the team needed another top driver as " Audi will have four top drivers next year so it would be very difficult competing with only two . " Toivonen had his Lancia 037 debut in Portugal with very limited testing experience : " It has been snowing in Italy every time I have been to try this car , so I don 't know its limits . " However , similarly to his Opel Ascona 400 debut at the same event two years ago , Toivonen immediately took the lead and set several fastest stage times before retiring . This time the retirement was not caused by a broken clutch , but a mistake and a crash by Toivonen . After a retirement also in Greece , he finished third in his home event , the 1000 Lakes Rally . These three remained Toivonen 's only WRC events of the season as his back injury forced him to miss the Sanremo and RAC rallies . Before Sanremo , Markku Alén re @-@ signed with Lancia and Fiorio stated he wanted to sign Toivonen with a similar two @-@ year contract , depending on the condition of his back and his contractual situation with Rothmans Porsche , who had claimed Toivonen had already re @-@ signed with them . Toivonen chose to become a full @-@ fledged Lancia driver for the 1985 season .
= = = Lancia ( 1985 – 86 ) = = =
The 1985 season started badly when Toivonen crashed his Lancia 037 into a brick wall at the Rally Costa Smeralda , in the European Championship , seriously injuring his back and breaking three vertebrae in his neck . At the beginning of May , Lancia drivers Toivonen and Alén lost a friend and team @-@ mate , when Italian driver Attilio Bettega crashed fatally during the fourth special stage at the Tour de Corse . Toivonen made his comeback from his injuries at the 1000 Lakes Rally in August and finished fourth . He finished third at the next rally in Sanremo , his final event with the car . The 037 did not suit Toivonen 's driving style and had fallen well behind Audi and Peugeot in terms of performance , as it was rear @-@ wheel drive and had only 325 horsepower ( 242 kW ) compared to the 440 of Peugeot and 500 of Audi . It was replaced by the Lancia Delta S4 for the final event of the season : the RAC Rally . The Delta S4 had all @-@ wheel drive and was both supercharged and turbocharged , the former increasing power in the middle of the engine 's speed range and the latter boosting power at higher engine speeds . The car could reportedly accelerate from 0 to 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) in 2 @.@ 3 seconds , on a gravel road . The Delta S4 turned out to be a success . Toivonen won the rally and Alén finished second only 56 seconds behind . Although Toivonen competed in only four world rallies in 1985 , his results placed him career @-@ best sixth overall in the championship .
The 1986 season started with a dominant win for Toivonen at the Monte Carlo Rally with new co @-@ driver Sergio Cresto . Fellow " Flying Finns " Timo Salonen and Hannu Mikkola finished second and third . Toivonen 's father , Pauli Toivonen , had won the event 20 years earlier after ten cars , including the first four to cross the finishing line , were disqualified due to having non @-@ standard headlights . The disqualification had caused an uproar and Prince Rainier of Monaco refused to attend the prize @-@ giving ceremony . Henri Toivonen 's victory caused his father to comment " now the name of Toivonen has been cleared " . The Monte Carlo win made Toivonen the favourite for the title . However , at the Swedish Rally he retired from the lead due to an engine failure . At the next rally in Portugal , Joaquim Santos lost control of his Ford RS200 on a special stage and plunged into the crowd . The accident killed three spectators and injured more than 30 . Toivonen along with all the other factory team drivers decided to withdraw from the event , but Lancia disapproved of the retirement . Toivonen stated that " the Lancia team will not accept anything but a win . " During the Portuguese rally , Toivonen is often reported to have tested his Delta S4 at the Estoril circuit and to have set a fastest lap time that would have qualified him in sixth position at the 1986 Portuguese Grand Prix . MTV3 and ESPN , citing Kankkunen and Fiorio , respectively , looked into the claim a few decades later and came to a skeptical conclusion . Red Bull explored the story further by interviewing former Lancia manager Ninni Russo , whose connections stated that Toivonen had made a time on the full circuit that " was in the first ten of the F1 cars from their test at Estoril two or three weeks before . " Despite the setbacks , Toivonen remained the title favourite with no driver seeming able to match his pace .
= = Death = =
The 1986 Tour de Corse , a world rally around the island of Corsica , began on Thursday , 1 May . Toivonen had a sore throat and was suffering from the flu , but he insisted on driving after having lost his championship lead in the last two rallies . According to several sources , he was also taking medicine to treat fever . Despite his ill health , he was taking stage win after stage win and leading the rally by a large margin . After the first leg , Toivonen commented :
" This rally is insane , even though everything is going well at the moment . If there is trouble , I 'm as good as dead . "
Toivonen was complaining about the car being too powerful for a rally like the Tour de Corse . He found it very hard to keep the car balanced on the road and admitted it was very exhausting . In a short interview before he steered his Lancia into the 18th stage , Toivonen made a comment which would remain his last words in public :
" Today , we have driven the equivalent of a full Jyskälä ( Finnish Rally ) . It 's hard to keep up with the speed . "
During the second leg , on Friday , 2 May , at the seventh kilometre of the 18th stage , Corte – Taverna , Toivonen 's Lancia went off the side of the road at a tight left corner with no guardrail . The car plunged down a ravine and landed on its roof . The aluminium fuel tank underneath the driver 's seat was ruptured by the trees and exploded . The fuel tank was not protected by a skid plate , an item used mainly on gravel rallies , which was not fitted for the all @-@ asphalt Tour de Corse . The explosion happened within seconds of the crash , and Toivonen and his co @-@ driver , Sergio Cresto would not have time to get out had they still been alive . The fire caused by the explosion was so intense that the Delta S4 , built of fast @-@ burning kevlar @-@ reinforced plastic composite , was unidentifiable as a car afterwards . Both Toivonen and Cresto died in their seats . Toivonen left behind wife Erja ( married in 1982 ) and two young children , son Markus and daughter Arla , while Cresto was single with no children .
Toivonen 's accident remains a mystery because it had no close witnesses . Although it was caught on tape by a spectator further down the stage , it proved to be impossible to determine the cause of the crash from the footage . No race marshalls were close to the scene to notice the black smoke and no @-@ one at the race finish knew about the accident . Toivonen 's team only started to fear something might have happened after he failed to arrive from the stage on schedule . The next rally crew through the stage then mentioned they had seen some black smoke . By the time the emergency vehicles arrived on the accident scene , they could only put down the flames , which had been fanned by breezes . Lancia engineers and technicians could not determine the cause of the accident because the remains of the car were so charred .
Walter Röhrl later confirmed that Toivonen was taking medicine for his flu . In a later interview with Motorsport News , fellow driver Malcolm Wilson claimed that since the neck injuries sustained in his 1985 Costa Smeralda crash , Toivonen had suffered from random blackouts but did not tell his team because he did not want to lose his place at Lancia . At least one person who attended the aftermath of the accident reported that there were no skid marks on the tarmac , fuelling speculation that Toivonen could have suddenly lost consciousness at the wheel , but the cause of the accident is still unknown .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Within hours of Toivonen 's accident , Jean @-@ Marie Balestre and the FISA decided to ban Group B cars from competing in the 1987 season . The planned Group S was also cancelled and manufacturers were stuck with cars they could not race . Audi and Ford withdrew from Group B racing immediately , but other teams competed until the end of the season . The Tour de Corse continued the next day and Bruno Saby won with his Peugeot 205 Turbo 16 E2 . Prior to Santos ' and Toivonen 's crashes , many commentators and drivers had warned of accidents resulting from drivers simply being unable to control their powerful cars . FISA was criticised for recognising the problem too late . A FISA investigation later proved that drivers ' reactions were too slow to keep up with the speed of the Group B cars , and drivers ' eyes could not adjust their focus between the fast corners , resulting in tunnel vision . However , due to the high speed of the cars , rallying was more popular among spectators than ever . FISA had to face criticism also for overreacting to Toivonen 's accident . John Davenport , author and former rally co @-@ driver , stated in 2004 that " Group B could have been tamed . They were only unsafe in so much as the fuel system , which caused Toivonen 's death , and the crowd control needed changing – it wasn 't the actual cars . " Group B cars have been described as " too fast to race . "
= = Legacy = =
Toivonen was known as a competitive driver both on gravel and tarmac surfaces , and he found it difficult to choose between circuit racing and rallying . After becoming a rally driver , he still competed in some circuit racing events , successfully in two World Sportscar Championship events and also in a few races for Eddie Jordan 's British Formula Three Championship team . Jordan called Toivonen 's performances " incredible " and compared him to Ayrton Senna . After Toivonen 's death , Jordan weighed in on his chances in Formula One :
" I don 't know if he would have become a champion in Formula One . It always takes a lot of luck , and now [ after the accident ] one can doubt if he would have been granted that . But he would have won Grands Prix – of that I 'm absolutely sure . "
During his World Rally Championship career , Toivonen competed in 40 world rallies , gathering three wins , nine podium places , 185 stage wins and retiring 22 times . With only wins and retirements in the last five of his rallies , he was at the peak of his career in the Lancia Delta S4 , after finally finding a car that was both competitive and suitable for his driving style . However , Toivonen admitted having problems with the car : " I may have won the RAC Rally with Lancia , but I just did not know how to drive it . It seemed to have a mind of its own . " Lancia team boss Cesare Fiorio later claimed that Toivonen was the only driver who could really control the Delta S4 .
In a Henri Toivonen obituary , titled Rebel With a Cause , published in Motor five days after Toivonen 's fatal accident , rally author Martin Holmes named him a " rebel driver " , and proof that young drivers can be successful in rallying , a sport which had previously been dominated by older , more experienced drivers . However , Toivonen could not achieve the necessary level of consistency to avoid a number of high speed accidents . Prior to the introduction of the Delta S4 , he was known for his ability to make up large amounts of time in single stages . This led to a number of stage wins but also to several bad accidents resulting from driving mistakes . Toivonen 's career almost ended in early 1985 , when he was nearly paralysed in the Rally Costa Smeralda accident – 1985 would have been his first full WRC season , excluding the endurance events Safari Rally and Rallye Côte d 'Ivoire for which he was never entered in his career . The World Rally Archive 's Hall of Fame now names him an " icon for the one of the most controversial periods of rallying . "
Toivonen was buried in Espoo , where his family moved from Jyväskylä when Toivonen was still very young . In Corsica , a marble slab dedicated to him and Sergio Cresto was placed at the curve where Toivonen drove out . The memorial place always has an unopened bottle of Martini , which is a reference to Toivonen 's Martini @-@ sponsored Lancia factory team . A local resident puts new flowers by the slab every day . In July , the Rally Marca Trevigiana in Italy was titled " Memorial Henri Toivonen " in honour of Toivonen . The rally was stopped after a fatal accident on the fourth stage . In 1988 , former rally driver and arguably the most successful female race car driver in history , Michèle Mouton , organised the first Race of Champions to commemorate Toivonen 's death . The Race of Champions was originally restricted to rally drivers , but became even more popular with the introduction of Formula One and NASCAR stars . The Henri Toivonen Memorial Trophy is still awarded to the winner of the individual event every year .
Another trophy bearing Toivonen 's name was the Henri Toivonen Grand Attack Trophy , which was awarded by Peugeot 's Rally Challenge , organised by Des O 'Dell , " to the driver who most embodied the spirit shown by the young Finn . " In 2006 , Toivonen was honoured at the Neste Oil Rally Finland . An exhibition in memory of him was opened on 17 August in the Rally HQ Jyväskylä Paviljonki . The interviewing event was attended by his former team mate Markku Alén , former co @-@ driver Juha Piironen , current Ford factory team boss Malcolm Wilson and his brother Harri Toivonen . Harri Toivonen quit his racing career in 2002 , ending the 40 @-@ year racing history of the Toivonen family .
= = Complete WRC results = =
= Renaissance in Scotland =
The Renaissance in Scotland was a cultural , intellectual and artistic movement in Scotland , from the late fifteenth century to the beginning of the seventeenth century . It is associated with the pan @-@ European Renaissance that is usually regarded as beginning in Italy in the late fourteenth century and reaching northern Europe as a Northern Renaissance in the fifteenth century . It involved an attempt to revive the principles of the classical era , including humanism , a spirit of scholarly enquiry , scepticism , and concepts of balance and proportion . Since the twentieth century the uniqueness and unity of the Renaissance has been challenged by historians , but significant changes in Scotland can be seen to have taken place in education , intellectual life , literature , art , architecture , music and politics .
The court was central to the patronage and dissemination of Renaissance works and ideas . It was also central to the staging of lavish display that portrayed the political and religious role of the monarchy . The Renaissance led to the adoption of ideas of imperial monarchy , encouraging the Scottish crown to join the new monarchies by asserting imperial jurisdiction and distinction . The growing emphasis on education in the Middle Ages became part of a humanist and then Protestant programme to extend and reform learning . It resulted in the expansion of the school system and the foundation of six university colleges by the end of the sixteenth century . Relatively large numbers of Scottish scholars studied on the continent or in England and some , such as Hector Boece , John Mair , Andrew Melville and George Buchanan , returned to Scotland to play a major part in developing Scottish intellectual life . Vernacular works in Scots began to emerge in the fifteenth century , while Latin remained a major literary language . With the patronage of James V and James VI , writers included William Stewart , John Bellenden , David Lyndsay , William Fowler and Alexander Montgomerie .
In the sixteenth century , Scottish kings , particularly James V , built palaces in a Renaissance style , beginning at Linlithgow . The trend soon spread to members of the aristocracy . Painting was strongly influenced by Flemish art , with works commissioned from the continent and Flemings serving as court artists . While church art suffered iconoclasm and a loss of patronage as a result of the Reformation , house decoration and portraiture became significant for the wealthy , with George Jamesone emerging as the first major named artist in the early seventeenth century . Music also incorporated wider European influences although the Reformation caused a move from complex polyphonic church music to the simpler singing of metrical psalms . Combined with the Union of Crowns in 1603 , the Reformation also removed the church and the court as sources of patronage , changing the direction of artistic creation and limiting its scope . In the early seventeenth century the major elements of the Renaissance began to give way to Stoicism , Mannerism and the Baroque .
= = Definitions and debates = =
Renaissance is a concept formulated by cultural historian Jacob Burckhardt in the mid @-@ nineteenth century to describe the intellectual and artistic movement that began in Italy in the fourteenth century and saw an attempt to revive the principles of the Greek and Roman classical worlds . It encompassed a rational and sceptical attitude , a return to ideas of original sources and proportion and balance in art . The major ideas of the Renaissance are generally considered to have reached Northern Europe much later , in the late fifteenth century . Scotland has been seen as part of a wider Northern Renaissance that is generally considered to have stretched into the early seventeenth century , when it was replaced by the grander styles of the Baroque . However , the association of Baroque styles with Catholicism in predominantly Protestant Scotland tended to result in this trend being overlooked and the period from about 1620 to the end of the seventeenth century is sometimes characterised as a late Renaissance .
In the twentieth century , historians disputed the validity of the concept of a Renaissance as unique , as a reaction against the " dark age " of the Medieval , as a clear break with the past and as a unified movement . Instead they emphasised the many intellectual trends and movements that went before it , such as the twelfth @-@ century Renaissance on which it built . It was also once common for historians to suggest that Scotland had little or no participation in the Renaissance . More recently , the significant changes in intellectual and cultural life in the period have been seen as forming a watershed in Scottish cultural history . This has been perceived as opening the path for the Reformation , and later for the modernisation of thought and social life in the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution , to which Scotland would make a significant contribution .
= = Court and kingship = =
The court was central to the patronage and dissemination of Renaissance works and ideas . It was also central to the staging of lavish display that portrayed the political and religious role of the monarchy . This display was often tied up with ideas of chivalry , which was evolving in this period from a practical military ethos into a more ornamental and honorific cult . It saw its origins in the classical era , with Hector of Troy , Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar often depicted as proto @-@ knights . Tournaments provided one focus of display , the most famous being those of the Wild Knight in 1507 and the Black Lady in 1508 under James IV . They were also pursued enthusiastically by James V who , proud of his membership of international orders of knighthood , displayed their insignia on the Gateway at Linlithgow Palace .
During her brief personal rule , Mary , Queen of Scots brought with her many of the elaborate court activities that she had grown up with at the French court . She introduced balls , masques and celebrations designed to illustrate the resurgence of the monarchy and to facilitate national unity . The most elaborate event was the baptism of the future James VI at Stirling Castle in 1566 , organised by her French servant Bastian Pagez . This combined complex imagery , incorporating classical themes of the goddess Astraea and the revival of the classical golden age , with the chivalry of the Round Table . The ceremony was followed by a banquet , hunts , feasting , poetry , dance and theatre , cumulating in a staged siege and fireworks . The court returned to being a centre of culture and learning under James VI . He cultivated the image of a philosopher king , evoking the models of David , Solomon and Constantine that were seen in his " joyous entry " into Edinburgh in 1579 . The grandest event of his reign was the baptism of his son and heir Prince Henry in 1595 . For this the Chapel Royal at Stirling Castle was rebuilt to mirror the proportions of the Temple of Solomon . There were three days of feasting , a staged tournament and a masque featuring a ship of state crewed by classical deities and muses . Masterminded by William Fowler , it was pointedly designed to build the image of the king and support his claim to the English and Irish thrones .
New ideas also had an impact on views of government , described as new or Renaissance monarchy , which emphasised the status and significance of the monarch . The Roman Law principle that " a king is emperor in his own kingdom " , can be seen in Scotland from the mid @-@ fifteenth century . In 1469 Parliament passed an act declaring that James III possessed " full jurisdiction and empire within his realm " . From the 1480s , the king 's image on his silver groats showed him wearing a closed , arched , imperial crown , in place of the open circlet of medieval kings , probably the first coin image of its kind outside Italy . It soon began to appear in heraldry , on royal seals , manuscripts , sculptures and as crown steeples on churches with royal connections , as at St. Giles Cathedral , Edinburgh . The first Scottish monarch to wear such a crown was James V , whose diadem was reworked to include arches in 1532 . They were included when it was reconstructed in 1540 , subsisting in the Crown of Scotland . The idea of imperial monarchy emphasised the dignity of the crown and included its role as a unifying national force , defending national borders and interests , royal supremacy over the law and a distinctive national church within the Catholic communion . New Monarchy can also be seen in the reliance of the crown on " new men " rather than the great magnates , the use of the clergy as a form of civil service , the development of standing armed forces and a navy . The aggrandisement of the monarchy reached its apogee in James VI 's development of the concept of imperial rule into a divine right .
= = Education = =
= = = Schools = = =
In the early Middle Ages , formal education was limited to monastic life , but from the twelfth century new sources of education had begun to develop , with song and grammar schools . These were usually attached to cathedrals or a collegiate church and were most common in the developing burghs . By the end of the Middle Ages grammar schools could be found in all the main burghs and some small towns . There were also petty schools , more common in rural areas and providing an elementary education . They were almost exclusively aimed at boys , but by the end of the fifteenth century , Edinburgh also had schools for girls . These were sometimes described as " sewing schools " , and probably taught by lay women or nuns . There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers . The growing emphasis on education in the late Middle Ages , cumulated with the passing of the Education Act 1496 , which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools and which endorsed the humanist concern to learn " perfyct Latyne " . All this resulted in an increase in literacy , although it was largely concentrated among a male and wealthy elite , with perhaps 60 per cent of the nobility being literate by the end of the fifteenth century .
The humanist concern with widening education was shared by the Protestant reformers , with a desire for a godly people replacing the aim of having educated citizens . In 1560 , the First Book of Discipline set out a plan for a school in every parish but proved financially impossible . In the burghs the old schools were maintained , with the song schools and a number of new foundations becoming reformed grammar schools or ordinary parish schools . Schools were supported by a combination of kirk funds , contributions from local heritors or burgh councils and from parents that could pay . They were inspected by kirk sessions , who checked for the quality of teaching and doctrinal purity . There were also large number of unregulated " adventure schools " , which sometimes fulfilled a local need and sometimes took pupils away from the official schools . Outside the established burgh schools , a master often combined his position with other employment , particularly minor posts within the kirk , such as clerk . At best the curriculum included catechism , Latin , French , Classical literature and sports . It took until the late seventeenth century to produce a largely complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands , and in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas by the time the Education Act was passed in 1696 , forming the basis of the system 's administration until 1873 .
= = = Universities = = =
The twelfth @-@ century Renaissance resulted in the emergence of some major intellectual figures from Scotland . Probably the most significant was John Duns Scotus ( c . 1265 – 1308 ) , a major influence on late medieval religious thought . After the outbreak of the Wars of Independence in 1296 , English universities were largely closed to Scots and continental universities became more significant . Just over a thousand Scots have been identified as attending continental universities between the twelfth century and 1410 . Some Scottish scholars became teachers in continental universities , such as Walter Wardlaw ( died 1387 ) and Laurence de Lindores ( 1372 ? – 1437 ) . This situation was transformed by the founding of the University of St Andrews in 1413 , the University of Glasgow in 1450 and the University of Aberdeen in 1495 . Initially , these institutions were designed for the training of clerics but would increasingly be used by laymen who began to challenge the clerical monopoly of administrative posts in government and law . In this period Scottish universities did not teach Greek , focused on metaphysics and put a largely unquestioning faith in the works of Aristotle . Those wanting to study for second degrees still needed to go elsewhere . Scottish scholars continued to study on the Continent and at English universities which reopened to Scots in the late fifteenth century .
As early as 1495 some Scots were in contact with the leading figure in the northern humanist movement , the Netherlands @-@ born Desiderius Erasmus ( 1466 – 1536 ) . They were also in contact with the French humanist and scholar Jacques Lefèvre d 'Étaples ( c . 1455 – 1536 ) . Erasmus was tutor to James VI 's illegitimate son , and Archbishop of St. Andrews , Alexander Stewart ( c . 1493 – 1513 ) . These international contacts helped integrate Scotland into a wider European scholarly world and would be one of the most important ways in which the new ideas of humanism were brought into Scottish intellectual life . By 1497 the humanist and historian Hector Boece , born in Dundee and who had studied at Paris , returned to become the first principal at the new university of Aberdeen . The continued movement to other universities produced a school of Scottish nominalists at Paris in the early sixteenth century , the most important of whom was John Mair , generally described as a scholastic , but whose Latin History of Greater Britain ( 1521 ) was sympathetic to the humanist social agenda . Another major figure was Archibald Whitelaw , who taught at St. Andrews and Cologne , becoming a tutor to the young James III and royal secretary from 1462 – 93 . Robert Reid , Abbot of Kinloss and later Bishop of Orkney , was responsible in the 1520s and 1530s for bringing the Italian humanist Giovanni Ferrario to teach at Kinloss Abbey , where he established an impressive library and wrote works of Scottish history and biography . Reid was also instrumental in organising the public lectures which were established in Edinburgh in the 1540s on law , Greek , Latin and philosophy , under the patronage of Mary of Guise . They developed into the " Tounis College " , which would become the University of Edinburgh in 1582 .
After the Reformation , Scotland 's universities underwent a series of reforms associated with Andrew Melville , who returned from Geneva to become principal of the University of Glasgow in 1574 . Influenced by the anti @-@ Aristotelian Pierre Ramus , he placed an emphasis on simplified logic , elevating languages and sciences to the status enjoyed by philosophy and allowing accepted ideas in all areas to be challenged . He introduced new specialist teaching staff , replacing the system of " regenting " , where one tutor took the students through the entire arts curriculum . Metaphysics was abandoned and Greek became compulsory in the first year , followed by Aramaic , Syriac and Hebrew , launching a new fashion for ancient and biblical languages . Glasgow had probably been declining as a university before his arrival , but students now began to attend in large numbers . Melville assisted in the reconstruction of Marischal College , Aberdeen , and in order to do for St Andrews what he had done for Glasgow , he was appointed Principal of St Mary 's College , St Andrews in 1580 . The result was a revitalisation of all Scottish universities , which were now producing a quality of education the equal of that offered anywhere in Europe .
Major intellectual figures in the Reformation included George Buchanan . He taught in universities in France and Portugal , translated texts from Greek into Latin , and was tutor to the young Mary , Queen of Scots for whom he wrote Latin courtly poetry and masques . After her deposition in 1567 , his works De Jure Regni apud Scotos ( 1579 ) and Rerum Scoticarum Historia ( 1582 ) were among the major texts outlining the case for resistance to tyrants . Buchanan was one of the young James VI 's tutors and although he helped in producing a highly educated Protestant prince , who would produce works on subjects including government , poetry and witchcraft , he failed to convince the king of his ideas about limited monarchy . James would debate with both Buchanan and Melville over the status of the crown and kirk .
= = Literature = =
In the late fifteenth century , Scots prose also began to develop as a genre and to demonstrate classical and humanist influences . Although there are earlier fragments of original Scots prose , such as the Auchinleck Chronicle , the first complete surviving work includes John Ireland 's The Meroure of Wyssdome ( 1490 ) . There were also prose translations of French books of chivalry that survive from the 1450s , including The Book of the Law of Armys and the Order of Knychthode and the treatise Secreta Secetorum , an Arabic work believed to be Aristotle 's advice to Alexander the Great .
The establishment of a printing press under royal patent from James IV in 1507 made it easier to disseminate Scottish literature . The landmark work in the reign of James IV was Gavin Douglas 's version of Virgil 's Aeneid , the Eneados . It was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language , finished in 1513 , but overshadowed by the disaster at Flodden . Much Middle Scots literature was produced by makars , poets with links to the royal court . These included James I ( who wrote The Kingis Quair ) . Many of the makars had a university education and so were also connected with the Kirk . However , William Dunbar 's Lament for the Makaris ( c.1505 ) provides evidence of a wider tradition of secular writing outside of Court and Kirk now largely lost . Before the advent of printing in Scotland , writers such as Dunbar , Douglas , together with Robert Henryson and Walter Kennedy , have been seen as leading a golden age in Scottish poetry . They continued medieval themes , but were increasingly influenced by new continental trends and the language and forms of the Renaissance .
As a patron James V supported poets William Stewart and John Bellenden . Stewart produced a verse version of the Latin History of Scotland compiled in 1527 by Boece and Bellenden produced a prose translation of Livy 's History of Rome in 1533 . Sir David Lindsay of the Mount the Lord Lyon , the head of the Lyon Court and diplomat , was a prolific poet . He produced an interlude at Linlithgow Palace thought to be a version of his play The Thrie Estaitis in 1540 , the first surviving full Scottish play , which satirised the corruption of church and state , making use of elements such as medieval morality plays , with a humanist agenda .
In the 1580s and 1590s James VI promoted the literature of the country of his birth . His treatise , Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody , published in 1584 when he was aged 18 , was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue , Scots , to which he applied Renaissance principles . He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians , the Castalian Band , which included William Fowler and Alexander Montgomerie . By the late 1590s his championing of his native Scottish tradition was to some extent diffused by the prospect of inheriting the English throne , and some courtier poets who followed the king to London after 1603 , such as William Alexander , began to anglicise their written language . James 's characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the Scottish court made him a defining figure for English Renaissance poetry and drama , which would reach a pinnacle of achievement in his reign , but his patronage for the high style in his own Scottish tradition largely became sidelined .
= = Architecture = =
The impact of the Renaissance on Scottish architecture has been seen as occurring in two distinct phases . The selective use of Romanesque forms in church architecture in the early fifteenth century was followed towards the end of the century by a phase of more directly influenced Renaissance palace building . The re @-@ adoption of low @-@ massive church building with round arches and pillars , in contrast to the Gothic perpendicular style that was particularly dominant in England in the late medieval era , may have been influenced by close contacts with Rome and the Netherlands , and may have been a conscious reaction to English forms in favour of continental ones . It can be seen in the nave of Dunkeld Cathedral , begun in 1406 , the facade of St Mary 's , Haddington from the 1460s and in the chapel of Bishop Elphinstone 's Kings College , Aberdeen ( 1500 – 9 ) . About forty collegiate churches were established in Scotland in late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries . Many , like Trinity College , Edinburgh , showed a combination of Gothic and Renaissance styles .
The extensive building and rebuilding of royal palaces probably began under James III , accelerated under James IV , reaching its peak under James V. These works have been seen as directly reflecting the influence of Renaissance styles . Linlithgow was first constructed under James I , under the direction of master of work John de Waltoun . From 1429 , it was referred to as a palace , apparently the first use of this term in the country . This was extended under James III and began to correspond to a fashionable quadrangular , corner @-@ towered Italian signorial palace of a palatium ad moden castri ( a castle @-@ style palace ) , combining classical symmetry with neo @-@ chivalric imagery . There is evidence of Italian masons working for James IV , in whose reign Linlithgow was completed and other palaces were rebuilt with Italianate proportions . James V encountered the French version of Renaissance building while visiting for his marriage to Madeleine of Valois in 1536 and his second marriage to Mary of Guise may have resulted in longer term connections and influences . Work from his reign largely disregarded the insular style prevalent in England under Henry VIII and adopted forms that were recognisably European , beginning with the extensive work at Linlithgow . This was followed by rebuildings at Holyrood , Falkland , Stirling and Edinburgh , described as " some of the finest examples of Renaissance architecture in Britain " . Rather than slavishly copying continental forms , most Scottish architecture incorporated elements of these styles into traditional local patterns , adapting them to Scottish idioms and materials ( particularly stone and harl ) . Work undertaken for James VI demonstrated continued Renaissance influences , with the Chapel Royal at Stirling having a classical entrance built in 1594 and the North Wing of Linlithgow , built in 1618 , using classical pediments . Similar themes can be seen in the private houses of aristocrats , as in Mar 's Wark , Stirling ( c . 1570 ) and Crichton Castle , built for the Earl of Bothwell in the 1580s .
The unique style of great private houses in Scotland , later known as Scots baronial , has been located in origin to the period of the 1560s . It kept many of the features of the high walled Medieval castles that had been largely made obsolete by gunpowder weapons and may have been influenced by the French masons brought to Scotland to work on royal palaces . It drew on the tower houses and peel towers , which had been built in hundreds by local lords since the fourteenth century , particularly in the borders . These abandoned defensible curtain walls for a fortified refuge , designed to outlast a raid , rather than a sustained siege . They were usually of three stories , typically crowned with a parapet , projecting on corbels , continuing into circular bartizans at each corner . New houses retained many of these external features , but with a larger ground plan , classically a " Z @-@ plan " of a rectangular block with towers , as at Colliston Castle ( 1583 ) and Claypotts Castle ( 1569 – 88 ) . Particularly influential was the work of William Wallace , the king 's master mason from 1617 until his death in 1631 . He worked on the rebuilding of the collapsed North Range of Linlithgow from 1618 , Winton House for George Seton , 3rd Earl of Winton and began work on Heriot 's Hospital , Edinburgh . He adopted a distinctive style that applied elements of Scottish fortification and Flemish influences to a Renaissance plan like that used at Château d 'Ancy @-@ le @-@ Franc . This style can be seen in lords houses built at Caerlaverlock ( 1620 ) , Moray House , Edinburgh ( 1628 ) and Drumlanrig Castle ( 1675 – 89 ) , and was highly influential until the baronial style gave way to the grander English forms associated with Inigo Jones in the later seventeenth century .
From about 1560 , the Reformation revolutionised church architecture in Scotland . Calvinists rejected ornamentation in places of worship , with no need for elaborate buildings divided up by ritual , resulting in the widespread destruction of Medieval church furnishings , ornaments and decoration . There was a need to adapt and build new churches suitable for reformed services , with greater emphasis on preaching and the pulpit . Many of the earliest buildings were simple gabled rectangles , a style that continued to be built into the seventeenth century , as at Dunnottar Castle in the 1580s , Greenock ( 1591 ) and Durness ( 1619 ) . The church of Greyfriars , Edinburgh , built between 1602 and 1620 , used this layout with a largely Gothic form while that at Dirleton ( 1612 ) had a more sophisticated classical style . A variation of the rectangular church that developed in post @-@ Reformation Scotland was the " T " -shaped plan , often used when adapting existing churches as it allowed the maximum number of parishioners to be near the pulpit . Examples can be seen at Kemback in Fife ( 1582 ) and Prestonpans after 1595 . The " T " plan continued to be used into the seventeenth century as at Weem ( 1600 ) , Anstruther Easter , Fife ( 1634 – 44 ) and New Cumnock ( 1657 ) . In the seventeenth century a Greek cross plan was used for churches such as Cawdor ( 1619 ) and Fenwick ( 1643 ) . In most of these cases one arm of the cross was closed off as a laird 's aisle , with the result that they were in effect " T " -plan churches .
= = Art = =
We know almost nothing about native Scottish artists in the Middle Ages . As in England , the monarchy may have had model portraits of royalty used for copies and reproductions , but the versions of native royal portraits that survive from the late Middle Ages are generally crude by continental standards . Much more impressive are the works or artists imported from the continent , particularly the Netherlands , generally considered the centre of painting in the Northern Renaissance . The products of these connections included a fine portrait of William Elphinstone ; the images of St Catherine and St John brought to Dunkeld ; Hugo van Der Goes 's altarpiece for the Trinity College Church in Edinburgh , commissioned by James III ; and the work after which the Flemish Master of James IV of Scotland is named . There are also a relatively large number of elaborate devotional books from the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries , usually produced in the Low Countries and France for Scottish patrons . These included the prayer book commissioned by Robert Blackadder , Bishop of Glasgow , between 1484 and 1492 and the Flemish illustrated book of hours , known as the Hours of James IV of Scotland , given by James IV to Margaret Tudor and described as " perhaps the finest medieval manuscript to have been commissioned for Scottish use " .
Surviving stone and wood carvings , wall paintings and tapestries suggest the richness of sixteenth century royal art . At Stirling Castle , stone carvings on the royal palace from the reign of James V are taken from German patterns , and like the surviving carved oak portrait roundels from the King 's Presence Chamber , known as the Stirling Heads , they include contemporary , biblical and classical figures . Scotland 's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy toll as a result of Reformation iconoclasm , with the almost total loss of medieval stained glass , religious sculpture and paintings . The parallel loss of patronage created a crisis for native craftsmen and artists , who turned to secular patrons . One result of this was the flourishing of Scottish Renaissance painted ceilings and walls , with large numbers of private houses of burgesses , lairds and lords gaining often highly detailed and coloured patterns and scenes , of which over a hundred examples survive . These include the ceiling at Prestongrange , undertaken in 1581 for Mark Kerr , Commendator of Newbattle , and the long gallery at Pinkie House , painted for Alexander Seaton , Earl of Dunfermline , in 1621 . These were undertaken by unnamed Scottish artists using continental pattern books that often led to the incorporation of humanist moral and philosophical symbolism , with elements that call on heraldry , piety , classical myths and allegory .
In 1502 Henry VII sent his Flemish portrait painter Maynard Wewyck to the court of James IV and Margaret Tudor . Later in the sixteenth @-@ century anonymous artists made portraits of important individuals , including the Earl of Bothwell and his first wife Jean Gordon ( 1566 ) , and George , 7th Lord Seton ( c . 1575 ) . The tradition of royal portrait painting in Scotland was probably disrupted by minorities and regencies between 1513 and 1579 . James VI employed two Flemish artists , Arnold Bronckorst ( floruit , in Scotland , 1580 – 1583 ) and Adrian Vanson ( fl . 1581 – 1602 ) , who have left us a visual record of the king and major figures at the court . The first significant native artist was George Jamesone of Aberdeen ( 1589 / 90 @-@ 1644 ) , who became one of the most successful portrait painters of the reign of Charles I and trained the Baroque artist John Michael Wright ( 1617 – 94 ) .
= = Music = =
The captivity of James I in England from 1406 to 1423 , where he earned a reputation as a poet and composer , may have led him to take English and continental styles and musicians back to the Scottish court on his release . In the late fifteenth century a series of Scottish musicians trained in the Netherlands , then the centre of musical production in Western Europe , before returning home . They included John Broune , Thomas Inglis and John Fety , the last of whom became master of the song school in Aberdeen and then Edinburgh , introducing the new five @-@ fingered organ playing technique . In 1501 James IV refounded the Chapel Royal within Stirling Castle , with a new and enlarged choir and it became the focus of Scottish liturgical music . Burgundian and English influences were probably reinforced when Henry VII 's daughter Margaret Tudor married James IV in 1503 . The outstanding Scottish composer of the first half of the sixteenth century was Robert Carver ( c . 1488 – 1558 ) , a canon of Scone Abbey . Five masses and two votive antiphons have survived in his choirbook . One of the masses provides the only example of the use of the continental fashion of the cantus firmus to have survived in Britain . The antiphon " Oh Bone Jesu " was scored for 19 voices , perhaps to commemorate the 19th year of the reign of James V. His complex polyphonic music could only have been performed by a large and highly trained choir such as the one employed in the Chapel Royal . James V was also a patron to figures including David Peebles ( c . 1510 – 79 ? ) , whose best known work " Si quis diligit me " ( text from John 14 : 23 ) , is a motet for four voices . These were probably only two of many accomplished composers of their times , their work surviving largely in fragments .
In this era Scotland followed the trend of Renaissance courts for instrumental accompaniment and playing . Accounts indicate that there were lutanists at the court from the reign of James III and in the houses of the great lords and clergymen . Instruments also appear in art of the period , with a ceiling at Crathes Castle showing muses with lute , bass viol , fiddle , harp , cittern , flute and clavicord , similar to a mixed consort found in England in this period . Music also became one of the accomplishments of the Renaissance courtier and even royalty . James IV entertained his bride Margaret Tudor during their marriage celebrations by playing " the clarychords and lute " and Margaret herself had been taught the lute as a child . James V , as well as being a major patron of sacred music , was a talented lute player and introduced French chansons and consorts of viols to his court , although almost nothing of this secular chamber music survives .
The Reformation would have a severe impact on church music . The song schools of the abbeys , cathedrals and collegiate churches were closed down , choirs disbanded , music books and manuscripts destroyed and organs removed from churches . The Lutheranism that influenced the early Scottish Reformation attempted to accommodate Catholic musical traditions into worship , drawing on Latin hymns and vernacular songs . The most important product of this tradition in Scotland was The Gude and Godlie Ballatis , which were spiritual satires on popular ballads composed by the brothers James , John and Robert Wedderburn . Never adopted by the kirk , they nevertheless remained popular and were reprinted from the 1540s to the 1620s . Later the Calvinism that came to dominate the Scottish Reformation was much more hostile to Catholic musical tradition and popular music , placing an emphasis on what was biblical , which meant the Psalms . The Scottish psalter of 1564 was commissioned by the Assembly of the Church . It drew on the work of French musician Clément Marot , Calvin 's contributions to the Strasbourg psalter of 1529 and English writers , particularly the 1561 edition of the psalter produced by William Whittingham for the English congregation in Geneva . The intention was to produce individual tunes for each psalm , but of 150 psalms , 105 had proper tunes and in the seventeenth century , common tunes , which could be used for psalms with the same metre , became more common . The need for simplicity for whole congregations that would now all sing these psalms , unlike the trained choirs who had sung the many parts of polyphonic hymns , necessitated simplicity and most church compositions were confined to homophonic settings . There is some evidence that polyphony survived and was incorporated into editions of the psalter from 1625 , but usually with the congregation singing the melody and trained singers the contra @-@ tenor , treble and bass parts .
The return of James V 's daughter Mary from France in 1561 to begin her personal reign , and her position as a Catholic , gave a new lease of life to the choir of the Scottish Chapel Royal , but the destruction of Scottish church organs meant that instrumentation to accompany the mass had to employ bands of musicians with trumpets , drums , fifes , bagpipes and tabors . Like her father she played the lute , virginals and ( unlike her father ) was a fine singer . She brought French musical influences with her , employing lutenists and viol players in her household . James VI was a major patron of the arts in general . He made statutory provision to reform and promote the teaching of music , attempting to revive burgh song schools from 1579 . He rebuilt the Chapel Royal at Stirling in 1594 and the choir was used for state occasions like the baptism of his son Henry . He followed the tradition of employing lutenists for his private entertainment , as did other members of his family . When he went south to take the throne of England in 1603 as James I , he removed one of the major sources of patronage in Scotland . Beginning to fall into disrepair , the Scottish Chapel Royal was now used only for occasional state visits , leaving the court in Westminster as the only major source of royal musical patronage .
= = Decline and influence = =
The Renaissance in Scotland has been seen as reaching its peak in the first half of the sixteenth century , between the reigns of James IV and the deposition of Mary Queen of Scots . The loss of the church as a source of patronage in the 1560s and the court in 1603 , changed and limited the further development of Renaissance ideas . In the same period civic humanism began to give way to private devotion and retreat from the world influenced by Stoicism . In art and architecture , Renaissance proportion began to give way to Mannerism and the more exaggerated style of the Baroque from about 1620 .
The legacy of the Renaissance can be seen in the transformation of the ruling elite in Scottish society from a warrior caste to one with more refined morals and values . Humanism created an acceptance of the importance of learning , which contributed to the legacy of the Scottish school and university systems . Specifically , the 1496 Education Act has been seen as establishing a precedent for a public system of education , which was taken up by the reformers in 1560 and informed later legislation and expansion . The establishment of the Scottish universities , and especially the humanist reforms associated with Melville , allowed Scotland to participate in the " educational revolution " of the early modern era and would be vital to the development of the Enlightenment in Scotland . These circumstances have been seen by David McCrone as making education " vital to the sense of Scottishness " .
The Renaissance left a legacy across intellectual fields including poetry , historical writing and architecture , which continued into the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries . A growing number of Scottish scholars emerged who had an increasing confidence in their own literature . Part of the explanation for the sudden flowering of the Scottish Enlightenment , is that the country already had a history of achievements in philosophy , poetry , music , mathematics and architecture and was in close touch with intellectual trends in the rest of Europe . From this period Scotland would make major contributions in the fields of medicine , law , philosophy , geology and history . Among these ideas the limitation of royal sovereignty over the people remained present in Scottish intellectual life and resurfaced to contribute to the major debates of the eighteenth century .
= Alan Wake =
Alan Wake is an action @-@ adventure survival horror video game developed by Remedy Entertainment and published by Microsoft Studios , released for the Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows . The story follows best @-@ selling thriller novelist Alan Wake , as he tries to uncover the mystery behind his wife 's disappearance during a vacation in the small fictional town of Bright Falls , Washington , all while experiencing events from the plot in his latest novel , which he cannot remember writing , coming to life .
In its pacing and structure , Alan Wake is similar to a thriller television series , with episodes that contain plot twists and cliffhangers . The game itself consists of six episodes , and the fiction is continued by two special episodes , titled " The Signal " and " The Writer " , that were made available as downloadable content ( DLC ) within the same year of the game 's release . Together , they make the first season of a possibly longer story . Additionally , a six @-@ episode live @-@ action web series called Bright Falls acts as a prequel to the game , and a number of related books also expand upon the Alan Wake story .
Chiefly written by Sam Lake , Alan Wake took over five years to create — an unusually long development time in the game industry . The game received positive reviews from critics , and is often praised for its visuals , sound , narrative , pacing , and atmosphere . Alan Wake was awarded the first spot in Time magazine 's list of the top 10 video games of 2010 . Alan Wake 's American Nightmare , a full stand @-@ alone title , was released in February 2012 on the Xbox Live Arcade service .
On 5 April 2016 , Remedy released Quantum Break , a spiritual successor to Alan Wake , with many references of this game hidden throughout the campaign .
= = Gameplay = =
Alan Wake is an action @-@ adventure psychological horror third @-@ person shooter video game described by Remedy as " the mind of a psychological thriller " and " the body of a cinematic action game " put together . In interviews , the game 's creators hold that the game does not belong squarely in the survival horror video game genre . The game is primarily set in the fictional idyllic small town of Bright Falls , Washington . The main gameplay happens in various areas of Bright Falls – such as the forest , a national park , or a farm – during the night time ; these are punctuated by calmer , non @-@ combative sequences set during the day .
The player controls the eponymous protagonist Alan Wake . In the game , a " darkness " is taking over humans , animals and objects . These enemies , dubbed the " Taken " , are murderous shadows that attack Wake , wielding weapons of their own , ranging from mallets and knives to shovels and chainsaws . They vary by speed , size , and the amount of damage they can take , and some can teleport between short distances . Besides the Taken , the player must combat flocks of possessed ravens and animated objects . When enemies are close , Alan can perform a slow @-@ motion cinematic dodge maneuver .
The Taken are protected by a shield of darkness , initially rendering them impervious to attack ; they can only be injured with a firearm after exposure to light , which burns the darkness away . This puts significant emphasis on flashlights in conjunction with conventional weapons , such as a revolver or shotgun . Flashlight beams act as a reticle . The handheld lights Wake can carry can be boosted , which destroys the darkness faster , but also reduces the light 's battery level . Besides the conventional shooter gameplay need for reloading ammunition , the player must also insert fresh batteries into the flashlight when they run out , or wait for it to recharge slowly . The strength of the darkness protecting an enemy can vary among the Taken . The amount of darkness remaining is represented by a corona of light that appears when aiming at an enemy , and a stronger darkness may recharge over time . When a Taken is finally destroyed , it disappears .
The player is often encouraged to take advantage of environmental light sources and placing , and to use other light @-@ based weapons and accessories , such as flare guns , hand @-@ held flares and flashbangs . Wake can use searchlights to take out massive waves of Taken . Streetlights and other light stands can provide a safe haven , which the Taken cannot enter , and will regenerate the character 's health faster . Otherwise , health regenerates slowly with time , when not taking any damage . In certain sections of the game , it is possible to use a car to traverse between locations in Bright Falls . When in a car , the player can run down Taken on the road , or boost the vehicle 's headlights to destroy them .
A major element of gameplay is the optional discovery and collection of manuscript pages from Alan Wake 's latest novel — Departure . Although Wake does not remember writing this book , its storyline seems to be becoming real around him . These readable manuscript pages are scattered around the game world , out of chronological order ; they often describe scenes that have yet to occur and act as warning and instructions for proceeding through upcoming challenges . Other optional collectibles include coffee thermoses scattered around the game world ( 100 in all ) , as well as discovering television sets which show different episodes of the fictional Night Springs series , radios airing talk and music from Bright Falls ' local radio station , and textual signs around the town . The radio shows and signs provide a deeper understanding of the town 's history and culture . The game 's downloadable content episodes introduce other collectibles such as alarm clocks .
= = Story = =
Alan Wake ( voiced by Matthew Porretta ) is a best @-@ selling psychological thriller author but has been suffering from a two @-@ year stretch of writer 's block . He and his wife Alice travel to the small mountain town of Bright Falls in the state of Washington for a short vacation on the advice of Alice and his friend and agent Barry Wheeler . Before arrival , Alan has a nightmare about shadowy figures who tried to harm him before an ethereal figure interrupts his dream and teaches him how to use light to fight the shadows . On their arrival , Alan goes to retrieve the keys and map to their rented cabin from Carl Stucky , the cabins landlord , but he is visited by a mysterious old woman , who tells him that Stucky had fallen ill and she was entrusted to give Alan the keys . After Alan leaves , Stucky is shown trying catch up to him and give him the real keys .
Alan and Alice arrive at a cabin on an island in the middle of Cauldron Lake . As they unpack , Alan finds that Alice arranged this trip to try to break his writer 's block , scheduling him to see a Bright Falls psychologist named Dr. Hartman and leaving a typewriter in the cabin for him . Alan is infuriated and takes a short walk , but runs back when Alice cries for help . He returns to the cabin just as Alice is being dragged into the lake 's waters by a mysterious force . Alan dives into the water after her , blacking out as he submerges .
Alan regains consciousness a week later , apparently having driven his car off the road , but with no memory of how he got there . He starts to head back towards town , but his progress is hampered by shadowy figures that try to kill him . He observes a strange figure in a diving suit who reminds him of his earlier dream and how to fight the shadows with light . Alan fights through the shadows while finding pages of a manuscript titled Departure with his name on the by @-@ line , a work he has had not written . Eventually making it to town , Alan tries to alert Sheriff Sarah Barker of his wife 's disappearance , but Sarah states that there has been no island or cabin in Cauldron lake for years after it sunk following a volcanic eruption years prior . Sarah contacts the FBI to investigate Alice 's disappearance , while Alan arranges for Barry to come and help .
Alan receives a call from man purporting to be Alice 's kidnapper , demanding the pages of Departure in exchange for her . Meeting at a state park , Alan is about to turn over the pages when the man is consumed by a dark tornado and Alan is knocked out . He awakes in Barry and Dr. Hartman 's care in the lodge overlooking Cauldron Lake . Dr. Hartman listens to Alan 's story , and believes he is suffering a psychotic break , everything that he 's witnessed part of his imagination . Alan attempts to escape the lodge as the shadowy force starts to attack it ; while running , Alan finds evidence that Dr. Hartman is aware of the supernatural events surrounding the lake . Barry helps Alan to escape the lodge before the shadow subsumes it and all those inside . Returning to town , they find the FBI have arrived , and attempt to arrest him , before the shadowy forces inter @-@ vein , allowing Alan and Barry to escape .
Alan and Barry start to learn about the past of Cauldron Lake from other townsfolk . They believe an entity called the Dark Presence is trapped within the lake and is trying to escape by using its powers to turn fiction into reality . It has previously tried this with a writer known as Thomas Zane — the figure in the diving suit — but Zane was able to resist its will and died during the eruption that sank the island . The Dark Presence has grown strong enough to start to influence the townspeople and create the forces that have chased Alan . That night , as Alan and Barry take shelter , they get drunk on moonshine , and Alan starts to recall memories of being forced to write Departure during the prior week , and realizes that the Dark Presence is now trying to use his writings to escape .
Sarah and the FBI arrive to arrest the two , but the shadowy figures drag the FBI agents away . Sarah , now convinced of the Dark Presence , helps Alan and Barry to find Cynthia Weaver , a hermit that fears the Dark Presence . She shows them to the " Well @-@ Lit Room " and to a weapon that is able to defeat the Dark Presence : the Clicker , a simple light switch that has been infused with the power of Alan 's writings . Alan returns to Cauldron Lake alone to face the Dark Presence , using his newfound ability to affect reality with his thoughts aided by the Clicker . The Dark Presence is dispelled but there is no sign of Alice , and Alan believes that to maintain balance , he must give himself to the lake . As Alan sinks below the waters , Alice climbs safely out of the lake . Within the depths of the lake , Alan finds himself in the cabin , and realises that Departure is not yet finished , and turns back to the typewriter to continue the story and write his own means to be free of the lake . He comments to himself that " It 's not a lake — it 's an ocean . "
= = = Special One : The Signal = = =
Continuing from the end of the main game , Alan finds himself in a surreal version of Bright Falls , and realizes he is being held under Cauldron Lake . Zane directs Alan to follow a signal through a cell phone to focus and guide himself out of " the Dark Place " , the realm where the Dark Presence came from and where the written word can become reality . As Alan continues to avoid and defeat various Taken , he encounters several television screens that show a more maniacal version of Alan , ranting about upcoming events , forewarning Alan of what is to come . He also encounters an ethereal version of Barry , a figment of his subconsciousness , who also helps to guide Alan safely across the abstract landscape .
Zane 's signal leads Alan to a sawmill , but as he explores it , he finds himself back in a setting of his city apartment . Zane appears , and tells Alan that it is himself — the maniacal figure on the televisions — that is keeping him in the Dark Place . Alan refuses to believe that he is trapping himself , but soon faces a monstrosity of several televisions , with the irrational Alan on them that tries to kill him . Alan is able to defeat the crazed version of himself , waking up back at the cabin in the lake , and realizes that he is still trapped .
= = = Special Two : The Writer = = =
Still trapped in the Dark Place , Alan regains consciousness to find his memories of Bright Falls emerging ; after leaving an amalgamation of the Cauldron Lake Lodge and the Andersons ' farm , Zane tells Alan he must make his way back to the cabin via a lighthouse . The environments start to become exceedingly surreal and Alan follows Zane 's path , avoiding increasing numbers of Taken . Zane warns Alan that the " irrational Alan " is still inside the cabin , controlling the Dark Place , while he himself represents the rational part of Alan ; the rational Alan must regain control of the dream for any chance of Alan to escape the Dark Place . The irrational side of Alan attempts to stop him by creating delusions of Alice , extinguishing the lighthouse 's light , and sending armies of Taken after him , but with Zane 's help , Alan eventually reaches his goal , passing through the lighthouse to reach the cabin .
As he nears the cabin , the imaginary Barry appears and tells Alan that he will have to reject all the illusions before he can face off against the insane version of Alan , including the apparition of Barry . Alan is ready to accept that , forcing Alan to fight Taken illusions of Dr. Hartman , Barry , and the Andersons , defeating them all before he is able to reenter the cabin . His crazed side is in a paranoid state on the cabin floor , and when Alan touches him , the two are made whole again . Alan realizes that he cannot let himself fall into a delusional state again for fear of never being able to escape , and returns to the typewriter to start a new story — " Return " .
= = Development = =
The Finnish studio Remedy Entertainment is known for creating the critically acclaimed Max Payne ( 2001 ) , and its sequel , Max Payne 2 : The Fall of Max Payne ( 2003 ) . After shipping Max Payne 2 , Remedy Entertainment spent some time " recovering from the crunch " , and started coming up with different concepts for a new project . Among these was the concept for Alan Wake .
The game was announced at the 2005 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) for " the next generation of consoles and PCs " , and was shown to the press behind closed doors in the form of a tech demo . In 2006 , Remedy partnered with Microsoft Game Studios to publish the game exclusively for Microsoft 's Xbox 360 video game console and then @-@ current Windows Vista PC operating system . The first screenshots depicted the character of Alan Wake in much different attire , as well as a different layout for the town of Bright Falls , compared to the released game .
All the characters featured in Alan Wake were based on real life models . Ilkka Villi and Jonna Järvenpää , the models for Alan and Alice Wake , respectively , are the only Finnish models in the game ; all other models were American . Voice overs were provided by native actors from Japan and America for their respective regions .
After four years of having repeatedly demonstrated the Microsoft Windows version , in 2009 , Remedy confirmed that at that point the game was being developed exclusively for the Xbox 360 and the decision to make a PC version was in Microsoft 's hands . After the game 's release in 2010 , Remedy said that bringing the game to the PC was " not on the cards at the moment . " However , nearly two years after its release , Remedy was able to secure the rights to publish a PC version .
The game was announced as " done " and undergoing final polishing in August 2009 . The game eventually went gold on 7 April 2010 , and was released in May .
Originally , Remedy planned Bright Falls as a free @-@ roaming , sandbox @-@ style open world city , similar to those seen in the Grand Theft Auto series . After trying this idea for six months , the team decided to scrap it , because it interfered with the pacing and storytelling they intended to deliver in a thriller game .
The game 's enemies were designed by drawing concept art and then pouring water over them to make them feel " Just a bit off " . For the character of Alan Wake himself , Remedy used " concept photos " as opposed to more traditional concept artwork . To research the Pacific Northwest setting for the game , a Remedy team travelled to the area , and produced a large amount of photographs and videos .
= = = Influences and allusions = = =
Alan Wake was influenced by and often alludes to certain films , TV shows , and books , as well as paying homage to a number of artists and works . Remedy has explained the shared themes and ideas between the game and other existing works of popular culture as " taking something familiar to people as an element , and building something of your own , and hopefully something [ that is ] unique in games , but still familiar from other forms of entertainment . "
Bestselling author Stephen King was a major inspiration for Alan Wake . The main character as a writer whose work is coming true is a theme that has been explored by King in a number of his works . Wake 's narration directly alludes to King on several occasions , including the game 's opening line , in which he quotes a Stephen King essay . The game also pays homage to the film The Shining ( based on King 's novel of the same name ) with a hedge maze area similar to the iconic maze in the film , among other references . King himself was asked for permission to use his quote . He also received copies of the game as a " thank you " , but was unable to try them out because he does not own an Xbox . In addition to King 's work , Lake has cited the stories of Bret Easton Ellis and Neil Gaiman as influences , as well as Mark Z. Danielewski 's House of Leaves .
The game 's setting , Bright Falls , draws inspiration from the early 1990s TV show Twin Peaks , which was set in the titular town ; both fictional small towns in the state of Washington . Alfred Hitchcock is also cited as an inspiration , with the flocks of birds that often attack the protagonist being influenced by his classic horror film The Birds .
In the game there are a number of television sets that can be found around the town in different places . They can be switched on and a short episode of the fictional series Night Springs will be played , which is influenced by the television series The Twilight Zone , created by Rod Serling in the late 1950s .
The game includes several small allusions to the previous famous title by Remedy , and predecessor to Alan Wake , Max Payne . Throughout the game the player can locate Manuscript Pages , pages from a book which describes the game 's events . However , two of them , found in the beginning of Episode 2 , are not connected to the rest , and they are voiced not by Matthew Porretta , Alan Wake 's voice artist , but by James McCaffrey , the voice artist for Max Payne . The text and style of the pages themselves are also a reference to the famous monologues given by that character .
Alan Wake also continues the themes of the Max Payne series in that it features references to Norse mythology in the form of the Anderson brothers .
= = = Episodic format = = =
In its structure , the story of Alan Wake plays out similarly to a mystery television program , where each episode brings another piece of the puzzle to the main ongoing story , yet have a distinct plot of their own . As such , Alan Wake is organised into episodes , which include narrative and plot devices normally used in TV , such as cliffhangers at the end of the episodes . A prominent borrowing from television is the " Previously on Alan Wake ... " recap sequence that opens each episode , and serve to " refresh the player 's memory and point to things that will become relevant shortly . " A different song plays at the end of every episode , imitating certain TV shows that feature different music during each episode 's closing credits .
The main game itself is divided up into six episodes . Additionally , two " special features " , titled " The Signal " and " The Writer " , have been released as downloadable content ( DLC ) . Together , Alan Wake and its DLCs constitute the " first season " of a bigger story . The main game is designed to have a satisfactory ending with the main character reaching his goal , while the DLCs form a two @-@ part special that further expands on the game 's story by " [ continuing ] the fiction and [ serving ] as a bridge between seasons . " While the game 's developers have expressed interest in following Alan Wake up with a season two ( i.e. , a sequel ) , no plans have been announced about this .
Remedy Entertainment chose the TV series storytelling format to establish a certain stylisation and pacing . The developers felt that watching episodes of certain TV shows – such as the heavily serialised series Lost – in the form of released box sets , at the viewers ' pace , was a " natural way of ' consuming media ' " , and that this episodic format was a better fit for a long game . Remedy lauded Lost for its pacing as a thriller TV show .
= = = Product placement = = =
A number of real @-@ life brands and products appear in Alan Wake . The game 's developers have expressed that they tried to " be very conservative and attentive towards gamers " with their use of product placement , and that they aimed " to make the world feel more real rather than put ads in @-@ your @-@ face . "
Examples of such marketing include collectable Energizer batteries and lithium batteries to insert into the player 's hand @-@ held lights . The phone service provider Verizon Wireless is another prominent brand in Alan Wake : besides Verizon branded mobile phones appearing on screen , there is a 30 @-@ second Verizon commercial viewable on one of the game 's interactive TVs , as well as an allusion to the company 's famous advertising line " Can you hear me now ? " during a phone conversation in " The Signal " DLC . Additionally , billboards around Bright Falls advertise both Energizer and Verizon . Ford and Lincoln automobiles are also featured in the game .
Several Microsoft related brands also appear in the game . Alan and Alice Wake 's car shows that it has the Microsoft @-@ powered Ford Sync in @-@ vehicle entertainment system . An Xbox 360 console can be seen in one section of the game , with the box of the fictional Night Springs video game next to it , which are collectibles in " The Writer " DLC episode . In multiple sections of the game , Microsoft Tag bar codes can be seen ; these can be scanned in real life by the user with the appropriate software on their mobile device . When scanned , these tags redirect players to a phone number with the voicemail from one of the game 's character , or to a Verizon @-@ sponsored web site where users gain access to exclusive Alan Wake extras for their console . This functionality is only available in the United States .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The game 's score is composed by Petri Alanko . The soundtrack features the song " War " by Poets of the Fall , from the band 's fourth studio album , Twilight Theater . Sam Lake said that the song " ... is a prominent part of the Alan Wake soundtrack and the theme also links strongly to the game 's storyline . " Poets of the Fall also perform two original songs , " Children of the Elder God " and " The Poet and the Muse " , under the name Old Gods of Asgard . The band wrote the ending theme to Remedy 's previous game , Max Payne 2 : The Fall of Max Payne , called " Late Goodbye " , which is based on a poem written by Lake . " War " , however , was not written specifically for Alan Wake . " Haunted " by Poe plays at the end of the second episode . " Space Oddity " by David Bowie plays over the end credits . Anomie Belle 's " How Can I Be Sure " is featured in the third episode . " Coconut " by Harry Nilsson is played several times during game . On 20 July 2010 an official soundtrack consisting of 18 tracks was released .
= = = = Episode ending songs = = = =
During production , " Lovely Head " by Goldfrapp , " Dear Darkness " by PJ Harvey and " Lilac Wine " by Jeff Buckley were also considered for episode 2 . For episode 3 , " Sea of Love " and " Don 't Go into That Barn " by Tom Waits , as well as The Verve 's " Sit and Wonder " and " Wake Up " by Arcade Fire were possible choices .
= = Marketing and release = =
= = = Bright Falls web series = = =
A promotional live @-@ action tie @-@ in web series / miniseries titled Bright Falls was made available a few weeks before the game 's release on the web and the Xbox Live service . The six episodes of Bright Falls were co @-@ written and directed by Phillip Van , and they serve as a prequel to the game , set in the eponymous town before Alan Wake arrives there . The main character in the series is Jake Fischer ( played by Christopher Forsyth ) , a newspaper reporter who visits the town on business .
A number of characters are shared between Bright Falls and Alan Wake , including diner waitress Rose , Dr. Emil Hartman , radio host Pat Maine and Alan Wake himself , who appears briefly in the final episode . The actors who play these characters also serve as voice actors and physical models for the characters in the game .
The web series begins as Jake Fischer arrives in Bright Falls to interview Dr. Hartman on his new book , an assignment from his publication agency . After a series of encounters with local townspeople , Jake soon finds himself the victim of long periods of lost time and black outs . He finds himself waking up in the middle of a forest and other locations where he had not been previously . He also develops an aversion towards lights and daytime . The longer he stays in Bright Falls , the more violent his behaviour becomes . When he realises this , he tries to duct @-@ tape himself to a refrigerator and recording videotape himself in his sleep to see what might be causing the behaviour . It is implied that he is being completely taken over by the Dark Presence , to the point of murdering several people . He then vanishes , just before the arrival of Alan and Alice Wake .
= = = Release = = =
Alan Wake was first released exclusively for the Xbox 360 video game console . The game was scheduled to be released on 18 May 2010 in North America , and on 21 May in Europe . When the game went gold on 7 April 2010 , the European release date was moved up a week . Therefore , the game was released in Europe first , on 14 May 2010 , and then in North America on 18 May , as originally scheduled . On 23 November 2010 , Alan Wake was released on the Games on Demand service of Xbox Live . On 16 February 2012 , a version of the game for Microsoft Windows was released .
Alan Wake was also released in a limited collector 's edition , packaged in a case resembling a hardcover book . The collector 's edition contains the game , a book titled The Alan Wake Files , and an exclusive soundtrack CD . It also features a developer commentary , and lends access to virtual items for Xbox 360 , such as themes and Avatar clothes .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
During 2010 , two " special feature " episodes of Alan Wake were developed and released as downloadable content ( DLC ) on the Xbox Live service , which serve to bridge the gap between the game 's ending , and a possible sequel .
The first of the two , titled " The Signal " , was released on 27 July 2010 . David Houghton of Games Radar said it was one of the best segments of the game , but worried that it made the main game feel comparatively less impressive .
The second episode , " The Writer " , was released on 12 October 2010 . Erik Brudvig of IGN called it a must @-@ buy for anyone that already purchased " The Signal " , and said it satisfyingly closed out the game 's story . He did feel that both DLCs were pricey for the amount of content they provided .
= = = Books = = =
The limited collector 's edition of the game includes a 144 @-@ page book called The Alan Wake Files , which expands on the fiction of the game . A novelisation of Alan Wake was written by Rick Burroughs . An art / making of book , entitled Alan Wake : Illuminated is also available .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Alan Wake received positive reviews . Michael Plant from The Independent gave the game a score of 5 / 5 . He praised Alan Wake for its " flawless pacing " , which " ensures a compulsive experience " . The editing and plot were also received very positively , making the game " the kind of experience the current console generation was made for . "
The Daily Telegraph rated the game 9 / 10 with editor Nick Cowen being impressed by its " stunning " look , stating the town of Bright Falls and its surrounding environment to be " authentic " in terms of architecture , vegetation , weather and lighting . He described the atmosphere as being able to " ... turn on a dime from feeling safe and serene to one of choking menace and foreboding ... " . Combat mechanics and plot were also praised with the first making " the player feel constantly under threat . " and the latter being described as one of the game 's " strongest assets " . Criticism included the quality of the facial animation and the relatively short length of the game .
Dirk Lammers said the game kept " players on the edge of their seats " , giving a final score of 4 out of 4 in his review for the Associated Press . Matt Greenop from The New Zealand Herald rated the game 5 / 5 and praised the game 's " excellent pace " due to its episodic format . He also praised the " chilling " storyline , " brilliant environments " and concluded the game to be " one of the most innovative and entertaining titles so far this year . " William Vitka from the New York Post graded it B + , praising the game for its " scary atmosphere " , music , graphics and " surprising level of complexity " in combat , but commented negatively on the game 's animation and storyline .
Brian Crecente , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Kotaku , praised the general use of light as a gameplay @-@ mechanic . He commented on the episodic structure , saying it made the player feel satisfied even after short gameplay sessions . He also praised the overall storyline , having played the final episode thrice in a row , saying : " For the first time in my life , I have experienced something that plays like a game but has the impact of a movie ... Alan Wake is a powerful ride , an experience bound to leave you thinking about it and wanting more for days after its completion . " He criticised the game for not providing enough information about Wake and his wife , despite being " packed with memorable people " , but concluded that the game " redefines interactive storytelling " .
Tom McShea criticised the game for lacking " surprising , memorable gameplay moments " in his review for GameSpot , but hailed it for its " fresh " story @-@ telling , great original as well as licensed music , " subtle " lighting effects , which , along with the soundtrack , " create a disturbing atmosphere " , " satisfying " combat system and " clever " inclusion of collectibles , giving a final score of 8 @.@ 5 / 10 .
IGN 's Charles Onyett scored the game 9 / 10 , providing it with the " Editors ' Choice Award " . He described it as " hard to put down once you have started " , and appreciated the game for its episodic structure , " interesting " story @-@ telling mechanic , lighting effects , soundtrack and combat system , which he described as " fast and responsive " , but criticised the writing as " uneven " . The game received high marks for its " strong atmosphere " , " fun gameplay " , and " great visuals " , but lost some due to its " weak ending " .
Tom Orry from VideoGamer.com also awarded a score of 9 / 10 , praising the game for its " clever narrative " , " incredible atmosphere " and soundtrack which he described as " one of the best and most memorable I 've ever heard in a video game " . GameTrailers gave the game an 8 @.@ 6 / 10 . The review praised the game 's presentation for " selling you completely on its twisted nightmare " , and providing a " genuine sense of dread " . Eurogamer 's Ellie Gibson awarded a score of 7 / 10 , stating that although she did not consider the game to be very original , she found it accessible and undemanding , with a " neat combat mechanic " .
Chris Kohler from Wired magazine was more critical and gave it 6 / 10 , saying " when presented with an infinite number of possible resolutions , any answer is going to feel arbitrary . Alan Wake starts strong but finishes weak . Neither the gameplay nor the story deliver on their potential by the time the credits roll " . Kohler , however , praised main character , certain gameplay decisions and " unique story " .
= = = Awards = = =
Alan Wake has received a number of nominations and awards for its achievements in video gaming in 2010 . Editors of Time magazine rendered Alan Wake the best video game of 2010 . In its Best Xbox 360 Games of 2010 list , IGN awarded Alan Wake " Best Horror Game " , and also nominated it for " Best Story , " " Coolest Atmosphere , " " Most Innovative Gameplay , " and " Best Character " ( for the character of Alan Wake ) . The game was nominated in the " Best Xbox 360 Game " category at the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards , and received three nominations at the 2nd Annual Inside Gaming Awards in the categories " Best Narrative , " " Best Sound Design " and " Most Compelling Character " ( for Alan Wake ) . Gamespot 's Best Games of 2010 Awards featured seven nominations for the game , including " Best Story " and " Best Writing / Dialogue , " and won the reader 's choice award for " Best Original IP . " IGN ranked it No. 61 in their " Top Modern Games " ranking .
The game 's soundtrack has won Best Score – European at the 2010 Annual Game Music Awards , with the panel stating " Breaking composer Petri Alanko 's expansive score for the critically acclaimed Alan Wake captured the hearts of gamers and stand @-@ alone listeners alike with its intimate orchestrations and psychological explorations . "
= = = Sales = = =
NPD Group stated sales for the first two weeks reached 145 @,@ 000 units . According to a report , Alan Wake is the second most illegally copied Xbox 360 game of 2010 , with more than 1 @.@ 1 million downloads . It includes an amusing feature where if " pirated " , the character wears an eye patch during the game . According to a report by IndustryGamers , sales of Alan Wake would be much higher than previously estimated , at around 1 @.@ 4 million , as of December 2011 . This includes the digital sales of the game during the Xbox 360 2011 Holiday bundle , which included a token to download Alan Wake , as well as a retail copy of Forza Motorsport 3 .
On March 13 , 2012 Remedy Entertainment announced that the game has passed 2 million copies sold , including Xbox 360 and PC . On May 23 , 2013 Remedy creative director Sam Lake announced that the game and its standalone follow up had sold 3 million copies . On March 25 , 2015 Remedy 's CEO Matias Myllyrinne tweeted that the franchise had sold over 4 @.@ 5 million units . The following month a Polygon story on the game 's prototype for a sequel mentioned that Alan Wake had sold more than 3 @.@ 2 million copies .
= = Microsoft Windows version = =
Despite the cancellation of the PC version at the same time as the Xbox 360 release as a result of Microsoft 's decision , Remedy 's Oskari Häkkinen stated that " PC gaming is part of Remedy 's heritage " and that the developers still wanted to release a PC version of the game . Remedy continued pressing Microsoft to allow the creation of a PC version , eventually gaining it in mid @-@ 2011 ; Häkkinen attributed Microsoft 's agreement partially to their repeated requests , but as well as Remedy 's good standing with Microsoft , and the time factor , having the PC version be available ahead of American Nightmare . Development of the PC version began in earnest , with a small team from Remedy working with Finnish independent developer Nitro Games . Instead of starting from the scrapped PC version , the team worked from the Xbox 360 code and added in new features to take advantage of more powerful elements on modern PC machines . Core to the PC version was to make sure that the game played well using typical keyboard and mouse controls in addition to a controller , and to assure the graphics exceeded the limitations of the Xbox 360 ; Matias Myllyrinne , Remedy 's CEO , stated that these elements were important , as " If this is not tuned to perfection , all the visuals are lost and the emotional touchstones are missed " . The PC version was completed in about five months , and the game formally announced to the public in December 2011 .
The game , which includes the main game and both DLC chapters , was released on the Steam platform on 16 February 2012 . Within 48 hours , Remedy announced that revenue from sale of this version surpassed their development and marketing costs for the game . A retail PC version , distributed by Nordic Games , was released on 2 March 2012 , in both a regular edition and a Collector 's edition , containing a soundtrack disc , The Alan Wake Files , and other special content . The PC retail release for the United States was released on 24 April 2012 , being distributed by Legacy Interactive .
= = Sequel and new Alan Wake title = =
Developer Oskari Häkkinen has stated that there is a possibility for Alan Wake 2 , as the first title is only " Season 1 " and the DLC will " bridge the gap to what we 're working towards . " However Häkkinen added that the idea is currently in ' limbo ' while Microsoft is focusing on downloadable content for the first game . Writer Mikko Rautalahti adds the story is " bigger than one game " and the sequel would be " weird and wonderful " .
On 10 May 2011 , Remedy revealed they were working on a new Alan Wake game , after some information leaked out about the project before an official announcement . Remedy noted that it is not Alan Wake 2 and neither is it downloadable content . At the time , the company gave a Fall 2011 estimate for the release . In November 2011 it was announced that the new Alan Wake title will be available on the Xbox Live Arcade service , and will be revealed at the Spike Video Game Awards on 10 December 2011 .
The first screenshot of the new game appeared on Game Informer on 7 November 2011 . The screenshot shows Alan Wake in a different attire , with a flannel shirt and jeans , next to a road sign that says the town of Night Springs is 15 miles away . Night Springs is a fictional television show in Alan Wake , and is the setting of said show . On 10 November , a short teaser trailer was unveiled . During the days leading up to the publication of the first screenshot , Remedy employees made a number of comments on the official Alan Wake community forums about the new game . It was shared that the new title is " structured like a full release complete with a pretty damn impressive storyline that expands the originals in some interesting ways . " Although no specifics were revealed , Remedy responded to fans who were worried that being an Xbox Live Arcade game meant that the amount of content in the game would be too small . Remedy claimed that there will definitely be enough " value for money " for the players of the game , and that fans " will be blown away by the proportion of things pretty soon " .
In May 2013 , a new game by Remedy was announced at the Xbox One event called Quantum Break , before explaining the following day that a sequel to Alan Wake had been postponed . Despite their love of the property and initially beginning work on a sequel , Alan Wake was not financially successful enough to receive the funding they needed to continue developing the sequel at the time .
In April 2015 Polygon published an article describing the development process of Alan Wake 2 that started shortly after the first game released . Alan Wake 2 already had a working prototype and Remedy was prepared to pitch the game to Microsoft , however According to Sam Lake , Remedy 's founder , Microsoft wanted something else and development of the sequel has shifted to Quantum Break . Most of the ideas for Alan Wake 2 were implemented on American Nightmare . Like the game 's location , the Arizona Desert .
= Red @-@ backed fairywren =
The red @-@ backed fairywren ( Malurus melanocephalus ) is a species of passerine bird in the family Maluridae . It is endemic to Australia and can be found near rivers and coastal areas along the northern and eastern coastlines from the Kimberley in the northwest to the Hunter Region in New South Wales . The male adopts a striking breeding plumage , with a black head and upperparts and tail , and brightly coloured red back and brown wings . The female has brownish upperparts and paler underparts . The male in eclipse plumage and the juvenile resemble the female . Some males remain in non @-@ breeding plumage while breeding . Two subspecies are recognised ; the nominate form melanocephalus of eastern Australia has a longer tail and orange back , and the short @-@ tailed form cruentatus from northern Australia has a redder back .
The red @-@ backed fairywren mainly eats insects , and supplements its diet with seed and small fruit . The preferred habitat is heathland and savannah , particularly where low shrubs and tall grasses provide cover . It can be nomadic in areas where there are frequent bushfires , although pairs or small groups of birds maintain and defend territories year @-@ round in other parts of its range . Groups consist of a socially monogamous pair with one or more helper birds who assist in raising the young . These helpers are progeny that have attained sexual maturity yet remain with the family group for one or more years after fledging . The red @-@ backed fairywren is sexually promiscuous , and each partner may mate with other individuals and even assist in raising the young from such pairings . Older males in breeding plumage are more likely to engage in this behaviour than are those breeding in eclipse plumage . As part of a courtship display , the male wren plucks red petals from flowers and displays them to females .
= = Taxonomy = =
The red @-@ backed fairywren was first collected from the vicinity of Port Stephens in New South Wales and described by ornithologist John Latham in 1801 as the black @-@ headed flycatcher ( Muscicapa melanocephala ) ; its specific epithet derived from the Ancient Greek melano- ' black ' and kephalos ' head ' . However , the specimen used by Latham was a male in partial moult , with mixed black and brown plumage and an orange back , and he named it for its black head . A male in full adult plumage was described as Sylvia dorsalis , and the explorers Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield gave a third specimen from central Queensland the name Malurus brownii , honouring botanist Robert Brown . John Gould described Malurus cruentatus in 1840 from a short @-@ tailed scarlet @-@ backed specimen collected in Northwestern Australia by Benjamin Bynoe aboard the HMS Beagle on its third voyage . The first three names were synonymised into Malurus melanocephalus by Gould who maintained his form as a separate species . An intermediate form from north Queensland was described as pyrrhonotus . Ornithologist Tom Iredale proposed the common name " elfin @-@ wren " in 1939 , however this was not taken up .
Like other fairywrens , the red @-@ backed fairywren is unrelated to the true wren ( family Troglodytidae ) . It was previously classified as a member of the old world flycatcher family Muscicapidae and later as a member of the warbler family Sylviidae before being placed in the newly recognised fairywren family Maluridae in 1975 . More recently , DNA analysis has shown that the Maluridae family is related to the Meliphagidae ( honeyeaters ) , and the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes , scrubwrens , thornbills , gerygones and allies ) in the large superfamily Meliphagoidea .
Within the Maluridae , it is one of 12 species in its genus , Malurus . It is most closely related to the Australian white @-@ winged fairywren , with which it makes up a phylogenetic clade , with the white @-@ shouldered fairywren of New Guinea as the next closest relative . Termed the bicoloured wrens by ornithologist Richard Schodde , these three species are notable for their lack of head patterns and ear tufts , and one @-@ coloured black or blue plumage with contrasting shoulder or wing colour ; they replace each other geographically across northern Australia and New Guinea .
= = = Subspecies = = =
George Mack , ornithologist of the National Museum of Victoria , was the first to classify the three forms melanocephalus , cruentatus and pyrrhonotus as one species , although Richard Schodde reclassified pyrrhonotus as a hybrid from a broad hybrid zone in North Queensland ; this area is bounded by the Burdekin , Endeavour and Norman Rivers . Breeding males of intermediate plumage , larger and scarlet @-@ backed , or smaller and orange @-@ backed , as well as forms that resemble one of the two parent subspecies , are all encountered within it . A molecular study published in 2008 focussing on the Cape York population found it was genetically closer to the eastern forest subspecies than to the Top End form . These birds became segregated around 0 @.@ 27 million years ago , with some gene flow still with eastern birds .
Two subspecies are recognised :
M. m. melanocephalus , the nominate subspecies , has an orange back and longer tail and is found from northern coastal New South Wales through to North Queensland . This form has been previously called the orange @-@ backed fairywren .
M. m. cruentatus occurs across Northern Australia from the Kimberleys to northern Queensland . It is smaller than the nominate subspecies , with males averaging 7 @.@ 1 g ( 0 @.@ 25 oz ) and females 6 @.@ 6 g ( 0 @.@ 23 oz ) in weight . Males in breeding plumage on Melville Island have a deeper crimson colour to their back . Cruentatus ' bloodstained ' is derived from the Latin verb cruentare ' to stain with blood ' .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
Ornithologist Richard Schodde has proposed the ancestors of the two subspecies were separated during the last glacial period in the Pleistocene around 12 @,@ 000 years ago . Aridity had pushed the grasslands preferred by the wren to the north , and with subsequent wetter warmer conditions it once again spread southwards and met the eastern form in northern Queensland and intermediate forms arose . The distribution of the three bi @-@ coloured fairywren species indicates their ancestors lived across New Guinea and northern Australia in a period when sea levels were lower and the two regions were joined by a land bridge . Populations became separated as sea levels rose , and New Guinea birds evolved into the white @-@ shouldered fairywren , and Australian forms into the red @-@ backed fairywren and the arid @-@ adapted white @-@ winged fairywren .
= = Description = =
The smallest member of the genus Malurus , the red @-@ backed fairywren measures 11 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 1 ⁄ 2 in ) and weighs between 5 – 10 g ( 0 @.@ 18 – 0 @.@ 35 oz ) , averaging around 8 g ( 0 @.@ 28 oz ) . The 6 cm ( 2 1 ⁄ 4 in ) long tail is black in the breeding male , and brown in eclipse males , females and juvenile birds . Averaging 8 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) , the bill is relatively long , narrow and pointed and wider at the base . Wider than it is deep , the bill is similar in shape to those of other birds that feed by probing for or picking insects off their environs .
Like other fairywrens , the red @-@ backed fairywren is notable for its marked sexual dimorphism ; the male adopts full breeding plumage by the fourth year , later than all other fairywrens apart from its relative the white @-@ winged fairywren . The male in breeding plumage has a black head and body with striking red back and brown wings . At other times it has a brown upper body and white underparts . Some , mainly younger , males do remain in eclipse plumage while breeding . The female looks remarkably similar with a buff brown body and a yellowish spot under the eye . The female of this species differs from those of other fairy wren species in that it lacks a blue tint in the tail . Geographically , it follows Gloger 's rule ; female birds have whiter bellies and paler brown upperparts inland in sunnier climates . Juveniles of both sexes look very similar to females .
= = = Vocalizations = = =
The typical song used by the red @-@ backed fairywren to advertise its territory is similar to that of other fairy wrens , namely a reel made up of an introductory note followed by repeated short segments of song , starting weak and soft and ending high and shrill with several syllables . The call is mostly made by the male during mating season . Birds will communicate with one another while foraging with a soft ssst , barely audible further than 10 – 15 m ( 33 – 49 ft ) away . The alarm call is a high @-@ pitched zit .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The red @-@ backed fairywren is endemic to Australia and can be seen along rivers and the coast from Cape Keraudren in northern Western Australia through the Kimberleys , Arnhem Land and the Gulf Country and into Cape York , with the Selwyn Range and upper reaches of the Flinders River as a southern limit . It is also found on the nearby offshore islands Groote Eylandt , Sir Edmund Pellew , Fraser , Melville and Bathurst Islands . It then occurs all the way down the east coast east of the Great Dividing Range to the Hunter River in New South Wales , preferring wet , grassy tropical or sub @-@ tropical areas , with tall grasses such as bladygrass ( Imperata cylindrica ) , species of Sorghum , and Eulalia . It is not a true migrant , although it may be locally nomadic due to the changes in vegetation , and may leave its territory after the breeding season . The species will retreat to fire @-@ resistant cover at times of fire .
The red @-@ backed fairywren avoids arid habitats , and is replaced to the south of its range by the white @-@ winged fairywren .
= = Behaviour = =
The red @-@ backed fairywren is diurnal , and becomes active at dawn and again , in bursts , throughout the day . When not foraging , birds often shelter together . They roost side @-@ by @-@ side in dense cover as well and engage in mutual preening . The usual form of locomotion is hopping , with both feet leaving the ground and landing simultaneously . However , a bird may run when performing the rodent @-@ run display . Its balance is assisted by a relatively long tail , which is usually held upright and is rarely still . The short , rounded wings provide good initial lift and are useful for short flights , though not for extended jaunts . Birds generally fly in a series of undulations for a maximum of 20 or 30 m ( 66 or 98 ft )
In dry tall grasslands in monsoonal areas , the change in vegetation may be so great due to either fires or wet season growth that birds may be more nomadic and change territories more than other fairywrens . They form more stable territories elsewhere , such as in coastal areas . Cooperative breeding is less common with this species than with other fairywrens ; helper birds have been sporadically reported , but the red @-@ backed fairywren has been little studied .
Both the male and female adult red @-@ backed fairywren may utilise the rodent @-@ run display to distract predators from nests with young birds . The head , neck and tail are lowered , the wings are held out and the feathers are fluffed as the bird runs rapidly and voices a continuous alarm call .
= = = Feeding = = =
Like other fairywrens , the red @-@ backed fairywren is predominantly insectivorous ; they eat a wide variety of insects , including beetles such as weevils , leaf- , jewel- , flea- and ground @-@ beetles , bugs , grasshoppers , moths , wasps and cicadas . Insect larvae and eggs are eaten as well as spiders . Seeds and other plant material make up only a very small proportion of its diet . It can be found hunting for insects in leaf litter , shrubbery and on the edges of bodies of water , mostly in the morning and late afternoon . Adults of both sexes as well as helper birds feed the young .
= = = Courtship and breeding = = =
During the mating season , the male moults its brown feathers and displays a fiery red plumage . It may fluff its red back and shoulder feathers out so they cover part of the wings in a puffball @-@ display . It will fly about and confront another male to repel it , or to assert dominance over a female . It also picks red petals and sometimes red seeds and presents them to other birds . 90 % of the time , the male presents to a female in what appears to be a courtship ritual . The other 10 % of the time , it presents to another male in an act of apparent aggression .
Over half the red @-@ backed fairywrens in an area can be found in pairs during the mating season . This is apparently a defence against the resource @-@ limited nature of the environment . It is more difficult to maintain a larger interdependent group during dry spells , so the birds try to stay in pairs or smaller groups , which include adults that help parents look after young . Paternity tests have shown that an older male with bright plumage has much more success in the mating season and can mate with more than one female . Accordingly , it has higher sperm storage and makes more mating overtures towards females . A male with browner and less bright plumage or a younger male with bright plumage has a much lower success rate than a bright , older male for mating . Further , an unpaired male serves as a helper to a mated pair in feeding and care of young . When the male pairs his bill darkens , and this happens within three weeks . This is much easier to control than plumage , as moulting takes time and is controlled by seasonality . The bill is vascular and much easier to change in response to the pairings .
The mating season lasts from August to February , and coincides with the arrival of the rainy season in northern Australia . The female does the bulk of the nest building , although the male does assist ; this is unusual for the genus Malurus . Concealed in grass tussocks or low shrubs , the spherical nest is constructed of dried grasses and usually lined with smaller , finer grasses and hair . Nests examined in southeast Queensland tended to be larger and untidier than those in northern Australia ; the former measured 12 – 15 cm high by 9 – 12 cm wide and bore a partly covered 3 – 6 cm diameter entrance , whereas the latter average around 10 – 13 cm in height by 6 – 8 cm wide with a 2 – 4 cm entrance . Construction takes around one week , and there may be an interval of up to another seven days before eggs are laid . The eggs produced are white with reddish @-@ brown spots in clutches of three to four , and measure 14 @.@ 5 – 17 x 10 – 13 mm ; those of subspecies melanocephalus are a little larger than those of cruentatus . The eggs are incubated for two weeks by the female alone . The nestlings are hidden under cover for one week after hatching . The juveniles depend on parents and helpers for approximately one month . They learn to fly between 11 – 12 days after hatching . Broods hatched earlier in the season will help to raise the broods hatched later on . They will stay as a clutch group for the season after hatching .
= = Predators and threats = =
Adults and their young may be preyed upon by mammals such as the feral cat ( Felis catus ) and red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) , as well as rodent species , and native predatory birds , such as the Australian magpie ( Gymnorhina tibicen ) , butcherbird species ( Cracticus spp . ) , blue @-@ winged kookaburra ( Dacelo leachii ) , crows and ravens ( Corvus spp . ) , and shrike @-@ thrushes ( Colluricincla spp . ) , and reptiles such as goannas ( Varanus spp . ) .
= Mikea people =
The Mikea are a group of Malagasy @-@ speaking horticulturalists and foragers who are often described as the hunter @-@ gatherers of Madagascar . They inhabit the Mikea Forest , a patch of mixed spiny forest and dry deciduous forest along the coast of southwestern Madagascar . The Mikea are predominantly of Sakalava origin , although the term describes a lifestyle rather than an ethnic group per se , and individuals from a variety of Malagasy ethnic groups are found among the Mikea . The family encampments of the Mikea shift from prime corn planting territory at the edge of the forest in the rainy season to the interior forest rich with tenrecs and other game in the dry season , when the community becomes highly dependent on spongy tubers to meet their daily demand for water . Their lifestyle is interdependent with that of their neighboring Vezo fishermen and the Masikoro farmers and herders , with whom they trade products caught , foraged or cultivated in the forest . Many Mikea also occasionally engage in paid work such as guarding the zebu herds or tending the corn fields of others .
The present @-@ day Mikea are not a remnant of an ancient Malagasy hunter @-@ gatherer society , but are instead descendants of individuals who took refuge in the forest beginning in the 1800s to escape military conflict , heavy taxation and other oppressive factors . Their way of life is perceived by villagers and city dwellers alike as ancestral , contributing to a mystique about them that has inspired various myths and legends . They are commonly believed to be the mythical Vazimba , the original inhabitants of the island , although there is no evidence to support this view . While some 1 @,@ 500 individuals are known to identify as Mikea , many Malagasy disbelieve that the community continues to exist in the present day .
= = Ethnic identity = =
The Mikea are hunter @-@ gatherers ( also called foragers ) who practice limited farming . The Mikea label is applied to those who live this subsistence lifestyle rather than being tied to a specific ethnicity . There are numerous groups termed Mikea along the west and southwest coast of Madagascar , with the majority living in and around the spiny Mikea Forest on the southwestern coast between Morombe and Toliara , an area extending 2500 square kilometers . Historically this main concentration of Mikea may have extended as far south as the Fiherenana River and as far north as the Mangoky River ; another main cluster of Mikea live to the west and southwest of Lake Ihotry . They are typically considered a subset of the Sakalava ethnic group , although there are Mikea individuals who trace their origins to other ethnic groups . Their adherence to a way of life perceived by villagers and city dwellers as ancestral has contributed to a mystique and various myths and legends about them , and many Malagasy believe they are the descendents of Vazimba , the original inhabitants of the island , although there is no evidence to support this view . The majority of Malagasy believe the existence of the Mikea to be a myth and are unaware that any Malagasy continue to live the Mikea lifestyle to the present day . The term Mikea is principally used by outsiders to label this group and is not often used by members of this community themselves . Most Mikea prefer to call themselves either Vezo @-@ Mikea or Masikoro @-@ Mikea , depending on their specific family lineages .
= = History = =
The Mikea are not remnants of an early hunter @-@ gatherer society . Although researchers remain uncertain when the Mikea first adopted a forest @-@ dwelling , hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle , they have determined that the Mikea were only recently established as a community . The current Mikea population is believed to be descended largely from Masikoro villagers who fled into the forest to escape advancing Merina and Sakalava armies in the 18th and 19th centuries . Colonial French documents dating to 1901 describe hunter gatherers by the name of Mikea living in the southwest of the island . The population is believed to have swelled during the 1947 uprising against French colonial rule , when many Malagasy families left towns and villages to hide in forests across the country . Oil exploration in the 1950s and 1960s entailed cutting paths through the formerly untouched forests of the southwest , which further contributed to the migration of villagers into the forest to adopt the Mikea lifestyle .
= = Society = =
Mikea are subject to national laws like all Malagasy citizens but in practice national laws , government and social services do not reach this population while dwelling in the forest . Within Mikea forest encampments an egalitarian form of self @-@ government predominates , with the eldest male family member having the main decision @-@ making authority for the group . This is in contrast to certain ethnic groups , such as the Merina , who had a complex form of social organization that overlaid a caste system with specific social roles assigned to particular family groups . In 1991 , an estimated 1 @,@ 500 Malagasy were living the Mikea lifestyle , primarily around the Mikea Forest , an area that receives limited rainfall . This number was estimated at several hundred in the 1950s , suggesting a growth in population . The true number of people living from forest scavenging is difficult to estimate with accuracy , as the label " Mikea " is very flexible , and the degree of reliance on scavenging as opposed to seasonal farming can vary significantly at any given time depending on economic and environmental conditions . The Mikea are subject to social stigma linked to their image as primitive or uncivilized people .
Housing and social organization among the Mikea can vary from one individual or community to the next . Some Mikea remain in the forest their entire lives , while others live part of their lives in villages or towns . While living in the forest , groups of Mikea typically move seasonally between encampments nearest to critical resources . In the rainy season , they often live in groups of 30 @-@ 50 people near tracts of virgin forest in proximity to their newly cleared and planted corn fields . The houses in this settlement are square with peaked roofs , as elsewhere in Madagascar , and are typically made of thatch and bark on a wooden pole frame . These houses are loosely clustered with generous space between each lodging . The rainy season encampment serves for three to five years as a base for forest foraging before resource depletion requires a move to a new location . Those working the corn fields may live in simple grass shelters alongside their crops until April or May , when they return to the bark houses . During the dry season from May to October , the encampment splits into smaller groups that relocate deeper into the forest to settle near babo tuber patches , with dwellings limited to brush shelters and thatch sunshades , and some individuals not living in shelters at all . In both types of settlements furniture is nearly non @-@ existent and Mikea typically sleep in the sand or pits dug at the base of giant termite mounds .
The Mikea struggle to ensure the quality of life they seek . While the forest has long provided for their basic needs , deforestation and population growth are straining resources . In addition , Mikea are increasingly seeking to obtain better quality material goods for themselves , such as clothing , which necessitates greater engagement with the external economy through trade and wage labor to earn local currency . Lack of access to social services such as education and health clinics are also taking their toll : with only one health clinic in the Mikea Forest area and low access to water for bathing , rates of diseases such as tuberculosis , leprosy and skin disease are disproportionately prevalent .
= = = Family affiliation = = =
Mikea tend to trace their lineage back to specific villages within one or more of three main lineages , associated respectively with the northern , southern and central parts of the Mikea Forest . Most also have relatives living in Vezo and / or Masikoro villages in the region . Many Mikea families have established ziva ( a " joking relationship " , commonly found in southern and eastern Africa ) with the Vohitse Vanovato clan of the Masikoro , which indicates a degree of familial closeness with this subclan .
Mikea encampments are typically family groups . These consist of an elder couple , their married sons and daughters @-@ in @-@ law , the grandchildren of these marriages , and the elder couple 's own unmarried children of any age . Adult daughters typically move to join their husband 's family encampment upon marriage , but married couples often share their time between the husband 's or wife 's parents ' encampments . Family unions are formed through a fandeo ceremony in which the man is presented to his intended bride 's family , and the acceptance of her parents legitimizes the union . Children of the marriage are legitimized by the husband 's bestowal of presents to his wife 's parents . The relationship between the wife 's brother ( renilahy , " male mother " ) and her children can be very strong in Mikea marriages , and the renilahy will commonly adopt children that his sister 's husband does not legitimize . Both the husband and the wife have the right to divorce at any time and remarry . Polygamy is also practiced .
= = = Religious affiliation = = =
Like other Malagasy , the Mikea spiritual belief system revolves around respect for ancestors . They also share the common Malagasy belief in a creator god , termed Andrianajanahary . Many Mikea believe in various types of forest spirits ( koko ) , which are associated with certain natural spots in the forest deemed sacred ; these sites serve as the focus of various ceremonies , in which rum has spiritual and symbolic significance . The greatest of the nature spirits is Ndrianazo , the lord of the forest . The extended family group , which spreads through multiple encampments , is united around a central priest figure , the mpitoka hazomanga , who officiates over major family ceremonies dedicated to the ancestors . In addition , within each encampment is at least one ombiasy ( wiseman ) who interprets the will of the ancestors and spirits , and plays important roles in such ceremonies as marriage , circumcision , blessings , ancestral rituals , funerals , and tromba and bilo spirit possession ceremonies . Some also practice sikidy and other forms of divination , and provide spiritual advice on the best days or places to hunt , plant , shift camp , and other such events of daily life .
= = Culture = =
The Mikea are culturally and linguistically nearly identical to the neighboring Vezo fishing clan and Masikoro herding and farming clan of the Sakalava ; only the traditional source of livelihood distinguishes the three groups . The popular association of the Mikea with the ancestral Vazimba clan has contributed to widespread belief that the Mikea possess Vazimba attributes , such as being small in stature , unclothed , shy and avoidant of contact with outsiders , and living in perfect harmony with the natural environment . None of these are borne out by evidence .
The Mikea are known to make masks – a rarity in Madagascar – using human teeth and hair .
= = = Dance and music = = =
Music is a significant part of Mikea social and spiritual life . Specific songs are associated with a wide range of life events and ceremonies , including havoaza ( funerals ) , bilo ( magical healing rituals ) , tromba ( spirit possession ) , ringa ( martial arts matches ) , savatsy ( circumcision ceremonies ) and more . Most music is vocal - often making use of whistling , shouts and other vocal effects in addition to singing - with percussion accompaniment ranging from handclapping to djembe or langoro drums . Conch shells and the jejy lava ( stringed instrument with a gourd resonator , played with a bow ) are also performed ; both of these ancient instruments are increasingly rare in Madagascar and among the Mikea the latter is performed by men for one another . Rarer and more costly instruments like the marovany wooden box zither and the valiha bamboo tube zither are used for certain sacred rituals that invoke the ancestors . The marovany or valiha player is typically paid a fomba monetary tribute to perform the ceremonial music . Many songs are accompanied by specific dances and rituals that continue to be practiced among the Mikea in daily life .
= = Language = =
The Mikea speak a dialect of the Malagasy language , which is a branch of the Malayo @-@ Polynesian language group derived from the Barito languages , spoken in southern Borneo . Their dialect is close to that spoken by the Vezo fishing clan and Masikoro herding clan of the Sakalava people .
= = Economy = =
The arid conditions of the spiny forest , which receives less than 600 millimeters of rainfall each year , largely shape Mikea economic activities . Nearly everything they consume is scavenged from the forest , and the average Mikea needs two hours or less to collect adequate food for the day . Their main source of food is tubers , particularly during the dry season when few other foods may be reliably available . Adults and children of both genders work to dig up using a metal @-@ tipped digging stick ( antsoro ) and a digging bowl ( kipao ) . The starchy ovy tuber is roasted or boiled before eating , while the Mikea eat the watery babo ( or baboho ) raw for hydration or use its water for boiling other foods ; the tavolo tuber is dried and ground to make a flour that is sold at village markets . They also gather forest fruits , melons and honey , with the latter a particularly important source of income for the Mikea during the rainy season . To obtain water during the rainy season the Mikea capture rain run @-@ off from the rooftops of their houses using hollowed @-@ out logs or transport water on foot or zebu @-@ drawn wagon from the villages , while during the cool dry season the Mikea consume their store of water @-@ engorged babo tubers and drink water from natural or man @-@ made wells when possible .
Key protein sources include birds and tenrecs . Mikea adults and children of both sexes use clubs to kill the small tenrec ( tambotrika , 0 @.@ 4 kilograms ) , which is widespread year round , and the larger one ( tandraka , 2 @-@ 3 kilograms ) , which is mainly caught during the rainy season . To a lesser extent they also hunt or trap two to three species of lemur , feral cats , occasional wild boars , turtles and rodents using blowguns , spears and dogs , and use a hook and line to catch fish in saline inland lakes . Some Mikea raise animals for food or sale at market , including goats , chickens and guinea fowl ; tree nuts also provide additional protein .
The principal crop of the Mikea is corn , which was introduced to Madagascar in the 1890s . They also occasionally grow manioc . The dry season is used to cut new corn fields , which are burned in October ( swidden agriculture , locally termed hatsaky ) and planted in November and December as the rains begin to fall . This corn is harvested three months later and consumed during the wet season ; surplus is dried and sold , with some saved for the following year 's planting and consumption . The traders who gather the maize from the Mikea process it for international export at a significant profit .
The Mikea live in a symbiotic relationship with the neighboring Masikoro farmers and herders , and the Vezo fishing clan . The Mikea live primarily on food scavenged from the forest but also grow seasonal crops . Their mobility and reliance on scavenging as opposed to crop growing shifts in response to changes in environmental and economic pressures on availability of resources within the Mikea community as well as those of their Vezo and Masikoro neighbors . The Mikea sell their forest products , as well as woven mats and food animals they raise , at weekly Vezo and Masikoro markets in nearby villages to obtain the necessities they cannot scavenge , such as clothing and medicine . Some Mikea migrate for periods of time to work in local villages or the town of Morombe . They are also hired to work for Vezo and Masikoro villagers , such as by cutting forest for villagers or other Mikeas ' corn fields , or guarding villagers ' zebu herds . They occasionally acquire one or more zebu in addition to or in lieu of payment , as these are seen as a form of wealth and are mainly sacrificed in ancestral ceremonies rather than eaten as food . The rainy season is the time when Mikea are most likely to leave their scavenging encampments for wage labor opportunities in villages or for the corn harvest . This is also the time when Masikoro and Vezo villagers are most likely to move into the forest to grow corn .
= Al Jean =
Alfred Ernest " Al " Jean III ( born January 9 , 1961 ) is an American screenwriter and producer . Jean is well known for his work on The Simpsons . He was born and raised in Detroit , Michigan and graduated from Harvard University in 1981 . Jean began his writing career in the 1980s with fellow Harvard alum Mike Reiss . Together , they worked as writers and producers on television shows such as The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson , ALF and It 's Garry Shandling 's Show .
Jean was offered a job as a writer on the animated sitcom The Simpsons in 1989 , alongside Reiss , and together they became the first members of the original writing staff of the show . They served as show runners during the show 's third ( 1991 ) and fourth ( 1992 ) seasons , though they left The Simpsons after season four to create The Critic , an animated show about film critic Jay Sherman . It was first broadcast on ABC in January 1994 ( then aired its second season on Fox in March 1995 ) and was well received by critics , but did not catch on with viewers and only lasted for two seasons .
In 1994 , Jean and Reiss signed a three @-@ year deal with The Walt Disney Company to produce
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Glenelg was filled by 1946 , by which time MD 32 had been extended south and east over the course of MD 106 to Savage .
= = = Improvements = = =
The first major improvement to the original course of MD 32 was the replacement of the highway 's one @-@ lane covered bridge over the Monocacy River with a wider triple @-@ span concrete arch bridge in 1925 . The highway was widened to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) from Westminster to just east of Taneytown by 1930 and from Taneytown to the Pennsylvania state line by 1934 . MD 32 was reconstructed and widened again from Emmitsburg to the Pennsylvania state line in 1948 and through Taneytown in 1949 . When US 40 was relocated as a four @-@ lane divided highway through West Friendship in 1951 , the new highway was placed on a bridge over MD 32 and a two @-@ way ramp added to connect the grade @-@ separated highways . MD 32 was relocated between Eldersburg and Louisville and a new bridge was constructed over Morgan Run in 1952 to replace the old road that would have been submerged by the filling of Liberty Reservoir .
In 1956 , the portion of MD 32 from Fenby north to Westminster and from Westminster west through Taneytown and Emmitsburg to the Pennsylvania state line was renumbered MD 97 , which had been extended north from Howard County . The portion of MD 32 from MD 26 in Eldersburg to MD 97 in Fenby was transferred to county maintenance at the same time . In 1960 , the road from Eldersburg to Fenby returned to the state highway system . In addition , MD 97 was moved to a new alignment , New Washington Road ; the new alignment ran from Fenby to US 140 , which then connected Baltimore with Gettysburg , in Westminster . MD 97 then followed the Westminster Bypass to the northwest side of the city . Subsequently , MD 32 was extended along its original alignment through Westminster to MD 97 near Western Maryland College ( now McDaniel College ) . MD 32 would later be assigned to its original alignment from Fountain Valley to east of Taneytown when MD 97 's new alignment between the two communities was completed in 1965 . The disjoint segment of MD 32 was renumbered MD 832 in 1978 . In 1979 , US 140 was decommissioned ; the highways from Baltimore to Westminster and from Westminster through Emmitsburg became MD 140 . MD 97 was moved to its present course from Westminster toward Gettysburg . MD 32 's northern terminus was rolled back to MD 31 around 1987 . The state highway was truncated at the Westminster city limit in 2001 following the reconstruction of Main Street and its transfer to city maintenance .
MD 32 was reconstructed and widened from Sykesville to Eldersburg starting in 1957 and from West Friendship to just south of Sykesville in 1958 . The state highway 's bypass of Sykesville was completed in 1963 ; the old road through the center of Sykesville became MD 851 . MD 32 's new bridge across the Patapsco River was the longest of only three aluminum triangular box beam girder bridges constructed in the United States . The girder system was topped by a concrete slab deck and underlain with standard concrete abutments and piers and steel bearing pads on which the aluminum girders rested . These bridges , which were designed by Fairchild Engine and Airplane Company , were constructed of aluminum due to that metal 's light weight but similar strength compared to steel . Many experimental aluminum bridges were built due to a severe shortage of steel in the early 1960s . Aluminum bridges are rarely constructed because they are much more expensive than steel and concrete bridges .
In the 1990s , MDSHA discovered the bridge 's rarity while conducting a bridge inventory . The inventory also found premature deterioration of its supports due to galvanic corrosion involving the steel bearing pads and aluminum girder structure . Because repairing the structure would have been extremely difficult , MDSHA decided to build a replacement bridge immediately to the west of the aluminum bridge ; the new bridge opened in 2004 along with a slight relocation in MD 32 on both sides of the bridge . The aluminum bridge was added to the state 's Historic Bridge Registry and was left in place as a historic landmark after MD 32 's new bridge over the Patapsco River opened .
= = = Patuxent Freeway = = =
In 1956 , MD 32 was extended east on Guilford Road from US 1 to the Howard – Anne Arundel county line at Annapolis Junction . The state highway was relocated to its present alignment from Glenelg to Clarksville between 1961 and 1964 , bypassing Ten Oaks Road . MD 32 was expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway in West Friendship when its interchange with I @-@ 70 was reconstructed as a diamond interchange in 1973 . MD 32 was extended east into Anne Arundel County in 1969 when the designation was extended to just east of the Baltimore – Washington Parkway on the edge of Fort George G. Meade . The first two sections of what would become the Patuxent Freeway opened in 1972 . A short section of divided highway opened from just west of Oakland Mills Road in Guilford to a turnaround just west of Vollmerhausen Road that included MD 32 's modern interchange with I @-@ 95 . The other section was a two @-@ lane road from MD 175 in Odenton northeast along Sappington Station Road and then east along the current alignments of MD 32 and I @-@ 97 to MD 178 just east of I @-@ 97 Exit 5 in Crownsville . The eastern section , which from 1972 to 1977 was one of the three disjoint sections of mainline MD 32 between Crownsville and Taneytown , included an interchange with MD 3 in Millersville . As of 1978 , MD 32 's interchange with the Baltimore – Washington Parkway was a partial cloverleaf interchange with four ramps on the north side of MD 32 — due to the state highway closely paralleling the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad 's spur to the military base — and a fifth ramp from the northbound parkway to eastbound MD 32 . The MD 3 interchange included the ramps to and from MD 32 in the direction of Fort Meade plus a ramp from westbound MD 32 to northbound MD 3 . All other movements were made via MD 178 or Millersville Road .
Construction on the Patuxent Freeway resumed in 1981 in Howard County . The freeway opened from Dorsey Run Road to US 29 in 1985 . The freeway was extended across the Middle Patuxent River to tie into the existing two @-@ lane road near Cedar Lane by 1987 . The new highway was extended east from Dorsey Run Road to just west of the Baltimore – Washington Parkway as a four @-@ lane divided highway that same year . Sections of MD 32 's old alignment became part of MD 732 . The highway from Dorsey Run Road to the parkway was upgraded to a freeway with the completion of interchanges at Dorsey Run Road and a ramp to Guilford Road in 1991 . The interchange between MD 32 and the Baltimore – Washington Parkway was upgraded to a full cloverleaf around 1993 . The final section of the Patuxent Freeway in Howard County opened from west of US 29 to west of MD 108 in 1996 .
I @-@ 97 was under construction from Annapolis to Millersville by 1987 . When that section of the Interstate was completed in 1989 , the highway took over the portion of MD 32 from MD 178 to MD 3 . The easternmost portion of MD 32 became I @-@ 97 's Exit 5 interchange ramps ; the MD 3 interchange was upgraded to provide full access . Also in 1989 , construction began on MD 32 between the Baltimore – Washington Parkway and I @-@ 97 . MD 32 was extended as a four @-@ lane divided highway along the existing road from the parkway east to MD 198 and as a two @-@ lane road on a new alignment from MD 198 to MD 175 . The sections of MD 32 from MD 198 to MD 175 west of Odenton and from Burns Crossing Road to I @-@ 97 were under construction to expand them to a freeway ; the freeway segment from MD 175 to Burns Crossing Road on the north side of Odenton was also under construction . The freeway between MD 198 and MD 175 was complete by 1991 . The remainder of the Patuxent Freeway from Fort Meade to Millersville was completed in 1993 .
In 2000 , construction began on the gap in the Patuxent Freeway through Fort George G. Meade . MD 32 's interchanges with MD 198 and Samford Road were completed in 2002 . The MD 198 project involved extending the latter highway east along the northern edge of Tipton Airport so MD 198 could tie into the fort 's Mapes Road entrance ; the Mapes Road intersection east of MD 198 was also eliminated by the construction . The Patuxent Freeway through Fort Meade was finished when MD 32 's interchange with Canine Road was completed in 2005 .
= = = Sykesville Road upgrade = = =
MDSHA has long @-@ term plans to upgrade MD 32 to a four @-@ lane freeway from MD 108 to I @-@ 70 . The first project , which involved constructing a modified dumbbell interchange to connect MD 32 with Burntwoods Road , Ten Oaks Road , Pfefferkorn Road , and Ivory Road in Glenelg , was completed in 2008 . The next project involved the construction of a diamond interchange at Linden Church Road , which , before the dumbbell interchange was completed in the fall of 2013 , met MD 32 at a pair of signalized , three @-@ way directional crossover intersections between Glenelg and Clarksville . Several other interchanges will be constructed or modified :
At MDSHA 's Dayton Shop south of Glenelg , a half @-@ diamond interchange will be built on the southbound side of MD 32 and a right @-@ in / right @-@ out interchange constructed for northbound MD 32 traffic to access the maintenance facility .
North of Glenelg , Rosemary Lane will be extended west to cross over MD 32 . The county highway will be connected to MD 32 via right @-@ in / right @-@ out interchanges between the state highway and frontage roads .
In West Friendship , northbound MD 32 would have half of a partial cloverleaf interchange with MD 144 . Access between MD 144 and southbound MD 32 would be via a right @-@ in / right @-@ out interchange with a frontage road . MD 144 's intersections with the frontage road and the ramps to and from northbound MD 32 will be roundabouts .
MD 32 's interchange with I @-@ 70 will be transformed from a diamond interchange to a partial cloverleaf interchange with free @-@ flowing ramps from MD 32 to I @-@ 70 .
= = Junction list = =
MD 32 is signed east – west from I @-@ 97 in Millersville to MD 108 in Clarksville and north – south from MD 108 to Westminster .
= = Auxiliary routes = =
MD 32 has three existing auxiliary routes :
MD 32AA is the designation for Sappington Station Road , which runs 1 @.@ 00 mile ( 1 @.@ 61 km ) from westbound MD 32 west to MD 175 in Odenton . The state highway begins at the westbound MD 32 exit ramp for Exit 3 . MD 32AA merges with the entrance ramp to westbound MD 32 and intersects the northern section of Burns Crossing Road before crossing over MD 32 . The state highway intersects the southern section of Burns Crossing Road and heads southwest to its terminus at a roundabout with MD 175 ( Annapolis Road ) , Odenton Road , and Higgins Drive .
MD 32AH is the designation for Lodigiani Avenue , a 0 @.@ 04 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 064 km ) spur east from Gambrills Road just south of Gambrills Road 's overpass of MD 32 in Gambrills .
MD 32B is the designation for the unnamed 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) connector between MD 32 and MD 851H , which is a spur of old alignment of MD 32 north of West Friendship .
= Lhasa de Sela =
Lhasa de Sela ( September 27 , 1972 – January 1 , 2010 ) , also known by the mononym Lhasa , was an American @-@ born singer @-@ songwriter who was raised in Mexico and the United States , and divided her adult life between Canada and France . Her first album , La Llorona , went platinum in Canada and brought Lhasa a Félix Award and a Juno Award .
Following this success , Lhasa toured with Lilith Fair , then joined her sisters in a French circus troupe , contributing her husky voice to the musical backdrop . She lived in Marseille and began to write more songs , then moved back to Montreal and produced a second album , The Living Road . Once again , she toured in support of her album , and she collaborated with other musicians on their projects . During this time , BBC Radio 3 honored her as the best world music artist of the Americas in 2005 . She published a book about her impressions of life on the road .
Lhasa recorded a third album , titled Lhasa , but she was diagnosed with cancer in 2009 around the time it was released . She endured severe treatments but these did not halt the illness . She died on New Year 's Day 2010 . A memorial program of her music was put together in January 2012 , performed in Montreal by artists who had worked with her .
= = Biography = =
Lhasa was born in Big Indian , New York , of a Mexican father , language instructor Alejandro " Alex " Sela , and an American mother , photographer and actress Alexandra Karam . According to Lhasa , her hippie parents did not give her a name until the age of five months ; her mother was reading a book about Tibet and the word Lhasa " just grabbed her " as the right name for the baby girl . Lhasa 's maternal grandmother was Elena Karam ( 1909 – 2001 ) , an actress best known for her leading role in Elia Kazan 's film America America . Her paternal grandmother was Carmen de Obarrio ( 1906 – 1982 ) , a Panamanian pianist who studied in Los Angeles with Egon Petri , and with Edgar Varèse in San Francisco . Lhasa had a Lebanese great @-@ grandfather named Basel who sang in six languages . Her mother played harp and her father played flute . Her first decade was spent criss @-@ crossing the United States and Mexico , living and traveling in a converted school bus with her parents and siblings , home @-@ schooled by her mother . Both her parents spoke fluent Spanish , but she was raised speaking primarily English , with Spanish added during a total of eight years ' residence in Mexico . Along with her family she listened to a wide variety of recordings including songs by Chilean musician Victor Jara ; as a young child she dreamed of marrying him some day , not knowing he had been killed .
At age 13 when her parents separated , Lhasa , her mother and her sisters settled in San Francisco where Lhasa started singing in a Greek cafe . She included Spanish language lessons in her high school studies . After viewing a documentary about Billie Holiday , Lhasa determined that she , too , would make a career in singing .
In 1991 , she traveled to Montreal to visit her sisters who were students at l 'École nationale de cirque , the National Circus School of Canada , and she decided to make Montreal her home . Steeped in a Francophone culture for the first time , she sang for five years in bars , collaborating with rock guitarist Yves Desrosiers . In 1992 , Denis Wolff , general manager of the independent Canadian record company , Audiogram , saw Lhasa performing , her head shaved , in front of a tiny nightclub audience . He was struck with " her personality , her charisma and her voice " – he soon signed her to the label . With Desrosiers she developed the material that eventually became her first album .
= = Career = =
Audiogram finished La Llorona in early 1997 with Desrosiers producing , arranging and accompanying . The Spanish @-@ language album mixed 1930s and 1940s @-@ era Latin American songs with original songs ; it was strongly influenced by Mexican music but also by klezmer , torch songs , gypsy jazz and Middle Eastern music . Even though she did not consider herself fluent in Spanish , Lhasa said that she enjoyed singing in the language because it came from " a deeper place " . Wolff said that he expected the album to be marketed to people other than Spanish speakers because it was so different from contemporary Hispanic music .
La Llorona was released first in Quebec on February 4 , 1997 , then in the US two months later . A music video was shot for one song , " Desierto " , released in May . The album brought Lhasa much success , including the Quebec Félix Award in Canada for " Artiste québécois – musique du monde " ( " Best world music artist from Quebec " ) in 1997 and a Canadian Juno Award for Best Global Artist in 1998 . The album was certified platinum in Canada . By 2003 it had sold 120 @,@ 000 units in Canada , 330 @,@ 000 in France , and 30 @,@ 000 in the U.S.
After touring in Europe and North America for several years with Lilith Fair , Lhasa moved to France in 1999 to join her sisters in Pocheros , a circus / theatre company . Lhasa sang in the troupe 's show called " La Maison Autre " ( " The Other House " ) . Living out of trailers with her sisters and traveling from place to place , Lhasa said it was " like when I was growing up . " She eventually reached Marseille , where she started writing songs again . After composing enough material , Lhasa returned to Montreal with her new songs to produce her second album , The Living Road , which was released in 2003 . While La Llorona had been entirely in Spanish , The Living Road included songs in English , French and Spanish .
A two @-@ year tour followed the release of The Living Road , taking Lhasa and her group to 17 countries . Lhasa collaborated with a variety of other artists . She was a guest singer on the Tindersticks ' track " Sometimes It Hurts " off their Waiting for the Moon album , and later joined Tindersticks ' singer Stuart Staples for a duet on the track " That Leaving Feeling " , found on his Leaving Songs album . She also appeared as a guest on the albums of French singers Arthur H and Jérôme Minière , and the French gypsy music group Bratsch . BBC Radio 3 named her the best world music artist of the Americas ; one of the categories of the 2005 World Music Awards . The Living Road was nominated for best " Culture Crossing " album and " Album of the Year " , but it did not win . Her song " Anywhere On This Road " was placed on the annual compilation CD of award winners ; the BBC cited Ibrahim Maalouf 's " alluring Arabic trumpet " on the song as " just one stunning moment " among many within Lhasa 's album . Lhasa filmed a video for the song " Con toda palabra " ; directed by Ralph Dfouni and Brigitte Henry , the video was nominated in 2006 for a Juno Award but did not win . At the 2007 ION International Film Festival , the video was named the " Music Video of the Year " .
Lhasa published a French @-@ language book in 2008 , titled La Route chante ( The Road sings ) . The book offers snippets of experiences and impressions of Lhasa 's life on the road with her sisters , of music , and of her childhood .
Lhasa 's third album Lhasa was released in April 2009 in Canada and Europe , with fewer musicians involved in the production . The next month in the U.S. , she could also be heard on the title track of Patrick Watson 's album Wooden Arms . After the Lhasa album was recorded but before it was released , Lhasa was diagnosed with breast cancer . The album 's closing song , " Anyone and Everyone " , was described as prophetic by Jan Fairley of The Guardian – it was written from the viewpoint of one who knows death is near . Lhasa said that the song was about inner happiness and " feeling my feet in the earth , having a place in the world , of things taking care of themselves . "
Because of her illness , Lhasa canceled a proposed world tour that would have begun in late 2009 . She also set aside plans to make an album of songs written by Chileans Victor Jara and Violeta Parra .
= = Death = =
Following a 21 @-@ month @-@ long battle with breast cancer , Lhasa died , age 37 , on the evening of January 1 , 2010 , at her home in Montreal . She was survived by her partner Ryan Morey , by her parents , and by nine siblings . Lhasa was cremated , in accordance with her wishes . On January 9 , a funeral ceremony was held for family and friends at the Ukrainian National Federation Hall in Montreal . A cemetery plot and stone for Lhasa are at Notre @-@ Dame @-@ des @-@ Neiges Cemetery , Montreal .
Following her death , it snowed in Montreal for four days . Lhasa collaborator Patrick Watson said that some of her friends felt it was a last message from her , and with experimental group Esmerine he co @-@ wrote a song dedicated to Lhasa : " Snow Day for Lhasa " .
A sold @-@ out memorial concert called " La Route chante : A Community Show for Lhasa " was held on January 6 , 2012 , at the Rialto Theatre in Montreal , honoring the life of Lhasa . Musicians who collaborated with Lhasa performed , along with other artists such as Katie Moore , Thomas Hellman , and Plants and Animals . Lhasa 's manager , David @-@ Étienne Savoie , and her collaborator Watson originated the concept of a memorial concert , and the musicians met in Watson 's studio to rehearse . To open the concert , The Barr Brothers played together with Sarah Pagé , Miles Perkin and Joe Grass , interpreting Lhasa 's " Small Song " . Other performers included Ariane Moffatt , Esmerine , Watson , Mario Légaré , Arthur H , Jérôme Minière and Brazilian @-@ born singer Bïa . A second show was added the following night to accommodate demand for tickets .
On January 16 , Jim Corcoran devoted an episode of his CBC Radio One program À Propos , a weekly show about Quebec music , to a Lhasa tribute show .
On the summer solstice , June 21 , 2010 , another memorial ceremony took place in Bourgogne , France . Some of Lhasa 's ashes were dispersed in a small river that flows into the Mediterranean Sea .
Madonna Hamel 's audio documentary She Moves Between Worlds : Remembering Lhasa de Sela combined a previously unpublished conversation between Hamel and Lhasa with interviews and responses to the conversation by band members and friends . The documentary was aired January 1 , 2013 , on CBC 's Inside The Music .
= = Discography = =
La Llorona ( 1997 )
The Living Road ( 2003 )
Lhasa ( 2009 )
= = Filmography = =
El Desierto ( 1997 )
Con toda palabra ( 2005 )
Rising ( 2009 )
Cold Souls ( 2009 )
= Motifs in the James Bond film series =
The James Bond series of films contain a number of repeating , distinctive motifs which date from the series ' inception with Dr. No in 1962 . The series consists of twenty four films produced by Eon Productions featuring the James Bond character , a fictional British Secret Service agent . The most recent instalment is the 2015 film Spectre , which was released in UK cinemas on 26 October 2015 . There have also been two independently made features , the satirical Casino Royale , released in 1967 , and the 1983 film Never Say Never Again .
Whilst each element has not appeared in every Bond film , they are common threads that run through most of the films . These motifs vary from integral plot points , such as the assignment briefing sessions or the attempts to kill Bond , to enhancements of the dramatic narrative , such as music , or aspects of the visual style , such as the title sequences . These motifs may also serve to enhance excitement in the plot , through a chase sequence or for the climax of the film . Some of these — such as " Bond girls " or megalomaniac villains — have been present in all of the stories , whilst others — such as Q 's gadgets or the role of M — have changed over time , often to shape or follow the contemporary zeitgeist . These elements are formulaic and the Bond films tend to follow a set pattern with only limited variety , often following within a strict order . A number of the elements were altered or removed in 2006 with the reboot of the series , Casino Royale .
Some of the elements involved are a result of the production crew used in the earliest films in the series , with the work of Ken Adam , the original production designer , Maurice Binder , title designer , and John Barry , composer , continually updated and adapted as the series progressed .
= = Opening sequences = =
= = = Gun barrel sequence = = =
All of the Eon Bond films feature the unique gun barrel sequence , created by graphic artist Maurice Binder , which has been called by British media historian James Chapman " the trademark motif of the series " . As Bond walks across the screen , he is viewed by the audience through the barrel of a gun trained on him by an unknown assailant . Bond wheels around and shoots directly at the gun / viewer , followed by the assassin 's blood spilling down the barrel / screen . It was originally filmed in sepia by putting a pinhole camera inside an actual .38 calibre gun barrel , with stunt man Bob Simmons playing the part of Bond . This is accompanied by the opening bars of the " James Bond Theme " , composed by Monty Norman , orchestrated by trumpeter and composer John Barry and Burt Rhodes .
After Maurice Binder 's death in 1991 , Daniel Kleinman was responsible for the gun barrel sequence up to and including Casino Royale . Design house MK12 supervised the graphics for Quantum of Solace . Chapman has suggested that the sequence is a significant part of the James Bond mythos because it " foregrounds the motif of looking " that is central to the spy film genre . The gun barrel imagery sometimes carried over to the film posters used to promote Bond films , including as a familiarising element on the introduction of Timothy Dalton for The Living Daylights .
The sequence was traditionally placed at the start of each film until the 2006 instalment Casino Royale , where it appears after the cold open and is incorporated into the plot ; in the 2008 film , Quantum of Solace , the sequence was placed at the end of the film and incorporates the film 's title in its design .
= = = Pre @-@ title sequence = = =
In the first film of the series , Dr. No , the gun barrel sequence is followed by the main titles , but starting with From Russia with Love and in all subsequent films , the titles are preceded by a pre @-@ title sequence or " teaser " . The contents of the sequence can relate to the main plot of the film in a number of ways , including being not at all related ( as in Goldfinger ) , loosely connected ( as with The World Is Not Enough ) or fully related to the plot ( as can be seen in Licence to Kill and On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ) .
From Thunderball through to Die Another Day , the gun barrel sequence segues into the pre @-@ title sequence by having the opening shot be sighted through the barrel . Beginning with The Spy Who Loved Me , the teasers emphasised not only action sequences but stunts , a practice that prevailed until Casino Royale . The sequence for The World Is Not Enough is unusually long : at over fourteen minutes it is two to three times the length of most others .
= = = Title sequence = = =
The main title sequences incorporate visual elements that often reflect each film 's theme , often showing silhouettes of nude or provocatively clad women set against swirling images . For example , the 1965 film Thunderball features scenes of deep @-@ sea diving and this is reflected in the associated opening sequence ; similarly the opening sequence for the 1964 film Goldfinger shows clips from Bond films projected onto the gold @-@ painted silhouette of actress Margaret Nolan : the titles have been described by Bond scholars Smith and Lavington as " Gorgeous , iconic , seminal . "
The concept for the titles came from designer Robert Brownjohn , who worked on From Russia with Love and Goldfinger , before he fell out with producer Harry Saltzman and left the series . In creating the titles , Brownjohn was inspired by seeing light projecting on people 's bodies as they got up and left a cinema ; he was also influenced by constructivist artist László Moholy @-@ Nagy projecting light on to clouds in the 1920s . Brownjohn also used the effect in the poster he created for Goldfinger . Designer Maurice Binder , who had worked on the first Bond film , Dr. No , had been unable to work on either From Russia with Love and Goldfinger , but returned for Thunderball , where he retained Brownjohn 's concept for the titles . Binder eventually worked on thirteen Bond films and after his death in 1991 , the opening credits were done by Daniel Kleinman . This changed for Quantum of Solace , with the studio MK12 taking control . Kleinman returned to direct the Skyfall title sequence , and the title sequence for Spectre .
A contemporary artist usually sings during the title sequence and an instrumental version of the main track may also be featured as a leitmotif during the film , which repeats in various moods . Writing for Rolling Stone , Andy Greene says that " James Bond title songs , as a rule , have the name of the movie in the chorus , " though he notes that this is not always the case . On Her Majesty 's Secret Service has an entirely instrumental credit sequence , though the film features an alternate theme , " We Have All the Time in the World " , sung by Louis Armstrong . John Barry provided the title song music on ten of the eleven films for which he composed the musical score . Several of the songs produced for the films have been nominated for Academy Awards for Original Song and become pop hits , including Paul McCartney 's " Live and Let Die " , Carly Simon 's " Nobody Does It Better " ( for the film The Spy Who Loved Me ) , and Sheena Easton 's " For Your Eyes Only " with Adele 's " Skyfall " and Sam Smith 's " Writing 's on the Wall " eventually winning the award .
= = Plot elements = =
= = = Flirting with Moneypenny = = =
With the exception of the first two Daniel Craig films , Casino Royale and Quantum of Solace , every Bond film has a sequence in which Bond interacts with Miss Moneypenny , the personal assistant to M , Bond 's superior . Lois Maxwell was the first to portray Moneypenny and did so for fourteen Eon @-@ produced Bond films from Dr. No in 1962 to A View to a Kill in 1985 opposite Connery , Lazenby , and Moore . She was followed by Caroline Bliss , Samantha Bond and Naomie Harris , who played opposite Dalton , Brosnan and Craig respectively . The four have arguably divergent interpretations of Moneypenny 's personality , as do the six actors who have played Bond .
A running joke throughout the film series is Moneypenny 's unrequited love for Bond and his playful flirting with her . She flirts back , jokes and sometimes pouts , hoping to wrangle a proposal and a wedding ring out of him . A fantasy sequence in Die Another Day marks the only occasion in the Eon film series in which Moneypenny was actually shown in a romantic embrace with Bond , although this is only in Q @-@ branch 's virtual reality machine .
= = = Receiving assignment from M = = =
Early in most plots Bond is called in to see M , the head of the UK 's Secret Intelligence Service ( also known as MI6 ) in his or her office to receive his assignment . In several films , Bond receives the assignment outside the MI6 offices , or at a local secret office . Upon meeting , Bond often finding M in a subdued state of agitation over a new threat to world peace . M typically shows confidence in the service 's best agent but feels a need to rein in Bond for his risky methods and often chides him for his indiscretions .
The first actor to portray M was Bernard Lee , who appeared in all eleven Bond films from Dr. No in 1962 to Moonraker in 1979 . With Lee 's illness from stomach cancer in 1980 – 1981 , he was unable to appear in his scenes for For Your Eyes Only ; he died on 16 January 1981 and , out of respect , no new actor was hired to assume the role for the film . Instead , the script was re @-@ written so that the character is said to be on leave , letting Chief of Staff Bill Tanner takes over the role as acting head of MI6 and briefing Bond alongside the Minister of Defence .
Lee was replaced for four films between 1983 and 1989 , by Robert Brown who had previously appeared in the series as Admiral Hargreaves . Judi Dench took over the role of M from 1995 's GoldenEye until 2012 's Skyfall . In Skyfall , Gareth Mallory , played by Ralph Fiennes , takes over as M at the end of the film after the death of Dench 's character .
The code name for the British Secret Service in both the books and the films was " Universal Exports " . It has been featured repeatedly in the films in various ways , such as the abbreviation " UnivEx " in From Russia with Love , a brass name plate in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service and Bond 's helicopter in For Your Eyes Only . Academic Paul Stock argues that M 's office — and Universal Exports by extension — is a metonym for England , whilst he sees M as being an iconic representative of England and Englishness .
= = = Technical briefing with Q = = =
After getting his assignment , Bond is often sent to Q Branch for the technical briefing in which he receives special equipment to be used in his mission . The pre @-@ mission briefings quickly became one of the motifs that ran through the Bond series . Dr. No provided no spy @-@ related gadgets , although a Geiger counter was used . Industrial designer Andy Davey observed that the first ever onscreen spy @-@ gadget was the attaché case shown in From Russia with Love , which he described as " a classic 007 product " . The gadgets assumed a higher profile in the 1964 film Goldfinger and the film 's success encouraged further espionage equipment from Q Branch to be supplied to Bond , although the increased use of technology led to an accusation that Bond was over @-@ reliant on equipment , particularly in the later films .
Starting with From Russia with Love , the briefings with Q branch involve various gadgets and technology , although Boothroyd is not referred to in the credits as Q until the third film , Goldfinger . Each Bond film thereafter up until Die Another Day contains a technical briefing of some kind , usually given by Q , with the exception of Live and Let Die , in which Q does not appear and On Her Majesty 's Secret Service in which Q does not brief 007 but is demonstrating to M.
Q is sometimes shown joining Bond in the field , taking with him a portable workshop and his staff . These workshops are established in unusual locations , such as an Egyptian tomb in The Spy Who Loved Me and a South American monastery in Moonraker . On three occasions , in Octopussy , Licence to Kill and Spectre , Q takes active roles in Bond 's missions . For the 2006 Casino Royale reboot and the subsequent instalment , Quantum of Solace , the character of Q was , like Moneypenny , dropped , and although Bond still receives a supply of mission equipment , no technical briefing is shown on screen . The technical briefings resume , under the tutelage of Q , in Skyfall and Spectre .
There are several running jokes throughout the series . Established in Goldfinger is Q 's continuing disgust at how his equipment is often lost , damaged or destroyed by Bond during missions . Another is how easily distracted Bond is in the lab ( " Now pay attention " ) as Q rattles off details about the use of the equipment which Bond needs to commit to memory . Another part of the customary byplay between Q and Bond is Bond 's amused reaction to the latest devices and the Quartermaster 's indignant response ( " I never joke about my work " ) . There are also sight gags showing prototype equipment . In the field , however , Bond always remembers the details and takes full advantage of the tools supplied .
Desmond Llewelyn played Q in seventeen Bond films , appearing in more Bond films than any other actor , where he worked with the first five James Bond actors . Llewelyn 's first film was the second in the Eon series , From Russia with Love , after the actor who played the part in Dr. No , Peter Burton , was unavailable for the filming schedule . ( Burton 's character was not yet called Q , but " the Armourer " , Major Boothroyd , who instructed Bond on a new firearm , the Walther PPK . ) After appearing as Q 's assistant in The World Is Not Enough , John Cleese appeared as Q in Pierce Brosnan 's last film , Die Another Day . For Daniel Craig 's third film , Skyfall , the character was re @-@ introduced , with Ben Whishaw playing the part .
= = = Guns , cars and aircraft = = =
Guns
The first Bond film , Dr. No , saw M ordering Bond to leave his Beretta behind and take up the Walther PPK , which the film Bond used in eighteen films . Since Tomorrow Never Dies , Bond 's main weapon has been the Walther P99 semi @-@ automatic pistol .
Cars
Bond has driven a number of cars , including the Aston Martin V8 Vantage during the 1980s , the V12 Vanquish and DBS during the 2000s , as well as the Lotus Esprit ; the BMW Z3 , BMW 750iL and the BMW Z8 . He has , however , also needed to drive a number of other vehicles , ranging from a Citroën 2CV to a Routemaster Bus , amongst others .
Bond 's most famous car is the silver grey Aston Martin DB5 , first seen in Goldfinger ; it later featured in Thunderball , GoldenEye , Tomorrow Never Dies , Casino Royale , Skyfall and Spectre . The films have used a number of different Aston Martins for filming and publicity , one of which was sold in January 2006 at an auction in the US for $ 2 @,@ 090 @,@ 000 to an unnamed European collector .
Aircraft
Bond also shows his taste for aircraft : a gyrocopter — Little Nellie — features in You Only Live Twice , a Cessna 185 Seaplane in Licence to Kill , an Acrostar Jet in Octopussy , the Space Shuttle in Moonraker and an Aero _ L @-@ 39 _ Albatros in Tomorrow Never Dies .
= = = Meeting allies = = =
Once in the field , Bond frequently meets up with a local ally upon arrival . These can be his foreign counterparts like Tiger Tanaka in Japan or CIA operatives like Felix Leiter , or his own staff in a secret location . Such characters can also be female , some of whom succumb to Bond 's charms . Often these allies will provide Bond either with information to complete his mission , or with additional gadgets from Q. Some allies recur through a number of instalments , such as the Western @-@ friendly KGB chief , General Gogol , Sir Frederick Gray , the Minister of Defence and René Mathis .
= = = = Felix Leiter = = = =
One of Bond 's closest allies in both the novels and films is CIA operative Felix Leiter . Fleming wrote twelve novels , of which Leiter appears in six ; in the second book , Live and Let Die , Leiter was attacked by a shark and lost his right arm and half his left leg and his subsequent appearances were with prosthetics . For the film series the shark attack occurred in Licence to Kill , the fifteenth instalment in the series . Following Licence to Kill , Leiter did not appear until the reboot of the franchise with Casino Royale .
In total Leiter appears in nine Eon Bond films : four out of the six Connery films , one film with Moore , both Dalton instalments and none with Brosnan ( where Bond 's CIA contact is Jack Wade ) , but returned for Craig 's ; he is also not in George Lazenby 's sole Bond film . In the Eon series , there were no Leiter film appearances between 1973 and 1987 and no Leiter appearances between 1989 and 2006 .
Although other recurring characters in the Eon series , such as M , Q and Moneypenny , had continuity within the actors , the character of Leiter has not . In the nine Eon films in which Leiter makes an appearance , there have been seven actors playing the role . Only two actors have played the part twice : David Hedison and Jeffrey Wright . Wright 's first appearances also made him the first African @-@ American actor to play the part in the Eon series , although Leiter was also played by Afro @-@ American actor Bernie Casey in one of the non @-@ Eon films , Never Say Never Again .
= = = Chase scenes = = =
Keeping with the greater Hollywood tradition , every Bond film features chase scenes , usually more than one per film . Bond and his allies evade their pursuers in a wide variety of vehicles , including custom air- and watercraft , to trucks and even tanks and moon @-@ buggies . Although most chase sequences feature Bond getting chased by the villains , such as the Aston @-@ Martin DB5 in Goldfinger and the ski sequence in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , some feature Bond chasing the villains , such as the tank pursuit in GoldenEye and all sequences in Casino Royale . As the Eon series has progressed , the chases have repeated themselves with some variations and have all increased in extravagance .
Among the more unusual chase sequences include the gondola sequence from Moonraker , which leaves the canals of Venice to continue on land , and the cello case chase in The Living Daylights , as well as a double @-@ decker bus in Live and Let Die .
= = International locations = =
Bond 's adventures have taken him to over sixty countries , as well as outer space , in locations mostly described as attractive and exotic . These locations are primarily real places , though on occasion — such as San Monique ( Live and Let Die ) and Isthmus ( Licence to Kill ) — the destinations have been fictional .
The locations used for filming have often altered because of the effects of Bond 's presence : Scaramanga 's hideout on Ko Tapu ( Thai : เกาะตะปู ) in The Man with the Golden Gun is often now referred to as James Bond Island both by locals and in tourist guidebooks . Similarly , the revolving restaurant , located atop the Schilthorn near the village of Mürren used in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service has retained the name Piz Gloria since filming took place there .
Klaus Dodds has noted that there is a geopolitical aspect to the locations used , although this is often a pre @-@ emption of an issue by the film . For example , in the first film , Dr. No , the title villain 's disruption of the American Project Mercury space launch from Cape Canaveral with his atomic @-@ powered radio beam mirrored claims that American rocket testing at Cape Canaveral had problems with rockets going astray . Similarly Bond 's anti @-@ heroin mission in Live and Let Die coincided with President Nixon 's 1972 declaration of a War on Drugs , whilst GoldenEye played against the backdrop of Ronald Reagan 's Strategic Defense Initiative .
= = Characters = =
= = = Larger @-@ than @-@ life villains = = =
For the series of Bond novels , Fleming realised that without threatening villains Bond seemed less heroic : this tradition of strong literary villain was brought across to the screen in the Eon series . The third Bond film , Goldfinger , set a pattern for having a main villain with a loyal and dangerous henchman , a model which was followed in subsequent films .
Whilst Bond scholar Glenn Yeffeth argues that there are only three Bond villains of note — Dr. No , Auric Goldfinger and Ernst Stavro Blofeld , fellow scholar Kerstin Jütting has identified a path of development of villains , all of whom adapt to a contemporary zeitgeist :
Ernst Stavro Blofeld ( 1963 – 2015 ) — Model megalomaniac facing 007 seven times
Francisco Scaramanga ( 1974 ) — the first " freelance " villain
Aristotle Kristatos ( 1981 ) — the first false ally
Franz Sanchez ( 1989 ) — the first villain with the already fulfilled operation
Alec Trevelyan ( 1995 ) — the first MI6 villain
Elliot Carver ( 1997 ) — the modern megalomaniac
Elektra King ( 1999 ) — the first villainess
Many of Bond 's adversaries are characterised by an unusual physical deformity ; for example , Le Chiffre suffered haemolacria , causing his tear ducts to weep blood . Not all of the villains have unusual physical traits ; Mathieu Amalric 's Dominic Greene was depicted without such characteristics , instead being inspired by Tony Blair and Nicolas Sarkozy .
Many of the henchmen employed by the villains may have unique weapons ; Oddjob , Auric Goldfinger 's enforcer , carries a bowler hat with a razor @-@ sharp blade concealed in the rim , while Xenia Onatopp is known to crush victims to death with her thighs during intercourse . In addition to these weapons , many of the henchmen are physically different ; the over @-@ large Tee Hee had an iron claw , Jaws , an assassin with steel teeth , was played by 2.18m ( 7 ' 2 " ) actor Richard Kiel , whilst Renard ( the henchman to the main villainess Elektra ) survived being shot in the head , which progressively killed off his senses and his ability to feel pain .
Many of Bond 's adversaries meet their deaths at the hands of Bond who often uses his environment or equipment to kill his opponent . Mr. Big was killed when Bond force @-@ fed him a pellet of compressed gas , causing him to inflate and explode whilst Hugo Drax was ejected into outer space . Very few villains actually survive the course of Bond 's assignment , and their deaths often come in the final scenes of the film . Lindner has noted that a number of the villains or henchmen have met their deaths through Bond using the technology of the villains against themselves and these include Alec Trevelyan being speared by part of the communications dish , Elliot Carver impaled by his sea @-@ drill and Renard skewered by a nuclear fuel rod .
= = = Bond girls = = =
At some point on the mission , Bond meets the principal Bond girl , a character portraying Bond 's love interest or one of his main sex objects . There is always one Bond girl central to the plot , and often one or two others who cross his path , helpful or not . They may be victims rescued by Bond , or else ally agents , villainesses , or henchwomen . Many partner with Bond on the assignment , while others such as Honey Ryder are solely passive participants in the mission . More generally , the degree to which Bond girls are pivotal to propelling the plot forward varies from one film to the next . Five of the Bond girls are " bad " girls ( or at least working for the villain ) who turn " good " ( or switch sides ) usually due to Bond 's influence . Bond has fallen in love with only Tracy di Vicenzo in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service and Vesper Lynd in Casino Royale , but both of them die at or near the end of the respective films .
Roald Dahl , a screenwriter of You Only Live Twice , said he was given a formula to work to for the film : " you put in three girls ... Girl number one is pro @-@ Bond . She stays around roughly through the first reel of the picture . Then she is bumped off by the enemy , preferably in Bond 's arms . " The next girl is anti @-@ Bond and normally captures him , but Bond will save himself by using his charm and sexual potency : she is normally killed mid @-@ way through the film . Girl number three will survive and end the film in Bond 's embrace .
Academic Kimberly A. Neuendorf notes that James Bond promotes stereotypical , sex @-@ typed male attitudes , especially when interacting with women and in doing so demonstrates Western society 's patriarchal , individualistic culture . Academic Tricia Jenkins , meanwhile , sees that Bond as " hyperheterosexual " , as he is " more masculine , more sexually desirable , more heterosexual than the others around him " . Bond girls became a major theme in many Bond film posters , beginning with Dr. No ; the suggestiveness of the images used had to be toned down in some countries .
Bond girls often have highly suggestive names , including Goldfinger 's Pussy Galore , which the American censor refused to allow on promotional materials and for the US market she was subsequently referred to as " Miss Galore " or " Goldfinger 's personal pilot " ; however Honor Blackman took delight in embarrassing interviewers by repeatedly mentioning her character 's name . Other double entendre names included Holly Goodhead from Moonraker , Mary Goodnight and Chew Mee from The Man with the Golden Gun , Honey Ryder from Dr. No , Plenty O 'Toole from Diamonds Are Forever , Xenia Onatopp from GoldenEye , and Christmas Jones from The World Is Not Enough .
= = Humour = =
One of the elements used throughout the Bond series is humour , particularly ' one @-@ liners ' , delivered by Bond , either when killing an enemy , or at the end of the film when with a woman . The humour was present in the first film in the series , Dr. No , with Bond leaving a corpse in a car outside Government House and asking the Duty Sergeant to make sure he didn 't get away , whilst in Goldfinger , Bond electrocutes a man in a bath , before commenting , " Shocking , positively shocking " .
During Sean Connery 's Bond films , the humour was delivered by Connery to soften a violent situation , such as the electrification , or his shooting a villain with a spear gun and saying " I think he got the point " . The humour changed towards innuendo and self @-@ mockery during the Roger Moore films , with his jokes delivered with what media historian James Chapman considered to be a " wink at the audience " , with the suggestion that the violence was all a joke . This was shown in Live and Let Die when he threw the villain , Tee Hee , out of a train , removing his prosthetic arm in the process , Moore commented that he was " Just being disarming , darling " . When Timothy Dalton took the role , the humour was downplayed , bringing the character more in line with that of the novels . The humour returned for the Brosnan films , with Bond admitting between kisses that he " always enjoyed studying a new tongue " . Similarly , Moneypenny called Bond a " cunning linguist " after she interrupted his lesson with his Danish @-@ language teacher . Brosnan was not happy with some of the humour in the films , particularly the " stupid one @-@ liners — which I loathed — and I always felt phony doing them " .
The films often include a one @-@ liner , often of a sexual nature , at the dénouement . At the close of The Spy Who Loved Me , Roger Moore 's final line when caught with a woman , was that he was " Keeping the British end up , Sir ! " , something that Chapman considered to have " plumbed new depths of banality " . Similarly , Moonraker closes with a distracted Q answering M 's question of " What 's he doing ? " with " I think he 's attempting re @-@ entry , sir " ; a line described by Barnes and Hearn as " sheer magnificence " .
The films also contain elements of visual humour : when Jaws is dropped into a shark pool in The Spy Who Loved Me , it is Jaws who bites the shark . The following film , Moonraker , sees Bond in a comic chase scene with a gondola that becomes a hovercraft , a continuation that Bond author Raymond Benson considered " so dumb that one wonders at what age group the film was really aimed . " The music and sound effects are also used for comic effect in the films : the laboratory of Hugo Drax is opened by touchtones that play the tune of Close Encounters of the Third Kind , whilst when Bond and Anya are seen walking across the desert in The Spy Who Loved Me , the theme from Lawrence of Arabia is heard .
= = Dénouement = =
= = = Protracted attempt to kill Bond = = =
In most of the films , the main villain often captures Bond and , rather than kill him quickly , attempts a slow and protracted death , from which Bond will always escape . This will often also come with a scene of the villain explaining his master plan to Bond . Goldfinger chained Bond to a nuclear bomb in the vault , while Alec Trevelyan tied an unconscious Bond to a helicopter that was programmed to fire its own missiles at itself . Francisco Scaramanga gave Bond lunch and then proposed a duel in his " fun room " , while Hugo Drax trapped Bond beneath the exhaust of a rocket to burn to death . This convention within the Bond canon has been lampooned in spoof films , including the Austin Powers series .
= = = Climax = = =
The climax of most Bond films is the final confrontation with the villain and his henchmen , sometimes an entire army of cohorts , often in his hard @-@ to @-@ reach lair . The villain 's retreat can be a private island ( Dr. No , The Man with the Golden Gun ) , underwater ( The Spy Who Loved Me ) , mountaintop retreat ( On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , For Your Eyes Only ) volcano ( You Only Live Twice ) , or underground base ( Live and Let Die ) , a ship ( Thunderball , Tomorrow Never Dies ) , an oil rig ( Diamonds Are Forever ) or even a space station ( Moonraker ) — among other variations . Bond usually sabotages the lair and , with time ticking down , dispatches the supervillain , rescues the principal Bond girl and they escape as the place blows up . In some cases , the villain or his primary henchman escapes to launch a final attack on Bond and his lover in the final scene .
= = = Ending = = =
In the first twenty two films of the Eon Bond series , only On Her Majesty 's Secret Service and Casino Royale , have ended with the central Bond girl deceased . In all other films , except Quantum of Solace and Skyfall , Bond is kissing her , making love , or implying that he will do so . Sometimes an embarrassed M catches Bond during his embraces . Most endings feature a double entendre and , in many of the films , the Bond girl purrs , " Oh , James . "
Until Octopussy , the title of the next film to be produced was also usually named , in the format " James Bond will return ... " or " James Bond will be back " , although these were sometimes incorrect : The Spy Who Loved Me promised James Bond would return in For Your Eyes Only , but after the success of Star Wars , the producers decided to make Moonraker instead and For Your Eyes Only followed in 1981 .
= = Quotations = =
The first Bond film , Dr. No , included the introduction of the character of James Bond . Bond was introduced in an exchange near the beginning of the film in a " now @-@ famous nightclub sequence featuring Sylvia Trench " , to whom he makes his " immortal introduction " . It was Sean Connery 's second line in the film .
Following the release of Dr. No , the quote " Bond ... James Bond " , became a catch phrase that entered the lexicon of Western popular culture : writers Cork and Scivally said of the introduction in Dr. No that the " signature introduction would become the most famous and loved film line ever " . In 2001 it was voted as the " best @-@ loved one @-@ liner in cinema " by British cinema goers . On 21 June 2005 , the line was honoured as the 22nd historically greatest cinema quotation by the American Film Institute , in its 100 Years Series .
Not all the films contain the introduction , Quantum of Solace , for example and in others it is often mocked by others — in Thunderball , the villainous character Fiona Volpe mocks him by saying it to him while with Mr. Big in Live and Let Die interrupts Bond 's introduction with : " Names is for tombstones , baby ... waste him ! "
Bond usually evinces a preference for vodka martinis and his instruction on how it must be prepared quickly became another catchphrase .
The instruction was honoured by the AFI as the 90th most @-@ memorable cinema quotation . In order to distance his version of Bond from Sean Connery 's , Roger Moore did not order a martini . The martini was present in the first Ian Fleming novel , Casino Royale , where Bond eventually named it " The Vesper " , after Vesper Lynd . The same recipe was then used for the 2006 film of the novel , with the martini ordered by Daniel Craig 's Bond .
= 2004 European Open ( snooker ) =
The 2004 European Open was the 2004 edition of the European Open snooker tournament , held from 1 to 6 March 2004 , at the Hilton Conference Centre , Portomaso , Malta . It was the final year the event was known as European Open , as the event was renamed to Malta Cup in next year . Stephen Maguire defeated Jimmy White by nine frames to three ( 9 – 3 ) in the final to claim his first ranking @-@ event title , transforming him from " talented underachiever into a world @-@ ranking event winner " , according to The Times . In the semi @-@ finals Maguire defeated Stephen Lee and White beat Tony Drago . The tournament was the fifth of eight WPBSA ranking events in the 2003 / 2004 season , following the Welsh Open and preceding the Irish Masters .
= = Tournament summary = =
Prior to the 1988 / 1989 season no ranking tournament had been continuously staged outside of the United Kingdom ( although the World Championship had been held twice in Australia ) . The snooker governing body , the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association ( WPBSA ) , decided to include overseas events and the first two locations chosen were Canada and Europe . The European Open was first held in 1989 in Deauville , France , and was suspended for 1997 / 1998 and 2000 / 2001 . It moved to the Hilton Conference Centre , Portomaso , Malta for the first time in 2004 and was renamed the Malta Cup the following season .
The 2004 tournament was the fifth of eight WPBSA ranking events in the 2003 / 2004 season , following the Welsh Open and preceding the Irish Masters . Held in January , the Welsh Open was won by Ronnie O 'Sullivan , who defeated Steve Davis by nine frames to eight ( 9 – 8 ) in the final . The defending European Open champion was also O 'Sullivan , who defeated Stephen Hendry 9 – 6 in last year 's final . Paul Hunter , who had defeated O 'Sullivan in the final of the non @-@ ranking Masters in February , entered the tournament " playing the best snooker of his career " , according to Phil Yates of The Times .
= = = Qualifying = = =
The qualifying stage was played between players ranked 17 and those ranked lower for one of 16 places in the final stage . The matches were best @-@ of @-@ 9 frames until the semi @-@ finals . In March 2004 Maltese player Tony Drago defeated Adrian Gunnell 5 – 2 in a match held over from the qualifying stage in November .
= = = Round 1 = = =
The qualifiers went through to face members of the top 16 . In this round , Davis came from 2 – 4 down to beat Joe Swail 5 – 4 , in a match where both players missed chances . In the deciding frame , Davis won on the pink ball after Swail had missed the brown . After the match , Davis said it was a historic day as he had never won a match in the country . Stephen Lee received a walkover to the next round after his opponent Robin Hull withdrew due to medical reasons . World number 41 Stephen Maguire made a break of 89 in the final frame of his match against Peter Ebdon to win 5 – 4 , and world number three O 'Sullivan opened his match against Marco Fu with a century break of 110 and went on to win 5 – 1 . Chris Small , who suffers from the spinal condition ankylosing spondylitis , whitewashed UK champion Matthew Stevens 5 – 0 , in a match lasting almost three hours and which saw Stevens lose two frames on the black ball . Neil Robertson defeated Ken Doherty 5 – 3 , and Joe Perry beat David Roe by the same scoreline . In the last match of the day , David Gray beat Fergal O 'Brien 5 – 3 .
World number one Mark Williams was defeated 1 – 5 by Anthony Hamilton , who made a break of 133 . Williams refused to answer questions at the post @-@ match press conference , explaining : " I 'm not saying anything because if I do I could be in trouble so I 'm keeping my mouth shut . " Hunter and Hendry made high breaks of 49 and 55 in defeating Brian Morgan and Jimmy Michie 5 – 1 , respectively . After the match Hendry — the world number two and a seven @-@ time world champion said " I feel like going to apologise to each fan one by one because it was such a bad match " . John Higgins whitewashed Barry Pinches 5 – 0 , compiling a 132 break in the last frame in a match where Pinches made a high break of 33 . Jimmy White overcame James Wattana 5 – 4 having trailed 2 – 3 . Graeme Dott defeated Drew Henry 5 @-@ 3 and Quinten Hann beat Simon Bedford 5 – 0 . In the last game of the day , Drago beat Alan McManus 5 – 4 .
= = = Round 2 = = =
In round two O 'Sullivan defeated Small 5 – 1 , coming from behind to win in each of the first three frames with breaks of 58 , 81 , and 46 . A break of 112 completed the victory , after which O 'Sullivan said his opponent had made him work . In the fifth frame O 'Sullivan continued playing despite needing snookers , later explaining , " I wanted to keep playing because I was enjoying it so much " . White made breaks of 72 , 52 , 69 , 51 , and 65 in defeating Hendry 5 – 3 , after which Hendry said his performance was " horrendous " , and White said his refusal to go out the night before contributed to his performance . In the sixth frame White led by 41 points before missing an easy red , allowing Hendry to win on the black with a 55 break to level at 3 – 3 . White dominated the next two frames for the victory . Higgins , without a tournament victory for over two years , whitewashed Dott 5 – 0 with breaks of 82 , 81 , 57 , and 52 , and said it was the " best [ he had ] felt for ages " . Drago defeated Hunter 5 – 2 to reach the quarter @-@ finals of a ranking events for the first time since 1998 , in a low @-@ quality match where Drago made one break over 50 . Lee defeated Davis 5 – 3 in a four @-@ hour match , and Higgins completed a second whitewash when he beat Dott 5 – 0 , bringing his career record against Dott to 9 – 1 . Maguire defeated Perry 5 – 4 to reach his first ranking quarter @-@ final , and Hann beat Hamilton 5 – 1 to claim the final place in the next round .
= = = Quarter @-@ finals = = =
In the quarter @-@ finals Lee defeated O 'Sullivan 5 – 4 in a match that lasted 3 hours and 32 minutes . O 'Sullivan came from 2 – 3 down to lead 4 – 3 before Lee leveled the match . In the final frame O 'Sullivan led 36 – 0 , before Lee made a 46 break and fluked a snooker that enabled him to claim victory . O 'Sullivan said his performance was very poor , while Lee said he was quietly confident . White defeated Robertson 5 – 3 to reach his third semi @-@ final of the season . White led 4 – 1 and was 56 points ahead in the sixth but missed a straightforward green , allowing Robertson to win on the black with a 67 break . Robertson took the next frame before a risky long pot in the eighth allowed White to win the match . White — who last won a ranking title 12 years ago prior at this event — said , " Everyone knows I 've been in front so many times in the past and tossed it away so I was having nightmares out there " . Drago quickly won the first four frames of his match against Hann , conceding the fifth , before completing a 5 – 1 victory , after which he said the crowd support helped him . Maguire caused an upset when he beat Higgins 5 – 3 , a match that saw Maguire lose the first two frames before winning the next four . After the match Maguire he said he had " starting to think about winning it now " .
= = = Semi @-@ finals = = =
The semi @-@ finals were best @-@ of @-@ 11 frames . White reached his first final in four years when he defeated Drago 6 – 4 . Leading 4 – 1 White made a break of 104 to win the sixth frame , before missing a straightforward red to allow his opponent to win the seventh with an 84 break . Drago won the next two in 15 minutes with breaks of 44 and 109 — completing the latter in four minutes — before an 86 break gave White the victory , after which White said , " Playing Tony here , I got a taste of what players have against me at the Masters when the crowd are all on my side but they were fair and I enjoyed every minute of it . "
In the other semi @-@ final Maguire beat Lee 6 – 4 in an error @-@ strewn match which lasted four hours . After winning the first two frames Maguire lost the next three , but " kept his cool " to seal the victory . Maguire said the match was a " battle " and that he was surprised at how badly his opponents had played in the tournament , while Lee said he " just blew up " and that , " When you ’ re as poor as that you get into such a state of mind that you can ’ t think straight " .
= = = Final = = =
The match was White 's 23rd appearance in a final and his first since the 2000 British Open . In the best @-@ of @-@ 17 final Maguire defeated White 9 – 3 to win his first ranking title at the age of 22 , earning £ 48 @,@ 000 in prize money . The victory , according to The Times , transformed Maguire from " talented underachiever into a world @-@ ranking event winner " ; according to BBC Sport his victory was a surprise .
In the afternoon session Maguire made two sizeable breaks and one of 137 to lead 3 – 0 . He won the next frame and compiled a century in the fifth . The sixth frame was awarded to Maguire , when White violated the three @-@ miss rule . Snookered in the jaws of a corner pocket , White twice attempted to hit the pack of five reds off a side cushion and missed . On his third attempt he adopted a slow roll to the pack and again missed . In the evening session , trailing 0 – 6 , White won his first frame before the next four were shared , the last of which included a break of 125 by White . At 8 – 2 a break of 57 gave Maguire the victory .
After his victory Maguire acknowledged the influence of Terry Griffiths who had been working with him on the mental side of the game : " He 's been on the phone just telling me to keep calm and that I can do it if I believe in myself " . Maguire said he always knew he was good enough to win a tournament and that he would aim for a top @-@ 16 finish for the season . White said , " Stephen outplayed me in safety , potting and position so he deserved to win " and , " He gave me a good bashing . I 'm pleased for him because he 's a nice lad but I 'm disappointed because I didn 't compete " .
= = Main draw = =
Key
w / o
= walkover
w / d =
withdrew
= = = Final = = =
= USS Taylor ( DD @-@ 94 ) =
USS Taylor ( DD @-@ 94 ) was a Wickes @-@ class destroyer built in 1918 for the United States Navy , which saw service in World War I and the years following . She was named for Rear Admiral Henry Taylor .
One of 111 ships of her class , Taylor was commissioned near the end of World War I and patrolled in the Atlantic Ocean during and immediately following the war , though she saw no service supporting the war . After eight years out of commission , she returned to service in 1930 patrolling along the East Coast of the United States and in Latin America . Decommissioned in 1938 , she then became a training hulk . During World War II her forward section was removed and grafted onto USS Blakeley after the latter ship was damaged in a submarine attack . Taylor continued to serve as a training hulk until she was sold for scrap in 1945 .
= = Design and construction = =
Taylor was one of 111 Wickes @-@ class destroyers built by the United States Navy between 1917 and 1919 . She , along with seven of her sisters , were constructed at Mare Island Navy Yard in San Francisco , California , using detailed designs drawn up by Bath Iron Works .
She had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 070 long tons ; 1 @,@ 200 short tons ) an overall length of 314 feet .5 inches ( 95 @.@ 720 m ) , a beam of 30 feet 11 @.@ 75 inches ( 9 @.@ 4425 m ) and a draught of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . On trials , Taylor reached a speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . She was armed with four 4 " / 50 caliber guns , one 3 " / 23 caliber gun , and twelve 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . She had a regular crew complement of 122 officers and enlisted men . She was coal @-@ powered , and driven by two Curtis steam turbines powered by four Yarrow boilers with an indicated horsepower of 24 @,@ 200 shaft horsepower ( 18 @,@ 000 kW ) .
Specifics on Taylor 's performance are not known , but she was one of the group of Wickes @-@ class destroyers known unofficially as the ' Liberty Type ' to differentiate them from the destroyers constructed from detail designs drawn up by Bethlehem Steel , which used Parsons or Westinghouse turbines . The ' Liberty ' type destroyers deteriorated badly in service , and in 1929 all 60 of this group were retired by the Navy . Actual performance of these ships was far below intended specifications especially in fuel economy , with most only able to make 2 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 600 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) instead of the design standard of 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The class also suffered from poor maneuverability and were overweight .
She was the first U.S. Navy ship to be named USS Taylor , commemorating Navy admiral Henry Clay Taylor . A second Taylor would be commissioned in 1942 , a Fletcher @-@ class destroyer named for William Rogers Taylor . That ship saw extensive service in World War II , the Korean War , and the Vietnam War .
= = History = =
Taylor was laid down as Destroyer No. 94 on 15 October 1917 by the Mare Island Navy Yard , and launched on 14 February 1918 . She was commissioned on 1 June 1918 , sponsored by Ms. Mary Gorgas , and under the command of Commander Charles T. Hutchins , Jr .
Upon commissioning , Taylor joined Destroyer Division 12 of the Atlantic Fleet . She cruised with that fleet during World War I but saw no action . Following the war on 1 April 1919 , she was assigned to Destroyer Division 8 . In 1920 , Taylor was placed in reduced commission though still operating on the Atlantic coast . That summer , on 17 July , the Navy adopted the alpha @-@ numeric hull designation system , and Taylor became DD @-@ 94 . In October , she was placed back in full commission and , until the summer of 1922 , operated with Destroyer Division 8 , Flotilla 8 , Squadron 3 . On 21 June 1922 , the ship was placed out of commission at Philadelphia , Pennsylvania .
Taylor remained inactive there until 1 May 1930 , when she was placed back in commission under the command of Commander George B. Keester . She was assigned to Destroyer Division 33 , Squadron 7 , which was part of the Scouting Fleet . During this time , she operated from Charleston , South Carolina , until November when she was placed in reduced commission once again . At the same time , Taylor was detached from the Scouting Fleet and transferred to Destroyer Division 47 , Squadron 16 of the Training Squadron . She was assigned to the 6th and 7th Naval Districts to train reservists and to carry Reserve Officer Training Corps midshipmen on summer cruises . By 1 April 1931 , Scouting Fleet became Scouting Force , and the destroyer was reassigned as an element of Division 28 of the Training Squadron . She operated with that unit until early in 1934 when she joined Squadron 19 of the rotating reserve with which she remained until late 1931 .
On 1 September , she relieved the destroyer J. Fred Talbott on duty with the Special Service Squadron . She patrolled the West Indies and the Gulf of Mexico with that force for one year due to instability in Latin America . By 1 October 1935 , Taylor was back with the Training Squadron as a unit of the newly established Division 30 . She trained reservists until early in 1937 when she returned to the Special Service Squadron in relief of the destroyer Manley . She returned to patrols in the Caribbean area . Returning to the United States in 1938 , Taylor was moor at Philadelphia to prepare for inactivation . The destroyer was placed out of commission on 23 September 1938 . Her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 6 December 1938 , and she was offered for sale in July 1939 . However , on 11 July 1940 , she was redesignated Damage Control Hulk No. 40 and tasked to train damage control parties .
On 25 May 1942 , sister ship Blakeley was struck by a torpedo fired from German submarine U @-@ 156 while patrolling off Martinique . The torpedo struck between frames 18 and 24 at about 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) below Blakeley 's water line , and the force of the impact blew off 60 feet ( 18 m ) of her bow and forecastle . Sailing under her own power to Philadelphia Naval Yard , Blakeley had the forward 60 feet of Taylor 's hull grafted onto her throughout the summer of 1942 . This was completed in September 1942 , and Blakeley , with Taylor 's forward hull , served through the remainder of the war . The remaining 255 feet ( 78 m ) of Taylor spent the remainder of World War II in her duties as a training hulk . She was sold for scrap in 1945 , and delivered on 8 August .
= Hurricane Ophelia ( 2011 ) =
Hurricane Ophelia was the most intense hurricane of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season . The seventeenth tropical cyclone , sixteenth tropical storm , fourth hurricane , and third major hurricane , Ophelia originated in a tropical wave in the central Atlantic , forming approximately midway between the Cape Verde Islands and the Lesser Antilles on September 17 . Tracking generally west @-@ northwestward , Ophelia was upgraded to a tropical storm on September 21 , and reached an initial peak of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on September 22 . As the storm entered a region of higher wind shear it began to weaken , and was subsequently downgraded to a remnant low on September 25 . The following day , however , the remnants of the system began to reorganize as wind shear lessened , and on September 27 , the National Hurricane Center once again began advisories on the system . Moving northward , Ophelia regained tropical storm status early on September 28 , and rapidly deepened to attain its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) several days later . The system weakened as it entered cooler sea surface temperatures and began a gradual transition to an extratropical cyclone , a process it completed by October 3 .
Following the development of Ophelia , numerous storm watches and warnings were issued for the northeastern Caribbean Islands . Residents were urged to prepare for strong winds and substantial flooding . As the system made its closest approach , Ophelia produced several inches of rainfall , leading to mudslides and several road rescues . While light rain totals and gusty winds below tropical storm force were recorded on the island of Bermuda , storm surge and dangerous rip currents along the coast caused minimal damage . In Newfoundland , heavy rainfall contributed to floods that destroyed roads and many buildings . Following Ophelia 's transition into an extratropical cyclone , residents across Europe were urged to prepare for strong winds in excess of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) in some locations , as well as rainfall accumulations up to 4 in ( 100 mm ) . In northern Ireland , a combination of moisture and significantly cooler weather produced several inches of snow across the region , cutting electricity to hundreds . Overall , there were no deaths reported in association with Ophelia , and damage was minimal .
= = Meteorological history = =
The formation of Hurricane Ophelia is attributed in part to a low @-@ latitude tropical wave that emerged off the western coast of Africa in mid @-@ September . As the wave tracked westward , it began to interact with the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) , and was subsequently introduced with a low chance of tropical development in the National Hurricane Center 's ( NHC ) 48 @-@ hour Tropical Weather Outlook . Though atmospheric wind shear was only marginally favorable , the cloud pattern organized , and a surface low @-@ pressure area developed in association with the disturbance . Deep shower and thunderstorm activity continued to fire as the disturbance moved in a general westward motion , and it was assessed with a high chance of development by early on September 19 . Following satellite trends and data from the Advanced Scatterometer , the disturbance was upgraded to a tropical depression at 1800 UTC the following day , while positioned roughly 1300 mi ( 2090 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles , and to a tropical storm six hours later .
Tropical Storm Ophelia continued to intensify as it moved west @-@ northwest . Curved convective bands became prominent in the northern semicircle of the cyclone , and deep convection developed near the center . This intensification trend was short @-@ lived , however , as increased wind shear from a nearby upper @-@ level low caused the low @-@ level center to become partially exposed . Despite the poor presentation on satellite imagery , data from a nearby buoy revealed that the system was stronger than previously thought , with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on September 22 . As the upper @-@ level low moved closer to Ophelia , inducing increasingly unfavorable shear on the storm , it caused the low @-@ pressure area to become completely void of thunderstorms . While deep convection waned significantly early on September 23 , it made a comeback by that afternoon , and an Air Force Reserve reconnaissance aircraft found 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) winds in the system , much stronger than the intensity of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) the system was assessed with before the flight . This intensity did not maintain long as the cloud pattern once again became disorganized . The low @-@ level center became exposed once again during the pre @-@ dawn hours of September 25 , and without the return of organized shower and thunderstorm activity , led to the NHC declaring Ophelia as a remnant area of low pressure , while situated 180 mi ( 290 km ) east of the northern Leeward Islands .
Though the low @-@ level center dissipated later that afternoon , a well @-@ defined mid @-@ level center lingered . The National Hurricane Center initially assessed the remnants of Ophelia with a low chance of regeneration as deep convection fired in association with the low , but these odds were subsequently increased to a medium chance by the afternoon hours of September 26 . A new low @-@ level circulation developed within the well @-@ organized cloud mass , and the system was once again given a high chance of tropical cyclone formation that evening . Following an Air Force Reserve reconnaissance flight into the system , the disturbance was upgraded to Tropical Depression Ophelia at 1200 UTC on September 27 , and was once again upgraded to a tropical storm with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) 18 hours later . As the cyclone reached the western periphery of the subtropical ridge positioned across the central Atlantic , it began to curve northward and intensify once again . Deep convection blossomed atop the center late on September 28 , and microwave imagery depicted the development of an eye . Upper @-@ level outflow expanded in all four quadrants of the cyclone by the afternoon hours of September 29 , and satellite intensity estimates continued to rise , prompting the NHC to upgrade Ophelia to a Category 1 hurricane by 1800 UTC that day .
An unexpected period of rapid deepening began early on September 30 as a well @-@ defined eye became clearly visible on satellite imagery . Ophelia intensified into a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) by 0600 UTC and became the season 's third major hurricane — a Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale — twelve hours later . Cloud tops continued to cool in the system 's eyewall late on October 1 , with cloud tops in the eye of the system warming . Ophelia intensified into a Category 4 hurricane at 0000 UTC on October 2 and simultaneously attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 940 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 76 inHg ) as it passed east of Bermuda . Weakening ensued the following day as the hurricane entered cooler sea surface temperatures and an environment characterized by significantly more stable air . Ophelia weakened below major hurricane intensity by 1800 UTC and became a tropical storm for the final time by 0600 UTC on October 3 . The system lost its tropical characteristics and was subsequently declared an extratropical cyclone four hours later while positioned just southwest of Newfoundland . The extratropical low was absorbed by a larger weather system by the afternoon hours of the following day .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Though the center of Ophelia remained 205 mi ( 330 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles , its outer bands produced heavy rains across the region . In Dominica , more than 4 in ( 100 mm ) of rain fell over parts of the country , triggering flooding along several rivers . Nearly 1 @,@ 600 people were stranded and many cars were washed away by the flooding , while landslides severed access to several communities . Several businesses and schools were closed in preparation of the storm . As Ophelia made its closest approach to the region , heavy rainfall submerged Canefield Airport , and numerous roads , buildings and farms were damaged , leaving residents trapped . Gusty winds , reaching 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) at times , and scattered thunderstorms affected portions of Guadeloupe .
Following Ophelia 's upgrade to hurricane status on September 29 , the Bermuda Weather Service ( BWS ) issued a tropical storm watch for the entirety of the island . Over the following days , the threat of damaging winds gradually decreased as the storm 's forecast track took it far enough east of the territory to spare the region of a direct hit . Correspondingly , the BWS discontinued the watch on the evening of October 1 . Four flights from the United States to Bermuda were canceled due to stormy conditions . Along the coast , the Department of Parks raised high surf warnings for the entire south shore and temporarily closed Horseshoe Beach . Additionally , a few local events were postponed . Passing roughly 140 mi ( 220 km ) east of Bermuda , the outer bands of Ophelia produced 0 @.@ 38 in ( 9 @.@ 7 mm ) of rain and wind gusts up to 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) across the islands .
On October 1 , Environment Canada issued a tropical storm watch for the Avalon Peninsula . Throughout Newfoundland , residents were warned of heavy rains approaching 4 in ( 100 mm ) . Striking the region just over a year after Hurricane Igor , Ophelia revealed that repairs made in the wake of the previous hurricane were occasionally inadequate . Six roads on the Burin and Bonavista peninsulas were shut down during the storm ; two of the works sustained significant damage . Several culverts installed after Igor were washed away by Ophelia .
While Ophelia was still impacting Newfoundland , forecasters in the United Kingdom warned residents that the remnants of the storm would bring unsettled weather to the nation within a few days . In the midst of a record @-@ breaking heat wave , with temperatures reaching an all @-@ time monthly record high of 86 ° F ( 29 @.@ 9 ° C ) , the storm was expected to bring much cooler weather across the region . Strong winds and heavy rains were also anticipated , leading to the cancellation of ferry services . Plummeting temperatures in association with the remnants of the storm were expected to produce snowfall across the United Kingdom as well . In Donegal the first snows of the season fell , leaving hundreds of residents without electricity .
= Wieferich prime =
In number theory , a Wieferich prime is a prime number p such that p2 divides 2p − 1 − 1 , therefore connecting these primes with Fermat 's little theorem , which states that every odd prime p divides 2p − 1 − 1 . Wieferich primes were first described by Arthur Wieferich in 1909 in works pertaining to Fermat 's last theorem , at which time both of Fermat 's theorems were already well known to mathematicians .
Since then , connections between Wieferich primes and various other topics in mathematics have been discovered , including other types of numbers and primes , such as Mersenne and Fermat numbers , specific types of pseudoprimes and some types of numbers generalized from the original definition of a Wieferich prime . Over time , those connections discovered have extended to cover more properties of certain prime numbers as well as more general subjects such as number fields and the abc conjecture .
As of October 2014 , the only known Wieferich primes are 1093 and 3511 ( sequence A001220 in the OEIS ) .
= = Equivalent definitions = =
The stronger version of Fermat 's little theorem , which a Wieferich prime satisfies , is usually expressed as a congruence relation 2p − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 ) . From the definition of the congruence relation on integers , it follows that this property is equivalent to the definition given at the beginning . Thus if a prime p satisfies this congruence , this prime divides the Fermat quotient <formula> . The following are two illustrative examples using the primes 11 and 1093 :
For p
= 11 , we get <formula> which is 93 and leaves a remainder of 5 after division by 11 , hence 11 is not a Wieferich prime . For p =
1093 , we get <formula> or 485439490310 ... 852893958515 ( 302 intermediate digits omitted for clarity ) , which leaves a remainder of 0 after division by 1093 and thus 1093 is a Wieferich prime .
Wieferich primes can be defined by other equivalent congruences . If p is a Wieferich prime , one can multiply both sides of the congruence 2p − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 ) by 2 to get 2p ≡ 2 ( mod p2 ) . Raising both sides of the congruence to the power p shows that a Wieferich prime also satisfies 2p2 ≡ 2p ≡ 2 ( mod p2 ) , and hence 2pk ≡ 2 ( mod p2 ) for all k ≥ 1 . The converse is also true : 2pk ≡ 2 ( mod p2 ) for some k ≥ 1 implies that the multiplicative order of 2 modulo p2 divides gcd ( pk − 1 , φ ( p2 ) )
= p − 1 , that is , 2p − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 ) and thus p is a Wieferich prime . This also implies that Wieferich primes can be defined as primes p such that the multiplicative orders of 2 modulo p and modulo p2 coincide : ordp2 2 =
ordp 2 , ( By the way , ord10932
= 364 , and ord35112 =
1755 ) .
H. S. Vandiver proved that 2p − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p3 ) if and only if <formula> .
= = History and search status = =
In 1902 , W. F. Meyer proved a theorem about solutions of the congruence ap − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod pr ) . Later in that decade Arthur Wieferich showed specifically that if the first case of Fermat 's last theorem has solutions for an odd prime exponent , then that prime must satisfy that congruence for a
= 2 and r =
2 . In other words , if there exist solutions to xp + yp + zp
= 0 in integers x , y , z and p an odd prime with p ∤ xyz , then p satisfies 2p − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 ) . In 1913 , Bachmann examined the residues of <formula> . He asked the question when this residue vanishes and tried to find expressions for answering this question .
The prime 1093 was found to be a Wieferich prime by Waldemar Meissner in 1913 and confirmed to be the only such prime below 2000 . He calculated the smallest residue of <formula> for all primes p < 2000 and found this residue to be zero for t =
364 and p = 1093 , thereby providing a counterexample to a conjecture by Grawe about the impossibility of the Wieferich congruence . E. Haentzschel later ordered verification of the correctness of Meissners congruence via only elementary calculations . Inspired by an earlier work of Euler , he simplified Meissners proof by showing that 10932 | ( 2182 + 1 ) and remarked that ( 2182 + 1 ) is a factor of ( 2364 − 1 ) . It was also shown that it is possible to prove that 1093 is a Wieferich prime without using complex numbers contrary to the method used by Meissner , although Meissner himself hinted at that he was aware of a proof without complex values .
The prime 3511 was first found to be a Wieferich prime by N. G. W. H. Beeger in 1922 and another proof of it being a Wieferich prime was published in 1965 by Guy . In 1960 , Kravitz doubled a previous record set by Fröberg and in 1961 Riesel extended the search to 500000 with the aid of BESK . Around 1980 , Lehmer was able to reach the search limit of 6 × 109 . This limit was extended to over 2 @.@ 5 × 1015 in 2006 , finally reaching 3 × 1015 . It is now known , that if any other Wieferich primes exist , they must be greater than 6 @.@ 7 × 1015 . The search for new Wieferich primes is currently performed by the distributed computing project Wieferich @ Home . In December 2011 , another search was started by the PrimeGrid project . As of November 2015 , PrimeGrid has extended the search limit to over 4 @.@ 9 × 1017 and continues .
It has been conjectured ( as for Wilson primes ) that infinitely many Wieferich primes exist , and that the number of Wieferich primes below x is approximately log ( log ( x ) ) , which is a heuristic result that follows from the plausible assumption that for a prime p , the ( p − 1 ) -th degree roots of unity modulo p2 are uniformly distributed in the multiplicative group of integers modulo p2 .
= = Properties = =
= = = Connection with Fermat 's last theorem = = =
The following theorem connecting Wieferich primes and Fermat 's last theorem was proven by Wieferich in 1909 :
Let p be prime , and let x , y , z be integers such that xp + yp + zp
= 0 . Furthermore , assume that p does not divide the product xyz . Then p is a Wieferich prime .
The above case ( where p does not divide any of x , y or z ) is commonly known as the first case of Fermat 's last theorem ( FLTI ) and FLTI is said to fail for a prime p , if solutions to the Fermat equation exist for that p , otherwise FLTI holds for p . In 1910 , Mirimanoff expanded the theorem by showing that , if the preconditions of the theorem hold true for some prime p , then p2 must also divide 3p − 1 − 1 . Granville and Monagan further proved that p2 must actually divide mp − 1 − 1 for every prime m ≤ 89 . Suzuki extended the proof to all primes m ≤ 113 .
Let Hp be a set of pairs of integers with 1 as their greatest common divisor , p being prime to x , y and x + y , ( x + y ) p − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 ) , ( x + ξy ) being the pth power of an ideal of K with ξ defined as cos 2π / p + i sin 2π / p . K =
Q ( ξ ) is the field extension obtained by adjoining all polynomials in the algebraic number ξ to the field of rational numbers ( such an extension is known as a number field or in this particular case , where ξ is a root of unity , a cyclotomic number field ) . From uniqueness of factorization of ideals in Q ( ξ ) it follows that if the first case of Fermat 's last theorem has solutions x , y , z then p divides x + y + z and ( x , y ) , ( y , z ) and ( z , x ) are elements of Hp . Granville and Monagan showed that ( 1 , 1 ) ∈ Hp if and only if p is a Wieferich prime .
= = = Connection with the abc conjecture and non @-@ Wieferich primes = = =
A non @-@ Wieferich prime is a prime p satisfying 2p − 1 ≢ 1 ( mod p2 ) . J. H. Silverman showed in 1988 that if the abc conjecture holds , then there exist infinitely many non @-@ Wieferich primes . More precisely he showed that the abc conjecture implies the existence of a constant only depending on α such that the number of non @-@ Wieferich primes to base α with p less than or equal to a variable X is greater than log ( X ) as X goes to infinity . Numerical evidence suggests that very few of the prime numbers in a given interval are Wieferich primes . The set of Wieferich primes and the set of non @-@ Wieferich primes , sometimes denoted by W2 and W2c respectively , are complementary sets , so if one of them is shown to be finite , the other one would necessarily have to be infinite , because both are proper subsets of the set of prime numbers . It was later shown that the existence of infinitely many non @-@ Wieferich primes already follows from a weaker version of the abc conjecture , called the ABC- ( k , ε ) conjecture . Additionally , the existence of infinitely many non @-@ Wieferich primes would also follow if there exist infinitely many square @-@ free Mersenne numbers as well as if there exists a real number ξ such that the set { n ∈ N : λ ( 2n − 1 ) < 2 − ξ } is of density one , where the index of composition λ ( n ) of an integer n is defined as <formula> and <formula> , meaning <formula> gives the product of all prime factors of n .
= = = Connection with Mersenne and Fermat primes = = =
It is known that the nth Mersenne number Mn = 2n − 1 is prime only if n is prime . Fermat 's little theorem implies that if p > 2 is prime , then Mp − 1 (
= 2p − 1 − 1 ) is always divisible by p . Since Mersenne numbers of prime indices Mp and Mq are co @-@ prime ,
A prime divisor p of Mq , where q is prime , is a Wieferich prime if and only if p2 divides Mq .
Thus , a Mersenne prime cannot also be a Wieferich prime . A notable open problem is to determine whether or not all Mersenne numbers of prime index are square @-@ free . If q is prime and the Mersenne number Mq is not square @-@ free , that is , there exists a prime p for which p2 divides Mq , then p is a Wieferich prime . Therefore , if there are only finitely many Wieferich primes , then there will be at most finitely many Mersenne numbers with prime index that are not square @-@ free . Rotkiewicz showed a related result : if there are infinitely many square @-@ free Mersenne numbers , then there are infinitely many non @-@ Wieferich primes .
Similarly , if p is prime and p2 divides some Fermat number Fn =
22n + 1 , then p must be a Wieferich prime .
In fact , if and only if there exists a natural number n and a prime p that p2 divides <formula> ( where <formula> is Cyclotomic polynomial ) , then p is a Wieferich prime . For example , 10932 divides <formula> , 35112 divides <formula> . Mersenne and Fermat numbers are just special situations of <formula> . Thus , if 1093 and 3511 are only two Wieferich primes , then all <formula> are square @-@ free except <formula> and <formula> ( In fact , when there exists a prime p which p2 divides some <formula> , then it is a Wieferich prime ) ; and clearly , if <formula> is a prime , then it cannot be Wieferich prime . ( Notice any odd prime p divides only one <formula> and n divides p − 1 , and if and only if the period length of 1 / p in binary is n , then p divides <formula> . Besides , if and only if p is a Wieferich prime , then the period length of 1 / p and 1 / p2 are the same ( in binary ) . Otherwise , this is p times than that . )
For the primes 1093 and 3511 , it was shown that neither of them is a divisor of any Mersenne number with prime index nor a divisor of any Fermat number , because 364 and 1755 are neither prime nor powers of 2 .
= = = Connection with other equations = = =
Scott and Styer showed that the equation px – 2y
= d has at most one solution in positive integers ( x , y ) , unless when p4 | 2ordp 2 – 1 if p ≢ 65 ( mod 192 ) or unconditionally when p2 | 2ordp 2 – 1 , where ordp 2 denotes the multiplicative order of 2 modulo p . They also showed that a solution to the equation ± ax1 ± 2y1 =
± ax2 ± 2y2 = c must be from a specific set of equations but that this does not hold , if a is a Wieferich prime greater than 1 @.@ 25 x 1015 .
= = = Binary periodicity of p − 1 = = =
Johnson observed that the two known Wieferich primes are one greater than numbers with periodic binary expansions ( 1092 = 0100010001002 = 44416 ; 3510 = 1101101101102 = 66668 ) . The Wieferich @ Home project searches for Wieferich primes by testing numbers that are one greater than a number with a periodic binary expansion , but up to a " bit pseudo @-@ length " of 3500 of the tested binary numbers generated by combination of bit strings with a bit length of up to 24 it has not found a new Wieferich prime .
= = = Abundancy of p − 1 = = =
It has been noted ( sequence A239875 in the OEIS ) that the known Wieferich primes are one greater than mutually friendly numbers ( the shared abundancy index being 112 / 39 ) .
= = = Connection with pseudoprimes = = =
It was observed that the two known Wieferich primes are the square factors of all non @-@ square free base @-@ 2 Fermat pseudoprimes up to 25 × 109 . Later computations showed that the only repeated factors of the pseudoprimes up to 1012 are 1093 and 3511 . In addition , the following connection exists : Let n be a base 2 pseudoprime and p be a prime divisor of n . If <formula> , then also <formula> . Furthermore , if p is a Wieferich prime , then p2 is a Catalan pseudoprime .
= = = Connection with directed graphs = = =
For all primes up to 100000 L ( pn + 1 )
= L ( pn ) only for two cases : L ( 10932 ) =
L ( 1093 )
= 364 and L ( 35112 ) =
L ( 3511 )
= 1755 , where m is the modulus of the doubling diagram and L ( m ) gives the number of vertices in the cycle of 1 . The term doubling diagram refers to the directed graph with 0 and the natural numbers less than m as vertices with arrows pointing from each vertex x to vertex 2x reduced modulo m . It was shown , that for all odd prime numbers either L ( pn + 1 ) =
p · L ( pn ) or L ( pn + 1 ) = L ( pn ) .
= = = Properties related to number fields = = =
It was shown that <formula> and <formula> if and only if 2p − 1 ≢ 1 ( mod p2 ) where p is an odd prime and <formula> is the fundamental discriminant of the imaginary quadratic field <formula> . Furthermore , the following was shown : Let p be a Wieferich prime . If p ≡ 3 ( mod 4 ) , let <formula> be the fundamental discriminant of the imaginary quadratic field <formula> and if p ≡ 1 ( mod 4 ) , let <formula> be the fundamental discriminant of the imaginary quadratic field <formula> . Then <formula> and <formula> ( χ and λ in this context denote Iwasawa invariants ) .
Furthermore , the following result was obtained : Let q be an odd prime number , k and p are primes such that p = 2k + 1 , k ≡ 3 ( mod 4 ) , p ≡ − 1 ( mod q ) , p ≢ − 1 ( mod q3 ) and the order of q modulo k is <formula> . Assume that q divides h + , the class number of the real cyclotomic field <formula> , the cyclotomic field obtained by adjoining the sum of a p @-@ th root of unity and its reciprocal to the field of rational numbers . Then q is a Wieferich prime . This also holds if the conditions p ≡ − 1 ( mod q ) and p ≢ − 1 ( mod q3 ) are replaced by p ≡ − 3 ( mod q ) and p ≢ − 3 ( mod q3 ) as well as when the condition p ≡ − 1 ( mod q ) is replaced by p ≡ − 5 ( mod q ) ( in which case q is a Wall − Sun − Sun prime ) and the incongruence condition replaced by p ≢ − 5 ( mod q3 ) .
= = Generalizations = =
= = = Near @-@ Wieferich primes = = =
A prime p satisfying the congruence 2 ( p − 1 ) / 2 ≡ ± 1 + Ap ( mod p2 ) with small | A | is commonly called a near @-@ Wieferich prime ( sequence A195988 in the OEIS ) . Near @-@ Wieferich primes with A = 0 represent Wieferich primes . Recent searches , in addition to their primary search for Wieferich primes , also tried to find near @-@ Wieferich primes . The following table lists all near @-@ Wieferich primes with | A | ≤ 10 in the interval [ 1 × 109 , 3 × 1015 ] . This search bound was reached in 2006 in a search effort by P. Carlisle , R. Crandall and M. Rodenkirch .
The sign + 1 or -1 above can be easily predicted by Euler 's criterion ( and the second supplement to the law of quadratic reciprocity ) .
Dorais and Klyve used a different definition of a near @-@ Wieferich prime , defining it as a prime p with small value of <formula> where <formula> is the Fermat quotient of 2 with respect to p modulo p ( the modulo operation here gives the residue with the smallest absolute value ) . The following table lists all primes p ≤ 6 @.@ 7 × 1015 with <formula> .
The two notions of nearness are related as follows . If <formula> , then by squaring , clearly <formula> . So if A had been chosen with <formula> small , then clearly <formula> is also ( quite ) small , and an even number . However , when <formula> is odd above , the related A from before the last squaring was not " small " . For example , with <formula> , we have <formula> which reads extremely non @-@ near , but after squaring this is <formula> which is a near @-@ Wieferich by the second definition .
= = = Base @-@ a Wieferich primes = = =
A Wieferich prime base a is a prime p that satisfies
ap − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 ) .
Such a prime cannot divide a , since then it would also divide 1 .
It 's a conjecture that for every natural number a , there are infinitely many Wieferich primes in base a .
Bolyai showed that if p and q are primes , a is a positive integer not divisible by p and q such that ap − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod q ) , aq − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p ) , then apq − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod pq ) . Setting p
= q leads to ap2 − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 ) . It was shown that ap2 − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 ) if and only if ap − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 ) .
Known solutions of ap − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 ) for small values of a are : ( checked up to 5 × 1013 )
For more information , see and . ( Note that the solutions to a =
bk is the union of the prime divisors of k which does not divide b and the solutions to a
= b )
The smallest solutions of np − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 ) are
2 , 1093 , 11 , 1093 , 2 , 66161 , 5 , 3 , 2 , 3 , 71 , 2693 , 2 , 29 , 29131 , 1093 , 2 , 5 , 3 , 281 , 2 , 13 , 13 , 5 , 2 , 3 , 11 , 3 , 2 , 7 , 7 , 5 , 2 , 46145917691 , 3 , 66161 , 2 , 17 , 8039 , 11 , 2 , 23 , 5 , 3 , 2 , 3 , ... ( The next term > 4 @.@ 9 × 1013 ) ( sequence A039951 in the OEIS )
There are no known solutions of np − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 ) for n =
47 , 72 , 186 , 187 , 200 , 203 , 222 , 231 , 304 , 311 , 335 , 347 , 355 , 435 , 454 , 542 , 546 , 554 , 610 , 639 , 662 , 760 , 772 , 798 , 808 , 812 , 858 , 860 , 871 , 983 , 986 , 1002 , 1023 , 1130 , 1136 , 1138 , ....
It is a conjecture that there are infinity many solutions of ap − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 ) for every natural number a .
The bases b < p2 which p is a Wieferich prime are ( for b > p2 , the solutions are just shifted by k · p2 for k > 0 ) , and there are p − 1 solutions < p2 of p and the set of the solutions congruent to p are { 1 , 2 , 3 , ... , p − 1 } ) ( sequence A143548 in the OEIS )
The least base b > 1 which prime ( n ) is a Wieferich prime are
5 , 8 , 7 , 18 , 3 , 19 , 38 , 28 , 28 , 14 , 115 , 18 , 51 , 19 , 53 , 338 , 53 , 264 , 143 , 11 , 306 , 31 , 99 , 184 , 53 , 181 , 43 , 164 , 96 , 68 , 38 , 58 , 19 , 328 , 313 , 78 , 226 , 65 , 253 , 259 , 532 , 78 , 176 , 276 , 143 , 174 , 165 , 69 , 330 , 44 , 33 , 332 , 94 , 263 , 48 , 79 , 171 , 747 , 731 , 20 , ... ( sequence A039678 in the OEIS )
We can also consider the formula <formula> , ( because of the generalized Fermat little theorem , <formula> is true for all prime p and all natural number a such that both a and a + 1 are not divisible by p ) . It 's a conjecture that for every natural number a , there are infinitely many primes such that <formula> .
Known solutions for small a are : ( checked up to 4 × 1011 )
= = = Wieferich pairs = = =
A Wieferich pair is a pair of primes p and q that satisfy
pq − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod q2 ) and qp − 1 ≡ 1 ( mod p2 )
so that a Wieferich prime p ≡ 1 ( mod 4 ) will form such a pair ( p , 2 ) : the only known instance in this case is p = 1093 . There are only 7 known Wieferich pairs .
( 2 , 1093 ) , ( 3 , 1006003 ) , ( 5 , 1645333507 ) , ( 5 , 188748146801 ) , ( 83 , 4871 ) , ( 911 , 318917 ) , and ( 2903 , 18787 ) ( sequences A124121 , A124122 and A126432 in OEIS )
= = = Wieferich sequence = = =
Start with a ( 1 ) any natural number ( > 1 ) , a ( n )
= the smallest prime p such that ( a ( n − 1 ) ) p − 1 =
1 ( mod p2 ) but p2 does not divide a ( n − 1 ) − 1 or a ( n − 1 ) + 1 . ( If p2 divides a ( n − 1 ) − 1 or a ( n − 1 ) + 1 , then the solution is a trivial solution ) It is a conjecture that every natural number k
= a ( 1 ) > 1 makes this sequence become periodic , for example , let a ( 1 ) =
2 :
2 , 1093 , 5 , 20771 , 18043 , 5 , 20771 , 18043 , 5 , ... , it gets a cycle : { 5 , 20771 , 18043 } .
Let a ( 1 )
= 83 :
83 , 4871 , 83 , 4871 , 83 , 4871 , 83 , ... , it gets a cycle : { 83 , 4871 } .
Let a ( 1 ) =
59 ( a longer sequence ) :
59 , 2777 , 133287067 , 13 , 863 , 7 , 5 , 20771 , 18043 , 5 , ... , it also gets 5 .
However , there are many values of a ( 1 ) with unknown status , for example , let a ( 1 )
= 3 :
3 , 11 , 71 , 47 , ? ( There are no known Wieferich primes in base 47 ) .
Let a ( 1 ) =
14 :
14 , 29 , ? ( There are no known Wieferich prime in base 29 except 2 , but 22
= 4 divides 29 − 1 =
28 )
Let a ( 1 ) = 39 ( a longer sequence ) :
39 , 8039 , 617 , 101 , 1050139 , 29 , ? ( It also gets 29 )
It is unknown that values for a ( 1 ) > 1 exist such that the resulting sequence does not eventually become periodic .
When a ( n − 1 ) = k , a ( n ) will be ( start with k
= 2 ) : 1093 , 11 , 1093 , 20771 , 66161 , 5 , 1093 , 11 , 487 , 71 , 2693 , 863 , 29 , 29131 ,
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( 42 m ) . The first drop is 119 feet ( 36 m ) . When the coaster first opened , it was painted with dark green supports , bright green track and unpainted rails . 1 @,@ 500 gallons of paint were used to originally paint it . Raptor was repainted for the 2002 season and the rails were painted dark green , matching the supports . Most of the 117 sections of track were manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators in Batavia , Ohio . The roller coaster will be repainted again for the 2016 season with its original colors .
= = = Trains = = =
Raptor operates with three steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has eight cars that have four seats in a single row for a total of 32 riders in Ski lift like trains . Riders are secured by an over the shoulder restraints with a locking belt . The trains were manufactured in Switzerland at Bolliger & Mabillard 's headquarters .
= = Operation = =
Raptor is adversely affected by unfavourable weather conditions as both a high altitude and high velocity ride . " Rain , high winds , and / or lightning " may result in the closing of the ride depending on the severity . It closes in high winds and any type of precipitation .
There is no minimum age requirement , but passengers must meet the miniumum height requirement of 54 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) to ride . Some persons over a certain weight / waist size are not be permitted to ride if the seat and lapbar harness cannot accommodate them . Passengers on Raptor may not bring any loose articles onto the train and are required to wear shirts and footwear . Headphones must be removed before boarding .
Passengers are advised that they must not ride Raptor if they have " a history of recent surgery , heart trouble / high blood pressure , neck trouble , back trouble , or any other condition that may be aggravated by riding , or who are pregnant " .
= = Incidents = =
On July 6 , 2009 , a guest complained of feeling faint after the ride . Raptor was immediately shut down as the guest was transported to a local hospital . The ride remained closed for the remainder of the day , reopening the next afternoon after a thorough inspection was completed . The guest was later released from the hospital .
On June 21 , 2015 , a 37 @-@ year @-@ old man 's leg was gashed by the ride 's loading platform gates . He was taken to a local hospital where his wound was sutured .
On August 13 , 2015 , a 45 @-@ year @-@ old man entered the ride 's restricted area to retrieve a cell phone he lost while riding . He was then struck by a moving train and died on the scene . The ride was immediately closed for inspection and reopened the next day .
= = Awards = =
Raptor is one of the first inverted roller coasters built in the world and is still considered a top steel roller coaster supported by the Golden Ticket Award rankings .
= Candida ( song ) =
" Candida " was the first single released by the American pop music group Dawn , with vocals by Tony Orlando , in July 1970 . The song , written by Irwin Levine and Toni Wine , was produced by Dave Appell and Hank Medress for Bell Records . Appell and Medress originally recorded another singer on the track , but decided that a different vocal approach would be preferable . Medress then approached Orlando to do the vocals . Orlando had been a professional singer in the early 1960s , but now worked as a music publishing manager for Columbia Records . Although initially worried about losing his job at Columbia , Orlando eventually agreed to lend his voice to the track .
" Candida " became a worldwide hit , reaching number one in five countries , and the top ten in many others . It was included on Dawn 's debut LP in 1970 and later appeared on several compilation albums . Andy Williams , Jesse Winchester , Ray Conniff , and Bernd Spier are among the artists who have covered the song .
= = Background and recording = =
In 1970 Hank Medress of the Tokens and Dave Appell were producing a song called " Candida " for Bell Records . The composition was written by Toni Wine and Irwin Levine . For the first recording of the song , the lead vocal was done by blues singer Frankie Paris , in a style reminiscent of the Drifters . Paris 's performance was deemed unsatisfactory , and a new singer was sought for the track . Medress believed that " an ethnic feel " would suit the song well . He asked his friend Tony Orlando , whose heritage is Puerto Rican and Greek , to perform its lead vocal .
Orlando , a former professional singer , had had two top @-@ 40 hits in the USA in 1961 , but later moved into the music publishing business ; in 1967 Columbia Records chose him to manage their publishing division , April @-@ Blackwood Music . When Medress approached Orlando , he was reluctant to perform on a Bell Records single , as he did not want to jeopardize his job at Columbia . Medress reassured him by saying they would use a band name for the release , and that nobody would know who the singer was . Orlando finally agreed , partly because he believed the song would be unsuccessful and would not attract any attention . He went into a studio with Appell and Medress , and sang his lead vocal over prerecorded tracks . Background vocals were done by Wine and the Tokens ' Jay Siegel ; Orlando was not present when these were recorded . By different accounts , additional background singers may have included Ellie Greenwich , Robin Grean , Leslie Miller , and Linda November . Phil Margo and Siegel played instruments on at least one of the versions of the song . The music of Orlando 's version has been described as having " a lilting , sing @-@ along groove " .
= = Release = =
" Candida " was released as a single in July 1970 under the moniker Dawn , named after the daughter of either Jay Siegel or Bell Records executive Steve Wax . The single reached number one in Brazil , Malaysia , Singapore , Spain , and Sweden , and the top ten in Austria , Canada , Denmark , Mexico , New Zealand , Norway , South Africa , the UK , and the USA . It also reached the top twenty in Australia , Belgium , and Germany . Billboard ranked the record as the No. 18 song of 1970 .
Jay Warner , author of American Singing Groups : A History from 1940 to Today , notes that the group the Corporation released a different version of " Candida " around the same time as Dawn 's . The Corporation 's recording was produced by Bill and Steve James , and released on Musicor Records . Warner believes that this version was based on an early , slower piano @-@ and @-@ vocals demo by Toni Wine . A July 1970 capsule review in Billboard magazine of both Dawn 's and the Corporation 's versions categorized the latter 's recording as possessing " a strong blues and Tex @-@ Mex flavor " , and stated that both singles had " equal sales and chart potential " . However , although for a short while it seemed there might be competition between the two , the Corporation 's single did not sell well .
Dawn 's version was released on their debut album , Candida , in 1970 , and later on the Dawn compilations Greatest Hits , The World of Tony Orlando & Dawn , The Definitive Collection , and The Big Hits . It has also appeared on various @-@ artists compilations including Today 's Super Hits , AM Gold : 1970 , and Real 70 's : the Polyester Hits , Disc One .
= = Covers = =
Numerous musicians have covered " Candida " , among them Andy Williams , Jesse Winchester , Jimmy Velvet , Ray Conniff , and reggae artists Owen Gray and the Pioneers . Foreign @-@ language versions have included recordings in Portuguese by the Fevers , in Spanish by La Tropa Loca , and in German by Bata Illic and Bernd Spier .
= = Charts = =
= Florida @-@ class battleship =
The Florida @-@ class battleships of the United States Navy comprised two ships : Florida and Utah . Launched in 1910 and 1909 respectively and commissioned in 1911 , they were slightly larger than the preceding Delaware @-@ class design but were otherwise very similar . This was the first US battleship class in which all ships received steam turbine engines . In the previous Delaware class , North Dakota received steam turbine propulsion as an experiment while Delaware retained triple @-@ expansion engines .
Both ships were involved in the 1914 Second Battle of Vera Cruz , deploying their Marine contingents as part of the operation . Following the entrance of the United States into World War I in 1917 , both ships were deployed to Europe . Florida was assigned to the British Grand Fleet and based in Scapa Flow ; in December 1918 she escorted President Woodrow Wilson to France for the peace negotiations . Utah was assigned to convoy escort duty ; she was based in Ireland and was tasked with protecting convoys as they approached the European continent .
Retained under the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 , both ships were modernized significantly , with torpedo bulges and oil @-@ fired boilers installed and other improvements made , but were demilitarized under terms of the 1930 London Naval Treaty . Florida was scrapped , Utah converted into first a radio @-@ controlled target ship , then an anti @-@ aircraft gunnery trainer . She served in the latter role until sunk by the Japanese during the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 . Her hull , never raised , remains on the bottom of the harbor as a war memorial .
= = Design = =
The Floridas were the third of 10 separate classes built between 1906 and 1919 , a total of 22 battleships being commissioned . The new dreadnoughts of the American battle line were being designed from pre @-@ dreadnought experience and observation of foreign designs , as no US dreadnought had yet been commissioned at the time that the Floridas were designed ; all were either at some stage of building or in design . American capital ship design was also heavily influenced by war games conducted at the US Navy 's Naval War College . Captain William Sims led a reform movement that assigned warship design to the General Board .
These ships were an improvement over the preceding Delaware class . Their engine rooms were larger to hold four Curtis or Parsons steam turbines . Their larger beam gave them greater metacentric height , in which the Delawares were notably deficient , which improved buoyancy and reduced hull stress . The ships mounted new 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 caliber guns as secondary batteries in casemates that boasted increased armor protection . The class retained the large and fully enclosed conning towers that were adopted for the preceding Delawares , as a result of American studies of the Battle of Tsushima in 1905 . The design reduced the vulnerability of the command staff . Overall , these ships were much better protected than their British counterparts , although they were modified extensively during the interwar period .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Florida @-@ class ships were 510 ft ( 160 m ) long at the waterline and 521 ft 6 in ( 158 @.@ 95 m ) overall . They had a beam of 88 ft 3 in ( 26 @.@ 90 m ) and a draft of 28 ft 6 in ( 8 @.@ 69 m ) . They displaced 21 @,@ 825 long tons ( 22 @,@ 175 t ) at standard displacement and 23 @,@ 033 long tons ( 23 @,@ 403 t ) at full load . This was an increase of approximately 2 @,@ 500 long tons ( 2 @,@ 500 t ) over the previous Delaware @-@ class . The ships also had some of their superstructure rearranged , including the lattice masts and the funnels . The Florida @-@ class ships had a crew of 1 @,@ 001 officers and men .
The engine rooms on these ships were lengthened to accommodate the larger Parsons steam turbines , which meant the after boiler room had to be eliminated . The remaining boiler rooms were widened by 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) ; to do this and maintain adequate underwater and coal bunker protection , the ships were made 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) beamier than the Delawares . Funnel spacing was therefore closer than in the Delawares . Also , the wider beam increased the vessels ' metacentric height , a quality in which the Delawares were notably deficient . This improvement allowed the Floridas to accommodate their larger medium @-@ caliber guns without any real penalty in topweight .
Florida was fitted experimentally with a larger bridge than was then standard , to house both ship and fire control personnel under armor , while Utah received an heavily armored fire @-@ control tower atop a standard @-@ sized bridge . The former proved especially successful , to the point that when a larger armored fire @-@ control tower and standard bridge was proposed for the Nevada class , it was rejected in favor of a roomier bridge like that of Florida .
The two ships were modernized in 1925 – 27 ; among the improvements were the addition of torpedo bulges , which were designed to increase resistance to underwater damage — this widened the ships to 106 ft ( 32 m ) . The ships also had their rear lattice masts removed and replaced with a pole mast . A catapult for launching aircraft was mounted on the number 3 gun turret .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships were propelled by four @-@ shaft Parsons steam turbines ; steam was provided by 12 Babcock & Wilcox coal @-@ fired boilers . The engines were rated at 28 @,@ 000 shp ( 20 @,@ 880 kW ) to give a top speed of 21 kn ( 39 km / h ) . On trials , Florida made 22 @.@ 08 kn ( 40 @.@ 89 km / h ; 25 @.@ 41 mph ) on 40 @,@ 511 shp ( 30 @,@ 209 kW ) ; Utah 's turbines produced only 27 @,@ 028 shp ( 20 @,@ 155 kW ) but still propelled the ship at 21 @.@ 04 kn ( 38 @.@ 97 km / h ; 24 @.@ 21 mph ) . However , the engine and boiler room arrangements remained the same as in the Delawares , with the engine room situated between the rear main turrets and steam lines running beneath the superfiring rear turret . The ships had a range of 5 @,@ 776 nmi ( 6 @,@ 650 mi ; 10 @,@ 700 km ) at a cruising speed of 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
During Florida and Utah 's reconstruction in 1925 – 1927 , their coal @-@ fired boilers were replaced with four White @-@ Forster oil @-@ fired boilers . The reduction in the number of boilers allowed their twin funnels to be trunked into one single larger funnel .
= = = Armament = = =
= = = = Main guns = = = =
It was intended originally to arm these ships with eight 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) / 45 caliber guns then in development in superfiring fore @-@ and @-@ aft mountings . As this gun did not go into service until 1914 , the arrangement of ten 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) / 45 caliber Mark 5 guns in five twin gun turrets was retained from the Delaware class . The gun housings were the Mark 8 type , and they allowed for depression to − 5 degrees and elevation to 15 degrees . The guns had a rate of fire of 2 to 3 rounds per minute . They fired 870 lb ( 395 kg ) shells , of either armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) or Common types , though the Common type was obsolete by 1915 and put out of production . The propellant charge was 310 lb ( 141 kg ) in silk bags , and provided a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 823 m / s ) . The guns were expected to fire 175 rounds before the barrels would require replacement . The two ships carried 100 shells per gun , or 1 @,@ 000 rounds in total . At 15 degrees elevation , the guns could hit targets out to approximately 20 @,@ 000 yd ( 18 @,@ 288 m )
Unfortunately , the turret layout of the Delawares was also retained , with its respective challenges . Two turrets , Numbers 1 and 2 , were mounted fore in a superfiring pair , while the other three were mounted aft of the main superstructure , all on the centerline . The rearmost turret , number 5 , was placed on the main deck , facing rearward , the next turret , Number 4 , was placed on the main deck facing forward , but could only have fired on either broadside , it could not have fired straight forward or aft . The center turret , Number 3 , placed in a superfiring position facing rearward , could not fire astern when the turret directly under it had its guns trained forward . This left only the rearmost turret , with its pair of 12 @-@ inch guns , to cover the rear quarter of the ship . Also , since the engine room was situated between the superfiring rear turret and the ones behind it , steam lines ran from the boiler rooms amidships around the ammunition magazine for Number 3 turret to the engine room . These lines , it was later found , had the potential to heat the powder in the magazine and degrade its ballistics . This design flaw was also prevalent in several British dreadnoughts but was considered inescapable by naval designers on structural grounds .
= = = = Secondary guns = = = =
C & R proposed 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) secondary guns for these ships , protected by 6 @.@ 5 in ( 165 mm ) casemate armor . This would have been the only change from the protective scheme carried over from the Delaware class . However , a new 5 @-@ inch / 51 caliber gun was adopted instead after concerns about inadequate splinter protection for secondary gun casemates and smoke uptakes led to an increase in armor . Sixteen of these weapons were fitted in individual casemates . These guns fired a 50 lb ( 23 kg ) armor @-@ poiercing ( AP ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 3 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 960 m / s ) and a rate of 8 to 9 rounds per minute . The guns could depress to − 10 degrees and elevate to 15 degrees . The guns were manually operated , and had a range of train of about 150 degrees in either direction .
= = = = Anti @-@ aircraft guns = = = =
Florida and Utah received two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 23 caliber guns in 1917 for anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defense . This was increased to eight guns between 1926 and 1928 . These guns fired a 16 @.@ 5 lb ( 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 650 ft / s ( 503 m / s ) to a maximum range of 8 @,@ 800 yd ( 8 @,@ 047 m ) and ceiling of 18 @,@ 000 ft ( 5 @,@ 486 m ) at an elevation of 75 degrees and a rate of between eight and nine rounds per minute .
= = = = Torpedo tubes = = = =
The ships were also armed with two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes . The tubes were mounted one on each broadside . The torpedoes were 197 in ( 5 m ) long and carried a 200 lb ( 91 kg ) warhead . They had a range of 4 @,@ 000 yd ( 3 @,@ 658 m ) and traveled at a speed of 26 kn ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The armor layout was largely the same as in the preceding Delaware @-@ class battleships . The armored belt ranged in thickness from 9 to 11 in ( 229 to 279 mm ) in the more important areas of the ship . Casemated guns mounted in the hull had between 8 and 10 in ( 203 and 254 mm ) of armor plate . After modernization , some of the casemated guns were moved to the superstructure ; these guns were protected with only 5 in ( 127 mm ) of armor . The barbettes that housed the main gun turrets were armored with between 4 and 10 in ( 102 and 254 mm ) of armor ; the side portions more vulnerable to shell fire were thicker , while the front and rear sections of the barbette , which were less likely to be hit , received thinner armor to save weight . The gun turrets themselves were armored with 12 in ( 305 mm ) of armor . The conning tower was 11 @.@ 5 in ( 292 mm ) thick . The armored deck was slightly reduced in thickness , from 2 to 1 @.@ 5 in ( 51 to 38 mm ) .
= = Construction = =
Florida , ordered under hull number " Battleship # 30 " , was laid down at the New York Navy Yard on 9 March 1909 . She was launched on 12 May 1910 , after which fitting out work commenced . Work was finished on 15 September 1911 , at which point she was commissioned into the United States Navy . Utah was ordered under hull number " Battleship # 31 " . She was laid down in Camden , New Jersey , at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation , 6 days later on 15 March . Work proceeded faster on Utah than on her sister ship , and she was launched about four and a half months earlier , on 23 December 1909 . After launching , she underwent fitting out work , which lasted until 31 August 1911 , when she was commissioned into the American fleet .
= = Service history = =
= = = USS Florida = = =
Florida took part in the Second battle of Vera Cruz in 1914 . She and her sister Utah were the first two ships on the scene ; the two ships landed some 1 @,@ 000 sailors and Marines under the command of Florida 's captain on 21 April . Fighting lasted for 3 days ; the contingent from Florida and Utah suffered a total of 94 casualties .
After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Florida was dispatched to Europe ; she departed the United States in December 1917 . After arriving in the North Sea , she was assigned to the Grand Fleet , where she served with her British counterparts . The ship , part of the US Navy 's Battleship Division Nine , under the command of Rear Admiral Hugh Rodman , arrived on 7 December and was assigned to the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet . Following training exercises with the British fleet , 6th Battle Squadron was tasked with convoy protection duty on the route to Scandinavia . Following the end of the war , in December 1918 , the ship escorted President Woodrow Wilson on his trip to Europe to participate in the peace negotiations at Versailles . Later in December , Florida returned to the United States to participate in the Victory Fleet Review in New York harbor .
Post @-@ war , Florida returned the US Navy 's Atlantic Fleet ; she operated along the east coast of the United States and into Central America . In July 1920 , she was assigned the hull numbers " BB @-@ 30 " . In December 1920 , she carried the US Secretary of State , Bainbridge Colby , on a diplomatic trip around the Caribbean and South America . Florida was the oldest American battleship that was retained under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . She underwent extensive reconstruction and modernization during the mid @-@ 1920s . After emerging from the shipyard , she was assigned as the flagship of the Control Force , US Fleet . The ship conducted a series of training cruises for the remainder of the decade . Under the London Naval Treaty of 1930 , the ship was to be discarded . She was decommissioned in February 1931 and towed to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard , where she was broken up for scrap .
= = = USS Utah = = =
Utah 's first assignment was with the US Navy 's Atlantic Fleet . During 1913 , she took a goodwill voyage to the Mediterranean . Utah was also involved in the Second Battle of Vera Cruz , alongside her sister Florida . The ship also saw front @-@ line duty in the First World War , although she was not attached to the British Grand Fleet . Starting in September 1918 , Utah was based in Bantry Bay , Ireland . Here she conducted convoy escort duties on the approach to Europe .
Post @-@ war service saw Utah again in the Atlantic Fleet ; during 1921 – 22 , she was stationed in Europe . Utah was also retained under the Washington Naval Treaty . In 1924 – 1925 , the ship sailed on a goodwill cruise to South America . Following her return to the United States , she was taken into dry dock for significant reconstruction . After she rejoined the active fleet , she was assigned to the US Scouting Fleet . Late in 1928 , she steamed to the South Atlantic , where she picked up President @-@ Elect Herbert Hoover , who was returning from an ambassadorial visit to several South American countries .
According to the London Naval Treaty , the ship was to be removed from front @-@ line service . To this end , she had her main battery guns removed and she was converted into a radio @-@ controlled target ship . She was redesignated AG @-@ 16 , and served in this capacity after 1931 . In the mid @-@ 1930s , she was rebuilt again , as an anti @-@ aircraft gunnery training ship . In 1941 , additional anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed to increase her training capacity . Later in 1941 , she was transferred to the US Pacific Fleet and based in Pearl Harbor . She was present in Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 ; after having been hit by two torpedoes , she capsized and sank . A few years later , the hull was partially righted and towed closer to Ford Island , where the wreck remains today .
= Franklin Matthias =
Franklin Thompson Matthias ( 13 March 1908 – 3 December 1993 ) was an American civil engineer who directed construction of the Hanford nuclear site , a key facility of the Manhattan Project during World War II .
A graduate of the University of Wisconsin – Madison , Matthias joined the Tennessee Valley Authority ( TVA ) as a Junior Hydraulic Engineer in 1935 , and worked on hydroelectric projects . In April 1941 , he was called to active duty by the United States Army , and joined the Construction Division of the Army Corps of Engineers . He was area engineer at the Manhattan Project 's Hanford site from 1942 to 1945 . As such , he supervised the enormous construction effort which included three chemical separation plants so large that they were known as " Queen Marys " , and the world 's first three production @-@ scale nuclear reactors .
After the war Matthais went to Brazil where he helped build a hydroelectric facility . He joined the Aluminum Company of Canada ( Alcan ) in 1951 , and was involved in the construction of its Kemano @-@ Kitimat hydroelectric dam and aluminum smelter project in northern British Columbia and the Chute @-@ des @-@ Passes project in Quebec . He was a vice president at Kaiser Engineering from 1960 to 1973 .
= = Early life = =
Franklin Thompson Matthias was born in Glidden , Wisconsin , on 13 March 1908 , the son of Franklin Herman Matthias and Christina Thompson . He had two older brothers , Harold and Norman , and a younger brother , Carl . In 1928 he became an instructor in Topographical and Hydraulic Engineering at the University of Wisconsin – Madison , from which he received his Bachelor of Science ( B.S. ) degree in civil engineering in 1931 , and his Master of Science ( M.S. ) degree in civil engineering in 1933 . While there he joined the Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( ROTC ) . In 1930 and 1931 he was editor of the Wisconsin Engineer , and president of the university YMCA . He was a member of Tau Beta Pi , Phi Kappa Phi and Scabbard and Blade , and was a national officer of Chi Epsilon from 1931 to 1942 .
On 1 August 1933 , Matthias married Reva Baumgarten , a fellow graduate of the University of Wisconsin , who taught speech therapy in schools in Beloit , Wisconsin . In 1935 he was hired by the Tennessee Valley Authority ( TVA ) as a Junior Hydraulic Engineer , and worked on hydroelectric and hydraulic problems and on construction , planning and plant design . He left the TVA in 1939 , and spent a year working with a contractor on dredging the Tennessee River . In 1940 and 1941 he worked for the A. L. Johnson Construction Company , and on tunnels and aqueducts for the Dravo Corporation .
= = World War II = =
In April 1941 , Matthias was called to active duty by the United States Army as a first lieutenant , and joined the Construction Division of the Army Corps of Engineers , where he received rapid promotion . On 14 December 1942 , as a 34 @-@ year @-@ old lieutenant colonel , he accompanied Colonel Kenneth Nichols to Wilmington , Delaware , to discuss the location of a proposed plutonium production plant with representatives of DuPont . At this point , Matthias had not yet been assigned to the Manhattan Project , whose mission was to build an atomic bomb , but he had worked on some special studies for it , and had worked with its director , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , on the construction of The Pentagon . He was already Groves 's choice for area engineer for the plutonium project .
Initially , the intention had been to locate the plutonium plant with the Manhattan Project 's other production facilities at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge , Tennessee , but concerns had arisen about the dangers of an atomic explosion , and Knoxville lay only 20 miles ( 32 km ) away . A larger site was required where facilities could be separated from each other . It had to be in a sparsely populated but accessible area with access to abundant water and electric power . When he returned from the meeting , Matthias was met by Groves , who instructed him to take a survey team and find a suitable site . Matthias surveyed four sites in California and Washington , and chose the area around Richland , Washington .
Matthias later recalled that :
As far as my working relationship with Du Pont was concerned , of course , we had differences from day one . I was fortunate that Gil Church and Walt Simon ( Du Pont 's project construction manager and operations manager ) were people I could deal with and respect , and we had a very good working relationship . I remember one time Granville Read ( Du Pont 's assistant chief engineer ) called up Groves and said Matthias and Church were having a big argument about something and what should we do ? Groves replied , " Well , if those two guys don 't have some arguments , then neither of them are worth a damn . "
Because of the isolation of the site , known as the Hanford Engineer Works , Matthias exercised more administrative autonomy than the Manhattan Project 's other area engineers . The number of personnel assigned to his office grew to over 500 in 1944 . Construction work commenced on the 400 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 160 @,@ 000 ha ) site in April 1943 . The size of the construction work force eventually reached 44 @,@ 900 in June 1944 ; over 150 @,@ 000 workers were employed at the site between 1943 and 1946 .
The scale of the task was enormous . Matthias supervised the construction of 554 buildings , 386 miles ( 621 km ) of roads , 158 miles ( 254 km ) miles of railroad track , three chemical separation plants and the world 's first three production @-@ scale nuclear reactors . The 800 @-@ foot ( 240 m ) -long chemical separation plants , where the plutonium was separated from uranium slugs that had been irradiated in the reactors , were so large that they were known as " Queen Marys " , after the ocean liner . Because the slugs were dangerously radioactive , the Queen Marys had concrete walls 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) thick , and operations were by remote control .
The first production batch of uranium slugs were dissolved at the separation plant on 26 December 1944 , and in January 1945 Matthias personally couriered the first batch of plutonium nitrate to Los Angeles , where he handed it over to another courier , who took it to the Los Alamos Laboratory . Plutonium from Hanford would be used in the Fat Man bomb used in the bombing of Nagasaki . For his wartime services , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal .
= = Later life = =
Matthias left the Army in 1946 and went to Brazil as a project manager for the construction for a hydroelectric facility , eventually becoming the Manager of Engineering at Brazilian Traction . Late in 1951 he joined the Aluminum Company of Canada ( Alcoa ) as the Project Manager of Engineering and Construction of the Kemano @-@ Kitimat hydroelectric dam and aluminum smelter project in northern British Columbia . In 1956 he moved to Montreal as its Director of Engineering , and worked on the Chute @-@ des @-@ Passes project . In 1960 he joined Kaiser Engineering in Oakland , California , as its Vice President for Heavy construction and Hydroelectric engineering , and was its Vice President of Transportation Projects from 1970 to 1973 . He retired in 1973 , at the age of 65 .
Matthias was a Registered Professional Engineer in Wisconsin , California , Nebraska , Pennsylvania , and British Columbia . For some years after his retirement he remained active as a consultant , working for firms including Kaiser Engineering , Pacific Gas and Electric , Louisiana Pacific and Bechtel . He was a member of the Advisory Board of the California Water Resources Association , the Committee on Large Dams , Committee on Construction of Nuclear Facilities , and the American Society of Civil Engineers . He also wrote the chapter on " Construction Services " in the Handbook of Heavy Construction ( 1971 ) .
In 1993 , he was informed that he had cancer of the lungs , liver and pancreas . He died six week later , on 3 December 1993 , at a nursing home in Walnut Creek , California . He was survived by his son Michael and younger brother Carl . His second wife , Mary Teresa Benderska , whom he had married on 29 October 1948 , had died in 1986 , and his daughter Gelen Christine had died in 1965 . His papers are in the Hagley Museum and Library in Wilmington , Delaware .
= Going Clear ( film ) =
Going Clear : Scientology and the Prison of Belief is a 2015 documentary film about Scientology . Directed by Alex Gibney and produced by HBO , it is based on Lawrence Wright 's book Going Clear : Scientology , Hollywood and the Prison of Belief ( 2013 ) . The film premiered at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival in Park City , Utah . It received widespread praise from critics and was nominated for seven Emmy Awards , winning three , including Best Documentary . It also won a Best Documentary award from the Writers Guild of America .
The film deconstructs the church 's claims by presenting a condensed history of Scientology and its founder , L. Ron Hubbard , examining how celebrities interact with the church , and highlighting the stories of a number of ex @-@ members and of the abuse and exploitation that they described seeing and experiencing . The Church of Scientology responded vehemently to the film , complaining to film critics about their reviews and denouncing the filmmakers and their interviewees .
Going Clear was released in a limited number of theaters on March 13 , 2015 and aired on HBO on March 29 , 2015 . It was a major ratings success and by mid @-@ April 2015 had attracted 5 @.@ 5 million viewers , making it the second most @-@ watched HBO documentary in the past decade . It was subsequently released internationally , showing in theaters and on television despite a sustained campaign by the Church of Scientology to block its release .
= = Synopsis = =
Going Clear is based closely on Lawrence Wright 's book , covering much of the same ground with the aid of archive footage , dramatic reconstructions , and interviews with eight former Scientologists : Paul Haggis , the Oscar @-@ winning director ; Mark Rathbun , the church 's former second @-@ in @-@ command ; Mike Rinder , the former head of the church 's Office of Special Affairs ; the actor Jason Beghe ; Sylvia ' Spanky ' Taylor , former liaison to John Travolta ; and former Scientologists Tom DeVocht , Sara Goldberg , and Hana Eltringham Whitfield .
The film breaks into three distinct acts . In the first , the former Scientologists describe how they joined Scientology ; the second act recounts the history of Scientology and its founder L. Ron Hubbard ; and in the final act , the film airs allegations of the abuse of church members and misconduct by its leadership , particularly David Miscavige , who is accused of intimidating , beating , imprisoning , and exploiting subordinates . The film depicts the role played by celebrity members , such as John Travolta and Tom Cruise , through video clips contrasting their statements with the experiences of former Scientologists .
To support its thesis , the film utilises footage of ex @-@ Scientologists harassed and surveilled ( per Hubbard 's dictum that the church 's critics were all criminals whose crimes needed to be exposed ) , and describes the imprisonment of senior Scientology executives in a facility known as " The Hole " ; one Scientologist was said to have been forced to clean a bathroom with his tongue . According to the film , the actress Nicole Kidman was targeted for wiretapping by Scientology in an effort to break her marriage to Tom Cruise after she was labeled a " potential trouble source " by the church ; whereas John Travolta has been forced to stay in the church in fear that secrets from his personal life will be exposed .
= = Development = =
The film is based on the Pulitzer Prize – winning journalist Lawrence Wright 's book Going Clear : Scientology , Hollywood , and the Prison of Belief , which was published in January 2013 and was a National Book Award finalist . HBO announced in December 2014 that Alex Gibney , an Oscar @-@ winning director who made Enron : The Smartest Guys in the Room ( 2005 ) , Taxi to the Dark Side , ( 2007 ) and The Armstrong Lie ( 2013 ) , was directing a film based on the book , to be released at the 2015 Sundance Festival . It was the first time that HBO had tackled Scientology directly , though not the first time it had clashed with the church ; in 1998 , protesters mounted demonstrations outside HBO 's headquarters because of a documentary that presented anti @-@ depressant drugs , which are fiercely opposed by Scientology , in a positive light .
Gibney began working on Going Clear in 2013 after becoming intrigued by Wright 's book . He collaborated with Wright , who came on board as a producer , to explore the book 's underlying theme of " how people become prisoners of faith in various ways " . Gibney saw Scientology as one of the toughest subjects he has had to tackle in his career as a documentarian , alongside government complicity in torture , corporate financial malfeasance , and clerical sexual abuse .
Fear of Scientology 's litigiousness rendered American networks unwilling to license any material to the filmmakers , which Gibney found " astounding " . He commented that he " found it interesting that universally this subject — more than any other — provoked all the networks to decline to license . I think at the end of the day , that tells you more about Scientology than it does about the networks , which is how ruthless they 've been in trying to silence any criticism . " The church 's reputation for harassing its critics made it necessary for Gibney to use burner phones to contact interviewees and film in secret : " Sometimes for the on @-@ camera interviews we 'd set up gear in somebody 's house and I 'd make sure I 'd be there hours before . Then the person would show up there so it was like they were just going to somebody ’ s house . "
Explaining why he chose to make a film about Scientology , Gibney told Reuters that he considered it " an important topic . Not only about this church of Scientology , which everybody 's fascinated with partially because of the celebrities , but partially because of the way that the church seems to turn people to do things that I think they would normally never do if had they not entered the church . " Gibney , Wright , and the former Scientologists who appeared in the film told a post @-@ screening question @-@ and @-@ answer session that they hoped the film would raise public awareness about the alleged abuses committed by the Church of Scientology , and would prompt the media and law enforcement agencies to investigate further . Gibney later called in a Los Angeles Times opinion piece for Scientology 's tax exemption to be revoked in the light of the allegations of abuse documented in the film .
= = Distribution and screenings = =
= = = United States = = =
Going Clear made its world première on January 25 , 2015 , at the Sundance Film Festival in Park City , Utah . The Wall Street Journal described it as " the hottest ticket " at the festival . The première was so popular that even those with tickets were unable to find seats , because so many VIP pass @-@ holders chose to watch the film , displacing ordinary festival @-@ goers . It attracted numerous celebrities and media figures , including actors Alec Baldwin and Tobey Maguire , comedian Jason Sudeikis , and New York Times columnist Maureen Dowd . The audience gave Going Clear a standing ovation in an unusual occurrence for a Sundance presentation . ' Spanky ' Taylor 's appearance on stage , along with the daughter from whom the church had forced her to " disconnect " , reduced many in the audience to tears . The film was subsequently shown in a limited number of New York , Los Angeles and San Francisco theaters from March 13 , 2015 .
The initial theatrical release was deliberately small @-@ scale , most likely undertaken to ensure that Going Clear met the eligibility criteria for an Oscar nomination . Due to continuing public demand , HBO announced in July 2015 that it would be releasing the film more widely from September 25 through the ArcLight Cinemas chain 's theaters in California , Chicago , Washington D.C. , New York City , Texas and a few other locations around the US .
HBO broadcast the television première of Going Clear on March 29 , 2015 . It was the network 's most successful documentary premiere since 2006 , attracting 1 @.@ 7 million viewers . 5 @.@ 5 million viewers were reported to have watched it within only two weeks of its TV première , making it the second most successful HBO documentary in the past decade after a 2013 film on the singer Beyoncé . Vimeo has acquired the US rights for online distribution from September 2015 .
= = = International = = =
The film has sold worldwide but is scheduled only for non @-@ theatrical release in most countries . The Church of Scientology undertook an intensive campaign to block its release internationally . According to Alex Gibney , " Every step of the way , every distributor , every festival has received multiple threatening letters from the Church of Scientology . Some have come very close to buckling . " The Sydney Film Festival was among those threatened but the screening of Going Clear went ahead ; Gibney declared himself to be " delighted with the way the Australians handled it . " However , Australian airline Qantas , which employs Scientologist John Travolta as an ambassador , was reported to have refused to show the film on its aircraft .
The film was shown in Denmark on DR2 as Scientologys religiøse fængsel , on April 21 , 2015 , in Sweden on SVT1 as Fångade av scientologin on May 19 , and by VPRO in the Netherlands on NPO 2 on May 19 . It was released as in Italy as Going Clear : Scientology e la prigione della fede on June 25 .
Sky Atlantic , a co @-@ distributor of the film , along with HBO Documentary Films , originally planned to broadcast Going Clear in the UK and Ireland soon after its US TV première . However , this was stalled due to potential legal problems . Because Northern Ireland is not subject to the Defamation Act 2013 , which reformed the libel laws in other parts of the UK , and because Sky cannot differentiate its signal between regions , the film may be subject to legal challenge in Northern Ireland . The Church of Scientology successfully blocked the publication or distribution of the original book Going Clear in the UK and Ireland and indicated a willingness to sue broadcasters , saying in a statement that it " will be entitled to seek the protection of both UK and Irish libel laws in the event that any false or defamatory content in this film is broadcast within these jurisdictions . "
The film eventually received a low @-@ key release in June 2015 in 18 theaters in England and Scotland . It was broadcast on Sky Atlantic in the UK and Ireland , including Northern Ireland , on September 21 , 2015 , and attracted 88 @,@ 000 overnight viewers . By the start of October it had become Sky 's most @-@ watched documentary for three years , attracting a peak audience of 313 @,@ 000 viewers and an average of 243 @,@ 000 including catchup viewing .
= = Reception = =
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes collected 87 reviews as of September 24 , 2015 , of which 94 % were said to be positive . The site 's consensus states : " Thoroughly disquieting but impossible to ignore , Going Clear : Scientology and the Prison of Belief is a searing investigative work from a master documentarian . " Metacritic gave the film a score of 80 / 100 based on 11 critics .
Variety 's chief film critic , Scott Foundas , praised the level of detail in Going Clear and called it a " powder @-@ keg " documentary that illustrates " the dangers of blind faith . " Lesley Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter characterized it as an " impeccably assembled and argued film " that " represents a brave , timely intervention into debates around the organization that have been simmering for some time . " Slate called the film " a stunning exposé of an organization and religion too long shrouded in mystery . " Screen Daily 's Anthony Kaufman felt that some of the re @-@ enactments in the film were " heavy @-@ handed or sensationalistic , " but commended it overall as " a serious , strange and unsettling account of brainwashing , greed and gross misuses of power . "
Writing in The Guardian , Brian Moylan described Going Clear as " entertaining and dismaying viewing " in which " the story of Scientology , with all its strange players , emerges as comedy , rather than horror , " but criticised its reliance on a small group of defectors and the lack of any involvement by the church . He felt that this made the film " a bit one @-@ sided " and that it was " easy to be skeptical about some of the more outlandish claims made by former members . " Sasha Bronner of the Huffington Post called the film a " shocking and eye @-@ opening " work that would leave those who did not know much about Scientology " spellbound . " The BBC 's Owen Gleiberman praised it as " the most exciting – and disturbing – work of cinematic non @-@ fiction in a long time " and awarded Going Clear five stars , describing it as having " the scary intensity of a thriller . "
Following the initial HBO broadcast of Going Clear , Saturday Night Live aired a music video featuring the " Church of Neurotology " , a parody of Scientology 's 1990 music video " We Stand Tall " , clips from which were shown in the documentary .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Going Clear received a total of seven nominations for the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards . The film was nominated in the categories for Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Special , Cinematography for Nonfiction Programming , Picture Editing for Nonfiction Programming , Sound Editing for Nonfiction Programming ( single or multi @-@ camera ) and Sound Mixing for Nonfiction Programming ( single or multi @-@ camera ) . Alex Gibney also received two nominations for Writing for Nonfiction Programming and Direction for Nonfiction Programming .
The film won in three Emmy categories : Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Special , Outstanding Writing for Nonfiction Programming and Outstanding Directing for Nonfiction Programming . Gibney praised the " courageous support " of HBO executives and the " courage of witnesses who stood up against ... the human rights abuses " of Scientology . He suggested that a sequel to Going Clear might be in the works : " There 's a lot more material already that I 've received , more to come out — and so far the IRS has not revoked its [ tax @-@ exemption ] protection so there ’ s a lot more to be done . " . On December 1 , the film was selected as one of 15 shortlisted for the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature . It also won the Writers Guild of America 's award for Best Documentary released in 2015 .
= = Scientology reaction = =
Ten days before the film 's premiere , the Church of Scientology took out full @-@ page advertisements in The New York Times and Los Angeles Times to denounce Going Clear , comparing it to the story " A Rape on Campus " published by Rolling Stone magazine . Gibney subsequently said that he was grateful for the church 's advertising , as it had attracted much publicity for the film ; he only wished " they 'd put in showtimes " . The head of HBO Documentary Films , Sheila Nevins , commented that when she saw the adverts she knew that Going Clear would be a big success : " Docs don ’ t get full page ads , and when they do , they do really well . "
The church also published a " special report " attacking the film on one of its websites , started a new Twitter account which claimed to be " taking a resolute stand against the broadcasting and publishing of false information " and bought numerous ads around Google search results relating to the film in order to direct searchers to its anti @-@ Going Clear pages . Additionally , the church posted a series of short films on its website attacking the filmmakers and their interviewees , with titles such as " Alex Gibney Documentary ' Going Clear ' Propaganda " , " Marty Rathbun : A Violent Psychopath , " " Mike Rinder : The Wife Beater , " " Sara Goldberg : The Home Wrecker " and " Paul Haggis : The Hypocrite of Hollywood " .
The church complained that Gibney had declined to interview 25 of its members whom it had put forward to him . According to Gibney , Miscavige , Travolta , and Cruise all declined interviews . Instead the church offered " a delegation of 25 unidentified individuals , presumably to smear the people in our film " , which did not interest him . The church also denounced the film 's interviewees as " the usual collection of obsessive , disgruntled former Church members kicked out as long as 30 years ago for malfeasance , who have a documented history of making up lies about the Church for money " .
= = = Campaign against film interviewees and critics = = =
According to Gibney , the church mounted an " organized " and " brutal " response to the appearance of its former members in the film : " Some of them have had physical threats , people threatening to take their homes away , private investigators following them . That 's the part that 's really heartbreaking . " In March 2015 , a New York private investigator named Eric Saldarriaga pleaded guilty to the federal charge of conspiracy to commit computer hacking after he illegally gained access to at least 60 email accounts on behalf of undisclosed clients , one of the main ones reportedly being " someone who has done investigations on behalf of the Church of Scientology " . Among those targeted were Mike Rinder and the journalist Tony Ortega , both interviewees in the film . The names of Saldarriaga 's clients were not revealed and prosecutors declined to pursue action against anyone else , citing a lack of evidence . A few weeks after the film 's TV première , Paul Haggis reported that a suspected Scientology spy posing as a reporter for Time magazine had attempted to interview him in a possible attempt to obtain material to use against him ; the Church denied the claim . Tony Ortega and another interviewee in the film , former Scientologist Marc Headley , reported that investigators from the church had surveilled them at Salt Lake City airport as they made their way to the festival .
The church contacted film critics complaining that their reviews of Going Clear were " filled with bald faced lies " and demanding that the critics should publish a church statement rebutting the film . Jason Bailey of Flavorwire wrote that " pretty much every critic who wrote about Going Clear " received an email from Scientology spokesperson Karin Pouw . He commented that the church did not seem to realise that film critics do not usually try to interview people for reviews , and noted how neatly it " comports with the film 's portrayal of the Church as a hive of shady , paranoid control freaks . " In an email to Flavorwire , Gibney observed that " anytime someone writes something – film criticism or social criticism – about Scientology , the Church of Scientology counter @-@ attacks by smearing critics . "
Indiewire 's Max O 'Connell criticised the church 's approach for being counterproductive . He predicted that " their campaign against the film is going to be the best publicity that Alex Gibney and company could ever hope for , if also a hassle for critics and filmmakers and ( this is no small thing ) a nightmare for the ex @-@ CoS members who dared to speak out against the Church 's practices . But then , they don 't seem terribly aware that attacking everyone who criticizes you doesn 't do a lot of good for your image . " Paul Haggis , who was labeled " doughy " and " pasty " by the church , likewise felt that the attacks were backfiring : " You don 't think that makes you look really bad trying to slander me in that way ? I 'm an imperfect human being . And I 've made many , many mistakes in my life . So you can absolutely publicize any of those . But this , really , ( you ’ re ) thinking that makes you look good ? "
The film @-@ makers reported receiving " lots of cards and letters " from the church , though in their case it had limited its response to " loads of legal paperwork " . HBO had earlier said that it had put " probably 160 lawyers " onto the task of reviewing the film in anticipation of challenges from the notoriously litigious church . Sheila Nevins of HBO commented that she could not believe how aggressive the church had been . Not only did it effectively provide free advertising for the film , but its hostility had made HBO Documentary Films even more determined to produce the film : " I thought , ' They really don 't want us to do it . All the reason more to do it . ' "
= = = Campaign to influence Oscar awards = = =
Following the film 's success at the Emmys , the church was reported to have mounted an aggressive campaign to deny it recognition at the Oscars . The church 's campaign included producing an anti @-@ Gibney film and approaches to members of the Academy 's documentary branch , responsible for selecting contenders for the awards . Several members of the documentary branch reported receiving approaches from the Church 's magazine Freedom in connection with a planned profile of Gibney . Although the Church denied that its actions had anything to do with the Oscars , Lawrence Wright suggested that its " more feverish attention to the documentary " had to do with it feeling " threatened by the possibility that [ the Hollywood ] community would examine the church more closely " as the Oscars approached . In January 2016 , according to the Hollywood Reporter , the film and Gibney were reported to have been “ snubbed ” by Oscar voters and not included in the Best Documentary category of the 88th Academy Awards .
= = = Video interviews = = =
Spotlight shines on controversial Scientology documentary – CNN interview ( January 26 , 2015 )
Alex Gibney and Lawrence Wright on the Challenges of Making ' Going Clear ' – Slate interview ( January 27 , 2015 )
'Going Clear ' Documentary Exposes The Church of Scientology : Sundance Short Cuts – The Hollywood Reporter ( January 27 , 2015 )
Lawrence Wright and Alex Gibney on Scientology and ' Going Clear ' – Variety interview ( January 28 , 2015 )
Alex Gibney interview : journey into the seductive world of Scientology – Guardian interview ( June 28 , 2015 )
= Timor @-@ Leste at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Timor @-@ Leste competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China which was held from August 8 to August 24 . The country 's participation at Beijing marked its second appearance in the Summer Olympics since its debut in the 2004 Summer Olympics . The delegation included Augusto Ramos Soares and Mariana Diaz Ximenez , both of whom were marathoners that qualified via wildcard places as the nation had no athletes that met the " A " or " B " qualifying standards . Ximenez was selected as flag bearer for the opening ceremony . Neither of the two athletes finished their events ; Soares did not even start .
= = Background = =
Timor @-@ Leste participated in two Summer Olympic games between its debut in the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , Greece and the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . The Timor @-@ Leste National Olympic Committee ( NOC ) selected two athletes via wildcards . Usually , an NOC would be able to enter up to 3 qualified athletes in each individual event as long as each athlete met the " A " standard , or 1 athlete per event if they met the " B " standard . However , since Timor @-@ Leste had no athletes that met either standard , they were allowed to select two athletes , one of each gender , as wildcards . The two athletes that were selected to compete in the Beijing games were Augusto Ramos Soares in the Men 's marathon and Mariana Diaz Ximenez in the Women 's marathon . Ximenez was flag bearer for the opening ceremony .
= = Athletics = =
Making his Summer Olympic debut , Augusto Ramos Soares qualified for the Beijing Games after being granted a wildcard place without competing in any notable sporting event . He was to compete against 97 other athletes in the Men 's Marathon but he was one of 3 athletes to not start the event .
Competing at her first Summer Olympics , Mariana Diaz Ximenez was notable for carrying the Timor @-@ Leste at the opening ceremony . She qualified for the Beijing Games via being granted a wildcard place , after her best time , 3 minutes and 22 @.@ 03 seconds , was 40 @.@ 03 seconds slower than the " B " qualifying standard for her event . Ximenez competed against 81 other athletes in the Women 's marathon on August 17 . Ximenez was one of 13 athletes to not finish the event after suffering a bruised left foot at approximately the 26 @-@ kilometre ( 16 mi ) mark .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= Season 4 ( 30 Rock ) =
" Season 4 " is the first episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 59th episode overall . It was written by the series creator , executive producer and lead actress , Tina Fey and directed by series producer Don Scardino . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on October 15 , 2009 . Guest stars in this episode include Steve Buscemi , Liz Holtan , and Paula Pell .
The episode takes place in 2009 as concerns rise over The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) , a fictitious sketch comedy series . Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) is worried that the show no longer appeals to mainstream America . He tells Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) to return to his lower @-@ class roots and Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) to become more " country . " Meanwhile , Jack tasks Liz Lemon ( Fey ) with finding a new cast member for TGS . Finally , NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) grows angry over Jack 's large financial bonus , somewhat similar to the real @-@ world AIG bonus payments controversy .
" Season 4 " has received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 6 @.@ 312 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with Jack welcoming Liz , Tracy , and Jenna to " Season 4 " , a fusion cuisine restaurant which serves the best @-@ selling food from the rest of America , " Cheesy Blasters " . Jack uses this to " teach ... a lesson " that they have " lost touch with the heartland of consumers . " He believes the cast and crew of TGS with Tracy Jordan have become too elitist and need to change to survive in tough economic times . Towards this goal Jack tells Tracy to reconnect with his roots and Jenna suggests that she can " go country " .
Despite the plans for Tracy and Jenna , Jack tells Liz — the head writer for TGS — to begin searching for a new cast member to help lessen this elitist image . Liz recruits TGS producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) to help in her search , planning trips to comedy clubs to find new talent . Both agree to try to keep the process secret from the cast and crew for fear that they would be angered over the idea of a new actor joining the cast . Liz and Pete give awkward answers trying to explain why they are going places together and ultimately tell the TGS writing staff . They also inadvertently tell Josh Girard ( Lonny Ross ) who , angered by the news , quits the show .
Meanwhile , Kenneth — an NBC page — goes to Jack worried that he cannot honestly sign his timesheet because Kenneth worked many overtime hours but NBC has stopped paying for it to save money . Jack convinces him to sign the sheet , but Kenneth later accidentally receives a large bonus check of Jack 's instead of his own paycheck . Kenneth grows angry over the bonus and leads a page strike . The strike grows in size as other trade unions join it , along with Tracy in an attempt to join the common man . Jack hires private detective Lenny Wosniak ( Steve Buscemi ) to try to end the strike , but he fails . Finally , Jack admits to Kenneth that he is a " big ol ' liar " and Kenneth ends the strike ( though he nearly reveals to the other pages it was over a personal matter ) .
= = Production = =
" Season 4 " was written by series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey , and directed by series producer Don Scardino . This was Fey 's eighteenth writing credit , and Scardino 's twenty @-@ second helmed episode . " Season 4 " originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 15 , 2009 , as the season premiere episode of the show 's fourth season and the 59th overall episode of the series . The episode was filmed on August 28 , September 1 , September 30 , and October 9 , 2009 .
Actor Steve Buscemi reprised his role as private investigator Lenny Wosniak for the fourth time , having appeared in " The Collection " , " The Natural Order " , and " Mamma Mia " . Buscemi directed the 30 Rock episode " Retreat to Move Forward " that was broadcast on January 22 , 2009 , during the show 's third season . Paula Pell , a producer and writer on the show , made her third appearance as the character Paula Hornberger , the wife of Pete Hornberger , played by Scott Adsit .
The episode somewhat parodies the AIG bonus payments controversy that occurred in March 2009 when it was publicly disclosed that AIG — an American insurance corporation — was paying approximately $ 200 million in bonus payments to employees of its financial services division . In the episode , NBC page Kenneth Parcell , along with other pages , wants to be paid for overtime , however , NBC has stopped paying for it to save money . Later , Kenneth receives General Electric executive Jack Donaghy 's large bonus check by accident and is angered by this , and as a result , Kenneth rallies all the pages to strike . Despite hiring Lenny to try and end the strike , Jack finally gives in to Kenneth 's demand . Television reviewer Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune noted that the strike here was similar to that of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike .
Part of this episode featured Liz Lemon and Pete going around comedy clubs looking to cast a new individual on TGS after Jack , Liz and Pete 's boss , explained that the show 's staff have become too elitist and need to change to survive in tough economic times , and that the addition of a new cast member would help lessen this elitist image . The search for a new cast member would continue throughout the season . The scene with Jenna Maroney pulling her intern 's ( Liz Holtan ) earring off , as Jenna believed that her intern wanted to be an actress , was originally meant for the season three episode " Gavin Volure " , but was instead featured on 30 Rock 's season three DVD as part of the deleted scenes in the Bonus feature .
Two filmed scenes from " Season 4 " were cut out from the airing . Instead , the scenes were featured on 30 Rock 's season four DVD as part of the deleted scenes in the Bonus feature . In the first scene , in the TGS make @-@ up room , Jenna asks Liz for a ride to Pennsylvania so that she can buy a Confederate Flag so that she can wear as a tube top on her appearance on Fox & Friends , however , Liz cannot give her a ride as she is busy . Kenneth stops by and informs Jenna that actress Mischa Barton is on the phone and wants to speak with her . Jenna , however , tells Kenneth to tell Barton that the deal is off as she has decided to go country . In the second scene , Jack and Lenny go through Kenneth 's page desk , while Kenneth is participating in the page strike . The two hope to find something that would damage Kenneth 's reputation but instead the two come up empty .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen ratings system , " Season 4 " was watched by 6 @.@ 312 million households in its original American broadcast , and earned a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 8 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 0 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This season premiere episode was down by 2 @.@ 4 million from the previous season 's premiere which had 8 @.@ 7 million viewers and was at the time the highest @-@ rated episode of the series . Variety and ABC noted that the 2009 Major League Baseball playoffs were a " competitive factor " for ratings on the episode 's original air date . 30 Rock 's third season , by comparison , did not premiere until October 30 , 2008 , a day after the 2008 World Series had ended .
IGN contributor Robert Canning reviewed the episode , giving it high marks saying it " proves yet again that 30 Rock is worthy of the Best Comedy Emmy " and scored the episode a 9 @.@ 2 out of 10 . Sean Gandert of Paste magazine also reviewed " Season 4 " , saying it did " little to disappoint and in fact starts the show off on much stronger footing than the first couple episodes of season 3 . " Gandert said the episode " doesn 't have quite as many truly classic moments as the show 's peaks in seasons one and two " but that " it also never really hits a sour note . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad enjoyed the economic crisis , cutbacks , and corporate bonuses theme in the episode , explaining that one of the reasons he loves the show " is because it can take something that 's in the news and make it the plot of an episode without it feeling weird or forced . " Sassone wrote that despite " Season 4 " not being the best episode of 30 Rock " it was still very good . " TV Guide 's Michael Anthony commented that Steve Buscemi is " so weird and yet does it in such an endearing way . " Mary McNamara for the Los Angeles Times called Kenneth 's strike one of the more hilarious strikes in history . Entertainment Weekly 's Margaret Lyons noted that this episode of 30 Rock had strong moments " and was a solid start to the new season " . David Zurawik , a contributor for The Baltimore Sun , liked the episode and enjoyed Buscemi 's appearance , noting he " brings just the right mix of sleaze and smiles to the role . " The Chicago Sun @-@ Times ' Paige Wiser noted , " ... tonight 's season premiere , the hype is warranted : 30 Rock is in all its glory . " Kevin Aeh of Time Out magazine wrote that the best part from " Season 4 " was Tracy 's storyline after being told to reconnect with his roots .
Not all reviews were positive . David Hinckley of the New York Daily News reported that the season premiere episode " never quite [ found ] its rhythm . " Linda Stasi of the New York Post said that " Season 4 " had " some good laughs here , but there 's also the threat that 30 Rock could easily turn into that thing the writers relentlessly make fun of – TV shows and stars that are too smug , too smart and too out @-@ of @-@ touch for their own good . " The Kansas City Star 's Aaron Barnhart deemed it as " one of the weakest 30 Rock 's " he has ever seen and that he found the episode boring .
= Calgary Stampede =
The Calgary Stampede is an annual rodeo , exhibition and festival held every July in Calgary , Alberta , Canada . The ten @-@ day event , which bills itself as " The Greatest Outdoor Show on Earth " , attracts over one million visitors per year and features one of the world 's largest rodeos , a parade , midway , stage shows , concerts , agricultural competitions , chuckwagon racing and First Nations exhibitions .
The event 's roots are traced to 1886 when the Calgary and District Agricultural Society held its first fair . In 1912 , American promoter Guy Weadick organized his first rodeo and festival , known as the Stampede . He returned to Calgary in 1919 to organize the Victory Stampede in honour of soldiers returning from World War I. Weadick 's festival became an annual event in 1923 when it merged with the Calgary Industrial Exhibition to create the Calgary Exhibition and Stampede .
Organized by thousands of volunteers and supported by civic leaders , the Calgary Stampede has grown into one of the world 's richest rodeos , one of Canada 's largest festivals and a significant tourist attraction for the city . Rodeo and chuckwagon racing events are televised across Canada . However , both have been the target of increasing international criticism by animal welfare groups and politicians concerned about particular events as well as animal rights organizations seeking to ban rodeo in general .
Calgary 's national and international identity is tied to the event . It is known as the " Stampede City " , carries the informal nickname of " Cowtown " and the local Canadian Football League team is called the Stampeders . The city takes on a party atmosphere during Stampede : office buildings and storefronts are painted in cowboy themes , residents don western wear and events held across the city include hundreds of pancake breakfasts and barbecues .
= = History = =
The Calgary and District Agricultural Society was formed in 1884 to promote the town and encourage farmers and ranchers from eastern Canada to move west . The society held its first fair two years later , attracting a quarter of the town 's 2 @,@ 000 residents . By 1889 , it had acquired land on the banks of the Elbow River to host the exhibitions , but crop failures , poor weather , and a declining economy resulted in the society ceasing operations in 1895 . The land passed briefly to future Prime Minister R. B. Bennett who sold it to the city . The area was called Victoria Park , after Queen Victoria , and the newly formed Western Pacific Exhibition Company hosted its first agricultural and industrial fair in 1899 .
The exhibition grew annually , and in 1908 the Government of Canada announced that Calgary would host the federally funded Dominion Exhibition that year . Seeking to take advantage of the opportunity to promote itself , the city spent C $ 145 @,@ 000 to build six new pavilions and a racetrack . It held a lavish parade as well as rodeo , horse racing , and trick roping competitions as part of the event . The exhibition was a success , drawing 100 @,@ 000 people to the fairgrounds over seven days despite an economic recession that afflicted the city of 25 @,@ 000 .
Guy Weadick , an American trick roper who participated in the Dominion Exhibition as part of the Miller Brothers 101 Ranch Real Wild West Show , returned to Calgary in 1912 in the hopes of establishing an event that more accurately represented the " wild west " than the shows he was a part of . He initially failed to sell civic leaders and the Calgary Industrial Exhibition on his plans , but with the assistance of local livestock agent H. C. McMullen , Weadick convinced businessmen Pat Burns , George Lane , A. J. McLean , and A. E. Cross to put up $ 100 @,@ 000 to guarantee funding for the event . The Big Four , as they came to be known , viewed the project as a final celebration of their life as cattlemen . The city built a rodeo arena on the fairgrounds and over 100 @,@ 000 people attended the six @-@ day event in September 1912 to watch hundreds of cowboys from Western Canada , the United States and Mexico compete for $ 20 @,@ 000 in prizes . The event generated $ 120 @,@ 000 in revenue and was hailed as a success .
Weadick set about planning the 1913 Stampede , promoting the event across North America . However , the Big Four were not interested in hosting another such event . Businessmen in Winnipeg convinced Weadick to host his second Stampede in their city , but the show failed financially . A third attempt held in New York State in 1916 suffered the same fate . Weadick returned to Calgary in 1919 where he gained the support of E. L. Richardson , the general manager of the Calgary Industrial Exhibition . The two convinced numerous Calgarians , including the Big Four , to back the " Great Victory Stampede " in celebration of Canada 's soldiers returning from World War I.
= = = Calgary Exhibition and Stampede = = =
While the 1919 Stampede was successful , it was again held as a one @-@ time event . Richardson was convinced that it could be a profitable annual event but found little support for the concept within the board of directors of the Calgary Industrial Exhibition . However , declining attendance and mounting financial losses forced the exhibition board to reconsider Richardson 's proposals at their 1922 annual meeting . Richardson proposed merging the two events on a trial basis . Weadick agreed , and the union created the Calgary Exhibition and Stampede .
The combined event was first held in 1923 . Weadick encouraged the city 's residents to dress in western clothes and decorate their businesses in the spirit of the " wild west " . Civic leaders truly supported the event for the first time : Mayor George Webster followed the costume suggestion and allowed downtown roads to be closed for two hours each morning of the six @-@ day event to accommodate street parties . The new sport of chuckwagon racing was introduced and proved immediately popular . 138 @,@ 950 people attended and the event earned a profit . Over 167 @,@ 000 people attended in 1924 and the success guaranteed that the Stampede and Exhibition would be held together permanently .
Attendance grew annually throughout the 1920s , peaking at 258 @,@ 496 in 1928 , but the onset of the Great Depression resulted in attendance declines and financial losses . After consecutive years of losses in 1930 and 1931 , the exhibition board was forced to make cutbacks , a decision that strained the relationship between the board and Weadick . Furthering the divide was Weadick 's growing resentment of the board 's control of what he considered his event . The issue came to a head in 1932 when Weadick and Richardson engaged in a loud argument over the situation , ending with Weadick 's threat to quit entirely . One month later , the exhibition board announced that it had relieved him of his duties . Angered by the decision , Weadick sued the exhibition board for $ 100 @,@ 000 , citing breach of contract and unfair dismissal . His claim was upheld in courts , but he was awarded only $ 2 @,@ 750 plus legal fees . Embittered by the events , Weadick remained at odds with the board for 20 years until he was invited to the 1952 Stampede as an honoured guest and parade marshal .
At least seven movies were filmed at the Stampede by 1950 . The most profitable , the 1925 silent film The Calgary Stampede , used footage from the rodeo and exposed people across North America to the event . Hollywood stars and foreign dignitaries were attracted to the Stampede ; Bob Hope and Bing Crosby each served as parade marshals during the 1950s , while Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip made their first of two visits to the event as part of their 1959 tour of Canada . The Queen also opened the 1973 Stampede .
= = = Expansion = = =
The discovery of the Leduc No. 1 oil well in 1946 and major reserves in the Turner Valley area southwest of the city ushered in a period of growth and prosperity . Calgary was transformed from an agricultural community into the oil and gas capital of Canada . The city 's population nearly doubled between 1949 and 1956 , and Calgary 's immigrant population not only embraced the Stampede , but encouraged friends and family in their home towns to do the same . The 1950s represented the golden age of the Calgary Stampede .
Attendance records were broken nearly every year in the 1950s and overall attendance increased by 200 @,@ 000 from 1949 to 1959 . The growth necessitated expansion of the exhibition grounds . The 7 @,@ 500 @-@ seat Stampede Corral was completed in 1950 as the largest indoor arena in Western Canada . It housed the Calgary Stampeders hockey team , which was operated by the Board of Governors and won the Western Hockey League championship in 1954 . Acts such as the Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra and Louis Armstrong played the Corral , although the arena 's poor acoustics were a frequent concern to organizers and patrons .
Improvements were made to the grandstand and the race track was rebuilt in 1954 . The Big Four Building , named in honour of the Stampede 's benefactors , opened in 1959 to serve as the city 's largest exhibition hall in the summer , and was converted into a 24 @-@ sheet curling facility each winter . The improvements failed to alleviate all the pressures growth had caused : chronic parking shortages and inability to accommodate demand for tickets to the rodeo and grandstand shows continued .
Attendance continued to grow throughout the 1960s and 1970s , topping 500 @,@ 000 for the first time in 1962 and reaching 654 @,@ 000 in 1966 . Organizers expanded the event from six days to nine in 1967 and then to ten the following year . The Stampede exceeded one million visitors for the first time in 1976 . The park , meanwhile , continued to grow . The Round @-@ Up Centre opened in 1979 as the new exhibition hall , and the Olympic Saddledome was completed in 1983 . The Saddledome replaced the Corral as the city 's top sporting arena , and both facilities hosted hockey and figure skating events at the 1988 Winter Olympics .
Maintaining the traditional focus on agriculture and western heritage remained a priority for the Calgary Stampede as the city grew into a major financial and oil hub in Western Canada . " Aggie Days " , a program designed to introduce urban schoolchildren to agriculture was introduced in 1989 and proved immediately popular . A ten @-@ year expansion plan called Horizon 2000 was released in 1990 detailing plans to grow Stampede Park into a year @-@ round destination for Calgarians ; an updated plan was released in 2004 . The organization dropped the word " exhibition " from its title in 2007 , and has since been known simply as the Calgary Stampede . Attendance has plateaued around 1 @.@ 2 million since 2000 , however the Stampede set an attendance record of 1 @,@ 409 @,@ 371 while celebrating its centennial anniversary in 2012 .
Severe flooding in Calgary two weeks before the July 5 opening of the 2013 Stampede caused significant damage to the grounds . Stampede officials promised , however , that the event would be staged as planned . Some of the main events , and all concerts , scheduled for the Saddledome were cancelled due to flood damage to the facility , while other events were relocated to other locations .
= = Events = =
= = = Parade = = =
The parade serves as the official opening of the Stampede and begins shortly before 9 a.m. on the first Friday of the event . Each year features a different parade marshal , chosen to reflect the public 's interests at that time . Politicians , athletes , actors and other dignitaries have all served as marshals . The event features dozens of marching bands , over 150 floats and hundreds of horses with entrants from around the world , and combines western themes with modern ones . Cowboys , First Nations dancers and members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in their red serges are joined by clowns , bands , politicians and business leaders . The first Stampede parade , held in 1912 , was attended by 75 @,@ 000 people , greater than the city 's population at the time . As many as 350 @,@ 000 people attended the parade in 2009 , while the presence of Prince William and Catherine , Duke and Duchess of Cambridge , at the 2011 parade as part of their tour of Canada increased attendance to a record estimate of 425 @,@ 000 .
= = = Rodeo = = =
The rodeo is the heart of the Calgary Stampede . It is one of the largest , and the most famous event of its kind in the world . With a prize of $ 100 @,@ 000 to the winner of each major discipline and $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 total on championship day alone , it also offers the richest payout . Cowboys consider performing in front of over 20 @,@ 000 fans daily to be the highlight of the rodeo season .
There are six major disciplines – bull riding , barrel racing , steer wrestling , tie down roping , saddle bronc and bareback riding – and four novice events – junior steer riding , novice bareback , novice saddle bronc and wild pony racing . Each event is organized as its own tournament , and the cowboys and girls are divided into two pools . The first pool competes each night for the first four nights , and the second each night for four nights following . The top four in each pool advance to the Sunday final , and the remainder compete on Saturday for a wild card spot in the final . The competitor with the best time or score on Sunday wins the $ 100 @,@ 000 grand prize .
All livestock for the rodeo events come from the 22 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 89 km2 ) Stampede Ranch located near the town of Hanna . The ranch was created in 1961 as a means of improving the quality of bucking horses and bulls and to guarantee supply . The first of its kind in North America , the Stampede Ranch operates a breeding program that produces some of the top rodeo stock in the world and supplies rodeos throughout southern Alberta , and as far south as Las Vegas .
= = = Rangeland Derby = = =
Weadick is credited with inventing the sport of chuckwagon racing in 1923 , inspired either by seeing a similar event in 1922 at the Gleichen Stampede or watching impromptu races as he grew up . He devised the sport to be a new and exciting event for the newly joined Exhibition and Stampede . Weadick invited ranchers to enter their wagons and crews to compete for a total of $ 275 in prize money .
Called the Rangeland Derby , and nicknamed the " half @-@ mile of hell " , chuckwagon racing proved immediately popular and quickly became the event 's largest attraction . While only six teams raced in 1923 , today 's Rangeland Derby consists of 36 teams competing for $ 1 @.@ 15 million in prize money . Joe Carbury was the voice of the Rangeland Derby for 45 years , until 2008 . His distinctive voice and signature phrase of " and they 're offfffffff ! " to announce the start of a race made him a local legend , and earned him induction into the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame in 2003 .
The chuckwagon drivers auction advertising space on their wagons before each year 's Stampede . The first advertisement on the tarp cover of a chuckwagon was made in 1941 , and Lloyd Nelson was the last person to win the Rangeland Derby without a sponsored wagon , doing so in 1956 . The current practice of selling advertising via a tarp auction began in 1979 . The revenue generated by the auctions , a record $ 4 million for the 2012 Stampede , is considered an indicator of the strength of Calgary 's economy .
= = = Exhibition = = =
When the agricultural exhibition was first launched in 1886 , Alberta was an overwhelmingly rural province . Today , agricultural producers make up less than two percent of the province 's population , but the exhibition remains an integral part of the Calgary Stampede . Nearly half of all visitors attend the exhibition , which is made up of 50 agricultural programs organized by more than 1 @,@ 000 exhibitors . Numerous competitions are held as part of the exhibition . The American National Cutting Horse Association sanctions a World Series of Cutting event , and the World Championship Blacksmith Competition attracts top blacksmiths from around the world . Farm and ranch demonstrations feature numerous breeds of livestock along with stock dog trials and team penning competitions .
Additionally , the exhibition serves to educate the public about Alberta 's ranching and agricultural heritage along with modern food production displays through events like Ag @-@ tivity in the City . The Stampede works with Alberta 4 @-@ H clubs to encourage youth participation in agricultural pursuits , and has a partnership with Olds College that includes the operation of a satellite campus at Stampede Park .
= = = Midway = = =
The Calgary Stampede midway has been operated by North American Midway Entertainment , and its predecessor Conklin Shows , since 1976 . The midway is the only part of the event operated on a for @-@ profit basis . It is considered an essential component of the Stampede , but is separate from the predominantly western theme . The midway opens on the Thursday night before other events begin , known as " sneak @-@ a @-@ peek " night . In addition to the traditional rides and carnival games , the midway features two concert areas . Nashville North , a large party tent , made its debut in 1993 as a country music venue . It was followed one @-@ year later by what is now known as the Coca @-@ Cola Stage that offers family entertainment during the day and rock and pop acts during the evenings . The Saddledome hosts headlining acts , including Garth Brooks and The Beach Boys , who were booked for the Stampede 's 100th anniversary in 2012 .
= = = Market = = =
The Stampede Market is located in the BMO Centre on the northwest corner of the park . It offers 38 @,@ 000 square metres ( 410 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of retail space and in 2011 had 181 vendors selling artwork , toys , household goods , foodstuffs and other items . The Western Oasis , a subsection of the market , offers cowboy and western @-@ themed artwork , bronze statues , craftwork , foods and wine . Lured by the opportunity to show their wares to the one million people who attend the Stampede , some vendors wait years before gaining admittance , and those that do consider it one of the prime events of the year .
= = Stampede Park = =
Stampede Park is located southeast of downtown Calgary in the Beltline District and is serviced by Calgary Transit 's light rail system . Permanent structures at the site include the Saddledome and Corral , Big Four Building , BMO Centre – a convention and exhibition facility – a casino , the Stampede Grandstand , the agriculture building , and a number of facilities that support the exhibition and livestock shows .
The park remains at its original location , though attempts were made to relocate . In 1964 , the Stampede Board made plans to purchase former military land in southwest Calgary near Glenmore Trail and 24 Street and relocate the park there . A fully developed plan was released in 1965 , and while it had the support of the civic and federal governments , intense opposition from nearby residents quashed the proposal . Space concerns remained a constant issue , and a new plan to push northward into the Victoria Park community beginning in 1968 initiated a series of conflicts with the neighbourhood and city council that persisted for decades .
While Victoria Park fell into steady decline , it was not until 2007 that the final buildings were removed , paving the way for both an expansion of Stampede Park and an urban renewal program for the area . With the land finally secured , the Stampede organization embarked on a $ 400 @-@ million expansion that is planned to feature a new retail and entertainment district , an urban park , a new agricultural arena and potentially a new hotel . The expansion was originally planned to be complete by 2011 , but delays and an economic downturn have pushed the expected completion of the project back to 2014 .
Stampede Park has long been a central gathering place for Calgarians and tourists . In addition to attendance at the Calgary Stampede , over 2 @.@ 5 million people attend other sporting events , concerts , trade shows and meetings on a grounds that hosts over 1 @,@ 000 events annually .
= = People = =
Each year , a queen and two princesses are selected as Stampede royalty . They are chosen via a contest open to any woman between the ages of 19 and 24 who resides in Alberta . An emphasis is placed on horsemanship skills and ability to serve as ambassadors for both the Stampede and the city . The first Stampede Queen , Patsy Rodgers , was selected in 1946 while the princesses were first chosen the following year . The royal trio serve one @-@ year terms during which they will make hundreds of appearances throughout southern Alberta and across North America . They then become members of the Calgary Stampede Queens ' Alumni Association , founded in 1971 . The association organizes fundraisers and events in support of organizations that work with special needs children .
= = = Native participation = = =
During each Stampede , the five nations of the Treaty 7 – the Tsuu T 'ina , Piikani , Stoney , Kainai and Siksika – create an " Indian Village " on the bank of the Elbow River in the southern section of Stampede Park . They erect tipis , organize pow wows , offer arts and crafts , and re @-@ enact elements of their traditional lifestyle . Each year , an Indian Princess is selected from one of the five nations to represent the Treaty 7 as part of the Stampede 's royalty . The village is among the Stampede 's most popular attractions .
First Nations peoples had been frequent participants in the city 's exhibitions since they were first held in 1886 , taking part in parades and sporting events and entertaining spectators with traditional dances . By 1912 however , pressure from agents of the Department of Indian Affairs to suppress their historic traditions and to keep them on their farms nearly ended native participation . Weadick hoped to include native people as a feature of his Stampede , but Indian Affairs opposed his efforts and asked the Duke of Connaught , Canada 's Governor General , to support their position . The Duke refused , and after Weadick gained the support of political contacts in Ottawa , including future Prime Minister R. B. Bennett , the path was cleared .
Hundreds of First Nations peoples , representing six tribes , participated at the 1912 Stampede . They camped in tipis and wore their finest traditional regalia , making them among the most popular participants in the parade . Tom Three Persons , of the Blood ( Kainai ) tribe , emerged as one of the Stampede 's first heroes , amazing spectators with a winning performance in the saddle bronc competition . He was the only Canadian champion of the first Stampede and became the first person to successfully ride Cyclone , a notorious horse that had thrown over 100 riders during its career .
The federal government attempted to prevent a repeat occurrence , modifying the Indian Act in 1914 to make it illegal for natives to participate in fairs or parades without permission from the local Indian Agent . The new law ended native participation in the Calgary Exhibition , but when Weadick returned in 1919 , he successfully fought for their return to the fairgrounds . Indian Affairs again sought to ban native participation in 1925 without success . While conflicts between the Stampede and Indian Affairs continued until 1932 , the Indian Village has remained a staple on the grounds .
First Nations members and the Stampede board have occasionally met with conflict . The original location of the Indian Village was on low @-@ lying ground that frequently flooded , a problem that was not resolved until 1974 when the village was moved its current location . Complaints about low appearance fees paid to tipi owners , lack of input on committees related to their participation and accusations that natives were being exploited have periodically been made throughout the years . The Stoneys famously boycotted the 1950 Stampede following a rule change that cancelled a policy giving any native person free admittance upon showing their treaty card . The event that year was marred by violent thunderstorms , which led to apocryphal stories that the band had performed a rain dance in an effort to ruin the fair .
Despite the conflicts , the native communities around Calgary have been enthusiastic supporters of the Stampede and the Indian Village . The tipi owners have been long @-@ term participants – many are third or fourth generation – and the Stampede has helped preserve and display native culture to the public . The village will again relocate in 2016 . It will double in size and feature a new exhibit displaying the partnership between the city , local nations and the Stampede .
= = = Employment and volunteerism = = =
Operation of the park throughout the year requires 300 full @-@ time and 1 @,@ 400 part @-@ time employees . An additional 3 @,@ 500 seasonal workers are hired for the Stampede itself . The seasonal positions are often filled by Calgary 's youth , and for many , represents their first paying jobs . The organization is maintained by a legion of volunteers , however . Over 2 @,@ 000 volunteers sit on 50 committees responsible for all aspects of the Stampede 's operation . Chief among them are the board of directors . The board is made up of 25 individuals ; 20 elected from amongst the shareholders , three representing the city , one the province and the most recent president of the Stampede board . Nearly half of all volunteers have served for more than 10 years , and some as long as 60 .
= = = Young Canadians and the Stampede Showband = = =
When the Calgary Stampede brought in The Rockettes from New York as part of the 1964 grandstand show , they auditioned local youth to participate as the " Calgary Kidettes " . It was intended to be a one @-@ time addition , but proved immensely popular with spectators , and both The Rockettes and Kidettes returned in the following years . The Kidettes were renamed the Young Canadians in 1968 and not only remained a staple of the grandstand show , but grew into a headlining act by the late 1970s . Within nine years of their creation , the Young Canadians were playing shows throughout Canada and the northern United States and performing in front of over 200 @,@ 000 people every year . In 1982 , the Stampede Foundation set up the Young Canadians School of Performing Arts . Supported by both the Calgary public and Catholic school boards , the school offers professional training to singers and dancers between the ages of 7 and 19 paid for by scholarships from the Stampede organization .
The Stampede Showband was created in 1971 to serve as the organization 's musical ambassadors . The troupe features over 150 members between the ages of 16 and 21 , and has been named the world champion of marching show bands five times , lastly being in August 2014 . The group has performed all over the world , in front of royalty and world leaders , and at the opening ceremonies of the 1988 Winter Olympics . The Showband performs year round , and make over 100 appearances during the Stampede alone . They performed in the Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena , California for the third time in 2012 as part of the Stampede 's 100th anniversary celebrations . The Stampede Showriders were created in 1985 as a precision equestrian drill team and colour guard that accompanies the Showband .
= = Animal welfare = =
The Stampede has attempted to balance rodeo tradition against the concerns of animal welfare groups who argue that the sport is inhumane . Officials defend the sport , calling the animals the " stars of the show " and stating that the Stampede is " passionate about the proper treatment of animals " . The Calgary Humane Society has found itself at odds with other organizations by choosing to work with the Stampede to ensure that stress on the animals is kept to a minimum . It is one of two such groups , in addition to veterinarians , who are on hand to monitor the rodeo .
Chuckwagon racing is a particular source of controversy . Animal rights groups protest the event , arguing that the sport causes undue suffering for the horses . Racers admit the sport is dangerous , but defend their sport amidst the controversy , arguing that the animals are well cared for , and that allowing them to race saves many horses from prematurely going to slaughter .
Following a particularly deadly series of accidents in 1986 where nine horses were killed in chuckwagon racing incidents alone – including five horses in one spectacular crash – humane society officials , fans and even some drivers called for major changes to the races , while others called for the sport to be banned entirely . Numerous rule changes were announced prior to the 1987 event . The Calgary chapter of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals accepted the changes , stating it would not call for the sport to be banned given that Stampede officials had moved to improve animal safety , further changes were announced in 2011 .
Tie down roping is a particular focus of efforts to eliminate the event . The Stampede altered its policies in 2010 to enforce the rules of the Canadian Professional Rodeo Association . Additionally , the Stampede was the first rodeo to introduce a no @-@ time penalty for competitors who make a dangerous tackle in the steer wrestling event . Several more changes were made in 2011 , the rule changes were announced after six animals died at the 2010 Stampede and were met with mixed reactions from both cowboys and animal welfare groups .
Such changes have not completely eliminated all risks ; periodic accidents have continued to result in the deaths of horses and livestock . One of the deadliest incidents in Stampede history occurred in 2005 when , late in a trail ride meant to help celebrate the province 's centennial , a group of about 200 horses spooked and in the melee nine horses were killed after they were pushed off a city bridge into the Bow River . While similar trail rides had been completed without incident in the past , Stampede officials announced they would not attempt any further rides unless they could ensure the safety of the horses .
Animal welfare groups have called animal deaths " depressingly predictable " and seek a boycott of the rodeo . In the United Kingdom travel agencies have been asked to stop offering tourism packages to the Stampede , and in 2010 , 92 members of the UK Parliament signed an Early Day Motion asking their Canadian counterparts to ban rodeo . Several groups petitioned the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge to cancel their planned attendance in 2011 . However , the couple attended and participated in a private demonstration of rodeo and chuckwagon events .
= = Broadcasting = =
As of 2014 , live coverage of the rodeo and Rangeland Derby competitions are broadcast by the CBC Sports website and Sportsnet One . CBC Television carries daily , late @-@ night highlight shows , and coverage on the weekend . Supplemental coverage was , until 2013 , seen on CBC 's former sister cable network Bold .
= = Community = =
The festival spirit during Stampede extends throughout the city . Parade day serves as an unofficial holiday as many companies give employees half or full days off to attend . People of all walks of life , from executives to students , discard formal attire for casual western dress , typically represented by Wrangler jeans and cowboy hats . Many Calgarians have reduced productivity during the event because they take a relaxed attitude towards their usual workplace and personal responsibilities . However , the community and corporate events held during the Stampede create social networking opportunities and help newcomers acclimatize to the city . The Stampede is an important stop for political leaders as part of their annual summer tours of the country , sometimes called the barbecue circuit .
= = = Pancake breakfasts = = =
The pancake breakfast is a local institution during Stampede . Dozens are held throughout the city each day , hosted by community groups , corporations , churches , politicians and the Stampede itself . The tradition of pancake breakfasts dates back to the 1923 Stampede when a chuckwagon driver by the name of Jack Morton invited passing citizens to join him for his morning meals .
The largest is the breakfast hosted at the Chinook Centre shopping mall . Four hundred volunteers are required to feed over 60 @,@ 000 people who attend the one @-@ day event that had its 50th anniversary in 2010 . Other groups , such as the Calgary Stampede Caravan , feed as many as 120 @,@ 000 people over ten days . The rising popularity of the barbecue grill in the 1960s and the city 's population boom at the time brought with it the growth of community and company barbecues throughout the city during Stampede . Community booster groups have exported the tradition across the country as a symbol of Calgary 's hospitality . Among them are the Calgary Grey Cup Committee , whose volunteers have hosted pancake breakfasts on the day of the Canadian Football League championship game for over three decades , sometimes in spite of poor weather conditions for the annual November contest .
= = = Stampede parties = = =
The size and number of parties each year during Stampede is viewed as an indicator of Calgary 's economic strength . Corporations and community groups hold lavish events throughout the city for their staff and clients , while bars and pubs erect party tents , the largest of which draws up to 20 @,@ 000 people per day . Paul Vickers , who owns several establishments in the city , estimates that he makes up to 20 percent of his annual revenue during the ten days of Stampede alone . Some parties have become known for heavy drinking and relaxed morals , so much so that one hotel 's satirical ad promising to safely store a patron 's wedding ring during Stampede was widely viewed as a legitimate offer . The parties are not without consequences , as lawyers have noted a significant increase in divorce filings in the weeks following the Stampede , primarily on claims of infidelity . Clinics see an increase in people seeking testing and treatment for sexually transmitted diseases , and Calgary is said to experience an annual baby boom each April – nine months after the event .
= = Relationship with the city = =
The Stampede has become inexorably linked to the city 's identity . Calgary has long been called the " Stampede City " , and carries the informal nickname of " Cowtown " . The event 's iconic status offers Calgary global publicity and plays a significant role in defining the city 's image . Calgary 's Canadian Football League team has been called the Stampeders since 1945 , and it is a name shared by other teams in various sports throughout the city 's history , including the Stampeders hockey team that operated in the years following World War II .
The Stampede has strong polling support within the province . A 2006 Ipsos @-@ Reid poll found that 86 percent of Albertans felt that it raised the civic quality of life and considered it one of the region 's most important cultural events . Nearly three in four stated they look forward to the annual event . However , critics argue that the themes promoted by the Stampede and within the city are an invented tradition . They suggest that it is not a reflection of Alberta 's frontier history , but represents a mythical impression of western cowboy culture created by 19th @-@ century wild west shows and exploited for profit .
Part of the event 's success can be attributed to the close relationship the Stampede has often shared with both the civic government and community leaders . Mayors of Calgary and city aldermen have sat on the Stampede Board of Governors at the same time they occupied public office , and the Stampede 's ability to convince wealthy and influential citizens to volunteer their time has allowed the organization to gain a high profile within the city . The Stampede operates on city @-@ owned land , pays no property tax on its lease , and typically faces little to no political interference from City Hall . It operates as a non @-@ profit entity with all income reinvested into the park . All improvements to the park would revert to city control if the lease were allowed to expire .
Likewise , the Stampede has support from the media , which has been accused of providing an inordinate amount of positive coverage to the event while trivializing negative aspects . The local media faced national scrutiny in 2009 when both major newspapers refused to run anti @-@ rodeo ads sponsored by the Vancouver Humane Society . While the Calgary Herald simply refused to run the ad , the Calgary Sun defended its position in an editorial . The Sun refuted charges it was kowtowing to the Stampede and justified its refusal by claiming " we are Calgarians and allowing a group of outsiders to come in and insult a proud Calgary tradition seemed just plain wrong . " The Herald reversed its decision a year later , running a full @-@ page ad sponsored by the Vancouver Humane Society .
= = = Economic impact and tourism = = =
While 70 percent of Stampede attendees are from the Calgary region , officials work to promote the event across the globe . As such , the Calgary Stampede is known around the world . The Stampede draws foreign visitors primarily from the United States , the United Kingdom and Australia , and is experiencing growing attendance by tourists from Asia and South America .
Stampede officials estimated in 2009 that the city of Calgary had a gross economic impact of $ 172 @.@ 4 million from the ten @-@ day event alone , with a wider provincial total of $ 226 @.@ 7 million . In terms of economic impact , the Stampede is the highest grossing festival in Canada , ahead of Ottawa 's Winterlude , the Canadian National Exhibition in Toronto , and the Just for Laughs festival in Montreal . Additionally , Stampede officials estimate that for every dollar spent at Stampede Park , tourists spend $ 2 @.@ 65 in the rest of the city . A poll conducted in 2011 found that 40 percent of Calgarians who intended to attend the Stampede expected to spend $ 150 – $ 400 over the course of the event , and 7 percent stated that they would spend more than that .
= = = Promoting Calgary = = =
Civic leaders have consistently made note of the Stampede 's impact on the city . Mayor Andrew Davison claimed in 1944 that the event " had done more to advertise Calgary than any single agency , " an opinion that has been echoed by his successors . Stampede officials have made similar claims , arguing that the event is one of Canada 's most important tourist attractions . The Canadian Tourism Commission placed the event in its Signature Experiences Collection , one of six such events or locations in Alberta .
According to Ralph Klein , former mayor of Calgary and premier of Alberta , the Stampede symbolizes the province 's spirit . He cited the friendly and welcoming attitude and festival spirit of the city 's populace during the event , which community booster groups export around the world . Among examples cited was the infamous 1948 Grey Cup game in which two trains of Stampeder football fans descended on Toronto and launched an unprecedented series of celebrations before , during and after the game that included riding a horse into the lobby of the Royal York Hotel . The events helped turn the Grey Cup into a national festival and the largest single @-@ day sporting event in the country .
= The Rings of Akhaten =
" The Rings of Akhaten " is the seventh episode of the seventh series of the British science @-@ fiction drama Doctor Who , first broadcast on BBC One on 6 April 2013 . It was written by Neil Cross and directed by Farren Blackburn .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) takes his new companion Clara Oswald ( Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman ) to the Rings of Akhaten , where several planets revolve around a larger one . They attend a religious festival where the young Queen of Years , Merry Gejelh ( Emilia Jones ) , is about to be sacrificed . Determined to save Merry , the Doctor and Clara come face @-@ to @-@ face with the parasite of Akhaten , who requires memories , stories , and items of sentimental value .
Cross was asked to write the episode after the success of scripting and shooting " Hide " , a later episode . " The Rings of Akhaten " , as Clara 's first trip to an alien world , was intended to show the wonders of the universe instead of the Doctor getting his new companion trapped somewhere less glamorous , a trend that had been observed in the history of the programme . The episode also explores Clara 's backstory . Filmed entirely in @-@ studio in late October 2012 , pre @-@ made moulds were utilised for the many different aliens to save money . " The Rings of Akhaten " was watched by 7 @.@ 45 million viewers in the UK and received a mixed reception regarding its emotion and plot .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
Following the events of " The Bells of Saint John " , in which he encountered a third version of Clara , the Doctor decides to learn more about his new companion and travels into her past to observe her . He finds that her parents met by a chance encounter caused by a gust of wind blowing a leaf into her father 's face and discovers that her mother died while Clara was a teenager . The Doctor goes back to the present and collects Clara , then takes her to the Rings of Akhaten , where they observe a series of planetoids orbiting a planet , with a shining pyramid on one of them . The Doctor takes Clara to a giant alien marketplace and introduces her to several aliens , including a merchant named Dor 'een who attempts to rent them a space bike . The market does not use hard currency but rather trades in items of sentimental value ; this appalls Clara , who believes sentimental items should be cherished and not given away . She becomes separated from the Doctor and encounters a little girl ( Emilia Jones ) who appears to be running and hiding . Clara catches up to her and she explains that her name is Merry Galel , the Queen of Years . Merry tells Clara that she is hiding because she is supposed to sing a song at a ceremony and she is afraid to get it wrong . Clara reassures her by telling her what her mother once said , and Merry heads to the ceremony .
The Doctor and Clara attend the ceremony , where the Doctor explains that since the Rings were settled there has been a constant song sung to keep an angry god asleep . The people fear that the god , which they call Grandfather , will awaken and consume the entire universe if the song is ever interrupted . Merry begins singing , joined by a chorister at the pyramid . During the song , a mummy in a glass case at the pyramid begins to awaken . Merry panics , believing she got the song wrong . A beam of light from the pyramid envelops her , and she is pulled toward the pyramid and the mummy . The Doctor and Clara find Dor 'een and rent the space bike using Clara 's mother 's ring as payment . They ride the bike to the pyramid where they find the mummy struggling to escape the case and consume Merry 's soul . The Doctor promises Merry that she does not have to sacrifice herself and that he will stop Grandfather . As they attempt to leave , a group of creatures called the Vigil arrive and attempt to force Merry to sacrifice herself . The Doctor holds the Vigil at bay long enough to let Clara and Merry escape from the throne room , but then the case shatters and the mummy breaks free . A ray of light strikes the planet , revealing that Grandfather is Akhaten itself , a planet @-@ sized parasitic creature .
Clara and Merry flee back to the ceremony and the Doctor faces the creature , realising it feeds off memories , stories , and feelings . He tries to overfeed it by offering the sum total of his Time Lord memories ; Merry also leads the citizens in a song of hope , confusing Akhaten who then disappears . However , The Doctor 's memories are not enough to sate the creature and Akhaten reappears , Clara returns to help . She offers Akhaten the leaf that blew into her father 's face on the day he met her mother , which contains an infinite amount of untold potential that Clara 's mother never saw because she died early . Akhaten , overwhelmed by the infinite potential it has consumed , implodes on itself and the Rings are saved . The Doctor returns Clara to her home on the same day they left and gives her back her mother 's ring , telling her that all the creatures she saved wanted her to have it back . Suddenly Clara remembers seeing the Doctor at her mother 's funeral and asks why he was there . He tells her that she reminds him of someone who died and she rebukes him for using her as a replacement , but he assures her she is not a replacement and Clara leaves . However , the moment she is gone , the Doctor 's expression becomes grim and closes the TARDIS door that Clara left from .
= = = Continuity = = =
In " The Bells of Saint John " , the Doctor finds a preserved leaf pressed between the pages of Clara 's book , 101 Places to See . Clara enigmatically refers to it as " page one " . The opening scene in " The Rings of Akhaten " explains this statement , showing how a mishap involving the leaf led to her parents ' first meeting . The Doctor mentions to Clara that he had visited Akhaten long ago with his granddaughter . This is a reference to Susan Foreman , the Doctor 's granddaughter and companion who travelled with the First Doctor .
= = Production = =
Writer Neil Cross was a Doctor Who fan , but had never had the time to write an episode . Executive producer Caroline Skinner , who was new with the seventh series , knew him and offered to work his schedule around writing an episode ; he was willing to do it . Executive producer and lead writer Steven Moffat was pleased to have Cross join , as he was a showrunner in his own right with Luther . Cross had written the ninth episode of the series , " Hide " , which was liked by the producers and so Cross was asked to write " The Rings of Akhaten " when he was in the UK after " Hide " had completed filming . Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman named " The Rings of Akhaten " one of her favourites of the second half of the seventh series , as it was the first adventure for Clara which allowed the audience to watch the story " [ begin ] again " .
The concept behind having the episode based around an alien planet occurred to Moffat , Skinner , and producer Marcus Wilson when realising they had done big location pieces in the first half of the series with " A Town Called Mercy " and " The Angels Take Manhattan " , but had none for the second half . They decided to do a story set in " a world created in our studios to make you really feel you 're out there " , rather than having the Doctor " promise unearthly wonders to his companions , and then get them trapped in an underground tunnel " . As such , the episode was designed to allow the Doctor to actually show his new companion the wonders he had promised . The production team aimed to show " the best alien planet " on Doctor Who . The episode originally had a different pre @-@ credits sequence , which consisted of a long scene in the kitchen in which Clara informs the Doctor she cannot come and travel with the Doctor because she has responsibilities to her job , and the boy she takes care of asks if the Doctor is her boyfriend . Cross 's intent was to juxtapose this " mundane " scene with the vast scale of the planet . However , Moffat thought that at the time in the series the Doctor should be investigating Clara through her parents and Cross revised to include the leaf , an idea Moffat approved of . Originally the resolution was to be the Doctor defeating the planet with his speech , which Cross likened to " facing down one of Lovecraft 's Old Gods : an alien so alien that it 's practically a supernatural being . " Moffat pointed out that the Doctor had given similar speeches before and was more interested in Clara saving the day . After thinking about it for a while , Cross realised he could incorporate the leaf into the solution .
The read @-@ through for " The Rings of Ahkaten " was held on 17 October 2012 , with filming beginning the next week on 22 October . Director Farren Blackburn had previously worked on the programme in the 2011 Christmas special " The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " . According to Matt Smith , there were " between 50 and 60 prosthetic aliens " in a scene set in an alien market . The Doctor features minimally in the first act because Smith was busy filming pick @-@ ups or reshoots for " Nightmare in Silver " . Millennium FX 's Neill Gorton remarked that he had " always wanted to do a scene like the Star Wars cantina " and had worked on different moulds in his spare time in case they could be used in the future , as making thirty different aliens at one time would be out of the budget . Much of the episode was constructed around talks of what could be created with limited resources . For example , Cross recalled that producer Marcus Wilson called him and asked , " We 've always wanted to have a speeder @-@ bike like in Return of the Jedi and we know how to do it inexpensively , so can you get one into the story ? " However , Cross felt that the speeder @-@ bike ended up having more in common with Flash Gordon . The songs were written by composer Murray Gold . To help establish the year at the beginning of the episode " Ghost Town " by The Specials is heard and the Doctor is seen reading a 1981 copy of The Beano . The issue of The Beano was reprinted and included in a special Doctor Who @-@ themed edition on 15 May 2013 .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Rings of Akhaten " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 6 April 2013 . Overnight ratings showed that it was watched by 5 @.@ 5 million viewers live , a 28 @.@ 8 % audience share . When time @-@ shifted viewers were factored in , the final rating rose to 7 @.@ 45 million , making it the sixth most @-@ watched programme of the week on BBC One . In addition , " The Rings of Akhaten " received over two million requests on the online BBC iPlayer in April , coming in first for the month on the service . The episode also received an Appreciation Index of 84 out of 100 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received mixed reviews . Neela Debnath of The Independent called it " heart @-@ warming " and felt that centering the episode around a child " adds something " . She also praised the aesthetics and the caring nature of Clara 's character . Zap2it 's Geoff Berkshire shared similar sentiments , and also praised Emilia Jones ' performance . Both Debnath and Berkshire likened the storytelling to the Russell T Davies era ( 2005 – 2010 ) . The Guardian reviewer Dan Martin described the story as " slight and straightforward [ but ] told it in broad and effective strokes " with " gorgeous " visuals . He particularly praised the emotional effectiveness of the ending , but felt that " The Mummy " , although visually impressive , was " a little bit of a squib after all the build @-@ up " .
IGN 's Mark Snow gave " The Rings of Akhaten " a rating of 7 @.@ 2 out of 10 . He wrote that Akhaten " felt like a fully formed world " but criticised the resolution and the Mummy 's appearance . Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph gave the episode three and a half out of five stars and called it " a mixed bag ... but still with enough elements of uniqueness to demonstrate , almost 50 years on , just why there is still nothing like Doctor Who on television " . He wrote that the religion and singing was well @-@ realised , but felt the " mind parasite " was too similar to the Great Intelligence which was featured the previous week , and also thought the many aliens " gave more than a hint of trying too hard and did not get things off to the best of starts " . Digital Spy reviewer Morgan Jeffery praised Clara and the monsters , but felt that after a good build @-@ up the episode fell apart at its climax , which he felt was " far too fantastical " .
SFX reviewer Richard Edwards was more negative , giving the episode three stars out of five . He felt that the story had a lot of interesting ideas but then became standard . He also criticised the use of the sonic screwdriver and the Doctor 's monologue , which he felt had been overused too much recently , but said that the episode was saved by Clara . Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times was also disappointed , saying that it " amounts to little more than series of events and has a more preposterous premise than usual " . He questioned the physics and noted that there was not much of an ending and surprisingly found Smith not up to his usual performance . Doctor Who Magazine reviewer Graham Kibble @-@ White also reacted negatively , writing , " There wasn 't a wet eye in the house , as pathos run nauseatingly amok , " and claimed it " by some stretch the least awesome Doctor Who we 've encountered for a long time . " He also claimed it seemed like " Cross hadn 't seen an episode since the 1980s " and that " even the leftfield mention of the Time War feels as if it 's come from a quick consult with Wikipedia . " Additionally , he felt that it could be " mockable " and complained that it was " turning the aliens into a freak show , something to be goggled at , rather than truly met . "
Cross acknowledged that " The Rings of Akhaten " had received a mixed reception and was originally bothered by some of the criticisms . However , he said he was cheered up by children between the ages of nine and fifteen who had experienced bullying and wrote to him saying that they had been inspired by the episode . One girl told him it had changed her mind about suicide .
= M @-@ 129 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 129 is a state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) of the US state of Michigan . It runs from Cedarville to Sault Ste . Marie . South of Nine Mile Road in Chippewa County ( and in all of Mackinac County ) , M @-@ 129 overlays the Michigan Meridian . The section of M @-@ 129 that overlays the meridian is named Meridian Road . The highway between M @-@ 48 and the northern terminus is a part of the larger Lake Huron Circle Tour .
Originally a part of M @-@ 12 and US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) , the current roadway was formerly designated M @-@ 5 from 1930 until 1939 . Two other highways were also previously designated M @-@ 129 . The first was in the western UP in the late 1920s ; it was replaced by M @-@ 64 . The second was in the Keweenaw Peninsula and was replaced by M @-@ 26 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 129 starts at an intersection between Meridian Road and M @-@ 134 in Cedarville . This intersection is northwest of Lake Huron and a ferry connection to the 4 @-@ mile ( 6 km ) long La Salle Island , part of Les Cheneaux Islands . The islands are a quiet tourist destination that Hunt 's Guide to Michigan 's Upper Peninsula describes as " off the beaten tourist track " and full of " low @-@ key charm " . From here north , M @-@ 129 follows the Michigan Meridian on Meridian Road . The highway forms part of the north – south Mackinac – Chippewa county line as it approaches the community of Pickford . South of Pickford , M @-@ 129 and M @-@ 48 merge along Meridian Road at 26 Mile Road . M @-@ 129 picks up the Lake Huron Circle Tour designation and the two roads cross together over the Munuscong River , which empties into Munuscong Lake , a part of the St. Marys River . These two highways run concurrently through Pickford to 22 Mile Road .
At 22 Mile Road , M @-@ 48 turns westerly and M @-@ 129 continues north . This intersection is also the location of the Munscong Golf Club . M @-@ 129 meets the eastern termini of M @-@ 80 and M @-@ 28 at 17 Mile Road and 9 Mile Road , respectively . Just before meeting 9 Mile Road , M @-@ 129 jogs to the east , leaving Meridian Road to meet up with McKnight Road , which runs parallel to the Michigan Meridian . McKnight Road and I @-@ 75 run roughly parallel approaching Sault Ste . Marie from the south . At 3 Mile Road , M @-@ 129 enters the city of Sault Ste . Marie east of the southern terminus of BS I @-@ 75 , and the roadway is renamed Ashmun Street . When BS I @-@ 75 meets Ashmun Street , M @-@ 129 ends and BS I @-@ 75 takes over the Ashmun Street name into downtown . M @-@ 129 ends south of the Lake Superior State University campus , home of the annual Banished Words List .
= = History = =
The modern M @-@ 129 was originally part of M @-@ 12 from 1919 until 1926 and US 2 from 1926 to 1933 .
= = = Previous designations = = =
The first usage of M @-@ 129 on a highway in Michigan was on a roadway connecting Lake Gogebic State Park to Marenisco and south to the Wisconsin state line ; this routing was designated M @-@ 64 in 1930 . The second usage was for a highway in the Keweenaw Peninsula connecting Phoenix with Eagle Harbor . This second designation was extended in 1933 to Copper Harbor and replaced by M @-@ 26 in 1935 .
= = = Current designation = = =
M @-@ 5 was used as the designation for the former US 2 in Mackinac and Chippewa counties until 1939 , when it was redesignated as M @-@ 129 on maps . The last gravel sections of roadway were paved in 1960 south of Sault Ste . Marie , and the highway was truncated to end at M @-@ 134 in Cedarville in 1963 . Previous to this , the highway continued south into downtown Cedarville on Merdian Road . A small realignment moved the northern terminus to a new intersection with BS I @-@ 75 in Sault Ste . Marie in late 1967 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Caloboletus calopus =
Caloboletus calopus , commonly known as the bitter beech bolete or scarlet @-@ stemmed bolete , is a fungus of the bolete family , found in Asia , Northern Europe and North America . Appearing in coniferous and deciduous woodland in summer and autumn , the stout fruit bodies are attractively coloured , with a beige to olive cap up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) across , yellow pores , and a reddish stipe up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) long and 5 cm ( 2 in ) wide . The pale yellow flesh stains blue when broken or bruised .
Christiaan Persoon first described Boletus calopus in 1801 . Modern molecular phylogenetics showed that it was only distantly related to the type species of Boletus and required placement in a new genus ; Caloboletus was erected in 2014 , with C. calopus designated as the type species . Although Caloboletus calopus is not typically considered edible due to an intensely bitter taste that does not disappear with cooking , there are reports of it being consumed in eastern Europe . Its red stipe distinguishes it from edible species , such as Boletus edulis .
= = Taxonomy = =
Caloboletus calopus was originally published under the name Boletus olivaceus by Jacob Christian Schäffer in 1774 , but this name is unavailable for use as it was later sanctioned for another species . Johann Friedrich Gmelin 's 1792 synonym Boletus lapidum is also illegitimate . Christiaan Hendrik Persoon described the mushroom in 1801 ; its specific name is derived from the Greek καλος / kalos ( " pretty " ) and πους / pous ( " foot " ) , referring to its brightly coloured stipe . The German name , Schönfußröhrling or " pretty @-@ foot bo
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lete " , is a literal translation . Alternate common names are scarlet @-@ stemmed bolete and bitter beech bolete .
Other synonyms include binomials resulting from generic transfers to Dictyopus by Lucien Quélet in 1886 , and Tubiporus by René Maire in 1937 . Boletus frustosus , originally published as a distinct species by Wally Snell and Esther Dick in 1941 , was later described as a variety of B. calopus by Orson K. Miller and Roy Watling in 1968 . Estadès and Lannoy described the variety ruforubraporus and the form ereticulatus from Europe in 2001 .
In his 1986 infrageneric classification of the genus Boletus , Rolf Singer placed C. calopus as the type species of the section Calopodes , which includes species characterised by having a whitish to yellowish flesh , bitter taste , and a blue staining reaction in the tube walls . Other species in section Calopodes include C. radicans , C. inedulis , B. peckii , and B. pallidus . Genetic analysis published in 2013 showed that C. calopus and many ( but not all ) red @-@ pored boletes were part of a dupainii clade ( named for Boletus ( now Rubroboletus ) dupainii ) , well @-@ removed from the core group of the type species B. edulis and relatives within the Boletineae . This indicated it needed placement in a new genus . This took place in 2014 , B. calopus was transferred to ( and designated the type species of ) the new genus Caloboletus by Italian mycologist Alfredo Vizzini .
= = Description = =
Up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) or rarely 20 cm ( 8 in ) in diameter , the cap is beige to olive and initially almost globular before opening out to a hemispherical and then convex shape . The surface of the cap is smooth or has minute hairs , and sometimes develops cracks with age . The cap cuticle hangs over the cap margin . The pore surface is initially pale yellow before deepening to an olive @-@ yellow in maturity , and quickly turns blue when it is injured . The pores , numbering one or two per millimetre , are circular when young but become more angular as the mushroom ages . The tubes are up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) deep .
The attractively coloured stipe is typically yellow above to pink @-@ red below , with a straw @-@ coloured network ( reticulation ) near the top or over the upper half ; occasionally the entire stipe is reddish . It measures 7 – 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long by 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick , and is either fairly equal in width throughout , or thicker towards the base . Sometimes , the reddish stipe colour of mature mushrooms or harvested specimens that are a few days old disappears completely , and is replaced with ochre @-@ brown tones . The pale yellow flesh stains blue when broken , the discolouration spreading out from the damaged area . Its smell can be strong , and has been likened to ink . The spore print is olive to olive @-@ brown . Spores are smooth and elliptical , measuring 13 – 19 by 5 – 6 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 30 – 38 by 9 – 12 µm . The cystidia are club @-@ shaped to spindle @-@ shaped , hyaline , and measure 25 – 40 by 10 – 15 µm .
Variety frustosus is morphologically similar to the main type , but its cap becomes areolate ( marked out into small areas by cracks and crevices ) in maturity . Its spores are slightly smaller too , measuring 11 – 15 by 4 – 5 @.@ 5 µm . In the European form ereticulatus , the reticulations on the upper stipe are replaced with fine reddish granules , while the variety ruforubraporus has pinkish @-@ red pores .
= = Similar species = =
The overall colouration of Caloboletus calopus , with its pale cap , yellow pores and red stipe , is not shared with any other bolete . Large pale specimens resemble Suillellus luridus , and the cap of Rubroboletus satanas is a similar colour but this species has red pores . Fruit bodies in poor condition could be confused with Xerocomellus chrysenteron but the stipes of this species are not reticulated . Edible species such as B. edulis lack a red stipe . It closely resembles the similarly inedible C. radicans , which lacks the redness on the stipe . Like C. calopus , the western North American species C. rubripes also has a bitter taste , similarly coloured cap , and yellowish pores that bruise blue , but it lacks reticulation on its reddish stipe . Found in northwestern North America , B. coniferarum lacks reddish or pinkish colouration in its yellow reticulate stipe , and has a darker , olive @-@ grey to deep brown cap .
Two eastern North American species , C. inedulis and C. roseipes , also have an appearance similar to C. calopus . C. inedulis produces smaller fruit bodies with a white to greyish @-@ white cap , while C. roseipes associates solely with hemlock . C. firmus , found in the eastern United States , eastern Canada , and Costa Rica , has a pallid cap colour , reddish stipe , and bitter taste , but unlike C. calopus , has red pores and lacks stipe reticulation . C. panniformis , a Japanese species described as new to science in 2013 , bears a resemblance to C. calopus , but can be distinguished by its rough cap surface , or microscopically by the amyloid @-@ staining cells in the flesh of the cap , and morphologically distinct cystidia on the stipe .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
An ectomycorrhizal species , Caloboletus calopus grows in coniferous and deciduous woodland , often at higher altitudes , especially under beech and oak . Fruit bodies occur singly or in large groups . The species grows on chalky ground from July to December , in Northern Europe , and North America 's Pacific Northwest and Michigan . In North America , its range extends south to Mexico . Variety frustosus is known from California and the Rocky Mountains of Idaho . In 1968 , after comparing European and North American collections , Miller and Watling suggested that the typical form of C. calopus does not occur in the United States . Similar comparisons by other authors have led them to the opposite conclusion , and the species has since been included in several North American field guides . The bolete has been recorded from the Black Sea region in Turkey , from under Populus ciliata and Abies pindrow in Rawalpindi and Nathia Gali in Pakistan , Yunnan Province in China , Korea , and Taiwan .
= = Toxicity = =
Although it is an attractive @-@ looking bolete , Caloboletus calopus is not considered edible on account of its very bitter taste , which does not disappear upon cooking . There are reports of it being eaten in far eastern Russia and Ukraine . The bitter taste is largely due to the compounds calopin and a δ @-@ lactone derivative , O @-@ acetylcyclocalopin A. These compounds contains a structural motif known as a 3 @-@ methylcatechol unit , which is rare in natural products . A total synthesis of calopin was reported in 2003 .
The pulvinic acid derivatives atromentic acid , variegatic acid , and xerocomic acid are present in B. calopus mushrooms . These compounds inhibit cytochrome P450 — major enzymes involved in drug metabolism and bioactivation . Other compounds found in the fruit bodies include calopin B , and the sesquiterpenoid compounds cyclopinol and boletunones A and B. The latter two highly oxygenated compounds have significant free @-@ radical scavenging activity in vitro . The compounds 3 @-@ octanone ( 47 @.@ 0 % of total volatile compounds ) , 3 @-@ octanol ( 27 @.@ 0 % ) , 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ ol ( 15 @.@ 0 % ) , and limonene ( 3 @.@ 6 % ) are the predominant volatile components that give the fruit body its odour .
= Spider @-@ Man 3 =
Spider @-@ Man 3 is a 2007 American superhero film produced by Marvel Studios , and distributed by Columbia Pictures based on the fictional Marvel Comics character Spider @-@ Man . It was directed by Sam Raimi and scripted by Sam and Ivan Raimi and Alvin Sargent . It is the final film in the Sam Raimi Spider @-@ Man trilogy . The film stars Tobey Maguire , Kirsten Dunst , James Franco , Thomas Haden Church , Topher Grace , Bryce Dallas Howard , Rosemary Harris , J. K. Simmons , James Cromwell and Cliff Robertson in his final acting appearance .
Set one year after the events of Spider @-@ Man 2 , Peter Parker has become a cultural phenomenon as Spider @-@ Man , while Mary Jane Watson continues her Broadway career . Harry Osborn still seeks vengeance for his father 's death , and an escaped Flint Marko falls into a particle accelerator and is transformed into a shape @-@ shifting sand manipulator . An extraterrestrial symbiote crashes to Earth and bonds with Peter , influencing his behavior for the worse .
Development of Spider @-@ Man 3 began immediately after the release of Spider @-@ Man 2 for a 2007 release . During pre @-@ production , Raimi originally wanted another villain to be included along with Sandman , but at the request of producer Avi Arad , the director added Venom and the producers also requested the addition of Gwen Stacy . Principal photography for the film began in January 2006 , and took place in Los Angeles and Cleveland , before moving to New York City from May until July 2006 . Additional pick @-@ up shots were made after August and the film wrapped in October 2006 . During post @-@ production , Sony Pictures Imageworks created 900 visual effects shots .
Spider @-@ Man 3 premiered on April 16 , 2007 in Tokyo , and was released in the United States in both conventional and IMAX theaters on May 4 , 2007 . The film grossed $ 890 @.@ 9 million worldwide , making it the most successful film of the trilogy financially and the second film in the franchise that was released on IMAX .
= = Plot = =
Peter Parker plans to propose to Mary Jane Watson , who has just made her Broadway musical debut . A meteorite lands near Central Park , and an extraterrestrial symbiote attaches itself to Peter 's moped . Meanwhile , police pursue escaped prisoner and robber Flint Marko , who falls into an experimental particle accelerator that fuses his body on a microscopic level with the surrounding sand , transforming him into Sandman . Harry Osborn attacks Peter with new weapons based on his father 's Green Goblin technology , leading to partial amnesia , which makes him forget his revenge .
During a festival honoring Spider @-@ Man , Marko robs an armored car . NYPD Captain George Stacy tells Peter and Aunt May that Marko was Uncle Ben 's killer , and the deceased Dennis Carradine was only Marko 's accomplice . While a vengeance @-@ obsessed Peter sleeps in his Spider @-@ Man costume , the symbiote bonds with him . Peter wakes up hanging from a skyscraper , discovers his costume has changed , and his powers have been enhanced , but the symbiote brings out Peter 's dark side . Wearing the new black suit , Spider @-@ Man locates Marko — spiting his Daily Bugle competitor Eddie Brock by breaking his camera — and battles him in a subway tunnel . He discovers water is Marko 's weakness , and breaks a water pipe to reduce the Sandman into mud , washing Marko away into the pipes , Spider @-@ Man leaving him for dead .
Peter 's changed personality alienates Mary Jane , whose career is floundering , and she finds solace with Harry . Harry recovers from his amnesia , and urged by a hallucination of his dead father , compels Mary Jane to break up with Peter . After Mary Jane tells Peter she loves somebody else , Harry meets with Peter , and claims to be " the other guy . " Later , Peter , wearing the black suit , confronts Harry , and spitefully tells him his father never loved him . Harry throws a pumpkin bomb at Peter , who deflects it back , disfiguring Harry 's face .
Under the symbiote 's influence , Peter exposes Brock by showing that he submitted doctored photographs showing Spider @-@ Man as a criminal . Furious at having to print a retraction , Daily Bugle chief J. Jonah Jameson fires Brock . Soon afterwards , to make Mary Jane jealous , Peter brings Stacy 's daughter , Gwen to the nightclub , where Mary Jane works . Gwen catches on , and leaves . Peter brawls with the bouncers , and after accidentally attacking Mary Jane , he realizes the symbiote is changing and slowly corrupting him . Retreating to a church bell tower , he discovers that he cannot remove the suit , but that the symbiote weakens when the bell rings . Peter removes the symbiote , and it falls to the lower tower , landing on Brock , who is praying for Peter 's death . The symbiote bonds to Brock 's body , transforming him into Venom . Brock then finds Marko , and offers to join forces .
Brock hijacks Mary Jane 's taxi , and hangs it from a web hundreds of feet above a sand @-@ filled construction site . Peter seeks Harry 's help , but is rejected . While Peter battles with Brock , Harry learns the truth about his father 's death , and goes to help Peter . Harry subdues the Sandman , while Peter battles Brock . Brock almost impales Peter with Harry 's glider , but Harry jumps in the way , and is impaled himself . Fighting the symbiote , Peter remembers how the church bell weakened it . He grabs pipes , and creates a ring around the symbiote , creating a wall of sonic vibrations . The symbiote releases Brock , and Peter uses his webs to pull Brock from it . However , the symbiote has gained enough power from Peter and Brock to live on its own without a host . Peter throws a pumpkin bomb at the symbiote from Harry 's glider , but Brock jumps in to save it , and both are killed by the explosion .
After the battle , Marko explains to Peter that the reason behind him commiting robberies was to save his dying daughter and that he never intended to kill Ben , but only wanted his car , and shot him accidentally when Dennis grabbed his arm , and that Ben 's death has left him plagued with guilt . Peter forgives a tearful Marko , who dissipates , and floats away . Peter and Harry forgive each other , and Harry dies , with Mary Jane and Peter at his side . After Harry 's funeral , Peter and Mary Jane dance , reconciling their relationship at the nightclub .
= = Cast = =
Tobey Maguire as Peter Parker / Spider @-@ Man : a brilliant physics student at Columbia University and photographer for the " Daily Bugle , " who gets spider @-@ like abilities from a radioactive spider and uses them to take up the persona of a spider @-@ based vigilante protecting New York City from its criminal underworld .
Kirsten Dunst as Mary Jane Watson : a Broadway actress , and Peter 's childhood girlfriend .
James Franco as Harry Osborn / New Goblin : the dedicated son of Norman Osborn and Peter 's estranged best friend , who believes Spider @-@ Man murdered his father , but after learning Peter is Spider @-@ Man and his father was the Green Goblin , he tends to battle Peter directly as a psychopathic assassin armed with the same equipment as his father .
Thomas Haden Church as Flint Marko / Sandman : a small @-@ time thug with an estranged wife and sick daughter , whose struggle to rob for money to get his daughter treatment lures him into a freak accident that alters him into a master sand manipulator hunted by Spider @-@ Man since he was Peter 's uncle Ben 's true killer .
Topher Grace as Eddie Brock / Venom : a rival " Daily Bugle " photographer , who is exposed by Peter for creating a fake image of Spider @-@ Man , and is ready for revenge when he bonds with the symbiote , turning him into monstrous being with the same spider @-@ like powers .
Bryce Dallas Howard as Gwen Stacy : Peter 's lab partner and good friend , who is saved by Spider @-@ Man from falling to her death .
Rosemary Harris as May Parker : Peter 's aunt , who gives her nephew her engagement ring so he can propose to Mary Jane , and teaches him forgiveness .
J. K. Simmons as J. Jonah Jameson : the aggressive chief of the Daily Bugle , who despises Spider @-@ Man .
James Cromwell as George Stacy : Gwen 's father , and a New York City Police Department Captain .
Theresa Russell as Emma Marko : Flint 's wife .
Dylan Baker as Dr. Curt Connors : Peter 's college physics professor , who examines a piece of the symbiote and tells Peter it " amplifies characteristics of its host ... especially aggression . "
Bill Nunn as Joseph " Robbie " Robertson : a longtime employee at the " Daily Bugle . "
Elizabeth Banks as Betty Brant : Jameson 's receptionist at the " Daily Bugle . "
Ted Raimi as Hoffman : a " Daily Bugle " employee , who suggests a catchphrase to Jameson .
Perla Haney @-@ Jardine as Penny Marko : Flint and Emma 's sick daughter .
Willem Dafoe as Norman Osborn / Green Goblin : the hallucination of Harry 's late father , who encourages his son to destroy Spider @-@ Man .
Cliff Robertson as Ben Parker : Peter 's deceased uncle .
Elya Baskin as Dr. Ditkovitch : Peter 's landlord , who is greedy for Peter 's rent .
Mageina Tovah as Ursula Ditkovich : the unassuming daughter of Dr. Ditkovitch .
Michael Papajohn as Dennis Carradine : a carjacker , who was believed to have murdered Peter 's uncle Ben .
Joe Manganiello as Flash Thompson : Mary Jane 's former boyfriend , and a bully to Peter from the original film . He appears in a silent cameo at the end of the film , where he attends Harry 's funeral .
Spider @-@ Man co @-@ creator Stan Lee has a cameo in Spider @-@ Man 3 , as he does in many Marvel @-@ based films . He plays a man who , after reading a news bulletin along with Peter , tells him , " You know , I guess one person can make a difference , " followed by his catchphrase " Nuff said . " Actor Bruce Campbell , who had cameo roles as a wrestling ring announcer in " Spider @-@ Man " and as a rude usher in " Spider @-@ Man 2 , " returns in " Spider @-@ Man 3 " with a new cameo as a French maître d ' . His character helps Peter try to propose to Mary Jane . Years later , Jeffrey Henderson , who worked on the storyboards for the cancelled " Spider @-@ Man 4 " movie , released information regarding which villains would appear within the movie . One of those included Bruce Campbell 's character 's progression into Quentin Beck / Mysterio . Composer Christopher Young appears in the film as a pianist at Mary Jane 's theater when she is fired , while producer Grant Curtis has a cameo as the driver of an armored car that the Sandman attacks .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In March 2004 , with Spider @-@ Man 2 being released the coming June , Marvel Studios had begun developing Spider @-@ Man 3 for a release in 2007 . By the release of Spider @-@ Man 2 , a release date for Spider @-@ Man 3 had been set for May 2 , 2007 before production on the sequel had begun . The date was later changed to May 4 , 2007 . In January 2005 , Sony Pictures Entertainment completed a seven @-@ figure deal with screenwriter Alvin Sargent , who had penned Spider @-@ Man 2 , to work on Spider @-@ Man 3 with an option to write a fourth film .
Immediately after Spider @-@ Man 2 's release , Ivan Raimi wrote a treatment over two months , with Sam Raimi deciding to use the film to explore Peter learning that he is not a sinless vigilante , and that there also can be humanity in those he considers criminals . Harry Osborn was brought back as Raimi wanted to conclude his storyline . Raimi felt that Harry would not follow his father 's legacy , but be instead " somewhere between . " Sandman was introduced as an antagonist , as Raimi found him a visually fascinating character . While Sandman is a petty criminal in the comics , the screenwriters created a background of the character being Uncle Ben 's killer to increase Peter 's guilt over his death and challenge his simplistic perception of the event . Overall , Raimi described the film as being about Peter , Mary Jane , Harry , and the Sandman , with Peter 's journey being one of forgiveness .
Raimi wanted another villain , and Ben Kingsley was involved in negotiations to play the Vulture before the character was cut . Producer Avi Arad convinced Raimi to include Venom , a character whose perceived " lack of humanity " had initially been criticized by Sam Raimi . Venom 's alter @-@ ego , Eddie Brock , already had a minor role in the script . Arad told the director that Venom had a strong fan base , so Raimi included the character to please them , and even began to appreciate the character himself . The film 's version of the character is an amalgamation of Venom stories . Eddie Brock , Jr . , the human part of Venom , serves as a mirror to Peter Parker , with both characters having similar jobs and romantic interests . Brock 's actions as a journalist in Spider @-@ Man 3 also represent contemporary themes of paparazzi and tabloid journalism . The producers also suggested adding rival love interest Gwen Stacy , filling in an " other girl " type that Raimi already created . With so many additions , Sargent soon found his script so complex that he considered splitting it into two films , but abandoned the idea when he could not create a successful intermediate climax .
= = = Filming = = =
Camera crews spent 10 days from November 5 @-@ 18 , 2005 to film sequences that would involve intense visual effects so Sony Pictures Imageworks could begin work on the shots early in the project . The same steps had been taken for Spider @-@ Man 2 to begin producing visual effects early for sequences involving the villain Doctor Octopus .
Principal photography for Spider @-@ Man 3 began on January 16 , 2006 and wrapped in July 2006 after over 100 days of filming . The team filmed in Los Angeles until May 19 , 2006 . In spring 2006 , film location manager Peter Martorano brought camera crews to Cleveland due to the Greater Cleveland Film Commission offering production space at the city 's convention center at no cost . In Cleveland , they shot the battle between Spider @-@ Man and Sandman in the armored car . Afterwards , the team moved to Manhattan , where filming took place at various locations , including One Chase Manhattan Plaza , from May 26 , 2006 until July 1 , 2006 . Shooting placed a strain on Raimi , who often had to move between several units to complete the picture . Shooting was also difficult for cinematographer Bill Pope , as the symbiote Spider @-@ Man , Venom , and the New Goblin were costumed in black during fight scenes taking place at night .
After August , pick @-@ ups were conducted as Raimi sought to film more action scenes . The film then wrapped in October , although additional special effects shots were taken to finalize the production a month later . In early @-@ 2007 , there were further pick @-@ up shots regarding the resolution of Sandman 's story , amounting to four different versions .
= = = Effects = = =
John Dykstra , who won the Academy Award for Visual Effects for his work on Spider @-@ Man 2 , declined to work on the third film as visual effects supervisor . Dykstra 's colleague , Scott Stokdyk , took his place as supervisor , leading two hundred programmers at Sony Pictures Imageworks . This group designed specific computer programs that did not exist when Spider @-@ Man 3 began production , creating nine hundred visual effects shots .
In addition to the innovative visual effects for the film , Stokdyk created a miniature of a skyscraper section at 1 : 16 scale with New Deal Studios ' Ian Hunter and David Sanger . Stokdyk chose to design the miniature instead of using computer @-@ generated imagery so damage done to the building could be portrayed realistically and timely without guesswork involving computer models . In addition , to Sony Imageworks , Cafe FX provided visual effects for the crane disaster scene when Spider @-@ Man rescues Gwen Stacy , as well as shots in the climactic battle . To understand the effects of sand for the Sandman , experiments were done with twelve types of sand , such as splashing , launching it at stuntmen , and pouring it over ledges . The results were mimicked on the computer to create the visual effects for Sandman . For scenes involving visual effects , Thomas Haden Church was super @-@ imposed onto the screen , where computer @-@ generated imagery was then applied . With sand as a possible hazard in scenes that buried actors , ground @-@ up corncobs were used as a substitute instead . Because of its resemblance to the substance , sand from Arizona was used as the model for the CG sand . In a fight where Spider @-@ Man punches through Sandman 's chest , amputee martial arts expert Baxter Humby took Tobey Maguire 's place in filming the scene . Humby , whose right hand was amputated at birth , helped deliver the intended effect of punching through Sandman 's chest .
Whereas the symbiote suit worn in the comics by Spider @-@ Man was a plain black affair with a large white spider on the front and back , the design was changed for the film to become a black version of Spider @-@ Man 's traditional costume , complete with webbing motif . As a consequence of this , the suit Topher Grace wore as Venom also bore the webbing motif ; as producer Grant Curtis noted , " it ’ s the Spider @-@ Man suit , but twisted and mangled in its own right . " Additionally , the motif gave a sense of life to the symbiote , giving it the appearance of gripping onto the character 's body . When animating the symbiote , Raimi did not want it to resemble a spider or an octopus , and to give it a sense of character . The CG model is made of many separate strands . When animating Venom himself , animators observed footage of big cats such as lions and cheetahs for the character 's agile movements .
= = = Music = = =
Originally , Danny Elfman , the composer for the previous installments , did not plan to return for the third installment of Spider @-@ Man because of difficulties with director Sam Raimi . Elfman said that he had a " miserable experience " working with Raimi on Spider @-@ Man 2 and could not comfortably adapt his music . Christopher Young was then announced to score Spider @-@ Man 3 in Elfman 's absence . In December 2006 , however , producer Grant Curtis announced that Elfman had begun collaborating with Christopher Young on the music for Spider @-@ Man 3 .
Sandman 's theme uses " two contrabass saxophones , two contrabass clarinets , two contrabass bassoons and eight very low French horns " to sound " low , aggressive and heavy " . Young described Venom 's theme as " Vicious , my instructions on that one were that he ’ s the devil personified . His theme is much more demonic sounding . " Venom 's theme uses eight French horns . Raimi approved the new themes during their first performance , but rejected the initial music to the birth of Sandman , finding it too monstrous and not tragic enough . Young had to recompose much of his score at a later stage , as the producers felt there were not enough themes from the previous films . Ultimately , new themes for the love story , Aunt May , and Mary Jane were dropped .
= = Release = =
Spider @-@ Man 3 had its world premiere at Toho Cinemas Roppongi Hills in Tokyo on April 16 , 2007 . The film held its UK premiere on April 23 , 2007 at the Odeon Leicester Square , and the U.S. premiere took place at the Tribeca Film Festival in Queens on April 30 , 2007 .
Spider @-@ Man 3 was commercially released in sixteen territories on May 1 , 2007 . The film was released in Japan on May 1 , 2007 , three days prior to the American commercial release , to coincide with Japan 's Golden Week . Spider @-@ Man 3 was also released in China on May 3 , 2007 to circumvent market growth of unlicensed copies of the film . The studio 's release of a film in China before its domestic release was a first for Sony Pictures Releasing International . By May 6 , 2007 , Spider @-@ Man 3 opened in 107 countries around the world .
The film was commercially released in the United States on May 4 , 2007 in a North American record total of 4 @,@ 253 theaters , including fifty @-@ three IMAX theaters . The record number of theaters was later beaten by Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End , which was released in 4 @,@ 362 theaters in the United States — 109 more than Spider @-@ Man 3 . Tracking data a month before the U.S. release reflected over 90 % awareness and over 20 % first choice among moviegoers , statistics that estimated an opening weekend of over $ 100 million for Spider @-@ Man 3 . Online tickets for Spider @-@ Man 3 were reported on April 23 , 2007 to have been purchased at a faster rate — three times at Movietickets.com and four times at Fandango — than online ticket sales for Spider @-@ Man 2 . On May 2 , 2007 , Fandango reported the sales rate as six times greater than the rate for Spider @-@ Man 2 . The strong ticket sales caused theaters to add 3 : 00 AM showings following the May 4 , 2007 midnight showing to accommodate the demand .
The FX channel signed a five @-@ year deal for the television rights to Spider @-@ Man 3 , which they began airing in 2009 . The price was based on the film 's box office performance , with an option for three opportunities for Sony to sell the rights to one or more other broadcast networks .
= = = Marketing = = =
In New York City , the hometown of Spider @-@ Man 's fictional universe , tourist attractions arranged events and exhibits on April 30 , 2007 to lead up to the release of Spider @-@ Man 3 . The unique campaign include a spider exhibit at the American Museum of Natural History , workshops on baby spider plants at the New York Botanical Garden , Green Goblin mask @-@ making workshop at the Children 's Museum of Manhattan , and a scavenger hunt and a bug show at Central Park Zoo .
Hasbro , which holds the license for Marvel characters , released several toys to tie @-@ in with the film . They include a deluxe spinning web blaster , along with several lines of action figures aimed at both children and collectors . Toys of the Green Goblin and Doctor Octopus from the first two films have been re @-@ released to match the smaller scale of the new figures , as have been toys of the Lizard , the Scorpion , Kraven the Hunter , and Rhino in a style reminiscent of the films . Techno Source created interactive toys , including a " hand @-@ held Battle Tronics device that straps to the inside of a player 's wrist and mimics Spidey 's web @-@ slinging motions " . Japanese Medicom Toy Corporation produced collectibles , which Sideshow Collectibles distributed in the U.S.
= = = Critical reception = = =
On the movie review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes , Spider @-@ Man 3 has a 63 % approval rating based on 246 reviews . The site 's consensus reads , " Though there are more characters and plotlines , and the action sequences still dazzle , Spider @-@ Man 3 nonetheless isn 't quite as refined as the first two . " On Metacritic , Spider @-@ Man 3 has received a score of 59 / 100 based on 40 reviews . On Yahoo ! Movies , Spider @-@ Man 3 is graded a B- among 14 film critics .
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times deplored the film 's pacing as " mostly just plods " and said it lacked humor . Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film only 2 out of 4 stars , feeling , " for every slam @-@ bang action sequence , there are far too many sluggish scenes . " David Edelstein of New York magazine misses the " centrifugal threat " of Alfred Molina 's character , adding that " the three villains here don ’ t add up to one Doc Ock " ( referring to Alfred Molina 's portrayal of the character in Spider @-@ Man 2 ) . James Berardinelli felt director Sam Raimi " overreached his grasp " by allowing so many villains , specifically saying , " Venom is one bad guy too many . " Roger Ebert gave the film 2 out of four stars and thought Church never expressed how Sandman felt about his new powers , something Molina , as Doc Ock in Spider @-@ Man 2 , did " with a vengeance " ; he said the film was " a mess , " with too many villains , subplots , romantic misunderstandings , conversations and " street crowds looking high into the air and shouting ' oooh ! ' this way , then swiveling and shouting ' aaah ! ' that way . " The New Yorker 's Anthony Lane , who gave Spider @-@ Man 2 a favorable review , gave the film a negative review , characterizing the film as a “ shambles ” which “ makes the rules up as it goes along . ”
However , Roger Friedman of Fox News called the film a " 4 star opera " , noting that while long , there was plenty of humor and action . Andy Khouri of Comic Book Resources praised the film as " easily the most complex and deftly orchestrated superhero epic ever filmed [ ... ] despite the enormous amount of characters , action and sci @-@ fi superhero plot going on in this film , Spider @-@ Man 3 never feels weighted down , tedious or boring . " Jonathan Ross , a big fan of the comic books , felt the film was the best of the trilogy . Richard Corliss of Time commended the filmmakers for their ability to " dramatize feelings of angst and personal betrayal worthy of an Ingmar Bergman film , and then to dress them up in gaudy comic @-@ book colors " . Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe , who gave the film 4 out of 5 stars , wrote that it was a well @-@ made , fresh film , but would leave the viewer " overfulfilled " . Jonathan Dean of Total Film felt the film 's complex plot helped the film 's pacing , in that , " it rarely feels disjointed or loose [ ... ] Spider @-@ Man cements its shelf @-@ life . " Entertainment Weekly named the Sandman as the eighth best computer @-@ generated film character .
John Hartl of MSNBC gave Spider @-@ Man 3 a positive review , but stated that it has some flaws such as having " too many storylines " . His opinion is echoed by Houston Chronicle 's Amy Biancolli who complained that " the script is busy with so many supporting characters and plot detours that the series ' charming idiosyncrasy is sometimes lost in the noise . " Jack Matthews of Daily News thought the film was too devoted to the " quiet conversations " of Peter and Mary Jane , but that fans would not be disappointed by the action . Finally , Sean Burns of Philadelphia Weekly felt that the director " substituted scope and scale for the warmth and wit that made those two previous pictures so memorable . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Both the 35th Annie Awards and 61st British Academy Film Awards gave this movie one nomination , the former for Best Animated Effects and the latter for Best Special Visual Effects . Spider @-@ Man 3 did not win any of the four Visual Effects Society Awards nominations it received . Dunst 's and Maguire 's performances earned them each one nomination from the National Movie Awards . She also received another nomination for Favorite Movie Actress from the 2008 Kids ' Choice Awards ceremony . The movie fared better at the Teen Choice Awards , amounting a total of seven nominations , varying from Choice Movie : Villain ( for Grace ) to Choice Movie : Dance ( for Maguire ) and Choice Movie : Liplock ( shared between Dunst and Maguire ) .
= = = Box office = = =
Spider @-@ Man 3 earned $ 336 @,@ 530 @,@ 303 in North America and $ 554 @,@ 341 @,@ 323 in other countries for a worldwide total of $ 890 @,@ 871 @,@ 626 . Worldwide , it is the 36th highest @-@ grossing film , the third highest @-@ grossing film of 2007 , the highest @-@ grossing film of Sam Raimi 's Spider @-@ Man trilogy , and was the highest @-@ grossing film distributed by Sony / Columbia until 2012 's Skyfall . The film set a worldwide single @-@ day record ( $ 104 million ) on its first Friday and broke its own record again on Saturday ( $ 117 @.@ 6 million ) . It also set a worldwide opening @-@ weekend record with $ 381 @.@ 7 million , which now ranks as the fifth largest ( first surpassed by Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince ) . The film 's IMAX screenings reached $ 20 million in 30 days , faster than any other 2D film remastered in the format .
In North America , Spider @-@ Man 3 is the 29th highest grossing film , the third highest @-@ grossing film of the Spider @-@ Man series , the third highest @-@ grossing film distributed by Sony / Columbia , and the highest @-@ grossing 2007 film . The film sold an estimated 48 @,@ 914 @,@ 300 tickets . It was released in 4 @,@ 252 theaters ( about 10 @,@ 300 screens ) on Friday , May 4 , 2007 . It set an opening and single @-@ day record with $ 59 @,@ 841 @,@ 919 ( both were first surpassed by The Dark Knight ) . This included $ 10 million from midnight showings . Spider @-@ Man 3 then set an opening @-@ weekend record with $ 151 @,@ 116 @,@ 516 ( first surpassed by The Dark Knight ) , a record for the weekend per @-@ theater average with $ 35 @,@ 540 per theater ( first surpassed by Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus : Best of Both Worlds Concert ) , and an IMAX opening @-@ weekend record with $ 4 @.@ 8 million ( first surpassed by The Dark Knight ) . The film set record Friday and Sunday grosses and achieved the largest cumulative gross through its second , third , and fourth day of release ( all were first surpassed by The Dark Knight ) . It also set a record Saturday gross ( surpassed by Marvel 's The Avengers ) .
Outside North America , it is the 23rd highest @-@ grossing film , the highest @-@ grossing film of Sam Raimi 's Spider @-@ Man trilogy , and the third highest @-@ grossing film distributed by Sony / Columbia . On its opening day ( Tuesday , May 1 , 2007 ) , Spider @-@ Man 3 grossed $ 29 @.@ 2 million from 16 territories , an 86 % increase from the intake of Spider @-@ Man 2 on its first day of release . In 10 of the 16 territories , Spider @-@ Man 3 set new opening @-@ day records . These territories are Japan , South Korea , Hong Kong , Thailand , Malaysia , Singapore , Taiwan , the Philippines , France and Italy . In Germany , the film surpassed the opening day gross of Spider @-@ Man 2 . During its six @-@ day opening weekend ( through its first Sunday ) , the film earned $ 230 @.@ 5 million from 107 markets , finishing # 1 in all of them . Spider @-@ Man 3 set opening @-@ weekend records in 29 markets including Italy , China , South Korea ( the latter was first surpassed by Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End ) , India , Singapore , Philippines , Hong Kong , Thailand , Malaysia , Taiwan , Indonesia , Mexico , Brazil , Argentina , Colombia , and Peru . However , many of these records were achieved thanks to its six @-@ day opening , while previous record @-@ holders in some countries opened over the traditional three @-@ day weekend ( traditional two @-@ day , four @-@ day , or five @-@ day weekend in other countries ) . Spider @-@ Man 3 was in first place at the box office outside North America for three consecutive weekends .
= = = Home video = = =
Spider @-@ Man 3 was released on Region 4 DVD ( anamorphic widescreen ) in Australia on September 18 , 2007 . For Region 2 in the United Kingdom , the film was released on October 15 , 2007 . Spider @-@ Man 3 was released on DVD in Region 1 territories on October 30 , 2007 . The film is available in one @-@ disc and two @-@ disc editions , on both standard and Blu @-@ ray formats , as well as packages with the previous films and a PSP release . Sam Raimi , Tobey Maguire , Kirsten Dunst , James Franco , Thomas Haden Church , Topher Grace , Bryce Dallas Howard , Laura Ziskin , Avi Arad , and Grant Curtis are among those who contributed to the audio commentaries .
Sony announced plans to create " one of the largest " marketing campaigns in Hollywood for the October 30 , 2007 release of the DVD . Beginning with a partnership with Papa Johns , Sony printed close to 8 @.@ 5 billion impressions for pizza boxes , television , radio , and online ads . Sony also worked with Pringles Potato Crisp , Blu @-@ Tack , Jolly Time Pop Corn , and Nutella . Sony 's Vice President of marketing , Jennifer Anderson , stated the studio spend approximately 15 % to 25 % of its marketing budget on digital ad campaigns ; from this , Papa Johns sent text messages to mobile phones with ads . Anderson stated that there would be three sweepstakes held for consumers , where they would be able to win prizes from Sony and its promotional partners .
In the United States , the film grossed more than $ 124 million on DVD sales . It also grossed more than $ 43 @.@ 76 million on DVD / Home Video Rentals in 11 weeks . However , the DVD sales results of this film did not meet industry expectations .
= = Canceled sequel and reboot of franchise = =
In 2007 , Spider @-@ Man 4 entered development , with Raimi attached to direct and Maguire , Dunst and other cast members set to reprise their roles . Both a fourth and a fifth film were planned and at one time the idea of shooting the two sequels concurrently was under consideration . However , Raimi stated in March 2009 that only the fourth film was in development at that time and that if there were fifth and sixth films , those two films would actually be a continuation of each other . James Vanderbilt was hired in October 2007 to pen the screenplay after initial reports in early 2007 that Sony Pictures was in contact with David Koepp , who wrote the first Spider @-@ Man film . The script was subsequently rewritten by Pulitzer @-@ winning playwright David Lindsay @-@ Abaire in November 2008 and rewritten again by Gary Ross in October 2009 . Sony also engaged Vanderbilt to write scripts for Spider @-@ Man 5 and Spider @-@ Man 6 .
In 2007 , Raimi expressed interest in portraying the transformation of Dr. Curt Connors into his villainous alter @-@ ego , the Lizard ; the character 's actor Dylan Baker and producer Grant Curtis were also enthusiastic about the idea . By December 2009 , John Malkovich was in negotiations to play Vulture and Anne Hathaway would play Felicia Hardy , though she would not have transformed into the Black Cat as in the comics but a new superpowered figure , the Vulturess . Raimi stated years later , however , that Hathaway was going to be Black Cat if Spider @-@ Man 4 had been made .
Sony Pictures announced in January 2010 that plans for Spider @-@ Man 4 had been cancelled due to Raimi 's withdrawal from the project . Raimi reportedly ended his participation due to his doubt that he could meet the planned May 6 , 2011 release date while at the same time upholding the film creatively . Raimi purportedly went through four iterations of the script with different screenwriters and still " hated it " .
The next film in the franchise , a reboot of the series , called The Amazing Spider @-@ Man was released on July 3 , 2012 , with Andrew Garfield as Peter Parker .
In February 2015 , Sony Pictures and Marvel Studios announced that Spider @-@ Man would appear in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , with the character appearing in an MCU film and Sony releasing a Spider @-@ Man film produced by Kevin Feige and Amy Pascal on July 28 , 2017 . Sony continues to finance , distribute , own and have final creative control of the Spider @-@ Man films , and Marvel Studios will explore opportunities to integrate other characters of the Marvel Cinematic Universe into future Spider @-@ Man films . The new incarnation of the character debuted in 2016 's Captain America : Civil War , portrayed by Tom Holland .
= Fire and Blood ( Game of Thrones ) =
" Fire and Blood " is the tenth and final episode of the first season of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones . First aired on June 19 , 2011 , it was written by the show 's creators and executive producers David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , and directed by Alan Taylor .
The title of the episode is the motto of House Targaryen , and alludes to the aftermath of the previous episode 's climactic events . The episode 's action revolves around the Starks ' reactions to Eddard Stark 's execution : Sansa is taken hostage , Arya flees in disguise , Robb and Catelyn lead an army against the Lannisters , and Jon Snow struggles with his divided loyalty . Across the narrow sea , Daenerys must deal with the blood magic that has robbed her of her husband , her son and her army .
The episode was initially viewed by 3 million viewers , a series high . It was well received by critics , who singled out the closing scene as a particularly strong way to end the first season . This episode was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series .
= = Plot = =
Like previous episodes , " Fire and Blood " interweaves action in multiple separate locations in and around the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros .
= = = In the North = = =
Crippled Bran Stark ( Isaac Hempstead @-@ Wright ) has Osha ( Natalia Tena ) carry him into the Stark family crypt beneath Winterfell . There , they encounter the youngest Stark brother , Rickon ( Art Parkinson ) , and his direwolf Shaggydog . Both brothers felt drawn to the crypts after dreaming about the death of their father Ned ( Sean Bean ) . As they leave the crypt , Maester Luwin ( Donald Sumpter ) arrives to inform Bran of his father 's execution .
= = = In the Riverlands = = =
At the Stark army camp , Catelyn ( Michelle Fairley ) consoles Robb ( Richard Madden ) , who grieves over his father 's death . Robb vows revenge on the Lannisters , but Catelyn reminds him that they must first rescue Arya ( Maisie Williams ) and Sansa ( Sophie Turner ) . As the Starks consult their followers over whether to support Stannis or Renly Baratheon , both of whom have challenged Joffrey Baratheon 's ( Jack Gleeson ) claim to the throne , Lord Greatjon Umber ( Clive Mantle ) instead makes the case for Northern independence . Theon Greyjoy ( Alfie Allen ) and the others agree , proclaiming Robb the " King in the North " . Later , Catelyn interrogates the captive Jaime Lannister ( Nikolaj Coster @-@ Waldau ) . He admits having pushed Bran out of the tower window , but refuses to tell why .
At the Lannister army camp , Lord Tywin Lannister ( Charles Dance ) and his followers discuss their recent setbacks : not only have they lost an important battle , and Jaime , to the Starks , along with his entire army , but both Baratheon brothers now also threaten them . Because his grandson 's execution of Ned Stark destroyed any hope to sue for peace between the Starks and the Lannisters , Tywin orders his son Tyrion ( Peter Dinklage ) to go to King 's Landing in his stead as Hand of the King in order to keep Joffrey under control . Against his father 's orders , Tyrion brings the prostitute Shae ( Sibel Kekilli ) with him to the capital .
= = = In King 's Landing = = =
After a bard , Marillion , ( Emun Elliott ) composes a bawdy song about King Robert 's death , Joffrey offers him the choice between losing his fingers or his tongue , with Marillion choosing to have his tongue cut out . Joffrey then leads Sansa onto a small wooden bridge at the top of a battlement and forces her to look upon the heads of her father and other Stark household members mounted on spikes . When Joffrey tells her of his plans to add Robb 's head to the collection , Sansa defies him by wishing to see his own head mounted there , for which Joffrey has Ser Meryn Trant ( Ian Beattie ) slap her . As Sansa contemplates pushing Joffrey off the bridge , she is stopped by " The Hound " , Sandor Clegane ( Rory McCann ) , who wipes the blood off her mouth and tells her to obey Joffrey for her own safety .
Meanwhile , Arya , after being rescued by Night 's Watch recruiter Yoren ( Francis Magee ) , takes on the identity of the boy " Arry " to escape with Yoren and his new recruits . After being picked on by two boys who plan to steal her sword , Arya threatens to kill them until Gendry ( Joe Dempsie ) , King Robert 's unknowing bastard son , scares them off . Arya and Gendry leave with Yoren 's caravan , bound for the Wall .
= = = At the Wall = = =
Jon ( Kit Harington ) attempts to desert the Night 's Watch to join Robb and avenge his father , despite Sam 's ( John Bradley ) pleading . Pursued by Sam , Pyp ( Josef Altin ) and Grenn ( Mark Stanley ) , Jon tells them to leave , but they convince Jon to return to the Watch by reciting their oath . The next morning , Lord Commander Jeor Mormont ( James Cosmo ) tells Jon that he is aware of his attempt at desertion . Nevertheless , he orders Jon to join him in an expedition beyond the Wall , intended to counter the threat of the wildlings and the White Walkers , and to find the missing First Ranger , Benjen Stark ( Joseph Mawle ) .
= = = In Lhazar = = =
On waking up , Daenerys Targaryen ( Emilia Clarke ) learns from Ser Jorah Mormont ( Iain Glen ) that her unborn son died , his life used up in Mirri 's ( Mia Soteriou ) spell that saved the life of Khal Drogo ( Jason Momoa ) . Drogo has fallen into a catatonic state , which leads most of his followers to abandon him . Daenerys accuses Mirri of tricking her by not revealing the real price of her magic , and Mirri reveals that she sought to avenge the destruction of her village and her people . Unable to bear her husband 's condition , Daenerys smothers Drogo with a pillow , killing him .
Daenerys and her remaining followers build a funeral pyre for Drogo . Daenerys places her dragon eggs atop the pyre , and she orders Ser Jorah to tie Mirri to it . Having set fire to the pyre , Daenerys declares herself queen of a new khalasar , freeing those who would remain with her . Despite Jorah 's worries , Daenerys then steps into the pyre . By daybreak , Jorah and the khalasar are surprised to find her unharmed in the ashes , carrying three dragon hatchlings . Amazed , they bow to Daenerys as one of the hatchlings clambers onto her shoulder and lets out a screech .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by the showrunners David Benioff and D. B. Weiss . Like the rest of the first season , it adapts the plot of A Game of Thrones , the first novel in the A Song of Ice and Fire series by George R. R. Martin . The episode covers the novel 's chapters 66 to 73 , that is , Arya V , Bran VII , Sansa VI , Daenerys IX , Tyrion IX , Jon IX , Catelyn XI and Daenerys X. It also covers part of the second novel , A Clash of Kings : Arya I ( chapter 2 ) and part of Catelyn VII ( chapter 55 ) . Scenes added for the adaptation include Catelyn and Robb receiving news of Eddard 's death , the revelation of Cersei and Lancel Lannister 's relationship , as well as interactions between Grand Maester Pycelle , the prostitute Ros , Varys and Littlefinger .
The dragons featured in the episode 's finale were implemented by Bluebolt , UK , the lead VFX agency for the first season . VFX supervisor Angela Barson confirmed that the CGI dragons were among the most stressful effects , prompting sleepless nights . Commenting on the episode 's climactic scene where the hatchling dragons are revealed , actress Emilia Clarke told VH1 , " You see the relationship that Dany has with her eggs , and you see that grow and grow and grow and kind of the intuitive connection she has with them , you see that develop really beautifully . " Clarke also hinted that she expected to " get to play with some more dragons ! " in the second season , based on her conversations with book author and executive producer George R.R. Martin . " VFX Data Wrangler " Naill McEvoy has confirmed that dragon presence will be increasing in season two .
In the scene where Joffrey forces Sansa to view the heads of Ned and his entourage on spikes , one of the prosthetic heads briefly seen in profile is that of former U.S. president George W. Bush . In their commentary on the DVD release of season 1 , David Benioff and D.B. Weiss explained that this was not meant as a political statement , but rather because the production used the prosthetic heads that happened to be at hand . Following media reports in June 2012 , HBO apologized for this shot , which their statement described as " unacceptable , disrespectful and in very bad taste . " The statement also said that the shot would be edited for any future home video production and TV broadcasts . HBO removed the episode from digital download services until the scene was edited . In the edited scene , the head bears no resemblance to Bush .
= = Reception = =
= = = Airings and ratings = = =
" Fire and Blood " was first aired on HBO in the U.S. and Canada on June 19 , 2011 . The episode was the most watched episode of the season and was viewed by an estimated 3 @.@ 041 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 4 share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 4 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds at the time of the broadcast . With repeats , the episode brought in 3 @.@ 9 million total viewers . In the United Kingdom , the episode was viewed by 1 @.@ 314 million viewers , making it the highest @-@ rated broadcast that week .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Fire and Blood " received positive reviews , and much critical acclaim for the closing scene .
Matt Fowler of IGN wrote that " ' Fire and Blood ' wasn 't exactly a powerful roar of an episode , but that book fans would definitely appreciate the small parts of the second book , A Clash of Kings , that got included to help set up season two next year . " He rated the episode 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Todd VanDerWerff of the A.V. Club gave it an " A- , " commenting :
" The series , especially , has shown that it ’ s willing to stretch some of these emotional or philosophical moments out , to really get the most out of the actors ’ performances and give them scenes where they can expand their characters beyond what ’ s on the page . In a finale that could have felt too scattered — we drop in on every major character of the season who ’ s still alive — that sense that cooler heads would rather prevent greater war but were thwarted by hotter , younger heads was what united the story " .
David Sims , also writing for the A.V. Club , called it a fitting end to the season , " leaving absolutely everyone salivating for season two . " Writing for the Star @-@ Ledger , Jenifer Braun praised the episode for its set dressing ( " I have to say , it ’ s a pleasure just to look at all the shiny stuff the HBO set dressers came up with for Tywin Lannister 's tent " ) and the authenticity of the baby dragons ( " And wow , HBO , seamless special effects here . Baby Dragon looks every bit as real as the series ’ dogs " ) . HitFix said it " Wrapped up its terrific first season ... it was damned entertaining along the way--with the finale as possibly the most entertaining so far--and we know that at least one more season is coming . And if the creative team can keep up this level of quality , it 's hard to imagine HBO shutting things down anytime soon , even with a budget that only figures to get higher . Dragons aren 't cheap , but they 're also amazing . "
= = = Accolades = = =
" Fire and Blood " was nominated for , but did not win , the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series . The contributors cited in the nomination were lead visual effects supervisor Adam McInnes ; 2nd lead visual effects supervisor & visual effects supervisor Angela Barson ; lead visual effects producer Lucy Ainsworth @-@ Taylor ; CGI supervisor Raf Morant ; lead visual effects compositor Henry Badgett ; lead matte artist Damien Mace ; special effects supervisor Stuart Brisdon and special effects supervisor Graham Hills .
= = = = Awards and nominations = = = =
= The Boat Race 1933 =
The 85th Boat Race took place on 1 April 1933 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Umpired by the former rower Herbert Aylward Game , Cambridge won by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 20 minutes 57 seconds . The record tenth consecutive victory took the overall record in the event to 44 – 40 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1932 race by five lengths , and led overall with 43 victories to Oxford 's 40 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by Francis Escombe , Harold Rickett ( who rowed three times between 1930 and 1932 ) , and Peter Haig @-@ Thomas ( four @-@ time Blue for Cambridge between 1902 and 1905 ) . Oxford 's coaches were John Houghton Gibbon ( who had participated in the 1899 and 1900 races , and umpired the 1931 race ) , P. Johnson ( who had rowed for Oxford in the 1927 race ) , A. E. Kitchin ( who had rowed in the 1908 race ) and W. P. Mellen ( who was a Dark Blue in 1923 and 1924 races ) . The race was umpired by former Cambridge rower Herbert Aylward Game who had represented the Light Blues in the 1895 and 1896 races .
According to the rowing correspondent for The Times , " no training in recent years has seen more changes in the comparative merits of the two crews . " Oxford started well while Cambridge took time to settle , but having done so " made astonishingly rapid progress " and " promised to be the best Cambridge crew since 1900 . " Oxford improved further once they had arrived at Putney ; conversely the Light Blues suffered misfortune in losing Lewis Luxton , last year 's stroke ten days before the race . The Dark Blues continued to progress but by the time of the race , " there was very little to choose between the two crews . "
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 6 @.@ 125 lb ( 78 @.@ 8 kg ) , 1 @.@ 125 pounds ( 0 @.@ 5 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge saw three rowers return to the crew with Boat Race experience , including number five Charles Sergel who was making his third consecutive appearance . Oxford 's crew also contained three rowers who had taken part in previous events , including W. D. C. Erskine @-@ Crumb , appearing in his third consecutive race . Two participants were registered as non @-@ British : Oxford cox C. Komarakul @-@ Na @-@ Nagara was from Thailand , while Cambridge 's William Sambell was Australian .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . The race was delayed as a result of the slowly rising tide and it was eventually started by umpire Game at 4 : 02 p.m. Cambridge made the quicker start and out @-@ rated their opponents to hold a quarter @-@ length lead by the end of the Fulham Wall . With the bend in the river favouring the Middlesex station , Oxford gained and the crews passed the Mile Post level . Despite a spurt from Cambridge 's stroke Frame @-@ Thomson , Oxford took the lead and responded to the push with one of their own . Another spurt , this time minute @-@ long , from the Light Blues , saw them pass below Hammersmith Bridge with a one third length advantage .
Making the most of the inside of the bend in the river , Cambridge pushed on to be a length clear by The Doves pub . As both crews rowed into Chiswick Reach , they were struck by the headwind and by Chiswick Steps , the Light Blues had extended their lead by half a length , rating two strokes per minute more than Oxford . By the time they passed below Barnes Bridge , Cambridge were seven seconds ahead . They passed the finishing post with a lead of two and a quarter lengths in a time of 20 minutes 57 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 44 – 40 in their favour . It was the Light Blues ' tenth consecutive victory , a record streak in the history of the event . It was the slowest winning time since the 1925 race and the narrowest margin of victory since the 1930 race . Writing in The Observer , William Beach Thomas declared that " a good crew was beaten by a good crew after one of the finest races in the long chronicles " . According to the former Oxford rower E. P. Evans , " the features of the race were the superb stroking of the Oxford crew by Holdsworth and the extremely bad coxing of the Cambridge boat ... although Cambridge won , they were not really at their best . "
= Chelicerata =
The subphylum Chelicerata ( / kəˌlɪsəˈreɪtə / or / kəˌlɪsəˈrɑːtə / ; New Latin , from French chélicère , from Greek khēlē " claw , chela " and kéras " horn " ) constitutes one of the major subdivisions of the phylum Arthropoda . It contains the horseshoe crabs , sea spiders , and arachnids ( including scorpions and spiders ) .
The chelicerata originated as marine animals , possibly in the Cambrian period , but the first confirmed chelicerate fossils , eurypterids , date from 445 million years ago in the Late Ordovician period . The surviving marine species include the four species of xiphosurans ( horseshoe crabs ) , and possibly the 1 @,@ 300 species of pycnogonids ( sea spiders ) , if the latter are indeed chelicerates . On the other hand , there are over 77 @,@ 000 well @-@ identified species of air @-@ breathing chelicerates , and there may be about 500 @,@ 000 unidentified species .
Like all arthropods , chelicerates have segmented bodies with jointed limbs , all covered in a cuticle made of chitin and proteins . The chelicerate bauplan consists of two tagmata , the prosoma and the opisthosoma , except that mites have lost a visible division between these sections . The chelicerae , which give the group its name , are the only appendages that appear before the mouth . In most sub @-@ groups , they are modest pincers used to feed . However , spiders ' chelicerae form fangs that most species use to inject venom into prey . The group has the open circulatory system typical of arthropods , in which a tube @-@ like heart pumps blood through the hemocoel , which is the major body cavity . Marine chelicerates have gills , while the air @-@ breathing forms generally have both book lungs and tracheae . In general the ganglia of living chelicerates ' central nervous systems fuse into large masses in the cephalothorax , but there are wide variations and this fusion is very limited in the Mesothelae , which are regarded as the oldest and most primitive group of spiders . Most chelicerates rely on modified bristles for touch and for information about vibrations , air currents , and chemical changes in their environment . The most active hunting spiders also have very acute eyesight .
Chelicerates were originally predators , but the group has diversified to use all the major feeding strategies : predation , parasitism , herbivory , scavenging and eating decaying organic matter . Although harvestmen can digest solid food , the guts of most modern chelicerates are too narrow for this , and they generally liquidize their food by grinding it with their chelicerae and pedipalps and flooding it with digestive enzymes . To conserve water , air @-@ breathing chelicerates excrete waste as solids that are removed from their blood by Malpighian tubules , structures that also evolved independently in insects . While the marine horseshoe crabs rely on external fertilization , air @-@ breathing chelicerates use internal but usually indirect fertilization . Predatory species generally use elaborate courtship rituals to prevent males from being eaten before they can mate . Most lay eggs that hatch as what look like miniature adults , but all scorpions and a few species of mites keep the eggs inside their bodies until the young emerge . In most chelicerate species the young have to fend for themselves , but in scorpions and some species of spider the females protect and feed their young .
The evolutionary origins of chelicerates from the early arthropods have been debated for decades . Although there is considerable agreement about the relationships between most chelicerate sub @-@ groups , the inclusion of the Pycnogonida in this taxon has recently been questioned ( see below ) , and the exact position of scorpions is still controversial , though they were long considered the most primitive ( basal ) of the arachnids .
Although the venom of a few spider and scorpion species can be very dangerous to humans , medical researchers are investigating the use of these venoms for the treatment of disorders ranging from cancer to erectile dysfunction . The medical industry also uses the blood of horseshoe crabs as a test for the presence of contaminant bacteria . Mites can cause allergies in humans , transmit several diseases to humans and their livestock , and are serious agricultural pests .
= = Description = =
= = = Segmentation and cuticle = = =
The Chelicerata are arthropods as they have : segmented bodies with jointed limbs , all covered in a cuticle made of chitin and proteins ; heads that are composed of several segments that fuse during the development of the embryo ; a much reduced coelom ; a hemocoel through which the blood circulates , driven by a tube @-@ like heart . Chelicerates ' bodies consist of two tagmata , sets of segments that serve similar functions : the foremost one , called the prosoma or cephalothorax , and the rear tagma is called the opisthosoma or abdomen . However , in the Acari ( mites and ticks ) there is no visible division between these sections .
The prosoma is formed in the embryo by fusion of the acron , which carries the eyes , with segments two to seven , which all have paired appendages , while segment one is lost during the embryo 's development . Segment two has a pair of chelicerae , small appendages that often form pincers , segment three has a pair of pedipalps that in most sub @-@ groups perform sensory functions , while the remaining four cephalothorax segments have pairs of legs . In primitive forms the acron has a pair of compound eyes on the sides and four pigment @-@ cup ocelli ( " little eyes " ) in the middle . The mouth is between segments two and three .
The opisthosoma consists of twelve or fewer segments that originally formed two groups , a mesosoma of seven segments and a metasoma of five , terminating with a telson or spike . The abdominal appendages of modern chelicerates are missing or heavily modified – for example in spiders the remaining appendages form spinnerets that extrude silk , while those of horseshoe crabs ( Xiphosura ) form gills .
Like all arthropods , chelicerates ' bodies and appendages are covered with a tough cuticle made mainly of chitin and chemically hardened proteins . Since this cannot stretch , the animals must molt to grow . In other words , they grow new but still soft cuticles , then cast off the old one and wait for the new one to harden . Until the new cuticle hardens the animals are defenseless and almost immobilized .
= = = Chelicerae and pedipalps = = =
These appendages vary widely in form and function and the only consistent difference between them is their position : chelicerae arise from segment two , ahead of the mouth , and pedipalps from segment three , behind the mouth .
The chelicerae ( " claw horns " ) that give the sub @-@ phylum its name normally consist of three sections , and the claw is formed by the third section and a rigid extension of the second . However spiders ' have only two sections , and the second forms a fang that folds away behind the first when not in use . The relative sizes of chelicerae vary widely : those of some fossil eurypterids and modern harvestmen form large claws that extended ahead of the body , while scorpions ' are tiny pincers that are used in feeding and project only slightly in front of the head .
In most chelicerates the pedipalps are relatively small and are used as sensors . However those of male spiders have bulbous tips that act as syringes to inject sperm into the females ' reproductive openings when mating , while scorpions ' form large claws used for capturing prey .
= = = Body cavities and circulatory systems = = =
As in all arthropods , the chelicerate body has a very small coelom restricted to small areas round the reproductive and excretory systems . The main body cavity is a hemocoel that runs most of the length of the body and through which blood flows , driven by a tubular heart that collects blood from the rear and pumps it forward . Although arteries direct the blood to specific parts of the body , they have open ends rather than joining directly to veins , and chelicerates therefore have open circulatory systems as is typical for arthropods .
= = = Respiratory systems = = =
These depend on individual sub @-@ groups ' environments . Modern terrestrial chelicerates generally have both book lungs , which deliver oxygen and remove waste gases via the blood , and tracheae , which do the same without using the blood as a transport system . The living horseshoe crabs are aquatic and have book gills that lie in a horizontal plane . For a long time it was assumed that the extinct eurypterids had gills , but the fossil evidence was ambiguous . However a fossil of the 45 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) long eurypterid Onychopterella , from the Late Ordovician period , has what appear to be three pairs of vertically oriented book gills whose internal structure is very similar to that of scorpions ' book lungs .
= = = Feeding and digestion = = =
The guts of most modern chelicerates are too narrow to take solid food . All scorpions and almost all spiders are predators that " pre @-@ process " food in preoral cavities formed by the chelicerae and the bases of the pedipalps . However one predominantly vegetarian spider species is known , and many supplement their diets with nectar and pollen . Many of the Acari ( ticks and mites ) are blood @-@ sucking parasites , but there are many predatory , vegetarian and scavenger sub @-@ groups . All the Acari have a retractable feeding assembly that consists of the chelicerae , pedipalps and parts of the exoskeleton , and which forms a preoral cavity for pre @-@ processing food .
Harvestmen are among the minority of living chelicerates that can take solid food , and the group includes predators , vegetarians and scavengers . Horseshoe crabs are also capable of processing solid food , and use a distinctive feeding system . Claws at the tips of their legs grab small invertebrates and pass them to a food groove that runs from between the rearmost legs to the mouth , which is on the underside of the head and faces slightly backwards . The bases of the legs form toothed gnathobases that both grind the food and push it towards the mouth . This is how the earliest arthropods are thought to have fed .
= = = Excretion = = =
Horseshoe crabs convert nitrogenous wastes to ammonia and dump it via their gills , and excrete other wastes as feces via the anus . They also have nephridia ( " little kidneys " ) , which extract other wastes for excretion as urine . Ammonia is so toxic that it must be diluted rapidly with large quantities of water . Most terrestrial chelicerates cannot afford to use so much water and therefore convert nitrogenous wastes to other chemicals , which they excrete as dry matter . Extraction is by various combinations of nephridia and Malpighian tubules . The tubules filter wastes out of the blood and dump them into the hindgut as solids , a system that has evolved independently in insects and several groups of arachnids .
= = = Nervous system = = =
Chelicerate nervous systems are based on the standard arthropod model of a pair of nerve cords , each with a ganglion per segment , and a brain formed by fusion of the ganglia just behind the mouth with those ahead of it . If one assume that chelicerates lose the first segment , which bears antennae in other arthropods , chelicerate brains include only one pair of pre @-@ oral ganglia instead of two . However , there are evidences that the first segments is available indeed and bears the cheliceres .
There is a notable but variable trend towards fusion of other ganglia into the brain . The brains of horseshoe crabs include all the ganglia of the prosoma plus those of the first two opisthosomal segments , while the other opisthosomal segments retain separate pairs of ganglia . In most living arachnids , except scorpions if they are true arachnids , all the ganglia , including those that would normally be in the opisthosoma , are fused into a single mass in the prosoma and there are no ganglia in the opisthosoma . However , in the Mesothelae , which are regarded as the most primitive living spiders , the ganglia of the opisthosoma and the rear part of the prosoma remain unfused , and in scorpions the ganglia of the cephalothorax are fused but the abdomen retains separate pairs of ganglia .
= = = Senses = = =
As with other arthropods , chelicerates ' cuticles would block out information about the outside world , except that they are penetrated by many sensors or connections from sensors to the nervous system . In fact spiders and other arthropods have modified their cuticles into elaborate arrays of sensors . Various touch and vibration sensors , mostly bristles called setae , respond to different levels of force , from strong contact to very weak air currents . Chemical sensors provide equivalents of taste and smell , often by means of setae .
Living chelicerates have both compound eyes ( only in horseshoe crabs , as the compound eye in the other clades has been reduced to a cluster of no more than five pairs of ocelli ) , mounted on the sides of the head , plus pigment @-@ cup ocelli ( " little eyes " ) , mounted in the middle . The eyes of horseshoe crabs can detect movement but not form images . At the other extreme , jumping spiders have a very wide field of vision , and their main eyes are ten times as acute as those of dragonflies and is able to see in both colors and UV @-@ light .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Horseshoe crabs , which are aquatic , use external fertilization , in other words the sperm and ova meet outside the parents ' bodies . Their trilobite @-@ like larvae look rather like miniature adults as they have full sets of appendages and eyes , but initially they have only two pairs of book @-@ gills and gain three more pairs as they molt .
Being air @-@ breathing animals , the living arachnids use internal fertilization , which is direct in some species , in other words the males ' genitalia make contact with the females ' . However , in most species fertilization is indirect . Male spiders use their pedipalps as syringes to " inject " sperm into the females ' reproductive openings , but most arachnids produce spermatophores ( packages of sperm ) which the females take into their bodies . Courtship rituals are common , especially in the most powerful predators , where males risk being eaten before mating . Most arachnids lay eggs , but all scorpions and a few mites keep the eggs inside their bodies until they hatch and offspring rather like miniature adults emerge .
Levels of parental care for the young range from zero to prolonged . Scorpions carry their young on their backs until the first molt , and in a few semi @-@ social species the young remain with their mother . Some spiders care for their young , for example a wolf spider 's brood cling to rough bristles on the mother 's back , and females of some species respond to the " begging " behavior of their young by giving them their prey , provided it is no longer struggling , or even regurgitate food .
= = Evolutionary history = =
= = = Fossil record = = =
There are large gaps in the chelicerates ' fossil record because , like all arthropods , their exoskeletons are organic and hence their fossils are rare except in a few lagerstätten where conditions were exceptionally suited to preserving fairly soft tissues . The Burgess shale animals Sanctacaris and Sidneyia from about 505 million years ago have been classified as chelicerates , the former because of its pattern of tagmosis ( how the segments are grouped , especially in the head ) and the latter because its appendages resemble those of the Xiphosura ( horseshoe crabs ) . However cladistic analyses that consider wider ranges of characteristics place neither as chelicerates . There is debate about whether Fuxianhuia from earlier in the Cambrian period , about 525 million years ago , was a chelicerate . Another Cambrian fossil , Kodymirus , was originally classified as an aglaspid but may have been a eurypterid and therefore a chelicerate . If any of these was closely related to chelicerates , there is a gap of at least 43 million years in the record between true chelicerates and their nearest not @-@ quite chelicerate relatives .
Until recently the earliest known xiphosuran fossil dated from the Late Llandovery stage of the Silurian 436 to 428 million years ago , but in 2008 an older specimen was reported from about 445 million years ago in the Late Ordovician . Eurypterids have left few good fossils and the earliest confirmed eurypterids appear in the Late Ordovician period a little over 445 million years ago .
The oldest known arachnid is the trigonotarbid Palaeotarbus jerami , from about 420 million years ago in the Silurian period , and had a triangular cephalothorax and segmented abdomen , as well as eight legs and a pair of pedipalps .
Attercopus fimbriunguis , from 386 million years ago in the Devonian period , bears the earliest known silk @-@ producing spigots , and was therefore hailed as a spider , but it lacked spinnerets and hence was not a true spider . Rather , it was likely sister group to the spiders , a clade which has been named Serikodiastida . Several Carboniferous spiders were members of the Mesothelae , a primitive group now represented only by the Liphistiidae .
The Late Silurian Proscorpius has been classified as a scorpion , but differed significantly from modern scorpions : it appears wholly aquatic since it had gills rather than book lungs or tracheae ; its mouth was completely under its head and almost between the first pair of legs , as in the extinct eurypterids and living horseshoe crabs . Fossils of terrestrial scorpions with book lungs have been found in Early Devonian rocks from about 402 million years ago .
= = = Relationships with other arthropods = = =
The " traditional " view of the arthropod " family tree " shows chelicerates as less closely related to the other major living groups ( crustaceans ; hexapods , which includes insects ; and myriapods , which includes centipedes and millipedes ) than these other groups are to each other . Recent research since 2001 , using both molecular phylogenetics ( the application of cladistic analysis to biochemistry , especially to organisms ' DNA and RNA ) and detailed examination of how various arthropods ' nervous systems develop in the embryos , suggests that chelicerates are most closely related to myriapods , while hexapods and crustaceans are each other 's closest relatives . However these results are derived from analyzing only living arthropods , and including extinct ones such as trilobites causes a swing back to the " traditional " view , placing trilobites as the sister @-@ group of the Tracheata ( hexapods plus myriapods ) and chelicerates as least closely related to the other groups .
= = = Major sub @-@ groups = = =
It is generally agreed that the Chelicerata contain the classes Arachnida ( spiders , scorpions , mites , etc . ) , Xiphosura ( horseshoe crabs ) and Eurypterida ( sea scorpions , extinct ) . The extinct Chasmataspida may be a sub @-@ group within Eurypterida . The Pycnogonida ( sea spiders ) were traditionally classified as chelicerates , but some features suggest they may be representatives of the earliest arthropods from which the well @-@ known groups such as chelicerates evolved .
However the structure of " family tree " relationships within the Chelicerata has been controversial ever since the late 19th century . An attempt in 2002 to combine analysis of RNA features of modern chelicerates and anatomical features of modern and fossil ones produced credible results for many lower @-@ level groups , but its results for the high @-@ level relationships between major sub @-@ groups of chelicerates were unstable , in other words minor changes in the inputs caused significant changes in the outputs of the computer program used ( POY ) . An analysis in 2007 using only anatomical features produced the cladogram on the right , but also noted that many uncertainties remain .
The position of scorpions is particularly controversial . Some early fossils such as the Late Silurian Proscorpius have been classified by paleontologists as scorpions , but described as wholly aquatic as they had gills rather than book lungs or tracheae . Their mouths are also completely under their heads and almost between the first pair of legs , as in the extinct eurypterids and living horseshoe crabs . This presents a difficult choice : classify Proscorpius and other aquatic fossils as something other than scorpions , despite the similarities ; accept that " scorpions " are not monophyletic but consist of separate aquatic and terrestrial groups ; or treat scorpions as more closely related to eurypterids and possibly horseshoe crabs than to spiders and other arachnids , so that either sc
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orpions are not arachnids or " arachnids " are not monophyletic . Cladistic analyses have recovered Proscorpius within the scorpions , based on reinterpretation of the species ' breathing apparatus . This is reflected also in the reinterpretation of Palaeoscorpius as a terrestrial animal .
= = Diversity = =
Although well behind the insects , chelicerates are one of the most diverse groups of animals , with over 77 @,@ 000 living species that have been described in scientific publications . Some estimates suggest that there may be 130 @,@ 000 undescribed species of spider and nearly 500 @,@ 000 undescribed species of mites and ticks . While the earliest chelicerates and the living Pycnogonida ( if they are chelicerates ) and Xiphosura are marine animals that breathe dissolved oxygen , the vast majority of living species are air @-@ breathers , although a few spider species build " diving bell " webs that enable them to live under water . Like their ancestors , most living chelicerates are carnivores , mainly on small invertebrates . However many species feed as parasites , vegetarians , scavengers and detritivores .
= = Interaction with humans = =
In the past , Native Americans ate the flesh of horseshoe crabs , and used the tail spines as spear tips and the shells to bail water out of their canoes . More recent attempts to use horseshoe crabs as food for livestock were abandoned when it was found that this gave the meat a bad taste . Horseshoe crab blood contains a clotting agent , limulus amebocyte lysate , which is used to test antibiotics and kidney machines to ensure they are free of dangerous bacteria , and to detect spinal meningitis and some cancers .
Cooked tarantula spiders are considered a delicacy in Cambodia , and by the Piaroa Indians of southern Venezuela . Spider venoms may be a less polluting alternative to conventional pesticides as they are deadly to insects but the great majority are harmless to vertebrates . Possible medical uses for spider venoms are being investigated , for the treatment of cardiac arrhythmia , Alzheimer 's disease , strokes , and erectile dysfunction . Because spider silk is both light and very strong , attempts are being made to produce it in goats ' milk and in the leaves of plants , by means of genetic engineering . There were about 100 reliably reported deaths from spider bites in the 20th century , compared with 1 @,@ 500 from jellyfish stings .
Scorpion stings are thought to be a significant danger in less @-@ developed countries , for example they cause about 1 @,@ 000 deaths per year in Mexico but only one every few years in the USA . Most of these incidents are caused by accidental human " invasions " of scorpion 's nests . However medical uses of scorpion venom are being investigated for treatment of brain cancers and bone diseases .
Ticks are parasitic , and some transmit micro @-@ organisms and parasites that can cause diseases in humans , while the saliva of a few species can directly cause tick paralysis if they are not removed within a day or two .
A few of the closely related mites also infest humans , some causing intense itching by their bites and others by burrowing into the skin . Species that normally infest other animals such as rodents may infest humans if their normal hosts are eliminated . Three species of mite are a threat to honey bees and one of these , Varroa destructor , has become the largest single problem faced by beekeepers worldwide . Mites cause several forms of allergic diseases , including hay fever , asthma and eczema , and they aggravate atopic dermatitis . Mites are also significant crop pests , although predatory mites may be useful in controlling some of these .
= Enda Muldoon =
Enda Muldoon ( born 11 September 1977 ) is an Gaelic footballer from Ballinderry , County Londonderry , Northern Ireland . Muldoon played for the Derry GAA team and has won an Ulster Senior Football Championship and two National League titles with the county , as well as Ulster Minor , Ulster Under 21 and All @-@ Ireland Under @-@ 21 Football Championships . He also won an All Star Award for his performances in the 2004 All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship .
Muldoon plays his club football for Ballinderry Shamrocks . He was instrumental in helping Ballinderry win the 2002 All @-@ Ireland Senior Club Football Championship , and he has also won six Derry Championships and an Ulster Senior Club Football Championship with the club .
Muldoon is a versatile player who can play anywhere in the forward line or in midfield . Described by Joe Brolly as " the greatest ever natural talent to have played with Derry " , his repertoire of skills include his catching ability , scoring prowess , confidence on the ball , positional awareness and in particular his great passing capabilities . He currently plays at left half forward for Derry and midfield for Ballinderry .
Despite often playing in the half forward line or midfield , Muldoon has consistently been a high scorer for Derry . He finished the 2001 All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship with 2 @-@ 10 ( 16 ) and the 2004 Championship with 3 @-@ 24 ( 33 ) . He finished the 2006 campaign with 1 @-@ 07 ( 10 ) from two matches . His tally of 12 Championship goals is one of the highest ever in Ulster football history .
= = Football career = =
= = = Playing style = = =
Described as " one of the most talented footballers of his generation " , Enda Muldoon has played in virtually all positions in the forward line , as well as midfield for both his club and county . He is regarded as the complete footballer in that he has impressive high @-@ fielding skills , is hard to dispossess , is very accurate in front of the posts with both feet and covers a lot of ground often tracking back to help in defence . Muldoon has been praised for his vision and ability to pick out pin @-@ point passes , and he is also regarded as a great reader of the game . Ballinderry and Derry team @-@ mate Kevin McGuckin described him as " a magician on the ball and can do anything with it or put it anywhere with his passing " . GAA journalist and former Derry player Joe Brolly said of him : " I cannot say I have ever seen a more elegant footballer " and compared him to Kerry football legend Maurice Fitzgerald .
= = = Inter @-@ county = = =
In 1995 , his last year of eligibility , Muldoon was brought into the Derry Minor panel . He was part of the team that won the 1995 Ulster Minor Championship and finished runners @-@ up to Westmeath in that year 's All @-@ Ireland Minor final . He was instrumental in Derry 's run in that Minor Championship , including scoring 1 @-@ 07 ( 10 ) against Down in the Ulster final and scoring a dramatic last minute goal which helped Derry beat Galway by a point in the All @-@ Ireland semi @-@ final .
Muldoon reached the Ulster Under @-@ 21 Football Championship final with Derry Under @-@ 21s in 1996 , but were defeated by Cavan . In 1997 Muldoon and Derry won the Ulster Under @-@ 21 and All @-@ Ireland Under @-@ 21 Football Championships , defeating Fermanagh and Meath in the respective finals . Muldoon was also on the team the following year , but Derry were defeated at the Ulster final stage by Armagh .
He made his Derry Senior debut in the 1997 season and reached the Ulster final , where they were beat by Cavan . In 1998 , playing in midfield he won the Ulster Senior Championship with Derry . It was his sixth Ulster final in four years — one Minor , three Under @-@ 21 and two Senior . Derry lost out to Galway in that year 's All @-@ Ireland Championship semi @-@ final . In 2000 he won the National League with Derry , defeating Meath in the final . Derry also reached that year 's Ulster final , but lost out to Armagh . He was nominated in 2000 for an All Star , but narrowly missed out . He was however an All Star replacement for the All Star trip to Dubai in January 2001 .
Derry lost at the semi @-@ final stage of the 2001 Ulster Championship , but nonetheless reached the All @-@ Ireland semi @-@ final through the qualifiers , where they once again faced Galway . Derry again lost to Galway , despite a goal scored by Muldoon . Muldoon scored 2 @-@ 10 ( 16 ) in that year 's Championship . Muldoon was named Derry captain for the 2003 season .
In 2004 Muldoon and Paddy Bradley formed a clinical scoring partnership en route to the All @-@ Ireland semi @-@ final , where they eventually lost to Kerry . Muldoon contributed 3 @-@ 24 ( 33 ) of Derry 's total of 7 @-@ 92 ( 113 ) in the 2004 All @-@ Ireland Championship , including a goal in the semi @-@ final and 1 @-@ 06 ( 9 ) in the quarter @-@ final in a man of the match performance against Westmeath . He was named full forward on the 2004 All @-@ Star team for his performances the Championship .
Muldoon had an injury called patellar tendinitis in both his knees . In December 2004 , he underwent surgery on one of his knees . The operation was successful and he resumed training on April 2005 . Muldoon started the 2006 Ulster Championship campaign very brightly scoring 1 @-@ 03 ( 6 ) in the first round of the Ulster Championship against defending All @-@ Ireland Champions Tyrone and 0 @-@ 04 against Donegal . However Muldoon , with a previously exemplary disciplinary record at all levels , was red @-@ carded late in that game . Some commentators called for Muldoon 's red card to be rescinded after television replays showed he was reacting to " extreme provocation " from Donegal full back Paddy Campbell , who had punched Muldoon in the groin . Muldoon however received a four @-@ week suspension and missed Derry 's next two games against Kildare and Longford . Longford produced a shock victory to knock Derry out of the 2006 Championship . He finished the 2006 campaign with 1 @-@ 07 ( 10 ) from two matches .
Muldoon put in some impressive performances in Derry 's run to the 2007 All @-@ Ireland quarter @-@ final , where they lost out to Dublin . He was awarded the Ulster Tennent ’ s Monthly Merit Award for July 2007 , for his performances against Mayo and Laois that month , including a lobbed goal against Mayo . This was the second time he had received the accolade . He was instrumental in the 2008 National League , which Derry won , defeating Kerry in the final . Joe Brolly described him as " the best player on the field " . The league success saw Derry become favourites to win the Ulster Championship and one of the top few for the All @-@ Ireland . However , despite a good opening victory against Donegal , Derry exited the Ulster Championship against Fermanagh at the semi @-@ final stage and were defeated by Monaghan in the first round of the Qualifiers .
Muldoon and Derry also reached the National League final in 2009 , but were defeated by Kerry . He missed the final due to injury . Muldoon won a second McKenna Cup medal with Derry in 2011 . They also reached that year 's Ulster final but lost to Donegal .
= = = Club = = =
Muldoon won his first Derry Senior Football Championship medal while still a minor in 1995 , when Ballinderry defeated Bellaghy in the final . In 1998 Muldoon was part of the Ballinderry team that won the All @-@ Ireland Kilmacud Crokes Sevens Championship .
After losing two finals in a row to Bellaghy in 1999 and 2000 , Ballinderry won the 2001 Derry Championship , once again defeating Bellaghy in the decider . The club went on to win the 2001 Ulster Club Championship with victories over St. Gall 's in the quarter @-@ final ( after a replay ) , Cavan Gaels in the semi @-@ final and Mayobridge in the final . Muldoon was awarded Ulster Football Award Winner at the AIB GAA Provincial Player Awards 2001 for his role in Ballinderry 's march to claim the Ulster Club Championship . He was presented his award by GAA President Seán McCague . Ballinderry went on to represent Ulster in the All @-@ Ireland Senior Club Football Championship , which they won defeating Tír Chonaill Gaels ( London ) in the quarter @-@ final , Rathnew ( Wicklow ) in the semi @-@ final and Nemo Rangers ( Cork ) in the final . Muldoon played through the pain barrier in the Championship , delaying an operation on a troublesome hip injury until after the All @-@ Ireland final .
Ballinderry defended the Derry Championship in 2002 , but lost in the semi @-@ final stage of the Ulster Club Championship to Errigal Ciarán . Muldoon won the Ulster Tennent ’ s Monthly Merit Award for October 2002 for his performance against Mayobridge in the Ulster Club quarter @-@ final . His performance in that game was described as a " masterful display " , scoring vital points and was the " defensive anchor in a tense final quarter " . Muldoon also helped New York club Westmeath reach the semi @-@ final of the New York Senior Football Championship in 2002 , but they were defeated by the Kerry club .
Muldoon was runner @-@ up for the third time in the Derry Championship in 2003 , losing to local rivals An Lúb in the final . He gained his fourth Derry Championship medal in 2006 with the club , avenging the 2003 loss to An Lúb , with Muldoon having an " impressive game " . Ballinderry reached the 2006 Ulster Club final , but lost narrowly to Crossmaglen Rangers . In 2008 Muldoon and Ballinderry won the Ulster Senior Club Football League . Muldoon won his fifth Derry Championship medal in 2008 , this time as captain . An achilles injury forced him to miss the quarter @-@ final tie with Bellaghy and he was only fit enough to come on as a substitute in the semi @-@ final clash with Dungiven . However he recovered in time for the final , and his performance , particularly in the second half , proved vital in helping the club defeat Slaughtneil . Ballinderry got to the 2008 Ulster Club final and again faced Crossmaglen . Muldoon put in a brilliant performance in the game , which finished a draw . He broke a bone in his foot two days before the replay and could not play . His absence proved costly and Cross won the replay .
Coleraine defeated Ballinderry in the 2010 Derry Championship final , but Muldoon won his sixth county medal in 2011 with victory over Kilrea in the final . The Shamroks also won the 2010 and 2011 Ulster League titles . He has also won eight Derry Senior League medals with the club ( 1995 , 1996 , 1997 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 and 2010 ) .
= = = Province = = =
Muldoon has played for Ulster many times . He was part of the panel in 2000 , that won the Railway Cup , but could not play due to an injury picked up in training . He also won the competition with the province in 2003 , 2004 and 2007 .
= = Honours = =
= = = County = = =
= = = = Senior = = = =
National Football League :
Winner ( 2 ) : 2000 , 2008
Runner @-@ up : 1998 , 2009
Ulster Senior Football Championship :
Winner ( 1 ) : 1998
Runner up : 1997 , 2000 , 2011
Dr. McKenna Cup :
Winner ( 1 ) : 1999 , 2011
Runner up : 2008 , more ?
= = = = Under @-@ 21 = = = =
All @-@ Ireland Under @-@ 21 Football Championship :
Winner ( 1 ) : 1997
Ulster Under @-@ 21 Football Championship :
Winner ( 1 ) : 1997
Runner up : 1996 , 1998
= = = = Minor = = = =
All @-@ Ireland Minor Football Championship :
Runner up : 1995
Ulster Minor Football Championship :
Winner ( 1 ) : 1995
= = = Club = = =
All @-@ Ireland Senior Club Football Championship :
Winner ( 1 ) : 2002
All @-@ Ireland Kilmacud Crokes Sevens Championship :
Winner ( 1 ) : 1998
Ulster Senior Club Football Championship :
Winner ( 1 ) : 2001
Runner up : 2006 , 2008
Ulster Senior Club Football League :
Winner ( 3 ) : 2008 , 2010 , 2011
Derry Senior Football Championship :
Winner ( 8 ) : 1995 , 2001 , 2002 , 2006 , 2008 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013
Runner up : 1999 , 2000 , 2003 , 2010
Derry Senior Football League :
Winner ( 8 ) : 1995 , 1996 , 1997 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2010
Numerous underage awards including U @-@ 12 and U @-@ 14 Derry Championships
= = = Province = = =
Railway Cup :
Winner ( at least 3 ) : 2000 ? , 2003 , 2004 , 2007
= = = Individual = = =
All Star :
Winner ( 1 ) : 2004
Nominated ( runner up ) : 2000
Irish News Ulster GAA All Star - Winner ( 4 ) : 2000 , 2001 , 2004 , 2007
Ulster Tennent 's Merit Award - Winner ( 2 ) : October 2002 , July 2007
AIB GAA Provincial Player Awards - Ulster Football Award - Winner ( 1 ) : 2001
Derry Senior football captain : 2003
Derry Senior Football Championship winning captain : 2008
= Gun show loophole =
Gun show loophole , gun law loophole , Brady law loophole ( or Brady bill loophole ) , private sale loophole , and private sale exemption are political terms in the United States referring to sales of firearms by private sellers , including those done at gun shows , dubbed the " secondary market " . The term refers to the concept that a loophole in federal law exists , under which " [ a ] ny person may sell a firearm to an unlicensed resident of the State where he resides as long as he does not know or have reasonable cause to believe the person is prohibited from receiving or possessing firearms " .
Under federal law , private @-@ party sellers are not required to perform background checks on buyers , whether at a gun show or other venue . They also are not required to record the sale , or ask for identification . This requirement is in contrast to sales by gun stores and other Federal Firearms License ( FFL ) holders who are required to record all sales and perform background checks on almost all buyers , regardless of whether the venue is their business location or a gun show . Access to the NICS background check system is limited to FFL holders and FFLs are not issued to persons that only sell firearms at gun shows .
Since the mid @-@ 1990s , gun control advocates have voiced concern over the perceived loophole in legislation , and campaigned to require background checks and record @-@ keeping for all gun sales . Contrarily , gun rights advocates have stated that there is no loophole , that current laws provide a single , uniform set of rules for commercial gun sellers regardless of the place of sale , and that no part of the United States Constitution empowers the federal government to regulate non @-@ commercial , intrastate transfers of legal firearms types between private citizens . In this latter view , regulating private sales at one type of location ( gun shows ) but not at other locations would create an exception in the law rather than eliminate one , while forcing any ( or all ) private firearm sales to go through dealers having access to the NICS background check system would be unacceptably intrusive and border on universal firearm registration .
= = Provenance = =
Sometimes referred to as the Brady bill loophole , the Brady law loophole , the gun law loophole , or the private sale loophole , the term refers to laws allowing for legal sales and transfers of firearms , that are not regulated by the National Firearms Act , without background checks between unlicensed private parties . Private @-@ party sellers are not legally required by federal law to : ask for identification , complete any forms , or keep any sales records . In addition to federal legislation , firearm laws vary by state .
Federal " Gun show loophole " bills were introduced in seven consecutive Congresses : two in 2001 , two in 2004 , one in 2005 , one in 2007 , two in 2009 , two in 2011 , and one in 2013 . Specifically , seven gun show loophole bills were introduced in the U.S. House and four in the Senate between 2001 and 2013 . None passed . In May 2015 Carolyn Maloney introduced H.R.2380 , also referred to as the Gun Show Loophole Closing Act of 2015 . As of June 26 it has been referred to the Subcommittee on Crime , Terrorism , Homeland Security , and Investigations .
= = States requiring background checks for private sales = =
As of September 2015 , 18 states and Washington D.C. have background check requirements beyond federal law . Eight states require universal background checks at the point of sale for all transfers , including purchases from unlicensed sellers . Maryland and Pennsylvania laws in this regard are limited to handguns . Hawaii , Illinois , Massachusetts and New Jersey require any firearm purchaser to obtain a permit . Four more states ( Iowa , Michigan , Nebraska , and North Carolina ) do the same , but only for handguns . Illinois requires background checks at gun shows . Nevada allows but does not require unlicensed sellers to do background checks on buyers . A majority of these jurisdictions require unlicensed sellers to keep records of firearm sales . The following table summarizes these state laws .
= = History = =
In 1968 , Congress passed the Gun Control Act ( GCA ) , under which modern firearm commerce operates . The GCA mandated Federal Firearms Licenses ( FFLs ) for those " engaged in the business " of selling firearms , but not for private individuals who sold firearms infrequently . Under the Gun Control Act , firearm dealers were prohibited from doing business anywhere except the address listed on their Federal Firearms License . It also mandated that licensed firearm dealers maintain records of firearms sales . An unlicensed person is prohibited by federal law from transferring , selling , trading , giving , transporting , or delivering a firearm to any other unlicensed person only if they know or have reasonable cause to believe the buyer does not reside in the same State or is prohibited by law from purchasing or possessing firearms .
In 1986 , Congress passed the Firearm Owners Protection Act ( FOPA ) , which relaxed certain controls in the Gun Control Act and permitted licensed firearm dealers to conduct business at gun shows . Specifically , FOPA made it legal for FFL holders to make private sales , provided the firearm was transferred to the licensee 's personal collection at least one year prior to the sale . Hence , when a personal firearm is sold by an FFL holder , no background check or Form 4473 is required by federal law . According to the ATF , FFL holders are required to keep a record of such sales in a bound book . The United States Department of Justice ( USDOJ ) said the stated purpose of FOPA was to ensure the GCA did not " place any undue or unnecessary federal restrictions or burdens on law @-@ abiding citizens , but it opened many loopholes through which illegal gun traffickers can slip . " Efforts to reverse a key feature of FOPA by requiring criminal background checks and purchase records on private sales at gun shows were unsuccessful .
In 1993 , Congress enacted the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act , amending the Gun Control Act of 1968 . " The Brady Law " instituted federal background checks on all firearm purchasers who buy from federally licensed dealers ( FFL ) . This law had no provisions for private firearms transactions or sales . The Brady Law originally imposed an interim measure , requiring a waiting period of 5 days before a licensed importer , manufacturer , or dealer may sell , deliver , or transfer a handgun to an unlicensed individual . The waiting period applied only in states without an alternate system that was deemed acceptable of conducting background checks on handgun purchasers . Personal transfers and sales between unlicensed Americans could also still be subject to other federal , state , and local restrictions . These interim provisions ceased to apply on November 30 , 1998 .
= = Government studies and positions = =
Firearm tracing starts at the manufacturer or importer and typically ends at the first private sale regardless if the private seller later sell to an FFL or uses an FFL for background checks . Analyzing data from a report released in 1997 by the National Institute of Justice , fewer than 2 % of convicted criminals bought their firearm at a flea market or gun show . About 12 % purchased their firearm from a retail store or pawnshop , and 80 % bought from family , friends , or an illegal source .
According to a 1999 report by the ATF , legal private party transactions contribute to illegal activities , such as arms trafficking , purchases of firearms by prohibited buyers , and straw purchases . Anyone selling a firearm is legally prohibited from selling it to anyone the seller knows or has reasonable cause to believe is prohibited from owning a firearm . Only an FFL holder may transfer a firearm to another licensed FFL that does not reside in the state in which the seller resides . FFL holders , in general , can only transfer firearms to non @-@ licensed persons that reside in the state they are licensed to do business in and only at that place of business or a gun show .
The January 1999 report said that more than 4 @,@ 000 gun shows are held in the U.S. annually . Also , between 50 and 75 percent of gun show vendors hold a Federal Firearms License , and the " majority of vendors who attend shows sell firearms , associated accessories , and other paraphernalia . " The report concluded that although most sellers at gun shows are upstanding people , a few corrupt sellers could move a large quantity of firearms into high @-@ risk hands . They stated that there were gaps in current law and recommended " extending the Brady Law to ' close the gun show loophole . ' "
In 2009 the U.S. Government Accountability Office published a report citing that many firearms trafficked to Mexico may be purchased through these types of private transactions , by individuals who may want to avoid background checks and records of their firearms purchases . Proposals put forth by United States Attorneys , which were never enacted , include :
Allowing only FFL holders to sell guns at gun shows , so a background check and a firearms transaction record accompany every transaction
Strengthening the definition of " engaged in the business " by defining the terms with more precision , narrowing the exception for " hobbyists , " and lowering the intent requirement
Limiting the number of individual private sales to a specified number per year
Requiring persons who sell guns in the secondary market to comply with the record @-@ keeping requirements applicable to Federal Firearms License holders
Requiring all transfers in the secondary market to go through a Federal Firearms License holder
Establishing procedures for the orderly liquidation of inventory belonging to FFL holders who surrender their license
Requiring registration of non @-@ licensed persons who sell guns
Increasing the punishment for transferring a firearm without a background check , as required by the Brady Act
Requiring gun show promoters to be licensed , maintaining an inventory of all the firearms that are sold by FFL holders and non @-@ licensed sellers at gun shows
Requiring one or more ATF agents be present at every gun show
Insulating unlicensed vendors from criminal liability if they agree to have purchasers complete a firearms transaction form
= = = Executive branch = = =
On November 6 , 1998 , U.S. President Bill Clinton issued a memorandum for the Secretary of the Treasury and the Attorney General expressing concern about sellers at gun shows not being required to run background checks on potential buyers . He called this absence a " loophole " and said that it made gun shows prime targets for criminals and gun traffickers . He requested recommendations on what actions the administration should take , including legislation .
During his campaign and presidency , President George W. Bush endorsed the idea of background checks at gun shows . Bush 's position was that the gun show loophole should be closed by federal legislation since the gun show loophole was created by previous federal legislation . President Bush ordered an investigation by the U.S. Departments of Health , Education , and Justice in the wake of the Virginia Tech shootings in order to make recommendations on ways the federal government can prevent such tragedies . On January 8 , 2008 he signed the NICS Improvement Amendments Act of 2007 ( NIAA ) into law . Goals and objectives that the NIAA sought to address included :
The gap in information available to NICS about such prohibiting mental health adjudications and commitments . Filling these information gaps will better enable the system to operate as intended , to keep guns out of the hands of persons prohibited by federal or state law from receiving or possessing firearms .
At the beginning of 2013 , President Barack Obama outlined proposals regarding new gun control legislation asking congress to close the gun show loophole by requiring background checks for all firearm sales . Closing the gun show loophole became part of a larger push for universal background checks to close " federal loopholes on such checks at gun shows and other private sales . "
= = Notable opinions = =
In 1996 the Violence Policy Center ( VPC ) released Gun Shows in America : Tupperware ® Parties for Criminals , a study that identified problems associated with gun shows . The VPC study documented the effect of the 1986 Firearms Owners ' Protection Act in regard to proliferation of gun shows , which resulted in " a readily available source of weapons and ammunition for a wide variety of criminals , as well as Timothy McVeigh and David Koresh " . According to the VPC , the utility of gun shows to dangerous individuals stems primarily from the exemption enjoyed by private sellers from the sales criteria of the Brady law as well as the absence of a background check . The director of the program which is located at the UC Davis , Garen J. Wintemute , wrote , " There is no such loophole in federal law , in the limited sense that the law does not exempt private @-@ party sales at gun shows from regulation that is required elsewhere . " Wintemute said ,
The fundamental flaw in the gun show loophole proposal is its failure to address the great majority of private @-@ party sales , which occur at other locations and increasingly over the Internet at sites where any non @-@ prohibited person can list firearms for sale and buyers can search for private @-@ party sellers .
On May 27 , 1999 Wayne LaPierre , executive vice president of the National Rifle Association ( NRA ) , testified before the House Judiciary Subcommittee on Crime , saying : " We think it is reasonable to provide mandatory , instant criminal background checks for every sale at every gun show . No loopholes anywhere for anyone . " LaPierre has since said that he is opposed to universal background checks .
In 1999 , Dave Kopel , attorney and gun rights advocate for the NRA , said : " gun shows are no ' loophole ' in the federal laws , " and that singling out guns shows was " the first step toward abolishing all privacy regarding firearms and implementing universal gun registration . " In January 2000 , Kopel said that no proposed federal law would have made any difference at Columbine since the adults who supplied the weapons were legal purchasers .
In 2003 , Alexander DeConde asserted that requiring background checks for all gun show sales was the prelude to registration and their Second Amendment rights would be jeopardized .
In 2009 , Nicholas J. Johnson of the Fordham University School of Law , wrote :
Criticisms of the " gun show loophole " imply that federal regulations allow otherwise prohibited retail purchases ( " primary market sales " ) of firearms at gun shows . This implication is false . The real criticism is leveled at secondary market sales by private citizens .
In 2010 , the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence said : " Because of the gun show loophole , in most states prohibited buyers can walk into any gun show and buy weapons from unlicensed sellers with no background check . Many of these gun sellers operate week @-@ to @-@ week with no established place of business , traveling from gun show to gun show . "
In 2013 , the NRA said that a universal background check system for gun buyers is both impracticable and unnecessary , but an effective instant check system that includes records of persons adjudicated mentally ill would prevent potentially dangerous people from getting their hands on firearms . The group argues that only 10 percent of firearms are purchased via private sellers . They also dispute the idea that the current law amounts to a gun @-@ show loophole , pointing out that many of the people selling at gun shows are federally licensed dealers . The group has stated in that past that : gun control supporters ' objectives are to reduce gun sales and register guns , and that there is no " loophole , " but legal commerce under the status quo ( like book fairs or car shows ) .
= = Contributing events = =
After the Columbine High School massacre on April 20 , 1999 , gun shows and background checks became a focus of national debate in the United States . Weeks after the Columbine shooting , Frank Lautenberg introduced a proposal to close the gun show loophole in federal law . It was passed in the Senate , but did not pass in the House .
The Virginia Tech shooting on April 16 , 2007 again brought discussion of the gun show loophole to the forefront of U.S. politics , even though the shooter passed a background check and purchased his weapons legally at a Virginia gun shop via a Wisconsin @-@ based Internet dealer . Previously , in December 2005 , a Virginia judge had directed the Virginia Tech gunman to undergo outpatient treatment , but because he was treated as an outpatient , Virginia did not send his name to the National Instant Criminal Background Check System ( NICS ) . On April 30 , 2007 , Tim Kaine , the Governor of Virginia , issued an executive order intended to prohibit the sale of guns to anyone found to be dangerous and forced to undergo involuntary mental health treatment . He called on lawmakers to close the gun show loophole . A bill to close the gun show loophole in Virginia was submitted , but eventually failed . Since then , Virginia lawmakers efforts to close the gun show loophole were continuously blocked by gun rights advocates . The Governor wrote :
I was disappointed to see the Virginia legislature balk , largely under pressure from the NRA , at efforts to close the gun @-@ show loophole that allows anyone to buy weapons without any background check . That loophole still exists .
After the July 2012 Aurora shooting in Colorado , the October 2012 Azana Spa shootings in Wisconsin , and the December 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in Connecticut , state and local debates regarding the gun show loophole resumed . After the Aurora shooting , then president of the NRA , David Keene , said that such tragedies are often exploited by the media and politicians . He said , " Colorado has already closed the so @-@ called ' loophole ' and the killer didn 't buy his guns at a gun show . " The handgun in the Azana Spa shooting was purchased legally in a private transaction , not at a gun show . The Sandy Hook shooter used weapons legally purchased by his mother .
= Papa 's Cabin =
" Papa 's Cabin " is the fifteenth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fifty @-@ ninth episode overall . Written by John Enbom and directed by Michael Fields , the episode premiered on The CW on February 27 , 2007 . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective .
In this episode , Veronica and her father Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) investigate more suspects in the murder of Dean O 'Dell ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) , particularly his wife Mindy ( Jaime Ray Newman ) and her lover Hank Landry ( Patrick Fabian ) . Both of them become particularly suspicious when they disappear , and Hank is implied as the killer when Mindy 's dead body washes onshore . However , Veronica later deduces that teaching assistant Tim Foyle ( James Jordan ) committed the murder to frame Hank .
" Papa 's Cabin " , the final episode of the Dean O 'Dell story arc , marks the final appearances of Fabian , Newman , and Jordan in their respective roles . Series creator Rob Thomas enjoyed Fabian and Jordan 's performances in the episode , while filming of scenes on the ocean contained some production troubles . Upon its initial airing , the episode received 2 @.@ 66 million viewers and mixed reviews from television critics ; many considered this episode to be a solid conclusion to the story arc but one that was less exciting than previous mystery @-@ ending episodes . Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club believed that the episode was intellectually satisfying , while Jon Lachonis of BuddyTV opined that the decision to make Tim the murderer was not appropriate .
= = Plot synopsis = =
Despite the fact that Hank Landry is a prime suspect for Keith , Landry reassures Veronica that she can still be his protégé . Keith continues to question Mindy O ’ Dell , citing inconsistencies in his testimony . Mindy says that the other man arguing in her room was the Dean . She also says that Hank could have been the murderer , as she was not in the area at the time of the murder . Keith enters Veronica ’ s criminology class and arrests Hank . Keith questions him as well , and he says that Mindy set him up with the blood on his clothes , noting that he went to a convenience store before driving home . However , Keith puts him in a cell , where he is visited by Tim Foyle , and Hank tells him to find the bug that was placed on his phone . Later , Veronica sees Tim breaking into Mars Investigations , trying to find the bug , and Tim effectively enlists Veronica ’ s help . They visit the convenience store with no luck for the time being . Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) sees Logan ( Jason Dohring ) and Parker ( Julie Gonzalo ) having lunch together and tells Veronica , but she doesn ’ t seem upset . Mindy buys a boat at the local pier . Keith and Veronica receive news that Mindy has left town .
Veronica and Tim investigate Hank ’ s alibi further , and it checks out , leading to his release . Veronica and Tim find secret phone recordings kept by Hank . Veronica brings Keith the CD , but he informs her that Hank has disappeared as well . We see Hank showing up on Mindy ’ s boat . While listening to the phone calls , Veronica notices Mindy and Hank talking about a place named “ Papa ’ s cabin ” . They investigate the most recent phone calls made by Hank , and find that his alibi was faked — he was helping the witness ’ s son escape foster care . Keith comes up with the idea that Papa ’ s cabin has something to do with Ernest Hemingway . Keith visits the cabin , a retreat in Central America , before boarding the motorboat . He finds Hank , who says that he was working with her to kill the Dean . He says that he and Mindy had a fight , and Mindy fell overboard . We see Mindy ’ s body washed up on a beach .
With Landry arrested , Tim takes over the criminology class . The class starts to discuss the Dean O ’ Dell case , with Tim giving a broad overview of the subject . However , Veronica asks several questions to him which he does not answer very well . Veronica suddenly connects the dots and says that Tim committed the murder in order to frame Hank , who denied him a job opportunity . Tim is arrested and confesses to the murder , while Hank is being tried for manslaughter in the death of Mindy . Keith and Veronica share dinner after solving their cases .
= = Production = =
" Papa 's Cabin " was written by John Enbom and directed by Michael Fields , marking Enbom 's sixteenth and penultimate writing credit and Fields 's seventh and penultimate directing credit for the series . " Papa 's Cabin " features the final appearance of Hank Landry , played by Patrick Fabian , making it the closing installment of an eight @-@ episode arc . The episode reveals that Tim Foyle ( James Jordan ) was the actual killer of Dean O 'Dell , a mystery which had been the focus of the show for six episodes . Jordan had perviously played a janitor named Lucky in season two ; his new character was always meant to act as a foil to Veronica . In fact , scripts had initially named Tim Foyle as simply " Foil " for this reason . The nickname stuck , and his full name was chosen as a pun on tin foil . The episode was the final installment of the series to air before a two @-@ month hiatus , temporarily losing its time slot to Pussycat Dolls Present . Ain 't It Cool News considered the CW 's short description of the episode to be evidence that Veronica and Keith would continue working together , despite the fact that he recently became interim Sheriff .
Thomas enjoyed Fabian 's performance in the episode , arguing that it was an example of the actor 's scene stealer quality that led Thomas to initially cast him after his appearance in an episode of his earlier series Cupid . The scene in which Keith boards the ship on which Hank is located was difficult to film because there were limited daylight filming hours . The crew thought it was important for the audience to see the waves and the ocean . However , they were unable to finish filming the scene within the course of one day , so the crew made a quick decision to place a makeshift blue screen as part of the background for the interior of the boat . It was intended that the blue screen be edited in post @-@ production in order to represent the ocean , but upon learning that this change would cost millions of dollars , the crew decided to forgo the alteration and instead pass off the blue screen as a tarpaulin .
Jordan had to wear a wig and a fake goatee for the episode . Thomas described Jordan 's one @-@ word response to the question " Do we look like we smoke ? " as the best quip of the season . Thomas was also laudatory towards Jordan 's character 's reactions towards Veronica about events he secretly already knew , such as when he hears a voicemail from Hank not recommending him for an internship . He thought that he played the lie realistically but that one could see through his façade upon a repeat viewing . Because the Dean O 'Dell storyline was six episodes instead of the initially scheduled seven , some plot strands had to be removed from the final episode and story arc .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " Papa 's Cabin " received 2 @.@ 66 million viewers , ranking 95th of 102 in the weekly rankings . This marked an increase in nearly 400 @,@ 000 viewers from the previous episode , " Mars , Bars " , which earned 2 @.@ 27 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics , with reviewers generally calling " Papa 's Cabin " a solid finale to the Dean O 'Dell mystery but one that was less entertaining than previous mystery @-@ ending episodes . Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode an 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 , indicating that it was " great " . He wrote that it was " an interesting episode that went against the grain as far as what the show has done with similar reveals in the past . " While stating that Tim being the actual murderer was not very surprising , the reviewer felt satisfied with the scene in which Veronica pieces the clues together to implicate Tim . He also commented on how " Papa 's Cabin " differed from previous mystery @-@ ending episodes by having lower stakes , a characteristic he felt was appropriate . He thought it was similar to a traditional detective story model , meaning that it " fell in line with the feel of the show . " However , he did not enjoy the fact that Fabian 's character was being written out of the show . Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , lauded the episode . He referred to the conclusion of the Dean O 'Dell story arc as the closure to a conventional mystery in the sense that Veronica and Keith slowly built up evidence instead of stumbling on one incriminating object by chance . The reviewer also thought that the episode provided an intellectually satisfying conclusion to the mystery and that it " maintains that level of involvement . "
Jon Lachonis of BuddyTV sharply criticized the episode , opining that it was predictable , contrived , and unsatisfying . Calling the Dean O 'Dell storyline " Veronica Mars 's weakest mystery , " the reviewer thought that " Papa 's Cabin " spent too much time on Mindy and Hank , arguing that it was obvious they were not the culprits . In addition , he derided the decision to make Tim the murderer , stating that it was not true to his character . Television Without Pity graded the episode a " B " . Alan Sepinwall , on his blog What 's Alan Watching ? , was mixed towards the episode , stating that it was " a solid resolution to the Dean O 'Dell mystery " , he thought more highly of the last several episodes . However , he criticized the fact that the mystery only lasted for six episodes , arguing that these smaller story arcs were not working well for the show , referring to this episode as feeling " rushed " due to the limited time to advance the mystery .
= Massachusetts Route 25 =
Route 25 is a numbered state highway located in Plymouth County and Barnstable County , Massachusetts , United States . The route is a nominally east – west freeway for its entire length , and less commonly known as the Blue Star Memorial Highway . An eastward continuation of Interstate 495 , Route 25 provides freeway access to Cape Cod . The route 's western terminus is at a trumpet interchange with I @-@ 495 and I @-@ 195 in Wareham . The route has three numbered interchanges along its 10 @.@ 006 @-@ mile ( 16 @.@ 103 km ) length before terminating at the northern end of the Bourne Bridge in Bourne ; the mainline of Route 25 continues across the bridge and over the Cape Cod Canal as Massachusetts Route 28 south .
Prior to 1982 , the Route 25 designation was given to that segment of what is now I @-@ 495 from Route 24 in Raynham to the interchange with I @-@ 195 in Wareham . Upon completion of the I @-@ 495 segment between Route 24 and I @-@ 95 , that portion of the existing freeway was redesignated as I @-@ 495 in various stages during the 1970s and 1980s , eventually reducing Route 25 to a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 km ) segment that continued eastward from I @-@ 495 to the modern location of Exit 2 in Downtown Wareham . Construction of an eastern continuation of Route 25 to the Bourne Bridge was delayed for nearly three decades due to property disputes and environmental concerns , but the final 7 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 12 km ) segment opened in 1987 . The freeway was originally planned to continue over the Bourne Bridge into Cape Cod as part of the Southside Connector , but this plan was abandoned by the Massachusetts Highway Department ( MassHighway ) in the late 1970s .
= = Route description = =
Route 25 begins at a trumpet interchange with I @-@ 495 and I @-@ 195 in Wareham , Massachusetts ; the two left lanes of Route 25 west mainline onto Route 495 north , with the right @-@ hand lane serving I @-@ 195 via Exit 1 . From I @-@ 195 , Route 25 east is accessible via Exit 22A ; I @-@ 195 terminates at the interchange . Interstate 495 also terminates at its junction with Route 25 ; the two southbound lanes of I @-@ 495 default onto Route 25 east . After the interchange with I @-@ 195 and I @-@ 495 , Route 25 begins to head in a southeastern direction into the town of Wareham as a six @-@ lane freeway . The route passes under Tihonet Road and through Maple Swamp , located at the northern end of Parker Mills Pond .
After the Tihonet Road overpass , the route continues on a southeastern projection , passing close to several farms and cranberry bogs in Wareham . After passing under Charge Pond Road , Route 25 enters a densely populated region of Wareham with an alignment parallel to Route 28 ( Cranberry Highway ) . Eastbound Route 25 has its first interchange with Maple Springs Road , a local road that connects to US 6 and Route 28 and is used to access Wareham and the village of Onset . Shortly after the interchange , numbered as Exit 2 ( formerly Exit 1 ) , Route 25 proceeds across Agawam Mill Pond via a short causeway . Exit 2 off Route 25 west is located to the east of Agawam Mill Pond and connects to US 6 and Route 28 via Glen Charlie Road , an unnumbered route that also serves the village of White Island Shores .
After Exit 2 , Route 25 bends to the northeast , bypassing Buttermilk Bay and the densely populated village of Buzzards Bay to the south . The route passes Union Pond and Dicks Pond to the south and Spectacle Pond and Sandy Pond to the north before entering the town of Plymouth . In Plymouth , Route 25 passes to the north of several cranberry bogs and small ponds . While the freeway has no interchanges in Plymouth , a rest area is located off eastbound Route 25 in the town ; the area is inaccessible from westbound Route 25 . Due to state funding cutbacks , services at the rest area are limited to summer weekends ( Friday to Sunday ) as of 2010 . After the rest area , Route 25 passes over Bourne Road and turns sharply to head in a southwestern direction . The route passes under Bournedale Road after entering the town of Bourne . In Bourne , Route 25 has its final interchange ; Exit 3 ( formerly Exit 2 ) serves the villages of Buzzards Bay and Sagamore , connecting to US 6 ( Scenic Highway ) and Route 28 north . From Exit 3 , US 6 is used to access the Sagamore Bridge in northern Bourne and the towns of Hyannis and Provincetown on Cape Cod .
After Exit 3 , the Route 25 designation continues for 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 km ) . The six @-@ lane freeway narrows into a four @-@ lane undivided highway shortly before the approach ramps to the Bourne Bridge . Route 25 is concurrent with Route 28 from Exit 3 until the US 6 underpass , at which point the Route 25 designation officially ends ; the two eastbound lanes of Route 25 continue as Route 28 south over the Bourne Bridge and the Cape Cod Canal and onto Cape Cod . Route 28 continues southward to the town of Falmouth and then eastward to Hyannis and Orleans . An estimated daily average of over 35 @,@ 000 motorists utilized the Route 25 expressway in 2008 .
= = History = =
= = = Early alignment = = =
The origins of Route 25 date back to 1947 , when the Massachusetts Department of Public Works ( MassDPW ) announced plans for an expressway that would link I @-@ 95 in Foxborough with Cape Cod . The planned route was given the Route 25 designation northwest of a planned interchange with the Fall River Expressway ( Route 24 ) in Raynham and the Route 28 designation to the southeast of Route 24 . After ten years of planning studies , the route received preliminary approval from the MassDPW in 1957 , and construction began in 1958 ; the entire route was designated as Route 25 in 1962 , with Route 28 instead being aligned on local roads . The portion of the freeway between Route 24 in Raynham and I @-@ 195 in Wareham was completed in 1967 . In 1969 , MassDPW extended the freeway eastward to US 6 in Wareham .
In the 1970s , the MassDPW changed the planned designation of the unconstructed Route 25 expressway northwest of Route 24 to I @-@ 495 . When this portion of I @-@ 495 was completed in 1982 , the state also designated the existing alignment of Route 25 between Route 24 and the I @-@ 195 interchange in Wareham as I @-@ 495 . After the reassignment , Route 25 was shortened to a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 km ) stretch from I @-@ 195 east to Downtown Wareham .
From 1969 until 1987 , the eastern terminus of Route 25 was at a junction with Maple Springs Road , US 6 and Route 28 in Wareham near the modern location of Exit 2 . The MassDPW and the Massachusetts Highway Department ( MassHighway ) had plans to extend the freeway eastward to Cape Cod as early as 1953 , when the route was included in the proposed Cape Cod Expressway that would connect New York City with Cape Cod . Route 25 was originally planned to connect to the Sagamore Bridge , which carried US 6 over the Cape Cod Canal and was used to access the towns of Hyannis and Provincetown . In 1962 , however , the MassDPW conducted traffic studies on the two bridges crossing the canal and found that the Sagamore Bridge was above vehicular capacity , whereas the more southern Bourne Bridge had excess capacity . The Route 25 freeway was then redesigned to cross over the Bourne Bridge and connect with the Mid @-@ Cape Highway ( US 6 ) on the southern side of the canal via the proposed Southside Connector . The connector would have been constructed through the Massachusetts Military Reservation in Bourne , but was canceled by the MassDPW and MassHighway in 1977 when environmental tests indicated the freeway would disturb underground aquifers serving as water sources for the region . MassDPW instead changed the proposed eastern terminus of the Route 25 expressway to the approach ramps of the Bourne Bridge .
= = = Completion of the freeway = = =
Construction of Route 25 east of Wareham , however , was delayed for nearly three decades to property disputes , environmental concerns and resistance from business owners in Buzzards Bay village , who claimed the freeway would divert all the traffic , and their business , elsewhere , leaving a ghost town in its wake . The proposed alignment ran through land where much of the state 's cranberry harvest was located , and this led to lengthy lawsuits and delays . In particular , farmers were concerned that salt runoff from winter ice removal would harm cranberry harvests . Throughout the 1970s and 1980s , the MassDPW developed several proposals to control storm water runoff and avoid potential damage to the cranberry crops . Engineers for the department developed four different drainage systems to be used along the length of the freeway that would divert runoff away from the Wareham River basin . In addition , the freeway was planned with a thicker asphalt pavement that was largely impervious to water .
The freeway was also delayed due to a larger property dispute with Hope Ingersoll , the owner of the 900 @-@ acre ( 364 ha ) Grazing Fields Farm on Bournedale Road in Bourne , well known in the region as an artists ' colony and a producer of organic food . MassDPW proposed constructing Route 25 through the center of the farm , but Ingersoll hired engineers to develop an alternate routing . In 1978 , MassDPW rejected Ingersoll 's design , instead approving the alignment that ran through farmland seized by eminent domain . In 1980 , a state judge ruled that MassDPW had to conduct environmental studies on both the original routing and Ingersoll 's proposal . MassDPW eventually opted to construct Ingersoll 's design , giving Route 25 a longer alignment that arced to the north and east of Grazing Fields Farm before turning westward toward the Buzzards Bay business district and the Bourne Bridge . The route finally began construction in 1982 , and in 1989 the MassDPW was forced to pay Ingersoll $ 2 @.@ 6 million ( 1982 USD ) for 90 acres ( 36 ha ) of farmland seized for the expressway 's construction .
In 1987 , the final 7 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 12 km ) segment of Route 25 from Maple Springs Road in Wareham to the Bourne Bridge was completed . A rest area and information center in Plymouth also opened with the freeway . The new expressway relieved congestion along US 6 and Route 28 in the Buzzards Bay business district , greatly reducing the number of accidents along the approach to the Bourne Bridge . In 2007 , MassHighway completed a renumbering of the three interchanges along the length of Route 25 as part of a signing upgrade project . Previously , the I @-@ 195 interchange had been numbered Exit 1 as part of I @-@ 495 's numbering scheme , with the Onset interchange also being Exit 1 as part of Route 25 's own scheme . This led to a confusing situation in which the road had two consecutive Exit 1s , so MassHighway devised a solution in which I @-@ 495 and MA @-@ 25 would " share " Exit 1 ( the I @-@ 195 interchange ) , and all other exits on MA @-@ 25 would be bumped up a number .
= = Exit list = =
All interchanges will be renumbered to mileage @-@ based numbers under a project scheduled to start in 2016 . The proposed new numbers from west to east are 0 , 3 , and 10 .
= Subrahmanya Temple , Saluvankuppam =
The Subrahmanya Temple at Saluvankuppam , Tamil Nadu , is a shrine dedicated to the Hindu deity Murugan . Archaeologists believe that the shrine , unearthed in 2005 , consists of two layers : a brick temple constructed during the Sangam period ( the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD ) and a granite Pallava temple dating from the 8th century AD and constructed on top of the brick shrine . The Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) team which conducted the excavation believe that brick temple could be the oldest of its kind to be discovered in Tamil Nadu . However , noted Indian archaeologist R. Nagaswamy is critical of this claim owing to lack of references to the shrine in the popular literature of the period .
The temple was discovered by a team of archaeologists from the ASI based on clues found in a rock inscription left exposed by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami . Initially , excavations revealed an 8th @-@ century Pallava @-@ era shrine . Further excavations revealed that the 8th @-@ century shrine had been built on the brick foundation of an earlier shrine . The brick shrine has been dated to the Sangam period .
The temple faces north , unlike most Hindu temples . Artefacts from two phases , the Sangam phase as well as the Pallava phase , have been found . The temple is Tamil Nadu 's oldest shrine to Murugan . It is also believed to be one of only two pre @-@ Pallava temples to be discovered in the state , the other being the Veetrirundha Perumal Temple at Veppathur .
= = Discovery = =
After the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami had subsided , archaeologists discovered rock inscriptions which had been exposed by the tsunami waves close to the hamlet of Saluvankuppam , near the UNESCO @-@ designated World Heritage Site of Mahabalipuram . The inscriptions by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III and the Chola kings Parantaka I and Kulothunga Chola I spoke of a Subrahmanya Temple at Thiruvizhchil ( the present day Saluvanakuppam ) . S. Rajavelu , epigraphist with the Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) , identified a nearby mound as the site of the temple . In 2005 , archaeologists unearthed an 8th @-@ century Pallava temple under the mound . G. Thirumoorthy , ASI Assistant Archaeologist , believed that the shrine could be the oldest Subrahmanya temple to be excavated in Tamil Nadu . There were speculations on whether the temple could be one of the " Seven Pagodas " .
However , further excavations revealed that the 8th @-@ century temple was constructed over the remains of an older brick temple . According to Thirumoorthy , the garbhagriha or sanctum sanctorum of the brick temple was filled with sand and covered with granite slabs upon which the newer temple was constructed . Sathyamurthy , Superintendent , ASI Chennai Circle , said that the brick temple could be dated to the Sangam period as the shrine faced north unlike modern temples which face either east or west . This proved conclusively that the temple was constructed before the 6th or 7th century AD when the shilpa shastras , the canonical texts of temple architecture , were written . Estimates of the age of the brick shrine range from 1700 to 2200 years .
Archaeologists believe that the brick shrine was destroyed either by a cyclone or a tsunami which took place 2 @,@ 200 years ago . The Pallavas built a granite temple on the brick foundation in the 8th century AD , which also was likely to have been destroyed by a tsunami . Archaeologists believe that the second tsunami must have occurred in the 13th century AD as the latest inscriptions which speak of the shrine have been dated to 1215 .
= = Historical background = =
Although the city of Mahabalipuram was constructed by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I in the 7th century AD , there is evidence that a small port might have functioned at the site even earlier . Megalithic burial urns dating to the very dawn of the Christian era have been discovered near Mahabalipuram . The Sangam age poem Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai describes a port called Nirppeyyaru which some scholars identify with the present @-@ day Mahabalipuram . Sadras near Mahabalipuram has been identified as the site of the port of Sopatma mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea .
= = Inscriptions = =
There are many rock inscriptions near the temple . The discovery of three granite pillars with inscriptions of grants made to the shrine led to the discovery of the temple itself . While one pillar contains an inscription recording the donation of ten kazhanchus ( small balls ) of gold by one Kirarpiriyan of Mahabalipuram in 858 , another records the donation of 16 kazhanchus of gold in 813 for the maintenance of a lamp by a Brahmin woman named Vasanthanar . The third pillar has an inscription by Raja Raja Chola I. Apart from these , there are five other pillars with inscriptions by the Pallava kings Dantivarman I , Nandivarman III and Kambavarman , the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III and the Chola king Rajendra Chola III .
= = Architecture = =
The temple is dedicated to the Hindu deity Murugan and faces north . The garbhagriha or sanctum sanctorum is 2 metres long and 2 @.@ 2 metres wide and is made of 27 courses of bricks . The bricks used are similar to the ones used in other Sangam age sites such as Puhar , Urayur , Mangudi and Arikamedu . A stone vel is positioned at the entrance of the shrine . During the excavations , a terracotta plaque depicting a Kuravai Koothu , a dance which is mentioned in the 1st century AD Tamil epic Silappadhikaram , was discovered . Sathyamoorthy feels that there may not have been any idol in the square garbhagriha as it is too small to house one . The temple is surrounded by a prakara or a compound wall dating from the Sangam period . According to Thirumoorthy , the shrine is " the biggest brick temple complex dating to the pre @-@ Pallava period " .
The temple is built on a cushion of alluvium on which a layer of man @-@ made bricks were laid . On top of this were another four layers of man @-@ made bricks separated by four layers of laterite . There were two types of bricks used : large @-@ sized laterite bricks of the Sangam period and thin , tabular bricks of a later age . The bricks were plastered together with lime .
= = Artefacts unearthed = =
A terracotta Nandi ( the bull of the god Shiva – father of Murugan ) , head of a woman , terracotta lamps , potsherds and a shivalinga ( aniconic symbol of Shiva ) made of green stone are some of the important artefacts found at the site . The Nandi is the first one made of terracotta to be found . While most of the items unearthed belong to the Sangam period , artefacts of a later period including a Chola copper coin have also been found .
= Russian battleship Oslyabya =
Oslyabya ( Russian : Ослябя ) was the second of the three Peresvet @-@ class second @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy at the end of the nineteenth century , although construction delays meant that she was the last to be completed . The ship was part of the Second Pacific Squadron sent to the Far East during the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 , and served as the flagship of Rear Admiral Baron Dmitry von Fölkersam . Oslyabya was sunk on 27 May 1905 at the Battle of Tsushima , and was the first all @-@ steel battleship to be sunk by naval gunfire alone . Sources differ on the exact number of casualties , but over half her crew went down with the ship .
= = Design and description = =
The design of the Peresvet class was inspired by the British second @-@ class battleships of the Centurion class . The British ships were intended to defeat commerce @-@ raiders like the Russian armored cruisers Rossia and Rurik ; the Peresvet @-@ class ships were designed to support the Russian cruisers . This role placed a premium on high speed and long range at the expense of heavy armament and armor .
Oslyabya had a length of 434 feet 5 inches ( 132 @.@ 4 m ) overall , a beam of 71 feet 6 inches ( 21 @.@ 79 m ) and a draft of 26 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . Designed to displace 12 @,@ 674 long tons ( 12 @,@ 877 t ) , she was almost 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) overweight and displaced 14 @,@ 408 long tons ( 14 @,@ 639 t ) when built . Her crew consisted of 27 officers and 744 enlisted men . The ship was powered by three vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines using steam generated by 30 Belleville boilers . The engines were rated at 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 800 kW ) , using forced draft , and designed to reach a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Oslyabya , however , reached a top speed of 18 @.@ 33 knots ( 33 @.@ 95 km / h ; 21 @.@ 09 mph ) from 15 @,@ 051 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 224 kW ) during her sea trials in September 1902 . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 060 long tons ( 2 @,@ 090 t ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 6 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 500 km ; 7 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship 's main battery consisted of four 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one forward and one aft of the superstructure . The secondary armament consisted of eleven Canet 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull and in the bow , underneath the forecastle . Smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats . These included twenty 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) QF guns , twenty 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns and eight 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . She was also armed with five 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , three above water and two submerged . The ship carried 45 mines to be used to protect her anchorage .
Oslyabya 's waterline armor belt consisted of Harvey armor and was four to nine inches ( 102 to 229 mm ) thick . The belt was 7 feet 9 inches ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high , of which the upper 36 inches ( 910 mm ) was intended to be above the waterline , but the ship was significantly overweight and only had three inches ( 76 mm ) showing at normal load . At full load , the belt was completely submerged and her only protection was the four @-@ inch upper belt . The Krupp cemented armor of her gun turrets had a maximum thickness of nine inches and her deck ranged from two to three inches ( 51 to 76 mm ) thick .
= = Construction and career = =
Oslyabya , named for Rodion Oslyabya , a 14th @-@ century monk of the Troitse @-@ Sergiyeva Lavra and a hero of the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 , was laid down on 21 November 1895 by the New Admiralty Shipyard in Saint Petersburg and launched on 8 November 1898 . Problems at the New Admiralty Shipyard delayed her completion until 1903 at a cost of 11 @,@ 340 @,@ 000 rubles . The ship sailed for Port Arthur on 7 August 1903 with the armored cruiser Bayan , but Oslyabya ran aground in the Strait of Gibraltar on 21 August and was under repair until late November , first in Algeria , then at La Spezia , Italy . After repairs , the ship resumed her voyage to the Far East , but she was recalled to join the Baltic Fleet on 12 February 1904 , following the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War three days previously . After arrival at St. Petersburg in April , Oslyabya was fitted with 4 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) Barr & Stroud rangefinders , telescopic gun sights , a new ventilation system , and Telefunken radio equipment .
= = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = =
The Russian strategy since 1897 had been for ships from the Baltic Fleet to be ordered to the Far East if war with Japan broke out , while the First Pacific Squadron in Port Arthur would avoid a general fleet battle until reinforcements arrived . On 15 October 1904 , Oslyabya set sail for Port Arthur from Libau as von Fölkersam 's flagship , along with the other vessels of the Second Pacific Squadron , under the overall command of Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky . Historian Mark Schrad said that : " This epic 18 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 29 @,@ 000 km ) journey was the longest voyage of a coal @-@ powered battleship fleet in history . " En route to Denmark , the battleship was slightly damaged when the destroyer Buistri collided with her . When his ships reached the port of Tangier , Morocco , on 28 October , Rozhestvensky ordered his older battleships , under the command of von Fölkersam , to go through the Mediterranean and Red Sea to rendezvous with his main force in Madagascar . Rozhestvensky led his squadron , including Oslyabya , down the Atlantic coast of Africa , rounding Cape Horn , and reached the island of Nosy Be off the northwest coast of Madagascar on 9 January 1905 , where they remained for two months while Rozhestvensky finalized his coaling arrangements . By this time Port Arthur had surrendered to the Japanese and he could not count on resupplying there , nor rendezvousing with the First Pacific Squadron . Rozhestvensky 's reunited squadron sailed for Camranh Bay , French Indochina , on 16 March and reached it almost a month later to await the obsolete ships of the Third Pacific Squadron , commanded by Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov . These reached Camranh Bay on 9 May and the combined force sailed for Vladivostok on 14 May .
En route , Rozhestvensky reorganized his ships into three tactical divisions for the forthcoming battle ; the first consisted of the four new Borodino @-@ class battleships commanded by himself , von Fölkersam commanded the Second Division that consisted of the battleships Oslyabya , Navarin , Sissoi Veliky and the armored cruiser Admiral Nakhimov , and Nebogatov retained his ships as the Third Division . Von Fölkersam , ill with cancer , died on 26 May and Rozhestvensky decided not to inform the fleet in order to keep morale up . Oslyabya 's Captain 1st Rank Vladimir Ber became the commander of the Second Division , while Nebogatov had no idea that he was now the squadron 's de facto second @-@ in @-@ command .
While figures are not available for Oslyabya , one Russian account after the battle said that the Borodinos were approximately 1 @,@ 700 long tons ( 1 @,@ 700 t ) overweight as they were overloaded with coal and other supplies that were stored high in the ships , reducing their stability . Oslyabya 's main armor belt was fully submerged with a full load , much less any additional coal and supplies , and thus the four @-@ inch @-@ thick upper armor was the only available protection for the ship 's waterline .
= = = = Battle of Tsushima = = = =
The Russians were spotted early on the morning of 27 May by Japanese ships as they entered the Korea Strait en route to Vladivostok . During the subsequent battle Oslyabya led the Second Division of the squadron and was initially the target of at least two battleships and a pair of armored cruisers when the Japanese opened fire at 14 : 10 . As the Japanese approached , Rozhestvensky ordered the fleet to move from line ahead formation to parallel columns and Oslyabya was forced to almost stop in her tracks to avoid hitting the battleship Oryol , the last ship of Rozhestvensky 's division , as she maneuvered . Almost immediately , the shells began inflicting damage , knocking out the rangefinder , wounding the gunnery officer and severing the cables connecting the guns to the Geisler fire @-@ control system . Other hits shot away the mainmast and knocked out the forward gun turret as well as three of the port six @-@ inch guns . Splinters from one of the many hits entered her conning tower , killing the quartermaster and wounding most of the men inside . This caused the ship to fall out of line to starboard and she was engaged by six Japanese armored cruisers at short range . More serious were several large @-@ caliber shells that struck along the ship 's waterline about 15 minutes into the engagement that caused major flooding ; they opened up enough of the ship 's bow to the sea that her forward motion forced more and more water into her hull and she began listing to port . Flooding of her starboard forward magazine was ordered in an attempt to counteract the list , but it just added more weight forward and destroyed the ship 's stability . Oslyabya 's list increased to 12 degrees at 14 : 20 , flooding many of the lower turrets . Her funnels touched the water around 15 : 10 and Ber ordered " abandon ship " . The ship sank a few minutes later , with her starboard propeller still turning , taking Ber and 470 of her crew with her .
= Eva Braun =
Eva Anna Paula Hitler ( née Braun ; 6 February 1912 – 30 April 1945 ) was the longtime companion of Adolf Hitler and , for less than 40 hours , his wife . Braun met Hitler in Munich when she was 17 years old , while she was working as an assistant and model for his personal photographer , and began seeing him often about two years later . She attempted suicide twice during their early relationship . By 1936 , she was a part of his household at the Berghof near Berchtesgaden and lived a sheltered life throughout World War II . Braun was a photographer , and many of the surviving colour photographs and films of Hitler were taken by her . She was a key figure within Hitler 's inner social circle , but did not attend public events with him until mid @-@ 1944 , when her sister Gretl married Hermann Fegelein , the SS liaison officer on his staff .
As the Third Reich collapsed towards the end of the war , Braun swore loyalty to Hitler and went to Berlin to be by his side in the heavily reinforced Führerbunker beneath the Reich Chancellery . As Red Army troops fought their way into the neighbourhood on 29 April 1945 , she married Hitler during a brief civil ceremony ; she was 33 and he was 56 . Less than 40 hours later , they committed suicide together in a sitting room of the bunker , she by biting into a capsule of cyanide , and he by a gunshot to the head . The German public was unaware of Braun 's relationship with Hitler until after their deaths .
= = Early life = =
Born in Munich , Eva Braun was the second daughter of school teacher Friedrich " Fritz " Braun and Franziska " Fanny " Kronberger , who had worked as a seamstress before her marriage . She was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church . Her elder sister , Ilse , was born in 1909 and her younger sister , Margarete ( Gretl ) , was born in 1915 . Braun 's parents were divorced in April 1921 , but remarried in November 1922 , probably for financial reasons ( hyperinflation was plaguing the German economy at the time ) . Braun was educated at a Catholic lyceum in Munich , and then for one year at a business school in the Convent of the English Sisters in Simbach am Inn , where she had average grades and a talent for athletics . At age 17 she took a job working for Heinrich Hoffmann , the official photographer for the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) . Initially employed as a shop assistant and sales clerk , she soon learned how to use a camera and develop photos . She met Hitler , 23 years her senior , at Hoffmann 's studio in Munich in October 1929 . He had been introduced to her as " Herr Wolff " . Eva 's sister , Gretl , also worked for Hoffman from 1932 onward , and the women rented an apartment together for a time . Gretl accompanied her sister on her later trips with Hitler to the Obersalzberg .
= = Relationship with Hitler = =
Hitler lived with his half @-@ niece , Geli Raubal , in an apartment at Prinzregentenplatz 16 in Munich from 1929 until her death . On 18 September 1931 Raubal was found dead in the apartment , shot with Hitler 's pistol , an apparent suicide . Hitler was in Nuremberg at the time . The relationship was important to him , likely the most intense of his life . Hitler began seeing more of Braun after the suicide .
Braun herself attempted suicide on 10 or 11 August 1932 by shooting herself in the chest with her father 's pistol . Historians feel the attempt was not serious , but was a bid for Hitler 's attention . After Braun 's recovery , Hitler became more committed to her and by the end of 1932 they had become lovers . She often stayed overnight at his Munich apartment when he was in town . Braun worked as a photographer for Hoffmann from 1933 on . This position enabled her to travel — accompanied by Hoffmann — with Hitler 's entourage , as a photographer for the Nazi Party . Later in her career she worked for Hoffman 's art press .
According to a fragment of her diary and the account of biographer Nerin Gun , Braun 's second suicide attempt occurred in May 1935 . She took an overdose of sleeping pills when Hitler failed to make time for her in his life . Hitler provided Eva and her sister with a three @-@ bedroom apartment in Munich that August , and the next year the sisters were provided with a villa in Bogenhausen at Wasserburgerstr . 12 ( now Delpstr . 12 ) . By 1936 , Braun was at Hitler 's household at the Berghof near Berchtesgaden whenever he was in residence there , but she lived mostly in Munich . Braun also had her own apartment at the new Reich Chancellery in Berlin , completed to a design by Albert Speer .
Braun attended the Nuremberg Rally for the first time in 1935 , as a member of Hoffman 's staff . Hitler 's half @-@ sister , Angela Raubal ( the dead Geli 's mother ) , took exception to her presence there , and was later dismissed from her position as housekeeper at his house in Berchtesgaden . Researchers are unable to ascertain if her dislike for Braun was the only reason for her departure , but other members of Hitler 's entourage saw Braun as untouchable from then on .
Hitler wished to present himself in the image of a chaste hero ; in the Nazi ideology , men were the political leaders and warriors , and women were homemakers . He believed that he was sexually attractive to women and wished to exploit this for political gain by remaining single , as he felt marriage would decrease his appeal . He and Braun never appeared as a couple in public ; the only time they appeared together in a published news photo was when she sat near him at the 1936 Winter Olympics . The German people were unaware of Braun 's relationship with Hitler until after the war . According to Speer 's memoirs , Braun never slept in the same room as Hitler and had her own rooms at the Berghof , in Hitler 's Berlin residence , and in the Berlin bunker . Speer later said , " Eva Braun will prove a great disappointment to historians . "
Biographer Heike Görtemaker notes that women did not play a big role in the politics of the Third Reich . Braun 's political influence on Hitler was apparently minimal . She was never allowed to stay in the room when business or political conversations took place , and was sent out of the room when cabinet ministers or other dignitaries were present . She was not a member of the Nazi Party . In his post @-@ war memoirs Hoffmann characterized Braun 's outlook as " inconsequential and feather @-@ brained " ; her main interests were sports , clothes , and the cinema . By all accounts , she led a sheltered and privileged existence and seemed uninterested in politics . One instance when she took an interest was in 1943 , shortly after Germany had fully transitioned to a total war economy . Among other things , this meant a potential ban on women 's cosmetics and luxuries . According to Speer 's memoirs , Braun approached Hitler in " high indignation " ; Hitler quietly instructed Speer , who was armaments minister at the time , to halt production of women 's cosmetics and luxuries rather than instituting an outright ban .
Braun continued to work for Hoffmann after commencing her relationship with Hitler . She took many photographs and movies of members of the inner circle , and some of these were sold to Hoffmann for extremely high prices . She received money from Hoffmann 's company as late as 1943 , and also held the position of private secretary to Hitler . This guise meant she could enter and leave the Chancellery unremarked , though she used a side entrance and a rear staircase . Görtemaker notes that Braun and Hitler enjoyed a normal sex life . Braun 's friends and relatives described Eva giggling over a 1938 photograph of Neville Chamberlain sitting on a sofa in Hitler 's Munich flat with the remark : " If only he knew what goings @-@ on that sofa has seen . "
On 3 June 1944 , Braun 's sister Gretl Braun married SS @-@ Gruppenführer Hermann Fegelein , who served as Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler 's liaison officer on Hitler 's staff . Hitler used the marriage as an excuse to allow Braun to appear at official functions , as she could then be introduced as Fegelein 's sister @-@ in @-@ law . When Fegelein was caught in the closing days of the war trying to escape to Sweden or Switzerland , Hitler ordered his execution . He was shot for desertion in the garden of the Reich Chancellery on 28 April 1945 .
= = Lifestyle = =
Conversion of the small holiday home Hitler purchased in 1933 on the mountain at Obersalzberg began in 1934 and was completed by 1936 . A large wing was added onto the original house and several additional buildings were constructed . The entire area was fenced off , and remaining houses on the mountain were purchased by the Nazi Party and demolished . Braun and the other members of the entourage were cut off from the outside world when in residence . Speer , Hermann Göring , and Martin Bormann had houses constructed inside the compound .
Hitler 's valet , Heinz Linge , stated in his memoirs that Hitler and Braun had two bedrooms and two bathrooms with interconnecting doors at the Berghof , and Hitler would end most evenings alone with her in his study before they retired to bed . She would wear a " dressing gown or house @-@ coat " and drink wine ; Hitler would have tea . Public displays of affection or physical contact were nonexistent , even in the enclosed world of the Berghof . Braun took the role of hostess amongst the regular visitors , though she was not involved in running the household . She regularly invited friends and family members to accompany her during her stays , the only guest to do so .
When Henriette von Schirach suggested that Braun should go into hiding after the war , Braun replied , " Do you think I would let him die alone ? I will stay with him up until the last moment ... " Hitler named Braun in his will , to receive 12 @,@ 000 Reichsmarks yearly after his death . He was very fond of her , and worried when she participated in sports or was late returning for tea .
Braun was very fond of her two Scottish Terrier dogs named Negus and Stasi and they feature in her home movies . She usually kept them away from Hitler 's German Shepherd , Blondi . Blondi was killed by one of the entourage on 29 April 1945 when Hitler ordered that one of the cyanide capsules obtained for Braun and Hitler 's suicide the next day be tested on the dog . Braun 's dogs and Blondi 's puppies were shot by Hitler 's dog handler , Fritz Tornow , on 30 April .
= = Marriage and suicide = =
In early April 1945 , Braun travelled from Munich to Berlin to be with Hitler at the Führerbunker . She refused to leave as the Red Army closed in on the capital . After midnight on the night of 28 – 29 April , Hitler and Braun were married in a small civil ceremony within the Führerbunker . The event was witnessed by Joseph Goebbels and Martin Bormann . Thereafter , Hitler hosted a modest wedding breakfast with his new wife . With Braun 's marriage , her legal name changed to Eva Hitler . When she signed her marriage certificate she wrote the letter B for her family name , then lined this out and replaced it with Hitler .
After 1 : 00 pm on the afternoon of 30 April 1945 , Braun and Hitler said their farewells to staff and members of the inner circle . Later that afternoon , at approximately 3 : 30 pm , several witnesses reported hearing a loud gunshot . After waiting a few minutes , Hitler 's valet , Heinz Linge , and Hitler 's SS adjutant , Otto Günsche , entered the small study and found the lifeless bodies of Hitler and Braun on a small sofa . Braun had bitten into a cyanide capsule , and Hitler had shot himself in the right temple with his pistol . The corpses were carried up the stairs and through the bunker 's emergency exit to the garden behind the Reich Chancellery , where they were burned . Braun was 33 years old when she died .
The charred remains were found by the Russians and secretly buried at the SMERSH compound in Magdeburg , East Germany , along with the bodies of Joseph and Magda Goebbels and their six children . On 4 April 1970 , a Soviet KGB team with detailed burial charts secretly exhumed five wooden boxes of remains . The remains were thoroughly burned and crushed , after which the ashes were thrown into the Biederitz river , a tributary of the nearby Elbe .
The rest of Braun 's family survived the war . Her mother , Franziska , died at age 96 in January 1976 , having lived out her days in an old farmhouse in Ruhpolding , Bavaria . Her father , Fritz , died in 1964 . Gretl gave birth to a daughter — whom she named Eva — on 5 May 1945 . She later married Kurt Beringhoff , a businessman . She died in 1987 . Braun 's elder sister , Ilse , was not part of Hitler 's inner circle . She married twice and died in 1979 .
= Article 9 of the Constitution of Singapore =
Article 9 of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore , specifically Article 9 ( 1 ) , guarantees the right to life and the right to personal liberty . The Court of Appeal has called the right to life the most basic of human rights , but has yet to fully define the term in the Constitution . Contrary to the broad position taken in jurisdictions such as Malaysia and the United States , the High Court of Singapore has said that personal liberty only refers to freedom from unlawful incarceration or detention .
Article 9 ( 1 ) states that persons may be deprived of life or personal liberty " in accordance with law " . In Ong Ah Chuan v. Public Prosecutor ( 1980 ) , an appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council from Singapore , it was held that the term law means more than just legislation validly enacted by Parliament , and includes fundamental rules of natural justice . Subsequently , in Yong Vui Kong v. Attorney @-@ General ( 2011 ) , the Court of Appeal held that such fundamental rules of natural justice embodied in the Constitution are the same in nature and function as common law rules of natural justice in administrative law , except that they operate at different levels of the legal order . A related decision , Yong Vui Kong v. Public Prosecutor ( 2010 ) , apparently rejected the contention that Article 9 ( 1 ) entitles courts to examine the substantive fairness of legislation , though it asserted a judicial discretion to reject bills of attainder and absurd or arbitrary legislation . In the same case , the Court of Appeal held that law in Article 9 ( 1 ) does not include rules of customary international law .
Other subsections of Article 9 enshrine rights accorded to persons who have been arrested , namely , the right to apply to the High Court to challenge the legality of their detention , the right to be informed of the grounds of arrest , the right to counsel , and the right to be produced before a magistrate within 48 hours of arrest . These rights do not apply to enemy aliens or to persons arrested for contempt of Parliament . The Constitution also specifically exempts the Criminal Law ( Temporary Provisions ) Act ( Cap . 67 , 2000 Rev. Ed . ) , the Internal Security Act ( Cap . 143 , 1985 Rev. Ed . ) , and Part IV of the Misuse of Drugs Act ( Cap . 185 , 2008 Rev. Ed . ) from having to comply with Article 9 .
= = Text of Article 9 = =
Article 9 of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore guarantees to all persons the right to life and right to personal liberty . It states :
9 . — ( 1 ) No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty save in accordance with law .
( 2 ) Where a complaint is made to the High Court or any Judge thereof that a person is being unlawfully detained , the Court shall inquire into the complaint and , unless satisfied that the detention is lawful , shall order him to be produced before the Court and release him .
( 3 ) Where a person is arrested , he shall be informed as soon as may be of the grounds of his arrest and shall be allowed to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner of his choice .
( 4 ) Where a person is arrested and not released , he shall , without unreasonable delay , and in any case within 48 hours ( excluding the time of any necessary journey ) , be produced before a Magistrate , in person or by way of video @-@ conferencing link ( or other similar technology ) in accordance with law , and shall not be further detained in custody without the Magistrate 's authority .
( 5 ) Clauses ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) shall not apply to an enemy alien or to any person arrested for contempt of Parliament pursuant to a warrant issued under the hand of the Speaker .
( 6 ) Nothing in this Article shall invalidate any law —
( a ) in force before the commencement of this Constitution which authorises the arrest and detention of any person in the interests of public safety , peace and good order ; or
( b ) relating to the misuse of drugs or intoxicating substances which authorises the arrest and detention of any person for the purpose of treatment and rehabilitation ,
by reason of such law being inconsistent with clauses ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) , and , in particular , nothing in this Article shall affect the validity or operation of any such law before 10th March 1978 .
Article 9 ( 1 ) embodies the concept of the rule of law , an early expression of which was the 39th article of the Magna Carta of 1215 : " No freeman shall be taken captive or imprisoned , or deprived of his lands , or outlawed , or exiled , or in any way destroyed , nor will we go with force against him nor send forces against him , except by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land . " Article 9 ( 1 ) is similar , but by no means identical , to the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution which prohibits any state from denying " any person of life , liberty , or property , without due process of law " , and to Article 21 of the Constitution of India which states : " No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law . " Article 5 ( 1 ) of the Constitution of Malaysia and Singapore 's Article 9 ( 1 ) are worded the same way as the latter was adopted in 1965 from the former following Singapore 's independence from Malaysia .
= = Rights to life and personal liberty = =
= = = Meaning of life = = =
In Yong Vui Kong v. Public Prosecutor ( 2010 ) , the Court of Appeal of Singapore called the right to life " the most basic of human rights " . However , the courts have not yet had the opportunity to define the term life in Article 9 ( 1 ) .
Jurisdictions such as India , Malaysia and the United States interpret the same term in their respective constitutions broadly . In the United States Supreme Court case Munn v. Illinois ( 1877 ) , Justice Stephen Johnson Field stated that the term life means more than mere animal existence . Rather , the definition extends to all those limbs and faculties by which life is enjoyed . His rationale was that the term should not be " construed in any narrow or restricted sense " . Indian courts have likewise adopted a broad interpretation of life in Article 21 of the Indian Constitution to mean more than mere existence – instead , it includes the right to livelihood and the right to a healthy environment . Subsequently , in Samatha v. State of Andhra Pradesh ( 1997 ) , the meaning of life was expanded to include the right to live with human dignity ; and to the provision of minimum sustenance , shelter , and those other rights and aspects of life that make life meaningful and worth living . Similarly , Justice Prafullachandra Natwarlal Bhagwati held in Bandhua Mukti Morcha v. Union of India ( 1984 ) that the expression life included the right to be free from exploitation , and to the basic essentials of life included in the Directive Principles of State Policy that appear in the Indian Constitution .
In the Malaysian case Tan Tek Seng v. Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Pendidikan ( 1996 ) , the appellant had appealed against his wrongful dismissal from employment on the grounds of procedural unfairness . One of the issues brought up was whether an unfair procedure meant that he had been deprived of his constitutional right to life or liberty protected by Article 5 ( 1 ) of the Malaysian Constitution , which is identical to Singapore 's Article 9 ( 1 ) . Judge of the Court of Appeal Gopal Sri Ram held that the courts should take into consideration the unique characteristics and situation of the country , and must not be blind to the realities of life . He went on to suggest that a liberal approach be adopted to grasp the intention of the framers of the Constitution by giving life a broad and liberal meaning . He opined that such an interpretation would include elements that form the quality of life , namely the right to seek and be engaged in lawful and gainful employment , and the right to live in a reasonably healthy and pollution @-@ free environment . He also noted that life cannot be extinguished or taken away except according to procedure established by law .
The Yong Vui Kong case suggests that Singapore courts may interpret the word life more narrowly than the Indian and Malaysian courts when called upon to do so . The Court of Appeal stated that the scope of Article 21 of the Indian Constitution had been expanded by the Indian courts to include " numerous rights relating to life , such as the right to education , the right to health and medical care and the right to freedom from noise pollution " , attributing this to the " pro @-@ active approach of the Indian Supreme Court in matters relating to the social and economic conditions of the people of India " . The Court declined to apply Mithu v. State of Punjab , in which the mandatory death penalty had been found unconstitutional , stating it was " not possible " to interpret Singapore 's Article 9 ( 1 ) in the way that the Indian Supreme Court had interpreted Article 21 of the Indian Constitution .
= = = Meaning of personal liberty = = =
Lo Pui Sang v. Mamata Kapildev Dave ( 2008 ) took a narrow approach to the reading of personal liberty in Article 9 ( 1 ) . The High Court of Singapore held that personal liberty only refers to freedom from unlawful incarceration or detention , and does not include a liberty to contract . Although it was suggested this had always been the understanding of the term , no authority was cited .
The approach taken in Lo Pui Sang can be compared to the more liberal interpretation of liberty in the United States and Malaysia . In the US Supreme Court case of Allgeyer v. Louisiana ( 1897 ) , where a Louisiana statute was struck down on the ground that it violated an individual 's right to contract , it was held that liberty in the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution meant not only the right of the citizen to be free from any physical restraint of his person , but also the right to freely enjoy all his faculties – that is , to be free to use them in all lawful ways ; to live and work where he will ; to earn his livelihood by any lawful calling ; to pursue any livelihood or avocation ; and for that purpose to enter into all contracts that may be proper , necessary , and essential to his carrying out those purposes . Liberty was accorded the same broad reading in the subsequent case Meyer v. Nebraska ( 1923 ) , in which the Supreme Court held that a state statute mandating that English be the only language used in schools was unconstitutional as it infringed on the liberty guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment . The Court stated that liberty
... denotes not merely freedom from bodily restraint but also the right of the individual to contract , to engage in any of the common occupations of life , to acquire useful knowledge , to marry , establish a home and bring up children , to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience , and generally to enjoy those privileges long recognized at common law as essential to the orderly pursuit of happiness by free men .
It was held in the Malaysian Court of Appeal case of Sugumar Balakrishnan v. Pengarah Imigresen Negeri Sabah ( 1998 ) that the term life in Article 5 ( 1 ) of the Constitution is not limited to mere existence , but is a wide concept that must receive a broad and liberal interpretation . Likewise , personal liberty should be similarly interpreted , as any other approach to construction will necessarily produce an incongruous and absurd result . On the facts , personal liberty extended to the liberty of an aggrieved person to go to court and seek judicial review , and thus a statutory provision that sought to oust the power of judicial review was apparently inconsistent with this fundamental liberty . However , the apparent inconsistency could be resolved by permitting an ouster clause to immunize from judicial review only those administrative acts and decisions that are not infected by an error of law . Although the Federal Court reversed the Court of Appeal on this point , in the subsequent case Lee Kwan Woh v. Public Prosecutor ( 2009 ) the Federal Court held that the provisions of the Constitution should be interpreted " generously and liberally " , and that " on no account should a literal construction be placed on its language , particularly upon those provisions that guarantee to individuals the protection of fundamental rights " . In its view :
... it is the duty of a court to adopt a prismatic approach when interpreting the fundamental rights guaranteed under Part II of the Constitution . When light passes through a prism it reveals its constituent colours . In the same way , the prismatic approach will reveal to the court the rights submerged in the concepts employed by the several provisions under Part II .
The Federal Court went on to state that personal liberty " includes other rights " such as the right to " cross the frontiers in order to enter or leave the country when one so desires " .
It has been suggested that since Article 9 ( 1 ) of the Singapore Constitution is pitched at a high level of generality , there is no limitation in the ordinary natural meaning of the phrase . Thus , there is no requirement in the Constitution for personal liberty to be construed narrowly to mean only freedom from physical restraint .
= = = Meaning of save in accordance with law = = =
The meaning of the word law in Article 9 ( 1 ) has a direct bearing on the scope of the Article . If law is read broadly ( for example , as incorporating customary international law principles ) , the scope of the fundamental liberties would be wider . It would be narrower if , on the other hand , law is construed narrowly , as the Legislature would be able to curtail such rights through legislation more easily . This could lead to a watering @-@ down of the emphasis on fundamental liberties , as any infringement might be considered legitimate so long as the statute in question was validly enacted .
= = = = Fundamental rules of natural justice = = = =
In the Malaysian case Arumugam Pillai v. Government of Malaysia ( 1976 ) , the Federal Court construed the phrase save in accordance with law in Article 13 ( 1 ) of the Constitution of Malaysia restrictively . This provision states : " No person shall be deprived of property save in accordance with law . " The Court held that all that was required for the legislation in question to be constitutional was for it to have been validly passed by Parliament . Hence , the validity of any duly enacted piece of legislation could not be questioned on grounds of reasonableness , no matter how arbitrary the law appeared to be .
However , in 1980 the Privy Council rejected this interpretation in the case of Ong Ah Chuan v. Public Prosecutor , a decision on appeal from Singapore . This appeal questioned the constitutional validity of section 15 of the Misuse of Drugs Act , and one of the issues that had to be decided was the interpretation of the word law in Article 9 ( 1 ) . The Public Prosecutor contended that law should be given a narrow meaning . He argued that
since ' written law ' is defined in Art 2 ( 1 ) to mean ' this Constitution and all Acts and Ordinances and subsidiary legislation for the time being in force in Singapore ' and ' law ' is defined as including ' written law ' , the requirements of the Constitution are satisfied if the deprivation of life and liberty has been carried out in accordance with provisions contained in any Act passed by the Parliament of Singapore , however arbitrary or contrary to fundamental rules of natural justice the provisions of such Act may be .
However , the Public Prosecutor qualified the statement by providing a limitation , namely , that " the arbitrariness , the disregard of fundamental rules of natural justice for which the Act provides , must be of general application to all citizens of Singapore so as to avoid falling foul of the anti @-@ discriminatory provisions of Art 12 ( 1 ) " .
In a judgment delivered by Lord Diplock , the Privy Council rejected this interpretation , finding the Public Prosecutor 's argument fallacious . Reading the definition of written law as stated in Article 2 ( 1 ) together with Article 4 , which provides that " any law enacted by the Legislature after the commencement of this Constitution which is inconsistent with this Constitution shall , to the extent of the inconsistency , be void " , their Lordships held that " the use of the expression ' law ' in Art 9 ( 1 ) ... does not , in the event of challenge , relieve the court of its duty to determine whether the provisions of an Act of Parliament passed after 16 September 1963 and relied upon to justify depriving a person of his life or liberty are inconsistent with the Constitution and consequently void " .
In line with their view that Part IV of the Constitution should be given " a generous interpretation ... suitable to give to individuals the full measure of the [ fundamental liberties ] referred to " , their Lordships held that " references to ' law ' in such contexts as ' in accordance with law ' , ' equality before the law ' , ' protection of the law ' and the like ... refer to a system of law which incorporates those fundamental rules of natural justice that had formed part and parcel of the common law of England that was in operation in Singapore at the commencement of the Constitution " . This conception of the meaning of law in Article 9 ( 1 ) has been affirmed by the Court of Appeal in Nguyen Tuong Van v. Public Prosecutor ( 2005 ) and Yong Vui Kong v. Public Prosecutor ( 2010 ) .
It has been highlighted that this elevation of principles of natural justice to constitutional status , with the implication that they may override local statutes due to the supremacy of the Constitution over them , creates some tension with Article 38 which vests the law @-@ making power of Singapore in the legislature .
= = = = = Extent of natural justice = = = = =
In Ong Ah Chuan and the subsequent decision Haw Tua Tau v. Public Prosecutor ( 1981 ) , the Privy Council declined to set out a comprehensive list of fundamental rules of natural justice and merely stated some principles to deal with the issues at hand . At a 2000 conference , the Attorney @-@ General Chan Sek Keong , who became Chief Justice in 2006 , remarked that this gives the Court of Appeal a free hand to determine the scope of the fundamental rules of natural justice unencumbered by precedent .
Guidance as to the scope of fundamental rules of natural justice was provided in Haw Tua Tau . First , the Privy Council said that rules of natural justice are not stagnant and may change with the times . Secondly , they should be considered in the local context , in light of the entire system as a whole and from the perspective of the people operating the system . Further , in order to satisfy the rules of natural justice , the law in question should not be " obviously unfair " . In its view , under a system of justice in which the court is invested with partly inquisitorial functions , compelling an accused to answer questions put to him by a judge cannot be regarded as contrary to natural justice . The Court of Appeal later ruled in Public Prosecutor v. Mazlan bin Maidun ( 1992 ) that the privilege against self @-@ incrimination was not a fundamental rule of natural justice , and thus not a constitutional right .
In Yong Vui Kong v. Attorney @-@ General ( 2011 ) , the Court of Appeal stated that fundamental rules of natural justice embodied in the concept of law in constitutional provisions such as Articles 9 ( 1 ) and 12 ( 1 ) are the same in nature and function as common law rules of natural justice in administrative law , except that they operate at different levels of the legal order . The former invalidate legislation on the ground of unconstitutionality and can only be altered by amending the Constitution , while the latter invalidate administrative decisions on the ground of administrative law principles and can be abrogated or disapplied by ordinary legislation .
= = = = = A procedural or substantive concept ? = = = = =
Traditionally , at common law , natural justice is taken to be a procedural concept that embodies the twin pillars of audi alteram partem ( hear the other party ) and nemo iudex in causa sua ( no one should be a judge in his or her own cause ) . In the United States , due process has both procedural and substantive components . Substantive due process involves the courts assessing the reasonableness of executive actions and legislation using rational basis review if a fundamental right is not implicated and strict scrutiny if it is . The question thus arises whether substantive fundamental rules of natural justice may be developed by local courts . However , a line of Malaysian cases has expressed the view that the concept of substantive due process is not applicable to Article 5 ( 1 ) of the Malaysian Constitution , which is identical to Singapore 's Article 9 ( 1 ) . There is also academic commentary that rejects the notion of " substantive natural justice " , arguing that it is too vague and leads to problems in application . Another argument against substantive natural justice is the fear that it may become an avenue for judges to invalidate laws on the basis of their own subjective opinions , leading to unbounded judicial activism .
On the other hand , it has also been suggested that substantive natural justice would merely be a full exercise of the judiciary 's proper role as conferred by the Constitution . In addition , one scholar has asserted that there is no doubt that a judicial inquiry covers both substantive and procedural aspects . It is said that Article 9 ( 1 ) connotes a judicial inquiry into the " fairness " of the law tested against certain principles regarded as fundamental to the legal system . Distinguishing between substantive and procedural fairness is a meaningless exercise , as it merely clouds the process of judicial inquiry . Judicial review is judicial review under whatever name , and as far as Article 9 ( 1 ) is concerned , there is no room for making this distinction .
However , in Yong Vui Kong v. Public Prosecutor ( 2010 ) the Court of Appeal appeared to reject such an approach by declining to require that procedural laws must be " fair , just and reasonable " before they can be regarded as law for the purpose of Article 9 ( 1 ) . It noted that the provision neither contains such a qualification , nor can such a qualification be implied from its context or wording . The Court considered it " too vague a test of constitutionality " and said : " Such a test hinges on the court ’ s view of the reasonableness of the law in question , and requires the court to intrude into the legislative sphere of Parliament as well as engage in policy making . " On the other hand , the Court acknowledged that Article 9 ( 1 ) does not justify all legislation whatever its nature . It held , obiter , that law might not encompass colourable legislation ( that is , bills of attainder – legislation purporting to be of general application but in fact directed at securing the conviction of particular individuals ) , or legislation " of so absurd or arbitrary a nature that it could not possibly have been contemplated by our constitutional framers as being ' law ' when they crafted the constitutional provisions protecting fundamental liberties " .
= = = = Customary international law = = = =
In Nguyen Tuong Van v. Public Prosecutor ( 2004 ) , the Court of Appeal considered whether law in Article 9 ( 1 ) includes principles of customary international law . In that case , the appellant argued that effecting a death sentence for drug trafficking by hanging is unconstitutional as a form of cruel and inhuman punishment not " in accordance with law " . The Court agreed that there was a prohibition against torture and cruel and inhumane treatment in Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and that this is considered customary international law . However , a customary international law rule had to be " clearly and firmly established " before it was adopted by the courts , and there was insufficient practice among states to hold that death by hanging was within the ambit of this prohibition . Also , even if there was a customary international law rule against death by hanging , domestic statutes would prevail in the event of conflict .
The Court of Appeal clarified in Yong Vui Kong v. Public Prosecutor ( 2010 ) , that customary international law cannot be read into the Constitution for two reasons . First , in order for a customary international law rule to have legal effect in Singapore , it has to be incorporated into domestic law . The incorporation can occur either by enactment in a statute or by a court declaration that the rule forms part of the common law . The Court felt it would be incorrect to incorporate customary international law rules into the meaning of law in Article 9 ( 1 ) as this would cloak the common law with the constitutional status to nullify a statute , thus reversing the usual hierarchy of legal rules . Secondly , the term law is defined in Article 2 ( 1 ) to include the common law only " in so far as it is in operation in Singapore " . However , a court cannot treat rules of customary international law as having been incorporated into Singapore common law if they are inconsistent with existing statutes . Furthermore , if there is a conflict between such a rule and a domestic statute , the latter prevails .
The Constitution is silent as to the reception of international law in domestic law . In Yong Vui Kong the Court of Appeal accepted that domestic law , including the Constitution , should " as far as possible " be consistently interpreted with Singapore 's international obligations . Nonetheless , while international human rights law can increase the normative pool judges may resort to in interpreting the Constitution , there are " inherent limits " such as the express wording of the constitutional text and constitutional history that " [ militates ] against the incorporation of those international norms " .
It has also been argued that although where possible local statutes should be interpreted in light of international treaties , it is not the role of the judiciary to import international law standards into the Constitution that are inconsistent with legislation instead of deferring to the views of the executive . According to this view , which hinges on a strict adherence to the separation of powers doctrine , the judiciary should guard against unwarranted incursions into the executive sphere , as it is for the executive to determine Singapore 's attitude and position in relation to foreign affairs . The judiciary must not undertake its task of interpreting the Constitution arbitrarily , but should accord with legal reasoning and sound principles . This necessarily raises the question of what the applicable legal principle during the interpretation process should be . It has been suggested that the executive and the judiciary should show solidarity by speaking with " one voice " , and that the courts should exercise deference in favour of what the executive deems to be the nation 's attitude towards the particular international law norm that is sought to be applied .
It may be submitted that such judicial deference to the executive results in a clear neglect of the enshrined fundamental liberties in the Constitution . The flip side to this criticism is that fundamental liberties may still be given due accord though other avenues , for example , the application of rules of natural justice . As the meaning accorded to a particular fundamental liberty may be a potential ground for overturning Parliamentary legislation , it is crucial that the court should not merely rely on international law to determine the meaning of the liberty , unless there is evidence that the executive considers there is indeed an adoption of the particular international law norm .
= = Application = =
= = = Right to life = = =
= = = = Abortion = = = =
One of the most difficult questions involving the right to life is when exactly life begins and ends . If an unborn child is treated as a living person , then it should be accorded the right to life under the Constitution . Laws permitting abortion would thus be unconstitutional . This issue has yet to come before the Singapore courts .
In Singapore , the Penal Code lays out sanctions for non @-@ compliance with the Termination of Pregnancy Act , which limits abortion to women who have not been pregnant for more than 24 weeks . By not conferring the right to life upon fetuses younger than the stipulated period , the legislation has accorded greater weight to the safety and security of expectant mothers who are threatened by their unborn children . This is in contrast with the approach taken in the Philippines , where the Constitution provides that the state shall equally protect the life of the mother and the life of the unborn from conception . Similarly , the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms of the Czech Republic states that human life deserves to be protected before birth . Chances of a universal consensus on this issue are slim due to the difficulty in defining the beginning of life .
= = = = Right to die = = = =
In Singapore , attempted suicide , abetment of suicide , and abetment of attempted suicide are criminal acts . This applies to physicians who aid patients in ending their lives . Such physicians are unable to claim a defence under section 88 of the Penal Code since they intended to cause the patients ' deaths . However , physicians are absolved of liability if patients refuse treatment for terminal illnesses by issuing advance medical directives .
Whether the right to life guaranteed by Article 9 ( 1 ) encompasses a right to die – that is , a right to commit suicide or a right to assisted suicide , usually in the face of a terminal illness – has not been the subject of any Singapore court case . In other jurisdictions , the right to life has generally not been interpreted in this way . In Gian Kaur v. State of Punjab ( 1996 ) the Indian Supreme Court held that the right to life is a natural right embodied in Article 21 of the Indian Constitution , and since suicide is an unnatural termination or extinction of life it is incompatible and inconsistent with the concept of the right to life . The US Supreme Court has also declined to recognize that choosing death is a right protected by the Constitution . In Washington v. Glucksberg ( 1997 ) , a group of Washington residents asserted that a state law banning assisted suicide was unconstitutional on its face . The majority held that as assisted suicide is not a fundamental liberty interest , it was not protected under the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . Several of the justices seemed persuaded that the availability of palliative care to " alleviate suffering , even to the point of causing unconsciousness and hastening death " outweighed recognizing a new unenumerated " right to commit suicide which itself includes a right to assistance in doing so " .
= = = Right to personal liberty = = =
= = = = Rights of arrested persons = = = =
Article 9 ( 2 ) of the Constitution enshrines the right of persons who have been detained to apply to the High Court challenging the legality of their detention . The application is for an order for review of detention , which was formerly called a writ of habeas corpus . The Court is required to inquire into the complaint , and order the detainee to be produced before the Court and released unless it is satisfied that the detention is lawful .
Article 9 ( 3 ) requires that an arrested person be informed " as soon as may be " of the grounds of his arrest . Article 9 ( 4 ) goes on to provide that if the arrested person is not released he must , without unreasonable delay , and in any case within 48 hours ( excluding the time of any necessary journey ) be produced before a magistrate and cannot be further detained in custody without the authority of the magistrate . The person 's attendance before the magistrate may be in person or by way of video @-@ conferencing or other similar technology in accordance with law .
= = = = = Right to counsel = = = = =
Article 9 ( 3 ) also states that an arrested person must be allowed to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner of his choice .
= = Restrictions on the rights to life and personal liberty = =
As mentioned above , Parliament is entitled to restrict the rights to life and personal liberty as long as it acts " in accordance with law " . More specific restrictions on Article 9 include Article 9 ( 5 ) , which provides that Articles 9 ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) of the Constitution do not apply to enemy aliens or to persons arrested for contempt of Parliament pursuant to a warrant issued by the Speaker .
= = = Detention under the Criminal Law ( Temporary Provisions ) Act and the Misuse of Drugs Act = = =
Article 9 ( 6 ) saves any law
( a ) in force before the commencement of the Constitution authorizing the arrest and detention of any person in the interests of public safety , peace and good order ; or
( b ) relating to the misuse of drugs or intoxicating substances which authorizes the arrest and detention of any person for treatment and rehabilitation ,
from being invalid because of inconsistency with Articles 9 ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) . This provision took effect on 10 March 1978 but was expressed to apply to laws in force prior to that date . Introduced by the Constitution ( Amendment ) Act 1978 , the provision immunizes the Criminal Law ( Temporary Provisions ) Act and Part IV of the Misuse of Drugs Act from unconstitutionality .
Preventive detention is the use of executive power to detain individuals on the basis that they are predicted to commit future crimes that will threaten national interest . Among other things , the Criminal Law ( Temporary Provisions ) Act empowers the Minister for Home Affairs , if satisfied that a person has been associated with activities of a criminal nature , to order that he or she be detained for a period not exceeding 12 months if the Minister is of the view that the detention is necessary in the interests of public safety , peace and good order .
Under the Misuse of Drugs Act , the Director of the Central Narcotics Bureau may order drug addicts to undergo drug treatment or rehabilitation at an approved institution for renewable six @-@ month periods up to a maximum of three years .
= = = Detention under the Internal Security Act = = =
Section 8 ( 1 ) of Singapore 's Internal Security Act ( " ISA " ) gives the Minister for Home Affairs the power to detain a person without trial for any period not exceeding two years on the precondition that the President is : " satisfied ... that ... it is necessary to do so ... with a view to preventing that person from acting in any manner prejudicial to the security of Singapore ... or to the maintenance of public order or essential services therein " . The period of detention may be renewed by the President indefinitely for periods not exceeding two years at a time as long as the grounds for detention continue to exist .
The ISA has its constitutional basis in Article 149 of the Constitution , which sanctions preventive detention and allows for laws passed by the legislature against subversion to override the Articles protecting the personal liberties of the individual . Specifically , Article 149 ( 1 ) declares such legislation to be valid notwithstanding any inconsistency with five of the fundamental liberty provisions in the Constitution , including Article 9 . Thus , detentions under the ISA cannot be challenged on the basis of deprivation of these rights .
= = = Cases = = =
Ong Ah Chuan v. Public Prosecutor [ 1980 ] UKPC 32 , [ 1981 ] A.C. 648 , [ 1979 – 1980 ] S.L.R. ( R. ) [ Singapore Law Reports ( Reissue ) ] 710 , Privy Council ( on appeal from Singapore ) .
Haw Tua Tau v. Public Prosecutor [ 1981 ] UKPC 23 , [ 1982 ] A.C. 136 , [ 1981 – 1982 ] S.L.R. ( R. ) 133 , P.C. ( on appeal from Singapore ) .
Tan Tek Seng v. Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Pendidikan [ 1996 ] 1 M.L.J. [ Malaya Law Journal ] 261 , Court of Appeal ( Malaysia ) .
Washington v. Glucksberg 521 U.S. 702 ( 1997 ) , Supreme Court ( United States ) .
Sugumar Balakrishnan v. Pengarah Imigresen Negeri Sabah [ 1998 ] 3 M.L.J. 289 , C.A. ( Malaysia ) .
Nguyen Tuong Van v. Public Prosecutor [ 2004 ] SGCA 47 , [ 2005 ] 1 S.L.R. ( R. ) 103 , Court of Appeal ( Singapore ) , archived from the original on 15 November 2010 .
Lee Kwan Woh v. Public Prosecutor [ 2009 ] 5 M.L.J. 301 , Federal Court ( Malaysia ) .
Yong Vui Kong v. Public Prosecutor [ 2010 ] 3 S.L.R. [ Singapore Law Reports ] 489 , C.A. ( Singapore ) .
= = = Legislation = = =
Criminal Law ( Temporary Provisions ) Act ( Cap . 67 , 2000 Rev. Ed . ) ( " CLTPA " ) .
Internal Security Act ( Cap . 143 , 1985 Rev. Ed . ) ( " ISA " ) .
Misuse of Drugs Act ( Cap . 185 , 2008 Rev. Ed . ) ( " MDA " ) .
Penal Code ( Cap . 224 , 2008 Rev. Ed . ) .
= = = Other works = = =
Lim , C.L. ( 2005 ) , " The Constitution and the Reception of Customary International Law : Nguyen Tuong Van v Public Prosecutor " , Singapore Journal of Legal Studies 1 : 218 – 233 , SSRN 952611 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2010 ) , " ' It is a Little Known Legal Fact ' : Originalism , Customary Human Rights Law and Constitutional Interpretation : Yong Vui Kong v. Public Prosecutor " , Singapore Journal of Legal Studies : 558 – 570 , SSRN 1802666 .
= = = Articles = = =
Ganesh , Aravind ( 2010 ) , " Insulating the Constitution : Yong Vui Kong v Public Prosecutor [ 2010 ] SGCA 20 " , Oxford University Commonwealth Law Journal 10 ( 2 ) : 273 – 292 , doi : 10 @.@ 5235 / 147293410794895304 .
Lee , Jack Tsen @-@ Ta ( 2011 ) , " The Mandatory Death Penalty and a Sparsely Worded Constitution " , Law Quarterly Review 127 : 192 – 195 .
McDermott , Yvonne ( 2010 ) , " Yong Vui Kong v. Public Prosecutor and the Mandatory Death Penalty for Drug Offences in Singapore : A Dead End for Constitutional Challenge ? " , International Journal on Human Rights and Drug Policy 1 : 35 – 52 , SSRN 1837822 .
Tey , Tsun Hang ( 2010 ) , " Death Penalty Singapore @-@ Style : Clinical and Carefree " , Common Law World Review 39 : 315 – 357 , doi : 10 @.@ 1350 / clwr.2010.39.4.0208 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( July 1997 ) , " Trends in Constitutional Interpretation : Oppugning Ong , Awakening Arumugam ? " , Singapore Journal of Legal Studies : 240 – 290 .
Ramraj , Victor V [ ridar ] ( 2004 ) , " Four Models of Due Process " , International Journal of Constitutional Law 2 ( 3 ) : 492 – 524 , doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / icon / 2 @.@ 3 @.@ 492 .
= = = Books = = =
Hor , Michael ( 2006 ) , " Death , Drugs , Murder and the Constitution " , in Teo , Keang Sood , gen. ed . , Developments in Singapore Law between 2001 and 2005 , Singapore : Singapore Academy of Law , pp. 499 – 539 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 05 @-@ 7232 @-@ 7 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 25 November 2010 .
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ( 2011 ) , " Fundamental Liberties I : Protection of Life & Liberty " , An Introduction to Singapore 's Constitution ( rev. ed . ) , Singapore : Talisman Publishing , pp. 146 – 165 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 08 @-@ 6456 @-@ 9 .
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ; Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2010 ) , " Protection of Life & Liberty " , Constitutional Law in Malaysia and Singapore ( 3rd ed . ) , Singapore : LexisNexis , pp. 735 – 794 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 236 @-@ 795 @-@ 2 .
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ; Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2010 ) , " Rights of the Accused Person " , Constitutional Law in Malaysia and Singapore ( 3rd ed . ) , Singapore : LexisNexis , pp. 795 – 838 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 236 @-@ 795 @-@ 2 .
= Acton Town tube station =
Acton Town is a London Underground station in the south @-@ west corner of Acton , west London , in the London Borough of Ealing , close to the border with the London Borough of Hounslow . The station is served by the District and Piccadilly lines and is in Travelcard Zone 3 . On the District line , it is between Chiswick Park and Ealing Common stations , and on the Piccadilly line it is between Hammersmith ( Turnham Green in the early mornings and late evenings ) and Ealing Common on the Uxbridge branch & South Ealing on the Heathrow branch .
Acton Town station was opened as Mill Hill Park on 1 July 1879 by the District Railway ( DR , now the District line ) . It remained as a terminus until on 1 May 1883 and 23 June 1903 the DR opened two branches from Acton Town to Hounslow Town and Park Royal & Twyford Abbey respectively . On 4 July 1932 the Piccadilly line was extended to Acton Town . District line services to both the Hounslow and Uxbridge branches were withdrawn completely on 9 and 10 October 1964 after which operations were provided by the Piccadilly line alone .
The original brick @-@ built station was built in 1879 and in February 1910 the station building was reconstructed . On 1 March 1910 the station was given its present name . In 1931 and 1932 the station was rebuilt again in preparation for transferring the Uxbridge branch service from the District line to the Piccadilly line . The new station was designed by Charles Holden in a modern European geometric style using brick , reinforced concrete and glass .
= = Location = =
The station is at the junction of Gunnersbury Lane ( A4000 ) and Bollo Lane . To the south @-@ west of the station is the former Acton Works , central overhaul and engineering works for the London Underground . It is now home to the London Transport Museum 's reserve collection of rail and road vehicles ( as known as London Transport Museum Depot or Museum Depot ) . The museum depot is opened to the public on a number of weekends throughout the year . To the north of the station is the District line 's Ealing Common Depot .
Frank Pick House is near the station , on Gunnersbury Lane . It is named after Frank Pick , the London Passenger Transport Board 's chief executive . It is home to one of the engineering departments of the London Underground .
= = History = =
= = = District line = = =
= = = = Hounslow and Uxbridge branches = = = =
Acton Town station was opened as Mill Hill Park on 1 July 1879 by the District Railway ( DR , now the District line ) on its extension from Turnham Green to Ealing Broadway . On 1 May 1883 the DR opened a branch from Acton Town to the now defunct Hounslow Town station , which developed into the Heathrow branch . On 23 June 1903 the DR tracks extended north of Acton Town to a new station at Park Royal & Twyford Abbey which became the first of the Underground 's surface lines to use electric traction instead of steam with the Acton Town — Ealing Common section also electrified . The existing deep tube lines , ( City and South London Railway , Waterloo & City Railway ( now Waterloo & City line ) and Central London Railway ) had always been electrically powered . Services on the Hounslow branch ( now the Heathrow branch ) and to Central London were electrified on 13 June 1905 and 1 July 1905 respectively .
= = = = South Acton branch = = = =
On 13 June 1905 passenger service began on the short branch to South Acton . A short fifth platform for the single car train of the South Acton branch was provided to the north of the eastbound island platform . At first the service ran to Hounslow West and to Uxbridge but it was later reduced to a shuttle between Acton Town and South Acton on 15 February 1932 . The South Acton branch was closed on 28 February 1959 due to low usage ; its platform at Acton Town has not been removed and is still visible . The platform is hidden behind advertising hoardings and not obvious to the casual observer . Much of the branch remains including a bridge support on the south side of Bollo Lane . In the picture , the area behind the hoarding in the background is the location of the former branch platform ( Platform 5 ) which was only ever very short , two carriages at most .
= = = Piccadilly line = = =
On 4 July 1932 the Piccadilly line was extended west from its original terminus at Hammersmith and shared the route with the District line to Ealing Common . From Ealing Common to South Harrow , the District line was replaced by the Piccadilly line , and from that date , District line trains from Acton Town ran only either to Hounslow West or to Ealing Broadway . On 9 January 1933 Piccadilly line trains , sharing with the District line , began serving Northfields on the Hounslow branch , and their service was extended to Hounslow West on 13 March 1933 but Piccadilly line trains did not call at South Ealing until 1935 . District line services on the Hounslow branch were withdrawn on 9 and 10 October 1964 after which operations were provided by the Piccadilly line alone .
= = Station building = =
The original brick @-@ built station was built in 1879 . In February 1910 the station building was reconstructed and on 1 March 1910 the station was given its present name . In 1931 and
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1932 the station was rebuilt again in preparation for transferring the Uxbridge branch service from the District line to the Piccadilly line . The new station was designed by Charles Holden in a modern European geometric style using brick , reinforced concrete and glass .
As other stations Holden designed , Acton Town station features a tall block @-@ like ticket hall rising above a low horizontal structure housing the station offices and shops . The ticket hall has a projecting London Underground roundel sign over a canopy , the brick walls of the ticket hall are punctuated with panels of clerestory windows and the structure is capped with a flat concrete slab roof . From the ticket hall enclosed stairs descend to the platforms under integral concrete canopies on paired piers in alternating broad and narrow bay formation . A part of the narrow bays is infilled by kiosks , integral poster boards , roundel signs and fixed seating . The platforms are linked by a secondary bridge at the southern end . Reinforced concrete platform canopies replaced the original timber canopies . Since 17 May 1994 , the station has been a Grade II Listed building .
The stated reason for why it should be listed was :
" Reinforced concrete post and lintel construction with red brick infill , some load @-@ bearing . Symmetrical almost square and double @-@ height ticket hall flanked by kiosks on bridge , from which parade of shops descends to Bollo Lane with secondary entrance under stepped boxed lighting to the rear . Ticket hall gives on to complex access area with open frame construction , whence enclosed stairs descend to platforms under integral concrete. canopies - incorporating clerestory - on paired piers in alternating broad and narrow bay formation . The narrow bays part infilled by kiosks , integral poster boards , roundel signs and fixed seating . The platforms are linked by a secondary bridge at the southern end . All the frontage shops have their original bronzed glazing , particularly elaborate in the taller frontages to Bollo Lane and in the side passage . All shopdoors original save that to single shop east of station . The station windows metal with strong horizontal emphasis in their glazing bars . Ticket hall has projecting roundel sign over canopy , and three double @-@ height paired windows to street frontage with similar windows at upper level to rear . Exposed concrete frame to ceiling , rendered upper walls with brown tiling below . Original tiled floors . Included as an important example of Holden 's mature work for an interchange station . "
= = Services and connections = =
= = = Services = = =
Between Acton Town and Hammersmith , District line trains serve all stations , but Piccadilly line trains run non @-@ stop to Hammersmith except for calling at Turnham Green at the start and end of the day . The run between Acton Town and Hammersmith spans nearly three miles – the longest distance between stops on the Piccadilly line . West of Acton Town , District line trains go via Ealing Common to Ealing Broadway and Piccadilly line trains run either via South Ealing to Heathrow , or via Ealing Common to Uxbridge .
= = = = District line = = = =
The typical off @-@ peak service in trains per hour ( tph ) is :
6tph eastbound to Upminster ( Barking on Sundays )
6tph westbound to Ealing Broadway
There is also a morning service every day from Acton Town ( Ealing Broadway on Saturdays ) to Edgware Road and a late evening service from Edgware Road to Ealing Broadway on Sundays only .
= = = = Piccadilly line = = = =
Train frequencies vary throughout the day , but generally operate every 2 – 5 minutes eastbound , every 5 – 15 minutes westbound to Uxbridge ( Rayners Lane in the early mornings ) , and every 2 – 7 minutes westbound to Heathrow Terminals 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 3 and 5 or via the Heathrow Terminal 4 loop .
During occasional closures on the District line , the Piccadilly line provides additional services to serve destinations on the District line such as Ealing Broadway . This is done either by diverting some trains bound for Rayners Lane and Uxbridge , or as a shuttle from Acton Town . Also , Piccadilly line trains may also run on the District line tracks between Hammersmith and Acton Town to serve the District line stations with no platforms on the Piccadilly line , namely Ravenscourt Park , Stamford Brook , Turnham Green and Chiswick Park .
= = = Connections = = =
London Bus routes 207 , 427 , 440 and E3 , and night routes N7 , N11 and N207 serve the station . Bus route 207 stretches from Southall to White City while route 440 goes from Gunnersbury to Stonebridge Park . Bus route 427 begins at the station and terminates at Uxbridge . Bus route E3 starts from Chiswick and ends at Greenford . Night route N7 runs from Northolt to Russell Square . Route N11 starts at Ealing Broadway and ends at Liverpool Street while route N207 stretches from Oxford Circus to Uxbridge .
= = Gallery = =
= Erforsche mich , Gott , und erfahre mein Herz , BWV 136 =
Erforsche mich , Gott , und erfahre mein Herz ( Examine me , God , and know my heart ) , BWV 136 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . Bach composed the cantata in 1723 in Leipzig to be used for the eighth Sunday after Trinity . He led the first performance on 18 July 1723 .
The work is part of Bach 's first annual cycle of cantatas . He began to compose cantatas for all occasions of the liturgical year when he took up office as Thomaskantor in May 1723 . The cantata is structured in six movements : two choral movements at the beginning and end frame a sequence of alternating recitatives and arias . The opening movement is based on a verse from Psalm 139 ; the closing chorale on a stanza from Johann Heermann 's hymn " Wo soll ich fliehen hin " . The cantata is scored for three vocal soloists ( alto , tenor and bass ) , a four @-@ part choir , corno , two oboes , strings and basso continuo .
= = History and words = =
When Bach took up office as Thomaskantor ( director of church music ) in Leipzig in May 1723 on the first Sunday after Trinity , he began to compose cantatas for all occasions of the liturgical year . He wrote Erforsche mich , Gott , und erfahre mein Herz for the eighth Sunday after Trinity . The prescribed readings for the Sunday are from the Epistle to the Romans , " For as many as are led by the Spirit of God , they are the sons of God " ( Romans 8 : 12 – 17 ) , and from the Gospel of Matthew , the warning of false prophets from the Sermon on the Mount ( Matthew 7 : 15 – 23 ) . An unknown librettist wrote the text , closely related to the prescribed gospel . His text is the first in a group of ten cantatas following the same structure of biblical text – recitative – aria – recitative – aria – chorale . The ten cantatas were dedicated to the 8th to 14th and 21st to 22nd Sunday after Trinity and the second Sunday after Easter .
The opening chorus is based on Psalms 139 : 23 , focused on the examination of the believer 's heart by God . The closing chorale is stanza 9 of Johann Heermann 's hymn " Wo soll ich fliehen hin " ( 1630 ) on the melody of " Auf meinen lieben Gott " , which Bach used again in 1724 as the base for his chorale cantata Wo soll ich fliehen hin , BWV 5 .
The Bach scholar Alfred Dürr concludes from the autograph that only the middle section of movement 3 and the chorale were composed in 1723 with certainty . The other parts may rely on a former unknown secular or church cantata , according to the conductor John Eliot Gardiner and the musicologist Tadeshi Isoyama .
= = Scoring and structure = =
The cantata in six movements is scored for three vocal soloists ( alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir ( SATB ) , corno ( horn , Co ) , two oboes ( Ob ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) . One oboe is marked " d 'amore " ( Oa ) in the autograph kept by the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin . Some scholars , including Dürr and Gardiner , believe that the second oboe part in the choral movements 1 and 6 should also be played by oboe d 'amore . The title on the original parts reads : " Domin : 8 post Trinit : / Erforsche mich Gott , und erfahre mein ect . / â / 4 Voci / Corno / 2 Hautbois / 2 Violini / Viola / e / Continuo / di Sign : / J.S.Bach " .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring and keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings , while the continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
= = = 1 = = =
The opening chorus expands on a psalm verse , " Erforsche mich , Gott , und erfahre mein Herz " ( Examine me , God , and discover my heart ) . The music in the style of a Gigue expresses confidence facing the examination . In 1739 it was characterized by Johann Mattheson 1739 as " somewhat like the rapid arrow of a stream " ( " etwa wie der glattfortschiessende Strom @-@ Pfeil eines Bachs " ) . The movement is structure in two parts ( A and A ' ) , with choral fugues on the same themes , both presenting the complete text . An extended instrumental ritornello , dominated by the horn , is heard before , between and after the choral sections . The first fugue is preceded by a choral Devise ( statement ) . Throughout the movement the two oboes never play independently but double the violins in the ritornelli and the soprano in the vocal sections . The virtuoso horn parts may have been intended for the exceptional Gottfried Reiche .
Bach used the same material as in this movement later in the " Cum Sancto Spiritu " of his Missa in A major .
= = = 2 = = =
A secco recitative , " Ach , daß der Fluch , so dort die Erde schlägt " ( Alas , that the curse , which strikes the earth there ) , renders a contrasting change of mood . Bach interprets the curse of sin , and the hopeless situation of the humans and the threat of the Last Judgment in music full of dissonances .
= = = 3 = = =
The alto aria , " Es kömmt ein Tag " ( A day will come ) , is accompanied by an oboe , an oboe d 'amore according to Alfred Dürr and John Eliot Gardiner . The middle section , " Denn seines Eifers Grimm vernichtet " ( For the wrath of His vengeance will annihilate ) , is certainly composed in 1723 . The middle section is marked Adagio and in common time , contrasting to the first section , marked with Presto and with a 12 / 8 time signature .
= = = 4 = = =
A secco recitative , " Die Himmel selber sind nicht rein " ( The heavens themselves are not pure ) , tends to an arioso in the last measures .
= = = 5 = = =
The violins in unison accompany the duet of tenor and bass , " Uns treffen zwar der Sünden Flecken " ( Indeed the stains of sin cling to us ) . The voices sing sometimes in imitation , sometimes in homophony , in the style of duets Bach wrote at Köthen earlier in his career .
= = = 6 = = =
The chorale , " Dein Blut , der edle Saft " ( Your blood , the noble juice ) , is expanded to five parts with a combination of the four @-@ part chorus and an accompanying violin part , similar to the chorale of Erschallet , ihr Lieder , erklinget , ihr Saiten ! BWV 172 , written earlier by Bach for Pentecost 1714 in Weimar .
= = Selected recordings = =
The sortable listing is taken from the selection provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and instrumental ensembles are roughly marked as large by red background , such as boys ' choirs and the Bach orchestras of the 1950s , while instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances are highlighted green under the header Instr ..
= SMS Stettin =
SMS Stettin ( " His Majesty 's Ship Stettin " ) was a Königsberg @-@ class light cruiser of the Kaiserliche Marine . She had three sister ships : Königsberg , Nürnberg , and Stuttgart . Laid down at AG Vulcan Stettin shipyard in 1906 , Stettin was launched in March 1907 and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet seven months later in October . Like her sisters , Stettin was armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and a pair of 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , and was capable of a top speed in excess of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) .
In 1912 , Stettin joined the battlecruiser Moltke and cruiser Bremen for a goodwill visit to the United States . After the outbreak of World War I , Stettin served in the reconnaissance forces of the German fleet . She saw heavy service for the first three years of the war , including at the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914 and the Battle of Jutland in May – June 1916 , along with other smaller operations in the North and Baltic Seas . In 1917 , she was withdrawn from frontline service and used as a training ship until the end of the war . In the aftermath of Germany 's defeat , Stettin was surrendered to the Allies and broke up for scrap in 1921 – 1923 .
= = Construction = =
Stettin was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Wacht " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in her namesake city in 1906 . She was launched on 7 March 1907 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 29 October 1907 . The ship was 115 @.@ 3 meters ( 378 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 2 m ( 43 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 29 m ( 17 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 814 t ( 3 @,@ 754 long tons ; 4 @,@ 204 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by eleven coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type boilers . These provided a top speed of 25 @.@ 2 knots ( 46 @.@ 7 km / h ; 29 @.@ 0 mph ) and a range of approximately 5 @,@ 750 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 650 km ; 6 @,@ 620 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Stettin had a crew of 14 officers and 308 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side @-@ by @-@ side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , amounting to 150 shells per gun . The ship was also equipped with eight 5 @.@ 2 cm SK L / 55 guns with 4 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition . She was also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Stettin served with the High Seas Fleet in German waters . In early 1912 , Stettin was assigned to a goodwill cruise to the United States , along with the battlecruiser Moltke , the only German capital ship to ever visit the US , and the light cruiser Bremen . On 11 May 1912 the ships left Kiel and arrived off Hampton Roads , Virginia , on 30 May . There , they met the US Atlantic Fleet and were greeted by then @-@ President William Howard Taft aboard the presidential yacht USS Mayflower . After touring the East Coast for two weeks , they returned to Kiel on 24 June .
= = = Actions in the North Sea = = =
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Stettin was serving in the North Sea with the High Seas Fleet . On 6 August , she and the cruiser Hamburg escorted a flotilla of U @-@ boats into the North Sea in an attempt to draw out the British fleet , which could then be attacked by the U @-@ boats . The force returned to port on 11 August , without having encountered any British warships . Some two weeks later , on 28 August , Stettin was involved in the Battle of Heligoland Bight . At the start of the engagement , Stettin , Frauenlob , and Hela stood in support of the line of torpedo boats patrolling the Heligoland Bight ; Stettin was at anchor to the northeast of Heligoland island , and the other two ships were on either side . The German screen was under the command of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper , the commander of reconnaissance forces for the High Seas Fleet .
When the British first attacked the German torpedo boats , Hipper immediately dispatched Stettin and Frauenlob , and several other cruisers that were in distant support , to come to their aid . At 08 : 32 , Stettin received the report of German torpedo boats in contact with the British , and immediately weighed anchor and steamed off to support them . Twenty @-@ six minutes later , she encountered the British destroyers and opened fire , at a range of 8 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) . The attack forced the British ships to break off and turn back west . During the engagement , lookouts aboard Stettin spotted a British cruiser in the distance , but it did not join the battle . By 9 : 10 , the British had withdrawn out of range , and Stettin fell back to get steam in all of her boilers . During this portion of the battle , the ship was hit once , on the starboard No. 4 gun , which killed two men and badly injured another . Her intervention prevented the British from sinking the torpedo boats V1 and S13 .
By 10 : 00 , Stettin had steam in all of her boilers , and was capable of her top speed . She therefore returned to the battle , and at 10 : 06 , she encountered eight British destroyers and immediately attacked them , opening fire at 10 : 08 . Several hits were observed in the British formation , which dispersed and fled . By 10 : 13 , the visibility had decreased , and Stettin could no longer see the fleeing destroyers , and so broke off the chase . The ship had been hit several times in return , without causing significant damage , but killing another two and wounding another four men . At around 13 : 40 , Stettin reached with the cruiser Ariadne , which was just coming under attack from several British battlecruisers . Stettin 's crew could see the large muzzle flashes in the haze , which after having disabled Ariadne , turned on Stettin at 14 : 05 . The haze saved the ship , which was able to escape after ten salvos missed her . At 14 : 20 , she encountered Danzig . The German battlecruisers Von der Tann and Moltke reached the scene by 15 : 25 , by which time the British had already disengaged and withdrawn . Hipper , in Seydlitz , followed closely behind , and ordered the light cruisers to fall back on his ships . After conducting a short reconnaissance further west , the Germans returned to port , arriving in Wilhelmshaven by 21 : 30 .
On 15 December , the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group , led by Hipper , conducted a bombardment of Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby on the English coast . The main body of the High Seas Fleet , commanded by Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , stood by in distant support ; Stettin and two flotillas of torpedo boats screened the rear of the formation . That evening , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival screens in the darkness convinced Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily , Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battle fleet back toward Germany .
= = = Operations in the Baltic = = =
On 7 May 1915 , the IV Scouting Group , which by then consisted of Stettin , Stuttgart , München , and Danzig , and twenty @-@ one torpedo boats was sent into the Baltic Sea to support a major operation against Russian positions at Libau . The operation was commanded by Rear Admiral Hopman , the commander of the reconnaissance forces in the Baltic . The IV Scouting Group was tasked with screening to the north to prevent any Russian naval forces from moving out of the Gulf of Finland undetected , while several armored cruisers and other warships bombarded the port . The Russians did attempt to intervene with a force of four cruisers : Admiral Makarov , Bayan , Oleg , and Bogatyr . The Russian ships briefly engaged München , but both sides were unsure of the others ' strength , and so both disengaged . Shortly after the bombardment , Libau was captured by the advancing German army , and Stettin and the rest of the IV Scouting Group were recalled to the High Seas Fleet .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
In May 1916 , the German fleet commander , Admiral Reinhard Scheer , planned a major operation to cut off and destroy an isolated squadron of the British fleet . The operation resulted in the battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . During the battle , Stettin served as the flagship of Commodore Ludwig von Reuter , the commander of the IV Scouting Group . The IV Scouting Group was tasked with screening for the main German battlefleet . As the German fleet approached the scene of the unfolding engagement between the British and German battlecruiser squadrons , Stettin steamed ahead of the leading German battleship , König , with the rest of the Group dispersed to screen for submarines . Stettin and the IV Scouting Group were not heavily engaged during the early phases of the battle , but around 21 : 30 , they encountered the British cruiser HMS Falmouth . Stettin and München briefly fired on the British ship , but poor visibility forced the ships to cease fire . Reuter turned his ships 90 degrees away and disappeared in the haze .
During the withdrawal from the battle on the night of 31 May at around 23 : 30 , the battlecruisers Moltke and Seydlitz passed ahead of Stettin too closely , forcing her to slow down . The rest of the IV Scouting Group did not notice the reduction in speed , and so the ships became disorganized . Shortly thereafter , the British 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron came upon the German cruisers , which were joined by Hamburg , Elbing , and Rostock . A ferocious firefight at very close range ensued ; Stettin was hit twice early in the engagement and was set on fire . A shell fragment punctured the steam pipe for the ship 's siren , and the escaping steam impaired visibility and forced the ship to abandon an attempt to launch torpedoes . In the melee , HMS Southampton was hit by approximately eighteen 10 @.@ 5 cm shells , including some from Stettin . In the meantime , the German cruiser Frauenlob was set on fire and sunk ; as the German cruisers turned to avoid colliding with the sinking wreck , the IV Scouting Group became dispersed . Only München remained with Stettin . The two ships accidentally attacked the German destroyers G11 , V1 , and V3 at 23 : 55 .
By 04 : 00 on 1 June , the German fleet had evaded the British fleet and reached Horns Reef ; the Germans then returned to port . In the course of the battle , Stettin had suffered eight men killed and another 28 wounded . She had fired a total of 81 rounds of ammunition from her 10 @.@ 5 cm guns .
= = = Fate = = =
In 1917 , Stettin was withdrawn from front line service and used as a training ship with the U @-@ boat school . She served in this capacity until the end of the war . Under Article 185 of the Treaty of Versailles , which ended the war after the Armistice that ceased fighting on 11 November 1918 , Stettin was listed among the warships still in German service that were to be surrendered to the Allied powers , and accordingly she was stricken on 5 November 1919 . She was surrendered to Great Britain as a war prize on 15 September 1920 , under the transfer name " T " . She was then sold to shipbreakers in Copenhagen and dismantled for scrap in 1921 – 1923 .
= Washington State Route 510 =
State Route 510 ( SR 510 ) is a 13 @.@ 07 @-@ mile ( 21 @.@ 03 km ) long state highway in Thurston County , a subdivision of the US state of Washington . The highway extends southeast from an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) in Lacey to SR 507 in Yelm . SR 510 roughly parallels the Nisqually River , the border between Thurston and Pierce counties , between the Fort Lewis and Nisqually Indian Community area to Yelm . Five educational institutions , including one community college and two high schools , are served by the route . The roadway was built by 1916 as a connector from Saint Clair Lake to the Northern Pacific Railway station in Yelm and was designated as Secondary State Highway 5I ( SSH 5I ) in 1937 . The original route of SSH 5I ran from Tumwater east to Yelm , following the present @-@ day Yelm Highway . In 1959 , the highway was realigned to serve a new freeway , later I @-@ 5 , in Lacey ; SSH 5I was replaced in the 1964 highway renumbering by SR 510 . The Yelm @-@ Tenino Trail was built over the Northern Pacific line in 1993 and a bypass is being constructed around Yelm .
= = Route description = =
SR 510 begins as Marvin Road at exit 111 , a diamond interchange on Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) in southern Lacey . The highway travels south by the Hawks Prairie Village Mall , home of the Hawks Prairie Center , a division of the South Puget Sound Community College . South of the mall is the Martin Way intersection , located west of River Ridge High School and one of the busiest intersections on the roadway at a daily average of 24 @,@ 000 motorists in 2008 , and the Pacific Avenue roundabout , where SR 510 turns east , renamed Pacific Avenue , northeast of Long Lake . After leaving Lacey city limits , the roadway begins to parallel the Quadlok line owned by Tacoma Rail south towards the Old Pacific Highway . At the Old Pacific Highway , the road becomes the St. Clair Cutoff Road , named for nearby Saint Clair Lake , and crosses the railroad tracks twice . After turning northeast , parallel to Saint Clair Lake 's shoreline , the highway dips southeast , now parallel to the Nisqually River , into Fort Lewis and the Nisqually Indian Community . Outside of the community , SR 510 is renamed the Yelm Highway and passes Southworth Elementary . After intersecting Mudd Run Road , future western terminus of the Yelm Loop , the roadway enters Yelm city limits . After turning southeast , SR 510 becomes Yelm Avenue and serves Yelm High School . Shortly thereafter , the roadway serves Yelm Middle School , crosses the Yelm @-@ Tenino Trail , a 7 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 11 @.@ 9 km ) long rail trail in operation since 1993 , and ends at First Street , signed as SR 507 , which continues southeast as Yelm Avenue .
= = Alternate route = =
Stage 1 of a 120 @-@ foot ( 36 @.@ 58 m ) wide , 2 lane bypass of Yelm , named the Yelm Loop , is completed and open to traffic . The bypass begins at a roundabout with SR 510 near the current Mudd Run Road intersection and travels east through a residential and industrial area , currently ending at Cullins Road . The unfinished portion of the Yelm Loop is currently officially signed as State Route 510 Alternate .
Stage 2 will finish the Yelm Loop to SR507 and this segment is currently unfunded . The highway will turn south , pass a city park , and end at a traffic signal with SR 507 east of Yelm . Plans for the Yelm Loop were created in 2004 and the Washington State Legislature funded Stage 1 in 2009 , with its construction completed in October 2010 . The city is actively anticipating completion of Stage 2 , which will redirect traffic that has increased since the 1990s . When completed , it is expected that the current traversal of State Route 510 will be moved to the Alternate , becoming the new State Route 510 .
= = History = =
SR 510 began as an unsigned county @-@ maintained road that ran from the Saint Clair Lake area to the Northern Pacific Railway station at Yelm , constructed by 1916 . The road later extended west to Tumwater and designated Secondary State Highway 5I ( SSH 5I ) in 1937 . The old route followed present @-@ day Yelm Highway on the southern side of Saint Clair Lake and Patterson Lake to Tumwater . In 1959 , SSH 5I was moved to a northern route to the U.S. Route 99 ( US 99 ) and US 410 freeway in Lacey . SR 510 officially replaced SSH 5I after the 1964 highway renumbering ; US 99 and US 410 also became Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) in 1968 .
SR 510 between I @-@ 5 and Pacific Avenue was reconstructed and widened in late 2003 , with the addition of a roundabout at the Pacific Avenue intersection .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Thurston County .
= CS gas =
The compound 2 @-@ chlorobenzalmalononitrile ( also called o @-@ chlorobenzylidene malononitrile ) ( chemical formula : C10H5ClN2 ) , a cyanocarbon , is the defining component of a tear gas commonly referred to as CS gas , which is used as a riot control agent . Exposure causes a burning sensation and tearing of the eyes to the extent that the subject cannot keep their eyes open , and a burning irritation of the nose , mouth and throat mucous membranes causing profuse coughing , mucous nasal discharge , disorientation , and difficulty breathing , partially incapacitating the subject . CS gas is an aerosol of a volatile solvent ( a substance that dissolves other active substances and that easily evaporates ) and 2 @-@ chlorobenzalmalononitrile , which is a solid compound at room temperature . CS gas is generally accepted as being non @-@ lethal . It was discovered by two Americans , Ben Corson and Roger Stoughton , at Middlebury College in 1928 , and the chemical 's name is derived from the first letters of the scientists ' surnames .
CS was developed and tested secretly at Porton Down in Wiltshire , England , in the 1950s and 1960s . CS was used first on animals , then subsequently on British Army servicemen volunteers . CS has less effect on animals due to " under @-@ developed tear @-@ ducts and protection by fur " .
= = Production = =
CS is synthesized by the reaction of 2 @-@ chlorobenzaldehyde and malononitrile via the Knoevenagel condensation :
ClC6H4CHO + H2C ( CN ) 2 → ClC6H4CHC ( CN ) 2 + H2O
The reaction is catalysed with weak base like piperidine or pyridine . The production method has not changed since the substance was discovered by Corson and Stoughton . Other bases , solvent free methods and microwave promotion have been suggested to improve the production of the substance .
The physiological properties had been discovered already by the chemists first synthesising the compound in 1928 : " Physiological Properties . Certain of these dinitriles have the effect of sneeze and tear gases . They are harmless when wet but to handle the dry powder is disastrous . "
= = = Use as an aerosol = = =
As 2 @-@ chlorobenzalmalononitrile is a solid at room temperature , not a gas , a variety of techniques have been used to make this solid usable as an aerosol :
Melted and sprayed in the molten form .
Dissolved in organic solvent .
CS2 dry powder ( CS2 is a siliconized , micro @-@ pulverized form of CS ) .
CS from thermal grenades by generation of hot gases .
In the Waco Siege , CS was dissolved in the organic solvent dichloromethane ( also known as methylene chloride ) . The solution was dispersed as an aerosol via explosive force and when the highly volatile dichloromethane evaporated , CS crystals precipitated and formed a fine dispersion in the air .
= = Effects = =
Many types of tear gas and other riot control agents have been produced with effects ranging from mild tearing of the eyes to immediate vomiting and prostration . CN and CS are the most widely used and known , but around 15 different types of tear gas have been developed worldwide e.g. adamsite or bromoacetone , CNB , and CNC . CS has become the most popular due to its strong effect . The effect of CS on a person will depend on whether it is packaged as a solution or used as an aerosol . The size of solution droplets and the size of the CS particulates after evaporation are factors determining its effect on the human body .
The chemical reacts with moisture on the skin and in the eyes , causing a burning sensation and the immediate forceful and uncontrollable shutting of the eyes . Effects usually include tears streaming from the eyes , profuse coughing , exceptional nasal discharge that is full of mucus , burning in the eyes , eyelids , nose and throat areas , disorientation , dizziness and restricted breathing . It will also burn the skin where sweaty and / or sunburned . In highly concentrated doses it can also induce severe coughing and vomiting . Almost all of the immediate effects wear off within an hour ( such as exceptional nasal discharge and profuse coughing ) , although the feeling of burning and highly irritated skin may persist for hours . Affected clothing will need to be washed several times or thrown away .
= = = Secondary effects = = =
People or objects contaminated with CS gas can cause secondary exposure to others , including healthcare professionals and police . In addition , repeated exposure may cause sensitisation .
= = Toxicity = =
Although described as a non @-@ lethal weapon for crowd control , studies have raised doubts about this classification . As well as causing severe pulmonary damage , CS can also significantly damage the heart and liver .
On 28 September 2000 , Prof. Dr. Uwe Heinrich released a study commissioned by John C. Danforth , of the United States Office of Special Counsel , to investigate the use of CS by the FBI at the Branch Davidians ' Mount Carmel compound . He concluded that the lethality of CS used would have been determined mainly by two factors : whether gas masks were used and whether the occupants were trapped in a room . He suggests that if no gas masks were used and the occupants were trapped , then , " there is a distinct possibility that this kind of CS exposure can significantly contribute to or even cause lethal effects . "
At least one study has associated CS exposure with miscarriages . This is consistent with its reported clastogenic effect ( abnormal chromosome change ) on mammalian cells .
In Israel , CS gas was reported to be the cause of death of Jawaher Abu Rahmah on 31 December 2010 , although the Israel Defense Forces have questioned the veracity of the report . Other reports suggest the cause of death was in fact the impact of a high @-@ velocity CS gas canister to the chest . In Egypt , CS gas was reported to be the cause of death of several protesters in Mohamed Mahmoud Street near Tahrir square during the November 2011 protests .
The solvent in which CS is dissolved , methyl isobutyl ketone ( MIBK ) , is classified as harmful by inhalation ; irritating to the eyes and respiratory system ; and repeated exposure may cause skin dryness or cracking .
= = Decontamination = =
CS contamination can be removed by washing with soap and water , or an alkaline solution of water and 5 % sodium bisulfite .
= = Use = =
CS is used in spray form by many police forces as a temporary incapacitant and to subdue attackers or persons who are violently aggressive . Officers who are trained in the use and application of CS spray are routinely exposed to it as part of their training .
Blank pistol cartridges carrying CS in powder form have been released to the public . These , when fired at relatively close ranges , fully expose the target to the effects of CS , and are employed as a potent defensive weapon in regions where blank firing pistols are legally permitted for such use .
Although predominantly used by police it has also been used in criminal attacks in various countries .
Use of CS in war is prohibited under the terms of the Chemical Weapons Convention , signed by most nations in 1993 with all but five other nations signing between 1994 and 1997 . The reasoning behind the prohibition is pragmatic : use of CS by one combatant could easily trigger retaliation with much more toxic chemical weapons such as nerve agents . Only four nations have not signed the Chemical Weapons Convention and are therefore unhindered by restrictions on the use of CS gas : Angola , Egypt , North Korea and Somalia .
Domestic police use of CS is legal in many countries , as the Chemical Weapons Convention prohibits only military use .
= = = Bahrain = = =
CS gas has been used extensively by Bahrain 's police since the start of the Bahraini uprising . The Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry concluded that Bahrain 's police used a disproportionate amount of CS gas when dispersing protests , and that in some situations , police fired CS gas into private homes in an " unnecessary and indiscriminate " manner . In one particular incident witnessed by Commission investigators , police fired " at least four tear gas canisters ( each containing six projectiles ) ... from a short range into the kitchen and living room of a home . "
According to opposition activists and families of the dead , ten individuals died as a result of CS gas between 25 March 2011 and 17 December 2011 . One allegedly died from the impact of the CS gas canister , and the remainder are said to have died from the effects of inhaling the gas . The Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry received information that a further three deaths may have been attributable to the use of CS gas . Of these three , one allegedly died from the impact of the canister , and two from the effects of inhaling the gas .
= = = Canada = = =
Since 2008 , the SPVM police force in Montreal has increased its use of CS Gas for crowd control , although Police policy is to only use it as a " last resort " .
Several incidents where protesters have been seriously injured by having CS gas fired at them from point @-@ blank range have raised concerns about the methodology and training of Officers in the Montreal Riot Squad , particularly in relation to " Use of Force " .
= = = Cyprus = = =
CS was first tested in the field by the British army in Cyprus in 1958 . At this time it was known by the code name T792 .
= = = Egypt = = =
CS has been widely used by Egyptian Police / Military Forces from January 2011 onwards .
= = = Hong Kong = = =
The Police Tactical Unit ( Hong Kong ) of the Hong Kong Police Force used 87 rounds of CS projectiles ( both riot gun launched and hand thrown ) in Hong Kong on September 28 , 2014 against hundreds of unarmed demonstrators demanding democratic elections during 2014 Hong Kong protests , also known as the Umbrella Movement .
The CS gas canisters and content used were purchased by the Hong Kong SAR Government from CHEMRING , a British weapons manufacturer . The crowd used umbrellas to fend off the gas , often ineffectively .
Apart from the HK police , CS gas spray is also used by Witness Protection and Firearms Section of Independent Commission Against Corruption ( Hong Kong )
= = = Iraq = = =
Iraq successfully developed CS during the 1970s and during the 1980s produced tons of the substance firstly at Salman Pak and later at al @-@ Muthanna .
Blackwater Worldwide , acting as an agent of the United States , deployed CS in the Iraq War from a helicopter hovering over a checkpoint in the Green Zone in Baghdad .
= = = Israel = = =
Israel Police forces spray CS gas at riot control situations . It is widely used at demonstrations within the Palestinian Territories and at the Israeli West Bank barrier .
= = = Philippines = = =
CS tear gas was used in suppression of the mutiny in Makati that was led by Sen. Antonio Trillanes . The tear gas was fired in the building and all the people in the building including reporters were affected .
= = = Sri Lanka = = =
The LTTE , also known as Tamil Tigers of Sri Lanka , an insurgent group in Sri Lanka used CS gas against government forces in September 2008 . Its use hindered the army 's progress but ultimately proved ineffective in preventing the army from overrunning LTTE positions .
This is one of the few cases of insurgents using CS gas .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
= = = = Northern Ireland = = = =
CS gas was used extensively in the Bogside area of Derry , Northern Ireland during the " Battle of the Bogside " , a two @-@ day riot in August 1969 . A total of 1 @,@ 091 canisters containing 12.5g of CS each , and 14 canisters containing 50g of CS each , were released in the densely populated residential area . On 30 August the Himsworth Inquiry was set up to investigate the medical effects of its use in Derry . Its conclusions , viewed in the political context of the time , still pointed towards the necessity of further testing of CS gas before being used as a riot control agent . During the rioting in Belfast , the following year , known as the Falls Curfew , the Army fired up to 1 @,@ 600 canisters into the densely populated Falls Road area . It was also used in Lenadoon on 9 July 1972 on the breakdown of the IRA ceasefire . Not long after , the British Army and RUC ceased using CS in Northern Ireland .
= = = = Great Britain = = = =
= = = = = CS gas = = = = =
CS gas has never been routinely deployed on the British mainland . It has seen use in rare cases .
The first use of CS gas on the UK mainland that was not part of military training was carried out in 1944 during a hostage siege at a north London address . Soldiers were asked to throw CS grenades through the skylight in hope of bringing the incident to a speedy conclusion , but the hostage @-@ taker had brought his civilian @-@ issue gas mask with him , negating the effect .
The siege of Trough Gate 1973 in Oldham was the second non @-@ military use of CS gas on the UK mainland . During a four @-@ hour standoff , Frank Alan Stockton shot at police but was flushed from his home with CS gas and police dogs .
In 1981 , CS gas was used to quell rioting in the Toxteth area of Liverpool .
In the March 2007 shootings in Leicester , CS gas was used after which a scuffle broke out . On 11 March 2007 a shooting incident occurred at around 2.45am following a performance by Pretty Ricky at the university . A 21 @-@ year @-@ old student at the university , who was employed as security staff at the event , received gunshot wounds to his abdomen and was taken to hospital where his condition was not believed to be life @-@ threatening . Six others were also injured during what was described as a scuffle that broke out after CS gas ( tear gas ) was sprayed following the event .
Following the 2011 England riots , there was consideration given to making CS gas , water cannon and other riot control measures available to police for use in the event of serious disorder .
The British Armed Forces use CS gas annually to test their CBRN equipment . During initial training they introduce recruits to CS gas by introducing them into a small enclosed space known as a Confidence Test Facility ( CTF ) and igniting chemical tablets to induce CS production . After recruits have carried out their CBRN drills , they must remove their respirators so that they are exposed to the CS for up to 20 seconds to experience its effects and become confident their masks work .
= = = = = CS spray = = = = =
CS incapacitant spray has been used routinely by the British police since its introduction in 1996 . It is issued as an item of equipment to police officers for protection and to assist in dealing with violent incidents .
A six @-@ month trial by sixteen police forces in England began on 1 March 1996 .
On 16 March 1996 , a Gambian asylum seeker , Ibrahima Sey , was taken to Ilford Police Station in east London . Whilst incapacitating Sey , who was suffering from excited delirium , police sprayed him with CS spray and held him on the ground for approximately 15 minutes , and he subsequently died .
In 1999 , the mental health charity MIND called for a suspension of the use of CS spray on mentally ill people until it was proved to be safe .
The CS spray used by police forces is in the form of a hand @-@ held aerosol canister containing a 5 % solution of CS dissolved in methyl isobutyl ketone and propelled by pressurized nitrogen . The CS spray used by UK police is generally more concentrated than that used by American police forces ( 5 % vs 1 % ) . The liquid stream is directed where the user points the canister , being accurate up to 4 metres .
For an officer to be authorised to carry CS spray as part of their personal protection equipment , they have to have completed a training course in use of the spray , which includes being sprayed with a 3 % solution of CS . They are also trained in helping the incapacitated person recover once successfully restrained .
Under UK firearm law , CS and other incapacitant sprays are classed as prohibited weapons , making it unlawful for a member of the public to possess them .
Some forces have opted to replace CS spray with Captor or PAVA spray , with 60 % of forces now estimated to be using PAVA .
In February 2006 , Dan Ford , from Wareham in Dorset , received permanent scarring to his face after being sprayed with CS during an arrest by police . Ford was subsequently advised by doctors to stay out of sunlight for at least 12 months . After the incident , his cousin , Donna Lewis , was quoted as saying , " To look at him , it was like looking at a melting man , with liquid oozing from his face . "
To give an indication as to the frequency of use of CS sprays by police , officers in Reading , Berkshire deployed personal incapacitant spray on 486 occasions over a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year period from April 2009 . CS spray was used in the UK more than 10 @,@ 000 times in the period between its introduction in 1996 and September 1998 .
= = = United States = = =
CS is used by many police forces within the United States . It was used by Federal Bureau of Investigation law enforcement officials in the 1993 Waco Siege .
Riot police in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania in September 2009 used CS gas and riot control techniques to disperse assemblies in the vicinity of the 2009 G @-@ 20 Pittsburgh summit .
In Berkeley , California during the Bloody Thursday events in the People 's Park on 21 May 1969 , a midday memorial was held for student James Rector , a non @-@ protester shot and killed by police , at Sproul Plaza on the University campus . In his honor , several thousand people peacefully assembled to listen to speakers remembering his life . National Guard troops surrounded Sproul Plaza , donned their gas masks , and pointed their bayonets inward , while helicopters dropped CS gas directly on the trapped crowd . No escape was possible , and the gas caused acute respiratory distress , disorientation , temporary blindness and vomiting . Many people , including children and the elderly , were injured during the ensuing panic . The gas was so intense that breezes carried it into Cowell Memorial Hospital , endangering patients , interrupting operations and incapacitating nurses . Students at nearby Jefferson and Franklin elementary schools were also affected .
Members of the United States armed forces are exposed to CS during initial training , and during training refresher courses or equipment maintenance exercises , using CS tablets that are melted on a hotplate . This is to demonstrate the importance of properly wearing a gas or protective mask , as the agent 's presence quickly reveals an improper fit or seal of the mask 's rubber gaskets against the face . Following exposure while wearing a mask , recruits are ordered to remove the masks and endure exposure in the room . These exercises also encourage confidence in the ability of the equipment to protect the wearer from such chemical attacks . Such an event is a requirement for graduation from United States Army Basic Training , Air Force Basic Military Training , Navy Basic Training , and Marine Corps recruit training . CS gas in the form of grenades is also used extensively in the United States Marine Corps and United States Army in some service schools . CS gas is used during the final field exercise of the Scout Sniper Basic Course to simulate being compromised . In addition , it is used during the 25 km ( 16 mi ) escape @-@ and @-@ evasion exercise ( " Trail of Tears " ) , the last event before graduation from the course . It is also used during several events in the Marine Corps Basic Reconnaissance Course ( BRC ) including some rucksack runs and escape @-@ and @-@ evasion exercises . While students going through the course are given the opportunity to bring and wear a gas mask for the event , usually none are worn because once donned , gas masks could not be removed until the end of the exercise . This could last anywhere from 3 – 12 hours and would make running 25 km while wearing 125 lb ( 57 kg ) of gear virtually impossible .
= = = Vietnam = = =
It has been reported that thousands of tons of CS gas were used by the U.S. forces in Vietnam to bring Viet Cong into the open . It was also used by the North Vietnamese forces in some battles like Hue in 1968 or during the Easter Offensive in 1972 .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
CS gas has been and is still routinely used by Greek riot police ( MAT ) in order to quell student and labour protests , as well as riots .
CS was used to quell a protest in Lusaka , Zambia in July 1997 and the 1999 WTO riots in Seattle . Amnesty International reported that it had been manufactured by the UK company Pains @-@ Wessex . Subsequently , Amnesty called for an export ban when the receiving regime is either not fully trained in the use of CS , or had shown usage " contrary to the manufacturer ’ s instructions " .
In September 2000 , the Guardian newspaper revealed how a UK company , HPP , used legal loopholes to export CS to a private security company in Rwanda , in breach of United Nations sanctions . The Guardian also reported that CS was used by the Hutu militia in Rwanda to flush Tutsis out of buildings before hacking them to death .
CS has been used by the government in South Africa ; by Israel against Palestinians and Israelis ; by the South Korean government in Seoul , and during the Balkan conflicts by Serbia . In Malta it was used by police between 1981 and 1987 to the detriment of Nationalist Party Supporters .
CS tear gas was used at the G8 protests in Genoa , Italy and Quebec City , Canada during the FTAA anti @-@ globalization demonstrations during the Quebec City Summit of the Americas .
The Malaysia Federal Reserve Unit has also been known to use CS tear gas against its citizens who rallied for clean and fair elections under what were called Bersih rallies in 2011 and 2012 .
The Canadian , Norwegian and Australian Defence Forces train their personnel with CS gas in a manner similar to that of the USA , as it is a basic part of CBRN ( Chemical , Biological , Radiological , Nuclear ) training . Gas is released by burning tablets , usually in a building reserved for this purpose ( a " gas hut " ) . In the training , the person enters the building unprotected , and must fit and clear the gas mask before leaving . Other drills such as drinking and under @-@ mask decontamination are also practised . Some Norwegian units are exposed to CS gas while engaged in physical activity such as push @-@ ups .
France repeatedly used CS gas against refugees in camps around Calais in 2015 .
= West Branch Fishing Creek =
West Branch Fishing Creek is one of the northernmost major tributaries of Fishing Creek in Sullivan County , Pennsylvania and Columbia County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is 11 @.@ 1 miles ( 17 @.@ 9 km ) long and flows through Davidson Township , Sullivan County and Sugarloaf Township , Columbia County . The creek 's watershed has an area of 33 @.@ 5 square miles , nearly all of which is forested land .
Rock formations in the watershed of West Branch Fishing Creek include the Catskill Formation , the Huntley Mountain Formation , and the Burgoon Sandstone . North Mountain , Huckleberry Mountain , and Central Mountain are all in the creek 's vicinity . The temperature of the creek 's waters ranges from − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) to 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) and its pH ranges from approximately 5 @.@ 5 to just under 7 @.@ 0 . The creek 's discharge ranges from nearly 0 cubic meters per second to approximately 25 cubic meters per second .
Communities in the watershed of West Branch Fishing Creek include Central and Elk Grove . Lumbering was an industry in the watershed in the late 1800s . Fish species living in West Branch Fishing Creek include brown trout , brook trout , and sculpin . The upper reaches of the creek are designated as Class A Wild Trout Waters by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission . There is significant benthic algae coverage in the lower reaches of the creek .
= = Course = =
West Branch Fishing Creek begins in Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 13 and southwestern Davidson Township , Sullivan County on Huckleberry Mountain . It flows northeast , almost immediately entering a valley . It soon picks up the tributaries Swanks Run and Slip Run from the left and turns southeast , its valley becoming progressively deeper . The creek continues southeast , flowing between Huckleberry Mountain and North Mountain . It picks up two more tributaries from the left and then picks up its first tributary from the right , Shingle Mill Run . Shortly afterwards , the creek turns east and begins receiving unnamed tributaries from both sides . After a few miles , Painter Run flows into the creek . The creek exits Davidson Township and Sullivan County shortly downstream .
Upon leaving Sullivan County , West Branch Fishing Creek enters Sugarloaf Township , Columbia County . Immediately after entering Columbia County , the creek flows through the community of Elk Grove . It flows east @-@ southeast for a short distance before reaching the communities of Central and Jamison City . The creek then makes a sharp turn south and flows between Central Mountain and Huckleberry Mountain and into a plain . After some distance , it turns southwest and crosses Pennsylvania Route 118 . Several hundred feet downstream , it and East Branch Fishing Creek merge to form Fishing Creek .
= = Hydrology = =
During dry years , such as 2001 , 2002 , 2005 , 2007 , 2008 , and 2010 , parts of West Branch Fishing Creek run dry for an average of 107 days in a year . During wet years , such as 2003 , 2004 , 2006 , and 2009 , the creek only runs dry for 5 days per year on average . In June 2010 , 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) of the stream bed were found to be completely dry . The discharge of the creek usually ranges from slightly above 0 to 5 cubic meters per second . However , it is sometimes between 5 and 10 cubic meters per second and occasionally is as high as 25 cubic meters per second .
Between May 2010 and July 2011 , the lowest water temperatures occurred in West Branch Fishing Creek in January and February 2011 . The temperature was approximately − 1 ° C ( 30 ° F ) or − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . The temperature was over 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) in July 2010 , with a maximum of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) or 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . The temperature was nearly 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) in June 2010 and September 2010 .
From May 2010 to July 2011 , the concentration of dissolved oxygen ranged from slightly over 6 milligrams per liter to nearly 17 milligrams per liter . For comparison , the minimum threshold for optimal fish habitation is 5 milligrams per liter . In the aforementioned time period , the lowest concentration occurred in May 2010 . The second @-@ lowest concentration , approximately 7 milligrams per liter , occurred in June 2010 . The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the creek was nearly 17 milligrams per liter in January 2011 and February 2011 . The creek has the third @-@ lowest minimum concentration of dissolved oxygen of all named streams in the upper Fishing Creek watershed , including Fishing Creek itself .
West Branch Fishing Creek experiences more severe episodic acidification than any stream in the upper Fishing Creek watershed except for possibly East Branch Fishing Creek . The pH of West Branch Fishing Creek ranges from just over 5 @.@ 5 to just under 7 @.@ 0 . The alkalinity concentration of the creek in its upper reaches has been measured to be 2 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0020 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of dissolved aluminum in the creek is usually less than 40 milligrams per liter and is in some cases nearly 0 milligrams per liter . The maximum concentration of dissolved aluminum in the creek is 60 to 70 milligrams per liter , which is below the threshold for toxicity .
The conductivity of West Branch Fishing Creek ranges from less than 20 to nearly 60 micro @-@ siemens per centimeter .
= = Geology = =
Nearly all of the watershed of West Branch Fishing Creek is in the Appalachian Plateau physiographic province 's Deep Valley Section . However , the lowest reaches of it , south of Pennsylvania Route 118 , are in the Susquehanna Lowlands section of the ridge and valley physiographic province .
The main rock formations in the area of West Branch Fishing Creek are the Catskill Formation , the Huntley Mountain Formation , and the Burgoon Sandstone . These formations are all primarily made of sandstone , but also contain conglomerate , shale , and siltstone . They were formed during the Devonian , Mississippian and Devonian , and the Mississippian , respectively . The Catskill Formation is mostly found in the lower and middle reaches of the watershed , along the creek and its tributaries . The Huntley Mountain Formation is found in the upper reaches of the watershed and on some of the streams in that part of the watershed . The Burgoon Sandstone is found in the watershed , but not on many of its streams .
The soils in the watershed of West Branch Fishing Creek are acidic because of a lack of limestone .
The West Branch Fishing Creek watershed , along with the rest of the upper Fishing Creek watershed , experienced glaciation during the Ice Age . There is a small moraine in the valley of Hemlock Run , a tributary of West Branch Fishing Creek . The valley of the creek is a gorge , which is one of the main features of the western part of Pennsylvania State Game Lands # 13 .
= = Watershed = =
The watershed of West Branch Fishing Creek has an area of 33 @.@ 5 square miles . The watershed has a drainage density of 1 @.@ 3 per mile . The entire watershed is 12 @.@ 5 miles ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) long . The vast majority of the watershed is forested , with the only urban areas being the communities of Central and Elk Grove . There are a small number of residential areas and seasonal cabins in the watershed .
The watershed of West Branch Fishing Creek contains a number of sub @-@ watersheds . The largest of these is the watershed of Elk Run , which has an area of 7 @.@ 49 square miles and joins the creek 3 @.@ 64 miles ( 5 @.@ 86 km ) from its mouth . The second @-@ largest sub @-@ watershed is that of Painter Run . It has an area of 5 @.@ 2 square miles and joins the creek 6 @.@ 12 miles ( 9 @.@ 85 km ) upstream of its mouth . Both of these sub @-@ watersheds are on the northern side of West Branch Fishing Creek 's main stem .
= = History = =
The community of Emmons was founded on West Branch Fishing Creek 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of Jamison City by George R. Baum , who constructed a sawmill there . At the time , it was known as Baumstown . The mill was destroyed in a flood in 1850 . The area remained uninhabited until industrial lumbering began in 1882 .
In September 1864 , a thousand soldiers of the United States Army searched the valley of West Branch Fishing Creek as far as the Sullivan County line for an alleged fortress manned by 500 armed deserters and draft evaders . However , they were unable to find the fortress or any deserters .
The community of Elk Grove is located on West Branch Fishing Creek approximately 1 @.@ 0 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) upstream of the community of Central . It was established sometime before 1915 . In 1915 the community had twelve homes and a hotel known as the Elk Grove Hotel . Historically the Pentecost Lumber Company engaged in lumbering in the area of the creek and built a railroad line from the Bloomsburg and Sullivan Railroad at Central several miles upstream , to a point at Emmons . The Pentecost Lumber Company shipped both bark and timber to Jamison City .
= = Biology = =
The drainage basin of West Branch Fishing Creek is designated as a High @-@ Quality Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery , except for the drainage basins of the tributaries Shingle Mill Run and Elk Run , which are designated as Exceptional Value waters and Migratory Fisheries . Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek . However , dry stream beds often prevent wild brook trout from migrating up the creek . Nevertheless , the creek has the highest population of wild brook trout of any major stream in the upper Fishing Creek watershed . In an electrofishing survey done by the Fishing Creek Sportsman Association , 17 sculpin , 11 wild brook trout , 7 escaped ( and unidentified ) trout , 6 hatchery brown trout , and 1 hatchery brook trout were observed on the creek . The creek is designated by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission as Class A Wild Trout Waters from its source to the tributary Hemlock Run , a distance of 2 @.@ 50 miles ( 4 @.@ 02 km ) .
A location on West Branch Fishing Creek downstream of the community of Elk Grove is one of two places in the watershed of upper Fishing Creek where the stream bed is more than 60 % covered by benthic algae . The high population of algae here is possibly due to leaking septic tanks in the area . In Elk Grove , there are between 100 and 200 aquatic macroinvertebrates per square meter in the creek . Further upstream , there are nearly 300 aquatic macroinvertebrates per square meter . At the headwaters of the creek , approximately 25 % of the macroinvertebrate taxa belong to the order Plecoptera , about 25 % belong to the order Ephemeroptera , approximately 25 % belong to the order Trichoptera , about 20 % belong to the order Chironomidae , and roughly 5 % belong to other orders . At the creek 's mouth , approximately 20 % of the macroinvertebrate taxa are in the order Plecoptera , approximately 55 % belong to the order Ephemeroptera , roughly 20 % are in the orders Trichoptera and Chironomidae . Approximately 5 % are in other orders .
Woody detritus can be found on West Branch Fishing Creek . The creek 's riparian buffer is unfragmented .
In 2011 , the habitat quality of upper Fishing Creek and its tributaries were rated on a scale of 1 to 200 ( with a higher rating indicating better habitability ) by Point Park University and the Fishing Creek Sportsmans ' Association . The headwaters of West Branch Fishing Creek had a score of 191 , tying West Creek for the highest @-@ rated site in the upper Fishing Creek watershed . Most of West Branch Fishing Creek received a rating between 166 and 200 , indicating optimal habitat quality . The lower reaches of the creek , however , received a rating of 113 to 165 , indicating suboptimal habitat quality .
The Shannon Diversity Index of West Branch Fishing Creek is between 2 @.@ 0 and 2 @.@ 5 at Elk Grove . Further upstream , the Shannon Diversity Index of the creek is approximately 2 @.@ 8 . In the lower reaches of the creek , downstream of Painter Run , its Hilsenhoff Biotic Index is between 2 @.@ 6 and 3 @.@ 5 . Between Shingle Mill Run and Painter Run , West Branch Fishing Creek 's Hilsenhoff Biotic Index is between 1 @.@ 6 and 2 @.@ 5 .
= Atlantic City Expressway =
The Atlantic City Expressway ( officially numbered , but unsigned , as Route 446 and abbreviated A.C. Expressway , ACE , or ACX , and known locally as " the Expressway " ) is a 44 @.@ 19 @-@ mile ( 71 @.@ 12 km ) , controlled @-@ access toll road in New Jersey , managed and operated by the South Jersey Transportation Authority . It serves as an extension of the freeway portion of Route 42 in Turnersville ( which is itself an extension of Interstate 76 ) southeast to Atlantic City . It connects the Philadelphia metropolitan area with Atlantic City and other Jersey Shore resorts . In addition to providing a route between the Delaware Valley and Atlantic City , as well as other Shore Points , the expressway also serves other South Jersey communities , including Hammonton and Mays Landing . The expressway intersects many major roads , including Route 73 in Winslow Township , Route 54 in Hammonton , Route 50 in Hamilton Township , the Garden State Parkway in Egg Harbor Township , and U.S. Route 9 in Pleasantville .
The Atlantic City Expressway has an open system of tolling , with two mainline toll plazas ( Egg Harbor in Hamilton Township and Pleasantville ) and seven exits with ramp tolls . The total cost to travel the length of the Atlantic City Expressway is currently $ 3 @.@ 75 and E @-@ ZPass is accepted . In 2008 , two separate plans were made to raise the tolls along the road , one proposed by Governor Jon Corzine and one proposed by the South Jersey Transportation Authority that would increase tolls 50 % . The latter toll increase took place effective November 18 , 2008 . The expressway features one service area , Farley Plaza , in Hamilton Township a short distance west of the Egg Harbor Toll Plaza , as well as a gas station and mini @-@ mart near the Atlantic City Welcome Center in Pleasantville . In a few years , the road is expected to use all @-@ electronic tolling .
Plans for the road go back to the 1930s , when a parkway was proposed between Camden and Atlantic City that was never built . Plans resurfaced for the road in the 1950s when a group of officials led by State Senator Frank S. Farley pushed for a road to help the area economy . The New Jersey Expressway Authority was created in 1962 to be responsible for building an expressway . The Atlantic City Expressway was built between 1962 and 1965 at a total cost of $ 48 @.@ 2 million . The South Jersey Transportation Authority assumed control of the road in 1991 from the New Jersey Expressway Authority .
= = Route description = =
= = = Gloucester and Camden Counties = = =
The Atlantic City Expressway begins at Route 42 in Turnersville in Washington Township , Gloucester County , where it continues north as the North – South Freeway , a part of Route 42 . Here , Route 42 continues south on the Black Horse Pike and Route 168 continues north on the Black Horse Pike . A westbound exit provides a connection to northbound Route 168 . The expressway then heads southeast , straddling between Washington Township and Gloucester Township , Camden County . On the Gloucester Township / Winslow Township border , the Atlantic City Expressway features a diamond interchange with County Route 689 . Past CR 689 , there is a full interchange with County Route 536 Spur . The expressway passes under County Route 536 and then features a partial interchange with County Route 723 , with an eastbound exit and a westbound entrance . It then meets Route 73 at another partial interchange , with a westbound exit and an eastbound entrance .
= = = Atlantic County = = =
The Atlantic City Expressway crosses into Hammonton , Atlantic County . Continuing to the southeast , it encounters Route 54 at a full interchange . It then enters Hamilton Township and passes under County Route 559 . The lanes of the Atlantic City Expressway in both directions split for the Farley Service Plaza , which is located in the median of the expressway . Past the Farley Service Plaza , the Atlantic City Expressway meets the mainline Egg Harbor Toll Plaza . It then features a full interchange with Route 50 , with the westbound exit and eastbound entrance being E @-@ ZPass only . It meets County Route 670 , with another partial interchange featuring an eastbound off @-@ ramp and a westbound on @-@ ramp that provides access to the Atlantic City Race Track . Next , it has an eastbound exit and westbound entrance for County Route 575 , which provides access to U.S. Route 40 , U.S. Route 322 , and the Hamilton Mall . To and from the east , a ramp runs from the Atlantic City Expressway to the US 40 / US 322 split .
The Atlantic City Expressway then enters Egg Harbor Township . It interchanges with County Route 646 , which provides access to the Atlantic City International Airport , and passes under County Route 563 . It then features a cloverleaf interchange with the Garden State Parkway and crosses into Pleasantville . The expressway meets U.S. Route 9 at a diamond interchange . It passes under County Route 585 and features a partial interchange with North Franklin Boulevard , with a westbound exit and eastbound entrance .
The Atlantic City Expressway continues to the Pleasantville Toll Plaza . Past the toll plaza , the travel lanes separate and a long parking area , used by Atlantic City casino employees , lies within the median of the expressway . It then encounters the Atlantic City Welcome Center and Service Plaza and enters Atlantic City . Upon entering Atlantic City , the expressway features an eastbound exit and westbound entrance to US 40 / US 322 . It then continues southeast , crossing the Beach Thorofare , and soon after encounters an eastbound exit and westbound entrance for the Atlantic City @-@ Brigantine Connector , which provides access to the Atlantic City Convention Center , the Marina district , and Brigantine . It then ends at a traffic light at the intersection with Baltic Avenue near Tanger Outlets The Walk , where it becomes the one @-@ way pair of Missouri Avenue eastbound ( also known as Christopher Columbus Boulevard and County Route 692 ) and Arkansas Avenue westbound ( County Route 694 ) .
In 2010 , the Atlantic City Expressway counted almost 55 million toll @-@ paying vehicles . The speed limit on the Atlantic City Expressway is 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) with " conditions permitting " on the posted sign for most of the route . Call boxes are located every mile on either side .
= = Toll plazas and rest area = =
Automobiles currently must pay a $ 3 @.@ 00 toll at the Egg Harbor Toll Plaza , which is located east of the Farley Service Plaza at milepost 17 @.@ 5 , and a $ 0 @.@ 75 toll near Pleasantville . Both mainline toll plazas have Express E @-@ ZPass lanes through the center of the plaza . Exits between the two toll plazas may also charge a small fee , depending on the distance . A $ 0 @.@ 75 toll for cars is currently charged at the eastbound exits and westbound entrances at exits 5 , 28 , and 33 and the westbound exits and eastbound entrances at exits 9 and 12 ; in addition , a $ 0 @.@ 40 toll for cars is currently charged at the eastbound exits and westbound entrances at exits 38 and 41 . A $ 3 @.@ 00 E @-@ ZPass only toll is charged for the westbound exit and eastbound entrance at exit 17 .
On January 8 , 2008 , Governor Jon Corzine proposed a 50 percent increase in tolls on New Jersey 's three toll roads in 2010 , with increases of a similar percentage every four years after that , in order to help pay down the state debt . Each time tolls increased , there would be an additional increase for inflation since the last toll increase ( for the first , since 2006 ) . The roads would be maintained by a nonprofit public @-@ benefit corporation , which would pay back bonds to the state . Under this plan , without considering inflation , tolls on the Atlantic City Expressway would have risen from $ 2 @.@ 50 to $ 16 @.@ 59 in 2022 . It was possible that commuters would receive discounts from the higher toll rates . However , the proposal was not enacted due to opposition from leaders of the New Jersey Legislature . On September 5 , 2008 , a proposal by the South Jersey Transportation Authority was created to raise tolls by 50 percent , from $ 2 @.@ 50 to $ 3 @.@ 75 , in order to fund improvements to the road as well as to the Atlantic City International Airport . This toll increase took place effective November 18 , 2008 . In 2009 , the South Jersey Transportation Authority considered making the tolls on the Atlantic City Expressway completely electronic , in which E @-@ ZPass would be used . Vehicles without E @-@ ZPass will be billed using license plate technology , with a 10 % surcharge applied to their tolls . The Atlantic City Expressway was expected to become an all @-@ electronic toll road by Memorial Day weekend 2011 . However , the tolls on the road were later not expected to become cashless until between 2013 and 2015 .
Since 2014 , eastbound tolls have been waived at the Egg Harbor toll plaza between 5 : 00 and 6 : 00 pm on the Friday before Memorial Day in order to promote the unofficial beginning of the summer tourist season at the Jersey Shore . Chickie 's & Pete 's , a local sports bar chain , pays for the tolls normally collected during this hour . In October 2014 , eastbound tolls were waived at the Egg Harbor and Pleasantville toll plazas on Tuesdays between 12 : 00 pm and 12 : 00 am in order to encourage midweek tourism to Atlantic City .
Farley Service Plaza , the only service area on the route , has a building containing several fast food restaurants and a gas station . It is located between the two sides of the road to service traffic coming in either direction . In the mid @-@ 2000s , an additional gas station and mini @-@ mart were opened in the narrow center median behind the Atlantic City Welcome Center by Exit 2 .
= = History = =
The road was originally planned as a parkway in 1932 , running from the Ben Franklin Bridge in Camden to Atlantic City , but it never materialized . The idea for a limited access road between the Philadelphia area and Atlantic City resurfaced in the 1950s when South Jersey officials , led by State Senator Frank S. Farley , pushed for an expressway between the two areas to help the economy of Southern New Jersey . The New Jersey State Highway Department authorized traffic studies for a toll road between Turnersville and Atlantic City in 1958 and 1959 , and the New Jersey Expressway Authority Act in 1962 called for a five @-@ member agency ( the New Jersey Expressway Authority ) with representatives from four Southern New Jersey counties to be responsible for issuing bonds to build and maintain the Atlantic City Expressway .
Construction of the Atlantic City Expressway started in the summer of 1962 . The design was to feature a 300- to 400 @-@ foot @-@ wide roadway with 12 @-@ foot @-@ wide travel lanes and right shoulders as well as 3 @-@ foot @-@ wide left shoulders . The portion between Route 42 in Turnersville and the Garden State Parkway in Egg Harbor Township was completed on July 31 , 1964 , and the portion between the Garden State Parkway and Atlantic City was finished in July 1965 . Construction of the Atlantic City Expressway cost a total of $ 48 @.@ 2 million . Tolls on the Atlantic City Expressway initially cost $ 0 @.@ 75 at the Egg Harbor toll plaza and $ 0 @.@ 15 at the Pleasantville toll plaza . In 1991 , the South Jersey Transportation Authority was created by the New Jersey Legislature to operate the Atlantic City Expressway , the Atlantic City International Airport , and operations of the Atlantic County Transportation Authority .
In recent years , many improvements have been made to the Atlantic City Expressway . A new interchange with County Route 689 on the Gloucester Township / Winslow Township border was completed in 2000 at a cost of $ 5 million . The Atlantic City @-@ Brigantine Connector was completed on July 31 , 2001 to connect the Atlantic City Expressway to the Marina district and Brigantine . In 2005 , the Atlantic City Expressway added a third lane in both directions between the Garden State Parkway and Atlantic City and in the eastbound direction between Route 73 and the Garden State Parkway . In addition , the Pleasantville Toll Plaza was reconstructed , replacing the older cash booths with newer technology .
On November 21 , 2008 , construction began on the reconstruction of Interchange 17 , with completion on June 18 , 2010 . As a result of reconstructing this interchange , the SJTA approved raising the interchange toll to $ 3 @.@ 00 . This new rate is charged to motorists heading to or from the east along the Atlantic City Expressway at Route 50 . The proposal drew opposition from area officials who felt the proposed rate was too high . The westbound exit and eastbound entrance at Interchange 17 was designed to be E @-@ ZPass only , the first such interchange on the Atlantic City Expressway .
In 2007 , it was announced that the mainline Expressway from milepost 7 @.@ 0 – 31 @.@ 0 would be widened in the westbound direction to accommodate a third lane from just north of the Garden State Parkway to Route 73 . Interchange 17 ( Route 50 ) would be reconstructed to form a full movement interchange ( completed June 18 , 2010 ) , and the Egg Harbor Toll Plaza would receive Express E @-@ ZPass lanes to maintain highway speed . Construction on these three projects was financed by a $ 25 million bond . The Express E @-@ ZPass was completed in May 2011 , with the first phase completed in the summer of 2010 .
The work under the widening project also included improvements to bridges , lighting , and guide signs . In addition , Intelligent Transportation System ( ITS ) technology , such as traffic cameras and variable message signs , were also added to the Atlantic City Expressway to enhance safety and aid in monitoring traffic . The first phase widened the road from the Garden State Parkway to the Egg Harbor Toll Plaza . The second phase widened the road from the Egg Harbor Toll Plaza to milepost 24 @.@ 5 . The third phase widened the road west to Route 73 . The ITS components were installed along these sections of the roadway through the course of each phase . The widening work was completed in May 2014 and the third lane opened in its entirety by Memorial Day 2014 . The fourth phase added ITS technology to the parts of the road that are not being widened .
= = Future developments = =
The SJTA revealed plans for a major road improvement project that would link the Atlantic City International Airport directly to the Atlantic City Expressway , with construction beginning as early as 2013 . The plan includes new ramps with two overpasses over the expressway . The road would connect Amelia Earhart Boulevard with an overpass above Airport Circle . Plans also call for building a service road with another overpass that would provide access to Delilah Road . Another project involves the installation of an overpass at the end of Amelia Earhart Boulevard next to the entrance to the FAA tech center . The proposed roadway would intrude upon a small section of a mobile home park and land owned by Egg Harbor Township .
= = Exit list = =
Mileposts run from east to west .
= War of the Coprophages =
" War of the Coprophages " is the twelfth episode of the third season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 5 , 1996 . It was written by Darin Morgan , and directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " War of the Coprophages " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 1 , being watched by 16 @.@ 32 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics , who praised its humorous tone .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder investigates a small town plagued by deaths in which the bodies are found covered in cockroaches . Working from home , Scully has scientific explanations for all of them , but Mulder — at the crime scene with an attractive bug expert — suspects the insects may not be organic , or earthly .
" War of the Coprophages " was Darin Morgan 's third episode , after the second season episode " Humbug " and season three 's " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " . In order to achieve the effect of a cockroach infestation , the show used around three hundred cockroaches for the episode in addition to extremely detailed rubber cockroach props and " piles and piles " of faux @-@ dung . The episode 's title is a reference to the famous novel The War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells , as well as its 1938 radio adaptation by Orson Welles . The character Dr. Berenbaum is named for entomologist May Berenbaum .
= = Plot = =
In Miller 's Grove , Massachusetts , an exterminator inspects the basement of Dr. Jeff Eckerle , having been hired to eradicate a cockroach infestation . The exterminator sprays a roach , knocks it down to the ground , and attempts to crush it underfoot . However , upon doing so , he begins to succumb to anaphylaxis , clutching his heart and collapsing against a wall , while the roach crawls out from under his boot , unscathed . When Eckerle returns , he finds the exterminator 's body covered with roaches .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) is coincidentally nearby , investigating reported UFO sightings in Miller 's Grove . While on the phone with Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , Mulder is approached by the local sheriff , Frass , who reveals that a series of " roach attacks " have taken place in the town . Frass allows Mulder onto the scene at Eckerle 's residence .
Elsewhere in town , a trio of teenagers drink beer and huff fumes generated from heated manure . One of them sees a roach crawl into an open wound on his wrist , and in an attempt to extricate the insect , he begins to frantically slice his skin with a razor , leading him to sever an artery and ultimately bleed to death . At the scene , Mulder talks over the phone with Scully , who explains that it is likely a case of drug @-@ induced delusional parasitosis , though Mulder finds a cockroach on the underside of a piece of furniture , indicating that roaches were at least present . When he attempts to capture it for analysis , the insect crumbles in his hand and the sharp pieces cut his fingers in the process , leading him to believe that the brittle casing was made of metal . Sheriff Frass purports that the government , under the guise of the USDA , has been breeding killer cockroaches in a nearby facility . Immediately afterwards , the medical examiner is found dead in a bathroom stall , initially covered with cockroaches that disappear from the scene before more than one person can witness them . Scully attributes the medical examiner 's death to a cerebral aneurysm induced by overstraining while defecating . Mulder and Sheriff Frass find a seemingly dead cockroach on a sink in the bathroom , and Mulder again attempts to capture it ( albeit more gingerly this time ) , but it proves to be alive and escapes down the drain .
Mulder goes to investigate the facility Sheriff Frass mentioned . Before breaking in , he and Scully discuss the odd behavior of the roaches , with Scully hypothesizing that the roaches could be an invasive species . Inside the facility , which resembles a typical house , Mulder sees the walls rippling and is quickly surrounded by roaches . He is then confronted by Dr. Bambi Berenbaum ( Bobbie Phillips ) , a researcher from the Department of Agriculture who is studying cockroaches to develop more effective methods of pest control . Berenbaum has great interest in insects and , incidentally , believes that some UFOs are actually insect swarms flying through electrically charged airspaces . Yet another death occurs in Mulder 's hotel , with the individual being found covered in roaches that quickly flee . At this point , Mulder believes that the individual simply died of fright , though Scully begins to wonder what is going on and decides to head up there herself .
Mulder brings a cockroach from the hotel room to Berenbaum , who thinks it may be mechanical . Mulder then visits the nearby Dr. Ivanov , a wheelchair @-@ bound scientist who works on insect @-@ like robots . The two discuss the possibility that extraterrestrial intelligences could send robotic probes to study other planets . After inspecting the Mulder 's specimen , Ivanov is rendered speechless ; he informs Mulder that the specimen is , technology @-@ wise , vastly superior to anything he 's ever seen . Scully arrives in the town at a convenience store , finding the residents succumbing to panic over the roaches . She attempts to calm the people down , however the store @-@ goers frantically flee after two scuffling patrons knock over a display of chocolate candies , believing them to be more roaches . Meanwhile , Mulder , while departing Ivanov 's lab , catches another roach to bring to Berenbaum , but this time , she concludes that it is a seemingly normal cockroach . Scully finds out that Eckerle was researching dung @-@ derived methane as an alternative fuel source , and had been importing animal dung that may have introduced the roaches to the area . Upon hearing this , Mulder speculates that the roaches are actually extraterrestrial robotic probes that are capable of consuming dung — an abundant resource already exploited by some species of roaches — to generate methane as a source of fuel .
Mulder goes with Berenbaum to see Eckerle at his facility . He finds Eckerle in a hysterical , paranoid state , having been unable to escape the roaches that he feels are following him . Eckerle pulls a gun on Mulder , thinking that even he may somehow be a cockroach . Scully arrives on the scene and meets Berenbaum . She calls Mulder , and when Mulder 's phone rings , Eckerle believes it to be Mulder making a tone like the rest of the unusual roaches . Eckerle fires at Mulder , and his shots rupture and ignite pipes containing methane gas . The agents flee , and the facility explodes with Eckerle still inside . The next day , Dr. Ivanov arrives to talk with Mulder at the scene of the explosion and meets Berenbaum . The two leave with one another , discussing their interests in insects and robots . That night Mulder writes his report on the case , wondering how humanity would react if insect @-@ like robots visited Earth . Mulder finds a bizarre looking bug by his food , and crushes it with an X @-@ File .
= = Production = =
Writer Darin Morgan was inspired to write the episode when he saw a cover of a magazine featuring insect like robots created by roboticist Rodney Brooks . Mass hysteria was also a key element to the episode , with many references to Orson Welles 's famous radio play of War of the Worlds . Most notably , the episode 's title is a reference to The War of the Worlds and the town this episode takes place in — Miller 's Grove — is a play on Grover 's Mill , the setting of Orson Welles 's 1938 radio adaptation . Originally , a scene featuring the sheriff discussing a noted case of hysteria from the 1930s was planned to be included in the final episode , but was cut due to time . The episode , like Morgan 's previous effort , the second season 's " Humbug , " used a great deal of humor , including an in @-@ joke where Scully reads Breakfast at Tiffany 's , referencing David Duchovny 's Final Jeopardy ! question when he appeared on Jeopardy ! . The last part of the episode 's title , coprophages , refers to a dung eater .
The show 's animal trainer , Debbie Cove , used around three hundred cockroaches for this episode . Cove later noted that only one of the cockroaches died during the filming , due to old age . Director Kim Manners was very pleased with the way the cockroaches behaved , noting that " every shot I wanted to get , they got . " Cast and crew members later recalled that Manners began giving orders to the roaches . Cinematographer John Bartley explained , " when I saw Kim Manners talking to a bucket of cockroaches , that was a highlight for me . " Several " incredibly detailed " rubber cockroaches were created for the episode . These props were extremely detailed : prop master Ken Hawryliw explained that , " you could put one next to a real roach and no one would know the difference . " In addition , the " piles and piles " of faux @-@ dung were created for the show by using an organic , feces @-@ free substance .
The episode came under heavy criticism by the standards and practices department at parent network Fox , who took exception to the initial script 's heavy use of words such as " crap " to refer to the excrement that episode 's cockroaches fed upon . Darin Morgan later attacked and parodied this approach in the twenty @-@ first episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium called " Somehow , Satan Got Behind Me " . In the episode , a network censor again targets the use of the word " crap " and storms onto the set of a show resembling The X @-@ Files being taped , featuring lookalikes of Mulder and Scully with those series ' theme music playing in the background .
The episode marks a rare occasion in the series in which the fourth wall is broken : Although no character addresses the audience , a cockroach is made to appear to " walk across the viewer 's screen " during one scene .
= = Reception = =
" War of the Coprophages " premiered on the Fox network on January 5 , 1996 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 1 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 16 @.@ 32 million viewers .
The episode received positive reviews from critics . Entertainment Weekly gave " War of the Coprophages " an A- , and wrote , " Irreverent camp that 's infested with laughs ( and creepy @-@ crawlies ) but throws credibility out the window . " Reviewer Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A and compared it to the previously Morgan @-@ penned " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " , writing , " So ! This is the second Darin Morgan episode I 've had to write about , and once again , I 'm not sure I 've done it justice . [ ... ] The comedy here can be broad , but there 's always enough self @-@ aware commentary buried in it that it never becomes simplistic . While " Bruckman " dealt with the misery of knowing all the answers , " Coprophages " looks at how easy it is to convince yourself you know what 's going on , even when you don 't . It 'd be better to believe in a bunch of bugs from outer space coming down to earth to mess with our minds , than it would be to accept the more likely truth that bugs like shit — and around here , there 's always plenty to go around . " Critical Myth 's John Keegan gave the episode an 8 / 10 and praised the episode 's self @-@ parodying style , saying , " Overall , this episode was a rare self @-@ contained parody , well written by Darin Morgan . By standing on its own outside of continuity , the episode gives itself plenty of room to send @-@ up the series premise and its early internet fandom . There ’ s no real sense of resolution , but that ’ s really incidental to the point of the parody . " Author Phil Farrand rated the episode as his second favorite episode of the first four seasons in his book The Nitpickers Guide to the X @-@ Files .
The cast and the crew of the show enjoyed the episode , for the most part . Co @-@ producer Paul Rabwin said that the episode had some of the funniest material in The X @-@ Files as well as some of the most horrific , such as the scene where a cockroach crawled into someone 's arm . Gillian Anderson rated the episode one of her favorite episodes of the third season . On a more negative note , writer Darin Morgan ended up being unhappy with the final product , saying " The other day , my girlfriend was saying , ' I never understood that episode , ' and I guess I don 't either . It was an episode that had a lot of what I thought were really good ideas and never quite got it to work . I was really disappointed with that episode . Some people love it . "
= Rudyard Kipling ( ship ) =
The Rudyard Kipling was a British steam trawler launched in 1920 that undertook fishing operations off the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland for almost 20 years . On 16 September 1939 , shortly after the outbreak of World War II , the trawler was captured 40 miles west of Clare Island by the German submarine U @-@ 27 . After removing food , equipment , and the crew from the ship , the Germans sunk her with the use of scuttling charges . Several hours later the crew of the Rudyard Kipling were cast adrift 5 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) off the coast of Ireland . They eventually landed their lifeboats at Killybegs .
The Rudyard Kipling was the 27th merchant ship , the 26th British merchant ship , and the second British trawler to be sunk by a German U @-@ boat in World War II .
= = Construction and design = =
The Rudyard Kipling was constructed in the town of Selby by the shipbuilder Cochrane & Sons Ltd . The trawler was launched from yard number 686 on 11 November 1920 . Named the Rudyard Kipling by the ship 's owner Newington Steam Trawling Co Ltd . , she was registered in the port of Hull on 4 February 1921 and completed later that month . Her official number was 144068 . She had a net tonnage of 140 and her gross tonnage was 333 . The trawler was 138 @.@ 8 feet ( 42 @.@ 3 m ) from bow to stern with a draught of 12 @.@ 9 feet ( 3 @.@ 9 m ) and a breadth of 23 @.@ 7 feet ( 7 @.@ 2 m ) . Her engine was a T.3 @-@ cylinder from C. D. Holmes & Co Ltd . , also of Hull .
= = Service history = =
= = = Early service = = =
Following completion and registration , the Rudyard Kipling began fishing off of the coast of Ireland and Great Britain . In May 1934 , the trawler was sold to The Sun Steam Trawling Co Ltd . On 10 May , her registry from Hull was closed and on 16 May , she was registered in the English port town of Fleetwood , where her new owners were based . The Rudyard Kipling remained with the Sun Steam Trawling Co Ltd. for the rest of her career .
= = = Sinking = = =
On 16 September 1939 , the Rudyard Kipling left Fleetwood for a routine fishing trip to an area off the west coast of Ireland . The trawler , under the command of Skipper Charles Robinson and with a crew of 12 men , was about 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ) west of the Irish town of Donegal when U @-@ 27 came alongside and ordered them to pull over to the submarine and surrender . The German crew then took the Rudyard Kipling 's food , including sugar , bread and fish , as well as the trawler 's wireless radios , and transferred them over to the U @-@ boat . Timed explosive charges were then placed on the trawler and three minutes later , at 15 : 53 , the trawler exploded and sank .
While raiding the trawler , the Germans took the crew of the Rudyard Kipling on board and provided them with food and warm clothes . Eight hours later , in the early hours of 17 September , the Germans allowed the crew of the Rudyard Kipling to reboard their lifeboats and set them adrift 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of the port town of Donegal . Sometime later the crew landed at Killybegs to the west of the town . The Rudyard Kipling was the 27th merchant ship ( the 26th one to be British ) and the second British trawler to be sunk by a German U @-@ boat in World War II .
= Shapley – Folkman lemma =
The Shapley – Folkman lemma is a result in convex geometry with applications in mathematical economics that describes the Minkowski addition of sets in a vector space . Minkowski addition is defined as the addition of the sets ' members : for example , adding the set consisting of the integers zero and one to itself yields the set consisting of zero , one , and two :
{ 0 , 1 } + { 0 , 1 }
= { 0 + 0 , 0 + 1 , 1 + 0 , 1 + 1 } =
{ 0 , 1 , 2 } .
The Shapley – Folkman lemma and related results provide an affirmative answer to the question , " Is the sum of many sets close to being convex ? " A set is defined to be convex if every line segment joining two of its points is a subset in the set : For example , the solid disk <formula> is a convex set but the circle <formula> is not , because the line segment joining two distinct points <formula> is not a subset of the circle . The Shapley – Folkman lemma suggests that if the number of summed sets exceeds the dimension of the vector space , then their Minkowski sum is approximately convex .
The Shapley – Folkman lemma was introduced as a step in the proof of the Shapley – Folkman theorem , which states an upper bound on the distance between the Minkowski sum and its convex hull . The convex hull of a set Q is the smallest convex set that contains Q. This distance is zero if and only if the sum is convex . The theorem 's bound on the distance depends on the dimension D and on the shapes of the summand @-@ sets , but not on the number of summand @-@ sets N , when N > D. The shapes of a subcollection of only D summand @-@ sets determine the bound on the distance between the Minkowski average of N sets
1 ⁄ N ( Q1 + Q2 + ... + QN )
and its convex hull . As N increases to infinity , the bound decreases to zero ( for summand @-@ sets of uniformly bounded size ) . The Shapley – Folkman theorem 's upper bound was decreased by Starr 's corollary ( alternatively , the Shapley – Folkman – Starr theorem ) .
The lemma of Lloyd Shapley and Jon Folkman was first published by the economist Ross M. Starr , who was investigating the existence of economic equilibria while studying with Kenneth Arrow . In his paper , Starr studied a convexified economy , in which non @-@ convex sets were replaced by their convex hulls ; Starr proved that the convexified economy has equilibria that are closely approximated by " quasi @-@ equilibria " of the original economy ; moreover , he proved that every quasi @-@ equilibrium has many of the optimal properties of true equilibria , which are proved to exist for convex economies . Following Starr 's 1969 paper , the Shapley – Folkman – Starr results have been widely used to show that central results of ( convex ) economic theory are good approximations to large economies with non @-@ convexities ; for example , quasi @-@ equilibria closely approximate equilibria of a convexified economy . " The derivation of these results in general form has been one of the major achievements of postwar economic theory " , wrote Roger Guesnerie . The topic of non @-@ convex sets in economics has been studied by many Nobel laureates , besides Lloyd Shapley who won the prize in 2012 : Arrow ( 1972 ) , Robert Aumann ( 2005 ) , Gérard Debreu ( 1983 ) , Tjalling Koopmans ( 1975 ) , Paul Krugman ( 2008 ) , and Paul Samuelson ( 1970 ) ; the complementary topic of convex sets in economics has been emphasized by these laureates , along with Leonid Hurwicz , Leonid Kantorovich ( 1975 ) , and Robert Solow ( 1987 ) .
The Shapley – Folkman lemma has applications also in optimization and probability theory . In optimization theory , the Shapley – Folkman lemma has been used to explain the successful solution of minimization problems that are sums of many functions . The Shapley – Folkman lemma has also been used in proofs of the " law of averages " for random sets , a theorem that had been proved for only convex sets .
= = Introductory example = =
For example , the subset of the integers { 0 , 1 , 2 } is contained in the interval of real numbers [ 0 , 2 ] , which is convex . The Shapley – Folkman lemma implies that every point in [ 0 , 2 ] is the sum of an integer from { 0 , 1 } and a real number from [ 0 , 1 ] .
The distance between the convex interval [ 0 , 2 ] and the non @-@ convex set { 0 , 1 , 2 } equals one @-@ half
1 / 2
= | 1 − 1 / 2 | =
| 0 − 1 / 2 |
= | 2 − 3 / 2 | =
| 1 − 3 / 2 | .
However , the distance between the average Minkowski sum
1 / 2 ( { 0 , 1 } + { 0 , 1 } ) = { 0 , 1 / 2 , 1 }
and its convex hull [ 0 , 1 ] is only 1 / 4 , which is half the distance ( 1 / 2 ) between its summand { 0 , 1 } and [ 0 , 1 ] . As more sets are added together , the average of their sum " fills out " its convex hull : The maximum distance between the average and its convex hull approaches zero as the average includes more summands .
= = Preliminaries = =
The Shapley – Folkman lemma depends upon the following definitions and results from convex geometry .
= = = Real vector spaces = = =
A real vector space of two dimensions can be given a Cartesian coordinate system in which every point is identified by an ordered pair of real numbers , called " coordinates " , which are conventionally denoted by x and y . Two points in the Cartesian plane can be added coordinate @-@ wise
( x1 , y1 ) + ( x2 , y2 )
= ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ;
further , a point can be multiplied by each real number λ coordinate @-@ wise
λ ( x , y ) =
( λx , λy ) .
More generally , any real vector space of ( finite ) dimension D can be viewed as the set of all D @-@ tuples of D real numbers { ( v1 , v2 , . . . , vD ) } on which two operations are defined : vector addition and multiplication by a real number . For finite @-@ dimensional vector spaces , the operations of vector addition and real @-@ number multiplication can each be defined coordinate @-@ wise , following the example of the Cartesian plane .
= = = Convex sets = = =
In a real vector space , a non @-@ empty set Q is defined to be convex if , for each pair of its points , every point on the line segment that joins them is a subset of Q. For example , a solid disk <formula> is convex but a circle <formula> is not , because it does not contain a line segment joining its points <formula> ; the non @-@ convex set of three integers { 0 , 1 , 2 } is contained in the interval [ 0 , 2 ] , which is convex . For example , a solid cube is convex ; however , anything that is hollow or dented , for example , a crescent shape , is non @-@ convex . The empty set is convex , either by definition or vacuously , depending on the author .
More formally , a set Q is convex if , for all points v0 and v1 in Q and for every real number λ in the unit interval [ 0 @,@ 1 ] , the point
( 1 − λ ) v0 + λv1
is a member of Q.
By mathematical induction , a set Q is convex if and only if every convex combination of members of Q also belongs to Q. By definition , a convex combination of an indexed subset { v0 , v1 , . . . , vD } of a vector space is any weighted average λ0v0 + λ1v1 + . . . + λDvD , for some indexed set of non @-@ negative real numbers { λd } satisfying the equation λ0 + λ1 + . . . + λD = 1 .
The definition of a convex set implies that the intersection of two convex sets is a convex set . More generally , the intersection of a family of convex sets is a convex set . In particular , the intersection of two disjoint sets is the empty set , which is convex .
= = = Convex hull = = =
For every subset Q of a real vector space , its convex hull Conv ( Q ) is the minimal convex set that contains Q. Thus Conv ( Q ) is the intersection of all the convex sets that cover Q. The convex hull of a set can be equivalently defined to be the set of all convex combinations of points in Q. For example , the convex hull of the set of integers { 0 @,@ 1 } is the closed interval of real numbers [ 0 @,@ 1 ] , which contains the integer end @-@ points . The convex hull of the unit circle is the closed unit disk , which contains the unit circle .
= = = Minkowski addition = = =
In a real vector space , the Minkowski sum of two ( non @-@ empty ) sets Q1 and Q2 is defined to be the set Q1 + Q2 formed by the addition of vectors element @-@ wise from the summand sets
Q1 + Q2
= { q1 + q2 : q1 ∈ Q1 and q2 ∈ Q2 } .
For example
{ 0 , 1 } + { 0 , 1 } =
{ 0 + 0 , 0 + 1 , 1 + 0 , 1 + 1 }
= { 0 , 1 , 2 } .
By the principle of mathematical induction , the Minkowski sum of a finite family of ( non @-@ empty ) sets
{ Qn : Qn ≠ Ø and 1 ≤ n ≤ N }
is the set formed by element @-@ wise addition of vectors
∑ Qn =
{ ∑ qn : qn ∈ Qn } .
= = = Convex hulls of Minkowski sums = = =
Minkowski addition behaves well with respect to " convexification " — the operation of taking convex hulls . Specifically , for all subsets Q1 and Q2 of a real vector space , the convex hull of their Minkowski sum is the Minkowski sum of their convex hulls . That is ,
Conv ( Q1 + Q2 )
= Conv ( Q1 ) + Conv ( Q2 ) .
This result holds more generally , as a consequence of the principle of mathematical induction . For each finite collection of sets ,
Conv ( ∑ Qn ) =
∑ Conv ( Qn ) .
= = Statements = =
The preceding identity Conv ( ∑ Qn )
= ∑ Conv ( Qn ) implies that if a point x lies in the convex hull of the Minkowski sum of N sets
x ∈ Conv ( ∑ Qn )
then x lies in the sum of the convex hulls of the summand @-@ sets
x ∈ ∑ Conv ( Qn ) .
By the definition of Minkowski addition , this last expression means that x =
∑ qn for some selection of points qn in the convex hulls of the summand @-@ sets , that is , where each qn ∈ Conv ( Qn ) . In this representation , the selection of the summand @-@ points qn depends on the chosen sum @-@ point x .
= = = Lemma of Shapley and Folkman = = =
For this representation of the point x , the Shapley – Folkman lemma states that if the dimension D is less than the number of summands
D < N
then convexification is needed for only D summand @-@ sets , whose choice depends on x : The point has a representation
<formula>
where qd belongs to the convex hull of Qd for D ( or fewer ) summand @-@ sets and qn belongs to Qn itself for the remaining sets . That is ,
<formula>
for some re @-@ indexing of the summand sets ; this re @-@ indexing depends on the particular point x being represented .
The Shapley – Folkman lemma implies , for example , that every point in [ 0 , 2 ] is the sum of an integer from { 0 , 1 } and a real number from [ 0 , 1 ] .
= = = = Dimension of a real vector space = = = =
Conversely , the Shapley – Folkman lemma characterizes the dimension of finite @-@ dimensional , real vector spaces . That is , if a vector space obeys the Shapley – Folkman lemma for a natural number D , and for no number less than D , then its dimension is exactly D ; the Shapley – Folkman lemma holds for only finite @-@ dimensional vector spaces .
= = = Shapley – Folkman theorem and Starr 's corollary = = =
Shapley and Folkman used their lemma to prove their theorem , which bounds the distance between a Minkowski sum and its convex hull , the " convexified " sum :
The Shapley – Folkman theorem states that the squared Euclidean distance from any point in the convexified sum Conv ( ∑ Qn ) to the original ( unconvexified ) sum ∑ Qn is bounded by the sum of the squares of the D largest circumradii of the sets Qn ( the radii of the smallest spheres enclosing these sets ) . This bound is independent of the number of summand @-@ sets N ( if N > D ) .
The Shapley – Folkman theorem states a bound on the distance between the Minkowski sum and its convex hull ; this distance is zero if and only if the sum is convex . Their bound on the distance depends on the dimension D and on the shapes of the summand @-@ sets , but not on the number of summand @-@ sets N , when N > D.
The circumradius often exceeds ( and cannot be less than ) the inner radius :
The inner radius of a set Qn is defined to be the smallest number r such that , for any point q in the convex hull of Qn , there is a sphere of radius r that contains a subset of Qn whose convex hull contains q .
Starr used the inner radius to reduce the upper bound stated in the Shapley – Folkman theorem :
Starr 's corollary to the Shapley – Folkman theorem states that the squared Euclidean distance from any point x in the convexified sum Conv ( ∑ Qn ) to the original ( unconvexified ) sum ∑ Qn is bounded by the sum of the squares of the D largest inner @-@ radii of the sets Qn .
Starr 's corollary states an upper bound on the Euclidean distance between the Minkowski sum of N sets and the convex hull of the Minkowski sum ; this distance between the sum and its convex hull is a measurement of the non @-@ convexity of the set . For simplicity , this distance is called the " non @-@ convexity " of the set ( with respect to Starr 's measurement ) . Thus , Starr 's bound on the non @-@ convexity of the sum depends on only the D largest inner radii of the summand @-@ sets ; however , Starr 's bound does not depend on the number of summand @-@ sets N , when N > D. For example , the distance between the convex interval [ 0 , 2 ] and the non @-@ convex set { 0 , 1 , 2 } equals one @-@ half
1 / 2
= | 1 − 1 / 2 | =
| 0 − 1 / 2 |
= | 2 − 3 / 2 | =
| 1 − 3 / 2 | .
Thus , Starr 's bound on the non @-@ convexity of the average
1 ⁄ N ∑ Qn
decreases as the number of summands N increases . For example , the distance between the averaged set
1 / 2 ( { 0 , 1 } + { 0 , 1 } ) = { 0 , 1 / 2 , 1 }
and its convex hull [ 0 , 1 ] is only 1 / 4 , which is half the distance ( 1 / 2 ) between its summand { 0 , 1 } and [ 0 , 1 ] . The shapes of a subcollection of only D summand @-@ sets determine the bound on the distance between the average set and its convex hull ; thus , as the number of summands increases to infinity , the bound decreases to zero ( for summand @-@ sets of uniformly bounded size ) . In fact , Starr 's bound on the non @-@ convexity of this average set decreases to zero as the number of summands N increases to infinity ( when the inner radii of all the summands are bounded by the same number ) .
= = = Proofs and computations = = =
The original proof of the Shapley – Folkman lemma established only the existence of the representation , but did not provide an algorithm for computing the representation : Similar proofs have been given by Arrow and Hahn , Cassels , and Schneider , among others . An abstract and elegant proof by Ekeland has been extended by Artstein . Different proofs have appeared in unpublished papers , also . In 1981 , Starr published an iterative method for computing a representation of a given sum @-@ point ; however , his computational proof provides a weaker bound than does the original result . An elementary proof of the Sh
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and Buckingham Railway ( A & BR ) opened , linking the Great Western Railway 's station at Aylesbury to the London and North Western Railway 's Oxford to Bletchley line at Verney Junction . On 1 September 1894 , London 's Metropolitan Railway ( MR ) reached Aylesbury , and shortly afterwards connected to the A & BR line , with local MR services running to Verney Junction from 1 April 1894 . Through trains from the MR 's London terminus at Baker Street began on 1 January 1897 .
Richard Temple @-@ Nugent @-@ Brydges @-@ Chandos @-@ Grenville , 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos , had long had an interest in railways , and had served as chairman of the London and North Western Railway from 1852 until 1861 . In the early 1870s he decided to build a light railway to transport freight from his estates in Buckinghamshire to the A & BR 's line at Quainton Road . The first stage of the route , known as the Wotton Tramway , was a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) line from Quainton Road via Wotton to a coal siding at Kingswood , and opened on 1 April 1871 . Intended for use by horse trams , the line was built with longitudinal sleepers , to avoid horses tripping .
= = = Extension to Brill = = =
Lobbying from the nearby town of Brill for the introduction of passenger services on the line led to an extension from Wotton to a new terminus at the foot of Brill Hill , north of the hilltop town of Brill itself , in March 1872 . Two mixed trains each day ran in each direction . With the extension to Brill opened the line was renamed the Brill Tramway . The Duke bought two Aveling and Porter traction engines modified to work as locomotives , each with a top speed of 8 miles per hour ( 13 km / h ) , although a speed limit of 5 miles per hour ( 8 km / h ) was enforced .
The Duke died in 1889 . In 1894 , the trustees of his estate set up the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company ( O & ATC ) with the intention of extending the line from Brill to Oxford , but the extension beyond Brill was never built . The MR leased the Brill Tramway from 1 December 1899 , although the line continued to be owned by the O & ATC .
= = Services and facilities = =
Brill was a small town of 1 @,@ 400 people when the line opened , and owing to the town 's hilltop setting the station was 3 ⁄ 4 of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) from Brill itself . Brill railway station was small , with a single low platform . At its opening there was one station building , which served as the freight depot , passenger terminal , and ticket office . Next to it was a siding that led to a cattle pen . Two cottages for station staff were built near the station in 1871 . A third cottage across the road from the station was built in 1885 , possibly to serve as an office . After the 1899 transfer of services to the Metropolitan Railway , the MR introduced a single Brown Marshall passenger carriage on the line ; at this time , a small wooden hut was added to the station to serve as a ticket office and waiting room and a short section of platform was raised to conventional height to allow access to the higher doors on the new carriage .
= = = Passenger services = = =
From 1872 to 1894 the station was served by two passenger trains per day , and from 1895 to 1899 the number was increased to three per day . Following the 1899 transfer of services to the Metropolitan Railway , the station was served by four trains per day until its closure in 1935 . Limited by poor @-@ quality locomotives and ungraded , cheaply laid track which followed the contours of the hills , and with five intermediate stops to pick up and set down goods , passengers and livestock , trains ran very slowly ; in 1887 trains needed 1 hour 45 minutes to travel the six miles from Brill to the junction station at Quainton Road . Improvements to the line carried out at the time of the transfer to the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad , and the use of the MR 's better @-@ quality rolling stock , reduced the journey time from Brill to Quainton Road to between 32 and 36 minutes .
Serving a lightly populated area , and with trains travelling only marginally quicker than walking pace , Brill station saw relatively little use by passengers ; in 1932 , the last year of private operation , Brill station ( and the nearby halt at Wood Siding ) saw only 3 @,@ 272 passenger journeys and raised only £ 191 ( about £ 12 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in passenger receipts .
= = = Goods facilities = = =
Although little @-@ used by passengers , Brill station was valuable as a relatively rapid link between the dairy farms of Buckinghamshire and the markets of Aylesbury and London ; around 30 carts per day would deliver milk to Brill station for the first train each morning . There was also a small amount of coal traffic to the station ; Brill coal dealer George Green received three coal wagons per month . In addition , a storehouse at the station held beer supplied by the breweries of Brackley and Aylesbury . Bricks and tiles from the brick and tile factories of Brill were used in the construction of Waddesdon Manor , near the eastern end of the Brill Tramway , between 1874 and 1889 .
In 1885 the Duke of Buckingham opened a modern brickworks near Brill station , with a dedicated siding , and in 1895 his heir William Temple @-@ Gore @-@ Langton , 4th Earl Temple of Stowe , expanded the brickworks , which became the Brill Brick & Tile Works , using the Brill Tramway to deliver bricks to the main line at Quainton Road . With the connection to Oxford and the upgrading of the rail line abandoned , Brill Brick & Tile Works was unable to compete with the nearby brickworks at Calvert , and soon closed . The building was taken over by the Fenemore workshop , making hay loaders , before being converted into a timber yard in the 1920s .
= = Closure = =
On 1 July 1933 the Metropolitan Railway , along with London 's other underground railways except for the small Waterloo & City Railway , was taken into public ownership as part of the newly formed London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) . Thus , despite it being 45 miles ( 72 km ) and over two hours ' travel from the City of London , Brill station became a terminus of the London Underground network . Frank Pick , Managing Director of the Underground Group from 1928 and the Chief Executive of the LPTB , aimed to move the network away from freight services , and saw the lines beyond Aylesbury via Quainton Road to Brill and Verney Junction as having little future as financially viable passenger routes , concluding that over £ 2 @,@ 000 ( about £ 130 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) would be saved by closing the Brill Tramway . As a consequence , the LPTB decided to withdraw all passenger services beyond Aylesbury . The Brill Tramway was closed on 1 December 1935 ; the last services ran on 30 November .
Upon the withdrawal of London Transport services the lease expired , and the railway and stations reverted to the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company . With no funds and no rolling stock of its own , the O & ATC was unable to operate the line , and on 2 April 1936 the entire infrastructure of the line was sold at auction . The former goods shed at Brill sold for £ 7 10s ( about £ 1 @,@ 070 in 2016 ) , and a railway @-@ owned house attached to Brill station fetched £ 350 ( about £ 21 @,@ 400 in 2016 ) . All buildings in Brill associated with the railway station have been demolished , with the exception of the station cottages , one of which is now called " Sleepers " . The station site is now largely open fields , and the site of the brickworks is a light industrial park known as the " Tramway Business Park " .
= Sony / ATV Music Publishing =
Sony / ATV Music Publishing is a music publishing company , presently co @-@ owned by Sony Music Entertainment and the estate of Michael Jackson .
The company was originally founded as a division of Associated Television ( ATV ) in 1955 by Lew Grade . In 1985 , Michael Jackson acquired ATV Music Publishing for $ 47 @.@ 5 million . Paul McCartney , who had told Jackson about the importance of owning publishing , admitted he felt somewhat undercut by the purchase , because ATV Music Publishing owned the publishing rights to most of the Beatles ' songs , although he did not enter the bidding when it came up for sale in 1984 .
In December 1995 , Michael Jackson agreed to merge ATV Music Publishing with Sony Music Publishing , a division of Sony Corporation , to form Sony / ATV Music Publishing . In 2012 an investor consortium led by Sony / ATV Music Publishing acquired EMI Music Publishing for approximately $ 2 @.@ 2 billion . Sony / ATV Music Publishing and EMI Music Publishing now operate as one company , with the former entity administering the catalog of the latter under a complex business structure . Following the acquisition , the company became the largest music publisher in the world , with a library of over 2 million songs under its administration .
On March 14 , 2016 , Sony announced that it had reached a deal to acquire the Jackson estate 's stake in the company .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
Sony / ATV was originally founded as a subsidiary of the UK 's Associated Television ( ATV ) . ATV operated a commercial television company , broadcasting from 1955 in London ( until 1968 ) and the English Midlands as part of the Independent Television ( ITV ) network .
Business tycoon Louis Benjamin was involved with Lew Grade as part of one of the three major record companies in the UK at the time . The company was Pye Records which , along with EMI and ( the British ) Decca Records , accounted for the vast majority of music records sold in the UK . In 1959 , ATV acquired 50 % of Pye Records . Between them , Grade and Benjamin held most of the shares . ATV Music Publishing was created to exploit the catalogue of songs written by artists on the Pye Record label , and for the themes to ITC and ATV television programmes . The UK rights to some of the rock ' n ' roll music from the US were also bought by ATV . Grade established ATV 's headquarters alongside those of Pye Records ; off Edgware Road , beside the Marble Arch in central London .
= = = Early history = = =
The 1950s / 1960s was a good period for Grade and his brothers , Bernard Delfont and Leslie Grade , and their companies . Pye Records had major artists of the period under contract . The Searchers , The Kinks , Donovan , Mungo Jerry , and Petula Clark were some of the artists that recorded for Pye Records . Pye also had contracts with several US companies , allowing them to manufacture and distribute records in the UK . Chess Records was among those , and counted Chuck Berry as one of its top artists .
ATV Music acquired the rights to the Lennon – McCartney song catalog , Northern Songs , in 1968 . The catalog featured almost every song written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney until The Beatles ' legal split in 1971 . Northern Songs had been co @-@ owned and administered by Brian Epstein and Dick James . Following Epstein 's death in 1967 , James put the company up for sale . Lennon and McCartney , upset that the songs they had written were not theirs legally , attempted to gain ownership of the publishing rights . Their bid to gain control , part of a long and acrimonious fight , failed . The financial clout of Grade , their adversary in the bidding war , ensured that the music written by the two Beatles passed into the control of ATV .
ATV Music Publishing remained a successful organization in the music industry throughout the 1970s . Len Beadle , the company 's chief executive , signed up many songwriters and bought numerous song catalogs . The catalog acquisitions , along with the continuing royalties from Lennon and McCartney , ensured that large amounts of money were frequently coming in for ATV Music Publishing . Despite the success of the music publishing organization , other ventures formed by Grade were not performing as well . Pye Records , which continued to distribute music from artists such as Carl Douglas and Barry White , was failing to bring in large amounts of money . The main television arm of ATV lost its government @-@ granted license in its then @-@ current form and was restructured into Central Independent Television .
= = = Acquisition = = =
By the mid @-@ 1980s , ATV Music Publishing and Pye Records were both up for sale . The companies were bought relatively cheaply by Australian businessman Robert Holmes à Court , who acquired Associated Communications Corporation ( the parent company ) in 1982 , asset @-@ stripped the subsidiaries , and sacked many long serving employees before selling the companies on again . During this time , American singer Michael Jackson was recording " Say Say Say " for Paul McCartney 's Pipes of Peace album . Jackson stayed at the home of McCartney and his wife Linda during the recording sessions , becoming friendly with both . One evening whilst at the dining table , McCartney brought out a thick , bound notebook displaying all the songs to which he owned the publishing rights . Jackson grew more excited as he examined the pages . He inquired about how to buy songs and what the songs were used for . McCartney explained that music publishing was a way to make big money . Jackson replied by telling McCartney that he would buy The Beatles ' songs one day . McCartney laughed , saying " Great . Good joke . "
Jackson was first informed that the ATV catalog was up for sale in Sept . 1984 by his attorney , John Branca , who had put together Jackson 's earlier catalog acquisitions . Warned of the competition he would face in buying such popular songs , Jackson remained resolute in his decision to purchase them . Branca approached McCartney 's attorney to query whether the Beatle was planning to bid . The attorney stated he wasn 't ; it was " too pricey . " According to Bert Reuter , who negotiated the sale of ATV Music for Holmes à Court , " We had given Paul McCartney first right of refusal but Paul didn 't want it at that time . " Lennon 's widow , Yoko Ono had been contacted as well but also did not enter bidding .
McCartney had previously attempted to purchase the catalog alongside Ono in 1981 . He was offered the catalog for £ 20 million ( $ 40 million USD ) and proposed the pair would each pay £ 10 million . Ono refused as she thought it was too high a price . McCartney spoke about the offer at a press conference in April 1990 , explaining that Ono " actually said ' I think we can get it for 5 . ' So I said , ' Well ok , you know , let 's see what we can do . ' And we couldn 't . " Not wanting to buy the songs himself and potentially be seen as being " grabby " for " owning John Lennon 's bit of the songs , " McCartney let the offer fall through .
The competitors in the 1984 sale of ATV Music included Charles Koppelman and Marty Bandier 's New York @-@ based The Entertainment Co . , Virgin Records , New York real estate tycoon Samuel J. LeFrak , and financier Charles Knapp . On November 20 , 1984 , Jackson sent a bid of $ 46 million to Holmes à Court . Branca suggested the amount of the bid after having spent time evaluating the earnings of the catalog and learning of another bid for $ 39 million . Jackson was only interested in the music copyrights , but the package also included buildings , a recording studio , some studio equipment and life insurance policies on Beatles members ( presumably Lennon 's was collected in 1980 ) . The two sides signed a non @-@ binding memorandum of mutual interest in Dec. 1984 and Jackson 's team began a four @-@ month process of verifying ATV Music 's legal documents , financial reports , and every significant composition in the nearly 4000 @-@ song catalog .
The two sides began drafting contracts in Jan. 1985 and follow @-@ through meetings began on Mar. 16 . Jackson 's team described the negotiations as frustrating , with frequent shifts of position by the other side . One Holmes à Court rep described the negotiations as a " game of poker . " Jackson 's team thought they had reached a deal several times , but new bidders would enter the picture or they would encounter new areas of debate . The prospective deal went through eight drafts . In May 1985 , Jackson 's team walked away from negotiations after having spent hundreds of hours and over $ 1 million . In June 1985 , they learned Koppelman / Bandier had made a tentative agreement with Holmes à Court to buy the catalog for $ 50 million .
But in early Aug. , Holmes à Court contacted Jackson and talks resumed . Jackson only raised his bid to $ 47 @.@ 5 million , but he had the advantage of being able to close the deal faster , having completed due diligence of ATV Music prior to any formal agreement . He also agreed to visit Australia as a guest of Holmes à Court and appear on the Channel Seven Perth Telethon . Holmes à Court included some more assets and agreed to establish a scholarship in Jackson 's name at a U.S. university . Branca closed the deal and purchased ATV Music on Jackson 's behalf for $ 47 @.@ 5 million on Aug. 10 . 1985 . In Oct. 1985 , Jackson fulfilled his contract provision to visit Perth , Western Australia and appear on the telethon , where he spoke briefly and met with two children .
In an analysis of the acquisition , the Los Angeles Times noted that if " Yesterday " were to earn $ 100 @,@ 000 a year in royalties , the Lennon estate and McCartney would divide 50 % of the income ; $ 25 @,@ 000 each . The publisher , Jackson , would receive the other 50 % ; $ 50 @,@ 000 . It was mentioned that " Yesterday " probably earns more than $ 100 @,@ 000 a year . The publisher would also control the use of the song in films , commercials and stage productions . Jackson went on to use the Beatles ' songs in numerous commercials , feeling that it would enable a new generation of fans to enjoy the music . McCartney , who had himself used the Buddy Holly song catalogue in commercials , felt saddened . Privately , Jackson was reported to have expressed exasperation at McCartney 's attitude ; he felt that the musician should have paid for the songs he had written . At the time , McCartney was one of the richest entertainers in the world , with a net worth of $ 560 million and a royalty income of $ 41 million . Jackson stated , " If he didn 't want to invest $ 47 @.@ 5 million in his own songs , then he shouldn 't come crying to me now " .
Appearing on the Late Show with David Letterman shortly after Jackson died in 2009 , McCartney spoke about Jackson 's acquisition of the Beatles songs and the impact of it on their relationship :
And which was , you know , that was cool , somebody had to get it , I suppose . What happened actually was then I started to ring him up . I thought , OK , here 's the guy historically placed to give Lennon – McCartney a good deal at last . Cuz we got signed when we were 21 or something in a back alley in Liverpool . And the deal , it 's remained the same , even though we made this company the most famous … hugely successful . So I kept thinking , it was time for a raise . Well you would , you know . [ David Letterman : Yes , I think so . ] And so it was great . But I did talk to him about it . But he kind of blanked me on it . He kept saying , " That 's just business Paul . " You know . So , " yeah it is , " and waited for a reply . But we never kind of got to it . And I thought , mmm … So we kind of drifted apart . It was no big bust up . We kind of drifted apart after that . But he was a lovely man , massively talented , and we miss him .
Ono was pleased that Jackson had acquired Northern Songs and called it a " blessing . " Speaking in November 1990 , Ono stated , " Businessmen who aren 't artists themselves wouldn 't have the consideration Michael has . He loves the songs . He 's very caring . " She added that if she and McCartney were to own the songs , there would certainly be arguments . Ono explained that neither she or McCartney needed that . " If Paul got the songs , people would have said , ' Paul finally got John . ' And if I got them , they 'd say , ' Oh , the dragon lady strikes again . ' "
= = = Merger with Sony = = =
After Jackson 's acquisition of ATV Music Publishing , his record label 's owner , CBS , was negotiating the sale of its record division in an unrelated deal . The record company was renamed Sony Music Entertainment in 1991 . Following hurriedly arranged meetings and disagreements over the selling price , a deal was sealed by Jackson during a concert in Tokyo . Upon seeing the success of this sale , Japanese corporation Sony sought to break away from its core business of hardware manufacturing and diversify into music , films and games . Looking for further opportunities , the company aimed to expand its music publishing interests . The Japanese corporation , since it wanted to diversify in the media , offered Jackson $ 90 million for a 50 % stake in the ATV catalogue via a merger with Sony Music . Through the agreement , Jackson would become one of the most important shareholders in Sony . Jackson gladly accepted ; he had essentially acquired half ownership of the Beatles ' songs for a large profit . Jackson 's own songs were not included in the deal . Sony and ATV having merged , the new company was named Sony / ATV Music Publishing and became the second largest music publisher in the world . Michael P. Schulhof , President and CEO of Sony Corporation of America , welcomed the merger and praised Jackson for his efforts in the venture . " Michael Jackson is not only the most successful entertainer in history ; he is also an astute businessman . Michael understands the importance of copyrights and the role they play in the introduction to new technologies . " He added that Jackson recognises Sony 's " leadership in developing and realizing new technologies that serve to expand the creative horizon of artists such as himself " . Administrative expertise was provided by Sony , who installed Paul Russell as chairman . Jackson was a company director and attended board meetings regularly . As each party in the arrangement held the power of veto , both sides would have to agree on a decision before it could be made . If neither party agreed on a decisions , they would not be implemented .
In May 2001 , Jackson denied rumours that he was planning to sell the Beatles ' song catalogue . Rumours had circulated that the singer was to sell them in order to finance the upkeep of Neverland Ranch and to cover legal bill expenses . The singer announced in a statement , " I want to clarify a silly rumour – The Beatles catalogue is not for sale , has not been for sale and will never be for sale . " Sony / ATV Music Publishing continued to acquire song catalogues in the 21st century . In November 2001 , the company signed country singer Tony Martin to an exclusive songwriting and co @-@ publishing deal . Through the deal , they acquired Martin 's Baby Mae Music catalog of 600 songs , which includes Joe Diffie 's " Third Rock from the Sun " and Jeff Carson 's " Not on Your Love " . In July 2002 , Sony / ATV Music Publishing bought veteran country music publisher Acuff @-@ Rose for $ 157 million . The venture included music publishing rights to 55 @,@ 000 country music songs , including the music of Hank Williams , The Everly Brothers and Roy Orbison , as well as the master recordings of the defunct label Hickory Records . Sony / ATV revived Hickory Records as the in @-@ house record label imprint in 2007 , with distribution handled by Sony Music 's RED Distribution . Sony / ATV also owns the masters of Dial Records , Four Star Records and Challenge Records .
In 2006 , Sony gained operational control of Sony / ATV and obtained an option to buy half of Jackson 's stake in the company at any time for a fixed price of $ 250 million .
Digital sheet music provider Musicnotes.com announced in June 2006 that it had signed a long @-@ term distribution agreement with Sony / ATV Music Publishing . Musicnotes.com would produce and sell digital sheet music and guitar tablature for songs from Sony / ATV 's extensive catalog . " As a music publisher , we are always looking for new and innovative ways to promote our songs and songwriters , " Sony / ATV chairman and chief executive David Hockman announced in a statement .
Another company acquisition was made in 2007 , when Sony / ATV purchased Famous Music , a music publishing business with song catalogue of more than 125 @,@ 000 songs including " Moon River " and " Footloose . " The deal , sought by Viacom , included the assumption of around $ 30 million of debt . The company purchased the business for $ 370 million . The song catalogue also includes the hits of Eminem , Akon , Linda Perry , Björk , Shakira and Beck . With this acquisition , Sony / ATV acquired the rights to publish music from films released by Viacom 's Paramount Pictures subsidiary , which had founded Famous Music in 1928 to publish music from its films . This also included films released by DreamWorks , which Viacom acquired in 2006 .
= = = Death of Michael Jackson , takeover of EMI Publishing = = =
Following Jackson 's death in June 2009 , there were reports that Jackson had left the Beatles catalog to McCartney in his will , having added it just five months before . ( Jackson was reportedly expecting to die before McCartney despite being 16 years his junior due to various health problems . ) However , it was later revealed that Sony / ATV Music Publishing would keep control of the Beatles ' songs . Upon his death , Jackson 's entertainment attorney , Joel Katz , commented on the singer 's work as a businessman . " Michael Jackson was a perfectionist and his business affairs are worldwide . Many of them are quite ongoing and will be dealt with appropriately . " Ivan Thornton , a private @-@ wealth adviser who worked with Jackson and his family , also commended the business side of the musician . " His business mind was fascinating . We 'd go to meetings with bankers and Wall Street people and once I explained the language to him , he totally got it . There was no formal education there , but his natural knack was off the charts . "
In November 2011 , Citigroup announced a tentative deal to sell EMI , with the recorded music arm going to Vivendi 's Universal Music Group for $ 1 @.@ 9 billion and the publishing business going to a Sony / ATV @-@ led consortium for around $ 2 @.@ 2 billion . Other members of the Sony consortium include Blackstone and Abu Dhabi @-@ owned investment fund Mubadala . In March 2012 , concessions were offered to the European Union to help win approval of the consortium 's purchase . The deal won European Union approval on April 19 , 2012 . As part of the deal , Sony / EMI divested the publishing rights for Famous Music UK and Virgin Music . These catalogues were acquired by BMG Rights Management in December 2012 for $ 150 million .
In August 2013 , it was reported that McCartney and Ono would be able to begin to reclaim the rights to Beatles songs in 2018 , as a result of the Copyright Act of 1976 , in which the ownership of songs written before 1978 reverts to the songwriter after 56 years . McCartney and Ono ( or their estates ) will be able to claim full rights to all Beatles songs by 2026 .
= = = Sale of Jackson stake = = =
In October 2015 , it was reported that a clause had been triggered in the agreement between Sony and the estate of Michael Jackson , allowing Sony to make a takeover bid for the Sony / ATV stake held by the estate of Michael Jackson , or vice versa . Billboard felt that Sony acquiring the estate 's stake was the most likely outcome , noting the potential revenue the library could bring in regards to licensing for on @-@ demand music streaming services .
On March 14 , 2016 , Sony announced that it would acquire the Jackson estate 's stake in Sony / ATV in a deal valued at around $ 750 million , pending regulatory approval . The estate will retain a 10 % stake in EMI Music Publishing , as well as a stake in Mijac Music , which holds the rights to Michael Jackson 's songs and master recordings . Sony Entertainment CEO Michael Lynton stated that the purchase would " enable Sony to more quickly adapt to changes in the music publishing business , while at the same time continuing to be an unparalleled leader in the industry and a treasured home for artists and writers . " The revenue will primarily be used to pay off the estate 's $ 500 million in debt , with the remainder to be placed in trust for Jackson 's children . The deal is slated to be completed by late @-@ 2016 or early @-@ 2017 .
= = Value = =
The value of Sony / ATV Music Publishing has varied in reports . In 2002 , Forbes magazine estimated Jackson 's 50 % stake in the company , along with other music publishing ventures , to be worth $ 450 million . The organization was valued at $ 700 million in 2003 . Industry experts valued the catalogue at between $ 600 million and $ 1 billion in 2004 , based on the sales of rival catalogues . Charles Koppelman , a veteran music industry executive , stated that $ 1 billion was more reflective of Sony / ATV Music Publishing 's worth . " Buyers would be lining up around the block if it were ever put up for sale , " he said . " And I 'd be in the front of the line . " The value of the company was further estimated by Ryan Schinman , chief of Platinum Rye , to be $ 1 @.@ 5 billion .
In 2005 , Jackson 's defense attorney , Thomas Mesereau , claimed that the song catalogue had been valued at between $ 4 billion and $ 5 billion . Jackson 's own financial documents stated that his 50 % share of the catalogue was worth $ 390 @.@ 6 million as of 2007 , which would have made the entire catalogue worth $ 781 @.@ 2 million . When Sony / ATV led the consortium that acquired EMI Music Publishing in 2012 ( with Sony / ATV becoming administrator and 38 % shareholder ) , it became the largest publishing company in the world , with more than 2 million songs and estimated revenues of over 1 @.@ 25 billion dollars per year . As of 2012 , Sony / ATV administers Jackson 's other publishing firm , Mijac , which includes songs written by Jackson himself ( amongst others ) , and which used to be administered by competitor Warner / Chappell Music .
= Percy Chapman =
Arthur Percy Frank Chapman ( 3 September 1900 – 16 September 1961 ) , usually known as Percy Chapman , was an English cricketer who captained the England cricket team between 1926 and 1931 . A left @-@ handed batsman , he played 26 Test matches for England , captaining the side in 17 of those games . Chapman was appointed captain for the final , decisive Test of the 1926 series against Australia ; under his captaincy , England defeated Australia to win the Ashes for the first time since 1912 . An amateur cricketer , Chapman played Minor Counties cricket for Berkshire and first @-@ class cricket for Cambridge University and Kent . Never a reliable batsman , Chapman nevertheless had a respectable batting record . He could score runs very quickly and was popular with spectators . As a fielder , contemporaries rated him extremely highly . Although opinions were divided on his tactical ability as a captain , most critics accepted he was an inspirational leader .
Born in Reading , Berkshire and educated at Uppingham School , Chapman established a reputation as a talented school cricketer and was named one of Wisden 's schoolboy Cricketers of the Year in 1919 . He went to Pembroke College , Cambridge and represented the University cricket team with great success ; his fame reached a peak when he scored centuries against Oxford University and in the Gentlemen v Players match within the space of a week . Chapman made his Test debut in 1924 , although he had yet to play County Cricket . Having qualified for Kent , he was the surprise choice to take over from Arthur Carr as England captain in 1926 . He achieved victory in his first nine matches in charge but lost two and drew six of his remaining games . Perceived tactical deficiencies and possibly growing concerns over his heavy drinking meant that Chapman was dropped from the team for the fifth Test against Australia in 1930 . He captained England on one final tour in 1930 – 31 , after which he never played another Test . After he assumed the Kent captaincy in 1931 , his career and physique declined until he resigned the position in 1936 ; he retired altogether in 1939 , by which time he was drinking heavily .
Chapman 's fame as a cricketer made him a popular public figure ; he and his wife , whom he married in 1925 , were well known figures in fashionable society and their appearances were followed closely in the press . Outside of cricket , he worked for a brewery . In his later years , Chapman increasingly suffered from the effects of alcoholism and was often seen drunk in public . He and his wife divorced in 1942 ; he spent his final years , mainly alone , suffering from depression , arthritis and a continued dependence on alcohol . Following a fall at his home and a subsequent operation , Chapman died in 1961 , aged 61 .
= = Early life = =
Chapman was born on 3 September 1900 in Reading , Berkshire , the son of Frank Chapman , a schoolteacher , and his wife Bertha Finch . Chapman 's father encouraged him to play cricket and coached him personally . Chapman was first educated at his father 's preparatory school , Fritham House , and by the age of eight was in the school 's first eleven . In September 1910 , he joined Oakham School and scored his first century , dominating the cricket and football teams . From 1914 to 1918 , he attended Uppingham School . Although his academic performance was undistinguished , he soon established a cricketing reputation . By 1916 , he was in the Uppingham first team ; he achieved second place in the school 's batting averages , bringing him to the attention of the wider public . Chapman improved his record in 1917 , scoring 668 runs at an average of 111 @.@ 33 ; he hit two fifties , two centuries and a double century in his last five innings .
In 1918 , Chapman scored 472 runs at 52 @.@ 44 and took 15 wickets ; the following year , he captained the team , scored 637 runs at an average of 70 @.@ 77 and took 40 wickets . As a consequence of his achievements , he was chosen as one of the Cricketers of the Year for 1919 in Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack . In both 1918 and 1919 he was selected for prestigious school representative matches at Lord 's Cricket Ground ; although his weak defensive play drew comment , he was regarded as one of the most promising cricketers of his generation when he left Uppingham in 1919 .
= = University cricket = =
In 1919 , Chapman entered Pembroke College , Cambridge . He failed in two trial games , organised prior to the 1920 cricket season to inform the selection of the Cambridge team , and despite his reputation , was omitted from the University 's opening first @-@ class match against Essex . But on the day of the match , a player withdrew from the Cambridge team and Chapman replaced him . Making his first @-@ class debut on 15 May 1920 , he scored 118 in a rapid innings and kept his place in the team for the remainder of the season . After a century and two fifties , he was selected for the University Match against Oxford . Chapman scored 27 in this final game of the university season to aggregate 613 runs at an average of 40 @.@ 86 , second in the Cambridge batting averages . Unusually for someone in their first year of University cricket , he was subsequently selected for the prestigious Gentlemen v Players match at Lord 's . Although not particularly successful with the bat , critics singled him out for his effective fielding . During August , he played second @-@ class Minor Counties cricket for Berkshire as an amateur and headed the team 's batting averages ; he later appeared in three end @-@ of @-@ season first @-@ class games at the Scarborough Festival where he scored 101 in a Gentlemen and Players game against a bowling attack containing three internationals . In all first @-@ class matches in 1920 , Chapman scored 873 runs at 39 @.@ 68 .
In 1921 , Chapman averaged over 50 for the University and scored three centuries , although his growing reputation meant some critics felt he had underachieved . He once again played in the University match against Oxford , and for the Gentlemen against the Players , and impressed commentators . Some critics suggested he , along with other promising University players , should play for England ; the Test side were in the middle of a series against Australia which was lost 3 – 0 , in the course of which an unusually large number of players were selected . Chapman once more appeared for Berkshire in August , scoring 468 runs and taking 19 wickets . At the end of the season , he was selected by Archie MacLaren in a match at Eastbourne , playing for an all @-@ amateur non @-@ representative England team against the undefeated Australian touring team . In a match which became famous in later years , MacLaren 's team became the first to defeat the tourists , although Chapman was not successful personally . Chapman finished the season with 954 runs at 39 @.@ 75 .
That winter , The Cricketer magazine named Chapman as a young cricketer of the year . However , at the beginning of the 1922 season , his form was so poor that critics suggested leaving him out of the University Match . He had scored 300 runs from 14 innings , but retained his place partially on the strength of his fielding . After Cambridge batted very slowly on the first day , Chapman attacked the bowling on the second morning to score 102 not out . Cambridge won easily , concluding Chapman 's cricket at the university , but his innings impressed critics to the extent that he was again selected for the Gentlemen v Players match at Lord 's . There , he scored 160 and shared century partnerships with Arthur Carr and Frank Mann . Chapman earned praise for his aggression and his stroke @-@ play on the off side . The Times described it as " one of the great innings in the history of the game " . Shortly after this , Sydney Pardon wrote in The Times : " In the cricket field the most interesting figure at the moment is , beyond all comparison , Mr. A. P. F. Chapman . A fortnight ago we were all lamenting his ill @-@ success this season and wondering whether he would ever do justice to his great gifts and fulfil the hopes entertained of him in 1920 . Most effectually he has put his critics to shame ... [ he is ] in such a position that if an England eleven had to meet Australia next week he would be picked at once with acclamation . " Prior to this , only R. E. Foster had scored centuries in both the University Match and the Gentlemen v Players match in the same year . Chapman ended his season by scoring 805 runs and taking 19 wickets for Berkshire , and playing in festival games . He aggregated 607 runs at 33 @.@ 72 in first @-@ class matches for the season .
Chapman was popular at Cambridge and enjoyed his time there . He took part in a variety of social engagements and became involved in other sports . These included fives , tennis , rugby union , golf and football . He captained Pembroke College at rugby and was close to playing for the full university side . Chapman continued to play rugby for Berkshire Wanderers until he was nearly 30 years old . Also for Pembroke , he played as goalkeeper in the football team and may have played for the university at hockey had he taken the sport seriously . In later years , he also displayed proficiency at tennis , in which critics thought he could have reached a high standard if motivated to do so , and golf .
= = Cricket career in the mid @-@ 1920s = =
= = = MCC tour to Australia and New Zealand = = =
During the English winter of 1922 – 23 , the MCC selected a team to tour Australia and New Zealand . This side , captained by Archie MacLaren and composed mainly of amateurs , was not particularly strong and contained several players chosen for their social standing rather than cricketing ability . The team played four first @-@ class games in Australia against state teams ; the first was drawn and the others were lost . After scores of 75 and 58 against Western Australia , Chapman played consecutive innings of 53 , 73 and 69 against South Australia and Victoria , followed by 100 in the most eagerly awaited match of the tour against a strong New South Wales side . The press and public praised his attacking batting and his fielding , although Frank Iredale , a former Test cricketer , noticed some flaws in his technique . When the team moved on to New Zealand , after an uncertain start Chapman scored 533 runs at an average of 48 @.@ 45 , including two centuries . The tourists returned to Australia for the last leg of the tour ; Chapman scored 91 against New South Wales and 134 in 142 minutes against South Australia . In all the Australian games , he totalled 782 runs at 65 @.@ 16 ; in all the matches on tour he had 1 @,@ 315 runs at an average of 57 @.@ 15 .
= = = Qualifying for Kent = = =
When Chapman returned to England , he began to work for a brewery based in Kent , H & G Symonds ; his residence in that county allowed him to qualify for Kent County Cricket Club . There were few opportunities for Chapman to appear in first @-@ class cricket until he qualified . His cricket was mainly restricted to club level in 1923 , with some further games for Berkshire . In addition , he played 12 first @-@ class games for a variety of teams ; he was selected for the Gentlemen v Players matches at Lord 's and The Oval , scoring 83 in the latter game , and played in two trial matches for players on the verge of England selection , although no Tests were played that year . In total , he scored 615 first @-@ class runs at 29 @.@ 28 .
The focus of attention during the 1924 season was selection of a team to contest the Ashes during a Test @-@ playing tour of Australia the following winter . Critics regarded Chapman as a certainty for the team . Continuing to play as an amateur , he made his first appearance for Kent in a non @-@ Championship match , as he was still qualifying , and was very successful in early season club matches . That summer , England played South Africa in a Test series and Chapman was selected for a trial game before the first Test . He scored 64 not out and 43 for " The Rest " , and following the withdrawal of a batsman owing to injury before the first Test , Chapman made his Test debut against South Africa on 14 June . He became one of the few cricketers to represent England while playing for a minor county rather than a team playing in the County Championship . Chapman batted once and scored eight runs ; he drew praise from Wisden for an " amazing " catch on the last day as South Africa were heavily beaten . He retained his place for the second Test but did not bat : only four English batsmen were needed in the game which the home side won by an innings . Although selected for the third game , Chapman did not play owing to a motorbike accident . He was not seriously hurt but missed the remainder of the Test series and the Gentlemen v Players game at Lord 's . Upon recovering , he returned to play for Berkshire without much success and played several festival games at the end of the season . By this stage , he had already been selected to tour Australia . In the final match of the season , he was selected for " The Rest " to play the County Champions , Yorkshire . He scored 74 in 50 minutes and hit three sixes , two of them from consecutive deliveries from Wilfred Rhodes . This was his highest score of the season , in which he made 561 first @-@ class runs at 31 @.@ 16 .
= = = Second tour to Australia = = =
The MCC team to Australia was led by Arthur Gilligan . In the opening matches , Chapman was cheered by the crowds who remembered his achievements on the last tour , but failed to make any significant scores . His first big innings came against Victoria ; he made 72 runs out of 111 scored while he was batting and played a large part in a win for the MCC . Against Queensland in the following match , he scored 80 in 70 minutes and then hit 93 against a representative Australian XI . He was selected for the first four Tests of the five @-@ match series . Batting aggressively , he made several substantial scores but only once passed fifty — in the third Test , he scored 58 , his first Test half century . During the same Test , Gilligan strained a muscle while bowling and had to leave the field ; Chapman took over as captain . England lost the first three matches , giving Australia an insurmountable lead in the series , but won the fourth . Chapman was left out of the side for the final Test . In the series , he scored 185 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 83 , and critics were divided as to his ability and effectiveness . The former Australian captain Monty Noble believed Chapman could be a good batsman if he curbed his aggression but The Cricketer considered his technique to be faulty . Wisden did not judge Chapman a complete failure and noted that he " made useful scores at times " . In all first @-@ class games , Chapman scored 625 runs at 34 @.@ 72 . Although Chapman had a mixed time on the cricket field , the tour was a success for him socially .
Now qualified to play county cricket for Kent , Chapman played only four times in the County Championship in 1925 , preferring to establish himself in his new career in the brewery trade . Not sufficiently wealthy to play cricket full @-@ time as an amateur , Chapman 's business commitments frequently restricted his appearances on the cricket field . During his limited first @-@ class appearances in 1925 , he scored 207 runs at 25 @.@ 87 and Wisden said that he " did nothing out of the common " .
= = England captain = =
= = = Ashes series of 1926 = = =
By the beginning of the 1926 season , Chapman was no longer the star of English cricket . Although still respected for his earlier achievements , he had a modest record in Test and first @-@ class cricket . During the season , the Australians toured England for another Ashes series . Chapman did not play any early season games and his first match for Kent was against the touring side . He scored 51 , his first first @-@ class fifty since January 1925 . A week later , he scored 159 in the County Championship , bringing him back into contention for an England place , then scored 89 in a Test trial match played against the Australians . Chapman 's appearances for Kent were sporadic for the rest of the season , but he scored 629 runs in his nine County Championship games at an average of 57 @.@ 18 to lead the Kent averages . He also scored a century for the Gentlemen against the Players at Lord 's .
Early in the season , Arthur Carr was named as England captain for the start of the series ; Carr was a popular choice and the only other serious contender at the time was Percy Fender . Chapman played in two of the three trial matches and was chosen for the first Test but did not bat in a match ruined by rain . The second Test was drawn but Chapman scored fifty . Australia dominated most of the third Test but England saved the game ; Chapman scored 15 and 42 not out in the match . However , Carr 's tactical approach during the match was heavily criticised and he dropped a crucial catch on the first morning . Chapman was omitted from the side for the fourth Test , but fielded as substitute when Carr became ill during the game .
As the first four matches of the series were drawn , the final Test , played at The Oval , was decisive . Aware that England had beaten Australia only once in 19 matches , the selectors made several changes to the team ; Chapman , at the time fourth in the national batting averages , replaced Carr as captain . This decision was controversial ; the press favoured Carr , particularly as Chapman was young , unproven as captain and not fully established in the team . When the match began on 14 August , Chapman won the toss and decided that England should bat first . When it was his turn to bat , he was given a good reception by the crowd . During his innings , Wisden noted , Chapman " hit out in vigorous fashion " , but once he was dismissed for 49 , the remaining batsmen were out quickly , leaving England with a disappointing total of 280 . Australia replied with 302 . On a pitch affected by rain , England then scored 436 , mainly because of a large partnership between opening batsmen Jack Hobbs and Herbert Sutcliffe . Australia needed to score 415 to win , which was unlikely given the condition of the pitch . The team were bowled out for 125 , and at least one of Chapman 's tactical decisions resulted in Australia losing a wicket . Wisden reported that " not a catch was missed nor was a run given away , the whole England side rising gallantly to the occasion . Naturally a scene of tremendous enthusiasm occurred at the end , the crowd swarming in thousands in front of the pavilion , and loudly cheering the players , both English and Australian . " The correspondent also commented " Chapman ... despite lack of experience in leading a first @-@ class team in the field , turned out a very happy nomination for the post of captain , the young amateur , for the most part , managing his bowling with excellent judgement , and in two or three things he did , showing distinct imagination . " Throughout the match , Chapman chose to follow his own tactics rather than rely on the veteran players in the team for advice . In the series , he scored 175 runs at 58 @.@ 33 .
= = = Aftermath and success = = =
Following the match , Chapman was lauded as a cricketing hero , and among those who sent congratulatory messages were George V and Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin . In all first @-@ class matches in the season , he scored 1 @,@ 381 runs at an average of 51 @.@ 14 , the first time he had passed four figures in a season . In his history of the England cricket captaincy , Alan Gibson notes that the controversy over Chapman 's appointment was soon forgotten following his success . He writes : " English cricket had a new hero who looked the part ... Every selector was a champion ! "
In its summary of the 1927 season , Wisden named him as Kent 's best batsman and noted an improvement in his defensive technique . Against Lancashire , who retained the County Championship , he scored 260 in three hours ' batting , the highest score of his career . The Lancashire bowling attack included former Australian Test bowler Ted McDonald , regarded as the fastest bowler in the world at the time and feared by most county batsmen . Many critics praised Chapman 's innings as one of the best ever played . He was selected to lead the Gentlemen against the Players at Lord 's for the first time , and led representative sides in two of the three Test trials held that season ; the press judged his captaincy to be good . He totalled 1 @,@ 387 runs in first @-@ class games at an average of 66 @.@ 04 , the highest aggregate and average of his career . The Kent captaincy became available at the end of the season , but Chapman was not appointed ; according to Chapman 's biographer , David Lemmon , he was probably approached but was unable to dedicate the necessary time to the position .
Chapman was unavailable for the Test series in South Africa in the winter of 1927 – 28 , but was a certainty to lead the MCC team to Australia in 1928 – 29 . The selectors wished him to play more regularly , so he played more often in 1928 than any other season . He began in good form , but was never as effective as in 1927 . Although his captaincy continued to be highly regarded , there were concerns in the press over his increasing weight , although these were offset by his impressive fielding in that season 's Tests . He captained England to a 3 – 0 series win over West Indies , who were playing their first Test matches , and scored one fifty . In total , he scored 967 first @-@ class runs at 37 @.@ 19 .
As expected , Chapman was named as captain for the Australian tour . The MCC touring team was regarded as a strong one by commentators ; the only controversy was the omission of Frank Woolley which was not fully explained . Rumours in later years said that Chapman was responsible for leaving Woolley out as he was jealous of his county team @-@ mate , but Lemmon regards this as unlikely .
= = = Tour of Australia 1928 – 29 = = =
According to Douglas Jardine 's biographer , Christopher Douglas , " [ Chapman ] hardly put a foot wrong during the tour and , even though he gave Australia their biggest hiding to date , he was and probably remains ... one of the most popular English captains to tour Australia . " From the opening games , England followed a strategy of accumulating large totals . For the first Test , to strengthen the team 's batting , Chapman and the tour selection committee chose only three specialist bowlers ; as the Tests were " timeless " — played to a finish with no time limit — he believed batting to be the key to victory . England batted first and scored 521 ; Chapman scored 50 , but critics believed he should have batted more cautiously . When Australia began their innings , he held a catch from Bill Woodfull in the gully which several observers rated as among the best they had seen . Sydney Southerton , writing of the English fielding , said : " The high note was struck by Chapman himself at Brisbane when , with a catch that will be historic , he dismissed Woodfull ... It is my opinion that catch had a pronounced effect on the course of events in the three subsequent Tests ... [ Chapman 's fielding ] exercised a most restraining influence on the Australian batsmen . " Australia were bowled out for 122 ; Chapman did not ask Australia to follow @-@ on but batted again , to the crowd 's displeasure , and his batsmen relentlessly built up the England lead . When Chapman became the first captain to declare an innings closed in a timeless Test match , Australia needed 742 to win . On a rain @-@ affected pitch , Australia were bowled out for 66 ; England 's win by 675 runs remains in 2016 the largest margin of victory by runs in Tests .
Chapman 's team won the second Test comfortably after scoring 636 in their first innings , the highest team total in Tests at that time . In the third Test , England began the fourth innings requiring 332 to win on a rain @-@ damaged pitch , a task critics believed impossible . A large opening partnership from Hobbs and Sutcliffe gave England a chance , and Hobbs sent a message to the England dressing room suggesting a tactical change in the batting order . But the team could not find Chapman , who according to Percy Fender , in attendance as a journalist , spent most of his time socialising with guests in the Ladies ' Stand . Consequently , the team followed Hobbs ' plan without the approval of the captain . England 's batsmen took the total to within 14 of victory when the fourth wicket fell . Chapman came in and batted in an unusual way ; after attempting some big shots , he played ultra @-@ defensively , possibly in an attempt to allow Patsy Hendren to reach fifty runs before England won . Hendren was out soon after , then Chapman tried to hit a six and was caught . The batsmen continued to play recklessly and a further wicket fell to a run out . Douglas describes the end of the match : " Meanwhile , [ England batsman George Geary ] was quite unruffled by the sudden upsets . He wound up for the next delivery and thumped it through mid @-@ on for 4 , bellowing , ' Dammit , we 've done ' em ! ' It was an appropriate way for a side under Chapman to win the Ashes . " England 's victory in the third Test ensured the Ashes were retained , and the team also won the fourth Test to take a 4 – 0 lead in the series .
Up to this time , Chapman had enjoyed a harmonious relationship with the Australian crowds . However , in the match against Victoria which followed the fourth Test , the crowd barracked the MCC team when Chapman brought on Harold Larwood , a fast bowler , to bowl against Bert Ironmonger , the number eleven , a tactic regarded as unsporting . As the team returned to the pavilion , Chapman was insulted by members of the crowd in the midst of a minor scuffle . Possibly influenced by these events , he withdrew from the final Test ; illness and his poor form may also have been factors . According to Lemmon , it was suggested in later years that Chapman did not play owing to his heavy drinking . In his absence , Australia won the fifth Test . After the fifth day of play and having played both his innings , Jardine left to catch a boat to India , for reasons which are unclear , and Chapman acted as his substitute in the field . Douglas notes that it looked like England " were trying to pull a fast one by picking their strongest batting side ( which meant dropping Chapman ) without weakening the fielding ( since Chapman was Jardine 's substitute ) . " The Australians agreed to the substitution on the condition that Chapman did not field near the batsmen .
In the Tests , Chapman scored 165 runs at 23 @.@ 57 , and in all first @-@ class matches he reached 533 runs and averaged 33 @.@ 31 . Southerton summarised his performance : " Chapman himself began well in batting but in the later matches was too prone to lash out at the off ball and , as the tour progressed , the Australian bowlers discovered his weakness . " On his captaincy , Southerton wrote : " Chapman captained the side uncommonly well , improving out of all knowledge as the tour progressed . " Socially , Chapman enjoyed the tour ; he attended many functions and events ; Bill Ferguson , the team scorer , only saw him annoyed once on the tour : when his accustomed drink was not waiting for him at a lunch interval .
= = = Ashes series of 1930 = = =
Following the end of the 1928 – 29 tour , Chapman did not return to England until July , midway through the cricket season ; Jack White and Arthur Carr captained England in his absence . Chapman resumed playing for Kent shortly after his return home but appeared in only seven matches , with a top @-@ score of 28 . His season was curtailed when he fell awkwardly while fielding in a match against Sussex at the beginning of August . He also missed the two MCC tours that winter to New Zealand and West Indies , neither of which involved a full @-@ strength team .
In 1930 , Australia toured England once more . Before the Test series , Chapman was not a unanimous choice among press correspondents ; several critics believed he should not be in the team on account of his rapidly increasing weight — former England captain Pelham Warner suggested he needed to lose at least two stone — and concern over his poor batting form . However , Chapman began the season well , impressing commentators with his batting , fielding and captaincy , and was named as England captain for the first Test match . In the first innings , he scored 52 in 65 minutes , and England won the match by 93 runs on the fourth day . The Wisden correspondent wrote : " Chapman , with his resources limited , managed his bowling well and himself fielded in dazzling fashion . " This was Chapman 's sixth successive victory over Australia and he had won all nine of the Tests in which he was captain . However , it was to be his last Test victory .
England lost the second Test by seven wickets , and Gibson describes the match as the " turning point in Chapman 's fortunes " . Wisden observed : " Briefly , the Englishmen lost a match , which , with a little discretion on the last day , they could probably have saved . " England scored 425 in their first innings , but Donald Bradman hit 254 runs and Australia reached 729 for six declared . When Chapman came in to bat in the second innings , England still trailed by 163 runs and had lost four wickets — a fifth fell soon after . He attacked the bowling immediately , and shared a large partnership with Gubby Allen . When the latter was out , Chapman began to score even faster . He took England into the lead , hitting out at almost every delivery to reach his only Test century after 140 minutes ' batting . Wisden commented : " It was about this time that , with a little care and thoughtfulness , England might have saved the game ... So far from devoting their energies to defence they continued hitting away , adding another 113 runs in an hour and a quarter afterwards but losing their last five wickets . " Chapman was finally dismissed for 121 , after batting for 155 minutes and striking 12 fours and 4 sixes . England were all out for 375 , leaving Australia needing to score 72 runs to win . Although Chapman held a difficult catch from Bradman which was praised by commentators , Australia won comfortably . Chapman 's century made him the first batsman to score centuries at Lord 's in the University match , in the Gentlemen v Players game and for England in a Test match ; only Martin Donnelly later performed a similar feat , though his Test century was scored for New Zealand . As the Gentlemen v Players match ceased in 1962 , the feat will never be repeated .
In the immediate aftermath of the game , Chapman was praised for his batting ; the team and selectors , rather than Chapman , were blamed for the defeat . However , his captaincy and tactics were later criticised , by Pelham Warner among others . In particular , his placement of fielders and his refusal to play defensively were questioned . Gibson notes that historians regard this match as a turning point in Test matches ; afterwards , captains became more concerned to avoid defeat rather than follow Chapman 's policy of playing entertaining , attacking cricket whatever the result . Chapman 's unwillingness to play for a draw was in later years held up as " the last sporting gesture by an England captain " .
In the third Test , Bradman made the highest individual score in a Test match by scoring 334 out of Australia 's 566 . Assisted by rain that shortened the available playing time , England drew the match . Chapman scored 45 in his only innings . The fourth Test match was also badly affected by rain which brought about another draw . Chapman now faced further criticism of his captaincy . His field placings were again queried ; Warner noted that Chapman 's tactics were poor and that he was slow to react to the opposition . According to cricket writer Leo McKinstry , the selectors lost faith in Chapman on account of his inconsistent , risky batting and his increased tactical shortcomings . However , McKinstry also writes that the selectors and other influential members of the cricketing establishment were privately concerned by Chapman 's heavy drinking which they felt was affecting his leadership . There were also rumours that he was drunk during some sessions of the fourth Test . Following an extended meeting of the selectors , Chapman was left out of the side and replaced as captain by Bob Wyatt . The press were united in attacking the decision , praising Chapman 's batting and captaincy while denigrating Wyatt 's lack of experience . Gibson observes : " In 1930 , despite the occasional criticisms , Chapman 's position did not seem in any danger . He was still the popular , boyish , debonair hero . He had been having his most successful series with the bat , and as a close fieldsman England still did not contain his equal . He could not seriously be blamed because the English bowlers could not get Bradman out ( though this was perhaps more apparent in retrospect than at the time ) . Wyatt , though nothing was known against him ... was a figure markedly lacking in glamour . "
In the final Test , Bradman scored another century and England lost the match and series , although Wyatt played a substantial innings , and Wisden conceded Chapman could have made little difference except as a fielder . The two men remained friends during and after the controversy . In comparing circumstances of Chapman 's appointment with those of his replacement by Wyatt , Gibson writes : " In 1926 , England won : in 1930 , England lost . That is why the echoes took so long to die down and why the selectors remained villains . " He concludes that , even though Wyatt did relatively well , " It does seem , after all these years , an odd decision to have taken . " In the series , Chapman scored 259 runs at 43 @.@ 16 . In all first @-@ class cricket , he passed four figures for the final time , reaching 1 @,@ 027 runs at an average of 29 @.@ 34 .
= = = South Africa tour 1930 – 31 = = =
Already chosen as tour captain before the final 1930 Ashes Test , Chapman led an MCC team to a 1 – 0 series defeat in South Africa the following winter . Several first @-@ choice players were not selected and the team suffered from injuries and illness . Chapman was popular with the crowds but made a poor start to the tour with the bat until he scored more substantially in the lead @-@ up to the Test series . England lost the opening match of the series by 28 runs and the other four were drawn . Needing to win the final match to level the series , England were frustrated when the start of the match was delayed . Chapman won the toss and chose to bowl on a damp pitch which would have favoured his bowlers . However , the umpires discovered the bails were the wrong size and would not start the game until new ones could be made ; in the 20 minutes which were lost , the pitch dried out and England lost much of the advantage of bowling first . Chapman made an official protest before leading his team onto the field . In the series , he scored 75 runs at 10 @.@ 71 , and 471 runs at 27 @.@ 70 in all first @-@ class games . Wisden observed that " without finding his full powers as a punishing hitter , Chapman occasionally batted well " . Socially , the tour was more successful . Chapman was accompanied by his wife , and his parents joined the tour for a time . He took part in many social events and visited several whiskey firms which were associated with his employers in England .
Chapman played no further Test cricket ; in 26 Tests , he scored 925 runs at an average of 28 @.@ 90 and held 32 catches . He captained England in 17 matches , winning nine and losing two with the others drawn . Under him the team achieved seven consecutive victories , equalling the English record , which was not surpassed until 2004 . His nine victories came in his first nine games as captain .
= = Later career = =
= = = Kent captain = = =
Although Chapman lost the England captaincy after the South African tour , he became official captain of Kent in 1931 , having previously captained the side occasionally . Wisden commented that Chapman " exercised an invigorating influence " on the side . Before Chapman assumed the Kent captaincy , the county team was sharply divided along social lines and the amateur leadership was aloof from and often dismissive of the professional players . Members of the team felt that he improved the atmosphere within the side and made the game enjoyable . Critics and players thought that he was past his best by the time he became captain , and already affected by alcoholism , but Chapman was successful as leader . His fielding remained influential . However , his batting form was poor : in 1931 , he scored 662 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 38 . Sections of the press thought he should remain England captain , but he was replaced as Test captain by Jardine , who was not a popular choice ; the selectors chose Jardine to exercise more discipline on the team than Chapman had done . At the end of the season , Chapman toured Jamaica in a team captained by Lord Tennyson and scored 203 runs in first @-@ class matches at 33 @.@ 83 .
Chapman began the 1932 season in good form and appeared fitter than he had for many seasons . There were further calls in the press for him to captain England . Jardine 's captaincy in 1931 left critics unimpressed and C. Stewart Caine , the editor of Wisden , wrote that " the impression appears to be widely entertained that Chapman , were he in [ batting ] form , would again be given charge of the [ England ] team . " Christopher Douglas believes that the difference between Jardine and Chapman in captaincy style made it harder for the press to accept Jardine . He writes : " Chapman 's was just the kind of daredevil approach that is remembered with affection and , even though it was barely a year since he had lost the leadership , his reign was being regarded through rose @-@ coloured specs . " However , it is unlikely that the selectors ever considered returning to him . During the season , Chapman scored 951 runs , averaged 29 @.@ 71 , and led Kent to third place in the County Championship for the second year in succession .
= = = Decline = = =
In 1933 , he scored 834 runs but his average fell to 21 @.@ 94 and he never again averaged over 23 in any season in which he played regularly . Owing to his increasing weight and lack of physical fitness , he found batting much harder . As his physique declined , he was unable to produce the same batting feats he had managed previously . In the field , although still catching effectively , his inability to chase the ball meant he fielded closer to the batsmen ; he also took fewer catches . In both 1934 and 1935 , he averaged around 22 with the bat and scored under 800 runs . In 1935 , he scored his final first @-@ class century , against Somerset , having not reached the landmark since 1931 . Team @-@ mates and observers noticed that in the final years of his career , Chapman frequently left the field during matches , and they suspected he was drinking in the pavilion .
Chapman played infrequently in 1936 , and the captaincy was shared between him and two others . He was reluctant to bat , to the extent of dropping down the batting order to avoid doing so , and his friends believed that his nerve had gone . At the end of the season , he announced that business commitments forced him to give up the captaincy . Over the following three seasons , Chapman played for Kent in three more matches : against the New Zealand touring side in 1937 and in two Championship games in 1938 . He also captained a non @-@ representative England XI in a festival game against the New Zealanders in 1937 , batting at number ten in the order and scoring 61 . His remaining first @-@ class matches were low @-@ profile games against Oxford and Cambridge Universities ; he played 13 games in his final three seasons . In his last first @-@ class game , in 1939 , he captained MCC against Oxford , scoring 12 and 0 . In all first @-@ class cricket , Chapman scored 16 @,@ 309 runs in 394 matches at an average of 31 @.@ 97 , and held 356 catches . By the time his career ended , his weight had increased even further , and Lemmon believes that he had become an embarrassment to other cricketers . Subsequently , Chapman faded away without much comment .
= = Technique and critical judgements = =
Writer Neville Cardus described Chapman as " the schoolboy 's dream of the perfect captain of an England cricket eleven . He was tall , slim , always youthful , and pink and chubby of face . His left @-@ handed batting mingled brilliance and grace ... His cricket was romantic in its vaunting energy but classic in shape . " While batting , Chapman always tried to attack the bowling ; although this meant he made mistakes which resulted in his dismissal , it meant that he could change the course of a game in a short time . Cricket writer R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow described him as : " Tall , strong , and lithe , he was a left @-@ handed hitter with orthodox defence , much of which was rendered unnecessary by a vast reach , and an ability to drive good @-@ length balls over the head of mid @-@ off , bowler , and mid @-@ on . His cover @-@ driving , too , was immensely strong . " Gibson notes that Chapman 's career batting figures were good , but that critics believed that , with his talent , he should have scored more runs . Gibson writes : " When Chapman was going well , he looked quite as good as Woolley [ his Kent and England team @-@ mate ] at the other end , and in the mid @-@ 1920s there was no other English left @-@ hander , possibly no other England batsman at all except Hobbs , of whom that could be said . " His increased weight in the 1930s robbed him of confidence and slowed him down to the point where his batting declined . When batting , Chapman usually wore the Quidnuncs cap .
Commentators claimed that Chapman was not a subtle captain and lacked tactical astuteness . Even so , his record is better than most others who led England during Chapman 's career . Pelham Warner believed that Chapman started well , but that in the later stages of 1930 , his tactical sense markedly deteriorated . On the other hand , several of Chapman 's contemporaries believed him to be one of the best captains . Arthur Gilligan , one of Chapman 's predecessors , considered him to be a model for the role , and Bert Oldfield , who played against Chapman as Australia 's wicket @-@ keeper , thought that Chapman possessed an " aptitude " for leadership . Chapman 's teams were usually harmonious and his sympathetic handling of his players often brought out the best in them . Writing in 1943 , Robertson @-@ Glasgow said : " He knew his men as perhaps no other captain of modern times has known them . " Cricket writer E. W. Swanton believes that Chapman 's cavalier reputation was misleading in assessing his effectiveness , and that " underlying the boyish facade was both a shrewd cricket brain and the good sense to ask advice from those of greater experience . "
Robertson @-@ Glasgow described Chapman as among the greatest fielders of all time , and The Times observed that " at his best he had been one of the finest fielders ever to play for England " . In his earlier years , he fielded in the deep but when he played for Kent and England , he was positioned closer to the batsmen — usually at gully or silly point . The Cricketer commented that his " capacious hands made him a brilliant close @-@ to @-@ the @-@ wicket fielder , and some of his catches were miraculous " . In his youth , Chapman bowled quite regularly , but his negative experience bowling for Berkshire lessened his enthusiasm , and he did not take it seriously .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Marriage and fame = = =
During May 1921 , Chapman met Gertrude ( " Beet " or " Beety " ) Lowry , the sister of Tom Lowry , a cricketer from New Zealand who played for Cambridge and Somerset and went on to captain his country . The couple met again when Chapman toured New Zealand in 1922 – 23 , and became engaged . At the end of the 1924 – 25 Australia tour , they married and returned to England together . The wedding was widely reported and until the end of the decade the couple were heavily involved in social events . They were popular guests at functions , and became notable figures in the fashionable society of the upper classes . In 1923 , Chapman joined a Kent brewery , H & G Symonds . His wife believed that his choice of a career working in the alcohol trade made his life difficult and contributed to his heavy drinking . The social duties associated with his job also contributed to his increased weight and failing fitness in the later part of his cricket career . Further problems arose through his fame ; as he wanted to keep people happy , he drank frequently and attended many social functions . Cricket writer Ivo Tennant believes that Chapman 's " taste for conviviality was his undoing " . He always appeared happy , but Gibson observes " that is the way some men disguise their unhappiness " , and Lemmon suggests that Chapman was seeking acceptance and felt lonely at heart . According to Lemmon , by the end of the Second World War , Chapman was largely living in the past , and that " mentally he was still in the happy days of University cricket . "
= = = Later struggle = = =
E. W. Swanton observes that " from the war onwards [ Chapman 's ] life went into a sad eclipse . " In 1942 , Chapman was divorced from his wife ; according to Lemmon , " Beet had stood much , but there is a point for all relationships beyond which one must not go " . She returned to live in New Zealand in 1946 . After 1946 , Chapman shared a house with the steward of West Hill Golf Club , Bernard Benson , and his health continued to deteriorate . He was frequently observed to be drunk in public , although his appearance and manners remained impeccable ; the cricket establishment ignored him , regarding him as an embarrassment , particularly on the occasions he watched matches at Lord 's . By the end of his life , he was unable to attend any cricket matches . In addition to his alcoholism , Chapman became increasingly isolated , suffering from loneliness and depression . By the 1950s , he had developed arthritis , probably as a result of his sporting activities . On one occasion in 1955 , Chapman was invited to a dinner organised by Kent ; he was later discovered in the car park on the bumper of a car in a distressed state and had to be assisted back inside .
In September 1961 , Chapman fractured his knee when he fell at his home . He was taken to hospital for an operation but died on 16 September 1961 . The newspapers reported that he had been ill for a long time ; his former wife later commented that " he must have died a very sad man " . Tributes focused on his successes as a cricketer and appealing personality . Summing up Chapman 's life , Gibson writes : " But just as a good end can redeem a sad life , so a good life can redeem a sad end , and he had known his hours , his years of glory . " Swanton concluded his obituary of Chapman in 1961 : " The elderly and the middle @-@ aged will recall him rather in his handsome sunlit youth , the epitome of all that was gay and fine in the game of cricket . "
= Battle of Gonzales =
The Battle of Gonzales was the first military engagement of the Texas Revolution . It was fought near Gonzales , Texas , on October 2 , 1835 , between rebellious Texian settlers and a detachment of Mexican army troops .
In 1831 , Mexican authorities gave the settlers of Gonzales a small cannon to help protect them from frequent Comanche raids . Over the next four years , the political situation in Mexico deteriorated , and in 1835 several states revolted . As the unrest spread , Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea , the commander of all Mexican troops in Texas , felt it unwise to leave the residents of Gonzales with a weapon and requested the retrieval of the cannon .
When the initial request was refused , Ugartechea sent 100 dragoons to retrieve the cannon . The soldiers neared Gonzales on September 29 , but the colonists used a variety of excuses to keep them from the town , while secretly sending messengers to request assistance from nearby communities . Within two days , up to 140 Texians gathered in Gonzales , all determined not to give up the cannon . On October 1 , settlers voted to initiate a fight . Mexican soldiers opened fire as Texians approached their camp in the early hours of October 2 . After several hours of desultory firing , the Mexican soldiers withdrew .
Although the skirmish had little military significance , it marked a clear break between the colonists and the Mexican government and is considered to have been the start of the Texas Revolution . News of the skirmish spread throughout the United States , where it was often referred to as the " Lexington of Texas " . The cannon 's fate is disputed . It may have been buried and rediscovered in 1936 , or it may have been seized by Mexican troops after the Battle of the Alamo .
= = Background = =
The Mexican Constitution of 1824 liberalized the country 's immigration policies , allowing foreigners to settle in border regions such as Mexican Texas . In 1825 , American Green DeWitt received permission to settle 400 families in Texas near the confluence of the San Marcos and Guadalupe Rivers . The DeWitt Colony quickly became a favorite raiding target of local Karankawa , Tonkawa , and Comanche tribes , and in July 1826 they destroyed the capital city , Gonzales . The town was rebuilt the following year , after DeWitt negotiated peace treaties with the Karankawa and Tonkawa . The Comanche continued to stage periodic raids of the settlement over the next few years . Unable to spare military troops to protect the town , in 1831 the region 's political chief instead sent the settlers of Gonzales a six @-@ pounder cannon , described by historian Timothy Todish as " a small bored gun , good for little more than starting horse races " .
During the 1830s , the Mexican government wavered between federalist and centralist policies . As the pendulum swung sharply towards centralism in 1835 , several Mexican states revolted . In June , a small group of settlers in Texas used the political unrest as an excuse to rebel against customs duties , in an incident known as the Anahuac Disturbances . The federal government responded by sending more troops to Texas . Public opinion was sharply divided . Some communities supported the rebellion for a variety of reasons . Others , including Gonzales , declared their loyalty to Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna 's centralist government . Local leaders began calling for a Consultation to determine whether a majority of settlers favored independence , a return to federalism , or the status quo . Although some leaders worried that Mexican officials would see this type of gathering as a step toward revolution , by the end of August most communities had agreed to send delegates to the Consultation , scheduled for October 15 . In the interim , many communities formed militias to protect themselves from a potential attack by military forces .
On September 10 , a Mexican soldier bludgeoned a Gonzales resident , which led to widespread outrage and public protests . Mexican authorities felt it unwise to leave the settlers with a weapon . Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea , commander of all Mexican troops in Texas , sent a corporal and five enlisted men to retrieve the cannon that had been given to the colonists . Many of the settlers believed Mexican authorities were manufacturing an excuse to attack the town and eliminate the militia . In a town meeting , three citizens voted to hand over the gun to forestall an attack ; the remainder , including alcalde Andrew Ponton , voted to stand their ground . According to historian Stephen Hardin , " the cannon became a point of honor and an unlikely rallying symbol . Gonzales citizens had no intention of handing over the weapon at a time of growing tension . " The soldiers were escorted from town without the cannon .
= = Prelude = =
Ponton anticipated that Ugartechea would send more troops to force the handover of the cannon . As soon as the first group of soldiers left Gonzales , Ponton sent a messenger to the closest town , Mina , to request help . Word quickly spread that up to 300 soldiers were expected to march on Gonzales . Stephen F. Austin , one of the most respected men in Texas and the de facto leader of the settlers , sent messengers to inform surrounding communities of the situation . Austin cautioned Texians to remain on the defensive , as any unprovoked attacks against Mexican forces could limit the support Texians might receive from the United States if war officially began .
On September 27 , 1835 , a detachment of 100 dragoons , led by Francisco de Castañeda , left San Antonio de Béxar , carrying an official order for Ponton to surrender the cannon . Castañeda had been instructed to avoid using force if possible . When the troops neared Gonzales on September 29 , they found that the settlers had removed the ferry and all other boats from the Guadalupe River . On the other side of the swiftly moving river waited eighteen Texians . Albert Martin , captain of the Gonzales militia , informed the soldiers that Ponton was out of town , and until his return the army must remain on the west side of the river .
With no easy way to cross the river , Castañeda and his men made camp at the highest ground in the area , about 300 yards ( 300 meters ) from the river . Three Texians hurried to bury the cannon , while others traveled to nearby communities to ask for assistance . By the end of the day , more than 80 men had arrived from Fayette and Columbus . Texian militias generally elected their own leaders , and the men now gathered in Gonzales invoked their right to choose their own captain rather than report to Martin . John Henry Moore of Fayette was elected leader , with Joseph Washington Elliot Wallace and Edward Burleson , both of Columbus , respectively elected second and third in command .
On September 30 , Castañeda reiterated his request for the cannon and was again rebuffed . Texians insisted on discussing the matter directly with Ugartechea . According to their spokesman , until this was possible " the only answer I can therefore give you is that I cannot now [ and ] will not deliver to you the cannon " . Castañeda reported to Ugartechea that the Texians were stalling , likely to give reinforcements time to gather .
In San Antonio de Béxar , Ugartechea asked Dr. Launcelot Smither , a Gonzales resident in town on personal business , to help Castañeda convince the settlers to follow orders . When Smither arrived on October 1 , he met with militia captain Mathew Caldwell to explain that the soldiers meant no harm if the settlers would peacefully relinquish the cannon . Caldwell instructed Smither to bring Castañeda to the town the following morning to discuss the matter . At roughly the same time , Moore called a war council , which quickly voted to initiate a fight . It is unclear whether the war council was aware that Caldwell had promised Castañeda safe passage to Gonzales the next morning .
Texians dug up the cannon and mounted it on cart wheels . In the absence of cannonballs , they gathered metal scraps to fill the cannon . James C. Neill , who had served in an artillery company during the War of 1812 , was given command of the cannon . He gathered several men , including Almaron Dickinson , together to form the first artillery company of Texians . A local Methodist minister , W. P. Smith , blessed their activities in a sermon which made frequent reference to the American Revolution .
As the Texians made plans for an attack , Castañeda learned from a Coushatta Indian that about 140 men were gathered in Gonzales , with more expected . The Mexican soldiers began searching for a safe place to cross the river . At nightfall on October 1 they stopped to make camp , 7 miles ( 11 km ) upriver from their previous spot .
= = Battle = =
Texians began crossing the river at about 7 pm . Less than half of the men were mounted , slowing their progress as they tracked the Mexican soldiers . A thick fog rolled in around midnight , further delaying them . At around 3 am , Texians reached the new Mexican camp . A dog barked at their approach , alerting the Mexican soldiers , who began to fire . The noise caused one of the Texian horses to panic and throw his rider , who suffered a bloody nose . Moore and his men hid in the thick trees until dawn . As they waited , some of the Texians raided a nearby field and snacked on watermelon .
With the darkness and fog , Mexican soldiers could not estimate how many men had surrounded them . They withdrew 300 yards ( meters ) to a nearby bluff . At about 6 am , Texians emerged from the trees and began firing at the Mexican soldiers . Lieutenant Gregorio Pérez counterattacked with 40 mounted soldiers . The Texians fell back to the trees and fired a volley , injuring a Mexican private . According to some accounts , the cannon fell out of the wagon upon the shot . Unable to safely maneuver among the trees , the Mexican horsemen returned to the bluff .
As the fog lifted , Castañeda sent Smither to request a meeting between the two commanders . Smither was promptly arrested by the Texians , who were suspicious of his presence among the Mexican soldiers . Nevertheless , Moore agreed to meet Castañeda . Moore explained that his followers no longer recognized the centralist government of Santa Anna and instead remained faithful to the Constitution of 1824 , which Santa Anna had repudiated . Castañeda revealed that he shared their federalist leanings , but that he was honor @-@ bound to follow orders .
As Moore returned to camp , the Texians raised a homemade white banner with an image of the cannon painted in black in the center , over the words " Come and Take It " . The makeshift flag evoked the American Revolutionary @-@ era slogan " Don 't Tread on Me " . Texians then fired their cannon at the Mexican camp . Realizing that he was outnumbered and outgunned , Castañeda led his troops back to San Antonio de Béxar . The troops were gone before the Texians finished reloading . In his report to Ugartechea , Castañeda wrote " since the orders from your Lordship were for me to withdraw without compromising the honor of Mexican arms , I did so " .
= = Aftermath = =
Two Mexican soldiers were killed in the attack . The only Texian casualty was the bloody nose suffered by the man bucked off his horse . Although the event was , as characterized by Davis , " an inconsequential skirmish in which one side did not try to fight " , Texians soon declared it a victory over Mexican troops . Despite its minimal military impact , Hardin asserts that the skirmish 's " political significance was immeasurable " . A large number of Texians had taken an armed stand against the Mexican army , and they had no intention of returning to their neutral stance towards Santa Anna 's government . Two days after the battle , Austin wrote to the San Felipe de Austin Committee of Public Safety , " War is declared — public opinion has proclaimed it against a Military despotism — The campaign has commenced " . News of the skirmish , originally called " the fight at Williams ' place " , spread throughout the United States , encouraging many adventurers to come to Texas and assist in the fight against Mexico . Newspapers referred to the conflict as the " Lexington of Texas " ; as the Battles of Lexington and Concord began the American Revolution , the Gonzales skirmish launched the Texas Revolution .
Before fighting had officially erupted , Santa Anna had realized that stronger measures were needed to ensure calm in Texas . He ordered his brother @-@ in @-@ law , General Martín Perfecto de Cos to bring approximately 500 soldiers to Texas . Cos and his men arrived in Goliad on October 2 . Three days later , after learning of the events at Gonzales , the soldiers left for San Antonio de Béxar .
Gonzales became a rallying point for Texians opposed to Santa Anna 's policies . On October 11 , they unanimously elected Austin their commander , despite his lack of military training . The following day , Austin led the men on a march towards San Antonio de Béxar to lay siege to Cos 's troops . By the end of the year , the Texians had driven all Mexican troops from Texas .
The cannon 's fate is disputed . According to the memoirs ( written in the 1890s ) of Gonzales blacksmith Noah Smithwick , the cannon was abandoned after the cart 's axles began to smoke during a march to San Antonio de Béxar to assist in Austin 's siege . Smithwick reported that the cannon was buried near a creek not far from Gonzales . A small iron cannon was exposed during a June 1936 flood near Gonzales . In 1979 , this cannon was purchased by Dr. Patrick Wagner , who believed it matched Smithwick 's descriptions of the cannon used in the battle . The Curator of Military History at the Smithsonian Institution verified that Wagner 's cannon was a type of small swivel gun used in America through 1836 . The Conservation Laboratory at the University of Texas confirmed that Wagner 's cannon had been buried in moist ground for an extended time period .
Writing in the Handbook of Texas , historian Thomas Ricks Lindley maintains that the Wagner cannon does not match the Smithwick account . The Wagner gun is made of iron and is smaller than a six @-@ pounder . Historians such as Lindley think it more likely that the Gonzales cannon was taken to San Antonio de Béxar , where it was used during the Battle of the Alamo and captured by Mexican troops in March 1836 . It was likely melted down with many of the other cannons when the Mexican army retreated .
The battle is re @-@ enacted during the Come and Take It celebration in Gonzales every October . In and around Gonzales are nine Texas historical markers which commemorate various locations used in the prelude to the battle .
= HMS Implacable ( R86 ) =
HMS Implacable was an Implacable @-@ class aircraft carrier built for the Royal Navy during World War II . Upon completion in 1944 , she was initially assigned to the Home Fleet and attacked targets in Norway for the rest of the year . She was subsequently assigned to the British Pacific Fleet ( BPF ) where she attacked the Japanese naval base at Truk and targets in the Japanese Home Islands in 1945 . The ship was used to repatriate liberated Allied prisoners of war ( PoWs ) and soldiers after the Japanese surrender , for the rest of the year . Implacable returned home in 1946 and became the Home Fleet 's deck @-@ landing training carrier , a role that lasted until 1950 . She briefly served as the flagship of Home Fleet in 1950 . During this time she participated in many exercises and made a number of port visits in Western Europe . She was placed in reserve in 1950 and converted into a training ship in 1952 , and served as flagship of the Home Fleet Training Squadron . The ship was considered for a major modernisation in 1951 – 52 , but this was rejected as too expensive and time @-@ consuming . Implacable was decommissioned in 1954 and sold for scrap the following year .
= = Design and description = =
The Implacable class had its origin as an improved version of the Illustrious @-@ class aircraft carriers for the 1938 Naval Programme . They were designed to be 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) faster , and to carry an additional dozen aircraft at the expense of reduced armour protection to remain within the 23 @,@ 000 long tons ( 23 @,@ 000 t ) available from the tonnage allowed by the Washington Naval Treaty . Implacable was 766 feet 6 inches ( 233 @.@ 6 m ) long overall and 730 feet ( 222 @.@ 5 m ) at the waterline . Her beam was 95 feet 9 inches ( 29 @.@ 2 m ) at the waterline and she had a draught of 29 feet 4 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . The Implacable @-@ class ships were significantly overweight and displaced 32 @,@ 110 long tons ( 32 @,@ 630 t ) at deep load . The ships had metacentric heights of 4 @.@ 06 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) at light load and 6 @.@ 91 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load as completed . Implacable 's complement was approximately 2 @,@ 300 officers and enlisted men in 1945 .
The ships had four Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one shaft , using steam supplied by eight Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 148 @,@ 000 shp ( 110 @,@ 000 kW ) , enough to give them a maximum speed of 32 @.@ 5 knots ( 60 @.@ 2 km / h ; 37 @.@ 4 mph ) . On sea trials , Implacable reached speeds of 31 @.@ 89 knots ( 59 @.@ 06 km / h ; 36 @.@ 70 mph ) with 151 @,@ 200 shp ( 112 @,@ 700 kW ) . She carried a maximum of 4 @,@ 690 long tons ( 4 @,@ 770 t ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 6 @,@ 720 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 450 km ; 7 @,@ 730 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
The 760 @-@ foot ( 231 @.@ 6 m ) armoured flight deck had a maximum width of 102 feet ( 31 @.@ 1 m ) . A single hydraulic aircraft catapult was fitted on the forward part of the flight deck . The Implacable @-@ class carriers were equipped with two lifts on the centreline , the forward of which measured 45 by 33 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 by 10 @.@ 1 m ) and served only the upper hangar , and the aft lift ( 45 by 22 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 by 6 @.@ 7 m ) ) which served both hangars . The upper hangar was 458 feet ( 139 @.@ 6 m ) long and the lower hangar was 208 feet ( 63 @.@ 4 m ) long ; both had a maximum width of 62 feet ( 18 @.@ 9 m ) . Both hangars had a height of only 14 feet which precluded storage of Lend @-@ Lease Vought F4U Corsair fighters as well as many post @-@ war aircraft and helicopters . Designed to stow 48 aircraft in their hangars , the use of a permanent deck park allowed the Implacable class to accommodate up to 81 aircraft . The additional crewmen , maintenance personnel and facilities needed to support these aircraft were housed in the lower hangar . The ships were provided with 94 @,@ 650 imperial gallons ( 430 @,@ 300 l ; 113 @,@ 670 US gal ) of aviation gasoline .
= = = Armament , electronics and protection = = =
The ship 's main armament consisted of sixteen quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) dual @-@ purpose guns in eight twin @-@ gun turrets , four in sponsons on each side of the hull . Unlike the Illustrious @-@ class ships , the roofs of the gun turrets were flat and flush with the flight deck . The gun had a maximum range of 20 @,@ 760 yards ( 18 @,@ 980 m ) . Her light anti @-@ aircraft defences included five octuple mounts for QF 2 @-@ pounder ( " pom @-@ pom " ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns , two on the flight deck forward of the island , one on the aft part of the island and two in sponsons on the port side of the hull . A single quadruple 2 @-@ pounder mount was also fitted on the port side of the hull . The 2 @-@ pounder gun had a maximum range of 6 @,@ 800 yards ( 6 @,@ 200 m ) . The ship was also fitted with 61 Oerlikon 20 mm autocannon in 19 single and 21 twin @-@ gun mounts . These guns had a maximum range of 4 @,@ 800 yards ( 4 @,@ 400 m ) , but some were replaced by 40 mm Bofors AA guns when the ships were transferred to the Pacific Theater as the 20 mm shell was unlikely to destroy a kamikaze before it hit the ship . The Bofors gun had a maximum range of 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 830 m ) . Two additional quadruple " pom @-@ pom " mounts were added to Implacable before she joined the British Pacific Fleet in 1945 . By the end of the war , she had 4 single Bofors guns , plus 17 twin and 17 single Oerlikon mounts . By April 1946 these had been reduced to 12 Bofors guns , 8 twin and 14 single Oerlikon guns .
The specifics of the Implacable @-@ class ships ' radar suite are not readily available . They were fitted with the Type 277 surface @-@ search / height @-@ finding radar on top of the bridge and a Type 293 target indicator radar on the foremast . The ships probably carried Type 279 and Type 281B early @-@ warning radars , based on the radars fitted aboard the Illustrious @-@ class carrier Victorious late in the war . In addition , Type 282 and Type 285 gunnery radars were mounted on the fire @-@ control directors .
The Implacable @-@ class ships had a flight deck protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armour . The sides of the hangars were either 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) or 2 inches ( 51 mm ) . The ends of the hangars were protected by 2 @-@ inch bulkheads and the armour of the hangar deck ranged from 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 to 64 mm ) in thickness . The waterline armour belt was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick , but only covered the central portion of the ship . The belt was closed by 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads fore and aft . The underwater defence system was a layered system of liquid- and air @-@ filled compartments as used in the Illustrious class . The magazines for the 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns lay outside the armoured citadel and were protected by 2 to 3 @-@ inch roofs , 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch sides and 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @-@ inch ends .
= = Construction and service = =
Implacable was laid down by Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. at their shipyard in Clydeside on 21 February 1939 , as Yard Number 672 . Her construction was temporarily suspended in 1940 – 41 , in favour of higher @-@ priority ships needed to fight in the Battle of the Atlantic , before she was launched on 10 December 1942 by Queen Elizabeth . Captain Lachlan Mackintosh was appointed to command the ship in November 1943 . She was commissioned on 22 May 1944 , and began sea trials which revealed a significant number of problems that required rectification , so the ship was not formally completed until 28 August . Implacable was assigned to the Home Fleet and was working up over the next several months while the Fairey Fireflies of 1771 Squadron flew aboard on 10 September . The squadron was followed by the Fairey Barracuda torpedo bombers of 828 and 841 Squadrons that made up No. 2 Naval Torpedo @-@ Bomber Reconnaissance Wing later that month .
Her first mission was to locate the German battleship Tirpitz which had left its anchorage in Kaafjord in early October . Implacable departed Scapa Flow on 16 October , and a section of her Fireflies spotted the battleship off Håkøya Island near Tromsø two days later . No attack was mounted because the carrier lacked any single @-@ seat fighters aboard to escort the strike aircraft , although they did damage a cargo ship before returning home . On 16 October , the Supermarine Seafires of 887 and 894 Squadrons of No. 24 Naval Fighter Wing landed aboard . In late October she participated in Operation Athletic off the Norwegian coast , where her aircraft sank six ships and damaged a German submarine for the loss of one Barracuda , while conducting the Royal Navy 's last wartime torpedo attack . On 1 November Captain Charles Hughes @-@ Hallett relieved Mackintosh and assumed command of the ship .
The Barracudas were replaced by the Seafires of No. 30 Naval Fighter Wing , which consisted of 801 and 880 Squadrons , on 8 November and the Seafires provided air cover for minelaying operations by escort carriers from 11 to 21 November . The next day , Admiral Sir Henry Ruthven Moore , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Home Fleet , hoisted his flag in Implacable and the ship set sail to hunt for a convoy that had been reported near Alsten Island ( Operation Provident ) with the Seafires and Fireflies of 801 , 880 , and 1771 Squadrons aboard . Bad weather prevented aircraft from being launched until 27 November , but they located the convoy and sank two merchantmen , including MS Rigel , and damaged six others . Upon her return to Scapa on 29 November , Moore lowered his flag , but Vice Admiral Sir Frederick Dalrymple @-@ Hamilton , second in command of Home Fleet , hoisted his flag on 6 December for Operation Urbane , another minelaying operation during which her Fireflies helped to sink a German minesweeper . Dalrymple @-@ Hamilton transferred his flag off Implacable when she returned to Scapa on 9 December . On 15 December she began a refit at Rosyth preparatory to her transfer to the British Pacific Fleet , which included augmenting her light AA armament .
Upon its completion on 10 March 1945 , 801 , 828 , 880 , and 1771 Squadrons reembarked with a total strength of 48 Seafires , 21 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers and a dozen Fireflies , the largest air group aboard a British carrier thus far . Implacable departed six days later to join the BPF and arrived at Port Said , Egypt , on 25 March . While passing through the Suez Canal , a strong gust of wind forced her ashore and it took her escorting tugboats five hours to pull her off . Undamaged , she proceeded on her voyage and reached Sydney on 8 May 1945 ( V @-@ E Day ) .
Implacable arrived at the BPF 's main operating base at Manus Island , in the Admiralty Islands , on 29 May . A week later Rear Admiral Sir Patrick Brind hoisted his flag in preparation for Operation Inmate , an attack on the Japanese naval base at Truk in the Caroline Islands that began on 14 June . Having flown 113 offensive sorties over the two days of the attack , with only one loss of a Seafire to enemy action , the carrier and her escorts returned to Manus Island on 17 June . On 30 June No. 8 Carrier Air Group was formed , absorbing No. 24 Naval Fighter Wing , to control all of the air units aboard Implacable .
After working up , she sailed to join the main body of the BPF off the Japanese coast on 6 July , and rendezvoused with them ten days later . Implacable flew off eight Fireflies and a dozen Seafires against targets north of Tokyo on 17 July , but only the Fireflies were able to locate their targets because of bad weather . Eight Fireflies and twenty Seafires attacked targets near Tokyo the next day , before more bad weather halted flying operations until 24 – 25 July , when the BPF 's aircraft attacked targets near Osaka and the Inland Sea , crippling the escort carrier Kaiyo . After replenishing , airstrikes resumed on 28 and 30 July , the British sinking the escort Okinawa near Maizuru . A combination of bad weather , refuelling requirements and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima delayed the resumption of air operations until 9 August . During the day , Implacable 's Seafires flew 94 sorties and her Fireflies flew 14 against targets in northern Honshu and southern Hokkaido for the loss of two Seafires . The attacks were repeated the next day , sinking two warships , numerous small merchantmen and destroying numerous railroad locomotives and parked aircraft . The BPF had been scheduled to withdraw after 10 August to prepare for Operation Olympic , the invasion of Kyushu scheduled for November , and the bulk of the force , including Implacable , departed for Manus on 12 August . Her aircraft flew over 1 @,@ 000 sorties since her arrival the previous month .
= = = Post War = = =
She arrived at Sydney on 24 August , and had her hangars refitted to accommodate Allied PoWs and soldiers for repatriation . Having left her air group behind to maximize the numbers of passengers she could carry , the ship arrived at Manila on 25 September , where she loaded over 2 @,@ 000 American and Canadian PoWs . She dropped off the Americans at Pearl Harbor on 5 October and continued on to deliver her Canadian passengers at Vancouver six days later . Opened for public tours , Implacable remained for a week before sailing to Hong Kong to pick up several hundred PoWs and continued onwards to Manila to load 2 @,@ 114 more passengers . She delivered them to Balikpapan , Borneo for transhipment to Britain . In their place the carrier embarked 2 @,@ 126 men of the 7th Australian Division , and their equipment , to return to Australia . She arrived at Sydney on 17 November and sailed on 8 December to load more returning troops from Papua New Guinea . Arriving back at Sydney before Christmas , the ship had her additional bunks , etc . , removed to return her to operational status .
In January 1946 her air group flew aboard , minus the disbanded 880 Squadron , and with 1790 Squadron replacing 1771 Squadron . After several days of flying exercises , Implacable made a port visit to Melbourne together with her sister Indefatigable and several other ships . She became the flagship of Vice Admiral Sir Philip Vian , the newly appointed second in command of the BPF on 31 January . She continued a relaxed schedule of training and port visits until she began a refit on 15 March in Sydney , that lasted until 29 April , when she put to sea to fly on her aircraft and to dump overboard the 16 Lend @-@ Lease Avengers belonging to 828 Squadron ( Britain had to either pay for them or dispose of them with the end of the war , and lacked the means to do the former ) . She sailed for home on 5 May and reached Devonport on 3 June , where Vian struck his flag .
Implacable became the deck @-@ landing training carrier for the Home Fleet when she next put to sea in August . On 25 September Captain Aubrey Mansergh assumed command of the ship . Two months later she participated in an exercise with the Home Fleet and was lightly damaged when she collided with the light carrier Vengeance while docking in Devonport on 7 November . On 1 February 1947 , she joined the other ships of the Home Fleet as they rendezvoused with the battleship Vanguard , which was serving as the royal yacht to escort King George VI as he set out for the first royal tour of South Africa . Implacable hosted the king and his family on 7 February , staging a small air show for them after which the queen addressed the crew . After leaving the royals , she made ports visits at Freetown , Sierra Leone , and Dakar , Senegal before arriving in the Western Mediterranean for more training . Arriving home on 7 March , she began a lengthy refit at Rosyth on 17 April .
Upon its completion in October 1947 she embarked 813 Squadron , flying Blackburn Firebrand TF.5s , and resumed training . Captain John Stevens relieved Mansergh on 9 February 1948 , as the latter had been promoted . In June and July , the ship participated in a series of demonstrations for students in the Royal Navy 's staff college . Among these was the first carrier landing by a Gloster Meteor jet @-@ powered fighter , flown by Lieutenant @-@ Commander Eric Brown , landings by prototypes of the Westland Wyvern and Short Sturgeon , rocket firing by Fireflies and an " attack " on Implacable by motor torpedo boats . She completed a 10 @-@ week refit on 10 November and resumed deck @-@ landing practices . She sailed for Gibraltar on 27 February 1949 and 801 Squadron flew aboard on 5 March with its de Havilland Sea Hornets , the day after she arrived there . Admiral Sir Rhoderick McGrigor , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of Home Fleet , hoisted his flag aboard the carrier on 6 March before beginning a short exercise with some of the other ships of Home Fleet . She made port visits in Oslo and Bergen , Norway in June , hosting King Haakon VII . While berthed at Portsmouth , King Abdullah I of Jordan visited on 19 August and the Prime Minister , Clement Attlee visited 10 days later . 702 Squadron flew aboard with seven de Havilland Sea Vampires in September to conduct carrier evaluations with the new fighter jets that lasted until 11 November . McGrigor was relieved by Admiral Vian ten days later .
Implacable spent February and March 1950 training in the Western Mediterranean and Captain H. W. Briggs assumed command on 1 April . She resumed flight training in the Irish Sea and off the western coast of Scotland until she made a port visit to Copenhagen in mid @-@ July . King Frederick IX of Denmark inspected the ship on 18 July and Admiral Vian transferred his flag to Vanguard on 11 September . Two days later she was placed in reserve and slowly converted into a training ship by the addition of extra accommodation and classrooms . During this time she was considered for a major reconstruction that would combine her two hangars into a single hangar with a height of 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 33 m ) and allow her to operate 30 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 14 @,@ 000 kg ) aircraft . In addition her armament would be modernised and the fuel supply for her aircraft would be more than doubled . A similar reconstruction was then in progress for Victorious , but it proved to be much more expensive than planned and also took more time than had been estimated . Short of both time and money for the project , the Admiralty cancelled the modernisation in June 1952 .
Implacable was recommissioned on 16 January 1952 as the flagship of the Home Fleet Training Squadron . On 13 February she arrived at Dover to serve as the port 's guard ship before and after the state funeral of King George VI , to salute royalty and heads of state arriving by sea . After its conclusion , the ship sailed for the western Mediterranean to rendezvous with her sister for exercises . In June the two sisters represented a fast troop convoy being attacked by aircraft during an air defence exercise . They visited Copenhagen in the next month before returning home . Implacable sailed for Gibraltar on 25 September and made a port visit to Lisbon , Portugal before returning to Devonport for a refit . On 16 November she had an oil fire in her galley that damaged her electrical wiring badly enough to require extending her refit to 20 January 1953 . She spent most of February and March in the western Mediterranean together with her sister , participating in exercises before sailing to Southampton for a brief refit .
For the Coronation Fleet Review of Queen Elizabeth II on 15 June , she flew the flag of Vice Admiral John Stevens , her former commanding officer , now Flag Officer , Home Fleet Training Squadron . On 5 September Rear Admiral H. L. F. Adams relieved Stevens and the ship joined Indefatigable for fleet exercises off the Scilly Isles and in the Bristol Channel the following month . She ferried the 1st Battalion , Argyll & Sutherland Highlanders from Devonport to Trinidad in response to a crisis in British Guiana , and transported a battalion of the Royal Welch Fusiliers from Trinidad to Jamaica in October , returning home on 11 November . On 19 August 1954 , she was relieved as flagship by the light carrier Theseus .
= = = Decommissioning and disposal = = =
Implacable decommissioned on 1 September 1954 and was sold to Thomas W. Ward Ltd for breaking up on 27 October 1955 after being towed to Gareloch . Implacable was scrapped at Inverkeithing beginning the following month .
= = Squadrons embarked = =
= Combine ( Half @-@ Life ) =
The Combine is a multidimensional empire which serves as the primary antagonistic force in the video game Half @-@ Life 2 , developed by Valve Corporation . The Combine consist of alien , synthetic , and human elements , and dominate Earth . They are regularly encountered throughout Half @-@ Life 2 and its episodic expansions as hostile non @-@ player characters as the player progresses through the games in an effort to overthrow the Combine occupation of Earth .
The Combine are frequently shown as harsh rulers over the citizens of Earth , suppressing dissent with brutality , policing using violence and using invasive surgery to transform humans into either soldiers or slaves . Throughout the games , the player primarily battles with transformed humans as well as synthetic and mechanical enemies that are the product of Combine technology . The atmosphere generated by the dystopian Combine state has been praised by reviewers , although the artificial intelligence of the transhuman Combine characters was thought to be inferior to that of other characters in Half @-@ Life 2 . In addition to their role within the Half @-@ Life series , the Combine have been adapted for machinima productions and one Combine character type has been made into plush toys by Valve .
= = Design = =
Some elements of the Combine 's appearance , such as that of the Advisor , are inspired by the works of Frank Herbert . The name " Combine " itself is a tribute to Ken Kesey 's novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest , which features a collection of authorities which mechanistically manipulate and process individuals .
During Half @-@ Life 2 's development , various concepts for Combine non @-@ player characters were created and later cut . Female Combine assassins , similar to black operations assassins featured in the first game , were planned but later abandoned , although they appear in the Half @-@ Life 2 : Survivor arcade game . Another non @-@ player character , the cremator , was conceptualized as a Combine laborer who cleaned the streets of bodies after a battle with an acid gun and although removed from the game , its head was featured in Eli Vance 's laboratory . Other cuts included a variety of alien Combine soldiers that would have complemented the transhuman soldiers in the game and a number of synthetic combat machines . Many of Half @-@ Life 2 's Combine characters went through multiple redesigns ; the Combine Overwatch soldier was subjected to at least twelve redesigns before the final appearance was settled on .
Opera singer and actress Ellen McLain provides the voice for the Combine Overwatch announcer and dispatcher in Half @-@ Life 2 and its episodic expansions , while the various Combine soldiers throughout the games are voiced by John Patrick Lowrie .
= = Attributes = =
= = = Society = = =
Little is revealed of the Combine 's role outside of Earth , but dialogue in Half @-@ Life 2 states that they control worlds in different dimensions and inhabited by a range of species . The Combine occupation of Earth , however , is shown to be a brutal police state . In City 17 , an Eastern European city , Civil Protection units are seen frequently , often conducting random searches of apartment blocks , interrogating human citizens and engaging in random police brutality . The military Overwatch forces of the Combine are shown attacking human resistance bases in an effort to further solidify their control . The citizens themselves are all clad in blue uniforms and live in designated apartment blocks . Citizens are shown to be moved around to different cities or locales at the Combine 's will , using passenger trains . Vortigaunts , alien creatures from the original Half @-@ Life , are also shown to have been enslaved , and are observed in various jobs such as janitors . According to Half @-@ Life 2 : Raising the Bar , the Combine are draining the Earth 's oceans , minerals and resources to be used on other Combine worlds ; both the water levels along the coast of City 17 and later coastal levels are also greatly reduced .
At the heart of the Combine 's command structure in Half @-@ Life 2 is the Citadel , an enormous structure of Combine construction , reaching approximately 2 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 miles ) into the sky from ground level , and delving deep underground . Located within City 17 , the Citadel serves as the primary headquarters of the Combine , housing both Combine Advisors and the office of the Earth administrator , Wallace Breen . Breen is frequently seen on large screens around the city from which he spreads propaganda . The Citadel projects an energy field that is able to prevent human reproduction , as well as a field that keeps dangerous alien wildlife out of the city . In addition , the Citadel contains a trans @-@ dimensional teleporter which allows the Combine to travel between their native universe and Earth . The Citadel also contains construction facilities for various synthetic Combine combat machines .
= = = Depiction = = =
The Combine is composed of various species and machines . The most commonly encountered enemies throughout Half @-@ Life 2 and its expansions are the transhuman Overwatch soldiers and human Civil Protection officers . A variety of combat machines and synths are also encountered .
= = = = Advisors = = = =
Advisors are large larvae @-@ like creatures which are virtually featureless , with no visible eyes , ears or limbs , though they do possess an eye @-@ like mechanical device attached to the left side of their heads , and detachable mechanical arms . Their faces are covered by a form of respirator , which is able to lift to reveal a mouth @-@ like orifice from which extends a long flexible proboscis . With this , they can examine objects , or attack and kill enemies . Advisors appear to be feeding upon their victim during their attacks . It is implied that Advisors are the original master race behind the Combine , with the Earth administrator Wallace Breen answering directly to them . Although Advisors are usually seen in protective pods guarded by Combine soldiers , they also possess telekinetic powers with which they are able to float through the air and immobilize enemies so that their proboscis can examine their victims without interference . Their appearance was based on the Guild Navigators from the film Dune .
= = = = Civil Protection = = = =
Civil Protection is the Combine 's law enforcement agency on Earth , consisting of humans who have agreed to work on behalf of the Combine . Also referred to as metrocops , Civil Protection units wear light armor and gas masks . They are usually armed with electroshock batons and pistols , and are occasionally seen using submachine guns . Metrocops are brutal in their methods , keeping the local populace in line via intimidation and physical force . Interrogations , inspections , raids , random beatings , summary executions and acts of extreme police brutality are all used as a means of policing their respective jurisdictions ; their methods are justified by their role as " protectors of the civilians ' well @-@ being " . On the outskirts of City 17 , Civil Protection units are observed patrolling for escapees from the city . Civil Protection officers are in constant contact with Combine Overwatch headquarters , which gives them objectives and situation updates . On the death of an officer , that officer 's armor detects that its wearer is no longer alive and automatically informs headquarters of the fatality and advises nearby units as to the place of death .
= = = = Overwatch = = = =
The Combine Overwatch is the primary military force of the Combine on Earth . It consists of biomechanically enhanced humans , who wear heavily padded long @-@ sleeve body armor and gas masks . The markings on the suit change depending on each individual unit 's assignment and rank . Elite Combine soldiers wear bright white armor , while the majority of soldiers wear variations of blue or brown armor . They are armed with a variety of firearms , including shotguns , submachine guns , sniper rifles and pulse rifles . Overwatch soldiers usually operate in small groups , using squad tactics and grenades to flush out and flank the player . They occasionally provide support to Combine synths , and often travel to areas by use of dropships . They use radios to communicate with each other and with Overwatch headquarters . Combine Overwatch soldiers are usually encountered outside City 17 , and only appear in the city after " The Uprising " near the end of Half @-@ Life 2 .
= = = = Combine technology = = = =
The Combine use a large array of science fiction technology . They have access to teleportation technology , which takes them from their dimension to Earth . However , their teleporter technology is restrictive in comparison to that developed by Eli Vance , Isaac Kleiner and Judith Mossman in that it cannot be used to teleport to other locations on Earth without significant modification . Throughout the games , various futuristic computer consoles , doors , power sources and weapon emplacements are encountered . In addition , the Combine employ the use of small airborne robots , scanners , to observe the citizens of Earth . The city variant merely moves about the streets , monitors individuals , and takes photographs , while the combat equivalent is capable of dropping mines into an area . Civil Protection makes use of smaller airborne robots called manhacks , which fly using razor @-@ sharp rotating blades with which they attack their targets to cause laceration injuries . These are often deployed in closed @-@ in areas . The Combine also use two types of land mines ; hopper mines throw themselves into the air and detonate when an enemy is detected nearby , while the spherical rollermines roll towards vehicles or other enemies , attach themselves and deliver damaging electrical attacks . Combine technology is also used to transform humans into Overwatch soldiers or stalkers , deformed and mutilated humans with no memory of their past selves who act as slaves and maintenance workers in Combine facilities . Transformation into a Stalker is considered among the Combine 's worst punishments for dissidents .
Militarily , the Combine make use of both synthetic machines — machines powered by organic components — and traditional mechanical machines such as armored personnel carriers and attack helicopters . The most prominent of the synthetic machines are the insect @-@ like gunships ; and Striders , 50 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 15 m ) armored creatures that walk upon three legs , which are armed with a high powered warpspace cannon and a head @-@ mounted pulse turret . In Episode Two , a smaller equivalent to the Strider , the Hunter , is introduced . These 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft ) tall , tripodal assault machines fire explosive flechettes at targets and are small enough to maneuver indoors . Other synths are seen near the end of the Half @-@ Life 2 , although their roles are not elaborated on . Sentry turrets are also used by the Combine . The Combine also use headcrabs as a biological weapon against dissidents , firing artillery shells loaded with the creatures into areas and allowing them to infest the vicinity .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Half @-@ Life series = = =
According to the backstory presented during Half @-@ Life 2 , the Combine appear on Earth after the death of the Nihilanth , the boss character at the end of Half @-@ Life . The death of the Nihilanth , a powerful creature controlling the dimensional rip between Xen and the Black Mesa Research Facility on Earth , causes the rip to worsen , resulting in " portal storms " which spread the hostile wildlife of Xen across Earth . The Combine manipulate this tear in the spacetime continuum , widening it to allow access to Earth from their dimension . When it is sufficiently wide , the Combine invade in force , and in the subsequent Seven Hour War quickly defeat the forces of Earth and destroy the United Nations Secretariat Building in New York City . Earth 's surrender is negotiated by Wallace Breen , who is then made the Combine puppet administrator of Earth , and uses City 17 as his base of operations .
The Combine 's first appearance is in Half @-@ Life 2 . Through the early stages of the game , Combine Civil Protection units pursue Gordon Freeman through City 17 after he accidentally reveals his presence to Wallace Breen . Due to Freeman 's actions in Half @-@ Life , Breen sees Freeman as a major threat . As Freeman escapes the city , Civil Protection units raid the resistance base of Black Mesa East and capture resistance leader Eli Vance , who is transferred to holding facilities at Nova Prospekt . Freeman and Vance 's daughter Alyx break into the facility to rescue him , but Eli Vance is teleported to the Combine Citadel by double agent Judith Mossman . However , the strike against Nova Prospekt is seen as the start of a revolution by the citizens of Earth , who take up arms against the Combine . In response , Combine Overwatch are deployed to City 17 , and heavy street fighting takes place . Freeman manages to infiltrate the Citadel but is captured and taken to Breen . Mossman allows Freeman to break free of his captivity , and Breen flees to the Citadel 's trans @-@ dimensional teleporter , intent on escape . However , Freeman destroys the teleporter 's reactor before Breen can escape , causing a large explosion that destroys the top of the Citadel .
In Episode One , the destruction of the top of the Citadel has caused its primary reactor to begin to melt down , forcing Gordon Freeman and Alyx Vance to journey back into the Citadel to temporarily stabilize it while the city 's inhabitants are evacuated . The Combine , however , attempt to accelerate the meltdown to send a message to their native universe for reinforcements . After Alyx acquires an encrypted copy of the data to be sent , Overwatch forces desperately attempt to stop the pair from escaping the city , spurred on by Combine Advisors . As the pair escape on a train at the end of the game , the Citadel sends the message and detonates , destroying City 17 .
Episode Two opens with Alyx and Freeman discovering that the Citadel 's destruction has resulted in the formation of a super portal to the Combine dimension , which is slowly progressing to a stage where it can send overwhelming reinforcements . They also discover that the data packet they retrieved from the Citadel contains codes that can be used to close the portal , and so traverse the countryside to deliver the packet to the resistance headquarters at White Forest . As they progress , it becomes evident that the Combine Advisors escaped the Citadel 's destruction , and that remaining Combine forces are regrouping , albeit under occasional attacks by Vortigaunts . Aware of the resistance 's plans to close the super portal , the Combine attack White Forest in force , but are repelled . The super portal is destroyed after the resistance launch a satellite containing the appropriate data . However , in the game 's closing scenes , two Advisors attack Freeman , Alyx and Eli Vance , and kill Eli before being driven off by Dog .
= = = Appearances in other media = = =
The use of sandbox applications like Garry 's Mod have allowed for Combine non @-@ player characters to be used in a variety of webcomics and machinima productions . In one webcomic , Concerned , the Combine are portrayed as a highly bureaucratic and often inept organization . One issue shows a Civil Protection briefing for attempting to capture the comic 's protagonist Gordon Frohman , in which officers are instructed to cluster around explosive barrels , seek cover on unstable structures and rappel down from bridges in front of fast moving vehicles . In another example , the machinima series Combine Nation follows Civil Protection officers in a similar style to police procedural documentaries . The officers perform their duties with various twists , such as the team 's medical officer having an obsession with adhesive bandages and the legal consultant , an Overwatch soldier , favoring dramatic entries , such as throwing flashbangs , which often backfire on him . Another web series , called The Combine , parodies the TV show The Office . This series attempts to portray the combine as an intergalactic corporation that suffers from everyday office issues and problems . One episode shows the soldiers attempting to bypass a webfilter so they can watch videos online instead of working . Other media portray the Combine with more serious overtones , such as the live @-@ action video The Combine Interview , which parodies an interview with Tom Cruise discussing Scientology . The video , described by ActionTrip as " eerie , to say the least " and by both Joystiq and Kotaku as " creepy " , instead presents an interview with a Civil Protection officer discussing the Combine 's rule of Earth , adapting Cruise 's words to fit the Combine theme . PC Gamer UK noted that " the suggestion , of course , is that Scientology 's purpose or self @-@ image in some way resembles that of the homogenising intergalactic murderous alien collective " .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
The Combine have inspired the creation of several items of merchandise for the Half @-@ Life series . A plush toy was created by Valve , based on the synthetic tripod Hunters introduced in Episode Two . Sold and distributed via Valve 's online store , the toy was released in February 2008 . In addition , Valve has produced t @-@ shirts depicting the Combine 's idea of humanity 's evolution , from ape to Combine Overwatch soldier , and a lithograph displaying twelve pieces of concept art for the Combine soldier .
= = = Reception = = =
The Combine have received a positive reaction from critics . 1UP.com praised the " epic feel " built up by the Combine and their harsh rule of City 17 in Half @-@ Life 2 , stating that this created " a world governed by newspeak , decorated with urban decay , and lacking any hope " . GameSpot echoed this praise , saying that the " vision of a dystopian police state is chillingly effective " . PC Zone described the appearance of the Combine 's soldiers as " stormtrooper @-@ like " , but although stating that overall the artificial intelligence for the game was " extremely competent " , the Combine non @-@ player characters " could have used better survival instincts " , citing their reluctance to take cover and tendency to charge at the player and into a shotgun blast . A number of reviews of Episode One were disappointed by the lack of new characters for the Combine , although GameSpot praised the improved AI for Combine soldiers and the addition of new abilities ,
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) , who proves nearly impossible to identify .
" Small Potatoes " was written by Gilligan in an attempt to write a lighthearted episode ; he did not want to develop a reputation for only writing dark stories . Gilligan asked former series writer Darin Morgan , who had penned four episodes in the second and third seasons , to play Eddie Van Blundht . In fact , the role was written specifically with Morgan in mind . In the original script , the babies were born with wings instead of tails . The effect was eventually changed to tails , because , according to Gilligan , they were funnier .
= = Plot = =
Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) investigate the birth of five babies in the town of Martinsburg , West Virginia , who were born with tails . The mother of the most recent baby , Amanda Nelligan , tells the agents that the father of her baby is Luke Skywalker . By researching the baby 's chromosomes it is discovered that all five share the same father . The parents of the children blame the local fertility doctor , who had used insemination to impregnate all of the mothers but Nelligan . Mulder spots a janitor nearby with signs that he formerly had a tail . When he runs Mulder chases him and catches him . The janitor , Eddie Van Blundht , is discovered to be the father of all of the children . Scully believes Eddie used a date rape drug although Mulder questions how he could be in the position to give it to the women .
Eddie escapes by transforming his face into that of the booking cop and knocking him out with a blow to the head . Mulder and Scully visit his father , who still has his tail and is a former circus performer . Mulder and Scully soon realize that he 's actually Eddie when he addresses Mulder by name without having been introduced . The agents give chase but Eddie escapes . He then transforms into one of the husbands of the women he had previously slept with and goes and hides out in their house . When the real husband comes home early , he next transforms into Mulder and leaves the couple seriously confused . Mulder and Scully meanwhile discover the dried up body of Eddie 's actual father hidden up in the attic , thoroughly desiccated . Performing an autopsy on the body , Scully finds that he has an extra sheet of supple muscle under his skin , which Mulder believes Eddie also inherited and can use to transform his appearance .
Eddie takes on the appearance of Mulder and visits Nelligan , showing him a photo of Eddie . Nelligan tells him that she went out with him in high school , but views him as rather a loser lacking in any drive or ambition . The disappointed Eddie leaves , just as the real Mulder shows up . Realizing that Eddie just visited Nelligan in his guise , Mulder searches for him down the hospital corridors . He finds the fertility doctor and a security guard nearby and handcuffs them to each other , believing one of them to be Eddie . The real Eddie , however , is hiding in a vent above . He gets the jump on Mulder and locks him up in the hospital basement . Eddie takes Mulder 's form and tells Scully that he feels the case is a waste of time and they should return to Washington .
Eddie returns to Washington as Mulder and , along with Scully , reports to Skinner on the case with a poorly written report . Eddie visits Mulder 's office , then his apartment , being surprised at what a loser Mulder appears to be ( though highly pleased with how attractive a man he now is in Mulder 's face - as he admires himself and practices his ' agent moves ' in the mirror ) . Later that evening Eddie visits Scully with a bottle of wine and tries to get her drunk , as well as seduce her . As a reluctant Scully is about to give in to a kiss , the real Mulder breaks in and interrupts them . Revealed , Eddie sheepishly reverts back to his actual form , as a shocked Scully just about jumps out of her own skin at the revelation . A month later , Mulder visits Eddie in a prison visitation room at Eddie 's bidding . Eddie complains at being given muscle relaxants to prevent him from turning into someone else , asking if that was Mulder 's doing . Eddie then tells Mulder that he was born a loser , but Mulder is one by choice and that he should seriously " live a little " .
= = Production = =
Writer Vince Gilligan , who came to The X @-@ Files having written six comedy movies , decided to write a more lighthearted episode ; he did not want to develop a reputation for only writing dark stories . Gilligan also wanted to " lighten up " the fourth season , which featured many grim episodes and was the introduction for the dark point involving Scully 's cancer . After getting approval from series creator Chris Carter , Gilligan asked former series writer Darin Morgan , who had penned four episodes in the second and third seasons , to play Eddie Van Blundht . In fact , the role was written specifically with Morgan in mind , as Gilligan had seen Morgan acting in a student film he made at Loyola Marymount University and considered him a funny actor .
In the original script , the babies were born with wings instead of tails . While research revealed that such an occurrence was possible , the wings were changed to tails in the final version of the script because they were not considered cute enough . Gilligan later explained that " tails were just funnier " , and also that the wings would be harder to add in post @-@ production . The tails were created through computer @-@ generated imagery , with a green mark being painted on the babies ' backs as a reference .
The cast and the crew of the show thoroughly enjoyed the episode . David Duchovny was pleased with the script , describing it as a " great " episode that was fun to film . Gilligan complimented both Duchovny for his comedic performance and Gillian Anderson for acting as the " straight woman " in the installment .
= = Reception = =
" Small Potatoes " was originally broadcast in the United States on the Fox network on April 20 , 1997 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on February 4 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 0 , with a 20 share , meaning that roughly 13 @.@ 0 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 20 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 20 @.@ 86 million viewers .
The episode has received largely positive reviews from television critics . Author Phil Farrand rated the episode as his fourth favorite episode of the first four seasons in his book The Nitpickers Guide to the X @-@ Files . Reviewer Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave " Small Potatoes " an A , saying that it " isn ’ t the very best X @-@ Files episode ( though it ’ s certainly up there ) , but it ’ s perhaps the easiest episode to call your “ favorite , ” the most approachable episode , if you will " and that while Gilligan penned better X @-@ Files installments later , " he ’ s never written one as effortlessly playful and inventive as this one . VanDerWerff later called the episode one of the " 10 must @-@ see episodes " and named it " Gilligan ’ s finest comedic achievement " . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it a 9 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this episode was a wonderful respite from the dark material of the season 's character arcs , taking a humorous look at Mulder and his complete lack of a life . Gilligan channels Darin Morgan in many scenes , especially when it comes to making scathing observations about Mulder through the soft stick of humor . " Furthermore , he praised Duchovny , saying that his " nuanced performance " was " easily one of his best . " Topless Robot named " Small Potatoes " the eighth funniest episode of the series . Starpulse listed it as the eighth best episode of the series . The episode is popular with fans , specifically for the scene where Eddie , who has changed into Mulder , tries to seduce Scully in her apartment . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode five stars out of five and wrote that " this is what Vince Gilligan has been working towards all season . " The two praised Gilligan 's writing , applauding his decision to critically examine Mulder rather than merely tell jokes . Furthermore , the two commended the acting of Morgan , calling his casting " apt " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a rave review and awarded it a rare four stars out of four . She described it as a " four course meal of comic riches " and praised the writing style of Giligan , calling him " the believer who writes from inside the characters ' heads " .
The episode , however , was not without its critics . Tor.com reviewer Meghan Deans was more critical of the episode , writing that it had a " flawed construction that diminishes what should have been one of the series ' smartest and most affectionate demonstrations of self @-@ parody " . She found the way it attempted to depict Van Blundht as a sympathetic villain and play rape for laughs to be unsettling . However , she did praise the way the episode continued the comedic tradition of making fun of Mulder . Cyriaque Lamar from i09 called Eddie Van Blundht one of " The 10 Most Ridiculous X @-@ Files Monsters " . The reviewer , however , did amend his article , writing , " Some readers are concerned that I 'm hating on ' Small Potatoes , ' which is not the case . That episode was definitely fun , but Eddie impregnated a woman while impersonating Mark Hamill . If that 's not a ridiculous monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week , I don 't know what is . "
= Ashton Court =
Ashton Court is a mansion house and estate to the west of Bristol in England . Although the estate lies mainly in North Somerset , it is owned by the City of Bristol . The mansion and stables are a Grade I listed building . Other structures on the estate are also listed .
Ashton Court has been the site of a manor house since the 11th century , and has been developed by a series of owners since then . From the 16th to 20th centuries it was owned by the Smyth family with each generation changing the house . Designs by Humphry Repton were used for the landscaping in the early 19th century . It was used as a military hospital in the First World War . In 1936 it was used as the venue for the Royal Show and , during the Second World War as an army transit camp . In 1946 the last of the Smyth family died and the house fell into disrepair before its purchase in 1959 by Bristol City Council .
The estate developed from the original deer park and is Grade II * listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England . It is the venue for a variety of leisure activities , including the now @-@ defunct Ashton Court Festival , Bristol International Kite Festival and the Bristol International Balloon Fiesta . It is home to charity The Forest of Avon Trust .
= = Early history = =
Ashton Court dates back to before the 11th century . It is believed that a fortified manor stood on the site , given to Geoffrey de Montbray , Bishop of Coutances , by William the Conqueror . In the Domesday Book it is referred to as a wealthy estate owned by the Bishop of Countances , with a manor house , a great hall , and courtyards entered through gatehouses . The property passed through successive owners and at the end of the 14th century it was considerably expanded when Thomas De Lions , a nobleman originally from France , obtained a permit to enclose a park for his manor . The house was owned by the Choke family for some time . In 1506 it was sold to Sir Giles Daubeney , a knight and a Chamberlain of Henry VII . Henry VIII gave the estate to Sir Thomas Arundel in 1541 and four years later in 1545 Sir Thomas sold it to John Smyth . The Smyth family owned the property for the next 400 years . Smyth also bought the land which had been owned , until the Dissolution of the Monasteries , by Bath Abbey . He used the land to extend the deer park , bringing him into conflict with the residents of Whitchurch , who complained that he had used common land .
= = Thomas and Florence Smyth = =
Thomas Smyth ( 1609 – 1642 ) was the first member of the family to make major alterations and additions to the original manor house . He was a Member of Parliament and a successful lawyer . In 1627 at the age of only eighteen he married Florence daughter of John Poulett , 1st Baronet Poulett of Hinton St George .
In 1635 Thomas added a new southern front which was in the style of Inigo Jones . It was described by Collinson in 1791 in the following terms :
The front is in length one hundred and forty three feet and consists below of three rooms ; the western one of which is a fine apartment ninety @-@ three feet long and twenty feet wide and contains several family and other portraits . The back part of the house is very ancient and the court leading to the park westward is called Castle Court from its having been embattled and still retaining an old gateway similar to those adopted in baronial mansions . The second court contains some of the offices and its entrance from without is under a low doorway between two lofty turrets one of which contains a bell and clock . The stables and corresponding offices in the front court are of ancient date . The whole contributes to a very venerable and picturesque building .
Further major additions were made to the building by Sir John Hugh Smyth ( 1734 – 1802 ) . He inherited the estate in 1783 and added the new library to the north west of the house . Sir John also asked the famous landscape designer Humphry Repton for advice about the east front of the house . Repton drafted a plan but Sir John 's death halted any further work on the house . However Repton 's landscape designs were implemented by Sir John 's successor Sir Hugh Smyth . In his book Humphry Repton gave a detailed description of the old and newer parts of the house before the library additions and included a drawing of the eastern front of the house as he saw it in about 1790 .
= = Sir John Smyth = =
As reported by Esme Smyth , Ashton Court 's last resident , Sir John Smyth ( 1776 – 1849 ) was responsible for the remodeling of the house . In about 1940 she was interviewed by Raymond Gorges , who was researching a book , and she gave him an engraving of the house showing the additions that she said were made by Sir John .
Sir John was a bachelor . He was said , by Lady Emily Smyth , to be devoted to horses and kept an extensive stud . His importance as a major builder of Ashton Court is verified by John Evans who in 1828 wrote a book about Bristol and its surrounding area . He said :
This seat of Sir John Smyth is a stately edifice ... It has of late been much enlarged with stables nearly as extensive as the house and also a park enclosed by a wall which is twelve feet high in the lowest part . Two handsome lodges have also been added , one of them built from a gothic design .
Sir John died in 1849 , and little building work was done until Sir Greville Smyth inherited the property .
= = Sir Greville and Lady Emily Smyth = =
Sir Greville Smyth inherited the property in 1852 and remained a bachelor until he was 48 years old . During that time he undertook extensive renovations . He also kept a very impressive garden which was described in detail in gardening magazines and newspapers .
In 1872 he commissioned the well @-@ known architect Benjamin Ferrey to make additions which were described as follows .
The Western Wing has been rearranged but the principal parts of the works have been concentrated in the central portion of the buildings . This part has been raised considerably and in a great measure rebuilt and is surmounted by two octagonal towers which rise to a height of 72 ft . There is a covered passage running the south side of the courtyard which opens out into the court by the arcading of five bays .
Even more extensive alterations were made between 1884 and 1885 . Shortly before he married Emily , the widow of George Oldham Edwards , he employed the notable Bath architect Major Charles Edward Davis to transform the house . The work took 18 months to complete . A detailed description of the alterations was given in the Bristol Mercury. in 1885 . He converted the stables in the south east wing to living areas which included a huge museum for his natural history collection . He built a grand hall with richly carved oak panels . In the west wing he built a massive carved oak staircase with twist bannisters and introduced perpendicular windows . He also built a winter garden by enclosing the clock court . This is now the Winter Garden Bar . The following description of this elaborate room with a waterfall fountain is given in this newspaper article as follows :
This leads through two arched entrances to one of the most charming winter gardens of which any private mansion in the western counties can boast . It has been formed out of what was formerly the open clock tower court which has been supplied with a glazed iron roof . Round the tessellated flooring have been formed the gracefully curved flower borders edged with glazed tiling surmounted with rockery . This rock work covered with moss and filled in with water plants luxuriant grasses and ferns margins an ornamental sheet of water of serpentine form from the surface of which jets of water are thrown into a huge basin shell – one of the largest of the kind we have seen . It is ingeniously constructed to form a waterfall the streams descending to a second basin shell just above the sheet of water . Around this are some the choicest ferns and palms . From the roof hang clusters of incandescent laps , interspersed with baskets filled with gracefully drooping ferns and from the surface of the water lilies modestly rise .
Also in the 1880s 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) of formal gardens were laid out including a terrace garden , which is now a lawn , a wilderness garden with basin fountain and a rose garden . Avenues of sequoias and cedars were planted along with other specimen trees .
In 1891 Lady Emily Smyth held an interview where she outlined further details of these alterations made by Sir Greville . She also gave a few details of some interesting secret rooms and passages in the medieval part of the building on the western side which she referred to as " Drax 's Kennel " and " The Fox 's Hole " . Sir Greville Smyth died in 1901 and Lady Emily Smyth died in 1914 .
The next and last residents of the house were Gilbert and Esme Smyth . They lived there for the next thirty years . Gilbert died in a 1940 and Esme in 1946 and the house was left to their daughter Esme Francis Cavendish . She and her husband tried to sell the house immediately in 1946 to help pay the death duties . However the Cavendish family did not succeed until thirteen years later in 1959 during which time the house was unoccupied and started to decay . It was sold at this time to Bristol City Council who still owns it today .
= = Archives = =
Archives of the Ashton Court estate ( including estate management and estate office papers ) and personal papers of the Smyth family are held by Bristol Record Office ( Ref . AC ) ( online catalogue ) . Bristol Record Office also holds photos and papers about the redevelopment of Ashton Court mansion and stables ( Ref . 43326 ) ( online catalogue ) and ( Ref . 45390 ) ( online catalogue ) . Other records relating to the Ashton Court estate are also held by Wiltshire and Swindon History Centre and the University of Bristol Special Collections .
= = Architecture = =
Due to successive remodelings and enlargements the architecture at Ashton Court is complex and seldom what it seems . The core of the house , a 15th @-@ century manor , has been obliterated by later wings , which have in turn been remodelled and altered , most substantially around 1635 . Therefore , the plan of the house has evolved as irregular with many juxtapositions and little cohesion ; while the majority of the house was built in the 17th century , a time of classical architecture , remodelling and alteration to the fenestration has created an overall Gothic appearance .
In the early 19th century , the house was given a 300 feet ( 91 m ) long facade in an attempt to provide some uniformity and some classical grandeur . However even here , the architecture does not remain faithful to a single style . At the centre of this facade is a much altered Tudor gatehouse , probably built in the 16th century as a portal to the 14th @-@ century manor house . In order to create the long facade , the existing stables , to the right of the gatehouse , were converted to domestic use and given seven bays of Gothic mullioned windows . To the left of the gatehouse , the flanking south @-@ west wing is of a different style .
This classically designed wing has been attributed to Inigo Jones , but without supporting evidence ; as with a similar attribution at Brympton d 'Evercy , also in Somerset , it seems to be based solely on the alternating segmental and pointed pediments over the groundfloor windows , and ignoring the irregularities in their spacings and placings , which Jones is unlikely to have countenanced .
To give the long facade with its two wings of contrasting architectural styles a uniting , common feature , the third story of oval windows of the left @-@ hand wings , which was then topped with a Jacobean balustrade was repeated above the Gothic right @-@ hand wing ; however , inexplicably the attempt at classical unity was broken by the use castellations instead of a balustrade on the right @-@ hand side . Overall , its length , contrasting styles , high gatehouse and lack of symmetry give the facade a collegiate rather than domestic appearance . The focal point of the facade , the gatehouse , has multi @-@ faceted turrets at its corners , In 1885 , the gatehouse was given a Gothic makeover , which included raising its height and adding the fan vaulting to the ceiling of the passage leading , not to a great base court , as such grandiose architectural feature would suggest , but to a small glazed inner courtyard ( the Winter Garden ) .
The north wing was included in the remodelling work of 1805 and given ogee headed windows in the delicate Strawberry Hill Gothic style , popular at turn of the 19th century ; it was a forerunner of the more medieval ecclesiastical Gothic style that was to characterise the architecture of the 19th century , and employed at Ashton Court during the 1885 alterations . Elsewhere , the castellations seemingly sprinkled at whim over various wings and juxtapositions are purely ornamental , and date from the various 19th @-@ century remodelings of the house .
= = Recent history = =
During the First World War the estate was used as a military hospital , and in the Second World War was requisitioned by the War Office and used in turn as a transit camp , RAF HQ and US Army Command HQ . The estate was the venue for the 1936 Royal Show . One of the exhibition buildings , despite its temporary nature , was an innovative piece of modernist architecture still remembered as the Gane Pavilion . It was designed by Bauhaus architect Marcel Breuer as a show house for the Bristol furniture manufacturer Crofton Gane . For most of the 20th century Ashton Court was the venue for the North Somerset Show , however this is now held in Wraxall .
In 1946 , the last resident of Ashton Court Dame Esme Smyth , died . After the house became derelict , it was taken over by the City in 1959 . Restoration has been an ongoing process since then , but even after extensive investment by both the council and from Heritage Lottery Fund grants , presently only about a quarter of the building is occupied or usable . The available facilities of the house are rented out for business conferences , parties and weddings . In 2013 a fire damaged the northern wing . It was contained by Avon Fire and Rescue Service , otherwise the rest of the building would have been at risk .
The mansion house and stables have been designated by Historic England as a Grade I listed building . The house is listed on the Heritage at Risk register and described as being in " slow decay " . The lower lodge to Ashton Court and attached gates , railings and bollards , which were built in 1805 by Henry Wood , are Grade II * listed buildings . The garden and perimeter walls and railings are also listed .
= = Location and surroundings = =
The house stands within a large estate spanning the boundary between Bristol and North Somerset , approximately 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the city centre . It is on the western side of the River Avon close to the Clifton Suspension Bridge and the suburb of Leigh Woods and the Leigh Woods National Nature Reserve which are east of Ashton Court . To the north and west are open countryside . The estate was previously much larger than it is today and included areas which are now suburbs of Bristol including Ashton Gate , Ashton Vale and Southville where the Greville Smyth Park is located . The land for the park was donated by the Smyth family and then landscaped by the city council .
The estate covers 850 acres ( 340 ha ) of woods and open grassland laid out by Humphry Repton . It includes two pitch @-@ and @-@ putt golf courses , a disc golf course , an orienteering course and horse riding and mountain bike trails . Bristol 's weekly parkrun event ( a free , timed 5 km run organised by volunteers ) is held at Ashton Court .
There is a deer park which was started in the 14th century and extended in the 16th and 17th centuries . There are still two areas of the estate with deer enclosures . The park contains a great variety of wildlife ; much of the site ( an area of 210 @.@ 31 hectares ) was notified in 1998 as a Site of Special Scientific Interest due to the presence of rare woodland beetles including : Ctesias serra , Phloiotrya vaudoueri and Eledona agricola .
The 2 @.@ 37 hectares of Ashton Court Meadow is managed as a nature reserve by the Avon Wildlife Trust . It contains a wide range of flowering plants , including wild carrot , yellow @-@ wort and field scabious . Some unusual parasitic plants are also found here , such as common broomrape which feeds off clovers , and yellow rattle , which feeds partly off grass .
Clarken Combe , at the western edge of the estate , is a woodland area with a range of plant species , including narrow @-@ lipped helleborine , which grows here in small numbers under beech .
In 2002 a 700 @-@ year @-@ old oak tree , called the Domesday Oak , was selected by The Tree Council as one of 50 Great British Trees . In 2011 a crack appeared in the trunk and oak support beams were fitted to support the tree . The supports were only partly successful and a section of the tree collapsed ; the remaining part of the tree was pruned to reduce the weight of the surviving section .
= XIII ( video game ) =
XIII is a first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Ubisoft Paris and published by Ubisoft for most platforms except for the OS X version , which was published by Feral Interactive . Loosely based on the first five volumes of the 1984 Belgian graphic novel series XIII , the protagonist Jason Fly ( XIII ) is a confused and amnesic man who searches for his identity throughout a comic book @-@ style , cel @-@ shaded world . Found stranded on a beach by a lifeguard , Fly is accused of having killed the President of the United States . The accusation later transpires as mistaken , as Fly finds himself facing a gang of 20 conspirators ( " The XX " ) who aim to overthrow the government .
The game was released for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 2 , Xbox , GameCube , and OS X. A reimagining of XIII , the point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game XIII : Lost Identity , was released on 17 October 2011 for PC , Mac , iPhone and iPad .
= = Gameplay = =
XIII is a first @-@ person shooter with elements of stealth and action in certain missions . The game centers on the main character , named XIII , who has awakened with amnesia . He uses a variety of weapons and gadgets to uncover the mystery of his identity throughout the 13 chapters and 54 missions . The characters and weaponry in XIII are cel @-@ shaded , giving a deliberately comic book style appearance , including onomatopoeic words contained in bubbles for sound effects . It uses the Unreal Engine 2 , the most recent engine at that time , as it was " really strong for level design " and allowed development " across all platforms using one engine " . The graphics were compared with Jet Set Radio Future and Auto Modellista . The developer felt that the appearance reflected the comic book and innovated in its portrayal of violence ; even blood splatters are shown in a cartoon manner .
XIII includes 16 weapons , from a knife to a bazooka , an Uzi to an M60 . Objects such as bottles , chairs , or brooms may be used as weapons . Kevlar gear , helmets and first aid boxes are scattered throughout the map . People can be taken as hostages or as human shields , preventing enemies from firing on the protagonist . Lock picks are used to unlock doors and grapnels to climb on walls . Through the " sixth sense " , XIII can hear enemies behind walls with the aid of " tap @-@ tap @-@ tap " signals . Stealth operations include strangling enemies or hiding dead bodies . Captions pop up at the top when a headshot is performed or serve as clues or tips for the player .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
The multiplayer hosts a maximum of 16 players . The game features three standard game modes along with modes exclusive to each system : Team Deathmatch , Deathmatch , Capture the Flag , Sabotage ( exclusive to Xbox and PC ) , The Hunt ( exclusive to PC , PS2 and GameCube ) , and Power @-@ Up ( exclusive to PC and PS2 ) . Depending on the platform , players in online and offline modes ( against bots ) range from 4 to 16 . The GameCube version does not have any online modes , while the PC version excludes the multi @-@ screen modes but includes a map editor . There are 13 maps on Deathmatch plus one additional on Team Deathmatch , while 5 on Capture the Flag and 3 on Sabotage . The player can choose from among 10 different character appearances , but 99 more are available in unofficial skin packs for PC players , the most recent being 2 @.@ 0 . Four additional animal skins ( shark , duck , bat , dog , seagull ) may be downloaded . As their bodies are not realistically proportioned , new or inexperienced players may face difficulty in distinguishing the skin 's exact body . Cheating in both multiplayer and singleplayer is possible , as the software does not include any anti @-@ cheat protection .
In Deathmatch , all players compete against each other and the strongest player wins . Team Deathmatch is similar , but players form two teams . In Capture the Flag , a player must retrieve the flag from his enemy 's base , and bring it to his own team 's base . In Sabotage , one team must place a bomb in three different locations , while the opposite team must protect these areas ; the protectors win if the time limit is exceeded ( except if the time is set to infinite ) . The bomb is always found at the beginning of the team base , and the player who holds the bomb must wait 12 seconds until he may drop it and take shelter from the ensuing detonation . In The Hunt , players must shoot ghosts , which become gradually smaller after receiving hits . The player only has one weapon , the hunting gun , with which he can also shoot human opponents . Power Up is a deathmatch game , in which boxes containing special , temporary abilities , such as invisibility and higher speed , are found throughout the map .
= = Plot = =
The story begins with an introductory sequence depicting the assassination of the President of the United States , William Sheridan . The protagonist , Jason Fly ( voiced by David Duchovny ) , awakes on Brighton Beach in Brooklyn , New York City . Badly wounded , he is rescued by a lifeguard and is brought into a beach house . He has lost all his memories and all that he possesses is a locker box key . He also has a tattoo with the Roman numeral XIII on his right shoulder . He is then attacked by unknown assailants , led by a hitman known as The Mongoose , with whom Fly does battle several times throughout the game . However , he is later instead arrested by the FBI as a chief suspect in the murder . A photo proves that he resembles the murderer . XIII succeeds in escaping the headquarters with the aid of a female soldier , Jones . One of Fly 's few other allies is Ben Carrington : an old war veteran and superior to Jones , Carrington knows valuable information about the President 's death and is willing to help XIII . However , he is arrested and brought to a military station in the Appalachian mountains to be silenced by the conspiracy . XIII must infiltrate the base and free Carrington if he is to learn about his past .
In the following story , the player learns that the protagonist adopted the identity of the murderer . The murder is part of a conspiracy that aims to overthrow the American government . The twenty conspirators have numbers to mask their identities , and collectively name themselves " The XX " . XIII was one of them , but was later betrayed and murdered by The XX . With the objective of preventing a coup , one of the members took on the appearance of XIII to confuse the opposite side and force it to make errors . The protagonist , in the guise of the early XIII , is successful in uncovering most of the conspirators , killing them and hindering the conspiracy . The game ends with a cliffhanger , when Fly confronts Walter Sheridan — brother of the assassinated President and apparent ( though unconfirmed in the game ) leader of the conspiracy — on a ship , followed by a promise of a sequel .
= = Development and promotion = =
Ubisoft announced on March 13 , 2002 , that it would be working on a game called XIII . Based on the comic book of the same name by Belgian Jean Van Hamme , it would create " a world so unique and enthralling that gamers will become instantly engaged " , according to president of Ubisoft Entertainment , Laurent Detoc . The game debuted at an event in Montreal , and was later submitted at the 2002 Electronic Entertainment Expo in May 2002 , with such games as Doom III , Max Payne 2 and Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos . On November 22 , 2002 , Ubisoft announced a delay of the game , although the company did not state a reason . Justin Calvert of GameSpot guessed that the time would be used to thoroughly check the game and implement additional features on other platforms .
On May 7 , 2003 , Ubisoft announced that singer , actress and model Eve would be the voice for major character Jones . Ubisoft 's vice president of marketing , Tony Kee , stated that she was the perfect choice for the role , admitting that she has " a combination of style , sexiness , and attitude — perfect attributes that describe the Jones character . " Two months later , two other major voice acts were declared : David Duchovny would play Jason Fly ( XIII ) , while Adam West , General Carrington . The official site was launched on August 19 , featuring movies and information about the gameplay . Ubisoft implemented a pre @-@ order in September 4 , promising a free demonstration version with multiplayer and soundtrack . Kee promised it " will give gamers just enough XIII to whet their appetite until the game launches in October " and " will be a record @-@ breaking preorder campaign for Ubi Soft . "
The game was promoted at the Fall College Tour from September to October . Beginning at Cornell University and finishing at the University of Southern California , the tour featured demonstrations of games , playable via the 50 @-@ screen GamePort system . Another demo , now multiplayer @-@ only , was issued on October 2 , but the discovery of a bug lead to its removal . A different fixed demo was released a day later . Xbox players had the opportunity from December 15 on to win one of 50 copies of the game . The campaign was dubbed " 13 Days to Xmas " : those who spent not less than 13 hours playing until Christmas were qualified for the contest . The winner was randomly selected on January 9 .
= = Soundtrack = =
The Thirteen Soundtrack was composed by several artists from the San Francisco @-@ based music label Future Primitive Sound . 13 tracks were produced , all of which were initially unnamed . According to the booklet , the DJs are connected with the characters , such as DJ Faust and Shortee with XIII , DJ Zeph with Carrington or J @-@ Boogie 's Dubtronic Science with Mongoose . The album opens with an introduction and then includes songs in the likes of typical 70s @-@ era music such as soul , funk , jazz , but also hip @-@ hop . According to founder and " Creative Director " of the collective , Mark Herlihy , the soundtrack project began with Herlihy 's friend , Pete Jacobs , whom he met at a gig , five or six years previously . After studying the characters and the story , the group decided on a noir and futuristic style that would reflect the espionage theme . Its rhythm ranges from 105 to 120 bpm .
Herlihy later stated that they " wanted to capture the essence of XIII in this soundtrack by showcasing its nostalgic style while giving the beats a modern twist " and their intention was " to tell its story through the music and create a seamless head @-@ nodding mix that would complement the energy of XIII and get gamers hyped . " One reviewer of IGN gave the album 8 out of 10 stars , stating : " It 's an album that works expertly as a chill @-@ out slice of background groove , yet it also doubles as a dance floor jolt of exuberance perfect for spinning at a small party " , but also stated that the player , understandably , quickly forgets the music while playing . He concluded that the album is " jazzaphonic electronic tripped out funkuphoria " .
= = Reception = =
XIII received generally mixed to positive reviews from critics . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 2 version 76 @.@ 62 % and 73 / 100 , the Xbox version 76 @.@ 31 % and 74 / 100 , the GameCube version 75 @.@ 65 % and 73 / 100 and the PC version 73 @.@ 83 % and 72 / 100 .
Reviewers often praised the game 's graphical style and presentation , while criticising the gameplay . GamePro called it a " rejuvenating , jaw @-@ dropping experience " . IGN said " XIII has a great story @-@ driven sheen , but at its core , it 's weighed down by some occasional bewildering flaws , in addition to the lackluster weapons and simple combat " . GameZone also criticised the combat , stating " If not for the graphics to carry the game through , XIII would have been a boring game . Gunfights are the best part of the gameplay . It also happens to be the most unbalanced part " . Edge said XIII had " true artistic merit : it never gets stale ; every episode has been drawn with minute care and attention . It would have been an incredible achievement if the gameplay had matched the outstanding art direction " . GameSpy criticised the graphics and the multiplayer mode , and concluded " When it comes right down to it , XIII is a fine game ... Just don 't expect the FPS of the year because , sadly , this isn 't it " .
GamesTM said " It 's one of those mixed @-@ bag situations – flashes of genius and genuinely enjoyable moments of success , occasionally mired by unbalanced weapon damage , clumsy AI and the odd bit of unfair level design that requires astounding feats of memory " . Eurogamer called XIII " a flawed masterpiece . A game brimming with variety and a freshness lacking from most of the factory farmed franchise exercises that pass through our offices with crushing regularity " . Game Revolution complimented the game 's story , graphical style , voice acting and soundtrack , while criticising the gameplay as " about as straightforward – and in some cases boring – as it gets for an FPS " . Electronic Gaming Monthly scored the game 6 @.@ 5 / 6 @.@ 5 / 6 @.@ 5 : Joe Fielder , the first reviewer , said , " You 'd be hard @-@ pressed to find a more visually stunning game than XIII " , but complained that " numerous frustrations pile up to make XIII more chore than thrill " . The magazine 's Greg Ford , who provided the third review , said that its " style , cut @-@ scenes , and story are all great , [ but ] the actual gameplay is pretty mundane " ; he concluded , " But if all you need is a solid shooter fix , XIII will do just fine . It has no fatal flaws , and the conspiracy @-@ laced story should keep you going " .
Sales performance for XIII was lower than expected , despite its positive reception . In 2010 , UGO ranked it # 7 on the list of the games that need sequels .
= = Sequel = =
A reimagining of XIII , called XIII : Lost Identity , was released by Anuman Interactive for Windows , Mac , iPhone and iPad on November 15 , 2011 . The game is not a shooter , but a point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game .
= Flight Unlimited III =
Flight Unlimited III is a 1999 flight simulator video game developed by Looking Glass Studios and published by Electronic Arts . It allows players to pilot reproductions of real @-@ world commercial and civilian aircraft in and around Seattle , Washington . Players may fly freely or engage in " Challenge " missions , such as thwarting a theft or locating Bigfoot . The development team built on the general aviation gameplay of Flight Unlimited II , with more detailed physics and terrain , more planes and a real @-@ time weather system . Roughly half of Flight Unlimited II 's team returned to work on the sequel , supported by new hires .
Lead designer Peter James described Flight Unlimited III 's development as a struggle , thanks to a lack of interest from Electronic Arts and from Looking Glass 's management . Placed in direct competition with Microsoft Flight Simulator 2000 and Fly ! , the game failed to capture sufficient market share . It became one of Looking Glass 's biggest commercial flops , with roughly 20 @,@ 000 units sold in the United States during 1999 . This contributed to the company 's closure in 2000 . The game was well received by critics , who praised its terrain rendering and dynamic weather . Its simulated physics were lauded by several reviewers , but others felt that the physics were imprecise , and that the game 's system requirements were extremely high .
= = Gameplay = =
Flight Unlimited III is a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) flight simulator video game , in which the player pilots virtual reproductions of real @-@ world planes . Players may control ten aircraft : the Lake Turbo Renegade , Stemme S10 , Mooney Bravo , Fokker Dr.I , Beechjet 400A and five planes first included in Flight Unlimited II . Plane cockpits feature simulated flight instruments such as variometers and primary flight displays , and allow for both visual and instrument navigation . The main airspace is 10 @,@ 000 square miles of Seattle terrain ; eight other Western American states are modeled as well , albeit in less detail . The California scenery from Flight Unlimited II may be imported to expand the airspace . The player shares the game 's skies with artificially intelligent ( AI ) planes . Real @-@ time , interactive air traffic control monitors the player 's actions and tries to prevent mid @-@ air collisions . Before a flight , the player may select which types of weather to encounter . Weather conditions such as cold fronts and thunderstorms develop in real @-@ time .
In addition to the default " Quick Flight " mode , the player may play tutorial and " Challenge " missions . The game 's tutorial mode features 26 lessons , which demonstrate basic and advanced flying techniques and then allow the player to perform them . Challenge missions test the player 's flying ability with objectives such as locating Bigfoot , rescuing a stranded hiker , stopping a theft or flying through hoops . Eleven Challenges are available , but the player may create more or download them from the Internet . Flight Unlimited III includes the level editor ( " FLED " ) used to develop the game , which allows players to use the game 's assets to create airports , AI flight paths and edited landscapes . Players may share their creations online .
= = Development = =
Following the release of Flight Unlimited II in 1997 , certain members of that game 's team wanted to move on to Flight Unlimited III , while others wanted to create the combat flight simulator game Flight Combat . Looking Glass Studios chose to develop the games simultaneously : the team was split into two , both supplemented with new hires . The company then surveyed customers to determine where Flight Unlimited III should take place , among other things . In May 1998 , Electronic Arts was announced as the game 's publisher , as part of a multi @-@ title marketing and distribution deal that also included System Shock 2 . Looking Glass 's goal was to build on the foundation of Flight Unlimited II and to provide what project leader Tom Sperry called " the true joy and sensation of flight in the most realistic environment available " . The company first displayed Flight Unlimited III at the MicroWINGS Conference in August 1998 . At the show , the game was revealed to take place in and around Seattle — a choice based on fan requests and on the varied landscape and weather of Puget Sound . Looking Glass also discussed new planes , moving objects on the ground and a real @-@ time , physics @-@ based weather system .
Former flight instructor Peter James , who had worked on Flight Unlimited II , assumed the role of lead designer . He was largely responsible for Flight Unlimited III 's lessons , planes and simulated flight instruments . James believed that other flight simulators had holes with regard to realism , and he hoped to create a more accurate experience . Photographs were captured of each plane 's real @-@ world counterpart , and construction of the 3D plane models was led by artist Duncan Hsu , a former car modeler at Papyrus Design Group . The flight physics were coded by Kevin Wasserman and involve real @-@ time calculations of force vectors , such as those acting against a plane 's yaw , pitch and roll . This system was more advanced than that of Flight Unlimited II , which was also based on force calculations . The physics code was informed by " real aircraft data " and the personal experience of pilots , and each of the planes was flown as research for the game . Because the plane cockpits of previous Flight Unlimited games had been criticized by pilots , the team tried to make Flight Unlimited III 's cockpits extremely authentic . Kemal Amarasingham recorded the planes ' sound effects , which he said involved " risking his life " by standing near jet engines and under wings .
The game 's terrain texture maps were made with satellite images rendered at four square meters per pixel , the highest resolution used in a flight simulator at that time . Artist Karen Wolff designed the terrain by combining large topographic maps into a " mosaic " , which recreated the elevations and depressions of the Seattle area . The satellite imagery was layered over the resultant polygonal mesh . Real elevation data was also used for the eight lower @-@ resolution Western American states outside of the Seattle area . Budget concerns and the storage limitations of the CD @-@ ROM format prevented the team from rendering the entire United States , despite fan demand . The 3D objects that move across the terrain were created by Yoosun Cho , who used numerous photography books for inspiration . Flight Unlimited III 's object editor let her set these objects to " move once along the path , back and forth or cycle " . The weather system , co @-@ designed by James , generates , moves and disperses weather fronts based on real @-@ time calculations of atmospheric conditions such as humidity and orographic lift .
= = = Management and final months = = =
While visiting Looking Glass to cover Flight Unlimited III 's development , journalist Dan Linton was impressed by the team management of Tom Sperry , producer Sandra Smith and vice president of marketing Michael Malizola . He wrote that they employed " suggestion and encouragement " instead of " demands " , and he believed that their work was in large part responsible for the game " setting a new standard in the industry " . Peter James later accused the wider company 's management of being lukewarm toward Flight Unlimited III during development , since their biggest sellers were action @-@ oriented games like Thief : The Dark Project . He claimed that their lack of interest turned the optimistic team into a " grumbling group of depressed and sometimes angry [ people ] " . Although he , Smith and Perry petitioned the company 's managers to plan future add @-@ ons and third @-@ party development for the game , James felt that they were ignored . James developed concepts for a sequel in his spare time , but his ideas were shelved to wait for Flight Unlimited III 's sales figures , which had to surpass those of Microsoft Flight Simulator 2000 for Flight Unlimited IV to be greenlit . James believed that this was " foolish " , particularly because he felt that Electronic Arts undermarketed the game . He wrote that Flight Unlimited III 's marketing manager had " great plans " but that his " hands seem [ ed ] tied " .
Flight Unlimited III 's official site was opened in March 1999 , and the game was shown alongside Flight Combat : Thunder Over Europe at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in May . Tal Blevins of IGN wrote that the game had " come a long way " since he had seen it earlier in the year , and that it was almost complete , with development of the real @-@ time weather system in its final stages . Full Throttle noted the game 's " impressive clouds " and " slick looking " HUD . Flight Unlimited III was shown again at EAA AirVenture Oshkosh in July , at which point beta testing was nearly complete and the game was " 90 % done " , according to James . He stated that the public reaction was " great " , which energized the team for a short time . The game went gold that August , nine months behind schedule . James wrote that the team celebrated with a small dinner party , and that " the next few days were spent finding out how many people [ were ] quitting . " He left after the game 's completion to join Flightsim.com , a news and review website dedicated to flight simulators . The game was released on September 17 , 1999 .
= = Reception = =
Flight Unlimited III was placed in direct competition with flight simulators such as Fly ! and Microsoft Flight Simulator 2000 . The game failed to capture sufficient market share and became one of Looking Glass 's biggest commercial flops , with sales around 20 @,@ 000 copies in the United States during 1999 . Together with the costly development of Flight Combat , the game 's low sales used up Looking Glass 's earnings from Thief : The Dark Project and System Shock 2 , which had helped them recover from the failures of British Open Championship Golf and Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri . These events contributed to the company 's bankruptcy and closure in May 2000 . However , the game was positively received by critics , with an aggregate review score of 88 % on GameRankings .
Josh Nolan of Computer Gaming World wrote , " FU3 is experience @-@ oriented : it 's user @-@ friendly , graphically glamorous , and lots of fun . " While he praised its visuals and air traffic control , he considered the game to be simpler than Flight Simulator 2000 because of its less detailed lessons , interfaces and flight physics . Writing for Computer Games Magazine , Denny Atkin stated that the use of turbulence " really sets FU3 apart from the competition " , and that the game 's simulation of air traffic is " like no other sim " . He praised its graphics and dynamic weather , and he found the flight physics solid in general but " overly gentle " for aerobatic maneuvers . He concluded , " It 's not only an excellent simulation of general aviation flying , ... it 's even a good game . " PC Gamer UK 's Dean Evans wrote that the game has " a poetic grandeur " , as well as an " astonishing attention to detail " greater than that of its predecessors . He praised its flight lessons and weather , and he considered the graphics to be " unbelievably delicious " . Evans summarized the game as " the most breathtaking flying experience you can get for a PC . "
Simon Bradley of PC Zone wrote , " FUIII has atmosphere in a way that MS Combat Flight Sim can 't even dream of . " He praised its graphics , flight physics , and detailed flight environment . However , he complained of " unflyably slow frame rates " and warned that the game could not be played on older computers . Tony Lopez of GameSpot called the game 's environmental modeling " simply breathtaking " and noted that elevations were rendered more smoothly than in Fly ! or Microsoft Flight Simulator . He wrote that the game 's flight physics and weather simulation were superior to those of any other flight simulator , and that the " powerful , easy @-@ to @-@ use " FLED editing tool could popularize the game . IGN writer Marc Saltzman commented that the game features " absolutely stunning terrain at all altitudes , realistic weather and lighting effects , and highly @-@ detailed planes " . Saltzman praised the accuracy of Flight Unlimited III 's physics but remarked that the game 's frame rate was " noticeably slower " than that of its rivals .
= Woodhull Sexual Freedom Alliance =
The Woodhull Sexual Freedom Alliance ( WSFA ) , previously known as the Woodhull Freedom Foundation , is an American non @-@ profit organization founded in 2003 that advocates for sexual freedom as a fundamental human right . The organization is based in Washington , D.C. , United States . Named after an influential member of the American woman 's suffrage movement , Victoria Woodhull , its focus includes analyzing groups and individuals that seek to perpetuate a culture of sexual repression .
Sexual Freedom Day , officially recognized in 2011 in Washington , DC , celebrates the birthday of Victoria Woodhull . The WSFA has held the Sexual Freedom Summit annually since 2010 . Organization members have included LGBT activist Jeffrey Montgomery , former chairwoman of the United States Commission on Civil Rights Mary Frances Berry , writer Eric Rofes , lawyer Lawrence G. Walters , and activist Dan Massey .
In the furtherance of activities relating to its goals , the organization has allied itself with groups including the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force , the American Civil Liberties Union , the Gay and Lesbian Activists Alliance , the Tully Center for Free Speech at Syracuse University , National Coalition Against Censorship , the Heartland Institute , National Association of Scholars , American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression , Accuracy in Academia , and the American Council of Trustees and Alumni . An academic paper in the Journal of Homosexuality characterized the organization as one " that addresses both international and national sexual freedom issues as well as a host of other health and human rights issues . "
= = History = =
= = = Foundation : 2003 = = =
The organization was founded in 2003 with the name Woodhull Freedom Foundation . It began with a focus on global and domestic human rights , specifically looking at sexual freedom . It is named for Victoria Woodhull ( 1838 – 1927 ) , the first woman to own a company on Wall Street and to campaign for President of the United States . Its focus includes examining the stakeholders that maintain a climate of sexual repression .
The organization releases an annual report in September on " Sexual Freedom Day " called the " State of Sexual Freedom " , which describes goals towards increasing sexual freedom . Woodhull 's public relations representative Jeffrey Montgomery told the Washington Blade that their goals intersected with human rights : " Woodhull is the organization at the intersection of all sexual freedom issues because of the common core value of fundamental human rights . ... Without sexual freedom all personal freedoms are at risk . ” Woodhull tracks laws and regulations pertaining to sexual activity in the United States .
= = = Early activities : 2004 – 2009 = = =
In 2004 , Woodhull joined with the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force in devoting resources towards analyzing old regulations used to harass LGBT people . The purpose of the study was to analyze existing regulations in the United States with regards to sexual activity , and simultaneously to foster ties between those against sexual repression and LGBT organizations . In 2005 , Woodhull again coordinated with the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force in order to organize an event known as " Red , White and Leather for Independence Day " , in which over 30 leather bars in 17 cities took part . Writer Eric Rofes served on the board of Woodhull before passing away in 2006 . In 2007 , its Sexual Freedom Day was commemorated with a discussion group examining the idea of sexual freedom as a segment of human rights . Sexual Freedom Day took place in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania as the first event of its kind on October 6 , 2007 and included " a fund raiser featuring the Peek @-@ a @-@ Boo Revue and DJ Johanna Constantine and DJ Roots and Groove . "
In July 2008 , when the American Family Foundation called for a McDonald 's boycott after the fast food restaurant said it would join the National Gay and Lesbian Chamber of Commerce , Woodhull 's executive director announced a " buycott " asking those interested in supporting the restaurant to purchase additional meals . Woodhull joined with the American Civil Liberties Union and other groups in 2009 on an amici curiae brief before the U.S. Supreme Court in the case , Federal Communications Commission v. Fox Television Stations . On November 29 , 2009 , the Cleveland Leather Awareness Weekend ( CLAW ) organized a leather dance reception in San Diego , California so as to raise money for charitable purposes to assist the activities of Woodhull .
= = = Recent work : 2010 – present = = =
The organization gave its 2010 Victoria Woodhull Sexual Freedom Award on September 23 of that year to Kushaba Moses Mworeko , an individual from Uganda who sought asylum in the United States due to his sexual orientation . Author Hardy Haberman was a board member of Woodhull in 2011 . On November 17 , 2011 , Woodhull worked with the DC Trans Coalition , the Gay and Lesbian Activists Alliance , Gender Rights Maryland , Get Equal DC , Helping Individual Prostitutes Survive ( HIPS ) , the Rainbow Response Coalition , and Transgender Health Empowerment to form a coalition sponsoring a " Transgender Day of Action " in Washington , D.C. that highlights examples of mistreatment of transgender people by law enforcement . The event served as a precursor to the Transgender Day of Remembrance which followed on November 20 .
In January 2012 , the organization joined with other groups including the Tully Center for Free Speech at Syracuse University , National Coalition Against Censorship , the Heartland Institute , National Association of Scholars , Alliance Defense Fund Center for Academic Freedom , Feminists for Free Expression , American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression , Accuracy in Academia , and the American Council of Trustees and Alumni to send a letter asking the U.S. Department of Education 's Office for Civil Rights to use the precedent of the 1999 Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education case to apply a definition of harassment for academic institutions ( so as not to harm freedom of speech ) . In 2012 , Buck Angel served on the organization 's Board of Directors of the organization , and sexologist Megan Andelloux served as an advisory board member . Lawrence G. Walters was the general counsel for Woodhull in 2012 .
= = Reception = =
An academic paper by Susan Wright in the Journal of Homosexuality about those who faced discrimination due to sadomasochism ( SM ) described Woodhull as an organization " that addresses both international and national sexual freedom issues as well as a host of other health and human rights issues . " Wright noted Woodhull dedicates its focus towards changing regulations and existing laws .
= Battle of Magdhaba =
The Battle of Magdhaba ( officially known by the British as the Affair of Magdhaba ) took place on 23 December 1916 during the Defence of Egypt section of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in the First World War . The attack by the Anzac Mounted Division took place against an entrenched Ottoman Army garrison to the south and east of Bir Lahfan in the Sinai desert , some 18 – 25 miles ( 29 – 40 km ) inland from the Mediterranean coast . This Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) victory against the Ottoman Empire garrison also secured the town of El Arish after the Ottoman garrison withdrew .
In August 1916 , a combined Ottoman and German Empire Army had been forced to retreat to Bir el Abd , after the British victory in the Battle of Romani . During the following three months the defeated force retired further eastwards to El Arish , while the captured territory stretching from the Suez Canal was consolidated and garrisoned by the EEF . Patrols and reconnaissances were carried out by British forces , to protect the continuing construction of the railway and water pipeline and to deny passage across the Sinai desert to the Ottoman forces by destroying water cisterns and wells .
By December , construction of the infrastructure and supply lines had sufficiently progressed to enable the British advance to recommence , during the evening of 20 December . By the following morning a mounted force had reached El Arish to find it abandoned . An Ottoman Army garrison in a strong defensive position was located at Magdhaba , some 18 – 30 miles ( 29 – 48 km ) inland to the south east , on the Wadi el Arish . After a second night march by the Anzac Mounted Division ( Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division ) , the attack on Magdhaba was launched by Australian , British and New Zealand troops against well @-@ entrenched Ottoman forces defending a series of six redoubts . During the day 's fierce fighting , the mounted infantry tactics of riding as close to the front line as possible and then dismounting to make their attack with the bayonet supported by artillery and machine guns prevailed , assisted by aircraft reconnaissances . All the well @-@ camouflaged redoubts were eventually located and captured and the Ottoman defenders surrendered in the late afternoon .
= = Background = =
At the beginning of the First World War , the Egyptian police which had controlled the Sinai Desert were withdrawn , leaving the area largely unprotected . In February 1915 , a German and Ottoman force unsuccessfully attacked the Suez Canal . After the Gallipoli Campaign , a second joint German and Ottoman force again advanced across the desert to threaten the canal , during July 1916 . This force was defeated in August at the Battle of Romani , after which the Anzac Mounted Division , also known as the A. & N. Z. Mounted Division , under the command of the Australian Major General Harry Chauvel , pushed the Ottoman Army 's Desert Force commanded by the German General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein out of Bir el Abd and across the Sinai to El Arish .
By mid @-@ September 1916 the Anzac Mounted Division had pursued the retreating Ottoman and German forces from Bir el Salmana 20 miles ( 32 km ) along the northern route across the Sinai Peninsula to the outpost at Bir el Mazar . The Maghara Hills , 50 miles ( 80 km ) south west of Romani , in the interior of the Sinai Desert , were also attacked in mid @-@ October by a British force based on the Suez Canal . Although not captured at the time , all these positions were eventually abandoned by their Ottoman garrisons in the face of growing British Empire strength .
= = = Consolidation of British territorial gains = = =
The British then established garrisons along their supply lines , which stretched across the Sinai from the Suez Canal . Patrols and reconnaissances were regularly carried out to protect the advance of the railway and water pipeline , built by the Egyptian Labour Corps . These supply lines were marked by railway stations and sidings , airfields , signal installations and standing camps where troops could be accommodated in tents and huts . At this time the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) had a ration strength of 156 @,@ 000 soldiers , plus 13 @,@ 000 Egyptian labourers .
= = = Ottoman positions in the Sinai = = =
The Ottoman Army 's Desert Force commanded by Kress von Kressenstein which operated in the Sinai region was sustained and supported by their principal desert base at Hafir El Auja , located on the Ottoman side of the Egyptian @-@ Ottoman frontier . Hafir el Auja was linked to Beersheba , Gaza , and northern Palestine by road and railway .
This major German and Ottoman base in the central Sinai desert , supplied and supported smaller garrisons in the area with reinforcements , ammunition and rations , medical support , and periods of rest away from the front line . If left intact , the Ottoman forces at Magdhaba and Hafir el Auja could seriously threaten the advance of the EEF along the north route towards Southern Palestine .
= = = Problems of an advance to El Arish = = =
= = = = Water = = = =
The area of oases which extended from Dueidar , 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Kantara along the Darb es Sultani , along the old caravan route , and on to Salmana 52 miles ( 84 km ) from Kantara could sustain life . But from Salmana to Bir el Mazar , ( 75 miles ( 121 km ) from Kantara ) there was little water , and beyond the Mazar area there was no water , till El Arish was reached on the coast 95 miles ( 153 km ) from Kantara .
Before the British advance to El Arish could begin , the 20 miles ( 32 km ) stretch without a water supply between El Mazar and El Arish had to be thoroughly explored . By mid @-@ December 1916 , the pipeline 's eastward progress made it possible to store sufficient water at Maadan ( Kilo . 128 ) and it was also possible to concentrate sufficiently large numbers of Egyptian Camel Transport Corps camels and camel @-@ drivers to carry water forward from Maadan in support of an attacking force .
= = = = Conditions = = = =
The campaign across the Sinai desert required great determination , as well as conscientious attention to detail by all involved , to ensure that ammunition , rations and every required pint of water and bale of horse fodder was available when needed . While the Ottoman Empire 's main desert base at Hafir el Auja was more centrally located , the British Empire base was some 30 miles ( 48 km ) to the west of El Arish ; almost at the limits of their lines of communication . Mounted operations so far from base in such barren country were extremely hazardous and difficult .
For these long @-@ range desert operations , it was necessary for all supplies to be well @-@ organised and suitably packaged for transportation on camels , moving with the column or following closely behind . It was vital that the soldiers were well trained for these conditions . If a man was left behind in the inhospitable Sinai , he might die in the burning desert sun during the day , or bitter cold at night . If a water bottle was accidentally tipped up or leaked , it could mean no water for its owner , for perhaps 24 hours in extreme temperatures .
In these extreme and difficult conditions , mounted troops of the EEF worked to provide protective screens for the construction of the infrastructure , patrolling the newly occupied areas and carrying out ground reconnaissance to augment and verify aerial photographs , used to improve maps of the newly occupied areas .
= = = British War Office policy = = =
The British War Office 's stated policy in October 1916 was to maintain offensive operations on the Western Front , while remaining on the defensive everywhere else . However , the battle of attrition on the Somme , coupled with a change of Britain 's Prime Minister , with David Lloyd George succeeding H. H. Asquith on 7 December , destabilised the status quo sufficiently to bring about a policy reversal , making attacks on the Central Powers weak points away from the Western Front desirable . The commander of the EEF , General Sir Archibald Murray , was encouraged to seek success on his Eastern Frontier , but without any reinforcements . He thought that an advance to El Arish was possible , and that such an advance would threaten forces in the southern Ottoman Empire and , if not prevent , at least slow the transfer of German and Ottoman units to other theatres of war from the Levant .
= = = Creation of Eastern Force and Desert Column = = =
After the victory at Romani , Murray moved his headquarters back from Ismailia on the canal to Cairo . This move to Cairo was to enable him to be in a more central position to carry out his duties and responsibilities which extended from the Western Frontier Force , waging a continuing campaign against the Senussi in the Egyptian Western Desert , to the Eastern Force in the Sinai . Another consequence of the victory was that Major General H. A. Lawrence , who had been in command of the Northern Sector of the Suez Canal defences and Romani during the battle , was transferred to the Western Front .
As a consequence of pushing the German and Ottoman forces eastwards away from the Canal , during October , Lieutenant General Charles Dobell was appointed to command the newly created Eastern Force . With his headquarters at Kantara , Dobell became responsible for the security of the Suez Canal and the Sinai Peninsula .
Dobell 's Eastern Force consisted of two infantry divisions , the 42nd ( East Lancashire ) Division commanded by Major General W. Douglas and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division commanded by Major General W. E. B. Smith , as well as the Anzac Mounted Division , a mounted infantry division commanded by Chauvel , the 5th Mounted Brigade commanded by Brigadier General E. A. Wiggin and the Imperial Camel Brigade commanded by Brigadier General Clement Leslie Smith . Murray considered this force to be under strength by at least a division for an advance to Beersheba , but felt he could gain El Arish and form an effective base on the coast , from which further operations eastwards could be supplied .
In October Chauvel was granted six weeks ' leave , and he travelled to Britain on 25 October , returning to duty on 12 December 1916 . While he was away Desert Column was formed and on 7 December 1916 , five days before Chauvel 's return , Murray appointed the newly promoted Lieutenant General Sir Phillip Chetwode commander of the Column . As a major general , Chetwode had been in command of cavalry on the Western Front , where he was involved in pursuing retreating Germans after the First Battle of the Marne .
On formation , Chetwode 's Desert Column consisted of three infantry divisions , the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division , currently serving in the Suez Canal Defences and commanded by A. E. Dallas , the 42nd ( East Lancashire ) and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Divisions . Chetwode 's mounted force consisted of the Anzac Mounted Division , the 5th Mounted Brigade and the Imperial Camel Brigade .
= = Prelude = =
By early December 1916 , construction of the railway had reached the wells at Bir el Mazar , the last water sources available to the EEF before El Arish . Bir el Mazar was about half way between Kantara on the Suez Canal and the Egyptian @-@ Ottoman territorial border . British intelligence had reported Ottoman Army plans to strengthen the garrison at Magdhaba , by extending the railway ( or light rail ) south east from Beersheba ( and Hafir el Auja ) towards Magdhaba .
= = = Advance to El Arish = = =
Mounted patrols to the outskirts of El Arish discovered 1 @,@ 600 well @-@ entrenched Ottoman troops holding the town , supported by forces based 25 miles ( 40 km ) to the south @-@ east on the banks of the Wadi el Arish at Magdhaba and Abu Aweigila .
On 20 December , a week after Chauvel returned from leave , the advance to El Arish began when the Anzac Mounted Division left Bir Gympie at 21 : 45 . They moved out without the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , which was in the rear assisting with patrolling the lines of communication stretching 90 miles ( 140 km ) back to Kantara on the Suez Canal . So it was the 1st and 3rd Light Horse Brigades , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , the 5th Mounted Brigade and the newly formed battalions of the Imperial Camel Brigade with the mountain guns of the Hong Kong and Singapore Camel Battery which made the 20 @-@ mile ( 32 km ) trek to El Arish .
On the day they set out , Australian airmen reported that the garrisons at El Arish and Maghara Hills , in the centre of the Sinai , appeared to have been withdrawn .
As the Anzac Mounted Division approached Um Zughla at 02 : 00 on 21 December , a halt was called until 03 : 30 when the column continued on to El Arish . At 07 : 45 , the advanced troops entered the town , unopposed , to contact the civil population and arrange water supplies for the mounted force . One prisoner was captured , while lines of observation were set up , which maintained a close watch over the country east and south of the town . By 16 : 00 the 1st and 3rd Light Horse , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles and the Imperial Camel Brigades were in bivouac at El Arish , the only casualties during the day being two members of the 1st Light Horse Brigade , who were blown up by a stranded mine on the beach .
The day after El Arish was occupied , on 22 December , the leading infantry brigade of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division reached the town and , together with the 5th Mounted Brigade , garrisoned the town and began fortifying the area . At 10 : 00 , Chetwode landed on the beach opposite the Anzac Mounted Division Headquarters to begin his appointment as commander of Desert Column . Chetwode reported that he had arranged a special camel convoy with rations and horse feed to arrive at El Arish at 16 : 30 that day , with a view to the Anzac Mounted Division advancing on Magdhaba , 18 miles ( 29 km ) away . ( On the following day 23 December , the first supplies to be transported to El Arish by ship from Port Said were landed . ) With essential rations organised , Chauvel led the mounted division out of El Arish at 00 : 45 on the night of 22 / 23 December towards Magdhaba , after reconnaissances had established that the retreating Ottoman force from El Arish had moved to the south east along the Wadi el Arish towards Magdhaba .
= = = Ottoman force = = =
After their retreat from El Arish , the Ottoman garrison withdrew down the Wadi el Arish 25 miles ( 40 km ) south east of El Arish , to Magdhaba and Abu Aweigila , about another 15 miles ( 24 km ) further away from the coast , on the banks of the wadi . At Magdhaba the garrison had increased from 500 to about 1 @,@ 400 Ottoman soldiers ; there may have been as many as 2 @,@ 000 , consisting of two battalions of the 80th Infantry Regiment ( 27th Ottoman Infantry Division but attached to the 3rd Ottoman Infantry Division for most of 1916 ) . These two battalions , the 2nd Battalion , commanded by Izzet Bey , of about 600 men and the 3rd Battalion , commanded by Rushti Bey , were supported by a dismounted camel company and two squads from the 80th Machine Gun Company . ( The remainder squads of the 80th Machine Gun Company had been moved north to Shellal . ) The defending force was also supported by a battery of four Krupp 7 @.@ 5 cm Gebirgskanone M 1873 guns ( on loan from the 1st Mountain Regiment ) , since the 80th Regiment 's own artillery battery was stationed at Nekhl . Also attached to the Ottoman garrison at Magdhaba were a number of support units , including elements of the 3rd Company of the 8th Engineer Battalion , 27th Medical Company , 43rd Mobile Hospital and the 46th Cooking Unit . The garrison was under the command of Kadri Bey , the commanding officer of the 80th Infantry Regiment .
The series of six well @-@ situated and developed redoubts making up the strong Ottoman garrison position at Magdhaba reflected considerable planning ; the redoubts were almost impossible to locate on the flat ground on both sides of the Wadi el Arish . Clearly , the move of the Ottoman garrison from El Arish had not been a sudden , panicked reaction ; indeed it was first noticed by Allied aerial reconnaissance planes as early as 25 October .
These fortified redoubts , which were situated on both sides of the wadi , were linked by a series of trenches . The whole position , extending over an area of about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from east to west , was more narrow from north to south . On 22 December 1916 , the day before the attack , the garrison had been inspected by Kress von Kressenstein , commander of the Ottoman Desert Force , who drove from his base at Hafir el Auja . At the time he expressed satisfaction with the garrison 's ability to withstand any assault .
Von Kressenstein 's satisfaction that the garrison could withstand any assault may have had something to do with its remoteness . Magdhaba was about 40 miles ( 64 km ) from the British railhead and 25 miles ( 40 km ) from El Arish . There were two other important pieces of information von Kressenstein did not have . Firstly , he would have been unaware of the speed , flexibility and determination of the Australian , British and New Zealand mounted force , which they were about to demonstrate . Secondly , the arrival of the new British commander , Chetwode , and his staff and their vital forward planning to organise the necessary logistical support for an immediate long range attack by the Anzac Mounted Division .
= = = British Empire force = = =
Chauvel 's force for the attack on Magdhaba consisted of three brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division ; 1st Light Horse Brigade ( 1st , 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Regiments ) , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade ( 8th , 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments ) , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ( Auckland , Canterbury and Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiments ) , together with three battalions from the Imperial Camel Brigade in place of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade . These nine regiments and three battalions were supported by the Inverness and Somerset Artillery Batteries , Royal Horse Artillery , and the Hong Kong and Singapore Artillery Battery .
This force , which may have been 7 @,@ 000 strong , moved out from El Arish just after midnight , following an unexpected delay caused by incoming infantry columns of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , which crossed the long camel train carrying water which followed the mounted division . Nevertheless , the Anzac Mounted Division ( riding for forty minutes , dismounting and leading their horse for ten minutes and halting for ten minutes every hour ) reached the plain 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from Magdhaba , at about 05 : 00 on 23 December . The column had been successfully guided by brigade scouts , until the garrison 's fires had become visible for about an hour during their trek , indicating the Ottomans did not expect an attacking force to set out on a second night march , after their 30 miles ( 48 km ) ride to El Arish .
= = = = Aerial support = = = =
Aerial reconnaissances were routinely carried out ; one carried out on 15 November by the Australian Flying Corps made a detailed reconnaissance behind enemy lines over the areas of El Kossaima , Hafir el Auja and Abu Aweigila , taking 24 photographs of all camps and dumps .
The Royal Flying Corps 's 5th Wing under the command of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel P B Joubert de la Ferté stationed at Mustabig supported the Anzac Mounted Division . The Wing was a composite formation of the No. 14 Squadron and the Australian Flying Corps 's No. 1 Squadron . It was ordered to provide close air support , long @-@ range scouting and long @-@ range bombing . One British and ten Australian planes had dropped a hundred bombs on Magdhaba on 22 December and during the battle bombed and machine gunned the area , but targets were difficult to find .
= = = = Medical support = = = =
The evacuation of wounded had been reviewed following the problems encountered during the Battle of Romani , with particular attention given to the development of transport by railway . By the time the advance to El Arish occurred in December 1916 , two additional hospital trains were available on the Sinai railway , and medical sections had been deployed at the following :
close to the battlefield at railhead , where the immobile sections of divisional field ambulances could accommodation 700 casualties ,
at Bir el Abd No. 24 Casualty Clearing Station ( CCS ) , which could accommodate 400 cases , and Nos. 53 and 54 CCS could each accommodate 200 @,@
at Bir el Mazar No. 26 CCS , which could accommodate 400 cases ,
at Mahamdiyah No. 2 ( Australian ) Stationary Hospital with 800 beds ,
at Kantara East No. 24 Stationary Hospital with 800 beds .
= = Battle = =
At 06 : 30 the No. 5 Wing attacked the Ottoman defences , drawing some fire which revealed the locations of machine guns , trenches and five redoubts . The redoubts were arranged around the village , which protected the only available water supply in the area . During the day , pilots and their observers provided frequent reports ; fourteen were received between 07 : 50 and 15 : 15 , giving estimated positions , strength , and movements of the Ottoman garrison . These were most often given verbally by the observer , after the pilot landed near Chauvel 's headquarters , as the aircraft did not at this time have wireless communication .
The main attack , from the north and east , was to be made by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , commanded by Brigadier General Edward Chaytor , which moved in line of troop columns . The New Zealanders were supported by a machine gun squadron armed with Vickers and Lewis guns , and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade all under the command of Chaytor . This attack began near the village of Magdhaba and the Wadi El Arish , on the virtually featureless battleground , when the British Empire artillery opened fire at the same time as Chaytor 's group moved towards the Ottoman garrison 's right and rear .
Chauvel 's plan of envelopment quickly began to develop . Despite heavy Ottoman fire , Chaytor 's attacking mounted troops found cover and dismounted , some about 1 @,@ 600 yards ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) from the redoubts and entrenchments , while others got as close as 400 yards ( 370 m ) . At the same time , units of the Imperial Camel Brigade were moving straight on Magdhaba , in a south easterly direction , following the telegraph line , and by 08 : 45 were slowly advancing on foot , followed by the 1st Light Horse Brigade , in reserve .
Chauvel 's envelopment was extended at 09 : 25 , when Chaytor ordered a regiment to circle the entrenched positions and move through Aulad Ali , to cut off a possible line of retreat to the south and south east . The 10th Light Horse Regiment with two sections of the brigade Machine Gun Squadron , led by Brigadier General J. R. Royston , commander of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , succeeded in capturing Aulad Ali and 300 prisoners .
The Ottoman artillery batteries and trenches were difficult to locate , but by 10 : 00 the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was advancing towards the firing line . At this time , an aerial report described small groups of the Magdhaba garrison beginning to retreat , and as a result the still @-@ mounted reserve , the 1st Light Horse Brigade , was ordered to move directly on the town , passing the dismounted Imperial Camel Brigade battalions on their way . After meeting severe shrapnel fire as they trotted over the open plain , they were forced to take cover in the Wadi el Arish where they dismounted , continuing their advance at 10 : 30 against the Ottoman left . Meanwhile , the battalions of the Imperial Camel Brigade , continued their advance over the flat ground for 900 yards ( 820 m ) , section by section , covering fire provided by each section in turn .
By 12 : 00 all brigades were hotly engaged , as the 3rd Light Horse Brigade 's 10th Light Horse Regiment continued their sweep round the garrison 's right flank . An hour later , the right of the Imperial Camel Brigade battalions had advanced to reach the 1st Light Horse Brigade and 55 minutes afterwards , fierce fighting was beginning to make an impact on the Ottoman garrison . Reports continued of small numbers of Ottoman troops retreating , but by 14 : 15 the 10th Light Horse Regiment was continuing its trek after capturing Aulad Ali ; moving across the Wadi el Arish , round Hill 345 to attack the rear of Redoubt No. 4 . By 14 : 55 the frontal attack by the Imperial Camel Brigade was within 500 yards ( 460 m ) of the Ottoman defences and , together with the 1st Light Horse Brigade , at 15 : 20 , they attacked No. 2 redoubt . Ten minutes later the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , with fixed bayonets , attacked the trenches to the east of some houses and the 10th Light Horse Regiment , by now advancing from the south , captured two trenches on that side , effectively cutting off any retreat for the Ottoman garrison .
By 16 : 00 the 1st Light Horse Brigade had captured No. 2 redoubt , and Chaytor reported capturing buildings and redoubts on the left . After a telephone call between Chauvel and Chetwode , pressure continued to be exerted and an attack by all units took place at 16 : 30 . The Ottoman garrison held on until the dismounted attackers were within 20 yards ( 18 m ) , but by that time , there was no doubt that the Ottoman garrison was losing the fight , and they began to surrender in small groups . All organised resistance ceased ten minutes later and as darkness fell , sporadic firing petered out , while prisoners were rounded up , horses collected and watered at the captured wells . Then Chauvel rode into Magdhaba and gave the order to clear the battlefield .
At 23 : 30 the Anzac Mounted Division 's headquarters left Magdhaba with an escort and arrived in El Arish at 04 : 10 on 24 December 1916 .
= = = Casualties and captures = = =
Of the 146 known British Empire casualties , 22 were killed and 124 were wounded . Five officers were killed and seven wounded , and 17 other ranks were killed and 117 wounded . Included in the 146 figure , which may have been as high as 163 , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade suffered the loss of two officers and seven other ranks killed and 36 other ranks wounded .
No more than 200 Ottoman soldiers escaped before the surviving garrison of between 1 @,@ 242 and 1 @,@ 282 men were captured . The prisoners included the 80th Regiment 's commander Khadir Bey , and the 2nd and 3rd Battalions commanders , Izzat Bey , Rushti Bey among 43 officers . Over 300 Ottoman soldiers were killed ; 97 were buried on the battlefield , and 40 wounded were cared for .
= = Aftermath = =
With the victory at Magdhaba the occupation of El Arish was secure . This was the first town captured on the Mediterranean coast and infantry from the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division and the 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade quickly began to fortify the town . The Royal Navy arrived on 22 December 1916 , and supplies began landing on the beaches near El Arish on 24 December . After the arrival of the railway on 4 January 1917 followed by the water pipeline , El Arish quickly developed into a major base for the EEF .
Aerial reconnaissance found Ottoman forces moving their headquarters north from Beersheba , while the garrison at their main desert base of Hafir El Auja was slightly increased . Other Ottoman outposts at El Kossaima and Nekhl remained , along with their strong defensive system of trenches and redoubts at El Magruntein , defending Rafa , on the frontier between Egypt and the southern Ottoman Empire .
= = = Return to El Arish = = =
Chauvel 's force had left El Arish the previous night , carrying one water bottle per man . Additional water was organised by Desert Column staff and sent from El Arish to Lahfan , and a water convoy from Lahfan , ordered to move to Magdhaba at 15 : 10 on the day of battle , was reported to be on its way at 15 : 20 .
After filling up from the water convoy after its arrival at Magdhaba , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles and 3rd Light Horse Brigades left to ride back to El Arish in their own time .
Material assistance was given to the returning columns by the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , in form of the loan of camels , water fantasses , sandcarts and gun horse teams , the latter going out on the commanding generals ' initiative to meet the returning teams .
= = = Clearing the battleground = = =
At dressing station set up 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of Magdhaba , by the New Zealand Field Ambulance Mobile Section and the 1st Light Horse Field Ambulance , 80 wounded were treated during the day of battle . Field ambulances performed urgent surgery , gave tetanus inoculations and fed patients . During the night after the battle , treated wounded were evacuated in sandcarts and on torturous cacolets to El Arish , with the No. 1 Ambulance Convoy assisting .
Part of the 1st Light Horse Regiment , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel C. H. Granville , with two squadrons of the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment , and one squadron from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade bivouacked for the night at Magdhaba . A convoy of supplies was ordered from El Arish to support these troops as they continued , the following morning , clearing the battlefield . The remaining 44 British Empire and 66 Ottoman Empire wounded , collected on 23 and 24 December , were taken to an Ottoman hospital within the Magdhaba fortifications , before being sent to the dressing station . From there , at 17 : 00 the ambulance convoy set out on its 23 miles ( 37 km ) march to the receiving station .
The convoys of wounded were met a few miles from El Arish by infantry with sandcarts lent by the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , so the wounded who had endured the cacolets travelled in comfort to the receiving station , arriving at 04 : 00 on 25 December . The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division supplied medical stores and personnel to assist , but although arrangements were made for evacuation to the railhead two days later , evacuation by sea was planned . This had to be postponed due to a gale with rain and hail on 27 December and it was not until 29 December that the largest single ambulance convoy organised in the campaign , 77 sandcarts , nine sledges and a number of cacolet camels , moved out in three lines along the beach with 150 wounded . A few serious cases , who had not been ready to be moved , were evacuated the following day to begin their journey to Kantara on the Suez Canal .
= = = Recognition = = =
In an address to the troops after the battle , Chetwode expressed his appreciation for the mounted rifle and light horse method of attack . He said that in the history of warfare he had never known cavalry to not only locate and surround the opponent 's position , but to dismount and fight as infantry with rifle and bayonet .
On 28 September 1917 Chauvel , who by this time had been promoted by Allenby to command three mounted divisions in Desert Mounted Corps , wrote to General Headquarters –
= War Tour =
The War Tour was a concert tour by the Irish rock band U2 , which took place in 1982 and 1983 in support of the group 's third album War . The tour took place in Western Europe , the United States , and Japan , with new material from War taking an increasing role as the tour progressed . Venues were mostly halls , but some arenas were introduced later on . U2 's performances were very well received both critically and commercially , especially in the United States where U2 broke through to become a major act . Scenes of lead singer Bono waving a white flag during the song " Sunday Bloody Sunday " became an emblematic image of this phase of U2 's career . It was their first tour as full @-@ time headlining act and their first to be profitable .
The live album Under a Blood Red Sky and the concert film U2 Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky both originated from performances on the tour . The latter matched U2 's concert fervour with the spectacular natural setting of the Red Rocks Amphitheatre in the rain to produce a memorable document of the War Tour and to further increase the group 's popularity ; U2 's filming of the Red Rocks show was later selected by Rolling Stone magazine as one of the " 50 Moments that Changed the History of Rock and Roll " .
= = Itinerary = =
After War had been recorded , but three months before it was released , U2 began playing the Pre @-@ War Tour : 20 shows , and a television appearance , in halls in Western Europe , commencing on 1 December 1982 in Glasgow and finishing in the band 's home town , Dublin , on 24 December . These shows generally featured only three songs from the upcoming album – " Sunday Bloody Sunday " , " New Year 's Day " , and " Surrender " . The 20 December performance in Belfast 's Maysfield Leisure Centre represented the first airing of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " in Northern Ireland ; lead singer Bono told the crowd , " We 're going to do a song for you now . If you don 't like it , we 'll never play it again . It 's called ' Sunday Bloody Sunday ' . " The reception was positive , and the song stayed in . Subsequent introductions would explicitly clarify the song 's purpose : " This song is not a rebel song , this song is ' Sunday Bloody Sunday ' ! "
On 26 February 1983 at Caird Hall in Dundee , Scotland , the War Tour proper began , with the album 's release coming two days later . The band played 29 shows and three television appearances in Scotland , England , and Wales , ending on 3 April with a single continental show at the Printemps de Bourges in Bourges , France . Three or four additional songs from War were added to these set lists , including " Two Hearts Beat As One " , and the band started their 1980 's practice of ending shows with the War song , " 40 " .
The next leg went to North America for 48 shows and two radio appearances , beginning on 23 April in Chapel Hill , North Carolina and ending on 26 June at the Hudson River Pier 84 facility in New York City . The War Tour was U2 's first as a full @-@ time headlining act . Most of the venues were colleges and smaller auditoriums , but they played a few arena shows , such as at the Centrum in Worcester , Massachusetts and at the Los Angeles Sports Arena . Many of the shows featured the Welsh band The Alarm as the opening act .
During this tour , they appeared before one of the largest audiences in US music history : on Memorial Day at the US Festival in San Bernardino , California , they appeared at noontime on the third day of the festival before a crowd of over 125 @,@ 000 . The festival was broadcast live on MTV . The performance climaxed in a grand finale where Bono scaled the proscenium of the US festival 's huge stage while singing the song " The Electric Co . " , ending up about 100 feet above the ground .
A week later , their 5 June 1983 performance at Red Rocks Amphitheatre ( an outdoor venue near Morrison , Colorado in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains that many travelling musicians consider the most spectacular outdoor venue in the United States ) was recorded for what turned out to be a live album entitled Under a Blood Red Sky and concert film entitled Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky . A steady rain and the surreal , torch @-@ lit natural beauty of the surroundings combined to present U2 's performance in the most dramatic of contexts . Frequently shown on MTV , the video helped to further expand the band 's American audience and rewarded the large financial risk the show had represented . The album used performances culled from the Red Rocks show as well as a 6 May show in Boston 's Orpheum Theatre and a 20 August show in St. Goarshausen , West Germany at the Lorelei Amphitheatre . The Orpheum Theatre performance was also recorded and broadcast on the King Biscuit Flower Hour syndicated radio program .
U2 then played at 5 outdoor summer festivals in Western Europe in July and August .
After a nearly three @-@ month interlude , U2 played a show in Honolulu , Hawaii , before their first tour of Japan for six shows , with the tour ending on 30 November 1983 at the Nakano Sun Plaza in Tokyo . While in Japan , U2 made two television appearances , one of which featured a performance of " New Year 's Day " in which Edge performed almost entirely on piano due to a guitar failure .
= = Shows and reception = =
In both UK and US publicity for the tour , the group emphasised that it opposed " wallpaper music " from artists who spent more time on their hairdos than anything else . In the US , advertisements for the tour read " U2 Declare War " and talked about " The War on Boring Music " , especially in the context of breaking up conservative radio formats . National identification also played a role ; Bono said to US audiences variants of : " We 're not just another English fashion band passing through . We 're an Irish band and we 're here to stay . "
War 's music , its music videos , and the War Tour separated U2 from the mass of new wave or college rock acts and into mainstream rock visibility . Shows were typically 90 minutes long . Bono was emotional and very theatrical during shows ; during songs he would climb lighting rigs , plunge into the audience , or walk out onto side balconies . As the tour progressed , band members and others became concerned that Bono 's antics – while making for good press copy and having an electric effect on some fans – were detracting from the music and might end in a disaster ( an assessment Bono later agreed with ) . " New Year 's Day " became a hit single , and in concert performances full of vitality , The Edge would rapidly switch back and forth between piano and electric guitar . Older songs such as " Gloria " and " 11 O 'Clock Tick Tock " were kept in the set list . " 40 " ' s show @-@ closing , thoughtful presence – wherein The Edge and bassist Adam Clayton swapped instruments , then three band members left one by one leaving only drummer Larry Mullen , Jr . – grew into an audience participation ritual that would continue even after the band had left the stage . At one show at Dublin 's Phoenix Park Racecourse , the fans ' singing of the refrain How long , to sing this song from the song went on for 15 minutes after the concert 's end .
Initial British critical reaction to the first leg of the War Tour was favourable but with some reservations . The group was already well known there , and while War debuted at the top of the UK albums chart , it had encountered some early backlash , with NME saying " the great personal fury " of U2 's early work had been replaced by " literal but sincere sloganeering " . Sounds magazine said a Birmingham show had pacing and thematic problems due to " newer numbers clumsily breaking the mood that had earlier been created " but praised many other elements of the show , saying that " their skill at breaking down barriers between band and audience has never been better . " Some poor notices for the album itself from the British pop weeklies upset Bono during the tour , and one from Sounds bothered him so much that insulted the reviewer by name during a show in Portsmouth .
U2 's exciting concerts earned critical praise during the American leg , where the band had not been as well @-@ known previously . Both American audiences and American critics were more open than the British to the group 's upfront emotional statements and theatricality . The New York Times ' John Rockwell wrote that : " This is a great live band . Bono is a riveting public personality , leaping and crawling all over the stage and above it into the scaffolding . " The Boston Globe wrote that the group 's performance " reached a rare , wondrous zone – where rock ' n ' roll transcended the ordinary and took the audience on a lift that was equal parts spiritual and sensual . " It said that Bono 's vocals " sound like pleas and prayers , the lyrics failure and hope " and described The Edge 's guitar playing as embodying " clear , ringing lines that were both atmospheric and jarring . " The Oregonian wrote that it was " the best concert of 1983 so far : solid music played rhythmically and well , a positive stage attitude that recognised audience input , excellent sound and lights . " The Village Voice wrote that U2 in concert evoked an " undeniable righteousness " about which " U2 was thrilled [ and ] their audience was thrilled " . Journalist Rick Miller wrote of the opening US show in Chapel Hill , " There are no words for the warmth of the thrill that U2 gave the crowd . I surrendered and I know I 'm not alone . " Contemporary Christian Music magazine said that the show avoided typical juvenile stage patter clichés and that from a Christian perspective , " It is true that U2 doesn 't preach , but that does not mean a message is not communicated . "
Tickets were in demand in the US , spurred by word @-@ of @-@ mouth and the breakthrough of " New Year 's Day " as a hit single there . Many of the War Tour shows sold out on the American leg . The group began booking bigger venues on the tour as a result . The tour helped War stay in or near the US albums chart Top 20 for the duration of that leg , which represented by far their best commercial performance so far in the United States . At the same time , the band had to deal with larger @-@ scale success for the first time , with more of a distance between themselves and their audience and with the audience itself changing in nature . The group was being mobbed by fans at some locations and Bono became a sex symbol to female fans .
The tour grossed about $ 2 million overall . It was their first venture on the road that was profitable .
= = Themes and legacy = =
The War Tour was the first U2 tour on which the lighting and stage design was done by Willie Williams , who would continue to perform that role in all of U2 's subsequent tours . While originally hired for just lighting , Williams quickly became involved in all aspects of the group 's visual presentation . Starting with the Pre @-@ War Tour , the minimalist stage design featured a red carpet @-@ covered riser on which the drums and keyboards stood . Three large white flags were placed at the back of the stage , representing the notion of " surrender " ; electric fans set the flags flying at designated moments in the show . Stage fog was also used in places . One newspaper review said that " Lighting was starkly beautiful for this concert , in tune with the occasional ominous tone of some of the songs . "
During " Sunday Bloody Sunday " , Bono would march waving a white flag around to illustrate his anti @-@ war and anti @-@ nationalist stances and spur audiences to shout , " No more ! No war ! " The white flags were also sometimes handed off the stage , where they would be passed around amongst the audience . Bono said that his " limited voice " compelled him to search for other ways to express a song 's meaning , and here this was the " idea of a flag drained of all colour , the idea of surrender . " This became the focal image of the tour , with Rolling Stone saying of the Red Rocks performance , " The sight of Bono singing the anti @-@ violence anthem ' Sunday Bloody Sunday ' while waving a white flag through crimson mist ( created by a combination of wet weather , hot lights and the illumination of those crags ) became the defining image of U2 's warrior @-@ rock spirit . " So strong was the image that the group became somewhat ambivalent about it ; years later , bassist Adam Clayton would say , " If you had to reduce U2 down to the waving of the white flag , which is a moment from the War Tour , that would be the worst thing . At the time , I think it was in the spirit of the performance . But we weren 't very ironic people back then . We were pretty serious people , and we didn 't see that we could have been a little more subtle about things like that . But hey , as mistakes go , that 's probably not a bad one . "
The move upward from clubs to halls to arenas that the War Tour spanned did not faze the group . This had been their plan , and Bono said , " If we stay in small clubs , we 'll develop small minds , and then we 'll start making small music . " And early on , Bono had told Williams that someday the group would do " Pink Floyd @-@ size shows . " But the medium @-@ sized venues of the War Tour were enough at the time ; two decades later , the band 's Red Rocks performance captured on Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky was included on Rolling Stone 's list of the " 50 Moments that Changed the History of Rock and Roll " .
= = Tour dates = =
= Croatian patrol boat Šolta ( OB @-@ 02 ) =
Šolta ( pennant number OB @-@ 02 ) is a Mirna @-@ class patrol boat in service with the Croatian Navy . Completed during the 1980s as Mukos ( PČ @-@ 176 ) , it was the sixth ship of a class that was being built for the Yugoslav Navy in the Kraljevica Shipyard .
During the Croatian War of Independence , Mukos was part of a tactical group tasked with enforcing a naval blockade of the city of Split . On 14 November 1991 , Croatian Navy commandos disabled the vessel with an improvised torpedo , leaving the vessel drifting and abandoned by her crew . The crippled ship was then tugged away by Croatian locals to the nearby island of Šolta . She was subsequently repaired and entered service with the Croatian Navy as Šolta . As of 2014 , Šolta remains in service with the Croatian Coast Guard , an integral part of the navy .
= = Design and construction = =
Šolta was laid down as Mukos ( PČ @-@ 176 ) in the Kraljevica Shipyard as the sixth ship in a class of patrol boats that were being built for the Yugoslav Navy ( JRM ) . It was launched on 18 November 1982 . She measures 32 m ( 105 ft ) in length , has a draught of 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) , a 6 @.@ 75 m ( 22 @.@ 1 ft ) beam and a standard displacement of 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) or 142 tonnes ( 140 long tons ) when full .
Powered by two SEMT Pielstick 12PA4 200VGDS diesel engines that spin two propellers , Šolta has a maximum speed of 29 @.@ 5 – 30 knots ( 54 @.@ 6 – 55 @.@ 6 km / h ; 33 @.@ 9 – 34 @.@ 5 mph ) and a continuous speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . She has a range of 600 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ; 690 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) and an autonomy of four to five days that can be extended to eight days during wartime .
The ship 's original armament consisted of a single Bofors 40 mm D70 gun mounted on the ship 's bow , a quadruple Strela 2 launcher behind the bridge and a quad 20 mm M @-@ 75 gun on the stern . Eight MDB @-@ MT3 depth charges could be carried for anti @-@ submarine warfare duties . Located on the sides were two double @-@ barrel 128 mm illumination launchers . Sensors included a Racal Decca RM 1216 A surface search radar and a Simrad SQ 3D / SF sonar .
= = Service = =
During its service in the Yugoslav Navy , Mukos was part of the border patrol detachment . In November 1991 , during the Croatian War of Independence , Mukos was part of the " Kaštela " tactical group that was tasked with enforcing a naval blockade of the port of Split and the surrounding islands . On 14 November , at around 17 : 30 , while on patrol in the Split strait between the islands of Brač and Šolta , Mukos was hit with an improvised torpedo launched by special forces of the Croatian Navy ( HRM ) , effectively starting the Battle of the Dalmatian Channels . The HRM command constructed the torpedo from a small outboard motor boat loaded with explosives . A former missile technician from the Yugoslavian navy had , while receiving training on Saab missiles in Sweden , picked up some remote control plane parts in a hobby store . Handed over to HRM , the gear yielded the ability to remotely control the unmanned vessel . The explosion ripped a hole in the forward section of the hull , causing the bow to flood and killing three crew members . The remaining crew was rescued by a Shershen @-@ class torpedo boat Pionir II ( TČ @-@ 224 ) while Mukos itself was left adrift .
During the evening of 15 November the ship was tugged away by a Croatian fishing ship to the nearby Nečujam cove , where the vessel was beached to prevent her from sinking . In the early hours of the same day , the remaining JRM ships opened fire in retaliation for damaging Mukos . As Yugoslav forces left the area , the ship was towed to an overhauling shipyard in Šibenik on the night of 17 / 18 November , after being salvaged by HRM divers with the help of Brodospas . The ship was repaired and renamed Šolta , entering service with the HRM on 15 May 1992 with Mile Tomas in command .
The Croatian Coast Guard was formed in October 2007 , and Šolta was assigned to the 1st Division , based in Split . During the same year the ship underwent a modernisation that included the installation of a new Sperry Marine radar , gyrocompass and GPS . A second refit that occurred sometime between 2007 and 2013 included the deletion of the Strela launcher and the stern 20 mm M @-@ 75 gun to create space needed for a RHIB and a hydraulic crane used to lower it into the sea . The pennant number was changed from OB @-@ 62 to OB @-@ 02 .
= Whitwell , Isle of Wight =
Whitwell is a small village located on the south of the Isle of Wight , approximately 5 kilometres north @-@ west of Ventnor , the village 's nearest town . In addition to this , it is about five minutes away from its neighbouring small villages of Godshill and Niton , the latter of which , Whitwell forms a Civil Parish . According to 2001 census data , the total population of the village was 578 . There is a variety of stone and thatched housing , as well as some more modern housing , the most recent of which was completed in 2006 .
Whitwell 's small size has led it to become a very close @-@ knit community with a range of amenities including a garage , a 700 @-@ year @-@ old church , the oldest pub on the island , dating back from the 15th century and a post office , which was recently re @-@ located to a new premises inside the church bell tower . A trout farm is located towards Nettlecombe , with three lakes covering 1 @.@ 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 61 ha ) . The waters are well stocked with carp , roach and tench .
Whitwell is named after the " White Well " inside the village , and pictured below . The well was visited by many during medieval times on pilgrimages , and now well dressing occurs annually each summer . Across Whitwell , six more old water standards can be seen . They were built in 1887 by William Spindler . Half the cost of installing the wells was covered by William Spindler himself , the remainder by people of the village . The water was supplied by Mr Granville Ward from a spring on his land at Bierley .
= = History = =
" White " is derived from an Old English word meaning clean or pure , and the village of Whitwell is likely to take its name from a well or spring with a reliable supply of fresh water . The original White Well , located towards the south end of the village was once a place of veneration as a ' holy well ' and a site of pilgrimage in the Middle Ages . The waters of the well were believed to contain healing powers for the infirm . The tradition of Well Dressing was started and now occurs annually at the site of the well . Each year the well is dressed and blessed by the local vicar giving thanks for water and a blessing for the village .
In the village , six red iron water pumps can be seen at various intervals . These were built in 1887 by William Spindler , a prominent figure in St Lawrence whose tomb now lies in Whitwell Graveyard . One is located next to the White Well in Ventnor Road , two along Kemming Road , two along the High Street , and one on Nettlecombe Road .
Many of the village 's buildings such as the White Horse pub , date back to the 15th century . The Church has portions dating back to as far as the 12th century , with newer additions built in the 13th , 15th and 16th centuries . In comparison to this and the rest of the village , new housing has been built relatively recently along Bannock Road . The latest new housing was completed in 2006 .
In 2009 Whitwell won the award for the best kept large village , in addition to the award for the overall island 's best kept village , an award it has previously won in 2003 . Judges from the competition were impressed by maintenance of bus stops , verges seats , commercial premises and gardens and the success of the new post office .
= = Governance = =
Whitwell lies within the parliamentary constituency of the Isle of Wight with the seat held by Conservative member Andrew Turner , and within the same area of the Isle of Wight Council . Together with Niton , the village forms a civil parish , chaired by Councillor John Andrew Stotesbury . The Parish Council has ten members , six for the Niton ward and four for the Whitwell ward . The Council meets ten times a year alternating the venue between the two villages .
= = Geography = =
Whitwell is located in the south of the Isle of Wight , slightly to the south of Godshill , and extends to the southern shore of the island . The nearest town is Ventnor , about 5 kilometres South of the village . Niton is the nearest village about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away , which together , Whitwell and Niton form a civil parish . Also close to the village , is Nettlecombe , the site of a lost medieval village located slightly to the north east . The entire village is surrounded mainly by fields and classed as an ' Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty , forming part of the Isle of Wight AONB . ' The relief is mainly flat , with some slight hills . It contains 1 @,@ 910 acres ( 7 @.@ 7 km2 ) of land , 687 acres ( 2 @.@ 78 km2 ) in 1905 being arable land , 775 ½ acres permanent grass , and 74 ½ acres woodland .
With the villages co @-@ ordinates at N 50 @.@ 60223 W 1 @.@ 29967 , its climate is warm , with a sea breeze coming in from the coast . It benefits from Ventnor 's micro @-@ climate as a result of being in a sheltered location on the cliff of the island 's south coast . This offers the village more sunny days than much of the British Isles , and fewer frosts .
The Eastern Yar , originating in the north @-@ east of the island , extends an infant tributary to Whitwell and at one point , a stone sheep wash is still present . The River Yar Trail was set up on 24 May 2002 , with a milestone outside the White Horse in Whitwell .
Whitwell 's built environment is characterised by its mixture of stone and thatched housing . There is a mixture of single and two @-@ story houses , with most single @-@ story housing on Bannock Road , recently developed with a small estate of bungalows . Terraced housing features in the centre of the village . The most notable house in the village is The Old Rectory , close to the church and was formerly a Bed and Breakfast .
= = Church = =
The Church of St. Mary and St. Radegund is a Church of England church , located on rising ground at the south end of the village , adjoining the rectory . It is the only church in the village . Parts of the church date back to different centuries , the earliest being 12th , with later parts added in the 13th , 15th and 16th century . In April 2007 , the village 's post office was relocated inside the church 's bell tower , the first of its kind to actually be located inside the church .
= = Amenities = =
The village used to have a wide range of facilities used by local residents . However over the years , many of these have gone . These include two shops , a playgroup , its Methodist church , the forge , a nursing home and youth hostel . The facilities left include :
Post Office – The village used to have its own , family owned post office . This was closed in 2006 , however later in 2007 was relocated onto a new premises inside the church .
Pub – The White Horse in the village centre is a popular pub across the island . It suffered a fire in 1987 , then again 20 years later in 2007 which saw its temporary closure . Prior to the two fires , the pub was thatched , however after the fire in 2007 , a tiled roof was built , in an attempt to prevent future fires .
Garage – The village 's garage , named Whitwell garage is one of the only garages left on the island to still sell petrol ( excluding supermarkets ) . It also sells cars , MOTs and servicing , specialising in Ford .
Village hall – It is used to host a variety of activities , as well as the Whitwell Village Show , which takes place annually each summer .
Due to the village 's small size and small population of 578 , most amenities are located outside the village . Many are located in the slightly larger neighbouring village of Niton , such as a Pharmacy and doctor 's surgery . Others are located in the nearby town of Ventnor .
= = Transport = =
= = = Rail = = =
Whitwell Station , on the Ventnor West branch of the Isle of Wight Central Railway , was opened along with the other stations on the branch on 20 July 1897 . It was equipped with a passing loop , two platforms , a signal box and a substantial station building . Located at the top of Nettlecombe Lane , the station is located close to the village and the community it was intended to serve , unlike any other stations on the line .
However the track has now closed , and the waiting rooms have now been converted into two cottages and the old up platform has been restored . The site is now a popular tourist destination and is used for holiday accommodation . An old railway tunnel just outside the village is used as a mushroom farm . Another tunnel is still present on Nettlecombe Lane ( pictured to the left ) leading to the station .
= = = Bus = = =
Southern Vectis bus route 6 links the village with the towns of Newport and Ventnor , including intermediate villages . The last bus from Newport is early at 18 : 22 providing no evening service for the village . The seasonal ' Island Coaster ' also runs through the village during the summer . Wightbus and Southern Vectis take students to school , which has caused some controversy over two bus companies taking a small number of students to school .
= = = Roads = = =
There are only three roads exiting the village , Ventnor Road leading to Ventnor , Kemming Road leading to Niton and the main High Street which leads to Godshill .
The main road leading to Ventnor has recently been widened and resurfaced to cope with the larger number of cars using it , however this has caused controversy with nearby residents with reports of many cars speeding through the village . A sign was later put up , warning motorists if their speed exceeded the 30 @-@ mile per hour speed limit . More were later put up across other parts of the village .
= = = Walking = = =
The River Yar trail runs through the village with the milestone outside the village Pub . In addition to this , bridleways are maintained , running to nearby villages Wroxall and Niton . Future plans could see a pedestrian link from Whitwell to Niton along the main road .
= Tora Harris =
Tora Lian @-@ Juin Harris ( born September 21 , 1978 ) is an American high jumper . He is a Princeton University engineer of Taiwanese and African @-@ American descent . Harris is an Olympian , a four @-@ time national champion and two @-@ time bronze medalist in international competition . He represented Team USA twice in the IAAF World Championships in Athletics , three times in the IAAF World Indoor Championships in Athletics and has served as a representative once in the IAAF Continental Cup . He spent two years as the No. 1 ranked high jumper in the United States .
In college , Harris was a five @-@ time All @-@ American , while earning the two individual ( 2002 indoor and outdoor ) National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) championships . He also represented Team USA at one World University Games . He is both the Ivy League indoor and outdoor high jump record holder and Princeton 's only two @-@ time NCAA individual event track and field champion . He is an eight @-@ time individual Ivy League / Heptagonal champion , winning the indoor and outdoor high jump championships four times each .
= = Early life = =
Harris was born in College Park , Georgia . His mother , Susan ( Su @-@ Chen ) , is Taiwanese . His father , Tommie Lee Harris ( 1934 – 1999 ) , was African American . His parents made him take Chinese lessons when he was young , and he now speaks the language fluently . He attended first grade in Taiwan , where he was introduced to jumping . Harris high jumped 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 13 m ) in high school . He placed second in the 1997 Georgia High School Association Class AAA high jump championships . Harris is a 1997 alumnus of South Atlanta High School and was a member of Princeton University 's graduating class of 2002 . Harris studied mechanical and aerospace engineering at Princeton .
= = College career = =
While at Princeton , Harris excelled at intercollegiate athletics . Harris was a four @-@ time NCAA Outdoor Track & Field All @-@ American placing 7th , 5th , 4th and 1st in 1998 , 1999 , 2001 and 2002 , respectively . He also was an NCAA Indoor All @-@ American in 2002 when he placed 1st at the NCAA Championships . He did not participate in intercollegiate competition in 2000 in order to prepare for the 2000 United States Olympic trials . He failed to make the team after finishing seventh at the Olympic trials .
He earned his the indoor heptagonal championships in 2001 , tying an Ivy League indoor record ( 7 feet 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 2 @.@ 22 m ) ) that still stood as of 2011 . He won the 2001 outdoor Heptagonal championships with a record jump of 7 feet 5 @.@ 25 inches ( 2 @.@ 27 m ) . That year he was the Indoor Heptagonal Championships Most Outstanding Performer and Outdoor Heptagonal Championships Most Outstanding Performer as well as the Mid @-@ Atlantic Region Male Indoor Athlete of the Year as selected by the United States Track Coaches Association . He won a bronze medal at the 2001 World University Games . His 2002 outdoor Heptagonal championships performance of 7 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 31 m ) continues to be an Ivy League outdoor record .
Harris concluded his collegiate career with a total of eight Ivy League / Heptagonal individual championships . He was also both the NCAA indoor and outdoor champion in 2002 . By winning both the indoor and outdoor NCAA championships , he became Princeton 's only two @-@ time NCAA individual event track and field champion . He finished second to Yasser El Halaby as Princeton 's Athlete of the 2000 – 09 Decade .
= = Professional career = =
He was a two @-@ time United States National indoor champion ( 2005 and 2007 ) and a two @-@ time United States National outdoor champion ( 2006 and 2009 ) . At the 2003 USA Indoor Track and Field Championships , Harris , Charles Austin and Charles Clinger all posted heights of 7 feet 6 @.@ 5 inches ( 2 @.@ 30 m ) , with Austin claiming gold based on fewer misses and Harris winning a jump off for silver . On two other occasions ( 2006 Indoor vs. Adam Shunk at 2 @.@ 25 m , and 2010 Outdoor vs. Jesse Williams at 2 @.@ 26 m ) he earned silver medals at the US national championships despite clearing as high a height as the gold medalist .
He was a member of the United States team at the 2004 Summer Olympics along with high jumpers Matt Hemingway and Jamie Nieto . Harris failed to advance past the first round when he could not clear 7 feet 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 2 @.@ 20 m ) on any of his three attempts leaving him with a best height of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 13 m ) and a 17th @-@ place finish . He represented the United States at the IAAF World Championships in Athletics in both 2003 and 2009 and in the IAAF World Indoor Championships in Athletics in 2003 , 2004 and 2006 . He won a bronze medal at the 2006 IAAF World Cup .
Harris was the No. 1 ranked high jumper in the United States according to Track & Field News in both 2002 and 2006 and was among the top 10 every year from 2001 through 2009 . His personal best jump is 2 @.@ 33 metres ( 7 ft 7 @.@ 73 in ) , achieved in June 2006 in Indianapolis . Harris trains out of his Chula Vista , California residence .
He has developed , produced and marketed the electric ODK cargo bike , under the Juiced Riders name .
= Four @-@ horned antelope =
The four @-@ horned antelope ( Tetracerus quadricornis ) , or chousingha , is a small antelope found in India and Nepal . This antelope has four horns , which distinguish it from most other bovids , which have two horns ( sparing a few such as the Jacob sheep ) . The sole member of the genus Tetracerus , the species was first described by French zoologist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville in 1816 . Three subspecies are recognised . The four @-@ horned antelope stands nearly 55 – 64 centimetres ( 22 – 25 in ) at the shoulder and weighs nearly 17 – 22 kilograms ( 37 – 49 lb ) . Slender with thin legs and a short tail , the four @-@ horned antelope has a yellowish brown to reddish coat . One pair of horns is located between the ears , and the other on the forehead . The posterior horns are always longer than the anterior horns , which might be mere fur @-@ covered studs . While the posterior horns measure 8 – 12 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) , the anterior ones are 2 – 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 – 1 @.@ 97 in ) long .
The four @-@ horned antelope is diurnal ( active mainly during the day ) . Though solitary by nature , four @-@ horned antelopes may form loose groups of three to five – with one or more adults , sometimes accompanied by juveniles . This elusive antelope feeds on grasses , herbs , shrubs , foliage , flowers and fruits . It needs to drink water frequently ; as such it stays in places near water sources . The breeding behaviour of the four @-@ horned antelope has not been well studied . The age at which they reach sexual maturity and the season when mating occurs have not been understood well . Gestation lasts about eight months , following which one or two calves are born . They are kept concealed for the first few weeks of their birth . The young remain with the mother for about a year .
Four @-@ horned antelopes tend to inhabit areas with significant grass cover or heavy undergrowth , and avoid human settlements . Earlier common throughout deciduous forests in India , the antelope now occurs in widely disjunct , small populations . Most of the populations are in India , and lower numbers can be found in adjoining Nepal . The four @-@ horned antelope is threatened by the loss of its natural habitat due to agricultural expansion . Moreover , the unusual four @-@ horned skull and the horns have been a popular target for trophy hunters . The four @-@ horned antelope is classified as Vulnerable by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) .
= = Etymology = =
The scientific name of the four @-@ horned antelope is Tetracerus quadricornis . The generic name Tetracerus is the combination of two Greek words : tetra ( " four " ) and ceros ( " horned " ) . The specific name quadricornis is derived from two Latin words : quadri ( " four " ) and cornu ( " horned " ) . The four @-@ horned antelope is known by several vernacular names : chausingha , chowsingha , chousingha ( Hindi for " four horns " ) , doda , ghutri ( mainly in central India ) ( Hindi ) ; kondu kuri ( Kannada ) ; chauka ( Nepalese ) ; nari komboo marn ( Tamil ) .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The four @-@ horned antelope is the sole member of the genus Tetracerus , and is placed under the family Bovidae . The species was first described by French zoologist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville in 1816 . The four @-@ horned antelope has only one other relative in the tribe Boselaphini , the nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocamelus ) . The Boselaphini have the horns with a keel on the front and lack rings as found in other antelope groups .
The authority for Tetracerus is variously indicated according to interpretations of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature . The name was first published in an 1825 publication by English naturalist Thomas Hardwicke but cited the English zoologist William Elford Leach – probably by an editor – as the authority in a footnote at the end of the publication . Philip Sclater and Oldfield Thomas listed Hardwicke as the genus authority by virtue of his being the author of the publication . However , Leach is now identified as the appropriate authority based on Article 50 @.@ 1 @.@ 1 of the Zoological Code .
A 1992 phylogenetic study showed a strong possibility of a clade consisting of Boselaphini , Bovini and Tragelaphini . Bovini consists of the genera Bubalus , Bos , Pseudoryx ( saola ) , Syncerus ( African buffalo ) , Bison and the extinct Pelorovis . Tragelaphini consists of two genera : Taurotragus ( eland ) and Tragelaphus . Boselaphini and Tragelaphini were predicted to be close ; this was seconded by a similar study in 1999 . The following cladogram is based on the 1992 study :
Colin Groves ( 2003 ) recognizes three subspecies of the four @-@ horned antelope on the basis of distribution and physical characteristics such as coat colour , body size and the number of horns :
T. q. iodes ( Hodgson , 1847 ) : distributed north of the Ganges in Nepal
T. q. quadricornis ( de Blainville , 1816 ) : distributed in peninsular India
T. q. subquadricornutus ( Elliot , 1839 ) distributed in the Western Ghats and southern India
= = Evolution = =
Though Boselaphini has no African representation today , fossil evidence supports its presence in the continent during as early as the late Miocene – the two living antelopes of this tribe , in fact , have been found to have a closer relationship with the earliest bovids ( like Eotragus species ) than do the other bovids . This tribe originated at least 8 @.@ 9 Mya , in much the same area where the four @-@ horned antelope occurs today , and may represent the most " primitive " of all living bovids , having changed the least since the origins of the family . The extant and extinct boselaphine forms show similar development of the horn cores ( the central bony part of the horn ) . It is thought that ancestral bovids had a diploid chromosome number of 58 which has reduced in Tetracerus to 38 through a process of concatenation of some chromosomes .
Fossils of Protragoceros labidotus and Sivoreas eremita dating back to the late Miocene have been discovered in the Ngorora formation ( Kenya ) . fossils from the same period have also been excavated in the eastern Mediterranean region . Other Miocene fossils of boselaphines discovered are of Miotragocerus , Tragocerus and Tragoportax . Fossils of Miotragoceros are not apparent in Africa ( only M. cyrenaicus has been reported from the continent ) , but have significant presence in the Shiwalik Hills in India and Pakistan , as do several Tragoportax species . A 2005 study suggested the migration of Miotragoceros to eastern Asia around 8 Mya . Alan W. Gentry of the Natural History Museum reported the presence of another boselaphine , Mesembriportax , from Langebaanweg ( South Africa ) .
Evidence of early humans hunting four @-@ horned antelope during the Mesolithic period ( 5 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 years ago ) have been found in the Kurnool caves of southern India and similar evidence has been found from the Chalcolithic period ( 3 @,@ 000 years ago ) in Orissa , eastern India .
= = Description = =
The four @-@ horned antelope is one of the smallest Asian bovids . The number of its horns distinguishes it from most of the other bovids , that have two horns ( sparing a few such as the Jacob sheep ) . The four @-@ horned antelope stands 55 – 64 centimetres ( 22 – 25 in ) at the shoulder and weighs 17 – 22 kilograms ( 37 – 49 lb ) ; the head @-@ and @-@ body length is typically between 80 and 110 centimetres ( 31 and 43 in ) . Sexual dimorphism is not very notable , though only males possess horns .
Slender with thin legs and a short tail , the four @-@ horned antelope has a yellowish brown to reddish coat . The underparts and the insides of the legs are white . Facial features include black markings on the muzzle and behind the ears . A black stripe marks the outer surface of each leg . Females have four teats far back on the abdomen . The hair feels coarse , more like that of a deer than the glossy hair typical of antelopes . The fetlocks are marked with white patches .
One pair of horns is located between the ears , and the other on the forehead . The posterior horns are always longer than the anterior horns , which might be mere fur @-@ covered studs . While the posterior horns each measures 8 – 12 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) , the anterior ones measure 2 – 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 – 1 @.@ 97 in ) . Horns emerge at 10 to
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C ) , and although temperatures below 10 ° F ( − 12 ° C ) are to be expected in most years , sub @-@ 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) readings are rare ; conversely , some days may warm up to 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) . The average seasonal snowfall is 29 @.@ 5 inches ( 75 cm ) , though variations in weather patterns may bring sparse snowfall in some years and several major Nor 'easters in others , with the heaviest 24 @-@ hour fall of 25 @.@ 9 inches ( 66 cm ) occurring on December 26 , 1947 . Spring and autumn in the area are generally unstable yet mild . The July daily mean is 77 @.@ 4 ° F ( 25 @.@ 2 ° C ) , and highs exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) on an average 27 days per year , not factoring in the oft @-@ higher heat index .
The city receives precipitation ranging from 2 @.@ 9 to 4 @.@ 8 inches ( 74 to 122 mm ) per month , usually falling on 8 to 12 days per month . Extreme temperatures have ranged from − 14 ° F ( − 26 ° C ) on February 9 , 1934 to 108 ° F ( 42 ° C ) on July 22 , 2011 .
= = Demographics = =
The city had a population of 277 @,@ 140 as of the 2010 Census , retaining its position as the largest city in the state and making it the nation 's 67th most @-@ populous municipality . After reaching a peak of 442 @,@ 337 residents counted in the 1930 Census , the city 's population saw a decline of nearly 40 % as residents moved to surrounding suburbs , with the increase in 2010 of 3 @,@ 594 ( + 1 @.@ 3 % ) from the 273 @,@ 546 counted in the 2000 Census marking the second census in 70 years in which the city 's population had grown from the previous enumeration .
" White flight " from Newark to the suburbs , which started in the 1940s accelerated in the 1960s . The 1967 riots resulted in a significant population loss of the city 's middle class , many of them Jewish , which continued from the 1970s through to the 1990s . The city lost about 130 @,@ 000 residents between 1960 and 1990 .
From the 1950s to 1967 , white population shrank from 363 @,@ 000 to 158 @,@ 000 , its black population grew from 70 @,@ 000 to 220 @,@ 000 . The percentage of Non @-@ Hispanic whites declined from 82 @.@ 8 % in 1950 to 11 @.@ 6 % by 2010 . The percentage of Latinos in Newark grew between 1980 and 2010 , from 18 @.@ 6 % to 33 @.@ 8 % while that of Blacks decreased from 58 @.@ 2 % to 52 @.@ 4 % .
Poverty remains a consistent problem in Newark , despite its revitalization in recent years . As of 2010 , roughly one @-@ third of the city 's population was impoverished .
In advance of the 2000 United States Census , city officials made a push to get residents to respond and participate in the enumeration , citing calculations by city officials that as many as 30 @,@ 000 people were not reflected in estimates from the Census Bureau , which resulted in the loss of government aid and political representation . It is believed that heavily immigrant areas of Newark were significantly undercounted in the 2010 Census , especially in the East Ward . Many households refused to participate in the census , with immigrants often reluctant to submit census forms because they believed that the information could be used to justify their deportation .
= = = 2010 Census = = =
At the 2010 United States Census , there were 277 @,@ 140 people , 94 @,@ 542 households , and 61 @,@ 641 families residing in the city . The population density was 11 @,@ 458 @.@ 3 per square mile ( 4 @,@ 424 @.@ 1 / km2 ) . There were 109 @,@ 520 housing units at an average density of 4 @,@ 528 @.@ 1 per square mile ( 1 @,@ 748 @.@ 3 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 26 @.@ 31 % ( 72 @,@ 914 ) White , 52 @.@ 35 % ( 145 @,@ 085 ) Black or African American , 0 @.@ 61 % ( 1 @,@ 697 ) Native American , 1 @.@ 62 % ( 4 @,@ 485 ) Asian , 0 @.@ 04 % ( 118 ) Pacific Islander , 15 @.@ 22 % ( 42 @,@ 181 ) from other races , and 3 @.@ 85 % ( 10 @,@ 660 ) from two or more races . Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 33 @.@ 83 % ( 93 @,@ 746 ) of the population .
There were 94 @,@ 542 households , of which 33 @.@ 7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 28 @.@ 0 % were married couples living together , 28 @.@ 9 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 34 @.@ 8 % were non @-@ families . 27 @.@ 9 % of all households were made up of individuals , and 8 @.@ 2 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 76 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 36 .
In the city , 25 @.@ 6 % of the population were under the age of 18 , 11 @.@ 9 % from 18 to 24 , 31 @.@ 9 % from 25 to 44 , 22 @.@ 1 % from 45 to 64 , and 8 @.@ 6 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 32 @.@ 3 years . For every 100 females there were 97 @.@ 9 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 96 @.@ 3 males .
The Census Bureau 's 2006 @-@ 2010 American Community Survey showed that ( in 2010 inflation @-@ adjusted dollars ) median household income was $ 35 @,@ 659 ( with a margin of error of + / - $ 1 @,@ 009 ) and the median family income was $ 41 @,@ 684 ( + / - $ 1 @,@ 116 ) . Males had a median income of $ 34 @,@ 350 ( + / - $ 1 @,@ 015 ) versus $ 32 @,@ 865 ( + / - $ 973 ) for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 17 @,@ 367 ( + / - $ 364 ) . About 22 @.@ 0 % of families and 25 @.@ 0 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 34 @.@ 9 % of those under age 18 and 22 @.@ 4 % of those age 65 or over .
= = = 2000 Census = = =
Newark was the 63rd @-@ most @-@ populous city as of the 2000 Census .
As of the 2000 United States Census there were 273 @,@ 546 people , 91 @,@ 382 households , and 61 @,@ 956 families residing in the city . The population density was 11 @,@ 495 @.@ 0 per square mile ( 4 @,@ 437 @.@ 7 / km ² ) . There were 100 @,@ 141 housing units at an average density of 4 @,@ 208 @.@ 1 per square mile ( 1 @,@ 624 @.@ 6 / / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city as of the 2000 Census was 53 @.@ 46 % ( 146 @,@ 250 ) African American , 26 @.@ 52 % ( 72 @,@ 537 ) White , 1 @.@ 19 % ( 3 @,@ 263 ) Asian , 0 @.@ 37 % ( 1 @,@ 005 ) Native American , 0 @.@ 05 % ( 135 ) Pacific Islander , 14 @.@ 05 % ( 38 @,@ 430 ) from other races , and 4 @.@ 36 % ( 11 @,@ 926 ) from two or more races . 29 @.@ 47 % ( 80 @,@ 622 ) of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race .
As of the 2000 Census , 49 @.@ 2 % of the city 's 80 @,@ 622 residents who identified themselves as Hispanic or Latino were from Puerto Rico , while 9 @.@ 4 % were from Ecuador and 7 @.@ 8 % from the Dominican Republic . There is a significant Portuguese @-@ speaking community concentrated in the Ironbound district . 2000 Census data showed that Newark had 15 @,@ 801 residents of Portuguese ancestry ( 5 @.@ 8 % of the population ) , while an additional 5 @,@ 805 ( 2 @.@ 1 % of the total ) were of Brazilian ancestry .
There were 91 @,@ 382 households out of which 35 @.@ 2 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 31 @.@ 0 % were married couples living together , 29 @.@ 3 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 32 @.@ 2 % were non @-@ families . 26 @.@ 6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 8 @.@ 8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 8 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 40 .
In the city the population was spread out with 27 @.@ 9 % under the age of 18 , 12 @.@ 1 % from 18 to 24 , 32 @.@ 0 % from 25 to 44 , 18 @.@ 7 % from 45 to 64 , and 9 @.@ 3 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 31 years . For every 100 females , there were 94 @.@ 2 males . For every 100 females of age 18 and over , there were 91 @.@ 1 males .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 26 @,@ 913 , and the median income for a family was $ 30 @,@ 781 . Males had a median income of $ 29 @,@ 748 versus $ 25 @,@ 734 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 13 @,@ 009 . 28 @.@ 4 % of the population and 25 @.@ 5 % of families were below the poverty line . 36 @.@ 6 % of those under the age of 18 and 24 @.@ 1 % of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line . The city 's unemployment rate was 8 @.@ 5 % .
= = Economy = =
More than 100 @,@ 000 people commute to Newark each workday , making it the state 's largest employment center with many white @-@ collar jobs in insurance , finance , import @-@ export , health @-@ care , and government . As a major courthouse venue including federal , state , and county facilities , it is home to more than 1 @,@ 000 law firms . The city is also a " college town " , with nearly 50 @,@ 000 students attending the city 's universities and medical and law schools . Its airport , maritime port , rail facilities , and highway network make Newark the busiest transshipment hub on the East Coast in terms of volume .
Though Newark is not the industrial colossus of the past , the city does have a considerable amount of industry and light manufacturing . The southern portion of the Ironbound , also known as the Industrial Meadowlands , has seen many factories built since World War II , including a large Anheuser @-@ Busch brewery that opened in 1951 and distributed 7 @.@ 5 million barrels of beer in 2007 . The service industry is also growing rapidly , replacing those in the manufacturing industry , which was once Newark 's primary economy . In addition , transportation has become a large business in Newark , accounting for more than 17 @,@ 000 jobs in 2011 .
Newark is one of nine cities in New Jersey designated as eligible for Urban Transit Hub Tax Credits by the state 's Economic Development Authority . Developers who invest a minimum of $ 50 million within 0 @.@ 5 miles of a train station are eligible for pro @-@ rated tax credit . After the election of Cory Booker , millions of dollars of public @-@ private partnership investment were made in Downtown development but persistent underemployment continue to characterize many of the city 's neighborhoods . Poverty remains a consistent problem in Newark . As of 2010 , roughly one @-@ third of the city 's population was impoverished .
Newark is the third @-@ largest insurance center in the United States , after New York City and Hartford . The Prudential Financial , Mutual Benefit Life , Fireman 's Insurance , and American Insurance Company all originated in the city . The first , one of the largest insurance companies in the world , has its " home office in Newark . Many other companies are headquartered in the city , including IDT Corporation , NJ Transit , Public Service Enterprise Group ( PSEG ) , Manischewitz , Horizon Blue Cross and Blue Shield of New Jersey. and Audible.com. In 2013 Panasonic moved its North American headquarters to a new 250 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 23 @,@ 000 m2 ) office building .
Portions of Newark are part of an Urban Enterprise Zone . In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the Zone , shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3 ½ % sales tax rate ( versus the 7 % rate charged statewide ) at eligible merchants .
While for years Newark was a food desert with a dearth of supermarkets , several new ones have opened or are planning to open since 2000 , including a ShopRite supermarket and the upscale Whole Foods .
= = = Port Newark = = =
Port Newark is the part of Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal and the largest cargo facility in the Port of New York and New Jersey . Located on Newark Bay , it is run by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and serves as the principal container ship facility for goods entering and leaving the New York metropolitan region and the northeastern quadrant of North America . The Port moved over $ 100 billion in goods in 2003 , making it the 15th busiest in the world at the time , but was the number one container port as recently as 1985 . Plans are underway for billions of dollars of improvements - larger cranes , bigger railyard facilities , deeper channels , and expanded wharves .
= = Arts and culture = =
= = = Architecture and sculptures = = =
There are several notable Beaux @-@ Arts buildings , such as the Veterans ' Administration building , the Newark Museum , the Newark Public Library , and the Cass Gilbert @-@ designed Essex County Courthouse . Notable Art Deco buildings include several 1930s era skyscrapers , such as the National Newark Building and Eleven 80 , the restored Newark Penn Station , and Arts High School . Gothic architecture can be found at the Cathedral of the Sacred Heart by Branch Brook Park , which is one of the largest gothic cathedrals in the United States . It is rumored to have as much stained glass as the Cathedral of Chartres . Newark also has two public sculpture works by Gutzon Borglum — Wars of America in Military Park and Seated Lincoln in front of the Essex County Courthouse . Moorish Revival buildings include Newark Symphony Hall and the Prince Street Synagogue , one of the oldest synagogue buildings in New Jersey .
= = = Performing arts = = =
The New Jersey Performing Arts Center , located near Military Park opened in 1997 , is the home of the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra and the New Jersey State Opera , The center 's programs of national and international music , dance , and theater make it the nation 's sixth @-@ largest performing arts center , attracting over 400 @,@ 000 visitors each year .
Prior to the opening of the performing arts center , Newark Symphony Hall was home to the New Jersey Symphony , the New Jersey State Opera , and the Garden State Ballet , which stills maintains an academy there . The 1925 neo @-@ classic building , originally built by the Shriners , has three performance spaces , including the main concert named in honor of famous Newarker Sarah Vaughan , offering rhythm and blues , rap , hip @-@ hop , and gospel music concerts , and is part of the modern @-@ day Chitlin ' Circuit .
The Newark Boys Chorus , founded in 1966 , performs regularly in the city . The African Globe Theater Works presents a new works seasonally . The biennial Geraldine R. Dodge Poetry Festival took place in Newark for the first time in 2010 .
Venues at the universities in the city are also used to present professional and semi @-@ professional theater , dance , and music . Since its opening , the Prudential Center in 2007 has presented Diana Ross , Katy Perry , Lady Gaga , Britney Spears , The Eagles , Hannah Montana / Miley Cyrus , Spice Girls , Jonas Brothers , Metro Station , Metallica , Alicia Keys , Demi Lovato , David Archuleta , Taylor Swift and American Idol Live ! , among others . Bon Jovi performed a series of ten concerts to mark the venue 's opening .
= = = Museums , libraries , and galleries = = =
The Newark Museum is the largest in New Jersey . Highlights of its collection include American and Tibetan art . The museum also contains science galleries , a planetarium , a gallery for children 's exhibits , a fire museum , a sculpture garden and an 18th @-@ century schoolhouse . Also part of the museum is the historic John Ballantine House , a restored Victorian mansion which is a National Historic Landmark . The museum co @-@ sponsors the Newark Black Film Festival , which has premiered numerous films since its founding in 1974 .
The city is also home to the New Jersey Historical Society , which has rotating exhibits on New Jersey and Newark . The Newark Public Library , the state 's largest system with 11 locations , also produces a series of historical exhibits . The library houses more than a million volumes and has frequent exhibits on a variety of topics , many featuring items from its Fine Print and Special Collections .
Since 1962 , Newark has been home to the Institute of Jazz Studies , the world 's foremost jazz archives and research libraries . Located in the John Cotton Dana Library at Rutgers @-@ Newark , the Institute houses more than 200 @,@ 000 jazz recordings in all commercially available formats , more than 6 @,@ 000 monograph titles , including discographies , biographies , history and criticism , published music , film and video ; over 600 periodicals and serials , dating back to the early 20th century ; and one of the country 's most comprehensive jazz oral history collections , featuring more than 150 jazz oral histories , most with typed transcripts .
In February 2004 , plans were announced for a new Smithsonian Institution @-@ affiliated Museum of African American Music to be built in the city 's Coast / Lincoln Park neighborhood . The museum will be dedicated to black musical styles , from gospel to rap . The new museum will incorporate the façade of the old South Park Presbyterian Church , where Abraham Lincoln once spoke .
On December 9 , 2007 , the Jewish Museum of New Jersey , located at 145 Broadway in the Broadway neighborhood , held its grand opening . The museum is dedicated to the cultural heritage of New Jersey 's Jewish people . The museum is housed at Ahavas Sholom , the last continually operating synagogue in Newark . By the 1950s there were 50 synagogues in Newark serving a Jewish population of 70 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 , once the sixth @-@ largest Jewish community in the United States .
Newark is also home to numerous art galleries including the Paul Robeson Galleries at Rutgers University – Newark , as well as Aljira , a Center for Contemporary Art , City Without Walls , Gallery Aferro and Sumei Arts Center .
In April 2010 , plans were announced for a new Children 's Museum of New Jersey to be created across from Newark Penn Station . These plans have yet to be realized . According to planners , due to a reported lack of funding and a poor economy , " the project went to sleep " .
= = = Newark Murals = = =
Since 2009 , the Newark Planning Office , in collaboration with local arts organizations , has sponsored Newark Murals , and seen the creation of 21 outdoor murals about significant people , places , and events in the city . New initiatives through private sponsorship were announced in 2014 .
= = = Festivals and parades = = =
Festivals and parades held annually or bi @-@ annually include the Cherry Blossom Festival ( April ) in Branch Brook Park , the Portugal Day Festival ( June ) in The Ironbound , the McDonald 's Gospelfest ( June ) at Prudential Center , the Lincoln Park Music Festival ( July ) at Lincoln Park , the Newark Black Film Festival ( Summer ) and Paul Robeson Awards ( biennial ) , the Geraldine R. Dodge Poetry Festival ( October , biennial ) at various venues and the city @-@ wide Open Doors ( October ) .
= = Media and communications = =
Newark is within the metro New York media market .
= = = Newspapers = = =
The state 's leading newspaper , The Star @-@ Ledger , owned by Advance Publications , is based in Newark . The newspaper sold its headquarters in July 2014 , with the offices of the publisher , the editorial board , columnists , and magazine relocating to the Gateway Center .
= = = Radio = = =
Pioneer radio station WOR was started by Bamberger Broadcasting Service in 1922 and broadcast from studios at its retailer 's downtown department store . Today the building serves telecom , colocation , and computer support industries .
Radio station WJZ ( now WABC ) made its first broadcast in 1921 from the Westinghouse plant near Broad Street Station . It moved to New York City in the 1920s . Radio station WNEW @-@ AM ( now WBBR ) was founded in Newark in 1934 and later moved to New York City . WBGO , a National Public Radio affiliate with a format of standard and contemporary jazz , is at 54 Park Place in downtown Newark . WNSW AM @-@ 1430 ( formerly WNJR ) and WQXR ( which was formerly WHBI and later WCAA ) 105 @.@ 9 FM are also licensed to Newark .
= = = Television = = =
New Jersey 's first television station , WATV Channel 13 , signed @-@ on May 15 , 1948 , from studios at the Mosque Theater known as the " Television Center Newark . " The studios were home to WNTA @-@ 13 beginning in 1958 and WNJU @-@ 47 until 1989 .
WNET , a flagship station of the Public Broadcasting Service , and Spanish @-@ language WFUT @-@ TV , a TeleFutura owned @-@ and @-@ operated station , are licensed to Newark . Tempo Networks , producing for the pan @-@ Caribbean television market , is based in the city . NwkTV has been the city 's government access channel since 2009 and broadcast on as Channel 78 on Cablevision . The company has a high @-@ tech call center in Newark , employing over 500 people . PBS Network NJTV Main Broadcasting Studios are also located in the Gateway Center Office Complex .
= = = Filming in the city = = =
Numerous movies , television programs , and music videos have been shot in Newark , its period architecture and its streetscape seen as an ideal " urban setting " . The Jersey Motion Picture and Television Commission is located in the city . In 2011 , the city created the Newark Office of Film and Television in order to promote the making of media productions . Some months earlier the Ironbound Film & Television Studios , the only , " stay and shoot " facility in the metro area opened , its first production being Bar Karma . In 2012 the city hosted the seventh season of the reality show competition America 's Got Talent .
There have been several film and TV productions depicting life in Newark . Life of Crime , was originally produced in 1988 and was followed by a 1998 sequel . New Jersey Drive , a 1995 film about the city when it was considered the " car theft capital of the world " . Street Fight is an Academy Award @-@ nominated documentary film which covered the 2002 mayoral election between incumbent Sharpe James and challenger Cory Booker . In 2009 , the Sundance Channel aired Brick City , a five @-@ part television documentary about Newark , focusing on the community 's attempt to become a better and safer place to live , against a history of nearly a half century of violence , poverty and official corruption . The second season premiered January 30 , 2011 . Revolution ' 67 is an award winning documentary which examines the causes and events of the 1967 Newark riots . The HBO television series The Sopranos filmed many of its scenes in Newark , and is partially based on the life of Newark mobster Richard Boiardo . The Once and Future Newark ( 2006 ) is documentary travelogue about places of cultural , social and historical significance by Rutgers History Professor Clement Price .
= = Sports = =
Newark has hosted many teams , though much of the time without an MLB , NBA , NHL , or NFL team in the city proper . Currently , the city is home to just one , the NHL 's New Jersey Devils . As the second largest city in New York metropolitan area Newark is part the regional professional sports and media markets .
Two venues in the northeastern New Jersey metro region are in Downtown Newark : Prudential Center , a multi @-@ purpose indoor arena designed by HOK Sport that opened in October 2007 with a Bon Jovi concert and a hockey game . Known as " The Rock " , the arena is the home of the National Hockey League 's New Jersey Devils and the NCAA 's Seton Hall Pirates men 's basketball team , seating 18 @,@ 711 for basketball and 16 @,@ 514 for hockey . Riverfront Stadium was a 6 @,@ 200 @-@ seat baseball park that was home to the baseball teams of the Rutgers @-@ Newark Scarlet Raiders , who play in the New Jersey Athletic Conference as part of NCAA Division III , and the NJIT Highlanders , who play in the Atlantic Sun Conference as part of NCAA Division I. The stadium opened in July 1999 as the home of the Newark Bears , who played in the stadium until the team folded in 2014 .
Red Bull Arena , home of the New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer , opened in 2010 just across the Passaic River in Harrison . The Meadowlands Sports Complex is less than 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Downtown and can be reached with the Meadowlands Rail Line via Newark Penn Station or Broad Street Station .
The New Jersey Nets played two seasons ( 2010 @-@ 2012 ) at the Prudential Center until moving to the Barclays Center . The New York Liberty of the Women 's National Basketball Association ( WNBA ) also played there for three seasons ( 2011 @-@ 2013 ) during renovations of Madison Square Garden . The center has hosted 2012 Stanley Cup Finals , the 2011 NBA Draft , the 2011 NBA Draft , the 2013 NHL Entry Draft . EliteXC : Primetime , a mixed martial arts ( MMA ) event which took place on May 31 , 2008 , was the first MMA event aired in primetime on major American network television .
Newark was a host city and its airport a gateway for Super Bowl XLVIII which was played on February 2 , 2014 . The game took place at Met Life Stadium , home of the hosting teams New York Giants and New York Jets . Media Day , the first event leading up to the game , took place on January 28 at the Prudential Center . The original Vince Lombardi Trophy , produced by Tiffany & Co. in Newark in 1967 and borrowed from the Green Bay Packers , was being displayed at the Newark Museum from January 8 until March 30 , 2014 . Ultimate Fighting Championship 's annual Super Bowl weekend mixed martial arts event , UFC 169 : Cruz vs. Barao , took place on February 1 at the Prudential Center .
= = Government = =
= = = Local government = = =
The city is governed within the Faulkner Act , formally known as the Optional Municipal Charter Law , under the Mayor @-@ Council Plan C form of local government , which became effective as of July 1 , 1954 , after the voters of the city of Newark passed a referendum held on November 3 , 1953 . There are nine council members elected on a nonpartisan basis at the regular municipal election or at the general election for terms of four years : one council member from each of five wards and four council members on an at @-@ large basis . The mayor is also elected for a term of four years .
The Mayor of Newark is Ras Baraka , who is serving a term of office ending on June 30 , 2018 . After becoming acting mayor on October 31 , 2013 , Luis A. Quintana , born in Añasco , Puerto Rico , was sworn in as Newark 's first Latino mayor on November 4 , 2013 , assuming the unexpired term of Cory Booker , who vacated the position to become the junior U.S. Senator from New Jersey . Quintana 's term ended on June 30 , 2014 . He was selected unanimously at a council meeting to replace the previously elected Booker , who resigned and was sworn in on October 31 , 2013 after winning the October 16 special election for U.S. Senator to replace the seat held by Frank Lautenberg until his death . The Newark mayoral election took place on May 13 , 2014 , and was won by Baraka , who was sworn in as Newark 's 40th Mayor on July 1 , 2014 .
As of 2016 , Newark 's Municipal Council consists of the following members , all serving concurrent terms of office ending June 30 , 2018 :
Council President Mildred C. Crump ( At @-@ Large )
Augusto Amador ( East Ward )
Gayle Chaneyfield @-@ Jenkins ( Central Ward )
Carlos M. Gonzalez ( At @-@ Large )
John Sharpe James ( South Ward )
Joe McCallum ( West Ward )
Eddie Osborne ( At @-@ Large )
Luis A. Quintana ( At @-@ Large )
Anibal Ramos , Jr . ( North Ward )
= = = Federal , state , and county representation = = =
Newark is split between the 8th and 10th Congressional Districts and is part of New Jersey 's 28th and 29th state legislative districts . Prior to the 2011 reapportionment following the 2010 Census , Newark had been split between the 27th , 28th and 29th state legislative districts . Prior to the 2010 Census , Newark had been split between the 10th Congressional District and the 13th Congressional District , a change made by the New Jersey Redistricting Commission that took effect in January 2013 , based on the results of the November 2012 general elections . As part of the split that took effect in 2013 , 123 @,@ 763 residents in two non @-@ contiguous sections in the city 's north and northeast were placed in the 8th District and 153 @,@ 377 in the southern and western portions of the city were placed in the 10th District .
New Jersey 's Eighth Congressional District is represented by Albio Sires ( D , West New York ) . New Jersey 's Tenth Congressional District is represented by Donald Payne Jr . ( D , Newark ) . New Jersey is represented in the United States Senate by Cory Booker ( D , Newark , term ends 2021 ) and Bob Menendez ( D , Paramus , 2019 ) .
For the 2016 – 2017 session ( Senate , General Assembly ) , the 28th Legislative District of the New Jersey Legislature is represented in the State Senate by Ronald Rice ( D , Newark ) and in the General Assembly by Ralph R. Caputo ( D , Nutley ) and Cleopatra Tucker ( D , Newark ) . For the 2016 – 2017 session ( Senate , General Assembly ) , the 29th Legislative District of the New Jersey Legislature is represented in the State Senate by Teresa Ruiz ( D , Newark ) and in the General Assembly by Eliana Pintor Marin ( D , Newark ) and L. Grace Spencer ( D , Newark ) . The Governor of New Jersey is Chris Christie ( R , Mendham Township ) . The Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey is Kim Guadagno ( R , Monmouth Beach ) .
Essex County is governed by a directly @-@ elected County Executive , with legislative functions performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders . As of 2014 , the County Executive is Joseph N. DiVincenzo , Jr . The county 's Board of Chosen Freeholders consists of nine members , four elected on an at @-@ large basis and one from each of five wards , who serve three @-@ year terms of office on a concurrent basis , all of which end December 31 , 2014 . Essex County 's Freeholders are Freeholder President Blonnie R. Watson ( at large ; Newark ) , Freeholder Vice President Patricia Sebold ( at large ; Livingston ) , Rufus I. Johnson ( at large ; Newark ) , Gerald W. Owens ( At large ; South Orange , filling the vacant seat after the resignation of Donald Payne , Jr . ) Rolando Bobadilla ( District 1 - Newark 's North and East Wards , parts of Central and West Wards ; Newark ) , D. Bilal Beasley ( District 2 - Irvington , Maplewood and Newark 's South Ward and parts of West Ward ; Irvington ) , Carol Y. Clark ( District 3 - East Orange , Newark 's West and Central Wards , Orange and South Orange ; East Orange ) and Leonard M. Luciano ( District 4 - Caldwell , Cedar Grove , Essex Fells , Fairfield , Livingston , Millburn , North Caldwell , Roseland , Verona , West Caldwell and West Orange ; West Caldwell ) , and Brendan W. Gill ( District 5 - Belleville , Bloomfield , Glen Ridge , Montclair and Nutley ; Montclair ) . Constitutional elected countywide are County Clerk Christopher J. Durkin ( West Caldwell , 2015 ) , Sheriff Armando B. Fontoura ( 2015 ) and Surrogate Theodore N. Stephens , II ( 2016 ) .
= = = Politics = = =
On the national level , Newark leans strongly toward the Democratic Party . As of March 23 , 2011 , out of a 2010 Census population of 277 @,@ 140 in Newark , there were 136 @,@ 785 registered voters ( 66 @.@ 3 % of the 2010 population ages 18 and over of 206 @,@ 253 , vs. 77 @.@ 7 % in all of Essex County of the 589 @,@ 051 ages 18 and up ) of which , 68 @,@ 393 ( 50 @.@ 0 % vs. 45 @.@ 9 % countywide ) were registered as Democrats , 3 @,@ 548 ( 2 @.@ 6 % vs. 9 @.@ 9 % countywide ) were registered as Republicans , 64 @,@ 812 ( 47 @.@ 4 % vs. 44 @.@ 1 % countywide ) were registered as Unaffiliated and there were 30 voters registered to other parties .
In the 2012 presidential election , Democrat Barack Obama received 95 @.@ 0 % of the vote ( 78 @,@ 352 cast ) , ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 4 @.@ 7 % ( 3 @,@ 852 votes ) , and other candidates with 0 @.@ 4 % ( 298 votes ) , among the 82 @,@ 030 ballots cast by the city 's 145 @,@ 059 registered voters for a turnout of 56 @.@ 5 % . In the 2008 presidential election , Democrat Barack Obama received 90 @.@ 8 % of the vote ( 77 @,@ 112 ballots cast ) , ahead of Republican John McCain who received 7 @.@ 0 % of the vote ( 5 @,@ 957 votes ) , with 84 @,@ 901 of the city 's 140 @,@ 946 registered voters participating , for a turnout of 60 @.@ 2 % of registered voters . In the 2004 presidential election , Democrat John Kerry received 85 @.@ 9 % of the vote ( 62 @,@ 700 ballots ) , outpolling Republican George W. Bush , who received 12 @.@ 8 % ( 9 @,@ 344 ) , with 72 @,@ 977 of 127 @,@ 049 registered voters participating , for a turnout percentage of 57 @.@ 4 % .
In the 2013 gubernatorial election , Democrat Barbara Buono received 80 @.@ 8 % of the vote ( 29 @,@ 039 cast ) , ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 17 @.@ 9 % ( 6 @,@ 443 votes ) , and other candidates with 1 @.@ 2 % ( 437 votes ) , among the 37 @,@ 114 ballots cast by the city 's 149 @,@ 778 registered voters ( 1 @,@ 195 ballots were spoiled ) , for a turnout of 24 @.@ 8 % . In the 2009 Gubernatorial Election , Democrat Jon Corzine received 90 @.@ 2 % of the vote ( 36 @,@ 637 ballots cast ) , ahead of Republican Chris Christie who received 8 @.@ 3 % of the vote ( 5 @,@ 957 votes ) , with 40 @,@ 613 of the city 's 134 @,@ 195 registered voters ( 30 @.@ 3 % ) participating .
= = = Political corruption = = =
Newark has been marred with episodes of political corruption throughout the years . Five of the previous seven mayors of Newark have been indicted on criminal charges , including the three mayors before Cory Booker : Hugh Addonizio , Kenneth Gibson and Sharpe James . As reported by Newsweek : " ... every mayor since 1962 ( except one , Cory Booker ) has been indicted for crimes committed while in office " .
Addonizio was mayor of Newark from 1962 to 1970 . A son of Italian immigrants , a tailor and WWII veteran , he ran on a reform platform , defeating the incumbent , Leo Carlin , whom , ironically , Addonizio characterized as corrupt and a part of the political machine of the era . During the 1967 riots , it was found that Addonizio and other city officials were taking kickbacks from city contractors . Addonizio was convicted of extortion and conspiracy in 1970 , and was sentenced to ten years in federal prison .
His successor was Kenneth Gibson , the city 's first African American mayor , elected in 1970 . He pleaded guilty to federal tax evasion in 2002 as part of a plea agreement on fraud and bribery charges . During his tenure as mayor in 1980 , Gibson was tried and acquitted of giving out no @-@ show jobs by an Essex County jury .
Sharpe James , who defeated Gibson in 1986 and declined to run for a sixth term in 2006 , was indicted on 33 counts of conspiracy , mail fraud , and wire fraud by a federal grand jury sitting in Newark . The grand jury charged James with spending $ 58 @,@ 000 on city @-@ owned credit cards for personal gain and orchestrating a scheme to sell city @-@ owned land at below @-@ market prices to his companion , who immediately re @-@ sold the land to developers and gained a profit of over $ 500 @,@ 000 . James pleaded not guilty on 25 counts at his initial court appearance on July 12 , 2007 . On April 17 , 2008 , James was found guilty for his role in the conspiring to rig land sales at nine city @-@ owned properties for personal gain . The former mayor was sentenced to serve up to 27 months in prison , and was released on April 6 , 2010 , for good behavior .
= = Education = =
= = = Colleges and universities = = =
Newark is the home of the multiple institutions of higher education , including : a Berkeley College campus , the main campus of Essex County College , New Jersey Institute of Technology ( NJIT ) , the Newark Campus of Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences ( formerly University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey ) , Rutgers University – Newark and Seton Hall University School of Law . Most of Newark 's academic institutions are located in the city 's University Heights district . The colleges and universities have worked together to help revitalize the area , which serves more than 50 @,@ 000 students and faculty .
= = = Public schools = = =
As of the 2006 – 2010 American Community Survey , 16 @.@ 0 % of Newark residents ages 25 and over had never attended high school and 15 @.@ 9 % didn 't graduate , while 68 @.@ 1 % had at least graduated from high school , including the 12 @.@ 3 % who had earned a bachelor 's degree or higher . The total school enrollment in Newark city was 75 @,@ 025 in the 2006 – 2010 ACS , with pre @-@ primary school enrollment of 10 @,@ 560 , elementary or high school enrollment of 46 @,@ 691 and college enrollment of 17 @,@ 774 .
The Newark Public Schools , a state @-@ operated school district , is the largest school system in New Jersey . The district is one of 31 former Abbott districts statewide , which are now referred to as " SDA Districts " based on the requirement for the state to cover all costs for school building and renovation projects in these districts under the supervision of the New Jersey Schools Development Authority . As of the 2013 @-@ 14 school year , the district 's 73 schools had an enrollment of 34 @,@ 976 students and 3 @,@ 057 classroom teachers ( on an FTE basis ) , for a student – teacher ratio of 11 @.@ 4 : 1 .
Science Park High School , which was the 69th @-@ ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 322 schools statewide , in New Jersey Monthly magazine 's September 2010 cover story on the state 's " Top Public High Schools " , after being ranked 50th in 2008 out of 316 schools . Technology High School has a GreatSchools rating of 9 / 10 was ranked 165th in New Jersey Monthly 's 2010 rankings . Newark high schools ranked in the bottom 10 % of the New Jersey Monthly 2010 list include Central ( 274th ) , East Side ( 293rd ) , Newark Vocational ( 304th ) , Weequahic ( 310th ) , Barringer ( 311th ) , Malcolm X Shabazz ( 314th ) and West Side ( 319th ) . Facebook co @-@ founder Mark Zuckerberg donated a challenge grant of $ 100 million to the district in 2010 , choosing Newark because he stated he believed in Mayor Cory Booker and Governor Chris Christie 's abilities .
Charter schools in Newark include the Robert Treat Academy Charter School , a National Blue Ribbon School drawing students from all over Newark . It remains one of the top performing K @-@ 8 schools in New Jersey based on standardized test scores . University Heights Charter School is another charter school , serving children in grades K @-@ 5 , recognized as a 2011 Epic Silver Gain School . Gray Charter School , like Robert Treat , also won a Blue Ribbon Award . Also , Newark Collegiate Academy ( NCA ) opened in August 2007 and currently serves 420 students in grades 9 – 12 . It will ultimately serve over 570 students , mostly matriculating from other charter schools in the area .
= = = Private schools = = =
The city hosts three high schools as part of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark : the coeducational Christ The King Prep , founded in 2007 , is part of the Cristo Rey Community ; Saint Benedict 's Preparatory School is an all @-@ boys Roman Catholic high school founded in 1868 and conducted by the Benedictine monks of Newark Abbey , whose campus has grown to encompass both sides of MLK Jr . Blvd. near Market Street and includes a dormitory for boarding students ; and Saint Vincent Academy , is an all @-@ girls Roman Catholic high school founded and sponsored by the Sisters of Charity of Saint Elizabeth and operated continuously since 1869 .
Link Community School is a non @-@ denominational coeducational day school located serving approximately 128 students in seventh and eighth grades . The Newark Boys Chorus School was founded in the 1960s . University Heights Charter School , which opened in 2006 , taught 614 students in grades PK @-@ 8 in 2014 – 2015 .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Newark is a hub of air , road , rail , and ship traffic , making it a significant gateway into the New York metropolitan area and the northeastern United States . Newark Liberty International Airport , the second @-@ busiest airport in the New York region and the 14th @-@ busiest in the United States ( in terms of passenger traffic ) , had 403 @,@ 429 plane movements , transported 33 @,@ 107 @,@ 041 passengers , 860 @,@ 845 tons of cargo and processed 82 @,@ 479 tons of airmail in 2010 . Newark Airport was the New York City area 's first commercial airport , opened in 1928 on land reclaimed by the Port Authority .
Just east of the airport lies Port Newark , the fifteenth @-@ busiest port in the world and the largest container port on the East Coast of the United States . In 2003 , the port moved over $ 100 billion in goods .
= = = = Early modes of transport = = = =
The Morris Canal , stretching 102 miles ( 164 km ) to Newark from Phillipsburg on the Delaware River , was completed in 1831 and allowed coal and other industrial and agricultural products from Pennsylvania to be transported cheaply and efficiently to the New York metropolitan area . The canal 's completion led to increased settlement in Newark , vastly increasing the population for years to come . After the canal was decommissioned , the its right of way was converted into the Newark City Subway , now known as the Newark Light Rail . Many of the subway stations still portray the canal in its original state , in the form of mosaic works .
As the city became increasingly congested further means of transportation were sought , eventually leading to horse @-@ drawn trolleys . These , in turn , were replaced by electric trolleys that traveled down the main streets of downtown Newark , including Broad Street , and up Market Street near the courthouse The trolley cars did not last long as the personal motor vehicle quickly gained popularity and slowly made the trolley system seem like a burden .
= = = = Roads and highways = = = =
As of May 2010 , the city had a total of 368 @.@ 21 miles ( 592 @.@ 58 km ) of roadways , of which 318 @.@ 77 miles ( 513 @.@ 01 km ) were maintained by the municipality , 17 @.@ 61 miles ( 28 @.@ 34 km ) by Essex County and 22 @.@ 66 miles ( 36 @.@ 47 km ) by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and 9 @.@ 17 miles ( 14 @.@ 76 km ) by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority .
Newark is served by numerous highways including the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) , Interstate 280 , Interstate 78 , the Garden State Parkway , U.S. Route 1 / 9 , U.S. Route 22 , and Route 21 . Newark is connected to the Holland Tunnel and Lower Manhattan by the Pulaski Skyway , spanning both the Passaic and Hackensack Rivers , which was first constructed in 1938 and will be undergoing a $ 900 million renovation project .
Local streets in Newark conform to a quasi @-@ grid form , with major streets radiating outward ( like spokes on a wheel ) from the downtown area . Some major roads in the city are named after the towns to which they lead , including South Orange Avenue , Springfield Avenue , and Bloomfield Avenue , as well as Broadway , which had been renamed from Belleville Avenue .
In a city extensively served by mass transit , 44 @.@ 2 % of Newark residents did not have a car as of the 2000 Census , ranked second in the U.S. to New York City in the proportion of households without an automobile among cities with more than 250 @,@ 000 people .
= = = = Public transportation = = = =
Newark Penn Station , situated just east of downtown , is the city 's major train station . It is served by the interurban PATH train ( which links Newark to Jersey City and Manhattan ) , three NJ Transit ( NJT ) commuter rail lines , and Amtrak service . It was designed by McKim , Mead & White and completed in 1935 . One mile north , the Newark Broad Street Station is served by two NJT commuter rail lines . The two train stations are linked by the Newark Light Rail system , which also provides services from Newark Penn Station to Newark 's northern communities and into the neighboring towns of Belleville and Bloomfield . Built in the bed of the Morris Canal , the light rail cars run underground in Newark 's downtown area . The city 's third train station , Newark Liberty International Airport , connects the Northeast Corridor to the airport via AirTrain Newark . Bus service in Newark is provided by New Jersey Transit , CoachUSA contract operators and DeCamp in North Newark .
Newark is served by NJ Transit bus routes 1 , 5 , 11 , 13 , 21 , 25 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 34 , 37 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 59 , 62 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 78 , 79 , 90 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 96 , 99 , 107 , and 108 . Bus route 308 is an express bus route to Six Flags Great Adventure from Newark Penn Station while 319 is an express service to Atlantic City .
The go bus 25 and go bus 28 are bus rapid transit lines through the city to Irvington , Bloomfield and Newark Liberty International Airport .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Newark is home to five hospitals . University Hospital , an independent institution that is a teaching hospital of Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences , has been the busiest Level I trauma center in the state . Newark Beth Israel Medical Center is the largest hospital in the city and is a part of Barnabas Health , the state 's largest system of hospital and health care facilities . Beth Israel is also one of the oldest hospitals in the city , dating back to 1901 . This 669 @-@ bed regional facility is also home to the Children 's Hospital of New Jersey . Catholic Health East operates Saint Michael 's Medical Center . Columbus Hospital LTACH is a longterm acute care hospital designed to focus on patients with serious and complex medical conditions that require intense specialized treatment for an extended period of recovery time . Hospitals which have been closed in recent years include the Saint James Hospital , Mount Carmel Guild Hospital and the United Hospitals Medical Center .
= = Public safety = =
= = = Emergency Medical Services = = =
University Hospital EMS ( UH @-@ EMS ) operates the EMS system for the city . The department operates a fleet of six BLS units staffed with two EMTs 24 / 7 , four 12 @-@ hour power trucks , and five ALS units staffed with two paramedics ( one of which is stationed at Newark Airport and covers the airport and Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth , and frequently responds into the City of Elizabeth ) . With distinction they also staff the only hospital based heavy rescue truck in the country . The EMS system is the busiest system per unit in the nation . On average , a BLS unit may be sent to 20 @-@ 25 dispatches in a 12 @-@ hour shift . They also provide the medical staffing for Northstar , with one of the two NJ State Police medevac helicopters , staffing one flight nurse and a flight medic around the clock . The EMS system in Newark handles upwards of 125 @,@ 000 requests for service annually .
= = = Fire Department = = =
The city is protected by more than 700 full @-@ time , paid firefighters of the Newark Fire Department ( NFD ) . Founded in 1863 , the NFD operates out of 20 firehouses , located throughout the city , organized into 5 battalions . The NFD operates 20 engine companies , 10 ladder companies , 2 rescue companies , an Urban search and rescue ( USAR ) Collapse Rescue Unit , 2 fire boats , a scuba diving unit , a foam unit , a mobile command unit , a HazMat unit , and numerous special , support , and reserve units . The NFD responds to approximately 45 @,@ 000 emergency calls annually . In 2006 , the NFD responded to 2 @,@ 681 fire and hazardous condition calls .
= = = Law enforcement = = =
The Newark Police Department is a city @-@ operated law enforcement agency . As of January 2014 , the force had 1 @,@ 006 officers in its ranks .
The Essex County Sheriff 's Office , New Jersey Transit Police Department ( headquartered in Penn Plaza East ) and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department are also within their jurisdiction in the city , as are the New Jersey State Police . In April 2014 , it was announced that the State Police would play a more prominent role in patrolling the streets of the city under the " TIDE @-@ TAG " program . The Essex County College Police Department , New Jersey Institute of Technology Police Department and Rutgers University Police Department patrol their respective college campuses in the city .
= = = Crime = = =
In 1996 , Money magazine ranked Newark " The Most Dangerous City in the Nation . " By 2007 , the city recorded a total of 99 homicides for the year , representing a significant drop from the record of 161 murders set in 1981 . The number of murders in 2008 dropped to 65 , a decline of 30 % from the previous year and the lowest in the city since 2002 when there were also 65 murders .
In 2010 , Newark recorded 90 homicides . March 2010 was the first calendar month since 1966 in which the city did not record a homicide . Overall , there was a 6 % increase in crime numbers over the previous year , including a rise in carjackings for the third straight year , with the 337 incidents raising concerns that the city was returning to its status as the " car theft capital of the world " . Along with the increase in crime , the Newark Police Department increased its recovery of illegally owned guns in 2011 to 696 , up from 278 in 2010 . The Federal Bureau of Investigation recorded 94 homicides in 2011 and 95 in 2012 . In 2012 CNNMoney ranked Newark as the 6th most dangerous city in the United States based on numbers by FBI Crime in the United States 2011 report . The city had 10 murders in 10 days during the period ending September 6 , 2013 , a statistic largely attributed to the reduction of the police force . In 2013 Newark recorded 111 homicides , the first year ending in triple digits in seven years and the highest tally since 1990 and accounting for 27 % of all murders statewide . In 2014 , the total number of homicides in Newark was 93 , while Essex County as a whole had 117 murders . The Star @-@ Ledger reported that there were 105 homicides in the city in 2015 .
= = International relations = =
The Consulate @-@ General of Ecuador in New Jersey is located on the 4th Floor at 400 Market Street . The Consulate @-@ General of Portugal in Newark is located at the main floor of the Newark Legal Center at One Riverfront Plaza . The Consulate @-@ General of Colombia is located at 550 Broad Street . The Vice Consulate of Italy , was located at 1 Gateway Center , until it was closed in 2014 for economic reasons .
Pope John Paul II visited the city in 1995 at which time he elevated the city 's cathedral to a basilica to become the Cathedral Basilica of the Sacred Heart . In 2011 , the Dalai Lama was guest of honor at the Newark Peace Education Summit .
= = = Twin towns — sister cities = = =
Newark has 15 sister cities , as listed by Sister Cities International :
= = Notable people = =
= Black and Blue ( Homicide : Life on the Street ) =
" Black and Blue " is the third episode of the second season of the American police drama television series Homicide : Life on the Street , and the twelfth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 20 , 1994 . In the episode , Pembleton aggressively investigates what he believes to be a police @-@ related shooting . Amid pressure from Gee to pursue civilian suspects , Pembleton elicits a successful confession from an innocent man , leaving Gee feeling conflicted . Directed by Chris Menaul , the episode 's teleplay was written by James Yoshimura based on a story by series executive producer Tom Fontana .
Yoshimura considered " Black and Blue " the favorite script he wrote for Homicide . Pembleton 's investigation was based on a real @-@ life investigation into a suspicious shooting featured in David Simon 's non @-@ fiction book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , on which the Homicide series was based . However , fictional elements like Howard 's romantic interest in the perpetrator were added so more cast members could be part of the story . Detectives from the Baltimore Police Department wrote a letter of formal protest to executive producer Barry Levinson over the negative portrayal of police in the episode .
" Black and Blue " featured Julianna Margulies as a waitress who befriends Bolander and Isaiah Washington as an innocent man who Pembleton tricks into confessing to murder . Mel Proctor , home team sports announcer for the Washington Bullets , also reprised his recurring role as reporter Grant Besser . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 10 @.@ 83 million household viewers , a drop from the previous episode " See No Evil " . It received generally positive reviews , with critics particularly praising the performance of Andre Braugher .
= = Plot summary = =
Pembleton ( Andre Braugher ) continues his investigation into the shooting death of small @-@ time drug peddler Charles Courtland Cox , who he suspects was killed by police during a botched crackhouse raid . As the involved police officers turn over their guns for testing , the press reports heavily on the story , which results in pressure from the department heads to solve the case . Pembleton aggressively questions several officers , but none are cooperative . Gee ( Yaphet Kotto ) is angry with Pembleton 's focus on the police and demands civilian suspects be pursued . Howard ( Melissa Leo ) and Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) canvas the neighborhood of the shooting and find most residents do not trust the police , who they feel are responsible for the death of one of their own . However , one woman named Dale ( June Thorne ) tells Bayliss her grandson , Lane Staley ( Isaiah Washington ) witnessed the shooting . Staley is brought in to the station for questioning and , while Pembleton plans to question him as an eyewitness , Gee demands he be treated as a suspect .
Frustrated that Gee refuses to consider the possibility of a police shooting , Pembleton assures him he will get a confession out of Staley , whether he did it or not . Pembleton starts the interrogation calm and polite , but gradually becomes angrier , frightening Staley . Pembleton makes him feel responsible for allowing Cox to be at the crackhouse , and uses that guilt to break Staley down and confess , even though he is obviously innocent . Pembleton gives the confession to Gee , who is conflicted , especially when Pembleton compares it to past police practices of white detectives getting confessions from black suspects no matter what the cost . Ultimately , Gee tears up the confession and instead visits Staley at jail . Staley admits to Gee that Lt. Jimmy Tyron ( Michael S. Kennedy ) shot Cox in the back without warning while Cox was running away . Pembleton and Bayliss arrest Tyron at his home , where they confiscate a gun and bullets that appear to match those used against Cox . The arrest deeply saddens Howard , who had previously had an affair with Tyron . The affair ended because Tyron was married with children , but Howard continues to harbor romantic feelings for him .
Meanwhile , in a B story , Munch ( Richard Belzer ) repeatedly and loudly declares his love for his girlfriend Felicia , much to the annoyance of his lonely partner Bolander ( Ned Beatty ) . The two confiscate a live tropical fish from the murder scene of a dead drug dealer . Upon learning it will not used as evidence , Munch decides to give it as a gift to Felicia , who loves fish . However , she breaks up with Munch after the fish , a Jack Dempsey , ends up eating all her other fish . The now lonely Munch turns to Bolander for comfort , but finds the tables have turned and that Bolander has met a local waitress named Linda ( Julianna Margulies ) . The two get along very well and bond over their mutual love of music . The episode ends with Linda and Bolander getting together to play music : Linda plays the violin , while Bolander plays the cello .
= = Production = =
" Black and Blue " was written by James Yoshimura and directed by series executive producer Tom Fontana . Like the other three second season episodes , the script was already finished by the time the first season ended , but due to poor Nielsen ratings throughout the duration of the show , NBC executives asked for several refinements – including fewer episode subplots and less camera movements and jump cuts – before approving a second season . Although Yoshimura continued working on Homicide throughout the entire life of the show , he considered " Black and Blue " his favorite script . Braugher also complimented the writing , particularly during the interrogation scene with his character :
" I didn 't dare judge my character before I did that scene . Andre Braugher doesn 't judge Frank Pembleton about being right or wrong . It 's a way for me to remain blessedly free of conscience . But for me the beauty of that scene was that we really dared to get into it . Typically in TV shows we skim over the edges of issues like water spiders , spouting platitudes and spouting unearned ' clarifying ' emotions . But there were no violins strumming in ' Black and Blue ' . "
Pembleton 's investigation of fellow police officers for a suspicious shooting was based on a real @-@ life investigation chronicled in David Simon 's 1991 non @-@ fiction book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , from which the Homicide series was adapted . Baltimore Police Department Detective Donald Worden , on whom the Bolander character is based , handled the actual real @-@ life investigation in 1988 . However , Howard 's affair with the perpetrator was not part of the real @-@ life incident , but rather was added by Yoshimura as part of the show 's efforts to ensure as many detectives were personally involved in the storylines as possible . Several members of the Baltimore Police Department publicly criticized Homicide for its negative portrayal of the police in the episode , and 22 detectives wrote a formal letter of protest to executive producer Barry Levinson over the matter . Cellist Zuill Bailey served as a body double for Ned Beatty in the scenes with Bolander playing cello . Bailey was studying at Baltimore 's Peabody Conservatory at the time , and his appearance on Homicide led to further collaborations with Tom Fontana , including a recurring guest appearance for Bailey on Fontana 's drama series Oz .
The episode featured guest appearances by Isaiah Washington , who went on to play Preston Burke on the medical drama series Grey 's Anatomy , and Julianna Margulies , who started her long @-@ running lead role as nurse Carol Hathaway on the medical drama series ER a few months after " Black and Blue " aired . She was cast in the part after having worked with Fontana on the unaired pilot of Philly Heat , an ABC miniseries he worked on about members of the Philadelphia Fire Department . Fontana offered Margulies a recurring role on Homicide , but she turned it down in favor of ER . Michael S. Kennedy , an actor from Richmond , Texas , reprised his role of Lt. Jimmy Tyron from the previous episode , " See No Evil " . A struggling actor , Kennedy received a call from a casting director he knew , in the middle of an all @-@ night Virginia Beach shoot for a small role in Assault at West Point : The Court @-@ Martial of Johnson Whittaker , giving him one day 's notice of the audition for Homicide . He so enjoyed working on the show that he wrote a Homicide script himself , with the Tyron character playing a major part , although it was ultimately never used . " Black and Blue " also featured the second of five guest appearances by Mel Proctor , then the home team sports announcer for the Washington Bullets , as Grant Besser , a recurring reporter character in Homicide .
The songs " Slow Fire " by Just Like Jane , and " Up on the Roof " by Gerry Goffin and Carole King , were featured in " Black and Blue " . During the final scene , Bolander and Linda perform a movement of " Passacaglia " , a classical music song composed by George Frideric Handel .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
While the season premiere episode , " Bop Gun " , opened with an extremely high rating due to a guest appearance by Robin Williams , the ratings had declined since then and Tom Fontana said a future decision about whether Homicide would be renewed depended heavily on the ratings performance of " Black and Blue " : " I hope the numbers level off now . This Thursday night is do @-@ or @-@ die . It will tell the tale . " In its original American broadcast on January 20 , 1994 , the episode was watched by 10 @.@ 83 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research , earning the episode an 11 @.@ 5 rating . That constituted a drop from the previous week 's episode , " See No Evil " , which was seen by 12 @.@ 53 million households . Although a drop from the previous episode , " Bop Gun " , which drew 16 @.@ 3 million household viewers and was the 31st highest @-@ rated show of the week . " Black and Blue " was the 47th highest rated show the week it aired , tying with the CBS drama series Picket Fences and the ABC comedy series Thea .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Black and Blue " received generally positive reviews , with critics particularly praising the performance of Andre Braugher . David P. Kalat , author of Homicide : Life on the Street - The Unofficial Companion , praised the script of " Black and Blue " , writing : " Yoshimura has written some of the series ' most memorable installments , but the scene of Pembleton extracting a ' confession ' from an innocent man is one of his greatest achievements . " Kalat also complimented the performance by Margulies , who he said " exhibits the same charm and charisma that made her a star on ER " . Kinney Littlefield of The Orange County Register praised Braugher , particularly during the " excruciating " interrogation scene , and wrote , " Unbelievably , ' Black and Blue ' didn 't earn Braugher an Emmy nomination . " Greg Paeth of Scripps Howard News Service called it an " exceptional cop drama " and complimented the dramatic tension between Pembleton and Gee . Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Lon Grahnke gave the episode four stars and said " Anyone who likes NYPD Blue should give Homicide a try . "
Tom Shales of The Washington Post strongly praised both " Black and Blue " and " See No Evil " in part because they showcased Braugher , who he called the finest actor in the ensemble cast . Shales said : " Braugher manages to be utterly compelling whether slamming doors and throwing chairs , reducing a murder suspect to quivering tears , having furious arguments with Lt. Giardello ( rock @-@ solid Yaphet Kotto ) or simply lurking about . " The Baltimore Sun writer David Bianculli called it a superb episode with a " lyrical , beautiful climax " , praising the Brauger 's performance , particularly during the intense interrogation scene with Isaiah Washington . " Black and Blue " " was among a 1999 Court TV marathon of the top 15 Homicide episodes , as voted on by 20 @,@ 000 visitors to the channels website .
= = DVD release = =
" Black and Blue " and the rest of the first and second season episodes were included in the four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 for $ 69 @.@ 95 .
= Ain 't No Other Man =
" Ain 't No Other Man " is a song recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera for her fifth studio album , Back to Basics ( 2006 ) . It was released on June 6 , 2006 by RCA Records as the lead single from the album . The song was written by Aguilera , DJ Premier , Charles Martin Roane , Kara DioGuardi , and Harold Beatty , and was produced by Premier . " Ain 't No Other Man " is described as a pop / R & B and funk song that incorporates elements of soul , blues and jazz music . Lyrically , the song was inspired by her marriage to Jordan Bratman in 2005 .
" Ain 't No Other Man " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who complimented the track 's musical style and deemed it as a standout on Back to Basics . It won a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 2007 ceremony . Commercially , the track peaked at number 6 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of one million copies . Elsewhere , the song reached the top five of record charts of several countries including Australia , Italy , New Zealand , and United Kingdom .
A music video for " Ain 't No Other Man " was directed by Bryan Barber . The video jumps back in time and depicts Aguilera as her then newly established alter ego Baby Jane . The visual was praised for the " mature " image that Aguilera adopted . It earned four nominations at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards , including Video of the Year . Aguilera performed " Ain 't No Other Man " during several television performances , including the 2006 MTV Movie Awards and the 2007 NBA All @-@ Star Game . The track was also included in the set list of her Back to Basics Tour ( 2006 – 07 ) .
= = Background and production = =
Following the release of her fourth studio album , Stripped ( 2002 ) , and several collaborations , Aguilera decided to incorporate elements of 1930s and 1940s musical styles in her follow @-@ up album project . She commented that she wished to revolve as an artist and a visionary in between production of the records . Aguilera sent letters to various producers that she hoped could help her with the direction she was taking for the project , encouraging them to experiment , re @-@ invent and create a modern soul feel .
The final product , her fifth album Back to Basics , comprises two discs . For the first half disc , Aguilera collaborated with " more beat @-@ driven " producers including DJ Premier and Mark Ronson , who incorporated musical samples into many of the recordings . She described it as " kind of a throwback with elements of jazz , blues and soul music combined with a modern @-@ day twist , like hard @-@ hitting beats " . The contents of the second disc were written and produced solely by Linda Perry , Aguilera 's longtime collaborator . Aguilera had first collaborated with DJ Premier after hearing his jazz @-@ influenced work with Gang Starr . She revealed that she was impressed , and she also wanted to make jazz @-@ influenced materials . Aguilera stated that she was unsure if DJ Premier would accept the offer , having been his first time working with pop music . Premier later agreed and commented ,
I was surprised I got that call ' cause of our differences in the audiences we hit , but I 'm always up for challenges and trying something new ... She described what her album is about and then she sent me some CDs of what type of stuff 's been inspiring her to make the record , and it happened to be a lot of stuff that I grew up on in the early ' 70s , ' cause I 'm 40 . Aretha Franklin , Etta James , Marvin Gaye , Esther Williams , all kinds of different things . Once I saw that 's the vibe she wanted , I still had to make it sound like the way my beats thump and stuff but still give her the atmosphere she 's trying to bring out on the singing side .
= = Release = =
While writing " Ain 't No Other Man " , Aguilera drew inspiration from her husband Jordan Bratman , whom she wedded in 2005 . DJ Premier described the track as a " sassy " and " old @-@ Aretha [ Franklin ] ' Respect ' " recording . He further commented that its pace was " too fast " , " like 130 beats per minute " and different from his earlier projects . Though lyrics had yet to be written , Aguilera was " in love " with the " high energy " track when she first heard it . Consequentially , she chose to service " Ain 't No Other Man " as the lead single from Back to Basics .
= = Composition = =
" Ain 't No Other Man " was written and produced by Aguilera , DJ Premier , and Charles Roane , with additional songwriting provided by Harold Beatty and Kara DioGuardi . It is a pop , R & B and funk song with elements of old @-@ school soul , blues and jazz . Thus , the song is a mixture between old @-@ school and contemporary materials , according to Aguilera herself . The track contains a brass sample from " Hippy Skippy Moon Strut " by Dave Cortez & The Moon People , and a vocal sample " The Cissy 's Thang " by The Soul Seven . Its instrumentation incorporates keyboards , guitar , drums , percussion , and horns . The arrangement of the instruments on " Ain 't No Other Man " was described as " raw " and " ass @-@ shaking " . Several critics complimented the mixture between old and modern materials ; Jody Rosen from Entertainment Weekly claimed that the jazzy melody from the track suited Aguilera perfectly , while Jody Rosen of The Guardian deemed the melody of " Ain 't No Other Man " " fun " and " crispy " .
Although the sheet music , published on Musicnotes.com by BMG Music , shows " Ain 't No Other Man " in the key of F minor , the recording suggests is in F # minor . The song has a moderate fast tempo of 132 beats per minute . Aguilera 's vocal range on the track spans from A ♭ 3 to F ♯ 5 . Dorian Lyskey of The Guardian noted that the beats of the song are " brassy " and have the same " aerobic oomph " as Beyoncé 's " Crazy in Love " , while Jody Rosen from Entertainment Weekly deemed the track " exhilarating " . According to Aguilera ; lyrically , " Ain 't No Other Man " is not a love song , but actually intertwines with the events that she experienced in real life . The song seems to be about Aguilera 's husband , Jordan Bratman , but is really simply about feeling good . During an interview with MTV News , Aguilera said of the song , " I wanted to make it light and easy for people to dance to and sing along to ... Lyrically , I just got married , so it 's about someone in particular , but it 's all about feeling good and not taking anything too seriously " .
= = = Sampling lawsuit = = =
In 2011 , American publishing company TufAmeria sued Sony Music for the brass sample of Dave Cortez & The Moon People 's " Hippy Skippy Moon Strut " ( 1968 ) on " Ain 't No Other Man " . According to a federal lawsuit filed in New York , TufAmerica purchased the exclusive rights to the track in 2004 ; nevertheless , Sony Music made a deal with Codigo Music and Clyde Otis Music Group to acquire the sample .
= = Critical reception = =
" Ain 't No Other Man " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Dan Gennoe of UK Yahoo ! Music called it an " ass @-@ shaking " and " sweety back @-@ in @-@ the @-@ day soul " song . John Murphy for musicOMH compared Aguilera 's vocals on the track to Carey 's . He further wrote that the song makes " you sit up and take notice " and deemed " Ain 't No Other Man " " the best pop / R & B crossover " since Beyoncé 's " Crazy in Love " . Jody Rosen from Entertainment Weekly wrote that the track " whizzes past at such a furious pace " , while Kelefa Sanneh for The New York Times praised the song as " the album 's glorious , mile @-@ a @-@ minute hit single , which proves once again that no one can roar like Ms. Aguilera " . Allmusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine deemed " Ain 't No Other Man " as one of the best tracks on Back to Basics in his album review for Back to Basics . Jenny Eliscu for Rolling Stone was positive toward the song , selected the track as one of the best materials throughout the first disc . Writing for The Morning Call , Len Righi commented that " Ain 't No Other Man " , " Understand " and " Slow Down Baby " " put her at Aretha Franklin 's doorstep " .
Stylus Magazine critic Thomas Inskeep praised the mixture between the old @-@ school and contemporary style on the song . He also called it a " sexy , sassy " song and " one of the year 's best pop singles " . Sean Daly for Tampa Bay Times labelled the song as a " club @-@ scorching marvel of dance @-@ club breathlessness and brassy blasts " . Dorian Lyskey from The Guardian provided Back to Basics a negative review , however Lyskey was positive toward " Ain 't No Other Man " , calling it " the tune of summer " , a " brilliant " song and comparing the track to Beyoncé 's " Crazy in Love " . Rolling Stone ranked " Ain 't No Other Man " at number 18 on their list " Top 100 Best Songs of 2006 " . Charles Aaron for Spin placed the song as the third best single of 2006 , deeming it " blass @-@ blasting " . At the 2007 Grammy Awards , " Ain 't No Other Man " earned Aguilera a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . The song also earned a BMI Award in 2008 . The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop annual critics ' poll voted " Ain 't No Other Man " as the third best single of 2006 .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Ain 't No Other Man " debuted at number 19 on the US Billboard Hot 100 during the week of June 24 , 2006 . In the following week , it raised to number 13 . On July 8 , 2006 , " Ain 't No Other Man " reached number nine on the chart . In its fourth week charting , the song reached number six , which became its peak . It became Aguilera 's first top @-@ ten hit on the chart since " Beautiful " ( 2002 ) . At the end of 2006 , Billboard ranked " Ain 't No Other Man " the 32nd most successful hit of the year . On the Billboard Pop Songs chart , the track peaked at number eight and remained there for a total of 20 weeks . The song was a major hit on the US dance market , peaking atop the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . " Ain 't No Other Man " was recognized as the eighth best @-@ charting single on the Hot Dance Club Songs of 2006 by Billboard . On August 15 , 2006 , the track was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping more than one million digital download copies in the country . It was also certified gold for 500 @,@ 000 master ringtones sold in the region . As of August 2014 , " Ain 't No Other Man " has sold 1 @,@ 783 @,@ 000 copies in the United States alone .
In Canada , the song peaked at number four on the Canadian Hot 100 and was certified platinum by Canadian Recording Industry Association for 80 @,@ 000 digital sales . It was also certified gold for selling 20 @,@ 000 ringtones in the country . In the United Kingdom , " Ain 't No Other Man " debuted at number 18 on the UK Singles Chart during the week of July 29 , 2006 . In the following week , the song jumped to number two , just behind Shakira 's " Hips Don 't Lie " featuring Wyclef Jean . The song also gained chart success in countries around Europe , peaking at number two in Norway , number three in Hungary ( both Rádiós Top 100 chart and Single Top 100 chart ) and Ireland , number four in Slovakia , number five in Denmark , Finland , Germany , Italy and Switzerland , number seven in Austria , and number ten in Belgium ( Flanders ) . Throughout Europe , " Ain 't No Other Man " peaked at number three on the European Hot 100 Singles chart . The song was certified gold in Denmark by IFPI Denmark for shipping more than 7 @,@ 500 copies there .
On the Australian Singles Chart , " Ain 't No Other Man " debuted at number six on August 13 , 2006 and remained on its peak for two weeks . In 2006 , the song stayed on the chart for a total of 16 weeks . On January 14 , 2007 , the track re @-@ entered the chart at number 46 . Due to the commercial success in Australia , " Ain 't No Other Man " was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipping 35 @,@ 000 copies in the country . In New Zealand , the single peaked at number five on the New Zealand Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The accompanying music video for " Ain 't No Other Man " was directed by Bryan Barber and choreographed by Jeri Slaugher . After seeing a trailer of Barber 's film project , Idlewild , Aguilera wanted to make a video directed by him , explained : " It intrigued me that this man , Bryan Barber , had been very locked into and had surrounded himself with this whole world of the ' 20s and ' 30s era , and it made me think that he could understand what I 'm trying to do conceptually . I needed to get the right director who shared my vision " . At first Aguilera planned to make a black @-@ and @-@ white video and shot it in her living room for Barber and Slaugher . " I had acted out the entire video in my living room . I used my fireplace as a makeshift stage and the staircase as the pool table where I would stand " , said Aguilera . According to Barber , Aguilera was very involved in the making of the videot . The whole team seemed like they were doing a movie more than a music video . On June 21 , 2006 , the music video for " Ain 't No Other Man " was premiered on MTV 's Total Request Live .
= = = Synopsis = = =
Throughout the music video , Aguilera portrays her alter ego Baby Jane , a nickname that Nelly once gave her . The narrative scenes are punctuated by shots of two trombonists playing the Dave Cortez brass sample in unison . The video depicts a mix of styles from the 1920s , as well as modern .
The video begins with a car , with a license plate reading " Baby Jane " , stopped in front of a club in a dark street in California . In front of the bar , a man is smoking a cigarette . The melody of Aguilera 's song " I Got Trouble " , is played in the background , as if over a radio with transmission noise . Aguileria steps from the car with high heels a classic outfit with a hat . After the car door is closed , the song begins , and Aguilera starts dancing , in the club , with her male and female dancers while singing the song . On the first chorus , Aguilera is in a dressing room , wearing a camisole and fur @-@ trimmed silk dressing @-@ gown , making up with the help of her dancers , and receiving flowers from a stranger .
During the second verse , Aguilera appears in a red 1960 's style outfit and listens to music with silver spangled headphones while a gramophone plays . While singing the second chorus , Aguilera is in front of photographers , and she continues to sing , in an inter @-@ cut scene , wearing silver and gold outfits , one trimmed with fur . In the next sequence , Aguilera wears a white and black outfit with a black @-@ sequined beret , and continues dancing through the chorus . At the bridge , she walks through the bar and finds her lover . She pushes him down on a chair and pushes him away across the polished dance @-@ floor . She is then lifted onto the billiard table and continues to sing while the chandelier above her head begins to explode and spark fireworks . At the chorus she appears with sparkling silver dress and makes the whole club come alive in a riot of dancing . There a brief funk outro . As the video ends , with the club now empty , Aguilera gently sings " I Got Trouble " again , lying on the piano while the people in the club watch her .
= = = Reception = = =
Jody Rosen for Entertainment Weekly noted , " She 's revamped [ ... ] her look , sporting an Andrews Sister bouffant and jazz @-@ age togs in the video " . Michael Slezak , another editor from Entertainment Weekly , complimented " Ain 't No Other Man " video . He wrote that Aguilera " rocks seven classy @-@ sexy looks in just under five minutes , each more flawless than the one before it ( especially that final silver dress and gizzorgeously wild mane ) " . Its choreography was also praised , " [ it ] is at once modern and totally in keeping with the whole Cotton Club vibe brought to life " , " and just as important , Christina looks like she 's having a blast throughout " . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone praised the video , calling it one of the best clips from the album . James Montgomery from MTV News wrote : " Aguilera kicked off her Back to Basics reinvention with this appropriately anachronistic clip , where she vamps through Prohibition @-@ era Harlem " . The music video was nominated for four MTV Video Music Awards in 2006 , they are : Video of the Year , Best Female Video , Best Pop Video and Best Choreography ; however , the video did not win any of them .
= = Live performances = =
To promote " Ain 't No Other Man " and Back to Basics , Aguilera performed the song on a number of shows and venues . On June 8 , 2006 , Aguilera performed " Ain 't No Other Man " for the first time at the 2006 MTV Movie Awards , which was held at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City , California . MTV praised the performance , calling her vocals during the show " vibrant " . On July 20 , 2006 , Aguilera performed the track at the Koko jazz club in London , which was held in front of 1 @,@ 500 fans and invited guests . The 40 @-@ minute concert comprised songs from the then @-@ upcoming Back to Basics and other songs , including " Lady Marmalade " ( 2001 ) and " Beautiful " ( 2002 ) . MTV UK was positive toward the performance , wrote , " The gig reflected the jazz club mood of Christina 's new album , with a swinging brass @-@ heavy backing band and fit dancers bounding sexily around the stage " . During the Late Show with David Letterman on August 16 , 2006 , Aguilera also performed the track live . On January 20 , 2007 , Aguilera performed " Ain 't No Other Man " at the 2007 NRJ Music Awards in Cannes , France . On February 18 , 2007 , Aguilera performed " Ain 't No Other Man " and " Candyman " during the halftime show of the 2007 NBA All @-@ Star Game in Las Vegas .
Aguilera performed " Fighter " , " Hurt " and " Ain 't No Other Man " at the 2007 Muz @-@ TV Awards on June 1 , 2007 . " Ain 't No Other Man " was later performed during the worldwide Back to Basics Tour ( 2006 – 07 ) . It was selected as the show 's opener . The performance was supported by a nine @-@ piece band and eight back @-@ up dancers . The tour was preceded by newspapers headlines that flashed across a big screen , such as , " Christina goes from ' dirrty ' to demure " and " Christina cleans up her act " . The performance is included on the video release Back to Basics : Live and Down Under ( 2008 ) . On November 23 , 2008 , while supporting her compilation album Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits , Aguilera performed a medley of her six hits at the American Music Awards of 2008 , which was held at Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles , California , including " Ain 't No Other Man " . On May 5 , 2010 , while promoting her sixth studio album , Bionic , Aguilera performed all of her hits on VH1 Storytellers , including " Ain 't No Other Man " . On October 24 , 2010 , Aguilera was invited to the Justin Timberlake & Friends benefit show at Las Vegas . There , she performed " Beautiful " , " Fighter " and " Ain 't No Other Man " . At the show beginning , Timberlake declared that Aguilera is " the best vocalist of my generation " , " no contest " .
= = Covers and usage = =
" Ain 't No Other Man " has been covered on several occasions . The song was performed by four American Idol contestants : Melinda Doolittle , LaKisha Jones , Haley Scarnato and Gina Glocksen during the American Idols LIVE ! Tour 2007 . On the season finale of the eighth season of British singing contest The X Factor , singer Amelia Lily also performed the song live . CeCe Frey , a participant of the United States television singing contest The X Factor , performed " Ain 't No Other Man " during the auditions . During the Blind Auditions of the third season of The Voice , the track was covered by Devyn DeLoera , making three coaches Blake Shelton , Adam Levine and Aguilera herself turn their chairs to adopt the singer to their team . The performance was released digitally to iTunes Store on September 10 , 2012 . On the Vietnamese reality talent show Vietnam 's Got Talent , contestant Hoang Khanh Linh covered " Ain 't No Other Man " during the final round of the second season . " Ain 't No Other Man " was featured on Just Dance 4 , the fourth main installment of the music video game series Just Dance , which are developed by Ubisoft .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from the liner notes of " Ain 't No Other Man " CD single .
Recording and sampling
Recorded in 2005 at Chalice Recording Studios in Hollywood
Contains a repeated brass sample of " Hippy Skippy Moon Strut " , as performed by Dave Cortez & The Moon People
Contains a brief vocal sample of " The Cissy 's Thang " , as performed by The Soul Seven
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= SMS Elsass =
SMS Elsass. was the second of five pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the Braunschweig class in the German Imperial Navy , laid down in 1901 and commissioned 1904 . She was named for the German province of Elsass , now the French region of Alsace . Her sister ships were Braunschweig , Hessen , Preussen and Lothringen .
The ship served in the II Squadron of the German fleet after commissioning , though by the outbreak of World War I , she had been moved to the IV Squadron . Elsass saw action in the Baltic Sea against the Russian Navy . In August 1915 , she participated in the Battle of the Gulf of Riga , during which she engaged the Russian battleship Slava . In 1916 , however , she was placed in reserve because of crew shortages , and spent the remainder of the war as a training ship .
Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , she was retained after the end of the war and was modernized in 1923 – 24 . Elsass served in the Reichsmarine with the surface fleet until 1930 , when she was again placed in reserve . She was stricken in 1931 and used for a short time as a hulk in Wilhelmshaven . The out @-@ dated battleship was sold to Norddeutscher Lloyd in late 1935 and was broken up for scrap the following year .
= = Construction = =
Elsass was laid down in 1901 at the Schichau @-@ Werke in Danzig under construction number 97 . The second unit of her class , she was ordered under the contract name " J " as a new unit for the fleet . She cost 24 @,@ 373 @,@ 000 marks . Elsass was launched on 26 May 1903 and commissioned into the fleet on 29 November 1904 .
The ship was 127 @.@ 7 m ( 419 ft 0 in ) long overall and had a beam of 22 @.@ 2 m ( 72 ft 10 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 1 m ( 26 ft 7 in ) forward . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines that drove three screws . Steam was provided by eight naval and six cylindrical boilers , all of which burned coal . Elsass 's powerplant was rated at 16 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 000 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Elsass 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 28 cm ( 11 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament was composed of fourteen 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 inch ) SK L / 40 guns and eighteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing guns . Her armament was further increased by six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted submerged in the hull .
= = Service history = =
Upon her commissioning in November 1904 , Elsass was assigned to the IV Division of the II Squadron of the German fleet . She joined her sister Braunschweig and the old battleship Weissenburg . The German Navy in 1905 consisted of four divisions of three battleships each , with two divisions per squadron . This was supported by a cruiser division , composed of two armored cruisers and six protected cruisers . Kapitän zur See Reinhard Scheer assumed command of the vessel in 1907 ; he would go on to command the entire High Seas Fleet at the Battle of Jutland and eventually serve as the Chief of Naval Staff . Scheer held command of the ship for two years .
In 1909 , the ship was transferred to the III Division , II Squadron alongside her sisters Hessen and Preussen ; by this time , enough battleships had been built to increase the size of each division from three to four vessels . In March 1909 , a mine exploded aboard the ship during training in Kiel . Two sailors were killed and six more were wounded .
After World War I began in August 1914 , Elsass was assigned to the IV Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . The squadron was commanded by Vice Admiral Ehrhard Schmidt . In July 1915 , following the loss of the minelaying cruiser SMS Albatross in the Baltic , the IV Squadron ships were transferred to reinforce the German naval forces in the area . On 11 and 19 July , German cruisers , with the IV Squadron ships in support , conducted sweeps in the Baltic , though without engaging any Russian forces .
In August 1915 , the German fleet attempted to clear the Gulf of Riga of Russian naval forces to assist the German Army then advancing on the city . The IV Squadron was joined by the I Squadron , which consisted of the eight Nassau and Helgoland @-@ class battleships , from the High Seas Fleet , as well as three battlecruisers and many smaller craft . The task force commanded Vice Admiral Franz von Hipper , though operational command remained with Vice Admiral Schmidt . On the morning of 8 August , the German fleet made its initial push into the Gulf . Elsass and Braunschweig were assigned to engage the Russian pre @-@ dreadnought Slava and preventing her from disrupting the German minesweepers . When it became clear that the minesweepers could not clear the minefield before nightfall , however , Schmidt called off the attempt . A second attempt was made on 16 August . Elsass remained outside the Gulf , while the dreadnoughts Nassau and Posen dealt with Slava . By 19 August , the Russian minefields had been cleared and the flotilla entered the Gulf . However , reports of Allied submarines in the area prompted the German fleet to call off the operation the following day .
Due to manpower shortages , the ships of the IV Squadron were demobilized . On 25 July 1916 , Elsass became a drill ship and a floating barracks , based in Kiel . The Treaty of Versailles , which ended the war , specified that Germany was permitted to retain six battleships of the older " Deutschland or Lothringen class . " Elsass was kept and used as a training ship in the Reichsmarine .
In 1923 , the aging ship underwent a major overhaul . Elsass was dry @-@ docked in the Reichsmarinewerft in Wilhelmshaven , where the conning tower was rebuilt . Work was completed the following year . She and Braunschweig , with the Deutschland @-@ class battleship Schlesien , were assigned to the North Sea Station . Elsass served with the fleet until she was withdrawn from active service on 25 February 1930 . She was stricken from the naval register on 31 March 1931 and served as a hulk in Wilhelmshaven until 31 October 1935 , when the Reichsmarine sold her to Technischer Betrieb des Norddeutscher Lloyd . Elsass was broken up for scrap the following year .
= Jumping Flash ! =
Jumping Flash ! is a first @-@ person platform video game co @-@ developed by Exact and Ultra and published by Sony Computer Entertainment . The first instalment in the Jumping Flash ! series , it was first released for the PlayStation on 28 April 1995 in Japan , 29 September 1995 in Europe and 1 November 1995 in North America . It was re @-@ released through PlayStation Network store on PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable in 2007 .
Presented in a first @-@ person perspective , the game follows a robotic rabbit named " Robbit " as he searches for missing jet pods scattered by the game 's astrophysicist antagonist character Baron Aloha . Robbit must explore each section of Crater Planet to retrieve all of the jet pods , stop Aloha and save the world from being destroyed . The game was designed as a technology demonstrator for the PlayStation console and was revealed in early 1994 under the provisional title of " Spring Man " . Jumping Flash ! utilises much of the game engine used in Geograph Seal , an earlier game by Exact for the Sharp X68000 home computer .
Jumping Flash ! has been described as an ancestor of as well as an early showcase for 3D graphics in console gaming . It was generally well received by critics , who praised its graphics and unique 3D platforming gameplay , but it was eventually overshadowed by later 3D platformers of the fifth console generation . Jumping Flash ! spawned two sequels : Jumping Flash ! 2 and Robbit Mon Dieu . The game was described as the third @-@ most underrated video game of all time by Matt Casamassina of IGN in 2007 . It also holds the Guinness World Record as the " first platform video game in true 3D " .
= = Gameplay = =
Jumping Flash ! is presented in a first @-@ person perspective . The player assumes the role of Robbit , a robotic rabbit , and can freely move Robbit in three @-@ dimensional space and can rotate the camera in any direction . The top part of the screen shows the remaining time , the player 's score , and a character named Kumagoro — Robbit 's sidekick artificial intelligence who offers the player warnings and hints . The top left corner of the screen shows the collected power @-@ ups ; the top right corner contains the radar showing the locations of objects including enemies , power @-@ ups , jet pods and enemy projectiles . The bottom shows a health meter on the sides and the number of remaining lives in the centre . The player starts the game with three lives ; a new life is granted once one million points are earned .
The core of the gameplay is focused on the player 's ability to make Robbit jump . Robbit can jump up to three times in mid @-@ air , which allows him to reach extreme heights . Unlike other platform games that continue to face horizontally when the player jumps , in Jumping Flash ! the camera tilts downwards when a double @-@ jump or triple @-@ jump is performed to allow the player to see Robbit 's shadow and easily plan a landing spot . The player has the ability to shoot a low @-@ powered laser beam at a target indicator in the middle of the screen . The player can find and use fireworks for Robbit to damage enemies . These include cherry bombs , rockets , Roman candles and spinners .
Each level has a time limit of ten minutes , which ends the game if it is exceeded . A player losing all lives is presented with a choice to continue or return to the title screen . Power @-@ ups scattered across each world , presented as picture frames , include carrots that extend Robbit 's health , extra lives , time @-@ outs that stop the clock and freeze the level 's dynamics for a few seconds , hourglasses that extend the player 's time , and power pills that make Robbit invincible for a short period of time . Enemies in the game vary from anthropomorphic versions of creatures to robots and plants .
The game is composed of five worlds with three levels each , totalling to 18 main levels . The objective of the main levels in each world is to collect four jet pods . Each final level of a world consists of a boss fight . The level designs vary from snow @-@ capped mountains to carnivals . While most of the levels are large , outdoor excursions , two are enclosed within a narrow interior . The game features hidden bonus levels , which are triggered when secret entrances are found . Bonus levels consist of blocks with balloons in them ; popping the balloons yields either coins or power @-@ ups . A time attack mode is available for any level the player has completed .
= = Plot = =
The game begins on Crater Planet and revolves around the story of an insane astrophysicist , Baron Aloha . Planning to make a large profit from his evil ingenuity , Aloha removes giant pieces of land from the planet using machines to turn them into private resorts . Aloha also removes and hides the twelve jet pods that propel each world . Witnessing the destruction , the residents of Crater Planet call for help , and in response the Universal City Hall dispatches one of their agents , a mechanical rabbit named Robbit . Robbit is ordered to explore each world to retrieve the jet pods , stop Aloha , and save Crater Planet from destruction . At the end of the game , Aloha flees to his home , Little Muu , and vows revenge on Robbit .
Throughout the game , Aloha surrounds himself with creatures called MuuMuus that appear as small , white , five @-@ limbed creatures with miniature palm trees on their heads . Many of the game 's full motion videos feature the MuuMuus in an izakaya tavern , recounting their defeat at the hands of Robbit .
= = Development and release = =
Jumping Flash ! was developed by Japanese developers Exact ( Excellent Application Create Team ) and Ultra . The game was first revealed in early 1994 under the provisional title " Spring Man " as a technology demonstration for the upcoming PlayStation console . Sony Computer Entertainment hoped Jumping Flash ! would be remembered as the first appearance of a new " platform star " with the same longevity as Sonic the Hedgehog or Mario . The game uses the same engine and shares similar gameplay traits with Geograph Seal , a 3D platform game released for the Sharp X68000 home computer the previous year by Exact . After seeing Geograph Seal and realising the potential in their game design , Sony 's director of entertainment in Japan , Koji Tada , paired Exact with Ultra to develop a new game for the upcoming PlayStation console . Tada replaced Hiroyuki Saegusa as director of the game , although he had kept all key Exact staff to work on the project .
The initial development was split into two phases . Exact developed the game engine and its gameplay ; Ultra designed the story and 3D cutscenes , and created characters such as the mechanical rabbit protagonist , Robbit . Ultra felt they needed to depart from the " stereotypical science fiction vibe " that included the usual " space ranger " or double agent protagonists . To create a sense of individuality among platform games , the developers implemented a dynamic camera that would automatically pan down towards the shadow of Robbit on the ground during large jumps , allowing players to carefully line up their landings . Jumping Flash ! was considered the first game of the platform genre to be developed with full 3D computer graphics . The music for Jumping Flash ! was composed by Japanese video games and anime music composer Takeo Miratsu . Many of the tracks , along with tracks from Jumping Flash ! 2 , were included on the Jumping Flash ! 2 Original Soundtrack album , which Miratsu also composed .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The game received generally positive reviews upon release . Critics mainly praised its unique innovation , advanced graphics , gameplay and clean textures . The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly gave it their " Game of the Month " award , citing the outstanding graphics and particularly the innovative 3D gameplay . They described the style as " cutesy " but not off @-@ putting . " Major Mike " of GamePro said that despite the game appearing " strange " , it had action , strategy , and some humour . Next Generation said that " [ many ] of the boundaries have been redefined in a big way " , contrasting it with side @-@ scrolling platformers with a first @-@ person perspective and explorable 3D environments . They called it " simply superb " and gave it a " Revolutionary " five @-@ star rating .
Maximum stated that Jumping Flash ! was one of the most " imaginative , playable , enjoyable " and original titles seen on the fifth generation of video game consoles . They criticised its length and lack of difficulty , expressing that it could have been one of the " greatest games ever " if it was longer and more difficult , and questioned whether it was " a really worthwhile " purchase . Game Revolution called the graphics " mind blowing " and the game itself " totally unique " , but criticised the overall length and ease of play . IGN 's 1996 review similarly disapproved the difficulty , stating that despite the small worlds and easy difficulty , it is " a great , genre @-@ pushing game " , also saying it is an essential for all PlayStation owners . In a 2007 review , Greg Miller of IGN condemned the graphics as " dated " , having " jagged edges " and " muddled " colours , and said every aspect of the game is " weak " and that it had not stood " the test of time " . In a retrospective review , Andrew Yoon of Engadget praised the gameplay and innovation , saying the " grainy " and " antiquated " graphics did no harm to the vibrant atmosphere of the game .
Speaking in 2007 , Rob Fahey of Eurogamer stated that Jumping Flash ! was arguably one of the most important ancestors of any 3D platform game , as well as asserting that the game would always have a part in videogaming history . Albert Kim of Entertainment Weekly stated that the game provided perhaps the most euphoric sensation of videogaming at the time and described the first @-@ person perspective as " hypnotic " . Matt Thorson , the creator of the indie video game TowerFall , praised the game , saying " something about the sensation of leaping through 3D space captured my childhood imagination " .
1UP.com cited its first @-@ person platforming as a precursor to Mirror 's Edge , despite suggesting that the jumping remained " woefully out of place " in the platform genre . In 2007 , Matt Casamassina of IGN ranked Jumping Flash ! as the third @-@ most underrated video game of all time . After release , co @-@ developer Ultra renamed themselves " Muu Muu " , after the creatures featured in the game .
= = = Sequels = = =
Due to its popularity , Sony produced two sequels to Jumping Flash ! , including one spin @-@ off . A direct sequel , Jumping Flash ! 2 — also developed by Exact — was released worldwide for the PlayStation the following year ; it continued the story of Robbit and the subsequent rise and fall of Baron Aloha . The game received positive reviews upon release , with critics particularly praising its updated features . Robbit Mon Dieu was released exclusively in Japan for the PlayStation in 1999 , and was the final instalment in the series . It was met with mixed reviews , and following Exact 's merger with SCEI in 2000 , the series came to an end . Both Jumping Flash ! and Jumping Flash ! 2 were re @-@ released via the PlayStation Network in 2007 and 2009 , respectively . A loose spin @-@ off titled Pocket MuuMuu was released exclusively in Japan for the PocketStation in 1999 before Exact 's closure .
= Arthur B. McBride =
Arthur B. " Mickey " McBride ( March 20 , 1888 – November 10 , 1972 ) was the founder of the Cleveland Browns professional American football team in the All @-@ America Football Conference and National Football League . During McBride 's tenure as owner of the Browns from 1944 to 1953 , the team won five league championships and reached the championship game two more times . It was the most successful period for a Cleveland sports team in the city 's modern history . McBride was also a real estate developer and investor active in Cleveland , Chicago and Florida . He owned taxi @-@ cab companies in Cleveland and a horse racing news wire that sold information to bookmakers . He had ties to organized crime figures arising from the wire service , but was never arrested or convicted of a crime .
= = Early career = =
McBride was born in Chicago , where he worked as a newsboy from the age of six . His first real job was for publishing tycoon William Randolph Hearst 's organization in Los Angeles , San Francisco , Boston and Chicago . He moved to Cleveland in 1913 , when he was in his mid @-@ twenties , to be circulation manager for the Cleveland News . It was a time when circulation battles over newsstands and street corners often turned violent . He started with the News on a $ 10 @,@ 000 salary ( $ 239 @,@ 428 in today 's dollars ) and was charged with organizing the paper 's newsboys . " This meant choosing strong young men comfortable fighting with fists , clubs , knives , chains and , when they could get them , handguns , " author Ted Schwarz wrote . " They were the business equivalent of the street gang , and McBride 's salary depended on how well he organized his newsboys to avoid losing their corners to one or more violent rivals . "
Having built up a fortune in newspapers and purchased apartment buildings in the Cleveland suburb of Lakewood , McBride in 1930 went into business for himself . In 1931 , he bought a majority stake in Cleveland 's Zone Cab Company , which later merged with the Yellow Cab Company to form the city 's biggest taxi operator . He also had taxi businesses in Akron and Canton , two cities southeast of Cleveland . As his taxi businesses prospered , McBride invested in real estate in Cleveland , Chicago and Florida . In the late 1930s , he leveraged his newspaper connections to launch a wire service that supplied bookmakers with the results of horse races . This put him in contact with organized crime figures who were behind gambling operations that relied on such services . He invested in the Continental Press and Empire News , both based in Cleveland and run by mobsters Morris " Mushy " Wexler and Sam " Gameboy " Miller . James Ragen , another friend and associate in the wire business , was murdered in 1946 in a Chicago gangland feud . A federal grand jury in 1940 indicted 18 people , including McBride and Wexler , over the supply of information used in gambling . The allegations were based on federal laws that forbade interstate transmission of lottery results ; prosecutors treated the race results as lottery lists . He was never arrested or tried over his role in the business , however .
= = Cleveland Browns = =
McBride was a fan of boxing and baseball , but knew little about football . He only grew interested in the sport in 1940 , when his son Arthur Jr. was a student the University of Notre Dame and he attended Notre Dame Fighting Irish football games in South Bend , Indiana . He was drawn by the excitement that surrounded football and thought a professional team could be profitable . In 1942 , McBride made overtures to supermarket heir Dan Reeves about buying his Cleveland Rams , a National Football League team , but Reeves rebuffed him . In 1944 , however , Chicago Tribune sports editor Arch Ward proposed a new professional league called the All @-@ America Football Conference . McBride , who knew Ward from his days in the newspaper business , eagerly signed on as the owner of the eight @-@ team circuit 's Cleveland franchise .
McBride first set his sights on Notre Dame 's Frank Leahy as his team 's head coach , and the two men shook hands on a deal to make him coach and general manager . Not wanting to lose Leahy , however , Notre Dame 's president objected and McBride backed off . He then asked Cleveland Plain Dealer sportswriter John Dietrich who he should hire . Dietrich suggested Paul Brown , the Ohio State Buckeyes coach who was then serving in the U.S. Navy and coaching a team at the Great Lakes Naval Training Station outside of Chicago . With his limited football knowledge , McBride had never heard of Brown , and it was Ward who made the initial approach . McBride later met with Brown , whose star was on the rise after bringing Ohio State its first national championship in 1942 , and offered him $ 17 @,@ 500 a year ( $ 253 @,@ 447 in current dollar terms ) – the biggest salary for any football coach at any level – and an ownership stake in the team . He also offered Brown a stipend for the rest of his time in the military . Brown accepted the position , saying that while he was sad to leave Ohio State , he " couldn 't turn down this deal in fairness to my family . "
McBride spared no expense in promoting the team and gave Brown full control over personnel . Brown went out and signed future stars including tackle and placekicker Lou Groza , wide receiver Dante Lavelli and quarterback Otto Graham , who got $ 7 @,@ 500 a year and a $ 250 monthly stipend until the end of World War II . McBride then held a contest to name the team in May 1945 ; " Cleveland Panthers " was the most popular choice , but Brown rejected it because it was the name of an earlier failed football team . " That old Panthers team failed , " Brown said . " I want no part of that name . " In August , McBride gave in to popular demand and christened the team the Browns , despite Paul Brown 's objections .
As the team prepared for its first season in 1946 , McBride stepped aside and let Brown run it . The Browns were an immediate success , both financially and on the field . A capacity crowd of 35 @,@ 964 saw the Browns play their first preseason game at the Akron Rubber Bowl , and the team led all of football in attendance in 1946 and 1947 . The Browns , meanwhile , won every AAFC championship between 1946 and 1949 . McBride proposed for the Browns to play an inter @-@ league championship game with the National Football League champion Philadelphia Eagles in 1948 and 1949 , but the NFL shot down the idea . He also played a role in negotiating peace between the AAFC and NFL after competition for talent drove up player salaries and ate into owners ' profits . After the 1949 season , the AAFC dissolved and three of its teams , including the Browns , merged into the more established NFL .
In the Browns ' early years , Paul Brown wanted to keep on reserve a number of promising players who did not make the team 's official roster . McBride made this happen by putting the reserves on his payroll as taxi drivers , although none of them were asked to drive cabs . This group came to be known as the " taxi squad " , a term still in use to describe players kept on hand to fill in for injured team members . The taxi squad was just one of the ways in which McBride backed Brown . He viewed owning the team as primarily a civic duty – as a gift to the city . " Cleveland has been good to me , " he said in a 1947 interview . " I 've made a great deal of money here . If I was looking for a get @-@ rich @-@ quick investment , the last thing I 'd do is buy a pro football club . It 's a risky business . Too much depends on ideal weather conditions , and this is no climate to risk a buck on a raindrop . "
The Browns continued to succeed upon entering the NFL in 1950 , winning the championship that year and reaching the title game in both 1951 and 1952 . In January 1951 , McBride testified in nationally televised hearings before the Kefauver Committee , where he was questioned about his Continental Press Service and alleged ties to organized crime and illegal gambling . It emerged that McBride partnered with Cleveland police captain John Fleming in real estate deals and had Fleming on the Yellow Cab payroll until 1941 . McBride denied the mafia connections , claimed he never broke the law and was never charged with any crime . Congress later passed legislation making such wire services illegal .
During the summer before the 1953 season , McBride sold the Browns for $ 600 @,@ 000 ( $ 5 @,@ 306 @,@ 716 in today 's dollars ) , more than twice the largest sum ever paid for a professional football team . The old stockholders were McBride and his son Edward , along with minority owners including taxi business associate Dan Sherby , Brown and four others . The buyers were a group of prominent Cleveland men : Dave R. Jones , a businessman and former Cleveland Indians director , Ellis Ryan , a former Cleveland Indians president , Homer Marshman , an attorney who had founded the Cleveland Rams , Saul Silberman , owner of the horse race track later known as Thistledown Racecourse , and Ralph DeChairo , an associate of Silberman . While McBride never said so , the Kefauver hearings and the growing public association between him and the mafia may have played a role in his decision to get out of football . McBride said he had simply " had his fling " with football and wanted to concentrate on other business activities . " Well , I came out clean after all , " he said . " Considering what happened to some of the other fellows who started the old All @-@ America Conference with me , this isn 't so bad . I never made anything , but I didn 't lose anything either , except maybe a few thousand dollars . "
McBride 's tenure as owner was viewed favorably , partly because of the Browns ' on @-@ field success but also because he gave Paul Brown a free hand to coach and sign players . One of the new ownership group 's first acts was to assure Cleveland fans that Brown would retain complete control over the football side of the operation .
= = Later life and death = =
McBride continued to direct his taxi and real estate businesses after he sold the Browns , but he kept out of the public eye . He died of a heart attack at the Cleveland Clinic and was buried in Cleveland 's Holy Cross Cemetery . He was married to the former Mary Jane Kane . They had three children : Arthur B. , Jr . , Edward and Jane .
= Ontario Highway 91 =
King 's Highway 91 , commonly referred to as Highway 91 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that connected Highway 24 south of Collingwood with Highway 26 in Stayner , a distance of 7 @.@ 9 km ( 4 @.@ 9 mi ) . The majority of the route travels through farmland , with the exception of the portion within Stayner . Highway 91 was established in mid 1937 along an existing road . Aside from paving in 1965 , the highway remained unchanged until it was decommissioned at the beginning of 1998 and transferred to Simcoe County . Today the route is officially known as Simcoe County Road 91 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 91 began at Highway 24 in the community of Duntroon , lying 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) south of Collingwood within Simcoe County . From there it travelled east through farmland , passing north of the Stayner Aerodrome at its midpoint . East of Fairgrounds Road , the route entered Stayner . On the outskirts of the community several industrial and commercial buildings line the route , but are quickly replaced by residential housing moving eastward . In the centre of town , the highway encountered Highway 26 at its eastern terminus . Today , the route of former Highway 91 is known as Simcoe County Road 91 . This route continues west of former Highway 24 to the Simcoe – Grey County boundary at Grey County Road 91 . The entire route is straight , following an old concession line .
= = History = =
The Duntroon to Stayner Road was first assumed by the Department of Highways as Highway 91 on August 11 , 1937 , the same date as the portion of Highway 24 lying within Simcoe County . Although some initial improvement was carried out on the muddy farm road , the new highway remained gravel @-@ surfaced until 1965 . Beyond that , the highway remained unaltered until it was transferred , or downloaded , to Simcoe County on January 1 , 1998 . Simcoe County subsequently redesignated the road as Simcoe County Road 91 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 91 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in Simcoe County .
= Briskeby Arena =
Briskeby Arena , previously known as Briskeby gressbane , is an all @-@ seater football stadium located at Briskebyen in Hamar , Norway . It is home to the Norwegian First Division side Hamarkameratene ( Ham @-@ Kam ) and is owned by Hamar Municipality . The venue has artificial turf , three stands and a capacity for 8 @,@ 068 spectators . It was used for the 1938 Norwegian Football Cup Final — which saw the venue 's record 14 @,@ 500 spectators — and has also hosted five Norway national under @-@ 21 football team matches between 1984 and 2011 .
Construction started in 1934 and the venue opened on 28 June 1936 as the first home venue for Briskebyen FL . The club merged with Hamar AIL in 1946 to form Ham @-@ Kam . The new club has played since 1970 played 22 seasons in the top tier , having been relegated eight times , most recently in 2008 . Ham @-@ Kam 's record home attendance is 11 @,@ 500 , dating from a 1976 match against Lillestrøm . In 1984 , the club house was rebuilt with luxury boxes and a new 2 @,@ 400 @-@ seat East Stand was built . The investments lead the club into financial distress , and in 1993 the municipality had to purchase the venue to save the club . Planning of a new or upgraded venue started in 2001 , construction started in 2007 and the first stage was completed the following year . It cost 111 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) , having suffered large cost overruns .
= = History = =
= = = Construction and early years = = =
Freidig was established in 1918 as a local team for Briskebyen in what was then the municipality of Vang . At the time there was a severe lack of pitches in Hamar , so the club was forced to sneak into unused venues and play until they were chased by the groundskeeper . The club was accepted as a member of the Football Association of Norway ( NFF ) in 1927 , changing its name to Briskebyen FL . This forced it to formalize its pitch renting so it would have a single home venue for each season . In 1928 and 1929 , it played at Vangsbanen , from 1930 through 1933 at Ottestad bane , and from 1934 at Hamar stadion .
As the club was dissatisfied with this arrangement , it launched plans to establish its own venues . First it needed to secure a lot , and in the late 1920s lied its eyes on a parcel of land owned by Hamar Jernstøperi . However , the lot was sold to Oplandske Kreditbank in 1930 and the club had to negotiate purchasing the lot from the bank . The club established a new committee to look into the stadium issue . Hamar IL was invited to become part @-@ owner of the venue , but they chose to remain at Hamar stadion . As Briskebyen was not able to secure a partner to share the costs with , opposition towards the project grew within the club . Yet , the decision to build the venue was taken by Briskebyen FL 's annual meeting on 15 April 1934 , with construction starting on 26 April .
The venue was estimated to cost NOK 26 @,@ 500 . Financing included a NOK 3 @,@ 000 grant from NFF , NOK 1 @,@ 500 from the municipality and NOK 1 @,@ 800 from the club . The rest was secured through various charity events , 320 of 1 @,@ 500 man @-@ days being volunteer work and a NOK 8 @,@ 000 loan from NFF . Construction in 1934 consisted of removing 5 @,@ 600 cubic meters ( 200 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of earthwork and laying sewer pipes . The following year , 200 cubic meters ( 7 @,@ 100 cu ft ) of rock was blasted and the pitch was sown on 3 and 4 September . Construction of the terraces and dressing rooms took place in 1936 . Work was not concluded until the morning of the inauguration match on 28 June 1936 , when the last fence was mounted . Briskeby was the first grass pitch in Hedmark and was inaugurated with a match against Lyn , who won 4 – 1 . The venue cost NOK 32 @,@ 036 @.@ 28 , leaving the club with a debt of NOK 18 @,@ 688 @.@ 93 . The venue was awarded the 1938 Norwegian Football Cup Final , which required additional upgrades , largely conducted through volunteer work .
The venue was confiscated by the German occupation forces during World War II , who built a cold storage facility south of the pitch . In 1945 , after five years of occupation , the pitch was in a detrimental state . The stadium received a major renovation , including a new pitch and replacing half the wooden terraces with concrete stands . The cold facility was converted to a club house and a basement was dug out and used as a changing room . In 1946 , parts of Vang , including Briskebyen , were amalgamated with Hamar . The same year , Hamar Municipality signed an agreement with the club whereby municipal subsidies would cover the operating costs in exchange for the club allocating training time to other clubs .
= = = Debt and municipalization = = =
In 1982 , the club decided that it would build a new 2 @,@ 400 @-@ seat stand on the eastern long side . A low construction cost was secured because the construction industry was going through a slump . The costs were covered by NOK 2 @.@ 5 million in national lottery grants and NOK 2 million in loan , which was planned to be repaid through increased sponsor and ticket revenues from increased attendance . The upgrade also included a reconstruction
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OK 92 @.@ 5 million to build and NOK 19 million for purchase of real estate . By April 2010 , BG had combined negative assets , debt and received grants of NOK 240 million . Of this , NOK 78 million was written @-@ off bad debts to BE1 and NOK 19 million was purchase of lots . On 25 September 2009 , Hamar Municipality bought HSA , BG , BIP and BE1 for NOK 73 @,@ 000 . In December 2009 , the municipality increased the share capital in BG with NOK 16 million and in BE1 with NOK 32 million .
With then opening of the venue , Ham @-@ Kam rented 2 @,@ 000 square meters ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , consisting of 1 @,@ 300 square meters ( 14 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of lounges and 700 square meters ( 7 @,@ 500 sq ft ) for its offices , for which the team played NOK 2 to 3 million per year . In the 2010 season , Ham @-@ Kam played in the Second Division , resulting in the entire VIP area remaining unused . Artificial turf was laid on the stadium in August 2011 .
In August 2011 , an investigation of the HSA affair was initiated by the municipality , with the investigation costing NOK 7 million . The report concluded that a large number of illegal action had been taken in the process : HSA had used money reserved for sport for commercial development ; irregular executive work in HEH and lack of correction were conducted after errors were discovered in 2007 ; important instructions from the municipal council were not followed ; illegal executive work was undertaken in the holding companies ; BE1 did not file for bankruptcy after it had lost its equity ; the use of an unnecessarily complex company structure ; violation on the laws of public sector procurements ; violation on European Economic Area law on public grants ; expensive consulting contracts , without tender , which gave the consultants too much influence on the process ; and that the board composition in the companies was in violation with good corporate governance practices .
= = Facilities = =
The new section of Briskeby has the same style and building materials as the two other main sports venues in Hamar , Vikingskipet and Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre , which were built for the 1994 Winter Olympics . The venue has capacity for 8 @,@ 068 spectators and has club seating 600 people . The pitch is 105 by 68 meters ( 344 by 223 ft ) artificial turf . Around the pitch are 180 digital advertising board . There are two 40 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 430 sq ft ) scoreboard screens . The stands have 13 concession stands , all which are built to allow a view of the pitch while standing in a queue .
= = Events = =
The venue was home ground for Briskebyen from its opening . In its inaugural season , the club was newly relegated to Class B , as most of the club 's effort had gone to building the venue . From 1937 the club again played in Class A. The venue was also used for matches where a mixed Briskebyen and Hamar IL played friendlies against foreign teams . No official matches were played during the Second World War . In April 1946 , Briskebyen FL merged with Hamar AIL to create Hamarkameratene .
Ham @-@ Kam remained at lower levels in the league system until the 1960s , when it was promoted to the Second Division ( then the second tier ) after the 1967 season . Ham @-@ Kam was promoted to the First Division ( then the top tier ) ahead of the 1970 season . They have since played in the top league in the periods 1970 – 74 , 1976 – 77 , 1979 , 1981 – 84 , 1986 – 87 , 1992 – 95 , 2004 – 06 and 2008 . The club 's eight relegation from the top league is a Norwegian record . After the 2009 season , the club was further relegated to the Second Division , but returned to the First Division ( now the second tier ) in 2011 . For a Ham @-@ Kam match , the record attendance is 11 @,@ 500 , which dates from the 27 May 1976 league match against Lillestrøm .
The venue hosted the 1938 Norwegian Football Cup Final on 16 October 1938 , where Fredrikstad beat Mjøndalen 3 – 2 . The match attracted 14 @,@ 500 spectators , which still stands as Briskeby 's record attendance . Briskeby has hosted five Norway national under @-@ 21 football team matches , having played 0 – 0 against Poland on 28 August 1984 , 3 – 0 against Switzerland on 2 June 1992 , 2 – 1 against Switzerland on 16 August 2005 , 2 – 1 against Hungary on 28 May 2010 and 1 – 4 against Sweden on 2 June 2011 .
= SECR N1 class =
The SECR N1 class was a type of 3 @-@ cylinder 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 ( ' mogul ' ) steam locomotive designed by Richard Maunsell for mixed traffic duties , initially on the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) , and later operated for the Southern Railway ( SR ) . The N1 was a development of the basic principles established by the Great Western Railway 's ( GWR ) Chief Mechanical Engineer ( CME ) George Jackson Churchward and by Maunsell 's previous N class design .
The N1 prototype was the result of modifications made to N class No. 822 during construction in 1922 . The locomotive became operational in 1923 and used parts interchangeable with other Maunsell locomotive classes . The prototype N1 was the only member of the class constructed before the SECR became part of the Southern Railway at the Grouping in 1923 , and featured a variant of the Gresley conjugated valve gear designed by Harold Holcroft . The class set the precedent for the Southern Railway 's subsequent 3 @-@ cylinder designs .
The N1s compared favourably with the N class , although the type showed little improvement in performance . More of the class were built when it became clear that the type 's smaller cylinders provided greater route availability . A total of six engines were built . The N1 class was primarily used on the Eastern section of the Southern Railway network , and used by the Southern Region of British Railways ( BR ) from 1948 . The N1s gave valuable service until they were withdrawn in 1962 . None were preserved .
= = Background = =
Richard Maunsell 's N class mixed @-@ traffic 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 prototype for the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) was completed in 1917 . It showed a marked improvement in performance over his predecessor Harry Wainwright 's 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 and 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 designs when tested on freight and local passenger trains . The success of the prototype encouraged the SECR management to order a batch of 15 in 1919 after government restrictions regulating locomotive production during the First World War were relaxed . Ashford locomotive works was already committed to undertaking deferred repair work however , which temporarily slowed construction of new locomotives . This resulted in the gradual completion of the 1919 N class order as works capacity permitted between 1920 and 1923 .
Operational experience with the N class prototype demonstrated that it was capable of coping with peacetime passenger and freight traffic on the mainline between London and Ramsgate , but Maunsell anticipated an increase in traffic that would require a more powerful locomotive capable of hauling longer trains . The use of larger engines was prevented by low permitted axle loadings on parts of the SECR network , caused by economies in track construction by using flint beach pebbles as track ballast ; this material failed to hold the track in place when under strain and could not support heavy locomotives . In the meantime Maunsell settled upon producing a 3 @-@ cylinder version of the N class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 , which provided the opportunity to test a variant of the Gresley conjugated valve gear developed by his assistant , Harold Holcroft .
= = Design and construction = =
For detailed information on the Holcroft valve gear and numbering variations , see : Holcroft valve gear and Livery and numbering
Maunsell and Holcroft completed plans for a new 3 @-@ cylinder locomotive in 1919 . Designated N1 , the new design was an attempt to increase the operational flexibility and power of the SECR 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 without substantially increasing axle loading . Holcroft 's previous employment as an engineer involved with the GWR 's 4300 class meant that the N1 used the same Churchward features as the N class to aid standardisation and the manufacture of parts . These included the use of long @-@ travel valves for free running at speed , right @-@ hand drive in the cab and 5 ft 6 in ( 1 @,@ 680 mm ) driving wheels . The retention of the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 wheel arrangement meant ample accommodation for the N class ' tapered boiler with Belpaire firebox . As with the N class , detail design on the N1 was left to another of Maunsell 's assistants , James Clayton , who brought functional Midland Railway influences to the design : the loading gauge @-@ friendly shape of the cab , the tender and the large @-@ diameter smokebox . The smokebox housed a large superheater , regulator valve and snifting ( anti @-@ vacuum ) valves . The N1 also retained Walschaerts valve gear on both outside cylinders .
The main design differences with the N class included the cab front , exhaust arrangements , and the addition of an extra ( inside ) cylinder between the frames to drive the centre driving axle . Clayton had revised the layout of the cab front spectacle plates ( small windows on the front of the cab ) to improve forward visibility . This incorporated two large single panes of glass either side of the boiler instead of the four smaller windows used on the N class . The inside cylinder was to be actuated by Holcroft 's design of conjugated valve gear , which consisted of mechanical links fitted to both sets of outside Walschaerts gear , eliminating the need for a separate set of valve gear between the frames to operate the inside cylinder . The result would be a reduction in weight and the amount of mechanical equipment located in this inaccessible part of the locomotive .
Holcroft ’ s valve gear design was also an attempt to address the problems associated with Gresley ’ s conjugated valve gear , which was prone to variations in valve events caused by heat expansion of the valve spindles within the pistons . The design utilised the motion of the outside valve rods ( the rods transmitting the motion of the driving axles to the valves , such as the combination lever ) instead , although the restricted space between the back of the outside cylinders and the front driving wheels made it impossible to locate the rocking arms controlling the conjugating mechanism in the vicinity . Holcroft ’ s solution was to move the mechanism to a position above the pony truck and ahead of the cylinders and link it to the outside valve rods with extension levers , which had to be accommodated within the strict SECR loading gauge tolerances . This necessitated a new design of cylinder block whereby the outside steam chests were set inwards and the size of the cylinders reduced to 16 in × 28 in ( 406 mm × 711 mm ) stroke and diameter . The sides of the outside cylinders consequently sloped inwards towards the top in a configuration similar to GWR 2 @-@ cylinder locomotives , thus providing ample space in which to accommodate the extension levers . The inside cylinder and conjugation assembly were set at an incline of 1 in 8 to clear the front pony truck , leaving space for a third set of independent Walschaerts valve gear between the frames should Holcroft ’ s conjugation mechanism prove unreliable in service .
Another issue concerned the strength of the locomotive frames around the cylinders . Taking inspiration from the 3 @-@ cylinder locomotives designed by Vincent Raven for the North Eastern Railway , Holcroft suggested that all three cylinders and associated steam passages should be cast in a single block , with rectangular holes cut into the frames to enable the outside cylinders to project through them . However , the SECR ’ s established practice of using outside steam chests on locomotives with outside cylinders prevented this , and the design team resorted to cutting a gap in the frames to accommodate the outside cylinders , which were then secured in place with a bolted splice plate . Production limitations at the Ashford works foundry also prevented the manufacture of a single casting that incorporated all three cylinders . This meant that the cylinder castings were split into two sections , with the left and inside cylinders forming a single unit that would be bolted onto a separate right @-@ hand cylinder casting . Holcroft ’ s new cylinder block design also incorporated a separate saddle casting , a configuration that allowed the N1 cylinder patterns to be used with any diameter of smokebox , creating a standard component with potential applications on future locomotive designs .
= = = Prototype = = =
The construction of the prototype at Ashford railway works was approved by the SECR management to commence in 1919 . However , Ashford works was heavily engaged in tackling a backlog of repair and maintenance work caused by government restrictions during the First World War with little spare capacity for new construction projects , particularly when approval for the construction of the N1 prototype coincided with a priority order for 15 2 @-@ cylinder N class locomotives . In consequence , the works backlog meant that only 12 N class locomotives were completed between June 1920 and October 1922 .
Seeing little sign of an increase in production capacity at Ashford , Maunsell decided to construct the prototype N1 locomotive from parts intended for use on the next N class locomotive in the batch , No. 822 . The outside cylinders were exchanged for the N1 type , which had been machined at the GWR 's Swindon railway works following casting at Ashford to quicken construction once the N class frames were modified to accept the new design of cylinder block . This produced a robust chassis capable of supporting both sets of Walschaerts and the Holcroft conjugated valve gear . The latter was provided with grease @-@ gun lubrication points to ease maintenance .
A distinguishing feature of the locomotive was the high @-@ set N class boiler , which was pitched 3 @.@ 5 in ( 89 mm ) above the frames to accommodate the inside cylinder assembly , potentially exposing the conjugation mechanism to the elements . To prevent corrosion , Maunsell incorporated a vertical metal cover above the front buffer beam to protect the inside cylinder and valve gear assembly , the main visual difference from the N class . Maunsell and Holcroft anticipated that the standard N class chimney would choke the exhaust blast produced by the three cylinders . To mitigate this , a wider @-@ diameter blastpipe was cast for the locomotive and a new smokebox fabricated to accommodate a wide @-@ diameter cast chimney . The rest of the construction process followed the 1919 N1 specification , and the final three members of the order for 15 N class locomotives were built as intended . The N1 prototype was completed in December 1922 and attached to a standard Maunsell 3 @,@ 500 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 15 @,@ 911 l ) flat @-@ sided Ashford N class tender . It entered service on 24 March 1923 and the boiler pressure was reduced from 200 psi ( 1 @.@ 38 MPa ) to 180 psi ( 1 @.@ 24 MPa ) for No. 822 's fuel consumption to be compared with that of the 2 @-@ cylinder N class during trials .
= = = Southern Railway batch = = =
The completion of No. 822 coincided with the absorption of the SECR into the newly created Southern Railway in the 1923 Grouping . Maunsell was appointed the CME of the new company and embarked upon a greatly expanded programme of fleet standardisation to replace the inherited " pre @-@ Grouping " designs . In 1924 , No. 822 participated in a series of trials to compare the performance of the N , LSWR S15 and LB & SCR K classes when hauling freight trains of 65 loaded wagons between Woking and Eastleigh . Despite achieving the lowest coal consumption per mile of all the designs tested , the N1 prototype cost more to maintain and displayed poor steaming qualities that affected timekeeping . After the trials , No. 822 remained the sole N1 until 1929 , when the Southern Railway ordered a batch of five locomotives ( Nos. A876 – A880 ) . The intention was to increase the availability of the class to complement the newly introduced U1 class passenger locomotives on gauge @-@ restricted routes .
The batch was constructed at Ashford works and incorporated several refinements based upon operational experience with No. 822 and were given boilers set at 200 psi ( 1 @.@ 38 MPa ) . The other change was the discontinuation of the Holcroft valve gear because of the difficulty experienced in acquiring suitable spare parts for the prototype . The Southern Railway had also upgraded the permanent way on many of the former SECR routes by 1929 , removing many of the weight restrictions that inspired the use of the Holcroft gear in the first place . Maunsell was therefore free to use three separate sets of Walschaerts valve gear driven by the centre driving wheels and the crank axle , a system that was easier to maintain due to the wide availability of parts .
The new locomotives were completed between March and November 1930 . They were noticeably different from the prototype because the Holcroft conjugation mechanism above the outside cylinders was omitted , although the slab @-@ front and angled profile of the outside cylinders was retained . Other variations included a set of footsteps beneath the front buffer beam , reversion to the N class cast chimney design and a revised dome that incorporated the regulator to ease access during routine maintenance . Once complete , Nos. A876 – A880 were attached to flat @-@ sided 4 @,@ 000 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 18 @,@ 184 l ) tenders to increase operational range over the Southern Railway 's longer Eastern section routes . No further N1 locomotives were ordered after the completion of No . A880 as the mechanically similar U1 class was capable of undertaking a broader range of tasks . Although intended for intermediate passenger work , the latter 's 6 ft ( 1 @,@ 830 mm ) driving wheels were of little disadvantage when used on slower freight duties .
= = = N1 class construction history = = =
= = Operational details = =
The N1 class prototype was initially based at Bricklayers ' Arms shed for tests on services over the Eastern section . No. 822 became a familiar sight on freight workings between the Hither Green marshalling yard and Paddock Wood and on passenger trains between Tonbridge and Charing Cross , as increased train lengths on these duties had taxed the ex @-@ SECR 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 and 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 designs . This allocation also provided an opportunity for comparing performance against the 2 @-@ cylinder N class . The tests were complete by December 1923 and No. 822 was moved to Ashford shed and used on passenger services to Charing Cross . In 1925 , No. 822 was re @-@ allocated to Bricklayers Arms shed from where it was used on the gauge @-@ restricted Tonbridge – Hastings line for the first time . No. 822 proved ideal for this line but was again re @-@ allocated to Redhill for trials over the difficult undulating route to Reading in 1928 .
Despite the high maintenance costs and steaming difficulties revealed during the 1924 freight trials , the N1 prototype compared favourably against the N class , allowing the Southern Railway 's management to order the final five locomotives in 1929 . Nos. A876 – A880 were initially allocated to the Central section shed at New Cross , from where they were regularly used on through expresses from the LMS between Willesden Junction and Brighton and services to Hastings and Bognor Regis . Three of the class were moved to Tonbridge shed in 1931 to operate over the Hastings line whilst the other three remained at New Cross . The class was re @-@ allocated in 1935 with three based at Eastbourne on the Central section to haul through trains to the GWR and the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) . By 1939 the class was divided between New Cross , Stewarts Lane and Tonbridge sheds .
As with the preceding N class , the N1s were capable of hauling heavy loads at moderate speeds , a useful attribute that was exploited throughout the Second World War . They were mostly used on freight trains on both Central and Eastern sections although No. 1822 was recorded hauling a 17 – carriage troop special over the Redhill to Reading line in April 1942 . The entire class operated in the Hastings area during the build @-@ up to Operation Overlord in 1944 . On 3 May , No. 1878 was targeted by a German fighter near Rye but was undamaged . The entire class came into British Railways ' ownership in 1948 and was used on the Southern Region .
= = = Performance of the N1 class and modifications = = =
As a development of the N class , the N1 class represented the next step forward for the British 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 concept , creating a capable workhorse equally adept at hauling passenger and freight traffic . The prototype proved economical in service as it used 10 percent less coal than the N class , but used 11 percent more water . However , the N1 design proved capable of fast speeds ; No. 822 reached 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) during trials between Charing Cross and Tonbridge in 1923 . Once run @-@ in , No. 822 became popular amongst its regular crews as they favoured the way the three cylinders balanced cyclic forces on the driving axle . This resulted in improved riding characteristics on the footplate at low speeds whilst reducing mechanical wear and the effect of hammerblow on the track . The Holcroft valve gear also meant that No. 822 was a comparatively light locomotive that could be used on weight @-@ restricted routes .
Although successful at overcoming the problems associated with the Gresley conjugated valve gear , the Holcroft variant used on No. 822 suffered under a poor maintenance regime caused by the difficulty and expense of producing non @-@ standard spare parts at Ashford works . The main problems associated with the Holcroft gear included inadequate lubrication of the moving parts and the whipping of the conjugation levers connecting the inside cylinder to the outside motion while running at high speeds , which caused uneven steam distribution to the cylinders . In this respect , the N1 prototype offered little advantage over the simpler 2 @-@ cylinder Ns and the locomotive was rarely used on long @-@ distance runs on the Western section . Few modifications were made to the prototype before 1929 , although boiler pressure was increased to the full 200 psi ( 1 @.@ 38 MPa ) operating pressure in June 1925 .
The introduction of Nos. A876 – A880 into service allowed No . A822 to be withdrawn for rebuilding with three separate sets of Walschaerts valve gear in August 1931 . Other modifications included moving the regulator valve from the smokebox to a new N class @-@ type dome to ease access during routine maintenance and the addition of a front footstep behind the bufferbeam . Despite the opportunity to upgrade to the 4 @,@ 000 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 18 @,@ 184 l ) tender attached to the new class members , No . A822 retained its smaller @-@ capacity 3 @,@ 500 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 15 @,@ 911 l ) flat @-@ sided Ashford tender . The result of the various modifications was a heavier locomotive , although it now benefited from upgraded track on the Eastern section and the interchange of standardised parts that reduced the time needed to complete repairs . The rebuilt locomotive emerged from Ashford works as No. 1822 in October 1931 . Although the N1s displayed little overall improvement over the N class , they proved ideal for the gauge @-@ restricted Hastings route , where their narrower profile allowed them to operate through narrow bridges and tunnels , and their power enabled them to haul heavier trains than the predominant ex @-@ SECR 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 and 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s .
The last modification of the class undertaken by Maunsell was the gradual introduction of small smoke deflector plates from 1934 . These were fitted to improve driver visibility as a result of smoke deflection experiments made on the King Arthur class between 1926 and 1927 . Maunsell retired from the Southern Railway in 1937 and his replacement was Oliver Bulleid . Despite making various modifications to the steam circuit on other Maunsell classes , Bulleid saw no reason to make such drastic alterations to the N1 class . As a result , the final set of modifications made under Southern Railway ownership was made after the Second World War and included the removal of superfluous smokebox @-@ mounted anti @-@ vacuum snifting valves and the replacement of the wide @-@ diameter N1 chimney with the U1 type to improve draughting on the prototype ; the standard N class chimneys of the other five were also replaced . The class was well @-@ used by British Railways over both Central and Eastern sections between 1948 and 1962 and justified the fitting of Automatic Warning System ( AWS ) equipment in 1959 alongside the N class .
= = = Withdrawal = = =
Suitable work for the class began to decline under British Railways ownership after the widening of bridges and tunnels on the Hastings line , which enabled Bulleid 's powerful Q1 class 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 to be used on freight trains between Hastings and Tonbridge . Following the completion of the Kent Coast electrification in 1959 , the class was congregated at Tonbridge shed alongside members of the U1 class to haul local services throughout the Central section . The reduction of work over the Brighton main line and the prevalence of the N class precipitated another move to Stewarts Lane shed in London . However , with remaining work being allocated to Bulleid 's Light Pacifics , the class was withdrawn from service in November 1962 .
= = Livery and numbering = =
= = = SECR and Southern Railway = = =
No. 822 was completed before Grouping , and initially ran in the SECR 's unlined dark grey livery with white lettering and numbering . It was repainted at the same time as the resetting of the boiler pressure in June 1925 , in a dark olive green livery . The green was complemented with plain white lining , black borders and primrose yellow markings . This livery was also applied to the five locomotives built in 1930 . During the Second World War , when labour and paint were in short supply , the class was gradually repainted in matt black . The repainting took place during essential maintenance visits to Ashford works , and included the application of Bulleid 's " Sunshine " yellow block lettering and numerals on both tender and cabside . This livery was gradually replaced with gloss black between 1945 and 1947 .
The prototype was constructed as part of a batch of 15 N class locomotives ordered by the SECR and became No. 822 within this series . When repainted to Maunsell 's dark olive green livery , a prefix " A " was applied to the number to denote a locomotive allocated for overhaul at Ashford . The five locomotives constructed by the Southern Railway between March and November 1930 were numbered A876 – A880 . Shortly thereafter the prefix was dropped and 1000 added to the numbers as part of a general renumbering of Southern Railway locomotive stock ; thus on the rebuilding of the prototype in 1930 it became 1822 . The other five members of the class became Nos. 1876 – 1880 .
= = = British Railways = = =
The class was absorbed by British Railways in 1948 , and like their N class counterparts were given the power classification 4MT in 1949 . Under British Railways ownership , the class was reclassified from 4MT to 4P5FB in 1953 ; the " B " denoting the brake power rating when used on unfitted ( non @-@ vacuum braked ) goods trains . The locomotives at first retained their Southern Railway livery , but No. 1876 was the first locomotive to emerge from Ashford works with " British Railways " painted on the tender in Gill Sans lettering . From 1949 to 1950 N1 class locomotives were gradually repainted in the British Railways mixed @-@ traffic lined black livery with red , cream and grey lining and the British Railways crest on the tender . Numbering was changed to the British Railways standard numbering system : the prototype became No. 31822 and the 1930 batch was allocated the series 31876 – 31880 .
= = Operational assessment = =
The N1 was a capable class of mixed @-@ traffic locomotive that could operate over the Southern Railway 's gauge @-@ restricted routes and was noted by crews for its comfortable riding qualities . The class also provided Maunsell and his assistants with a precedent for other compact 3 @-@ cylinder locomotive designs and formed a mechanical template for the Southern Railway 's K1 class tank engine of 1925 . However , the prototype offered little improvement in performance over the N class when tested on non @-@ restricted routes , which led to an initial reluctance within the management of the Southern Railway to authorise batch construction . This meant that the non @-@ standard Holcroft valve gear proved expensive to maintain because of the consequent lack of spare parts .
The use of three separate sets of valve gear on the 1930 batch eased maintenance and improved the standardisation of parts . The prototype was rebuilt to the same specification as the 1930 batch , creating a robust workhorse capable of a good turn of speed when working heavy passenger and freight trains . The revised valve gear layout was subsequently applied to the 3 @-@ cylinder U1 and V class designs . The relatively early withdrawal of the N1s pre @-@ dated the era of preservationists buying withdrawn locomotives from scrap dealers or British Railways , and consequently no examples of the N1 class survived into preservation .
= Catherine of Bosnia =
Catherine of Bosnia ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Katarina Kosača / Катарина Косача ; 1424 / 1425 – 25 October 1478 ) was Queen of Bosnia as the wife of King Stephen Thomas , the penultimate Bosnian sovereign . She was born into the powerful House of Kosača , staunch supporters of the Bosnian Church . Her marriage in 1446 was arranged to bring peace between the King and her father , Stjepan Vukčić . The queenship of Catherine , who at that point embraced Roman Catholicism , was marked with an energetic construction of churches throughout the country .
Following her husband 's death in 1461 , Catherine 's role receded to that of queen dowager at the court of her stepson , King Stephen Tomašević . Two years later , forces of the Ottoman Empire led by Mehmed the Conqueror invaded Bosnia and put an end to the independent kingdom . Catherine 's stepson was executed , while Sigismund and Catherine , her son and daughter by Thomas , were captured and taken to Constantinople , where they converted to Islam . Queen Catherine escaped , taking refuge in Dubrovnik and eventually settling in Rome , where she received a pension from the papacy . From Rome she strove to be reunited with her children . Her efforts to negotiate and offer a ransom proved futile . She died a Franciscan tertiary in Rome , having named the papacy guardians of Bosnia and her children heirs to the throne , should they ever return to Christianity .
Queen Catherine remains one of the most important figures in the folk tradition and history of Bosnia and Herzegovina . Despite there being no evidence that she was beatified , the Queen has long been venerated by Catholics in Bosnia and Herzegovina , and is increasingly seen as an important transethnic state symbol .
= = Youth = =
Catherine was the daughter of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača , one of the most powerful figures amongst Bosnian nobility , Grand Duke of Bosnia and the ruler of Zachlumia and Travunia . His domain later came to be known as Herzegovina , after the German title of Herzog he adopted in relation to the Duchy of St. Sava . Catherine 's mother was Jelena , daughter of Zeta 's lord Balša III and the first of Stjepan 's three wives . Catherine was the couple 's first child but the precise date of her birth is not known ; both 1424 and late August 1425 have been suggested by her biographers . It can be surmised that the place of her birth was either the Sokol Fortress , an old seat of the House of Kosača , or the feudal town of Blagaj , Stjepan 's favourite residence .
Little is known about Catherine 's premarital life . The earliest source that mentions her is the will of her maternal great @-@ grandmother Jelena Lazarević , dated 25 November 1442 , in which she left her her gold earrings and a snake @-@ shaped bracelet . Stjepan was a member and significant supporter of the Bosnian Church , while her mother was an Eastern Orthodox Christian ; Catherine was raised in her father 's confession .
Catherine comes into focus following the accession of Stephen Thomas to the Bosnian throne in 1443 . Thomas , of illegitimate birth but designated as heir by Tvrtko II , belonged to the Bosnian Church and was married according to its customs . His wife , Vojača , was the mother of his son , Stephen Tomašević . Two years after his accession , King Thomas abandoned the Bosnian " heresy " and converted to Roman Catholicism . The Catholic Church did not recognize his union with Vojača as a valid marriage , and Pope Eugene IV gave him permission to repudiate her in early 1445 . The civil war between the King and Catherine 's father , which had been raging since the former 's enthronement , ended soon afterwards . Peace was to be sealed with the marriage of King Thomas and Catherine , a great honour to her father . The project may have been envisioned as early as the beginning of 1445 , when Thomas requested the annulment of his union with Vojača .
= = Marriage = =
The marriage ceremony was conducted according to the Catholic rite between 19 May , when Catherine arrived in Milodraž near Fojnica accompanied by her father , and 22 May 1446 . The wedding was attended by a delegation from the Republic of Ragusa ( Dubrovnik ) , but it failed to end all internal strife , since leading noblemen such as Ivaniš Pavlović ( lord of eastern Bosnia ) and Petar Vojsalić ( lord of Donji Kraji ) snubbed it . The coronation , planned to take place in Mile near Visoko immediately after the wedding , was apparently postponed . The new queen consort converted to Catholicism ( " laid aside Patarin errors " ) , likely prior to her marriage , and was allowed by Pope Eugene to choose for herself two chaplains from among Bosnian Franciscans . The Queen 's father appears to have contemplated converting too , but eventually gave up the idea and remained an adherent of the Bosnian Church until his death .
Catherine proved to be a zealous convert . She initiated and financed from her dowry the construction of churches throughout Bosnia , starting with one in Kupres in 1447 , followed by churches in Krupa na Vrbasu and Jezero ; a church in Jajce was built in 1458 . In December 1458 she wrote to Pope Pius II to request that the church in Jajce , built along with a Franciscan monastery and a vicariate , be named after her namesake , Saint Catherine of Alexandria . Pius conceded her request in a papal bull issued on 13 December , granting absolution to anyone who visited Queen Catherine 's church at Christmas or Easter , or on certain feast days . Another church built by Queen Catherine in Jajce and dedicated to Saint Catherine was a simple royal chapel . The churches built in Vrbanja , Vranduk , Tešanj and Vrila are attributed to both Catherine and her husband .
The royal couple had at least two children together . In 1449 , the King notified Ragusa of the birth of a son : this is likely to have been Sigismund . A daughter named Catherine was born in 1453 . Queen Catherine may have also been the mother of a third son of King Thomas , who was buried on Mljet . Mavro Orbini , a 16th @-@ century Ragusan chronicler , believed that the boy was born to Vojača . If Catherine hoped that her stepson 's marriage to Maria of Serbia and his subsequent accession to the Serbian throne in 1459 would pave way for her own son 's accession in Bosnia , the hopes were dashed very quickly : within three months Stephen Tomašević lost the Despotate of Serbia to the Ottomans and returned to the Bosnian royal court with his wife .
= = Widowhood = =
King Thomas died in the summer of 1461 , leaving Catherine a 37 @-@ year @-@ old widow with two minor children . Her stepson , Stephen Tomašević , ascended the throne as intended . Catherine 's relations with him were poor during Thomas 's lifetime ; this now threatened to weaken the kingdom against its adversaries , most of all the rapidly expanding Ottoman Empire . Stephen Tomašević was thus determined to settle his differences with Catherine and guaranteed her the title and privileges of a queen dowager . Having assured himself of Stephen Tomašević 's " affection " for his daughter , the Grand Duke refrained from disputing the succession and claiming the crown for his grandson by Catherine . He likely found it in his interest that the throne be occupied by an adult monarch , rather than a child , due to external threats . On 1 December , the Grand Duke wrote to Venetian officials that the new King had " taken her as his mother " , Vojača having already died . Although popularly believed to have retired to the castle of Kozograd above Fojnica as dowager , there is no historical basis for dismissing the possibility that she remained at the royal court in Jajce as the mother of Stephen Tomašević 's closest heirs .
In 1462 , Catherine 's situation worsened . Her brother Vladislav revolted against their father and sought help from the Ottomans . The Grand Duke and the King started preparing defenses , but the latter made a fatal mistake by provoking the powerful enemy further and then relying on the help of Christendom . In the spring of 1463 , the Ottoman sultan Mehmed the Conqueror and his army started marching towards Bosnia . Catherine , who is thought to have been on her way south to visit her feuding family , immediately hastened back home .
By May , fortresses were rapidly falling to the Ottomans . The royal family appears to have decided to disperse from Jajce and flee towards Croatia and the coast in several directions to confuse and mislead the invaders . Catherine found herself besieged in Kozograd Castle , while her children were captured in the town of Zvečaj and taken to Mehmed 's capital of Constantinople . Her stepson was deceived into surrendering in Ključ , from where he ordered all his castellans to surrender the fortresses , but Kozograd defied the King 's order . Its defenders appear to have stalled the Ottomans while Catherine escaped . Vladislav was informed by the Ragusans on 23 May that they would send vessels for his sister if she succeeded in reaching the coast . Two days later , her stepson was executed on Mehmed 's orders . The Queen rode to Konjic and from there probably towards Drijeva , before finally embarking on the promised vessels in Ston and sailing to Lopud , an island held by the Republic of Ragusa . The two queens , Catherine and Maria , were the only members of the royal family to escape the Ottomans .
= = = Refuge in Dubrovnik = = =
Catherine arrived on Lopud in the second half of June 1463 . The Ragusan authorities , concerned that harbouring the Queen might provoke an Ottoman attack on their own state , refused her entry into Dubrovnik itself until 23 July , after her father and brothers launched a successful counter @-@ attack against the Ottomans and pushed them away from the Ragusan borders . Her widowed stepdaughter @-@ in @-@ law , Queen Maria , was also denied access to the Ragusan islands until July . In Dubrovnik , Queen Catherine attempted to claim the tribute of Ston , paid annually to Bosnian rulers , but the authorities declined on 20 August . Moreover , they decided that the annual rent for the use of houses and land belonging to the Bosnian royal family should be kept in their own treasury until the legal heir could be established . On 26 October , Catherine entrusted Ragusa with Thomas 's silver sword , stipulating that it should be handed over to Sigismund " should he ever be freed " ; or else to nobody but the person she would name as heir . Soon afterwards she left Dubrovnik for Slano . A reason for Ragusa 's reluctance to comply with Catherine 's demands may have been the reconquest of parts of Bosnia by the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus , Ragusa 's overlord , who attempted to revive the Bosnian kingdom by installing puppet kings .
The Kosačas liberated almost all of their land during the autumn of 1463 , and even succeeded in occupying some of the former royal domain . Catherine likely headed towards her family 's holdings , which were again under Ottoman attack in the summer of 1465 . Catherine and Vladislav retreated to the peninsula of Pelješac until Ragusa granted them refuge on one of their islands . Catherine left Ragusa permanently in September 1465 , but her subsequent whereabouts can only be conjectured . She likely lived in Zachlumia or in the area of Šibenik . The Grand Duke , her father , died in 1466 .
= = = Roman pension = = =
In 1467 , Catherine sailed towards the Italian Peninsula , possibly at the suggestion of the Veronese humanist Leonardo Montagna , who dedicated two poems to her . She took her own vessel and disembarked in Ancona . By 29 October 1467 , the Queen was in Rome , already receiving a very generous pension from the Papal State . Upon arrival , she rented a house for herself and her entourage , consisting of Bosnian nobility who had followed her . On 1 October 1469 , she moved to the rione of Pigna , into a house near San Marco Evangelista al Campidoglio . Pope Sixtus IV gave her considerable property adjacent to the Tiber .
The Queen was a prominent figure in Roman society . Her presence at the proxy wedding of Grand Prince Ivan III of Russia and the Byzantine princess Sophia Palaiologina in 1472 was widely noted , as was her pilgrimage to L 'Aquila on the occasion of the translation of Bernardino of Siena 's relics to a new church ( the construction of which was funded , among others , by King Thomas ) . That she lived a comfortable life can be deduced from the impression she left on Roman chroniclers , who wrote about the entourage of 40 mounted knights accompanying her on a pilgrimage to St. Peter 's Basilica to celebrate the new year 1475 .
Despite the honours and financial security she enjoyed , Catherine was preoccupied with reuniting with her children . Intent on finding a proxy for negotiations with the Sublime Porte , as well as obtaining resources for their release , she turned to Ludovico III Gonzaga , Marquis of Mantua , on 23 July 1470 . On 11 February 1474 , she addressed a letter to the Duke of Milan , Galeazzo Maria Sforza , asking him to help her reach the Ottoman border and enter negotiations . Sforza obliged . In the summer of 1474 , the Queen was in Herceg Novi , a city in her family 's possession . She was accompanied by her brother Vlatko 's wife , Margarita Marzano , and probably wanted Vlatko 's help in establishing contact with their younger half @-@ brother , Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha , who had converted to Islam and become an Ottoman statesman . Whether she succeeded in that endeavor is not clear , but in any case she failed to reunite with either of her children . They both followed in their uncle 's footsteps , becoming Muslims and , in Sigismund 's case , also attaining high @-@ ranking posts in the Ottoman Empire .
= = Death and burial = =
Disappointed at the failure , Catherine returned to Rome and entered the Secular Franciscan Order , probably inspired by a monk at the Basilica of Santa Maria in Ara Coeli . Shortly before her death , in 1478 , Catherine was visited by Nicholas of Ilok , the puppet king of Hungarian @-@ controlled parts of Bosnia . He proposed that she recognize him as legitimate king and attempted to win her favor for several days . Nicholas recorded that the ailing Queen became " so infuriated that she looked like a sharp sabre " .
On 20 October 1478 , Catherine made her last will , recorded by a Dalmatian priest , in the presence of seven witnesses , six of whom were Franciscans of Ara Coeli . She expressed a wish to be buried before the main altar of Ara Coeli . Considering herself entitled to dispose of the Bosnian crown , she named Pope Sixtus IV and his successors guardians of the kingdom , obligating them to enthrone her son should he convert back to Christianity or else her daughter should she reconvert . Most of her personal belongings were inherited by her courtiers . Her chapel inventory was left to Saint Jerome 's Church for the Slavic Nation ( now known as Saint Jerome of the Croats ) , while the saint 's relics were to be passed to Saint Mary 's Church , Jajce . She decreed that , if her son never returned to the Christian faith , King Thomas 's silver sword left in Dubrovnik for safekeeping should be handed to her nephew by Vladislav , Balša Hercegović . The Queen died five days after composing the will , which was immediately taken to the Pope along with her husband 's sword and spurs .
Catherine was buried according to her wishes , but her tombstone was moved from the floor to a wall of Ara Coeli during works on the interior of the church in 1590 . The original epitaph was destroyed at that time , but the Roman calligrapher Giovanni Battista Palatino had recorded it in 1545 and published two years later . It was uniquely bilingual and digraphic , written both in Latin language and script and in Bosnian language and Cyrillic . Only the Latin epitaph was restored , and can be found on her tombstone today .
= = Legacy = =
Along with the 12th @-@ century Ban Kulin , Queen Catherine is one of the two princely personages who entered Bosnian folk tradition . As such , she is traditionally referred to as " the last Queen of Bosnia " – erroneously , as her stepdaughter @-@ in @-@ law both replaced her as queen and outlived her . The cult of Queen Catherine , who was first mentioned as beatified in the Paris @-@ published Martyrologium franciscanum in 1638 , originated in the Franciscan province of Bosna Argentina during the Ottoman rule . Following the Ottoman conquest , a majority of Bosnians converted to Orthodoxy or Islam , and the Franciscans started promoting Catherine as a symbol of Bosnia 's statehood and of its pre @-@ Ottoman Catholic identity . This is particularly evident in Central Bosnia , where folk tradition concerning Catherine is most vivid .
The life of Queen Catherine has been one of the most popular themes in the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina , attracting the attention of scholars from the neighbouring countries of Croatia and Serbia as well . With the rise of ethnic nationalism , historians attempted to ascribe to her a particular national identity – Croat , Serb or Bosniak , which is completely anachronistic to medieval times .
Due to her association with both of its eponymous historical regions , as well as her personal and close familial ties to Catholicism , Eastern Orthodoxy , Bosnian Christianity and Islam , Queen Catherine is increasingly becoming an important state symbol in Bosnia and Herzegovina . The anniversary of her death attracts more attention each year and is now marked with a " Mass for the Homeland " . Schools , community centers , institutions and various associations are being named after the Queen . An official delegation of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina laid a wreath at her tomb for the first time in 2014 . Moreover , Catherine is becoming a transethnic symbol , although mainly between Catholic Croats and Muslim Bosniaks . Both groups tend to claim her as exclusively their own , as is the case with the rest of Bosnian medieval history . The political and religious leaders of the third group , Orthodox Serbs , also tend to claim Bosnian medieval history as exclusively their own but have not yet shown significant interest in Catherine herself .
= = Family tree = =
= Hereditary coproporphyria =
Hereditary coproporphyria ( HCP ) is a disorder of heme biosynthesis , classified as an acute hepatic porphyria . HCP is caused by a deficiency of the enzyme coproporphyrinogen oxidase , coded for by the CPOX gene , and is inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion , although homozygous individuals have been identified . Unlike acute intermittent porphyria , individuals with HCP can present with cutaneous findings similar to those found in porphyria cutanea tarda in addition to the acute attacks of abdominal pain , vomiting and neurological dysfunction characteristic of acute porphyrias . Like other porphyrias , attacks of HCP can be induced by certain drugs , environmental stressors or diet changes . Biochemical and molecular testing can be used to narrow down the diagnosis of a porphyria and identify the specific genetic defect . Overall , porphyrias are rare diseases . The combined incidence for all forms of the disease has been estimated at 1 : 20 @,@ 000 . The exact incidence of HCP is difficult to determine , due to its reduced penetrance .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Clinically , patients affected with HCP present similarly to those with other acute porphyrias , such as acute intermittent porphyria ( AIP ) and variegate porphyria ( VP ) . Patients with HCP and VP can present with symptoms shared between the acute and cutaneous porphyrias . This includes the acute attacks of abdominal pain , nausea , vomiting , diarrhea , tachycardia , hypertension and seizures , as well as the cutaneous findings seen in porphyria cutanea tarda ( PCT ) , namely increased skin fragility , bullous lesions after exposure to sunlight and increased scarring .
Individuals with HCP may be asymptomatic in the absence of triggering factors . Common triggers include certain drugs , alcohol , hormonal changes , and dietary changes . Sunlight and other ultraviolet light can trigger the skin manifestations . Homozygous individuals for CPOX mutations can present with these findings at an earlier age than heterozygotes .
= = Genetics = =
HCP is caused by mutations in the CPOX gene , which codes for the enzyme coproporphyrinogen oxidase . This enzyme is responsible for the sixth step in the heme biosynthetic pathway , converting coproporphyrinogen III to protoporphyrinogen IX . The CPOX gene is located at 3q11.2 @-@ q12.1 , has 6 introns and 7 exons and produces an mRNA strand that is 2675 bases in length . It is inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion , meaning that a deficiency of 50 % of the normal enzyme activity is enough to cause symptoms . As reproductive fitness is not impacted , homozygous affected individuals have been reported . Along with other acute porphyrias HCP demonstrates reduced penetrance , meaning not all individuals who carry a disease @-@ causing mutation will express symptoms .
Individuals who are homozygous for a specific mutation ( K404E ) or compound heterozygous with a null allele in CPOX have a more severe erythropoietic porphyria , harderoporphyria , characterized by neonatal jaundice , hyperbilirubinemia , hepatosplenomegaly and skin lesions upon exposure to ultraviolet light . HCP is a rare disease , but the exact incidence is difficult to determine due to the reduced penetrance of the acute porphyrias . Overall , the incidence of all porphyrias is estimated at 1 : 20 @,@ 000 in the United States . The incidence of harderoporphyria is even lower , with less than 10 cases reported worldwide .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis of any porphyria is often delayed due to the rarity of the disease as well as the varied and non @-@ specific findings that patients present with . Bedside measurement of urine porphobilinogen is recommended as a screening test for patients suspected of having an acute porphyria . Elevated porphobilinogen is indicative of an acute porphyria , and additional testing can be done to narrow down the specific type .
The identification of a specific porphyria is based on the results of laboratory findings , including blood , urine and stool tests . HCP can be distinguished from most other acute porphyrias by the cutaneous findings . VP presents similarly , but can be distinguished based on urine and stool porphyrin analysis , typically done using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection . The results of biochemical testing for porphyrias are most informative when samples are collected during an acute attack . Typically , the distinguishing metabolite for HCP and VP is the presence of protoporphyrin in the plasma and feces of individuals affected with VP .
Elevated coproporphyrin is a common finding in urine , known as coproporphyrinuria as it is the predominant porphyrin species in urine . This is a non @-@ specific finding that is not necessarily due to an acute porphyria . Coproporphyrinuria can be caused by other stressors to the heme biosynthetic pathway , such as liver disease , lead poisoning and certain bone marrow disorders .
= = Treatment = =
There is no cure for HCP caused by the deficient activity of coproporphyrinogen oxidase . Treatment of the acute symptoms of HCP is the same as for other acute porphyrias . Intravenous hemin ( as heme arginate or hematin ) is the recommended therapy for acute attacks . Acute attacks can be severe enough to cause death if not treated quickly and correctly . Hospitalization is typically required for administration of hemin , and appropriate drug selection is key to avoid exacerbating symptoms with drugs that interact poorly with porphyrias . Proper drug selection is most difficult when it comes to treatment of the seizures that can accompany HCP , as most anti @-@ seizure medications can make the symptoms worse . Gabapentin and levetiracetam are two anti @-@ seizure drugs that are thought to be safe .
In patients where management of symptoms is difficult even with hemin , liver transplant is an option before the symptoms have progressed to advanced paralysis . Combined liver and kidney transplants are sometimes undertaken in patients with renal failure .
Long term treatment of acute porphyrias is centered on the avoidance of acute attacks by eliminating precipitating factors , such as drugs , dietary changes , and infections . Females often have attacks coincident with their menstrual cycle , which can be managed effectively with hormonal birth control . Because of the reduced penetrance of HCP , family members of a patient may carry the same mutation without ever presenting with symptoms . Molecular analysis of CPOX is the best way to identify these patients , as they will not express a biochemical phenotype on laboratory testing unless they are symptomatic . Identification of asymptomatic patients allows them to adjust their lifestyle to avoid common triggering factors .
= Vršac triptych =
Sowing and Harvesting and Market , popularly referred to as the Vršac triptych , is a three @-@ panel oil painting by the Serbian realist Paja Jovanović . Painted around 1895 , it shows the everyday interactions of the inhabitants of Vršac , a multi @-@ ethnic and multi @-@ religious town in the Banat region of Austria @-@ Hungary of which Jovanović was a native . The painting was commissioned by the Vršac city council in 1895 for the following year 's Budapest Millennium Exhibition .
The triptych 's centre panel measures 200 by 200 centimetres ( 79 by 79 in ) and the two side panels measure 200 by 100 centimetres ( 79 by 39 in ) each . The left panel is a market scene , the centre panel shows peasants harvesting grapes from a row of vines and the one to the right is an image of a farmer sharpening his scythe as two others labour in the background . The triptych was originally intended to be displayed alongside another one of Jovanović 's paintings , Migration of the Serbs , which had been commissioned by the Patriarchate of Karlovci . The Patriarch 's dissatisfaction with the latter and his insistence that it be altered to his liking resulted in only the Vršac triptych being sent to Budapest , as Jovanović was not able to make the necessary revisions to Migration of the Serbs in time . The triptych was met with acclaim at the Exhibition and Jovanović was awarded a gold medal for his work , with critics praising his mastery of pleinairism . The painting is now on permanent exhibition at the Vršac City Museum .
= = Background = =
The realist Paja Jovanović ( 1859 – 1957 ) was one of the most successful 19th- and 20th @-@ century Serbian painters . He was a native of the town of Vršac , then part of the Hungarian @-@ administered Banat region of Austria @-@ Hungary , which had a mixed population of Serbs , Hungarians and Germans . Most of the Serbs were descended from 14th @-@ century migrants fleeing the Ottoman advance following the Battle of Kosovo in June 1389 . Such diversity and multiculturalism ensured the town 's reputation for prosperity and cultural enlightenment . Jovanović 's artistic abilities were noticed at an early age , and nourished by his father , a professional photographer . His early development was informed by the portraits and religious paintings of artists such as Pavel Đurković , Jovan Popović and Arsenije Teodorović . Jovanović 's early copies of the artworks available to him in Vršac brought him instant recognition and steered him towards a career in the arts . In his adolescence , the artist had observed people from the Vršac countryside and their customs , and compiled sketches of natural and man @-@ made structures in and around the town . While a student , he was commissioned to draw a series of preparatory sketches for the bell tower of his hometown 's main church .
From 1877 to 1882 , Jovanović honed his artistic skills at Vienna 's Academy of Fine Arts , studying under Christian Griepenkerl and Leopold Müller , among others . In the early part of his career , he painted mostly Orientalist works , which were in high demand at the time . The paintings were based on his own experiences in the Balkans , the Middle East and North Africa , and assured his fame among art connoisseurs in the West . In the late 1880s , Jovanović turned to history painting , depicting scenes from the history of the Serb people , as seen in The Takovo Uprising ( 1888 ) . Nevertheless , his reputation as an Orientalist meant that he was best known for these types of works in his first decade as a professional artist .
= = The painting = =
= = = Commissioning and composition = = =
In the early 1890s , Hungarian officials announced plans for a Budapest Millennium Exhibition to be held in 1896 ; it was intended to mark the 1,000th anniversary of the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin , reaffirm Hungary 's " national and territorial legitimacy " and the Hungarian people 's " natural and historical right in the areas they inhabited " . The Exhibition was to be held at Budapest 's City Park . Exhibits were to be divided into twelve distinct areas , one of which was visual art . Several pavilions displaying the cultural and industrial achievements of non @-@ Hungarians living in the Hungarian @-@ administered territories of Austria @-@ Hungary were also built , including one for the Serbs . In 1895 , the Vršac city council hired Jovanović to paint a composition of the town to be displayed in Budapest . The Vršac triptych became one of two compositions that Jovanović created for the Exhibition , the other being Migration of the Serbs , which was commissioned by the Patriarchate of Karlovci that same year and depicts the Great Serb Migration of 1690 – 61 .
The composition representing Vršac at the Exhibition was originally meant to depict folk hero Janko Halabura fighting the Turks , an idea to which Jovanović took a liking . The Vršac council members soon changed their minds , and Jovanović was asked to paint a composition showing the everyday lives of the town 's inhabitants . Over the course of the triptych 's creation , Jovanović visited his hometown on a number of occasions for the purpose of sketching its people and structures . The triptych proved to be a particularly difficult undertaking . Jovanović 's firm grasp in Western Medieval panel and mural painting proved of great importance . Earlier , Jovanović had been the recipient of several church commissions that called for multi @-@ sectional painting , though not to the same extent as some of his contemporaries , such as Uroš Predić . Each scene needed to connect seamlessly with the others , and Jovanović was met with the additional challenge of painting a number of figures engaged in actions requiring precise definition . The artist addressed this by carefully drawing each figure , the landscape and the panels themselves so as to ensure compositional unity . To ensure natural light , Jovanović painted the triptych out of studio , en plein air . It took the artist about ten months to complete the work .
= = = Description = = =
The Vršac triptych ( Serbian Latin : Vršački triptih ; Serbian Cyrillic : Вршачки триптих ) , originally publicized as Sowing and Harvesting and Market ( Serbian Latin : Žetve , berbe i pijaca ; Serbian Cyrillic : Жетве , бербе и пијаца ) , is a three @-@ panel oil painting that Jovanović created in 1895 . The centre panel measures 200 by 200 centimetres ( 79 by 79 in ) and the two side panels measure 200 by 100 centimetres ( 79 by 39 in ) .
The left panel shows villagers and city @-@ dwellers – Serbs , Hungarians and Germans – meeting in Vršac 's main square to sell and purchase items , as well as simply to converse . The scene is set around mid @-@ morning . It occurs against the backdrop of a row of shiny , white @-@ washed buildings and the spire of the town 's main church is also visible in the background . All the figures are dressed in costumes traditionally worn by their compatriots , making it easier for the viewer to discern their ethnicity . " They interact with ease " , the art historian Lilien Filipovitch @-@ Robinson writes , " and an aura of general good will envelops the scene " . The centre panel depicts a group of peasants in the countryside gathering grapes from a row of vines . The panel to the right shows villagers harvesting their ripened wheat . Two figures are seen bending over in the background , sickles in hand , while a third sharpens his scythe in the foreground . The artist 's signature , Joanowits P , can be found in the bottom right @-@ hand corner of the centre panel .
= = Analysis = =
The Vršac triptych comes across as a large @-@ scale contemporary genre painting to the untrained eye . Drawing parallels with Jovanović 's earlier Orientalist works , which she says provide " responses and commentaries " , Filipovitch @-@ Robinson notes that the triptych is far from a simple vignette of everyday life . In describing it as a " type of history painting " , she argues that it was intended as more than a mere documentary piece . Jovanović 's decision to use the triptych format would have been highly unusual otherwise .
Filipovitch @-@ Robinson notes parallels between the Vršac triptych and 14th @-@ century Sienese paintings , specifically Ambrogio Lorenzetti 's The Allegory of Good and Bad Government ( 1338 ) and his brother Pietro 's tempera triptych Birth of the Virgin ( 1342 ) . Jovanović 's work shares its secular subject matter and homage to a city with the former and its triptych format with the latter . However , unlike his medieval counterparts , Jovanović had full freedom of artistic expression while painting the triptych and was not bound by the dictates of wealthy patrons . Filipovitch @-@ Robinson writes that Jovanović was merely reiterating the message of Ambrogio Lorenzetti and applying it to his own time , asserting that Vršac – much like 14th @-@ century Siena – owed its peace and prosperity to the maintenance of traditional values and the merits of good governance . Such an interpretation suggests Jovanović was commending the Austro @-@ Hungarians for bringing stability to his hometown and its surroundings .
Jovanović 's giving prominence to the tall church spire on the left panel , Filipovitch @-@ Robinson writes , suggests that the artist was asserting the importance of faith in securing harmony and prosperity . " The qualities exemplified here " , she states , " are reminiscent of values and virtues interwoven in traditional religious paintings in which the most sacred personages and scenes are presented in combination with or even in the guise of ordinary humans and their experiences " . Though confined to the artist 's hometown , the triptych had implications for the wider region as well . " Jovanović ... provides assurance that peace and harmony are not only possible but exist in the contemporary Balkan world , in the town of Vršac . " This , she writes , is evidenced by the artist 's decision not to focus on members of any particular ethnic group . Rather , Jovanović depicts all the town 's inhabitants intermingling with ease . Such a depiction was intended to counter claims of animosity between the locals , despite a past marred by inter @-@ ethnic and inter @-@ religious violence . Filipovitch @-@ Robinson describes the painting as an optimistic work and draws parallels between it and Jovanović 's subsequent historical compositions , particularly The Proclamation of Dušan 's Law Codex ( 1900 ) , which she argues were intended to remind Jovanović 's compatriots of their rich past and assure them of a bright future .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Though intended to be displayed alongside Migration of the Serbs , the triptych ended up being the only painting Jovanović sent to Budapest . The Patriarch of Karlovci , Georgije I , was dissatisfied with Migration of the Serbs at first viewing and demanded that the artist make changes so the painting would conform with the Church 's view of the migration . Jovanović duly took the painting back to his studio and began altering it to the Patriarch 's liking . Though the changes were made relatively quickly , they could not be rendered in time for the Exhibition . Hence , only the Vršac triptych was sent for display . It was exhibited at the art pavilion and received praise from critics . The artistic committee judged it to be the Exhibition 's best work and Jovanović was awarded a gold medal for his efforts . In particular , the judges noted Jovanović 's mastery of pleinairism . " Among his friends " , one reviewer wrote , " Jovanović is a real master of precise painting . This time , he used plein air and showed so much skill that his paintings could rightfully be set as an example for younger generations . "
A travelogue issued in Yugoslavia in the 1920s described the triptych as showing the " solidarity of several nations " , an example of the Banat 's diversity and cosmopolitanism . " Great artists are never narrow @-@ minded or chauvinists " , it continued , " and Jovanović 's paintings are a nice example of this " . The triptych endures in popularity because it shows Vojvodina 's past diversity and cosmopolitanism , which declined significantly during and after World War II , and the subsequent expulsion of the region 's ethnic German population . This led one observer to remark on the irony of the triptych celebrating diversity and coexistence in Vršac though descendants of the Germans depicted in the painting are unlikely to be living there today . Nevertheless , the town still has a sizable population of Romanians and Hungarians , according to the 2011 Serbian census . In 1896 , the triptych was gifted to the Vršac City Museum by the artist , where it remains on display . It is catalogued under inventory number 168 .
= = = Endnotes = = =
= Hard to Swallow ( album ) =
Hard to Swallow is the third studio album by American rapper Vanilla Ice . Released by Republic Records in 1998 , the album was the first album the performer recorded after a four @-@ year hiatus following the 1994 release of Mind Blowin . Vanilla Ice intended the new musical direction found on the album as an attempt to move away from hip hop music and discard his former pop image . Hard to Swallow instead featured what he described as " skate rock " , a fusion of heavy metal , punk rock and hip hop . The album features appearances from Amen vocalist Casey Chaos , Bloodhound Gang vocalist Jimmy Pop , and Insane Poetry front man Cyco . Session musicians included drummer Shannon Larkin , keyboardist Scott Borland , and Snot guitarist Sonny Mayo .
Vanilla Ice took an interest in the musical style found on Hard to Swallow while performing as a member of a Miami grunge band , and was able to develop this sound through a friendship with producer Ross Robinson , with whom he shared an interest in motocross racing . Robinson produced the album after being advised against working with Vanilla Ice . The album 's darker lyrical subject matter developed from conversations , in which Robinson encouraged him to write about his past . Subjects included Vanilla Ice 's abusive childhood , drug addiction and struggles with fame . Although Republic Records believed that the album would revive Vanilla Ice 's career , it received largely negative reviews and did not chart .
The song " S.N.A.F.U. " was remade in Rhythm Party ( Boom Boom Dance ) as " BEFREE " with additional verses from Vanilla Ice himself and production from Konami in house artist Des @-@ ROW .
= = History = =
Vanilla Ice was briefly a member of a band called Pickin ' Scabs , which he described as being " like a grunge band . " He had wanted to perform more hip hop @-@ influenced rock music , but the band " didn 't know how to play this sound that I was looking for . "
Monty Lipman , a founder of Republic Records and former SBK Records promoter , told Vanilla Ice that Ross Robinson , who had worked with bands such as Korn , Limp Bizkit , Sepultura and Deftones , was interested in working with him . Vanilla Ice stated that he and Robinson were " totally clicking right off the bat " when it was discovered that they both shared an interest in motocross racing .
According to Robinson , others had attempted to persuade him not to produce the album . " People kept saying to me , ' It might hurt your name , it might hurt your reputation . I said , ' Then I 'm doing it . ' It 's the most punk @-@ rock thing you could do . "
Vanilla Ice stated that " It 's unbelievable how this whole thing just came about . I really believe that it was an action of God . God pushing my wave and riding it . And Ross is one of those people and Monty is one of those people that God put in front of me and I 'm being blessed right now . "
= = Production = =
Initial publicity claimed that the album would feature guest appearances by Lenny Kravitz and members of Korn and the Bloodhound Gang . Only the latter band 's lead vocalist , Jimmy Pop , appeared on the final album . " Freestyle " features an appearance by Cyco , a founding member of the influential horrorcore group Insane Poetry . Preceding the release of the album , executives at Republic Records compared Vanilla Ice 's career direction to the revival of actor John Travolta as a result of the success of Pulp Fiction , and believed that Vanilla Ice would be similarly successful .
Drummer Shannon Larkin said of the album " I 'm proud of that one . That was a killer record . Producer Ross Robinson is very demanding when it comes to drums in the studio . Everything had to be 110 % for that guy , and I love him for that . " Vanilla Ice stated of working with Robinson , " The vibe was totally so cool . We had the album finished in a month and a half because we kept the vibe . "
= = Musical and lyrical style = =
In the early stages of the album 's development , it was promoted as an album of " high @-@ energy hip @-@ hop . " Republic Records later described the album 's musical style as " aggressive rock " in the stages preceding the album 's release . Vanilla Ice referred to the album 's musical style as " skate rock . " The album 's dark and thick sound fuses elements of heavy metal , punk rock and hip hop . Vanilla Ice stated that " I wanted to express myself in a very intense way , and there was no way it was going to happen with a drum machine . Basically , I 'm bored with drum machines and samples and stuff . With a band , they can build the energy around me . " Many critics have noticed a similarity between the style of music present on Hard to Swallow and that of bands such as Korn and Limp Bizkit . Vanilla Ice stated that although he knew of the bands , he " didn 't even listen to [ ... ] any of them " before he made the album , and he was not trying to imitate the musical style of the bands . " It 's just we have the same producer , and some of the guitars between that and Limp Bizkit are gonna sound similar . That 's what happens when you 've got the same guy producing them . [ ... ] I had heard the Deftones more than any of them . "
The album features a noticeably darker sound and lyrical subject matter than Vanilla Ice 's previous albums , such as To The Extreme and Mind Blowin . The album was described by CNN as a " shrill confessional " on which the performer " flays his ' 80s persona , his fractured family and Attention Deficit Disorder , which he has . " Vanilla Ice explained that the album " just comes out dark because that 's the way I feel I 've been treated " and that the album " wasn 't intended to be so dark . I opened up to Ross and I told him a lot of things that happened to me in the past . It was like , really deep conversation , and he was like , you should write about that . And I was like , dude , I didn 't want people to judge me for that . But he was right . It was like total therapy . "
The subjects focused on in the album 's lyrics include Vanilla Ice 's abusive childhood and drug addiction . He stated that " I wrote ' Fuck Me ' ' cause I know how I 've been perceived . " I can look back at the whole Vanilla Ice thing , and it was played way out . It was just an image thing . I was always real to the music . But it built a huge hurdle for me to get over musically . A lot of people didn 't even want to admit they bought a Vanilla Ice record . " " Too Cold " is a rap rock remake of Vanilla Ice 's biggest hit , " Ice Ice Baby " . Vanilla Ice stated that he remade the song because " I wanted to let people know that I 'm not running from anything . This is me . This is what I 'm about . I think the music speaks for itself . If the music was whack , nobody 'd even care to hear anything about no Vanilla Ice . I just think the music is so strong people are kinda comin ' out of the closet . It 's like , ' You know , hey , I bought it back in the day , and the new stuff is slammin ' . ' I think there 's some hip @-@ hop influenced , stage @-@ diving , body piercing , tattooed white boys out there who are embracing this new sound . " " Too Cold " was originally intended to be released as a hidden track or B @-@ side .
= = Response = =
" Too Cold " became a radio hit in some markets . Reviews of the album were generally mixed to negative . A reviewer for the New Times in Los Angeles referred to the album as " stupid , exploitive , derivative rap @-@ metal by the man who once did nearly irreparable damage to hip @-@ hop . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that " If history is any guide , Vanilla Ice 's adoption of rap @-@ metal means that hard rock is about to move on . " Richard Torres of Rolling Stone gave the album two out of five stars , writing that while " nothing , however , can redeem Ice 's wack boasting , " the album " isn 't half @-@ bad . " The New Rolling Stone Album Guide gave the album three out of five stars . The Iowa State Daily called the album " the greatest pop culture comeback of all time " . The album did not chart . The album appeared on The A.V. Club 's list of the " Least Essential Albums of the ' 90s , " at number 24 on Maxim 's list of the " 30 Worst Albums of All Time " , and number 26 on Q 's list of the " 50 Worst Albums Ever ! " Vanilla Ice released a follow @-@ up album , Bi @-@ Polar , in 2001 , which continued the performer 's artistic and career direction .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Rob Van Winkle , Ross Robinson , Ordito , Casey Chaos , Scott Borland , Shannon Larkin , Mayo , Holoman and Johnson .
= = Samples = =
S.N.A.F.U.
" The Big Beat " by Billy Squier
Freestyle
" Powerhouse " by Raymond Scott
= = Personnel = =
= Donovan Patton =
Donovan Patton ( born March 1 , 1978 ) is an American host , actor , voice actor and singer . Patton graduated from the Interlochen Arts Academy and acted in Shakespeare plays such as Much Ado About Nothing and Romeo and Juliet before he replaced Steve Burns as Joe , the host of Nickelodeon 's children 's television program Blue 's Clues in 2002 . On Patton 's acting , series co @-@ creator Angela Santomero stated that Patton brought Joe , his character , closer to the preschool viewer , as Joe was more willing to " jump into a problem rather than figure it out first like Steve " . After Blue 's Clues ended Patton voiced Bot on Nickelodeon 's Team Umizoomi ; for his work on children 's television , Patton has been described as a " household name " and an " unqualified star to the 5 @-@ and @-@ under set and their parents " .
Although most of his career has been in children 's television , Patton has also appeared in independent films , such as Awake and Lies I Told My Little Sister , and in television shows .
He also appeared in video games , such as Grand Theft Auto V , Lego Jurassic World , Star Wars : The Old Republic - Knights of the Fallen Empire and Halo 5 : Guardians .
= = Early career = =
Donovan Patton graduated from the Interlochen Arts Academy in northwest Michigan . His first acting roles were in Shakespeare plays such as Much Ado About Nothing and Romeo and Juliet .
= = Blue 's Clues = =
Patton 's " big break " came in 2002 , when he was cast to replace Steve Burns as Joe , the second host of the Nickelodeon children 's television program Blue 's Clues . He was up for a part in Blair Witch Project 2 at the time , but considered the role as Joe " a happy accident " . Patton became a " household name " and has been called " an unqualified star to the 5 @-@ and @-@ under set and their parents " . He was subjected to " the same kind of scrutiny " as Burns , who was involved in Patton 's selection and helped train him , to earn the role . Patton was selected out of 1 @,@ 500 auditions . He had never seen the show before his audition , but like Burns , was the favorite with preschool test audiences . He said , " I am convinced that I got that part because of a Christopher Walken impression I sometimes do . There 's a tape out there , somewhere , with both Steve Burns and myself doing a Blue 's Clues scene both as Christopher Walken , which we did at the screen test . I haven 't seen the tape , but I know somewhere it still exists " . Beginning in September 2000 , Burns trained Patton to take over the host spot and advised him not to " think of [ the show ] as children 's TV " , but rather as " acting and telling the truth " .
According to Traci Paige Johnson , one of the producers and creators of Blue 's Clues , Patton 's character was more like a preschooler and more innocent than Steve . Angela Santomero , another producer and creator , stated that Patton 's characterization as Joe brought him closer to the preschool viewer as Joe was more willing to " jump into a problem rather than figure it out first like Steve " . Patton liked working on Blue 's Clues because , as he stated , " I got to go be a kid for twelve hours a day " . He called the show 's crew " a real fun little family " and a " well @-@ oiled machine " by the time he joined the show . Patton remained on the show until 2006 , and also appeared in its spin @-@ off , Blue 's Room , which premiered in 2004 . Several years later , Patton said he had not yet grasped the enormity of replacing Burns , even after he became a parent and witnessed the show 's effect on his own children . He admitted that he preferred when his two @-@ year @-@ old daughter watched the Steve episodes .
= = Later roles = =
He made his very first role as Waiter in the 1996 mystery & suspense film Dr. Ice , Directed by James A. Brooks .
In 2012 , he also appeared in the short films Awake and Pharmboy , the latter of which was directed by his longtime friend Lawrence Feeney . Mark Finguerra , the director of Awake , was able to look past the potential typecasting of Patton 's role in Blue 's Clues to cast him in a darker role . Patton had impressed him in an audition for an earlier feature film . Finguerra called Patton a " complete professional [ and a ] tremendous actor " , and enjoyable on set . He appeared in the soap opera One Life to Live , in which he played , in a departure of his previous roles , " a very angry man " . In 2014 , he appeared in a small movie shot mostly in New Jersey , entitled Lies I Told My Little Sister , directed by William Stribling and starring Lucy Walters .
Patton called his career , with its mixture of children 's television and darker roles in independent films , " an odd experience " and told a reporter that he had spent half his life at Nickelodeon . In 2009 , he was cast as Bot , the robot superhero , on the children 's show Team Umizoomi through the relationships he had made at Nickelodeon on Blue 's Clues . He found working on Team Umizoomi " comforting " because many of the same crew , producers , and creators had also worked on Blue 's Clues . It was the first time he had worked as a voice @-@ over artist , unlike on Blue 's Clues , when he was able to be more physical acting in front of a blue screen . He said , about Team Umizoomi , " the work the animators have done on it has been superlative " . He stated that he enjoyed working on Team Umizoomi because it gave him the opportunity to participate in a show from its inception , which he had missed with Blue 's Clues . Patton said his voice performance of Bot , which he modeled on Brent Spiner 's performance as the android Data on Star Trek : The Next Generation and was influenced by Mel Blanc 's work in the classic Warner Bros. cartoons , " ended up sounding more like my natural voice , with a teeny bit of superhero in there " . Despite both roles in Blue 's Clues and Team Umizoomi requiring him to sing , he did not consider himself a natural singer , and felt that he had to work hard at it . He said , about being cast as Bot , " I get to be a superhero . Who doesn 't want to be a superhero " ? .
He also provided Additional Voices for Monsters University , Lego Jurassic World , Star Wars : The Old Republic - Knights of the Fallen Empire , Clarence and Halo 5 : Guardians .
He has an uncredited voice role as an Actor in the 2013 open world action @-@ adventure video game Grand Theft Auto V.
He also has an uncredited role as Joe in the 2009 American comedy film Imagine That .
He is also voiced Mr. Reese in the 2014 American animated television series Clarence .
He is also played Shaina 's Dad in The 2012 short film Beyond Belief
He played Todd in the 2005 thriller film Black Wine , Directed by Ryan Rossell .
He played the role of Bellhop in the 2010 American police procedural drama series Blue Bloods .
He is also played as a Husband in the 2009 medical comedy @-@ drama series Nurse Jackie .
He is also played as a Dry Cleaning Boy at Hewes & Associates in the 2007 legal thriller television series Damages .
He is also set as he plays the role of Tim Kelly in The Broken Ones , Directed by Elyse Niblett .
Patton is married and has two children . He is active in several charities in the New York City area , including Literacy Inc . , the Make @-@ a @-@ Wish Foundation , and the Columbia Presbyterian Hospital , a large children 's hospital .
= = Filmography = =
= Operation Teardrop =
Operation Teardrop was a United States Navy operation of World War II conducted during April and May 1945 to sink German U @-@ boats approaching the United States East Coast that were believed to be armed with V @-@ 1 flying bombs . Germany had threatened in propaganda to attack New York with V @-@ 1 flying bombs and V @-@ 2 missiles . After the war the Allies determined that the submarines had not been carrying either .
Operation Teardrop was planned during late 1944 in response to intelligence reports which indicated that Germany was preparing a force of missile @-@ armed submarines . Two large US Navy anti @-@ submarine warfare task forces were set up . The plan was executed in April 1945 after several Type IX submarines put to sea from Norway bound for North America . While severe weather conditions in the North Atlantic Ocean greatly reduced the effectiveness of the four US Navy escort carriers involved , long patrol lines of destroyer escorts detected and engaged most of the German submarines . Aircraft of the Royal Canadian Air Force supported this effort . Five of the seven submarines in the group stationed off the US were sunk , four with their entire crews . 33 U @-@ 546 crew members were captured , and specialists among them abusively interrogated . One destroyer escort was sunk , with the loss of most of her crew . The war ended shortly afterwards and all surviving U @-@ boats surrendered ; interrogation of their crews found that missile launching equipment was not fitted .
= = Background = =
In late 1944 , the Allies received intelligence reports which suggested that Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine was planning to use V @-@ 1 flying bombs launched from submarines to attack cities on the east coast of the United States . In September of that year , Oscar Mantel , a spy captured by the US Navy when the submarine transporting him to Maine was sunk , told his Federal Bureau of Investigation interrogators that several missile @-@ equipped U @-@ boats were being readied . United States Tenth Fleet analysts subsequently examined photos of unusual mountings on U @-@ boats at bases in Norway , but concluded that they were wooden tracks used to load torpedoes . Further rumors of missile @-@ armed submarines emerged later that year , including one from Sweden passed on by the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force . The British Admiralty discounted these reports , and assessed that while V @-@ 1s could be potentially mounted on Type IX submarines , the Germans were unlikely to devote scarce resources to such a project .
Despite the Tenth Fleet and Admiralty assessments , the U.S. military and government remained concerned that Germany would conduct vengeance attacks against East Coast cities . In early November 1944 , the Eastern Sea Frontier mounted an intensive search for submarines within 250 mi ( 400 km ) of New York City . In early December 1944 , the spies William Curtis Colepaugh and Erich Gimpel , who had been captured in New York City after being landed by U @-@ 1230 in Maine , told their interrogators that Germany was preparing a group of rocket @-@ equipped submarines . On 10 December , the Mayor of New York City , Fiorello La Guardia , publicly warned that Germany was considering an attack on New York with long @-@ range rockets . La Guardia 's warning and the claims made by the captured spies received considerable media coverage . Despite this , the Department of War , which was dominated by the Army , advised President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 11 December that the threat of missile attack was so low that it did not justify the diversion of resources from other tasks . This assessment was not supported by the U.S. Navy .
In response to the perceived threat , the U.S. Atlantic Fleet prepared a plan to defend the east coast from attacks by aerial raiders and missiles . This plan was originally code @-@ named ' Operation Bumblebee ' , and later renamed ' Operation Teardrop ' . Completed on 6 January 1945 , the plan involved U.S. Navy anti @-@ submarine forces as well as United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) and Army units , which were responsible for shooting down attacking aircraft and missiles . The centerpiece of the plan was the formation of two large naval task forces to operate in the mid @-@ Atlantic as a barrier against submarines approaching the east coast . These task forces were formed from several existing escort carrier groups , and used Naval Station Argentia , Newfoundland , as their forward operating base . As well as guarding against missile attacks , these large forces were tasked with countering the new and high @-@ performance Type XXI submarines if they began operating in the central Atlantic . The Atlantic Fleet 's commander , Vice Admiral Jonas H. Ingram , gave a press conference on 8 January in which he warned there was a threat of missile attack and announced that a large force had been assembled to counter seaborne missile launchers .
In January 1945 , German Minister of Armaments and War Production Albert Speer made a propaganda broadcast in which he claimed that V @-@ 1 and V @-@ 2s " would fall on New York by February 1 , 1945 " , increasing the U.S. Government 's concern over the threat of attack . However , the Germans had no ability to fire missiles from their submarines , as both attempts to develop submarine @-@ launched rockets ended in failure . In June 1942 , U @-@ 511 was used to trial small and short @-@ ranged artillery rockets which could be fired while submerged . Development of this system ended in early 1943 , as it was found to decrease the U @-@ boats ' seaworthiness . The German military also began the development of a U @-@ boat @-@ towed launch canister for the V @-@ 2 ballistic missile in November 1944 . Once complete , these canisters were to be towed to a position off the U.S. east coast and be used to attack New York . Vulkan Docks in Stettin was contracted to build a prototype in March or April 1945 , but little work took place before Germany 's final collapse . It is unlikely that the system would have been successful if it had been completed .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial deployments = = =
Nine Type IX U @-@ boats were dispatched from Norway to patrol off Canada and the U.S. in March 1945 and attack shipping . The purpose of this deployment was to divert Allied anti @-@ submarine forces away from the coastal waters of the United Kingdom . These waters were the main operational area for German submarines in early 1945 , but heavy casualties had forced the German navy to break off operations in late March . On 12 April , U
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this request was refused by the French . The Villefranche @-@ de @-@ Rouergue uprising was originally commemorated in the city with a monument designed by Croatian sculptor Vanja Radauš .
= = = Silesia = = =
As a result of the mutiny , the division was moved to the Neuhammer training grounds in the Silesian region of Germany ( present @-@ day Poland ) to complete its training . During the training phase , the German officers , pleased with its progress , coined the term Mujo for the Bosnian Muslims . The members of the division swore an oath of allegiance to both Hitler and Pavelić .
On 9 October 1943 , SS headquarters officially named the division the 13 . SS @-@ Freiwillingen b.h. Gebirgs @-@ Division ( Kroatien ) , but a short time later a change was made to differentiate it from those that were composed of Germans and it became the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar ( 1st Croatian ) ( German : 13 . Waffen @-@ Gebirgsdivision der SS " Handschar " ( kroat . Nr. 1 ) , Serbo @-@ Croatian : 13 @.@ oružana brdska divizija SS @-@ a Handžar , također i hrvatska br . 1 ) . The division was named Handschar , after a local fighting knife or sword carried by Turkish policemen during the centuries that the region was part of the Ottoman Empire . On 15 February 1944 , the division completed its training and returned to the NDH by rail .
= = Anti @-@ Partisan operations March to May 1944 = =
The division was formed for the primary role of securing around 6 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 300 sq mi ) of territory ( the designated security zone ) in north @-@ eastern Bosnia within the NDH . The security zone encompassed the Posavina , Semberija and Majevica regions between the Sava , Bosna , Drina and Spreča rivers . It roughly corresponded with the area of operations of the Partisan 3rd Corps . Himmler saw this task as critical to the safeguarding of important agricultural areas and Volksdeutsche settlements in the Syrmia region to the north .
The division participated in what may have been the largest anti @-@ Partisan sweep of World War II : Operation Maibaum . The 13th SS Division also participated in other divisional and corps @-@ sized anti @-@ Partisan operations between March and May 1944 .
= = = Operation Wegweiser = = =
The division first saw action during Operation Wegweiser ( Signpost ) from 9 to 12 March 1944 . The aim of Operation Wegweiser was to clear a part of the Syrmia region which was occupied by Partisans who threatened the Zagreb @-@ Belgrade railway . The Partisans were operating from forests around Bosut and villages along the Sava . As the division entered the area , the Partisans withdrew to the south @-@ east , avoiding decisive engagement . Sauberzweig claimed the Partisans suffered 573 killed and 82 captured . Hoare writes that the division massacred hundreds of Serb civilians during the operation . According to Vladimir Dedijer and Antun Miletić , 223 civilians were killed in Bosut , 352 in Sremska Rača , and 70 in Jamena , mostly old men , women and children . The operation was a success in clearing the Bosut forests , but the Partisans returned to the area soon after it concluded .
= = = Operation Save = = =
On 15 March 1944 , Operation Save was launched with the objective of clearing Partisans from the Semberija region . Sauberzweig wrote an open letter to the division : " We have now reached the Bosnian frontier and will ( soon ) begin the march into the homeland . ... The Führer has provided you with his best weapons . Not only do you ( have these ) in your hands , but above all you have an idea in your hearts – to liberate the homeland . ... Before long , each of you shall be standing in the place that you call home , as a soldier and a gentleman ; standing firm as a defender of the idea of saving the culture of Europe – the idea of Adolf Hitler . "
Sauberzweig also ordered that each commander read a prepared message as his unit crossed the Sava River , which emphasized that the " liberation of Bosnia " and ultimately the liberation of " Muslim Albania " was their goal . This was a direct appeal to the Albanian troops as well as the Bosnians . The 27th Regiment crossed the Sava at dawn at Bosanska Rača near the confluence with the Drina . The rest crossed at Brčko covered by an intense artillery bombardment . Contact was immediately made with Partisan forces , who quickly withdrew into the forests . The service support units remained north of the Sava in Vinkovci , which became their permanent garrison area . The 27th Regiment advanced easily across the Pannonian Plain through Velino Selo to Brodac and then on to Bijeljina which was taken against light Partisan resistance late on 16 March .
The 27th Regiment then consolidated its position in Bijeljina while the 28th Regiment and the divisional reconnaissance battalion ( German : Aufklärungsabteilung ) bore the brunt of the fighting as they advanced through Pukis , Čelić and Koraj at the foot of the Majevica mountains . Sauberzweig later recorded that the 2nd battalion of the 28th Regiment ( II / 28 ) " at Čelić stormed the Partisan defenses with ( new ) battalion commander Hans Hanke at the point " and that enemy forces withdrew after a hard battle with heavy losses , low on ammunition .
Once the area was secured , defensive positions were established along the Čelić – Lopare road and company strength units were sent out to conduct reconnaissance . On the night of 17 – 18 March , elements of the Partisan 16th Vojvodina Division and 36th Vojvodina Division mounted unsuccessful attacks against the 28th Regiment 's positions at Koraj and Zabrđe , losing over 200 .
= = = Operation Osterei = = =
After Operation Save , the division remained relatively static for more than three weeks , mopping up and repelling local Partisan attacks . The Muslims were impatient to push further into Bosnia , but the reconnaissance battalion was heavily engaged on the divisional western flank , attacking positions held by the Partisan 3rd Vojvodina Brigade of the 36th Vojvodina Division at Gornji Rahić on 26 March , killing 124 Partisans and capturing 14 . The battalion captured several more Partisan positions in the following week . In early April , 200 Partisans of the 16th Muslim Brigade surrendered to the division . They were mostly former members of various Muslim militias who had been conscripted into the ranks of the Partisans .
Operation Osterei ( Easter Egg ) began on 12 April 1944 with the goal of clearing the Majevica mountain , which was held by elements of the 3rd Corps led by General Kosta Nađ . The 27th Regiment quickly captured Janja and drove through Donja Trnova to reach the Ugljevik coal mines , an important economic objective for the German war machine . Following fighting which continued into the evening of 13 April , the 27th Regiment reported Partisan casualties of 106 dead , 45 captured and two deserters along with large amounts of weapons and ammunition . The regiment also seized a huge amount of medical supplies from aid stations in the area of Donja Trnova .
The 28th Regiment drove south through Mačkovac and during fighting around Priboj , its 1st Battalion ( I / 28 ) , made up of Albanians , incurred heavy casualties . The Partisan 3rd Corps then withdrew the 16th and 36th Vojvodina Divisions south across the Tuzla – Zvornik road . The reconnaissance battalion continued the advance , driving into the western Majevicas and capturing Srebrnik and Gradačac then linking up with the Croatian Home Guard 1st Mountain Brigade . The Germans considered Operation Osterei a major success , achieving all objectives with minimal losses .
During the final phase of Operation Osterei , I / 28 was withdrawn from the fighting and transferred to Pristina in Kosovo to form part of the 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg ( 1st Albanian ) being raised by Himmler 's order . A new I / 28 was raised from other divisional units and new recruits .
In the latter part of Operation Osterei , Jagdkommandos , lightly armed and mobile " hunter teams " of company or battalion strength , were used to break up and harass Partisans still operating on the flanks . These teams killed over 380 Partisans and captured over 200 between 21 and 23 April . By mid @-@ April , half of the security zone had been cleared of Partisans .
= = = Operation Maibaum = = =
The ambitious goal of Operation Maibaum ( Maypole ) was to destroy the Partisan 3rd Corps . Army Group F ordered V SS Mountain Corps to form a blockade along the Drina to prevent the Partisan force from crossing into Serbia . Operation Maibaum was one of the largest counter @-@ insurgency operations of World War II and included 7th SS Division and NDH forces . The 13th SS Division was under the command of V SS Corps , and the primary tasks of the division were to capture Tuzla and Zvornik , then drive south parallel with the Drina to meet other Corps elements . The original plan included the parachute insertion of 500th SS Parachute Battalion into the Vlasenica area , but this was cancelled due to unsuitable weather . Flank security was to be provided by the reconnaissance battalion in the Srebrnik area . The deployment south of the Spreča , and therefore outside the security zone , during Operation Maibaum was ordered by the corps commander , Phleps , despite opposition from Sauberzweig . This caused friction between the two that eventually required Himmler 's intervention .
On 23 April , the 28th Regiment pushed south along mountain roads through Tuzla . The following day it continued on as far as Stupari . On 25 April , the 27th Regiment advanced south to capture Zvornik . At the same time , the 28th Regiment sent I / 28 east towards Vlasenica and II / 28 continuing south towards Kladanj , capturing the town on 27 April . Due to the level of the Drinjača at Kladanj , instead of fording the river and pushing east towards Vlasenica , II / 28 continued south @-@ east towards Han Pijesak , where they met elements of 7th SS Division advancing north .
I / 28 captured Vlasenica on 28 April , but was almost immediately attacked from the east by two Partisan divisions . A third Partisan division surrounded the headquarters of 28th Regiment at Šekovići , 30 kilometres north @-@ west of Vlasenica . Both II / 28 and the reconnaissance battalion were rushed to Vlasenica , where II / 28 relieved the battered I / 28 and then surrounded Šekovići . After a 48 @-@ hour battle , during which II / 28 was decimated , the town was taken .
While the battle of Šekovići raged , the 27th Regiment extended the Drina blockade further south , ambushing a Partisan column and reaching Nova Kasaba on 30 April . After the situation at Šekovići improved on 1 May , the 27th Regiment returned to patrolling the Tuzla – Zvornik road . The 28th Regiment moved to the Simin Han @-@ Lopare area on 5 May , while the 7th SS Division pursued the Partisans withdrawing south .
Operation Maibaum had not only stopped the Partisan 3rd Corps from crossing the Drina into Serbia , it had scattered the Partisan formation . On 6 May , V SS Mountain Corps ordered the division to return to the security zone north of the Spreča .
= = = Operation Maiglöckchen = = =
On 17 – 18 May 1944 , the division , along with the local Majevica @-@ Tuzla Chetnik unit commanded by Radivoj Kerović , commenced Operation Maiglöckchen ( May Bell ) to destroy several Partisan brigades in the Majevicas . The Partisans were encircled in the Stolice heights . An attempt by the Partisan 16th Vojvodina Division to relieve the surrounded force was defeated by the reconnaissance battalion and elements of the 28th Regiment . The relieving column was driven back across the Spreća . After heavy bombardment by the artillery regiment , the trapped Partisan force escaped south out of the pocket under cover of darkness on 18 May . The Partisans suffered considerable casualties , for example the 17th Majevica Brigade of the 27th East Bosnia Division lost 16 killed and 60 missing . At the conclusion of Operation Maiglöckchen , the 27th Regiment remained near Zvornik and the 28th Regiment deployed near Srebrenik .
= = Cooperation with local forces = =
After Operation Maiglöckchen , the division shifted to a largely defensive posture aimed at denying the Partisans access to the security zone . Since its arrival in the zone the division had been assisted in this task by local forces of varying reliability . These included four groups of Chetniks numbering 13 @,@ 000 , Nešad Topčić 's Zeleni kadar ( or Green Cadres , a Muslim nationalist militia ) most of which eventually joined the Partisans , and both Ustaše militia and the Croatian Home Guard , neither of which was effective . These same groups , along with the Partisans , had simultaneously been trying to encourage Bosnian and Croat members to defect . Between March and June 1944 , these attempts were largely fruitless , producing fewer than 200 deserters .
= = Anti @-@ Partisan operations June to August 1944 = =
= = = Operation Vollmond = = =
Following Operation Rösselsprung ( Knight 's Move ) , the German attempt to kill or capture Tito at Drvar in western Bosnia on 25 May 1944 , the Partisan leader ordered a general uprising . The Partisan 3rd Corps planned an offensive that involved three parallel columns of divisional strength thrusting north into the zone to engage and destroy German and local allied forces . The columns comprised :
" Western Column " – 16th Vojvodina Division commanded by Danilo Lekić
" Centre Column " – 38th East Bosnia Division commanded by Miloš Zekić
" Eastern Column " – 36th Vojvodina Division commanded by Marko Perić
Operation Vollmond ( Full Moon ) was devised quickly after the reconnaissance battalion observed Partisan forces crossing the Tuzla – Zvornik road on the evening of 6 June 1944 . Sauberzweig 's aim was to assault from the east and north , pushing the advancing Partisan forces against the Drina . The German plan underestimated the strength of the Partisan " Western Column " and had placed only one battalion ( I / 28 ) on high ground in the Partisans ' path . This battalion included many raw recruits , and was protecting two batteries of the artillery regiment , one of which ( 7 / AR13 ) was deployed just east of Lopare .
Late on 7 June , the Partisans scattered I / 28 and although II / 28 was sent from Srebrenik to assist , the 16th Vojvodina Division surged forward against the positions of 7 / AR13 , which consisted of 80 men with four 150 mm guns and only one machine gun . After four hours fighting , and with half the battery 's personnel dead , the artillerymen ran out of small arms ammunition and scattered into the forest . As a result of a counterattack by II / 28 on the afternoon of 9 June and throughout 10 June , the 16th Vojvodina Division withdrew that afternoon and the battalion pursued both the " Western Column " and " Centre Column " south . The guns and vehicles of 7 / AR13 had been destroyed by the Partisans before they withdrew and there were reports that the German dead at Lopare had been mutilated . The " Eastern Column " was stopped by the 27th Regiment and the last of the Partisan 3rd Corps was pushed back across the Spreča on 12 June .
According to German accounts , Operation Vollmond cost the division 205 dead , 528 wounded and 89 missing . I / 28 had been decimated , with only 180 men remaining . Sauberzweig claimed 3 @,@ 000 Partisans were killed in this operation , but Phleps dismissed this as " a large exaggeration " . According to one German after @-@ action report , they had killed over 1 @,@ 500 Partisans and captured large amounts of arms and ammunition . According to Partisan sources , the losses of the Partisan 3rd Corps were :
" Western Column " – 58 dead , 198 wounded and 29 missing
" Central Column " – 12 dead , 19 wounded , 17 missing
" Eastern Column " – 72 dead , 142 wounded and 9 missing
At the conclusion of Operation Vollmond , the commander of the 27th Regiment , Desiderius Hampel , was appointed division commander at his substantive rank of Standartenführer and Sauberzweig was tasked with forming a new corps headquarters , the IX Waffen Mountain Corps of the SS ( Croatian ) . The commander of the 28th Regiment , Helmuth Raithel , was tasked to raise the new 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama ( 2nd Croatian ) . Both the new corps headquarters and new division were to be formed in southern Hungary . Three NCOs from every company of 13th SS Division , along with other personnel , were transferred to form the core of 23rd SS Division . New commanders were appointed to the two mountain infantry regiments , notably Hans Hanke to the 28th .
Soon after Hampel 's assumption of command , he became aware that local Chetniks were scavenging the Operation Vollmond battlefields for divisional equipment . He met with the Chetnik leader Kerović and arranged for the return of the equipment in exchange for small arms ammunition and boxes of hand grenades .
Throughout the remainder of June 1944 and into the first week of July , the division was engaged in fighting off attempted Partisan incursions into the security zone and reinforcing local NDH and Chetniks who were under attack from the Partisans . During the summer of 1944 , elements of the division were tasked with guarding Hungarian Jewish forced labourers building fortifications in Tuzla . While guarding the labourers , they subjected them to cruel treatment , and shot 22 who were unable to continue working .
= = = Operation Fliegenfänger = = =
Operation Fliegenfänger ( Flypaper ) was launched on 14 July 1944 . It aimed to destroy a makeshift Partisan runway in the Osmaci area about 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) southeast of Tuzla , south of the Tuzla – Zvornik road and the Partisan forces guarding it . The airstrip was just north of the southern boundary of the security zone and was being used by Allied aircraft to bring in supplies and evacuate wounded Partisans to Italy . It had been built by the 19th Birač Brigade of the 27th East Bosnia Division between 3 and 6 July , and the first flight into the airfield occurred on the night of 6 / 7 July . The 19th Birač Brigade was also responsible for its defence . Two battalions of the 27th Regiment , along with a battalion of Chetniks from Majevica launched the operation from the line of Caparde – Memići – Prnjavor , and captured the towns of Osmaci and Memići and damaged the airfield despite stiff resistance . That afternoon , the 19th Birač Brigade counter @-@ attacked and pushed the German and Chetniks back across the Tuzla – Zvornik road . At the same time as the counter @-@ attack was underway , the headquarters of the Partisan 3rd Corps ordered the 36th Vojvodina Division to clear the enemy from the area so that the airfield could be used . During the night of 14 / 15 July , elements of the 36th Vojvodina Division arrived in the Osmaci area and relieved the 19th Birač Brigade , which moved towards Srebrenica . During the night of 16 / 17 July , Allied aircraft delivered equipment to Osmaci and about 100 wounded Partisans were airlifted to Italy .
According to German reports , 42 Partisans were killed , while the division 's losses were four dead and seven wounded . The Partisan force withdrew south to the Vlasenica – Rajići area . The cooperation with the Chetnik battalion was described in the IX SS Mountain Corps war diary as " effective " .
= = = Operation Heiderose = = =
While the division was conducting Operation Fliegenfänger , the Second Panzer Army was developing a plan to block a large Partisan force from moving from central Bosnia into western Serbia to reinforce the Partisans . Due to issues with the availability of various units of V SS Mountain Corps , the planned Operation Rose was cancelled .
In the interim , since most of the division was deployed in the southern part of the security zone , Hampel planned a divisional @-@ level operation , named Operation Heiderose ( Wild Rose ) targeting Partisan positions north @-@ west of Šekovići , south of the Spreča . The 27th Regiment , reinforced by the same Chetnik battalion that cooperated in Operation Fliegenfänger , would attack east towards Šekovići and the 28th Regiment would push south . A detached battalion of 7th SS Division would act as a blocking force driving north . Hampel was apparently unhappy with the performance of the new commander of the 27th Regiment ( SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Hermann Peter ) and put the divisional chief of staff , SS @-@ Sturmbannführer Erich Braun , in charge of the 27th Regiment .
On 17 July , the operation began . Fierce resistance was immediately encountered by the 28th Regiment , while the 27th Regiment climbed the heights to Udrč before dusk without serious opposition . Early on 18 July , the Chetniks attacked from Matkovac towards Šekovići . The 27th Regiment reached Bačkovac and seized the high ground south of Šekovići on 19 July 1944 . The 28th Regiment forced the Partisan 36th Vojvodina Division back . The battalion from 7th SS Division encountered serious resistance around Vlasenica but pushed through . On 19 July , the 28th Regiment drove north towards Gornje Petrovice to attack the Partisan 12th Corps at Živinice . The reconnaissance battalion of 7th SS Division pushed in from Vareš as a blocking force to stop the Partisans from withdrawing via Kladanj .
The Partisans then committed the 16th Vojvodina Division to assist the 36th Vojvodina Division that had borne the brunt of Operation Heiderose to this point . On 20 July , both divisions attacked the 27th Regiment , which counterattacked the following day after the Partisans were rebuffed with heavy casualties . On 23 July , the Partisans began to withdraw south out of the area . The division began to search for the hidden Partisan bases that German intelligence had indicated were located there . After a day of searching , the division uncovered more than ten Partisan bases , which the cooperating Chetniks began to clear despite having shown little interest in actually fighting the Partisans in previous days .
Operation Heiderose was a significant success for the division , inflicting serious losses on the Partisans . More than 900 Partisans were killed and a large amount of equipment was captured : one anti @-@ tank gun , two mortars , 22 machine guns , over 800 rifles and nearly 500 @,@ 000 rounds of small arms ammunition . The division suffered 24 killed and over 150 wounded . Communist sources hold that the Partisans suffered serious losses , with the 12th Corps alone having 250 dead , wounded and missing . However , Partisan reports estimate that German losses were significantly larger than their own . Erich Braun was recommended for the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross but the recommendation was not supported , apparently due to disagreements between the divisional staff and Phleps that had occurred during the division 's formation .
= = = Operation Hackfleisch = = =
In the first week of August 1944 , the Second Panzer Army was finally ready to move to thwart the Partisan advance from Bosnia into Serbia , originally planned as Operation Rose . Renamed Operation Rübezahl ( Mountain Spirit ) , the revamped plan required the 7th and 13th SS Divisions to form the Bosnian phase of the operation , named Operation Hackfleisch ( Minced Meat ) . Hackfleisch aimed to drive out the Partisans occupying the area between the towns of Kladanj , Vlasenica , Sokolac and Olovo , south of the security zone . The overall plan involved columns that were to force the Partisans eastwards into the pincers of the other units , thereby destroying them .
The columns were allocated tasks and composed as follows :
the reconnaissance battalion of 7th SS Division was to drive west from Vareš and attack the Partisans around the town of Olovo , pushing them east ;
I / 28 from 13th SS Division was to attack south and south @-@ east from Ribnica towards Olovo ;
III / 28 from 13th SS Division was to thrust south and south @-@ east from Kladanj towards the village of Petrović ;
the 27th Regiment of 13th SS Division was to drive southwards from Šekovići ;
parts of the 14th Regiment of 7th SS Division were to push north @-@ west between Olovo and Sokolac ; and
parts of the 13th Regiment of 7th SS Division were to attack northwards through Sokolac .
The 27th Regiment became locked in fierce fighting with the Partisan 27th East Bosnia Division and 38th Bosnia Division , which had launched an offensive near Vlasenica . The inability of the 27th Regiment to push forward meant that the plan to encircle the Partisan force was not achieved and the Partisans escaped by crossing the Vlasenica – Han Pijesak road to the east . Other Partisan forces withdrew in the direction of Goražde .
As far as the Germans were concerned , Operation Hackfleisch was a moderate success , with 227 Partisans killed and over 50 prisoners taken . It delayed , but did not prevent , the Partisans ' advance into Serbia . In order to allow the 7th SS Division to pursue Partisan forces withdrawing towards central Bosnia , both I / 28 and III / 28 were placed under the command of that division for the period of 8 – 17 August 1944 . During the remainder of August 1944 , the rump of the division fought hard to keep the Partisans out of the security zone . The Partisan 11th Krajina Division and 38th Bosnia Division quickly infiltrated into the southern part of the security zone and the 27th East Bosnia Division crossed into the area north @-@ west of Srebrenica and drove towards Bratunac . After a series of rapid redeployments and battalion and regimental attacks , the division scattered the 11th Krajina Division and mauled the 27th East Bosnia Division .
The division had by now been fighting almost continuously throughout the summer . According to divisional commander Hampel , it had been exhausted even before Operation Hackfleisch began . The cumulative effect of this exhaustion , the deteriorating situation that the Germans faced on all fronts and rumours probably spread among members by the Partisans and Ustaše , was that the division began to disintegrate in early September 1944 .
= = Last battles against the Partisans = =
In early September 1944 , the division returned north to the security zone , basing the infantry battalions in the villages of Kurukaja , Vukovije ( south of Foča ) , Osmaci and Srebrnik . Almost immediately , the Partisan 3rd Corps commenced an offensive , attacking II / 28 at Srebrnik . It held on despite being pressed hard during two days of fighting against the 11th Krajina Division . By the end of the first week in September , divisional supply columns were being attacked by Chetniks , sensing German weakness and looking for arms and supplies . Three members of the division were killed in these attacks . Over the same week , the Allies conducted Operation Ratweek throughout the Balkans , which involved Allied air power pounding Axis troop concentrations and key infrastructure in order to impede the German withdrawal from Greece . The local effect was to complicate the division 's logistics through destruction of the Sarajevo @-@ Brod railway and mass desertions of NDH troops tasked with securing supply lines .
On 8 September , II / 27 was assaulted unsuccessfully by the Partisans at Matkovac . After the first week of September , most of the division 's fighting power was shifted to the western boundary of the security zone to meet Partisan incursions . The division succeeded in dislodging Partisan units from Slatna and Međeđa and allied Chetniks captured Skurgić . After relief by NDH forces , the division 's fighting regiments withdrew to Brčko for rest and refit . As a result of the shift to the western area of the security zone , the zone 's southern area was quickly overrun by Partisan forces . Zvornik and Tuzla had fallen by mid @-@ September .
= = August 1944 – May 1945 = =
On 17 August 1944 , Tito offered a general amnesty and many in the division took advantage of this opportunity . During the first three weeks of September , while hard fighting continued , over 2 @,@ 000 Bosnians deserted , many taking their weapons with them . They went home , joined the " Zeleni kadar " militia or went over to the Ustaše . Many defected to the Partisans , with over 700 having joined the Partisan 3rd Corps by early October .
Due to high rates of desertion from 13th SS Division , Sauberzweig proposed to disarm the Bosnians in both 13th SS Division and 23rd SS Division , but Himmler instead opted to transport the 2 @,@ 000 Bosnians of 23rd SS Division from Hungary to Bosnia and re @-@ organise the remaining troops of both divisions there , with key support units from 13th SS Division centralised under IX SS Mountain Corps , which would also move to Bosnia from Hungary .
In the early morning of 3 October 1944 , the Partisan 28th Slavonia Division assaulted a squadron of the reconnaissance battalion at Janja close to the Drina on the eastern boundary of the security zone . As they broke out of the encirclement to the north , the rest of the reconnaissance battalion drove south from Bijeljina and stopped the Partisan advance at heavy cost . Rushing towards Janja from the east , III / 27 came into contact with Partisans around Modran , reaching the Janja garrison at 10 pm that night and received artillery reinforcement by 3 / AR 13 during the night . At dawn the following day , an additional four Partisan brigades attacked the garrison in Janja , with fighting continuing throughout the day before the Partisans withdrew to the south . Jagdkommandos were sent after the fleeing enemy but were not able to inflict significant losses on them as they had already crossed the Drina into the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia . Following this battle , Army Group F concluded that the division 's overall combat value was minimal .
A few days later , the 9th Company of the 28th Regiment ( 9 / 28 ) displayed what could still be achieved by the Bosnians under determined leadership when Leutnant Hans König ambushed the Partisan 17th Majevica Brigade near Vukosavci , killing at least 67 and capturing orders for future operations . König was awarded the German Cross in Gold for his fanatical leadership .
= = = Division splits = = =
While 9 / 28 was fighting near Vukosavci , a number of units , consisting mainly of artillery , were temporarily detached for duty with other formations of Second Panzer Army fighting Soviet troops within the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia . The division was not re @-@ united until January 1945 .
After a request from Army Group F to Himmler , a decision was made to move IX SS Mountain Corps and the division to perform road and railway security duties near Zagreb . This would relieve LXIX Army Corps from those duties so that it could reinforce a defensive line along the Drina facing the advancing Red Army . The 28th Regiment , I / 27 and III / AR 13 were to remain behind at the Brčko bridgehead to keep the Sava river bridge open . The heavy desertions from the division were the main reason for the move from north @-@ east Bosnia to northern Croatia , but it made matters worse : the Bosnians were very reluctant to leave Bosnia and the already serious desertion rate became a flood when the move began on 16 October 1944 . Many took their weapons with them and hundreds joined the Partisans . In mid @-@ October , 700 members of the division stationed at Orašje joined the Partisans , and were distributed between the 17th Majevica Brigade and 21st East Bosnian Brigade .
= = = Operation Herbstlaub = = =
On 20 October , the Red Army and Partisan forces captured Belgrade and the following day the divisional staff Imam , Abdulah Muhasilović , incited a mutiny and led 100 men back to Bosnia . Himmler finally agreed to the disarming of the " unreliable " Bosnians under Operation Herbstlaub ( Autumn Leaves ) on 25 October . Between 900 and 1 @,@ 000 Bosnians in the Brčko bridgehead and over 2 @,@ 300 in Zagreb were allocated to labour battalions and similar non @-@ combatant auxiliary duties , although the disarming operation was not completed in the Zagreb area until mid @-@ November . By the beginning of November the division , which had been ninety five percent non @-@ German in January 1944 , became fifty percent German . The plans to re @-@ organise the division were abandoned and Sauberzweig was relieved of command . In addition , Sauberzweig 's IX SS Mountain Corps staff was dissolved and the remnants were placed under the command of LXVIII Army Corps , under which they remained for the rest of the war .
= = = Fighting Soviet troops = = =
Meanwhile , the advance of the Red Army through Belgrade and north into the formerly Hungarian @-@ occupied Yugoslav region of Baranja made holding the line of the Danube critical for the Germans . In early November the Soviet troops established a bridgehead over the Danube from Apatin ( in modern @-@ day Serbia ) . From 9 November onward , the division was committed in several stages to the Eastern Front , starting with the reconnaissance battalion which went into action at Dárda west of the Apatin bridgehead on 10 November . They were followed by a grouping of three battalions ( I / 27 , II / 28 and II / 28 ) , an artillery battalion ( III / AR 13 ) and pioneer support . Known as Kampfgruppe Hanke after their commander Hans Hanke , they moved from the Brčko bridgehead and joined a blocking position at Pélmonostor on 14 November south @-@ west of a second Soviet bridgehead that had been established at Batina ( in modern @-@ day Croatia ) . As a result , the last Muslim SS troops left Bosnia . Within a week they were joined by the reconnaissance battalion , which had acquitted itself well in fighting west of Apatin . By 20 November , the Red Army was across the Danube in force at Batina . The following day Kampfgruppe Hanke was driven out of its positions , when the remaining 200 troops withdrew . By 25 November the rest of the division was on its way from the Zagreb area . The remnants of Kampfgruppe Hanke were placed under command of Reichsgrenadier Division Hoch und Deutschmeister , withdrawing as far as Siklós in southern Hungary by 29 November .
Within days Kampfgruppe Hanke was withdrawn from the front line to rejoin the division and re @-@ fit , and they were moved to Barcs on the Drava river for that purpose . On 2 December the division was reunited , except for the rest of the pioneer battalion , which remained stranded in Bosnia by damaged bridges and railways . As a result of continued desertions and the catastrophic casualties suffered by Kampfgruppe Hanke , the division retained little of its original Bosnian character . Despite the return of disarmed Bosnians from labour units , the attachment of Hungarian infantry and artillery units and arrival of German replacements meant the division looked little different from any other unit in the Second Panzer Army .
After a short break , the division was allocated to a sector of the Margarethe Line , a series of fixed defensive works south of Lake Balaton which held up the Soviet advance . After several Red Army assaults were repulsed , static trench warfare developed between December 1944 and January 1945 . In early March 1945 , a few units took part in Operation Frühlingserwachen ( Spring Awakening ) , which was to be Germany 's last major offensive . Meanwhile , from December 1944 to March 1945 , the rest of the division remained at Barcs rebuilding . In February they had been joined by the divisional pioneer battalion , which had finally managed to withdraw from Bosnia . On 16 March , the Soviets launched the Vienna Offensive , bypassing the Barcs area . That night , the division attacked the flanks of the Soviet drive at Heresznye , where it undertook its last offensive operation of the war .
= = = Retreat to the Reich = = =
On 29 March , the Soviet 57th Army and the Bulgarian First Army assaulted the entire Second Panzer Army front , quickly breaching the line near Nagybajom . The division , holding positions just south of the penetration , began to withdraw to the north @-@ west . It fell back to the Mura and barely managed to cross under constant air and ground attacks , with grievous casualties . Unable to take up effective positions , the division crossed the Reich frontier on 6 April and took up positions at Pettau in the so @-@ called ' Reich Defence Line ' , where it remained until 5 May . Its last fighting was around Kiesmanndorff on 19 April .
On 5 May , the remaining men , both German and Bosnian , began to retreat eastwards towards Austria . On 8 May , an order was sent to retreat to Wolfsberg , Carinthia . On learning of the orders , unit imams of the 28th Regiment " approached their commander , Hans Hanke and requested that they and their men be discharged and be allowed to attempt to return to their homeland ... Soon , all of the Bosnians remaining in the division were asked if they wished to remain . " There are two reports of large scale reprisal killings of these members of 13th SS Division by the Partisans , one of which included the mass shooting of 1 @,@ 400 soldiers .
The retreat continued until 11 May . On 12 May , Hampel carried out surrender negotiations with the British Army at Sankt Veit an der Glan . On 15 May most of the men were transported to Rimini in Italy , where they were incarcerated with other prisoners of war from 7th SS Division and 16th SS Panzergrenadier Division Reichsführer @-@ SS . Scattered remnants did not surrender until 18 May and many attempted to obliterate their SS blood group tattoo . Hampel escaped from a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp in Fallingbostel .
= = Aftermath = =
While it achieved successes and proved itself competent in counter @-@ insurgency operations against the Partisans in eastern Bosnia , the division earned a reputation for brutality and savagery , not only during combat operations , but also through atrocities committed against Serb and Jewish civilians in the security zone . Its reprisal attacks in northern and eastern Bosnia left many hundreds and possibly as many as several thousand Serb civilians dead by the spring and summer of 1944 .
Thirty @-@ eight members of the division were extradited to Yugoslavia to face trial following the war . Some committed suicide , including Generalleutnant Sauberzweig on 20 October 1946 and SS @-@ Obersturmführer Hans König . Trials took place at a military court in Sarajevo between 22 and 30 August 1947 . Only seven of the thirty @-@ eight defendants were charged with specific offenses , although the indictment accused the division of murdering some 5 @,@ 000 people . The accused were defended by three Yugoslav lawyers : two civilian and one military officer . All were found guilty ; 10 were sentenced to death , and 28 received prison terms of between five years and life . SS @-@ Obersturmführer Imam Halim Malkoč had already been executed in Bihać on 7 March 1947 . All of those who were executed were junior officers and non @-@ commissioned officers .
Almost all the prisoners were released early and by 1952 all had been freed , except for one who had died . Having escaped , Hampel never faced trial and lived in Graz , Austria until his death on 11 January 1981 .
= = Commanders = =
The following officers commanded the division . The first two raised and trained the division in its early stages of development and Sauberzweig and Hampel commanded it on active operations against the Partisans and later against the Red Army and Bulgarians :
SS @-@ Gruppenführer und Generalleutnant der Waffen @-@ SS Artur Phleps ( in charge of raising the division , from 13 February 1943 )
SS @-@ Standartenführer der Reserve Herbert Von Obwurzer ( 9 March 1943 – 1 August 1943 )
SS @-@ Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen @-@ SS Karl @-@ Gustav Sauberzweig ( 1 August 1943 – 1 June 1944 )
SS @-@ Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen @-@ SS Desiderius Hampel ( 1 June 1944 – 12 May 1945 )
= = Awards = =
Several members were decorated with high German military awards , with five awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( including Hampel and Hanke ) , five awarded the German Cross in Gold ( including Hanke ) and one awarded the German Cross in Silver . All five presentations of the Knight 's Cross to members of the division are disputed and cannot be verified at the German National Archive . According to Gerhard von Seemen , Hampel , Karl Liecke and Hanke presumably received the Knight 's Cross on the same day from the commander of the 2nd Panzer Army , General der Artillerie Maximilian de Angelis .
= = Order of battle = =
27th Waffen Gebirgsjäger ( Mountain Infantry ) Regiment of the SS ( 1st Croatian )
28th Waffen Gebirgsjäger ( Mountain Infantry ) Regiment of the SS ( 2nd Croatian )
13th SS Mountain Artillery Regiment
13th SS Mountain Reconnaissance Battalion
13th SS Panzerjäger ( Anti @-@ tank ) Battalion
13th SS Mountain Pioneer Battalion
13th SS Anti @-@ aircraft Battalion
13th SS Mountain Signals Battalion
13th SS Division Supply Battalion
13th SS Logistics Battalion
13th SS Medical Battalion
13th SS Replacement Battalion
From 24 September 1944 , the supply and logistics battalions were combined to form the 13th SS Service Support / Supply Regiment .
= = Uniform = =
The uniform was regular SS M43 field @-@ jacket issue , with a divisional collar patch showing an arm holding a scimitar over a swastika . On the left arm was a Croatian armshield ( red @-@ white chessboard ) and on the right an Edelweiss flower patch . The chessboard armshield was controversial , especially with the Imams , who , after crossing the Sava river , removed them . Former SS personnel serving in the division were entitled to wear a Sig Rune badge that was attached to the left breast pocket of the tunic .
Headgear was either the SS M43 fez which was to be worn by all ranks , while German officers had the option to wear the mountain cap ( Bergmütze ) . The fez was chosen by Himmler because it had been worn by the Bosnian @-@ Herzegovinian Infantry regiments of the Austro @-@ Hungarian army from 1894 to 1918 , as well as by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Albanian Legion from 1916 to 1918 . There were two versions of the fez : a field gray model to be worn in combat and while on duty and a red model for parades , marching exercises and while off duty . Both the fez and mountain cap bore the death 's head and eagle of the SS . The mountain cap was also adorned with an Edelweiss flower patch , worn on the left side of the cap .
= = Division song = =
Set to the melody of " Wir fahren gegen Engelland " by Herms Niel .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Magazines = = =
= Pony of the Americas =
The Pony of the Americas ( POA ) is a pony breed developed in the state of Iowa in the United States . The foundation stallion was an Arabian / Appaloosa / Shetland pony cross . A breed registry was founded in 1954 , and within 15 years had registered 12 @,@ 500 ponies . Today , the Pony of the Americas Club is one of the largest and most active youth @-@ oriented horse breed registries in the US . Although called ponies , POAs have the phenotype of a small horse , combining mainly Arabian and American Quarter Horse attributes . The registry is open , allowing blood from many other breeds , but has strict criteria for entry , including Appaloosa coloration , specified height and other physical characteristics . Although mainly bred for Western riding , the breed has been used for many other disciplines , including driving , endurance riding and some English disciplines .
= = Breed characteristics = =
Ponies are only registered with the Pony of the Americas club if they have Appaloosa coloring visible from 40 feet ( 12 m ) , otherwise known as " loud " Appaloosa coloring . The coloration includes the typical leopard complex characteristics of mottling around the eyes , muzzle and genitalia , as well as visible white sclera of the eyes and striped hooves . Pinto coloration is not allowed , nor is ancestry from a breed noted for pinto coloring , such as the American Paint Horse . The facial profile of the POA is slightly concave . It is a muscular breed , with a deep chest and well @-@ sloped shoulders . The breed averages 11 @.@ 2 to 14 hands ( 46 to 56 inches , 117 to 142 cm ) high . Despite having the size and name " pony " , the breed has the phenotype ( physical characteristics ) of a small horse of an American Quarter Horse / Arabian type , not a true pony breed .
The Pony of the Americas Club will register the offspring of registered POAs , as well crosses with Connemaras , Galiceno ponies , Australian Stock Horses , Morgans and Thoroughbreds , and the original Appaloosa and Arabian breeds . These crosses are allowed into the registry as full members as long as they meet the physical breed requirements . Crosses with other breeds , including Quarter ponies , Shetland ponies , Anglo @-@ Arabs , Spanish Mustangs and Welsh ponies , are accepted on an individual basis .
= = History = =
The POA was developed in the United States in the 1950s by Les Boomhower , a Shetland pony breeder in Iowa . The foundation stallion of the breed was an Arabian / Appaloosa / Shetland pony cross with Appaloosa markings named Black Hand . Boomhower appreciated the stallion 's conformation and disposition and decided to use him to develop a new breed of Appaloosa @-@ colored ponies . In 1954 , Boomhower and a group of associations founded the Pony of the Americas Club , with Black Hand receiving the first registration number . A year later , twelve ponies and twenty @-@ three members had been registered . The club 's goal was to develop a medium @-@ sized pony for older children and small adults , with the coloration of the Appaloosa , the refinement of the Arabian and the muscle and bone of an American Quarter Horse . Originally the height requirement called for ponies between 44 and 52 inches ( 110 and 130 cm ) ; in 1963 this was changed to a range of 46 and 54 inches ( 120 and 140 cm ) , and in 1985 a final change was made to height , raising the upper limit to 56 inches ( 140 cm ) .
Over the first 15 years of its existence , the breed club registered 12 @,@ 500 ponies . Between the founding of the breed club and the present , the early Shetland blood has been almost completely bred out , in order to maintain and improve the small stock horse look sought by the breed founders . The Pony of the Americas Club hosted its first national convention in 1988 , and in 1990 , the Club developed a Hall of Fame for its members and ponies . As of 2012 , the Pony of the Americas Club has registered over 50 @,@ 000 ponies . The Club has become one of the equine industry 's largest youth @-@ oriented breed registries , with over 2 @,@ 000 members , and one of the most active , with over 40 affiliated chapters .
Although originally developed mainly for Western riding and stock uses , it has also been seen competing in endurance riding , three @-@ day eventing , show hunter , and driving . It jumps well , and can be used for dressage . Originally , breed club shows did not allow people over the age of 16 to show POAs under saddle ; adults could , however , show them in halter or driving classes . In 1973 , the age limit for riders was raised to 18 , and in 1987 it was decided that adults 19 and over could show horses two to four years old under saddle .
= Start Over =
" Start Over " is a song by American recording artist Beyoncé taken from her fourth studio album , 4 ( 2011 ) . It was written by Shea Taylor , Knowles and Ester Dean and produced by the former two . The song 's development was motivated by the fact that Knowles traveled around the world and experienced different cultures which inspired love and purity inside her . A mid @-@ tempo pop , pop rock and soul @-@ influenced R & B ballad , " Start Over " finds the female protagonist affirming her individuality and expressing her love for a man with whom she attempts to start a relationship all over again . Knowles ' vocals are accompanied by electric and enticing beats ; the song 's instrumentation includes drums and synthesizers .
" Start Over " received mixed to positive reviews from music critics , who noted that the song was quite similar to Knowles ' older material . The placement of the song on the track @-@ listing was criticized by critics , who thought that it made " Start Over " barely distinguishable . However , the beats arrangement and the vulnerability of Knowles ' vocals were highlighted by many critics . Following the release of 4 , " Start Over " charted at number 43 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart based on downloads alone .
= = Conception = =
" Start Over " was written by Shea Taylor , Knowles and Ester Dean and produced by the Knowles and Taylor . It was recorded at MSR Studios and Jungle City Studios in New York City , New York . " Start Over " was mixed by Serban Ghenea with further assistance from Phil Seaford and it was engineered by John Hanes with further assistance from Ramon Rivas and Pete Wolford . Beginning on June 16 to June 27 , 2011 , the songs from 4 were available to listen to in full each day on Knowles ' official website , paired with its accompanying photo spread from the album packaging and an insightful quote . On June 22 , 2011 , " Start Over " was the fourth song to be chosen . The quote found Knowles elaborating on what motivated her to record a song like " Start Over " : " For the first time in my life I was able to travel the world , hear different influences , see different types of dance and choreography and taste different types of food . It was important that I was able to digest everything : It inspired purity , more heart and more love . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Music and lyrical content = = =
" Start Over " is a midtempo R & B ballad , which contains elements of pop , soul and " angst @-@ ridden " pop rock and is built on hollow electric beats . The song 's instrumentation consists of gleaming synthesizers , a piano , loud and echoing drums , and minimal percussion instrument . According to Amanda Hensel of Pop Crush , the arrangement of the synthesizers is reminiscent of the Destiny 's Child era . Jenna Hally Rubenstein of MTV Buzzworthy compared the song with Knowles ' own " 1 + 1 " ( 2011 ) from the same album . Andrew Unterberger of the website Popdust compared the song with Ryan Tedder @-@ produced songs like Jordin Sparks ' " Battlefield " and Kelly Clarkson 's " Already Gone " . Priya Elan of NME felt that the piano parts in " Start Over " were similar to songs by rock band Evanescence because of its processed drums and piano riffing .
" Start Over " finds Knowles affirming her individuality and expressing her love for a man with whom she attempts to start a relationship all over again rather than losing it . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times added that Knowles ' emotional radar " is set to loyalty , for better or worse — sometimes that loyalty is rewarded , and sometimes it has been betrayed , but over all , she operates on the axis of faithfulness " . Her vocals throughout the song are " so vulnerable that they 're almost tortured " as stated by Rubenstein . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy further noted that the " raspy and husky growls " that Knowles adopts occasionally on " Start Over " , show an " offering moments of raw , heartfelt emotion " .
= = = Song structure = = =
The song begins with Knowles singing : " I feel weak / We 've been here before / ' Cause I feel we keep going back and forth / Maybe it 's over , maybe we 're through / But I honestly can say I still love you . " The introduction is skeletal as it contains only atmospheric synthesizers and insistent drum tapping , which have been further described as " warbly [ and ] lighthearted " . Throughout the song , the swaths of reverb occasionally pierce through the production . In the pre @-@ chorus lines , Knowles sings : " Maybe it 's over , maybe we 're through , but I honestly can say I still love you / Maybe we reached a mountain peak and there ’ s no more left to climb / and maybe we lost a magic piece and we 're too blind to find " while her vocals are followed by background sounds . The beat steadily grows from the verses to the bridge and , finally , to the chorus , with pounding drums coming in to the loop during the refrain as Knowles sings : " Let ’ s start over / Let 's give love their wings / Let ’ s start over / Stop fighting bout the same old thing " . As she belts the high notes and the drum beats continue to catch up , she urges her man to " give love another life " . During the bridge , Knowles sings : " I know I called you selfish / But that ’ s a lie " , over a simple piano line .
= = Critical reception = =
" Start Over " earned mixed to positive reviews from critics , some of whom felt it was too similar to Knowles 's older material . MTV 's Jenna Hally Rubenstein wrote that in the song , Knowles shows her best side , which according to her were the " larger @-@ than @-@ life , emotionally tortured , breathy ballads . " Writing for MTV UK , Joanne Dorken concluded that the song was " stonking and dramatic " but also " single @-@ worthy . " Dorken added : " Knowles shows off that big voice of hers , leaving us wanting more from the lady herself . " While reviewing 4 , Gary Graff of Billboard magazine noted that several songs on the album , including " Start Over " , were talking about " the gray areas in between " . Erika Ramirez of the same magazine said : " Again honest when it comes to love , Bey [ oncé ] ' won 't surrender till she and beau ' give love another life . ' Bey [ oncé ] ' s roar matches the song 's fight . " Ben Cardew of Music Week stated that " Start Over " was the first indication that Knowles might have picked " some leftfield influences during those nine months off " , making reference to the way the song starts , as he wrote , " with what sounds like – but most probably isn 't – distorted pan pipes before kicking into a massive R & B number . "
Robert Copsey of the website Digital Spy found similarities between the song and Knowles ' older material . Chad Grischow of IGN commented that the chiming blend of synth and piano over a hollow beat on " Start Over " showcase the vulnerability in Knowles ' vocals effectively . Amanda Hensel of the website Pop Crush graded the song with three out of five stars and called it one of the " begging and pleading love songs , but it also has that element of ' Yeah , it 's probably time to call this off . ' " She added that : " This feels like more of a filler track than a chart @-@ topping single , and because she 's the best of the best , it 's easy for her to knock out a killer song without really trying . " Hensel finished her review by saying " ' Start Over ' is good , but it 's not amazing , and we know she can do better . " Cristin Maher of the same publication in his review of 4 wrote :
" Although it is easy for some to get sick of the repetitive lovesick theme B seems to gravitate towards , the music in this song nothing short of epic , as is Beyonce 's vocal performance . The beat steadily grows from the verses to the bridge and , finally , to the chorus , with pounding drums coming in to the loop during the refrain as B [ eyoncé ] sings , ' Let 's start over / Let 's give love their wings / Let 's start over / Stop fighting bout the same old thing . ' "
A mixed review was given by Andy Gill of The Independent who said that " the vocal editing on ' Start Over ' is far too sloppy , confirming again that a series of individual flourishes doesn 't pass muster as a performance . " David Amidon of PopMatters also gave a mixed review for " Start Over " and " Countdown " saying that they " just don 't seem to be listening to themselves , and will get by on listenability more than lyrical wizardry if they get by at all . " Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone also gave a mixed review for the song , saying : " While the other songs on 4 all have a distinct flavor and give Beyoncé an opportunity to try something new in some way or another , ' Start Over ' just kind of sits there at the middle of the disc not doing much of anything . " He also noted that " Start Over " was an " inoffensive ballad that doesn 't do much for the record aside from break its momentum at the halfway point . "
Although Becky Bain of Idolator called Knowles ' vocals " gorgeous " , he gave a mixed review for the song because it " could have been recorded by anyone and ended with similar results " with the one done by Knowles . Bain stated that Knowles should have " procure more polarizing songs and take bigger risks — at least then half of her fans would love it , as opposed to her entire fanbase shrugging at everything they hear . " NME 's Hamish MacBain classified the song as one of the " barely distinguishable slowies " and added that the " will to continue listening [ the album ] departs . " Andrew Unterberger of the website Popdust gave a negative review for " Start Over " grading it with two out of five stars . Comparing it with Knowles ' older material , Unterberger concluded : " Beyoncé tries her best to imbue them with legitimate emotion , especially on the chorus , but it 's just not happening this time around . " Ricky Schweitzer of the website Beats Per Minute concluded that songs like " I Miss You " and " Start Over " would earn deserved spots in " the Beyoncé pantheon " once fans take the time to grow attached to them . Elan Priya of NME wrote that the song was a " trouble @-@ in @-@ paradise tune " with an " overblown chorus with hair @-@ rock aspirations " . However , he commented that the song was " rather buried under sonic bluster " .
= = Promotion = =
Although set to showcase Knowles ' fourth album 4 , " Start Over " was noticeably missing from her set list for the 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé revue . Elementary school chorus PS22 chorus covered the song in March , 2012 . Their cover appeared on Knowles ' official website . A remix of the song from Polish house band WAWA premiered online on July 8 , 2013 . Mike Wass of the website Idolator classified the original song as the " album 's only not @-@ completely @-@ brilliant moment " , he noted " Wthe WAWA boys did a great job transforming it into a dark and dangerous house anthem that stands toe @-@ to @-@ toe with Bey ’ s best floorfillers . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from 4 liner notes .
= = Chart performance = =
For the week ending July 2 , 2011 , " Start Over " debuted at number 43 on the South Korean International Singles Chart , selling 14 @,@ 192 digital downloads .
= Ravi Zacharias =
Ravi Zacharias ( born 26 March 1946 ) is an Indian @-@ born Canadian @-@ American Christian apologist . A defender of traditional evangelicalism , Zacharias is the author of numerous Christian books , including the Gold Medallion Book Award winner Can Man Live Without God ? in the category " theology and doctrine " and Christian bestsellers Light in the Shadow of Jihad and The Grand Weaver . He is the founder and chairman of the board of Ravi Zacharias International Ministries , host of the radio programs Let My People Think and Just Thinking , and has been a visiting scholar at Ridley Hall , where he studied moralist philosophers and literature of the Romantic era , and has had six honorary doctoral degrees , including a Doctor of Laws and a Doctor of Sacred Theology . Zacharias held the chair in Evangelism and Contemporary Thought at Alliance Theological Seminary from 1981 to 1984 . Evangelical Christian leader Chuck Colson referred to Zacharias as " the great apologist of our time . "
= = Early life = =
Zacharias was born in Madras , India . He claims descent from a woman of the Nambudiri Brahmin caste and a Christian man of the Boatman caste . His mother was from Madras while his father was from Kerala . He grew up in Delhi . According to Zacharias , before her marriage , Swiss German missionaries had spoken to his Brahmin ancestor about Christianity and she had converted and had been made an outcast by her Brahmin family and community . Zacharias grew up in a nominal Anglican household , and says that he was an atheist until the age of 17 when he tried to commit suicide by swallowing poison . While in the hospital , a local Christian worker brought him a Bible and told his mother to read to him from John 14 . Zacharias says that it was John 14 : 19 that touched him and meant to him as the defining paradigm : " Because I live , you also will live . " He said that he thought , " This may be my only hope : A new way of living . Life as defined by the Author of Life . " and that he committed his life to Christ praying , " Jesus if You are the one who gives life as it is meant to be , I want it . Please get me out of this hospital bed well , and I promise I will leave no stone unturned in my pursuit of truth . " In 1966 Zacharias emigrated with his family to Canada , earning his undergraduate degree from the Ontario Bible College in 1972 ( now Tyndale University College & Seminary ) and his M.Div. from Trinity International University .
= = Ministry = =
Zacharias was invited to spend the summer of 1971 in Vietnam , where he evangelized to the American soldiers , as well as to POWs and Viet Cong . After graduating from the Ontario Bible College , he began an itinerant ministry with the Christian and Missionary Alliance in Canada . In 1974 the C & MA sent him to Cambodia , where he preached only a short time before its fall to the Khmer Rouge . In 1977 , after graduating from Trinity , Zacharias was commissioned to preach worldwide .
In 1983 , Zacharias was invited to speak in Amsterdam at the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association 's annual evangelists ' conference . It was here that he first noticed a lack of ministry in the area of Christian apologetics . After Amsterdam , Zacharias spent the summer evangelizing in India , where he continued to see the need for apologetics ministry , both to lead people to Christ and to train Christian leaders . In August 1984 Ravi Zacharias International Ministries was founded in Toronto , Canada to pursue his calling as a " classical evangelist in the arena of the intellectually resistant . " Today its headquarters is located in Atlanta , Georgia , and has offices in Canada , India , Singapore , the United Kingdom , the Middle East , Hong Kong , Romania , Turkey , Austria , Spain , and South Africa . He was later ordained by the Christian and Missionary Alliance and commissioned as an international evangelist .
In 1989 , shortly after the fall of the Berlin Wall , Zacharias was invited to speak in Moscow . While there he spoke to students at the Lenin Military Academy as well as political leaders at the Center for Geopolitical Strategy . This was the first of many evangelism opportunities towards the political world . Future events included an invitation to Bogota , Colombia in 1993 , where he spoke to the judiciary committee on the importance of having a solid moral foundation .
In 1990 he wrote his first book , A Shattered Visage : The Real Face of Atheism . In 1993 Zacharias was invited to speak at his first Veritas Forum at Harvard University , and later that year was one of the keynote speakers at Urbana . Zacharias continues to be a frequent guest at these forums , both giving lectures and answering students in question and answer sessions at academic institutions such as the University of Georgia , the University of Michigan , and Penn State .
Zacharias attracted media attention when in 2004 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) opened its signature pulpit at the Salt Lake Tabernacle to him for a series of messages . Zacharias delivered a sermon on " Who Is the Truth ? Defending Jesus Christ as The Way , The Truth and The Life " to some 7 @,@ 000 lay @-@ persons and scholars from both LDS and Protestant camps in an initiatory move towards open dialogue between the camps .
Some evangelicals criticized Zacharias ' decision not to use this opportunity to directly address the " deep and foundational " differences between the historic Christian faith and that of the LDS church . He responded by asserting that Christians should not immediately condemn Mormonism 's theological differences but " graciously build one step at a time in communicating our faith with clarity and conviction " . He said this is just as effective as showing someone the faults of their faith . The speaking engagement was nearly sabotaged by a claim by event organizer Greg Johnson , president of Standing Together , that Zacharias had nothing to do with editing the book The Kingdom of the Cults and had only loaned his name to the latest edition . Johnson later apologized for his comment .
Zacharias is a frequent keynote lecturer within the evangelical community at events such as the Future of Truth conference in 2004 , the National Religious Broadcasters ' Convention and Exposition in 2005 , the National Conference on Christian Apologetics in 2006 . On successive nights in October 2007 , he addressed first the students and faculty of Virginia Tech , then the community of Blacksburg , Virginia , on the topic of evil and suffering in the wake of the Virginia Tech massacre . Zacharias has represented the evangelical community at occasions such as the National Day of Prayer in Washington , DC , the Annual Prayer Breakfast at the United Nations , and the African Union Prayer Breakfast in Maputo , Mozambique , and was named honorary chairman of the 2008 National Day of Prayer task force . He also plans to participate in the ecumenical Together 16 meetings in July 2016 , which Pope Francis will address .
Zacharias was interviewed in Focus on the Family 's Truth Project . In November 2009 , Zacharias signed an ecumenical statement known as the Manhattan Declaration which affirms the sanctity of human life , the dignity of marriage as a union of husband and wife , and the freedom of religion are foundational principles of justice and the common good .
In 2014 , Zacharias republished his book The Lamb and The Fuhrer , an imaginary conversation between Adolf Hitler , Jesus Christ and Dietrich Bonhoffer , as a graphic novel . In 2016 , Republican presidential candidate Marco Rubio appointed Zacharias to his anti @-@ abortion “ Dignity Of Life ” advisory panel .
= = Family = =
In May 1972 , Zacharias married Margaret " Margie " Reynolds , whom he met at his church 's youth group . They have three children : Sarah , Naomi , and Nathan .
= = Worldview = =
Zacharias states that a coherent worldview must be able to satisfactorily answer four questions : that of origin , meaning of life , morality and destiny . He says that while every major religion makes exclusive claims about truth , the Christian faith is unique in its ability to answer all four of these questions . He routinely speaks on the coherence of the Christian worldview , saying that Christianity is capable of withstanding the toughest philosophical attacks . Zacharias believes that the apologist must argue from three levels : the theoretical , to line up the logic of the argument ; the arts , to illustrate ; and " kitchen table talk " , to conclude and apply . Zacharias ' style of apologetic focuses predominantly on Christianity 's answers to life 's great existential questions , with defense of God .
= = Works = =
A Shattered Visage : The Real Face of Atheism ( 1994 , 2004 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 8010 @-@ 6511 @-@ 9
Can Man Live Without God ? ( 1994 , 1996 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 8499 @-@ 3943 @-@ 7
Deliver Us From Evil ( 1996 , 1998 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 8499 @-@ 3950 @-@ X
Cries of the Heart ( 1998 , 2002 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 8499 @-@ 4387 @-@ 6
The Merchant and the Thief ( 1999 ) ( Children ’ s ) ISBN 0 @-@ 7814 @-@ 3296 @-@ 0
The Broken Promise ( 2000 ) ( Children 's ) ISBN 0 @-@ 7814 @-@ 3451 @-@ 3
Jesus Among Other Gods ( 2000 , 2002 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 8499 @-@ 4327 @-@ 2
Jesus Among Other Gods ( Youth Edition ) ( 2000 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 8499 @-@ 4217 @-@ 9
The Lotus and the Cross : Jesus Talks with Buddha ( 2001 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 57673 @-@ 854 @-@ X
Sense and Sensuality : Jesus Talks with Oscar Wilde ( 2002 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 59052 @-@ 014 @-@ 9
Light in the Shadow of Jihad : The Struggle For Truth ( 2002 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 57673 @-@ 989 @-@ 9
Recapture the Wonder ( 2003 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 59145 @-@ 276 @-@ 7
Is Your Church Ready ? : Motivating Leaders to Live an Apologetic Life ( 2003 ) ( Editor , with Norman Geisler ) ISBN 0 @-@ 310 @-@ 25061 @-@ 7
Who Made God ? And Answers to Over 100 Other Tough Questions of Faith ( 2003 ) ( General Editor , with Norman Geisler ) ISBN 0 @-@ 310 @-@ 24710 @-@ 1
The Kingdom of the Cults ( 2003 ) ( Editor ) ISBN 0 @-@ 7642 @-@ 2821 @-@ 8
I , Isaac Take Thee , Rebekah : Moving From Romance to Lasting Love ( 2004 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 8499 @-@ 0822 @-@ 1
The Prince and the Prophet : Jesus Talks With Mohammed ( Copyright 2004 , to be released posthumously ) ISBN 1 @-@ 59052 @-@ 319 @-@ 9
The Lamb and the Führer : Jesus Talks with Hitler ( 2005 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 59052 @-@ 394 @-@ 6
Walking From East to West : God in the Shadows ( With R.S.B. Sawyer ) ( 2006 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 310 @-@ 25915 @-@ 0
The Grand Weaver : How God Shapes Us Through the Events of Our Lives ( 2007 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 310 @-@ 26952 @-@ 0
Beyond Opinion : Living the Faith We Defend ( 2008 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 8499 @-@ 1968 @-@ 1
The End of Reason : A Response to the New Atheists ( 2008 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 310 @-@ 28251 @-@ 9
Is There Not a Cause ( 2008 ) ( National Day of Prayer Feature Book )
New Birth or Rebirth : Jesus Talks with Krishna ( 2008 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 59052 @-@ 725 @-@ 9
There is a Plan ( 2009 ) ( excerpts from The Grand Weaver ) ISBN 0 @-@ 310 @-@ 31849 @-@ 1
Has Christianity Failed You ? ( 2010 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 310 @-@ 26955 @-@ 5
The Lotus and the Cross : Jesus Talks with Buddha ( 2010 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 60142 @-@ 318 @-@ 7
Why Jesus ? Rediscovering His Truth in an Age of Mass Marketed Spirituality ( 2012 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89296 @-@ 319 @-@ 5
The Lamb and the Fuhrer--Graphic Novel ( 2014 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 161328 @-@ 137 @-@ 6
Why Suffering ? Finding Meaning and Comfort When Life Doesn 't Make Sense ( 2014 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 45554 @-@ 970 @-@ 2
= Up ! Live in Chicago =
Up ! Live in Chicago is the third live video album by Canadian singer Shania Twain . Directed and produced by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller , the concert was held and filmed on July 27 , 2003 at Hutchinson Field in the south @-@ side of Grant Park in Chicago , Illinois ; over 50 @,@ 000 people attended . The concert itself differed from that of the Up ! Tour ( 2003 – 04 ) , featuring a different stage , setlist and production . Behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the singer visiting local landmarks and events was filmed the same week . The concert film premiered on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) on August 19 , 2003 . The special was watched by over 8 @.@ 87 million viewers , becoming the second @-@ most @-@ viewed concert film on television , behind Celine Dion 's A New Day ... Live in Las Vegas ( 2003 ) .
Due to its high television ratings , Up ! Live in Chicago was released as a video album on November 18 , 2003 by Mercury Records Nashville . Released both in standard DVD packaging and in a jewel case , it featured additional performances not included on the television presentation . The album was also received positively by music critics , who complimented Shania 's interaction with the audience ; however , some questioned her live singing . The video peaked at number two on Billboard 's Top Music Video sales chart , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It was also certified platinum in Australia and gold in Austria and Brazil . Excerpts from Up ! Live in Chicago were used as the music videos for " She 's Not Just a Pretty Face " ( 2003 ) and " It Only Hurts when I 'm Breathing " ( 2004 ) .
= = Background = =
Over three and a half years after her last live show , Shania performed a series of three outdoor concerts in Europe and North America in July 2003 to promote her fourth studio album Up ! ( 2002 ) . The singer scheduled the trek primarily because of her prolonged absence from live performances and to ensure playing a concert in the United States prior to her Up ! Tour . At the time , it was to commence in September 2003 in Europe , although it ultimately did so in North America . She said , " With the tour starting in September , I didn 't want to miss the summer without staging a concert in the U.S. After living with these 19 songs [ from Up ! ] and going through the recording process , it 's time to get on stage and perform them . " She conceptualized the shows to consist mainly of uptempo numbers and to be almost void of ballads to " spend the night rocking " and maintain an energized spirit . She also deliberately left much room for improvisation , stating that she preferred for the performances to be very spontaneous , than choreographed and music video @-@ like . She first performed on July 5 , 2003 at Nowlan Park in Kilkenny , Ireland , and then on July 12 , 2003 at Hyde Park in London , England with a setlist composed of twenty @-@ two songs .
The singer then headed to Chicago , Illinois to perform a free outdoor concert on July 27 , 2003 , held at the Hutchinson Field in the south @-@ side of Grant Park . Meanwhile , the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) was seeking an artist to host a prime time television music special , and contacted Twain to discuss the possibilities of filming the concert in Chicago . NBC executives sought Twain for the special because they believed her lengthy career and crossover history would translate into more viewers . She accepted the offer , and the show was directed and produced by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller . Prior to performing at Grant Park , Twain spent a week in Chicago to film behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage that would be used for the television special . She visited landmarks and attended local events , such as a Chicago Cubs game where she tossed the first pitch and sang " Take Me Out to the Ballgame " for the audience . The singer also took a riverboat trip and visited outposts of her favorite charity Kids Cafés , a program specialized to feed children in America . The concert was produced by JAM Creative Productions , and sponsored by local radio station WUSN and the Chicago Tribune , which disseminated information about obtaining concert tickets . The show was attended by over 50 @,@ 000 people .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The concert 's setlist consisted primarily of songs from Up ! , with several hits from The Woman in Me ( 1995 ) and Come on Over ( 1997 ) . The songs from Up ! were not performed in a specific format from the three studio versions of the album . Shania desired to approach the live productions as their " own beast " . The show commenced with Shania , who was costumed by a " Body Glove " top and black cargo pants , arriving from the back of the stage to perform " Man ! I Feel Like a Woman ! " alongside her band . The singer then followed with " Up ! " and after talking with the audience the singer says it has been 3 and 1 / 2 years being up on the concert stage and then performed Honey I 'm Home . Shania continued to perform a total of ten songs during the segment . At one point , she invited an audience member onstage to propose to his girlfriend . She accepted and the two slow danced onstage as Shania sang " When You Kiss Me " , sitting on a stool placed towards the end of the runway . The segment ended with a performance of " I 'm Gonna Getcha Good ! " , where Shania invited Sian , Mannie and Ashley to join her onstage . In the succeeding segment , Shania donned a tan , multi @-@ patterned halter top with the words " True Love " spelled on the front and black , sequined wide leg trousers . She begun with " From This Moment On " . Then , she performed " No One Needs to Know " with an acoustic guitar and " Thank You Baby ! ( For Makin ' Someday Come So Soon ) " with a small orchestra accompanying her . She concluded the nine @-@ song segment with " ( If You 're Not in It for Love ) I 'm Outta Here ! " . The singer returned to the stage for the third and final segment , wearing a black , long @-@ sleeve top with an American flag imprinted in the center and denim capri pants . She performed a rendition of " You 're Still the One " playing acoustic guitar and ended the show with " Nah ! " and " Rock This Country ! " .
= = Release = =
On June 6 , 2003 , the Chicago Tribune announced the Grant Park concert , which was to be filmed for an August NBC special . Immediately after the show concluded , its premiere date of August 19 , 2003 was specified . A two @-@ hour edited version was televised on August 19 at 8 : 00 P.M. EST to high ratings . Up ! Live in Chicago was watched by over 8 @.@ 87 million viewers in the United States , becoming the second @-@ most @-@ watched concert film in television history , behind Celine Dion 's CBS special A New Day ... Live in Las Vegas earlier that year . Following the concert film 's television success , Mercury Records Nashville released the home video album on November 18 , 2003 in Region 1 and on November 24 , 2003 in Region 2 . It was released in DVD format , both in conventional DVD packaging and in a jewel case ; both appeared in an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 33 : 1 ( 4 : 3 ) . The release featured six additional performances that were not shown on the NBC special and also stereo and 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mixes . Up ! Live in Chicago also sourced video material for two of Up ! ' s singles . The performances of " She 's Not Just a Pretty Face " ( 2003 ) an " It Only Hurts when I 'm Breathing " ( 2004 ) served as the songs ' music videos , while the audio rendition of " It Only Hurts when I 'm Breathing " was released as a live CD single and a digital download on March 9 , 2004 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Up ! Live from Chicago received favorable critic reviews . Matt Bjorke of About.com reviewed the home release of Up ! Close and Personal . He had not attended a Shania concert , nor seen the television special , and was surprised by the singer 's stage presence . He believed that the video would make the singer 's naysayers realize Shania 's vocal talents and ability to entertainment and interact with a crowd . Bjorke concluded , " Up ! Live in Chicago is a dynamic DVD experience that is sure to please fans for years to come . " Chris Jones of BBC noted the band 's differed from most country bands and wanted a more country @-@ influenced sound . However , Jones complimented the singer 's incorporation of the audience , naming it her " inimitable style " . He added that the video was " far from [ a ] sterile experience " because of the live setting and crowd ambiance . However , he suspected Shania 's " photocopy @-@ perfect " vocal delivery could be attributed to a fair amount of post @-@ production work . " Overall , you know exactly what you 're getting with Shania , and for her fans this is bound to be a very good thing indeed . " Bobby Reed of the Chicago Sun Times believed Shania failed to give insight into her identity or personality , noting she never mentioned her relocation to Switzerland or her then @-@ new son , Eja . He complimented the band 's strong , yet rote efforts of bringing the dense production to life . However , he claimed Shania 's vocal delivery was at times frail . Reed also noted the absence of guest stars , in contrast to her two previous concert specials , and acknowledged that inviting fans onstage gave the concert a country @-@ fair vibe . Mark Guarino of Arlington Heights ' Daily Herald believed the concert was evidently tailored for television and that Shania played the proper host . He continued , " As the night wore on , Shania tried different ways , with varying degrees of success , to make the magnitude of such a large event work for the small screen . Her reliance on audience participation was an attempt to humanize things , but it often backfired . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
On the week ending December 13 , 2003 , Up ! Live in Chicago debuted at number three on Billboard 's Top Music Video sales chart . Two weeks later , it reached its peak at number two . The video spent fourteen weeks on the chart before returning for a fifteenth and final week at number eighteen on the week ending March 12 , 2005 . In March 2004 , Up ! Live in Chicago was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . On the week ending January 15 , 2005 , Up ! Live in Chicago peaked at number eight on New Zealand 's Top 10 Music DVDs . The video peaked at number sixty @-@ one on the German Albums Chart , and spent a total of eleven weeks on the chart . It was also certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for the shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies in the country . In Brazil , the video was certified gold by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos ( ABPD ) for the sale of 15 @,@ 000 copies . In Austria , the video was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for the sale of 5 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Shania Twain and Robert John " Mutt " Lange .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Source :
= Manu Ginóbili =
Emanuel David " Manu " Ginóbili Maccari ( Spanish pronunciation : [ e ̞ mäˈnwe ̞ l ʃiˈno ̞ βili ] , born 28 July 1977 ) is an Argentine professional basketball player for the San Antonio Spurs of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . Coming from a family of professional basketball players , he is a member of the Argentine men 's national basketball team and the San Antonio Spurs in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . Hailed as one of the finest international players to grace the NBA , he plays a high @-@ tempo and intense game . He is one of only two players , along with Bill Bradley , to have won a Euroleague title , an NBA championship , and an Olympic gold medal .
Ginóbili spent the early part of his basketball career in Argentina and Italy , where he won several individual and team honors . His stint with Italian side Kinder Bologna was particularly productive ; he won two Italian League MVP awards , the Euroleague Finals MVP and the 2001 Euroleague and Triple Crown championships . Selected as the 57th overall pick in the 1999 NBA draft , the shooting guard is considered one of the biggest draft steals of all time . Ginóbili joined the Spurs in 2002 , and soon became a key player for the team . He has earned four NBA championships and was named an All @-@ Star in 2005 and 2011 . In the 2007 – 08 season , he was named the NBA Sixth Man of the Year . Ginóbili has also enjoyed success with the Argentina national team . He made his debut in 1998 , and helped win the gold medal during the 2004 Olympics Basketball Tournament .
= = Family and personal life = =
Ginóbili comes from a family of basketball players . His oldest brother , Leandro , retired in 2003 after seven years in the Argentine basketball league , while brother Sebastián has played in both the local league and the Spanish Liga Española de Baloncesto . Their father Jorge was a coach at a club in Bahía Blanca , where Ginóbili learned to play the game . Given the proliferation of basketball clubs in Bahía Blanca and his idolization of Michael Jordan , Ginóbili 's love for basketball grew rapidly .
Ginóbili has dual citizenship with Argentina and Italy , thanks to his Marchesan descent . As a result of his travels , he can speak Spanish , Italian and English fluently . In his free time , Ginóbili enjoys listening to Latin music , watching movies and relaxing with his friends . In 2004 , he married fellow Argentine Marianela Oroño . On 16 May 2010 , his wife gave birth to twin boys , Dante and Nicola . On April 21 , 2014 , his wife gave birth to their third son , Luca .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Argentine and Italian years ( 1995 – 2002 ) = = =
Ginóbili made his professional debut in the Argentine basketball league for the Andino Sport Club team of La Rioja from 1995 – 1996 , and was traded to Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca the next year . He played with his hometown team until 1998 .
The Argentine moved to Europe to spend the 1998 – 1999 and 1999 – 2000 seasons with Italian team Basket Viola Reggio Calabria . In 1999 , he teamed with Brent Scott , Brian Oliver and Sydney Johnson to earn promotion from the Italian 2nd Division to the Italian 1st Division .
Ginóbili then entered the 1999 NBA draft and the San Antonio Spurs selected him late in the second round with the 57th overall pick . However , he did not sign with the Spurs at this point . Instead , he returned to Italy to play for Kinder Bologna , which he helped win the 2001 Italian Championship , the 2001 and 2002 Italian Cups , and the 2001 Euroleague , where he was named the Euroleague 2000 – 01 Euroleague Finals MVP . He was also named the Italian League MVP in 2000 – 01 and 2001 – 02 , and made the Italian League 's All @-@ Star Game three times during this period .
= = = San Antonio Spurs ( 2002 – present ) = = =
It was not until after that Ginóbili joined the Spurs . There , At the 2002 FIBA World Championship in Indianapolis , Ginóbili made the All @-@ Tournament team alongside future NBA star Yao Ming and established NBA stars Dirk Nowitzki and Peja Stojaković , and helped lead Argentina to a second @-@ place finish .
The Argentine joined the Spurs for the 2002 – 03 NBA season , where he played backup for veteran guard Steve Smith . He spent much of the early season injured , and found it hard to adjust to the NBA 's style of play . As his injury improved , so did Ginóbili , winning the Western Conference Rookie of the Month in March , and being named to the All @-@ Rookie Second Team at the end of the season . Still , he only started in five games as the Spurs chalked up a 60 – 22 regular season win – loss record . The Spurs then entered the playoffs eager to upend the defending champions Los Angeles Lakers , at which point , Ginóbili rose to prominence .
In contrast to his regular season , Ginóbili became an integral part of Gregg Popovich 's rotational set up in the playoffs , playing in every game . The Spurs eliminated Phoenix and Los Angeles and in those games his scoring threat took opponents by surprise , giving them one more thing to cope with against the now highly favored Spurs . He helped guide them past the Dallas Mavericks in the Western Conference Finals and then the New Jersey Nets in the Finals , securing San Antonio 's second championship . After the win , Ginóbili won his first Olimpia de Oro ( " Golden Olympia " ) as Argentina 's sportsperson of the year , and met Argentine president Néstor Kirchner . A gym in Bahía Blanca was dedicated in Ginóbili 's honor as well .
In the 2003 – 04 season , the Spurs began featuring Ginóbili more regularly , starting him in half of the 77 regular season games in which he played . His statistics improved in all major categories , as he averaged 12 @.@ 8 points , 4 @.@ 5 rebounds , 3 @.@ 8 assists and 1 @.@ 8 steals per game . During the 2004 playoffs , the Spurs met their perennial rivals , the Los Angeles Lakers , in the Western Conference Semifinals . Following Game 5 where Derek Fisher scored a buzzer @-@ beating jump shot , the Spurs lost Game 6 and the series 4 – 2 . While Ginóbili did not start in a single playoff game as he did in 2003 , his playoff statistics improved significantly , with 13 @.@ 0 points , 5 @.@ 3 rebounds and 3 @.@ 1 assists per game .
After some initial issues with San Antonio over his contract , Ginóbili re @-@ signed with the Spurs and started every game during the 2004 – 05 season . This was his best season yet as he was selected as a reserve by NBA coaches to the 2005 Western Conference All @-@ Star team , marking his debut in the elite mid @-@ season showcase . During the playoffs , Ginóbili 's play was pivotal to winning San Antonio 's third championship . The Spurs first defeated Phoenix 4 – 1 in the Conference Finals , before prevailing in a very defensive oriented seven @-@ game series against the Detroit Pistons . Ginóbili recorded career @-@ highs in his playoff numbers , most notably 20 @.@ 8 ppg and 5 @.@ 8 rpg , and had the third highest point total in the entire playoffs . In the NBA Finals MVP Award voting , the shooting guard was a candidate but was edged out by teammate and captain Tim Duncan . The former finished the 2004 – 05 season as the second leading scorer on the team . During the season , he became only the fourth person to win consecutive Olimpias de Oro , this time sharing the award with soccer star Carlos Tevez .
The 2005 – 06 season was an injury @-@ plagued one for Ginóbili , who suffered foot and ankle injuries that hindered his ability to play . He managed 65 games in the regular season , but saw a dip in major statistics as compared to the previous season . During the playoffs , he returned to form , but was unable to prevent the Spurs from being eliminated by the Dallas Mavericks in the Conference Semifinals .
In the 2006 – 07 season , the Spurs lacked energy from their reserves and Ginóbili provided it by coming off the bench for most of the second half of the season helping the Spurs attain the best record in the second half of the season . Ginóbili produced numbers closely identical to his successful 2004 – 05 campaign despite starting in only 36 of 75 games , his second lowest since arriving at San Antonio . The 2007 NBA Playoffs saw him help the Spurs to defeat the Denver Nuggets , Phoenix Suns and Utah Jazz , before sweeping the Cleveland Cavaliers to win his third and San Antonio 's fourth championship .
Ginóbili was to play an even bigger role for the Spurs the following season , reaching career high averages in points , rebounds , assists , and three @-@ point field goal percentage . On 21 April 2008 , the NBA announced that Ginóbili had won the 2008 Sixth Man Award ; only a couple of weeks later , the Argentine was also named to the All @-@ NBA Third Team . In the playoffs , the Spurs defeated the Suns 4 – 1 in the first round , Ginóbili was moved to the starting lineup in the second round against the New Orleans Hornets after the Spurs lost the first two road games . San Antonio eventually prevailed in seven games , the Argentine played another strong series , leading the Spurs in points and assists per game ( 21 @.@ 3 and 6 @.@ 0 respectively ) . However , San Antonio lost to arch @-@ rivals Los Angeles Lakers in the Conference Finals in five games , and once again failed to capture back @-@ to @-@ back NBA championships .
The following season , Ginóbili was injured for most of the campaign , managing only 44 regular season games and missing the 2009 NBA Playoffs entirely . San Antonio qualified for the playoffs as the third seed with a 54 – 28 record , but with an aging supporting cast ( Bowen , Michael Finley and Kurt Thomas were all in their late 30s ) , the Spurs were only considered fringe contenders for the championship . As it turned out , the strong play of Duncan and Tony Parker were not enough to help the Spurs avoid a 4 – 1 defeat by Dallas , and the Spurs were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs for the first time since 2000 .
On 31 October 2009 , in a game against the Sacramento Kings , a bat descended onto the court at the AT & T Center , causing a stoppage of play . As the bat flew past , Ginóbili swatted the bat to the ground with his hand . He then carried the creature off the court , earning the applause of the crowd . On 9 April 2010 , the Spurs and Ginóbili agreed to a three @-@ year , $ 39 million contract extension through the 2012 – 13 season .
In 2010 – 11 , Ginóbili was named a Western Conference All @-@ Star and was named to the All @-@ NBA third team .
In the lockout @-@ shortened 2011 – 12 , Ginóbili helped the Spurs go 50 – 16 , as they advanced through to the Western Conference Finals , where they were defeated 4 – 2 by the Oklahoma City Thunder . In Game 5 of the series , Ginóbili had a 34 @-@ point effort .
In 2012 – 13 , the Spurs advanced to the NBA Finals , where they faced the Miami Heat . In Game 5 of the series , Ginóbili scored a season @-@ high 24 points , as the Spurs went up 3 – 2 . However , they went on to lose Games 6 and 7 to lose the series in seven games .
On 11 July 2013 , Ginóbili re @-@ signed with the Spurs on a two @-@ year deal . In 2013 – 14 , the Spurs had a league @-@ best 62 – 20 record . Ginóbili finished third in the voting for Sixth Man of the Year . In Game 1 of the Western Conference Finals against the Thunder , Duncan @-@ Ginóbili @-@ Parker won their 110th career game in the playoffs , matching Magic Johnson , Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar and Michael Cooper from the Los Angeles Lakers . The Spurs reached the NBA Finals again , where they faced the Heat for the second year in a row . This time , the dominated the series , winning 4 – 1 to claim that franchise 's fifth championship ; Ginóbili won his fourth championship as a Spur .
On 20 July 2015 , Ginóbili re @-@ signed with the Spurs . On 14 January 2016 , in a win over the Cleveland Cavaliers , Ginóbili played his 900th NBA game , all with the Spurs . On February 4 , he underwent surgery after suffering a testicular injury in the Spurs ' win over the New Orleans Pelicans the previous night . He was subsequently sidelined for one month . He returned to the action on March 5 after missing 12 games with the injury , scoring 22 points in 15 minutes against the Sacramento Kings .
On 14 July 2016 , Ginóbili re @-@ signed with the Spurs .
= = Career statistics = =
Note : The Euroleague is not the only competition in which the player participated for the team during the season . He also played in domestic competition , and regional competition if applicable .
= = = NBA = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Playoffs = = = =
= = = Euroleague = = =
= = Argentine national team = =
Ginóbili is a member of the Argentine national basketball team , and made his debut during the 1998 FIBA World Championship in Athens . His best accomplishment as a member of the national team came at the 2004 Athens Olympics Basketball Tournament when Argentina became the first team other than Team USA to win the gold medal in 16 years . The highlight of the tournament was his game @-@ winning buzzer beater with 0 @.@ 7 seconds remaining , on the opening day of the Olympics , in a game versus Serbia and Montenegro
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domination by Camilla .
Diane Selwyn ( Naomi Watts ) is the palpably frustrated and depressed woman , who seems to have ridden the coattails of Camilla , whom she idolizes and adores , but who does not return her affection . She is considered to be the reality of the too @-@ good @-@ to @-@ be @-@ true Betty , or a later version of Betty after living too long in Hollywood . For Steven Dillon , the plot of the film " makes Rita the perfect empty vessel for Diane 's fantasies " , but because Rita is only a " blank cover girl " Diane has " invested herself in emptiness " , which leads her to depression and apparently to suicide . Hence , Diane is the personification of dissatisfaction , painfully illustrated when she is unable to climax while masturbating , in a scene that indicates " through blurred , jerky , point of view shots of the stony wall — not only her tears and humiliation but the disintegration of her fantasy and her growing desire for revenge " . One analysis of Diane suggests her devotion to Camilla is based on a manifestation of narcissism , as Camilla embodies everything Diane wants and wants to be . Although she is portrayed as weak and the ultimate loser , for Jeff Johnson , author of a book about morality in Lynch films , Diane is the only character in the second portion of the film whose moral code remains intact . She is " a decent person corrupted by the miscellaneous miscreants who populate the film industry " . Her guilt and regret are evident in her suicide , and in the clues that surface in the first portion of the film . Rita 's fear , the dead body and the illusion at Club Silencio indicate something is dark and wrong in Betty and Rita 's world . In becoming free from Camilla , her moral conditioning kills her .
Camilla Rhodes ( Melissa George , Laura Elena Harring ) is little more than a face in a photo and a name that has inspired many representatives of some vaguely threatening power to place her in a film against the wishes of Adam . Referred to as a " vapid moll " by one reviewer , she barely makes an impression in the first portion of the film , but after the blue box is opened and she is portrayed by Laura Elena Harring , she becomes a full person who symbolizes " betrayal , humiliation and abandonment " , and is the object of Diane 's frustration . Diane is a sharp contrast to Camilla , who is more voluptuous than ever , and who appears to have " sucked the life out of Diane " . Immediately after telling Diane that she drives her wild , Camilla tells her they must end their affair . On a movie set where Adam is directing Camilla , he orders the set cleared , except for Diane — at Camilla 's request — where Adam shows another actor just how to kiss Camilla correctly . Instead of punishing Camilla for such public humiliation , as is suggested by Diane 's conversation with the bungling hit man , one critic views Rita as the vulnerable representation of Diane 's desire for Camilla .
Adam Kesher ( Justin Theroux ) is established in the first portion of the film as a " vaguely arrogant " , but apparently successful , director who endures one humiliation after another . Theroux said of his role , " He 's sort of the one character in the film who doesn 't know what the [ hell 's ] going on . I think he 's the one guy the audience says , ' I 'm kind of like you right now . I don 't know why you 're being subjected to all this pain . ' " After being stripped of creative control of his film , he is cuckolded by the pool cleaner ( played by Billy Ray Cyrus ) , and thrown out of his own opulent house above Hollywood . After he checks into a seedy motel and pays with cash , the manager arrives to tell him his credit is no good . Witnessed by Diane , Adam is pompous and self @-@ important . He is the only character whose personality does not seem to change completely from the first part of the film to the second . One analysis of Adam 's character contends that because he capitulated and chose Camilla Rhodes for his film , that is the end of Betty 's cheerfulness and ability to help Rita , placing the blame for her tragedy on the representatives of studio power .
Minor characters include The Cowboy ( Monty Montgomery , credited as Lafayette Montgomery ) , the Castigliani Brothers ( Dan Hedaya and Angelo Badalamenti ) and Mr. Roque ( Michael J. Anderson ) , all of whom are somehow involved in pressuring Adam to cast Camilla Rhodes in his film . These characters represent the death of creativity for film scholars , and they portray a " vision of the industry as a closed hierarchical system in which the ultimate source of power remains hidden behind a series of representatives " . Ann Miller portrays Coco , the landlady who welcomes Betty to her wonderful new apartment . Coco , in the first part of the film , represents the old guard in Hollywood , who welcomes and protects Betty . In the second part of the film , however , she appears as Adam 's mother , who impatiently chastises Diane for being late to the party and barely pays attention to Diane 's embarrassed tale of how she got into acting .
= = Style = =
The filmmaking style of David Lynch has been written about extensively using descriptions like " ultraweird " , " dark " and " oddball " . Todd McGowan writes , " One cannot watch a Lynch film the way one watches a standard Hollywood film noir nor in the way that one watches most radical films . " Through Lynch 's juxtaposition of cliché and surreal , nightmares and fantasies , nonlinear story lines , camera work , sound and lighting , he presents a film that challenges viewers to suspend belief of what they are experiencing . Many of the characters in Mulholland Drive are archetypes that can only be perceived as cliché : the new Hollywood hopeful , the femme fatale , the maverick director and shady powerbrokers that Lynch never seems to explore fully . Lynch places these often hackneyed characters in dire situations , creating dream @-@ like qualities . By using these characters in scenarios that have components and references to dreams , fantasies and nightmares , viewers are left to decide , between the extremes , what is reality . One film analyst writes of him , " Like most surrealists , Lynch 's language of the unexplained is the fluid language of dreams . "
David Lynch uses various methods of deception in Mulholland Drive . A shadowy figure named Mr. Roque , who seems to control film studios , is portrayed by dwarf actor Michael J. Anderson ( also from Twin Peaks ) . Anderson , who has only two lines and is seated in an enormous wooden wheelchair , was fitted with oversized foam prosthetic arms and legs in order to portray his head as abnormally small . During Adam and Camilla 's party , Diane watches Camilla ( played by Harring ) with Adam on one arm , lean over and deeply kiss the same woman who appeared as Camilla ( Melissa George ) before the blue box was opened . Both then turn and smile pointedly at Diane . Film critic Franklin Ridgway writes that the depiction of such a deliberate " cruel and manipulative " act makes it unclear if Camilla is as capricious as she seems , or if Diane 's paranoia is allowing the audience only to see what she senses . In a scene immediately after Betty 's audition , the film cuts to a woman singing without apparent accompaniment , but as the camera pulls backwards , the audience sees that it is a recording studio . In actuality , it is a sound stage where Betty has just arrived to meet Adam Kesher , that the audience realizes as the camera pulls back further . Ridgway insists that such deception through artful camera work sets the viewer full of doubt about what is being presented : " It is as if the camera , in its graceful fluidity of motion , reassures us that it ( thinks it ) sees everything , has everything under control , even if we ( and Betty ) do not . "
According to Stephen Dillon , Lynch 's use of different camera positions throughout the movie , such as hand @-@ held points of view , makes the viewer " identify with the suspense of the character in his or her particular space " , but that Lynch at moments also " disconnects the camera from any particular point of view , thereby ungrounding a single or even a human perspective " so that the multiple perspectives keep contexts from merging , significantly troubling " our sense of the individual and the human " . Andrew Hageman similarly notes that the camera work in the film " renders a very disturbing sense of place and presence " , such as the scene in Winkies where the " camera floats irregularly during the shot @-@ reverse shot dialogue " by which the " spectator becomes aware that a set of normally objective shots have become disturbingly subjective " . Scholar Curt Hersey recognizes several avant @-@ garde techniques used in the film including lack of transitions , abrupt transitions , motion speed , nontraditional camera movement , computer @-@ generated imagery , nondiegetic images , nonlinear narration and intertextuality .
The first portion of the film that establishes the characters of Betty , Rita and Adam presents some of the most logical filmmaking of Lynch 's career . The later part of the film that represents reality to many viewers , however , exhibits a marked change in cinematic effect that gives it a quality just as surreal as the first part . Diane 's scenes feature choppier editing and dirtier lighting that symbolize her physical and spiritual impoverishment , which contrasts with the first portion of the film where " even the plainest decor seems to sparkle " , Betty and Rita glow with light and transitions between scenes are smooth . Lynch moves between scenes in the first portion of the film by using panoramic shots of the mountains , palm trees and buildings in Los Angeles . In the darker part of the film , sound transitions to the next scene without a visual reference where it is taking place . At Camilla 's party , when Diane is most humiliated , the sound of crashing dishes is heard that carries immediately to the scene where dishes have been dropped in the diner , and Diane is speaking with the hit man . Sinnerbrink also notes that several scenes in the film , such as the one featuring Diane 's hallucination of Camilla after Diane wakes up , the image of the being from behind Winkies after Diane 's suicide , or the " repetition , reversal and displacement of elements that were differently configured " in the early portion of the film , creates the uncanny effect where viewers are presented with familiar characters or situations in altered times or locations . Similarly , Hageman has identified the early scene at Winkies as " extremely uncanny " , because it is a scene where the " boundaries separating physical reality from the imaginary realities of the unconscious disintegrate " . Author Valtteri Kokko has identified three groups of " uncanny metaphors " : the doppelgänger of multiple characters played by the same actors , dreams and an everyday object — primarily the blue box — that initiates Rita 's disappearance and Diane 's real life .
Another recurring element in Lynch 's films is his experimentation with sound . He stated in an interview , " you look at the image and the scene silent , it 's doing the job it 's supposed to do , but the work isn 't done . When you start working on the sound , keep working until it feels correct . There 's so many wrong sounds and instantly you know it . Sometimes it 's really magical . " In the opening scene of the film , the dark @-@ haired woman stumbles off Mulholland Drive , silently it suggests she is clumsy . After Lynch added " a hint of the steam [ from the wreck ] and the screaming kids " , however , it transformed Laura Elena Harring from clumsy to terrified . Lynch also infused subtle rumblings throughout portions of the film that reviewers noted added unsettling and creepy effects . Hageman also identifies " perpetual and uncanny ambient sound " , and places a particular emphasis on the scene where the man collapses behind Winkies as normal sound is drowned out by a buzzing roar , noting that the noise " creates a dissonance and suspense that draws in the spectator as detective to place the sound and reestablish order " . Mulholland Drive 's ending with the woman at Club Silencio whispering is an example of Lynch 's aural deception and surreality , according to Ruth Perlmutter , who writes , " The acting , the dreams , the search for identity , the fears and terrors of the undefined self are over when the film is over , and therefore , there is only silence and enigma . "
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack of Mulholland Drive was supervised by Angelo Badalamenti , who collaborated on previous Lynch projects Blue Velvet and Twin Peaks . Badalamenti , who was nominated for awards from the American Film Institute ( AFI ) and the British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) for his work on the film , also has a cameo as an espresso aficionado and mobster .
Reviewers note that Badalamenti 's ominous score , described as his " darkest yet " , contributes to the sense of mystery as the film opens on the dark @-@ haired woman 's limousine , that contrasts with the bright , hopeful tones of Betty 's first arrival in Los Angeles , with the score " acting as an emotional guide for the viewer " . Film music journalist Daniel Schweiger remarks that Badalamenti 's contribution to the score alternates from the " nearly motionless string dread to noir jazz and audio feedback " , with " the rhythms building to an explosion of infinite darkness . " Badalamenti described a particular technique of sound design applied to the film , by which he would provide Lynch with multiple ten- to twelve @-@ minute tracks at slow tempo , that they called " firewood " , from which Lynch " would take fragments and experiment with them resulting in a lot of film 's eerie soundscapes . "
Lynch uses two pop songs from the 1960s directly after one another , playing as two actresses are auditioning by lip synching them . According to an analyst of music used in Lynch films , Lynch 's female characters are often unable to communicate through normal channels and are reduced to lip @-@ synching or being otherwise stifled . Connie Stevens ' " Sixteen Reasons " is the song being sung while the camera pans backwards to reveal several illusions , and Linda Scott 's version of " I 've Told Ev 'ry Little Star " is the audition for the first Camilla Rhodes , that film scholar Eric Gans considers a song of empowerment for Betty . Originally written by Jerome Kern as a duet , sung by Linda Scott in this rendition by herself , Gans suggests it takes on a homosexual overtone in Mulholland Drive . Unlike " Sixteen Reasons " , however , portions of " I 've Told Ev 'ry Little Star " are distorted to suggest " a sonic split @-@ identity " for Camilla . When the song plays , Betty has just entered the sound stage where Adam is auditioning actresses for his film , and she sees Adam , locks eyes with him and abruptly flees after Adam has declared " This is the girl " about Camilla , thereby avoiding his inevitable rejection .
At the hinge of the film is a scene in an unusual late night theater called Club Silencio where a performer announces " No hay banda ( there is no band ) ... but yet we hear a band " , variated between English , Spanish and French . Described as " the most original and stunning sequence in an original and stunning film " , Rebekah del Rio 's Spanish a cappella rendition of " Crying " , named " Llorando " , is praised as " show @-@ stopping ... except that there 's no show to stop " in the sparsely attended Club Silencio . Lynch wanted to use Roy Orbison 's version of " Crying " in Blue Velvet , but changed his mind when he heard Orbison 's " In Dreams " . Del Rio , who popularized the Spanish version and who received her first recording contract on the basis of the song , stated that Lynch flew to Nashville where she was living , and she sang the song for him once and did not know he was recording her . Lynch wrote a part for her in the film and used the version she sang for him in Nashville . The song tragically serenades the lovers Betty and Rita , who sit spellbound and weeping , moments before their relationship disappears and is replaced by Diane and Camilla 's dysfunction . According to one film scholar , the song and the entire theater scene marks the disintegration of Betty 's and Rita 's personalities , as well as their relationship . With the use of multiple languages and a song to portray such primal emotions , one film analyst states that Lynch exhibits his distrust of intellectual discourse and chooses to make sense through images and sounds . The disorienting effect of the music playing although del Rio is no longer there is described as " the musical version of Magritte 's painting Ceci n 'est pas une pipe " .
= = Release = =
Mulholland Drive premiered at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival in May to major critical acclaim . Lynch was awarded the Best Director prize at the festival , sharing it with co @-@ winner Joel Coen for The Man Who Wasn 't There . It drew positive reviews from many critics and some of the strongest audience reactions of Lynch 's career .
= = = Box office = = =
Universal Pictures released Mulholland Drive theatrically in 66 theaters in the United States on October 12 , 2001 , grossing $ 587 @,@ 591 over its opening weekend . It eventually expanded to its widest release of 247 theaters , ultimately grossing $ 7 @,@ 220 @,@ 243 at the U.S. box office . TVA Films released the film theatrically in Canada on October 26 , 2001 . In other territories outside the United States , the film grossed $ 12 @,@ 892 @,@ 096 for a worldwide total of $ 20 @,@ 112 @,@ 339 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Since its release , Mulholland Drive has , according to two film scholars , " garnered both some of the harshest epithets and some of the most lavish praise in recent cinematic history " . It received acclaim from many critics ; even Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , who had given negative or mixed reviews to most of Lynch 's previous films , awarded the film four stars and commented , " David Lynch has been working toward Mulholland Drive all of his career , and now that he 's arrived there I forgive him for Wild at Heart ( 1990 ) and even Lost Highway ( 1997 ) . At last his experiment doesn 't shatter the test tubes . The movie is a surrealist dreamscape in the form of a Hollywood film noir , and the less sense it makes , the more we can 't stop watching it . " Ebert subsequently added Mulholland Drive to his " Great Films " list in November 2012 . In The New York Times , Stephen Holden said the film " ranks alongside Fellini 's 8 ½ and other auteurist fantasias as a monumental self @-@ reflection " and added , " Looked at lightly , it is the grandest and silliest cinematic carnival to come along in quite some time : a lurching journey through one filmmaker 's personal fun house . On a more serious level , its investigation into the power of movies pierces a void from which you can hear the screams of a ravenous demon whose appetites can never be slaked . " Edward Guthmann of the San Francisco Chronicle called it " exhilarating [ ... ] for its dreamlike images and fierce , frequently reckless imagination " and added , " there 's a mesmerizing quality to its languid pace , its sense of foreboding and its lost @-@ in @-@ time atmosphere [ ... ] it holds us , spellbound and amused , for all of its loony and luscious , exasperating 146 minutes [ and ] proves that Lynch is in solid form — and still an expert at pricking our nerves . "
In Rolling Stone , Peter Travers observed , " Mulholland Drive makes movies feel alive again . This sinful pleasure is a fresh triumph for Lynch , and one of the best films of a sorry @-@ ass year . For visionary daring , swooning eroticism and colors that pop like a whore 's lip gloss , there 's nothing like this baby anywhere . " J. Hoberman of The Village Voice stated , " This voluptuous phantasmagoria [ ... ] is certainly Lynch 's strongest movie since Blue Velvet and maybe Eraserhead . The very things that failed him in the bad @-@ boy rockabilly debacle of Lost Highway — the atmosphere of free @-@ floating menace , pointless transmigration of souls , provocatively dropped plot stitches , gimcrack alternate universes — are here brilliantly rehabilitated . "
While reviews of the film were mostly positive ( receiving an 82 % rating on movie review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes ) , Mulholland Drive was not without its detractors . Rex Reed of The New York Observer said it was the worst film he had seen in 2001 , calling it " a load of moronic and incoherent garbage . " In New York , Peter Rainer observed , " Although I like it more than some of his other dreamtime freakfests , it 's still a pretty moribund ride [ ... ] Lynch needs to renew himself with an influx of the deep feeling he has for people , for outcasts , and lay off the cretins and hobgoblins and zombies for a while . " In The Washington Post , Desson Howe called it " an extended mood opera , if you want to put an arty label on incoherence . " Todd McCarthy of Variety found much to praise — " Lynch cranks up the levels of bizarre humor , dramatic incident and genuine mystery with a succession of memorable scenes , some of which rank with his best " — but also noted , " the film jumps off the solid ground of relative narrative coherence into Lynchian fantasyland [ ... ] for the final 45 minutes , Lynch is in mind @-@ twisting mode that presents a form of alternate reality with no apparent meaning or logical connection to what came before . Although such tactics are familiar from Twin Peaks and elsewhere , the sudden switcheroo to head games is disappointing because , up to this point , Lynch had so wonderfully succeeded in creating genuine involvement . " James Berardinelli also criticized it , saying : " Lynch cheats his audience , pulling the rug out from under us . He throws everything into the mix with the lone goal of confusing us . Nothing makes any sense because it 's not supposed to make any sense . There 's no purpose or logic to events . Lynch is playing a big practical joke on us . " Film theorist Ray Carney notes , " You wouldn 't need all the emotional back @-@ flips and narrative trap doors if you had anything to say . You wouldn 't need doppelgangers and shadow @-@ figures if your characters had souls . "
Mulholland Drive was named the best film of the decade by the Los Angeles Film Critics Association , Cahiers du cinéma , IndieWire , Slant Magazine , Reverse Shot , The Village Voice and Time Out New York , who asked rhetorically in a reference to the September 11 attacks , " Can there be another movie that speaks as resonantly — if unwittingly — to the awful moment that marked our decade ? [ ... ] Mulholland Drive is the monster behind the diner ; it 's the self @-@ delusional dream turned into nightmare . " It was also voted best of the decade in a Film Comment poll of international " critics , programmers , academics , filmmakers and others " , and by the magazine 's readers . It appeared on lists among the top ten best films of the decade , coming in third according to The Guardian , Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers , the Canadian Press , Access Hollywood critic Scott Mantz , and eighth on critic Michael Phillips ' list . In 2010 it was named the second best arthouse film ever by The Guardian . The film was voted as the 11th best film set in Los Angeles in the last 25 years by a group of Los Angeles Times writers and editors with the primary criterion of communicating an inherent truth about the L.A. experience . Empire magazine placed Mulholland Drive at number 391 on their list of the five @-@ hundred greatest films ever . It has also been ranked number 38 on the Channel 4 program 50 Films to See Before You Die . In 2011 , online magazine Slate named Mulholland Drive in its piece on " New Classics " as the most enduring film since 2000 .
Sight & Sound ranked Mulholland Drive 28th on their list of the fifty greatest films ever on August 2 , 2012 . It is one of only two films from the 21st century to be included in the list , along with 2000 's In the Mood for Love .
= = = Home media = = =
A DVD was released in April 2002 in the United States and Canada , with few special features . It was released without chapter stops , a feature that Lynch objects to on the grounds that it " demystifies " the film . In spite of Lynch 's concerns , the DVD release included a cover insert that provided " David Lynch 's 10 Clues to Unlocking This Thriller " , although one DVD reviewer noted the clues may be " big obnoxious red herrings " . Nick Coccellato of Eccentric Cinema gave the film a rating of nine out of ten and the DVD release an eight out of ten , saying that the lack of special features " only adds to the mystery the film itself possesses , in abundance . " Special features in later versions and overseas versions of the DVD include a Lynch interview at the Cannes Film Festival and highlights of the debut of the film at Cannes .
Optimum Home Entertainment released Mulholland Drive to the European market on Blu @-@ ray as part of its StudioCanal Collection on September 13 , 2010 . New special features exclusive to this release include : an introduction by Thierry Jousse ; In the Blue Box , a retrospective documentary featuring directors and critics ; two making @-@ of documentaries : On the Road to Mulholland Drive and Back to Mulholland Drive and several interviews with people involved in making the film . It is the second David Lynch film in this line of Blu @-@ rays after The Elephant Man .
On July 15 , 2015 , The Criterion Collection announced that it will release Mulholland Drive , newly restored through a 4K digital transfer , on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on October 27 , 2015 , both of which will include new interviews with the film 's crew and the 2005 edition of Chris Rodley 's book Lynch on Lynch , along with the original trailer and other unannounced extras . It will become Lynch 's second film to receive a Criterion Collection release on DVD and Blu @-@ ray , proceeding Eraserhead which was released in September 2014 .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Lynch was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Director for the film . From the Hollywood Foreign Press , the film received four Golden Globe nominations , including Best Picture ( Drama ) , Best Director and Best Screenplay . It was named Best Picture by the New York Film Critics Circle at the 2001 New York Film Critics Circle Awards and Online Film Critics Society .
= O heilges Geist- und Wasserbad , BWV 165 =
O heilges Geist- und Wasserbad ( O holy bath of Spirit and water ) , BWV 165 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Weimar for Trinity Sunday and led the first performance on 16 June 1715 .
Bach had taken up regular cantata composition a year before when he was promoted to concertmaster at the Weimar court , writing one cantata per month to be performed in the Schlosskirche , the court chapel in the ducal Schloss . O heilges Geist- und Wasserbad was his first cantata for Trinity Sunday , the feast day marking the end of the first half of the liturgical year . The libretto by the court poet Salomo Franck is based on the day 's prescribed gospel reading about the meeting of Jesus and Nicodemus . It is close in content to the gospel and connects the concept of the Trinity to baptism .
The music is structured in six movements , alternating arias and recitatives , and scored for a small ensemble of four vocal parts , strings and continuo . The voices are combined only in the closing chorale , the fifth stanza of Ludwig Helmbold 's hymn " Nun laßt uns Gott dem Herren " , which mentions scripture , baptism and the Eucharist , in a summary of the cantata 's topic . Based on the text full of Baroque imagery , Bach composed a sermon in music , especially in the two recitatives for the bass voice , and achieved contrasts in expression . He led the first performance , and probably another on the Trinity Sunday concluding his first year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig on 4 June 1724 .
= = Background = =
On 2 March 1714 Bach was appointed Konzertmeister ( concert master ) of the Weimar Hofkapelle ( court chapel ) of the co @-@ reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe @-@ Weimar . The position was created for him , possibly on his demand , giving him " a newly defined rank order " according to Christoph Wolff .
From 1695 , an arrangement shared the responsibility for church music at the Schlosskirche ( court church ) between the Kapellmeister Samuel Drese and the Vize @-@ Kapellmeister Georg Christoph Strattner , who took care of one Sunday per month while the Kapellmeister served on three Sundays . The pattern probably continued from 1704 , when Strattner was succeeded by Drese 's son Johann Wilhelm . When Konzertmeister Bach also assumed the principal responsibility for one cantata a month , the Kapellmeister 's workload was further reduced to two Sundays per month .
The performance venue on the third tier of the court church , in German called Himmelsburg ( Heaven 's Castle ) , has been described by Wolff as " congenial and intimate " , calling for a small ensemble of singers and players . Performers of the cantatas were mainly the core group of the Hofkapelle , formed by seven singers , three leaders and five other instrumentalists . Additional players of the military band were available when needed , and also town musicians and singers of the gymnasium . Bach as the concertmaster probably led the performances as the first violinist , while the organ part was played by Bach 's students such as Johann Martin Schubart and Johann Caspar Vogler . Even in settings like chamber music , Bach requested a strong continuo section with cello , bassoon and violone in addition to the keyboard instrument .
= = = Monthly cantatas from 1714 to 1715 = = =
While Bach had composed vocal music only for special occasions until his promotion , the regular chance to compose and perform a new work resulted in a program into which Bach " threw himself wholeheartedly " , as Christoph Wolff notes . In his first cantata of the series , Himmelskönig , sei willkommen , BWV 182 , for the double feast of Palm Sunday and Annunciation , he showed his skill in an elaborate work in eight movements , for four vocal parts and at times ten @-@ part instrumental writing , and presenting himself as a violin soloist .
The following table of works performed by Bach as concertmaster between 1714 and the end of 1715 is based on tables by Wolff and Alfred Dürr . According to Dürr , O heilges Geist- und Wasserbad is the eleventh cantata composition of this period . The works contain arias and recitatives , as in contemporary opera , while earlier cantatas had concentrated on biblical text and chorale . Some works , such as Widerstehe doch der Sünde , may have been composed earlier .
= = Topic and text = =
= = = Trinity Sunday = = =
Bach composed O heilges Geist- und Wasserbad for Trinity Sunday , the Sunday concluding the first half of the liturgical year . The prescribed readings for the day were from the Epistle to the Romans , " What depth of the riches of the wisdom and knowledge of God " ( Romans 11 : 33 – 36 ) , and from the Gospel of John , the meeting of Jesus and Nicodemus ( John 3 : 1 – 15 ) .
In Leipzig , Bach composed two more cantatas for the occasion which focused on different aspects of the readings , Höchsterwünschtes Freudenfest , BWV 194 , first composed for the inauguration of church and organ in Störmthal on 2 November 1723 , Es ist ein trotzig und verzagt Ding , BWV 176 ( 1725 ) and the chorale cantata Gelobet sei der Herr , mein Gott , BWV 129 ( 1726 ) . Scholars debate if Bach performed on Trinity Sunday of 1724 , which fell on 4 June , Höchsterwünschtes Freudenfest or O heilges Geist- und Wasserbad or both .
= = = Cantata text = = =
The libretto was written by the court poet , Salomon Franck , and published in Evangelisches Andachts @-@ Opffer in 1715 . The opening refers to Jesus ' words in John 3 : 5 : " Except a man be born of water and of the Spirit , he cannot enter into the kingdom of God . " ( John 3 : 5 ) The second movement , a recitative , reflects upon birth in the Spirit as baptism through God 's grace : " Er wird im Geist und Wasserbade ein Kind der Seligkeit und Gnade " ( In the bath of spirit and water he becomes a child of blessedness and grace ) . Movement 3 , an aria for alto , considers that the bond has to be renewed throughout life , because it will be broken by man , reflected in movement 4 . The last aria is a prayer for the insight that the death of Jesus brought salvation , termed " Todes Tod " ( death 's death ) . The cantata concludes with the fifth stanza of Ludwig Helmbold 's hymn of 1575 , " Nun laßt uns Gott dem Herren " , mentioning scripture , baptism and the Eucharist . Bach used the eighth and final stanza , " Erhalt uns in der Wahrheit " ( Keep us in the truth ) , to conclude his cantata Gott der Herr ist Sonn und Schild , BWV 79 .
Salomon expresses his thought in Baroque style rich in imagery . The image of the serpent is used in several meanings : as the serpent which seduced Adam and Eve to sin in paradise , as the symbol which Moses erected in the desert , and related to the gospel 's verse 14 : " And as Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness , even so must the Son of man be lifted up " .
= = Performance and publication = =
Bach led the first performance of the cantata on 16 June 1715 . The performance material for Weimar is lost . Bach performed the work again as Thomaskantor in Leipzig . Extant performance material was prepared by his assistant Johann Christian Köpping . The first possible revival is the Trinity Sunday of Bach 's first year in office , 4 June 1724 , also the conclusion of his first year and first Leipzig cantata cycle , because he had assumed the office on the first Sunday after Trinity the year before . Bach made presumably minor changes .
The cantata was published in the Bach @-@ Ausgabe , the first edition of Bach 's complete works by the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft , in 1887 in volume 33 , edited by Franz Wüllner . In the second edition of the complete works , the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe , it appeared in 1967 , edited by Dürr , with a Kritischer Bericht ( Critical report ) following in 1968 .
= = Music = =
= = = Scoring and structure = = =
The title on the copy by Johann Christian Köpping is : " Concerto a 2 Violi : 1 Viola . Fagotto Violoncello S.A.T.e Basso e Continuo / di Joh : Seb : Bach " ( Concerto for 2 violins , 1 viola . Bassoon Cello S.A.T and Bass and Continuo / by Joh : Seb : Bach ) . The cantata in six movements is scored like chamber music for four vocal soloists ( soprano , alto , tenor and bass ) , a four @-@ part choir ( SATB ) in the closing chorale , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , bassoon ( Fg ) , cello ( Vc ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) . The bassoon is called for , but has no independent part . The duration is given as about 15 minutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe , and the abbreviations for voices and instruments the list of Bach cantatas . The keys and time signatures are taken from the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings , while the continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = = Movements = = =
The cantata consists of solo movements closed by a four @-@ part chorale . Arias alternate with two recitatives , both sung by the bass . John Eliot Gardiner summarizes : " It is a true sermon in music , based on the Gospel account of Jesus ' night @-@ time conversation with Nicodemus on the subject of ' new life ' , emphasising the spiritual importance of baptism . " He points out the many musical images of water .
= = = = 1 = = = =
In the first aria , " O heilges Geist- und Wasserbad " ( O bath of Holy Spirit and of water ) , the ritornello is a fugue , whereas in the five vocal sections the soprano and violin I are a duo in imitation on the same material . These sections are composed in symmetry , A B C B ' A ' . The theme of B involves an inversion of material from A , that of C is derived from measure 2 of the ritornello . Dürr writes :
The prominent use made of formal schemes based on the principles of symmetry and inversion is in all probability intentional , serving as a symbol of the inner inversion of mankind — his rebirth in baptism .
= = = = 2 = = = =
The first recitative , " Die sündige Geburt verdammter Adamserben " ( The sinful birth of the cursed heirs of Adam ) , is secco , but several phrases are close to an arioso . The musicologist Julian Mincham notes that Bach follows the meaning of the text closely , for example by " rhythmic dislocations for death and destruction " , a change in harmony on " poisoned " , and " the complete change of mood at the mention of the blessed Christian " . He summarizes : " Here anger and resentment at Man ’ s inheritance of suppurating sin is contrasted against the peace and joy of God @-@ given salvation " .
= = = = 3 = = = =
The second aria , " Jesu , der aus großer Liebe " ( Jesus , who out of great love ) , accompanied by the continuo , is dominated by an expressive motif with several upward leaps of sixths , which is introduced in the ritornello and picked up by the alto voice in four sections . Mincham notes that " the mood is serious and reflective but also purposeful and quietly resolute " .
= = = = 4 = = = =
The second recitative , " Ich habe ja , mein Seelenbräutigam " ( I have indeed , o bridegroom of my soul ) , is accompanied by the strings ( accompagnato ) , marked by Bach " Rec : con Stroment " ( Recitative : with instruments ) . The German musicologist Klaus Hofmann notes that the text turns to mysticism , reflecting the Bridegroom , Lamb of God and the serpent in its double meaning . The text is intensified by several melismas , a marking " adagio " on the words " hochheiliges Gotteslamm " ( most holy Lamb of God ) , and by melodic parts for the instruments . Gardiner notes that Bach has images for the serpent displayed in the desert by Moses , and has the accompaniment fade away on the last line " wenn alle Kraft vergehet " ( when all my strength has faded ) .
= = = = 5 = = = =
The last aria , " Jesu , meines Todes Tod " ( Jesus , death of my death ) , is set for tenor , accompanied by the violins in unison , marked " Aria Violini unisoni e Tenore " . The image of the serpent appears again , described by the composer and musicologist William G. Whittaker : " the whole of the obbligato for violins in unison is constructed out of the image of the bending , writhing , twisting reptile , usually a symbol of horror , but in Bach 's musical speech a thing of pellucid beauty " .
= = = = 6 = = = =
The cantata closes with a four @-@ part setting of the chorale stanza , Sein Wort , sein Tauf , sein Nachtmahl ( His word , His baptism , His communion ) . The text in four short lines summarizes that Jesus helps any in need by his words , his baptism and his communion , and ends in the prayer that the Holy Spirit may teach to faithfully trust in this .
The hymn tune by Nikolaus Selnecker was first published in Leipzig in 1587 in the hymnal Christliche Psalmen , Lieder vnd Kirchengesenge ( Christian psalms , songs and church chants ) . Bach marked the movement : " Chorale . Stromenti concordant " , indicating that the instruments play colla parte with the voices .
= = Selected recordings = =
The recordings are provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and orchestras are roughly grouped :
Large choirs ( red background ) : Boys ( choir of all male voices )
Medium @-@ size choirs , such as Chamber , Chorale ( choir dedicated mostly to church music ) , Motet
Large orchestras ( red background ) : Symphony
Chamber orchestra
Orchestra on period instruments ( green background )
= Shumen Plateau Nature Park =
The Shumen Plateau Nature Park ( Bulgarian : Природен парк Шуменско плато ) is located in the Shumen Plateau of the northern province of Shumen of Bulgaria , the highest plateau of the Danubian Plain . The Park encloses the Bukaka Reserve Forest , which is known for indigenous Fagus sylvatica Fagus sylvatica ( common beech ) moesiaca ( the Balkan beech ) forest . This Park was declared a National Park in 1980 and a Nature Park in 2003 to conserve its ecosystems and floral and faunal biodiversity , and to preserve its tableland landscape together with many tourist sites such as the Shumen fortress , the Founders of the Bulgarian State Monument , cave monasteries , and surface and underground karst caves . The park has the first thematic educational trail in the Karst Nature Park , constructed as part of a project titled " Natural Park of Shumen Plateau " with funds provided by the EU Cohesion Fund and the Republic of Bulgaria ; the trail is integral to the Operational Program " Environment 2007 – 2013 " .
= = Geography = =
Located in Northeast Bulgaria , the park is part of the Shumen Plateau , which in turn is integral to the " Shumen Heights " to its east . The plateau is one of three zones of the Shumen Heights , the other two being the Balkan area in its central part and the Fiseka on its west . Together , the three zones are in the shape of an irregular rectangle oriented in northwest @-@ southeast direction . The river valleys in this area form the shape of segmented bays .
The entire plateau is delimited on the northern border by the Pakosha , Strazhka , and Chairdere river valleys ; by Pakosha and Vranato valleys on its west ; by the Vrana , Ticha , and Kamchia river valleys on the south ; and the lowlands of the Shumen @-@ Smyadovo border on the east , while the Fiseka mountain rises to a height of 500 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 @,@ 642 ft ) in a north @-@ west direction . The plateau is 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) long from west to east ; and 7 – 8 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 0 mi ) wide south to north , 7 – 8 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 0 mi ) wide in the far south ; 9 – 10 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 2 mi ) wide in the central part ; 11 – 12 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 5 mi ) wide towards the north and about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) wide in the northern extremity . Width wise , the plateau is oriented in north @-@ south direction and extends 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) and 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) respectively . The plateau covers a total area of 73 @.@ 13 square kilometres ( 28 @.@ 24 sq mi ) .
The Shumen Plateau Nature Park encloses the Bukaka Reserve Forest , which covers a total forest area of 63 @.@ 04 hectares ( 155 @.@ 8 acres ) . This forest is protected on account of its indigenous Fagus sylvatica ( common beech ) moesiaca ( the Balkan beech ) forest " that is several hundred years old . The only human activity allowed within this reserve is use of trails which pass through it . The Shumen Plateau occupies the highest plateau in the Danubian Plain , with an elevation of 502 metres ( 1 @,@ 647 ft ) , and features " bizarre and fantastic rock phenomena and underground Karst forms " .
= = History = =
The Shumen Plateau is part of the Natura 2000 network and was designated per the Council Directive 92 / 43 / EEC for the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora . Within this plateau , the park is demarcated over an area of 3 @,@ 929 @.@ 9 hectares ( 9 @,@ 711 acres ) . It lies in the eastern part of the Danubian Plain , near the town of Shumen , and was declared a National Park in 1980 and a Nature Park in 2003 . The responsibility of park 's management is with the government of Bulgaria and is dictated under the Management Plan for Nature Parks and the Protected Areas Act ( 1998 ) .
= = Biology = =
The park and the plateau have distinctive topographic features and plateau 's water resources , climate and soil conditions dictate the biodiversity of its plant species .
= = = Flora = = =
The park has a dense forest area , with about 90 % area covered by forests mostly of the mixed deciduous forests . The plants and tree species reported from this forest , are : ash ( Fraxinus ) , beech ( Fagus ) , European hornbeam ( Carpinus betulus ) , lime ( Tilia ) , maple ( Acer campestre ) , Turkey oak ( Quercus cerris ) , and many more . The forest 's conifer vegetation consists of : European black pine ( Pinus nigra ) , Norway spruce ( Picea abies ) , Oregon pine ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) , Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ) , and spruce ( Picea ) . The shrub species reported are : dog rose ( Rosa canina ) , the European Cornel ( Cornus mas ) , the hawthorn ( Crataegus ) , and the hazel ( Corylus ) . The open area of the park is covered with several species of bush and grass . Other plant species reported are 14 types of orchid ( Orchidaceae ) and more than 250 species of herbal plants . The Management Plan for the park lists 550 species of vascular plants ( excluding mosses ) .
= = = Fauna = = =
The faunal species reported consist of 350 invertebrates and more than 240 vertebrates . The mammals recorded are : badger ( Meles meles ) , beech marten ( Martes foina ) , fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) , red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) , roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ) , wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) and soforth . There are also several specie of avifauna . The reptile species reported include Aesculapian snake ( Elaphe longissima ) , European green lizard ( Lacerta viridis ) , Hermann 's tortoise ( Testudo hermanni ) , horned viper ( Vipera ammodytes ) , spur @-@ thighed tortoise ( Testudo graeca ) , and wall lizard ( Podarcis muralis ) . Animals , which are under different protection categories , reported in the park are : black woodpecker ( Dryocopus martius ) , Eurasian eagle @-@ owl ( Bubo bubo ) , lesser spotted eagle ( Aquila pomarina ) , marbled polecat ( Vormela peregusna ) , Northern goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ) , and Romanian hamster ( Mesocricetus newtoni ) .
= = Cultural heritage = =
There are many cultural landmarks in the park . These are :
The Shumen fortress ( on Bulgarian language : Shumenska krepost ) , also known as the old town of Shumen , is an archaeological site . It was built over a hill which gives a commanding view of the Shumen city . The fortress is located within the park . The fortress formed the town of Shumen during the First and Second Bulgarian Empire ( 12th – 14th centuries ) . It was the best developed citadel during the 14th century . Thracians ruled over the territory from the 5th to 2nd century BC , followed by Romans who ruled from first century BC to 3rd century AD , and then by the early Byzantine from 4th to 6th century AD . The site consisted of refined residences , religious buildings , and defense fortifications . When the Ottomans took control of the fortress in 1444 , the then King Władysław III of Poland ( Varnenchik ) ( 1440 – 1444 ) of Polish @-@ Hungarian descent attempted an attack on the Ottomans which proved to be disastrous , as he was killed during the Battle of Varna . Following this battle the fortress was looted and gutted , and the Ottoman rulers eventually abandoned the fortress completely . It has since been partially restored .
The Founders of the Bulgarian State Monument or Creators of the Bulgarian State monument , is another notable monument within the park , built to commemorate the 1300th anniversary of the establishment of Bulgaria , starting from the First Bulgarian Empire ( 7th century – 11th century ) . This monument , which is about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) distance from the entrance of the Shumen fortress , was built in 1981 during the communist regime . An information center is situated 300 metres ( 980 ft ) away from this monument and a 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) track from here leads to the Shumen fortress .
There are cave monasteries which functioned during the Second Bulgarian Empire as religious and cultural centres . They are located in karstic rock formations in the plateau and are difficult to access . Some of the notable caves are the Biserna Cave ( Pearl Cave ) and the Taynite Ponori Cave ( the Secret Ponors Cave ) .
Karstic limestone formations , which comprise the main geological formations of the park and the plateau , are found in the park in the form of ponors ( sinkholes ) in small canyons and rock rims .
= = = Trails = = =
The park has the first thematic educational trail in the Karst Nature Park , constructed as part of a project titled " Natural Park of Shumen Plateau " with funds provided by the EU Cohesion Fund and the Republic of Bulgaria , which is integral to the Operational Program " Environment 2007 – 2013 " .
= Hubert Walter =
Hubert Walter ( c . 1160 – 13 July 1205 ) was an influential royal adviser in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries in the positions of Chief Justiciar of England , Archbishop of Canterbury , and Lord Chancellor . As chancellor , Walter began the keeping of the Charter Roll , a record of all charters issued by the chancery . Walter was not noted for his holiness in life or learning , but historians have judged him one of the most outstanding government ministers in English history .
Walter owed his early advancement to his uncle Ranulf de Glanvill , who helped him become a clerk of the Exchequer . Walter served King Henry II of England in many ways , not just in financial administration , but also including diplomatic and judicial efforts . After an unsuccessful candidacy to the see of York , Walter was elected Bishop of Salisbury shortly after the accession of Henry 's son Richard I to the throne of England .
Walter accompanied Richard on the Third Crusade , and was one of the principals involved in raising Richard 's ransom after the king was captured in Germany on his return from the Holy Land . As a reward for his faithful service , Walter was selected to become Archbishop of Canterbury in 1193 . He also served as Richard 's justiciar until 1198 , in which role he was responsible for raising the money Richard needed to prosecute his wars in France . Walter set up a system that was the precursor for the modern justices of the peace , based on selecting four knights in each hundred to administer justice . He also revived his predecessor 's dispute over setting up a church to rival Christ Church Priory in Canterbury , which was only settled when the pope ordered him to abandon the plan . Following Richard 's death in 1199 , Walter helped assure the elevation of Richard 's brother John to the throne . Walter also served John as a diplomat , undertaking several missions to France .
= = Early life = =
Hubert Walter was the son of Hervey Walter and his wife Maud de Valoignes , one of the daughters ( and co @-@ heiresses ) of Theobald de Valoignes , who was lord of Parham in Suffolk . Walter was one of six brothers . The eldest brother , Theobald Walter , and Walter himself , were helped in their careers by their uncle , Ranulf de Glanvill . Glanvill was the chief justiciar for Henry II ; and was married to Maud de Valoignes ' sister , Bertha . Walter 's father and paternal grandfather held lands in Suffolk and Norfolk , which were inherited by Theobald . A younger brother , Osbert , became a royal justice and died in 1206 . Roger , Hamo ( or Hamon ) and Bartholomew only appear as witnesses to charters .
Walter 's family was from West Dereham in Norfolk , which is probably where Walter was born . Walter first appears in Glanvill 's household in a charter that has been dated to 1178 , although as it is undated it may have been written as late as 1180 . His brother Theobald also served in their uncle 's household . Walter 's gratitude towards his aunt and uncle is shown in the foundation charter of Walter 's monastery in Dereham , where he asks the foundation to pray for the " souls of Ranulf Glanvill and Bertha his wife , who nourished us " . Earlier historians asserted that Walter studied law at Bologna , based on his name appearing in a list of those to be commemorated at a monastery in Bologna in which English students lodged . Modern historians have discounted this , as the list also includes benefactors , not just students ; other evidence points to the fact that Walter had a poor grasp of Latin , and did not consider himself to be a learned man . However , this did not mean that he was illiterate , merely that he was not " book @-@ learned " , or educated at a university . His contemporary , the medieval writer Gerald of Wales said of Walter that the Exchequer was his school .
= = Early assignments = =
By 1184 – 1185 Walter had a position as a baron of the exchequer . The king employed him on several tasks , including as a negotiator , a justice , and as a royal secretary . He was appointed Dean of York by order of King Henry II about July 1186 . The archbishopric had been vacant since 1181 and would remain so until 1189 , so it was Walter 's job as dean to administer the archbishopric of York . Walter was also an unsuccessful candidate to become Archbishop of York in September 1186 . The medieval chronicler Gervase of Canterbury said that during Henry II 's reign , Walter " ruled England because Glanvill sought his counsel " . Documents also show that Walter was active in the administration of the diocese of York .
At the same time he was administering York , Walter founded a Premonstratensian house of canons on purchased property at West Dereham , Norfolk in 1188 . His uncle and other family members had favoured the Premonstratensian Order , and this monastery was located near the family lands in Norfolk .
In 1187 Walter , along with Glanvill and King Henry II , attempted to mediate a dispute between the Archbishop of Canterbury , Baldwin of Forde , and the monks of the cathedral chapter . Their efforts were fruitless , and Walter was later drawn back into the dispute , in early 1189 and again as archbishop . The dispute centred on the attempt by Baldwin to build a church dedicated to Saint Thomas Becket , just outside the town of Canterbury . The plan was to staff the church with canons instead of monks , which the monks of Canterbury 's cathedral chapter feared was an attempt to take away the cathedral chapter 's right to elect the archbishop . The attempt in 1189 was settled by Baldwin giving up the site near Canterbury for one further away at Lambeth , which was less threatening to the monks .
= = Bishop and archbishop = =
After the death of King Henry in 1189 , the new King Richard I appointed Walter Bishop of Salisbury ; the election took place on 15 September 1189 at Pipewell , with the consecration on 22 October 1189 at Westminster . Also elected to bishoprics at this council were Godfrey de Lucy to the see of Winchester , Richard FitzNeal to the see of London , and William Longchamp to the see of Ely . The elevation of so many new bishops was probably meant to signal the new king 's break with his father 's habit of keeping bishoprics empty to retain the revenues of the sees . At about the same time Glanvill was either forced out of his justiciarship or resigned , but the sources are unclear . Walter was probably elevated to a bishopric even though his uncle had lost some of his power because of political manoeuvring over the elevation of King Richard 's illegitimate half @-@ brother Geoffrey to the see of York , which Walter had at first opposed . The bishopric was either a reward or a bribe for Walter 's withdrawal of his objections to Geoffrey 's election .
Soon after his appointment , Walter accompanied the king on the Third Crusade , going ahead of the king directly from Marseille to the Holy Land in a group that included Baldwin of Forde , Archbishop of Canterbury , and Ranulf de Glanvill . The group left Marseille in August 1190 , and arrived at Acre two months later . While on crusade , he was praised by his fellow crusaders , and acted as Richard 's principal negotiator with Saladin for a peace treaty . After the conclusion of the treaty with Saladin , Walter was in the first band of pilgrims that entered Jerusalem . Saladin entertained Walter during his stay in Jerusalem , and the Englishman succeeded in extracting a promise from Saladin that a small group of Western clergy would be allowed to remain in the city to perform divine services . Walter subsequently led the English army back to England after Richard 's departure from Palestine , but in Sicily he heard of the king 's capture , and diverted to Germany . He , along with William of Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Eglise , was among the first of Richard 's subjects to find the king at Ochsenfurt where he was being held . In April 1193 he returned to England to raise the king 's ransom . Richard wrote to his mother , Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine , that Walter should be chosen for the see of Canterbury , as well as to the monks of the cathedral chapter , and soon after Walter 's return to England , he was duly elected archbishop of Canterbury , having been transferred to the see on 29 May 1193 . He was chosen as archbishop without consultation from the bishops , who normally claimed the right to help decide the new archbishop . He received his pallium , the symbol of his archiepiscopal authority , from Pope Celestine III and was ceremonially enthroned at Canterbury on 7 November 1193 .
= = Justiciar = =
After Richard was freed , he spent little time in England , instead concentrating on the war with King Philip II of France , which began with Philip 's attempts to acquire Richard 's possessions on the continent . Richard made Walter Chief Justiciar about 25 December 1193 . Walter remained in England , raising money for the king 's wars and overseeing the administration of the kingdom . The constant warfare forced Walter to find new means of raising money through taxation . The historian Doris Stenton wrote that the Pipe Rolls , or financial records , during Walter 's time as justiciar " give the impression of a country taxed to the limit " . Walter was also responsible for choosing royal justices , and many of his choices were connected with , or had previously worked with , the archbishop in the royal administration . Because of Richard 's absence from England , Walter was able to exercise more authority as justiciar than any of his predecessors . All that Walter needed to do was keep Richard 's monetary needs satisfied . Combined with Walter 's position as archbishop , Walter wielded a power unseen in England since the days of Lanfranc .
One of Walter 's first acts as justiciar was in February 1194 , when he presided over a feudal judgement of John , Richard 's younger brother . After Richard 's release from captivity , John , intending to begin a rebellion , had prepared his castles for defence . His letters ordering the preparations were intercepted and John was deprived of his lands . When John showed no signs of submitting , Walter called an ecclesiastical council at Westminster for the purposes of excommunicating John unless he submitted . John refused to submit , and was excommunicated . To defeat the rebellion , Walter was required to lay siege to Marlborough Castle himself . Walter employed his brother Theobald in similar actions in Lancaster , and rewarded him with the office of sheriff of Lancaster . Eventually in May 1194 , John made peace with Richard , and was restored to favour , although the restoration of his lands did not occur until late in 1195 .
Walter 's chief administrative measures were his instructions to the itinerant justices of 1194 and 1198 , his ordinance of 1195 , an attempt to increase order in the kingdom , and his plan of 1198 for the assessment of a land tax . In 1194 the justices were ordered to secure the election of four coroners by each county court . The coroners were to keep , or register , royal pleas , which had previously been a duty of the sheriff . The juries were to be chosen by a committee of four knights , also elected by the county court . This introduction of coroners and constables eventually led to a change in the role of sheriffs , and a lessening of their importance in royal administration . Although he probably did not take part in the decision to set up a special exchequer for the collection of Richard 's ransom , Walter did appoint the two escheators , or guardians of the amounts due , who were Hugh Bardulf in the north of England and William of Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Eglise in the south . His instructions for the eyre , or circuits of traveling justices , are the first that survive in English history . It was during his tenure of the justiciarship that the judicial role of the Exchequer became separated from the purely financial aspects .
He also worked to introduce order into the lending of money by Jewish moneylenders , and organised a system where the royal officials worked to combat fraud by both parties in the business of Jewish money lending . Walter was probably the originator of the custom of keeping an archival copy of all charters , letters , patents and feet of fines , or record of agreements reached in the royal courts , in the chancery . The first recorded " foot of the fine " is endorsed with the statement " This is the first chirograph that was made in the king 's court in the form of three chirographs , according to the command of his lordship of Canterbury and other barons of the king , to the end that by this form a record can be made to be passed on to the treasurer to put in the treasury . " The agreement concerns Walter 's brother Theobald , who was the plaintiff .
Walter also helped with the creation of a more professional group of royal justices . Although the group , which included Simon of Pattishall , Ralph Foliot , Richard Barre , William de Warenne , Richard Herriard , and Walter 's brother Osbert fitzHervey , had mostly already served as justices prior to Walter 's term of office , it was Walter who used them extensively . It appears likely that Walter chose them for their ability , not for any familial ties to himself . This group of men replaced the previous system of using mostly local men , and are the first signs of a professional judiciary .
In 1195 Walter issued an ordinance by which four knights were appointed in every hundred to act as guardians of the peace , a precursor to the office of Justice of the Peace . His use of the knights , who appear for the first time in political life , is the first sign of the rise of this class who , either as members of parliament or justices of the peace , later became the mainstay of English government . In 1198 , Walter requested a carucage , or plough @-@ tax , of five shillings on every plough @-@ land , or carucate , under cultivation . However , difficulties arose over the assessments , so the justiciar ordered them to be made by a sworn jury in every hundred . It is likely that those jurors were elected .
In foreign affairs , Walter negotiated with Scotland in 1195 and with the Welsh in 1197 . Scotland claimed Northumbria , or northern England . Negotiations broke down , but relations between the two countries remained good throughout the rest of Richard 's reign . Talks with the Welsh began after the English lords Roger Mortimer and William de Briouze expanded into Welsh territory in 1195 , causing a concern that the Welsh lord Rhys ap Gruffydd would strike back across the border . In 1196 , Walter quickly suppressed a popular uprising in London led by William Fitz Osbern . FitzOsbern was an orator who harnessed the discontent of the poor residents of London against high taxes . His oratory provoked a riot in London , and he was apprehended and hanged on Walter 's orders .
= = Ecclesiastical affairs and resignation = =
Walter held a legateship from Pope Celestine III from 1195 to 1198 , which enabled him to act with the pope 's delegated authority within the English Church . Walter actively investigated ecclesiastical misconduct , and deposed several abbots , including Robert of Thorney Abbey in 1195 and an abbot of St Mary 's in the province of the Archbishop of York . At the monastic cathedral of Worcester , he disciplined the monks between the death of Henry de Sully and the election of John of Coutances , as was his right as the archbishop of the province . In his own diocese , he granted markets and fairs to towns , was granted the privilege of minting coins at Shrewsbury , and worked to recover lands and manors that had been lost to the archdiocese .
Walter revived the scheme of his predecessor , Baldwin of Forde , to found a church in Canterbury that would be secular and not monastic . He promised that the new foundation 's canons would not be allowed to vote in archiepiscopal elections nor would the body of Saint Thomas Becket ever be moved to the new church , but the monks of his cathedral chapter were suspicious and appealed to the papacy . The dispute from the time of Baldwin of Forde flared up again , with the papacy supporting the monks and the king supporting the archbishop . Finally , Pope Innocent III ruled for the monks and ordered Walter to destroy what had been built .
The archbishop held ecclesiastical councils , including one at York in 1195 that legislated that the clergy should collect their tithes in full , " ... without any reduction . " Another council was held at London in 1200 to legislate the size and composition of clerical retinues , and also ruled that the clergy , when saying Mass , should speak clearly and not speed up or slow down their speech . At the request of the papacy , Walter also led inquiries into the canonisations of Gilbert of Sempringham and Wulfstan of Worcester . Walter refused to acquiesce in the election of Gerald of Wales to the see of St David 's in Wales and opposed the efforts of Gerald and others to elevate St David 's to an archbishopric .
In the later part of Richard 's reign , the pressures mounted on Walter . Conflicts between his ecclesiastical duties and his government duties made him the target of criticism from both sides . A dispute in December 1197 , over Richard 's demand that the magnates of England provide 300 knights to serve in France , led to renewed grumbling among the clergy and barons . Richard was also dissatisfied with the results of the carucage in 1198 , so Walter resigned his position of chief justiciar on 11 July of that year . Walter may have resigned willingly , as he had talked of resigning his secular duties since 1194 . Some medieval sources , however , stated that he was forced out of office by the king .
= = Under John = =
According to the Life of William Marshal , which dates to soon after 1219 , when word reached William Marshal , one of the richest and most influential barons , that Richard was dead , he consulted with Walter and discussed whom to support as the next king . Marshal 's choice was John , but Walter initially leaned towards John 's young nephew Arthur of Brittany . When Marshall was insistent on John , who was an adult , the author of the Life has Walter say in reply " ' So be it then , ' said the archbishop , ' but mark my words , Marshal , you will never regret anything in your life as much as this . ' " This is almost certainly a retrospective comment that has been inserted into the biography , however , based on John 's later behaviour . Once John knew he had the support of Walter and William Marshal , he sent Walter ahead to England to request all free men to pledge fealty to the new king . On 27 May 1199 Walter crowned John , supposedly making a speech that promulgated , for the last time , the theory of a king 's election by the people . This story is only contained in the writings of Matthew Paris , however , and although it seems certain that Walter made a speech , it is not certain what the exact contents were . On his coronation day , John appointed Walter Lord Chancellor . W. L. Warren , historian and author of a biography of John , says of Walter that " No one living had a firmer grasp of the intricacies of royal government , yet even in old age his mind was adaptable and fecund with suggestions for coping with new problems . "
One of Walter 's first suggestions was to lower the fees for having charters confirmed , from nine pounds and five shillings to eighteen shillings and four pence . Accompanying this measure was a requirement that no charter would be accepted in a king 's court without having been confirmed by King John . Not only did this reduce forgeries , it led to the establishment of the Charter Roll , an administrative copy of all charters issued and confirmed by the government . In his relations with other officers , Walter worked closely with the justiciar Geoffrey Fitz Peter , on the collection of taxation , and both men went to Wales in 1203 on a diplomatic mission . Another joint action of the two men concerned a tax of a seventh part of all movables collected from both lay and ecclesiastical persons . The medieval chronicler Roger of Wendover said that the king " had Archbishop Hubert of Canterbury to act for him in the matter of the church property , Geoffrey fitz @-@ Peter in the matter of lay property ; and these two spared no one in carrying out their orders . " Walter was also responsible for the keeping of copies of other royal letters in the Close Rolls and the Patent Rolls . The Patent rolls record letters that were issued in " patent " , or openly and not sealed , and the Close rolls record letters issued sealed , or letters close . The various rolls are extant from 1199 for the Charter roll , 1201 for the Patent roll , and 1204 for the Close roll . Walter also continued to innovate in local government , as the earliest record of the coroner 's rolls , or county records , being used to cross @-@ check oral testimony in the county courts date from 1202 and 1203 , during Walter 's chancellorship .
In 1201 Walter went on a diplomatic mission to Philip II of France , which was unsuccessful , and in 1202 he returned to England as regent while John was abroad . In April 1204 Walter returned to France with John de Gray the Bishop of Norwich , Eustace the Bishop of Ely , William Marshal , and Robert de Beaumont the Earl of Leicester to seek peace with Philip Augustus . Philip insisted that John hand over Arthur of Brittany , Arthur 's sister Eleanor , and renounce all of his continental possessions before the French king would make peace . John refused to do this , and the embassy returned to England not long before Philip conquered Normandy .
Besides sending Walter on diplomatic missions , King John gave Walter custody of Rochester Castle on 20 July 1202 , but as Walter was already accounting for the taxes and fees of the city of Rochester to the Exchequer in 1200 , it is possible that he held the castle before 1202 . John also upheld the right of the archbishop to mint coins , which Walter held until his death in 1205 .
Under John , Walter continued to be active in ecclesiastical affairs , and in September 1200 held a provincial church council at London . This council set forth 14 canons , or decrees , which dealt with a number of subjects , including doctrinal concerns , financial affairs , and the duties of the clergy . It drew heavily on earlier church decrees , including those of the Third Lateran Council of 1179 . Walter also interceded with Pope Innocent III in 1200 , mediating between the pope and the king over a royal dispute with the Cistercians . Walter 's intercession prevented the dispute from escalating , and kept the pope from imposing sanctions on the king for his threats to the Cistercians . It was in 1200 that the church court records of the archdiocese of Canterbury began to be recorded and kept , although after Walter 's death in 1205 the records become sparse until the 14th century .
= = Death and legacy = =
Walter died on 13 July 1205 , after a long illness that permitted a reconciliation with his monks . The medieval chronicler Ralph of Coggeshall described his death as taking four days , and related that he gave vestments , jewellery , and altar furnishings to his monks , which were confiscated by King John after Walter 's death . He was buried in the Trinity Chapel in Canterbury Cathedral , next to Thomas Becket , where his tomb can still be seen . The tomb occupied a highly visible spot in the Trinity Chapel , and Walter was the first archbishop to be buried there since the 1170s , when all of the tombs but Becket 's had been relocated to focus attention on Becket 's shrine . His remained the only ecclesiastic to be buried there until the 14th century . The use by the archbishops of Canterbury of the title " Primate of All England " dates from Walter 's archiepiscopal tenure .
The medieval chronicler Matthew Paris retold the story that when King John heard of Walter 's death , the king exclaimed " Now for the first time I am king of England " . This story , however entertaining , is apocryphal . More secure is the story that another chronicler , Roger of Wendover , relates about Walter 's Christmas celebrations in 1200 . Roger reports that Walter distributed clothing to those attending his Christmas feast , which angered King John . The chronicler says that Walter " wished to put himself on a par with the king " .
Walter was not a holy man , although he was , as John Gillingham , a historian and biographer of Richard I , says , " one of the most outstanding government ministers in English History " . Hugh of Lincoln , a contemporary and later canonised , is said to have asked forgiveness of God for not having rebuked Walter as often as he probably should have . Modern historians tend not to share the older view that Walter was the driving force behind the administrative changes during Richard 's reign , that Richard was uninterested in government , and that he left all decisions in the hands of his ministers , especially Longchamp and Walter . The studies of James Holt and others have shown that Richard was highly involved in government decisions , and that it was more a partnership between the king and his ministers . Walter was , however , very innovative in his approach to government . Walter continued to enjoy the support of Richard 's brother John , and it was during John 's reign that a number of Walter 's administrative reforms took place , although how much royal initiative was behind the innovations is unknown , given John 's interest in government and administration .
Walter was the butt of jokes about his lack of learning , and was the target of a series of tales from the pen of the chronicler Gerald of Wales , an enemy of the archbishop . Even Walter 's supporters could only state that he was " moderately literate " . Walter employed several canon lawyers who had been educated at Bologna in his household , including John of Tynemouth , Simon of Southwell , and Honorius of Kent . He also employed the architect Elias of Dereham , who was one of Walter 's executors . Elias is traditionally credited as being the architect of Salisbury Cathedral after Walter 's death . Another scholar employed by Walter was Peter of Blois , who served both Walter and his predecessor as a Latin secretary .
Little is known of his appearance , although he was described by Gerald of Wales as tall and handsome . Gerald also praised his intelligence and cleverness .
W. L. Warren advances the theory that either Walter or Geoffrey Fitz Peter , instead of Ranulf Glanvill , was the author of Tractatus de legibus et consuetudinibus regni Angliae , a legal treatise on the laws and constitutions of the English . Chrimes agrees that Glanvill was probably not the author , and feels that Walter likely was , although he could not be certain . If he was the author , he composed what Chrimes called a " great literary memorial of Henry II 's government " . Neither of Walter 's two modern biographers , however , feel that he was the author of the Tractatus , and the historian Ralph Turner agrees . The historian Michael Clanchy says of Walter " The proliferation of documents was a European and a continuing phenomenon , yet if it were to be associated in England with one man , he would be Hubert Walter . "
= Ediacaran biota =
The Ediacaran ( / ˌiːdiˈækərən / ; formerly Vendian ) biota consisted of enigmatic tubular and frond @-@ shaped , mostly sessile organisms that lived during the Ediacaran Period ( ca . 635 – 542 Ma ) . Trace fossils of these organisms have been found worldwide , and represent the earliest known complex multicellular organisms . The Ediacaran biota radiated in an event called the Avalon explosion , 575 million years ago , after the Earth had thawed from the Cryogenian period 's extensive glaciation . The biota largely disappeared with the rapid increase in biodiversity known as the Cambrian explosion . Most of the currently existing body plans of animals first appeared in the fossil record of the Cambrian rather than the Ediacaran . For macroorganisms , the Cambrian biota appears to have completely replaced the organisms that populated the Ediacaran fossil record , although relationships are still a matter of debate .
The organisms of the Ediacaran Period first appeared around 600 million years ago and flourished until the cusp of the Cambrian 542 million years ago , when the characteristic communities of fossils vanished . The earliest reasonably diverse Ediacaran community was discovered in 1995 in Sonora , Mexico , and is approximately 600 million years in age , pre @-@ dating the Gaskiers glaciation of about 580 million years ago . While rare fossils that may represent survivors have been found as late as the Middle Cambrian ( 510 to 500 million years ago ) , the earlier fossil communities disappear from the record at the end of the Ediacaran leaving only curious fragments of once @-@ thriving ecosystems . Multiple hypotheses exist to explain the disappearance of this biota , including preservation bias , a changing environment , the advent of predators and competition from other life @-@ forms .
Determining where Ediacaran organisms fit in the tree of life has proven challenging ; it is not even established that they were animals , with suggestions that they were lichens ( fungus @-@ alga symbionts ) , algae , protists known as foraminifera , fungi or microbial colonies , or hypothetical intermediates between plants and animals . The morphology and habit of some taxa ( e.g. Funisia dorothea ) suggest relationships to Porifera or Cnidaria . Kimberella may show a similarity to molluscs , and other organisms have been thought to possess bilateral symmetry , although this is controversial . Most macroscopic fossils are morphologically distinct from later life @-@ forms : they resemble discs , tubes , mud @-@ filled bags or quilted mattresses . Due to the difficulty of deducing evolutionary relationships among these organisms , some palaeontologists have suggested that these represent completely extinct lineages that do not resemble any living organism . One palaeontologist proposed a separate kingdom level category Vendozoa ( now renamed Vendobionta ) in the Linnaean hierarchy for the Ediacaran biota . If these enigmatic organisms left no descendants , their strange forms might be seen as a " failed experiment " in multicellular life , with later multicellular life evolving independently from unrelated single @-@ celled organisms .
Breandán MacGabhann argues that the concept of " Ediacara Biota " is artificial and arbitrary as it can not be defined geographically , stratigraphically , taphonomically nor biologically . He points out that 8 particular fossils or groups of fossils considered " Ediacaran " have 5 taphonomic modes ( preservation styles ) , occur in 3 geological periods , and have no phylogenetic meaning as a whole .
= = History = =
The first Ediacaran fossils discovered were the disc @-@ shaped Aspidella terranovica in 1868 . Their discoverer , Scottish geologist Alexander Murray , found them useful aids for correlating the age of rocks around Newfoundland . However , since they lay below the " Primordial Strata " of the Cambrian that was then thought to contain the very first signs of animal life , a proposal four years after their discovery by Elkanah Billings that these simple forms represented fauna was dismissed by his peers . Instead , they were interpreted as gas escape structures or inorganic concretions . No similar structures elsewhere in the world were then known and the one @-@ sided debate soon fell into obscurity . In 1933 , Georg Gürich discovered specimens in Namibia but the firm belief that complex life originated in the Cambrian led to them being assigned to the Cambrian Period and no link to Aspidella was made . In 1946 , Reg Sprigg noticed " jellyfishes " in the Ediacara Hills of Australia 's Flinders Ranges but these rocks were believed to be Early Cambrian so , while the discovery sparked some interest , little serious attention was garnered .
It was not until the British discovery of the iconic Charnia in 1957 that the pre @-@ Cambrian was seriously considered as containing life . This frond @-@ shaped fossil was found in England 's Charnwood Forest , and due to the detailed geological mapping of the British Geological Survey there was no doubt these fossils sat in Precambrian rocks . Palaeontologist Martin Glaessner finally , in 1959 , made the connection between this and the earlier finds and with a combination of improved dating of existing specimens and an injection of vigour into the search many more instances were recognised .
All specimens discovered until 1967 were in coarse @-@ grained sandstone that prevented preservation of fine details , making interpretation difficult . S.B. Misra 's discovery of fossiliferous ash @-@ beds at the Mistaken Point assemblage in Newfoundland changed all this as the delicate detail preserved by the fine ash allowed the description of features that were previously undiscernible .
Poor communication , combined with the difficulty in correlating globally distinct formations , led to a plethora of different names for the biota . In 1960 the French name " Ediacarien " – after the Ediacaran Hills in South Australia , which take their name from aborigine Idiyakra , " water is present " – was added to the competing terms " Sinian
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embryos , particularly from the Doushantuo Formation in China . Some finds generated intense media excitement though some have claimed they are instead inorganic structures formed by the precipitation of minerals on the inside of a hole . Other " embryos " have been interpreted as the remains of the giant sulfur @-@ reducing bacteria akin to Thiomargarita , a view that , while it had enjoyed a notable gain of supporters as of 2007 , has since suffered following further research comparing the potential Doushantuo embryos ' morphologies with those of Thiomargarita specimens , both living and in various stages of decay .
Microfossils dating from 632 @.@ 5 million years ago – just 3 million years after the end of the Cryogenian glaciations – may represent embryonic ' resting stages ' in the life cycle of the earliest known animals . An alternative proposal is that these structures represent adult stages of the multicellular organisms of this period .
Discs
Circular fossils , such as Ediacaria , Cyclomedusa and Rugoconites led to the initial identification of Ediacaran fossils as cnidaria , which include jellyfish and corals . Further examination has provided alternative interpretations of all disc @-@ shaped fossils : not one is now confidently recognised as a jellyfish . Alternate explanations include holdfasts and protists ; the patterns displayed where two meet have led to many ' individuals ' being identified as microbial colonies , and yet others may represent scratch marks formed as stalked organisms spun around their holdfasts . Useful diagnostic characters are often lacking because only the underside of the organism is preserved by fossilisation .
Bags
Fossils such as Pteridinium preserved within sediment layers resemble " mud @-@ filled bags " . The scientific community is a long way from reaching a consensus on their interpretation .
Toroids
The fossil Vendoglossa tuberculata from the Nama Group , Namibia , has been interpreted as a dorso @-@ ventrally compressed stem @-@ group metazoan , with a large gut cavity and a transversely ridged ectoderm . The organism is in the shape of a flattened torus , with the long axis of its toroidal body running through the approximate center of the presumed gut cavity .
Quilted organisms
The organisms considered in Seilacher 's revised definition of the Vendobionta share a " quilted " appearance and resembled an inflatable mattress . Sometimes these quilts would be torn or ruptured prior to preservation : such damaged specimens provide valuable clues in the reconstruction process . For example , the three ( or more ) petaloid fronds of Swartpuntia germsi could only be recognised in a posthumously damaged specimen – usually multiple fronds were hidden as burial squashed the organisms flat .
These organisms appear to form two groups : the fractal rangeomorphs and the simpler erniettomorphs . Including such fossils as the iconic Charnia and Swartpuntia , the group is both the most iconic of the Ediacaran biota and the most difficult to place within the existing tree of life . Lacking any mouth , gut , reproductive organs , or indeed any evidence of internal anatomy , their lifestyle was somewhat peculiar by modern standards ; the most widely accepted hypothesis holds that they sucked nutrients out of the surrounding seawater by osmotrophy or osmosis . However , others argue against this .
Non @-@ Ediacarans
Some Ediacaran organisms have more complex details preserved , which has allowed them to be interpreted as possible early forms of living phyla excluding them from some definitions of the Ediacaran biota .
The earliest such fossil is the reputed bilaterian Vernanimalcula claimed by some , however , to represent the infilling of an egg @-@ sac or acritarch . Later examples are almost universally accepted as bilaterians and include the mollusc @-@ like Kimberella , Spriggina ( pictured ) and the shield @-@ shaped Parvancorina whose affinities are currently debated .
A suite of fossils known as the Small shelly fossils are represented in the Ediacaran , most famously by Cloudina a shelly tube @-@ like fossil that often shows evidence of predatory boring , suggesting that , while predation may not have been common in the Ediacaran Period , it was at least present .
Representatives of modern taxa existed in the Ediacaran , some of which are recognisable today . Sponges , red and green algæ , protists and bacteria are all easily recognisable with some pre @-@ dating the Ediacaran by nearly three billion years . Possible arthropods have also been described .
Trace fossils
With the exception of some very simple vertical burrows the only Ediacaran burrows are horizontal , lying on or just below the surface of the seafloor . Such burrows have been taken to imply the presence of motile organisms with heads , which would probably have had a bilateral symmetry . This could place them in the bilateral clade of animals but they could also have been made by simpler organisms feeding as they slowly rolled along the sea floor . Putative " burrows " dating as far back as 1 @,@ 100 million years may have been made by animals that fed on the undersides of microbial mats , which would have shielded them from a chemically unpleasant ocean ; however their uneven width and tapering ends make a biological origin so difficult to defend that even the original proponent no longer believes they are authentic .
The burrows observed imply simple behaviour , and the complex efficient feeding traces common from the start of the Cambrian are absent . Some Ediacaran fossils , especially discs , have been interpreted tentatively as trace fossils but this hypothesis has not gained widespread acceptance . As well as burrows , some trace fossils have been found directly associated with an Ediacaran fossil . Yorgia and Dickinsonia are often found at the end of long pathways of trace fossils matching their shape ; these fossils are thought to be associated with ciliary feeding but the precise method of formation of these disconnected and overlapping fossils largely remains a mystery . The potential mollusc Kimberella is associated with scratch marks , perhaps formed by a radula .
= = Classification and interpretation = =
Classification of the Ediacarans is difficult , and hence a variety of theories exist as to their placement on the tree of life .
Martin Glaessner proposed in The Dawn of Animal Life ( 1984 ) that the Ediacaran biota were recognizable crown group members of modern phyla , but were unfamiliar because they had yet to evolve the characteristic features we use in modern classification .
In 1998 Mark McMenamin claimed Ediacarans did not possess an embryonic stage , and thus could not be animals . He believed that they independently evolved a nervous system and brains , meaning that " the path toward intelligent life was embarked upon more than once on this planet " .
= = = Cnidarians = = =
Since the most primitive eumetazoans — multi @-@ cellular animals with tissues — are cnidarians , the first attempt to categorise these fossils designated them as jellyfish and sea pens . However , more recent discoveries have established that many of the circular forms formerly considered " cnidarian medusa " are actually holdfasts – sand @-@ filled vesicles occurring at the base of the stem of upright frond @-@ like Ediacarans . A notable example is the form known as Charniodiscus , a circular impression later found to be attached to the long ' stem ' of a frond @-@ like organism that now bears the name .
The link between certain frond @-@ like Ediacarans and sea pens has been thrown into doubt by multiple lines of evidence ; chiefly the derived nature of the most frond @-@ like pennatulacean octocorals , their absence from the fossil record before the Tertiary , and the apparent cohesion between segments in Ediacaran frond @-@ like organisms . Some researchers have suggested that an analysis of " growth poles " discredits the pennatulacean nature of Ediacaran fronds .
= = = Protozoans = = =
Adolf Seilacher has suggested the Ediacaran sees animals usurping giant protists as the dominant life form . The modern xenophyophores are giant single @-@ celled protozoans found throughout the world 's oceans , largely on the abyssal plain . A recent genetic study suggested that the xenophyophores are a specialised group of Foraminifera . There are approximately 42 recognised species in 13 genera and 2 orders ; one of which , Syringammina fragilissima , is among the largest known protozoans at up to 20 centimetres in diameter .
= = = New phylum = = =
Seilacher has suggested that the Ediacaran organisms represented a unique and extinct grouping of related forms descended from a common ancestor ( clade ) and created the kingdom Vendozoa , named after the now @-@ obsolete Vendian era . He later excluded fossils identified as metazoans and relaunched the phylum " Vendobionta " .
He described the Vendobionta as quilted cnidarians lacking stinging cells . This absence precludes the current cnidarian method of feeding , so Seilacher suggested that the organisms may have survived by symbiosis with photosynthetic or chemoautotrophic organisms . Mark McMenamin saw such feeding strategies as characteristic for the entire biota , and referred to the marine biota of this period as a " Garden of Ediacara " .
= = = Lichen Hypothesis = = =
Greg Retallack 's hypothesis that Ediacaran organisms were lichens is not widely accepted by the scientific community . He argues that the fossils are not as squashed as known fossil jellyfish , and their relief is closer to compressed woody branches whose compaction can be estimated as compressed cylinders . He points out the chitinous walls of lichen colonies would provide a similar resistance to compaction , and claims the large size of the organisms ( up to 1 @.@ 5 metres long , far larger than any of the preserved burrows ) also hints against classification with animals . Finally , Ediacaran fossils from classic localities of the Flinders Ranges have been found in growth position within red calcareous and gypsiferous paleosols , interpreted as soils of well @-@ drained temperate desert soils . Such habitats limit interpretive options for fractal Ediacaran fossils such as Dickinsonia to lichenised or unlichenised fungi , but other Ediacaran fossils could have been slime moulds or microbial colonies .
= = = Other interpretations = = =
Several classifications have been used to accommodate the Ediacaran biota at some point , from algae , to protozoans , to fungi to bacterial or microbial colonies , to hypothetical intermediates between plants and animals .
A new extant genus discovered in 2014 , Dendrogramma , which appears to be a basal metazoan but of unknown taxonomic placement , has been noted to have similarities with the Ediacaran fauna . It has since been found to be a siphonophore , possibly even sections of a more complex species , though this in turn has raised suspicions for a similar status for at least some ediacaran organisms .
= = Origin = =
It took almost 4 billion years from the formation of the Earth for the Ediacaran fossils to first appear , 655 million years ago . While putative fossils are reported from 3 @,@ 460 million years ago , the first uncontroversial evidence for life is found 2 @,@ 700 million years ago , and cells with nuclei certainly existed by 1 @,@ 200 million years ago : The reason why it took so long for forms with an Ediacaran grade of organisation to appear is uncertain .
It could be that no special explanation is required : the slow process of evolution simply required 4 billion years to accumulate the necessary adaptations . Indeed , there does seem to be a slow increase in the maximum level of complexity seen over this time , with more and more complex forms of life evolving as time progresses , with traces of earlier semi @-@ complex life such as Nimbia , found in the 610 million year old Twitya formation , ( and possibly older rocks dating to 770 million years ago ) possibly displaying the most complex morphology of the time .
The alternative train of thought is that it was simply not advantageous to be large until the appearance of the Ediacarans : the environment favoured the small over the large . Examples of such scenarios today include plankton , whose small size allows them to reproduce rapidly to take advantage of ephemerally abundant nutrients in algal blooms . But for large size never to be favourable , the environment would have to be very different indeed .
A primary size @-@ limiting factor is the amount of atmospheric oxygen . Without a complex circulatory system , low concentrations of oxygen cannot reach the centre of an organism quickly enough to supply its metabolic demand .
On the early Earth , reactive elements , such as iron and uranium , existed in a reduced form that would react with any free oxygen produced by photosynthesising organisms . Oxygen would not be able to build up in the atmosphere until all the iron had rusted ( producing banded iron formations ) , and all the other reactive elements had been oxidised . Donald Canfield detected records of the first significant quantities of atmospheric oxygen just before the first Ediacaran fossils appeared – and the presence of atmospheric oxygen was soon heralded as a possible trigger for the Ediacaran radiation . Oxygen seems to have accumulated in two pulses ; the rise of small , sessile ( stationary ) organisms seems to correlate with an early oxygenation event , with larger and mobile organisms appearing around the second pulse of oxygenation . However , the assumptions underlying the reconstruction of atmospheric composition have attracted some criticism , with widespread anoxia having little effect on life where it occurs in the Early Cambrian and the Cretaceous .
Periods of intense cold have also been suggested as a barrier to the evolution of multicellular life . The earliest known embryos , from China 's Doushantuo Formation , appear just a million years after the Earth emerged from a global glaciation , suggesting that ice cover and cold oceans may have prevented the emergence of multicellular life . Potentially , complex life may have evolved before these glaciations , and been wiped out . However , the diversity of life in modern Antarctica has sparked disagreement over whether cold temperatures increase or decrease the rate of evolution .
In early 2008 a team analysed the range of basic body structures ( " disparity " ) of Ediacaran organisms from three different fossil beds : Avalon in Canada , 575 to 565 million years ago ; White Sea in Russia , 560 to 550 million years ago ; and Nama in Namibia , 550 to 542 million years ago , immediately before the start of the Cambrian . They found that , while the White Sea assemblage had the most species , there was no significant difference in disparity between the three groups , and concluded that before the beginning of the Avalon timespan these organisms must have gone through their own evolutionary " explosion " , which may have been similar to the famous Cambrian explosion .
= = = Preservation bias = = =
The paucity of Ediacaran fossils after the Cambrian could simply be due to conditions that no longer favoured the fossilisation of Ediacaran organisms , which may have continued to thrive unpreserved . However , if they were common , more than the occasional specimen might be expected in exceptionally preserved fossil assemblages ( Konservat @-@ Lagerstätten ) such as the Burgess Shale and Chengjiang . However , Vendobionta remain locally common in paleosols throughout the Cambrian and into the Ordovician , and may always have been rare in marine environments .
A general discussion of preservation bias may be found under Taphonomy .
= = = Predation and grazing = = =
It is suggested that by the Early Cambrian , organisms higher in the food chain caused the microbial mats to largely disappear . If these grazers first appeared as the Ediacaran biota started to decline , then it may suggest that they destabilised the microbial substrate , leading to displacement or detachment of the biota ; or that the destruction of the mat destabilised the ecosystem , causing extinctions .
Alternatively , skeletonised animals could have fed directly on the relatively undefended Ediacaran biota . However , if the interpretation of the Ediacaran age Kimberella as a grazer is correct then this suggests that the biota had already had limited exposure to " predation " .
There is however little evidence for any trace fossils in the Ediacaran Period , which may speak against the active grazing theory . Further , the onset of the Cambrian Period is defined by the appearance of a worldwide trace fossil assemblage , quite distinct from the activity @-@ barren Ediacaran Period .
= = = Competition = = =
It is possible that increased competition due to the evolution of key innovations among other groups , perhaps as a response to predation , drove the Ediacaran biota from their niches . However , this argument has not successfully explained similar phenomena . For instance , the bivalve molluscs ' " competitive exclusion " of brachiopods was eventually deemed to be a coincidental result of two unrelated trends .
= = = Change in environmental conditions = = =
While it is difficult to infer the effect of changing planetary conditions on organisms , communities and ecosystems , great changes were happening at the end of the Precambrian and the start of the Early Cambrian . The breakup of the supercontinents , rising sea levels ( creating shallow , " life @-@ friendly " seas ) , a nutrient crisis , fluctuations in atmospheric composition , including oxygen and carbon dioxide levels , and changes in ocean chemistry ( promoting biomineralisation ) could all have played a part .
= = Assemblages = =
Ediacaran @-@ type fossils are recognised globally in 25 localities and a variety of depositional conditions , and are commonly grouped into three main types , named after typical localities . Each assemblage tends to occupy its own region of morphospace , and after an initial burst of diversification changes little for the rest of its existence .
= = = Avalon @-@ type assemblage = = =
The Avalon @-@ type assemblage is defined at Mistaken Point in Canada , the oldest locality with a large quantity of Ediacaran fossils . The assemblage is easily dated because it contains many fine ash @-@ beds , which are a good source of zircons used in the uranium @-@ lead method of radiometric dating . These fine @-@ grained ash beds also preserve exquisite detail . Constituents of this biota appear to survive through until the extinction of all Ediacarans at the base of the Cambrian .
The biota comprises deep @-@ sea @-@ dwelling rangeomorphs such as Charnia , all of which share a fractal growth pattern . They were probably preserved in situ ( without post @-@ mortem transportation ) , although this point is not universally accepted . The assemblage , while less diverse than the Ediacara- or Nama @-@ types , resembles Carboniferous suspension @-@ feeding communities , which may suggest filter feeding – by most interpretations , the assemblage is found in water too deep for photosynthesis . The low diversity may reflect the depth of water – which would restrict speciation opportunities – or it may just be too young for a rich biota to have evolved . Opinion is currently divided between these conflicting hypotheses .
= = = Ediacara @-@ type assemblage = = =
The Ediacara @-@ type assemblage is named after Australia 's Ediacara Hills , and consists of fossils preserved in facies of coastal lagoons and rivers . They are typically found in red gypsiferous and calcareous paleosols formed on loess and flood deposits in an arid cool temperate paleoclimate . Most fossils are preserved as imprints in microbial earths , but a few are preserved within sandy units .
= = = Nama @-@ type assemblage = = =
The Nama assemblage is best represented in Namibia . Three @-@ dimensional preservation is most common , with organisms preserved in sandy beds containing internal bedding . Dima Grazhdankin believes that these fossils represent burrowing organisms , while Guy Narbonne maintains they were surface dwellers . These beds are sandwiched between units comprising interbedded sandstones , siltstones and shales – with microbial mats , where present , usually containing the fossils . The environment is interpreted as sand bars formed at the mouth of a delta 's distributaries .
= = = Significance of assemblages = = =
In the White Sea region of Russia , all three assemblage types have been found in close proximity . This , and the faunas ' considerable temporal overlap , makes it unlikely that they represent evolutionary stages or temporally distinct communities . Since they are globally distributed – described on all continents except Antarctica – geographical boundaries do not appear to be a factor ; the same fossils are found at all palaeolatitudes ( the latitude where the fossil was created , accounting for continental drift ) and in separate sedimentary basins .
It is most likely that the three assemblages mark organisms adapted to survival in different environments , and that any apparent patterns in diversity or age are in fact an artefact of the few samples that have been discovered – the timeline ( right ) demonstrates the paucity of Ediacaran fossil @-@ bearing assemblages . An analysis of one of the White Sea fossil beds , where the layers cycle from continental seabed to inter @-@ tidal to estuarine and back again a few times , found that a specific set of Ediacaran organisms was associated with each environment .
As the Ediacaran biota represent an early stage in multicellular life 's history , it is unsurprising that not all possible modes of life are occupied . It has been estimated that of 92 potentially possible modes of life – combinations of feeding style , tiering and motility — no more than a dozen are occupied by the end of the Ediacaran . Just four are represented in the Avalon assemblage . The lack of large @-@ scale predation and vertical burrowing are perhaps the most significant factors limiting the ecological diversity ; the emergence of these during the Early Cambrian allowed the number of lifestyles occupied to rise to 30 .
= Charles Ollivierre =
Charles Augustus Ollivierre ( 20 July 1876 – 25 March 1949 ) was a Vincentian cricketer who represented the West Indies in matches before they attained Test match status . Born in St Vincent , Ollivierre initially played first @-@ class cricket for Trinidad ; he was selected to tour England with the West Indies team in 1900 . He later qualified to play first @-@ class cricket for Derbyshire between 1901 and 1907 , becoming the first black West Indian to play for an English county . Ollivierre was reasonably successful in county cricket and had a reputation as a stylish batsman . However , he dropped out of first @-@ class cricket after 1907 owing to eye trouble .
= = Early life and career = =
Ollivierre was born in St Vincent on 20 July 1876 . His family were enthusiastic cricketers , although the region had little history within the sport , and his two younger brothers Richard and Helon went on to represent the West Indies in first @-@ class cricket .
Initially , Ollivierre played for Trinidad ; he made his first @-@ class debut against an English touring team in March 1895 at the age of 18 . He took two wickets , scored 7 runs in his first innings and 12 runs in the second . In non @-@ first @-@ class cricket , he continued to represent St Vincent , and impressed critics when Barbados played the island in 1897 . In 1899 , he played two first @-@ class matches for a team selected by A. B. St Hill against a team representing Trinidad . In the first game , he took 11 wickets and scored 67 in the second innings ; in the second game , he took a further five wickets in Trinidad 's first innings .
= = West Indian tour of England in 1900 = =
During the 1900 English cricket season , Ollivierre travelled to England with a West Indian team . Invited to tour England by Lord Hawke following the success of English tours to the Caribbean , the team was the first from the West Indies to visit England , and matches were not first @-@ class . The team improved steadily throughout , and by the end of the tour were judged to be playing well . Although predominantly made up from white players , the team contained several black cricketers ; at the time , the dominant teams in the West Indies were exclusively white . Ollivierre was the most consistent and successful batsman in the team , scoring 883 runs at a batting average of 32 . His highest score , and only century , came against Leicestershire , when he scored 159 runs and shared an opening partnership of 238 with Pelham Warner . He also shared an opening partnership of 208 with Percy Cox against Surrey . He bowled occasionally in the early part of the tour , although with little success , but did not bowl at all in his last eight games .
According to the review of the tour in Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , Ollivierre was the team 's best batsman , and his innings against Leicestershire was one of the best of the season . The article observed : " He has strokes all round the wicket , and in some ways reminds one of Ranji " . During the tour , Ollivierre agreed to play for Derbyshire and remained in England to begin the two @-@ year process of qualification for the County Championship . It is unlikely that Ollivierre ever returned to the West Indies .
= = Derbyshire cricketer = =
Throughout his career in England , Ollivierre played as an amateur cricketer . He was employed by Samuel Hill @-@ Wood , a businessman and politician from Derbyshire , to work in his office in Glossop , where Ollivierre lived . During the 1901 season , he played three first @-@ class games for Derbyshire in non @-@ Championship games : twice against London County Cricket Club and once against the touring South African cricket team , hitting two half @-@ centuries in the process of scoring 247 runs at an average of 41 @.@ 16 . After further appearances in 1902 , while waiting to qualify , against London County and the Australian touring team , he became eligible for county matches in July and made his Championship debut against Essex . Later in 1902 , he scored 167 against Warwickshire , his maiden first @-@ class century . In all first @-@ class matches in the season , Ollivierre scored 524 runs at 34 @.@ 93 . The following season , Ollivierre played in 19 games and scored 721 runs , but his average fell to 20 @.@ 60 .
Ollivierre 's most successful season was 1904 , when he scored 1 @,@ 268 runs at an average of 34 @.@ 27 . Against Essex , he made the highest score of his career , when , according to his obituary in Wisden , " he was the dominating figure in a remarkable match " . Essex scored 597 runs in their first innings ; Derbyshire replied with 548 , of which Ollivierre made 229 . After Essex were bowled out for 97 , Derbyshire hit off the required runs to win by nine wickets . Ollivierre was left on 92 not out , and had scored 321 runs in the match . The match report in the 1905 edition of Wisden noted : " In defeating Essex , Derbyshire accomplished the most phenomenal performance ever recorded in first @-@ class cricket ... [ Their ] achievement has no parallel in the history of the game . " Over the following seasons , Ollivierre 's form faded . In 1905 , he scored 759 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 07 . He improved his average with 752 runs at 25 @.@ 06 in 1906 , including his final first @-@ class century . During that season , he played against a touring West Indian team which included his brother Richard — Ollivierre scored 0 and 64 not out . In 1907 , he managed just 417 runs at 12 @.@ 26 . In these later seasons , he began to have problems with his eyesight , and was forced to retire from first @-@ class cricket after 1907 . In total , he played 114 first @-@ class games , scored 4 @,@ 830 runs at 23 @.@ 56 and hit three centuries . However , he continued to play club cricket in Yorkshire and , annually between 1924 and 1939 , spent time in the Netherlands coaching in schools . Ollivierre died at Pontefract in Yorkshire on 25 March 1949 .
= = Style and impact = =
According to Wisden in 1901 , as a batsman Ollivierre " was particularly strong in cutting and playing to leg " . J. N. Pentelow , a cricket writer , suggested in 1928 that " there was something about Ollivierre that reminded one of the great Ranji . He was a more heavily built man than the slim Ranji of the days when we were young ; but his strokes and his movements had real grace . " A correspondent in the Observer in 1931 remembered Ollivierre as a " great batsman " , while Neville Cardus , writing in 1920 , named Ollivierre among a list of top @-@ quality batsmen who did not do themselves justice at the highest level : " Geniuses who have just lost their way ... every one of them in possession of an excellent enough record in county cricket , but every one of them really intended by nature to wear the most precious laurels the greatest of games has to offer " .
Ollivierre was the first black West Indian cricketer to play county cricket , and the first West Indian cricketer to establish a cricketing reputation outside of that region . Other West Indians looked to follow his example , and several were approached by English counties with a view to qualifying . At least one of Ollivierre 's Derbyshire colleagues was unhappy playing alongside a black cricketer ; Bill Storer , according to the cricket writer E. H. D. Sewell , believed in " England for the English " and specifically objected to presence of black people . However , there is no evidence that Ollivierre experienced any difficulties from spectators , and the historian Jack Williams suggests that despite racism inherent in English cricket at the time , Ollivierre 's presence may have " created goodwill towards non @-@ whites among [ Derbyshire 's ] white supporters " .
= Ernie Toshack =
Ernest Raymond Herbert Toshack ( 8 December 1914 – 11 May 2003 ) was an Australian cricketer who played in 12 Tests from 1946 to 1948 . A left arm medium paced bowler who was known for his accuracy and stamina in his application of leg theory , Toshack was best known for being as member of Don Bradman 's Invincibles that toured England in 1948 without incurring a defeat , where he reinforced Australia 's new ball attack of Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller .
Born in 1914 , Toshack overcame many obstacles to reach international level cricket . He was orphaned as an infant , and his early cricket career was hindered because of financial difficulties caused by the Great Depression . The Second World War prevented Toshack from competing at first @-@ class level until he was into his thirties . In 1945 – 46 , the first season of cricket after the end of the War , Toshack made his debut at first @-@ class level and after only seven matches in the Sheffield Shield he was selected for Australia 's tour of New Zealand . In Wellington , he opened the bowling in a match that was retrospectively classed as an official Test match . Toshack became a regular member of the Australian team , playing in all of its Tests until the 1947 – 48 series against India . He took his career @-@ best match bowling figures of 11 / 31 in the First Test but began to suffer recurring knee injuries , and a medical board had to approve his selection for the 1948 England tour . Toshack played in the first four Tests before being injured . After a long convalescence , he attempted a comeback during Australia 's 1949 – 50 season , but further injury forced him to retire . He was a parsimonious bowler , who was popular with crowds for his sense of humour .
= = Early years = =
Born in the New South Wales bush town of Cobar on 8 December 1914 , he was one of five children born to a stationmaster , but was orphaned at the age of six . He was raised by relatives in Lyndhurst , in the northwest of the state and played his early cricket and rugby league for Cowra . At this stage of his life , Toshack 's ambition was to play rugby league for Australia . One of his childhood friends , Edgar Newham , also played both sports and wanted to play Test cricket . However , the town 's doctor , a local community leader , advised them that they were targeting the wrong sport , and the two boys followed his recommendation . Newham later played rugby league for Australia .
In his youth he was also a boxer , and earned the nickname " Johnson " for his dark @-@ skinned resemblance to American black heavyweight boxing champion Jack Johnson . In the mid @-@ 1930s , he made brief appearances for the State Colts and Second XI , and played cricket against the likes of Stan McCabe , an inductee into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame . In December 1933 , Toshack played in a colts match for New South Wales against Queensland . He took 3 / 63 and 3 / 36 but was unable to prevent a five @-@ wicket defeat . He then took a total of 3 / 88 in a match for New South Wales Country against their city counterparts , and was promoted into the state 's Second XI . Toshack took a total of 1 / 91 in a match against the Victorian Second XI and did not play for his state again until 1945 .
His cricket aspirations , already hindered due to economic difficulties caused by the Great Depression , were further interrupted when he was wheelchair @-@ bound for months after a ruptured appendix in 1938 . He was not allowed to enlist in the Australian Defence Force during World War II and worked at Lithgow 's Small Arms factory , in the Blue Mountains west of Sydney . Only at the end of the war , aged 30 did he go to Sydney . At the time , he was a medium @-@ fast left @-@ arm bowler and approached Petersham — as Toshack lived in their locality , they had the right to register him ahead of other clubs . They did not select Toshack , so he joined Marrickville in Sydney Grade Cricket , starting in the third grade team in 1944 – 45 . Within two matches , he rose to the first grade team . By this time , Petersham regretted their decision to spurn Toshack and lodged a complaint with the cricket authorities , claiming that he was obliged to represent them and ineligible to play for Marrickville . Toshack later recalled that Petersham were " told where to go " .
= = First @-@ class and Test debut = =
Upon the resumption of first @-@ class cricket in 1945 – 46 , Toshack made his debut for New South Wales against Queensland as an opening bowler aged almost 31 , and was quickly among the wickets . He took four wickets for the loss of 69 runs ( 4 / 69 ) in his first innings as his team took a 128 @-@ run lead , but he managed only 0 / 87 from 20 overs in the second innings as New South Wales fell to a four @-@ wicket loss , failing to defend a target of 270 . His first wicket was that of Geoff Cook . Toshack 's most successful match of the season came in the following fixture , against South Australia . Taking 4 / 30 and 4 / 78 as New South Wales won by an innings . He then took 2 / 36 and 3 / 54 in an innings victory over the Australian Services .
By the end of the season , in March 1946 , Toshack had taken 35 wickets in seven first @-@ class matches , at an average of 18 @.@ 82 , making him the second highest wicket @-@ taker behind George Tribe with 40 . He performed consistently and took at least four wickets in each match , his innings best was 4 / 30 . Toshack was selected for a non @-@ Test tour of New Zealand . He played in three provincial tour matches against Auckland , Canterbury and Wellington , all of which were won by an innings . He took match figures of 7 / 91 against Auckland and 8 / 58 against Wellington .
In the final match of the tour , Toshack found himself opening the bowling for Australia with fellow debutant Ray Lindwall in a match against New Zealand at Wellington that was retrospectively recognised as a Test two years later . The eight years since Australia 's last Test saw a new post @-@ war generation of international cricketers make their debut . Toshack was one of seven Australians playing their first Test . New Zealand were routed inside two days on a damp pitch , having been dismissed for 42 in their first innings after winning the toss and choosing to bat . Toshack 's first Test wicket was that of opposing captain Walter Hadlee , who was caught by Keith Miller . Toshack took three further wickets to end with innings figures of 4 / 12 . He did not bat as Australia made 8 / 198 . New Zealand were then bowled out in their second innings for 54 , with Toshack taking 2 / 6 as Australia took an innings victory . He dismissed Eric Tindill and Ces Burke in both innings . The performance ensured that Toshack would become an integral part of Australia 's attack for the next three years . Toshack ended the tour with 23 wickets at 10 @.@ 34 in four matches .
Toshack started the 1946 – 47 season strongly , taking 5 / 46 and 4 / 70 as New South Wales opened the season with a five @-@ wicket win over Queensland . He removed Australian wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon twice . After going wicketless in a rain @-@ curtailed match for his state against England , Toshack was selected to make his Ashes debut in the First Test at Brisbane . With the emergence of leading all rounder Keith Miller , Toshack was relegated to first change bowler as Miller began his much celebrated partnership with Lindwall . Toshack was unbeaten on one in his first innings with the bat when Australia were bowled out for 645 on the third day .
On a sticky wicket , Toshack initially struggled , bowling his characteristic leg stump line . England struggled to 117 runs for the loss of five wickets ( 5 / 117 ) at the end of the fourth day despite many interruptions caused by rain . Norman Yardley and captain Wally Hammond had defied the Australian bowlers since coming together at 5 / 66 . On the fifth and final morning , captain Don Bradman advised him to pitch straighter and at a slower pace . Before play began Bradman took him down the pitch and showed him exactly where he wanted him to bowl and even make him bowl a practice over alongside to make sure he got it right . Having started the day wicketless , Toshack dismissed Yardley and Hammond in the space of 13 runs to break the English resistance and finished with an economical 3 / 17 from 17 overs as England were bowled out for 141 . Bradman enforced the follow @-@ on , and with Lindwall indisposed , Toshack took the new ball with Miller . He continued where he finished in the first innings , taking four of the first six wickets ( Bill Edrich , Denis Compton , Hammond and Yardley ) as the English top order were reduced to 6 / 65 . He ended the innings with 6 / 82 as England were bowled out twice in a day to lose by an innings and 332 runs . The remaining four Tests were less successful : only in one innings did he take more than one wicket . In the Second Test at Sydney the pitch favoured spin bowling and Toshack only bowled 13 overs without taking a wicket as Australia claimed another innings victory . He took match figures of 2 / 127 on a flat pitch in the Third Test in Melbourne , removing world record holder Len Hutton and Compton . During the match , Toshack came in to bat in the second innings with Australia nine wickets down . He defended stubbornly and ended unbeaten on two as his partner Lindwall went from 81 to 100 to score the fastest Test century by an Australian , in 88 balls . Toshack was more productive in the drawn Fourth Test in Adelaide , where he took match figures of 5 / 135 from 66 eight ball overs in extreme heat , including the wicket of Hammond twice , Edrich and Joe Hardstaff junior . Ahead of the final Test , Toshack removed Compton , Edrich and Godfrey Evans in a drawn match for Victoria against the tourists . He took only one wicket in the Fifth Test as Australia sealed the series 3 – 0 with a five @-@ wicket win . Toshack finished the series with 17 wickets at a bowling average of 25 @.@ 71 . His first @-@ class season was not a productive as in his debut year ; he took 33 wickets at an average of 30 @.@ 93 in eleven matches , making him the sixth highest wicket @-@ taker for the season . Toshack had a particularly unsuccessful time in the two Sheffield Shield matches against arch @-@ rivals Victoria , which were lost by heavy margins of an innings and 114 runs , and 288 runs respectively . In the first match he took 0 / 133 after Australian team @-@ mate Miller hit three sixes from his opening over . In the second match he took a total of 3 / 144 . Victoria went on to win the title .
The following 1947 – 48 season , Toshack warmed up for the Test campaign against the touring Indians by taking 2 / 64 and 4 / 65 for New South Wales in an innings win , dismissing Hemu Adhikari twice . He retained his position in the national team , and in the First Test at Brisbane on a wet pitch , Toshack took ten wickets for the only time in his Test career . In reply to Australia 's 8 / 382 declared , India had been reduced to 5 / 23 by Lindwall , Miller and Bill Johnston before Vijay Hazare and captain Lala Amarnath took the score to 53 without further loss , prompting Toshack 's introduction into the attack . He dismissed both and removed the remaining lower @-@ order batsmen to end with 5 / 2 in 19 balls as India were bowled out after adding only five further runs . Bradman enforced the follow on and India reached 1 / 27 before a spell of 6 / 29 from Toshack reduced them to 8 / 89 , including the wickets of Hazare , Amarnath and Khanderao Rangnekar for a second time . India were bowled out for 98 as Australia won by an innings and 226 runs . Injury persistently curtailed Toshack during the season , and he missed a month of cricket , including the next two Tests . He returned for the second match against arch @-@ rivals Victoria , and took 6 / 38 and 2 / 71 to play a key role in a New South Wales victory by six wickets . His victims in the first innings included Test batsmen Lindsay Hassett , Neil Harvey and Sam Loxton as New South Wales took a decisive 290 @-@ run lead . He dismissed Hassett and Ken Meuleman in the second innings to help set up victory . Toshack only played in one further Test during the season , the Fourth , where he was less successful with match figures of 2 / 139 . He dismissed centurion Dattu Phadkar as Australia went on to win the series 4 – 0 . When fit , Toshack was a heavy wicket @-@ taker ; his 41 wickets at 20 @.@ 26 placed him second only to Bill Johnston 's 42 among Australian bowlers for the season .
= = Invincibles tour = =
By the end of the Indian series , knee injuries had begun to hamper Toshack , and he only made the trip to England for the 1948 tour on a 3 – 2 majority vote by a medical team , despite being one of the first selected by the board . Two Melbourne doctors ruled him unfit , but three specialists from his home state presented a more optimistic outlook that allowed him to tour . The tour was to guarantee him immortality as a member of Bradman 's Invincibles . He grew tired of signing autographs during the voyage , and entrusted a friend with the task . As a result , there are still sheets circulating with his name mis @-@ spelt as Toshak . Between the new @-@ ball attacks of Lindwall , Keith Miller and Johnston every 55 overs , Toshack played the role of stifling England 's scoring . In one match against Sussex , his 17 overs yielded only three scoring shots . He finished the match bowling 32 overs while conceding 29 runs . At Bramall Lane , Sheffield , he recorded the best innings analysis of his first @-@ class career , taking 7 / 81 from 40 consecutive overs , bemusing the Yorkshire spectators with the his accent and distinctive " Ow Wizz Ee " appealing . Bradman considered his 6 / 51 against the Marylebone Cricket Club at Lord 's as the best performance of all . He removed the leading English batsmen Len Hutton and Denis Compton , as well as Martin Donnelly and Ken Cranston . In particular , Toshack was involved in an extended battle with Compton before dismissing him ; Bradman said that their duel was " worth going a long way to see " . This performance helped Australia to take an innings victory over a team that was virtually a full @-@ strength England outfit and allowed Australia to take a psychological victory in a dress rehearsal ahead of the Tests .
Toshack 's performance in the First Test at Trent Bridge was a quiet one , taking a wicket in each innings . He was involved in an aggressive final wicket partnership of 32 with Johnston , scoring 19 runs , his best at Test level to date in just 18 minutes . Toshack 's best Test performance was his 5 / 40 in the second innings of the Second Test at Lord 's when Miller was unable to bowl after being injured , including the wickets of Cyril Washbrook , Bill Edrich , captain Yardley and Alec Coxon . During this performance , he employed two short legs and a silly mid @-@ off . He had a moderately successful Third Test , taking figures of 3 / 101 in the only Test that Australia did not win . His knee injury flared again in the Fourth Test after taking an ineffective 1 / 112 in the first innings , he was unable to bowl in the second innings of an Australian win . He made a recovery and it was hoped that he would be able to play in the Fifth Test , but he injured again himself in the lead @-@ up match against Lancashire . He was taken to London for cartilage surgery , ending his tour and his Test career . An inept batsman with an average of 5 @.@ 78 in first @-@ class fixtures , Toshack managed a Test average of 51 on the 1948 tour after being out only once , behind only Arthur Morris , Sid Barnes , Bradman and Neil Harvey . The unbeaten 20 he managed in the Lord 's Test was his best first @-@ class score , made in an uninhibited tenth @-@ wicket stand with Johnston . Due to the fragility of his knee , Toshack was used sparingly in the tour games , playing in only 11 of the 29 non @-@ Test matches on the tour . Toshack totalled 50 wickets at the average of 21 @.@ 12 for the tour .
The knee injury prevented Toshack from playing during the 1948 – 1949 Australian domestic season . The Australian team to tour South Africa in 1949 – 50 was named at the end of the previous season , and Toshack was omitted after a season on the sidelines . At the start of the 1949 – 50 season , when his Test teammates were sailing across the Indian Ocean to South Africa , Toshack made a strong start to his first @-@ class comeback . He took 4 / 41 and 5 / 59 in a Shield match against Queensland in Brisbane , removing Ken Mackay and Wally Grout twice , helping to seal a close 15 @-@ run win . In the second match , against Western Australia , Toshack took 4 / 68 in the first innings before his injury resurfaced . New South Wales won the match despite Toshack 's inability to bowl in the second innings . The injury cost Toshack dearly ; it forced him to retire from first @-@ class cricket and cost him a Test recall . Toshack had been offered a position on the South African tour as a reinforcement for Johnston , who had been involved in a car crash . Instead , Miller took the position and played in all five Tests .
Toshack subsequently joined a firm of builders and spent 25 years as a foreman and supervisor on construction sites around Sydney . He also wrote about cricket and enjoyed cultivating his vegetable garden in the northern Sydney suburb of Hornsby Heights . Toshack died on 11 May 2003 . He was survived by his wife Cathleen Hogan , whom he married in 1939 , their only daughter , three granddaughters and two great @-@ granddaughters .
= = Style = =
Bowling primarily from over the wicket , his accuracy , changes of pace , and movement in both directions , coupled with a leg stump line to a packed leg @-@ side field , made scoring off him difficult . He achieved his success in a manner not dissimilar to Derek Underwood a generation later . His accuracy and stamina allowed Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller , one of Australia 's finest fast bowling pairs of all time , to draw breath between short and incisive bursts of pace and swing . Standing 6 feet 2 inches ( 188 cm ) , he was particularly effective on sticky wickets , reducing his speed to slow medium pace and using a repertoire of off cutters , inswingers , outswingers and leg breaks . Bowling a leg @-@ stump line from over the wicket with a leg side cordon of two short legs and a silly mid @-@ on , he was described by Bradman as " unique in every way " . Bradman further added " I cannot remember another of the same type ... He worried and got out the best bats , was amazingly accurate and must have turned in fine figures had not his cartilage given way . " He usually bowled with four men on the off side including a slip , and five on the leg . When the pitch was wet , he moved a further man to the on side to field at leg slip .
Nicknamed the " Black Prince " because of his tanned skin , Toshack 's looks and sense of humour made him a crowd favourite , as did his theatrical appealing , which was more reminiscent of later eras of cricketers . His vocal appealing prompted the journalist and former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton to dub him " The Voice " , while teammate Sid Barnes called him " The film star " because of his looks . His sense of fun was often on show . While on the 1948 tour , he would often wear a bowler hat , grab a furled umbrella , and place a cigar in his mouth , parodying an Englishman .
= = Test match performance = =
= 152 mm howitzer M1943 ( D @-@ 1 ) =
The D @-@ 1 howitzer M1943 ( Russian : 152 @-@ mm gaubitsa obr . 1943 g . ( D @-@ 1 ) ) is a Soviet World War II @-@ era 152 @.@ 4 mm howitzer . The gun was developed by the design bureau headed by F. F. Petrov in 1942 and 1943 , based on the carriage of the 122 mm howitzer M1938 ( M @-@ 30 ) and using the barrel of the 152 mm howitzer M1938 ( M @-@ 10 ) . The powerful and mobile D @-@ 1 , with its wide range of ammunition , significantly increased the firepower and breakthrough abilities of Red Army tank and motor rifle formations . Several hundred D @-@ 1s were manufactured before the end of World War II .
Post World War II , the D @-@ 1 saw combat in numerous conflicts during the mid- to late 20th century . The long operational history of D @-@ 1 howitzers in national armies of numerous countries is a testimony to its qualities ; the gun still remains in service in a number of post @-@ Soviet states and some other countries . The D @-@ 1 is widely considered a valuable element of Soviet artillery .
= = Development and production = =
= = = Background = = =
In 1941 the Soviet Union decided to cease production of the 152 mm howitzer M1938 ( M @-@ 10 ) . One of the reasons was the disbanding of the Rifle Corps between August and September 1941 and the consequent removal of the corps artillery . Moreover , all 152 mm howitzers were excluded from divisional artillery . As a result , there was no series production of 152 mm howitzers during 1942 .
However , the rifle corps were re @-@ established in late 1942 and the previous organization of artillery at the corps level was reintroduced . As a result of the halting of 152 mm howitzer production , the Red Army corps artillery lacked a weapon more mobile than the heavy 152 mm howitzer @-@ gun M1937 ( ML @-@ 20 ) ( typically employed by army @-@ level and Reserve of the Main Command artillery units ) , but more powerful than the 122 mm howitzer M1938 ( M @-@ 30 ) .
= = = Response to the challenge = = =
In 1942 , trying to solve the problem of lack of a suitable mobile 152 mm howitzer , the design bureau headed by F. F. Petrov started to work privately on a new howitzer , based on the carriage of the M @-@ 30 and the barrel of the M @-@ 10 ( which was fitted with a muzzle brake in order to reduce the recoil and thus prevent damage to the lighter carriage ) . The approach allowed production to begin on the new howitzer almost immediately from the stockpile of parts for both earlier guns . Given the war situation and shortages of artillery , this solution was both elegant and expedient .
Early in 1943 Petrov notified the People 's Commissar of Armaments Dmitriy Ustinov about the new project . On 13 April Ustinov informed Petrov that the State Committee of Defence had requested for five of the new guns to be sent to the testing grounds on 1 May . On 5 May , two pieces were received for trials ; two days later , on 7 May the gun was recommended for adoption , and on 8 August 1943 it was officially adopted as the 152 mm howitzer M1943 . One and a half months later , the first series production D @-@ 1 howitzers were delivered to the Red Army representatives .
= = = Production = = =
The D @-@ 1 was manufactured solely at No. 9 Plant ( UZTM ) in Sverdlovsk from late 1943 to 1949 . During World War II , the howitzer was only produced in small numbers because Plant No. 9 was also responsible for the mass production of the 122 mm howitzer M @-@ 30 . This resulted in critical shortages of the 152 mm howitzers in the Red Army corps artillery until the end of the war .
= = Description = =
The D @-@ 1 howitzer was essentially a combination of the barrel of the 152 @-@ mm howitzer model 1938 ( M @-@ 10 ) on the carriage of the 122 @-@ mm howitzer M1938 ( M @-@ 30 ) . Since the new carriage was lighter than that of the M @-@ 10 , the barrel was fitted with a massive double @-@ baffle muzzle brake DT @-@ 3 to soften the shock of recoil . The breech block was of interrupted screw type , the recoil system consisted of a hydraulic buffer and a hydro @-@ pneumatic recuperator . The separately loaded ammunition included a variety of shells and eight different propellant charges in cartridges .
The carriage was nearly identical to the carriage of the M @-@ 30 . It had suspension and steel wheels with pneumatic rubber tires . The trails were initially of riveted construction , but were eventually replaced in production by welded ones . Late production pieces were equipped with caster wheels to ease manhandling . Time to set up for combat was about two minutes . In an emergency it was possible to fire without splitting trails ; however this was at the price of a drastically reduced traverse ( 1 ° 30 ' ) . Since the gun was not equipped with a limber , it could be towed only by vehicle . The maximum towing speed was 40 km / h on paved roads , 30 km / h on cobbled roads and 10 km / h off @-@ road . To give the crew some protection from bullets and shell fragments , the gun was fitted with a shield .
= = = Comparison with contemporary howitzers = = =
From a technical and tactical point of view , the D @-@ 1 project provided the Red Army ( RKKA ) corps artillery with a modern 152 mm howitzer , which combined both good mobility and firepower . When compared with a typical contemporary howitzer of similar caliber , the D @-@ 1 had shorter range , but was much lighter . For example , the German 15 cm sFH 18 had a range of 13 @,@ 325 meters - about one kilometer longer than that of the D @-@ 1 - but also weighed almost two tons more ( 5 @,@ 510 kilograms in traveling position ) . The same can be said of the US 155 @-@ mm howitzer M1 ( 14 @,@ 600 meters , 5 @,@ 800 kilograms ) or the 149 mm howitzer manufactured by the Italian Ansaldo ( 14 @,@ 250 meters , 5 @,@ 500 kilograms ) . A German howitzer with characteristics similar to those of the D @-@ 1 — the 15 cm sFH 36 — did not reach mass production . Compared with older pieces such as the French Schneider model 1917 ( 11 @,@ 200 meters , 4 @,@ 300 kg ) , the D @-@ 1 had the advantage in both weight and range .
= = Organization and employment = =
The D @-@ 1 was employed by corps artillery and the reserve of the main command units . In 1944 , the rifle corps of the Red Army had one artillery regiment each . Those regiments consisted of five batteries ( totaling 20 guns ) , equipped with the D @-@ 1 along with various other 152 mm howitzers , 122 mm gun M1931 / 37 ( A @-@ 19 ) , 152 mm howitzer @-@ gun M1937 ( ML @-@ 20 ) or 107 mm gun M1910 / 30 . Reserve of the Main Command included howitzer regiments ( 48 pieces ) and heavy howitzer brigades ( 32 pieces ) . Those could be merged to form artillery divisions .
The Red Army employed D @-@ 1 howitzers from 1944 onwards , during the final stages of World War II . The D @-@ 1 was used primarily used against personnel , fortifications and key structures in the enemy rear . The anti @-@ concrete G @-@ 530 shell was also sometimes used against armored vehicles with good results . During its service the gun earned a reputation for being reliable and accurate . The D @-@ 1 was finally withdrawn from service in the mid @-@ seventies .
After the war the gun was supplied to many countries around the globe , including former Warsaw Pact allies , such as Poland . As of the early 2000s it remains in service in Afghanistan , Albania , China , Cuba , Hungary , Iraq , Mozambique , Syria , Vietnam and other countries . The gun was employed in the Arab @-@ Israeli Conflict and also in some conflicts in former republics of Soviet Union . The long operational history of D @-@ 1 howitzers in the national armies of numerous countries is an additional testimony to its qualities .
The D @-@ 1 was seen in use during the April 2016 battles between the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Defense Army and the Azerbaijani Forces . It was used by the NKR Defense Forces .
Surviving D @-@ 1 howitzers can be seen in various military museums and war memorials , e. g. in the Museum of Artillery and Engineering Forces , Saint Petersburg , Russia ; in the Museum of Heroic Defense and Liberation of Sevastopol on Sapun Mountain , Sevastopol ; in the Museum of the Great Patriotic War , Kiev , Ukraine ; in Poznań Citadel , Poland and in Polatsk , Belarus , as a memorial piece .
= = Variants = =
In addition to the towed howitzer , Petrov 's team developed a vehicle @-@ mounted variant of the D @-@ 1 . Red Army offensive operations in the summer and fall of 1943 reawakened interest in the idea of a heavy " artillery " tank similar to the KV @-@ 2 , that could provide close fire support to rifle and tank units and would be capable of demolishing heavy fortifications . Probable causes for the development of such a vehicle were the cessation of mass production of the SU @-@ 122 medium assault gun and diversion of SU @-@ 152 heavy assault guns for anti @-@ tank actions . The tank variant of the D @-@ 1 was originally intended for mounting in a variant of the KV @-@ 1s heavy tank . It utilized the mount of the 85 mm D @-@ 5 , leading to the unofficial name D @-@ 1 @-@ 5 and eventually to the official designation of D @-@ 15 . Only one example was built . There is no information about the gun being mounted in the KV tank . By October 1943 Soviet authorities were anticipating the start of mass production of the powerful IS @-@ 2 heavy tank ; as a result the idea of a specialized artillery tank based on the obsolete KV chassis was dropped .
Another project combining the T @-@ 34 tank chassis with the D @-@ 15 gun was also considered . Designated SU @-@ D15 , the medium assault gun was intended as a replacement for the SU @-@ 122 . Although the project received a lot of support from the authorities it never entered production , both because of its shortcomings ( the heavy gun put too much strain on the suspension and ammunition stowage was too limited ) and because it was made redundant by the ISU @-@ 152 . However lessons learned mounting a powerful gun in the T @-@ 34 allowed for rapid development of the SU @-@ 100 tank destroyer .
= = Ammunition = =
The D @-@ 1 had a large variety of ammunition , including high @-@ explosive , armor @-@ piercing , HEAT , shrapnel , illumination , and chemical .
The D @-@ 1 used separate loading ammunition , with eight different charges . The charges included the " full charge " Zh @-@ 536 and smaller charges ranging from the " first " to " sixth " , which was the smallest . A " special charge " was used with the BP @-@ 540 HEAT projectile . Propellant charges were produced in " full " and " third " variants in munitions factories . All other charges were derived from them by removing small gunpowder bags from the charge cartridge . For flash suppression there was a special chemical mixture which was to be inserted into a cartridge before night firing . 152 mm projectiles for the D @-@ 1 weighed about 40 kg ; a difficult job for the loaders , who had to carry the projectiles alone .
When set to fragmentation mode , the OF @-@ 530 projectile produced fragments which covered an area 70 meters wide and 30 meters deep . When set to high @-@ explosive ( HE ) action , the exploding shell produced a crater about 3 @.@ 5 meters in diameter and about 1 @.@ 2 meters deep . Despite the D @-@ 1 's withdrawal from service in the mid- 1970s , the OF @-@ 530 is still fired from modern 152 mm ordnance pieces of the Russian Army .
The G @-@ 530 HEAC anti @-@ concrete shell had a muzzle velocity of 457 m / s when fired with the " first " charge . At a range of one kilometer it had a 358 m / s terminal velocity and was able to punch through up to 80 centimeters of reinforced concrete before detonating a TNT charge which increased the total penetration to 114 centimeters . The G @-@ 530 could not be fired with a " full " charge without putting the crew at risk of having the shell explode in the barrel . A special version of the shell , the G @-@ 530Sh , was developed to allow use with the full charge .
The BP @-@ 540 HEAT projectile was not used during World War II . It had an armour penetration of 250 millimeters at an incident angle of 90 ° , 220 millimeters at 60 ° , 120 millimeters at 30 ° .
In the late 1950s old ammunition stocks for the D @-@ 1 were removed from the Soviet inventory . The only shells retained were the OF @-@ 530 , O @-@ 530 , G @-@ 530 / G @-@ 530Sh , and possibly chemical shells . The Soviet Army also possessed a 152 mm nuclear shell , but it is not clear whether that shell could be used with the D @-@ 1 .
= 1 Thing =
" 1 Thing " is a song written by American R & B singer @-@ songwriter Amerie and Rich Harrison for Amerie 's second studio album , Touch ( 2005 ) . The song is influenced by go @-@ go rhythms and features a prominent sample of The Meters ' 1970 funk recording of " Oh , Calcutta ! " , written by Stanley Walden . Its lyrics focus on an unidentified " thing " that fuels a romantic attraction .
The song was released as Touch 's lead single in 2005 , and is the only single from the soundtrack to the 2005 romantic comedy film Hitch . " 1 Thing " received acclaim from critics , and peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 and number four in the United Kingdom , becoming Amerie 's first top ten single and her biggest hit to date , also peaking at number one on the U.S. R & B singles chart . Its digital download and ringtone releases were each certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America . The song earned Amerie a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance at the 2006 Grammy Awards . A remix of " 1 Thing " features rapper Eve . It was later named the twenty @-@ second and twenty @-@ fifth best song of the 2000s decade by Rolling Stone and Robert Christgau , respectively .
= = Conception = =
In 2004 , when working on her second album , Amerie enlisted the services of producer Rich Harrison , who had helped produce and write her first album . In May 2004 , Harrison heard " Oh , Calcutta ! " for the first time and began working on the beat accompanying the ten @-@ second back @-@ and @-@ forth breakdown between Meters drummer Ziggy Modeliste and guitarist Leo Nocentelli . Harrison said he loved the work of the Meters , especially Modeliste , commenting , " Ziggy , he 's crazy . " He processed the way the breakdown could be " flipped " , added a bongo drum , a cowbell , and a ride cymbal , and sent it to Amerie . According to Harrison , they wrote and finished the song in two to three hours .
Amerie 's manager , Len Nicholson , felt the song was " the single " to release . When executives at Amerie 's label , Columbia / Sony Urban Music , heard " 1 Thing " , they felt that the song 's choruses needed to be " bigger " . They recommended that more music be added to the percussion @-@ focused beat , but Harrison and Amerie replied that adding more to the beat would overpower the song . Harrison and Amerie returned to the studio several times to rework the track . Each time they submitted a new version to the label , Columbia told them that the song sounded unfinished , but was unable to specify what should be changed . The label continued to refuse to release " 1 Thing " ; in Amerie 's words , " People just weren 't getting it " .
Later in 2004 , six months after recording " 1 Thing " , Amerie and Harrison leaked it to U.S. radio stations in an attempt to get it released officially . The response from DJs and listeners was positive , and it consequently received airplay across the country . Columbia Records attempted to suppress the song because it was an unofficial release , and because Jennifer Lopez ( another artist on the label ) had expressed interest in recording the song for her own album , Rebirth . Radio stations refused to retract the song from their playlists , and Columbia eventually began promoting " 1 Thing " as a single , making it a last @-@ minute addition to the Hitch soundtrack . Lopez settled on another Harrison @-@ produced , funk @-@ infused track , the Usher outtake " Get Right " .
= = Theme and sound = =
" 1 Thing " was produced by Harrison and is built around a sample of The Meters ' 1970 version of the theme song from Oh ! Calcutta ! , " Oh , Calcutta ! " , written by Stanley Walden . Built around The Meters ' funky beat @-@ driven percussion , " 1 Thing " finds Amerie lamenting an aspect of a relationship that keeps her satisfied . Even if other factors are less than positive , there is one thing that keeps her hooked ( " It 's this one thing that 's got me trippin ' " ) . Amerie said that the inspiration for the song came from a conversation she had with Harrison " about relationships and how there 's always one thing that keeps you attracted to someone . No matter what they do or how they act , there 's that one undeniable thing that keeps you coming back . " She told Blender that the " one thing " " could be bringing flowers , or something more ... physical . People think I 'm just this good girl , but there are other sides they don 't see . "
Despite being based on a New Orleans funk sample , the song belies a strong go @-@ go influence . Harrison likened the two based on their heavy use of percussion and chant . Amerie stated , " You don 't hear go @-@ go outside of D.C. ... I was like , ' We have to do it in an up @-@ tempo way because when you hear it on the radio in D.C. , it 's fast . ' ... So it 's a fresh sound for everybody but people in the D.C. / Maryland / Virginia area . They [ already ] know what it is . " The song is composed in the key of B major , moving at a tempo of 100 beats per minute in common time . It uses four @-@ measure phrases with a I @-@ III @-@ II @-@ I @-@ VI chord progression . The first four chords are played on the measure 's downbeat , and off @-@ beat syncopation is used for the fifth chord .
= = Critical reception = =
" 1 Thing " received acclaim from music critics . In its review of Touch , Rolling Stone named the song " an early front @-@ runner for song @-@ of @-@ the @-@ summer status , " also ranking it the number one single of 2005 . Pitchfork Media stated that Harrison " knows something about horns , big glorious ascending heavenly anthemic horns " and " drums , huge sweaty riotous back @-@ and @-@ forth second @-@ line old @-@ school Clyde Stubblefield drums . " AllMusic described " 1 Thing " as being " just as exciting " as " Oh , Calcutta ! " for how it " [ flails ] all over the place with unbound joy " .
The song received second place behind Kanye West 's " Gold Digger " on the 2005 Pazz & Jop list , a survey of several hundred music critics conducted by Robert Christgau . Blender ranked " 1 Thing " number 191 on its list of " The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born " . It praised the song 's " cascading drums … and Amerie 's frantic , top @-@ of @-@ her @-@ range vocals " . Calling it " a pretty fucking smart move to wrap perfect pop around a question that stays open all night " , Pitchfork listed the song as the second best single of 2005 , behind Antony and the Johnsons ' " Hope There 's Someone " . The song was ranked 32nd on Pitchfork 's top 500 songs of the 2000s , and the publication included " 1 Thing " in its collection of The Pitchfork 500 . Christgau named it the twenty @-@ fifth best song of the 2000s .
= = Commercial performance = =
" 1 Thing " became Amerie 's most commercially successful song . In the United States , it debuted at the bottom of the Billboard Hot 100 on February 12 , 2005 . The song gradually climbed the chart over a ten @-@ week period , peaking at number eight , and exited the chart after a total of twenty weeks . It received play from urban contemporary stations and topped the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs in late April 2005 . " 1 Thing " also charted on the Rhythmic Top 40 and Pop 100 , reaching numbers thirteen and twenty @-@ eight respectively . The Recording Industry Association of America awarded a platinum certification to its digital download in October 2005 , and another platinum certification to its ringtone release in June 2006 . The song received a Grammy nomination for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance at the 48th Grammy Awards but lost to Mariah Carey 's " We Belong Together " .
The song was successful in the British Isles . In the United Kingdom , " 1 Thing " debuted and peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart in late May 2005 . It went on to spend fourteen weeks on the chart . The song ended the year as Britain 's thirty @-@ eighth best @-@ selling single of 2005 . In the neighboring Republic of Ireland , the single debuted at number ten on the Irish Singles Chart . It climbed to number six in two weeks , remaining on the chart for another nine weeks . " 1 Thing " was successful in continental Europe , where it peaked at number thirteen on the European Hot 100 Singles chart . It reached the top ten in Denmark , Finland , and Norway ; the top twenty in Belgium and the Netherlands ; and the top forty in France , Germany , Sweden , and Switzerland .
= = Video , covers , and other uses = =
The music video for " 1 Thing " , directed by Chris Robinson and Amerie , revealed to the public the singer 's sexual side . It focuses on her dance routines , featuring her as a go @-@ go dancer in various setups , intercut with footage from the film Hitch . Amerie co @-@ directed the video with Chris Robinson after she approached him with the video 's concept in mind . The two collaborated again when directing the music video for the following single , " Touch " .
Lauryn Hill sampled " 1 Thing " during the second and last part of " Doo Wop ( That Thing ) " during live performances . Girls Aloud used the song as an interlude in performances of its 2004 single " Love Machine " during its 2006 Chemistry Tour . Foo Fighters member Dave Grohl showed the video for " 1 Thing " during 24 Hours of Foo , during a segment in which each member of the band presented one song that they considered their " guilty pleasure " . Alternative rock band Elbow covered the song in a comedic fashion for an August 2005 performance on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge . " 1 Thing " was used in the PlayStation 2 karaoke game SingStar R & B. The Sweden @-@ based Norwegian singer @-@ songwriter Ane Brun covered the song in an acoustic style on her 2013 album Rarities . A cover of the song by British duo Peter and Kerry is featured on Late Night Tales : Bonobo . The Irish singer @-@ songwriter Hozier has performed " 1 Thing " during concerts in 2014 and 2015 .
" 1 Thing " was played during the pole dancing scene in Somewhere . The song can also be heard in the soundtracks for video games Saints Row 2 , Everybody Dance , The Hip Hop Dance Experience and Grand Theft Auto V.
= = Remixes = =
The song 's only official remix features guest vocals from rapper Eve , and an alternate version of the music video was created for it . Amerie that said she chose Eve to appear on the remix because most other female R & B singers were accompanied by male rappers , and that Eve " epitomizes that whole independent fearless female doing her thing . She 's fashionable and very much a woman even though she definitely has a lot of attitude , the strength that most would attribute to men . ... With ' 1 Thing ' being such an aggressive track , it was perfect to see two females really doing it . "
A second remix features Fabolous , a third features B.G. , and little @-@ known Torontonian producer Satya Rock arranged an extended underground remix to feature E @-@ 40 , Method Man , Lyrics Born , One Be Lo , Dres , Joe Budden , Talib Kweli , Beanie Sigel , Edan , and MF DOOM . Siik remixed " 1 Thing " by using instrumentals from a song by Japanese producer Nujabes . Stylus Magazine listed Siik 's remix seventh on its list of the top ten remixes of 2005 and commented that " it 's enough to warrant a whole change of venue , from the sizzling pep of the dance floor to the silk luxury of the bedroom . " Most of the unofficial remixes were released on mixtapes , and Amerie said that she liked them all , particularly those by Fabolous , B.G. , and Juelz Santana .
= = Track listings = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Charts = = =
= Abu Taghlib =
Fadl Allah Abu Taghlib al @-@ Ghadanfar ʿUddat al @-@ Dawla ( Arabic : فضل الله أبو تغلب الغضنفر عدة الدولة ) , usually known simply by
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coagulate dromedary milk . A special factory has been set up in Nouakchott to pasteurise and make cheese from camel milk . Mystical beliefs surround the use of camel milk in some places ; for example , it may be used as an aphrodisiac in Ethiopia .
= = = Meat = = =
The meat of a five @-@ year @-@ old dromedary has a typical composition of 76 % water , 22 % protein , 1 % fat , and 1 % ash . The carcass , weighing 141 – 310 kg ( 311 – 683 lb ) for a five @-@ year @-@ old dromedary , is composed of nearly 57 % muscle , 26 % bone and 17 % fat . A seven @-@ to @-@ eight @-@ year @-@ old camel can produce a carcass of 125 – 400 kg ( 276 – 882 lb ) . The meat is bright red to a dark brown or maroon , while the fat is white . It has the taste and texture of beef . A study of the meat of Iranian dromedaries showed its high glycogen content , which makes it taste sweet like horse meat . The carcasses of well @-@ fed camels were found to be covered with a thin layer of good quality fat . In a study of the fatty acid composition of raw meat taken from the hind legs of seven one @-@ to @-@ three years old males , 51 @.@ 5 % of the fatty acids were saturated , 29 @.@ 9 % mono @-@ unsaturated , and 18 @.@ 6 % polyunsaturated . The major fatty acids in the meat were palmitic acid ( 26 @.@ 0 % ) , oleic acid ( 18 @.@ 9 % ) and linoleic acid ( 12 @.@ 1 % ) . In the hump , palmitic acid was dominant ( 34 @.@ 4 % ) , followed by oleic acid ( 28 @.@ 2 % ) , myristic acid ( 10 @.@ 3 % ) and stearic acid ( 10 % ) .
Dromedary slaughter is more difficult than the slaughter of other domestic livestock such as cattle , because of the size of the animal and the significant manual work involved . More males that females are slaughtered . . Though less affected by mishandling than other livestock , the pre @-@ slaughter handling of the dromedary plays a crucial role in determining the quality of meat obtained ; mishandling can often disfigure the hump . The animal is stunned , seated in a crouching position with the head in a caudal position and slaughtered . The dressing percentage – the percentage of the mass of the animal that forms the carcass – is 55 – 70 % , more than the 45 – 50 % of cattle . Camel meat is rarely consumed by African camel herders , who use it only during severe food scarcity or for rituals . Camel meat is processed into food items such as burgers , patties , sausages and shawarma . Dromedaries can be slaughtered between four and ten years of age . As the animal ages , the meat grows tougher and deteriorates in taste and quality .
A 2005 report issued jointly by the Ministry of Health ( Saudi Arabia ) and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention details five cases of bubonic plague in humans resulting from the ingestion of raw camel liver . Four of the five patients had severe pharyngitis and submandibular lymphadenitis . Yersinia pestis was isolated from the camel 's bone marrow , from the jird ( Meriones libycus ) and from fleas ( Xenopsylla cheopis ) captured at the camel 's corral .
= = = Camel hair , wool and hides = = =
Camels in hot climates generally do not develop long coats . Camel hair is light , and has low thermal conductivity and durability , and is thus suitable for manufacturing warm clothes , blankets , tents and rugs . Hair of highest quality is typically obtained from juvenile or wild camels . In India , camels are clipped usually in spring and around 1 – 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 3 lb ) hair is produced per clipping . In colder regions one clipping can yield as much as 5 @.@ 4 kg ( 12 lb ) . A dromedary can produce 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) wool per year , whereas a Bactrian camel has an annual yield of nearly 5 – 12 kg ( 11 – 26 lb ) . Dromedaries under the age of two years have a fine undercoat that tends to fall off and should be cropped by hand . Little information about camel hides has been collected but they are usually of inferior quality and are less preferred for manufacturing leather .
= Snowdon =
Snowdon ( Welsh : Yr Wyddfa , pronounced [ əɾ ˈwɨ ̞ ðva ] ) is the highest mountain in Wales , at an elevation of 1 @,@ 085 metres ( 3 @,@ 560 ft ) above sea level , and the highest point in the British Isles outside the Scottish Highlands . It is located in Snowdonia National Park ( Parc Cenedlaethol Eryri ) in Gwynedd , and has been described as " probably the busiest mountain in Britain " . It is designated as a national nature reserve for its rare flora and fauna .
The rocks that form Snowdon were produced by volcanoes in the Ordovician period , and the massif has been extensively sculpted by glaciation , forming the pyramidal peak of Snowdon and the arêtes of Crib Goch and Y Lliwedd . The cliff faces on Snowdon , including Clogwyn Du 'r Arddu , are significant for rock climbing , and the mountain was used by Edmund Hillary in training for the 1953 ascent of Mount Everest .
The summit can be reached by a number of well @-@ known paths , and by the Snowdon Mountain Railway , a rack and pinion railway opened in 1896 which carries passengers the 4 @.@ 7 miles ( 7 @.@ 6 km ) from Llanberis to the summit station . The summit also houses a cafe called Hafod Eryri , open only when the railway is operating and built in 2006 to replace one built in the 1930s . The railway generally operates to the summit station from Whitsun to October . The daily running schedule depends on weather and customer demand .
The name Snowdon is from the Old English for " snow hill " , while the Welsh name – Yr Wyddfa – means " the tumulus " , which may refer to the cairn thrown over the legendary giant Rhitta Gawr after his defeat by King Arthur . As well as other figures from Arthurian legend , the mountain is linked to a legendary afanc ( water monster ) and the Tylwyth Teg ( fairies ) .
= = Height = =
A 1682 survey estimated that the summit of Snowdon was at a height of 3 @,@ 720 feet ( 1 @,@ 130 m ) ; in 1773 , Thomas Pennant quoted a later estimate of 3 @,@ 568 ft ( 1 @,@ 088 m ) above sea level at Caernarfon . Recent surveys give the height of the summit as 1 @,@ 085 m ( 3 @,@ 560 ft ) , making Snowdon the highest mountain in Wales , and the highest point in the British Isles outside Scotland . Snowdon is one of three mountains climbed as part of the National Three Peaks Challenge .
= = Environment = =
= = = Flora = = =
The unique environment of Snowdon , particularly its rare plants , has led to its designation as a national nature reserve . In addition to plants that are widespread in Snowdonia , Snowdon is home to some plants rarely found elsewhere in Britain . The most famous of these is the " Snowdon lily " , Gagea serotina , which is also found in the Alps and in North America . It was first discovered by Edward Lhuyd in Wales , and the genus Lloydia ( now included in Gagea ) was later named in his honour by R. A. Salisbury . Snowdon lies in the northern part of Snowdonia National Park , which has also provided some legal protection since the park 's establishment in 1951 .
= = = Geology = = =
The rocks which today make up Snowdon and its neighbouring mountains were formed in the Ordovician Period . At that time , most of modern @-@ day Wales was near the edge of Avalonia , submerged beneath the ancient Iapetus Ocean . In the Soudleyan stage ( 458 to 457 million years ago ) of the Caradoc age , a volcanic caldera formed , and produced ash flows of rhyolitic tuff , which formed deposits up to 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) thick . The current summit is near the northern edge of the ancient caldera ; the caldera 's full extent is unclear , but it extended as far as the summit of Moel Hebog in the south @-@ west .
Snowdon and its surrounding peaks have been described as " true examples of Alpine topography " . The summits of Snowdon and Garnedd Ugain are surrounded by cwms , rounded valleys scooped out by glaciation . Erosion by glaciers in adjacent cwms caused the characteristic arêtes of Crib Goch , Crib y Ddysgl and Y Lliwedd , and the pyramidal peak of Snowdon itself . Other glacial landforms that can be seen around Snowdon include roches moutonnées , glacial erratics and moraines .
= = = Climate = = =
The English name " Snowdon " comes from the Old English snaw dun , meaning " snow hill " , as Snowdon often has a covering of snow . Although the amount of snow on Snowdon in winter varies significantly , 55 % less snow fell in 2004 than in 1994 . The slopes of Snowdon have one of the wettest climates in Great Britain , receiving an annual average of more than 200 inches ( 5 @,@ 100 mm ) of precipitation .
= = = Lakes = = =
A number of lakes are found in the various cwms of the Snowdon range .
Llyn Llydaw – 1 @,@ 430 feet ( 440 m ) high , 110 acres ( 45 ha ) – lies in Cwm Dyli , Snowdon 's eastern cwm , and is one of Snowdonia 's deepest lakes , at up to 190 ft ( 58 m ) deep . Various explanations of its name have been put forward , including lludw ( " ash " ) , from ashen deposits along the shore , to Llydaw ( " Brittany " ) . It contains evidence of a crannog settlement , and was the location of a 10 @-@ by @-@ 2 @-@ foot ( 3 m × 0 @.@ 6 m ) dugout canoe described in the Cambrian Journal in 1862 . The lake is significantly coloured by washings from the copper mines nearby , and is used by the Cwm Dyli hydroelectric power station , which opened in 1906 . The lake is crossed by a causeway , built in 1853 and raised in the 20th century to prevent the causeway from flooding frequently .
Glaslyn – 1 @,@ 970 feet ( 600 m ) high , 18 acres ( 7 @.@ 3 ha ) – lies higher up Cwm Dyli than Llyn Llydaw . It was originally called Llyn y Ffynnon Glas , and has a depth of 127 feet ( 39 m ) . For a long time , it was believed to be bottomless , and is also the location for various myths .
Llyn Ffynnon @-@ y @-@ gwas – 1 @,@ 430 feet ( 440 m ) high , 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) – lies in Cwm Treweunydd , Snowdon 's north @-@ western cwm , and is passed by the Snowdon Ranger path . It was enlarged by damming for use as a reservoir for use by slate quarries , but the level has since been lowered , and the lake 's volume reduced to 24 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 850 @,@ 000 cu ft ) .
Other lakes include Llyn Du 'r Arddu below Clogwyn Du 'r Arddu – 1 @,@ 901 feet ( 579 m ) high , 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) , Llyn Teyrn near Pen @-@ y @-@ pass – 1 @,@ 237 feet ( 377 m ) high , 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) , and several smaller pools .
= = Rock climbing = =
The Snowdon Massif includes a number of spectacular cliffs , and holds an important place in the history of rock climbing in the United Kingdom . Clogwyn Du 'r Arddu is often colloquially known as ' Cloggy ' among climbers , and was the site of the first recorded climb in Britain , in 1798 . It was carried out by Peter Bailey Williams and William Bingley , while searching for rare plants . It is now considered to be one of the best cliffs in Britain for rock climbing .
Y Lliwedd was also explored by early climbers , and was the subject of a 1909 climbing guide , The Climbs on Lliwedd by J. M. A. Thompson and A. W. Andrews , one of the first in Britain . Snowdon was used by Edmund Hillary and his group during preparations for their successful 1953 expedition to climb Mount Everest .
= = Ascents = =
The first recorded ascent of Snowdon was by the botanist Thomas Johnson in 1639 . However , the 18th @-@ century Welsh historian Thomas Pennant mentions a " triumphal fair upon this our chief of mountains " following Edward I 's conquest of Wales in 1284 , which could indicate the possibility of earlier ascents .
Snowdon offers some of the most extensive views in the British Isles . On exceptionally clear days , Ireland , Scotland , England , and the Isle of Man are all visible , as well as 24 counties , 29 lakes and 17 islands . The view between Snowdon and Merrick ( southern Scotland ) is the longest theoretical line of sight in the British Isles at 144 miles ( 232 km ) .
Snowdon has been described as " probably the busiest mountain in Britain " ; a number of well @-@ established and engineered footpaths lead to Snowdon 's summit from all sides , and can be combined in various ways . The circular walk starting and ending at Pen @-@ y @-@ Pass and using the Crib Goch route and the route over Y Lliwedd is called the Snowdon Horseshoe , and is considered " one of the finest ridge walks in Britain " . The routes are arranged here anticlockwise , starting with the path leading from Llanberis . In winter conditions , all these routes become significantly more dangerous and the Llanberis Mountain Rescue Team state that " additional skills , equipment and knowledge are required " . Many inexperienced walkers have been killed over the years attempting to climb the mountain via the main paths .
= = = Llanberis Path = = =
The Llanberis Path is the longest route to the summit , and has the shallowest gradient . It follows the line of the Snowdon Mountain Railway , and is considered the easiest and least interesting route to the summit of Snowdon . It is the route used by the annual Snowdon Race , with a record time of less than 40 minutes recorded from the start to the summit .
The section of the Llanberis Path beside the railway near the summit has been called the " Killer Convex " ; in icy conditions , this convex slope can send unwary walkers over the cliffs of Clogwyn Du 'r Arddu . Four people died there in February 2009 .
= = = Snowdon Ranger Path = = =
The Snowdon Ranger Path ( Welsh : Llwybr Cwellyn ) begins at the youth hostel beside Llyn Cwellyn , to the west of the mountain , served by the A4085 and Snowdon Ranger railway station . This was formerly the Saracen 's Head Inn , but was renamed under the ownership of the mountain guide John Morton . It is " probably the oldest path to the summit " .
The route begins with zigzags through " lush green turf " , before reaching a flatter boggy area in front of Llyn Ffynnon @-@ y @-@ gwas . The path then climbs to Bwlch Cwm Brwynog , and then snakes along the ridge above Clogwyn Du 'r Arddu towards the summit . This path meets the railway , the Llanberis Path , the Crib Goch path , and the combined Pyg Track and Miners ' Track all within a short distance , just below the summit .
= = = Rhyd Ddu Path = = =
The Rhyd Ddu path , also called the Beddgelert Path , leads from the village of Rhyd Ddu , west of Snowdon , gently up on to Llechog , a broad ridge dropping west from the summit . It is considered one of the easier routes to the summit , with the advantage that the summit is visible from the start , but is one of the least used routes . It climbs at a shallow gradient to Bwlch Main , shortly southwest of the summit , from where it climbs more steeply , meeting up with the Watkin Path at a site marked with a large standing stone a few hundred metres from the summit . An alternative start begins at Pitt 's Head on the A4085 road .
= = = Watkin Path = = =
The Watkin Path is " the most demanding route direct to the summit of Snowdon " , since it starts at the lowest elevation of any of the main routes . It was first conceived by Edward Watkin , a railway owner who had attempted to build a railway tunnel under the English Channel , and had a summer home in Nant Gwynant near the start of the path . It was originally designed as a donkey track and opened in 1892 .
The start of the Watkin Path has been described as " the prettiest beginning " of the routes up Snowdon . It begins at Bethania on the A498 and climbs initially through old broadleaved woodland . After leaving the woods , the path climbs past the waterfalls of the Afon Llan to the glacial cirque of Cwm Llan , crossing a disused incline from an abandoned slate quarry . It then reaches Plas Cwmllan , formerly the home of the quarry manager for the South Snowdon Slate Works beyond , and later used for target practice by commandos during the Second World War . Near Plas Cwmllan is the large boulder known as Gladstone Rock , which bears a plaque commemorating a speech given in 1892 by William Ewart Gladstone , the then 83 @-@ year @-@ old Prime Minister , on the subject of Justice for Wales . The slate workings in Cwm Llan were opened in 1840 , but closed in 1882 due to the expense of transporting the slate to the sea at Porthmadog . Various buildings , including barracks and dressing sheds , remain .
From the slate quarries , the Watkin Path veers to the north @-@ east to reach Bwlch Ciliau , the col between Snowdon and Y Lliwedd , which is marked by a large orange @-@ brown cairn . From here , it heads west to meet the Rhyd Ddu Path at a standing stone shortly below the summit of Snowdon .
Scenes from Carry On ... Up the Khyber were filmed on the lower part of the Watkin Path in 1968 , with the Watkin Path representing the Khyber Pass in the film . One of the stars of the film , Angela Douglas , unveiled a plaque at the precise location where filming took place in 2005 to commemorate the location filming and it forms part of the North Wales Film and Television Trail , run by the Wales Screen Commission .
= = = Over Y Lliwedd = = =
The route over Y Lliwedd is more frequently used for descent than ascent , and forms the second half of the Snowdon Horseshoe walk , the ascent being over Crib Goch . It is reached by following the Watkin Path down to Bwlch y Saethau , and then continuing along the ridge to the twin summits of Y Lliwedd . The path then drops down to Cwm Dyli to join the Miners ' Track towards Pen @-@ y @-@ Pass .
= = = Miners ' Track = = =
The Miners ' Track ( Welsh : Llwybr y Mwynwyr ) begins at the car park at Pen @-@ y @-@ Pass , at an altitude of around 350 metres ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) , and is the most popular route to the summit of Snowdon . It begins by skirting Llyn Teyrn before climbing slightly to cross the causeway over Llyn Llydaw . It follows the lake 's shoreline before climbing to Glaslyn , from where it ascends steeply towards Bwlch Glas . It is joined for most of this zigzag ascent by the Pyg Track , and on reaching the summit ridge , is united with the Llanberis Path and Snowdon Ranger Path . Derelict mine buildings are encountered along several parts of the path .
= = = Pyg Track = = =
The " Pyg Track " , or " Pig Track " ( both spellings may be encountered ) , also leads from Pen @-@ y @-@ Pass . The track climbs over Bwlch y Moch on the eastern flanks of Crib Goch , before traversing that ridge 's lower slopes . Above Glaslyn , it is joined by the Miners ' Track for the zigzag climb to Bwlch Glas between Snowdon and Garnedd Ugain . Regarding its name , the website of the Snowdonia National Park Authority states :
Nobody knows for certain why this path is called the Pyg Track . It 's possible that it was named after the pass it leads through , Bwlch y Moch ( translated Pigs ' Pass ) as the path is sometimes spelled ' Pig Track ' . Or , maybe because it was used to carry ' pyg ' ( black tar ) to the copper mines on Snowdon . Another possible explanation is that the path was named after the nearby Pen y Gwryd Hotel , popular amongst the early mountain walkers .
= = = Crib Goch route = = =
The traverse of Crib Goch is " one of the finest ridge walks in Britain " , and forms part of the well @-@ known Snowdon Horseshoe , a circuit of the peaks surrounding Cwm Dyli . The path follows the Pyg Track before separating off from it at Bwlch y Moch and leading up the East ridge of Crib Goch . All routes which tackle Crib Goch are considered mountaineering routes or scrambles .
= = Snowdon Mountain Railway = =
The Snowdon Mountain Railway ( SMR ) ( Welsh : Rheilffordd yr Wyddfa ) is a narrow gauge rack and pinion mountain railway that travels for 4 @.@ 75 miles ( 7 @.@ 6 km ) from Llanberis to the summit of Snowdon . It is the only public rack and pinion railway in the United Kingdom , and after more than 100 years of operation it remains a popular tourist attraction . Single carriage trains are pushed up the mountain by either steam locomotives or diesel locomotives . It has also previously used diesel railcars as multiple units . The railway was constructed between December 1894 , when the first sod was cut by Enid Assheton @-@ Smith ( after whom locomotive No.2 was named ) , and February 1896 , at a total cost of £ 63 @,@ 800 ( equivalent to £ 6 @,@ 658 @,@ 000 as of 2015 ) .
= = View from the summit = =
Snowdon offers some of the most extensive views in the British Isles ; on exceptionally clear days , Ireland , ( the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland ) , Scotland , England , and the Isle of Man ( as well as Wales ) are all visible , as well as 24 counties , 29 lakes and 17 islands . From here , it is also possible to see the mountains of the Peak District and South Pennines that surround Manchester . The view between Snowdon and Merrick ( southern Scotland ) is the longest theoretical line of sight in the British Isles at 144 miles ( 232 km ) . In practice atmospheric conditions make such sightings extremely rare and indeed there are no reported sightings . The mountain itself may also be viewed on take off and approach to both Manchester Airport and Liverpool John Lennon Airport on very clear days , and even from Howth Head in Dublin , Ireland .
= = Summit buildings = =
The first building on the summit of Snowdon was erected in 1838 to sell refreshments , and a licence to sell intoxicating liquor was granted in 1845 . Very basic accommodation was also provided for visitors . When the Snowdon Mountain Railway was opened in 1896 , it added its own accommodation and sales outlet near the summit .
During the 1930s , many complaints were received about the state of the facilities at the summit and in 1934 / 5 a new station building was erected in two phases . It was designed by Sir Clough Williams @-@ Ellis and included rooms for visitors and a café . The other operators were bought out and the ramshackle collection of buildings on the summit was cleared . The flat roof was intended to be used as a viewing platform and some photographs show it being used in this way . However , other photographs taken of the café show that the roof leaked , which probably explains why the practice was stopped . The Summit was taken over by government agencies during the war and the accommodation was restricted to staff use afterwards . Having become increasingly dilapidated , this building was described by Prince Charles as " the highest slum in Wales " . Its state led to a campaign to replace the building . In April 2006 , Snowdonia National Park Authority with the support of the Snowdonia Society agreed a deal to start work on a new café and visitor centre complex . By mid @-@ October 2006 the old building had been largely demolished .
The new RIBA Award @-@ winning £ 8 @.@ 4 million visitor centre , Hafod Eryri , designed by Ray Hole Architects in conjunction with Arup and built by Carillion , was officially opened on 12 June 2009 by First Minister Rhodri Morgan . The Welsh National Poet , Gwyn Thomas , composed a new couplet for the new building , displayed at its entrance and on the windows , which reads " Copa 'r Wyddfa : yr ydych chwi , yma , Yn nes at y nefoedd / The summit of Snowdon : Here you are nearer To Heaven " . The name Hafod Eryri was chosen from several hundred put forward after a competition was held by the BBC . Hafod is Welsh for an upland summer residence , while Eryri is the Welsh name for Snowdonia .
= = Folklore = =
In Welsh folklore , the summit of Snowdon is said to be the tomb of Rhitta Gawr , a giant . This is claimed to be the reason for the Welsh name Yr Wyddfa , literally meaning " the tumulus " . Rhitta Gawr wore a cloak made of men 's beards , and was slain by King Arthur after claiming Arthur 's beard . Other sites with Arthurian connections include Bwlch y Saethau , on the ridge between Snowdon and Y Lliwedd , where Arthur himself is said to have died . A cairn , Carnedd Arthur , was erected at the site and was still standing as late as 1850 , but no longer exists . According to the folklore , Arthur had Bedivere throw his sword Excalibur into Glaslyn , where Arthur 's body was later placed in a boat to be carried away to Afallon . Arthur 's men then retreated to a cave on the slopes of Y Lliwedd , where they are said to sleep until such time as they are needed . Merlin is supposed to have hidden the golden throne of Britain among the cliffs north of Crib y Ddysgl when the Saxons invaded .
Glaslyn was also the final resting place of a water monster , known as an afanc ( also the Welsh word for beaver ) , which had plagued the people of the Conwy valley . They tempted the monster out of the water with a young girl , before securing it with chains and dragging it to Glaslyn . A large stone known as Maen Du 'r Arddu , below Clogwyn Du 'r Arddu , is supposed to have magical powers . Like several other sites in Wales , it is said that if two people spend the night there , one will become a great poet while the other will become insane . Llyn Coch in Cwm Clogwyn has been associated with the Tylwyth Teg ( fairies ) , including a version of the fairy bride legend .
= Barbara Howard ( artist ) =
Helen Barbara Howard , RCA ( March 10 , 1926 - December 7 , 2002 ) was a Canadian painter , wood engraver , draughtsperson , bookbinder and designer who produced work consistently throughout her life , from her graduation in 1951 from the Ontario College of Art until her unexpected death in 2002 .
Her work is represented in many permanent collections , including the National Gallery of Canada , the Art Gallery of Ontario , the British Library , the Bodleian Library in Oxford , England and The Library of Congress in Washington . Her work also hangs in private , public and corporate collections in Canada , England and the United States .
= = Life = =
Howard was born in Long Branch , Toronto in 1926 , the younger of two children . Her father , Thomas Howard , a secondary school teacher , was an English immigrant . Her mother , Helen Mackintosh , who was born in Winnipeg , was of Scottish ancestry . Having decided early to become an artist , Howard studied at the Ontario College of Art in Toronto from 1948 to 1951 , where she was a pupil of Will Ogilvie , who taught her figure drawing , and Jock Macdonald , who taught her painting and composition . In her final year she won the silver medal in drawing and painting .
Howard taught art classes in Toronto until 1953 , when she moved to London , England , where she studied at Saint Martin 's School of Art , immersing herself in the English landscape and the cultural life of postwar London . She also travelled to Europe to visit the art museums of Rome , Venice , Florence , Paris and Madrid , and saw the Paleolithic cave paintings at Lascaux in southwestern France , an experience which influenced many of her later illustrations . In London she met her future husband , the Canadian poet , Richard Outram . Returning to Canada in 1956 , Howard and Outram made their home in Toronto for the next 46 years .
In the late 1950s and early sixties Howard showed regularly at the Picture Loan Society , a Toronto gallery established by Douglas Duncan in 1936 to present the work of contemporary Canadian artists such as Emily Carr , Fred Varley , David Milne , Lawren Harris and A.Y. Jackson . Several Canadian public collections possess Howard drawings and paintings acquired through the Douglas Duncan estate , as Duncan was also a collector of her work .
In 2002 Howard and Outram moved to Port Hope , Ontario but soon after their arrival Howard fell and broke her hip . While undergoing surgery in Peterborough , Ontario she suffered a pulmonary embolism and died on the operating table .
= = Work = =
Howard and her husband were part of a circle of artists , writers and designers who were interested in visual images , in language and in the book arts . One close associate was the graphic designer Allan Fleming , whose Martlet Press published Twenty @-@ Eight Drawings by Barbara Howard in 1970 , a period when she was drawing the figure . The Canadian wood engraver Rosemary Kilbourn , a close friend since art college , taught Howard to carve images that could be printed in conjunction with text .
In 1960 Howard and Outram launched the Gauntlet Press , a small private press which produced hand @-@ bound letterpress volumes of Outram 's poetry and Howard 's wood engravings . These limited editions , prized by collectors , can also be found in such public collections as Library and Archives Canada , the Library of Congress , the British Library and the University of Toronto Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library . Throughout the 1970s and 1980s the Gauntlet Press also issued a series of letterpress broadsheets of Outram 's poems , all of them designed ( and many illustrated ) by Howard . Digital facsimiles of the books and broadsheets of the Gauntlet Press in the collection of the Memorial University of Newfoundland can be viewed at the website dedicated to The Gauntlet Press of Richard Outram and Barbara Howard , together with extensive background material and an exhaustive bibliography .
Imagery derived from the natural world was always at the heart of Howard 's painting . Throughout her life she painted horizons , shorelines , skies , sun and water , although she was more concerned with the essence of a subject than with its precise representation .
In her sixties she devoted a decade of work to an extensive series of cetacean studies , Encounters with Whales . In his essay Encounters and Recollections in the Art of Barbara Howard and Richard Outram , the poet Jeffery Donaldson writes : " For the most part , these are portraits of the mammals in something like their private element . Their appearances are brief , ecstatic revelations , fortuitous glimpses , sudden soundings . They seem to break forth abruptly from their solitude and then slip away as quickly again . " These enormous canvases , some as large as 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) across , have never been publicly exhibited .
In the late 1990s until her death in 2002 , Howard returned to her lifelong fascination with light , night skies , the reflective surface of water . In these last paintings , there is a recurrence of circular elements , an abstraction of natural forms and a balancing of darkness and light . Howard has stated : " In my painting ( as in all my work ) I am deeply involved with light as the movement and inter @-@ action of colours ; the integrity of colour and form , hence with the integrity of the total work which has to do with spirit and abstract essence , not representation . I am preoccupied with life 's ambiguities and dualities and in my later work I am reaching more and more from the dark toward light , freedom , and a transcending exuberance . "
Howard 's paintings , drawings , wood engravings and book designs can be viewed on the website Barbara Howard 's Unfolding Visual World .
= = Critical reception = =
With the exception of the very large whale canvases , Howard 's paintings sold steadily throughout her lifetime . However , while she had her champions , she was never a part of the mainstream of Canadian art and so did not attract the kind of public critical attention that attends most successful careers . In her introduction to the catalogue for Howard 's 1980 solo exhibition The Event in the Mind , sculptor Rebecca Sisler wrote :
Classification , school ? Barbara Howard 's work defies specific slotting , although we sense her recognition of the heritage left by great masters , Turner being the most obvious . But she draws and paints in direct response to her own muse and as such cannot be aligned to any particular art movement ... ... for in common with other maverick artists throughout art history , her work , although bound to no age , is relevant to all .
Writing about Howard 's wood engravings in her 2006 essay Barbara Howard 's Ecologies , the artist , curator and academic Martha Fleming states :
Wood engraving is a demanding process , and Howard was a virtuoso . [ The creatures she portrayed ] echo the floating , frameless engravings pioneered by Thomas Bewick in the 18th century , and yet they are startlingly modern . As much about form as they are about anatomical accuracy , they hover at the brink of typology but have nothing of zoological rendering 's reduction to taxonomy . Her counterintuitive use of colour upholds the monochrome dignity inherent in the technique .
Howard was elected to the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts in 1975 and served on the RCA Council from 1980 @-@ 1982 .
= = Collections = =
Public collections
National Gallery of Canada
Art Gallery of Ontario
Art Gallery of Hamilton
Art Gallery of Peel , Brampton
Tom Thomson Art Gallery , Owen Sound
Art Gallery of Windsor
Art Gallery of Northumberland , Cobourg
Museum London , London
Art Gallery of Greater Victoria
Glenhyrst Art Gallery of Brant
Agnes Etherington Art Centre , Kingston
Kitchener @-@ Waterloo Art Gallery
Rodman Hall , St. Catharines
Province of Ontario Collection
Corporate collections
Mingan Island Cetacean Study ( M.I.C.S. ) , Longue @-@ Pointe @-@ de @-@ Mingan , Quèbec
Imperial Oil ( as Esso Resources )
Encana Corporation ( then Pan @-@ Canadian Petroleum )
Nortel Networks Corporation ( then Northern Telecom )
Citibank Canada
Canadian Tire Corporation
Mary Kay Cosmetics
Public collections of the Gauntlet Press
Library and Archives Canada ( formerly the National Library of Canada ) , Ottawa
The Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library , University of Toronto
The Gauntlet Press Collection of the Queen Elizabeth II Library , Memorial University of Newfoundland
Bruce Peel Special Collections Library , University of Alberta
The University of British Columbia Library
University of Western Ontario , London , Ontario
The MILLS Research Collections , McMaster University , Hamilton , Ontario
The Trent University Archives , Peterborough , Ontario
The University of Calgary , Alberta , Special Collections
The Berg Collection , New York Public Library
The Harris Collection of Poetry and Plays , Brown University , Providence , Rhode Island
The Library of Congress , Washington , DC
University at Buffalo , New York , Special Collections
The Houghton Library , Harvard University , Cambridge , Massachusetts
Bodleian Library , Oxford , England
The British Library , London , England
= = Exhibitions = =
The first solo exhibition of Howard 's paintings was at Toronto 's Picture Loan Society in 1957 . Pearl McCarthy , then art critic for the Globe and Mail , wrote that Howard was " far ahead of most landscapists in depth " and described her work as " first class ... the answer to a permanent sensuous desire " . The last solo exhibition of Howard 's paintings and drawings took place posthumously at the Art Gallery of Northumberland , Cobourg , Ontario , in 2006 .
Solo exhibitions of Howard 's work and / or the Gauntlet Press
Picture Loan Society , Toronto 1957 , 1958 , 1960 , 1965
Wells Gallery , Ottawa , 1966 , 1982 , 1984
Fleet Gallery , Winnipeg , 1966
Victoria College , Toronto , 1966
Sisler Gallery , Toronto , 1974 , 1976
Hart House , University of Toronto , 1975
The Event in the Mind , Prince Arthur Galleries , Toronto , 1980 ; catalogue
Yaneff Gallery , Toronto , 1983
Massey College , Toronto , 1984
Latcham Gallery , Stouffville , 1985
O 'Keefe Centre , Toronto , 1986
National Library of Canada , 1986
University College , Toronto , 1987
Georgetown Library & Cultural Centre , 1988
The Arts and Letters Club of Toronto , 1993
E.J. Pratt Library , Victoria University , University of Toronto , 1995
Robarts Library , University of Toronto , 1999
The Upstairs Gallery , Art Gallery of Northumberland , Port Hope , 2003
Seeking Light : Last Paintings and Selected Drawings . Art Gallery of Northumberland , Cobourg , 2006 ; catalogue
Group exhibitions
Ontario Society of Artists , 1958 , 1959
Women 's Committee , Art Gallery of Ontario , 1958 , 1969
Douglas Duncan Collection , Victoria College , Toronto , 1962
Toronto Collects , Art Gallery of Ontario , 1961
Women Artists , Canadian National Exhibition , Toronto , 1961
Canadian Artists , Eaton 's College Street , 1961
Canadian Society of Graphic Arts , 1958 , 1959 , 1960 , 1963
National Home Show , 1960 , 1961 , 1962
C.U.S.A.C. Travelling Show , Hart House , 1958 @-@ 9
Women 's Committee , London Art Gallery , 1962
Canadian Watercolours , Drawings & Prints , National Gallery of Canada , 1966
Douglas Duncan Collection , Windsor , London , Hamilton , 1967
Drawings and Sculpture , Art Gallery of Ontario , 1976
The Living Image , Macdonald Gallery , Toronto ( 3 artists ) ; catalogue
R.C.A. Centennial Contemporary Exhibition , Toronto , 1980
Inaugural Exhibition , Academy House , R.C.A. , Toronto , 1987 – 88
Art Under Fire , Academy House , R.C.A. , Toronto , 1988
Fine Printing : The Private Press in Canada . Travelling exhibition : Toronto , Fredericton , Calgary , Grimsby , Saskatoon , Brandon , Pointe Claire , Halifax , Saint John , 1995 – 1997 ; catalogue
Women and Texts , University of Leeds , 1997 ( curated by Special Collections , University of Calgary ) ; catalogue
Toronto in Print , Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library , 1998 ; catalogue
Earthworks , an exhibition of works by Ontario Academicians , John B. Aird Gallery , Toronto , 1998
Traces of Land , Traces of People : Contemporary Images of Ontario , Ontario Legislature , Queen ’ s Park , Toronto , Nov. 1999 @-@ July 2000
= Not Guilty ( 1910 film ) =
Not Guilty is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on Harry Martin who bids goodbye to his blind mother before he leaves the house and soon encounters a fleeing thief . The thief deposits a stolen purse into Harry 's pocket and the police promptly discover and arrest Harry . They take him back to his home where he bids goodbye and is jailed . His blind mother becomes ill , under the false belief that her son is away on a journey . After he learns of this , he breaks out and returns home . The police surround and search the house and Harry flees to another building on a clothesline . Successfully having eluded the police , Harry buys a paper the following morning and discovers that the real thief has turned himself in . The film is known for its early use of a close @-@ up shot to portray the complex action of the thief depositing the purse into Harry 's pocket . The film was released on September 20 , 1910 and met with mixed reviews . The film survives in the Library of Congress archives .
= = Plot = =
The film begins with Harry Martin saying goodbye to his blind mother before leaving the house . About this time Joinville , a thief , has committed a robbery and is being chased down the street by the policemen . Harry and the thief encounter each other on the street and a struggle ensues , Joinville slips the stolen purse into his pocket before fleeing . The police encounter Martin and find the stolen purse before promptly arresting him . Harry 's sweetheart visits Martin 's mother and the police take Harry to his apartment . Harry bids his mother and his sweetheart goodbye , an inter @-@ title car states that Harry does not want his mother to know he has gone away on a journey instead of to jail .
Time passes and Harry receives a note from Kate , his sweetheart , that his mother is very ill and wants him to return . In the note , Kate states that it is impossible to prove his innocence . Harry escapes on a passing wagon , concealed in corn or hay , and returns home . The police gather and surround search the home , Harry escapes via a clothesline to another building , successfully eluding the police . The following morning , Harry buys a newspaper from a newspaperboy and reads of his innocence after the real thief confesses to the crime . The three rejoice at his proven innocence .
= = Cast = =
Frank H. Crane as Harry Martin
Marie Eline as the newspaper boy
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . Some of the cast credits are unknown , but most of the 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . The film survives in the Library of Congress , but the other actors in the production are not listed .
The film shows novel techniques in film production that were used to assist the viewer in understanding the narrative . In the beginning of the film , when Harry and the thief struggle , a closeup shot is used to show the thief placing the purse into Harry 's pocket . While the two struggle in the previous scene , the close @-@ up shot has both men standing still . Charlie Keil , author of Early American Cinema in Transition , cites this as an attempt to improve the narrative by allowing a complex sequence of events to be examined intelligibly by the viewer . Keil also states that shot may have been done to lessen trade press objections to the close @-@ up views by showing the value to the narrative development . When Harry is in jail , he imagines his mother , and this is shown by an inset at the upper right of film . Months after the film had been released , Robert Grau wrote a column in the Moving Picture World which praised the attention to detail in the production for a newspaper which was shown on camera for only a few seconds . Grau states , " I was unable to discern in the few seconds the effect was on view , what means were taken to create the illusion ... and it is consoling to know that the producers of photoplays are aspiring to reach great heights in such matters . " An analysis of the frame shows that it was not so much an illusion as pasting the headline on the edition of August 27 , 1910 of the New York City Herald Tribune . The film also shows a real and dangerous stunt executed by Crane , where he is seen " sliding 40 feet down a washline to liberty in a scene that couldn 't have been faked . "
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on September 20 , 1910 . The film likely had a wide national release , similar to other Thanhouser productions , theater advertisements are known in Missouri , Minnesota , Indiana , and Kansas . In 1915 , years after its national release , the Pennsylvania State Board of Censors of Moving Pictures reviewed the film and approved its content without modification .
The film received mixed reception by trade publications . Walton of The Moving Picture News stated , " The tender end , mother , is good ; it 's well acted . What I said about The Doctor 's Carriage I repeat . This theme is far @-@ fetched ; the convict stripes unnecessary . Whoever was at the helm in this picture was just a little bit mixed - as to the course . " The Moving Picture World 's review was more neutral and stated the film was rather engaging and it will keep the audiences interest . The reviewer did not find either specific praise or fault in the actual production itself . The New York Dramatic Mirror was the most detailed in its review . The reviewer states , " There are very strong situations in this picture story , based on the efforts of a young man and his sweetheart to prevent the young man 's mother from knowing that he has been sent to prison . ... In a series of melodramatic scenes that are not as convincing as they might be , we see the son elude the penitentiary officers , and later he returns openly to his home with a newspaper in which is printed the confession of the criminal who had committed the offense of which the son had been convicted . Some of the scenes were handled too abruptly for the best results , but otherwise the acting appears satisfactory . " Bowers notes that the Mirror was not without its detractors and was accused of being a tool of the Edison Trust companies , but reviews for Thanhouser films were amongst the most perceptive .
= 1946 National League tie @-@ breaker series =
The 1946 National League tie @-@ breaker series was a best @-@ of @-@ three playoff series at the conclusion of Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 1946 regular season to decide the winner of the National League ( NL ) pennant . The games were played on October 1 and October 3 , 1946 , between the St. Louis Cardinals and Brooklyn Dodgers . It was necessary after both teams finished the season with identical win – loss records of 96 – 58 . This was the first ever tie @-@ breaker series in MLB history .
The first game took place at Sportsman 's Park in St. Louis , and the second , at Brooklyn 's Ebbets Field . The Cardinals swept the Dodgers behind wins from pitchers Howie Pollet and Murry Dickson , thus advancing to the 1946 World Series in which they defeated the Boston Red Sox , four games to three . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker series counted as the 155th and 156th regular season games by both teams , with all events in the games added to regular season statistics .
= = Background = =
In the first season of baseball since the conclusion of World War II , all ballplayers who had served in the military were returning to their former teams . The Cardinals regained Hall of Famer Stan Musial , and the Dodgers reacquired Hall of Famer Pee Wee Reese . The previous season , St. Louis finished second in the NL , and Brooklyn ended the season third , with records of 95 – 59 and 87 – 67 , respectively . In a pre @-@ season poll of 119 sportswriters , 115 picked the Cardinals to win the National League , while none selected the Dodgers .
Cardinals manager Eddie Dyer said that talk about his team being a " shoo @-@ in " to win the pennant was devised by Dodgers general manager Branch Rickey to ease the pressure on them , and increase pressure on the Cardinals , noting that he felt Brooklyn was the clear favorite . The Dodgers spent the first month of the season creating a " youth movement " on their club , allowing younger players to have significant playing time . When the team was in first place in the middle of May , however , manager Leo Durocher dropped the idea and instead focused on winning the pennant . Dyer said at the start of the season that as long as Saint Louis was within five games of first place on July 4 , they would win the pennant race . As July 4 came and went , they found themselves seven games behind the Dodgers , and concern grew in St. Louis .
The Cardinals rebounded , and on August 22 , after winning both games of a doubleheader against the Philadelphia Phillies , the clubs were tied , 71 – 45 . After the Dodgers had led the league most of the season , the Cardinals were in first place most of September . On September 29 , Saint Louis and Brooklyn were again tied with just one game left to play against the Chicago Cubs and Boston Braves , respectively . The Cardinals lost to the Cubs , 8 – 3 , while the Dodgers lost to the Braves , 4 – 0 , and as a result the two teams were placed in a best @-@ of @-@ three playoff series to determine who would face the Boston Red Sox in the 1946 World Series . The Dodgers chose Ralph Branca to pitch the first game in the series . The Cardinals debated starting either Howie Pollet or Murry Dickson , before deciding on Pollet .
= = Game 1 summary = =
Pollet started the game by retiring the first three Brooklyn hitters . Eddie Stanky grounded out , Cookie Lavagetto flied out to center field , and Joe Medwick grounded out to end the inning . Branca took the mound in the bottom of the first , striking out Red Schoendienst and allowing a single to Terry Moore . After National League MVP Musial struck out , Enos Slaughter singled and Whitey Kurowski walked to load the bases . Joe Garagiola , Sr. brought in a run before being tagged out to end the inning with the score 1 – 0 . In the second inning , Carl Furillo reached base on an error by Pollet . Pee Wee Reese singled , but Furillo was out at second . Another groundout brought the Cardinals back up , and the Dodgers got all three batters quickly out to end the inning . In the top of the third , Howie Schultz hit a home run on the first pitch he saw , tying the score at 1 – 1 . After three more outs , St. Louis came back up to bat . Moore flied out , then Musial walked , and Slaughter singled . Musial scored on Kurowski 's hit while Slaughter was called out , and after two more singles , the latter bringing in Kurowski , Branca was taken out of the game .
Kirby Higbe replaced Branca on the mound , and ended the inning with the Cardinals in the lead , 3 – 1 . Both teams combined for one hit in the fourth inning , a single by Moore . In the top of the fifth , Reese and Bruce Edwards singled , and Schultz grounded out on a bunt . Stan Rojek pinch hit for Higbe , and walked , loading the bases . Stanky grounded into a double play , ending the inning without the Dodgers scoring any runs . In the bottom of the fifth , Hal Gregg replaced Higbe on the mound , and retired the side in order . The sixth inning contained just one baserunner — Schoendienst — who was stranded on first after hitting a single .
The top of the seventh started with Furillo flying out to right field . Reese , Edwards , and Schultz all singled after Furillo 's out . Reese scored on Schultz 's hit , but Slaughter threw Edwards out at third base A groundout by Bob Ramazzotti ended the threat with the Cardinals leading , 3 – 2 . Dyer later said he considered this play the one that saved the game for St. Louis . In the bottom of the seventh , the Dodgers insterted their fourth pitcher , Vic Lombardi . After Musial tripled and Slaughter flied out , he was replaced by Rube Melton , the fifth and final pitcher the Dodgers used . A Garagiola single scored Musial , and Melton got the other two outs in between a wild pitch , making the score 4 – 2 at the end of the seventh . Stanky walked to start the eighth , giving him a league @-@ leading 137 walks for the season . Brooklyn finished the eighth inning leaving two on base , and the Cardinals failed to score in the bottom of the eighth as well , leaving a man on base . In the top of the ninth , Reese and Edwards flied out , and Schultz struck out to end the game , giving the Cardinals a 4 – 2 victory .
= = Game 2 summary = =
Originally , the Cardinals were wavering between starting Murry Dickson or Harry Brecheen in game two , while the Dodgers were looking to use either Higbe , who had pitched in the previous game , or Joe Hatten ; the two clubs went with Dickson and Hatten . Hatten began the game in the top of the first inning by only allowing one hit to Terry Moore . In the bottom of the first , the Dodgers scored the game 's first run . After Eddie Stanky struck out , and Dick Whitman flied out , Augie Galan singled . He was brought home by a walk and another single . After Carl Furillo flied out , the first inning ended with a score of 1 – 0 . In the top of the second , the Cardinals responded when Erv Dusak tripled after a Slaughter ground out . Marty Marion hit a sacrifice fly to score Dusak , and after a single by Clyde Kluttz , Dickson tripled to score another run , giving St. Louis a 2 – 1 lead , before a fly out ended their half of the inning . Dickson walked Bruce Edwards , but retired the next three batters , leaving the score 2 – 1 at the end of the second inning .
Neither team got a hit in the third or fourth innings . The only runners to reach base were Whitey Kurowski and Marion , both on walks . The fifth started that the same way , with Slaughter and Moore flying out . With two outs however , the Cardinals started hitting . Musial doubled , Kurowski walked , Slaughter tripled , and Dusak singled . All but Dusak scored on the hits , bringing the score to 5 – 1 and ending Hatten 's day . Hank Behrman came on in relief . Behrman kept any more runs from scoring , and after another inning in which the Dodgers did not record a hit , the score was 5 – 1 at the end of the fifth .
Vic Lombardi replaced Behrman in the top of the sixth . He allowed just one hit to Dickson , keeping the score 5 – 1 when Brooklyn came up to bat . Whitman , Galan , and Dixie Walker all grounded out to end the inning . In the top of the seventh , Lombardi allowed two walks , then Dusak hit a sacrifice bunt , after which Lombardi was replaced by Higbe . Marion hit a sacrifice bunt as well , which allowed Kurowski to score . Higbe quickly got the third out , and the Dodgers again went hitless in the seventh , making the score 6 – 1 at the end of seven innings . In the top of the eighth , Dickson struck out , while Red Schoendienst singled and Moore doubled . Musial was intentionally walked to load the bases , and Kurowski singled , allowing two baserunners to score and making the game 8 – 1 in favor of the Cardinals . After another walk , Higbe was replaced on the pitcher 's mound by Rube Melton , who got the final two outs of the inning .
Brooklyn went hitless in the bottom of the eighth . They inserted Harry Taylor to pitch the top half of the ninth , in which , he held St. Louis hitless . With half an inning left to play , the Dodgers began to get hits off of Dickson . Galan doubled , and after Walker flied out , Ed Stevens tripled to score Galan and Furillo singled to score Stevens , after a wild pitch and a walk , Brecheen took over pitching duties for Dickson with St. Louis leading 8 – 3 . Edwards singled off Brecheen and allowed Furillo to score , and after Cookie Lavagetto walked , the score was 8 – 4 with the bases loaded . The Cardinals kept the score from getting any closer , as Brecheen struck out the final two batters to end the game .
= = Aftermath = =
The Cardinals advanced to the World Series against the Boston Red Sox , whom they defeated four games to three . While the Cardinals were facing the Dodgers , the Red Sox faced a team of American League All @-@ Stars in an exhibition match . During the game , Ted Williams injured his elbow . He recovered in time to play in the World Series , but manager Joe Cronin blamed the injury on having to wait for the three @-@ game series to finish , and pushed for future tie @-@ breakers to be a single game . Cronin got his wish in the American League , as the 1948 American League tie @-@ breaker was only a one @-@ game matchup . However , the National League hosted three more series @-@ style tie @-@ breakers in later seasons before converting to a single @-@ game format .
After Brooklyn lost the series , rumors of Durocher leaving to manage the New York Yankees , which had started in the final days of the regular season , resurfaced . Durocher responded by saying that he would remain the manager of the Dodgers " until I die " , quelling any speculation .
The two games counted statistically as regular season games . As a result , Musial and Slaughter led the league with 156 games played , which could not have been equaled by anyone but a Brooklyn or St. Louis player . Musial 's two hits in the series gave him a league @-@ leading 228 for the season . Pollet 's nine inning , two earned runs performance lowered his earned run average ( ERA ) to 2 @.@ 10 , and increased his win total to 21 , both of which led the National League , narrowly edging out Johnny Sain 's 20 wins and 2 @.@ 21 ERA . Murry Dickson 's victory in the second game gave him 15 wins and six losses on the season ; this brought his win @-@ loss percentage to .714 , which led the National League . Musial finished the season with a .365 batting average , 124 runs , 50 doubles , 20 triples , 16 home runs , and 103 runs batted in , and won the Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player Award at the end of the season .
= Thomas Bates =
Thomas Bates ( 1567 – 30 January 1606 ) was a member of the group of provincial English Catholics who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605 .
Bates was born at Lapworth in Warwickshire , and became a retainer to Robert Catesby , who from 1604 planned to kill King James I by blowing up the House of Lords with gunpowder , and inciting a popular revolt during which a Catholic monarch would be restored to the English throne . Bates was invited to join the conspiracy after he accidentally became aware of it . As he rode with Catesby to prepare for the group 's planned uprising on 5 November 1605 , Guy Fawkes was found guarding the gunpowder stored under the House of Lords and arrested . Bates subsequently accompanied Catesby and his small group of fugitives to Holbeche House in Staffordshire , but left shortly before his master was killed there by government forces on 8 November . He was subsequently captured and taken to London .
Bates was the only member of the group to implicate the Jesuits in the conspiracy , but may have done so only to alleviate his punishment . He retracted his statement when it became clear he was to be executed . Three days after his trial on 27 January 1606 , he was hanged , drawn and quartered .
= = Biography = =
= = = Servant = = =
Bates was born at Lapworth in Warwickshire , and was married to Martha Bates . He was employed as a retainer to Sir Robert Catesby 's family , and with his wife lived in a cottage on the Catesby family estate . He was allowed his own servant , as well as his own armour . Bates was considered a loyal and devoted servant to Catesby .
Bates was the seventh man to be enlisted into what became known as the Gunpowder Plot , a scheme devised early in 1604 by Catesby to kill King James I by blowing up the House of Lords with gunpowder , and inciting a popular revolt during which a Catholic monarch would be restored to the English throne . Bates 's involvement in the plot began when he became suspicious of Catesby 's movements . In December 1604 he was invited to his master 's lodgings at Puddle Wharf in London , and questioned there by Thomas Wintour and Catesby , who had noted his suspicion . Bates told them that he thought that they " intended some dangerous matter about the Parliament House , because he had been sent to get a lodging near unto that place . " At that point the two men let Bates in on the secret .
In the same month it was announced that because of the plague , the re @-@ opening of Parliament would not be in February , but rather in October . During this delay the conspirators may have dug a tunnel beneath Parliament , although no evidence for its existence has ever been found . The plotters ultimately stored their gunpowder in the undercroft directly beneath the House of Lords . In July 1605 the opening of Parliament was again delayed , this time until Tuesday 5 November . Catesby had funded most of the plot , but by August 1605 he was running out of money . During a secret meeting at Bath in August , at which he , Percy and Thomas Wintour were present , the plotters decided that " the company being yet but few " he was to be allowed to " call in whom he thought best " . Bates was uncomfortable with the idea , and was the only member of the conspiracy to object . He was overruled however , and Catesby soon enlisted Ambrose Rookwood , Francis Tresham and Everard Digby .
= = = Failure = = =
The last details of the plot were finalised in October . Guy Fawkes would light the fuse and then escape across the Thames , while simultaneously a revolt in the Midlands would help to ensure the capture of Princess Elizabeth . Late on Monday 4 November , Bates set out with Catesby and John Wright for the planned revolt . The following day while at Dunstable re @-@ shoeing Catesby 's horse , they were met by Rookwood , who delivered the devastating news that Fawkes had been discovered guarding the gunpowder and arrested . As those conspirators still in London fled the city , the group soon integrated Christopher Wright and Thomas Percy . They rode toward Dunchurch , on horses sent from Everard Digby by prearrangement . They met Robert Wintour ( brother to Thomas ) at Ashby St Ledgers , and Digby at Dunchurch . On 6 November they stole horses from Warwick Castle , and collected stored weapons from Norbrook , near Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . As they continued toward Huddington , and as the government issued a proclamation for the fugitives ' arrest ( Catesby 's servant was listed as Robert Ashfield , probably a mistake for Bates ) , Catesby ordered Bates to deliver a letter to Father Garnet at Coughton Court , asking for his support . Bates 's news proved momentous for the Jesuits ; he overheard Tesimond exclaim " we are all utterly undone " . Garnet 's reply to Catesby begged them to stop their " wicked actions " , and to listen to the pope 's teachings .
= = = Capture = = =
By the time the fugitives and their supporters arrived at Holbeche House on the border of Staffordshire , they were exhausted . Drenched from the rain , they spread out some of the now @-@ soaked gunpowder in front of the fire , to dry out . A spark from the fire landed on the powder and the resultant flames engulfed Catesby , Rookwood , Grant , and another man . At some point between then and the arrival of the Sheriff of Worcester and his men , Bates left the house , possibly with his son and Digby . If he was with the latter , he was captured later the same day and taken to London . Catesby was killed early that day along with Percy , John Wright and his brother Christopher .
= = = Imprisonment and execution = = =
While imprisoned , on 4 December Bates claimed that Father Oswald Tesimond knew of the plot . In the opinion of author Antonia Fraser however , Bates 's evidence is suspect ; he was of a lower class than his co @-@ conspirators , and could therefore reasonably have assumed he was at more risk of being tortured than the others . Perhaps trying to curry favour with his interrogators , he was the only conspirator to implicate the Jesuits . He later retracted his confession when it became clear that he was to be executed .
Bates was charged with high treason , and tried at Westminster Hall on Monday 27 January 1606 , alongside seven of his fellow conspirators . He arrived at the hall separately from the others ; prisons operated on a class @-@ based system and so he was kept at the Gatehouse Prison , rather than the Tower . Only Digby pleaded not guilty . On the morning of 30 January 1606 therefore , Bates was tied to a wattled hurdle and dragged by horse along the street , from the Gatehouse Prison to the western end of St Paul 's Churchyard . There he was present as first Digby , then Robert Wintour , and then Grant , were hanged , drawn and quartered . Bates was the last to ascend the scaffold that day , and met a similarly gruesome end . The following day the four remaining conspirators were executed in the same manner .
= Diane Lane =
Diane Lane ( born January 22 , 1965 ) is an Oscar nominated American actress . Born and raised in New York City , Lane made her screen debut in George Roy Hill 's 1979 film A Little Romance , starring opposite Sir Laurence Olivier . Soon after , she was featured on the cover of Time magazine and dubbed " the new Grace Kelly " .
She has since appeared in several notable films , including the 2002 film Unfaithful , which earned her Academy Award , Golden Globe , and Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for Best Actress . Lane has also starred in The Outsiders , The Perfect Storm , Under the Tuscan Sun , Cinema Verite , and Man of Steel . Most recently , she has voiced Riley 's mother in the Pixar film Inside Out , starred in Trumbo , and reprised her role as Martha Kent in Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice ( 2016 ) .
= = Early life = =
Lane was born in New York City . Her mother , Colleen Leigh Farrington , was a nightclub singer and Playboy centerfold ( Miss October 1957 ) , who was also known as " Colleen Price " . Her father , Burton Eugene Lane , was a Manhattan drama coach who ran an acting workshop with John Cassavetes , worked as a cab driver , and later taught humanities at City College . When Lane was 13 days old , her parents separated . Lane 's mother went to Mexico and obtained a divorce while retaining custody of Lane until she was six years old . Lane 's father received custody of her after Lane 's mother moved to her native state , Georgia . Lane and her father lived in a number of residential hotels in New York City and she rode with him in his taxi .
When Lane was 15 , she declared her independence from her father and flew to Los Angeles for a week with actor and friend Christopher Atkins . Lane later remarked , " It was reckless behavior that comes from having too much independence too young . " She returned to New York and moved in with a friend 's family , paying them rent . In 1981 , she enrolled in high school after taking correspondence courses . However , Lane 's mother kidnapped her and took her back to Georgia . Lane and her father challenged her mother in court , and six weeks later , she was back in New York . Lane did not speak to her mother for the next three years , but they have since reconciled .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work : From A Little Romance to A Walk on the Moon = = =
Lane 's grandmother , Eleanor Scott , was a Pentecostal preacher of the Apostolic denomination , and Lane was influenced theatrically by the demonstrative quality of her grandmother 's sermons . Lane began acting professionally at the age of six at the La MaMa Experimental Theater Club in New York , where she appeared in a production of Medea . When Lane was 12 years old , she had a role in Joseph Papp 's production of The Cherry Orchard with Meryl Streep and Irene Worth . At this time , Lane was enrolled in an accelerated program at Hunter College High School however her grades suffered from her busy schedule . When Lane was 13 , she turned down a role in Runaways on Broadway to make her feature @-@ film debut opposite Laurence Olivier in A Little Romance . Lane won high praise from Olivier , who declared her ' The New Grace Kelly ' . At the same time , Lane was featured on the cover of Time , which declared her one of Hollywood 's " Whiz Kids . "
In the early 1980s , Lane made a successful transition from child actor to adult roles . She was cast as the teenaged female outlaw Little Britches in the 1981 Lamont Johnson film , Cattle Annie and Little Britches , with Amanda Plummer in her own debut role as Cattle Annie . Lane 's breakout performances came with back @-@ to @-@ back adaptations of young adult novels by S. E. Hinton , adapted and directed by Francis Ford Coppola : The Outsiders and Rumble Fish , both in 1983 . Both films also featured memorable performances from a number of young male actors who would go on to become leading men in the next decade ( as well as members of the so @-@ called " Brat Pack " ) , including Tom Cruise , Rob Lowe , C. Thomas Howell , Emilio Estevez , Patrick Swayze , Mickey Rourke , Nicolas Cage , and Matt Dillon . Lane 's distinction among these heavily male casts advanced her career while affiliating her with this young generation of male actors . Andy Warhol proclaimed her , " the undisputed female lead of Hollywood 's new rat pack . "
However , the two films that could have catapulted her to star status , Streets of Fire ( she turned down Splash and Risky Business for this film ) and The Cotton Club , were both commercial and critical failures , and her career languished as a result . After The Cotton Club , Lane dropped out of the movie business and lived with her mother in Georgia . According to the actress , " I hadn 't been close to my mom for a long time , so we had a lot of homework to do . We had to repair our relationship because I wanted my mother back " .
Lane returned to acting to appear in The Big Town and Lady Beware , but Lane had not made another big impression on a sizable audience until 1989 's popular and critically acclaimed TV miniseries Lonesome Dove , and was nominated for an Emmy Award for her role . She came very close to being cast as Vivian Ward in 1990 's blockbuster hit Pretty Woman ( which had a much darker script at the time ) , but due to scheduling , was unable to take the role . Apparently , costume fittings were made for Lane , before the role fell to Julia Roberts . She was given positive reviews for her performance in the independent film My New Gun , which was well received at the Cannes Film Festival . She went on to appear as actress Paulette Goddard in Sir Richard Attenborough 's big @-@ budget biopic of Charles Chaplin , 1992 's Chaplin . Lane won further praise for her role in 1999 's A Walk on the Moon , opposite Viggo Mortensen . One reviewer wrote , " Lane , after years in post @-@ teenaged @-@ career limbo , is meltingly effective . " The film 's director , Tony Goldwyn , described Lane as having " ... this potentially volcanic sexuality that is in no way self @-@ conscious or opportunistic . " Lane earned an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Female Lead . At this time , she was interested in making a film about actress Jean Seberg in which she would play Seberg .
= = = Recent work : From Unfaithful to the present = = =
In 2000 , Lane had a supporting role as Mark Wahlberg 's love interest in The Perfect Storm . In 2002 , she starred in Unfaithful , a drama film directed by Adrian Lyne and adapted from the French film The Unfaithful Wife . Lane played a housewife who indulges in an adulterous fling with a mysterious book dealer . The film featured several sex scenes , and Lyne 's repeated takes for these scenes were very demanding for the actors involved , especially for Lane , who had to be emotionally and physically fit for the duration . Unfaithful received mostly mixed to negative reviews , though Lane earned widespread praise for her performance . Besides winning the Best Actress National Society of Film Critics Award and the New York Film Critics Circle Award , she also received Best Actress Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations . Entertainment Weekly critic Owen Gleiberman stated that " Lane , in the most urgent performance of her career , is a revelation . The play of lust , romance , degradation , and guilt on her face is the movie 's real story . " Following Unfaithful , Lane starred in Under the Tuscan Sun , a film based on the best @-@ selling book by Frances Mayes for which Lane won a further Best Actress Golden Globe nomination . This was followed by lead roles in Fierce People , Must Love Dogs , and Hollywoodland .
In 2008 , Lane reunited with Richard Gere for the romantic drama Nights in Rodanthe . It is the third film Gere and Lane filmed together , and is based on the novel of the same title by Nicholas Sparks . Lane also co @-@ starred in Jumper and Untraceable in the same year . She then appeared in Killshot with Mickey Rourke , which was given a limited theatrical release before being released on DVD in 2009 . While promoting Nights in Rodanthe , she expressed frustration with being typecast and stated that she was " gunning for something that 's not so sympathetic . I need to be a bitch , and I need to be in a comedy . I 've decided . No more Miss Nice Guy . " Lane had even contemplated quitting acting and spending more time with her family if she is unable to get these kinds of roles . She said in an interview , " I can 't do anything official . My agents won 't let me . Between you and me , I don 't have anything else coming out . "
In 2010 , Lane starred in Secretariat , a Disney film about the relationship between the 1973 Triple Crown @-@ winning racehorse and his owner , Penny Chenery , whom Lane portrayed . Lane then starred in Cinema Verite ( 2011 ) , an HBO movie about the making of the first reality television show An American Family . Lane earned Emmy , Screen Actors Guild , Satellite , and Golden Globe award nominations for her portrayal of Pat Loud . In 2012 , Lane was featured in the PBS documentary Half the Sky : Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide ( produced by Show of Force along with Fugitive Films ) , which showcased women and girls living under very difficult circumstances and bravely fighting to challenge them .
Following the success of Cinema Verite , Lane starred in Zack Snyder 's Superman film Man of Steel , playing Martha Kent . Snyder said of her casting , " We are thrilled to have Diane in the role because she can convey the wisdom and the wonder of a woman whose son has powers beyond her imagination . " She reprised her role in the sequel Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice ( 2016 ) . In 2015 , Lane appeared in the drama Every Secret Thing ( alongside Dakota Fanning and Elizabeth Banks ) , had a voice role in the Pixar animated feature Inside Out , and co @-@ starred in the biopic Trumbo ( opposite Bryan Cranston and Helen Mirren ) , which received a Screen Actors Guild nomination for Best Ensemble Cast .
In the end of 2012 , and before her divorce from Josh Brolin in early 2013 , Lane returned to her theater roots and headlined a production of the David Cromer directed Sweet Bird of Youth ( by Tennessee Williams ) at the Goodman Theatre in Chicago . Lane played Princess Kosmonopolis , a fading Hollywood movie star , opposite Finn Wittrock , who portrayed Chance , her attractive gigolo . This was the first time she had done a stage play since 1989 , when she played Olivia in William Shakespeare 's Twelfth Night at the American Repertory Theatre in Cambridge , Massachusetts . Lane returned to theatre in the winter of 2015 , starring with Tony Shaloub in the off @-@ Broadway original production of Bathsheba Doran 's The Mystery of Love and Sex . Nearly four decades after she first appeared on Broadway , Lane will , in September 2016 , star in a play she previously performed in in 1977 : Chekhov 's The Cherry Orchard . While Lane played a child peasant ( with no lines ) in Broadway 's 1977 run of the play , this time she will be playing the lead role of Madame Lyubov Andreyevna Ranevskaya .
Forthcoming film roles include the lead in Eleanor Coppola 's Paris Can Wait ( formerly called Bonjour Anne ) , opposite Alec Baldwin . She will also star in Felt alongside Liam Neeson , a film about Mark Felt ( more famously known as Deep Throat ) , the whistleblower of the Watergate scandal .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family = = =
Lane met actor Christopher Lambert in Paris while promoting The Cotton Club in 1984 . They had a brief affair and split up . They met again two years later in Rome to make a film together , entitled After the Rain , and in two weeks they were a couple again . Lane and Lambert married in October 1988 in Santa Fe , New Mexico . They have a daughter , Eleanor Jasmine , and following a prolonged separation , were divorced in 1994 .
Lane became engaged to actor Josh Brolin in July 2003 and they were married on August 15 , 2004 . On December 20 of that year , she called police after an altercation with him , and he was arrested on a misdemeanor charge of domestic battery . Lane declined to press charges , however , and the couple 's spokesperson described the incident as a " misunderstanding " . Lane and Brolin filed for divorce in February 2013 . Their divorce was finalized on December 2 , 2013 .
= = = Charity work = = =
Lane is also involved in several charities , including Heifer International , which focuses on world hunger , and Artists for Peace and Justice , a Hollywood organization that supports Haiti relief . However , she tries not to draw attention to her humanitarian efforts : " Sometimes I give with my heart . Sometimes I give financially , but there 's something about [ helping others ] that I think ought to be anonymous . I don 't want it to be a boastful thing . "
Lane was featured heavily in the documentary Half The Sky , based on the book Half the Sky : Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide . The documentary had Lane and several other A @-@ list actresses / celebrities visit Africa and other areas where women are oppressed . Lane has become very much an ambassador for this kind of work and charity work in general .
On August 22 , 2014 , Diane Lane was honored for her work with Heifer International at its third annual Beyond Hunger : A Place at the Table gala at the Montage Beverly Hills . Lane says working with Heifer International has impacted her life and nurtured the relationship she has with her daughter .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Accolades = =
Four days before the New York Film Critics Circle 's vote in 2002 , Lane was given a career tribute by the Film Society of Lincoln Center . A day before that , Lyne held a dinner for the actress at the Four Seasons Hotel . Critics and award voters were invited to both . She went on to win the National Society of Film Critics , the New York Film Critics Circle awards and was nominated for a Golden Globe and an Academy Award for Best Actress . In 2003 , she was named ShoWest 's 2003 Female Star of the Year , and was also a co @-@ recipient of the Women in Film Crystal Award honoring outstanding women in entertainment .
Lane ranked at No. 79 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Kid Stars . She was ranked No. 45 on AskMen.com 's Top 99 Most Desirable Women in 2005 , No. 85 in 2006 and No. 98 in 2007 .
= Iranian subsidy reform plan =
The Iranian targeted subsidy plan ( Persian : طرح هدفمندسازی یارانه ها ) also known as the subsidy reform plan was passed by the Iranian Parliament on January 5 , 2010 . The government has described the subsidy plan as the " biggest surgery " to the nation 's economy in half a century and " one of the most important undertakings in Iran 's recent economic history " . The goal of the subsidy reform plan is to replace subsidies on food and energy ( 80 % of total ) with targeted social assistance , in accordance with a Five Year Economic Development Plan and a move towards free market prices in a 5 @-@ year period . The subsidy reform plan is the most important part of a broader Iranian economic reform plan .
According to the government , approximately $ 100 billion per year is spent on subsidizing energy prices ( $ 45 billion for the prices of fuel alone ) and many consumable goods including bread , sugar , rice , cooking oil and medicine . However , some experts believe direct subsidies are about $ 30 billion , depending on oil prices .
The subsidy system has been inherited from the Iran @-@ Iraq war era but was never abolished . Iran is one of the largest gasoline consumers in the world , ranking second behind the United States in consumption per car . The government subsidy reform has been years in the making for various reasons . Iran 's Supreme Leader has backed the government 's latest subsidy reform plan .
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5 , the NFL began sponsoring a series of public service announcements to bring attention to domestic abuse and sexual assault in response to what was seen as poor handling of incidents of violence by players .
= = Draft = =
Each April ( excluding 2014 when it took place in May ) , the NFL holds a draft of college players . The draft consists of seven rounds , with each of the 32 clubs getting one pick in each round . The draft order for non @-@ playoff teams is determined by regular @-@ season record ; among playoff teams , teams are first ranked by the furthest round of the playoffs they reached , and then are ranked by regular @-@ season record . For example , any team that reached the divisional round will be given a higher pick than any team that reached the conference championships , but will be given a lower pick than any team that did not make the divisional round . The Super Bowl champion always drafts last , and the runner @-@ up always drafts next @-@ to @-@ last . All potential draftees must be at least three years removed from high school in order to be eligible for the draft . Underclassmen that have met that criterion to be eligible for the draft must write an application to the NFL by January 15 renouncing their remaining college eligibility . Clubs can trade away picks for future draft picks , but cannot trade the rights to players they have selected in previous drafts .
Aside from the 32 picks each club gets , compensatory draft picks are given to teams that have lost more compensatory free agents than they have gained . These are spread out from rounds 3 to 7 , and a total of 32 are given . Clubs are required to make their selection within a certain period of time , the exact time depending on which round the pick is made in . If they fail to do so on time , the clubs behind them can begin to select their players in order , but they do not lose the pick outright . This happened in the 2003 draft , when the Minnesota Vikings failed to make their selection on time . The Jacksonville Jaguars and Carolina Panthers were able to make their picks before the Vikings were able to use theirs . Selected players are only allowed to negotiate contracts with the team that picked them , but if they choose not to sign they become eligible for the next year 's draft . Under the current collective bargaining contract , all contracts to drafted players must be four @-@ year deals with a club option for a fifth . Contracts themselves are limited to a certain amount of money , depending on the exact draft pick the player was selected with . Players who were draft eligible but not picked in the draft are free to sign with any club .
The NFL operates several other drafts in addition to the NFL draft . The league holds a supplemental draft annually . Clubs submit emails to the league stating the player they wish to select and the round they will do so , and the team with the highest bid wins the rights to that player . The exact order is determined by a lottery held before the draft , and a successful bid for a player will result in the team forfeiting the rights to its pick in the equivalent round of the next NFL draft . Players are only eligible for the supplemental draft after being granted a petition for special eligibility . The league holds expansion drafts , the most recent happening in 2002 when the Houston Texans began play as an expansion team . Other drafts held by the league include an allocation draft in 1950 to allocate players from several teams that played in the dissolved All @-@ America Football Conference and a supplemental draft in 1984 to give NFL teams the rights to players who had been eligible for the main draft but had not been drafted because they had signed contracts with the United States Football League or Canadian Football League .
Like the other major sports leagues in the United States , the NFL maintains protocol for a disaster draft . In the event of a ' near disaster ' ( less than 15 players killed or disabled ) that caused the club to lose a quarterback , they could draft one from a team with at least three quarterbacks . In the event of a ' disaster ' ( 15 or more players killed or disabled ) that results in a club 's season being cancelled , a restocking draft would be held . Neither of these protocols has ever had to be implemented .
= = Free agency = =
Free agents in the National Football League are divided into restricted free agents , who have three accrued seasons and whose current contract has expired , and unrestricted free agents , who have four or more accrued seasons and whose contract has expired . An accrued season is defined as " six or more regular @-@ season games on a club 's active / inactive , reserved / injured or reserve / physically unable to perform lists " . Restricted free agents are allowed to negotiate with other clubs besides their former club , but the former club has the right to match any offer . If they choose not to , they are compensated with draft picks . Unrestricted free agents are free to sign with any club , and no compensation is owed if they sign with a different club .
Clubs are given one franchise tag to offer to any unrestricted free agent . The franchise tag is a one @-@ year deal that pays the player 120 % of his previous contract or no less than the average of the five highest @-@ paid players at his position , whichever is greater . There are two types of franchise tags : exclusive tags , which do not allow the player to negotiate with other clubs , and non @-@ exclusive tags , which allow the player to negotiate with other clubs but gives his former club the right to match any offer and two first @-@ round draft picks if they decline to match it .
Clubs also have the option to use a transition tag , which is similar to the non @-@ exclusive franchise tag but offers no compensation if the former club refuses to match the offer . Due to that stipulation , the transition tag is rarely used , even with the removal of the " poison pill " strategy ( offering a contract with stipulations that the former club would be unable to match ) that essentially ended the usage of the tag league @-@ wide . Each club is subject to a salary cap , which is set at US $ 143 @.@ 28 million for the 2015 season , US $ 10 million more than in 2014 and US $ 20 million more than in 2013 .
Members of clubs ' practice squads , despite being paid by and working for their respective clubs , are also simultaneously a kind of free agent and are able to sign to any other club 's active roster ( provided their new club is not their previous club 's next opponent within a set number of days ) without compensation to their previous club ; practice squad players cannot be signed to other clubs ' practice squads , however , unless released by their original club first .
= The Unquiet Dead =
" The Unquiet Dead " is the third episode of the first series of the British science @-@ fiction television programme Doctor Who , first broadcast on 9 April 2005 on BBC One . It was written by Mark Gatiss and directed by Euros Lyn .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) and his companion Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) travel to Victorian Cardiff on Christmas , 1869 where there have been sightings of strange gas @-@ like creatures . The Doctor and Rose team up with Charles Dickens ( Simon Callow ) to investigate Mr Sneed ( Alan David ) , a man who runs a funeral parlour where it seems that corpses have come to life . It is revealed that the gaseous Gelth ( voiced by Zoe Thorne ) have entered Cardiff through a Rift , and wish to survive by taking over the corpses .
" The Unquiet Dead " is the first episode of the revival to be set in the past , and was intended to show the series ' range . The original brief and script included a focus on mediums and was grimmer in tone , but it evolved into a story about zombies and became more of a " romp " . Callow , who had researched Dickens as well as portraying him on multiple occasions , accepted to guest star in " The Unquiet Dead " because he felt the historical figure was written accurately . The episode also features a guest appearance by actress Eve Myles ; Myles would go on to play Gwen Cooper in the Doctor Who spin @-@ off series Torchwood from 2006 . As contemporary Cardiff , location of the Doctor Who production , did not have enough Victorian architecture , the episode was filmed in Swansea . Computer generated imagery ( CGI ) was used as the main visual effect for the Gelth . " The Unquiet Dead " was seen by 8 @.@ 86 million viewers in the United Kingdom on first broadcast . It attracted generally positive reception , although some reviewers criticised some plot points and lack of moral dilemma .
= = Plot = =
The Doctor attempts to pilot the TARDIS to Naples in 1860 to show Rose the past , but ends up in Cardiff in 1869 instead , on Christmas Eve . At a nearby funeral parlour , run by Gabriel Sneed and his servant Gwyneth , the corpse of the late Mrs. Peace has been taken over by a blue vapour . She rises from her coffin and kills her mourning grandson before lurching away from the parlour . Gwyneth , a clairvoyant , senses that the corpse is going to see Charles Dickens at a nearby theater . In the middle of his performance , the blue vapour leaves Mrs. Peace and scares the audience away . The commotion attracts the attention of the Doctor and Rose , who rush to investigate . Sneed and Gwyneth arrive and capture the corpse , but are confronted by Rose and end up kidnapping her as well . Meanwhile , Dickens accuses the Doctor of ruining the performance , but after the Doctor gushes over his literary genius , Dickens offers to help .
At the funeral parlour , Rose wakes up along with the newly @-@ reanimated corpses of Mrs. Peace and Mr. Redpath . The Doctor and Dickens arrive and break into the parlour just in time to rescue Rose . After hearing about the trouble with the corpses , the Doctor convinces Gwyneth to help him hold a séance to attempt to communicate with the dead . The blue vapors fill the room and reveal that they are the remains of the Gelth , a once @-@ corporeal alien race until they were devastated by the Time War . They plead with the Doctor to open the rift that exists in the basement of the parlour and allow them to cross over . The Doctor offers the Gelth temporary use of the corpses until he can transport them to a place where they can build new bodies , using Gwyneth as a bridge to cross the Rift .
Gwyneth stands in the middle of an arch and opens the rift , allowing the Gelth to cross over . The number of Gelth is much greater than anticipated , and their true motive is revealed : they intend to kill the living to give themselves more hosts and take over the planet . One of the animated bodies strangles Sneed to death , allowing another Gelth to possess his body . Dickens flees the parlour , and Rose and the Doctor are trapped in a part of the basement . Outside , Dickens realises that the beings are affected by gas and returns to the house . He extinguishes the gaslights and turns the gas on full , pulling the Gelth out of the bodies . The Doctor tells Gwyneth to send the Gelth back and close the rift , but she cannot close it or leave . Instead she takes out a box of matches , intending to ignite the gas and kill the Gelth along with herself . The Doctor determines that Gwyneth is already dead , and that by opening the rift , she had doomed herself . The Doctor , Rose , and Dickens flee the parlour just before it explodes and burns .
The Doctor and Rose head back to the TARDIS , and Dickens thanks them for their help . He decides to leave immediately for London to patch up things with his family , and to finish The Mystery of Edwin Drood . The Doctor and Rose say their goodbyes and disappear in the TARDIS , and the astounded Dickens walks away through the streets of Cardiff , greeting everyone he passes and quoting A Christmas Carol : " God bless us , everyone ! "
= = = Continuity = = =
When looking into Rose 's mind , Gwyneth is frightened and breaks off contact when she sees " the things you 've seen ... the darkness ... the Big Bad Wolf ! " The phrase " bad wolf " recurred in most of the stories in this season , culminating in the episode " Bad Wolf " and finally explained in " The Parting of the Ways " . The Doctor reacts visibly when the Gelth mention the Time War ; the event had been alluded to in " Rose " and " The End of the World " , when the Doctor told Rose that his people had been destroyed in a war . The Cardiff rift reappears in the episodes " Boom Town " and " Utopia " , and is a direct or indirect element in many of the alien encounters in the spin @-@ off series Torchwood , set in Cardiff . The events of the episode are referenced in The Unicorn and the Wasp , when Donna compares the absurdity of the episode 's events to " meeting Charles Dickens , surrounded by ghosts , at Christmas " . and " The End of the World " , when the Doctor told Rose that his people had been destroyed in a war .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Executive producer and head writer Russell T Davies came up with the concept of " The Unquiet Dead " . As the third episode of the revived series , it was designed to continue to show the range of the programme by exploring the past , after the contemporary " Rose " and far @-@ future " The End of the World " . The episode also reintroduces the TARDIS ' habit of taking the Doctor to the wrong places , something that had not yet happened in the revived series . Davies felt that it was important for an episode to be set in Cardiff as that is where the new series is produced , and wanted the story to be set in Victorian times and feature Charles Dickens . Davies ' original brief also included " fake mediums " , and Gatiss originally set it in a " spiritualist hotel " , which had fake mediums ( such as a character named Mrs Plumchute ) on the lower floors and Mr Sneed on the top , though he was unaware he was a true medium . However , Gwyneth became a more popular character with the production team , and she took on much of the medium role . Gatiss was also more interested in possession and zombies . Mrs Sneed was another character that was cut out of the episode ; Gatiss believed she was unnecessary as Gwyneth was the " heart " of the story .
The working titles for this story included " The Crippingwell Horror " and " The Angels of Crippingwell " . The original draft was grimmer , including details about the previous death of Gwyneth 's younger brother , but in subsequent drafts the story became more of a " romp " . Gatiss stated that the name " Gelth " simply popped into his head . Gatiss was encouraged to personify the Gelth , which he originally questioned because he felt that monsters whispering " Doctor " was a cliché ; producer Phil Collinson remarked that perhaps it was a cliché because it worked well . The Rift was added into the plot to simplify the Gelth 's origins .
Gatiss originally resisted having Dickens star in the episode , as traditionally the Doctor only mentioned meeting historical figures , but he eventually warmed to the idea . As A Christmas Carol fan , Gatiss wanted to set the episode at Christmas . He later realised that Dickens ' journey in the episode mirrored that of Ebenezer Scrooge . In one scene , Gatiss wanted the knocker on a door behind Dickens to briefly show the Gelth 's face in reference to A Christmas Carol , but this visual effect was not done . The episode originally began in the TARDIS , as Gatiss wanted the first glimpse of 1860 to be through Rose 's eyes . While this changed , Gatiss still wanted to show how great travelling in time is . It was scripted that snow would blow into the TARDIS when the doors opened , but this was cut because of budget reasons . Davies requested a scene in which the Doctor takes Rose to the future to see a world filled with walking corpses — the result if they had left before defeating the Gelth — but this was too expensive to film . During the scene in which the Doctor and Dickens are talking in the coach , the driver was supposed to shout down to them ( referencing a Dickens work ) and the coach was to crash , but this was also too expensive .
= = = Casting = = =
Simon Callow , who portrayed Dickens , was considered apt since he possessed extensive knowledge of the author and had experience playing the character and recreating his public readings . Callow contended that for him to agree to play Dickens , the script would have to be a sufficiently high quality . When he heard that the author was to feature in Doctor Who his heart " sank " as he felt fiction has a tendency to posit the author as " a kind of all @-@ purpose Victorian literary character and really understand little , if anything , about him , his life or his books " . Director Euros Lyn noted that the material being of interest to Callow was key to getting him involved . Promoting his role in Doctor Who , Callow stated that writer Mark Gatiss knew " exactly what Dickens is all about " and " very cleverly connects his idealism ... with the Doctor 's desire to save the world " . Callow was also pleased that the episode portrayed Dickens as he was towards the end of his life : ill and sad rather than energetic . In the 2011 episode " The Wedding of River Song " , Callow returned to reprise his role as Dickens briefly .
Eve Myles , who played Gwyneth , was initially not supposed to film the episode as she was booked for another role in theatre . However , her agent notified Myles of the role and Myles ' was keen to audition for the series due to its reputation and Eccleston being " one of my favourite actors of all time " . After inadvertently attending the audition in a T @-@ shirt emblazoned with an image of two naked women kissing under the slogan " I support Nudist Colonies " , Myles was convinced she had not got the part ; her appearance contrasted grossly with Gwyneth 's personality . After being notified of her success Myles did not want to prioritise between her theatre commitments and Doctor Who ; her agent decided that she would appear in the episode . Russell T Davies was enamoured by her performance , which he felt confirmed that the actress was " one of Wales 's best @-@ kept secrets " , and subsequently wrote her a lead role in the Doctor Who spin @-@ off Torchwood . Myles ' Torchwood character Gwen Cooper is intimated to be related to Gwyneth in " Journey 's End " after the Doctor asks Gwen about her family history . Alan David was cast as Mr Sneed ; Gatiss was pleased with the casting , as he had grown up watching David .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
Filming took place in September and October 2004 . Although the story is set in 19th century Cardiff , the production was actually filmed in Swansea and Monmouth , as there were not enough Victorian @-@ looking buildings left in Cardiff . Cardiff 's New Theatre was used for the theatre in which Dickens is telling a story at the beginning of the episode . An empty Victorian children 's home in Penarth was used for Sneed 's parlour . Based on research of Victorian morgues , the production team selected red and sepia as the main color scheme .
Small pieces of paper were sprayed as snow , which caused a problem as it scared the horses . However , the snow falling from the sky was a foam substance . The actors who played the dead bodies possessed by the Gelth had simple make @-@ up , with just shading and contact lenses and no prosthetics . The production team was mindful of the programme 's audience , and decided to not have any missing facial features . Originally , visual effects company The Mill planned the computer @-@ generated effects ( CGI ) to just be the " ethereal swirl " , but in the seance scene they ran into the challenge of animating the Gelth 's mouth . The Gelth turning red during the seance scene was a " last @-@ minute " change to the visual effects . The Mill overshot their quota of CGI for the episode , and compensated with small swirls in shots that focused on other characters . The head speaking was in fact actress Zoe Thorne , who had been filmed separately and used as a template for animation . In other scenes , Thorne had the challenge of matching her voice @-@ overs to the actors who portrayed the bodies animated by the Gelth .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Unquiet Dead " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 9 April 2005 . In the United States , the episode aired on 24 March 2006 on the Sci @-@ Fi Channel . Overnight figures showed that the episode was watched by 8 @.@ 3 million viewers in the UK , an audience share of 37 % . When final ratings were calculated , figures rose to 8 @.@ 86 million . The episode also received an Appreciation Index of 80 . " The Unquiet Dead " received some criticism from parents , who felt that it was " too scary " for their young children ; the BBC dismissed the complaints , saying that it had never been intended for the youngest of children .
Doctor Who novelist and Faction Paradox creator Lawrence Miles posted a scathing review of " The Unquiet Dead " on the Internet within an hour of its broadcast , focusing on a perceived political subtext suggesting that asylum seekers ( the Gelth ) are really all evil and out to exploit liberal generosity ( the Doctor ) . He criticised the script for promoting xenophobia and " claiming that all foreigners were invaders " , especially as the top stories in the news were about immigration into Britain . The review produced considerable backlash on the Internet , mainly over his comments about writer Mark Gatiss . Miles was personally contacted and ran into trouble with his publishers . Miles deleted the review and posted a revision , though the original is still available on another of his websites .
Dek Hogan of Digital Spy stated he " really enjoyed " the episode and it was " beautifully dark " . He later described it as " a chilling tale " and " a cracker " . Now Playing magazine reviewer Arnold T Blumburg gave " The Unquiet Dead " a grade of A- , describing it as " spectacular " , though he noted there were " a few hiccups , such as the weak and convenient plot point that forces the Gelth ... to be drawn out of their human hosts by the mere presence of gas " . He also criticised Eccleston for making the Doctor appear an " ineffectual goof " , and noted that he played no role in the resolution . In 2013 , Mark Braxton of Radio Times described the episode as " a sparkling script , as crisp and inviting as a winter wonderland " , praising the magical atmosphere and the treatment of Dickens . However , he felt that " the spectral swirlings are all a bit Raiders of the Lost Ark " . In Who Is the Doctor , a guide to the revived series , Graeme Burk felt that " The Unquiet Dead " was " terribly , terribly disappointing " on first viewing , as Rose and the Doctor 's characterisation did not drive the plot and the story was reduced to playing it safe and being " ordinary " , as it just made the aliens evil instead of discussing their morality . Despite this , he wrote that the story was still enjoyable , with a " delightfully ludicrous " set @-@ up , " vividly realized " period setting , and the characterisation of Dickens . Burk 's coauthor , Robert Smith ? [ sic ] , called the episode a " complete mess " . He felt that Gatiss was attempting to recreate the classic series , but that it came across as " half @-@ hearted " . He felt that there was no moral dilemma and Sneed underwent an unsettling character change . While he noted that Eccleston and Piper were " excellent " , he felt that Rose and the Doctor 's developing relationship was not subtle .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Unquiet Dead " reviews at Outpost Gallifrey
" The Unquiet Dead " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= Alexander Shulgin =
Alexander Theodore " Sasha " Shulgin ( June 17 , 1925 – June 2 , 2014 ) was an American medicinal chemist , biochemist , pharmacologist , psychopharmacologist , and author . He is credited with introducing MDMA ( ecstasy ) to psychologists in the late 1970s for psychopharmaceutical use and for the discovery , synthesis and personal bioassay of over 230 psychoactive compounds for their psychedelic and entactogenic potential .
In 1991 and 1997 , he and his wife Ann Shulgin authored the books PIHKAL and TIHKAL ( standing for Phenethylamines and Tryptamines I Have Known And Loved ) , which extensively described their work and personal experiences with these two classes of psychoactive drugs . Shulgin performed seminal work into the descriptive synthesis of many of these compounds . Some of Shulgin 's noteworthy discoveries include compounds of the 2C * family ( such as 2C @-@ B ) and compounds of the DOx family ( such as DOM ) .
Due in part to Shulgin 's extensive work in the field of psychedelic research and the rational drug design of psychedelic drugs , he has since been dubbed the " godfather of psychedelics " .
= = Life and career = =
Shulgin was born in Berkeley , California to Theodore Stevens Shulgin ( 1893 – 1978 ) and Henrietta D. ( Aten ) Shulgin ( 1894 – 1960 ) . His father was born in Russia , while his mother was born in Illinois . Both Theodore and Henrietta were public school teachers in Alameda County .
Shulgin began studying organic chemistry as a Harvard University scholarship student at the age of 16 . In 1943 he dropped out of school to join the U.S. Navy . While serving on USS Pope in the Navy during World War II , Shulgin was given a glass of orange juice by a nurse prior to surgery for a thumb infection . Shulgin drank the juice and , assuming that powder at the bottom of the glass was a sedative , fell asleep rapidly . Upon waking he learned that the powder was undissolved sugar . The experience made him aware of the influence of placebos over the human mind .
After serving in the Navy Shulgin returned to Berkeley , California , and in 1954 earned his Ph.D. in biochemistry from the University of California , Berkeley . Through the late 1950s Shulgin completed post @-@ doctoral work in the fields of psychiatry and pharmacology at University of California , San Francisco . After working at Bio @-@ Rad Laboratories as a research director for a brief period , he began work at Dow Chemical Company as a senior research chemist .
At this time he had a series of psychedelic experiences that helped to shape his further goals and research , the first of which was brought on by mescaline . " I first explored mescaline in the late ' 50s .... Three @-@ hundred @-@ fifty to 400 milligrams . I learned there was a great deal inside me . "
Shulgin later reported personal revelations that " had been brought about by a fraction of a gram of a white solid , but that in no way whatsoever could it be argued that these memories had been contained within the white solid ... I understood that our entire universe is contained in the mind and the spirit . We may choose not to find access to it , we may even deny its existence , but it is indeed there inside us , and there are chemicals that can catalyze its availability . "
Shulgin 's professional activities continued to lean in the direction of psychopharmacology , furthered by his personal experiences with psychedelics . But during this period he was unable to do much independent research . His opportunity for further research came in 1961 after his development of Zectran , the first biodegradable pesticide , a highly profitable product . In his book PIHKAL , Shulgin limits his pesticide days at Dow Chemical to one sentence in 978 pages . Dow Chemical Company , in return for Zectran 's valuable patent , gave Shulgin great freedom . During this time , he created and patented drugs when Dow asked , and published findings on other drugs in journals such as Nature and the Journal of Organic Chemistry . Eventually , Dow Chemical requested that he no longer use their name on his publications .
In late 1966 , Shulgin left Dow in order to pursue his own interests . He first spent two years studying neurology at the University of California , San Francisco School of Medicine , leaving to work on a consulting project . He set up a home @-@ based lab on his property , known as " the Farm " , and became a private consultant . He also taught classes in the local universities and at the San Francisco General Hospital . Through his friend Bob Sager , head of the U.S. DEA 's Western Laboratories , Shulgin formed a relationship with the DEA and began holding pharmacology seminars for the agents , supplying the DEA with samples of various compounds , and occasionally serving as an expert witness in court . In 1988 , he authored a then @-@ definitive law enforcement reference book on controlled substances , and received several awards from the DEA .
= = Independent research = =
In order to work with scheduled psychoactive chemicals , Shulgin obtained a DEA Schedule I license for an analytical laboratory , which allowed him to synthesize and possess any otherwise illicit drug . Shulgin set up a chemical synthesis laboratory in a small building behind his house , which gave him a great deal of career autonomy . Shulgin used this freedom to synthesize and test the effects of potentially psychoactive drugs .
In 1976 , Shulgin was introduced to MDMA by a student in the medicinal chemistry group he advised at San Francisco State University . MDMA had been synthesized in 1912 by Merck and patented in 1912 as an intermediate of another synthesis in order to block competitors , but was never explored in its own right . Shulgin went on to develop a new synthesis method , and in 1976 , introduced the chemical to Leo Zeff , a psychologist from Oakland , California . Zeff used the substance in his practice in small doses as an aid to talk therapy . Zeff introduced the substance to hundreds of psychologists and lay therapists around the nation , including Ann ( born Laura Ann Gotlieb ) , whom Alexander Shulgin met in 1979 , and married in 1981 . It was her fourth marriage , and she had had four children .
After judicious self @-@ experiments , Shulgin enlisted a small group of friends with whom he regularly tested his creations , starting in 1960 . They developed a systematic way of ranking the effects of the various drugs , known as the Shulgin Rating Scale , with a vocabulary to describe the visual , auditory and physical sensations . He personally tested hundreds of drugs , mainly analogues of various phenethylamines ( family containing MDMA , mescaline , and the 2C * family ) , and tryptamines ( family containing DMT and psilocin ) . There are a seemingly infinite number of slight chemical variations , which can produce variations in effect — some pleasant and some unpleasant , depending on the person , substance , and situation — all of which are meticulously recorded in Shulgin 's lab notebooks . Shulgin published many of these objective and subjective reports in his books and papers .
In 1994 , two years after the publication of PIHKAL , the DEA raided his lab . The agency requested that Shulgin turn over his license for violating the license 's terms , and he was fined $ 25 @,@ 000 for possession of anonymous samples sent to him for quality testing . In the 15 years preceding the publication of PIHKAL , two announced and scheduled reviews failed to find any irregularities . Richard Meyer , spokesman for DEA 's San Francisco Field Division , has stated that , " It is our opinion that those books are pretty much cookbooks on how to make illegal drugs . Agents tell me that in clandestine labs that they have raided , they have found copies of those books . "
Prior to his 2010 health issues , Shulgin had been working on a series of N @-@ allylated tryptamines including 5 @-@ MeO @-@ DALT and 5 @-@ MeO @-@ MALT .
= = Declining health and death = =
Shulgin spent most of his later life at the Farm in Lafayette , California . On April 8 , 2008 , at the age of 82 , he underwent surgery to replace a defective aortic valve . On November 16 , 2010 , he suffered a stroke , from which he largely recovered . Also at the close of 2010 , a skin @-@ grafting surgery saved his left foot from being amputated . Around this time , Shulgin began showing early signs of dementia , mostly severe loss of short @-@ term memory . With progression of the dementia since 2010 , his wife Ann Shulgin had been trying to sell part of their property to raise more money to cover care costs .
On April 17 , 2014 , Ann Shulgin reported on Facebook that her husband had developed liver cancer , and in a May 31 update on Facebook she said that , although appearing frail , he seemed to be experiencing his last moments in peace and without pain . On June 2 , 2014 , Shulgin died at home in bed surrounded by family , at the age of 88 .
= = Societies = =
Shulgin was a member of Mensa International and frequently attended Mensa events in California .
= = = Books = = =
with Manning , Tania & ; Daley , Paul ( 2011 ) . The Shulgin Index Vol 1 : Psychedelic Phenethylamines and Related Compounds . Berkeley : Transform Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9630096 @-@ 3 @-@ 0 . .
with Perry , Wendy ( 2002 ) . The Simple Plant Isoquinolines . Berkeley : Transform Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 9630096 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 . .
with Shulgin , Ann ( 1997 ) . " A New Vocabulary " . In Forte , Robert . Entheogens and the Future of Religion . Berkeley : Council on Spiritual Practices . ISBN 1 @-@ 889725 @-@ 01 @-@ 3 . .
with Shulgin , Ann ( 1997 ) . TIHKAL : The Continuation . Berkeley : Transform Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 9630096 @-@ 9 @-@ 9 . .
with Shulgin , Ann ( 1991 ) . PIHKAL : A Chemical Love Story . Berkeley : Transform Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 9630096 @-@ 0 @-@ 5 . .
Controlled Substances : Chemical & Legal Guide to Federal Drug Laws . Berkeley : Ronin Publishing . 1988 . ISBN 0 @-@ 914171 @-@ 50 @-@ X. .
= Sahure =
Sahure ( meaning " He who is close to Re " ) was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh , the second ruler of the Fifth Dynasty , who reigned for about 12 years in the early 25th century BC . Sahure is considered to be one of the most important kings of the Old Kingdom of Egypt , his reign being a political and cultural high point of the 5th Dynasty . He was probably the son of his predecessor Userkaf with queen Neferhetepes II , and was in turn succeeded by his son Neferirkare Kakai .
During Sahure 's time on the throne , Egypt had important trade relations with the Levantine coast . Sahure launched several naval expeditions to modern day Lebanon to procure cedar trees , people ( possibly slaves ) and exotic items . He also ordered the earliest attested expedition to the land of Punt , which brought back large quantities of myrrh , malachite and electrum . Sahure is shown celebrating the success of this venture in a relief from his mortuary temple which shows him tending a myrrh tree in the garden of his palace named " Sahure 's splendor soars up to heaven " . This relief is the only one in Egyptian art depicting a king gardening . Sahure sent further expeditions to the mines of turquoise and copper in Sinai . He also possibly ordered military campaigns against Libyan chieftains in the Western Desert , bringing back livestock to Egypt .
Sahure had a pyramid built for himself in Abusir , thereby abandoning the royal necropolises of Saqqara and Giza , where his predecessors had built their pyramids . This decision was possibly motivated by the presence of the sun temple of Userkaf in Abusir , the first such temple of the 5th Dynasty . The Pyramid of Sahure is much smaller than the pyramids of the preceding 4th Dynasty but the decoration of his mortuary temple is more elaborate . The causeway and mortuary temple of his pyramid complex were once adorned by over 10 @,@ 000 m2 ( 110 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of fine reliefs , which made them renowned in antiquity . The architects of Sahure 's pyramid complex introduced the use of palmiform columns ( that is columns whose capital has the form of palm leaves ) , which would soon become a hallmark of ancient Egyptian architecture . Sahure is also known to have constructed a sun temple called " The Field of Ra " , and although it is yet to be located it is presumably in Abusir as well .
= = Family = =
= = = Parentage = = =
Excavations at the pyramid of Sahure in Abusir under the direction of Miroslav Verner and Tarek El @-@ Awady in the early 2000s provide a picture of the royal family of the early 5th Dynasty . In particular , reliefs from the causeway linking the valley and mortuary temples of the pyramid complex reveal that Sahure 's mother was queen Neferhetepes II . She was the wife of pharaoh Userkaf , as indicated by the location of her pyramid immediately adjacent to that of Userkaf , which makes Userkaf the father of Sahure in all likelihood . This is further confirmed by the discovery of Sahure 's cartouche in the mortuary temple of Userkaf at Saqqara , indicating that Sahure finished the structure started most probably by his father .
This contradicts an older , alternative theory according to which Sahure was the son of queen Khentkawes I , believed to be the wife of the last pharaoh of the preceding 4th Dynasty , Shepseskaf . Following the discoveries of Verner and El @-@ Awady in Abusir this theory is now considered obsolete .
= = = Children = = =
Sahure is known to have been succeeded by Neferirkare Kakai , who was believed to his brother until 2005 . On this year , a relief originally adorning the causeway of Sahure 's pyramid and showing Sahure seated in front of two of his sons , Ranefer and Netjerirenre , was discovered by the Egyptologists Miroslav Verner and Tarek El @-@ Awady . Next to Ranefer 's name the text " Neferirkare Kakai king of Upper and Lower Egypt " had been added , indicating that Ranefer was Sahure 's son and assumed the throne under the name " Neferirkare Kakai " at the death of his father . Since both Ranefer and Netjerirenre are given the titles of " King eldest son " , Verner and El @-@ Awady speculate that they may have been twins and that Netjerirenre may have later seized the throne for a brief reign under the name " Shepseskare " . The same relief further depicts queen Meretnebty , who was thus most likely Sahure 's consort and the mother of Ranefer ( Neferirkare Kakai ) and Netjerirenre . Three more sons , Horemsaf , Khakare and Nebankhre are shown on reliefs from Sahure 's mortuary temple , but the identity of their mother is unknown .
= = Reign = =
= = = Chronology = = =
The relative chronology of Sahure 's reign is well established by historical records and contemporary artefacts , showing that he succeeded Userkaf and was in turn succeeded by Neferirkare Kakai . The Turin canon , a king list written during the 19th Dynasty in the early Ramesside era ( 1292 – 1189 BC ) , credits him with a reign of 12 years 5 months and 12 days . In contrast , the near contemporary annal of the 5th Dynasty known as the Palermo Stone preserves his 2nd , 3rd , 5th and 6th years on the throne as well as his final year of reign and even records the day of his death as the 28th of Shemu II ( 9th month ) . The document notes six or seven cattle counts , which would indicate a reign of at least 12 full years if the Old Kingdom cattle count was held biennially ( i.e. every 2 years ) as this annal document implies for the early 5th Dynasty . If this assumption is correct and Sahure 's highest attested date was the year after the 6th count rather than his 7th count as Wilkinson believes , then this date would mean that Sahure died in his 13th year and should be given a reign of 13 years 5 months and 12 days . This number would be only one year more than the Turin Canon 's 12 @-@ year figure for Sahure . It is also closer to the 13 years figure given in Manetho 's Aegyptiaca , a history of ancient Egypt written in the 3rd century BC .
Sahure appears in two further historical records : on the third entry of the Karnak king list , which was made during the reign of Thutmose III ( 1479 – 1425 BC ) and on the 26th entry of the Saqqara Tablet dating to the reign of Ramses II ( 1279 – 1213 BC ) . Neither of these sources give his reign length . The absolute dates of Sahure 's reign are uncertain but most scholars date it to the first half of the 25th century BC .
= = = Foreign activities = = =
Trade and tribute
Historical records and surviving artefacts suggest that contacts with foreign lands were numerous during Sahure 's reign . Furthermore , these contacts seem to have been mostly economic rather than military in nature . Reliefs from his pyramid complex show that he possessed a navy comprising 100 @-@ cubits long boats ( c . 50 m , 160 ft ) , some of which are shown coming back from Lebanon laden with the trunks of precious cedar trees . Other ships are represented loaded with " Asiatics " , both adults and children , who were possibly slaves . A unique relief depicts several Syrian brown bears , presumably brought back from the Levantine coast by a naval expedition as well . These bears appear in association with 12 red @-@ painted one @-@ handled jars from Syria and are thus likely to constitute a tribute .
Trade contacts with Byblos certainly took place during Sahure 's reign and indeed excavations of the temple of Baalat @-@ Gebal yielded an alabaster bowl inscribed with Sahure 's name . There is further corroborating evidence for trade with the wider Levant during the 5th Dynasty , with a number of stone vessels inscribed with cartouches of pharaohs of this dynasty discovered in Lebanon . Finally , a piece of thin gold stamped to a wooden throne and bearing Sahure 's cartouches has been purportedly found during illegal excavations in Turkey among a wider assemblage known as the " Dorak Treasure " . The existence of the treasure is now widely doubted however .
In his last year on the throne , Sahure sent the first documented expedition to the fabled land of Punt . The expedition is said to have come back with 80 @,@ 000 measures of myrrh , along with malachite and electrum . Because of this , Sahure is often credited with establishing an Egyptian navy . However , it is known today that preceding Egyptian kings had a high seas navy too , in particular Khufu during whose reign the oldest known harbor , Wadi al @-@ Jarf , on the Red Sea was operating . Nonetheless , the reliefs from Sahure 's pyramid complex remain the " first definite depictions of seagoing ships in Egypt " ( Shelley Wachsmann ) .
In his last year of reign Sahure sent another expedition abroad , this time to the copper and turquoise mines of Wadi Maghareh and Wadi Kharit in Sinai , which had been active since at least the beginning of the 3rd Dynasty . This expedition brought back over 6000 units of copper to Egypt and also produced two reliefs in Sinai , one of which shows Sahure in the traditional act of smiting Asiatics and boasting " The Great God smites the Asiatics of all countries " .
Military campaigns
Sahure 's military career is known primarily from reliefs from his mortuary complex . It apparently consisted of campaigns against the Libyans in the Western desert . The campaigns yielded various livestock and Sahure is shown smiting local chieftains . The Palermo stone corroborates some of these events and also mentions expeditions to Sinai and to the exotic land of Punt . However , this same scene of the Libyan attack was used two hundred years later in the mortuary temple of Pepi II ( 2284 – 2184 BC ) and in the temple of Taharqa at Kawa , built some 1800 years after Sahure 's lifetime . In particular , the same names are quoted for the local chieftains . Therefore , there is the possibility that Sahure too was copying an even earlier representation of this scene .
= = = Activities in Egypt = = =
The majority of Sahure 's activities in Egypt recorded in the Palermo stone are religious in nature . During the 5th year of his reign alone the stone mentions the making of a divine barge , possibly in Heliopolis , the exact quantity of daily offerings of bread and beer to Ra , Hathor , Nekhbet and Wadjet fixed by the king and the gift of land to various temples .
Archeological evidence suggests that Sahure 's building activities were concentrated in Abusir , where he constructed his pyramid and probably his sun temple as well . This temple , the second sun temple of the 5th Dynasty and yet to be located , is known to have existed thanks an inscription on the Palermo stone where it is called " Sekhet Re " , meaning " The Field of Ra " . Reliefs which once adorned the temple have been found embedded in the walls of that of Nyuserre Ini ( 2445 – 2421 BC ) , which suggests either that Nyuserre used Sahure 's temple as a quarry for construction materials or that he constructed his temple on the same site . The palace of Sahure , called " Uetjes Neferu Sahure " , " Sahure 's splendor soars up to heaven " , is known from an inscription on tallow containers discovered in February 2011 in Neferefre 's mortuary temple . The palace was likely located on the shores of the Abusir lake . The fragment of a statue with the name of the king was discovered in 2015 , in Elkab .
South of Egypt , a stele bearing Sahure 's name was discovered in the diorite quarries located in the desert north @-@ west of Abu Simbel in Lower Nubia . Even further south , Sahure 's cartouche has been found in a graffiti in Tumas and on seal impressions from Buhen at the second cataract of the Nile .
= = Pyramid complex = =
The main pyramid of Sahure 's mortuary complex exemplifies the decline of pyramid building , both in terms of size and quality . Yet , the accompanying mortuary temple is considered to be the most sophisticated one built up to that time . With its many architectural innovations , such as the use of palmiform columns , the overall layout of Sahure 's complex would serve as the template for all mortuary complexes constructed from Sahure 's reign until the end of the Old Kingdom , some 300 years later .
= = = Location = = =
Sahure chose to construct his pyramid complex in Abusir , thereby abandoning both Saqqara and Giza , which had been the royal necropolises up to that time . A possible motivation for Sahure 's decision was the presence of the sun temple of Userkaf .
= = = Mortuary temple = = =
Sahure 's mortuary temple was extensively decorated with an estimated 10 @,@ 000 m2 ( 110 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of fine reliefs . Many surviving fragments of the reliefs which decorated the temple walls are of very high quality and much more elaborate than those from preceding mortuary temples . Several reliefs from the temple and causeway are unique in Egyptian art . These include a relief showing Sahure tending a myrrh tree in his palace in front of his family , a relief depicting brown bears and a relief showing the bringing of the pyramidion to the main pyramid and the ceremonies following the completion of the complex . The many reliefs of the mortuary and valley temples also depict , among other things , a counting of foreigners by or in front of the goddess Seshat and the return of an Egyptian fleet from Asia , perhaps Byblos . Some of the low relief @-@ cuttings in red granite are still in place at the site . Decorated reliefs from the upper part of the causeway represent the procession of over 150 personified funerary domains created for the cult of Sahure , demonstrating the existence of a sophisticated economic system associated to the king 's funerary cult .
The mortuary temple featured the first palmiform columns of any Egyptian temple , massive granite architraves inscribed with Sahure 's titulary overlaid with copper , black basalt flooring and granite dados .
= = = Pyramid = = =
The pyramid of Sahure reached 47 m ( 154 ft ) at the time of its construction , much smaller than the pyramids of the preceding 4th Dynasty . Its inner core is made of roughly hewn stones organized in steps and held together in many sections with a thick mortar of mud . This construction technique , much cheaper and faster to execute than the stone @-@ based techniques of the 4th Dynasty , fared much worse over time . Owing to this , Sahure 's pyramid is now largely ruined and amounts to little more than a pile of rubble showing the crude filling of debris and mortar constituting the core , which became exposed after the casing stones were stolen in antiquity .
While the core was under construction , a corridor was left open leading into the shaft where the grave chamber was built separately and later covered by leftover stone blocks and debris . This construction strategy is clearly visible in later unfinished pyramids , in particular the Pyramid of Neferefre . This technique also reflects the older style from the 3rd Dynasty seemingly coming back into fashion after being temporarily abandoned by the builders of the five great pyramids at Dahshur and Giza during the 4th Dynasty .
The entrance at the north side is a short descending corridor lined with red granite followed by a passageway ending at the burial chamber with its gabled roof comprising large limestone beams . Today these beams are damaged , which weakens the pyramid structure . Fragments of the sarcophagus were found here in the burial chamber , when it was first entered by John Shae Perring in the mid 19th century . The colossal roof blocks of Sahure 's temple weighed up to about 220 tons based on estimates by Perring . He estimated the size of the largest blocks at 35 feet by 9 feet by 12 feet . One end of these blocks was tapered so the estimated volume is 95 cubic meters or 2 @.@ 4 tons . The mortuary complex immediately around the pyramid also comprises a second pyramid built for the Ka of the king .
= = Court Officials = =
A number of officials serving Sahure during his lifetime are known from their tombs . These include :
Niankhsekhmet : chief physician of Sahure , he asked the king that a false door be made for his tomb , to which the king agreed . Sahure had the false door made of fine Tura limestone , carved and painted blue in his presence . The king wished a long life to his physician , telling him : " As my nostrils enjoy health , as the gods love me , may you depart into the cemetery at an advanced old age as one revered " .
Pehenewkai : priest of the cult of Userkaf during the reigns of Sahure and Neferirkare Kakai , then vizier for the latter .
Persen : also known as Perisen , he was a mortuary priest in the funerary cult of Sahure 's mother Nepherhetepes . His mastaba tomb is located close to Nepherhetepes 's pyramid in Saqqara .
Ptahshepses : probably born during the reign of Menkaure , Ptahshepses was high priest of Ptah and royal manicure , later promoted to vizier under king Nyuserre Ini .
Sekhemkare : royal prince , son of Khafre and vizier under Userkaf and Sahure .
Washptah : priest of Sahure during the king 's lifetime , then vizier of Neferirkare Kakai . Buried in a mastaba in Saqqara .
Werbauba : vizier during Sahure 's reign , attested in the mortuary temple . Unlike Sekhemkare , Werbauba seems to have been non @-@ royal . This indicates that Sahure pursued Userkaf 's policy of appointing non @-@ royal people to high offices .
= = Legacy = =
= = = In the Old Kingdom = = =
Sahure 's most immediate legacy is his funerary cult , which continued until the end of the Old Kingdom some 300 years after his death . A total of 22 agricultural estates were established to produce the goods necessary for this cult . Several priests serving this cult or in Sahure 's sun temple during the later 5th and 6th Dynasties are known thanks to inscriptions and artefacts from their tombs in Saqqara and Abusir :
Atjema : priest of the sun temple of Sahure during the 6th Dynasty .
Khuyemsnewy : served as priest of Sahure during the reigns of Neferirkare Kakai and Nyuserre Ini . He was also priest of Ra and Hathor in Neferirkare 's sun temple , priest of Neferirkare , priest in Nyuserre Ini 's and Neferirkare Kakai 's pyramid complexes and Overseer of the Two Granaries .
Nikare : priest of the cult of Sahure and overseer of the scribes of the granary during the 5th Dynasty .
Senewankh : priest of the cults of Userkaf and Sahure , buried in a mastaba in Saqqara .
Sedaug : priest of the cult of Sahure , priest of Ra in the sun @-@ temple of Userkaf and holder of the title of royal acquaintance , buried in Giza .
Tepemankh : priest of the cults of kings of the 4th to early 5th dynasty including Userkaf and Sahure , buried in a mastaba at Abusir .
Another legacy of Sahure is his pyramid complex : its layout became the template for all subsequent pyramid complexes of the Old Kingdom and some of its architectural elements , such as its palmiform columns , became hallmarks of Egyptian architecture .
= = = In the Middle Kingdom = = =
At the beginning of the Middle Kingdom period , in the early 12th Dynasty ( 1991 – 1802 BC ) , pharaoh Senusret I ( 1971 – 1926 BC ) commissioned a statue of Sahure . The statue was located in the temple of Karnak and it probably belonged to a group of portraits of deceased kings .
The statue of Sahure , now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo ( catalog number CG 42004 ) , is made of black granite and is 50 cm ( 20 in ) tall . Sahure is shown enthroned , wearing a pleated skirt and a round curly wig . Both sides of the throne bear inscriptions identifying the work as a portrait of Sahure made on the orders of Senusret I.
Another indication that Sahure had not faded from memory during the Middle Kingdom is the Westcar Papyrus , which was written during the 12th Dynasty . The papyrus tells the mythical story of the origins of the 5th Dynasty , presenting kings Userkaf , Sahure and Neferirkare Kakai as three brothers , sons of Ra and a woman named Rededjet .
= = = In the New Kingdom and later times = = =
As a deceased king , Sahure continued to receive religious offerings during the New Kingdom . This is best attested by the " Karnak king list " , a list of royal ancestors inscribed on the walls of the Karnak temple during the reign of Thutmose III of the 18th Dynasty . Unlike other ancient Egyptian king lists , the kings are not listed in chronological order . This is because the purpose of the list was purely religious rather than historical : its aim was to name the deceased kings to be honored in the Karnak temple .
During the 19th Dynasty , prince Khaemwaset , a son of Ramesses II , undertook restoration works throughout Egypt on pyramids and temples which had fallen into ruin . Inscriptions on the stone cladding of the pyramid of Sahure show that it was restored at this time . This is possibly because , from the mid 18th Dynasty onwards , the mortuary temple of Sahure served as a sanctuary for the goddess Sekhmet . In the second part of the 18th Dynasty and during the 19th Dynasty numerous visitors left inscriptions , stelae and statues in the temple . Activities seemed to have continued on @-@ site for a long time , as shown by graffiti dating from the 26th Dynasty ( 664 – 525 BC ) until the Ptolemaic period ( 332 – 30 BC ) .
= No Time for It =
" No Time for It " is a song recorded by American recording artist Fantasia for her fifth studio album , The Definition Of ... ( 2016 ) . It was released on January 7 , 2016 , as the lead single from the album . American producer Brian Kennedy wrote " No Time for It " in collaboration with songwriters Lance Eric Shipp and Paris " PJ " Jones . Backed by synths , snares , and an organ , it is a mid @-@ tempo track with lyrics that revolve around blocking out drama and negativity in favor of professional and financial success . Fantasia described the song as a continuation of her " rock soul " sound , which she introduced on her previous album Side Effects of You ( 2013 ) .
To promote " No Time for It " , Fantasia released a lyric video on February 4 , 2016 . On March 24 , she released an acoustic version of the song through a music video . The black @-@ and @-@ white video portrays Fantasia singing accompanied by a guitar and xylophone . Critics praised the acoustic arrangement and music video as " nice [ and ] subdued " and " stirring " .
Critical response to " No Time for It " was mixed ; some critics praised its sound and composition while others criticized the single as too safe , the production as reminiscent of album filler , and Fantasia 's vocal performance as too subdued and restrained in comparison to her live performances . Commercially , the song peaked at number six on the United States Billboard Adult R & B Songs chart .
= = Concept and development = =
" No Time for It " was written by Lance Eric Shipp and Paris " PJ " Jones in collaboration with the song 's producer Brian Kennedy . The single expands on the " rock soul " sound Fantasia introduced on her previous album Side Effects of You . Fantasia defined " rock soul " as encompassing multiple music genres and explained its direction was an attempt to combine her soulful childhood singing in church with " a certain side of [ her ] that wants to tap into that whole rock world " . She described the recording process for the single and album as coming with " great sacrifice " and being her step " to open the door to a new chapter of life " . She wrote that the song 's title and lyrics were influenced by her beliefs that : " there are some things in life that I simply have ' No Time for It ' " .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" No Time for It " is pop , R & B , and soul song that lasts for three minutes and twenty @-@ six seconds . It is composed in the key of D @-@ flat major using common time and a slow tempo of 135 beats per minute . Latoya Cross of Jet referred to the song as having a " smooth tempo " and being a continuation of Fantasia 's " rock soul " vibe . Instrumentation is provided by " a polished , percolating mix of synths and trappy snares " and an organ . Matthew Scott Donnelly of PopCrush wrote that the song 's instrumental backing was provided by " zippy , untiring drums and sunshiny effects " ; Elias Leight of Vogue described it was an " iconoclast " with a " de rigueur quiver of programmed hi @-@ hats " and " wormy synth melody and bass line " that could appeal to listeners of hip hop music . Time 's Maura Johnston referred to the song as being " slinky " and " lighter @-@ than @-@ air " , and Jay Cridlin of the Tampa Bay Times called it " sleek " and " poppy " .
Throughout the track , Fantasia describes blocking out drama and negativity . Samantha Callender of The Source wrote that the lyrics are a list of : " all the things Fantasia has no time for ( basically everything except money ) " . In the chorus , the lyrics include : " You wanna tell me how it is , but there ’ s no time for it / You wanna tell me how you feel , but there 's no time for it " , with Fantasia singing in " a cool collected manner " to contrast with the biting lyrics . Idolator 's Mike Wass described the song as a " catchy mid @-@ tempo anthem " and the lyrics , such as " Bitch , no time for the haters tripping " , are examples of how " Fantasia has always been the realest " . According to Johnston , the lyrics act as a " kiss @-@ off " and " a salvo aimed right at any gossipmongers who fill their hours with loose talk " . Ariana Gordon of Music Times wrote that the lyrics were reflective of Fantasia 's attempt to move beyond her past struggles ( her attempted suicide , affair with a married man , home foreclosure , and toxic relationships with family members ) and piece together her personal and professional lives .
= = Release and acoustic version = =
On January 6 , 2016 , Fantasia announced " No Time for It " would be the lead single from the album The Definition Of ... through her official Instagram account ; Fantasia wrote : " This month my new single will be born and I ’ m speaking nothing but the truth " and revealed its promotional cover . The following day , the song premiered on Fantasia ’ s official Vevo channel ; explicit and clean versions were digitally released at the iTunes Store . It was Fantasia 's first release after joining the management roster of Primary Wave Music . According to Fantasia , " No Time for It " was chosen by the label to be the album 's first single . Fantasia was initially hesitant about releasing the song , saying " At first I was thinking , ‘ Is that a record to come back with ? ’ ” . She later said it " set the atmosphere " for her future singles . Jourdan Miller of BreatheHeavy wrote the release : " is perfectly timed seeing how the singing reality competition is on its way out , cause we all have no time for it " . On February 4 , 2016 , Fantasia released a lyric video for the song . The single was included on the set list for the Fantasia & Anthony Hamilton : Live in Concert ( 2016 ) .
On March 24 , 2016 , she released a music video of an acoustic version of the song on her official Vevo account . The following day , it was released at the iTunes Store . The video is filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white and features Fantasia in : " a short , black leather dress and backed by only a guitar and xylophone " . Elle Breezy of Singersroom wrote , " She doesn ’ t take it all the way there like we know she can , but it ’ s still a nice , subdued performance " . A review from Rap @-@ Up praised the release as " a stirring acoustic rendition of her empowering song " and noted that Fantasia " breaks it all the way down " in the video . B. Cakes of Soulbounce commended the video as personal and intimate , describing it as : " a candid woman @-@ to @-@ woman ( or woman @-@ to @-@ man ) talk with one of her detractors " ; Cakes praised the decision to release an acoustic remix to keep the focus on the lyrics .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" No Time for It " received mixed responses from music critics . Jeff Benjamin of Fuse praised " No Time for It " as a " lush kiss @-@ off track " . Benjamin described the song as embodying the " same feisty attitude we know and love Tasia for " and indicated " a ton of promise " for the release of its parent album . Matthew Scott Donnelly commended the song as " setting a brand new era into motion " , calling it " breezy @-@ yet @-@ declarative " and " a here @-@ I @-@ am declaration " . A critic from the Omaha World @-@ Herald praised Fantasia for " her powerful , soulful vocals " and described the song as showing her " in the midst of an R & B resurgence " . Carl Chery and Cori Murray of Essence magazine listed " No Time for It " as one of the songs marking a " resurgence of R & B " , while Johnston included the song on her list of the " Best Songs of 2016 So Far " .
Negative reviews were critical of the song 's production and Fantasia 's vocal performance . In the nationally syndicated Rickey Smiley Morning Show , Rickey Smiley criticized the song as : " more of a filler record that you have on while you 're cleaning the house or washing dishes " . Smiley said the singer was lacking her typical vocal acrobatics in comparison to her performance of Karyn White 's song " Superwoman " at the 2015 Soul Train Music Awards . Mike Wass wrote that the song did not command attention on the first listen and lacked big pop hooks in comparison to the album track " Ugly " . Kevin Apaza of DirectLyrics criticized the song as being too safe and predictable , calling its production dated and " [ v ] ery early 2000s " and saying that Fantasia is " sleeping on her laurels " . Apaza recommended that Fantasia or RCA should release a remix with either Kelly Rowland or " some other R & B princess " to " prevent this single [ from ] fall [ ing ] quick into oblivion " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" No Time for It " achieved little success after its release . On the week of January 30 , 2010 , the song debuted on the United States ' Adult R & B Songs Billboard chart at number 24 . It peaked at number six on the week of April 16 , after spending a total of eight weeks on the chart . The song remained in the chart 's top twenty until the week of July 9 .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers .
Management
ASCAP / Kennedy Klassiks Music
Personnel
Songwriting – Mark A Pitts , Brian Kennedy Seals , Lance Eric Shipp
Performer – Fantasia
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= M @-@ 19 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 19 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The trunkline begins northeast of Detroit at a junction with Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) near New Haven and runs northward to a junction with M @-@ 142 just east of Bad Axe in The Thumb region of the Lower Peninsula . The highway runs through mostly rural and agricultural areas , connecting several small communities .
Dating back to the original signposting of the state highway system , M @-@ 19 initially connected Detroit with Port Huron and Port Austin in 1919 . In late 1926 , the routing was altered to shorten it to Bad Axe on the north and Richmond on the south . Additional changes in the 1950s and 1960s updated the highway to finish paving the roadway and extend it southward to its present terminus .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 19 begins at a junction with I @-@ 94 near New Haven at the interchange for exit 247 . The highway runs to the northwest along New Haven Road into town where it turns northeasterly on Gratiot Avenue to run parallel to I @-@ 94 . Outside of New Haven , the landscape along the highway is composed of mostly farm fields on the way to Richmond . Once the trunkline enters that city , it turns northwesterly and then northward along Main Street before exiting town . Continuing north , M @-@ 19 travels through mostly rural areas and agricultural fields and continues as such , through the community of Memphis . The trunkline crosses out of Macomb County into St. Clair County in the middle of town . M @-@ 19 crosses the Belle River and continues to a junction with I @-@ 69 at exit 184 , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) west of Port Huron . From here the route continues north , passing through the small , rural community of Emmett , where M @-@ 19 crosses a branch line of the Canadian National Railway that also carries Amtrak 's Blue Water passenger route .
North of Emmet , M @-@ 19 runs through farm fields at the base of The Thumb to Brockway , where it crosses Mill Creek and has a junction with M @-@ 136 . North of Brockway the road jogs to the west passing east of the Yale Airport , a small grass landing strip just southeast of the city of Yale . The trunkline passes through Yale where it serves as Main Street in the small community . North of town , the surroundings open up into agricultural fields once again as the road continues its trek northward , crossing into Sanilac County . Across the county line , M @-@ 19 passes through small rural communities such as Peck and Speaker . About 26 miles ( 42 km ) north of Yale , the road approaches the city of Sandusky , the county seat of Sanilac County . The road runs through residential areas into the center of town . Once downtown , the highway meets M @-@ 46 ; M @-@ 19 turns west , to follow M @-@ 46 , running concurrently for about five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) .
After the two trunklines separate in Elmer , M @-@ 19 heads back northward as it enters rural and agricultural areas again . The highway heads due north for the next 30 miles ( 48 km ) passing through Argyle . M @-@ 19 crosses into Huron County south of Ubly . In that community , the highway crosses a branch line of the Huron and Eastern Railway . At a junction northeast of the Huron County Memorial Airport , M @-@ 19 reaches its northern terminus at M @-@ 142 just east of the city of Bad Axe .
M @-@ 19 is maintained by MDOT like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 19 were the 19 @,@ 737 vehicles daily south in Richmond ; the lowest counts were the 1 @,@ 482 vehicles per day in Emmet . No section of M @-@ 19 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
When the state 's highway system was initially signed in 1919 , M @-@ 19 was signposted from Detroit northeasterly to Port Huron before turning westward to run concurrently along M @-@ 21 and curving northerly to run to Bad Axe . From there it continued on to a terminus in Port Austin . When the United States Numbered Highway System was approved on November 11 , 1926 , the southernmost segment from Detroit to Port Huron was assigned to the then @-@ new US Highway 25 ( US 25 ) . M @-@ 19 was removed from M @-@ 21 and realigned from Yale southward through Emmet to connect to US 25 in Richmond . The northern end was truncated to end to the east of Bad Axe .
In 1956 , a realignment of M @-@ 90 shortened the concurrency of that highway with M @-@ 19 . By the middle of 1960 , the last 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) segment of the highway was paved between Elmer and Argyle . When US 25 was moved to follow a completed segment of the I @-@ 94 freeway in 1963 , M @-@ 19 was extended southerly along Gratiot Avenue from Richmond to New Haven and on to the freeway .
= = Major intersections = =
= Midvinterblot =
Midvinterblot ( Swedish for Midwinter 's sacrifice ) is a painting created for the hall of the central staircase in Nationalmuseum in Stockholm by the Swedish painter Carl Larsson in 1915 . It is Sweden 's most debated painting .
The painting depicts a legend from Norse mythology in which the Swedish king Domalde was sacrificed in order to avert a famine . After a long controversy it was rejected by the museum , but the debate resurfaced again in the late 20th century , after which it was finally honoured with the place where Carl Larsson intended it to be .
= = Background = =
Larsson was commissioned to decorate all the walls of the central staircase in the museum except for one , and he wanted to decorate the last wall as well . He intended the last wall to present a contrast to the other illustrations of the staircase . Whereas the painting Gustav Vasa enters Stockholm 1523 presented a midsummer theme with a triumphant king , Larsson wanted the last illustration to be a midwinter theme with a king who sacrificed himself for his people .
= = Evolution of the work = =
= = = First version = = =
The earliest known sketch ( № 236 ) is made in graphite and is located in the Carl Larsson museum in Sundborn . It was dated by Karl Axel Arvidsson to a time shortly after the visit to Copenhagen in 1910 . In July , Larsson started to paint a large version , which was finished in January 1911 , but it is only preserved in a photograph . It is based on the early sketch but it presents a richer set of figures in the foreground . The early version was put on display in Nationalmuseum without receiving any official comments . There was no formal order and no official contest had been declared , and the initiative was only Larsson 's .
An anonymous writer calling himself " Archaeologist " voiced harsh criticism in Dagens Nyheter on February 20 , 1911 . The writer stated that there were several anachronisms in the painting and which had been combined freely . The anonymous writer called the temple a " summer restaurant " decorated with motives from the Biological museum in Stockholm and he considered the dresses in the painting to be as preposterous as a Swedish farm with camels walking around the dunghill .
= = = Second version = = =
The criticism against the artistic freedom of giving a personal interpretation of a distant historic event , could have been directed at many other historic paintings of the 19th century . The criticism against Midvinterblot would be in the same vein during the following years . Larsson retorted that he would happily delegate the task to a younger talent — but he made a second version in oil ( № 237 ) in which he made the temple wider and where he added an executioner in the centre . The sets of characters were more closely assembled and the frieze @-@ like quality was enhanced .
= = = Third version = = =
Some major changes were introduced in a third watercolour painting ( № 238 ) which he made during the autumn of 1913 . This version was given the text En drömsyn . En konung offras för folket ( " a dream vision , a king sacrificed for his people " ) , a text which was possibly added in the hope that it would not be considered to be an attempt at a historically faithful reconstruction .
The most essential change consisted of a more monumental composition . The temple had been enlarged considerably and given a more stern shape , and the figures had been more closely assembled and they formed an unbroken relief @-@ like row . The sketch was put on exhibition in the museum in November 1913 and in a letter to Ludvig Looström , the director of the museum , Larsson offered the painting for 35 @,@ 000 Swedish kronor .
This version was criticised even before the museum board had had time to present their own view . August Brunius , who had expressed his enthusiasm for the Gustav Vasa painting , reacted against the choice of subject , like most critics . The choice of subject was only aggravated by the way it was presented . Brunius felt the painting to be unreal , unbelievable and not very relevant for the modern Swedes of the early 20th century .
On January 17 , 1914 , the museum 's board presented their ambivalent view on the painting . The majority of the board seconded the motion that Larsson was to finish Midvinterblot for the museum wall , but they added the reservation that the main scene with the sacrifice of a king should be excluded or downplayed . The director of the museum , Looström , objected to the board 's ruling , and he declared the painting to illustrate a " ritual killing " and he would rather the wall remain empty . Carl Larsson received the ruling of the board as a confirmation that the museum accepted his painting , but he declared that he would not make the suggested changes , nor would he accept the suggestion that the painting should be installed in the Stockholm City Hall instead .
Even Larsson 's good friend and biographist Georg Nordensvan joined the critics , but he could not sway Larsson 's determination either , although Larsson probably took his criticism hardest . The archaeologist Bror Schnittger , who was probably identical to the anonymous writer who had initiated the criticism , launched additional criticism in Svenska Dagbladet against the lack of historical authenticity in the painting . The distance in dating between the objects in the painting were given as at least 2000 years and Schnittger thought that the painting was unacceptable in the museum building . Larsson stated that he intentionally included objects that would be from the distant past in relation to the setting of the painting , and that he did not see these as anachronisms , because he imagined the subjects would be antiquarians who kept ancient items as ritual objects .
On March 1 , 1914 , Larsson , who was by then ostracized , wrote a letter to the minister of religious affairs and declared that he resigned from the task of illustrating the museum wall .
= = = The final versions and rejection = = =
In May 1914 , Carl Larsson resumed the work on the painting on his own initiative . During 1915 , he presented a painted sketch ( № 239 ) , which was largely consistent with the previous painting . The king had been remade based on an oil painting ( № 240 ) that Larsson had made with a male model named Rydberg in 1914 . The king 's position was more pathetically composed and expressive and it agreed more with the change of emphasis that had taken place during the evolution of the work after Larsson 's decision that the sacrifice was voluntary .
A new figure , a wizard , had been added to the left of the sleighs and the lion guardians at the entry of the temple , which had received a noticeably Chinese character . The colours are forceful and there are considerable amounts of gold , something that Larsson intended as a disclaimer of the common notion that pre @-@ history was gray .
Before the final decision , both the board and Carl Larsson knew that the minister of religious affairs was favourable towards the new painting . However , a majority of the board , including the former director Looström and his successor Richard Bergh , was against it , and only two were in favour . Instead , the board asked Larsson to make a different painting . Larsson did not answer initially , but he declared in the press that he still considered Midvinterblot to be among the greatest and most beautiful works he had ever made .
The minister asked for expert advice and the debate continued in the newspapers . There were suspicions that there was a political side to the animosity between Bergh and Larsson , but these suspicions were convincingly dispelled much later by Prince Eugén , Duke of Närke in a personal letter .
A book published by Nationalmuseum in 1992 on Carl Larsson claims that the most immediate and natural explanation for the ultimate rejection of the painting was the fact that time had rendered the painting unfashionable . Because of the long debate , the painting became a survivor from a time past and it could not meet the modernist ideals of the new century .
The final version was exhibited where it was intended to be in June 1915 . In the following year , it was shown at the art gallery Liljevalchs konsthall as its first exhibit was dedicated to Carl Larsson , Bruno Liljefors and Anders Zorn . It was tentatively shown again in Nationalmuseum during the period 1925 – 1933 . In 1942 , the painting was stored in the Museum of Sketches in Lund .
According to the book by Nationalmuseum , the controversy concerned Carl Larsson 's personal prestige and the ideals that he stood for , but his contemporaries would turn more and more indifferent to these ideals . The events embittered his last years and he declared in his autobiography that the controversy broke him down and that he admitted it with anger . It is clear that he began to identify himself with the work and it is possible that he also identified himself with the sacrificed king , as he primarily saw conspiracies and bad intentions behind the opposition . This identification was made apparent in his self @-@ portrait , in 1916 , where he presented himself as king Domalde , and which he donated to Sundborn parish where he lived .
= = The later controversy and eventual acceptance = =
During 1983 – 1984 , the painting was exhibited at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities in Stockholm , and after this exhibit an art dealer offered to donate or sell the painting to Nationalmuseum . The board rejected the offer with the statement that the Old Norse motif was more appropriate for the Museum of National Antiquities , which at the time still shared the same building as Nationalmuseum . When the Museum of National Antiquities had been moved to a building of its own , the painting should be moved there too .
After this rejection , the painting was sold to a Swedish art collector who offered to sell it to the Museum of National Antiquities for 12 million Swedish kronor . This offer caused a controversy in which people debated if the painting belonged to Nationalmuseum or the Museum of National Antiquities . In this debate where there were exaggerations in both directions , people claimed that the painting was both an unsurpassed masterpiece of Swedish art and a work of suspect morality . In 1987 , it was sold by Sotheby 's in London to a Japanese art collector .
In 1992 , Nationalmuseum celebrated its bicentennial anniversary and dedicated the exhibit to Carl Larsson . The Japanese owner lent the painting to the museum and when the 300 @,@ 000 visitors of the late 20th century could see the work for the first time in the hall where it was intended to be , the general opinion changed .
In 1997 , Nationalmuseum bought the painting from the collector ordered a frame for stretching the canvas from Per Målare , a carpenter in Gagnef , Dalarna , and installed it permanently where Carl Larsson had intended it to be .
The painting is mentioned in the book ' Midwinter Blood ' by Marcus Sedgwick , where it plays an important role .
= Oregon and California Railroad Revested Lands =
The Oregon and California Railroad Revested Lands ( commonly known as O & C Lands ) , are approximately 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 ha ) of land located in eighteen counties of western Oregon . Originally granted to the Oregon & California Railroad to build a railroad between Portland , Oregon and San Francisco , California , the land was reconveyed to the United States government by act of Congress in 1916 and is currently managed by the United States Bureau of Land Management .
Since 1916 , the 18 counties where the O & C lands are located have received payments from the United States government as compensation for the loss of timber and tax revenue , beginning as a 50 % share of timber revenue on those lands but changing over the years as timber production decreased . The governments of several of the counties have come to depend upon the O & C land revenue as an important source of income for schools and county services .
The most recent source of income from the lands , an extension of the Secure Rural Schools and Community Self @-@ Determination Act of 2000 , was last renewed in 2013 but at vastly reduced spending levels , leaving some counties scrambling to find new sources of funding . In late 2013 , the United States House of Representatives was considering a bill that would resume the funding and increase timber harvests to provide additional income to the counties .
= = Origin = =
As part of the U.S. government 's desire to foster settlement and economic development in the western states , in July 1866 , Congress passed the Oregon and California Railroad Act . This act made 3 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 ha ) of land available for any company that built a railroad from Portland , Oregon to San Francisco . The land was to be distributed by the state of Oregon in 12 @,@ 800 @-@ acre ( 5 @,@ 200 ha ) land grants for each mile of track completed . Two companies , both of which named themselves the Oregon Central Railroad , began a competition to build the railroad , one on the west side of the Willamette River and one on the east side . The two lines would eventually merge and reorganize as the Oregon and California Railroad . In 1869 , Congress changed how the grants were to be distributed , requiring the railroads to sell land along the line to settlers in 160 @-@ acre ( 65 ha ) parcels at $ 2 @.@ 50 per acre . The land was distributed in a checkerboard pattern , with sections laid out for 20 miles ( 32 km ) on either side of the rail corridor with the government retaining the alternate sections for future growth .
By 1872 , the railroad had extended from Portland to Roseburg . Along the way , it created growth in Willamette Valley towns such as Canby , Aurora , and Harrisburg , which emerged as freight and passenger stations , and provided a commercial lifeline to the part of the river valley above Harrisburg where steamships were rarely able to travel . As the railroad made its way into the Umpqua Valley , new townsites such as Drain , Oakland , and Yoncalla were laid out .
= = Land fraud = =
Perhaps the most significant aspect of the railroad was that it provided access to Oregon 's vast forests for large @-@ scale logging operations . But despite the large number of grants , it was difficult to sell to actual settlers because much of the land was not only heavily forested ( chiefly in Douglas @-@ fir and Western Hemlock ) , but rugged and remote ; moreover , the railroads soon realized that the land was much more valuable if sold in larger plots to developers and timber companies . As a result , some individuals posed as settlers to purchase the land at the $ 2 @.@ 50 per acre rate and then promptly deeded them back to the railroad , which amassed the smaller plots into larger ones and resold them at a higher price to timber interests .
A scheme to circumvent the settler grants altogether soon emerged . A railroad official hired a surveyor and logger named Stephen A. Douglas Puter to round up people from Portland saloons , and then take them to the land office where they would register for an O & C parcel as a settler , and then promptly resell to the railroad for bundling with other plots and resale to the highest bidder , typically as much as $ 40 an acre . In 1904 , an investigation by The Oregonian uncovered the scandal , by which time it had grown to such a magnitude that the paper reported that more than 75 % of the land sales had violated federal law .
Between 1904 and 1910 , nearly a hundred people were indicted in connection with the fraud , including U.S. Senator John H. Mitchell , U.S. Representatives John N. Williamson and Binger Hermann , and U.S. Attorney John Hicklin Hall .
= = Revestiture of lands = =
As the land fraud trials reached their conclusion , attention also turned to the Southern Pacific Railroad ( which had acquired the O & C in 1887 ) . Not only had the company violated the terms of the grant agreement , but in 1903 , declared it was terminating land sales — in violation of the grant agreement — either as a hedge against future increases in land values or to retain the timber profits for itself .
A series of lawsuits between the State of Oregon , the United States government , and the railroads ensued . Another lawsuit was brought by Portland attorney and future U.S. Representative Walter Lafferty on behalf of 18 western Oregon counties , which sued to claim revenue from timber sales on the O & C lands . The cases worked their way up to the United States Supreme Court , which ruled in 1915 in Oregon & California R. Co. v. United States that despite the violation of grant terms , the railroad had been built and the railroad company should be compensated . In 1916 , Congress passed the Chamberlain – Ferris Act , which revested the remaining 2 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 acres of land to the United States government , and compensated the railroad at $ 2 @.@ 50 per acre from an account , the Oregon and California land grant fund , funded by timber sales from the land . Oregon counties affected by the revestiture of land were also to be compensated from the fund .
The Chamberlain – Ferris Act did not ease the financial trouble faced by many of the O & C counties ; very little timber revenue was actually generated from the land , and many counties now had large percentages of their land owned by the federal government , denying them a source of property tax revenue . As these problems compounded into the 1920s , the 18 counties organized the Association of O & C Counties ( AOCC ) to give itself a voice in Washington , D.C .. One of its cofounders , Douglas County district attorney and future U.S. Senator Guy Cordon , began lobbying Oregon 's congressional delegation for relief . In 1926 , a bill introduced by Oregon Senator Robert N. Stanfield , which became known as the Stanfield Act , was passed . This law provided that the U.S. government pay the counties in lieu of property taxes they would have received if the land were privately owned . But since the U.S. government was to be reimbursed from timber revenues , and since timber revenue remained low , very few payments were actually made to the counties , and Congress began to work on new legislation .
= = The O & C Act = =
In 1937 , Congress again sought to ensure federal funding for the 18 O & C counties . The Oregon and California Revested Lands Sustained Yield Management Act of 1937 ( 43 U.S.C. § 1181f ) , commonly referred as the O & C Act , directed the United States Department of the Interior to harvest timber from the O & C lands ( as well as the Coos Bay Wagon Road Lands ) on a sustained yield basis . The legislation returned 50 percent of timber sales receipts to the counties , and 25 percent to the U.S. Treasury to reimburse the federal government for payments made to the counties prior to establishment of the Act . The law specifically provided that the lands be managed , including reforestation and protection of watershed , to ensure a permanent source of timber , and therefore , revenue to the counties .
Under the O & C Act , the Department of the Interior under its General Land Office and later succeeded by the Bureau of Land Management , managed more than 44 billion board feet of standing inventory in 1937 into more than 60 billion board feet by the mid @-@ 1990s , and harvested more than 44 billion board feet over that time period . In 1951 , the U.S. Treasury had been fully reimbursed , and the 25 percent of the revenue that had previously gone to the Treasury now reverted to the counties ; in 1953 , the counties opted to divert that money to maintenance of the land and roads , reforestation , as well as recreational facilities and other improvements . A 1970 GAO report contained an estimate that from its implementation through 1969 , the counties had received a total of $ 300 million as a result of the Act . The authors of the report also estimated that most counties received more from the government payments than they would have if the land had been held privately .
The O & C Act achieved what the previous legislation had failed to do : provide a stable revenue to the counties . This revenue became a vital part of the budgets of the O & C counties , paying for county @-@ provided services such as law enforcement and corrections and health and social services . With this funding seemingly guaranteed , the counties kept other taxes much lower than other counties in the state , increasing their dependence on the timber payments . For example , the property tax in Curry County is 60 cents per $ 1 @,@ 000 of assessed value , far below the state average of $ 2 @.@ 81 per $ 1000 .
= = Decline in timber revenue and revised Congressional action = =
In 1989 , annual timber harvest revenue on federal forest land nationwide peaked at $ 1 @.@ 5 billion . Following that year , the impact of overharvesting and increased environmental concerns began to negatively impact timber sales on the O & C lands . In 1994 , the federal Northwest Forest Plan was implemented . Designed to guide forest management of federal lands while protecting old @-@ growth forest habitat for endangered species such as the Northern spotted owl , the plan restricted the land available for timber harvest . By 1998 , revenue on federal forest lands fell to a third of the peak 1989 revenue , with areas in the Northwest particularly hard @-@ hit .
To offset the effects of the loss of timber revenue , in 1993 , President Bill Clinton proposed a 10 @-@ year program of payments , set at 85 percent of the average O & C Act payments from 1986 to 1990 , and declining 3 percent annually . These " spotted owl " or " safety net " payments were passed by Congress as part of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 ( Pub.L. 103 – 66 ) .
With the payments set to expire in 2003 , work began in 1999 to seek an extension to the payments . The O & C counties joined with other rural counties ( including 15 of Oregon 's other 18 counties ) that also faced falling timber revenues to lobby Congress for another solution . In 2000 , Congress passed the Secure Rural Schools and Community Self @-@ Determination Act ( Pub.L. 106 – 393 ) , which authorizes western counties , including the O & C counties , to receive federal payments to compensate for loss of timber revenue until 2006 . Payments to O & C counties , which included O & C revenue as well as revenue on Forest Service land , averaged about $ 250 million per year from 2000 to 2006 . The act was extended for one year in 2007 , and in 2008 , a four @-@ year extension was included in the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 that phased out the program by 2012 . The extension expired on September 30 , 2011 and the final payment of just over $ 40 million was delivered to the O & C counties in early 2012 .
In late 2011 , Oregon Senators Ron Wyden and Jeff Merkley proposed legislation to extend the payments for another five years . The move was backed by Governor John Kitzhaber and the entire Oregon congressional delegation . Republican and Democratic members of Oregon 's congressional delegation also proposed setting aside some of the federal land in Oregon as public trusts in which half would be designated for harvest to provide revenue for the counties , and half designated as a conservation area . President Barack Obama 's proposed 2013 United States federal budget included $ 294 million to extend the program for fiscal year 2013 with a plan to continue the payments for four more years , with the amount declining 10 % each year .
In March 2012 , the U.S. Senate added an amendment to the surface transportation bill that authorized a one @-@ year extension to the Secure Rural Schools and Community Self @-@ Determination Act . Oregon counties would have received a total of $ 102 million from the legislation in 2012 , to be divided among all 33 counties that currently receive payments . In 2008 , Oregon received $ 250 million from the program . The full transportation bill , including the amendment , passed the Senate by a 74 – 22 vote , but the U.S. House of Representatives refused to vote on the Senate bill , instead passing a three @-@ month extension to the current transportation bill that did not contain a county payments extension . In July 2012 , the Secure Rural Schools Act renewal amendment was included in the transportation bill approved by Congress and signed by the President . This was widely expected to be the last renewal of the program , but in September 2013 , Congress passed another one @-@ year extension to the program , though again at reduced levels .
= = Future of the O & C counties = =
With future revenue uncertain , several Oregon counties now face a severe financial crisis to pay for county services , including law enforcement , social services , justice and corrections systems , election services and road maintenance among others . With county services required by state law and bankruptcy not permitted , counties have considered merging to save costs , and explored new sources of revenue .
One of the hardest @-@ hit counties , Curry County , introduced a ballot measure to add a 3 % sales tax to pay for county services . Oregon is one of only five states in the United States with no county or state sales tax , and the tax has been voted down regularly by voters whenever it has been proposed ( though some areas assess a gas tax , and two cities in tourist areas , Ashland and Yachats , assess a local tax on prepared food ) . In Josephine County , after a proposed property tax increase to pay for law enforcement was defeated in May 2012 , the sheriff 's office reduced its staff by 2 / 3 and released inmates from the county jail to reduce spending . Lane County released 96 prisoners from its prisons and laid off 40 law enforcement personnel to cut costs .
In 2012 , the Oregon Legislative Assembly passed a law to allow O & C counties to use timber funds previously reserved for road maintenance to pay for law enforcement patrols .
In late 2013 , the House passed a forest management bill co @-@ sponsored by Oregon Representatives Peter DeFazio , Greg Walden , and Kurt Schrader that would include increased timber harvests on O & C lands along with resumption of some Secure Rural Schools funding . President Obama has indicated he is likely to veto the bill .
= Terma ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Terma " is the ninth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on December 1 , 1996 . It was directed by Rob Bowman , and written by Frank Spotnitz and series creator Chris Carter . " Terma " featured guest appearances by John Neville , Nicholas Lea and Fritz Weaver . The episode helped explore the series ' overarching mythology . " Terma " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 3 , being watched by 17 @.@ 34 million viewers during its original airing .
FBI special agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and assistant director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) attend a United States Senate hearing , while Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) attempts to escape from a Russian gulag . " Terma " is a two @-@ part episode , continuing the plot from the previous episode , " Tunguska " .
Several scenes in " Terma " were inspired by the novels of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn , while its tagline — changed to " E pur si muove " from the usual " The truth is out there " — is a reference to Galileo Galilei 's investigation by the Roman Inquisition . " Terma " features a climactic explosion at an oil refinery wellhead , requiring the physical effects staff to ignite a 300 feet ( 91 m ) plume of flammable liquids .
= = Plot = =
Having been imprisoned in a gulag in Krasnoyarsk , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) learns that Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) is a double agent working for the Russian taskmasters . Mulder is able to escape from the camp while taking Krycek hostage , although the two become separated in the confusion . Krycek is found by a group of men whose left arms have all been amputated , and has his arm forcibly severed to prevent his involvements in black oil vaccination tests .
Meanwhile , Vasily Peskow ( Jan Rubes ) , a former KGB agent ,
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= = = Flashbacks = = =
Young Hurley ( Caden Waidyatilleka ) joins his father , David Reyes ( Cheech Marin ) , over an old Camaro that they want to repair . It won 't start however , and David assures him good things happen when you believe they will , and that in this world you have to " make your own luck . " While leaving for Las Vegas , David gives Hurley a chocolate bar and promises to return soon .
Now an adult , Hurley ( Jorge Garcia ) watches as his new Mr. Cluck 's chicken restaurant gets hit by a meteorite , killing those inside , including Tricia Tanaka ( Sung @-@ Hi Lee ) , the newswoman who just interviewed him about his lottery winnings . Hurley arrives home , telling his mother his intent to go to Australia to end the bad luck curse he believes was bestowed upon him after he won the lottery . She tries to disprove the curse by revealing his father has returned to them after seventeen years . Suspecting his father of only wanting the lottery money , Hurley reacts angrily . David brings his son to a tarot card reader ( Suzanne Krull ) , who tells Hurley she can ' remove ' the curse before admitting that David paid her to say this . Hurley vows to give the money away , and begins packing for Australia . David acknowledges he just returned for the money , but approves of Hurley 's decision and promises he will be waiting for him when Hurley gets back .
= = = On the Island = = =
On the island , Hurley sorrowfully speaks to Libby 's grave about what happened to Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) , Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) and James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) after they were taken by the Others . Hurley learns that Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) believes that Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) sees visions of Charlie 's death . Hurley believes this and tells Charlie that he thinks he brings bad luck . Vincent the dog shows up with a mummified human arm , leading Hurley to a Volkswagen camper van on its side underneath the foliage . Inside is a skeleton wearing a DHARMA Initiative jumpsuit sporting the name " Roger " on its chest and the Swan station 's logo . On the beach , Hurley 's requests for help are turned down . Jin @-@ Soo Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) , who doesn 't understand what Hurley is saying , is roped into helping .
Hurley finds beer in the van and a returned Sawyer outside . He learns from Sawyer that he and Kate escaped but Jack is still prisoner . Hurley is very optimistic about the future and volunteers Sawyer to help him fix the van . Meanwhile , Desmond refuses to tell Charlie when he will die . Kate informs Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) of all she knows about the Others and then leaves , saying she 's going to get help to rescue Jack , but she won 't say from whom .
Hurley , Jin and Sawyer raid the van and find maps and beer . Meanwhile , Hurley tells Charlie to stop moping and help him start the car , saying that he might die doing it but they should make their own luck , face death , and possibly win . Hurley eventually convinces the others to push the van to a slope in order to get it started . Despite Sawyer 's warnings , Hurley goes through with the plan . Charlie declares " victory or death " and rides with Hurley , as Sawyer and Jin push the vehicle down the steep hill . At first it looks as though they will crash , but the van starts just in time . Later , the entire group enjoys a ride .
Hurley is later left with the van and continues driving . Jin gives Sun @-@ Hwa Kwon ( Yunjin Kim ) a flower , Charlie talks with Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) and Sawyer brings some beer for Kate but finds that she isn 't around . Meanwhile , Kate meets up with John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) and Sayid on her way to find Danielle Rousseau ( Mira Furlan ) , who she hopes to get help from . Locke reveals he has compass readings from Mr. Eko 's stick . Kate 's recruiting of Rousseau seems to fail until she mentions her suspicions about Alex , who helped Kate escape , being Rousseau 's daughter .
= = Production = =
Having worked with executive producer Carlton Cuse on Nash Bridges , guest actor Cheech Marin was called by Cuse requesting he appear on Lost , to which Marin responded " You know , that sounds like a lot of fun ... It 's in Hawaii , right ? I can do that ! ' " Cuse later commented , " He 's quite a good actor . People only think of him as the doobie @-@ smoking ' 70s dude . But he played Tyne Daly 's love interest in Judging Amy . C 'mon ! "
While shooting the episode , Jorge Garcia noted " the group on the beach has been quite big . They laid out the most cast chairs I 've ever seen at one time since the pilot and it 's been fun . " Garcia previewed his character 's flashback in a New York Post interview , " [ it is ] the kind of relationship Hurley has with his father and how it 's changed from when he was a kid now that he 's an adult and a lottery winner . He finds something on the island that brings him back to that time and that 's how it all gets started " . Actor Josh Holloway was told that an emotional undercurrent of the episode concerned his failed relationship with Kate . Holloway commented that Sawyer is thinking I have " my beer ... but I don 't have my girl . He 's worried , and drowning it with beer " .
To help train the dog playing Vincent for the episode 's needed scenes , Madison was given the fake arm to take home and play with ; when finally brought on the set , the crew had difficulty shooting her because Madison would bring and drop off the arm slightly differently each time , causing trouble recreating the same camera angles . Actor Daniel Dae Kim described their scenes with the beer in the DVD special features , " The comedic scenes with Josh were so much fun to play because it was a lighter side . A nice change of pace . " Like their characters , the actors had not been in scenes together in a while , so Dae Kim thought it " was fun to catch up and have fun in the process " . The episode featured Hurley driving a bus down a hill . To create this scene , Garcia had to drive the bus down a small hill " very stead [ ily ] " to ensure the cameraman could record it all ; towards the end however , they told Garcia to just " go for it " , allowing him to " cut loose a little " . For the close @-@ up shots of Garcia and Dominic Monaghan , the production crew would shake the bus to simulate driving , and brush various pieces of foliage across the windshield to make it seem the bus was hitting bushes or trees . A stunt double standing in for Garcia performed the largest hill in the drive down ; they were unable to rehearse due to getting rained out , so their first rehearsal was done on film . Dae Kim commented that " it was just great to have as much fun on camera as we do off camera " , and that there was no real acting that day , as they were all enjoying themselves as much as their characters . The Volkswagen campus van — still in operating condition — along with Hurley 's Camaro , were later auctioned off with other Lost props and costumes at the Santa Monica Airport in 2010 .
The song " Shambala " by Three Dog Night is used several times in the episode , both in Hurley 's flashbacks and on the Island .
= = Reception = =
On its original American broadcast on February 28 , 2007 , an estimated 12 @.@ 78 million viewers tuned into the episode , making it the 24th most watched television program of the week .
After what he felt was a period of bad episodes culminating with " Stranger in a Strange Land " , critic Andrew Dignan of Slant Magazine praised " Tricia Tanaka Is Dead " as a " palate cleanser , reminding us that this show is meant to be , above all else , fun " . He described the episode as an " expected pleasure , disarming in a way [ Lost ] hasn 't been since Season One , back before these people became jaded by " Others " and consumed with tedious busy work while the show 's producers figured out what frequently disappointing direction to push them in next . " Dignan did however acknowledge that others might not have found the episode as enjoyable as he did . Erin Martell of TV Squad wasn 't sure what to think of the episode , believing that it was " entertaining " but produced nothing new for viewers . She did note that the characters are now in place to take action for following episodes , and hoped that the episode 's " slow @-@ moving events " were " building up to some serious resolution " . Rather than dismiss the episode for lacking a mythology @-@ related storyline , Jeff Jensen from Entertainment Weekly called it " a joyous and poignant hour of television " , and said that it " could very well be a cleverly crafted allegory for the history of The Dharma Initiative on The Island . "
New York Magazine put " Tricia Tanaka Is Dead " as third of its list of " Twenty Most Pointless Lost Episodes " , claiming that " because with all his other problems , daddy issues don 't feel like something that needs to be thrown at Hurley " and David could have been written as a positive character " just to add some variation to the bad @-@ dad overkill on this show " . IGN ranked " Tricia Tanaka Is Dead " as the second worst Lost episode , above only " Stranger in a Strange Land " , explaining " Is there a better metaphor that Lost was running in circles at this point in Season 3 than seeing several of the castaways driving in circles on the island , with goofy grins on their faces ? ... With a dull story on the island and flashbacks weakly giving Hurley the requisite daddy issues so many of the other characters already had , it was clear Lost needed to make a big change soon to recapture what was special about the show . Thankfully , they did . " A similar list by the Los Angeles Times ranked the episode much higher at 31 , writing " The haters need to shut up . This is a nearly pure embrace of the Lost ethos . You make your own fate up until the moment when you don 't . "
Various reviewers praised Jorge Garcia 's performance , with one believing the episode " was a reminder that Garcia 's not only a wonderful ( and much needed ) comedic outlet for the show but a fine actor who specializes in intimate dramas of anxiety and self @-@ realization " .
Garcia submitted this episode for consideration for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards .
= Actinide =
The actinide / ˈæktᵻnaɪd / or actinoid / ˈæktᵻnɔɪd / ( IUPAC nomenclature ) series encompasses the 15 metallic chemical elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103 , actinium through lawrencium .
The actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series , actinium . The informal chemical symbol An is used in general discussions of actinide chemistry to refer to any actinide . All but one of the actinides are f @-@ block elements , corresponding to the filling of the 5f electron shell ; lawrencium , a d @-@ block element , is also generally considered an actinide . In comparison with the lanthanides , also mostly f @-@ block elements , the actinides show much more variable valence . They all have very large atomic and ionic radii and exhibit an unusually large range of physical properties . While actinium and the late actinides ( from americium onwards ) behave similarly to the lanthanides , the elements thorium through neptunium are much more similar to transition metals in their chemistry .
All actinides are radioactive and release energy upon radioactive decay ; naturally occurring uranium and thorium , and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth . These are used in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons . Uranium and thorium also have diverse current or historical uses , and americium is used in the ionization chambers of most modern smoke detectors .
Of the actinides , primordial thorium and uranium occur naturally in substantial quantities and small amounts of persisting natural plutonium have also been identified . The radioactive decay of uranium produces transient amounts of actinium and protactinium , and atoms of neptunium and plutonium are occasionally produced from transmutation reactions in uranium ores . The other actinides are purely synthetic elements . Nuclear weapons tests have released at least six actinides heavier than plutonium into the environment ; analysis of debris from a 1952 hydrogen bomb explosion showed the presence of americium , curium , berkelium , californium , einsteinium and fermium .
In presentations of the periodic table , the lanthanides and the actinides are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table , with placeholders or else a selected single element of each series ( either lanthanum or lutetium , and either actinium or lawrencium , respectively ) shown in a single cell of the main table , between barium and hafnium , and radium and rutherfordium , respectively . This convention is entirely a matter of aesthetics and formatting practicality ; a rarely used wide @-@ formatted periodic table inserts the lanthanide and actinide series in their proper places , as parts of the table 's sixth and seventh rows ( periods ) .
= = Discovery , isolation and synthesis = =
Like the lanthanides , the actinides form a family of elements with similar properties . Within the actinides , there are two overlapping groups : transuranium elements , which follow uranium in the periodic table — and transplutonium elements , which follow plutonium . Compared to the lanthanides , which ( except for promethium ) are found in nature in appreciable quantities , most actinides are rare . The most abundant , or easily synthesized actinides are uranium and thorium , followed by plutonium , americium , actinium , protactinium and neptunium .
The existence of transuranium elements was suggested by Enrico Fermi based on his experiments in 1934 . However , even though four actinides were known by that time , it was not yet understood that they formed a family similar to lanthanides . The prevailing view that dominated early research into transuranics was that they were regular elements in the 7th period , with thorium , protactinium and uranium corresponding to 6th @-@ period hafnium , tantalum and tungsten , respectively . Synthesis of transuranics gradually undermined this point of view . By 1944 an observation that curium failed to exhibit oxidation states above 4 ( whereas its supposed 6th period homolog , platinum , can reach oxidation state of 6 ) prompted Glenn Seaborg to formulate a so @-@ called " actinide hypothesis " . Studies of known actinides and discoveries of further transuranic elements provided more data in support of this point of view , but the phrase " actinide hypothesis " ( the implication being that " hypothesis " is something that has not been decisively proven ) remained in active use by scientists through the late 1950s .
At present , there are two major methods of producing isotopes of transplutonium elements : irradiation of the lighter elements with either neutrons or accelerated charged particles . The first method is most important for applications , as only neutron irradiation using nuclear reactors allows the production of sizeable amounts of synthetic actinides ; however , it is limited to relatively light elements . The advantage of the second method is that elements heavier than plutonium , as well as neutron @-@ deficient isotopes , can be obtained , which are not formed during neutron irradiation .
In 1962 – 1966 , there were attempts in the United States to produce transplutonium isotopes using a series of six underground nuclear explosions . Small samples of rock were extracted from the blast area immediately after the test to study the explosion products , but no isotopes with mass number greater than 257 could be detected , despite predictions that such isotopes would have relatively long half @-@ lives of α @-@ decay . This inobservation was attributed to spontaneous fission owing to the large speed of the products and to other decay channels , such as neutron emission and nuclear fission .
= = = From actinium to uranium = = =
Uranium and thorium were the first actinides discovered . Uranium was identified in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in pitchblende ore . He named it after the planet Uranus , which had been discovered only eight years earlier . Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound ( likely sodium diuranate ) by dissolving pitchblende in nitric acid and neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide . He then reduced the obtained yellow powder with charcoal , and extracted a black substance that he mistook for metal . Only 60 years later , the French scientist Eugène @-@ Melchior Péligot identified it with uranium oxide . He also isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating uranium tetrachloride with potassium . The atomic mass of uranium was then calculated as 120 , but Dmitri Mendeleev in 1872 corrected it to 240 using his periodicity laws . This value was confirmed experimentally in 1882 by K. Zimmerman .
Thorium oxide was discovered by Friedrich Wöhler in the mineral , which was found in Norway ( 1827 ) . Jöns Jacob Berzelius characterized this material in more detail by in 1828 . By reduction of thorium tetrachloride with potassium , he isolated the metal and named it thorium after the Norse god of thunder and lightning Thor . The same isolation method was later used by Péligot for uranium .
Actinium was discovered in 1899 by André @-@ Louis Debierne , an assistant of Marie Curie , in the pitchblende waste left after removal of radium and polonium . He described the substance ( in 1899 ) as similar to titanium and ( in 1900 ) as similar to thorium . The discovery of actinium by Debierne was however questioned in 1971 and 2000 , arguing that Debierne 's publications in 1904 contradicted his earlier work of 1899 – 1900 . The name actinium comes from the Greek aktis , aktinos ( ακτίς , ακτίνος ) , meaning beam or ray . This metal was discovered not by its own radiation but by the radiation of the daughter products . Owing to the close similarity of actinium and lanthanum and low abundance , pure actinium could only be produced in 1950 . The term actinide was probably introduced by Victor Goldschmidt in 1937 .
Protactinium was possibly isolated in 1900 by William Crookes . It was first identified in 1913 , when Kasimir Fajans and Oswald Helmuth Göhring encountered the short @-@ lived isotope 234mPa ( half @-@ life 1 @.@ 17 minutes ) during their studies of the 238U decay . They named the new element brevium ( from Latin brevis meaning brief ) ; the name was changed to protoactinium ( from Greek πρῶτος + ἀκτίς meaning " first beam element " ) in 1918 when two groups of scientists , led by the Austrian Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn of Germany and Frederick Soddy and John Cranston of Great Britain , independently discovered 231Pa . The name was shortened to protactinium in 1949 . This element was little characterized until 1960 , when A. G. Maddock and his co @-@ workers in the U.K. produced 130 grams of protactinium from 60 tonnes of waste left after extraction of uranium from its ore .
= = = Neptunium and above = = =
Neptunium ( named for the planet Neptune , the next planet out from Uranus , after which uranium was named ) was discovered by Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson in 1940 in Berkeley , California . They produced the 239Np isotope ( half @-@ life = 2 @.@ 4 days ) by bombarding uranium with slow neutrons . It was the first transuranium element produced synthetically .
Transuranium elements do not occur in sizeable quantities in nature and are commonly synthesized via nuclear reactions conducted with nuclear reactors . For example , under irradiation with reactor neutrons , uranium @-@ 238 partially converts to plutonium @-@ 239 :
<formula>
In this way , Enrico Fermi with collaborators , using the first nuclear reactor Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , obtained significant amounts of plutonium @-@ 239 , which were then used in nuclear weapons .
Actinides with the highest mass numbers are synthesized by bombarding uranium , plutonium , curium and californium with ions of nitrogen , oxygen , carbon , neon or boron in a particle accelerator . So , nobelium was produced by bombarding uranium @-@ 238 with neon @-@ 22 as
<formula> .
The first isotopes of transplutonium elements , americium @-@ 241 and curium @-@ 242 , were synthesized in 1944 by Glenn T. Seaborg , Ralph A. James and Albert Ghiorso . Curium @-@ 242 was obtained by bombarding plutonium @-@ 239 with 32 @-@ MeV α @-@ particles
<formula> .
The americium @-@ 241 and curium @-@ 242 isotopes also were produced by irradiating plutonium in a nuclear reactor . The latter element was named after Marie Curie and her husband Pierre who are noted for discovering radium and for their work in radioactivity .
Bombarding curium @-@ 242 with α @-@ particles resulted in an isotope of californium 245Cf ( 1950 ) , and a similar procedure yielded in 1949 berkelium @-@ 243 from americium @-@ 241 . The new elements were named after Berkeley , California , by analogy with its lanthanide homologue terbium , which was named after the village of Ytterby in Sweden .
In 1945 , B. B. Cunningham obtained the first bulk chemical compound of a transplutonium element , namely americium hydroxide . Over the next three to four years , milligram quantities of americium and microgram amounts of curium were accumulated that allowed production of isotopes of berkelium ( Thomson , 1949 ) and californium ( Thomson , 1950 ) . Sizeable amounts of these elements were produced only in 1958 ( Burris B. Cunningham and Stanley G. Thomson ) , and the first californium compound ( 0 @.@ 3 µg of CfOCl ) was obtained only in 1960 by B. B. Cunningham and J. C. Wallmann .
Einsteinium and fermium were identified in 1952 – 1953 in the fallout from the " Ivy Mike " nuclear test ( 1 November 1952 ) , the first successful test of a hydrogen bomb . Instantaneous exposure of uranium @-@ 238 to a large neutron flux resulting from the explosion produced heavy isotopes of uranium , including uranium @-@ 253 and uranium @-@ 255 , and their β @-@ decay yielded einsteinium @-@ 253 and fermium @-@ 255 . The discovery of the new elements and the new data on neutron capture were initially kept secret on the orders of the U.S. military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions . Nevertheless , the Berkeley team were able to prepare einsteinium and fermium by civilian means , through the neutron bombardment of plutonium @-@ 239 , and published this work in 1954 with the disclaimer that it was not the first studies that had been carried out on the elements . The " Ivy Mike " studies were declassified and published in 1955 . The first significant ( submicrograms ) amounts of einsteinium were produced in 1961 by Cunningham and colleagues , but this has not been done for fermium yet .
The first isotope of mendelevium , 256Md ( half @-@ life 87 min ) , was synthesized by Albert Ghiorso , Glenn T. Seaborg , Gregory R. Choppin , Bernard G. Harvey and Stanley G. Thompson when they bombarded an 253Es target with alpha particles in the 60 @-@ inch cyclotron of Berkeley Radiation Laboratory ; this was the first isotope of any element to be synthesized one atom at a time .
There were several attempts to obtain isotopes of nobelium by Swedish ( 1957 ) and American ( 1958 ) groups , but the first reliable result was the synthesis of 256No by the Russian group ( Georgy Flyorov et al . ) in 1965 , as acknowledged by the IUPAC in 1992 . In their experiments , Flyorov et al. bombarded uranium @-@ 238 with neon @-@ 22 .
In 1961 , Ghiorso et al. obtained the first isotope of lawrencium by irradiating californium ( mostly californium @-@ 252 ) with boron @-@ 10 and boron @-@ 11 ions . The mass number of this isotope was not clearly established ( possibly 258 or 259 ) at the time . In 1965 , 256Lr was synthesized by Flyorov et al. from 243Am and 18O . Thus IUPAC recognized the nuclear physics teams at Dubna and Berkeley as the co @-@ discoverers of lawrencium .
= = Isotopes = =
Thirty @-@ one isotopes of actinium and eight excited isomeric states of some of its nuclides were identified by 2010 . Three isotopes , 225Ac , 227Ac and 228Ac , were found in nature and the others were produced in the laboratory ; only the three natural isotopes are used in applications . Actinium @-@ 225 is a member of radioactive neptunium series ; it was first discovered in 1947 as a decay product of uranium @-@ 233 , it is an α @-@ emitter with a half @-@ life of 10 days . Actinium @-@ 225 is less available than actinium @-@ 228 , but is more promising in radiotracer applications . Actinium @-@ 227 ( half @-@ life 21 @.@ 77 years ) occurs in all uranium ores , but in small quantities . One gram of uranium ( in radioactive equilibrium ) contains only 2 × 10 − 10 gram of 227Ac . Actinium @-@ 228 is a member of radioactive thorium series formed by the decay of 228Ra ; it is a β − emitter with a half @-@ life of 6 @.@ 15 hours . In one tonne of thorium there is 5 × 10 − 8 gram of 228Ac . It was discovered by Otto Hahn in 1906 .
Twenty nine isotopes of protactinium are known with mass numbers 212 – 240 as well as three excited isomeric states . Only 231Pa and 234Pa have been found in nature . All the isotopes have short lifetime , except for protactinium @-@ 231 ( half @-@ life 32 @,@ 760 years ) . The most important isotopes are 231Pa and 233Pa , which is an intermediate product in obtaining uranium @-@ 233 and is the most affordable among artificial isotopes of protactinium . 233Pa has convenient half @-@ life and energy of γ @-@ radiation , and thus was used in most studies of protactinium chemistry . Protactinium @-@ 233 is a β @-@ emitter with a half @-@ life of 26 @.@ 97 days .
Uranium has the highest number ( 25 ) of both natural and synthetic isotopes . They have mass numbers of 217 – 242 , and three of them , 234U , 235U and 238U , are present in appreciable quantities in nature . Among others , the most important is 233U , which is a final product of transformations of 232Th irradiated by slow neutrons . 233U has a much higher fission efficiency by low @-@ energy ( thermal ) neutrons , compared e.g. with 235U . Most uranium chemistry studies were carried out on uranium @-@ 238 owing to its long half @-@ life of 4 @.@ 4 × 109 years .
There are 19 isotopes of neptunium with mass numbers from 225 to 244 ; they are all highly radioactive . The most popular among scientists are long @-@ lived 237Np ( t1 / 2
= 2 @.@ 20 × 106 years ) and short @-@ lived 239Np , 238Np ( t1 / 2 ~ 2 days ) .
Sixteen isotopes of americium are known with mass numbers from 232 to 248 . The most important are 241Am and 243Am , which are alpha @-@ emitters and also emit soft , but intense γ @-@ rays ; both of them can be obtained in an isotopically pure form . Chemical properties of americium were first studied with 241Am , but later shifted to 243Am , which is almost 20 times less radioactive . The disadvantage of 243Am is production of the short @-@ lived daughter isotope 239Np , which has to be considered in the data analysis .
Among 19 isotopes of curium , the most accessible are 242Cm and 244Cm ; they are α @-@ emitters , but with much shorter lifetime than the americium isotopes . These isotopes emit almost no γ @-@ radiation , but undergo spontaneous fission with the associated emission of neutrons . More long @-@ lived isotopes of curium ( 245 – 248Cm , all α @-@ emitters ) are formed as a mixture during neutron irradiation of plutonium or americium . Upon short irradiation , this mixture is dominated by curium @-@ 246 , and then curium @-@ 248 begins to accumulate . Both of these isotopes , especially 248Cm , have a longer half @-@ life ( 3 @.@ 48 × 105 years ) and are much more convenient for carrying out chemical research than 242Cm and 244Cm , but they also have a rather high rate of spontaneous fission . 247Cm has the longest lifetime among isotopes of curium ( 1 @.@ 56 × 107 years ) , but is not formed in large quantities because of the strong fission induced by thermal neutrons .
Fourteen isotopes of berkelium were identified with mass numbers 238 – 252 . Only 249Bk is available in large quantities ; it has a relatively short half @-@ life of 330 days and emits mostly soft β @-@ particles , which are inconvenient for detection . Its alpha radiation is rather weak ( 1 @.@ 45 × 10 − 3 % with respect to β @-@ radiation ) , but is sometimes used to detect this isotope . 247Bk is an alpha @-@ emitter with a long half @-@ life of 1 @,@ 380 years , but it is hard to obtain in appreciable quantities ; it is not formed upon neutron irradiation of plutonium because of the β @-@ stability of isotopes of curium isotopes with mass number below 248 .
Isotopes of californium with mass numbers 237 – 256 are formed in nuclear reactors ; californium @-@ 253 is a β @-@ emitter and the rest are α @-@ emitters . The isotopes with even mass numbers ( 250Cf , 252Cf and 254Cf ) have a high rate of spontaneous fission , especially 254Cf of which 99 @.@ 7 % decays by spontaneous fission . Californium @-@ 249 has a relatively long half @-@ life ( 352 years ) , weak spontaneous fission and strong γ @-@ emission that facilitates its identification . 249Cf is not formed in large quantities in a nuclear reactor because of the slow β @-@ decay of the parent isotope 249Bk and a large cross section of interaction with neutrons , but it can be accumulated in the isotopically pure form as the β @-@ decay product of ( pre @-@ selected ) 249Bk . Californium produced by reactor @-@ irradiation of plutonium mostly consists of 250Cf and 252Cf , the latter being predominant for large neutron fluences , and its study is hindered by the strong neutron radiation .
Among the 16 known isotopes of einsteinium with mass numbers from 241 to 257 the most affordable is 253Es . It is an α @-@ emitter with a half @-@ life of 20 @.@ 47 days , a relatively weak γ @-@ emission and small spontaneous fission rate as compared with the isotopes of californium . Prolonged neutron irradiation also produces a long @-@ lived isotope 254Es ( t1 / 2 =
275 @.@ 5 days ) .
Nineteen isotopes of fermium are known with mass numbers of 242 – 260 . 254Fm , 255Fm and 256Fm are α @-@ emitters with a short half @-@ life ( hours ) , which can be isolated in significant amounts . 257Fm ( t1 / 2
= 100 days ) can accumulate upon prolonged and strong irradiation . All these isotopes are characterized by high rates of spontaneous fission .
Among the 15 known isotopes of mendelevium ( mass numbers from 245 to 260 ) , the most studied is 256Md , which mainly decays through the electron capture ( α @-@ radiation is ≈ 10 % ) with the half @-@ life of 77 minutes . Another alpha emitter , 258Md , has a half @-@ life of 53 days . Both these isotopes are produced from rare einsteinium ( 253Es and 255Es respectively ) , that therefore limits their availability .
Long @-@ lived isotopes of nobelium and isotopes of lawrencium ( and of heavier elements ) have relatively short half @-@ lives . For nobelium 11 isotopes are known with mass numbers 250 – 260 and 262 . The chemical properties of nobelium and lawrencium were studied with 255No ( t1 / 2 =
3 min ) and 256Lr ( t1 / 2 = 35 s ) . The longest @-@ lived nobelium isotope 259No has a half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 5 hours .
= = Distribution in nature = =
Thorium and uranium are the most abundant actinides in nature with the respective mass concentrations of 1 @.@ 6 × 10 − 3 % and 4 × 10 − 4 % . Uranium mostly occurs in the Earth 's crust as a mixture of its oxides in the minerals uraninite , which is also called pitchblende because of its black color . There are several dozens of other uranium minerals such as carnotite ( KUO2VO4 · 3H2O ) and autunite ( Ca ( UO2 ) 2 ( PO4 ) 2 · nH2O ) . The isotopic composition of natural uranium is 238U ( relative abundance 99 @.@ 2742 % ) , 235U ( 0 @.@ 7204 % ) and 234U ( 0 @.@ 0054 % ) ; of these 238U has the largest half @-@ life of 4 @.@ 51 × 109 years . The worldwide production of uranium in 2009 amounted to 50 @,@ 572 tonnes , of which 27 @.@ 3 % was mined in Kazakhstan . Other important uranium mining countries are Canada ( 20 @.@ 1 % ) , Australia ( 15 @.@ 7 % ) , Namibia ( 9 @.@ 1 % ) , Russia ( 7 @.@ 0 % ) , and Niger ( 6 @.@ 4 % ) .
The most abundant thorium minerals are thorianite ( ThO2 ) , thorite ( ThSiO4 ) and monazite , ( ( Th , Ca , Ce ) PO4 ) . Most thorium minerals contain uranium and vice versa ; and they all have significant fraction of lanthanides . Rich deposits of thorium minerals are located in the United States ( 440 @,@ 000 tonnes ) , Australia and India ( ~ 300 @,@ 000 tonnes each ) and Canada ( ~ 100 @,@ 000 tonnes ) .
The abundance of actinium in the Earth 's crust is only about 5 × 10 − 15 % . Actinium is mostly present in uranium @-@ containing , but also in other minerals , though in much smaller quantities . The content of actinium in most natural objects corresponds to the isotopic equilibrium of parent isotope 235U , and it is not affected by the weak Ac migration . Protactinium is more abundant ( 10 − 12 % ) in the Earth 's crust than actinium . It was discovered in the uranium ore in 1913 by Fajans and Göhring . As actinium , the distribution of protactinium follows that of 235U .
The half @-@ life of the longest @-@ lived isotope of neptunium , 237Np , is negligible compared to the age of the Earth . Thus neptunium is present in nature in negligible amounts produced as intermediate decay products of other isotopes . Traces of plutonium in uranium minerals were first found in 1942 , and the more systematic results on 239Pu are summarized in the table ( no other plutonium isotopes could be detected in those samples ) . The upper limit of abundance of the longest @-@ living isotope of plutonium , 244Pu , is 3 × 10 − 20 % . Plutonium could not be detected in samples of lunar soil . Owing to its scarcity in nature , most plutonium is produced synthetically .
= = Extraction = =
Owing to the low abundance of actinides , their extraction is a complex , multistep process . Fluorides of actinides are usually used because they are insoluble in water and can be easily separated with redox reactions . Fluorides are reduced with calcium , magnesium or barium :
<formula>
Among the actinides , thorium and uranium are the easiest to isolate . Thorium is extracted mostly from monazite : thorium diphosphate ( Th ( PO4 ) 2 ) is reacted with nitric acid , and the produced thorium nitrate treated with tributyl phosphate . Rare @-@ earth impurities are separated by increasing the pH in sulfate solution .
In another extraction method , monazite is decomposed with a 45 % aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide at 140 ° C. Mixed metal hydroxides are extracted first , filtered at 80 ° C , washed with water and dissolved with concentrated hydrochloric acid . Next , the acidic solution is neutralized with hydroxides to pH
= 5 @.@ 8 that results in precipitation of thorium hydroxide ( Th ( OH ) 4 ) contaminated with ~ 3 % of rare @-@ earth hydroxides ; the rest of rare @-@ earth hydroxides remains in solution . Thorium hydroxide is dissolved in an inorganic acid and then purified from the rare earth elements . An efficient method is the dissolution of thorium hydroxide in nitric acid , because the resulting solution can be purified by extraction with organic solvents :
Th ( OH ) 4 + 4 HNO3 → Th ( NO3 ) 4 + 4 H2O
Metallic thorium is separated from the anhydrous oxide , chloride or fluoride by reacting it with calcium in an inert atmosphere :
ThO2 + 2 Ca → 2 CaO + Th
Sometimes thorium is extracted by electrolysis of a fluoride in a mixture of sodium and potassium chloride at 700 – 800 ° C in a graphite crucible . Highly pure thorium can be extracted from its iodide with the crystal bar process .
Uranium is extracted from its ores in various ways . In one method , the ore is burned and then reacted with nitric acid to convert uranium into a dissolved state . Treating the solution with a solution of tributyl phosphate ( TBP ) in kerosene transforms uranium into an organic form UO2 ( NO3 ) 2 ( TBP ) 2 . The insoluble impurities are filtered and the uranium is extracted by reaction with hydroxides as ( NH4 ) 2U2O7 or with hydrogen peroxide as UO4 · 2H2O .
When the uranium ore is rich in such minerals as dolomite , magnesite , etc . , those minerals consume much acid . In this case , the carbonate method is used for uranium extraction . Its main component is an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate , which converts uranium into a complex [ UO2 ( CO3 ) 3 ] 4 − , which is stable in aqueous solutions at low concentrations of hydroxide ions . The advantages of the sodium carbonate method are that the chemicals have low corrosivity ( compared to nitrates ) and that most non @-@ uranium metals precipitate from the solution . The disadvantage is that tetravalent uranium compounds precipitate as well . Therefore , the uranium ore is treated with sodium carbonate at elevated temperature and under oxygen pressure :
2 UO2 + O2 + 6 CO2 −
3 → 2 [ UO2 ( CO3 ) 3 ] 4 −
This equation suggests that the best solvent for the uranium carbonate processing is a mixture of carbonate with bicarbonate . At high pH , this results in precipitation of diuranate , which is treated with hydrogen in the presence of nickel yielding an insoluble uranium tetracarbonate .
Another separation method uses polymeric resins as a polyelectrolyte . Ion exchange processes in the resins result in separation of uranium . Uranium from resins is washed with a solution of ammonium nitrate or nitric acid that yields uranyl nitrate , UO2 ( NO3 ) 2 · 6H2O . When heated , it turns into UO3 , which is converted to UO2 with hydrogen :
UO3 + H2 → UO2 + H2O
Reacting uranium dioxide with fluoric acid changes it to uranium tetrafluoride , which yields uranium metal upon reaction with magnesium metal :
4 HF + UO2 → UF4 + 2 H2O
To extract plutonium , neutron @-@ irradiated uranium is dissolved in nitric acid , and a reducing agent ( FeSO4 , or H2O2 ) is added to the resulting solution . This addition changes the oxidation state of plutonium from + 6 to + 4 , while uranium remains in the form of uranyl nitrate ( UO2 ( NO3 ) 2 ) . The solution is treated with a reducing agent and neutralized with ammonium carbonate to pH =
8 that results in precipitation of Pu4 + compounds .
In another method , Pu4 + and UO2 +
2 are first extracted with tributyl phosphate , then reacted with hydrazine washing out the recovered plutonium .
The major difficulty in separation of actinium is the similarity of its properties with those of lanthanum . Thus actinium is either synthesized in nuclear reactions from isotopes of radium or separated using ion @-@ exchange procedures .
= = Properties = =
Actinides have similar properties to lanthanides . The 6d and 7s electronic shells are filled in actinium and thorium , and the 5f shell is being filled with further increase in atomic number ; the 4f shell is filled in the lanthanides . The first experimental evidence for the filling of the 5f shell in actinides was obtained by McMillan and Abelson in 1940 . As in lanthanides ( see lanthanide contraction ) , the ionic radius of actinides monotonically decreases with atomic number ( see also Aufbau principle ) .
= = = Physical properties = = =
Actinides are typical metals . All of them are soft and have a silvery color ( but tarnish in air ) , relatively high density and plasticity . Some of them can be cut with a knife . Their electrical resistivity varies between 15 and 150 µOhm · cm . The hardness of thorium is similar to that of soft steel , so heated pure thorium can be rolled in sheets and pulled into wire . Thorium is nearly half as dense as uranium and plutonium , but is harder than either of them . All actinides are radioactive , paramagnetic , and , with the exception of actinium , have several crystalline phases : plutonium has seven , and uranium , neptunium and californium three . The crystal structures of protactinium , uranium , neptunium and plutonium do not have clear analogs among the lanthanides and are more similar to those of the 3d @-@ transition metals .
All actinides are pyrophoric , especially when finely divided , that is , they spontaneously ignite upon reaction with air . The melting point of actinides does not have a clear dependence on the number of f @-@ electrons . The unusually low melting point of neptunium and plutonium ( ~ 640 ° C ) is explained by hybridization of 5f and 6d orbitals and the formation of directional bonds in these metals .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Like the lanthanides , all actinides are highly reactive with halogens and chalcogens ; however , the actinides react more easily . Actinides , especially those with a small number of 5f @-@ electrons , are prone to hybridization . This is explained by the similarity of the electron energies at the 5f , 7s and 6d shells . Most actinides exhibit a larger variety of valence states , and the most stable are + 6 for uranium , + 5 for protactinium and neptunium , + 4 for thorium and plutonium and + 3 for actinium and other actinides .
Chemically , actinium is similar to lanthanum , which is explained by their similar ionic radii and electronic structure . Like lanthanum , actinium has oxidation of + 3 , but it is less reactive and has more pronounced basic properties . Among other trivalent actinides Ac3 + is least acidic , i.e. has the weakest tendency to hydrolyze in aqueous solutions .
Thorium is rather active chemically . Owing to lack of electrons on 6d and 5f orbitals , the tetravalent thorium compounds are colorless . At pH < 3 , the solutions of thorium salts are dominated by the cations [ Th ( H2O ) 8 ] 4 + . The Th4 + ion is relatively large , and depending on the coordination number can have a radius between 0 @.@ 95 and 1 @.@ 14 Å . As a result , thorium salts have a weak tendency to hydrolyse . The distinctive ability of thorium salts is their high solubility , not only in water , but also in polar organic solvents .
Protactinium exhibits two valence states ; the + 5 is stable , and the + 4 state easily oxidizes to protactinium ( V ) . Thus tetravalent protactinium in solutions is obtained by the action of strong reducing agents in a hydrogen atmosphere . Tetravalent protactinium is chemically similar to uranium ( IV ) and thorium ( IV ) . Fluorides , phosphates , hypophosphate , iodate and phenylarsonates of protactinium ( IV ) are insoluble in water and dilute acids . Protactinium forms soluble carbonates . The hydrolytic properties of pentavalent protactinium are close to those of tantalum ( V ) and niobium ( V ) . The complex chemical behavior of protactinium is a consequence of the start of the filling of the 5f shell in this element .
Uranium has a valence from 3 to 6 , the last being most stable . In the hexavalent state , uranium is very similar to the group 6 elements . Many compounds of uranium ( IV ) and uranium ( VI ) are non @-@ stoichiometric , i.e. have variable composition . For example , the actual chemical formula of uranium dioxide is UO2 + x , where x varies between − 0 @.@ 4 and 0 @.@ 32 . Uranium ( VI ) compounds are weak oxidants . Most of them contain the linear " uranyl " group , UO2 +
2 . Between 4 and 6 ligands can be accommodated in an equatorial plane perpendicular to the uranyl group . The uranyl group acts as a hard acid and forms stronger complexes with oxygen @-@ donor ligands than with nitrogen @-@ donor ligands . NpO2 +
2 and PuO2 +
2 are also the common form of Np and Pu in the + 6 oxidation state . Uranium ( IV ) compounds exhibit reducing properties , e.g. , they are easily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen . Uranium ( III ) is a very strong reducing agent . Owing to the presence of d @-@ shell , uranium ( as well as many other actinides ) forms organometallic compounds , such as UIII ( C5H5 ) 3 and UIV ( C5H5 ) 4 .
Neptunium has valence states from 3 to 7 , which can be simultaneously observed in solutions . The most stable state in solution is + 5 , but the valence + 4 is preferred in solid neptunium compounds . Neptunium metal is very reactive . Ions of neptunium are prone to hydrolysis and formation of coordination compounds .
Plutonium also exhibits valence states between 3 and 7 inclusive , and thus is chemically similar to neptunium and uranium . It is highly reactive , and quickly forms an oxide film in air . Plutonium reacts with hydrogen even at temperatures as low as 25 – 50 ° C ; it also easily forms halides and intermetallic compounds . Hydrolysis reactions of plutonium ions of different oxidation states are quite diverse . Plutonium ( V ) can enter polymerization reactions .
The largest chemical diversity among actinides is observed in americium , which can have valence between 2 and 6 . Divalent americium is obtained only in dry compounds and non @-@ aqueous solutions ( acetonitrile ) . Oxidation states + 3 , + 5 and + 6 are typical for aqueous solutions , but also in the solid state . Tetravalent americium forms stable solid compounds ( dioxide , fluoride and hydroxide ) as well as complexes in aqueous solutions . It was reported that in alkaline solution americium can be oxidized to the heptavalent state , but these data proved erroneous . The most stable valence of americium is 3 in the aqueous solutions and 3 or 4 in solid compounds .
Valence 3 is dominant in all subsequent elements up to lawrencium ( with the possible exception of nobelium ) . Curium can be tetravalent in solids ( fluoride , dioxide ) . Berkelium , along with a valence of + 3 , also shows the valence of + 4 , more stable than that of curium ; the valence 4 is observed in solid fluoride and dioxide . The stability of Bk4 + in aqueous solution is close to that of Ce4 + . Only valence 3 was observed for californium , einsteinium and fermium . The divalent state is proven for mendelevium and nobelium , and in nobelium it is more stable than the trivalent state . Lawrencium shows valence 3 both in solutions and solids .
The redox potential <formula> increases from − 0 @.@ 32 V in uranium , through 0 @.@ 34 V ( Np ) and 1 @.@ 04 V ( Pu ) to 1 @.@ 34 V in americium revealing the increasing reduction ability of the An4 + ion from americium to uranium . All actinides form AnH3 hydrides of black color with salt @-@ like properties . Actinides also produce carbides with the general formula of AnC or AnC2 ( U2C3 for uranium ) as well as sulfides An2S3 and AnS2 .
= = Compounds = =
= = = Oxides and hydroxides = = =
An – actinide
* * Depending on the isotopes
Some actinides can exists in several oxide forms such as An2O3 , AnO2 , An2O5 and AnO3 . For all actinides , oxides AnO3 are amphoteric and An2O3 , AnO2 and An2O5 are basic , they easily react with water , forming bases :
An2O3 + 3 H2O → 2 An ( OH ) 3 .
These bases are poorly soluble in water and by their activity are close to the hydroxides of rare @-@ earth metals . The strongest base is of actinium . All compounds of actinium are colorless , except for black actinium sulfide ( Ac2S3 ) . Dioxides of tetravalent actinides crystallize in the cubic system , same as in calcium fluoride .
Thorium reacting with oxygen exclusively forms dioxide :
<formula>
Thorium dioxide is a refractory material with the highest melting point among any known oxide ( 3390 ° C ) . Adding 0 @.@ 8 – 1 % ThO2 to tungsten stabilizes its structure , so the doped filaments have better mechanical stability to vibrations . To dissolve ThO2 in acids , it is heated to 500 – 600 ° C ; heating above 600 ° C produces a very resistant to acids and other reagents form of ThO2 . Small addition of fluoride ions catalyses dissolution of thorium dioxide in acids .
Two protactinium oxides were obtained : PaO2 ( black ) and Pa2O5 ( white ) ; the former is isomorphic with ThO2 and the latter is easier to obtain . Both oxides are basic , and Pa ( OH ) 5 is a weak , poorly soluble base .
Decomposition of certain salts of uranium , for example UO2 ( NO3 ) · 6H2O in air at 400 ° C , yields orange or yellow UO3 . This oxide is amphoteric and forms several hydroxides , the most stable being UO2 ( OH ) 2 . Reaction of uranium ( VI ) oxide with hydrogen results in uranium dioxide , which is similar in its properties with ThO2 . This oxide is also basic and corresponds to the uranium hydroxide ( U ( OH ) 4 ) .
Plutonium , neptunium and americium form two basic oxides : An2O3 and AnO2 . Neptunium trioxide is unstable ; thus , only Np3O8 could be obtained so far . However , the oxides of plutonium and neptunium with the chemical formula AnO2 and An2O3 are well characterized .
= = = Salts = = =
* An – actinide
* * Depending on the isotopes
Actinides easily react with halogens forming salts with the formulas MX3 and MX4 ( X = halogen ) . So the first berkelium compound , BkCl3 , was synthesized in 1962 with an amount of 3 nanograms . Like the halogens of rare earth elements , actinide chlorides , bromides , and iodides are water @-@ soluble , and fluorides are insoluble . Uranium easily yields a colorless hexafluoride , which sublimates at a temperature of 56 @.@ 5 ° C ; because of its volatility , it is used in the separation of uranium isotopes with gas centrifuge or gaseous diffusion . Actinide hexafluorides have properties close to anhydrides . They are very sensitive to moisture and hydrolyze forming AnO2F2 . The pentachloride and black hexachloride of uranium were synthesized , but they are both unstable .
Action of acids on actinides yields salts , and if the acids are non @-@ oxidizing then the actinide in the salt is in low @-@ valence state :
U + 2 H2SO4 → U ( SO4 ) 2 + 2 H2
2 Pu + 6 HCl → 2 PuCl3 + 3 H2
However , in these reactions the regenerating hydrogen can react with the metal , forming the corresponding hydride . Uranium reacts with acids and water much more easily than thorium .
Actinide salts can also be obtained by dissolving the corresponding hydroxides in acids . Nitrates , chlorides , sulfates and perchlorates of actinides are water @-@ soluble . When crystallizing from aqueous solutions , these salts forming a hydrates , such as Th ( NO3 ) 4 · 6H2O , Th ( SO4 ) 2 · 9H2O and Pu2 ( SO4 ) 3 · 7H2O . Salts of high @-@ valence actinides easily hydrolyze . So , colorless sulfate , chloride , perchlorate and nitrate of thorium transform into basic salts with formulas Th ( OH ) 2SO4 and Th ( OH ) 3NO3 . The solubility and insolubility of trivalent and tetravalent actinides is like that of lanthanide salts . So phosphates , fluorides , oxalates , iodates and carbonates of actinides are weakly soluble in water ; they precipitate as hydrates , such as ThF4 · 3H2O and Th ( CrO4 ) 2 · 3H2O .
Actinides with oxidation state + 6 , except for the AnO22 + -type cations , form [ AnO4 ] 2 − , [ An2O7 ] 2 − and other complex anions . For example , uranium , neptunium and plutonium form salts of the Na2UO4 ( uranate ) and ( NH4 ) 2U2O7 ( diuranate ) types . In comparison with lanthanides , actinides more easily form coordination compounds , and this ability increases with the actinide valence . Trivalent actinides do not form fluoride coordination compounds , whereas tetravalent thorium forms K2ThF6 , KThF5 , and even K5ThF9 complexes . Thorium also forms the corresponding sulfates ( for example Na2SO4 · Th ( SO4 ) 2 · 5H2O ) , nitrates and thiocyanates . Salts with the general formula An2Th ( NO3 ) 6 · nH2O are of coordination nature , with the coordination number of thorium equal to 12 . Even easier is to produce complex salts of pentavalent and hexavalent actinides . The most stable coordination compounds of actinides – tetravalent thorium and uranium – are obtained in reactions with diketones , e.g. acetylacetone .
= = Applications = =
While actinides have some established daily @-@ life applications , such as in smoke detectors ( americium ) and gas mantles ( thorium ) , they are mostly used in nuclear weapons and use as a fuel in nuclear reactors . The last two areas exploit the property of actinides to release enormous energy in nuclear reactions , which under certain conditions may become self @-@ sustaining chain reaction .
The most important isotope for nuclear power applications is uranium @-@ 235 . It is used in the thermal reactor , and its concentration in natural uranium does not exceed 0 @.@ 72 % . This isotope strongly absorbs thermal neutrons releasing much energy . One fission act of 1 gram of 235U converts into about 1 MW · day . Of importance , is that 235U emits more neutrons than it absorbs ; upon reaching the critical mass , 235U enters into a self @-@ sustaining chain reaction . Typically , uranium nucleus is divided into two fragments with the release of 2 – 3 neutrons , for example :
<formula>
Other promising actinide isotopes for nuclear power are thorium @-@ 232 and its product from the thorium fuel cycle , uranium @-@ 233 .
Emission of neutrons during the fission of uranium is important not only for maintaining the nuclear chain reaction , but also for the synthesis of the heavier actinides . Uranium @-@ 239 converts via β @-@ decay into plutonium @-@ 239 , which , like uranium @-@ 235 , is capable of spontaneous fission . The world 's first nuclear reactors were built not for energy , but for producing plutonium @-@ 239 for nuclear weapons .
About half of the produced thorium is used as the light @-@ emitting material of gas mantles . Thorium is also added into multicomponent alloys of magnesium and zinc . So the Mg @-@ Th alloys are light and strong , but also have high melting point and ductility and thus are widely used in the aviation industry and in the production of missiles . Thorium also has good electron emission properties , with long lifetime and low potential barrier for the emission . The relative content of thorium and uranium isotopes is widely used to estimate the age of various objects , including stars ( see radiometric dating ) .
The major application of plutonium has been in nuclear weapons , where the isotope plutonium @-@ 239 was a key component due to its ease of fission and availability . Plutonium @-@ based designs allow reducing the critical mass to about a third of that for uranium @-@ 235 . The " Fat Man " -type plutonium bombs produced during the Manhattan Project used explosive compression of plutonium to obtain significantly higher densities than normal , combined with a central neutron source to begin the reaction and increase efficiency . Thus only 6 @.@ 2 kg of plutonium was needed for an explosive yield equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT . ( See also Nuclear weapon design . ) Hypothetically , as little as 4 kg of plutonium — and maybe even less — could be used to make a single atomic bomb using very sophisticated assembly designs .
Plutonium @-@ 238 is potentially more efficient isotope for nuclear reactors , since it has smaller critical mass than uranium @-@ 235 , but it continues to release much thermal energy ( 0 @.@ 56 W / g ) by decay even when the fission chain reaction is stopped by control rods . Its application is limited by the high price ( about 1000 USD / g ) . This isotope has been used in thermopiles and water distillation systems of some space satellites and stations . So Galileo and Apollo spacecraft ( e.g. Apollo 14 ) had heaters powered by kilogram quantities of plutonium @-@ 238 oxide ; this heat is also transformed into electricity with thermopiles . The decay of plutonium @-@ 238 produces relatively harmless alpha particles and is not accompanied by gamma @-@ irradiation . Therefore , this isotope ( ~ 160 mg ) is used as the energy source in heart pacemakers where it lasts about 5 times longer than conventional batteries .
Actinium @-@ 227 is used as a neutron source . Its high specific energy ( 14 @.@ 5 W / g ) and the possibility of obtaining significant quantities of thermally stable compounds are attractive for use in long @-@ lasting thermoelectric generators for remote use . 228Ac is used as an indicator of radioactivity in chemical research , as it emits high @-@ energy electrons ( 2 @.@ 18 MeV ) that can be easily detected . 228Ac @-@ 228Ra mixtures are widely used as an intense gamma @-@ source in industry and medicine .
Development of self @-@ glowing actinide @-@ doped materials with durable crystalline matrices is a new area of actinide utilization as the addition of alpha @-@ emitting radionuclides to some glasses and crystals may confer luminescence .
= = Toxicity = =
Radioactive substances can harm human health via ( i ) local skin contamination , ( ii ) internal exposure due to ingestion of radioactive isotopes , and ( iii ) external overexposure by β @-@ activity and γ @-@ radiation . Together with radium and transuranium elements , actinium is one of the most dangerous radioactive poisons with high specific α @-@ activity . The most important feature of actinium is its ability to accumulate and remain in the surface layer of skeletons . At the initial stage of poisoning , actinium accumulates in the liver . Another danger of actinium is that it undergoes radioactive decay faster than being excreted . Adsorption from the digestive tract is much smaller ( ~ 0 @.@ 05 % ) for actinium than radium .
Protactinium in the body tends to accumulate in the kidneys and bones . The maximum safe dose of protactinium in the human body is 0 @.@ 03 µCi that corresponds to 0 @.@ 5 micrograms of 231Pa . This isotope , which might be present in the air as aerosol , is 2 @.@ 5 × 108 times more toxic than hydrocyanic acid .
Plutonium , when entering the body through air , food or blood ( e.g. a wound ) , mostly settles in the lungs , liver and bones with only about 10 % going to other organs , and remains there for decades . The long residence time of plutonium in the body is partly explained by its poor solubility in water . Some isotopes of plutonium emit ionizing α @-@ radiation , which damages the surrounding cells . The median lethal dose ( LD50 ) for 30 days in dogs after intravenous injection of plutonium is 0 @.@ 32 milligram per kg of body mass , and thus the lethal dose for humans is approximately 22 mg for a person weighing 70 kg ; the amount for respiratory exposure should be approximately four times greater . Another estimate assumes that plutonium is 50 times less toxic than radium , and thus permissible content of plutonium in the body should be 5 µg or 0 @.@ 3 µCi . Such amount is nearly invisible in under microscope . After trials on animals , this maximum permissible dose was reduced to 0 @.@ 65 µg or 0 @.@ 04 µCi . Studies on animals also revealed that the most dangerous plutonium exposure route is through inhalation , after which 5 – 25 % of inhaled substances is retained in the body . Depending on the particle size and solubility of the plutonium compounds , plutonium is localized either in the lungs or in the lymphatic system , or is absorbed in the blood and then transported to the liver and bones . Contamination via food is the least likely way . In this case , only about 0 @.@ 05 % of soluble 0 @.@ 01 % insoluble compounds of plutonium absorbs into blood , and the rest is excreted . Exposure of damaged skin to plutonium would retain nearly 100 % of it .
Using actinides in nuclear fuel , sealed radioactive sources or advanced materials such as self @-@ glowing crystals has many potential benefits . However , a serious concern is the extremely high radiotoxicity of actinides and their migration in the environment . Use of chemically unstable forms of actinides in MOX and sealed radioactive sources is not appropriate by modern safety standards . There is a challenge to develop stable and durable actinide @-@ bearing materials , which provide safe storage , use and final disposal . A key need is application of actinide solid solutions in durable crystalline host phases .
= Rodent =
Rodents ( from Latin rodere , " to gnaw " ) are mammals of the order Rodentia , which are characterized by a single pair of unremittingly growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws . About forty percent of all mammal species are rodents ; they are found in vast numbers on all continents except Antarctica . They are the most diversified mammalian order and live in a variety of terrestrial habitats , including human @-@ made environments .
There are species that are arboreal , fossorial ( burrowing ) , and semiaquatic . Well @-@ known rodents include mice , rats , squirrels , prairie dogs , porcupines , beavers , guinea pigs , hamsters , and capybaras . Other animals such as rabbits , hares and pikas were once included with them , but are now considered to be in a separate order , Lagomorpha .
Most rodents are small animals with robust bodies , short limbs and long tails . They use their sharp incisors to gnaw food , excavate burrows and defend themselves . Most eat seeds or other plant material , but some have more varied diets . They tend to be social animals and many species live in societies with complex ways of communicating with each other . Mating among rodents can vary from monogamy , to polygyny , to promiscuity . Many have litters of underdeveloped , altricial young , while others have precocial young that are relatively well developed at birth .
The rodent fossil record dates back to the Paleocene on the supercontinent of Laurasia . They greatly diversified in the Eocene , as they spread across continents , sometimes even finding means to cross oceans . Rodents reached both South America and Madagascar from Africa , and were the only terrestrial placental mammals to reach and colonize Australia .
Rodents have been used as food , for clothing , as pets and as laboratory animals in research . Some species , in particular the brown rat , the black rat , and the house mouse are serious pests , eating and spoiling food stored by humans , and spreading diseases . Accidentally introduced species of rodents are often considered to be invasive , and have caused the extinction of numerous species , such as island birds , previously isolated from land @-@ based predators .
= = Characteristics = =
The distinguishing feature of the rodents is their single pair of continuously growing , razor @-@ sharp incisors . These incisors have thick layers of enamel on the front and little enamel on the back . Because they do not stop growing , the animal must continue to wear them down so that they do not reach and pierce the skull . As the incisors grind against each other , the softer dentine on the rear of the teeth wears away , leaving the sharp enamel edge shaped like the blade of a chisel .
Most species have up to 22 teeth with no canines or anterior premolars . There is a gap , or diastema , between the incisors and the cheek teeth in most species . This allows them to suck in their cheeks or lips to shield their mouth and throat from wood shavings and other inedible material , discarding this waste from the sides of their mouth . Chinchillas and guinea pigs have a high fiber diet ; their molars have no roots and grow continuously like their incisors .
In many species , the molars are relatively large , intricately structured and highly cusped or ridged , though some , such as Pseudohydromys , have smaller and simpler ones . Rodent molars are well equipped to grind food into small particles . The jaw musculature is strong . The lower jaw is thrust forward while gnawing and is pulled backwards during chewing . Rodent groups differ in the arrangement of the jaw muscles and associated skull structures , both from other mammals and amongst themselves . The Sciuromorpha , such as the eastern grey squirrel , have a large deep masseter , making them efficient at biting with the incisors .
The Myomorpha , such as the brown rat , have an enlarged temporalis muscle , making them able to chew powerfully with the molars . The Hystricomorpha , such as the guinea pig , have a larger superficial masseter muscle and a smaller deep masseter muscle than rats or squirrels , possibly making them less efficient at biting with the incisors , but their enlarged internal pterygoid muscle may allow them to move the jaw further sideways when chewing .
While the largest species , the capybara , can weigh as much as 66 kg ( 146 lb ) , most rodents weigh less than 100 g ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) . The smallest rodent is the Baluchistan pygmy jerboa , which averages only 4 @.@ 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 7 in ) in head and body length , with adult females weighing only 3 @.@ 75 g ( 0 @.@ 132 oz ) . Rodents have wide @-@ ranging morphologies , but typically have squat bodies and short limbs . The forelimbs usually have five digits , including an opposable thumb , while the hindlimbs have three to five digits . The elbow gives the forearms great flexibility . The majority of species are plantigrade , walking on both the palms and soles of their feet , and have claw @-@ like nails . The nails of burrowing species tend to be long and strong , while arboreal rodents have shorter , sharper nails . Rodent species use a wide variety of methods of locomotion including quadrupedal walking , running , burrowing and climbing , bipedal hopping ( kangaroo rats and hopping mice ) , swimming and even gliding . Scaly @-@ tailed squirrels and flying squirrels , although not closely related , can both glide from tree to tree using parachute @-@ like membranes that stretch from the forelimbs to the hindlimbs . The agouti is fleet @-@ footed and antelope @-@ like , being digitigrade and having hoof @-@ like nails . The majority of rodents have tails , which can be of many shapes and sizes . Some tails are prehensile , as in the Eurasian harvest mouse , and the fur on the tails can vary from bushy to completely bald . The tail is sometimes used for communication , as when beavers slap their tails on the water surface or house mice rattle their tails to indicate alarm . Some species have vestigial tails or no tails at all . In some species , the tail is capable of regeneration if a part is broken off .
Rodents generally have well @-@ developed senses of smell , hearing and vision . Nocturnal species often have enlarged eyes and some are sensitive to ultraviolet light . Many species have long , sensitive whiskers or vibrissae for touch or " whisking " . Some rodents have cheek pouches , which may be lined with fur . These can be turned inside out for cleaning . In many species , the tongue cannot reach past the incisors . Rodents have efficient digestive systems , absorbing nearly 80 percent of ingested energy . When eating cellulose , the food is softened in the stomach and passed to the cecum , where bacteria reduce it to its carbohydrate elements . The rodent then practices coprophagy , eating its own fecal pellets , so that the nutrients can be absorbed by the gut . Rodents therefore often produce a hard and dry fecal pellet . In many species , the penis contains a bone , the baculum ; the testes can be located either abdominally or at the groin .
Sexual dimorphism occurs in many rodent species . In some rodents , males are larger than females while in others the reverse is true . Male @-@ bias sexual dimorphism is typical for ground squirrels , kangaroo rats , solitary mole rats and pocket gophers ; it likely developed due to sexual selection and greater male @-@ male combat . Female @-@ bias sexual dimorphism exists among chipmunks and jumping mice . It is not understood why this pattern occurs , but in the case of yellow @-@ pine chipmunks it may be that males selected larger females due to their greater reproductive success . In some species , like voles , sexual dimorphism can vary from population to population . In bank voles , females are typically larger than males , however male @-@ bias sexual dimorphism occurs in alpine populations , possibly because of the lack of predators and greater competition between males .
The diversity of characteristics of rodents is great , sometimes even in closely related species . Characteristics of several rodents are given in the table below .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
One of the most widespread groups of mammals , rodents can be found on every continent except Antarctica . They are the only terrestrial placental mammals that have colonized Australia and New Guinea without human intervention . Humans have also allowed the animals to spread to many remote oceanic islands ( e.g. , the Polynesian rat ) . Rodents have adapted to almost every terrestrial habitat , from cold tundra ( where they can live under snow ) to hot deserts .
Some species such as tree squirrels and New World porcupines are arboreal , while some , such as gophers , tuco @-@ tucos and mole rats , live almost completely underground , where they build complex burrow systems . Others dwell on the surface of the ground but may have a burrow into which they can retreat . Beavers and muskrats are known for being semiaquatic , but the rodent best @-@ adapted for aquatic life is probably the earless water rat from New Guinea . Rodents have also thrived in human @-@ created environments such as agricultural and urban areas .
Though some species are common pests for humans , rodents also play important ecological roles . Some rodents are considered keystone species and ecosystem engineers in their respective habitats . In the Great Plains of North America , the burrowing activities of prairie dogs play important roles in soil aeration and nutrient redistribution , raising the organic content of the soil and increasing the absorption of water . They maintain these grassland habitats , and some large herbivores like bison and pronghorn prefer to graze near prairie dog colonies due to the increased nutritional quality of forage .
Prairie dogs can , however , also contribute to regional and local biodiversity loss , increased seed depredation and the establishment and spread of invasive shrubs . Burrowing rodents may eat the fruiting bodies of fungi and spread spores through their feces , thereby allowing the fungi to disperse and form symbiotic relationships with the roots of plants ( which usually cannot thrive without them ) . As such , these rodents may play a role in maintaining healthy forests .
In many temperate regions , beavers play an essential hydrological role . When building their dams and lodges , beavers alter the paths of streams and rivers and allow for the creation of extensive wetland habitats . One study found that engineering by beavers leads to a 33 percent increase in the number of herbaceous plant species in riparian areas . Another study found that beavers increase wild salmon populations .
= = Behavior and life history = =
= = = Feeding = = =
Most rodents are herbivorous , feeding exclusively on plant material such as seeds , stems , leaves , flowers and roots . Some are omnivorous and a few are predators . The field vole is a typical herbivorous rodent and feeds on grasses , herbs , root tubers , moss and other vegetation , and gnaws on bark during the winter . It occasionally eats invertebrates such as insect larvae . The plains pocket gopher eats plant material found underground during tunneling , and also collects grasses , roots and tubers in its cheek pouches and caches them in underground larder chambers .
The Texas pocket gopher avoids emerging onto the surface to feed by seizing the roots of plants with its jaws and pulling them downwards into its burrow . It also practices coprophagy . The African pouched rat forages on the surface , gathering anything that might be edible into its capacious cheek pouches until its face bulges out sideways . It then returns to its burrow to sort through the material it has gathered and eats the nutritious items .
The agouti is one of the few animals that can break open the large capsules of the Brazil nut fruit . There are too many seeds inside to be consumed in one meal , so the agouti carries some off and caches them . This helps dispersal of the seeds as any that the agouti fails to retrieve are distant from the parent tree when they germinate . Other nut @-@ bearing trees tend to bear a glut of fruits in the autumn . These are too numerous to be eaten in one meal and squirrels gather and store the surplus in crevices and hollow trees . In desert regions , seeds are often only available for short periods . The kangaroo rat collects all it can find and stores them in larder chambers in its burrow .
A strategy for dealing with seasonal plenty is to eat as much as possible and store the surplus nutrients as fat . Marmots do this , and may be 50 percent heavier in the autumn than in the spring . They rely on their fat reserves during their long winter hibernation . Beavers feed on the leaves , buds and inner bark of growing trees , as well as aquatic plants . They store food for winter use by felling small trees and leafy branches in the autumn and immersing them in their pond , sticking the end into the mud to anchor them . Here , they can access their food supply underwater even when their pond is frozen over .
Although traditionally rodents have been regarded as herbivores , a number of species opportunistically include insects , fish or meat in their diet and more specialized forms rely on such foods . A functional @-@ morphological study of the rodent tooth system supports the idea that primitive rodents were omnivores rather than herbivores . Studies of the literature show that numerous members of the Sciuromorpha and Myomorpha , and a few members of Hystricomorpha , have either included animal matter in their diet or been prepared to eat such food when offered it in captivity . Examination of the stomach contents of the North American white @-@ footed mouse , normally considered to be herbivorous , showed 34 % animal matter .
More specialized carnivores include the shrewlike rats of the Philippines , which feed on insects and soft @-@ bodied invertebrates , and the Australian water rat , which devours aquatic insects , fish , crustaceans , mussels , snails , frogs , birds ' eggs and water birds . The grasshopper mouse from dry regions of North America feeds on insects , scorpions , other small mice and only a small part of its diet is plant material . It has a chunky body with short legs and tail , but is agile and can easily overpower prey as large as itself .
= = = Social behavior = = =
Rodents exhibit a wide range of types of social behavior ranging from the first known mammalian caste system of the naked mole rat , the extensive " town " of the colonial prairie dog , through family groups to the independent , solitary life of the edible dormouse . Adult dormice may have overlapping feeding ranges , but they live in individual nests and feed separately , coming together briefly in the breeding season to mate . The pocket gopher is also a solitary animal outside the breeding season , each individual digging a complex tunnel system and maintaining a territory .
Larger rodents tend to live in family units where parents and their offspring live together until the youngsters disperse . Beavers live in extended family units typically with a pair of adults , this year 's kits , the previous year 's offspring and sometimes older young . Brown rats usually live in small colonies with up to six females sharing a burrow and one male defending a territory around the burrow . At high population densities , this system breaks down and males show a hierarchical system of dominance with overlapping ranges . Female offspring remain in the colony while male young disperse . The prairie vole is monogamous and forms a lifelong pair bond . Outside the breeding season , prairie voles live in close proximity with others in small colonies . A male is not aggressive towards other males until he has mated , after which time he defends a territory , a female and a nest against other males . The pair huddle together , groom one another , and share nesting and pup @-@ raising responsibilities .
Among the most social of rodents are the ground squirrels , which typically form colonies based on female kinship , males dispersing after weaning and becoming nomadic as adults . Cooperation in ground squirrels varies between species and typically includes making alarm calls , defending territories , sharing food , protecting nesting areas and preventing infanticide . The black @-@ tailed prairie dog forms large towns that may cover many hectares . The burrows do not interconnect but are excavated and occupied by territorial family groups known as coteries . A coterie often consists of an adult male , three or four adult females , several non @-@ breeding yearlings and this year 's offspring . Individuals within coteries are friendly with each other , but hostile towards outsiders .
Perhaps the most extreme examples of colonial behavior in rodents are the eusocial naked mole rat and Damaraland mole rat . The naked mole rat lives completely underground and can form colonies of up to eighty individuals . Only one female and up to three males in the colony reproduce , while the rest of the members are smaller , sterile and function as workers . Some individuals are of intermediate size . They help with the rearing of the young and can take the place of a reproductive if one dies . The Damaraland mole rat is characterized by having a single reproductively active male and female in a colony where the remaining animals are not truly sterile , but only become fertile if they establish a colony of their own .
= = = Communication = = =
= = = = Olfactory = = = =
Rodents use scent marking in many social contexts including inter- and intra @-@ species communication , the marking of trails and the establishment of territories . Their urine provides genetic information about individuals including the species , the sex and individual identity , and metabolic information on dominance , reproductive status and health . Compounds derived from the major histocompatibility complex ( MHC ) are bound to several urinary proteins . The odor of a predator depresses scent @-@ marking behavior .
Rodents are able to recognize close relatives by smell and this allows them to show nepotism ( preferential behavior toward their kin ) and also avoid inbreeding . This kin recognition is by olfactory cues from urine , feces and glandular secretions . The main assessment may involve the MHC , where the degree of relatedness of two individuals is correlated to the MHC genes they have in common . In non @-@ kin communication , where more permanent odor markers are required , as at territorial borders , then non @-@ volatile major urinary proteins ( MUPs ) , which function as pheromone transporters , may also be used . MUPs may also signal individual identity , with each male house mouse ( Mus musculus ) excreting urine containing about a dozen genetically encoded MUPs .
House mice deposit urine , which contains pheromones , for territorial marking , individual and group recognition , and social organization . This can occur in a range of ways :
The Bruce effect : Pheromones from strange adult males cause females to terminate their pregnancies
The Whitten effect : Pheromones from familiar males cause synchronous estrus in a female population
The Vandenbergh effect : Pheromones from mature male house mice cause an early induction of the first estrous cycle in prepubertal female mice
The Lee – Boot effect : Pheromones from mature females cause the suppression or prolongation of oestrous cycles of other female house mice ( and other rodents ) when they are housed in groups and isolated from males
Pheromones from males or from pregnant or lactating females can speed up or retard sexual maturation in juvenile females
Territorial beavers and red squirrels investigate and become familiar with the scents of their neighbors and respond less aggressively to intrusions by them than to those made by non @-@ territorial " floaters " or strangers . This is known as the " dear enemy effect " .
= = = = Auditory = = = =
Many rodent species , particularly those that are diurnal and social , have a wide range of alarm calls that are emitted when they perceive threats . There are both direct and indirect benefits of doing this . A potential predator may stop when it knows it has been detected , or an alarm call can allow conspecifics or related individuals to take evasive action . Several species , for example prairie dogs , have complex anti @-@ predator alarm call systems . These species may have different calls for different predators ( e.g. aerial predators or ground @-@ based predators ) and each call contains information about the nature of the precise threat . The urgency of the threat is also conveyed by the acoustic properties of the call .
Social rodents have a wider range of vocalizations than do solitary species . Fifteen different call @-@ types have been recognized in adult Kataba mole rats and four in juveniles . Similarly , the degu , another social , burrowing rodent , exhibits a wide array of communication methods and has an elaborate vocal repertoire comprising fifteen different categories of sound . Ultrasonic calls play a part in social communication between dormice and are used when the individuals are out of sight of each other .
House mice use both audible and ultrasonic calls in a variety of contexts . Audible vocalizations can often be heard during agonistic or aggressive encounters , whereas ultrasound is used in sexual communication and also by pups when they have fallen out of the nest .
Laboratory rats ( which are brown rats , Rattus norvegicus ) emit short , high frequency , ultrasonic vocalizations during purportedly pleasurable experiences such as rough @-@ and @-@ tumble play , when anticipating routine doses of morphine , during mating , and when tickled . The vocalization , described as a distinct " chirping " , has been likened to laughter , and is interpreted as an expectation of something rewarding . In clinical studies , the chirping is associated with positive emotional feelings , and social bonding occurs with the tickler , resulting in the rats becoming conditioned to seek the tickling . However , as the rats age , the tendency to chirp declines . Like most rat vocalizations , the chirping is at frequencies too high for humans to hear without special equipment , so bat detectors have been used for this purpose .
It has been reported that brown rats use ultrasound for echolocation . The frequencies heard by rodents differ between species . The table below shows the hearing ranges of several species .
= = = = Visual = = = =
Rodents , like all placental mammals except primates , have just two types of light receptive cones in their retina , a short wavelength " blue @-@ UV " type and a middle wavelength " green " type . They are therefore classified as dichromats ; however , they are visually sensitive into the ultraviolet ( UV ) spectrum and therefore can see light that humans can not . The functions of this UV sensitivity are not always clear . In degus , for example , the belly reflects more UV light than the back . Therefore , when a degu stands up on its hind legs , which it does when alarmed , it exposes its belly to other degus and ultraviolet vision may serve a purpose in communicating the alarm . When it stands on all fours , its low UV @-@ reflectance back could help make the degu less visible to predators . Ultraviolet light is abundant during the day but not at night . There is a large increase in the ratio of ultraviolet to visible light in the morning and evening twilight hours . Many rodents are active during twilight hours ( crepuscular activity ) , and UV @-@ sensitivity would be advantageous at these times . Ultraviolet reflectivity is of dubious value for nocturnal rodents .
The urine of many rodents ( e.g. voles , degus , mice , rats ) strongly reflects UV light and this may be used in communication by leaving visible as well as olfactory markings . However , the amount of UV that is reflected decreases with time , which in some circumstances can be disadvantageous ; the common kestrel can distinguish between old and fresh rodent trails and has greater success hunting over more recently marked routes .
= = = = Tactile = = = =
Vibrations can provide cues to conspecifics about specific behaviors being performed , predator warning and avoidance , herd or group maintenance , and courtship . The Middle East blind mole rat was the first mammal for which vibrational communication was documented . These fossorial rodents bang their head against the walls of their tunnels . This behavior was initially interpreted as part of their tunnel building behavior , but it was eventually realized that they generate temporally patterned vibrational signals for long @-@ distance communication with neighboring mole rats .
Footdrumming is used widely as a predator warning or defensive action . It is used primarily by fossorial or semi @-@ fossorial rodents . The banner @-@ tailed kangaroo rat produces several complex footdrumming patterns in a number of different contexts , one of which is when it encounters a snake . The footdrumming may alert nearby offspring but most likely conveys that the rat is too alert for a successful attack , thus preventing the snake 's predatory pursuit . Several studies have indicated intentional use of ground vibrations as a means of intra @-@ specific communication during courtship among the Cape mole rat . Footdrumming has been reported to be involved in male @-@ male competition ; the dominant male indicates its resource holding potential by drumming , thus minimizing physical contact with potential rivals .
= = = Mating strategies = = =
Some species of rodent are monogamous , with an adult male and female forming a lasting pair bond . Monogamy can come in two forms ; obligate and facultative . In obligate monogamy , both parents care for the offspring and play an important part in their survival . This occurs in species such as California mice , oldfield mice , Malagasy giant rats and beavers . In these species , males usually mate only with their partners . In addition to increased care for young , obligate monogamy can also be beneficial to the adult male as it decreases the chances of never finding a mate or mating with an infertile female . In facultative monogamy , the males do not provide direct parental care and stay with one female because they cannot access others due to being spatially dispersed . Prairie voles appear to be an example of this form of monogamy , with males guarding and defending females within their vicinity .
In polygynous species , males will try to monopolize and mate with multiple females . As with monogamy , polygyny in rodents can come in two forms ; defense and non @-@ defense . Defense polygyny involves males controlling territories that contain resources that attract females . This occurs in ground squirrels like yellow @-@ bellied marmots , California ground squirrels , Columbian ground squirrels and Richardson 's ground squirrels . Males with territories are known as " resident " males and the females that live within the territories are known as " resident " females . In the case of marmots , resident males do not appear to ever lose their territories and always win encounters with invading males . Some species are also known to directly defend their resident females and the ensuing fights can lead to severe wounding . In species with non @-@ defense polygyny , males are not territorial and wander widely in search of females to monopolize . These males establish dominance hierarchies , with the high @-@ ranking males having access to the most females . This occurs in species like Belding 's ground squirrels and some tree squirrel species .
Promiscuity , in which both males and females mate with multiple partners , also occurs in rodents . In species such as the white @-@ footed mouse , females give birth to litters with multiple paternities . Promiscuity leads to increased sperm competition and males tend to have larger testicles . In the Cape ground squirrel , the male 's testes can be 20 percent of its head @-@ body length . Several rodent species have flexible mating systems that can vary between monogamy , polygyny and promiscuity .
Female rodents play an active role in choosing their mates . Factors that contribute to female preference may include the size , dominance and spatial ability of the male . In the eusocial naked mole rats , a single female monopolizes mating from at least three males .
In most rodent species , such as brown rats and house mice , ovulation occurs on a regular cycle while in others , such as voles , it is induced by mating . During copulation , males of some rodent species deposit a mating plug in the female 's genital opening , both to prevent sperm leakage and to protect against other males inseminating the female . Females can remove the plug and may do so either immediately or after several hours .
= = = Birth and parenting = = =
Rodents may be born either altricial ( blind , hairless and relatively underdeveloped ) or precocial ( mostly furred , eyes open and fairly developed ) depending on the species . The altricial state is typical for squirrels and mice , while the precocial state usually occurs in species like guinea pigs and porcupines . Females with altricial young typically build elaborate nests before they give birth and maintain them until their offspring are weaned . The female gives birth sitting or lying down and the young emerge in the direction she is facing . The newborns first venture out of the nest a few days after they have opened their eyes and initially keep returning regularly . As they get older and more developed , they visit the nest less often and leave permanently when weaned .
In precocial species , the mothers invest little in nest building and some do not build nests at all . The female gives birth standing and the young emerge behind her . Mothers of these species maintain contact with their highly mobile young with maternal contact calls . Though relatively independent and weaned within days , precocial young may continue to nurse and be groomed by their mothers . Rodent litter sizes also vary and females with smaller litters spend more time in the nest than those with larger litters .
Mother rodents provide both direct parental care , such as nursing , grooming , retrieving and huddling , and indirect parenting , such as food caching , nest building and protection to their offspring . In many social species , young may be cared for by individuals other then their parents , a practice known as alloparenting or cooperative breeding . This is known to occur in black @-@ tailed prairie dogs and Belding 's ground squirrels , where mothers have communal nests and nurse unrelated young along with their own . There is some question as to whether these mothers can distinguish which young are theirs . In the Patagonian mara , young are also placed in communal warrens , but mothers do not permit youngsters other than their own to nurse .
Infanticide exists in numerous rodent species and may be practiced by adult conspecifics of either sex . Several reasons have been proposed for this behavior , including nutritional stress , resource competition , avoiding misdirecting parental care and , in the case of males , attempting to make the mother sexually receptive . The latter reason is well supported in primates and lions but less so in rodents . Infanticide appears to be widespread in black @-@ tailed prairie dogs , including infanticide from invading males and immigrant females , as well as occasional cannibalism of an individual 's own offspring . To protect against infanticide from other adults , female rodents may employ avoidance or direct aggression against potential perpetrators , multiple mating , territoriality or early termination of pregnancy . Feticide can also occur among rodents ; in Alpine marmots , dominant females tend to suppress the reproduction of subordinates by being antagonistic towards them while they are pregnant . The resulting stress causes the fetuses to abort .
= = = Cognition = = =
Rodents have advanced cognitive abilities . They can quickly learn to avoid poisoned baits , which makes them difficult pests to deal with . Guinea pigs can learn and remember complex pathways to food . Squirrels and kangaroo rats are able to locate caches of food by spatial memory , rather than just by smell .
Because laboratory mice ( house mice ) and rats ( brown rats ) are widely used as scientific models to further our understanding of biology , a great deal has come to be known about their cognitive capacities . Brown rats exhibit cognitive bias , where information processing is biased by whether they are in a positive or negative affective state . For example , laboratory rats trained to respond to a specific tone by pressing a lever to receive a reward , and to press another lever in response to a different tone so as to avoid receiving an electric shock , are more likely to respond to an intermediate tone by choosing the reward lever if they have just been tickled ( something they enjoy ) , indicating " a link between the directly measured positive affective state and decision making under uncertainty in an animal model . "
Laboratory ( brown ) rats may have the capacity for metacognition — to consider their own learning and then make decisions based on what they know , or do not know , as indicated by choices they make apparently trading off difficulty of tasks and expected rewards , making them the first animals other than primates to have this capacity , but these findings are disputed , since the rats may have been following simple operant conditioning principles , or a behavioral economic model .
Brown rats use social learning in a wide range of situations , but perhaps especially so in acquiring food preferences . Learning about suitable foods can be divided into four life stages .
Before birth : In utero , fetal rats detect odor @-@ bearing particles that come from their mother 's diet and cross the placental barrier . Shortly after birth , newborn rats respond positively to these foods .
During nursing : Nursing rats receive information about their mother 's diet through her milk . They prefer the foods she ate during lactation .
Weaning : When young rats are weaning and eating solid foods for the first time , they use adult rats as guides . They forage where the adults are foraging or where adults have previously scent @-@ marked .
Adolescence and adulthood : When rats forage on their own , their food choices are influenced by social interactions that may take place far away from foraging sites . They smell foods on the fur , whiskers and especially the breath of other rats and strongly prefer the foods those rats had previously eaten . This inclines them not to eat poisons avoided by older rats .
= = Classification and evolution = =
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
Dentition is the key feature by which fossil rodents are recognized and the earliest record of such mammals comes from the Paleocene , shortly after the extinction of the non @-@ avian dinosaurs some 66 million years ago . These fossils are found in Laurasia , the supercontinent composed of modern @-@ day North America , Europe , and Asia . The divergence of Glires , a clade consisting of rodents and lagomorphs ( rabbits , hares and pikas ) , from other placental mammals occurred within a few million years after the Cretaceous @-@ Tertiary boundary ; rodents and lagomorphs then radiated during the Cenozoic . Some molecular clock data suggest modern rodents ( members of the order Rodentia ) had appeared by the late Cretaceous , although other molecular divergence estimations are in agreement with the fossil record .
Rodents are thought to have evolved in Asia , where local multituberculate faunas were severely affected by the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event and never fully recovered , unlike their North American and European relatives . In the resulting ecological vacuum , rodents and other Glires were allowed to evolve and diversify , taking the niches left by extinct multituberculates . The correlation between the spread of rodents and the demise of multituberculates is a controversial topic , not fully resolved . American and European multituberculate assemblages do decline in diversity in correlation with the introduction of rodents in these areas , but the remaining Asian multituberculates co @-@ existed with rodents with no observable replacement taking place , and ultimately both clades co @-@ existed for at least 15 million years .
The history of the colonization of the world 's continents by rodents is complex . The movements of the large superfamily Muroidea ( including hamsters , gerbils , true mice and rats ) may have involved up to seven colonizations of Africa , five of North America , four of Southeast Asia , two of South America and up to ten of Eurasia .
During the Eocene , rodents began to diversify . Beavers appeared in North America in the late Eocene before spreading to Eurasia . Late in the Eocene , hystricognaths invaded Africa , most probably having originated in Asia at least 39 @.@ 5 million years ago . From Africa , fossil evidence shows that some hystricognaths ( caviomorphs ) colonized South America , which was an isolated continent at the time , evidently making use of ocean currents to cross the Atlantic on floating debris . Caviomorphs had arrived in South America by 41 million years ago ( implying a date at least as early as this for hystricognaths in Africa ) , and had reached the Greater Antilles by the early Oligocene , suggesting that they must have dispersed rapidly across South America .
Nesomyid rodents are thought to have rafted from Africa to Madagascar 20 – 24 million years ago . All 27 species of native Malagasy rodents appear to be descendents of a single colonization event .
By 20 million years ago , fossils recognizably belonging to the current families such as Muridae had emerged . By the Miocene , when Africa had collided with Asia , African rodents such as the porcupine began to spread into Eurasia . Some fossil species were very large in comparison to modern rodents and included the giant beaver , Castoroides ohioensis , which grew to a length of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) and weight of 100 kg ( 220 lb ) . The largest known rodent was Josephoartigasia monesi , a pacarana with an estimated body length of 3 m ( 10 ft ) .
The first rodents arrived in Australia via Indonesia around 5 million years ago . Although marsupials are the most prominent mammals in Australia , many rodents , all belonging to the subfamily Murinae , are among the continent 's mammal species . There are about fifty species of ' old endemics ' , the first wave of rodents to colonize the country in the Miocene and early Pliocene , and eight true rat ( Rattus ) species of ' new endemics ' , arriving in a subsequent wave in the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene . The earliest fossil rodents in Australia have a maximum age of 4 @.@ 5 million years , and molecular data is consistent with the colonization of New Guinea from the west during the late Miocene or early Pliocene followed by rapid diversification . A further wave of adaptive radiation occurred after one or more colonizations of Australia some 2 to 3 million years later .
Rodents participated in the Great American Interchange that resulted from the joining of the Americas by formation of the Isthmus of Panama , around 3 million years ago in the Piacenzian age . In this exchange , a small number of species such as the New World porcupines ( Erethizontidae ) headed north . However , the main southward invasion of sigmodontines preceded formation of the land bridge by at least several million years , probably occurring via rafting . Sigmodontines diversified explosively once in South America , although some degree of diversification may have already occurred in Central America before the colonization . Their " head start " has relegated other North American rodent groups ( sciurids , geomyids , heteromyids and nonsigmodontine cricetids ) to a minor presence in the contemporary South American fauna .
= = = Standard classification = = =
The use of the order name " Rodentia " is attributed to the English traveler and naturalist Thomas Edward Bowdich ( 1821 ) . The Modern Latin word " Rodentia " is derived from " rodens " , present participle of " rodere " – " to gnaw " , " eat away " . The hares , rabbits and pikas ( order Lagomorpha ) have continuously growing incisors , as do rodents , and were at one time included in the order . However , they have an additional pair of incisors in the upper jaw and the two orders have quite separate evolutionary histories . The phylogeny of the rodents places them in the clades Glires , Euarchontoglires and Boreoeutheria . The cladogram below shows the inner and outer relations of Rodentia based on a 2012 attempt by Wu et al. to align the molecular clock with paleontological data :
The living rodent families based on the study done by Fabre et al . 2012 .
The order Rodentia may be divided into suborders , infraorders , superfamilies and families . There is a great deal of parallelism and convergence among rodents caused by the fact that they have tended to evolve to fill largely similar niches . This parallel evolution includes not only the structure of the teeth , but also the infraorbital region of the skull ( below the eye socket ) and makes classification difficult as similar traits may not be due to common ancestry . Brandt ( 1855 ) was the first to propose dividing Rodentia into three suborders , Sciuromorpha , Hystricomorpha and Myomorpha , based on the development of certain muscles in the jaw and this system was widely accepted . Schlosser ( 1884 ) performed a comprehensive review of rodent fossils , mainly using the cheek teeth , and found that they fitted into the classical system , but Tullborg ( 1899 ) proposed just two sub @-@ orders , Sciurognathi and Hystricognathi . These were based on the degree of inflection of the lower jaw and were to be further subdivided into Sciuromorpha , Myomorpha , Hystricomorpha and Bathyergomorpha . Matthew ( 1910 ) created a phylogenetic tree of New World rodents but did not include the more problematic Old World species . Further attempts at classification continued without agreement , with some authors adopting the classical three suborder system and others Tullborg 's two suborders .
These disagreements remain unresolved , nor have molecular studies fully resolved the situation though they have confirmed the monophyly of the group and that the clade has descended from a common Paleocene ancestor . Carleton and Musser ( 2005 ) in Mammal Species of the World have provisionally adopted a five suborder system : Sciuromorpha , Castorimorpha , Myomorpha , Anomaluromorpha , and Hystricomorpha . These include 33 families , 481 genera and 2277 species :
Order Rodentia ( from Latin , rodere , to gnaw )
Suborder Anomaluromorpha
Family Anomaluridae : scaly @-@ tailed squirrels
Family Pedetidae : springhares
Suborder Castorimorpha
Superfamily Castoroidea
Family Castoridae : beavers
Superfamily Geomyoidea
Family Geomyidae : pocket gophers ( true gophers )
Family Heteromyidae : kangaroo rats , kangaroo mice
Suborder Hystricomorpha
Family incertae sedis Diatomyidae : Laotian rock rat
Infraorder Ctenodactylomorphi
Family Ctenodactylidae : gundis
Infraorder Hystricognathi
Family Bathyergidae : African mole rats
Family Hystricidae : Old World porcupines
Family Petromuridae : dassie rat
Family Thryonomyidae : cane rats
Parvorder Caviomorpha
Family † Heptaxodontidae : giant hutias
Family Abrocomidae : chinchilla rats
Family Capromyidae : hutias
Family Caviidae : cavies , including Guinea pigs and the capybara
Family Chinchillidae : chinchillas , viscachas
Family Ctenomyidae : tuco @-@ tucos
Family Dasyproctidae : agoutis
Family Cuniculidae : pacas
Family Dinomyidae : pacaranas
Family Echimyidae : spiny rats
Family Erethizontidae : New World porcupines
Family Myocastoridae : nutria , coypu
Family Octodontidae : octodonts
Suborder Myomorpha
Superfamily Dipodoidea
Family Dipodidae : jerboas and jumping mice
Superfamily Muroidea
Family Calomyscidae : mouse @-@ like hamsters
Family Cricetidae : hamsters , New World rats and mice , muskrats , voles , lemmings
Family Muridae : true mice and rats , gerbils , spiny mice , crested rat
Family Nesomyidae : climbing mice , rock mice , white @-@ tailed rat , Malagasy rats and mice
Family Platacanthomyidae : spiny dormice
Family Spalacidae : mole rats , bamboo rats , zokors
Suborder Sciuromorpha
Family Aplodontiidae : mountain beaver
Family Gliridae ( also Myoxidae , Muscardinidae ) : dormice
Family Sciuridae : squirrels , including chipmunks , prairie dogs , marmots
= = Interaction with humans = =
= = = Conservation = = =
While rodents are not the most seriously threatened order of mammals , there are 168 species in 126 genera that are said to warrant conservation attention in the face of limited appreciation by the public . Since 76 percent of rodent genera contain only one species , much phylogenetic diversity could be lost with a comparatively small number of extinctions . In the absence of more detailed knowledge of species at risk and accurate taxonomy , conservation must be based mainly on higher taxa ( such as families rather than species ) and geographical hot spots . Several species of rice rat have become extinct since the 19th century , probably through habitat loss and the introduction of alien species . In Colombia , the brown hairy dwarf porcupine was recorded from only two mountain localities in the 1920s , while the red crested soft @-@ furred spiny rat is known only from its type locality on the Caribbean coast , so these species are considered vulnerable . The IUCN Species Survival Commission writes " We can safely conclude that many South American rodents are seriously threatened , mainly by environmental disturbance and intensive hunting " .
The " three now cosmopolitan commensal rodent pest species " ( the brown rat , the black rat and the house mouse ) have been dispersed in association with humans , partly on sailing ships in the Age of Exploration , and with a fourth species in the Pacific , the Polynesian rat ( Rattus exulans ) , have severely damaged island biotas around the world . For example , when the black rat reached Lord Howe Island in 1918 , over 40 percent of the terrestrial bird species of the island , including the Lord Howe fantail , became extinct within ten years . Similar destruction has been seen on Midway Island ( 1943 ) and Big South Cape Island ( 1962 ) . Conservation projects can with careful planning completely eradicate these pest rodents from islands using an anticoagulant rodenticide such as brodifacoum . This approach has been successful on the island of Lundy in the United Kingdom , where the eradication of an estimated 40 @,@ 000 brown rats is giving populations of Manx shearwater and Atlantic puffin a chance to recover from near @-@ extinction .
= = = Exploitation = = =
Humanity has long used animal skins for clothing , as the leather is durable and the fur provides extra insulation . The native people of North America made much use of beaver pelts , tanning and sewing them together to make robes . Europeans appreciated the quality of these and the North American fur trade developed and became of prime importance to early settlers . In Europe , the soft underfur known as " beaver wool " was found to be ideal for felting and was made into beaver hats and trimming for clothing . Later , the coypu took over as a cheaper source of fur for felting and was farmed extensively in America and Europe ; however , fashions changed , new materials became available and this area of the animal fur industry declined . The chinchilla has a soft and silky coat and the demand for its fur was so high that it was nearly wiped out in the wild before farming took over as the main source of pelts . The quills and guardhairs of porcupines are used for traditional decorative clothing . For example , their guardhairs are used in the creation of the Native American " porky roach " headdress . The main quills may be dyed , and then applied in combination with thread to embellish leather accessories such as knife sheaths and leather bags . Lakota women would harvest the quills for quillwork by throwing a blanket over a porcupine and retrieving the quills it left stuck in the blanket .
At least 89 species of rodent , mostly Hystricomorpha such as guinea pigs , agoutis and capybaras , are eaten by humans ; in 1985 , there were at least 42 different societies in which people eat rats . Guinea pigs were first raised for food around 2500 B.C. and by 1500 B.C. had become the main source of meat for the Inca Empire . Dormice were raised by the Romans in special pots called " gliraria " , or in large outdoor enclosures , where they were fattened on walnuts , chestnuts , and acorns . The dormice were also caught from the wild in autumn when they were fattest , and either roasted and dipped into honey or baked while stuffed with a mixture of pork , pine nuts , and other flavorings . Researchers found that in Amazonia , where large mammals were scarce , pacas and common agoutis accounted for around 40 percent of the annual game taken by the indigenous people , but in forested areas where larger mammals were abundant , these rodents constituted only about 3 percent of the take .
Guinea pigs are used in the cuisine of Cuzco , Peru , in dishes such as cuy al horno , baked guinea pig . The traditional Andean stove , known as a qoncha or a fogón , is made from mud and clay reinforced with straw and hair from animals such as guinea pigs . In Peru , there are at any time 20 million domestic guinea pigs , which annually produce 64 million edible carcasses . This animal is an excellent food source since the flesh is 19 % protein . In the United States , mostly squirrels , but also muskrats , porcupines , and ground hogs are eaten by humans . The Navajo people ate prairie dog baked in mud , while the Paiute ate gophers , squirrels , and rats .
Rodents including guinea pigs , mice , rats , hamsters , gerbils , chinchillas , degus and chipmunks make convenient pets able to live in small spaces , each species with its own qualities . Most are normally kept in cages of suitable sizes and have varied requirements for space and social interaction . If handled from a young age , they are usually docile and do not bite . Guinea pigs have a long lifespan and need a large cage . Rats also need plenty of space and can become very tame , can learn tricks and seem to enjoy human companionship . Mice are short @-@ lived but take up very little space . Hamsters are solitary but tend to be nocturnal . They have interesting behaviors , but unless handled regularly they may be defensive . Gerbils are not usually aggressive , rarely bite and are sociable animals that enjoy the company of humans and their own kind .
Rodents are used widely as model organisms in animal testing . Albino mutant rats were first used for research in 1828 and later became the first animal domesticated for purely scientific purposes . Nowadays , the house mouse is the most commonly used laboratory rodent , and in 1979 it was estimated that fifty million were used annually worldwide . They are favored because of their small size , fertility , short gestation period and ease of handling and because they are susceptible to many of the conditions and infections that afflict humans . They are used in research into genetics , developmental biology , cell biology , oncology and immunology . Guinea pigs were popular laboratory animals until the late 20th century ; about 2 @.@ 5 million guinea pigs were used annually in the United States for research in the 1960s , but that total decreased to about 375 @,@ 000 by the mid @-@ 1990s . In 2007 , they constituted about 2 % of all laboratory animals . Guinea pigs played a major role in the establishment of germ theory in the late 19th century , through the experiments of Louis Pasteur , Émile Roux , and Robert Koch . They have been launched into orbital space flight several times — first by the USSR on the Sputnik 9 biosatellite of March 9 , 1961 , with a successful recovery . The naked mole rat is the only known mammal that is poikilothermic ; it is used in studies on thermoregulation . It is also unusual in not producing the neurotransmitter substance P , a fact which researchers find useful in studies on pain .
Rodents have sensitive olfactory abilities , which have been used by humans to detect odors or chemicals of interest . The Gambian pouched rat is able to detect tuberculosis bacilli with a sensitivity of up to 86 @.@ 6 % , and specificity ( detecting the absence of the bacilli ) of over 93 % ; the same species has been trained to detect land mines . Rats have been studied for possible use in hazardous situations such as in disaster zones . They can be trained to respond to commands , which may be given remotely , and even persuaded to venture into brightly lit areas , which rats usually avoid .
= = = As pests and disease vectors = = =
Some rodent species are serious agricultural pests , eating large quantities of food stored by humans . For example , in 2003 , the amount of rice lost to mice and rats in Asia was estimated to be enough to feed 200 million people . Most of the damage worldwide is caused by a relatively small number of species , chiefly rats and mice . In Indonesia and Tanzania , rodents reduce crop yields by around fifteen percent , while in some instances in South America losses have reached ninety percent . Across Africa , rodents including Mastomys and Arvicanthis damage cereals , groundnuts , vegetables and cacao . In Asia , rats , mice and species such as Microtus brandti , Meriones unguiculatus and Eospalax baileyi damage crops of rice , sorghum , tubers , vegetables and nuts . In Europe , as well as rats and mice , species of Apodemus , Microtus and in occasional outbreaks Arvicola terrestris cause damage to orchards , vegetables and pasture as well as cereals . In South America , a wider range of rodent species , such as Holochilus , Akodon , Calomys , Oligoryzomys , Phyllotis , Sigmodon and Zygodontomys , damage many crops including sugar cane , fruits , vegetables , and tubers .
Rodents are also significant vectors of disease . The black rat , with the fleas that it carries , plays a primary role in spreading the bacterium Yersinia pestis responsible for bubonic plague , and carries the organisms responsible for typhus , Weil 's disease , toxoplasmosis and trichinosis . A number of rodents carry hantaviruses , including the Puumala , Dobrava and Saaremaa viruses , which can infect humans . Rodents also help to transmit diseases including babesiosis , cutaneous leishmaniasis , human granulocytic anaplasmosis , Lyme disease , Omsk hemorrhagic fever , Powassan virus , rickettsialpox , relapsing fever , Rocky Mountain spotted fever , and West Nile virus .
Because rodents are a nuisance and endanger public health , human societies often attempt to control them . Traditionally , this involved poisoning and trapping , methods that were not always safe or effective . More recently , integrated pest management attempts to improve control with a combination of surveys to determine the size and distribution of the pest population , the establishment of tolerance limits ( levels of pest activity at which to intervene ) , interventions , and evaluation of effectiveness based on repeated surveys . Interventions may include education , making and applying laws and regulations , modifying the habitat , changing farming practices , and biological control using pathogens or predators , as well as poisoning and trapping . The use of pathogens such as Salmonella has the drawback that they can infect man and domestic animals , and rodents often become resistant . The use of predators including ferrets , mongooses and monitor lizards has been found unsatisfactory . Domestic and feral cats are able to control rodents effectively , provided the rodent population is not too large . In the UK , two species in particular , the house mouse and the brown rat , are actively controlled to limit damage in growing crops , loss and contamination of stored crops and structural damage to facilities , as well as to comply with the law .
= 1962 National League tie @-@ breaker series =
The 1962 National League tie @-@ breaker series was a three @-@ game playoff series at the conclusion of Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 1962 regular season to determine the winner of the National League ( NL ) pennant . The games were played from October 1 to 3 , 1962 , between the Los Angeles Dodgers and the San Francisco Giants . The Giants won the series , two games to one . The first game took place at Candlestick Park and the second and third were played at Dodger Stadium . The playoff series was necessary after both teams finished the season with identical win – loss records of 101 – 61 . The Dodgers won a coin flip late in the season , which gave them home field advantage for the series .
The Giants won the first game in an 8 – 0 shutout by starting pitcher Billy Pierce over Sandy Koufax . The Dodgers evened the series with an 8 – 7 victory in Game 2 , breaking their 35 @-@ inning scoreless streak in what was then the longest nine @-@ inning game in MLB history . However , the Giants closed out the series in Game 3 with a 6 – 4 victory to clinch the NL pennant . This victory advanced the Giants to the 1962 World Series in which the defending champion New York Yankees defeated them in seven games . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker series counted as the 163rd , 164th , and 165th regular @-@ season games for both teams , with all events in the series added to regular @-@ season statistics . The 1962 series was the last MLB tie @-@ breaker to use a three @-@ game format , as the NL subsequently adopted the single @-@ game style used in the American League ( AL ) .
= = Background = =
The Dodgers and the Giants finished the 1961 season second and third respectively in the NL , with records of 89 – 65 and 85 – 69 . In an offseason trade with the Chicago White Sox the Giants acquired Billy Pierce and Don Larsen for Bob Farley , Eddie Fisher , Dom Zanni , and Verle Tiefenthaler . The Dodgers moved to a new home field , Dodger Stadium , for the 1962 season .
The Giants opened the 1962 season by establishing an early lead and , though they fell back by mid @-@ April , held at least a share of that lead continuously from April 28 to June 7 . At that point the Dodgers overtook the Giants , and for the next month the lead was traded between the two sides five times . The Giants held the lead for the last time on July 7 . The Dodgers went 20 – 6 in July while the Giants went 16 – 11 , allowing the Dodgers to take the league lead on July 8 and hold it until season 's last regular game . The Los Angeles Times described the Dodgers ' season as a " gamut of sublime " and " ridiculous " , noting their successes — such as Maury Wills ' 100 stolen bases breaking Ty Cobb 's single @-@ season record , Don Drysdale 's 25 wins , and Sandy Koufax 's no @-@ hitter on June 30 — together with problems such as the 18 unearned runs the defense had allowed for the season behind Drysdale , and other fielding issues .
The Dodgers lost 10 of their final 13 games from September 16 to 30 , while the Giants lost just 6 over the same span . However , with seven games remaining the Dodgers were still ahead in the league by four games , and held a two @-@ game lead with three left to play . They entered their final game with a one @-@ game lead over the Giants , but fell 1 – 0 to the St. Louis Cardinals . Meanwhile , the Giants won 2 – 1 over the Houston Colt .45 's , after an eighth @-@ inning home run by Willie Mays . These results left the Dodgers and Giants tied in the league at 101 – 61 , necessitating a tie @-@ breaker to decide the NL pennant . The two teams had also played closely against one another during the regular season to this point , with each winning 9 of their 18 match @-@ ups prior to the tie @-@ breaker . Dodgers ' manager Walt Alston and Giants ' manager Alvin Dark could not agree on dates and sites for the tie @-@ breaker , so they flipped a coin to decide home field advantage . Alston won the flip , opting to play the first game in San Francisco and the remaining two games in Los Angeles . The Dodgers had been more successful at home in the season , holding a 53 – 28 ( .654 winning percentage ) record there while going 47 – 34 ( .580 ) on the road . Alston had also won the flip for the 1959 tie @-@ breaker , which the Dodgers had gone on to win , and had chosen the same format .
= = Game 1 summary = =
Box score for Monday October 1 , 1962 at Candlestick Park in San Francisco
Sandy Koufax had missed two months of the season , not starting from July 17 until September 21 . He started three games in his return prior to the tie @-@ breaker , losing all three and pitching just seven @-@ and @-@ two @-@ thirds innings across the three starts . The night before the first game of the tiebreaker , Walt Alston asked Koufax to start the game , as Don Drysdale and Johnny Podres , the Dodgers ' two front line starting pitchers , had pitched the prior two days ; Koufax agreed . In the game the Giants were
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to the roof .
= = = The riot spreads = = =
The prison officers guarding the gates outside the chapel abandoned them , and ran towards the Centre . The prison officer in charge of the Centre saw his colleagues running from the direction of the chapel , but due to the presence of scaffolding he was in a poor position to view the upper levels , and mistakenly assumed he saw prisoners running from the chapel . He informed other officers on C1 and D1 of this and , upon hearing that prisoners were in possession of keys , told them and officers on A1 that they should evacuate the prison . Governor Morrison , who was responsible for the main prison , was present and did not intervene with these instructions . Morrison then ordered officers to evacuate the Centre at 11 : 13 am as he mistakenly believed prisoners had entered the Centre . By this time prisoners had gained access to the roofs of E and F wings , and from there gained access to other wings by making holes in unprotected office ceilings .
The prisoners found A and B wings unsupervised as the prison officers had already evacuated , and began to free other prisoners who were still locked in their cells . The prison officer in charge of the first landing of C wing was ordered to evacuate , and with the help of three other officers evacuated the 73 Rule 43 ( a ) prisoners being held there , being fearful for the safety of the prisoners who were regarded as sex offenders . Due to rioting prisoners entering the wing , the officers were unable to evacuate a further seven Rule 43 ( a ) prisoners who were being held on the second landing . Rioting prisoners also gained access to E wing , where the Rule 43 ( a ) prisoners had been left locked in their cells after the prison officers evacuated . A number of these Rule 43 ( a ) prisoners were attacked by rioting prisoners . One such prisoner was Derek White , who was being held on remand on charges of indecent assault and buggery . White later died in North Manchester General Hospital on 3 April after being admitted suffering from head wounds , a dislocated shoulder and chest pains .
At 11 : 43 am rioting prisoners were seen approaching the remand prison , which was still secure . The prison governor , Brendan O 'Friel , arrived at the prison at 11 : 55 am and gave orders to defend the remand prison . He later recalled that :
By 12 o 'clock when I came in it looked as if we 'd lost control of the whole thing . My first decision was to send a Governor 5 back up to the remand prison to see if we could hold it , but it was too late . That decision , had it been taken half an hour earlier , would have meant we could have held the remand prison , meaning we could have kept another 400 locked up . Assuming the doors would have held , that sort of thing . But we had about 200 staff on duty , and we must have lost nine or ten casualties of one sort or another and then you lose staff getting the casualties out . We didn 't have a lot of the staff come pouring in until about 1 o 'clock . I tell you what really bugged us was there an element of April Fool about it . We rang staff up about it , who said " You must be joking , is this an April Fool ? " That 's what happened when they rang up my home , my son thought it was an April Fool .
Rioting prisoners gained access to the remand prison at 12 : 20 pm through the kitchens in G wing , and began freeing prisoners who were still locked in their cells using stolen keys or improvised tools such as iron bars and fire extinguishers . At this point the rioting prisoners were in control of all accommodation wings of the prison . A large number of prisoners were on the prison roof , and roof tiles and other missiles were thrown at prison officers on the ground . Rioting inside the prison continued with cells being damaged and fires being started , and at 3 : 40 pm the Public Relations Department of the Home Office issued a statement :
At 11 am a disturbance started in the chapel at Strangeways Prison when some 300 prisoners attacked staff . Those prisoners then gained access to the chapel roof and then broke into the living accommodation in the main prison . Other prisoners , including those on remand , joined in the disturbance and staff had to be withdrawn . The perimeter is secure .
Between 2 : 00 pm and 5 : 00 pm approximately 800 prisoners had surrendered , and arrangements were made for them to be transferred to other prisons . At 8 : 00 pm Governor O 'Friel agreed that prison officers should enter E wing , and at 8 : 05 pm approximately ten Control & Restraint ( C & R ) units each consisting of twelve prison officers entered the wing . By 8 : 10 pm all four landings of E wing had been secured , and one C & R unit progressed to the Centre where they fought with rioting prisoners . This was reported to Governor O 'Friel , who instructed the officers not to move beyond E wing . Scaffolding poles and other missiles were thrown at the C & R teams from the roof area above the fourth landing in E wing , and when prisoners broke onto the wing the C & R teams withdrew at 0 : 22 am on 2 April , leaving prisoners in control of the wing . Up to 1 @,@ 100 of the 1 @,@ 647 prisoners were involved in the rioting , and by the end of the first day 700 had surrendered and been transferred to other prisons along with 400 prisoners who were not involved in the rioting . Between 200 and 350 prisoners occupied the rooftop of the main prison during the night .
= = = Rooftop protest = = =
At 7 : 00 am on 2 April , an estimated total of 142 prisoners were still in control of all the accommodation wings of the prison . Some prisoners on the roof gave clenched fist salutes to the crowd watching below . Some prisoners were wearing prison officers ' hats and uniforms , while others were wearing masks improvised from towels and blankets . A banner was unveiled that read " No dead " , in response to claims in the press that between eleven and twenty prisoners had been killed in the rioting . At 10 : 00 am , C & R units entered the remand prison and regained control , with six prisoners surrendering peacefully . A Home Office statement was released at 11 : 45 am stating that no bodies had been found in the remand prison , and 12 prison officers and 37 prisoners had received treatment in hospital to date . Further prisoners surrendered the same day , and by 6 : 00 pm 114 prisoners remained in the prison . On 3 April newspapers published pictures of the prisoners ' " No dead " banner , while still insisting that 20 prisoners had been killed . The prisoners responded with a banner that read " Media contact now " . The Manchester Evening News newspaper was contacted from inside the prison by telephone , and prisoners outlined their demands :
Improved visiting facilities , including the right to physical contact with visitors and a children 's play area .
Category A prisoners would be allowed to wear their own clothes and be able to receive food parcels .
Longer exercise periods .
An end to 23 @-@ hour @-@ a @-@ day lock @-@ up .
At 11 : 10 am Michael Unger from the Manchester Evening News was allowed into the prison as an " independent observer " . Unger met prisoners who described their grievances to him , which included mental and physical brutality , poor food and conditions , and misuse of drugs in controlling prisoners . While Unger was inside the prison twelve C & R units attempted to regain control of E wing , in what became known as the " battle for E wing " . Prisoners built barricades and threw scaffolding poles at the C & R units , and after approximately thirty minutes the C & R units withdrew without regaining control of the wing . By the end of the third day of the riot prisoners still controlled the upper levels of the prison , but prison officers had regained control of the lower level , and a Home Office statement was issued :
During the course of the evening prison staff have had access at ground level to all wings in the main prison . No bodies have been found . Earlier today prison staff gained access to the main prison building in order to remove barricades to allow the surrender of inmates who wished to do so . No inmates were injured during this process . Nine prison staff were taken to outside hospital for treatment . Two remain overnight for observation . Negotiations were carried out by prison staff ... 31 inmates surrendered . All of those who surrendered have been interviewed , medically examined and fed . They will be transferred to other accommodation as soon as practicable .
On 4 April , Governor O 'Friel spoke to the press for the first time , describing the riot as " an explosion of evil which was quite terrible to see " . Also that day the Prison Officers Association claimed that Rule 43 ( a ) prisoners were being treated in North Manchester General Hospital for castration wounds , which was repeated by sections of the press despite being categorically denied by the hospital 's public relations officer and consultant @-@ in @-@ charge . 29 prisoners surrendered during the day leaving 26 prisoners inside the prison , 11 of whom had been identified by the Prison Service . Also that day a prison officer died in hospital from pneumonia ; he had not been injured during the riot and suffered from a long @-@ standing medical condition . Two more prisoners surrendered on 5 April , the same day as the Home Office announced a public inquiry into the riot headed by Lord Woolf . By this time plans to retake the entire prison by force had been scrapped due to the likelihood of fatalities among prisoners or prison officers . That evening the police and prison officers introduced new tactics designed to weaken the resolve of the prisoners and to prevent them from sleeping . Loud music was played , lights were shone at the roof , and prison officers banged on their riot shields and shouted at the prisoners , including calling them " beasts " .
The rooftop protest was watched by a crowd of onlookers and supporters outside the prison . Various political groups also attended in support of the prisoners , including anarchist group Class War , the Revolutionary Communist Group , and the Prisoners ' League Association . On 6 April Paul Taylor attempted to shout out the prisoners ' demands to the crowd gathered below , but he was drowned out by police sirens . Taylor and other prisoners responded by unfurling a banner which read " We fight and stand firm on behalf of humanity " . On 9 April , The Sun newspaper called for an end to the riot , saying " Jail riot scum must be crushed " , and former prisoner John McVicar called for the retaking of the prison by force at the earliest possible opportunity . By 10 April more prisoners had surrendered , leaving thirteen inside the prison . Three more prisoners surrendered the following day , one of whom , Barry Morton , had taken part in the rooftop protest on 26 March . On 16 April , another three prisoners surrendered when they became ill with food poisoning .
Local businesses were calling for an end to the riot due to the disruption caused , including the closure of roads around the prison . A leather @-@ jacket retailer in the vicinity of the prison claimed to have lost £ 20 @,@ 000 in revenue since the riot had begun . Greater Manchester Police asked for £ 2 million to cover the costs of policing the riot , which it described as the " most savage incident of its kind ever experienced within the British prison service " . On 17 April the remaining seven prisoners began negotiations to attempt to bring the rooftop protest to an end . Negotiations took place inside the prison between two Home Office officials and prisoner Alan Lord , who was negotiating on behalf of the remaining prisoners . On 23 April , Lord was captured by a C & R unit while on his way to meet the negotiators . Mark Williams — one of the remaining prisoners — later described his reactions to the negotiations and Lord 's capture :
David Bell , the Home Office negotiator , kept contradicting himself , as if in a bid to prolong the negotiations . He would agree to our terms , then he would try and tell us it was out of his hands , and go back on his word . If it was out of the Home Officer 's hands — then whose hands was it in ? I think the final stages were messed around by the Home Office so that our protest could help to divert the public 's attention from the Poll Tax revolt that was going on throughout the country . As Alan Lord was snatched after being asked to negotiate on behalf of us all , this made us all more defiant about ending the protest .
Following the capture of Lord , the remaining prisoners agreed that 25 April would be the final day of the protest . Prison officers entered the prison early in the morning and gradually began to occupy the upper landings . At 10 : 20 am one of the remaining prisoners , a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old on remand for joyriding , was captured leaving five prisoners remaining on the roof . When prison officers reached the roof they put up a sign similar to the ones used by prisoners throughout the protest , which read " HMP in charge — no visits " . At 6 : 20 pm the remaining five prisoners were removed from the roof in a " cherry picker " hydraulic platform , giving clenched fist salutes to the press and public as they descended . During the course of the 25 @-@ day riot , the longest in British penal history , 147 prison officers and 47 prisoners had been injured .
= = Disturbances at other prisons = =
The Strangeways riot caused a number of protests at prisons across England , Scotland and Wales , described as either solidarity actions or copycat riots . Approximately 100 remand prisoners at HM Prison Hull staged a sit @-@ down protest in the exercise yard on 1 April , after hearing about the Strangeways riot on the radio . Disturbances occurred the same day at HM Prison Gartree , HM Prison Kirkham and HM Prison Rochester , although the Gartree protest had started three days earlier over conditions in the prison . There were minor disturbances at HM Prison Lindholme , HM Prison Low Newton and HM Prison Bedford on 2 April , HM Prison Durham , HM Prison Winchester and HM Prison Wandsworth on 4 April , and HM Young Offenders Institute Glen Parva on 6 April .
The weekend of 7 April and 8 April saw protests across the prison system . At HM Prison Leeds there was a sit @-@ down protest after the arrival of over 100 prisoners who had been transferred from Strangeways . At HM Prison Dartmoor , between 100 and 120 prisoners wrecked D wing of the prison , and 12 prisoners also protested on the roof of C wing unfurling a banner that read " Strangeways , we are with you " . 32 prisoners from Dartmoor were transferred to HM Prison Bristol , where there was another major protest following their arrival . Up to 400 prisoners took over three wings of the prison , and held control of them for two days . 130 prisoners at HM Prison Cardiff destroyed cells , a twenty @-@ hour rooftop protest took place at HM Prison Stoke Heath , and disturbances occurred at HM Prison Brixton , HM Prison Pentonville , HM Prison Stafford and HM Prison Shepton Mallet . A second protest took place at HM Prison Hull , where 110 prisoners staged a sit @-@ down protest in the exercise yard .
Prisoners smashed windows at HM Prison Verne on 9 April , and 40 prisoners held a prison officer hostage for twenty @-@ four hours after taking over a hall at HM Prison Shotts on 10 April . On 12 April , two teenage remand prisoners at HM Prison Swansea barricaded themselves into their cell for seventeen hours , and on 22 April between 80 and 100 remand prisoners staged an eighteen @-@ hour rooftop protest at HM Prison Ashfield in Pucklechurch .
= = Media reaction = =
On 2 April newspapers reported a weekend of " anti @-@ authority violence " , as in addition to the Strangeways riot the Poll Tax Riot had occurred in London on 31 March . Reports of the violence at Strangeways included kangaroo courts , hangings , castrations and that between eleven and twenty prisoners had been killed . On 3 April the front page of the Daily Mirror read " Prison Mob ' Hang Cop ' " , and claimed a former policeman imprisoned at Strangeways for rape had been killed by prisoners . The newspaper was forced to publish a retraction admitting that " reliable police sources " had been mistaken , when it transpired that the man was actually alive and imprisoned in HM Prison Leeds . Following the end of the rooftop protest the newspapers condemned the prisoners , with The Daily Telegraph describing the riot as " a degrading public spectacle " , and The Independent describing the rioters as " dangerous and unstable criminals enjoying an orgy of destruction " . The Guardian urged the government to institute reforms , a view which was the prevalent one for a time , stating :
Initially , the riot appeared to increase public support for radical reform of the present degrading prison system . Some of that goodwill will have been eroded by the antics of the rioters in the last two weeks , and may be further eroded once details emerge during the forthcoming criminal prosecutions . But this must not deflect Home Office ministers from the road down which they had belatedly begun to travel . A change in prison conditions is crucial if good order is to be restored to the system .
In its last act before disbanding in 1991 and being replaced by the Press Complaints Commission , the Press Council produced a comprehensive report into the press coverage during the Strangeways riot . The report stated that " many of the more gruesome events report in the press had not occurred – nobody had been systematically mutilated , there had been no castrations , no bodies had been chopped up and flushed in the sewers . Though there was inter @-@ prisoner violence in the first hours of the riot , torture on the scale suggested by many of the early reports did not take place . " It further found that press coverage " fell into the serious ethical error of presenting speculation and unconfirmed reports as fact " .
= = The Woolf Report = =
A five @-@ month public inquiry was held into the disturbances at Strangeways and other prisons , beginning in Manchester on 11 June 1990 and ending in London on 31 October . In addition to the public inquiry , Lord Woolf and Her Majesty 's Chief Inspector of Prisons , Stephen Tumim , also sent letters to every prisoner and prison officer in the country . 1 @,@ 300 prisoners and 430 prison officers responded , with many excerpts from the letters being appended to the finished report . The Woolf Report was published on 25 February 1991 , and blamed the loss of control of the prison on the prison officers abandoning the gates outside the chapel , which " effectively handed the prison to the prisoners " . Woolf described the conditions inside Strangeways in the months leading up to the riot as " intolerable " , and viewed a " combination of errors " by staff and management at the prison and Prison Service as a central contributing factor to the riot . He also blamed the failure of successive governments to " provide the resources to the Prison Service which were needed to enable the Service to provide for an increased prison population in a humane manner " . Woolf recommended major reform of the Prison Service , and made 12 key recommendations with 204 accompanying proposals . The key recommendations were :
Closer cooperation between the different parts of the Criminal Justice System . For this purpose a national forum and local committees should be established .
More visible leadership of the Prison Service by a Director General who is and is seen to be the operational head and in day to day charge of the Service . To achieve this there should be a published " compact " or " contract " given by Ministers to the Director General of the Prison Service , who should be responsible for the performance of that " contract " and publicly answerable for the day @-@ to @-@ day operations of the Prison Service .
Increased delegation of responsibility to Governors of establishments .
An enhanced role for prison officers .
A " compact " or " contract " for each prisoner setting out the prisoner 's expectations and responsibilities in the prison in which he or she is held
A national system of Accredited Standards , with which , in time , each prison establishment would be required to comply .
A new Prison Rule that no establishment should hold more prisoners that is provided for it its certified normal level of accommodation , with provisions for Parliament to be informed if exceptionally there is to be a material departure from that rule .
A public commitment from Ministers setting a timetable to provide access to sanitation for all inmates at the earliest practical date , not later than February 1996 .
Better prospects for prisoners to maintain their links with families and the community through more visits and home leaves and through being located in community prisons as near to their homes as possible .
A division of prison establishments into small and more manageable and secure units .
A separate statement of purpose , separate conditions and generally a lower security categorisation for remand prisoners .
Improved standards of justice within prisons involving the giving of reasons to a prisoner for any decision which materially and adversely affects him ; a grievance procedure and disciplinary proceedings which ensure that the Governor deals with most matters under his present powers ; relieving Boards of Visitors of their adjudicatory role ; and providing for final access to an independent Complaints Adjudicator .
The Guardian newspaper described the report as a blueprint for the restoration of " decency and justice into jails where conditions had become intolerable " . Home Secretary Kenneth Baker welcomed the Woolf Report and pledged to end " slopping out " by 1994 , and also accepted Woolf 's recommendations for more visits , home leave and telephone calls . In contrast to his proposed reforms , Baker also proposed the introduction of a new offence of " prison mutiny " carrying a maximum sentence of ten years imprisonment , stating " The events of last April marked a watershed in the history of prison service . We cannot , and will not , tolerate the savagery and vandalism in our prisons that we saw then " .
= = Prosecutions = =
The first prosecutions in relation to the riot began at Manchester Crown Court on 14 January 1992 . The trial was conducted amid tight security , including armed police patrolling the area around the court , body searches for spectators and a specially constructed dock with sides made from bulletproof glass . Nine men went on trial charged with riot under Section 1 of the Public Order Act 1986 , with six of them , including Paul Taylor and Alan Lord , also being charged with the murder of Derek White .
On the first day one prisoner pleaded guilty to charges of riot and conspiracy to riot , and was also acquitted of the murder charge . The other defendants were also acquitted of murder due to the unreliability of eyewitness testimony and the possibility that White had died from a pre @-@ existing thrombotic condition . On 16 April , four defendants including Paul Taylor were convicted of rioting , and the remaining four including Alan Lord were acquitted .
Taylor received a ten @-@ year sentence , the maximum sentence the judge had the power to impose . The sentences received by the other defendants ranged from four years to nine @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years imprisonment . By the end of the trial the total cost of the Strangeways riot , including refurbishing the prison and the costs of the police inquiry and court case , had reached £ 112 million .
The second trial began at the same court on 5 October 1992 , and dealt with charges relating to the " battle for E wing " on 3 April 1990 . There were fourteen defendants , including Alan Lord and another man who was acquitted in the first trial , both of whom were added to the list of defendants after their acquittals . Two defendants pleaded guilty to violent disorder and received four- and five @-@ year sentences , which due to the two years they had spent on remand awaiting trial resulted in them being freed .
The remaining twelve defendants pleaded not guilty to conspiracy to commit grievous bodily harm with intent and conspiracy to riot . On 7 December 1992 David Bowen and Mark Azzopardi escaped from the prison van transferring them from HM Prison Hull to the court . Azzopardi was recaptured , before escaping from the court on 17 February 1993 along with five of the other defendants .
At the conclusion of the trial two defendants were acquitted and the remainder found guilty of conspiracy to commit grievous bodily harm with intent , the lesser charge of conspiracy to riot automatically being dropped when guilty verdicts were announced on the first charge . When passing sentence , the judge remarked " You had your period of arrogance and violence in front of the world , but now the price must be paid and paid by you " . The defendants received sentences ranging from four years to ten years imprisonment , although only five defendants were in court to hear the verdict as six defendants were still on the run after escaping and another was being treated at Ashworth Secure Hospital .
Following the second trial , a further 26 defendants were still due to be tried on charges relating to the riot . The Crown Prosecution Service accepted plea bargains where defendants pleaded guilty to violent disorder in exchange for the dropping of other charges , or in some cases all charges were dropped completely . On 20 September 1993 the last remaining defendant to maintain a plea of not guilty went on trial , and he was convicted of conspiracy to commit grievous bodily harm and sentenced to thirty months imprisonment .
On 18 March 1994 , six prisoners appeared in court on charges of escaping from custody during the second riot trial . Five of them pleaded guilty to escaping from custody on one occasion , and Mark Azzopardi pleaded guilty to escaping on two occasions . Each was sentenced to eighteen months imprisonment for escaping from Manchester Crown Court , and Azzopardi received an additional two @-@ year sentence for escaping from the van transporting him from HM Prison Hull to the court . In July 1994 , David Bowen was convicted of attempting to pervert the course of justice by attempting to influence the jury in the first riot trial , and was sentenced to three years imprisonment . Paul Taylor , who had already pleaded guilty to the same charge , also received a three @-@ year sentence .
= = Aftermath = =
Strangeways was rebuilt and refurbished at a cost of £ 90 million , and was officially re @-@ opened as HM Prison Manchester on 27 May 1994 . The press were invited to view the new prison and talk to the prisoners by new governor Derek Lewis . A prisoner told the visiting journalists :
The better conditions in here are not down to the prison department . But for the riot , we would still be in the same old jail banged up all day and slopping out ... The rioters brought this about . These conditions ... should not have cost the lives of a prisoner , a prison officer and two huge court trials . They should have done it years ago but it took a riot to get them to do it .
" Slopping out " was abolished in England and Wales by 1996 , and was scheduled to be abolished in Scotland by 1999 . Due to budget restraints the abolishment was delayed , and by 2004 prisoners in five of Scotland 's sixteen prisons still had to " slop out " . " Slopping out " ended at HM Young Offenders Institution Polmont in 2007 , leaving HM Prison Peterhead as the last prison where inmates did not have access to proper sanitation , as 300 prisoners were forced to use chemical toilets due to the difficulty of installing modern plumbing in the prison 's granite structure . Peterhead prison closed in December 2013 .
In 2015 , the Daily Telegraph reported that a prisoner serving a 27 @-@ year sentence was conducting a lone protest on the roof against conditions and was being cheered by other prisoners . The newspaper also referenced in its own report an interview with former lord chief justice Lord Woolf from earlier in the year where he described prisoners being kept in intolerable conditions @-@ as bad as at the time of the riots . Woolf recommended prisons were kept out of politics .
= Nuno Mendes ( footballer ) =
Nuno Alexandre Pereira Mendes ( born 7 April 1978 ) is a retired Portuguese footballer who could play in defence and midfield .
He began his career with Vitória Guimarães and made his first team debut during the 1996 – 97 Primeira Liga season . Mendes spent three seasons in Liga de Honra , playing for Aves , Felgueiras and Chaves respectively before moving to France to join Division 1 club Strasbourg in 2000 . He returned to Portugal a year later to play for União Leiria , managed by José Mourinho , before spending a brief period with Braga in 2002 . Mendes spent 18 months with Moreirense and then dropped down a division to play for Santa Clara in 2004 .
A year later , Mendes played in England for Championship club Plymouth Argyle before returning to France with Créteil of Ligue 2 . Having spent a brief spell with Penafiel in 2007 , he returned to Aves , where he played for two seasons in Liga de Honra . He dropped down to the Portuguese third division in 2009 to play for Moreirense before spending a season with Trofense . Mendes retired in 2011 after a year with third division side Gondomar . He represented Portugal at under @-@ 21 level .
= = Club career = =
Mendes was born in Guimarães . He joined his home town club , Vitória Guimarães , at an early age and progressed through their youth system . He made his first team debut in a 4 – 1 win against Chaves on 23 February 1997 . He made 5 more appearances that season , including a 1 – 0 defeat to Marítimo on 2 May 1997 , which was his last for Vitória . Mendes joined Liga de Honra side Aves on loan for the 1997 – 98 season . He scored four goals in 27 league appearances for the club as they finished 15th in the table . The following season , he joined Felgueiras on loan . They finished 5th in Liga de Honra and Mendes was a first team regular . He made 28 league appearances and scored two goals . Mendes had his contract with Vitória Guimarães terminated in June 1999 , allowing him to sign a two @-@ year deal with Chaves .
He made 27 league appearances in his only season with the club , scoring twice , as they finished 12th in Liga de Honra . He moved to France in June 2000 to play for Division 1 club Strasbourg . Having signed a four @-@ year contract , he made his debut in a 1 – 1 draw at Lille on 29 November 2000 . He found first team opportunities limited during the 2000 – 01 season , making six more league appearances as the club were relegated to Division 2 . However , the season did end well for Mendes as he won his first trophy as a professional , the Coupe de France . He made two appearances in the competition , but did not play in the final where Strasbourg defeated Amiens on penalties .
Mendes returned to Portugal ahead of the 2001 – 02 season , joining Primeira Liga club União Leiria on a season @-@ long loan . Reflecting on his time in France , he said " I never hid my desire to return to Portugal , but now I can not say anything more . " He made his debut on 11 August 2001 in a 0 – 0 draw at Braga . Mendes played regularly under the management of José Mourinho prior to his departure to Porto , but fell out of favour under his replacement , Vítor Pontes . He made 16 league appearances for Leiria , helping the club finish 7th in the Primeira Liga , before returning to Strasbourg . Upon his departure , Mendes was critical of the club 's president João Bartolomeu , who he believed created instability at the club . " The Union of Leiria is a complicated club at senior management level , especially the president , who sees things where they do not exist and it creates instability in the squad , " said Mendes who " leaves great friends in Leiria " .
In May 2002 , he signed a two @-@ year contract with Braga . He made his debut in a 3 – 2 defeat at Belenenses on 5 October 2002 . In a season disrupted by injuries , Mendes only played in one more match for Braga , against his old club Vitória Guimarães . He had his contract cancelled in January 2003 , which allowed him to join Moreirense . He made his debut on 3 February 2003 in a 1 – 1 draw at Benfica . He made two more appearances that season as the club finished 12th in the table . Having fractured his foot in July 2003 , he was used sparingly during the 2003 – 04 season by manager Manuel Machado . He made four league appearances in an injury @-@ plagued season , as the club finished 9th in the Primeira Liga . Mendes dropped down a division in June 2004 after signing a one @-@ year contract with Santa Clara . " This project is attractive , " he said . " The coach , Jose Morais , spoke to me and showed willingness in me to go to the Azores and that 's important . I know that Santa Clara is going through some difficulties , but the Department intends to make a financial recovery in time and maybe next season bet on rising . "
He made his debut on 29 August 2004 in a 3 – 1 defeat against Feirense and was sent off for two bookable offences . The club finished 15th in Liga de Honra in the 2004 – 05 season , with Mendes making 17 league appearances . He scored his first goal for the club in his final game , a 4 – 0 win against Naval on 22 May 2005 . After his contract with Santa Clara expired , he joined English Championship club Plymouth Argyle on their pre @-@ season tour of Sweden in July 2005 . Having appeared in friendlies against Betsele and Umeå , he signed a permanent contract with the club . " I am delighted to have got him , " said manager Bobby Williamson of his new signing . " It 's a great opportunity that I could not miss , " Mendes said in an interview with Portuguese newspaper Record . " It is valid for two seasons , with a few perks that are unheard of in Portugal . Essentially , the level of premiums for targets , as is normal in English football . "
Mendes made his debut in a 1 – 0 defeat at Crystal Palace on 20 August 2005 . He made two more appearances , including one in a 2 – 1 League Cup win against Peterborough United , before losing his place in the squad when Bobby Williamson was replaced by Tony Pulis as manager . He had a trial with Major League Soccer club New York Metrostars in January 2006 before his contract with Plymouth Argyle was cancelled by mutual consent . In June 2006 , he returned to France where he signed a two @-@ year contract with Créteil of Ligue 2 . He made his debut on 28 July 2006 in a 0 – 0 draw with Guingamp . Mendes made six more appearances for the club , before being released from his contract in December 2006 . A month later , he returned to Portugal where he signed a short @-@ term contract with Liga de Honra club Penafiel . He made his debut in a 1 – 0 defeat at Rio Ave on 4 February 2007 , and made 5 more appearances during the 2006 – 07 season as Penafiel finished 8th in the table . Having reached the end of his contract with the club , Mendes returned to Aves ahead of the new season .
He made his league debut on 18 August 2007 in a 2 – 1 defeat at home to Olhanense . Mendes scored his first goal in his second stint for Aves on 17 February 2008 in a 1 – 1 draw with Trofense , and he scored again one week later in a 2 – 1 defeat at Varzim . He finished the 2007 – 08 season with 23 league appearances and two goals , helping the club finish 8th in the Liga de Honra table . He made four more league appearances the following season , before being released from his contract in January 2009 due to a lack of first team opportunities . Mendes dropped down to the third division of Portuguese football later that month , for the first time in his career , to return to Moreirense . He made his debut on 25 January 2009 in a 1 – 0 win at Chaves , and scored his first goal a week later in a 2 – 2 draw with Tirsense . Mendes scored two goals in a 3 – 0 win against Ribeirão on 8 February 2009 and was sent off later in the game . He scored four goals in 12 appearances for the club , but Moreirense were unable to gain promotion back to Liga de Honra , finishing 2nd , three points behind Chaves .
In August 2009 , Mendes joined Liga de Honra club Trofense on a one @-@ year contract . He made his league debut on 19 September 2009 in a 3 – 0 defeat at Feirense . He made eight more league appearances , before being released from his contract in January 2010 . He then returned to the Segunda Divisão with Gondomar and he made his debut on 31 January 2010 in a 2 – 0 win against Vieira . His first goal for the club came one week later in a 4 – 4 draw with Espinho . Mendes scored his second goal in a 2 – 1 win against Padroense . He made 12 league appearances in the 2009 – 10 season , scoring twice , as they finished 4th in the table . Having lost his place in the team during the 2010 – 11 season – making one league appearance – Mendes left Gondomar at the end of the campaign and subsequently retired from playing .
= = International career = =
Mendes represented the Portuguese national team at every youth level , from under @-@ 16 to under @-@ 21 . He earned four caps at under @-@ 21 level .
= = Honours = =
Coupe de France : 2000 – 01
= = Career statistics = =
Sources :
= Evolve ( video game ) =
Evolve is a first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Turtle Rock Studios , published by 2K Games and distributed by Take @-@ Two Interactive . Announced in January 2014 and originally set to be released in late 2014 , the game was delayed and released worldwide for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 , and Xbox One in February 2015 .
Evolve uses an asymmetrical structure where five players , four playing as hunters and one as the monster , battle against each other in an industrialized alien planet called Shear . The hunters ' gameplay is based on the first @-@ person shooter design , while the monsters are controlled from a third @-@ person perspective . The hunters ' goal is to eliminate the monster , while the monster 's goal is to consume wildlife and evolve to make themselves stronger . The game can be played alone or with multiple players .
Evolve was Turtle Rock Studios ' first major project after the company split from Valve Corporation in 2011 . The concept for Evolve existed prior to the development of their previous game , Left 4 Dead . Inspired by hunting games such as Cabela 's Big Game Hunter and Deer Hunter , the idea is to have prey that can strike back at the hunters . The monster design was originally intended to be esoteric , but was later toned down . The game is powered by Crytek 's CryEngine , as they believed that the engine is capable of creating the dark and dense forests featured in the game . Turtle Rock Studios found difficulty when seeking publishers that could provide funding and marketing for the game . THQ was originally set to serve as the game 's publisher , but the rights to the franchise and publishing duties were transferred to Take @-@ Two Interactive after THQ filed for bankruptcy in late 2012 .
Prior to release , Evolve received a largely positive reception , and won the Best of Show Awards at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014 and Gamescom 2014 . The game was tested by the general public multiple times . Upon release , the game received positive reviews from critics , with praise mostly directed to the game 's atmosphere , asymmetrical structure , controls and designs . However , it received criticism for its progression system and light narrative , as well as the large amount of downloadable content prepared . Evolve is a commercial success , with Take @-@ Two 's CEO saying that the property would be a permanent franchise for them . In July 2016 , it was announced that Evolve would be transitioning to become free @-@ to @-@ play , due to the mixed post @-@ release reception and the DLC controversy .
= = Plot = =
The game is set in a fictional future where humans have successfully discovered ways to survive outside Earth and have begun colonizing other planets . Humans arrive at Shear , a distant planet located in the " Far Arm " of space , and begin creating colonies and industrial factories .
As the colonization progresses , humans begin to meet resistance from alien life @-@ forms , known as Monsters , that have the ability to evolve by consuming local wildlife . As the Monsters destroy the colonies on Shear , a former " planet tamer " named William Cabot is brought out of retirement to deal with the threat and to evacuate the remaining colonists from Shear . Cabot assembles a team of Hunters to eliminate the Monsters and protect their communities .
= = Gameplay = =
Evolve is an action video game with a focus on both co @-@ operative , and competitive , multiplayer gameplay . The game adapts a ' 4v1 ' asymmetrical structure where four players take control of the Hunters , while the fifth player controls the Monster . The Hunters ' main objective is to track and hunt the Monster in a limited amount of time , while the Monster 's goal is to evolve and make themselves more powerful .
In the beginning of a match , a 30 @-@ second headstart is given to the Monster so that they can have enough time to escape before the Hunters parachute from a plane to where the Monster started . Each map features an open world environment for players to explore and play within . To help the Hunters navigate the environments quickly , they are equipped with jetpacks , allowing them to jump over obstacles and cliffs . The jetpack can also be used to dodge attacks performed by the monster , though it consumes a Hunter 's energy . The team can track the monster , as well as place waypoints on an interactive map . The color of these waypoints are different based on what players have marked . The waypoint mark turns yellow for environment , orange for wildlife or red for the Monster .
The Monster needs to grow stronger in order to fight the Hunters by hunting and killing other local wildlife in order to gain experience points . When it gains enough experience , the Monster can evolve . Through evolution , the Monster 's health bar is extended and refilled , and more abilities are available to the Monster , which makes it easier to kill the Hunters . However , the Monster is vulnerable during its evolution , and if caught by the hunters , the process is disrupted . The Monster can also enter a " stealth mode " , allowing it to avoid detection by wildlife and Hunters .
Evolve features five different modes : Hunt , Nest , Rescue , Defend and Arena , which have different objectives for both the Hunters and the Monster . Evolve provides two different structures to these game modes : Quick Play , which starts a single playthrough match ; and Evacuation , which serves as a five @-@ match , multiplayer story mode . In Evacuation , each match gives the winning side an advantage in the next map , such as having a toxic gas the Monster is immune to , or autonomous gun turrets to assist the Hunters . The Evacuation mode ends with a ' Defend ' match . Evolve also features an Observer Mode , allowing players to watch a match without playing in the match . The spectator can jump between cameras and view the match from both the Hunters ' and the Monster 's perspectives .
Normally , five players play in a standard round of Evolve , with four Hunters fighting one Monster . Playing with less than five players , including single player , is possible in all modes due to computer @-@ controlled bots . These bots can control up to four of the characters , allowing between one and four human players in any game mode . Players can also switch to play as another class instantly in a single @-@ player match .
= = = Hunters = = =
Evolve features a total of 20 different human characters split into four classes , each class containing 5 characters . Each class has different skills and abilities , and players are required to co @-@ operate with each other in a match . Players unlock new characters as they progress through the game , e.g. the fourth Assault character will be unlocked if the player has upgraded the previous three Assault characters . The Hunters class features first @-@ person gameplay . The ammunition of their weapons is automatically refilled when not in use , and iron sights are used in- game . Evolve does not allow multiple players to play as the same class in a match . Gameplay variations are also present within the characters in the same class .
Assault : The Assault @-@ class characters serve as the main " damage dealers " to the Monster . They are equipped with heavy weapons , including an electronic assault rifle and a lightning gun . Assault @-@ class characters also have shields for their own protection and land mines . The shield provides temporary invulnerability to damage . Starting from stage 2 , the invulnerability ability was changed to Defense Matrix , a new ability that reduces damages when being attacked by enemies .
Trapper : The Trapper @-@ class characters can use their gear to track the Monster 's movements . As the Monster occasionally scatters local wildlife , such as birds , the trapper can use these ' signs ' to find the location of the monster . Trappers also have other abilities and tools that can slow the movements of the Monster . Following the release of the Stage 2 alpha , all hunters gained the ability to use the mobile arena and the trappers gained the plant scanner ability , similar to the monster 's smell .
Support : The Support @-@ class characters provide backup to the other characters . They are equipped with a damage dealing weapon , such as a laser cutter , or a shield that can be used to protect other Hunters . They can also make use of the " cloak " ability , which can make them and their fellow Hunters invisible to the Monster 's view for a short period of time . In Stage 2 , they gains the ability to charge the shields of their companions hunters .
Medic : The Medic @-@ class characters ' main technique is replenishing the health of team members . Medics are also equipped with a sniper rifle which can show the vulnerable points of the Monster for other Hunters to attack . Some Medics also have the abilities to revive teammates that are incapacitated or killed by the Monster . According to Evolve 's concept artist , those playing as Medics should stay back and avoid direct combat with the Monster , and only use their abilities when necessary .
Starting from the release of Stage 2 , changes were made to the hunter classes . Every class now possesses the ability to deploy a force field , an ability once exclusive to the Trapper class . It can be used to limit the Monster 's movement to a small area . The ability 's cooldown time decreases when the hunters deal enough damages to the monster . Starting from Stage 2 , the health of all hunters regenerate if they manage to avoid damage , and they no longer have to rely on the Medic class .
= = = Monsters = = =
There are a total of five Monsters featured in Evolve . Similar to the Hunters , players need to inflict a certain amount of damage before unlocking a new Monster . The five different Monster @-@ types also have different abilities , both offensive and defensive . Players control the Monster from a third @-@ person perspective , and it features gameplay similar to an action game , unlike the Hunters . More abilities are given to a Monster after its evolution . Gameplay mechanics do not change much after the release of Stage 2 , but monsters are made more powerful . They are given more health , stamina , armor , and skill points to unlock all abilities . Cooldown time abilities also shortened and recharge rate becomes significantly faster .
Goliath : The Goliath is the starter Monster , available to all players . It has the strongest armor and health among the monsters . Goliath can charge and throw large rocks at Hunters , which can temporarily stun them , as well as perform attacks , such as breathing fire and " Leap Smash " . In order to navigate the environment , the Goliath can leap over obstacles .
Kraken : The Kraken is the second monster players unlock . The Kraken is electricity @-@ based , and can unleash attacks such as " Lightning Strike " , " Vortex " and " Electrical Blast " . The Kraken can also set up traps such as mines in a map to hurt the Hunters . The Kraken can temporarily ascend into the air to both escape from the hunters and move past some obstacles .
Wraith : The Wraith is the third unlockable monster . The Wraith can warp towards a Hunter and unleash a blast , dealing damage to the Hunters . They can also launch a small arena within a map which grants them bonus armor and strength . The Wraith also has the ability to teleport between places and kidnap a Hunter whilst in a group .
Behemoth : The Behemoth is a DLC character . The Behemoth can unleash abilities such as " Lava Bomb " and " Fissure " , which can stun Hunters . The Behemoth can also create " Rock Wall " , which can isolate a Hunter from their companions .
Gorgon : The Gorgon is also a DLC character . The Gorgon has abilities such as " Traversal " , the ability to launch spider webs to move around the map , " Acid Spit " , and " Web Snare " which can slow down Hunters . The Gorgon also has two abilities that use a ' second Monster ' called " Mimic " , which allows the player to control a clone @-@ version of Gorgon that explodes to deal damage to Hunters ; and " Spider Trap " , which sends a smaller version of itself to trap Hunters .
= = Development = =
= = = Origin = = =
Evolve was developed by Turtle Rock Studios . Evolve 's creative director , Phil Robb , and lead designer , Chris Ashton , are the co @-@ founders of Turtle Rock Studios alongside Michael Booth . The team had a heritage of developing competitive multiplayer games , such as Valve Corporation 's Counter @-@ Strike series and the Left 4 Dead series . According to Robb , the team wanted to build a co @-@ operative , multiplayer game because it gave the team a chance to play with their family and friends together , instead of against each other , and found it offered a more enjoyable experience than competitive multiplayer games . The concept for Evolve was completed in 2005 , before the development of the first Left 4 Dead game . However , the Evolve project was put on hold , as Turtle Rock thought that the technology at that time was not advanced enough to handle the game 's design .
Turtle Rock Studios merged into Valve in early 2008 but split away later the same year . When the company reestablished , it had only 13 staff members . As a new company , Turtle Rock Studios hoped to make use of the popularity of the Left 4 Dead franchise to create something ambitious and massive before people forgot about the company . When eighth generation video game consoles were released , the team realized they could create almost anything they wanted . They reviewed some of their previous projects and eventually chose Evolve , which seemed to be the most " straightforward " concept . The team also considered the new project as their " proving ground " , a project that could show their ability to build a large @-@ scale game beyond providing assistance to Valve . The development of Evolve officially began in early 2011 .
= = = Design = = =
Evolve was inspired by hunting games Cabela 's Big Game Hunter and Deer Hunter . Members of Turtle Rock Studios , including Robb and Ashton , thought that the gameplay of these hunting games , such as animal @-@ tracking , was seldom incorporated in an action game . As a result , they came up with the original concept of Evolve in which , if players failed at hunting the animals , they could be attacked by their targets . Instead of typical big game animals such as elephants and lions , the team imagined it to be a " King Kong " , which changed to an alien monster . The team picked a sci @-@ fi setting , allowing them to add creative and unrealistic things into the game . The team also took the concept of boss battles , and expanded upon it by using the concept as a key idea when developing Evolve . The team envisioned Evolve as a video game version of Predator . The goal of Evolve was to create an experience that was new to video game players .
While Evolve carried some game mechanics from Left 4 Dead , while others were discarded . The team originally thought that it could be added to the artificial intelligence system of Evolve 's wildlife , but was later scrapped . They thought that the core experience offered by Evolve should be tracking and hunting the monster , instead of getting attacked by wildlife constantly . The team also thought that it would become an irritation if they added too many complex mechanics for the wildlife . The developer also intentionally chose not to make Evolve action @-@ packed all the time , and introduced segments that would require players to slow down and track the Monster . Robb explained that the design team wanted to create a contrast , so that players could appreciate the action and chaotic moments after experiencing the less exciting segments .
When the design team was deciding on the number of Hunters in a match , they chose four as they believed it was the optimal number in a team , as players would not lose track of the stats and health of other players . It also allowed the players to work collaboratively with each other , so that no character would get left behind , or neglected , by the team . From the Monster 's perspective , the design team thought that having four Hunters engaging in combat with the Monster would provide a challenge for the Monster , as they could find difficulties in keeping track of the Hunters , and this would make a match feel more balanced . The Hunter team was divided into several different classes because it " makes senses " according to Turtle Rock . In order to showcase the features and abilities of different classes , each class has different variations , in both appearances and costume colors . It was designed to make characters more recognizable and memorable . Another reason was that the design team wanted the Monster to adapt and use different strategies when dealing with different Hunters . Turtle Rock considered this a way to effectively extend Evolve 's replayability and would add more variety to the gameplay . There were originally four Hunter characters in Evolve , but after the design team experimented with the free @-@ to @-@ play model , the list of characters was expanded to 16 .
The titular " Evolve " game mechanic was inspired by the " bomb planting " mode from the Counter @-@ Strike series . The Monsters started out as a relatively weak creature that could be defeated easily , but becomes stronger and gains more skills as it evolves . Early playtesters complained about the game mechanic , as they thought that this would bring an unfair disadvantage to the Hunters , since they do not " evolve " like the Monster . However , the design team still chose to maintain the game mechanic , as they thought that it would create an engaging experience . Ashton added that such game mechanics can create a " turning the tables " feeling for the Hunters , and that he thought that the sudden change in strategy – from offensive to defensive – could help deliver a dynamic experience to the players . The Monster was originally intended to play from a first @-@ person perspective but was later shifted to a third @-@ person perspective during development because the first @-@ person control system was considered to be clumsy and confusing , and that the first person perspective took control away from players . The design team considered designing third @-@ person gameplay a challenge , as they had no prior experience in creating such games . On the other hand , the design team implemented the first @-@ person gameplay for the Hunters when Evolve 's development started . The design team thought that the first @-@ person perspective would provide a sense of tension as players would not be able to see what was behind them .
Evolve 's environments are based on Earth 's as the design team wanted to create a world that felt believable for players and had regions that made geological sense , after an early concept design was found to be too extreme . As a result , the design team drew inspiration from real @-@ world landscapes . The design team wanted Evolve to be set in lush forests , so that Hunters and Monsters could hide from each other . The design team tried using the Source game engine to create a forest landscape but they ultimately failed . The design team then researched Crytek 's CryEngine , which powers games like Far Cry and Crysis . As the design team felt that Far Cry and Crysis set new standards for in @-@ game environments , they decided to utilize CryEngine for Evolve . Evolve 's maps were designed to be dark and mysterious , so that the various characters can hide from each other , as well as presenting a sense of surprise when players are ambushed .
As Evolve is multiplayer @-@ focused , the design team put less time and focus into developing Evolve 's narrative and campaign . Conversations between characters were reduced during the multiplayer mode as the design team thought that it would negatively impact on the conversations between players . However , the story and narrative became more significant in the single @-@ player mode . Evolve does not adapt traditional storytelling methods , nor utilise a campaign mode , instead , players learn about the Hunters ' backstory and the fictional world of Shear by slowly progressing through Evolve . Playing as different characters would also lead to different conversations and dialogues between characters .
Evolve features an Cthulhu @-@ inspired artstyle . As a result , much of the wildlife were intentionally designed to feature tentacles . Robb had previously drawn a lot of esoteric monster designs but the publisher , THQ at the time , thought that while the designs looked unique , they would not benefit the game . The team then began developing " marketing monsters " with a more stereotypical design . The original Goliath was based on a lobster , but changed to " a hybrid between King Kong and Godzilla " , according to Evolve 's producer , Robb . Anthropological design features were later added to Goliath 's design to make the players feel more connected to the Monsters , especially when they are killed in the game . For the second monster , Kraken , the team wanted to create an electricity @-@ based creature and looked at marine creatures , such as eels , for inspiration . The third monster , Wraith , was inspired by sirens . The team noted that the key feature of this monster was its abduction ability , which the design team felt would capture the tense and exciting moments of classic monster movies . The team had designed more than three monsters , but many of them were dropped due to technical issues with Evolve 's artificial intelligence system , abilities that were deemed to be too powerful , and animation problems .
Evolve 's soundtrack was composed by Jason Graves and Lustmord . Graves composed the Monsters ' soundtracks , while Lustmord composed the Hunters ' soundtracks . According to Graves , much of the music was inspired by the Aliens vs. Predator series . Graves stated that he intentionally chose not to use an orchestra @-@ based style for the music , instead , Graves used synthesizers to create sounds that he described as " odd " . According to Graves , Evolve 's soundtrack has " evolved " as the game development progressed , and that it had shifted to become more electronic and synth @-@ based . The Hunters ' soundtracks are more futuristic and synth @-@ sounding , while the Monsters ' soundtracks are more drum @-@ intense and distorting .
= = = Publishing = = =
Evolve adapts an asymmetrical multiplayer structure , a new concept in the video game industry during its development . It was so new that the developer itself worried and wondered why no one else was working on such project . The design team was also uncertain about whether the 4v1 structure would work or not . According to Turtle Rock , when the publishers heard that the original creators of Left 4 Dead were making a new game , they were interested . However , the design team encountered difficulties when they were pitching the game , and used two months to prepare for the pitching process . According to Robb , publishers were conservative and unsupportive about the idea and " [ attempted ] to poke holes " in their pitch . Even though the representatives from these publishers were excited about their pitch after they knew that it would be an extension to the Tank mode in Left 4 Dead , they questioned the ability of Turtle Rock making a triple @-@ A video game , and were uncertain whether it was a project they should invest in .
After multiple failures , the Turtle Rock team looked for a business partner , a company that supported the idea and was in need of a co @-@ operative shooter to fit into their games lineup . They eventually partnered with THQ for Evolve , which would serve as the game 's publisher and help with funding . According to Robb , they had to show the game on their iPad , as they forgot to bring the battery for their laptop . THQ 's then president , Danny Bilson and later , Jason Rubin were also excited about the idea . However , at that time , THQ had already entered financial difficulties , suffering from a severe decline in profits . Turtle Rock also knew that THQ had internal problems , but Turtle Rock decided not to part with THQ .
THQ 's financial situation continued to worsen and they declared bankruptcy on December 19 , 2012 . Evolve was listed alongside other unannounced titles from Relic Entertainment , Vigil Games , and THQ Studios Montreal in court documents filed by THQ . With THQ unable to continue its publishing and funding roles , an auction was held for other publishers to acquire these titles . Publishers interested in the game visited Turtle Rock Studio to see their " secret project " . The team was frustrated , as they felt that the situation was " out of their control " . Rubin later contacted Ashton and Robb , and suggested that they should bid the game themselves . They bid $ 250 @,@ 000 for their own project , which Ashton described as " what [ they ] had in the bank " . However , they were outbid by Take @-@ Two Interactive , which paid $ 11 million to acquire the game and to secure the rights to the entire franchise , and its publishing label . 2K Games then served as the game 's publisher . Despite being outbid , the Turtle Rock team was still " super excited " to collaborate with 2K . On January 8 , 2015 , Turtle Rock and 2K announced that Evolve had been declared gold , indicating it was being prepared for duplication and release .
= = Release = =
When Evolve was leaked in THQ 's court document , it was expected that the game would be released on their 2015 fiscal year . The partnership between the two companies was revealed on May 26 , 2011 , and the game was re @-@ revealed by gaming magazine Game Informer on January 7 , 2014 . It was announced that the game would be released for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One globally on October 21 , 2014 . However , 2K later decided to extend Evolve 's development time frame , so as to allow Turtle Rock to further polish the game , as well as to " fully realize the vision for Evolve " . As a result , Evolve was delayed to February 10 , 2015 .
Prior to release , the game had been playtested multiple times by the general public . An alpha version of Evolve , called the ' Big Alpha ' was released for Xbox One on October 31 , 2014 , The alpha version of Evolve was originally set to be released for the PlayStation 4 a day later on October 31 , 2014 , but was delayed to November 3 , 2014 due to technical issues related to PS4 's firmware update . As compensation , the duration of the demo was extended by a day , and ended on November 4 , 2014 for all platforms . Players can play as the four classes of Hunters as well as the Goliath and Kraken in the alpha version . Turtle Rock expected 100 @,@ 000 people to participate in the alpha . The team hoped that through the alpha testing , they could test the functionality of the game 's servers , and make adjustments to the game 's balance . Open beta trials of Evolve on Xbox One were held January 14 – 19 , 2015 . A limited test for the PlayStation 4 and PC was held January 16 – 19 , 2015 . Players could play as the first eight Hunters as well as the Goliath and Kraken in the beta . The Evacuation mode was also added to the beta on January 17 , 2015 .
In addition to the game 's standard edition , players can purchase the game 's Season Pass , Deluxe Edition and PC Monster Race Edition . The Season Pass features four additional Hunters and a set of " magma " Monster skins . The Deluxe Edition features all the content of the Season Pass , as well as a new Monster called Behemoth . The PC Monster Race Edition , which is an exclusive for PC players , features the content of the Deluxe Edition , as well as the fifth Monster and two additional Hunters . After Evolve 's release , a new season pass , called Evolve Hunting Pass 2 was released on June 23 , 2015 . It features new skins , Hunters and a new Monster .
= = = Other media = = =
On January 21 , 2015 , a mobile game titled Evolve : Hunter 's Quest appeared briefly on the iOS App Store and was later removed . The game was released by 2K on January 29 , 2015 for iOS , Android , Windows Phone and Fire OS devices . The game is a free @-@ to @-@ play tile @-@ matching video game , as well as a companion app to Evolve . In Evolve : Hunter 's Quest , players match three tokens of the same colour in order to unleash attacks on enemies , fill up energy bars to activate special Hunter abilities and earn mastery points to level up . Mastery points earned in @-@ app can then be applied to characters in the main Evolve game on any platform . Players who download the app can also unlock unique game art and watch replays of online matches from a top @-@ down view .
Evolve was launched with several merchandise items . Handled by Merchandise Monkey , the Evolve 's merchandise collection includes T @-@ shirts and different figurines . Funko also made several toys for Evolve , including 6 inches ( 15 cm ) tall figurines of Markov , Val , Hank , Maggie and Goliath , each part of the first characters available to a player . A Goliath statue , standing at 29 inches ( 74 cm ) tall , was also available for purchase .
= = = Post @-@ release = = =
In an interview with Official Xbox Magazine , Ashton claimed that Evolve would have the " best support for downloadable content ever " . However , many of the downloadable content packages are not covered by Evolve 's Season Pass On November 21 , 2014 Turtle Rock Studios co @-@ founder Phil Robb confirmed with IGN that all DLC maps will be free of charge . Robb stated the reason for this is " to allow people who don 't have the DLC , to still play against those who do , the only difference is that they can 't play as those hunters or monsters " . Despite Turtle Rock claiming that all DLC maps would be free to all players , the high number of paid DLCs has attracted criticism from fans who feel that it constitutes a large amount of content being deliberately withheld to be sold . Some players who purchased the game wrote negative reviews for the game on Steam , complaining about the excessive amount of DLC planned . Turtle Rock Studios countered this by claiming that as much content as possible was packaged with the main game , with DLC only including content created after the completion of Evolve 's development . At release , Evolve launched with 44 different paid @-@ DLC skin packs . Free updates were added to the game . The Observer mode was added on March 31 , 2015 , and a less strategic mode , the Arena mode , was introduced on May 26 , 2015 .
Robb thought that the game 's format has the potential to become an eSports game . 2K expressed similar enthusiasm , and added that they would allocate resources into developing eSports @-@ centric features to Evolve if fans of the game expressed demands for it . Turtle Rock and 2K collaborated with Electronic Sports League and Sony Pictures Entertainment to host a special tournament , in which players have to battle Chappie , the titular robot from the film Chappie , in February 2015 . A Pro @-@ Am Tournament of Evolve took place on March 6 , 2015 during PAX East . During the tournament , they revealed that the eSport future of Evolve is determined . On June 15 , 2015 , another tournament was hosted by the Electronic Sports League and 2K .
On July 6 , 2016 Turtle Rock announced that the game was transitioning to became a free @-@ to @-@ play game under the title Evolve : Stage 2 due to the game downloadable content controversy and mixed critical reception . The new version introduces new changes , including longer respawn time , non @-@ ranked queue for casual players , and changes to hunters ' abilities . Turtle Rock also promised that patches would be released more frequently , and that most items featured in the game would be unlocked through simply playing the game . The alpha version of Stage 2 would begin on July 7 , 2016 for PC , and will be followed by a beta in August in the same year . Players who purchased the game will be given the Founders status , which gives them exclusive cosmetic items .
= = Reception = =
= = = Pre @-@ release = = =
Evolve received a largely positive reception from critics upon its initial announcement . It was nominated for six different awards in the Game Critics Awards , namely Best of Show , Best Original Game , Best Console Game , Best PC Game , Best Action Game and Best Online Multiplayer . It won four of them , and lost the Best Original Game Awards to No Man 's Sky and Best PC Game to Tom Clancy 's Rainbow Six : Siege . Evolve was also named the Best Game , Best Console Game Microsoft Xbox , Best PC Game and Best Online Multiplayer Game at Gamescom 2014 . Publisher 2K Games stated that these awards indicated that Evolve could become a defining title for both the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . However , the DLC controversy caused backslash from customers , and the game was criticized for serving as a framework for the release of DLC .
= = = Post @-@ release = = =
Evolve received mostly positive reviews . Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the PlayStation 4 version 76 / 100 based on 46 reviews , the Microsoft Windows version 77 / 100 based on 38 reviews , and the Xbox One version 74 / 100 based on 31 reviews . The game received backslash from users on Steam , due to the excessive amount of DLC sold on day one and the game for being overpriced .
The asymmetrical structure of the game mostly received praise from critics . Vince Ingenito , from IGN , thought that the system was smart and has successfully delivered a unique multiplayer experience for players . He added that the system is tactically deep , and that the " evolution " mechanic saved it from being gimmicky . This was contradicted by Steven Strom of Ars Technica , who stated that the game overall was just a " great gimmick and little else : something we 'll play for a month or two , and not much longer " . , Evan Lahti , from PC Gamer , also commended the structure , and considered it the most compressed multiplayer experience since 2014 's Titanfall . He added that such structure is something that the genre needs . Anthony LaBella , from Game Revolution , praised the asymmetrical idea . He added that the distant gameplay elements between Monsters and Hunters had successfully introduced Evolve to a broad audience . However , he noted that such a structure may become repetitive and boring for players after months of playthrough . GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd also appreciated the structure , which he thought made every battle feel " vicious and intense " . However , Jeff Marchiafava , from Game Informer , thought that the structure felt limited , and that Evolve , even with all the modes , had failed to offer enough variety and challenges to players . Nic Rowan , from Destructoid , thought that Evolve had presented some of the best moments he had had in a multiplayer game , but he felt that these moments are too far between .
The Monster 's gameplay was praised by Ingenito , as he thought it tasked players to use skills and patience while playing , and that Evolve has provided satisfying rewards for the player that successfully outsmarts the Hunters , a sentiment which was echoed by Strom . Lathi commended the Wraith , which he thought encouraged hit @-@ and @-@ run tactics . However , Rowan thought that the Monster gameplay can get old very fast . Furthermore , he noted that several Monsters felt overpowered , which made Evolve feel unbalanced . The controls of the game received praise . Marchiafava thought that it was smartly designed , and applauded it for its accessible nature . Lathi wrote a similar statement , but thought that the gameplay would be " difficult to master " . David Meikleham from GamesRadar praised Evolve 's shooting mechanic , but complained that the action presented on @-@ screen can become too chaotic for players to handle . Strom felt that the game @-@ modes were unbalanced in terms of fun , and that certain game @-@ modes prioritized fun for one team at the penalty of the other , and criticized the fact that outside of private lobbies with friends , you cannot choose any game @-@ mode other than Hunt .
The process of hunting the Monster was praised . Ingenito thought that the hunting process was as tense as the actual confrontation and combat between the Hunters and the Monster . The four classes was also applauded by him , as he considered that the distant class abilities have successfully made players co @-@ operate with each other in order to achieve success , as well as making the decision of choosing the correct character important and tactical . This was also contradicted by Strom , who felt that the hunter gameplay up until finding the monster was " hollow " , and generally just consisted of going around in circles . Marchiafava thought that Evolve had successfully delivered a compelling experience while playing with other players . He was also surprised by the game 's balance between the Monster and the Hunters . Meikleham thought that playing the game with other players can be an exhilarating experience , but only when players communicate with each other using microphones . Rowan thought that Evolve could only deliver an enjoyable experience when all players play cooperatively , and the overall experience would crumble if one of these players failed to do so . Lathi liked Evolve 's resources management , singling out the need for the Hunters to manage and conserve the energy for their jetpacks .
The Hunter characters featured in the game received praise . Ingenito thought that the Hunters in the game were memorable due to their pre @-@ game dialog , and thought that the dialogue was well @-@ written . He called this the " true beauty " of Evolve . Rowan echoed a similar statement , calling the banter " charming " . Marchiafava thought that the progression system has made the banter between characters repetitive , because players need to play the game continuously to unlock characters . Marchiafava compared the narrative unfavorably to that of Left 4 Dead , and thought that it was not emergent enough .
Evolve 's map @-@ design received mixed reviews . Ingenito thought that Shear was a " beautifully realized " planet , while Marchiafava thought that all the maps were both detailed and varied . VanOrd thought that Turtle Rock had successfully captured an unsettling atmosphere , and applauded the verticality of the maps . Lathi agreed that the maps were well @-@ designed . However , he criticized them for being " homogeneous " , as all the maps felt too similar to each other , and none offered a particularly unique experience that required players to change their tactics . He added that the lack of variety had significantly lowered Evolve 's replayability . Meikleham echoed a similar statement , adding that the maps are " bland " , and that they did not look different from each other .
The progression system received criticism . Ingenito thought that it was an unnecessary addition to the game . He added that the upgrade system hides a lot of content from players unless they play the game frequently . Lathi however thought that after every character is unlocked , he felt less motivated to continue to play the game . LaBella thought that the system does not offer enough content and described it as " thin " . This was echoed by Strom , who felt that unlocking the characters was a " grind " .
= = = Sales = = =
Evolve debuted in No. 1 in the UK software @-@ sales chart ; the first title 2K Games had published to take the No. 1 spot since March 2013 . Evolve was the second best selling game in the United States in February according to the NPD Group , only behind the handheld game The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask 3D . However , the average player count on Steam declined significantly since the game 's launch . The game 's player count increased 15 @,@ 930 % and was listed as one of Steam 's most @-@ played games after its transition to a free @-@ to @-@ play model . More than a million new players played the game after the transition .
Financial analyst Doug Creutz , of the Cowen Group , estimated only 300 @,@ 000 physical copies were sold in Evolve 's launch month , and by its current sales rate , a well @-@ below average figure for the triple @-@ A gaming industry . Creutz stated that Evolve may be " too niche to reach a wide audience " , adding that the negative reception to its DLC plan has hindered its success considerably . Despite such estimations , Karl Slatoff , President of Take @-@ Two Interactive , stated that Evolve has achieved an “ incredibly successful " launch and that the company was very satisfied with the sales of the game . As of May 2015 , 2 @.@ 5 million copies of the game had been shipped . Take @-@ Two CEO Strauss Zelnick considered the property one of their " permanent " franchises , joining Grand Theft Auto , BioShock and Red Dead .
= 16 Cygni =
16 Cygni or 16 Cyg is the Flamsteed designation of a triple star system approximately 69 light @-@ years away from Earth in the constellation of Cygnus . It consists of two Sun @-@ like yellow dwarf stars , 16 Cygni A and 16 Cygni B , together with a red dwarf , 16 Cygni C. In 1996 an extrasolar planet was discovered in an eccentric orbit around 16 Cygni B.
= = Distance = =
The parallax of the two brightest stars were measured as part of the Hipparcos astrometry mission . This yielded a parallax of 47 @.@ 44 milliarcseconds for 16 Cygni A and 47 @.@ 14 milliarcseconds for 16 Cygni B. Since the two components are associated , it is reasonable to assume they lie at the same distance , so the different parallaxes are a result of experimental error ( indeed , when the associated parallax errors are taken into account , the ranges of the parallaxes overlap ) . Using the parallax of the A component , the distance is 21 @.@ 1 parsecs . The parallax of the B component corresponds to a distance of 21 @.@ 2 parsecs .
= = Stellar components = =
16 Cygni is a hierarchal triple system . Stars A and C form a close binary with a projected separation of 73 AU . The orbital elements of the A – C binary are currently unknown . At a distance of 860 AU from A is a third component designated 16 Cygni B. The orbit of B relative to the A – C pair was determined in 1999 and not updated since ( as of June 2007 ) : plausible orbits range in period from 18 @,@ 200 to 1 @.@ 3 million years , with a semimajor axis ranging from 877 to 15 @,@ 180 AU . In addition B orbits between 100 and 160 degrees inclination , that is against the A – C pole such that 90 degrees would be ecliptical .
Both 16 Cygni A and 16 Cygni B are yellow dwarf stars like the Sun . According to data from the Geneva – Copenhagen survey , both stars have masses similar to the Sun . Age estimates for the two stars vary slightly , but 16 Cygni is likely to be much older than the Solar System , at around 10 @,@ 000 million years old . 16 Cygni C is much fainter than either of these stars , and may be a red dwarf .
= = Planetary system = =
In 1996 an extrasolar planet in an eccentric orbit was announced around the star 16 Cygni B. The planet 's orbit takes 798 @.@ 5 days to complete , with a semimajor axis of 1 @.@ 68 AU .
Like the majority of extrasolar planets detectable from Earth , 16 Cygni Bb was deduced from the radial velocity of its parent star . At the time that only gave a lower limit on the mass : in this case , about 1 @.@ 68 times that of Jupiter . In 2012 , two astronomers , E. Plavalova and N.A. Solovaya , showed that the stable orbit would demand about 2 @.@ 38 Jupiter masses , such that its orbit was inclined at either 45 ° or 135 ° .
For the 16 Cyg B system , only particles inside approximately 0 @.@ 3 AU remained stable within a million years of formation , leaving open the possibility of short @-@ period planets . For them , observation rules out any such planet of over a Neptune mass .
There was a METI message sent to the 16 Cygni system . It was transmitted from Eurasia 's largest radar — the 70 @-@ meter ( 230 @-@ foot ) Eupatoria Planetary Radar . The message was named Cosmic Call 1 ; it was sent on May 24 , 1999 , and it will reach 16 Cygni in November 2069 .
The 16 Cygni system is within the field of view of the Kepler space telescope .
= German battleship Scharnhorst =
Scharnhorst was a German capital ship , alternatively described as a battleship and battlecruiser , of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine . She was the lead ship of her class , which included one other ship , Gneisenau . The ship was built at the Kriegsmarinewerft dockyard in Wilhelmshaven ; she was laid down on 15 June 1935 and launched a year and four months later on 3 October 1936 . Completed in January 1939 , the ship was armed with a main battery of nine 28 cm ( 11 in ) C / 34 guns in three triple turrets . Plans to replace these weapons with six 38 cm ( 15 in ) SK C / 34 guns in twin turrets were never carried out .
Scharnhorst and Gneisenau operated together for much of the early portion of World War II , including sorties into the Atlantic to raid British merchant shipping . During her first operation , Scharnhorst sank the auxiliary cruiser HMS Rawalpindi in a short engagement . Scharnhorst and Gneisenau participated in Operation Weserübung , the German invasion of Norway . During operations off Norway , the two ships engaged the battlecruiser HMS Renown and sank the aircraft carrier HMS Glorious as well as her escort destroyers Acasta and Ardent . In that engagement Scharnhorst achieved one of the longest @-@ range naval gunfire hits in history .
In early 1942 , after repeated British bombing raids , the two ships made a daylight dash up the English Channel from occupied France to Germany . In early 1943 , Scharnhorst joined the Bismarck @-@ class battleship Tirpitz in Norway to interdict Allied convoys to the Soviet Union . Scharnhorst and several destroyers sortied from Norway to attack a convoy ; the Germans were instead intercepted by British naval patrols . During the Battle of the North Cape , the Royal Navy battleship HMS Duke of York and her escorts sank Scharnhorst . Only 36 men were pulled from the icy seas , out of a crew of 1 @,@ 968 .
= = Construction and characteristics = =
Scharnhorst was ordered as Ersatz Elsass as a replacement for the old pre @-@ dreadnought Elsass , under the contract name " D. " The Kriegsmarinewerft in Wilhelmshaven was awarded the contract , where the keel was laid on 16 July 1935 . The ship was launched on 3 October 1936 , witnessed by Adolf Hitler , Minister of War Generalfeldmarschall Werner von Blomberg , and the widow of Kapitän zur See Schultz , the commander of the armored cruiser Scharnhorst , which had been sunk at the Battle of the Falkland Islands during World War I. Fitting @-@ out work followed her launch , and was completed by January 1939 . Scharnhorst was commissioned into the fleet on 9 January for sea trials , which revealed a dangerous tendency to ship considerable amounts of water in heavy seas . This caused flooding in the bow and damaged electrical systems in the forward gun turret . As a result , she went back to the dockyard for extensive modification of the bow . The original straight stem was replaced with a raised " Atlantic bow . " A raked funnel cap was also installed during the reconstruction , along with an enlarged aircraft hangar ; the main mast was also moved further aft . The modifications were completed by November 1939 , by which time the ship was finally fully operational .
Scharnhorst displaced 32 @,@ 100 long tons ( 32 @,@ 600 t ) as built and 38 @,@ 100 long tons ( 38 @,@ 700 t ) fully loaded , with a length of 234 @.@ 9 m ( 771 ft ) , a beam of 30 m ( 98 ft ) and a maximum draft of 9 @.@ 9 m ( 32 ft ) . She was powered by three Brown , Boveri & Cie geared steam turbines , which developed a total of 159 @,@ 551 shp ; 118 @,@ 977 kW and yielded a maximum speed of 31 @.@ 5 knots ( 58 @.@ 3 km / h ; 36 @.@ 2 mph ) on speed trials . Her standard crew numbered 56 officers and 1 @,@ 613 enlisted men , augmented during the war to 60 officers and 1 @,@ 780 men . While serving as a squadron flagship , Scharnhorst carried an additional ten officers and 61 enlisted men .
She was armed with nine 28 cm ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) L / 54 @.@ 5 guns arranged in three triple gun turrets : two turrets forward , one superfiring — Anton and Bruno — and one aft — Caesar . The design also enabled the ship to be up @-@ gunned with six 15 inch guns which never took place . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 55 guns , fourteen 10 @.@ 5 cm L / 65 and sixteen 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 83 , and initially ten 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns . The number of 2 cm guns was eventually increased to thirty @-@ eight . Six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) above @-@ water torpedo tubes , taken from the light cruisers Nürnberg and Leipzig , were installed in 1942 .
= = Commanding officers = =
At her commissioning , Scharnhorst was commanded by Kapitän zur See ( KzS ) Otto Ciliax . His tenure as the ship 's commander was brief ; in September 1939 , an illness forced him to go on sick leave , and he was replaced by KzS Kurt @-@ Caesar Hoffmann . Hoffmann served as the ship 's captain until 1942 . On 1 April 1942 , Hoffmann , who had been promoted to Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) and awarded the Knight 's Cross , transferred command of the ship to KzS Friedrich Hüffmeier . In October 1943 , shortly before Scharnhorst 's last mission , Hüffmeier was replaced by KzS Fritz Hintze , who was killed during the ship 's final battle .
= = Service history = =
Scharnhorst 's first operation began on 21 November 1939 ; the ship , in company with her sister Gneisenau , the light cruiser Köln , and nine destroyers , was to patrol the area between Iceland and the Faroe Islands . The intent of the operation was to draw out British units and ease the pressure on the heavy cruiser ( " pocket battleship " ) Admiral Graf Spee , which was being pursued in the South Atlantic . Two days later , the German flotilla intercepted the British armed merchant cruiser Rawalpindi . At 16 : 07 , lookouts aboard Scharnhorst spotted the vessel , and less than an hour later Scharnhorst had closed the range . At 17 : 03 , Scharnhorst opened fire , and three minutes later a salvo of her 28 cm guns hit Rawalpindi 's bridge , killing the captain and the majority of the officers . During the brief engagement , Rawalpindi managed to score a hit on Scharnhorst , which caused minor splinter damage .
By 17 : 16 , Rawalpindi was burning badly and in the process of sinking . Admiral Wilhelm Marschall , aboard Gneisenau , ordered Scharnhorst to pick up survivors . These rescue operations were interrupted by the appearance of the cruiser Newcastle . The German force quickly fled north before using inclement weather to make the dash south through the North Sea . Four allied capital ships , the British Hood , Nelson , Rodney , and the French Dunkerque followed in pursuit . The Germans reached Wilhelmshaven on 27 November , and on the trip both battleships incurred significant damage from heavy seas and winds . Scharnhorst was repaired in Wilhelmshaven , and while in dock , her boilers were overhauled .
= = = Operation Weserübung = = =
Following the completion of repairs , Scharnhorst went into the Baltic Sea for gunnery training . Heavy ice in the Baltic kept the ship there until February 1940 when she could return to Wilhelmshaven , arriving on 5 February . She was then assigned to the forces participating in Operation Weserübung , the invasion of Denmark and Norway . Scharnhorst and Gneisenau were the covering force for the assaults on Narvik and Trondheim ; the two ships left Wilhelmshaven on the morning of 7 April . They were joined by the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper . Later that day , at around 14 : 30 , the three ships came under attack by a force of British bombers , which failed to make any hits . Heavy winds caused significant structural damage that evening , and flooding contaminated a portion of Scharnhorst 's fuel stores .
At 09 : 15 the following morning , Admiral Hipper was detached to reinforce the destroyers at Narvik , which had reported engaging British forces . Early on 9 April , the two ships encountered the British battlecruiser HMS Renown . Gneisenau 's Seetakt radar picked up a radar contact at 04 : 30 , which prompted the crews of both vessels to go to combat stations . Half an hour later , Scharnhorst 's navigator spotted gun flashes from Renown firing at Gneisenau ; the Germans returned fire three minutes later . Gneisenau was hit twice in the opening portion of the engagement , and one shell disabled her rear gun turret . Scharnhorst 's radar malfunctioned , which prevented her from being able to effectively engage Renown during the battle . At 05 : 18 , the British battlecruiser shifted fire to Scharnhorst , which maneuvered to avoid the falling shells . By 07 : 15 , Scharnhorst and Gneisenau had used their superior speed to escape from the pursuing Renown . Heavy seas and the high speed with which the pair of battleships escaped caused them to ship large amounts of water forward . Scharnhorst 's forward turret was put out of action by severe flooding . Mechanical problems with her starboard turbines developed after running at full speed , which forced the ships to reduce speed to 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) .
Scharnhorst and Gneisenau had reached a point north @-@ west of Lofoten , Norway , by 12 : 00 on 9 April . The two ships then turned west for 24 hours while temporary repairs were effected . After a day of steaming west , the ships turned south and rendezvoused with Admiral Hipper on 12 April . An RAF patrol aircraft spotted the three ships that day , which prompted an air attack . The German warships were protected by poor visibility , however , and the three ships safely reached port later that day . Scharnhorst returned to Germany , and was repaired at the Deutsche Werke in Kiel . During the repair process , the aircraft catapult that had been installed on the rear gun turret was removed .
The two ships left Wilhelmshaven on 4 June to return to Norway . They were joined by Admiral Hipper and four destroyers . The purpose of the sortie was to interrupt Allied efforts to resupply the Norwegians and to relieve the pressure on German troops fighting in Norway . On 7 June , the squadron rendezvoused with the tanker Dithmarschen to refuel Admiral Hipper and the four destroyers . The next day , a British corvette was discovered and sunk , along with the oil tanker Oil Pioneer . The Germans then launched their Arado 196 float planes to search for more Allied vessels . Admiral Hipper and the destroyers were sent to destroy Orama , a 19 @,@ 500 long tons ( 19 @,@ 800 t ) passenger ship , while Atlantis , a hospital ship , was allowed to proceed unmolested . Admiral Marschall detached Admiral Hipper and the four destroyers to refuel in Trondheim , while he would steam to the Harstad area .
At 17 : 45 , the German battleships spotted the British aircraft carrier Glorious and two escorting destroyers , Ardent and Acasta , at a range of some 50 @,@ 000 m ( 55 @,@ 000 yd ) . Scharnhorst was closer and therefore fired first . Six minutes after opening fire , Scharnhorst scored a hit at a range of 24 @,@ 100 m ( 26 @,@ 400 yd ) . The shell struck the carrier 's upper hangar and started a large fire . Less than ten minutes later , a shell from Gneisenau struck the bridge and killed Glorious 's captain . The two destroyers attempted to cover Glorious with smoke screens , but the German battleships could track the carrier with their radar . By 18 : 26 the range had fallen to 25 @,@ 600 m ( 28 @,@ 000 yd ) , and Scharnhorst and Gneisenau were firing full salvos at the carrier . After approximately an hour of shooting , the German battleships sent Glorious to the bottom . They also sank the two destroyers . Before sinking one of them , Acasta , managed to hit Scharnhorst with a torpedo at 18 : 39 . Acasta also hit Scharnhorst 's forward superfiring turret with her 4 @.@ 7 " QF guns , which did negligible damage . The torpedo hit caused serious damage ; it tore a hole 14 by 6 m ( 15 @.@ 3 by 6 @.@ 6 yd ) and allowed 2 @,@ 500 t ( 2 @,@ 500 long tons ; 2 @,@ 800 short tons ) of water into the ship . The rear turret was disabled and 48 men were killed . The flooding caused a 5 degree list , increased the stern draft by almost a meter , and forced Scharnhorst to reduce speed to 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The ship 's machinery was also significantly damaged by the flooding , and the starboard propeller shaft was destroyed .
The damage was severe enough to force Scharnhorst to put into Trondheim for temporary repairs . She reached port on the afternoon of 9 June , where the repair ship Huaskaran was waiting . The following day a reconnaissance plane from RAF Coastal Command spotted the ship , and a raid by twelve Hudson bombers took place on 11 June . The Hudsons dropped thirty @-@ six 227 lb ( 103 kg ) armor @-@ piercing bombs , which all missed . The Royal Navy joined in the attacks on the ship by sending the battleship Rodney and the aircraft carrier Ark Royal . On 13 June , Ark Royal launched fifteen Skua dive bombers ; German fighters intercepted the attackers and shot eight of them down . The other seven made it past the air defenses and attacked Scharnhorst , but only scored one hit , and the bomb failed to detonate . Preliminary repairs were completed by 20 June , which permitted the ship to return to Germany . While Scharnhorst was en route under heavy escort on 21 June , the British launched two air attacks , six Swordfish torpedo bombers in the first and nine Beaufort bombers in the second . Both were driven off by anti @-@ aircraft fire and fighters . The Germans intercepted British radio traffic that indicated the Royal Navy was at sea , which prompted Scharnhorst to make for Stavanger . British warships were within 35 nmi ( 65 km ; 40 mi ) of Scharnhorst 's position when she turned to Stavanger . The next day , Scharnhorst left Stavanger for Kiel , where repairs were carried out , lasting some six months .
= = = Operation Berlin = = =
Following the completion of repairs , Scharnhorst underwent trials in the Baltic before returning to Kiel in December 1940 . There she joined Gneisenau , in preparation for Operation Berlin , a planned raid into the Atlantic Ocean designed to wreak havoc on the Allied shipping lanes . Severe storms caused damage to Gneisenau but Scharnhorst was undamaged . The two ships were forced to put into port during the storm : Scharnhorst went to Gotenhafen while Gneisenau went to Kiel for repairs . Repairs were quickly completed , and on 2
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the Rajas by a Muslim saint , Mahabub Valli , who was doing penance in that forest . The auspicious date chosen for the foundation laying ceremony corresponded , according to the Hindu calendar , to the year known as Vijaya on the tenth day of the Vijaya Dasami when the Dassara Festival is generally held in the country . It was also a Tuesday , which means Jayavaram ( " victory day " ) in Telugu .
= = Features = =
The fort , built of stone , is in the shape of a square of side 240 metres ( 790 ft ) , and rises to a height of 10 metres ( 33 ft ) . The width of the wall at the top varies from 8 to 16 metres ( 26 to 52 ft ) . The four corners of the fort have fortifications in the form of bastions made of stones with a slope on its inner face covered with earth fill and strengthened with stone slabs . There are two gates of entry into the fort . The fort entry from the east is the main gate called the " Nagar khana " , which has elegant architectural designs . Prior to the construction of the Nagar khana , a victory arch stood at the entrance . The west @-@ facing gate is smaller but with similar architectural features as the main gate . A moat surrounded the fort .
Apart from the two main gates , there are several temples and monuments located within the fort . Two important temples are the Hanuman temple , and the Lakshmi temple known as the “ Kota Shakto ” , which is the guardian deity of the fort . Rajas offered prayers at Lakshmi temple before proceeding on any war campaign . Important monuments are palaces such as the Moti Mahal , Oudh Khana , Alakananda Palace , Korukonda Palace , and , just outside , the victory tower called the " Ghanta Stambham " ( Clock Tower ) . Two other important historical monuments outside the fort , but within the city limits , are the Moddukovillu temple and the Perla Home .
= = = Gates = = =
The two main gates of the fort are architecturally elegant , built in Rajasthani style of architecture . The east main gate is called the " Nagar khana " as it has a drum tower at the top which was used to beat drums to inform the people of royal orders and arrival of royal guests .
The west gate is the rear entrance to the Vizianagaram fort . This gateway is also built in Rajasthani style with a pavilion on top . The gate provides access to the royal tombs , and is a traditional gateway to take out dead bodies for cremation . In place of a moat , which existed in the past , there is now a well turned park extending to the west gate .
= = = Moti Mahal = = =
The Moti Mahal is the royal court or the Durbar hall which was built by Vijayarama Raju @-@ III in 1869 . At the entry to this hall there are two marble statues . This is a monument that represent the past glory , donated to the Maharajah Alak Narayan Society of Arts and Science ( MANSAS Trust ) by its founder Dr. P.V.G. Raju , the Raja Saheb of Vizianagaram , is now functioning as a college for women on its first floor . It also houses a museum which has artifacts of the past kings who ruled from the fort .
= = = Oudh Khana = = =
The Oudh Khana is the opulent royal palace of the Rajas of Vizianagaram . A unique part of this palace is an exclusive bath room of the Rajas , which is an octagonal stone structure that adjoins the Phool Bagh Palace . The structure is 50 feet ( 15 m ) in height built with stones and has a spiral stairway which leads to the water tank at the top that is fed by pumping water from a nearby well .
= = = Alakananda Palace = = =
The Alaknanda Palace was built as a royal guest house . It was constructed in a plush style for the royal guests . It is set within a well laid out garden with walkways . Within the grounds of this palace an air strip has been built in recent years for use of the royalty . This palace , however , now houses the 5th Battalion of the Andhra Pradesh Armed Reserve Police .
= = = Korukonda Palace = = =
Nearer to the Alakananda Palace is the Korukonda Palace . The land around this palace , about 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 ha ) large , is used as a playground and also has well @-@ tended gardens . Educational institutions have been established in this land and there a school to train youth who wish to join the defense forces .
= = = Ganta Stambham = = =
Ganta Stambham is the Clock Tower patterned on the lines of the Big Ben in London . The rajas of Vizianagaram , who used to frequent London during the British Raj , built it . It is located just outside the limits of the fort within the heart of the city . The octagonal tower , built of sandstone in 1885 , reaches a height of 68 feet ( 21 m ) . It was painted white at the top in the past but is now painted cream and red .
= = = Other structures = = =
Outside the limits of the fort there is an ancient temple dedicated to goddess Pydithalli Ammavaru which is held in great reverence by the people of the town . It is believed that this deity is the reincarnated form of a daughter of the royal family . The image of the Goddess worshipped in this temple was found on Vijayadashami day in 1752 . This day is marked by an annual celebration on 21st and 22nd October as a " jatra " or " religious fair " . The temple has a Shiva linga in two colours , which is said to exemplify the union of Shiva and Parvati .
Perla Home , also known as the " Perla Vari " , constructed in 1895 , is said to be one of the most well @-@ maintained monuments in the city . The first building to get electricity connection in the region , it had a bedroom fitted with bedsteads made of silver . A library , which was part of this building , is still functional . The elegant European furniture and the chandeliers of past glory are on display with other artifacts .
= Miniopterus griveaudi =
Miniopterus griveaudi is a bat in the genus Miniopterus found on Grande Comore and Anjouan in the Comoros and in northern and western Madagascar . First described in 1959 from Grande Comore as a subspecies of the mainland African M. minor , it was later placed with the Malagasy M. manavi . However , morphological and molecular studies published in 2008 and 2009 indicated that M. manavi as then defined contained five distinct , unrelated species , and M. griveaudi was redefined as a species occurring on both Madagascar and the Comoros .
With a forearm length of 35 to 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 5 in ) , M. griveaudi is a small Miniopterus . It is usually dark brown , but sometimes reddish . The tragus ( a projection inside the ear ) is narrow and ends in a rounded tip . The uropatagium ( tail membrane ) appears virtually naked . In the skull , the palate is concave and the rostrum ( front part ) is rounded . The species occurs up to 480 m ( 1 @,@ 570 ft ) above sea level on Madagascar , often in karstic areas . In the Comoros , it reaches 890 m ( 2 @,@ 920 ft ) and roosts in lava tubes as well as shallower caves . Females collected on Grande Comore in November were pregnant , but data on reproduction is limited and suggests individual and inter @-@ island variation .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1959 , David Harrison described a small Miniopterus from the island of Grande Comore as a subspecies , Miniopterus minor griveaudi , of the mainland African species M. minor . The name griveaudi honors Paul Griveaud , who collected the specimens on which Harrison based his description . This classification remained for the next few decades ; in 1992 , for example , Javier Juste and Carlos Ibáñez recognized five subspecies , including griveaudi , within M. minor , ranging from São Tomé to Madagascar . In their 1995 review of Madagascar bats , Randolph Peterson and colleagues recognized the small Malagasy Miniopterus as a separate species , Miniopterus manavi , with griveaudi as a subspecies .
In 2007 , Juste and colleagues re @-@ examined the relationships of the M. minor group using DNA sequences from the mitochondrial cytochrome b ( cyt b ) gene . They found that griveaudi from Grande Comoro , manavi from Madagascar , and M. minor newtoni ( currently Miniopterus newtoni ) from São Tomé were not closely related ; however , the representatives of " manavi " used in their study were misidentified specimens of M. majori .
In another molecular study , published in 2008 and using both cyt b and mitochondrial D @-@ loop sequences , Nicole Weyeneth and colleagues found that examined specimens of " Miniopterus manavi " actually grouped in two , distantly related clades — one including specimens from Madagascar , Anjouan , and Grande Comore , and the other occurring on Madagascar and Anjouan only .
The next year , Steven Goodman and colleagues further explored the relationships of the bats known as " Miniopterus manavi " using cyt b sequences and morphological comparisons . They found five species within " M. manavi " , which are not each other 's closest relatives , forming an example of convergent evolution . Up to four species of the group may occur in a single locality . Miniopterus griveaudi , now recognized as a full species , was found to occur on Grande Comore , Anjouan , and northern and western Madagascar , and M. manavi was restricted to the eastern margin of Madagascar 's Central Highlands . Three other species were newly described : Miniopterus aelleni on Anjouan and in northern and western Madagascar ; Miniopterus brachytragos in northern and western Madagascar only ; and Miniopterus mahafaliensis in southwestern Madagascar . Cyt b sequences suggest that M. griveaudi occupies an isolated position among African and Malagasy Miniopterus .
= = Description = =
Miniopterus griveaudi is a small , dark brown Miniopterus species . M. aelleni is similar in color , but M. manavi is darker and M. brachytragos and M. mahafaliensis are lighter . The upperparts are occasionally reddish brown ; this color variant occurs more often in the Comoro populations than on Madagascar . In the Comoros , individual colonies or groups sometimes consist exclusively of one color variant , but there is no apparent genetic differentiation between the two forms . The head is usually somewhat lighter than the body and the hairs of the underparts have buffish tips . The tragus ( a projection on the inner side of the outer ear ) is straight and narrow and ends in a rounded tip . Other species have differently shaped tragi . The wing membrane is also brown , but the uropatagium ( tail membrane ) is lighter . The wing membrane and uropatagium are attached to the upper leg at the same level , near the ankle . The uropatagium is sparsely covered with thin hairs that are virtually invisible to the naked eye . In contrast , M. manavi , M. mahafaliensis , and M. brachytragos have densely covered uropatagia and that of M. aelleni is sparsely , but visibly haired . There are some differences in measurements among the island populations ; animals from Grande Comore are generally smallest , those from Anjouan are intermediate , and those from Madagascar are largest .
The animal has a karyotype of 46 chromosomes , with a total of 50 major arms on the autosomes ( non @-@ sex chromosomes ) . The X chromosome is submetacentric ( with one arm slightly longer than the other ) and the Y chromosome is small and acrocentric ( with one very short and one long arm ) . The karyotype is conserved among species of Miniopterus ; the number of chromosomes and arms is identical in M. griveaudi , the Malagasy M. aelleni and M. gleni , and even the Asian M. fuliginosus .
In the skull , the rostrum ( front part ) is rounded . The central groove in the nasal depression ( the lowered area at the nose ) is relatively broad in comparison to M. manavi . The frontal bones ( part of the skull roof ) bear a well @-@ developed sagittal crest ( a crest that provides support for muscles of the head ) . Further back on the braincase , the lambdoid crest ( another such crest ) is also prominent . The middle part of the palate is concave , as in M. brachytragos and M. mahafaliensis , but unlike in M. aelleni and M. manavi , which have a flat palate . At the palate 's back margin is a long , robust posterior palatal spine .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
On Madagascar , the distribution of M. griveaudi extends along the western lowlands north to Ankarana in the far north of the island , and on eastern Madagascar south to the vicinity of Daraina . It is found up to 480 m ( 1 @,@ 570 ft ) above sea level and often occurs in karstic areas . Its range extensively overlaps that of M. aelleni , which is regularly found in the same forests and caves . Although some ecological and behavioral data has been published on " Miniopterus manavi " , the recognition of several cryptic species within this group , which may occur in the same places , renders the association of these data with any of the species now recognized uncertain ; however , species of Miniopterus generally feed on insects . Miniopterus griveaudi was assessed as " Data Deficient " on the IUCN Red List in 2008 , but the account predates the recognition of the species on Anjouan and Madagascar .
Miniopterus griveaudi is known from 15 to 670 m ( 49 to 2 @,@ 198 ft ) altitude on Grande Comore and 5 to 890 m ( 16 to 2 @,@ 920 ft ) on Anjouan . In the Comoros , it roosts in caves , both lava tubes and shallower structures ; it was found to share one cave on Grande Comore with another bat , Rousettus obliviosus . Individuals of M. griveaudi have been found to leave a Grande Comore cave at sunset . Flying M. griveaudi have mostly been recorded in forests , but this may reflect a lack of survey effort in open areas . In caves , individuals either group in large groups of more than 50 bats without reproductive activity or in smaller groups of at most five reproductively active bats . Limited data on reproduction show some notable variation between individuals and islands . In two caves surveyed on Grande Comore in November 2006 , all females were pregnant with single embryos with crown @-@ rump lengths of 14 to 19 mm ( 0 @.@ 55 to 0 @.@ 75 in ) , but none of the males were reproductively active . In another cave , none of the bats examined at the same time — all males — were reproductively active . None of the bats captured in one of the caves in April 2007 showed signs of reproductive activity . On Anjouan , no bats were reproductively active in two caves surveyed in late November 2006 .
Although specimens of M. griveaudi differ by only 0 @.@ 6 % in their cyt b sequences , analysis of D @-@ loop data does show some differentiation between the island populations . These data suggest that the species originated on Madagascar , where a large , stable population persists , and independently colonized Grande Comore and Anjouan ; subsequently , the Grande Comore and Anjouan populations came into contact , resulting in inter @-@ island gene flow .
= Mantled howler =
The mantled howler ( Alouatta palliata ) , or golden @-@ mantled howling monkey , is a species of howler monkey , a type of New World monkey , from Central and South America . It is one of the monkey species most often seen and heard in the wild in Central America . It takes its " mantled " name from the long guard hairs on its sides .
The mantled howler is one of the largest Central American monkeys , and males can weigh up to 9 @.@ 8 kg ( 22 lb ) . It is the only Central American monkey that eats large quantities of leaves ; it has several adaptations to this folivorous diet . Since leaves are difficult to digest and provide less energy than most foods , the mantled howler spends the majority of each day resting and sleeping . The male mantled howler has an enlarged hyoid bone , a hollow bone near the vocal cords , which amplifies the calls made by the male , and is the reason for the name " howler " . Howling allows the monkeys to locate each other without expending energy on moving or risking physical confrontation .
The mantled howler lives in groups that can have over 40 members , although groups are usually smaller . Most mantled howlers of both sexes are evicted from the group they were born in upon reaching sexual maturity , resulting in most adult group members being unrelated . The most dominant male , the alpha male , gets preference for food and resting places , and mates with most of the receptive females . The mantled howler is important to the rainforest ecology as a seed disperser and germinator . Although it is affected by deforestation , it is able to adapt better than other species , due to its ability to feed on abundant leaves and its ability to live in a limited amount of space .
= = Taxonomy = =
The mantled howler belongs to the New World monkey family Atelidae , the family that contains the howler monkeys , spider monkeys , woolly monkeys and muriquis . It is a member of the subfamily Alouattinae and genus Alouatta , the subfamily and genus containing all the howler monkeys . The species name is A. palliata ; a pallium was a cloak or mantle worn by ancient Greeks and Romans . This refers to the long guard hairs , known as a " mantle " , on its sides .
Three subspecies are recognized :
Ecuadorian mantled howler , Alouatta palliata aequatorialis , in Colombia , Costa Rica , Ecuador , Panama and Peru ;
Golden @-@ mantled howler , Alouatta palliata palliata , in Costa Rica , Guatemala , Honduras and Nicaragua ;
Mexican howler , Alouatta palliata mexicana , in Mexico and Guatemala .
Two additional subspecies of the mantled howler are sometimes recognised , but these are more generally recognised as subspecies of the Coiba Island howler , Allouatta coibensis . However , mitochondrial DNA testing of their status has been inconclusive :
Azuero howler , Alouatta palliata trabeata , in Panama ;
Alouatta palliata coibensis , in Panama .
= = Physical description = =
The mantled howler 's appearance is similar to other howler monkeys of the genus Alouatta except for coloration . The mantled howler is primarily black except for a fringe of yellow or golden brown guard hairs on the flanks of the body earning the common name " mantled " howler monkey . When the males reach maturity , the scrotum turns white . Females are between 481 and 632 mm ( 18 @.@ 9 and 24 @.@ 9 in ) in body length , excluding tail , and males are between 508 and 675 mm ( 20 @.@ 0 and 26 @.@ 6 in ) . The prehensile tail is between 545 and 655 mm ( 21 @.@ 5 and 25 @.@ 8 in ) long . Adult females generally weigh between 3 @.@ 1 and 7 @.@ 6 kg ( 6 @.@ 8 and 16 @.@ 8 lb ) , while males typically weigh between 4 @.@ 5 and 9 @.@ 8 kg ( 9 @.@ 9 and 21 @.@ 6 lb ) . Average body weights can vary significantly between monkey populations in different locations . The brain of an adult mantled howler is about 55 @.@ 1 g ( 1 @.@ 94 oz ) , which is smaller than that of several smaller monkey species , such as the white @-@ headed capuchin .
The mantled howler shares several adaptations with other species of howler monkey that allow it to pursue a folivorous diet , that is , a diet with a large component of leaves . Its molars have high shearing crests , to help it eat the leaves , and males have an enlarged hyoid bone near the vocal cords . This hyoid bone amplifies the male mantled howler 's calls , allowing it to locate other males without expending much energy .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Social structure = = =
The mantled howler lives in groups . Group size usually ranges from 10 to 20 members , generally 1 to 3 adult males and 5 to 10 adult females , but some groups have over 40 members . Males outrank females , and younger animals of each gender generally have a higher rank than older animals . Higher @-@ ranking animals get preference for food and resting sites , and the alpha male gets primary mating rights . Animals in the group are generally not related to each other because most members of both sexes leave the group before sexual maturity .
Grooming activity in the mantled howler is infrequent and has been shown to reflect social hierarchy , with dominant individuals grooming subordinates . Most grooming activities are short and are typically females grooming infants or adult males . Aggressive interactions between group members is not often observed either . However , studies have shown that aggressive interactions among group members do occur , and are probably not often observed because these interactions tend to be quick and silent .
Mantled howler groups that have been studied have occupied home ranges of between 10 and 60 hectares ( 25 and 148 acres ) . Groups do not defend exclusive territories , but rather several groups have overlapping home ranges . However , if two groups meet each group will aggressively attempt to evict the other . On average , groups travel up to about 750 metres ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) each day .
The mantled howler has little interaction with other sympatric monkey species but interactions with the white @-@ headed capuchin sometimes occur . These are most often aggressive , and the smaller capuchins are more often the aggressors . However , affiliative associations between the capuchins and howlers do sometimes occur , mostly involving juveniles playing together , and at times the capuchins and howlers may feed in the same tree , apparently ignoring each other .
= = = Diet = = =
The mantled howler is the most folivorous species of Central American monkey . Leaves make up between almost 50 % and 75 % of the mantled howler 's diet . The mantled howler is selective about the trees it eats from , and it prefers young leaves to mature leaves . This selectivity is likely to reduce the levels of toxins ingested , since certain leaves of various species contain toxins . Young leaves generally have less toxins as well as more nutrients than more mature leaves , and are also usually easier to digest . Mantled howler monkeys possess large salivary glands that help break down the leaf tannins by binding the polymers before the food bolus reaches the gut . Although leaves are abundant , they are a low energy food source . The fact that the mantled howler relies so heavily on a low energy food source drives much of its behaviour – for example , howling to locate other groups and spending a large portion of the day resting .
Although leaves tend to make up the majority of the mantled howler 's diet , fruit can also make up a large portion of the diet . When available , the proportion of fruit in the diet can be as much as 50 % , and can sometimes exceed the proportion of leaves . The leaves and fruit from Ficus trees tend to be the preferred source of the mantled howler . Flowers can also make up a significant portion of the diet and are eaten in particularly significant quantities during the dry season . The mantled howler tends to get the water it needs from its food , drinking from tree holes during the wet season , and by drinking water trapped in bromeliads .
Like other species of howler monkeys , almost all mantled howlers have full three color vision . This is different from other types of New World monkeys , in which most individuals have two color vision . The three color vision exhibited by the mantled howler is believed to be related to its dietary preferences , allowing it to distinguish young leaves , which tend to be more reddish , from more mature leaves .
= = = Locomotion = = =
The mantled howler is diurnal and arboreal . Movement within the rainforest canopy and floor includes quadrupedalism ( walking and running on supports ) , bridging ( crossing gaps by stretching ) , and climbing . It will also sometimes leap to get to another limb .
However , the mantled howler is a relatively inactive monkey . It sleeps or rests the entire night and about three quarters of the day . Most of the active period is spent feeding , with only about 4 % of the day spent on social interaction . This lethargy is an adaptation to its low energy diet . It uses its prehensile tail to grasp a branch when sleeping , resting or when feeding . It can support its entire body weight with the tail , but more often holds on by the tail and both feet . A study has shown that the mantled howler reuses travel routes to known feeding and resting sites , and appears to remember and use particular landmarks to help pick direct routes to its destination .
= = = Communication = = =
The mantled howler gets the name " howler " from the calls made by the males , particularly at dawn and dusk , but also in response to disturbances . These calls are very loud and can be heard for several kilometers . The calls consist of grunts and repeated roars that can last for four to five seconds each . The volume is produced by the hyoid bone — a hollow bone near the vocal cords — amplifying the sound made by the vocal cords . Male mantled howlers have hyoid bones that are 25 times larger than similarly sized spider monkeys , and this allows the bone to act like the body of a drum in amplifying the calls . Females also call but their calls are higher in pitch and not as loud as the males ' . The ability to produce these loud roars is likely an energy saving device , consistent with the mantled howler 's low energy diet . The roars allow the monkey to locate each other without moving around or risking physical confrontations . The mantled howler uses a wide range of other sounds , including barks , grunts , woofs , cackles and screeches . It uses clucking sounds to maintain auditory contact with other members of its group .
The mantled howler also uses non @-@ vocal communication , such as " urine rubbing " when in a distressful social situation . This consists of rubbing the hands , feet , tail and / or chest with urine . It marks its scent by rubbing its throat on branches . Lip smacking and tongue movements are signals used by females to indicate an invitation to mate . Genital displays are used to indicate emotional states , and group members shake branches , which is apparently a playful activity .
The mantled howler is usually indifferent to the presence of humans . However , when it is disturbed by people , it often express its irritation by urinating or defecating on them . It can accurately hit its observers despite being high in the trees .
= = = Tool use = = =
The mantled howler has not been observed using tools , and prior to 1997 no howler monkey was known to use tools . However , in 1997 a Venezuelan red howler ( Alouatta seniculus ) was reported to use a stick as a club to hit a Linnaeus 's two @-@ toed sloth , ( Choloepus didactylus ) , that was resting in its tree . This suggests that other howlers , such as the mantled howler , may also use tools in ways that have not yet been observed .
= = Reproduction = =
The mantled howler uses a polygamous mating system in which one male mates with multiple females . Usually , the alpha male monopolises the breeding opportunities , but if the alpha male is distracted , a lower @-@ ranking male can get an opportunity to mate . And in some groups , lower @-@ ranking males do get regular mating opportunities and do sire offspring . Alpha males generally maintain their status for about 2 ½ to 3 years , during which time they may father 18 or so infants . Females become sexually mature at 36 months , males at 42 months . Females reaching sexual maturity are typically 42 months old by their first birth . They undergo a regular estrus cycle , with an average duration of 16 @.@ 3 days , and display sexual skin changes , particularly swelling and color change ( from white to light pink ) of the labia minora . The copulatory sequence begins when a receptive female approaches a male and engages in rhythmic tongue flicking . The male responds with the same tongue movements before the female turns while elevating her rump , which allows for mating to begin . Females apparently also use chemical signals , since males smell the females ' genitals and taste their urine . The gestational period is 186 days ; births can occur at any time of year . The infant 's fur is silver at birth , but turns pale or gold after a few days . After that , the fur starts to darken , and the infant takes on the adult coloration at about 3 months old .
The infant is carried under its mother , clinging to its mother 's chest , for the first 2 or 3 weeks of its life . After that , it is carried on its mother 's back . At about 3 months the mother will usually start to push the infant off , but will still carry the infant some of the time until it is 4 or 5 months old . After the young can move on its own , the mother will carry it across difficult gaps in the trees . Juveniles play among themselves much of the time . Infants are weaned at 1 ½ years old at which point maternal care ends . Adult females typically give birth every 19 to 23 months , assuming the prior infant survived to weaning .
The mantled howler differs from other howler monkey species in that the males ' testes do not descend until they reach sexual maturity . Upon reaching sexual maturity , the young monkeys are usually evicted from their natal group , although the offspring of a high @-@ ranking female may get to stay in its natal group . However , many infants do not reach sexual maturity ; high @-@ ranking adults sometimes harass or kill the offspring of lower @-@ ranking monkeys to eliminate competition to their own offspring for an opportunity to remain with the group upon reaching maturity . Natal emigration is performed by both sexes , with 79 % of all males and 96 % of the females leaving their original social group . When a male from outside the group ousts the previous alpha male , he normally kills any infants so that the mothers come into estrus quickly and are able to mate with him . Predators , such as cats , weasels , snakes and eagles , also kill infants . As a result , only about 30 % of mantled howler infants live more than one year . The highest reproductive success occurs in the middle @-@ ranking females , with the alpha position lower possibly because of competitive pressures , and infant mortality appears to be lower when the timing of births in a group of females is clustered . If it survives infancy , the mantled howler 's lifespan is typically 25 years .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The mantled howler is native to Colombia , Costa Rica , Ecuador , Guatemala , Honduras , Mexico , Nicaragua , Panama and Peru . Within Honduras , Nicaragua , Costa Rica and Panama , the mantled howler is found in locations throughout the countries . In Colombia and Ecuador , it is found in a narrow corridor bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Andes Mountains to the east and also in Colombia in a small area near the Caribbean Sea close to the Panama border . In Guatemala , the mantled howler is found through the central part of the country , and into southeastern Mexico south of the Yucatán Peninsula . The mantled howler is among the most commonly seen and heard primates in many Central American national parks , including Manuel Antonio , Corcovado , Monteverde and Soberania . The mantled howler lives in several different types of forest , including secondary forest and semi @-@ deciduous forest but is found in higher densities in older areas of forest and in areas containing evergreen forest . The mantled howler is sympatric with another howler monkey species , the Guatemalan black howler , A. pigra , over a small part of its range , in Guatemala and Mexico near the Yucatan Peninsula .
= = Conservation status = =
The mantled howler is regarded as " least concern " from a conservation standpoint by the IUCN . Nonetheless , its numbers may be adversely affected by rainforest fragmentation which has caused forced relocation of groups to less habitable regions .
In 2011 , the primatologist Joaquim Veà Baró studied in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve in Veracruz , Mexico , the impact due the fragmentation of populations and identified an increase in stress , especially among females , when a male from outside the group approached the area , because they felt that their offspring are being threatened . In addition , food limitation in areas of reduced surface area was forcing individuals to adapt their diet to increased food deprivation . Veà highlighted that “ although this situation revealed up to what point individuals have the capacity for adaption , in some cases , undernourishment can lead to health problems that would make the population inviable ” . Results can be compared to humans who “ do not always eat everything which they should , for example in underdeveloped countries that have problems with malnutrition , rickets , a range of illnesses , but this does not put an end to the population , but rather provokes them to change their characteristics ” .
However , the mantled howler can adapt to forest fragmentation better than other species due to its low energy lifestyle , small home ranges and ability to exploit widely available food sources . The mantled howler is important to its ecosystems for a number of reasons , but especially in its capacity as a seed disperser and germinator , since passing through the monkey 's digestive tract appears to aid the germination of certain seeds . Dung beetles , which are also seed dispersers as well as nutrient recyclers , also appear to be dependent on the presence of the mantled howler . The mantled howler is protected from international trade under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ( CITES ) .
= Cirrus cloud =
Cirrus ( cloud classification symbol : Ci ) is a genus of atmospheric cloud generally characterized by thin , wispy strands , giving the type its name from the Latin word cirrus , meaning a ringlet or curling lock of hair . The strands of cloud sometimes appear in tufts of a distinctive form referred to by the common name of " mares ' tails " .
On planet Earth , cirrus generally appears white or light gray in color . It forms when water vapor undergoes deposition at altitudes above 5 @,@ 500 m ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) in temperate regions and above 6 @,@ 400 m ( 21 @,@ 000 ft ) in tropical regions . It also forms from the outflow of tropical cyclones or the anvils of cumulonimbus cloud . Since cirrus clouds arrive in advance of the frontal system or tropical cyclone , it indicates that weather conditions may soon deteriorate . While it indicates the arrival of precipitation ( rain ) , cirrus clouds only produce fall streaks ( falling ice crystals that evaporate before landing on the ground ) .
Jet stream @-@ powered cirrus can grow long enough to stretch across continents while remaining only a few kilometers deep . When visible light interacts with the ice crystals in cirrus cloud , it produces optical phenomena such as sun dogs and haloes . Cirrus is known to raise the temperature of the air beneath the main cloud layer by an average of 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) . When the individual filaments become so extensive that they are virtually indistinguishable from one another , they form a sheet of high cloud called cirrostratus . Convection at high altitudes can produce another high @-@ based genus called cirrocumulus , a pattern of small cloud tufts that contain droplets of supercooled water .
Cirrus clouds form on other planets , including Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and possibly Neptune . They have even been seen on Titan , one of Saturn 's moons . Some of these extraterrestrial cirrus clouds are composed of ammonia or methane ice rather than water ice . The term cirrus is also used for certain interstellar clouds composed of sub @-@ micrometer @-@ sized dust grains .
= = Description = =
Cirrus cloud ranges in thickness from 100 m ( 330 ft ) to 8 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) , with an average thickness of 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) . There are , on average , 30 ice crystals per liter ( 96 ice crystals per gallon ) , but this ranges from one ice crystal per 10 @,@ 000 liters ( 3 @.@ 7 ice crystals per 10 @,@ 000 gallons ) to 10 @,@ 000 ice crystals per liter ( 37 @,@ 000 ice crystals per gallon ) , a difference of eight orders of magnitude . The length of each of these ice crystals is usually 0 @.@ 25 millimeters long , but they range from as short as 0 @.@ 01 millimeters or as long as several millimeters . The ice crystals in contrails are much smaller than those in naturally @-@ occurring cirrus cloud , as they are around 0 @.@ 001 millimeters to 0 @.@ 1 millimeters in length . Cirrus can vary in temperature from − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) to − 30 ° C ( − 22 ° F ) .
The ice crystals in cirrus clouds have different shapes in addition to different sizes . Some shapes include solid columns , hollow columns , plates , rosettes , and conglomerations of the various other types . The shape of the ice crystals is determined by the air temperature , atmospheric pressure , and ice supersaturation . Cirrus in temperate regions typically have the shapes segregated by type : the columns and plates tend to be at the top of the cloud , whereas the rosettes and conglomerations tend to be near the base . In the northern Arctic region , cirrus tend to be composed of only the columns , plates , and conglomerations , and these crystals tend to be at least four times larger than the minimum size . In Antarctica , cirrus are usually composed of only the columns , and these columns are much longer than normal .
Scientists have studied the characteristics of cirrus using several different methods . One , Light Detection and Ranging ( LiDAR ) , gives highly accurate information on the cloud 's altitude , length , and width . Balloon @-@ carried hygrometers give information on the humidity of the cirrus cloud but are not accurate enough to measure the depth of the cloud . Radar units give information on the altitudes and thicknesses of cirrus clouds . Another data source is satellite measurements from the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE ) program . These satellites measure where infrared radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere , and if it is absorbed at cirrus altitudes , then it is assumed that there are cirrus clouds in that location . The United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration 's ( NASA ) MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) also gives information on the cirrus cloud cover by measuring reflected infrared radiation of various specific frequencies during the day . During the night , it determines cirrus cover by detecting the Earth 's infrared emissions . The cloud reflects this radiation back to the ground , thus enabling satellites to see the " shadow " it casts into space . Visual observations from aircraft or the ground provide additional information about cirrus clouds .
Based upon data taken from the United States using these methods , cirrus cloud cover was found to vary diurnally and seasonally . The researchers found that in the summer , at noon , the cover is the lowest , with an average of 23 % of the United States ' land area covered by cirrus . Around midnight , the cloud cover increases to around 28 % . In winter , the cirrus cloud cover did not vary appreciably from day to night . These percentages include clear days and nights , as well as days and nights with other cloud types , as lack of cirrus cloud cover . When these clouds are present , the typical coverage ranges from 30 % to 50 % . Based on satellite data , cirrus covers an average of 20 % to 25 % of the Earth 's surface . In the tropical regions , this cloud covers around 70 % of the region 's surface area .
Cirrus clouds often produce hair @-@ like filaments — similar to the virga produced in liquid – water clouds — called fall streaks , and they are made of heavier ice crystals that fall from the cloud . The sizes and shapes of fall streaks are determined by the wind shear .
Cirrus comes in four distinct species ; Cirrus castellanus , fibratus , spissatus , and uncinus ; which are each divided into four varieties : intortus , vertebratus , radiatus , and duplicatus . Cirrus castellanus is a species that has cumuliform tops caused by high @-@ altitude convection rising up from the main cloud body . Cirrus fibratus looks striated and is the most common cirrus species . Cirrus uncinus clouds are hooked and are the form that is usually called mare 's tails . Of the varieties , Cirrus intortus has an extremely contorted shape , and cirrus radiatus has large , radial bands of cirrus clouds that stretch across the sky . Kelvin – Helmholtz waves are a form of cirrus intortus that has been twisted into loops by vertical wind shear .
= = Formation = =
Cirrus clouds are formed when water vapor undergoes deposition at high altitudes where the atmospheric pressure ranges from 600 mbar at 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea level to 200 mbar at 12 @,@ 000 m ( 39 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea level . These conditions commonly occur at the leading edge of a warm front . Because humidity is low at such high altitudes , this genus @-@ type tends to be very thin .
= = = Cyclones = = =
Cirrus forms from tropical cyclones , and is commonly seen fanning out from the eyewalls of hurricanes . A large shield of cirrus and cirrostratus typically accompanies the high altitude outflow of hurricanes or typhoons , and these can make the underlying rain bands — and sometimes even the eye — difficult to detect in satellite photographs .
= = = Thunderstorms = = =
Thunderstorms can form dense cirrus at their tops . As the cumulonimbus cloud in a thunderstorm grows vertically , the liquid water droplets freeze when the air temperature reaches the freezing point . The anvil cloud takes its shape because the temperature inversion at the tropopause prevents the warm , moist air forming the thunderstorm from rising any higher , thus creating the flat top . In the tropics , these thunderstorms occasionally produce copious amounts of cirrus from their anvils . High @-@ altitude winds commonly push this dense mat out into an anvil shape that stretches downwind as much as several kilometers .
Individual cirrus cloud formations can be the remnants of anvil clouds formed by thunderstorms . In the dissipating stage of a cumulonimbus cloud , when the normal column rising up to the anvil has evaporated or dissipated , the mat of cirrus in the anvil is all that is left .
= = = Contrails = = =
Contrails are a manmade type of cirrus cloud formed when water vapor from the exhaust of a jet engine condenses on particles , which come from either the surrounding air or the exhaust itself , and freezes , leaving behind a visible trail . The exhaust can also trigger the formation of cirrus by providing ice nuclei when there is an insufficient naturally @-@ occurring supply in the atmosphere . One of the environmental impacts of aviation is that persistent contrails can form into large mats of cirrus , and increased air traffic has been implicated as one possible cause of the increasing frequency and amount of cirrus in Earth 's atmosphere .
= = Subforms = =
= = = Species = = =
Cirrus Fibratus clouds appear as thin and fibrous looking . Noticeably , they are the most common type of cirrus cloud . They might indicate windy weather , since they are mostly formed by wind shear on higher altitudes .
Cirrus Uncinus clouds appear as thin and fibrous like , except that they always have a hook or curl on the tip .
Cirrus Spissatus clouds are the highest clouds of the main cloud genera . They may form in the higher tropopause or even at the lower stratosphere . They are dense and opaque , not allowing the light of the sun or moon to pass through . They are more common on the anvils of cumulonimbus clouds .
Cirrus Floccus is derived from Latin , which means " lock of wool " or cirrus with ragged bases . They are not to be confused with cirrocumulus floccus since they are larger than cirrocumulus and mostly are isolated . A precipitation @-@ based supplementary feature virga is mostly visible , which makes it easier to distinguish the difference between cirrocumulus floccus and cirrus floccus .
Cirrus Castellanus is derived from Latin , which means " castle " or round turrets . They indicate that atmospheric instability is occurring on the higher altitudes of the troposphere . They appear as tall clouds that originate from a flat base .
= = = Opacity @-@ based Varieties = = =
Cirrus clouds have no opacity @-@ based varieties , due to them being translucent , and only one species is opaque , which is cirrus spissatus .
= = = Pattern @-@ based Varieties = = =
Cirrus Intortus clouds is derived from Latin which means " twisted " , or " wound " . These clouds appear twisted , or simply , intorted .
Cirrus Vertebratus clouds , resembling the appearance of bones as hinted by the word " vertebratus " . They look more like fish bones , with fibrous lines that originate from one which resembles the appearance of fish bones .
Cirrus Radiatus clouds appear as parallel lines that seem to originate from one point and can stretch for hundreds of miles , and they move parallel to the wind shear .
= = Use in forecasting = =
Random , isolated cirrus do not have any particular significance . A large number of cirrus clouds can be a sign of an approaching frontal system or upper air disturbance . This signals a change in weather in the near future , which usually becomes stormier . If the cloud is a cirrus castellanus , there might be instability at the high altitude level . When the clouds deepen and spread , especially when they are of the cirrus radiatus variety or cirrus fibratus species , this usually indicates an approaching weather front . If it is a warm front , the cirrus clouds spread out into cirrostratus , which then thicken and lower into altocumulus and altostratus . The next set of clouds are the rain @-@ bearing nimbostratus clouds . When cirrus clouds precede a cold front , squall line or multicellular thunderstorm , it is because they are blown off the anvil , and the next to arrive are the cumulonimbus clouds . Kelvin @-@ Helmholtz waves indicate extreme wind shear at high levels .
Within the tropics , 36 hours prior to the center passage of a tropical cyclone , a veil of white cirrus clouds approaches from the direction of the cyclone . In the mid to late 19th century , forecasters used these cirrus veils to predict the arrival of hurricanes . In the early 1870s the president of Belén College in Havana , Cuba , Father Benito Viñes , developed the first hurricane forecasting system , and he mainly used the motion of these clouds in formulating his predictions . He would observe the clouds hourly from 4 : 00 am to 10 : 00 pm . After accumulating enough information , Viñes began accurately predicting the paths of hurricanes , and he eventually summarized his observations in his book , Apuntes Relativos a los Huracanes de las Antilles .
= = Effects on climate = =
Cirrus clouds cover up to 25 % of the Earth and have a net heating effect . When they are thin and translucent , the clouds efficiently absorb outgoing infrared radiation while only marginally reflecting the incoming sunlight . When cirrus clouds are 100 m ( 330 ft ) thick , they reflect only around 9 % of the incoming sunlight , but they prevent almost 50 % of the outgoing infrared radiation from escaping , thus raising the temperature of the atmosphere beneath the clouds by an average of 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) — a process known as the greenhouse effect . Averaged worldwide , cloud formation results in a temperature loss of 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) at the earth 's surface , mainly the result of stratocumulus clouds .
As a result of their warming effects when relatively thin , cirrus clouds have been implicated as a potential partial cause of global warming . Scientists have speculated that global warming could cause high thin cloud cover to increase , thereby increasing temperatures and humidity . This , in turn , would increase the cirrus cloud cover , effectively creating a positive feedback circuit . A prediction of this hypothesis is that the cirrus would move higher as the temperatures rose , increasing the volume of air underneath the clouds and the amount of infrared radiation reflected back down to earth . In addition , the hypothesis suggests that the increase in temperature would tend to increase the size of the ice crystals in the cirrus cloud , possibly causing the reflection of solar radiation and the reflection of the Earth 's infrared radiation to balance out .
A similar hypothesis put forth by Richard Lindzen is the iris hypothesis in which an increase in tropical sea surface temperatures results in less cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation emitted to space .
= = Optical phenomena = =
Cirrus clouds , like cirrostratus clouds , can produce several optical effects , such as halos around the sun and moon . Halos are caused by interaction of the light with hexagonal ice crystals present in the clouds , which , depending on their shape and orientation , can result in a wide variety of white and colored rings , arcs and spots in the sky . Common halo varieties are the 22 ° halo , sun dogs , the circumzenithal arc and the circumhorizontal arc . Halos produced by cirrus clouds tend to be more pronounced and colorful than those caused by cirrostratus .
More rarely , cirrus clouds are capable of producing glories , more commonly associated with liquid water @-@ based clouds such as stratus . A glory is a set of concentric , faintly @-@ colored glowing rings that appear around the shadow of the observer , and are best observed from a high viewpoint or from a plane . Cirrus clouds only form glories when the constituent ice crystals are aspherical , and researchers suggest that the ice crystals must be between 0 @.@ 009 millimeters and 0 @.@ 015 millimeters in length .
= = Relation to other clouds = =
Cirrus clouds are one of three different genera of high @-@ étage ( high @-@ level ) clouds . High @-@ étage clouds form at 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 500 ft ) and above in temperate regions . The other two genera , cirrocumulus and cirrostratus , are also high clouds .
In the intermediate range , from 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 500 ft ) to 7 @,@ 000 m ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) in temperate regions , are the mid @-@ étage clouds . They comprise two or three genera depending on the system of height classification being used : altostratus , altocumulus , and , according to WMO classification , nimbostratus . These clouds are formed from ice crystals , supercooled water droplets , or liquid water droplets .
Low @-@ étage clouds form at less than 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 500 ft ) . The two genera that are strictly low @-@ étage are stratus , and stratocumulus . These clouds are composed of water droplets , except during winter when they are formed of supercooled waterdroplets or ice crystals if the temperature at cloud level is below freezing . Two additional genera usually form in the low altitude range , but may be based at higher levels under conditions of very low humidity . They comprise the genera cumulus , and cumulonimbus , which along with nimbostratus , are often classified separately as clouds of vertical development , especially when their tops are high enough to be composed of super @-@ cooled water droplets or ice crystals .
The altitudes of high @-@ étage clouds like cirrus vary considerably with latitude . In the polar regions , they are at their lowest , with a minimum altitude of only 3 @,@ 000 m ( 10 @,@ 000 ft ) to a maximum of 7 @,@ 600 m ( 25 @,@ 000 ft ) . In tropical regions , they are at their highest , ranging in altitude from about 6 @,@ 100 m ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) to around 18 @,@ 000 m ( 60 @,@ 000 ft ) . In temperate regions , they range in altitude from 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 500 ft ) to 14 @,@ 000 m ( 45 @,@ 000 ft ) — a variation in contrast to low @-@ étage clouds , which do not appreciably change altitude with latitude .
= = = Summary of high cloud genera = = =
There are three main genera in the family of high clouds : cirrus , cirrocumulus , and cirrostratus . Cirrostratus clouds commonly produce halos because they are composed almost entirely of ice crystals . Cirrocumulus and cirrostratus are sometimes informally referred to as " cirriform clouds " because of their frequent association with cirrus . They are given the prefix " cirro- " , but this refers more to their altitude range than their physical structure . Cirrocumulus in its pure form is actually a high cumuliform genus , and cirrostratus is stratiform , like altostratus and lower based sheet clouds .
= = = = Cirrocumulus = = = =
Cirrocumulus clouds form in sheets or patches and do not cast shadows . They commonly appear in regular , rippling patterns or in rows of clouds with clear areas between . Cirrocumulus are , like other members of the cumuliform category , formed via convective processes . Significant growth of these patches indicates high @-@ altitude instability and can signal the approach of poorer weather . The ice crystals in the bottoms of cirrocumulus clouds tend to be in the form of hexagonal cylinders . They are not solid , but instead tend to have stepped funnels coming in from the ends . Towards the top of the cloud , these crystals have a tendency to clump together . These clouds do not last long , and they tend to change into cirrus because as the water vapor continues to deposit on the ice crystals , they eventually begin to fall , destroying the upward convection . The cloud then dissipates into cirrus . Cirrocumulus clouds come in four species : stratiformis , lenticularis , castellanus , and floccus . They are iridescent when the constituent supercooled water droplets are all about the same size .
= = = = Cirrostratus = = = =
Cirrostratus clouds can appear as a milky sheen in the sky or as a striated sheet . They are sometimes similar to altostratus and are distinguishable from the latter because the sun or moon is always clearly visible through transparent cirrostratus , in contrast to altostratus which tends to be opaque or translucent . Cirrostratus come in two species , fibratus and nebulosus . The ice crystals in these clouds vary depending upon the height in the cloud . Towards the bottom , at temperatures of around − 35 ° C ( − 31 ° F ) to − 45 ° C ( − 49 ° F ) , the crystals tend to be long , solid , hexagonal columns . Towards the top of the cloud , at temperatures of around − 47 ° C ( − 53 ° F ) to − 52 ° C ( − 62 ° F ) , the predominant crystal types are thick , hexagonal plates and short , solid , hexagonal columns . These clouds commonly produce halos , and sometimes the halo is the only indication that such clouds are present . They are formed by warm , moist air being lifted slowly to a very high altitude . When a warm front approaches , cirrostratus clouds become thicker and descend forming altostratus clouds , and rain usually begins 12 to 24 hours later .
= = Extraterrestrial = =
Cirrus clouds have been observed on several other planets . On 18 September 2008 , the Martian Lander Phoenix took a time @-@ lapse photograph of a group of cirrus clouds moving across the Martian sky using LiDAR . Near the end of its mission , the Phoenix Lander detected more thin clouds close to the north pole of Mars . Over the course of several days , they thickened , lowered , and eventually began snowing . The total precipitation was only a few thousandths of a millimeter . James Whiteway from York University concluded that " precipitation is a component of the [ Martian ] hydrologic cycle . " These clouds formed during the Martian night in two layers , one around 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) above ground and the other at surface level . They lasted through early morning before being burned away by the sun . The crystals in these clouds were formed at a temperature of − 65 ° C ( − 85 ° F ) , and they were shaped roughly like ellipsoids 0 @.@ 127 millimeters long and 0 @.@ 042 millimeters wide .
On Jupiter , cirrus clouds are composed of ammonia . When Jupiter 's South Equatorial Belt disappeared , one hypothesis put forward by Glenn Orten was that a large quantity of ammonia cirrus clouds had formed above it , hiding it from view . NASA 's Cassini probe detected these clouds on Saturn and thin water @-@ ice cirrus on Saturn 's moon Titan . Cirrus clouds composed of methane ice exist on Uranus . On Neptune , thin wispy clouds which could possibly be cirrus have been detected over the Great Dark Spot . As on Uranus , these are probably methane crystals .
Interstellar cirrus clouds are composed of tiny dust grains smaller than a micrometer and are therefore not true clouds of this genus which are composed of ice crystals or other frozen liquids . They range from a few light years to dozens of light years across . While they are not technically cirrus clouds , the dust clouds are referred to as " cirrus " because of their similarity to the clouds on Earth . They also emit infrared radiation , similar to the way cirrus clouds on Earth reflect heat being radiated out into space .
= Lee McEvilly =
Lee Richard McEvilly ( born 15 April 1982 ) is a journeyman footballer who currently plays as a striker for Northern Premier League Premier Division side Droylsden . Although born in England , he won one cap for the Northern Ireland national team in 2002 and also played for Northern Ireland at under @-@ 21 and under @-@ 23 levels .
McEvilly started his career with non @-@ League side Burscough , rising through their youth ranks to the senior side , where he made 49 league appearances , scoring 28 goals . In December 2001 , Third Division club Rochdale signed him for £ 20 @,@ 000 . From 2004 to 2009 he had spells in the Conference National and League Two with Accrington Stanley , Cambridge United and Wrexham . Since 2009 , McEvilly has struggled with injuries and has had brief spells at numerous non @-@ league clubs in England and Wales , as well as a brief period at League of Ireland side Sligo Rovers in 2010 , which was also cut short due to injury . He is currently playing with Barrow for the third time , with whom he won the FA Trophy in 2010 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
McEvilly started his career at Burscough rising through the youth ranks , making his senior debut against Southport in the Liverpool Senior Cup final in August 1999 . He went on to play 49 Northern Premier League games for Burscough , scoring 28 goals over two seasons . Rochdale manager John Hollins signed McEvilly in December 2001 , for the Third Division club for a fee believed to be around £ 15 @,@ 000 plus a sell @-@ on clause . He made his debut for Rochdale in the Third Division against Kidderminster Harriers on 26 December in the 4 – 1 away defeat , replacing Clive Platt as a substitute in the 69th minute . McEvilly scored his first Football League goal , and his first for Rochdale against York City in their 5 – 4 home win on 5 February 2002 . During McEvilly 's first season with Rochdale , 2001 – 02 , they reached the playoffs finishing fifth place . Rochdale were defeated by Rushden & Diamonds in the playoff semi @-@ finals 4 – 3 on aggregate over two legs . During the first leg away at Nene Park , McEvilly scored in the 2 – 2 draw . He made a total of 18 appearances in the Third Division , scoring four goals . The following season , 2002 – 03 , McEvilly played 37 games in the Third Division scoring 15 goals .
He started the 2003 – 04 season at Rochdale , making 16 appearances and scoring five goals in League Two . Rochdale 's new manager Steve Parkin criticised McEvilly 's fitness level to play and had described him as " too heavy " , and that he needed " to get his physique down to an acceptable weight where he can get around the pitch " . Conference National club Accrington Stanley signed McEvilly on a one @-@ month loan in January 2004 , making his debut in their 3 – 0 home win against Tamworth on 20 January . Despite playing out of position in wide right , McEvilly commented ; " I was playing out of position but it was okay " . He went on to describe the drop in level he said ; " I have never played in the Conference but , from what I have seen , it is no different to Division Three . " After a month at Accrington and making three appearances scoring one goal , his loan was extended in February for a further month , with manager John Coleman praising him as " a great acquisition to the squad " . McEvilly went on to make a further three appearances , scoring once more before returning to Rochdale . On his return to Rochdale , he scored a further one goal in 14 appearances . At the end of the season , McEvilly was released by Rochdale on 10 May , signing a dater for Accrington Stanley on a permanent basis after a previous loan spell . On 13 November 2004 , McEvilly scored a hat @-@ trick in Accrington 's 5 – 0 home victory over Northwich Victoria . During the 2004 – 05 season he made 39 appearances in the Conference National , scoring 15 goals .
= = = Wrexham = = =
Accrington Stanley accepted an undisclosed bid from Wrexham in July 2005 , which included a sell @-@ on clause and a bonus if he returned to play international football . He scored on his debut in a friendly against UEFA Champions League winners Liverpool in the 4 – 3 defeat after he came on as a substitute . McEvilly suffered a stress fracture in a metatarsus bone on his right foot in the 1 – 1 home draw with Notts County on 11 December , although he declared himself fit to play their following game against Carlisle United , he was substituted after 45 minutes after receiving a mouth injury which had required temporary dental surgery the same evening . His foot injury was later operated on and he received further dental treatment . His return to the Wrexham team following his injury was on 9 April 2006 , in their 2 – 1 home defeat to Shrewsbury Town when he came on as a substitute replacing Matt Crowell in the 45th minute . He made a further three appearances scoring one goal , before breaking the same bone again in mid @-@ April sidelining him until the end of the season . During the 2005 – 06 season , McEvilly made a total of 23 appearances for Wrexham , scoring seven goals in League Two .
In June 2006 , McEvilly was set to join for Bradford City on a free transfer after agreeing a contract with the club . Despite McEvilly passing a medical , the move fell through as he was unwilling to train with Bradford during their pre @-@ season without guarantee of a contract . Bradford City manager Colin Todd explained ; " We were concerned about an old injury to his foot which has resulted in it being pinned and we are not prepared to take a risk with him " . McEvilly opted to sign a new two @-@ year contract with Wrexham . During pre @-@ season with Wrexham , McEvilly broke his other foot , having previously broke the same bone twice in four @-@ months during the previous season . His first appearance of the 2006 – 07 season , was on 25 November at home against Lincoln City in the 2 – 1 win in League Two , when he came on as a substitute for Kevin Smith in the 80th minute . McEvilly went on to make 28 appearances in League Two , scoring eight goals and a further two appearances in the FA Cup , scoring once against Championship side Derby County in their 3 – 1 defeat at Pride Park on 6 January . His contract was cancelled by mutual consent at the end of the season . Wrexham manager Brian Carey said that they are " well covered in terms of strikers " and " he is some way down the pecking order " .
= = = Return to Stanley = = =
Accrington Stanley re @-@ signed McEvilly on a one @-@ year contract following his departure from Wrexham . On his return to Accrington he commented ; " I am back here because I feel I have unfinished business . I played well for a year here and I want to do the same again " . He had played 10 games in League Two and one game in the League Cup failing to score , and picking up a red card for violent conduct after a stamp on Peterborough United winger Jamie Day in their 2 – 0 home loss on 1 September . However , McEvilly struggled to hold down a regular place in the Accrington side and was loaned out to former club , Rochdale in November 2007 . On his return to Spotland Stadium , he scored the only goal of Rochdale 's 1 – 0 win over Mansfield Town on 24 November , with a shot from the edge of the penalty area . McEvilly made a total of seven appearances for Rochdale scoring three goals , before returning in January 2008 . He made one more appearance for Accrington , coming on as a substitute in the 73rd minute for Paul Mullin in the 2 – 0 defeat to Stockport County on 12 January , before joining Cambridge United on loan on 18 January . McEvilly made 14 appearances and scored three goals for Cambridge , helping them finish second place in the 2007 – 08 Conference National , securing a place in the playoffs . In Cambridge 's playoff semi @-@ final first leg , they drew 2 – 2 with Burton Albion away at the Pirelli Stadium with McEvilly scoring both Cambridge 's goals . Cambridge were 2 – 0 down and McEvilly came on as a substitute for Mark Beesley in the 74th minute . Paul Hurst was deemed to have handled in the penalty area , and four minutes later McEvilly converted the penalty four minutes after coming off the bench . He scored his second goal from a direct free kick . In the following leg , McEvilly started the game and had a shot within the opening 30 seconds which Rob Wolleaston managed to score from the rebound , before being replaced by Leo Fortune @-@ West in the 77th minute . McEvilly played in the final , in which Exeter City defeated Cambridge 1 – 0 at Wembley Stadium .
= = = Cambridge United = = =
McEvilly signed a permanent two @-@ year deal with Cambridge the following 2008 – 09 season , after being released on a free transfer from Accrington Stanley . On 10 October , he was sent off in the 87th minute of Cambridge 's 1 – 0 win over Weymouth , for violent conduct after the referee deemed a tackle to be dangerous . He went on to make 18 appearances for Cambridge scoring eight goals in the Conference National , before returning to the Football League to rejoin Rochdale , initially on loan in November , with the possibility of a permanent transfer in January . McEvilly stated he was glad to be back " home " at Rochdale .
= = = Return to Rochdale = = =
He made five appearances , scoring twice on loan at Rochdale before signing permanently on an 18 @-@ month contract on 1 January 2009 . McEvilly made 10 more appearances , starting just once and scoring three goals , before joining Barrow on loan in March , citing his friendship with joint @-@ manager David Bayliss as a key reason for his move . He scored seven his debut on 21 March at home against Lewes , which finished as a 2 – 0 victory . In Barrow 's next match on 29 March , he was sent off against Weymouth for the second time that season after he received two yellow cards in the 3 – 0 away win , picking up the first for kicking the ball away in the first half and then a second in the 69th minute for a foul on Gavin Hoyte , resulting his dismissal . He made six appearances in the Conference National for Barrow , scoring once . On 2 May , McEvilly made one last appearance for Rochdale in their 1 – 0 home defeat to Gillingham , replacing Adam Rundle as a substitute in the 75th minute . Rochdale terminated his contract by mutual consent at the end of the season .
= = = Non @-@ league career = = =
At the start of the 2009 – 10 season , McEvilly signed for Grays Athletic along with eight other players , turning down offers from Northern Premier League Premier Division club Marine and Maltese Premier League club Hibernians . McEvilly picked up a long @-@ term shin injury delaying his debut for Grays , and he was eventually released by the club in November without making a single appearance . In January 2010 , Marine announced that McEvilly had signed for the club . Marine chairman Paul Leary described McEvilly as a " massive signing " for the club . He played six matches during his spell in Crosby , scoring twice , before leaving to rejoin Barrow on a short @-@ term contract until the end of the 2009 – 10 campaign . In the 2010 FA Trophy Final against Stevenage Borough , he replaced Gregg Blundell in the 72nd minute before scoring with his first touch to level the match at 1 – 1 . Barrow went on to win the game 2 – 1 after extra time , but it proved to be the end of McEvilly 's spell at Holker Street as he was released at the end of the season .
After leaving Barrow , McEvilly began training with Sligo Rovers of the League of Ireland Premier Division in June 2010 . He made only one league appearance for the side , coming on as a substitute in the 2 – 1 defeat to Shamrock Rovers on 2 July 2010 . In November 2010 , he returned to his first senior club Burscough , signing a permanent contract with the Northern Premier League outfit . He made his debut on 11 December 2010 as a second @-@ half substitute in the 3 – 2 loss against Bradford Park Avenue . Three weeks later , he got on the scoresheet for the first time during his second spell at the club , scoring both Burscough goals in the 4 – 2 defeat to Kendal Town . McEvilly went on to stay at Victoria Park for three months before transferring to Conference North side Droylsden along with goalkeeper Sean Lake in March 2011 .
McEvilly signed for Garry Flitcroft 's Chorley at the start of the 2011 – 12 season . He scored his first goal in a 6 – 0 home victory over Frickley Athletic and went on to play 12 league games for the club , scoring four times . However , on 13 October , McEvilly was released after failing to hold down a first team spot . He subsequently joined Colwyn Bay on 27 October 2011 . He signed for AFC Fylde in February 2012 to work with Dave Challinor again , but was released at the end of the campaign . In August 2012 , McEvilly signed for Warrington Town , the fourteenth different club of his career . After being released by Warrington in December 2012 he spent time training with Barrow and officially joined the club on non @-@ contract terms on 31 January 2013 — the start of his third spell with the Cumbrian outfit .
= = International career = =
Sammy McIlroy called McEvilly up to the Northern Ireland squad to face Spain in an international friendly on 17 April 2002 at Windsor Park , Belfast . He earned his first cap , replacing Warren Feeney as a substitute in the 63rd minute in the 5 – 0 defeat to Spain . He went on to play for Northern Ireland under @-@ 21 , gaining nine caps scoring three goals between September 2002 and October 2003 . On 27 April 2004 , McEvilly played for Northern Ireland under @-@ 23 team in the 0 – 0 home draw against Serbia & Montenegro . McEvilly was called up to the Northern Ireland national squad again in May 2006 , to face United States but he failed to make an appearance .
= = Playing style = =
Rochdale assistant manager David Hamilton described McEvilly saying ; " He 's strong , powerful , can shoot with both feet and can score goals . He has good all @-@ round ability and is tremendously tenacious " . His aggressive and robust playing style earned him the nickname " Evil " .
= = Personal life = =
Prior to playing professional football for Rochdale , McEvilly worked at McDonald 's fast food restaurant . He was born in Liverpool , Merseyside , and is an Everton supporter .
= Remember not , Lord , our offences =
Remember not , Lord , our offences , Z.50 , is a five @-@ part choral anthem by the English baroque composer Henry Purcell ( 1659 – 95 ) . The anthem is a setting of a passage from the litany compiled by Thomas Cranmer , Archbishop of Canterbury , and later included in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer . It was composed circa 1679 – 82 at the beginning of Purcell 's tenure as Organist and Master of the Choristers for Westminster Abbey .
= = Composition = =
Remember not , Lord , our offences is an anthem for an a cappella choir consisting of five voice parts : two soprano parts , alto , tenor and bass ( SSATB ) . Purcell originally composed the 44 @-@ measure work in the key of A minor . Some arrangements of the anthem include a continuo instrumental accompaniment . Musicologist and historian Franklin B. Zimmerman ( born 1923 ) designated the anthem as " Z.50 " in his catalogue of Purcell 's works . The duration of performances and recordings of this work is approximately 3 minutes .
The lyrics of Purcell 's anthem are drawn from a passage in the beginning of the Exhortation and Litany compiled in 1544 by Thomas Cranmer ( 1489 – 1556 ) , the Archbishop of Canterbury . Cranmer established the liturgical structures for the Church of England after the Reformation and prepared the church 's first official authorised vernacular service . He derived the text of the litany from two medieval Sarum rite litanies and a German Litany by Martin Luther . Cranmer added the litany to the 1549 edition of the Book of Common Prayer and it has been included in subsequent editions . Purcell set an excerpt from the litany :
Scholars date the composition of Remember not , Lord , our offences to the period generally between 1679 and 1682 . Cummings states that Purcell included it in a collection of anthems compiled in 1683 . During this time , Purcell had been appointed Organist and Master of the Choristers of Westminster Abbey in 1679 with the resignation of John Blow . He dedicated the next few years entirely to the composition of sacred music . In July 1682 , following the death of Edward Lowe , Purcell was appointed organist of the Chapel Royal — an office which he held simultaneously with his position at Westminster Abbey . In his personal life , Purcell had married Frances Peters ( or Pieters ) who bore him a son that died shortly after birth .
During the 1680s and tenure at Westminster Abbey and the Chapel Royal , Purcell compiled earlier and contemporary sacred music ( including several of his own compositions ) into one collection for the use of the choirs of both churches . Two extant manuscripts compiled by Purcell are currently held in the collections of the University of Cambridge 's Fitzwilliam Museum . Both manuscripts include Remember not , Lord , our offences .
The choral anthems , including Remember not , Lord , our offences , that Purcell composed after his appointment to Westminster and before his appointment at the Chapel Royal are described as his " last concentrated involvement with the verse anthem without strings . " After 1681 , Purcell began including string accompaniments to his choral anthems — a shift that musicologist Martin Adams attributes to having more resources available to him with his appointment to the Chapel Royal . Adams states that the anthems of this period included revisions of earlier works , including his well @-@ known setting of the Anglican funeral sentences , and that these works are " distinguished by complex contrapuntal textures , a concentration on a limited quantity of motivic material , and the somber expression of penitential texts . " Purcell 's anthems reflect the influence of compositional techniques developed by earlier composers William Byrd and Orlando Gibbons . These anthems are closely related to those composed by Purcell 's friend and teacher , John Blow , " with their basso seguente continuo and severe counterpoint , they are true stile antico . "
= Burns , Baby Burns =
" Burns , Baby Burns " is the fourth episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 17 , 1996 . Mr. Burns ' long lost son Larry returns and although they at first get along well , Mr. Burns begins to see that his son has turned out to be an oaf . It was directed by Jim Reardon and was the first episode written by Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham . It guest starred Rodney Dangerfield as Larry Burns .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Burns and Smithers take a train back to Springfield after attending the annual Harvard @-@ Yale football game . The train makes a brief stop because of a discarded couch on the tracks and a man named Larry comes up to the train and tries to hawk cheesy merchandise . He suddenly sees Mr. Burns , gasps and takes out an old picture of a man who looks similar and compares the two . Suddenly the train pulls away , leaving Larry behind . Meanwhile , the Simpson family are on their way home from visiting a cider mill and see Larry hitchhiking . After much discussion , the family picks up the hitchhiker . Larry asks the Simpson family about Mr. Burns and they agree to take Larry to his house . In Springfield , Larry visits Mr. Burns 's estate and reveals that he is Burns 's son .
Mr. Burns is at first shocked , but after acknowledging the resemblance admits that Larry was the product of a one @-@ night stand with the daughter of a former flame at a college reunion . At first , Mr. Burns is overjoyed to have a son and tries to shape Larry after himself . Burns takes Larry to fancy parties for the rich and tries to have him enrolled in Yale , but Larry keeps acting like an oaf and proves to be an embarrassment . Larry is put to work in Sector 7G at Springfield Nuclear Power Plant alongside Homer and the two become fast friends . Larry invites Homer to dinner , and at dinner , Mr. Burns becomes frustrated due to Larry 's boorishness and tells him that he wishes he had no son . Homer tries to convince Larry to fake a kidnapping so that Burns will admit that he loves his son , and although Larry at first opposes the idea , he eventually agrees to do it . After going through with the plan , Larry moves into the Simpsons ' basement . Homer calls Mr. Burns and says that he can have Larry back if he admits that he loves him . Marge eventually discovers the plan and convinces Homer and Larry to abandon their plot , but as they leave the house they are spotted by a news helicopter and are chased by reporters and police .
The two are chased into a cinema where they climb out onto the marquee and have a brief standoff with the police . Homer gives a heartfelt speech to justify Larry 's actions and Mr. Burns forgives them for the hoax , but explains he cannot be the family whom Larry needs . Larry says that is okay and announces that he has a wife and children back home who are probably worrying about him as he had only gone out a week ago for coffee . Burns and Larry say their goodbyes , with Burns musing on the fact there is another kidney out there for him . Larry announces that they should have a party and the episode ends with the people of Springfield dancing outside the movie theater , with music and drinks coming out from nowhere , all to the sound of Journey 's " Any Way You Want It " .
= = Production = =
Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham wrote the episode and it was his first The Simpsons writing credit , although he had served as a consultant on the show for several months . Maxtone @-@ Graham had previously worked with showrunners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein on a game show and the two had wanted to hire him as a writer on The Simpsons . The episode started out as a story about Mr. Burns and Grampa both being stationed in Paris during World War II and falling in love with the same woman , who had a love child . Maxtone @-@ Graham had wanted this episode to be about Burns having a child , which is where it went . The other episode idea eventually became " Raging Abe Simpson and His Grumbling Grandson in " The Curse of the Flying Hellfish " " , which aired in the previous season . The episode opens with the family visiting Mt . Swartzwelder Historic Cider Mill because the writers had wanted to do something involving autumn and a cider mill seemed like a good setting for that .
Rodney Dangerfield guest stars in this episode and was a huge favorite of many of the Simpsons writers . Many of the jokes in the episode were specifically written to be " Dangerfield jokes , " which were much tougher to write than the staff had originally thought . Dangerfield made a few key changes to his script during the recording of his part ; Josh Weinstein kept the annotated script and pen and considers them among his three most prized Simpsons possessions . Designing Larry Burns was a challenge because the director had wanted him to look like Dangerfield but still have Burns 's characteristics such as the pointed nose .
= = Cultural references = =
After discovering that Larry Burns is also working in Sector 7G , Homer frantically cleans up and puts away an almost entirely assembled jigsaw puzzle which has an image of Snoopy the dog lying on his doghouse . The puzzle is missing a piece over where Snoopy 's nose should be , which was intentionally drawn that way to avoid copyright laws . The character from Yale that Mr. Burns briefly talks to is based on the fictional character Dink Stover from the book Dink Stover at Yale by Owen Johnson . The episode contains several references to the film Caddyshack , such as the scene where Larry tries to fit in with Mr. Burns 's associates and the ending street party which also parodies the way that several films , including Caddyshack , end with a party and feature the song " Any Way You Want It " by Journey . The episode ends at a movie theater , which is a reference to several famous criminals who were involved with theatres , such as John Dillinger , Lee Harvey Oswald and John Wilkes Booth . The play in Mr. Burns ' play room is Death of a Salesman as shown by the famous quote " You can 't eat the orange and throw the peel away - a man is not a piece of fruit . "
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Burns , Baby Burns " finished 64th in ratings for the week of November 11 – 17 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 7 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the fourth @-@ highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Melrose Place , and Beverly Hills , 90210 .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " A fun episode , with Rodney Dangerfield putting a lot of pathos into Larry – and Homer 's impassioned speech atop the cinema at the climax is one of his funniest moments . "
= Animal ( Miike Snow song ) =
" Animal " is a song performed by Swedish indie pop band Miike Snow . It was released as the first single from the band 's 2009 self @-@ titled debut album on 17 February 2009 through Columbia and Downtown Records . Written by the band alongside Henrik Jonback , " Animal " is a pop song with instrumentation provided by horns and staccato synthesizers . Lead singer Andrew Wyatt has explained that it has an ambiguous meaning ; its lyrics can be interpreted as dealing with matters such as addiction , basic instincts or dissatisfaction when one 's needs are not met by society .
Applauding its catchiness and pop sound , critics were positive towards " Animal " . Following its release in the United Kingdom , the single managed to peak at number 98 on the UK Singles Chart , but failed to chart elsewhere . Two music videos were made to promote the release of " Animal " ; the first was directed by Sebastian Mlynarski and depicts the band wearing different animal masks , and the second video , directed by Anthony Dickenson , features a mixture of projections , animation and performance footage .
= = Background = =
" Animal " was written by Miike Snow 's three members , Christian Karlsson , Pontus Winnberg and Andrew Wyatt , in collaboration with Henrik Jonback . In an interview with Dustin Fitzharris of Out , Wyatt explained that the song has an ambiguous meaning , " It can deal with addiction . It can deal with just the basic instincts – some of them are wonderful and some of them are very dangerous . " In a separate interview with Joe Zadeh for Clash , Wyatt deemed it a " very simple song " and elaborated on its subject matter , " Directing your attention to man 's underlying nature and how sometimes things in society just don 't work out to meet your needs . And a lot of people end up feeling very dissatisfied . And the way people feel the need to fit into certain circumstances without even thinking about what they want . " " Animal " was recorded at Robotberget , the band 's own studio in Stockholm , Sweden . The band produced the track and then mixed it with Anders Hvenare .
= = Composition = =
" Animal " is a pop song with horn and staccato synthesizer instrumentation . According to sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , the song is written in the time signature of common time with a moderate beat rate of 118 beats per minute . It is written in the key of E major and Wyatt 's vocal range spans the notes of B3 to C ♯ 6 . It has an E – F ♯ m7 – C ♯ m chord progression and a verse @-@ chorus structure . Sam Richards of NME and Ben Hogwood of musicOMH compared the sound and rhythm of the song to works by English band The Police , while Paul Lester of The Guardian likened lead singer Wyatt 's vocals to those of The Police lead singer Sting . Jason Lymangrover of AllMusic compared the hook to works by American band Vampire Weekend , and said that " dubby synths circulate around flighty vocals with heavy sentiments " . Wyatt sings lyrics such as " But I 'm still trying to make my mind up , am I free or am I tied up ? " with " unassuming cheeriness " , and the chorus contains the line " I change shapes just to hide in this place , but I 'm still , I 'm still an animal " .
= = Release = =
Downtown Records first released " Animal " as the band 's debut single on 17 February 2009 via digital download in the United States . The record label then sent it for alternative airplay in the country on 12 April 2009 . In the United Kingdom , Columbia Records first released the single as a 12 " remix vinyl on 27 July 2009 . The label later digitally released it on 7 August 2009 , and as a CD single on 10 August 2009 . The CD and digital releases in the UK include the song " Billie Holiday " , written by Karlsson , Winnberg and Wyatt , as a B @-@ side . A digital extended play ( EP ) with remixes by Crookers , Fake Blood , Fred Falke , Punks Jump Up and Style of Eye was released in European countries on 7 August 2009 . Two remixes by Peter Bjorn and John and Mark Ronson were digitally released in the US on 8 December 2009 . Ronson 's remix also appears on the UK iTunes Store release of the band 's next single , " Black & Blue " ( 2009 ) . " Animal " was a minor chart success ; it charted at number 98 in the issue dated 22 August 2009 of the UK Singles Chart .
= = Critical reception = =
" Animal " received a positive response from music critics . Natalie Kaye of Contactmusic.com described it as a " solid pop song " , before adding that the " infectious " chorus is " irrefutably something you 'll end up whistling in the shower " . Similarly , Ian Wade of BBC Music commented that it " takes approximately one play for its catchiness to cluster bomb your memory bank " , and John Bergstrom of PopMatters called it " sharp , catchy pure pop " with a chorus that " charm [ s ] [ its ] way into your brain " . Rudy Klapper of Sputnikmusic commended lead singer Wyatt 's " chameleonic " vocals , calling them " a highlight from the beginning " . Klapper concluded , " [ ' Animal ' ] bounc [ es ] along a deceptively catchy progression to a jangly chorus that hits immediate pop pay dirt . " Neil Ashman of Drowned in Sound commented that it " boasts a number of indelible hooks worked around its staccato synth blasts " .
Jordan Bimm of Now described " Animal " as " catchy and creative " and said that the horns and the " playful vocal hook " will appeal to listeners who enjoyed Britney Spears ' " Toxic " ( 2003 ) , a production of Miike Snow members Karlsson and Winnberg . Sam Richards of NME viewed " Animal " as an " impressive piece of sleight of hand " and compared its sound to that of The Police , " while remaining bearable " . Ben Hogwood of musicOMH said that it sounds like a " lost Police song given a new , vividly coloured change of clothes " . He felt that the lyrical vignettes and hooks seem " awkward " during the first listen , and " gloriously different the next " . Hogwood furthermore said that this applied for the album as a whole . Marc Hogan of Pitchfork Media called it a " kiddie @-@ pop lilt " .
= = Music videos = =
Two music videos were released to promote " Animal " . The first video , directed by Sebastian Mlynarski , was released in July 2009 . It opens with the band performing on a street at night , holding umbrellas . The band then appears wearing different surgical masks with animal prints throughout the video . Near the end , they are seen performing in a grass field . Anthony Dickenson directed the single 's second music video , released in August 2009 . Dickenson created projections and sculptures , utilizing both animation and performance footage . The video features projections of a forest which turns into a city as the video progresses . It interspersed with shots of the band performing in a dark room . The video ends with the band 's jackalope logo being projected onto the cityscape .
= = In popular culture = =
The Punks Jump Up Remix is used as the opening credits theme for the Channel 4 sitcom Friday Night Dinner .
An A capella version of the song was featured in the episodic expansion pack Grand Theft Auto : The Ballad of Gay Tony , on the radio station Electro @-@ Choc .
The song was featured in the videogame Saints Row : The Third , on the radio station 89 @.@ 0 Generation X.
The song is played during the last segment of the episode ' Turn This Car Around " of Cougar Town .
The song is played during end of the episode ' The Lost Boy " of Gossip Girl .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Christian Karlsson , Pontus Winnberg , Andrew Wyatt , Henrik Jonback
Production – Miike Snow
Mixing – Anders Hvenare , Miike Snow
Mastering – Ted Jensen
Credits are adapted from the Miike Snow liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Hydrophiinae =
The Hydrophiinae , also known as coral reef snakes or sea snakes , are a subfamily of venomous elapid snakes that inhabit marine environments for most or all of their lives . Most are extensively adapted to a fully aquatic life and are unable to move on land , except for the genus Laticauda , which has limited land movement . They are found in warm coastal waters from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific and are closely related to venomous terrestrial snakes in Australia .
All have paddle @-@ like tails and many have laterally compressed bodies that give them an eel @-@ like appearance . Unlike fish , they do not have gills and must surface regularly to breathe . They are among the most completely aquatic of all air @-@ breathing vertebrates . Among this group are species with some of the most potent venoms of all snakes . Some have gentle dispositions and bite only when provoked , but others are much more aggressive . Currently , 17 genera are described as sea snakes , comprising 62 species .
= = Description = =
The majority of adult Hydrophiinae species grow to between 120 and 150 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 and 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in length , with the largest , Hydrophis spiralis , reaching a maximum of 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Their eyes are relatively small with a round pupil and most have nostrils located dorsally . The skulls do not differ significantly from those of terrestrial elapids , although the dentition is relatively primitive with short fangs and ( with the exception of Emydocephalus ) as many as 18 smaller teeth behind them on the maxilla .
Most Hydrophiinae are completely aquatic and have adapted to their environments in many ways , the most characteristic of which is a paddle @-@ like tail that has improved their swimming ability . To a varying degree , the bodies of many species are laterally compressed , especially in the pelagic species . This has often caused the ventral scales to become reduced in size , even difficult to distinguish from the adjoining scales . Their lack of ventral scales means they have become virtually helpless on land , but as they live out their entire lifecycles at sea , they have no need to leave the water .
The only genus that has retained the enlarged ventral scales is the sea kraits , Laticauda , with only five species . These snakes are considered to be more primitive , as they still spend much of their time on land , where their ventral scales afford them the necessary grip . Laticauda species are also the only sea snakes with internasal scales , i.e. , their nostrils are not located dorsally .
Since it is easier for a snake 's tongue to fulfill its olfactory function under water , its action is short compared to that of terrestrial snake species . Only the forked tips protrude from the mouth through a divided notch in the middle of the rostral scale . The nostrils have valves consisting of a specialized spongy tissue to exclude water , and the windpipe can be drawn up to where the short nasal passage opens into the roof of the mouth . This is an important adaptation for an animal that must surface to breathe , but may have its head partially submerged when doing so . The lung has become very large and extends almost the entire length of the body , although the rear portion is thought to have developed to aid buoyancy rather than to exchange gases . The extended lung possibly also serves to store air for dives .
Most species of the Hydrophiinae are able to respire through the top of their skin . This is unusual for reptiles , because their skin is thick and scaly , but experiments with the black @-@ and @-@ yellow sea snake , Pelamis platura ( a pelagic species ) , have shown this species can satisfy about 25 % of its oxygen requirements in this manner , which allows for prolonged dives .
Like other land animals that have adapted to life in a marine environment , sea snakes ingest considerably more salt than their terrestrial relatives through their diets , and when seawater is inadvertently swallowed . This meant they had to evolve a more effective means of regulating the salt concentration of their blood . In sea snakes , the posterior sublingual glands , located under and around the tongue sheath , evolved to allow them to expel salt with their tongue action .
Scalation among sea snakes is highly variable . As opposed to terrestrial snake species that have imbricate scales to protect against abrasion , the scales of most pelagic sea snakes do not overlap . Reef @-@ dwelling species , such as Aipysurus , do have imbricate scales to protect against the sharp coral . The scales themselves may be smooth , keeled , spiny , or granular , the latter often looking like warts . Pelamis has body scales that are " peg @-@ like " , while those on its tail are juxtaposed hexagonal plates .
= = Sensory abilities = =
Vision , chemoreception ( tongue @-@ flicking ) and hearing are important senses for terrestrial snakes but these stimuli become distorted in water . The poor visibility , chemical dilution and limitation of ground @-@ borne vibrations underwater suggest that sea snakes and sea kraits may have unique sensory abilities to compensate for the relative lack of other sensory cues .
Very little is known about sea snake vision . A study of retinal photoreceptors of
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men in 1875 .
She had a freeboard of only 2 – 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 8 m ) and her deck was often awash in any sort of moderate sea . Smerch rolled heavily and was fitted with three telescoping iron pole masts , probably fore @-@ and @-@ aft rigged , that were used to steady the ship rather than for propulsion .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had two simple horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engines , built by Maudslay , Sons and Field of London . The engines had a bore of 36 inches ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) and a stroke of 18 inches ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) and each drove a single 7 @-@ foot @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 39 m ) propeller . Steam was provided by three rectangular fire @-@ tube boilers at a pressure of 1 @.@ 7 atm ( 172 kPa ; 25 psi ) . The engines produced a total of 800 indicated horsepower ( 600 kW ) which gave Smerch a maximum speed of about 8 @.@ 3 knots ( 15 @.@ 4 km / h ; 9 @.@ 6 mph ) when she ran her sea trials from 12 to 17 June 1865 . The ship also had a small donkey boiler for the small steam engine that powered the ventilation fans , the main water pump and rotated the aft turret . Another such engine probably rotated the forward turret . She carried 110 long tons ( 112 t ) of coal which gave her a range of 600 – 800 nmi ( 1 @,@ 100 – 1 @,@ 500 km ; 690 – 920 mi ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Smerch was initially armed with four 60 @-@ pounder 7 @.@ 72 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading guns , a pair in each turret . Various deckhouses and ventilation hatches prevented the turrets from firing directly forward or aft , so each turret could bear approximately 145 ° to each side , although this changed slightly over time as changes were made to the ship . In 1867 these were replaced by two Krupp 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) rifled breech @-@ loading guns . Only one gun could fit in the turrets so the old gun ports were plated over and new ones cut in each turret . Three years later , the Krupp guns were replaced by Obukhov 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled guns . They were replaced in their turn in 1876 by two longer , more powerful 9 @-@ inch Obukhov guns . The ship carried 120 rounds for each gun . A furnace for the molten iron required by Martin 's incendiary shells was fitted between the turrets .
Light guns for use against torpedo boats are not known to have been fitted aboard the ship before the 1870s when Smerch received four 4 @-@ pounder 3 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 86 mm ) guns , one 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) Engström quick @-@ firing ( QF ) gun , and a .65 @-@ inch ( 17 mm ) Gatling gun . At some point the ship received four QF 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolving cannon . They were mounted on the turret tops and probably replaced the older 4 @-@ pounders .
= = = Armor = = =
Smerch had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships and thinned to 4 inches ( 102 mm ) at the ends of the ship . It was 7 feet ( 2 m ) high and completely covered the hull to 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 m ) below the waterline . The armor was backed by 8 inches of teak . The circular turrets were protected by armor 4 @.@ 5 inches thick and the area around the gun ports was reinforced by 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) plates to give a total thickness of 6 inches ( 152 mm ) . The walls of the ship 's oval conning tower were also 4 @.@ 5 inches thick . Her deck was 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick .
= = Construction and service = =
Smerch ( Waterspout ) was ordered on 25 June 1863 and construction began on 13 August at the Admiralty Shipyard , Saint Petersburg , although the formal keel @-@ laying was not until 1 December . She was launched on 23 June 1864 and completed in 1865 at the cost of 554 @,@ 100 rubles . The ship spent her career with the Baltic Fleet . Smerch struck an uncharted rock off the Finnish coast on 4 August in shallow water and sank . Using pontoons , she was refloated on 1 September and repaired . Little is known of her service other than she was extensively refitted in 1882 and 1889 which included replacement of much of the plating of her hull bottom . The ship was reclassified as a coast @-@ defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and subsequently became a training ship .
The ship was stricken from the Navy List on 20 February 1904 and turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal . Smerch was renamed Blokshiv ( Hulk ) No. 2 on 27 October 1909 and converted into a mine storage hulk . She was abandoned in April 1918 as the Soviets abandoned Finland , but was returned to them the following month according to the terms of the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk . The hulk was renamed Blokshiv No. 3 in 1923 and later as Blokshiv No. 1 on 1 January 1932 . She was sunk by German artillery on 7 October 1941 in Kronstadt harbor and was stricken on 6 March 1942 . The hulk was salvaged in mid @-@ 1942 and reentered service on 8 December . She was renamed BSh @-@ 1 on 16 May 1949 , stricken for the last time on 2 April 1959 , and subsequently scrapped .
= Brooks – Baxter War =
The Brooks – Baxter War ( or sometimes referred to as the Brooks – Baxter Affair ) was an armed conflict in Little Rock , Arkansas , in the United States , in 1874 between factions of the Republican Party over the disputed 1872 election for governor . The victor in the end was the " Minstrel " faction led by Elisha Baxter over the " Brindle Tail " faction led by Joseph Brooks , which included most of the scalawags and blacks .
It came at the end of a struggle between white Republican residents in the state before the War , known as scalawags , and newer Republican arrivals called carpetbaggers , over power in state government during Reconstruction after the American Civil War .
The struggle began with the ratification of the 1868 Arkansas constitution , rewritten to allow Arkansas to rejoin the United States after the Civil War . Congress 's 1867 Reconstruction Acts required rebel states to accept the 14th Amendment – establishing civil rights for blacks – and enact new constitutions providing suffrage to freedmen ( ex @-@ slaves ) while temporarily disenfranchising former Confederate Army officers . Some conservatives and democrats refused to participate in the writing of the constitution and ceased participation in government . Republicans and unionists wanting Arkansas to rejoin the United States formed a coalition to write and pass the new constitution , and formed a new state government . In the wake of a wave of reactionary violence by the Ku Klux Klan and a poor economy , the coalition soon fractured into two factions : the " Minstrels " , who were mostly carpetbaggers , and the " Brindle Tails " , who were mostly Scalawags . This led to a failed impeachment trial of the carpetbagger Republican governor , Powell Clayton ; he was then elected a U.S. Senator by the General Assembly .
The 1872 gubernatorial election resulted in a narrow victory for Minstrel Elisha Baxter over Brindle Tail Joseph Brooks in an election marked by fraud and intimidation . Brooks challenged the result through legal means , initially without success , but Baxter alienated much of his base by re @-@ enfranchising former Confederates and in 1874 , Brooks was declared governor by a county judge who declared the results of the election to have been fraudulent . Brooks took control of the government by force , but Baxter refused to resign . Each side was supported by its own militia of several hundred Black men . Several bloody battles ensued between the two factions . Finally , President Ulysses S. Grant reluctantly intervened and supported Governor Baxter , bringing the affair to an end .
The incident , followed by the new Arkansas Constitution of 1874 , marked end to Reconstruction in Arkansas . The conflict significantly weakened the Republican Party in the state as the Democrats took power and controlled the governorship for 90 years .
= = Background = =
= = = 1868 Constitution = = =
After the Civil War , many northerners , whom Southerners called carpetbaggers , came to the defeated Southern states to work in the rebuilding process . Many did so as part of a widespread migration out of former Colonial states in the 1850 @-@ 60s . In 1866 , Congress grew increasingly disturbed by post @-@ war developments in the rebel states : pre @-@ Civil War elites were reelected to government positions , southern legislatures enacted " Black Codes " limiting the rights of former slaves , and violence against blacks was common . To redress the matter , Congress passed the Reconstruction Acts of 1867 , dissolving rebel state governments and dividing the South into military districts . Rebel states could only be readmitted to the union if they wrote and ratified new constitutions providing civil rights for freedmen , and accepting the 14th Amendment .
In the Fall of 1867 Arkansans voted to convene a new constitutional convention and selected delegates , who convened in Little Rock in January , 1868 . A coalition of native white unionists , freedman , and carpetbagger Republicans prevailed on most critical proposals . Prominent leaders included James Hinds , Joseph Brooks , John McClure , and Powell Clayton . The new constitution required suffrage ( the right to vote ) for emancipated adult male slaves , now called Freedmen ; it reapportioned the legislative districts to reflect the new status of freedmen as citizens , counting them as full members of the population . It conferred broad powers upon the state government , establishing universal public education ( for blacks and whites ) for the first time , as well as welfare institutions , absent under the previous government , which were needed in the aftermath of the war . The governor was given wide @-@ ranging powers of appointment without legislative approval , including the power to appoint such top state officials as Supreme Court Judges . The governor was also the president of virtually all state organizations , including the board of trustees of the state 's newly created Technical University , the board for public printing , and even the railroad commission . It also temporarily disenfranchised former Confederate Army officers and persons who refused to pledge allegiance to the civil and political equality of all men .
The Democratic Party was in disarray in Arkansas in 1867 @-@ 68 . It lacked the clarity of purpose that the Republican Party had , and its members were unable to unite under basic principles . One unifying principle of the Democrats , however , was white supremacy . At the January 27 , 1868 , Democratic State Convention in Little Rock , Democrats announced the avowed purpose of uniting " the opponents of negro suffrage and domination . " Some party leaders opposed Reconstruction in favor of continued military rule , which was far from what they wanted , but seemed like a better option than allowing freedmen all the civil rights of white citizens , including the right to vote . The more conservative wings of the party simply showed no interest in the new constitution and remained loyal to the ideas embodied in the Confederacy . During the constitutional convention , Democrats convened their own party convention . Many chose to boycott elections on the grounds that the new constitution was illegal , because it disenfranchised them while giving suffrage to the Freedmen , whom they insisted were an inferior race . They also alienated the Freedmen who were now the largest block of voters in the state , by adopting resolutions against them : their first resolution of the convention was " Resolved , that we are in favor of a White Man 's Government in a White Man 's country . " Only about ½ of the registered voters in the state cast ballots in the April 1868 elections , and ⅔ of those who voted approved the new constitution .
= = = Clayton Administration = = =
Powell Clayton , a 35 @-@ year @-@ old former Brigadier General in the Union Army who remained in Arkansas after marrying an Arkansas woman , was elected governor as a Republican in April , 1868 . The election was scarred with irregularities . For example , the return of votes in Pulaski County exceeded the number of registered voters . Also , the registrars , who controlled the distribution of ballots , admitted that they had given ballots to voters from other counties if they could show a valid registration certificate . Both sides claimed election fraud and voter intimidation : armed parties had been stationed on roads to keep voters away from the polls . General Gillem , commander of the military district that included Arkansas , wrote to General Grant that it would take months to sort out which side had committed the greater election fraud .
In July 1868 , Arkansas rejoined the union and Clayton was inaugurated governor . The new general assembly had already begun meeting back in April , but had been unable to do anything other than prepare legislation for the time when the state was readmitted . The prior governor , Isaac Murphy , whose administration was not recognized by the Federal Government , continued to act as executive of the state during this time . Interestingly , both Clayton and Murphy managed to draw a paycheck as governor at the same time . When Clayton took office , he appointed most of the key Republican politicians to positions within the new state government ; however , he failed to find a place for Joseph Brooks .
Rivalry between Brooks and Clayton predated the 1868 election . Clayton saw Brooks as his strongest competitor for preference and distinction and did not want him to become too entrenched with the party leadership . Brooks felt that his service and ability to the party were not being recognized or appreciated , and he grew bitter and resentful of the other Republicans , including Clayton .
The Democrats in the state , calling themselves " the Conservatives " to differentiate themselves from the Radical Republicans , were incensed that freedmen – former slaves – had been not only emancipated , but cloaked with the status of citizens , with full civil rights , by the 14th Amendment . Worst of all , in the view of Conservatives , freedmen were permitted to vote . Even though the Freedmen , whom Conservatives considered inherently inferior , were allowed to vote , former Confederate officers were not . This was especially infuriating since they were expected to pay taxes to fund newly proposed infrastructure changes without any ability to vote against it . They even saw this as an attempt by the Radicals to circumvent the will of God . Violence soon erupted throughout the state . Former Confederate Army officers in nearby Memphis , Tennessee , formed the Ku Klux Klan to fight against the new order . The Klan quickly spread into Arkansas . Republican officials , including Congressmen James Hinds , were attacked , as were black citizens seeking to exercise their new civil rights . Hinds and Brooks were ambushed by gunmen on the road in Monroe County , while travelling to a political event . Brooks was severely wounded and Hinds was killed . The murder created national disgust for ongoing political violence in the South . A Coroner 's Jury identified a local Democratic official and suspected Klan member as the killer . Most contemporaries blamed the Ku Klux Klan , which had threatened to kill Hinds and was actively killing and assaulting other Republicans . Reflecting the times , no @-@ one was ever arrested for the first murder of a Congressman . As more violence spread throughout the state , Clayton declared martial law in 14 counties . Many Democratic newspapers denied the existence of the secretive Ku Klux Klan while still reporting on the violence . 20th @-@ century research shows the Klan was responsible for most of the violence in the state at this time . A state militia was organized to put down the violence , although it was poorly equipped . With no uniforms and irregular weapons and mounts , the militia was often mistaken for wandering bands of plunderers , sparking a brief but long @-@ remembered " Militia War " , and causing terror throughout the state . This was similar to what was going on in North Carolina at the same time now referred to as the Kirk @-@ Holden war .
Fearing he could not guarantee the integrity of the polling places , Clayton canceled fall elections in counties where political violence had broken out . In doing so , however , he further reduced the Democratic vote , and the state ended up supporting the election of President Grant , the Republican candidate , despite the population being mostly Democratic .
= = = Paying for the new infrastructure = = =
Clayton used various tactics to pay for the needed infrastructure changes in the state . Most of the South was in desperate need of infrastructure and was behind the rest of the country in this respect . He raised taxes , tried to fix the state 's bad credit by repaying and issuing bonds , and flooded the state with paper scrip . All of these tactics failed and drove up the state debt .
Introducing more taxes proved to be hugely unpopular among both Democrats and Republicans , and the people of the state simply did not have that much money to give . Bond issues generated controversy and were the source of scandals in the administration . All of the old railroad and infrastructure bonds , including the controversial Holford bonds which had already been declared illegal by the Arkansas Supreme Court , were gathered into a funding act and passed by the legislature . Many bonds were issued for roads and railroads that were never built , or were constructed and then torn up and rebuilt in another direction . Some projects even received the same amount of funding from different bonds , such as embankments built for railroads where roads were funded to be built by a different bond . One of the most controversial bonds involved the purchase of slate for a state penitentiary roof , which was diverted for the construction of a mansion of a Republican official J.L. Hodges , who eventually served jail time for the incident . Promissory notes , or scrip , were issued to raise money . The money was used for construction projects , and invested in public infrastructure . Article VI , Sec 10 of the new constitution stated that the credit of the state could not be loaned without the consent of the voters , making these promissory notes illegal . Their introduction also caused actual currency to go out of circulation .
The Radical Republicans did create some improvement within the state . Levees were constructed and railroads were built . Also , Arkansas ' first public school system was created . The administration and its supporters formed the Arkansas Industrial University , the basis for the future University of Arkansas in Fayetteville ; what would become the Arkansas School for the Deaf ; and the Arkansas School for the Blind , which relocated from Arkadelphia to Little Rock . However , state debt increased dramatically . The state had a budget surplus when Clayton came to office , but by the end of his term , the state debt had increased to $ 5 million .
= = = Minstrels and Brindle Tails = = =
The " scalawag " native conservative Republicans and the " carpetbagger " migrant radical Republicans had managed to form a coalition to seize complete control of the state in 1868 . However , once they had power , the extravagant spending of the carpetbaggers proved to be a wedge issue between the two groups , and factions developed within the party . There was especially strong opposition to the questionable financial maneuvers of the Clayton administration . Despite conciliatory tactics in 1869 , the Arkansas Republican Party publicly split in two as scalawags began denouncing the carpetbaggers ' reckless spending .
The scalawags met in convention and adopted the name the " Liberal Republicans " and a populist platform for universal amnesty , universal suffrage , economic reforms , and an end to the so @-@ called Clayton dictatorship . A small group of Claytonites , disgruntled with the extravagance of the administration , also defected to this group . Among them was Joseph Brooks , who claimed to be the originator of Radicalism in Arkansas and became their natural leader . Brooks was a Northern Methodist preacher and had been a chaplain for the Union Army . He was known for his fiery speeches that united political and religious themes . He had been the chairman of the 1868 Republican state convention and was currently the State Senator from White County and Pulaski County . Although he had been involved with the carpetbaggers since the beginning , Clayton had not given him a government position , seeing Brooks as a potential rival .
The Claytonites started calling the new faction " the Brindle Tails " . This name can be traced back to Clayton supporter Jack Agery , who was a Freedman , contractor , and orator in the state . In a speech he gave in Eagle Township in Pulaski County , he said that Brooks reminded him of a " brindle tailed bull " he had known as a child that scared all the other cattle . The Claytonist then began mockingly referring to Joseph Brooks and his supporters as " Brindle Tails " , and this is how they were referred to from then on . The Brindle Tails ' platform included a proposal for a new constitution that would re @-@ enfranchise ex @-@ Confederates , which appealed to Democrats and pre @-@ war Whigs . They began gaining support among the disenfranchised and the Liberal Republicans .
For their part , the Brindle Tails mockingly referred to the Carpetbaggers and Claytonist Republicans as " the Minstrels " , and that name stuck as well . This moniker can probably be traced to John G. Price , the editor of the Little Rock Republican and a staunch Clayton supporter . Price was known to be a good musician and comedian and had even once filled in for a sick performer in a minstrel show , complete with blackface .
The Brindle Tails desperately wanted Clayton out of the governor 's office . Conveniently , Lieutenant Governor James M. Johnson was a Brindle Tail , so the natural course of action was to try to get rid of Clayton and let Johnson succeed him . Clayton was well aware of their plans , and when he left the state briefly for New York on business concerning the Holford Bonds , he informed no one . When Johnson , who was at home some distance from the capital , found out he tried to head to the capital to take control and have Clayton arrested and impeached . He arrived too late . Subsequently , after Johnson made a speech demanding changes in the administration , the Minstrels started to target Johnson . On January 30 , 1871 , they introduced articles of impeachment in the General Assembly against him . The chief charge was that Johnson , acting as the President of the Senate , had administered the oath of office to Joseph Brooks , who had recently been elected as state senator , and then recognized him on the floor . Although this was legitimately within his powers as the lieutenant governor to do , he escaped impeachment by only two votes . The scrutiny of the proceedings seriously damaged his reputation , even though he had done nothing wrong , and his political career never recovered .
In 1871 , Clayton was accused of deliberately tampering with the results of the U.S. house election between Thomas Boles and John Edwards in the third congressional district . According to Arkansas law , the results were to be certified and given to the Secretary of State , then Robert J.T. White . After that , the governor and Secretary of State would take up and arrange the results and the governor would issue a proclamation declaring the winner and deliver the Seal of the State to the him . Clayton was accused of adding around a hundred votes to the final count for Edwards , and declaring him the winner . Boles successfully contested the election and Clayton was indicted by the federal Circuit Court . Although the Court found that Clayton did in fact falsify his proclamation and delivered the seal to Edwards knowing full well that he had not won , this was in fact not illegal . His actions were in no way binding to the Congress and under federal law of the time , state governors were not considered election officials . Boles became a congressman .
To sequester Clayton from the affairs in the state , the Brindles and the Democrats decided the only thing they could do was elect him to the US Senate . However , even though he won unanimously , he refused to take his seat , which would mean letting Johnson become governor . In 1871 , the state House of Representatives drafted articles of impeachment against Clayton , charging him with a wide variety of impeachable actions , including depriving Johnson and several other state officials of offices to which they had been fairly elected , removing state officials and judges from offices to which they had been fairly elected , aiding in fraudulent elections , taking bribes for state railroad bonds , and various other high crimes and misdemeanors . The members of the House then tried to suspend Clayton from his duties as governor by force . They even apparently tried locking him in his office and nailing the door shut . However , Clayton responded that they had no right by the state constitution to deprive him of his office . At the same time , the House also brought impeachment charges against Chief Justice John McClure for his part in trying to deny Johnson the privileges of his office of lieutenant governor .
Two successive inquiries failed to find evidence against Clayton . The legislature refused to continue , all charges were dropped , and Clayton was exonerated . In fact , he was never found guilty of any wrongdoing while governor . Finally a deal was reached . Johnson , now politically badly damaged by his impeachment ordeal and willing to take any position he could get , resigned as lieutenant governor , was appointed Secretary of State , and was given a compensation of several thousand dollars for his loss of power and prestige , since he would not become governor . A staunch Clayton supporter , O.A. Hadley , was then appointed lieutenant governor . Three days later , Clayton left the state for Washington , D.C. , to join the US Senate , and Hadley succeeded him as governor .
The Democrats ' paper , the Arkansas Daily Gazette crowed :
It will be a source of infinite joy and satisfaction , to the oppressed and long suffering people of Arkansas , to learn that , on yesterday , the tyrant , despot and usurper , late of Kansas , but more recently , governor of Arkansas , took his departure from the city and his hateful presence out of our state , it is to be hoped , forever and ever .
Although no longer a state official , Clayton remained the leader of the state Republicans and was controlling now not only appointments within the state , but also the flow of federal money and positions . He began purging Brindles from federal office , including Joseph Brooks , who was at this point an Internal Revenue Assessor .
= = Election of 1872 = =
= = = Brooks and Baxter = = =
In the gubernatorial election of 1872 , the Minstrels faction nominated Elisha Baxter as their candidate . Baxter was a lawyer , politician , and merchant from North Carolina who had settled in Batesville , and a life long Whig . He was elected Mayor of Batesville in 1853 and elected to the state legislature in 1858 . At the outbreak of the Civil War , he had been conflicted about which side he supported . When General Samuel Curtis and the 2nd Iowa Infantry occupied Batesville in the Spring of 1862 , the General recognized Baxter as a loyal Unionist , and tried to bestow upon him the title of " Regt. of loyal Arkansians " which he refused . When Curtis left Batesville , Baxter was forced to flee to Missouri . He was captured , brought back to Little Rock , and charged with treason , only to escape later before his trial could take place . He describes this episode in his life in his autobiography :
Through a fortunate combination of circumstances I escaped from prison before my trial came on and lived for eighteen days in the forist ( sic ) and fields near Little Rock without a morsil ( sic ) of food except such raw corn and berries as I could gather in my lone wanderings . While a prisoner I felt that I was ungenerously treated by the harsh criticisms of the press and individuals not only in regard to my want of loyalty to the southern caus ( sic ) but also with regard to my supposed want of courage . I therefore resolved if God would grant me deliverance I would at once enter the Federal Army .
When Baxter returned to Batesville , he organized the 4th Arkansas Mounted Infantry for the Union and commanded it until he was named a State Supreme Court judge by Governor Murphy in the Spring 1864 . Shortly after being named a judge , he was elected to the U.S. Senate by the legislature along with Rev. Andrew Hunter , but they were not seated in the Senate as the senate did not recognize the Murphy Administration . In 1867 , he was appointed by Governor Clayton judge of the 3rd Judicial circuit . In 1868 he was appointed the 1st Congressional district of Arkansas . He held these two positions until he was nominated for governor in 1872 . Baxter was virtually unknown and privately clean of scandals , unlike most of the Minstrels . They believed he could attract votes from Unionists and Northerners , their core base , as well as natives of the state .
Joseph Brooks ran for governor representing the Brindle Tails . Brooks was a very vocal supporter of civil rights for former slaves , but also a supporter of re @-@ enfranchisement for ex @-@ Confederates , which was the sentiment nationally of Liberal Republicans . When the Democrats met , they agreed not only to not run a candidate , but even to support Joseph Brooks , as long as the election was fair and legal , since elections in the state had been wrought with fraud for five years . The issue of re @-@ enfranchisement of Confederates was central to the election .
= = = The outcome = = =
The election of 1872 has been described as a " masterpiece of confusion " by Arkansas historian Michael B. Dougan . " That carpetbagger Brooks ran with Democratic support against a scalawag nominated by a party composed almost exclusively of carpetbaggers was enough to bewilder most voters as well as the modern student . "
In the days before the election and the days afterward , predictions and reports of fraud were printed daily in the Gazette . Because of the relatively slow communications , messages from other counties were often delayed up to a week . There were numerous reports of anomalies in state polling centers , including names being inexplicably stricken from the voter registration lists and persons voting without proof of registration . The Gazette wrote :
It would be as great a farce of yesterday 's election to designate it otherwise than a fraud . It was one of the worst ever yet perpetrated in the state . The city judges paid no attention to any registration either old or new , but permitted everybody to vote , and in many instances without question . Men were marched from one ward to another and voted early and often .
On November 6 , 1872 , the day after the general election , the Gazette reported : " The election was one of the most quiet in Little Rock we ever witnessed . The returns on that day were too small to report with any certainty who had won , and the newspaper reported fraud . Rumors flew about claiming that registration had been cut short or extended in many counties to suit the needs of whoever controlled the polling places . The following Monday , the Gazette published incomplete tallies from the various counties , showing a small majority for Baxter . They also reported more forms of attempted fraud . Some unofficial polling places had apparently been set up , but only those votes cast at the regular polls had been certified .
By November 15 , the Gazette claimed victory for Brooks . By the next day , because of the irregularities and votes that would be thrown out , the projected winner was Baxter , by only 3 @,@ 000 votes . The General Assembly met on January 6 for a special joint session to declare Baxter , who by their count had received the most votes , the legal winner of the election . After a short address he was sworn in by Chief Justice John McClure . He then assumed the duties of Governor of the State of Arkansas .
Brooks supporters immediately claimed that the election had been dishonest . The Democrats , the Brindle Tails , and all non @-@ Republican newspapers openly and vocally denounced the election as fraudulent , and insisted that Brooks had in fact received the most votes . The general citizenry of both parties , however , accepted the results . The Brooks supporters were in the minority in believing that the election had been fraudulent .
= = = Brooks 's legal battle = = =
The first to file suit over the election was Judge William M. Harrison , who had been on the Brooks ticket . He filed a Bill of Equity with the US Circuit Court in Little Rock , claiming he had a right to a seat on the Supreme Court due to the fraudulent election . The Brooks Campaign likewise filed suit in the Circuit Court shortly thereafter on January 7 , 1873 . Judge H.C. Caldwell heard the Harrison case , and rendered an opinion stating that the Federal Court had no jurisdiction in the matter , and dismissed the case . The Harrison decision resulted in the dismissal of the Brooks case as well .
Brooks then took a petition to the General Assembly , asking for a recount . The assembly took up the matter on April 20 , 1873 and voted 63 to 9 not to allow Brooks to contest the election . This did not deter Brooks , and he applied to the Arkansas Supreme Court for a writ of quo warranto , and was again denied . They also ruled that state courts had no jurisdiction in the matter , and dismissed the case . They gave a lengthy explanation as to why the General Assembly should decide contested gubernatorial elections in Joint Session , since they are the directly elected representatives of the people .
It appeared that Brooks had exhausted all legal avenues at this point , but on June 16 , 1873 , he filed another lawsuit against Baxter , this time with the Pulaski County district court . Under Arkansas Civil Code sec . 525 , if a person usurps an office or franchise to which he is not entitled , an action at law may be instituted against him either by the State or by the party rightly entitled to the office . On October 8 , 1873 , Baxter filed a plea of non @-@ jurisdiction , but he believed that the court might decide against him . He issued a telegram to President Grant informing him of the basic situation in Arkansas and asked for federal troops to help him maintain the peace . Grant denied his request .
= = = Baxter and Brooks switch positions = = =
There were rumors that Joseph McClure , the Chief Justice who had sworn him into office , intended to have Baxter either arrested or killed , ostensibly because Baxter had replaced W. W. Wilshire , a Minstrel , with Robert C. Newton , an ex @-@ Confederate , as head of the state militia . U.S. Attorney General Williams contacted Baxter and suggested that he ask for federal troops for protection again . A letter from President Grant followed , offering protection . The Grant administration usually followed Powell Clayton 's lead where Arkansas matters were concerned , so it can be concluded that the former governor was still supporting Baxter . The Republican Party of Arkansas , still controlled by the Minstrel faction , issued a statement denouncing Brooks ' attempt to contest the election , which was published in the Little Rock Republican on October 8 , 1873 and signed by all the major members of the party , including Clayton . However , the Minstrels would soon turn on Baxter for not following the party line .
Baxter had now been governor for a year and was following an independent course . He began dismantling the systems put in place by the Minstrels . He appointed honest Democrats and Republicans to the Election Commission , reorganized the militia by placing it under the control of the State , rather than the governor , and pushed for an amendment to the state constitution to re @-@ enfranchise ex @-@ Confederates .
On March 3 , 1873 , the state legislature passed a bill re @-@ enfranchising ex @-@ Confederates , to the delight of much of the state population and the concern of the Minstrels . The legislature called a special election in November to replace 33 members , mostly Minstrels , who had left for patronage jobs in the Baxter government . Baxter refused to let the Minstrels manipulate the election , declaring that free , honest elections would be held during his term . With the help of the newly re @-@ enfranchised voters , conservative Democrats swept the election and gained a small majority in the legislature . Baxter was about to erode his Republican base out from under him .
In March 1874 , Baxter vetoed the Railroad Steel Bill , the centerpiece of the Radical Republican Reconstruction plan . The bill would have released the railroad companies from their debts to the state and created a tax to pay the interest on the bonds . This was clearly not legal and the veto called into question the legality of the 1868 railroad bonds , which created a public bonded debt . It is likely the Minstrels struck a deal with Brooks to support the railroad bonds , and within a month the political backers of Brooks and Baxter began to switch . Senator Clayton issued a statement saying that " Brooks was fairly elected in 1872 ; and kept out of office by fraud . " Governor Baxter was now being supported by the Brindle Tails , re @-@ enfranchisers , and the Democrats ; whereas Brooks was finding support among the Claytonists , Northerners , Unionists , the Minstrel Republicans .
Brooks was assigned three prominent Minstrel attorneys , and after a year of sitting on the docket , at about 11 AM on April 15 , 1874 , Baxter 's demurrer to Brook 's complaint was suddenly called up . Neither of Baxter 's lawyers were present in the court room , and the demurrer had been submitted without their knowledge . Without giving Baxter any time to testify , Judge Whytock overruled the demurrer and awarded Brooks $ 2 @,@ 000 in damages and the office of Governor of Arkansas . Neither Brooks nor the court notified the legislature or Governor Baxter . Judge Wytock then swore in Joseph Brooks as the new governor of Arkansas , despite having no authority to do so .
= = = Brooks seizes power = = =
With the aid of General Robert F. Catterson and state militia , Brooks , accompanied by about 20 armed men , marched to the Arkansas Capitol building ( now known as " the Old Statehouse " ) , located at Markham and Center streets in downtown Little Rock . They ordered Baxter to abdicate his office , but Baxter refused to do so unless physically forced . The mob obliged and dragged Baxter out of the Capitol building and onto the street .
By the end of the afternoon , nearly 300 armed men had converged on the lawn of the State Capitol . Brooks ' men seized the state arsenal and began turning the Statehouse into an armed camp . Telegrams covered in signatures were sent to President Ulysses S. Grant supporting Brooks as the legal governor . Three out of the five Supreme Court justices also telegraphed the President in support of Brooks . Brooks telegraphed the President himself asking for access to weapons housed at the federal arsenal . He also issued a statement to the press proclaiming himself governor . The senators from the state , Clayton and Steven Dorsey , met with President Grant , and they sent a message to Brooks giving their support .
Unusually for someone physically removed from power , Baxter was allowed to remain free in Pulaski County . He first retired to the Anthony House , three blocks away from the State Capitol . Ads placed in the Gazette indicate that the Anthony House continued to function as an upscale hotel during the entirety of the crisis . Fighting occurred outside the hotel , and at least one man , Dave Shall , a prominent real estate dealer , was shot dead while standing in a window of the building .
Baxter then moved his headquarters to St. Johns College , a Masonic institution on the southeastern edge of the state . Baxter issued two proclamations to the press from his temporary office , asserting his rights to the governorship by vote of the people and the decision of the legislature ; both were printed in the Gazette . He received support from many prominent Democrats in the city , all of whom had initially voted for Brooks . He then issued a dispatch to President Grant explaining the situation , calling Brooks and his band " revolutionaries " , and stating that he would do everything up to and including armed conflict to regain control of the state organs . He asked for the support of the Federal Government .
Brooks issued a proclamation to the people of Arkansas asking them for their support . Baxter answered with proclamation to the people of Arkansas declaring martial law in Pulaski County . A company was then issued from the young men of Little Rock . On the evening of April 16 , the assembled army , now being referred to as the " Hallie Riflers " , escorted Baxter back to the Anthony House , where he set up his headquarters , and from there he began trying to do the state 's business once more .
There were now two militias marching and singing through Little Rock as the city became a battle ground . Commanding both forces were ex @-@ Confederate soldiers . Former Brigadier General James F. Fagan commanded the Brooks men , and Robert C. Newton , a former Colonel , commanded the Hallie Riflers , or Baxter forces . The Baxter 's men occupied the downstairs billiards area of the Anthony House , and patrolled the cross streets outside . Down the street , the Brooks men patrolled the front of the state house . The front line was Main Street . The post @-@ master handled the situation by only delivering mail addressed to Brooks or Baxter , and holding all mail simply addressed to " Governor of Arkansas . "
The Baxter men found an old cannon lying half @-@ embedded in the ground at the foot of Byrd street . The cannon , an 8 in ( 200 mm ) Naval columbiad cannon , had been brought to Little Rock in 1861 by the steamboat " Ponchatrain " and placed on the North side of the State House to ward off any ships coming up stream . It sat there for two years until Little Rock was occupied by federal troops , and the Confederates spiked the cannon disabling it . The Baxter men pulled the cannon out of the soil , repaired it , rechristened it the " Lady Baxter " , and made it ready to fire . It was placed in the rear of the Metropolitan Hotel on the corner of Main and Markham streets to hit any boats bringing supplies for Brooks up the river . The cannon was only fired once – when Baxter finally returned to the governor 's seat . It now sits on the lawn of the Old State House on permanent display .
Overtones of the Civil War and racial conflict were evident . Brooks ' men numbered 600 by this time , and were all freedmen who supported Republicans as their emancipators . Baxter 's forces , all white Democrats , continued to grow steadily during the conflict until they reached nearly 2 @,@ 000 . Several bloody skirmishes occurred . Known as the Battle of Palarm , a small naval battle erupted on the Arkansas River near Natural Steps , where Brooks ' men attacked a flatboat known as the " Hallie " , thought to be bringing supplies . The shooting lasted around ten to fifteen minutes before the pilot ran up a white flag signaling a surrender . One stray bullet pierced the vessel 's supply pipe between the boiler and engine , cutting off its power , and the boat drifted downriver , out of gun range , and lodged on the Southern ( Western ) shore . Sources vary as to the actual casualties of the incident . The boat 's captain , a pilot , and one rifleman were killed ; the other pilot and three or four riflemen were wounded . One source stated that the Brooks regiment suffered one man killed and three wounded ; another report was that five men were killed and " quite a number " wounded .
Casualty reports vary widely depending on the source ; the New York Times of May 30 , 1874 gave the following for casualties and fatalities :
= = = Brooks loses favor = = =
On May 3 , men claiming to be acting on behalf of Baxter supporters hijacked a train from Memphis , Tennessee , and arrested federal Court Justices John E. Bennett and E.J. Earle , thinking that the Court would be unable to rule without a quorum of Judges . Baxter denied that they were acting under his direction . The Judges were taken to Benton , Arkansas . For several days , their whereabouts were unknown to the public and federal officials began a search for the Justices . Justice Bennett was able to send a letter to Captain Rose demanding to know why they were being held by the Governor of Arkansas . Upon receipt of the letter , troops were sent to Benton to retrieve the two Justices , but they had escaped by May 6 and made their way to Little Rock .
In Washington , Brooks was supported politically , but Baxter also had support because of the undemocratic way he had been removed from office . President Grant had already dealt with the outcome of the contested election for Governor of Louisiana Colfax massacre where federal troops had to be sent . As Brooks and Baxter scrambled for support in Washington , D.C. , Grant pushed for the dispute to be settled in Arkansas . Baxter demanded the General Assembly be called into session . He knew he had their support , but so did Brooks , so he and his men would not allow anyone to enter the capitol building . Brooks , on the other hand , had the support of the district court . He enlisted Little Rock 's premiere lawyer , Uriah M. Rose , head of the still @-@ prominent Rose Law Firm . However , Grant 's decision would soon set in motion the demise of Brooks ' governorship .
It was becoming clear that federal intervention was required to settle the dispute , despite the general policy of the Grant administration to stay out of the affairs of Southern states . The President often expressed annoyance with Southern governors who requested help from federal troops to combat regular waves of election year violence , with little compassion for the issues they faced . Grant and the United States Attorney General , George Henry Williams , issued a joint communique supporting Baxter and ordering Brooks to vacate the capitol . They also referred the dispute back to the State Legislature .
Historian Allan Nevins believes Grant had been hoodwinked . When Baxter refused to sign two million dollars ' worth of fraudulent railroad bonds , Boss Shepherd and Senator Dorsey turned against him and convinced Grant to do the same .
President Grant on May 15 , 1874 , had declared Baxter to be governor , denouncing Brooks and his party ; now on February 8 , 1875 , he declared that Brooks had been elected and denounced Baxter and his followers ! Senator Dorsey , later a principal in the Star Route frauds , was a neighbor and close friend of Boss Shepherd 's , living in a house owned by him .... " I believe , " commented [ Secretary of State ] Fish , " that there is a large steal in the Arkansas matter , and fear that the President has been led into a grievous error . "
On May 11 , Governor Baxter asked the General Assembly to meet in special session , which they did . Apparently , they met " behind Baxter lines " although where that was isn 't exactly clear . Since the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore of the Senate were both absent , being that they were both Brooks supporters , they were replaced . J.G. Frierson was elected President pro tempore of the Senate and James H. Berry Speaker of the House . They then passed an act calling for a constitutional convention , which Governor Baxter approved on May 18 . The act scheduled an election for the last day of June and appointed delegates from the counties of Arkansas . Two days later , Generals Newton and Fagan negotiated an armistice . At the same time , the Arkansas Supreme Court had finally decided to hear the Brooks case , and voted three to one in favor of Baxter 's election , further solidifying the Grant proclamation and Baxter as governor . The bar of the Pulaski County Circuit court also met and issued a resolution that stated that Judge Wytock had acted independently , and his decision did not represent the court . The trial had been deliberately unfair for the defendant Baxter , and the Supreme Court had already ruled that , under the state constitution , the court had no jurisdiction . They rendered Judge Wytock 's decision null and void .
On May 19 , General Newton and his troops reoccupied the State House grounds , which had just been evacuated by Brooks ' forces , and on the 20th , he reinstated Governor Baxter .
= = Aftermath = =
In June 1874 , Clayton announced that he could no longer control matters in Arkansas and that he and his friends would be willing to enter into any arrangement whereby they could at least be safe from persecution and prosecution . However , the Democrats retaliated by impeaching many Minstrels , including Supreme Court Justice John McClure . Clayton finished his Senate term but was not re @-@ elected .
On September 7 , 1874 , the new constitution was completed and signed by a majority of delegates . The entire electorate , including the disenfranchised Confederates and the Freedmen , voted . The election not only was for ratification of the new constitution but also for state officials that would be elected if the constitution was indeed ratified . The Republicans actually took the same position that the Democrats had taken earlier , believing that the election was illegal they nominated no candidates . Conservative Democrats and allied paramilitary groups suppressed black voting , using a combination of intimidation , blocking blacks from the polls , and outright assassinations . The new constitution was ratified on October 13 , 1874 and Democratic officials elected almost unanimously , including new Democratic Governor Augustus H. Garland who was inaugurated November 12 , 1874 , and Baxter left office after only serving two years of a four @-@ year term .
It was a long time after the Brooks – Baxter War that people of Arkansas allowed another Republican to become governor . The following 35 governors of Arkansas , ruling for a total of 90 years , were all Democrats , until Republican Winthrop Rockefeller became governor in 1966 defeating James D. Johnson . Winthrop became governor while his brother Nelson was governor of New York , while the defeat of Johnson in Arkansas and William M. Rainach in Louisiana ended the once mighty hold of segregation over politics .
= Clint Black =
Clint Patrick Black ( born February 4 , 1962 ) is an American singer , songwriter , musician , multi @-@ instrumentalist , record producer and actor . Signed to RCA Records in 1989 , Black 's debut album Killin ' Time produced five straight number one singles on the US Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks charts . Although his momentum gradually slowed throughout the 1990s , Black consistently charted hit songs into the 2000s . He has had more than 30 singles on the US Billboard country charts , twenty @-@ two of which have reached number one , in addition to having released nine studio albums and several compilation albums . In 2003 , Black founded his own record label , Equity Music Group . Black has also ventured into acting , having made a cameo appearance in the 1994 film Maverick , as well as a starring role in 1998 's Still Holding On : The Legend of Cadillac Jack .
= = Early life = =
Clint Patrick Black was born in Long Branch , New Jersey , the youngest of four children born to G.A. and Ann Black , and lived in nearby Red Bank . The family moved back to Texas , where G.A. Black had been raised , before Clint was one year old . He was raised in Katy , Texas . Music was always present in the house . Black taught himself to play harmonica before he was 13 , and at 14 wrote his first song . His father remarked that it was at that age that the parents " first noticed that he had a great voice " . By 15 , Black had learned to play guitar . As a teenager Black joined his elder brothers , Mark , Kevin and Brian , in their small band . On Saturday afternoons , the family would host backyard barbecues and invite the neighborhood to listen to the boys sing . Some weekends would attract up to 70 people . Black eventually dropped out of high school to play with his brothers , before becoming a solo act .
= = Music career = =
= = = 1983 – 88 : Early career = = =
Black was initially drawn to a variety of musical genres . According to his father , he chose to focus on country music in the early 1980s , after singers George Strait and Reba McEntire moved the genre back toward the more traditional ; in the style kept alive by George Jones and Merle Haggard . For six years , Black supported himself as a construction worker , bait cutter , and fishing guide , while singing at various lounges as a solo singer and guitarist . In 1987 , at one of the gigs he met another guitarist , Hayden Nicholas . The two men connected musically and began a song writing partnership that would last decades . In the late 1980s , Black delivered a demo of their collaboration " Nobody 's Home " to record promoter Sammy Alfano . Within two days of that delivery , Black was invited to a meeting with Bill Ham , who managed ZZ Top .
= = = 1989 – 91 : Breakthrough = = =
Black soon signed with RCA at that time considered one of the " most aggressive " labels in country music . His first album , Killin ' Time , was released in 1989 . Each song on the album was penned at least in part by Black ; four of them were attributed solely to him , while the rest were collaborations with Nicholas . In a departure from most other country albums , Black used his road band instead of session musicians to record Killin ' Time . The album was a critical and commercial success , reaching number one on the Billboard Country Albums chart and certified platinum in 1990 . The first single , " A Better Man " , reached number one on the Billboard Hot Country Songs in early June . This marked the first time in 14 years that a debut single by a male artist had peaked at the top of the chart . In total , five singles off of his debut album reached number one , the first time any country artist had accomplished this feat . Black won the Country Music Association 's Horizon Award for best newcomer in 1989 . At the end of the year , his singles , " A Better Man " and " Killin ' Time " place number one and number two on the year @-@ end country singles charts . It had been 36 years since another artist had claimed both top spots in a single year . Looking back at the early stages of his career , Black recalled : " ' At one point , I knew I crossed this line out of obscurity and I felt like no matter what happened from that point on I would always be remembered for " Killin ' Time . " There was this kind of mixed feeling of remorse and excitement . ' "
In late 1990 , the Los Angeles Times surveyed country music industry insiders to determine which acts could be expected to sell the most records over the next seven years . Black placed second in the poll , two votes behind Garth Brooks . The survey results were surprising in that 10 of the top 20 artists named were relative newcomers to the industry ; in the past , country music had been dominated by artists with several decades experience . The plethora of new acts confused some reviewers , however . Many reviewers lumped many of the new acts together ; as Newsweek 's David Gates wrote : " Good song , good voice , hot band : who cares which one it is this time ? " Black soon became known as one of Nashville 's " hat acts " ; like other country artists such as Garth Brooks , Alan Jackson , and Mark Chesnutt , Black was a relative newcomer who wore a hat , and had " clean , neotraditional sound with pop appeal " .
Killin ' Time was certified platinum in 1990 . Black 's second album , Put Yourself in My Shoes , was released in November 1990 . It reached number two on the country chart and was in the top 20 on the pop album charts . This success on the pop charts resulted from a change in the way Billboard calculated album sales ; a new reliance on Nielsen SoundScan instead of information from selected record stores showed that sales of country albums had previously been undercounted . The album did not meet with as much critical acclaim as his debut , but nonetheless still included several hit singles . He began touring with Alabama .
Black began dating actress Lisa Hartman in 1990 . The couple kept their relationship very quiet . The first picture of the two of them together was not published until the week they were engaged . The couple married in Katy , Texas in October 1991 .
Black has been a member of the Grand Ole Opry since 1991 .
= = = 1992 : Lawsuits and The Hard Way = = =
In March 1992 , Black sued his manager , Bill Ham , for breach of contract ; Black sought $ 2 million in damages and requested that Ham return $ 4 million in royalties . Under the terms of their initial contract , Ham controlled all publishing royalties for any song that Black wrote or co @-@ wrote for his first eight albums . Because Black wrote all of his own music , this amounted to a fee of 20 to 30 cents per album sold . Industry standards generally counseled songwriters to form their own publication companies , so they would be able to retain more of the royalties .
Ham promptly countersued , blaming the initial lawsuit on poor advice Black received from his new personal assistant , his mother @-@ in @-@ law Jonni Hartman . His lawyer told the press that " Mr. Ham invested $ 1 million of his own money in Clint Black 's career at a time when nobody else would do so . For that commitment , Mr. Black should show a little gratitude and honor his contracts " .
By mid @-@ 1992 , Black 's first two albums had sold a combined 5 million copies . The difficulties with Ham caused a delay in the release of Black 's third album , The Hard Way , which was released on July 14 . The album had been expected the year previously , and during the delay the country music scene changed . Both Alan Jackson and Travis Tritt achieved greater success , and Billy Ray Cyrus became a teen idol . The competition that Black faced was now much stiffer than with his earlier albums .
According to Black , he and producer James Stroud spent more time putting this album together than either of those preceding and were " a lot more aggressive in the way we cut and mixed the album " . Black was also more satisfied with the vocals on this album . Several of the songs on The Hard Way , including " Burn One Down " , were initially reported to be Black 's responses to his situation with Ham . Cowriter Nicholas refuted the rumors , maintaining that most of those songs were written in the late 1980s .
To promote the album , Black launched The Hard Way Tour on June 26 , 1992 . The tour ran for 11 months . Reviewers noticed that with this album Black presented a " new , sexier image " , wearing tighter clothing and in many cases leaving behind his trademark hat . Black commented simply that he was bored wearing the hat all the time .
= = = 1993 – 99 : Continued success = = =
Black 's fourth album , No Time to Kill was released almost a year after The Hard Way . The album received mixed reviews . The Houston Chronicle noted that Black 's duet with Wynona Judd , " A Bad Goodbye " , was " precisely the kind of radio @-@ ready , big @-@ production ballad that record companies tend to force on their artists when they sense that their careers are in trouble .... [ I ] t sticks out like a sore thumb in his body of work . " On the other hand , a review in Time magazine thought the duet helped Black show his emotions more intensely . Some reviewers also noted that in some of the more serious songs on the album , Black 's voice sounded strained .
One Emotion followed in 1995 . Also a platinum certified album in the US , this album accounted for five straight top five hits . First was the number four " Untanglin ' My Mind " , a Merle Haggard co @-@ write . After it came the number three " Wherever You Go " , number one " Summer 's Comin ' " , the number two title track and finally the number four " Life Gets Away . " The latter two were also number one country hits in Canada .
In 1996 , Black became the fourth country music singer to earn a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . Later that year , he released his first greatest @-@ hits package . This was led off by the chart @-@ topper " Like the Rain " , which spent three weeks at number one . After it came the number six " Half Way Up " , his first single since " One More Payment " to miss the top five .
Black 's next album , 1997 's Nothin ' but the Taillights , was released to mediocre reviews . Thom Owens of AllMusic said that the album made no attempt to change his sound , and was " sturdy " but less country than his previous efforts . Lead @-@ off single " Still Holding On " , a duet with labelmate Martina McBride , became his first single to land outside the top 10 , with a number 11 peak that year . He soon recovered his chart momentum with the number two " Something That We Do " followed by two straight chart @-@ toppers in the album 's Steve Wariner @-@ penned title track and " The Shoes You 're Wearing " . The next two singles – the number 12 " Loosen Up My Strings " and number 29 " You Don 't Need Me Now " – were less successful .
In 1999 , Black released D 'lectrified , which relied completely on acoustic instruments . Nevertheless , USAToday thought the " album sounds as full and brash as an electric album since he used creative arrangements and horn sections " . Three of the songs on the albums were remakes of previous Black singles . Several others featured guest appearances by some of Black 's idols , including Waylon Jennings , Kenny Loggins , and Eric Idle . The songs tended to be longer than most of those played on country radio , with many stretching more than five minutes .
= = = 1999 – 2013 : Later career = = =
Black and Hartman welcomed their only child , Lily Pearl Black , in May 2001 . Black took a three @-@ year break from the music industry to stay home with his daughter . He explained that " it ended up not being a smart career move , but it was a real smart dad move . … I wouldn 't go back and try to do anything for my career in exchange for that . "
During his sabbatical , Black spent time reassessing his career . After deciding he was unwilling to work within the current recording industry system , he formed his own record label , Equity Music Group . Black admitted that it was difficult to leave RCA . In his 14 years with the label , he had sold over 12 million records .
The new label operated under very different rules than those Black had begun his own career under . Artists were guaranteed ownership of their songs and were granted an equity stake in the label . The first release from the new label was Black 's next album , Spend My Time ; his eighth studio album was Black 's first release in five years . The Houston Chronicle called it " arguably the most adventurous of his career " .
In 2005 Black released Drinkin ' Songs and Other Logic . Black chose the title of the album to limit himself to simple topics in his past . He explained : " I went out and bought all the music I grew up on that I didn 't already have and spent three months listening to only that . Only stuff from before I started making records , so it was pre @-@ 1989 — Waylon , Willie , Buck Owens , Haggard , Don Williams , Jim Croce . And what I discovered was a simplicity in song that I had moved away from . It was quite an emotional journey because these were all the songs that moved me and inspired me to do what I 've been doing ever since . "
Black has continued to record new material , however . In 2007 , he released the single " The Strong One " the first original song he has recorded that he did not write . The song was included on his first digital EP , released on March 11 , 2008 . Titled " The Long Cool EP , " the collection features Black 's single , " Long Cool Woman " , " The Strong One " and a duet with his wife titled " You Still Get to Me " . Equity Music Group closed its doors in December 2008 due to economic difficulties .
Black was also a judge for the 8th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists .
= = = 2013 – present : Return to music = = =
Since the closure of his label in 2008 , Black had intermittently hinted at a new album that never materialized . In 2013 , he issued a Cracker Barrel @-@ exclusive album which featured re @-@ recorded versions of some of his biggest hits as well as three new songs . Black stated that he hired the same musicians that had played on the original versions to perform the new ones , and that some songs were approached from a " fresh angle " while others were made to be as close to the originals as possible .
In early 2015 , Black appeared with Joe Nichols on the ACM Superstar Duets special , which featured modern artists teaming up with older icons that had influenced their music . In July 2015 , it was reported that Black had signed a new record deal with independent label Thirty Tigers to release an album of new studio material in the Fall . The record title was revealed shortly thereafter as On Purpose , with a release date of September 25 .
= = Songwriting = =
Few country singers fill their albums primarily with their own material , and although RCA Records often pushed Black to record the material of other artists , he refused . Black recorded only his own songs until 2007 , when he released the single " The Strong One " . Many of his songs were the result of a collaboration with Hayden Nicholas . Their first collaboration , " Straight From the Factory " , took them only 20 minutes to write , although Nicholas would later comment that " most of ' em weren 't that easy " .
Many listeners were incredulous that such a young man ( 27 at the release of his first album ) could have such " a remarkably mature perspective " . According to Black , " To me , a song is more than just something to sing . It 's something to learn from . It 's somebody else 's true feeling . I 'm always trying to get at the meaning . … When I write a line , I 'm doing the same thing . I 'm looking at it from the perspective of if I was driving down the road listening to it , what am I gonna get out of it ? "
Many of his songs make clever use of puns and other creative turns of phrase . While the wordplay in many of the songs on his earlier albums was widely appreciated , by the fourth album reviewers felt that the songs were not as high in quality . Rick Mitchell of the Houston Chronicle stated his opinion that The Hard Way " clever wordplay is no substitute for heartfelt emotion " .
= = Film and television = =
Shortly after his music career took off , began receiving offers for acting roles . He turned down every request until 1994 , when he was offered a bit part in the star @-@ studded comedy film Maverick . Although the part required very little actual acting , after the movie 's release Black received an increasing number of calls from directors who thought he would be perfect for a particular role . Black has appeared in several television shows , including Wings and The Larry Sanders Show . He has since starred in the 1998 television film , Still Holding On : The Legend of Cadillac Jack , based on the rodeo star Jack Favor , who was falsely accused of double murders in Haughton , Louisiana in 1967 . Lisa Hartman Black portrayed Ponder I. Favor , Jack 's wife . Black had a major role in another television movie Going Home , and appeared briefly in the 2003 film Anger Management .
He has also had a presence on various reality television shows . In 2003 , Black appeared on Nashville Star , where he acted as a mentor to the contestants . He later produced the debut album of series winner Buddy Jewell . In 2004 , Clint appeared as himself in the TV show Las Vegas . In 2008 , Black was a contestant on a short @-@ lived CBS reality show , Secret Talents of the Stars , in which he practiced stand @-@ up comedy . The following year , he competed on the second season of Celebrity Apprentice . He was fired after the eleventh task , placing himself in fifth place , although he returned as a member of Joan Rivers ' victorious team in the season finale . In 2009 , Black appeared on ABC 's Extreme Makeover : Home Edition .
Black has enjoyed his television experiences , describing acting as " another way for me to expand my creative canvas . … I love to challenge myself . " He believes that most of his fans " just see me as a musician who is stepping into [ television and film ] temporarily and either doing it alright or not " . More recently , he appeared in the movies Flicka 2 in 2010 and Flicka 3 in 2011 .
On July 4 , 2012 , Black appeared on an episode of Lifetime 's reality series , Coming Home , which documents servicemen and women returning to their loved ones in surprise reunions . In the episode , he is featured helping two children write a song about their Army captain father , who is returning from Afghanistan to surprise his family .
On July 24 , 2012 Black is surprised by History Detectives on PBS . In the episode , the show pays a visit to his Nashville residence , to uncover the story behind an artifact given to him by his wife decades ago .
= = Musical styles and legacy = =
Merle Haggard , Waylon Jennings , George Strait , and Willie Nelson are Black 's biggest musical influences . His style is traditional country . His voice is described as a smooth baritone and was initially compared to Merle Haggard . Black was self @-@ taught on harmonica , guitar and bass at an early age . On his studio albums he plays acoustic guitar , harmonica , percussion , electric guitar and bass harp . In concert he plays primarily guitar , but does play drums and harmonica .
= = Personal life = =
He & his wife , Lisa Hartman have a daughter , Lily Pearl Black , born in 2001 . They have lived in Nashville , Tennessee since 2002 after living in Laurel Canyon , Los Angeles , California .
= = Awards = =
Academy of Country Music
1989 Album of the Year – " Killin ' Time "
1989 Top Male Vocalist
1989 Top New Male Vocalist
1989 Single of the Year – " A Better Man "
1999 Vocal Event of the Year with Lisa Hartman Black – " When I Said I Do "
American Music Awards
1990 Favorite Country New Artist
Country Music Association
1989 Horizon Award
1990 Male Vocalist of the Year
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
1989 : Killin ' Time
1990 : Put Yourself in My Shoes
1992 : The Hard Way
1993 : No Time to Kill
1994 : One Emotion
1997 : Nothin ' but the Taillights
1999 : D 'lectrified
2004 : Spend My Time
2005 : Drinkin ' Songs and Other Logic
2015 : On Purpose
Compilations
1996 : Greatest Hits
2001 : Greatest Hits II
2007 : The Love Songs
2013 : When I Said I Do
= = Filmography = =
Flicka : Country Pride ( 2012 ) – Toby
Flicka 2 ( 2010 ) – Toby
Anger Management ( 2003 ) – Masseur
Going Home ( 2000 ) – Dr. Warren
Still Holding On : The Legend of Cadillac Jack ( 1998 ) – Cadillac Jack Favor
Maverick ( 1994 ) – Sweet @-@ Faced Gambler
Wings " I Love Brian " ( 1993 ) – Himself
Montana Christmas Skies ( 1991 ) – Clint Black , with John Denver , Kathy Mattea , Patty Loveless
= Malcolm II of Scotland =
Malcolm ( Gaelic : Máel Coluim ; died 25 November 1034 ) , was King of the Scots from 1005 until his death . He was a son of King Kenneth II ; the Prophecy of Berchán says that his mother was a woman of Leinster and refers to him as Forranach , " the destroyer " .
To the Irish annals which recorded his death , Malcolm was ard rí Alban , High King of Scotland . In the same way that Brian Bóruma , High King of Ireland , was not the only king in Ireland , Malcolm was one of several kings within the geographical boundaries of modern Scotland : his fellow kings included the king of Strathclyde , who ruled much of the south @-@ west , various Norse @-@ Gael kings on the western coast and the Hebrides and , nearest and most dangerous rivals , the kings or Mormaers of Moray . To the south , in the Kingdom of England , the Earls of Bernicia and Northumbria , whose predecessors as kings of Northumbria had once ruled most of southern Scotland , still controlled large parts of the southeast .
= = Early years = =
Malcolm II was born to Kenneth II of Scotland . He was grandson of Malcolm I of Scotland . In 997 , the killer of Constantine is credited as being Kenneth , son of Malcolm . Since there is no known and relevant Kenneth alive at that time ( King Kenneth having died in 995 ) , it is considered an error for either Kenneth III , who succeeded Constantine , or , possibly , Malcolm himself , the son of Kenneth II . Whether Malcolm killed Constantine or not , there is no doubt that in 1005 he killed Constantine 's successor Kenneth III in battle at Monzievaird in Strathearn .
John of Fordun writes that Malcolm defeated a Norwegian army " in almost the first days after his coronation " , but this is not reported elsewhere . Fordun says that the Bishopric of Mortlach ( later moved to Aberdeen ) was founded in thanks for this victory over the Norwegians .
= = Children = =
Malcolm demonstrated a rare ability to survive among early Scottish kings by reigning for twenty @-@ nine years . He was a clever and ambitious man . Brehon tradition provided that the successor to Malcolm was to be selected by him from among the descendants of King Aedh , with the consent of Malcolm ’ s ministers and of the church . Ostensibly in an attempt to end the devastating feuds in the north of Scotland , but obviously influenced by the Norman feudal model , Malcolm ignored tradition and determined to retain the succession within his own line . But since Malcolm had no son of his own , he undertook to negotiate a series of dynastic marriages of his three daughters to men who might otherwise be his rivals , while securing the loyalty of the principal chiefs , their relatives . First he married his daughter Bethoc to Crinan , Thane of The Isles , head of the house of Atholl and secular Abbot of Dunkeld ; then his youngest daughter , Olith , to Sigurd , Earl of Orkney . His middle daughter , Donada , was married to Finlay , Earl of Moray , Thane of Ross and Cromarty and a descendant of Loarn of Dalriada . This was risky business under the rules of succession of the Gael , but he thereby secured his rear and , taking advantage of the renewal of Viking attacks on England , marched south to fight the English . He defeated the Angles at Carham in 1018 and installed his grandson , Duncan , son of the Abbot of Dunkeld and his choice as Tanist , in Carlisle as King of Cumbria that same year .
= = Bernicia = =
The first reliable report of Malcolm II 's reign is of an invasion of Bernicia in 1006 , perhaps the customary crech ríg ( literally royal prey , a raid by a new king made to demonstrate prowess in war ) , which involved a siege of Durham . This appears to have resulted in a heavy defeat by the Northumbrians , led by Uhtred of Bamburgh , later Earl of Bernicia , which is reported by the Annals of Ulster .
A second war in Bernicia , probably in 1018 , was more successful . The Battle of Carham , by the River Tweed , was a victory for the Scots led by Malcolm II and the men of Strathclyde led by their king , Owen the Bald . By this time Earl Uchtred may have been dead , and Eiríkr Hákonarson was appointed Earl of Northumbria by his brother @-@ in @-@ law Cnut the Great , although his authority seems to have been limited to the south , the former kingdom of Deira , and he took no action against the Scots so far as is known . The work De obsessione Dunelmi ( The siege of Durham , associated with Symeon of Durham ) claims that Uchtred 's brother Eadwulf Cudel surrendered Lothian to Malcolm II , presumably in the aftermath of the defeat at Carham . This is likely to have been the lands between Dunbar and the Tweed as other parts of Lothian had been under Scots control before this time . It has been suggested that Cnut received tribute from the Scots for Lothian , but as he had likely received none from the Bernician Earls this is not very probable .
= = Cnut = =
Cnut , reports the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , led an army into Scotland on his return from pilgrimage to Rome . The Chronicle dates this to 1031 , but there are reasons to suppose that it should be dated to 1027 . Burgundian chronicler Rodulfus Glaber recounts the expedition soon afterwards , describing Malcolm as " powerful in resources and arms … very Christian in faith and deed . " Ralph claims that peace was made between Malcolm and Cnut through the intervention of Richard , Duke of Normandy , brother of Cnut 's wife Emma . Richard died in about 1027 and Rodulfus wrote close in time to the events .
It has been suggested that the root of the quarrel between Cnut and Malcolm lies in Cnut 's pilgrimage to Rome , and the coronation of Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II , where Cnut and Rudolph III , King of Burgundy had the place of honour . If Malcolm were present , and the repeated mentions of his piety in the annals make it quite possible that he made a pilgrimage to Rome , as did Mac Bethad mac Findláich ( " Macbeth " ) in later times , then the coronation would have allowed Malcolm to publicly snub Cnut 's claims to overlordship .
Cnut obtained rather less than previous English kings , a promise of peace and friendship rather than the promise of aid on land and sea that Edgar and others had obtained . The sources say that Malcolm was accompanied by one or two other kings , certainly Mac Bethad , and perhaps Echmarcach mac Ragnaill , King of Mann and the Isles , and of Galloway . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle remarks of the submission " but he [ Malcolm ] adhered to that for only a little while " . Cnut was soon occupied in Norway against Olaf Haraldsson and appears to have had no further involvement with Scotland .
= = Orkney and Moray = =
Olith a daughter of Malcolm , married Sigurd Hlodvisson , Earl of Orkney . Their son Thorfinn Sigurdsson was said to be five years old when Sigurd was killed on 23 April 1014 in the Battle of Clontarf . The Orkneyinga Saga says that Thorfinn was raised at Malcolm 's court and was given the Mormaerdom of Caithness by his grandfather . Thorfinn , says the Heimskringla , was the ally of the king of Scots , and counted on Malcolm 's support to resist the " tyranny " of Norwegian King Olaf Haraldsson . The chronology of Thorfinn 's life is problematic , and he may have had a share in the Earldom of Orkney while still a child , if he was indeed only five in 1014 . Whatever the exact chronology , before Malcolm 's death a client of the king of Scots was in control of Caithness and Orkney , although , as with all such relationships , it is unlikely to have lasted beyond his death .
If Malcolm exercised control over Moray , which is far from being generally accepted , then the annals record a number of events pointing to a struggle for power in the north . In 1020 , Mac Bethad 's father Findláech mac Ruaidrí was killed by the sons of his brother Máel Brigte . It seems that Máel Coluim mac Máil Brigti took control of Moray , for his death is reported in 1029 .
Despite the accounts of the Irish annals , English and Scandinavian writers appear to see Mac Bethad as the rightful king of Moray : this is clear from their descriptions of the meeting with Cnut in 1027 , before the death of Malcolm mac Máil Brigti . Malcolm was followed as king or earl by his brother Gillecomgan , husband of Gruoch , a granddaughter of King Kenneth III . It has been supposed that Mac Bethad was responsible for the killing of Gille Coemgáin in 1032 , but if Mac Bethad had a cause for feud in the killing of his father in 1020 , Malcolm too had reason to see Gille Coemgáin dead . Not only had Gillecomgan 's ancestors killed many of Malcolm 's kin , but Gillecomgan and his son Lulach might be rivals for the throne . Malcolm had no living sons , and the threat to his plans for the succession was obvious . As a result , the following year Gruoch 's brother or nephew , who might have eventually become king , was killed by Malcolm .
= = Strathclyde and the succession = =
It has traditionally been supposed that King Owen the Bald of Strathclyde died at the Battle of Carham and that the kingdom passed into the hands of the Scots afterwards . This rests on some very weak evidence . It is far from certain that Owen died at Carham , and it is reasonably certain that there were kings of Strathclyde as late as the 1054 , when Edward the Confessor sent Earl Siward to install " Malcolm son of the king of the Cumbrians " . The confusion is old , probably inspired by William of Malmesbury and embellished by John of Fordun , but there is no firm evidence that the kingdom of Strathclyde was a part of the kingdom of the Scots , rather than a loosely subjected kingdom , before the time of Malcolm II of Scotland 's great @-@ grandson Malcolm Canmore .
By the 1030s Malcolm 's sons , if he had any , were dead . The only evidence that he did have a son or sons is in Rodulfus Glaber 's chronicle where Cnut is said to have stood as godfather to a son of Malcolm . His grandson Thorfinn would have been unlikely to be accepted as king by the Scots , and he chose the sons of his other daughter , Bethóc , who was married to Crínán , lay abbot of Dunkeld , and perhaps Mormaer of Atholl . It may be no more than coincidence , but in 1027 the Irish annals had reported the burning of Dunkeld , although no mention is made of the circumstances . Malcolm 's chosen heir , and the first tánaise ríg certainly known in Scotland , was Duncan .
It is possible that a third daughter of Malcolm married Findláech mac Ruaidrí and that Mac Bethad was thus his grandson , but this rests on relatively weak evidence .
= = Death and posterity = =
Malcolm died in 1034 , Marianus Scotus giving the date as 25 November 1034 . The king lists say that he died at Glamis , variously describing him as a " most glorious " or " most victorious " king . The Annals of Tigernach report that " Malcolm mac Cináeda , king of Scotland , the honour of all the west of Europe , died . " The Prophecy of Berchán , perhaps the inspiration for John of Fordun and Andrew of Wyntoun 's accounts where Malcolm is killed fighting bandits , says that he died by violence , fighting " the parricides " , suggested to be the sons of Máel Brigte of Moray .
Perhaps the most notable feature of Malcolm 's death is the account of Marianus , matched by the silence of the Irish annals , which tells us that Duncan I became king and ruled for five years and nine months . Given that his death in 1040 is described as being " at an immature age " in the Annals of Tigernach , he must have been a young man in 1034 . The absence of any opposition suggests that Malcolm had dealt thoroughly with any likely opposition in his own lifetime .
Tradition , dating from Fordun 's time if not earlier , knew the Pictish stone now called " Glamis 2 " as " King Malcolm 's grave stone " . The stone is a Class II stone , apparently formed by re @-@ using a Bronze Age standing stone . Its dating is uncertain , with dates from the 8th century onwards having been proposed . While an earlier date is favoured , an association with accounts of Malcolm 's has been proposed on the basis of the iconography of the carvings .
On the question of Malcolm 's putative pilgrimage , pilgrimages to Rome , or other long @-@ distance journeys , were far from unusual . Thorfinn Sigurdsson , Cnut and Mac Bethad have already been mentioned . Rognvald Kali Kolsson is known to have gone crusading in the Mediterranean in the 12th century . Nearer in time , Dyfnwal of Strathclyde died on pilgrimage to Rome in 975 as did Máel Ruanaid uá Máele Doraid , King of the Cenél Conaill , in 1025 .
Not a great deal is known of Malcolm 's activities beyond the wars and killings . The Book of Deer records that Malcolm " gave a king 's dues in Biffie and in Pett Meic @-@ Gobraig , and two davochs " to the monastery of Old Deer . He was also probably not the founder of the Bishopric of Mortlach @-@ Aberdeen . John of Fordun has a peculiar tale to tell , related to the supposed " Laws of Malcolm MacKenneth " , saying that Malcolm gave away all of Scotland , except for the Moot Hill at Scone , which is unlikely to have any basis in fact .
= 2015 Tour of Chongming Island World Cup =
The 2015 Tour of Chongming Island World Cup was a one @-@ day road cycling race . It was run as part of the ninth Tour of Chongming Island , which includes both a multi @-@ stage event and a single @-@ stage event . The single @-@ stage race , which was part of the 2015 UCI Women 's Road World Cup , was held on 17 May 2015 , in Shanghai , China .
On wide , mostly flat highways , there were no significant breakaways in the first half of the race , until the duo of Hongyu Liang ( China Chongming – Liv – Champion System ) and Anastasia Chulkova ( BePink – La Classica ) established a one @-@ minute lead over the peloton . Their advantage was slowly broken down , predominately due to the work of the Team Hitec Products riders , and they were reabsorbed into the peloton with 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) to go . In a bunch sprint , the Italian rider , Giorgia Bronzini ( Wiggle – Honda ) won , beating 2014 winners Kirsten Wild ( Team Hitec Products ) and Fanny Riberot ( France national team ) .
= = Entry = =
Ten of the UCI women 's team entered the race , each featuring five or six riders . They were joined by eight national teams containing either four or five riders , bringing the total entry up to 93 riders .
= = Course = =
The route changed from previous years . The race started at the Shanghai Oriental Sports Center and took place almost entirely on wide , straight highways , with corners predominantly being expansive ninety @-@ degree bends . The course initially followed the Middle Ring Road , the Huaxia Elevated Road and the G1501 Shanghai Ring Expressway , before entering the 10 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) tunnel under the Yangtze River to reach Changxing Island , shortly followed by a 8 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) bridge to Chongming Island , from where the route followed the course of previous years , along slightly smaller roads to the finish .
= = Preview = =
After four rounds of the 2015 UCI Women 's Road World Cup , there had been four different winners ; Jolien D 'Hoore at the Ronde van Drenthe , Lizzie Armitstead at the Trofeo Alfredo Binda @-@ Comune di Cittiglio , Elisa Longo Borghini at the Tour of Flanders , and Anna van der Breggen at the La Flèche Wallonne Féminine . Anna van der Breggen led the World Cup standings as the racing moved to China for the Tour of Chongming Island , with 290 points , but her Rabo @-@ Liv team were not invited to take part in the event . Kirsten Wild won both the stage race and the World Cup event in 2014 , and repeated her success in the 2015 stage race . She was the pre @-@ race favourite to win the 2015 World Cup race on a course that favoured sprinters .
= = Race = =
There were early attacks by two of the Asian teams , China Chongming @-@ Liv @-@ Champion System and the Korean national team , but on each occasion they were caught back up by the peloton reasonably quickly . The first intermediate sprint was won by Simona Frapporti ( Alé – Cipollini ) , while a subsequent Queen of the Mountain climb was won by Lauren Kitchen ( Team Hitec Products ) . Crossing the Shanghai Yangtze River Bridge , some riders fell off the back of the peloton in the strong crosswinds . Shortly after , two riders , Hongyu Liang ( China Chongming – Liv – Champion System ) and Anastasia Chulkova ( BePink – La Classica ) , broke away and established a lead of roughly one minute , during which Chulkova claimed the second intermediate sprint . Team Hitec Products riders were at the front of the peloton to close the gap , though another group threatened to split around 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from the finish . The peloton caught up with the leading duo with 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) of the race remaining .
Closing towards the finish in a bunch sprint , Wiggle @-@ Honda had intended Chloe Hosking to be the sprinter to try and win , but she got caught up behind a crash in the final kilometre , and so Giorgia Bronzini acted as a lead @-@ out for Annette Edmondson . She had initially intended to move out from behind Kirsten Wild ( Team Hitec Products ) for a sprint with around 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) to go , but there was no room , so she stayed in Wild 's draft . She then found that Edmondson had not been able to follow her , and opted to defend her position and launch a late sprint to pass Wild . Bronzini won , followed by Wild and Fanny Riberot , riding for the France national team . The first 74 riders were all designated the same time .
= = Results = =
= = World Cup standings = =
= The Author 's Farce =
The Author 's Farce and the Pleasures of the Town is a play by the English playwright and novelist Henry Fielding , first performed on 30 March 1730 at the Little Theatre , Haymarket . Written in response to the Theatre Royal 's rejection of his earlier plays , The Author 's Farce was Fielding 's first theatrical success . The Little Theatre allowed Fielding the freedom to experiment , and to alter the traditional comedy genre . The play ran during the early 1730s and was altered for its run starting 21 April 1730 and again in response to the Actor Rebellion of 1733 . Throughout its life , the play was coupled with several different plays , including The Cheats of Scapin and Fielding 's Tom Thumb .
The first and second acts deal with the attempts of the central character , Harry Luckless , to woo his landlady 's daughter , and his efforts to make money by writing plays . In the second act , he finishes a puppet theatre play titled The Pleasures of the Town , about the Goddess Nonsense 's choice of a husband from allegorical representatives of theatre and other literary genres . After its rejection by one theatre , Luckless 's play is staged at another . The third act becomes a play within a play , in which the characters in the puppet play are portrayed by humans . The Author 's Farce ends with a merging of the play 's and the puppet show 's realities .
The play established Fielding as a popular London playwright , and the press reported that seats were in great demand . Although largely ignored by critics until the 20th century , most agree that the play is primarily a commentary on events in Fielding 's life , signalling his transition from older forms of comedy to the new satire of his contemporaries . Fielding 's play within a play satirised the way in which the London theatre scene , in his view , abused the literary public by offering new and inferior genres . The Author 's Farce is now considered to be a critical success and a highly skilled satire .
= = Plot = =
Most of Fielding 's plays were written in five acts , but The Author 's Farce was written in three . The opening introduces the main character , Harry Luckless , and his attempts to woo Harriot , the daughter of his landlady Mrs. Moneywood . The play begins in much the same way as Fielding 's earlier romance @-@ themed comedies , but quickly becomes a different type of play , mocking the literary and theatrical establishment . Luckless is trying to become a successful writer , but lacks the income that would allow him to concentrate on his writing . Although others try to support him financially , Luckless refuses their help ; when his friend , Witmore , pays his rent behind his back , Luckless steals the money from Mrs. Moneywood . In the second act , Luckless seeks assistance to help finish his play , The Pleasures of the Town , but is poorly advised , and the work is rejected by his local theatre . Luckless revises his play and succeeds in finding an alternative venue , leading to the third act , in which the work is performed as a puppet show , with actors taking the place of the puppets .
The third act is dominated by the puppet show , a play within the play . It begins when the Goddess of Nonsense chooses a mate from a series of suitors along the River Styx . All dunces , the suitors include Dr. Orator , Sir Farcical Comic , Mrs. Novel , Bookseller , Poet , Monsieur Pantomime , Don Tragedio and Signior Opera . The goddess eventually chooses a foreign castrato opera singer as her favourite — Signior Opera — after he sings an aria about money . Mrs. Novel then claims that she loved Signior Opera , and died giving birth to his child . At this revelation , the goddess becomes upset , but is quick to forgive . The play within the play is interrupted by Constable and Murdertext , who arrive to arrest Luckless " for abusing Nonsense " , but Mrs. Novel persuades Murdertext to let the play finish . Someone from the land of Bantam then arrives to tell Luckless that he is the prince of Bantam . News follows that the King of Bantam has died , and that Luckless is to be made the new king . The play concludes with the revelation that Luckless 's landlady is in reality the Queen of " Old Brentford " and that her daughter , Harriot , is now royalty . An epilogue in which four poets discuss how the play should end is brought to a conclusion by a cat , in the form of a woman .
= = Themes = =
Fielding uses Luckless and The Author 's Farce to portray aspects of his life , including his experience with the London theatre community . The plot serves as revenge for the Theatre Royal 's rejection of Fielding 's earlier plays . However , this and his being forced into minor theatres proved beneficial , because it allowed him more freedom to experiment with his plays in ways that would have been unacceptable at larger locations . This experimentation , beginning with The Author 's Farce , is an attempt by Fielding to try writing in formats beyond the standard five @-@ act comedy play . Though he returned to writing five @-@ act plays later , many of his plays contain plot structures that differ from those common to contemporary plays . To distinguish his satirical intent , Fielding claims that the work was written by " Scriblerus Secundus , " which places his play within an earlier literary tradition . The name refers to the Scriblerus Club , a satirical group whose members included Alexander Pope , Jonathan Swift , John Gay , and John Arbuthnot . Fielding 's use of the pseudonym connects his play to the satirical writings of the Scriblerus Club 's members , and reveals their influence on his new style , such as incorporating in their work the styles of the entertainments that they were ridiculing . Fielding thus allows the audience to believe that he is poking fun at others , less discriminating than themselves , and less able to distinguish good art from bad . Fielding also borrowed characters from the work of the Club 's members , such as the Goddess of Nonsense , influenced by Pope 's character from The Dunciad , Dulness , who is at war with reason . Nonsense , like Dulness , is a force that promotes the corruption of literature and taste , to which Fielding adds a sexual element . This sexuality is complicated , yet also made comical , when Nonsense chooses a castrated man as her mate . Her choice emphasises a lack of morality , one of the problems that Fielding believed dominated 18th @-@ century British society . Despite the link to Dulness , the general satire of the play more closely resembles Gay 's Beggar 's Opera than the other works produced by the Scriblerus Club .
The Author 's Farce is not a standard comedy ; rather , it is a farce , and as such employs petty forms of humour like slapstick . Instead of relying on rhetorical wit , Fielding incorporates dramatic incongruities . For example , actors play puppets in a life @-@ size version of a puppet play . Fielding 's purpose in relying on the farce tradition was specifically to criticise society as a whole . Like others , Fielding believed that there was a decline in popular theatre related to the expansion of its audience , therefore he satirises it , its audiences , and its writers throughout The Author 's Farce . Speaking of popular entertainment in London , Fielding 's character Luckless claims , " If you must write , write nonsense , write operas , write entertainments , write Hurlothrumbos , set up an Oratory and preach nonsense , and you may meet with encouragement enough . " Luckless 's only ambition is to become successful . Many of the characters in the play believe that the substance of a play matters little as long as it can earn a profit . Harriot believes that the only important characteristic of a lover is his merit , which , to her , is his ability to become financially successful . Fielding later continues this line of attacks on audiences , morality , and genres when he criticises Samuel Richardson 's epistolary novel Pamela , in which a nobleman makes advances upon a servant @-@ maid with the intent of making her his mistress .
The blending of the fictional and real worlds at the end of the play represents the inability of individuals to distinguish between fictional and real experience . The final act of the play also serves as Fielding 's defence of traditional hierarchical views of literature . He satirises new literary genres with low standards by using personified versions of them during the puppet show . In particular , Fielding mocks how contemporary audiences favoured Italian opera , a dramatic form that he regarded with contempt . Fielding considered it " a foreign intruder that has weaned the public from their native entertainments " . The character Signior Opera , the image of the favoured castrato singer within the puppet show , is a parody of the foreigners who performed as singers , along with the audiences that accepted them . Additionally , the character serves as a source of humour that targets 18th @-@ century literary genres ; after the character Nonsense chooses the castrato Signior Opera as her husband , Mrs Novel objects , declaring that she gave birth to his child . This act would be physically impossible because Opera is a castrato , and it pokes fun at how the genres and the public treated such individuals . Fielding was not alone in using the castrato image for humour and satire ; William Hogarth connects the castrato singer with politics and social problems , and many other contemporary works mock women who favour eunuchs .
= = Performance history and publication = =
The Author 's Farce and the Pleasures of the Town was written during 1729 . The first press announcement of the play appeared on 18 March 1730 in the Daily Post , stating that it was in rehearsal . An advertisement appeared in the same newspaper shortly afterwards mentioning restricted seating and high ticket prices , suggesting that the play was expected to be a popular entertainment . It opened on Easter Monday , 30 March 1730 , at the Little Theatre , Haymarket , and shortly thereafter was billed alongside The Cheats of Scapin . The last act was later made into the companion piece to Hurlothrumbo for one show .
Fielding altered and rewrote The Author 's Farce for its second run beginning on 21 April 1730 , when it shared the bill with his earlier play Tom Thumb . This combination continued through May and June and was later billed for a revival on 3 July 1730 . Starting on 1 August 1730 , the third act of the The Author 's Farce was revived by the Little Theatre during the week of the Tottenham Court fair . On 17 October 1730 an advertisement in the Daily Post announced that a new prologue was to be added . A version without the prologue followed before the play 's run ended , to be replaced by The Beggar 's Wedding by Charles Coffey . The Author 's Farce was briefly revived in November 1730 and January 1731 , but only the first two acts of the play were shown . It was paired with the afterpiece Damon and Phillida , which was later replaced by The Jealous Taylor in January 1731 . Performances continued into February and March 1731 . Productions in 1732 included a new prologue , now lost , that had been added for the 10 May 1731 performance .
On 31 March 1731 , The Author 's Farce was paired with the Tom Thumb remake , The Tragedy of Tragedies , as a replacement for The Letter Writers , the original companion piece . Although both Tragedy of Tragedies and The Author 's Farce were main shows , they alternated on the billing until the 18 June 1731 performance , the final showing of any Fielding play in the Little Theatre except for a 12 May 1732 benefit show of The Author 's Farce . The last documented non @-@ puppet version was performed on 28 March 1748 by Theophilus Cibber as a two @-@ act companion piece for a benefit show . The Pleasures of the Town act was performed as a one @-@ act play outside London throughout the century , including a 15 @-@ show run at Norwich in 1749 and during the 1750s , and a production at York during the 1751 – 52 theatre season . Additionally , there were benefit shows that included the third act at a variety of locations , including Dublin , on 19 December 1763 and Edinburgh in 1763 . There were also many performances of the puppet theatre versions , including a travelling show by Thomas Yeates , titled Punch 's Oratory , or The Pleasures of the Town , which started in 1734 .
In response to the Actor Rebellion of 1733 , Fielding produced a revised version of The Author 's Farce , incorporating a new prologue and epilogue . Performed at the Theatre Royal , it was advertised in the Daily Journal , opening with an inferior replacement cast for some of the important characters . It was joined by The Intriguing Chambermaid and The Harlot 's Progress . These were the only performances of the revised version , which was printed together with The Intriguing Chambermade ( 1734 ) and included a letter by an unknown writer , possibly Fielding himself . The 1734 edition of the play was printed in 1750 , and it was used for all later publications until 1966 . Printed texts of the play were included in Arthur Murphy 's 1762 Works of Henry Fielding and George Saintsbury 's 1893 Works of Henry Fielding . The latter includes The Author 's Farce along with only two other plays . The 1903 Works of Henry Fielding , edited by G. H. Maynadier , included only the first two acts . Only three scenes were included in Alfred Howard 's The Beauties of Fielding , which collected passages from Fielding 's works . George Saintsbury included The Author 's Farce and two other plays in a Fielding collected edition of 1893 , but ignored the others .
= = Critical response = =
The success of The Author 's Farce established Fielding as a London playwright ; writing in 1998 , Harold Pagliaro describes the play as Fielding 's " first great success " . Catherine Ingrassia , in 2004 , attributes its popularity to Fielding 's satirical attack on the archetypal woman writer , specifically Haywood . Among contemporary accounts the Daily Post of 2 May 1730 reported that the play received universal approval , and on 6 May that seats were in great demand . The 7 May issue of the Grub Street Journal noted that the play was popular among " Persons of Quality " ; many notable figures attended the show , including on the first night John Perceval , 1st Earl of Egmont , and Frederick , Prince of Wales , whose presence was mentioned in the 28 April 1730 London Evening Post and the 15 May 1730 Daily Post . The only surviving comments from any of those who saw the play come from the diary of the Earl of Egmont , who reported that The Author 's Farce and Tom Thumb " are a ridicule on poets , several of their works , as also of operas , etc . , and the last of our modern tragedians , and are exceedingly full of humour , with some wit . "
The play was hardly discussed at all during the 18th century , and the 19th century mostly followed the same trend . A chapter on the play is included in Frederick Lawrence 's Life of Fielding ( 1855 ) , and it is mentioned by Leslie Stephen and Austin Dobson , who focus on what the play says about Grub Street and Fielding . Most later critics agree with Dobson 's judgement that the play primarily provides a commentary on events in Fielding 's life , and marks his transition from older forms of comedy to the new satire of his contemporaries . Charles Woods , writing in 1966 , argues that The Author 's Farce was an integral part of Fielding 's career , and dismisses a political reading of the work . Some years earlier , in 1918 , Wilbur Lucius Cross had held that the play revealed Fielding 's talent for writing farces and burlesques . Writing in 1993 , Martin and Ruthe Battestin maintain that the play " was [ Fielding 's ] first experiment in the irregular comic modes ... where his true genius as a playwright at last found scope " . They further assert that Fielding was the first to offer audiences " a kind of pointed , inventive foolery " , and that his talent for " ridicule and brisk dialogue " and for devising " absurd yet expressionistic plots " was unmatched even in 20th @-@ century theatre . Earlier , Frederick Homes Dudden , had described the puppet show in the third act as " a highly original satire on the theatrical and quasi @-@ theatrical amusements of the day . " F. W. Bateson included the play in his 1963 list of " satirical extravaganzas " .
J. Paul Hunter , in his 1975 comparison of Fielding 's theatrical style and form , notes that while " many of the literary and theatrical jibes are witty , " the slow pacing and lack of dramatic conflict make the play seem " essentially untheatrical " . Pat Rogers disagrees , reasoning that " Few livelier theatrical occasions can ever have been seen than the original runs of The Author 's Farce , with their mixture of broad comedy , personal satire , tuneful scenes and rapid action . " Robert Hume , in 1988 , comments that the literary structure of The Author 's Farce is " ramshackle but effective " , although he considers that " Fielding 's parody of recognition scenes is done with verve " and " the ' realistic ' part of the show is a clever combination of the straightforward and the ironic . " Writing in 1998 , Thomas Lockwood explains various aspects that make the play great , putting particular emphasis on the " musical third act " , which he believes " shows a gift for brilliant theatrical arrangement " . Lockwood praises the play 's conclusion in particular , and the ever @-@ increasing tempo of events following Murdertext 's " explosive invasion " .
= = Cast = =
= = = 1730 cast = = =
Play :
Internal puppet show :
= = = 1734 altered cast = = =
Play :
Internal puppet show :
= Kappa Kappa Psi =
Kappa Kappa Psi , National Honorary Band Fraternity ( ΚΚΨ , colloquially referred to as KKPsi ) , is a fraternity for college and university band members in the United States . It was founded on November 27 , 1919 at Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College , now known as Oklahoma State University , in Stillwater , Oklahoma .
Kappa Kappa Psi primarily operates as a recognition society providing service , leadership opportunities , and social programming for band members . Tau Beta Sigma , National Honorary Band Sorority , has been recognized as a sister organization since 1947 , and the two organizations share National Headquarters in Stillwater Station , a converted historical Santa Fe rail depot that was purchased by the fraternity and sorority in 1991 .
Since 1919 , more than 66 @,@ 000 men and women have been initiated into Kappa Kappa Psi , with nearly 6 @,@ 000 collegiate members active today . Members of Kappa Kappa Psi include President Bill Clinton ; astronaut Neil Armstrong ; chancellor and eleventh president of Indiana University , Herman B Wells ; composers John Williams and John Philip Sousa ; conductor William Revelli ; and jazz pianist and bandleader Count Basie .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and expansion = = =
William A. Scroggs , a student at Oklahoma A & M College , sought to establish an organization that would " bind [ dear ] friendship together indefinitely " and unite members across colleges and universities . After some initial planning , he consulted band president A. Frank Martin and Bohumil Makovsky , director of bands at Oklahoma A & M , both of whom agreed to help with the creation of the fraternity . From Makovsky 's band , 10 members were selected as the first members of Kappa Kappa Psi : William Alexander Scroggs , Andrew Franklin Martin , Raymond David Shannon , Clyde DeWitt Haston , Clayton Everett Soule , Carl Anderson Stevens , William Houston Coppedge , Dick Hurst , George Asher Hendrickson , and Iron Hawthorne Nelson . The founders accepted chemistry professor Hilton Ira Jones ' suggestion to name the fraternity " Kappa Kappa Psi . " It was organized on November 27 , 1919 , and Scroggs was unanimously elected to serve as the President . Legal organization was completed on March 5 , 1920 , when the fraternity received its charter from the state of Oklahoma . The formal organization of the fraternity was celebrated on either March 23 or 25 , 1920 , with the initiation of the first membership class and a banquet .
The fraternity grew rapidly in its first years . Within ten years , there were 27 chapters spanning from the University of Washington in the west to Duke University in the east . Only 14 were installed during the Great Depression , while World War II put a further damper on fraternal activities .
At the 1939 National Convention in Cincinnati , Ohio , plans were set into action to make Kappa Kappa Psi an international fraternity . Invitations were sent to colleges and universities in Canada and South America , but no chapters were ever installed at those institutions .
= = = World War II = = =
Before World War II , most college bands were military @-@ style and exclusively male . When the war began , most band members left to serve in the armed forces , which greatly strained the fraternity — to the point that 90 percent of chapters were forced to suspend activities . The Grand Council granted those chapters that were forced to suspend their activities " war furlough " so that instead of treating the chapter as inactive , their service would be honored . War furlough enabled a chapter to seal its records and keep its materials in safekeeping for the duration of the war . Petitions for war furlough required the signatures of all active members , the director of bands or other faculty member who was an honorary member of the fraternity , as well as the signature of the college or university president . Only five chapters remained active during the war : the Alpha chapter at Oklahoma A & M College , Alpha Beta at Butler University , Alpha Iota at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Alpha Omicron at Texas Technological College , and Alpha Pi at the University of Tulsa . With so many members serving overseas , including members of the Grand Council , the 1943 and 1945 national conventions were canceled .
Because of the number of men serving in the military , many band programs opened up to women during this time . At Texas Tech , a local sorority for women in the band was established as Tau Beta Sigma . The women of Tau Beta Sigma petitioned Kappa Kappa Psi to be chartered as an auxiliary chapter of the fraternity , which was supported by founder A. Frank Martin , who was serving as National Executive Secretary , and Max Mitchell , Grand Second Vice President . On January 25 , 1944 , Martin wrote to fellow founder , William Scroggs , " If we do not meet this new situation and give recognition to the girls who are coming into the bands or make it possible to give aid or assistance to the many universities and colleges that have bands composed of both boys and girls , we will be playing second fiddle within the next five years to some band fraternity that will grant membership to boys and girls and their chapters will open up in the smaller schools where ours have died . " The fraternity was unable to decide whether or not to accept Tau Beta Sigma 's petition due to the severely reduced number of members and the cancelation of the 1943 and 1945 national conventions .
Ultimately , Tau Beta Sigma decided not to become an auxiliary chapter of Kappa Kappa Psi and chartered as a national organization on March 26 , 1946 . They were officially recognized and accepted as a sister organization of the fraternity at the first national convention following the war in 1947 .
= = = Post @-@ war expansion = = =
After the war , Kappa Kappa Psi began an ambitious expansion program to reactivate old chapters and install new ones . The fraternity had been divided into 11 districts since 1941 , which were led by a Grand Counselor ( now called Governors ) . With the revitalization of the fraternity , these districts were reorganized and pamphlets were printed detailing the fraternity 's purposes and history . District governors were charged with giving information to potential chapters . The expansion program was quite successful — in the ten years following the fraternity 's reorganization in 1947 , Kappa Kappa Psi more than doubled the number of installed chapters , growing from 45 chapters installed before the war
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. Simpson ) , Phyllis Calvert ( in The Woman He Loved ) , Gaye Brown ( in All the King 's Men ) , Dame Eileen Atkins ( in Bertie and Elizabeth ) , Miranda Richardson ( in The Lost Prince ) , Margaret Tyzack ( in Wallis & Edward ) , Claire Bloom ( in The King 's Speech ) and Judy Parfitt ( in W.E. ) .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
26 May 1867 – 6 July 1893 : Her Serene Highness Princess Victoria Mary of Teck
6 July 1893 – 22 January 1901 : Her Royal Highness The Duchess of York
22 January 1901 – 9 November 1901 : Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Cornwall and York
9 November 1901 – 6 May 1910 : Her Royal Highness The Princess of Wales
6 May 1910 – 20 January 1936 : Her Majesty The Queen
20 January 1936 – 24 March 1953 : Her Majesty Queen Mary
= = = Honours = = =
= = = Arms = = =
Queen Mary 's arms were the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom impaled with her family arms – the arms of her grandfather , Prince Adolphus , Duke of Cambridge , in the 1st and 4th quarters , and the arms of her father , Prince Francis , Duke of Teck , in the 2nd and 3rd quarters . The shield is surmounted by the imperial crown , and supported by the crowned lion of England and " a stag Proper " as in the arms of Württemberg .
= = Issue = =
= = Ancestry = =
= 2011 Daytona 500 =
The 2011 Daytona 500 , the 53rd running of the event , was held on February 20 , 2011 at Daytona International Speedway in Daytona Beach , Florida as the first race of the 2011 NASCAR Sprint Cup season . Trevor Bayne , driving for Wood Brothers Racing , won the race becoming the youngest Daytona 500 winner . Carl Edwards finished second , while David Gilliland , Bobby Labonte , and Kurt Busch rounded out the Top 5 . Bayne had taken the lead shortly before the final restart and maintained it to win his first Cup Series race and Wood Brothers ' fifth Daytona 500 .
The race featured 16 cautions and 74 lead changes among 22 different drivers . Following the race , Edwards led the Drivers ' Championship with 42 points , one ahead of Gilliland and Labonte . Ford led the Manufacturers ' Championship with nine points , three ahead of Toyota and five ahead of Dodge . A total of 182 @,@ 000 people attended the race , while 15 @.@ 6 million watched it on television .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Daytona International Speedway is one of six superspeedways to hold NASCAR races , the others being Michigan International Speedway , Auto Club Speedway , Indianapolis Motor Speedway , Pocono Raceway and Talladega Superspeedway . The standard track at Daytona International Speedway is a four @-@ turn superspeedway that is 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked at 31 degrees , while the front stretch , the location of the finish line , is banked at 18 degrees . Jamie McMurray was the defending race winner .
In preparation for the race , NASCAR held several test sessions on January 20 – 22 , 2011 for teams to test the newer pavement at Daytona . Also in the sessions , the opening of the restrictor plate was reduced from the 30 / 32 inch plate used in tire testing to 29 / 32 inch . NASCAR vice president for competition Robin Pemberton stated , " We 'll have to get back and talk to the teams and look at the speeds from the last two days of testing . I think we have some high @-@ water marks at 197 @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half [ miles per hour ] which , depending on where they pulled up in the draft , it may be a little quick , but it 's hard to say . "
Every test session began at 9 a.m. EST , stopped at 12 : 00 – 1 : 00 p.m. EST , and concluded at 5 : 00 p.m. EST . During the first session on the morning of January 20 , 2011 , thirty @-@ three drivers participated , and Clint Bowyer was quickest with a speed of 184 @.@ 216 mph while David Reutimann had the highest speed of 195 @.@ 780 mph during the second session in the afternoon . The third test session , scheduled for the morning of January 21 , was canceled because of wet weather . During the fourth session , held during the afternoon , 34 drivers participated with Denny Hamlin being quickest with a speed of 196 @.@ 868 mph . Several drivers decided to leave after the session , which included Reutimann , Martin Truex , Jr . , Jimmie Johnson , and Bowyer . During the fifth session , held on the morning of January 22 , 29 drivers participated , and Joey Logano was quickest with a speed of 197 @.@ 516 mph . Brad Keselowski was quickest with a speed of 198 @.@ 605 mph in the final session .
After the two @-@ car draft style dominated the 2011 Budweiser Shootout , NASCAR reduced the front grille opening to 50 square inches and the overflow valve for the cooling system would be supplied by NASCAR and set at 33 pounds per square inch . Also , high speeds in the race caused NASCAR to reduce the size of the restrictor plate by 1 / 64 @-@ inch , with the expectations of cutting 10 horsepower from the engines .
This race also marked the tenth anniversary of the 2001 death of Dale Earnhardt . As such , several tributes took place during the race . All of the cars fielded by Earnhardt 's former team , Richard Childress Racing , and the team he started , Earnhardt Ganassi Racing , carried No. 3 decals . During the race itself , NASCAR held a " silent lap " on Lap 3 , a practice that was first used in memory of Earnhardt during the 2001 season .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Seven practice sessions were held before the race . The first two on February 12 ran 120 minutes and 105 minutes each . The next two on February 16 were for shortened 90 minutes and 55 minutes long after rain delays . Two days later , two more practice sessions were scheduled , which ran 60 and 85 minutes long . The final practice session was held on February 19 . Mark Martin was quickest with a time of 48 @.@ 681 seconds in the first session , less than one @-@ tenth of a second faster than Jeff Gordon . Paul Menard was just off Gordon 's pace , followed by Dale Earnhardt Jr . , Jeff Burton , and Bill Elliott . Johnson was seventh , still within a second of Martin 's time . In the second practice session , Martin remained fastest with a time of 48 @.@ 567 seconds , less than one @-@ tenth of a second quicker than second @-@ placed Johnson . Burton took third place , ahead of Trevor Bayne , Menard and Gordon . Also in the second practice session , McMurray collided into the wall after his tire failed , and had to move to his back @-@ up car .
Forty @-@ nine cars were entered for qualifying , but only 43 raced per NASCAR 's qualifying procedure . Unlike most races during the season , the qualifying session only determined the first two positions , while the rest of the drivers qualified by the 2011 Gatorade Duels . Earnhardt clinched his 10th pole position during his career , with a time of 48 @.@ 364 seconds . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Jeff Gordon . Once the qualifying session completed , Earnhardt commented , " The main thing [ the pole ] does for me is take the pressure off Thursday 's race . I can go out and have fun and not worry about where I finish or getting a good starting spot for the Daytona 500 . "
Kyle Busch was quickest in the rain @-@ delayed third practice with 44 @.@ 943 seconds , followed by Greg Biffle , Earnhardt , Johnson , and Juan Pablo Montoya . Earnhardt and Truex collided and hit the wall , both needing to use their back @-@ up cars which meant Earnhardt forfeited pole position . Kasey Kahne led fourth practice with 44 @.@ 985 seconds , only one @-@ thousandth of a second faster than Joey Logano . Gordon was third ahead of David Ragan and Kyle Busch . Kurt Busch and Burton were the winners of the Gatorade Duels . The qualifying grid was finalized with Busch in third and Burton fourth . Regan Smith qualified fifth ahead of Bowyer , Kevin Harvick , Waltrip , Matt Kenseth , and Kyle Busch . Drivers who failed to qualify were Derrike Cope , Kevin Conway , Todd Bodine , Michael McDowell and Casey Mears .
Burton was fastest in fifth practice with a 45 @.@ 767 seconds lap , ahead of Menard , Ragan , Marcos Ambrose and Hamlin . Martin led the sixth session ahead of Johnson and Kahne . Brian Vickers was next with a 46 @.@ 225 seconds lap ahead of Biffle with 46 @.@ 426 seconds . Burton 's 44 @.@ 929 seconds topped the final practice session , followed by Bowyer and Keselowski . Robby Gordon and Kurt Busch rounded out the top five drivers , claiming the fourth and fifth positions respectively .
= = = Race = = =
The race began at 1 : 00 p.m. EST and was televised live in the United States on Fox . The conditions on the grid were dry before the race with the air temperature at 71 ° F ( 22 ° C ) . Rev. Dr. L. Ronald Durham , senior pastor of the Greater Friendship Baptist Church of Daytona Beach , Florida , began pre @-@ race ceremonies by giving the invocation . Famous country music singer Martina McBride performed the national anthem , and Josh Duhamel , Rosie Huntington @-@ Whiteley and movie director Michael Bay of the upcoming film Transformers : Dark of the Moon , gave the command for the drivers to start their engines . During the pace laps , Dale Earnhardt , Jr . ; David Ragan , Joey Logano , and David Reutimann had to move to the rear of the grid due to changing to their back @-@ up car . Wrecker ( an elite team of Autobots ) versions of Earnhardt , Jr . ' s , Juan Pablo Montoya 's , and Jimmie Johnson 's cars led the field during the pace laps as well .
Kurt Busch retained his pole position lead into the first corner , followed by outside polesitter Jeff Gordon . On the following lap , Smith began to assist Busch by drafting . On lap 3 , NASCAR held a moment of silence to honor Dale Earnhardt , who was killed ten years earlier in the 2001 race . On lap 4 , A. J. Allmendinger and Mark Martin moved to the first and second positions . A lap later , the first caution was flown when Kyle Busch got turned sideways . Under caution , he made a pit stop to have his car 's toe plate checked and to have the front end aligned . When the race restarted on lap 8 , Kevin Harvick led but after one lap , Martin and Allmendinger passed him . Three laps later , the second caution came out when J. J. Yeley had an engine failure . Most of the drivers made pit stops under the caution , except for Brad Keselowski . At the restart , he would lead and Bobby Labonte passed him for the lead on the next lap .
On lap 17 , Paul Menard , with assistance from Tony Stewart , took the lead from Labonte . Montoya and Jamie McMurray passed him and Stewart for the first and second positions four laps later . On lap 22 , Harvick 's engine failed , allowing the third caution to come out . During the caution , most of the front runners made pit stops under caution for mostly fuel , while some decided to change tires . Afterward , Clint Bowyer lead on the restart . He remained leading the next two laps , while Earnhardt , Jr. moved to the 5th position . On lap 29 , Reutimann and Michael Waltrip collided , causing a multi @-@ car pileup , involving 17 drivers , including three of the four drivers from Hendrick Motorsports : Johnson , Martin , and Gordon . Some of the drivers who have led made pit stops during the caution , while McMurray and Montoya out in front as the race restarted lap 35 .
McMurray and Montoya continued to lead for the next three laps , as 14 teams were repairing their cars in the garage after the lap 29 crash . On lap 39 , Keselowski retook the lead , after having assistance from Regan Smith . Three laps later , Johnson was preparing to return to the race . On lap 43 , Stewart took the lead one lap before Keselowski retook it from him . On lap 45th , Bowyer became the quickest in the race with a speed of over 200 mph . Two laps later , Robert Richardson , Jr. spun off the bumper of Travis Kvapil , bringing out yet the fifth caution . He sustained major damage to his car in the accident . Under caution , the leaders made pit stops , giving the first and second positions to Terry Labonte and Dave Blaney at the restart . On lap 51 , Kurt Busch led before Menard overtook him .
Menard remained leading , as Bowyer and Burton moved to the third and fourth positions on lap 53 . On the following lap , they moved to first and second after passing Menard . On lap 57 , the sixth caution was given after Brian Vickers ' car stalled . The front runners made pit stops during the caution , as McMurray and Montoya reclaimed the first two positions at the restart . On lap 61 , Johnson returned to the race after his team repaired the car in the garage . Also on the same lap , Ku . Busch overtook McMurray to become the leader , as both McMurray and Montoya fell to the 17th and 18th positions . On the 63rd lap , Logano , with assistance from Stewart , moved into the fifth position , as Kasey Kahne moved to tenth . By lap 65 , Logano and Stewart had fell to seventh and eighth . On the next lap , Burton moved into the first position . On the 67th lap , Keselowski moved to third , as Smith became the leader . Smith remained the leader until lap 72 when Jeff Burton and Bowyer passed him . By lap 73 , the race had 26 lead changes . On the following lap , Burton passed Bowyer for the first position . Three laps later , Kvapil prompted the caution after spinning sideways . At the lap 78 restart , Bowyer was the leader ahead of Earnhardt , Jr. in second .
On the following lap , Earnhardt , Jr. overtook Bowyer for the first position . On lap 82 , McMurray reclaimed the first position , as Smith made a pit stop . After leading one lap , McMurray was passed by Ryan Newman and Logano . On the 86th lap , Martin Truex , Jr . , with assistance from Carl Edwards , became the leader before Bowyer and Burton passed them on lap 87 . Five laps later , Kurt Busch reclaimed the first position as Smith moved into second . On lap 94 , Burton 's engine failed , but no caution was given . Two laps later , Robby Gordon became the leader , after having assistance from Bayne . On the 100th lap , McMurray reclaimed the first position . On the following lap , Newman became the leader , but after four laps , Gordon passed him for the position . On lap 107 , the eighth caution was given after Montoya spun following a bump from team @-@ mate McMurray . During the caution all the drivers made pit stops , with Gordon reclaiming the lead afterward . On lap 110 , Kurt Busch moved to the first position , but after four laps , he was passed by Bowyer . Bowyer was passed by Truex two laps later on lap 116 , but Truex , Jr. himself was passed by Busch on the next lap .
On the 118th lap , Bowyer and Menard moved to the first two positions . By lap 120 , the race had experienced 47 lead changes among 18 different leaders . Two laps later , Truex reclaimed the first position , as the ninth caution was given for Kvapil . During the caution , most of the front runners made pit stops . At the lap 127 restart , Truex led the grid to the green flag , but on the following lap , Bowyer passed him . Seven laps later , the tenth caution was given after Kenseth collided into the wall . Some of the front runners made pit stops during the caution . At the lap 140 restart , Bowyer was the leader , but after one lap , Truex passed him . On lap 143 , the eleventh caution was given following contact between Greg Biffle and Montoya . More of the front runners made pit stops again during the caution . At the lap 146 restart , Truex was the leader . One lap later , Earnhardt , Jr. claimed the lead for six laps before Newman passed him . On lap 158 , a record twelfth caution was given , as Kvapil collided into the wall . Most of the drivers made pit stops during the caution , with Newman the leader . At the lap 163 restart , Newman was the leader ahead of Hamlin and Earnhardt . On the following lap , Hamlin became the leader , as Montoya moved up to third . On lap 167 , the thirteenth caution was caused by Keselowski colliding into the wall . The accident also involved Smith and Logano . At the lap 170 restart , Hamlin was the leader , but on the following lap he was passed by Earnhardt , Jr ..
On the next lap , Newman became the leader , as Logano drove to pit road . On the 173rd lap , Menard moved to the third position , after having assistance from Stewart . Two laps later , Ragan became the leader , but two laps later , Bowyer reclaimed the position . On lap 179 , Newman moved up to the first position , as Earnhardt moved to eleventh . Three laps later , Kahne collided into the wall , prompting the caution to come out . On the same lap , McMurray had one cylinder to fail . At the lap 185 restart , Newman remained the leader . On the following lap , Earnhardt and Stewart moved into the third and fourth positions . On lap 192 , Bowyer moved up to the third position , then to the first position . Three laps later , Smith moved into the first position . On lap 197 , the fifteenth caution was given after Smith spun sideways , as Bowyer was also involved and sustained major damage . During the caution , Earnhardt made a pit stop because of a possible deflating tire . At the lap 202 restart , for a green @-@ white @-@ checker finish , Ragan was the leader , ahead of Bayne .
On the ensuing restart , Ragan was black flagged for changing lanes before the start / finish line just before the sixteenth caution came out after a three @-@ car accident , involving Earnhardt , Jr . ; Newman ; and Truex , Jr . During the caution , Ragan drove to pit road , giving the lead to Trevor Bayne , with Labonte second . On the final lap of a second green @-@ white @-@ checker finish , Edwards and David Gilliland mounted a charge on the inside lane . Exiting turn four , Edwards drew alongside Labonte and closed in on Bayne , who moved to the bottom to block Edwards and maintained the lead to win his first race in his Sprint Cup Series career at the age of 20 . Edwards finished second , ahead of Gilliland in third and Labonte in fourth . Kurt Busch clinched the fifth position ; Montoya , Smith , Kyle Busch , Menard , and Martin rounded out the top ten finishers in the race .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The 20 @-@ year @-@ old , Bayne , appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his first win of his Sprint Cup Series career , in front of a crowd of 182 @,@ 000 people . Also by winning the race , he became the youngest winner of the Daytona 500 at 20 years and one day . Jeff Gordon previously held the title at 25 years old . The race was Bayne 's second Sprint Cup Series start , and became the Wood Brothers Racing team 's fifth Daytona 500 win . He also became the second driver to win the race in his first attempt , with the other begin Lee Petty who won the 1959 Daytona 500 , which was the inaugural race . With the win coming in his second start in the Sprint Cup Series , Bayne also matched Jamie McMurray for quickest victory at the start of a career ; however , since Bayne was racing for the Nationwide Series points championship , he did not earn any Sprint Cup points for the win . The race victory was the Wood Brothers first win since the 2001 season . Following his win , he described his happiness , " If I tried to put it into words , I couldn 't do it any justice . "
Following the race , which experienced a record 16 cautions and 74 lead changes , among 22 different drivers , Edwards commented , " A new winner , up @-@ and @-@ coming guy that 's tied to so much history . This is as good as it gets . If people aren 't watching , that 's their problem , because we got some great stuff going on here . " In the post @-@ race press conference , the third @-@ place finisher , Gilliland , said , " It 's a credit to NASCAR and their new rules , trying to get the ( cars ) closer , to let teams like us have a chance to be competitive . A lot of the rules ( are ) making these races more competitive . " Jeff Gordon also commented about Bayne , " I think it 's very cool . Trevor 's a good kid , and I love the Wood Brothers . I 'm really happy for him . And I think it 's great for the sport . To have a young talent like that – he 's got that spark , you know ? "
Ragan , who was the leader before the fifteenth caution , described his frustration after being black flagged by saying , " It was tough to swallow . Who knows what would have happened in that next lap ? We had a top @-@ five car [ Sunday ] and we didn 't finish in the top five , so that 's a bummer . We had a car that could 've won the Daytona 500 . We were sitting in position and just didn 't do it . This thing only comes around once a year , so I 'll think about it until we throw the checkered flag on next year 's Daytona 500 . So it 's tough , but there is a bright side – we finished , we got some points and we ran up front , but we just didn 't get what we come down here to do . "
As Bayne was running for the Nationwide Series Championship and was thus ineligible to receive points , the result left Edwards leading the Driver 's Championship with 42 points . Gilliland , who finished third , was second with 41 , which was tied with Bobby Labonte and was one point ahead of Kurt Busch . Montoya was fifth with 39 points . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Ford became the leader with 9 points . Toyota became second with 6 points . Dodge followed with 4 points , one point ahead of Chevrolet in fourth . 15 @.@ 6 million people watched the race on television . The race took three hours , fifty @-@ nine minutes and twenty @-@ four seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 0 @.@ 118 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
= TIE fighter =
TIE fighters are fictional starfighters in the Star Wars universe . Propelled by twin ion engines ( hence the TIE acronym ) , TIE fighters are fast , fragile starfighters produced by Sienar Fleet Systems for the Galactic Empire . TIE fighters and other TIE craft appear in Star Wars films , television shows , and throughout the Star Wars expanded universe . Several TIE fighter replicas and toys , as well as a TIE flight simulator , have been produced and sold by merchandise companies .
= = Origin and design = =
Industrial Light & Magic 's ( ILM ) Colin Cantwell created the concept model that established the TIE fighter 's ball @-@ cockpit and hexagonal panels design for Star Wars ( 1977 ) . Star Wars creator George Lucas liked the basic design consisting of two panels connected by a stick with a ball @-@ shaped cockpit , but the Cantwell 's concept had few details . Joe Johnston created additional details , such as the cockpit window and the attachment points between the solar panels and the hull .
Initially given a blue color scheme , the TIE fighter models for the first film were grey to better film against a bluescreen ; TIE fighters in The Empire Strikes Back ( 1980 ) and Return of the Jedi ( 1983 ) shifted back to being a muted blue . Sound designer Ben Burtt created the distinctive TIE fighter sound effect by combining an elephant call with a car driving on wet pavement . Combat scenes between TIE fighters and the Millennium Falcon and Rebel Alliance X @-@ wing fighters in Star Wars were meant to be reminiscent of World War II dogfight footage ; editors used World War II air combat clips as placeholders while Industrial Light & Magic completed the movie 's special effects . Darth Vader 's distinct TIE fighter in Star Wars was designed to make it instantly recognizable , and the TIE interceptors developed for Jedi were designed to look fast , deadly , and frightening .
The Jedi starfighter , created for Revenge of the Sith ( 2005 ) , was designed to bridge the appearance of the Jedi starfighter in Attack of the Clones ( 2002 ) and the TIE fighter design from the original trilogy . The V @-@ wing starfighter , seen at the end of Revenge of the Sith , also makes the distinctive TIE fighter sound when flying by a Star Destroyer . Dark Horse Comics ' Sean Cooke designed the TIE predator for Star Wars : Legacy ( 2006 ) , set 130 years after the events of Star Wars , to appear both reminiscent of and more advanced than the original TIE fighter .
Designers for The Force Awakens ( 2015 ) had numerous discussions about how much to " update " the TIE fighter for the first sequel film set 30 years after Return of the Jedi . They retained the starfighter 's design but altered its aesthetic to suggest improvements to the vessel 's manufacturing process and materials .
= = Depiction = =
Star Wars literature states that Sienar Fleet Systems manufactures TIE fighters and most TIE variants . TIE fighters ' solar panels power a twin ion engine ( TIE ) system that accelerates gases at a high speed along almost any vector , affording the ships tremendous speed and maneuverability . Described as lacking a hyperdrive , life support , or shield generators , the fragile TIE fighters are deployed in large numbers from bases or larger ships ; a Star Destroyer carries a wing of 72 various TIE craft . Expanded Universe material holds that TIE fighter pilots , who undergo intense physical and psychological testing , are trained to be intensely loyal to Emperor Palpatine and the Empire , willing to sacrifice themselves and their wingmates to accomplish their mission . TIE pilots were seen as expendable assets , as it was far cheaper to manufacture a great deal of standardized spacecraft in overwhelming numbers than it was to fully equip the craft . Although Expanded Universe material often describes TIE fighters as lacking an ejection seat , the player can eject from TIE craft in LucasArts ' TIE Fighter flight simulator . During the events of The Force Awakens , the First Order sees the value in its TIE pilots and equips its TIE fighters with shields to protect their occupants . A TIE fighter stolen by Poe Dameron and Finn in The Force Awakens has an ejection seat , allowing both characters to survive a crash .
= = = Other TIE craft = = =
In addition to the TIE fighter , a variety of other TIE craft appear throughout the films . Darth Vader flies a TIE Advanced in Star Wars . The Empire Strikes Back introduces a TIE shuttle and TIE bombers , which ferry Captain Needa ( Michael Culver ) to Darth Vader 's Super Star Destroyer and bomb asteroids in the hunt for the Millennium Falcon , respectively . Both TIE craft have a design that stems from an unused " TIE boarding craft " concept developed for A New Hope . The TIE bomber 's double @-@ hull design led ILM 's modelmakers to dub the ship a " double chili dog " fighter . TIE interceptors — faster TIE fighters with dagger @-@ shaped wings and four laser cannons — appear at various points in Return of the Jedi . Two scales of TIE interceptor models were used during filming . The Force Awakens features TIE / FO starfighters that have deflector shields and special operations TIE / SF fighters with heavier weapons , a hyperdrive , and shields . " Flatter , fang @-@ like " TIE Striker interceptors will appear in Rogue One ( 2016 ) .
Additionally , LucasArts Star Wars video games introduce several TIE variants , such as the TIE Hunter starfighter in Rogue Squadron III and the TIE Mauler surface vehicle in Empire at War . The TIE Advanced ( nicknamed " Avenger " in @-@ game ) and TIE Defender — heavily upgraded derivatives of previous craft seen in the Star Wars universe — first appear in TIE Fighter as player @-@ pilotable craft . The plot of Rebel Assault II revolves around destroying the Empire 's ability to manufacture the cloaking TIE Phantom starfighter , and a campaign in X @-@ Wing Alliance centers on destroying experimental remote @-@ controlled TIE fighters . Star Wars Rebels saw the introduction of another TIE Advanced model used by certain high @-@ ranking Imperials .
Star Wars literature also introduces TIE varieties . Corran Horn flies a TIE clutch in I , Jedi and TIE raptors attack Rogue Squadron in Solo Command . TYE wings — TIE fighter and Y @-@ wing hybrids — appear both in I , Jedi and Rogue Squadron : Masquerade . Dark Horse 's Dark Empire introduces both the droid @-@ piloted TIE / D and the TIE crawler " century tank " . West End Games ' roleplaying sourcebooks introduce varieties that include the TIE / fc fire @-@ control support ship , the TIE / gt ground @-@ attack fighter , the TIE / rc reconnaissance vessel , and the TIE scout .
= = Cultural impact = =
A TIE fighter model used in filming the climax of Star Wars sold at auction for $ 350 @,@ 000 . Fans built a 16 @-@ foot @-@ by @-@ 20 @-@ foot , 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound TIE fighter float to commemorate Star Wars ' thirtieth anniversary as part of the 2007 Crystal Lake Gala Parade . A Wired editor 's creation of a TIE fighter model out of Starbucks cups and stirrers prompted the magazine to create a contest for its readers to submit their own art out of similar Starbucks material. io9 mocked the variety of TIE fighters in the franchise , listing four TIE models on its list of the eleven " silliest " Star Wars ships .
Kenner released TIE fighter and TIE interceptor toys during the original Star Wars trilogy 's theatrical release , and Kenner 's die @-@ cast TIE bomber is a rare collector 's item . Hasbro also released TIE fighter , TIE bomber , and TIE interceptor toys . Both Kenner and Hasbro also manufactured TIE fighter pilot action figures . Lego manufactured TIE fighter , TIE bomber , TIE interceptor , TIE defender , and TIE advanced models . One of eight Lego mini @-@ kit vehicles released in 2002 is a TIE advanced , and the pieces to all eight can be combined to create a TIE bomber . Lucasfilm members had access to a limited @-@ edition mini @-@ kit TIE fighter . Decipher and Wizards of the Coast published various TIE starfighter and TIE @-@ related cards for the Star Wars Customizable Card Game and Star Wars Trading Card Game , respectively . In 2012 , Fantasy Flight Games released Star Wars : X @-@ Wing Miniatures Game , a miniatures game with pre @-@ painted and to scale miniature X @-@ wings and TIE fighters . In 1994 , LucasArts released the TIE Fighter flight simulator , which casts the player as an Imperial pilot flying a variety of TIE starfighters . TIE starfighters and their variants are also playable in third- or first @-@ person spectives in several Star Wars titles .
= Gay Power , Gay Politics =
" Gay Power , Gay Politics " is a 1980 episode of the American documentary television series CBS Reports . It was anchored by Harry Reasoner with reportage by George Crile . Crile also produced the episode with co @-@ producer Grace Diekhaus . He conceived the show after becoming aware of the 1979 National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights and took as his focus the 1979 San Francisco mayoral election . After intermittent shooting over several months in 1979 with the cooperation of prominent members of the city 's LGBT community , CBS aired " Gay Power , Gay Politics " on April 26 , 1980 .
Although described by CBS as a report on the growing influence of the LGBT community in San Francisco politics , " Gay Power , Gay Politics " focused largely on the supposed sexual practices of the gay male community , especially sadomasochism . The documentary sparked outrage in the city and CBS was roundly criticized for its journalistic tactics . The National News Council , a media watchdog organization , found that CBS had violated journalistic standards through misrepresentation purposely to reinforce stereotypes and through deceptive editing .
" Gay Power , Gay Politics " was used as a tool of the religious right to block or repeal anti @-@ discrimination ordinances . LGBT writers and theorists have continued to criticize the documentary , although some have suggested that there is some truth to its assertions .
= = Production = =
George Crile became interested in making " Gay Power , Gay Politics " after learning of the National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights scheduled for October 1979 . Crile had earlier produced a piece on assassinated San Francisco Supervisor Harvey Milk that ran on the program CBS Magazine . For this new program , he intended to focus on the 1979 San Francisco mayoral election and the political strength of the gay voting bloc in the city , which the several candidates were courting . He brought Grace Diekhaus in to co @-@ produce with him and secured approval from CBS .
Filming began in the summer of 1979 and continued periodically through November , with the production team shooting in several intervals for a few days each . A number of prominent gay activists , including Armistead Maupin , Cleve Jones and Sally Gearhart , assisted Crile and Diekhaus with the project , although Gearhart and fellow activist Del Martin began questioning their motives , coming to believe the network " was out to do a hatchet job " . Crile interviewed Gearhart for the piece but by the date of her interview she was so mistrustful of the producers that she took measures to try to prevent herself from being misrepresented . " I would lift my voice at a certain point so what I said could not be cut . He seemed to want me to vilify Diane ( sic ) Feinstein in some way and set her in opposition to the gay community .... During one of the breaks I told him that I didn 't feel good about it ... I felt I had been twisted and manipulated . " Ultimately Gearhart 's interview was cut entirely , for which she was " ecstatic " . When Crile began his interview with then @-@ Mayor Dianne Feinstein by asking " How does it feel to be the mayor of Sodom and Gomorrah ? " Feinstein threw him and his crew out of her office .
= = Overview = =
Anchor Harry Reasoner opened the hour with the following narration , over shots of the 1979 March on Washington :
For someone of my generation , it sounds a bit preposterous . Political power for homosexuals ? But those predictions are already coming true . In this report , we 'll see how the gays of San Francisco are using the political process to further their own special interest , just like every other minority group before them . Gay power , gay politics , that 's what this report is about . It 's not a story about life @-@ styles or the average gay experience . What we 'll see is the birth of a political movement and the troubling questions it raises for the eighties , not only for San Francisco , but for other cities throughout the country .
Crile 's report , rather than exploring the thesis laid out by Reasoner , instead focused in large measure on sexual activity , including men cruising in Buena Vista Park and interviews with so @-@ called sadomasochism consultants . He reported that one out of every ten deaths in San Francisco was attributable to gay men participating in BDSM and that one gay @-@ oriented BDSM establishment 's clientele engaged in sexual activity " so dangerous that they have a gynecological table there with a doctor and nurse on hand to sew people up . " He compared San Francisco to the Weimar Republic , asking Cleve Jones , " Isn 't it a sign of decadence when you have so many gays emerging , breaking apart all the values of a society ? " Crile also included footage of Feinstein , in the midst of a run @-@ off election to retain her mayorship , appearing before the Harvey Milk Democratic Club , an LGBT Democrat organization . The program as aired showed Feinstein apologizing for remarks she had made in an earlier Ladies ' Home Journal interview , followed immediately by applause .
Following footage of Jones at a candlelight vigil for Harvey Milk and additional footage from the March on Washington , Reasoner closed with :
Gay political organizations are acting all across the country . The right of homosexuals to organize like any other minority seeking to further its own interests is no longer in question . The question is , what will those interests be ? Will they include a demand for absolute sexual freedom , as they did in San Francisco ? And if so , will this challenge to traditional values provoke far more hostility and controversy when it is put to the test elsewhere ? It is no longer a matter of whether homosexuals will achieve political power , but what they will attempt to do with it .
= = Criticism = =
= = = Representation of the gay community and journalistic standards = = =
Crile and CBS were sharply criticized for the reporting and editing practices used in the documentary . A gay journalist named Randy Alfred , who had covered many of the same campaign events that were included in the episode , spent some 300 hours researching what he believed to be factual errors and misrepresentations within the broadcast . By July 10 he had prepared a 20 @-@ page complaint outlining 44 alleged instances of misrepresentation which he filed with the National News Council , a media watchdog organization . " Gay Power , Gay Politics " , Alfred said , relied on " a systematic use of hearsay , oversights , exaggerations , distortions , inflammatory buzzwords , leading questions , and misleading and deceitful editing " that had as its result " patterned distortion " . Of particular note was the scene of Feinstein at the Harvey Milk Democratic Club . The editor had inserted applause immediately after Feinstein apologized for her earlier Ladies ' Home Journal comments , which Crile had described as Feinstein 's " groveling to atone " . The applause had in fact come after her condemnation of anti @-@ gay violence and a promise to appoint a gay or lesbian member of the police commission .
In response to complaints before the episode even aired , CBS had flown the producers to San Francisco , where in an interview with local CBS affiliate KPIX the pair acknowledged that the material for the show was selected for its likelihood to be shocking . Two months after Alfred 's complaint to the NNC , CBS defended its people . Network vice @-@ president Robert Chandler dismissed the bulk of Alfred 's complaints as " trivial , irrelevant or clearly represent [ ing ] matters of opinion or judgment " . Chandler went on to acknowledge that the applause was broadcast out of sequence but denied that it was intended to deceive . " Whatever the motivation , it is clear that our producers indicated the applause out of its actual time sequence and therefore misled our viewers . This , then , constitutes an acknowledgment of error and an apology for a breach of our own journalistic standards . " Regarding the program as a whole , Chandler denied any bias .
The NNC met on September 18 , 1980 to consider Alfred 's allegations . After dismissing many of them as without merit , The NNC found by a vote of 9 – 2 that CBS had unfairly misrepresented a number of sexual issues , including in the BDSM scenes . " By concentrating on certain flamboyant examples of homosexual behavior the program tended to reinforce stereotypes ... The program exaggerated political concessions to gays and made them appear as threats to public morals and decency . " CBS was also found to have offered distorted coverage of the city 's annual Beaux Arts Ball and to have manipulated the soundtrack by adding the applause . The network later apologized for this on the air , the first time that the LGBT community had received an apology from a major news organization .
Many in the city were angered by the broadcast . The San Francisco Board of Supervisors was outraged and sent a letter of protest to CBS . Feinstein wrote to the station manager of KPIX denouncing the episode . She compared the program to " doing a documentary on Italians and only showing the Mafia " . She asked for three minutes of national airtime to respond but CBS denied her request . Armistead Maupin , who had worked closely with the production team , repudiated the program , saying " I had no idea they were doing a hit piece . " Jeff Jarvis of The San Francisco Examiner wrote , " It 's shocking that CBS News , home of Walter Cronkite , would partake of such bigotry . " Writing for the San Francisco Chronicle , Terrence O 'Flaherty labeled the documentary " a dreadful little program ... deadly for everyone it touches " . Nationally , a spokesperson for the National Gay Task Force condemned the documentary for its premise of gays wanting political power for purposes of having sex in public , for ignoring lesbians and for failing to address issues of anti @-@ gay discrimination .
= = = Representation of BDSM = = =
" Gay Power , Gay Politics " has also been criticized for its negative portrayal of the BDSM sub @-@ culture . CBS used BDSM to discredit the LGBT community by implying that an increase in gay political power would correspond with an increase in BDSM and BDSM @-@ related deaths . The program also miscategorized BDSM as an exclusively gay male activity , despite the fact that most of the BDSM material filmed for the documentary was shot at a location called The Chateau , which had a heterosexual customer base . Reporter Crile interviewed San Francisco coroner Dr. Boyd Stephens , who stated that 10 % of homicides in the city were gay @-@ related and that some of those were related to the BDSM community . His words , which Stephens would later acknowledge were based on hearsay , were widely and inaccurately reported as meaning that 10 % of all homicides in San Francisco were related to BDSM .
= = = Anti @-@ LGBT backlash = = =
Following the airing of the report , the Community United Against Violence ( CUAV ) , a San Francisco group dedicated to addressing anti @-@ gay violence in the city , reported a 400 % increase of reported violent incidents against LGBT people . This marked a reversal of the decrease in violence reports to that point in 1980 . Right @-@ wing groups used " Gay Power , Gay Politics " as a fundraising tool until CBS forced them to stop . The Moral Majority , in its successful campaign to repeal a San Jose , California gay rights ordinance , used an image from the program along with the slogan " Don 't Let It Spread ! " on billboards . In 1985 , a Houston group opposed to a proposed LGBT rights ordinance for the city used clips from the program in its commercials and voters overwhelmingly rejected the ordinance . Controversial psychologist Paul Cameron , on behalf of the right wing Family Research Institute , has used the 10 % homicide figure to support his views on homosexuality , views which have been repudiated by a number of professional psychological and sociological associations .
= = = Continued criticism = = =
" Gay Power , Gay Politics " continued to be a target of criticism by LGBT community leaders and authors , although some have acknowledged that the program included " more than a few kernels of truth " . Former National Gay and Lesbian Task Force executive director Urvashi Vaid attacked the program for its presentation of gays as " sexual hedonists , privileged powerbrokers , and arrogant men scheming to force their ' lifestyle ' on a recalcitrant public " . She further castigated the show for excluding lesbians and people of color ( although she acknowledges that this to an extent mirrored the state of gay leadership at the time ) and noted her belief that anti @-@ gay attack videos produced in the 1990s were modeled on this broadcast . Gay cultural critic Frank Browning , while agreeing with the criticism of the tone of the documentary , nonetheless found the dudgeon that many in the community expressed to be " layered with disingenuousness " . Browning wrote :
As a credentialed , respectable , middle @-@ class professional — an ordinary person who reports , writes and speaks through the airwaves about conventional social issues of family , economy , health , and politics and who pursues the limits of lust in parks and sex clubs — I continue to wonder whether CBS was really incorrect in its characterization of gay men .
While echoing criticism about the exclusion of lesbian concerns and the distortions contained in the broadcast , Browning went on to note that sexual freedom has always been part of the gay male agenda and that it would be absurd to pretend otherwise .
= Psilocybe aztecorum =
Psilocybe aztecorum is a species of psilocybin mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae . Known only from central Mexico , the fungus grows on decomposing woody debris and is found in mountainous areas at elevations of 3 @,@ 200 to 4 @,@ 000 m ( 10 @,@ 500 to 13 @,@ 100 ft ) , typically in meadows or open , grassy forests associated with Hartweg 's pine ( Pinus hartwegii ) . The mushrooms have convex to bell @-@ shaped caps 1 @.@ 5 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , atop slender cylindrical stems that are up to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) long . The color of the caps changes with variations in hydration , ranging from dark chestnut brown to straw yellow or whitish when dry . The base of the stem is densely covered with conspicuous white rhizomorphs , a characteristic uncommon amongst Psilocybe species .
The species was first reported by French mycologist Roger Heim in 1956 as a variety of Psilocybe mexicana before he officially described it under its current name a year later . Named for its association with the Nahua people also called Aztecs , P. aztecorum may have been one of the sacred mushroom species , or teonanácatl ( A Nahuatl word translated variously as " sacred mushroom " or " flesh of the gods " ) , reported in the codices of 16th @-@ century Spanish chronicler Bernardino de Sahagún . The mushrooms are still used for spiritual ceremonies by Nahua Indians in the Popocatépetl region , although this traditional usage is waning . The variety P. aztecorum var. bonetii has smaller spores than the main variety , and is found at lower elevations with Montezuma pine ( Pinus montezumae ) and sacred fir ( Abies religiosa ) . P. aztecorum may be distinguished from similar temperate species such as P. baeocystis and P. quebecensis by their ranges , and by differences in the morphology of microscopic structures like cystidia .
= = Taxonomy and nomenclature = =
The species was first mentioned by French mycologist Roger Heim in 1956 based on material collected by American ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson in Paso de Cortés , on the slopes of Popocatépetl mountain in Mexico . Heim originally named the species as a variety of Psilocybe mexicana ; limited to dried mushroom material for analysis , he only described the spores , which he explained were " relatively longer and narrower than that of Psilocybe mexicana " . A year later , Heim renamed the fungus Psilocybe aztecorum and officially described it , in addition to several other Mexican Psilocybe taxa . Some of these mushrooms , including P. aztecorum , were illustrated in the popular American weekly magazine Life ( " Seeking the Magic Mushroom " ) , in which Wasson recounted the psychedelic visions that he experienced during the divinatory rituals of the Mazatec people , thereby introducing psilocybin mushrooms to Western popular culture .
In 1978 , Mexican mycologist and Psilocybe specialist Gastón Guzmán emended the description of P. aztecorum to include the color variation of the cap resulting from its strongly hygrophanous nature , the mycenoid form , the rhizoids at the base of the stem , the lignicolous habitat , and the size of the spores — all features that he thought were either confused , or not sufficiently detailed , in Heim 's original description . In the same publication , Guzmán also characterized the variety P. aztecorum var. bonetii , distinguished from the main variety by its smaller spores . He had originally described this variant as a separate species , Psilocybe bonetii , in 1970 . Further , Guzmán later published Psilocybe natarajanii , originally described by him from Tamil Nadu in southern India , as a synonym of P. aztecorum var. bonetii ; this putative synonymy , however , is confirmed by neither MycoBank nor Index Fungorum . Guzmán called the main variety P. aztecorum var. aztecorum ; for this reason , the species authority is often cited as " P. aztecorum var. aztecorum R. Heim emend . Guzmán " .
Psilocybe aztecorum is the type species of Guzmán 's section Aztecorum , a group of bluing ( i.e. , psilocybin @-@ containing ) Psilocybe mushrooms characterized by having a strongly hygrophanous cap that dries to brown or brownish white when dry ; spores that appear asymmetrical when seen in side view ; and pleurocystidia that , when present , are hyaline ( translucent ) . Other species classified in section Aztecorum are P. baeocystis and P. quebecensis .
The specific epithet aztecorum refers to the Aztec Indians of central Mexico , who used this mushroom in traditional ceremonies long before the Spanish came to America . The variety P. aztecorum var. bonneti is named after Dr. Federico Bonet ( died 1980 ) , emeritus professor of the Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas , who assisted Guzmán with his doctoral studies . The popular names of P. aztecorum are niños or niñitos ( children or little children ) , or in the Nahuatl language apipiltzin which means niños del agua ( " children of the water " ) , alluding to their habitat along ravines .
= = Description = =
The cap is convex to bell @-@ shaped , sometimes developing a broad umbo before expanding and flattening in age ; it reaches a diameter of 1 @.@ 5 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) . In maturity , the cap eventually forms a central depression , and , in some old specimens , opens into the hollow stem . The cap surface is slimy to the touch , and has translucent striations along the margin when moist . The cap is strongly hygrophanous , meaning that it will change color depending on its level of hydration . The color ranges from yellowish @-@ brown to golden yellow in young button forms to brownish @-@ gray in age , with greenish @-@ gray tints on the margin . The color later changes to whitish from the center to the margin , finally remaining completely white ; dried specimens are straw colored to pale brownish . In contrast to most psilocybin mushrooms , the cap of P. aztecorum does not have a strong bluing reaction upon injury — only the margin stains slightly green @-@ blue .
The gills are adnate ( broadly attached to the stem slightly above the bottom of the gill ) or adnexed ( reaching the stem , but not attached to it ) , and are light violet gray to dark violet brown . They are either uniform in color , or have whitish edges . The hollow stem is 5 @.@ 5 to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 0 in ) by 3 to 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 to 0 @.@ 16 in ) thick , equal in width throughout or thicker at the top , cylindric or sometimes flattened , and either straight or with turns and windings . Its surface is smooth , silky @-@ fibrillose , whitish to greyish , and stains blue @-@ green irregularly when touched or in age . The base of the stem is densely covered with well @-@ developed white rhizomorphs . Young mushrooms have a white cobweb @-@ like partial veil that does not last long before it disappears , although it sometimes remains as a non @-@ permanent ring on the upper part of the stem . The flesh is whitish to yellowish or reddish @-@ yellow in the cap , or reddish @-@ brown in the stem , and shows little or no bluing reaction to injury . Like most of the bluing Psilocybe mushrooms , the odor and taste of P. aztecorum is slightly farinaceous ( similar to freshly ground flour ) in fresh specimens ; dried specimens have a more intense odor . A drop of dilute potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) stains the cap , stem , and flesh reddish @-@ brown ; sometimes , the stem does not stain or stains slightly yellowish red . The spore print is blackish @-@ violet .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are elongated @-@ ellipsoid in face view , roughly terete ( more or less cylindrical but usually tapering at both ends ) , slightly inequilateral or asymmetrical in side view — the so @-@ called " mango " form . They typically have dimensions of 12 – 14 by 6 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 7 by 6 – 7 @.@ 5 μm , although some spores have irregular shapes and are strongly elongated , up to 23 μm . Spores are thick @-@ walled ( generally between 1 – 1 @.@ 5 μm ) , dark yellowish @-@ brown , and have a broad germ pore . The variety bonetii has smaller spores measuring 10 – 13 by 6 – 7 @.@ 5 by 6 – 7 μm .
The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) measure 24 – 33 by 6 @.@ 6 – 8 @.@ 8 μm , and may be attached to anywhere from one to four spores , although four @-@ spored basidia are most common . They are hyaline to sometimes somewhat yellowish , club @-@ shaped or roughly cylindrical , and some have a slight constriction around the middle . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the edge of a gill ) are abundant , forming a sterile band on the gill edge . They are hyaline , fusoid @-@ ampullaceous ( with a shape ranging from a spindle to a swollen bottle ) , with dimensions of 20 – 45 by 5 – 8 @.@ 2 μm , and have a filamentous neck measuring 6 – 11 by 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 5 μm . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are scattered , similar to the cheilocystidia in form and size , hyaline , and some have bifurcated or branched necks .
The subhymenium ( a layer of cells immediately below the hymenium ) consists of spherical cells that are interwoven with hyphae ; this layer is hyaline to yellowish or brownish , and does not have pigment crusted on the walls of the hyphae . The epicutis ( the upper of two layers of the cap cuticle ) is made of a thin gelatinous layer of hyaline or brownish hyphae measuring 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 μm in diameter . The hypodermium ( the cuticle tissue layer under the epicutis ) is hyaline , and has elongated to roughly spherical hyphae that are 10 – 18 μm in diameter . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of P. aztecorum .
= = = Similar species = = =
Psilocybe pseudoaztecorum , found in India , differs from P. aztecorum in the morphology of the pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia . The characteristic filamentous neck present in the cystidia of P. aztecorum is absent in P. pseudoaztecorum . P. pseudoaztecorum had been previously described by K. Natarajan and N. Raman as P. aztecorum , but they published the taxon with a new name after consultation with Guzmán . Fresh specimens of P. aztecorum resemble P. pelliculosa , but this latter species is found only in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada . Like P. aztecorum , the caps of the South African species P. natalensis also bleach to nearly white when dried . The closely related P. baeocystis also bleaches in color to white when dry . Found in northwest North America from British Columbia to Washington and Oregon , P. baeocystis has thinner cheilocystidia than P. aztecorum ( typically measuring 20 – 32 by 4 @.@ 4 – 6 μm ) and its pleurocystidia , when present , are found only near the gill edge . P. quebecensis , known only from Quebec , Canada , has pleurocystidia measuring 12 – 25 by 5 – 10 μm . Although the phylogeny of the species comprising section Aztecorum is not known with certainty , Guzmán has suggested that P. aztecorum was the ancestor of P. baeocystis in northwestern North America and of P. quebecensis in northeastern North America .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
A lignicolous species , Psilocybe aztecorum lives in and decays dead wood , leaves , sticks , or other similar organic debris . Mushrooms typically fruit in groups of 5 to 20 , sometimes in bundles . Usual substrates include wood debris buried in soil , twigs or very rotten logs , and , rarely , pine cones . The mushroom is found in woodlands ( a low @-@ density forest or wooded area that allows sunlight to penetrate to the forest floor ) containing Hartweg 's pine ( Pinus hartwegii ) in addition to grasses such as Festuca tolucensis and Muhlenbergia quadridentata , and the herbaceous plant Alchemilla procumbens , at elevations of 3 @,@ 200 – 4 @,@ 000 m ( 10 @,@ 500 – 13 @,@ 100 ft ) . Heim found the type specimens at an altitude of 3 @,@ 500 m ( 11 @,@ 500 ft ) in an alpine pine forest . P. aztecorum fruits from August to October .
Psilocybe aztecorum is known only from the high mountains of central Mexico , such as Sierra Nevada , Nevado de Toluca , and La Malinche in the States of Mexico , Puebla , and Tlaxcala . According to Guzmán , it is likely that the species also grows in other areas with high mountains , such as the States of Nuevo Leon , Veracruz , Colima , and Chiapas , which have ecological conditions similar to those of the known localities . Variety bonetii grows in the same substrata as the type variety , mainly on humus , but only in forests with Montezuma pine ( Pinus montezumae ) and sacred fir ( Abies religiosa ) , between 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 300 m ( 6 @,@ 600 – 10 @,@ 800 ft ) elevation ; it has not been recorded from Hartweg 's pine forests . Also known only from Mexico , in the states of Mexico and Morelos , and in the Federal District , P. aztecorum var. bonetii usually fruits from August to November . According to Guzmán , P. aztecorum should be of conservation concern owing to loss of its natural habitat .
= = Entheogenic use = =
Psilocybe aztecorum contains the psychoactive compound psilocybin . In 1958 , Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann reported a relatively low concentration of 0 @.@ 02 % psilocybin , but this analysis was performed on two @-@ year @-@ old specimens . Jonathan Ott and Guzmán indicated the presence of psilocybin in the variety bonartii . In terms of psychoactive potency , Paul Stamets rates P. aztecorum as " moderately to highly active " .
The statue of the Aztec " god of flowers " , Xochipilli , a 16th @-@ century stone effigy unearthed on the side of the volcano Popocatépetl , depicts a single figure seated cross @-@ legged upon a temple @-@ like base ; his body is covered in carvings of sacred and psychoactive organisms . Circular patterns on his kneecaps , right forearm , and headdress have been interpreted by R. Gordon Wasson as stylized fruit bodies of Psilocybe aztecorum . Wasson says that the convex shape and incurved margins depicted in these images show the mushroom caps just before maturity . P. aztecorum is , in addition to P. caerulescens , one of two mushrooms thought to be the species described by 16th @-@ century Spanish chronicler Bernardino de Sahagún as the teonanácatl . The word teonanácatl ( Nahuatl pronunciation : [ teoːnaˈnakat ͡ ɬ ] ) has been variously translated as " sacred or divine mushroom " or as " flesh of the gods " . These mushrooms , considered holy sacraments by the Aztecs , were consumed during spiritual and divinatory rituals to induce hallucinatory visions .
Psilocybe aztecorum is still used ceremonially by the indigenous people of Oaxaca , and by Nahua people in the Popocatépetl region , although this usage is gradually diminishing . Traditional folk healers , or curanderos , maintain familiarity with psychoactive mushrooms ( and other mind @-@ altering plants used in ceremonial rituals ) , and diagnose illnesses by having the client ingest the mushrooms . One Mixe curandero initiation ritual involves ingestion of mushrooms following a period of " abstinence from talking , sexual intercourse , and all foods except nuts for three days , whereupon the individual goes up to a mountain , subsists on nothing but a little honey , and prays to God for the power to heal . "
= Canis Minor =
Canis Minor / ˌkeɪnᵻs ˈmaɪnər / is a small constellation in the northern celestial hemisphere . In the second century , it was included as an asterism , or pattern , of two stars in Ptolemy 's 48 constellations , and it is counted among the 88 modern constellations . Its name is Latin for " lesser dog " , in contrast to Canis Major , the " greater dog " ; both figures are commonly represented as following the constellation of Orion the hunter .
Canis Minor contains only two stars brighter than the fourth magnitude , Procyon ( Alpha Canis Minoris ) , with a magnitude of 0 @.@ 34 , and Gomeisa ( Beta Canis Minoris ) , with a magnitude of 2 @.@ 9 . The constellation 's dimmer stars were noted by Johann Bayer , who named eight stars including Alpha and Beta , and John Flamsteed , who numbered fourteen . Procyon is the seventh @-@ brightest star in the night sky , as well as one of the closest . A yellow @-@ white main sequence star , it has a white dwarf companion . Gomeisa is a blue @-@ white main sequence star . Luyten 's Star is a ninth @-@ magnitude red dwarf and the Solar System 's next closest stellar neighbour in the constellation after Procyon . The fourth @-@ magnitude HD 66141 , which has evolved into an orange giant towards the end of its life cycle , was discovered to have a planet in 2012 . There are two faint deep sky objects within the constellation 's borders . The 11 Canis @-@ Minorids are a meteor shower that can be seen in early December .
= = History and mythology = =
Though strongly associated with the Classical Greek uranographic tradition , Canis Minor originates from ancient Mesopotamia . Procyon and Gomeisa were called MASH.TAB.BA or " twins " in the Three Stars Each tablets , dating to around 1100 BC . In the later MUL.APIN , this name was also applied to the pairs of Pi3 and Pi4 Orionis and Zeta and Xi Orionis . The meaning of MASH.TAB.BA evolved as well , becoming the twin deities Lulal and Latarak , who are on the opposite side of the sky from Papsukal , the True Shepherd of Heaven in Babylonian mythology . Canis Minor was also given the name DAR.LUGAL , which translates to " the star which stands behind it " , in the MUL.APIN ; the constellation represents a rooster . This name may have also referred to the constellation Lepus . DAR.LUGAL was also denoted DAR.MUŠEN and DAR.LUGAL.MUŠEN in Babylonia . Canis Minor was then called tarlugallu in Akkadian astronomy .
Canis Minor was one of the original 48 constellations formulated by Ptolemy in his second @-@ century Almagest , in which it was defined as a specific pattern ( asterism ) of stars ; Ptolemy identified only two stars and hence no depiction was possible . The Ancient Greeks called the constellation προκυων / Procyon , " coming before the dog " , transliterated into Latin as Antecanis , Praecanis , or variations thereof , by Cicero and others . Roman writers also appended the descriptors parvus , minor or minusculus ( " small " or " lesser " , for its faintness ) , septentrionalis ( " northerly " , for its position in relation to Canis Major ) , primus ( rising " first " ) or sinister ( rising to the " left " ) to its name Canis . In Greek mythology , Canis Minor was sometimes connected with the Teumessian Fox , a beast turned into stone with its hunter , Laelaps , by Zeus , who placed them in heaven as Canis Major ( Laelaps ) and Canis Minor ( Teumessian Fox ) . Eratosthenes accompanied the Little Dog with Orion , while Hyginus linked the constellation with Maera , a dog owned by Icarius of Athens . On discovering the latter 's death , the dog and Icarius ' daughter Erigone took their lives and all three were placed in the sky — Erigone as Virgo and Icarius as Boötes . As a reward for his faithfulness , the dog was placed along the " banks " of the Milky Way , which the ancients believed to be a heavenly river , where he would never suffer from thirst .
The medieval Arabic astronomers maintained the depiction of Canis Minor ( al @-@ Kalb al @-@ Asghar in Arabic ) as a dog ; in his Book of the Fixed Stars , Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Sufi included a diagram of the constellation with a canine figure superimposed . There was one slight difference between the Ptolemaic vision of Canis Minor and the Arabic ; al @-@ Sufi claims Mirzam , now assigned to Orion , as part of both Canis Minor — the collar of the dog — and its modern home . The Arabic names for both Procyon and Gomeisa alluded to their proximity and resemblance to Sirius , though they were not direct translations of the Greek ; Procyon was called ash @-@ Shi 'ra ash @-@ Shamiya , the " Syrian Sirius " and Gomeisa was called ash @-@ Shira al @-@ Ghamisa , the Sirius with bleary eyes . Among the Merazig of Tunisia , shepherds note six constellations that mark the passage of the dry , hot season . One of them , called Merzem , includes the stars of Canis Minor and Canis Major and is the herald of two weeks of hot weather .
The ancient Egyptians thought of this constellation as Anubis , the jackal god .
Alternative names have been proposed : Johann Bayer in the early 17th century termed the constellation Fovea " The Pit " , and Morus " Sycamine Tree " . Seventeenth @-@ century German poet and author Philippus Caesius linked it to the dog of Tobias from the Apocrypha . Richard A. Proctor gave the constellation the name Felis " the Cat " in 1870 ( contrasting with Canis Major , which he had abbreviated to Canis " the Dog " ) , explaining that he sought to shorten the constellation names to make them more manageable on celestial charts . Occasionally , Canis Minor is confused with Canis Major and given the name Canis Orionis ( " Orion 's Dog " ) .
= = = In non @-@ Western astronomy = = =
In Chinese astronomy , the stars corresponding to Canis Minor lie in the The Vermilion Bird of the South ( 南方朱雀 , Nán Fāng Zhū Què ) . Procyon , Gomeisa and Eta Canis Minoris form an asterism known as Nánhé , the Southern River . With its counterpart , the Northern River Beihe ( Castor and Pollux ) , Nánhé was also associated with a gate or sentry . Along with Zeta and 8 Cancri , 6 Canis Minoris and 11 Canis Minoris formed the asterism Shuiwei , which literally means " water level " . Combined with additional stars in Gemini , Shuiwei represented an official who managed floodwaters or a marker of the water level . Neighboring Korea recognized four stars in Canis Minor as part of a different constellation , " the position of the water " . This constellation was located in the Red Bird , the southern portion of the sky .
Polynesian peoples often did not recognize Canis Minor as a constellation , but they saw Procyon as significant and often named it ; in the Tuamotu Archipelago it was known as Hiro , meaning " twist as a thread of coconut fiber " , and Kopu @-@ nui @-@ o @-@ Hiro ( " great paunch of Hiro " ) , which was either a name for the modern figure of Canis Minor or an alternative name for Procyon . Other names included Vena ( after a goddess ) , on Mangaia and Puanga @-@ hori ( false Puanga , the name for Rigel ) , in New Zealand . In the Society Islands , Procyon was called Ana @-@ tahua @-@ vahine @-@ o @-@ toa @-@ te @-@ manava , literally " Aster the priestess of brave heart " , figuratively the " pillar for elocution " . The Wardaman people of the Northern Territory in Australia gave Procyon and Gomeisa the names Magum and Gurumana , describing them as humans who were transformed into gum trees in the dreamtime . Although their skin had turned to bark , they were able to speak with a human voice by rustling their leaves .
The Aztec calendar was related to their cosmology . The stars of Canis Minor were incorporated along with some stars of Orion and Gemini into an asterism associated with the day called " Water " .
= = Characteristics = =
Lying directly south of Gemini 's bright stars Castor and Pollux , Canis Minor is a small constellation bordered by Monoceros to the south , Gemini to the north , Cancer to the northeast , and Hydra to the east . It does not border Canis Major ; Monoceros is in between the two . Covering 183 square degrees , Canis Minor ranks seventy @-@ first of the 88 constellations in size . It appears prominently in the southern sky during the Northern Hemisphere 's winter . The constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 14 sides . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 07h 06.4m and 08h 11.4m , while the declination coordinates are between 13 @.@ 22 ° and − 0 @.@ 36 ° . Most visible in the evening sky from January to March , Canis Minor is most prominent at 10 PM during mid @-@ February . It is then seen earlier in the evening until July , when it is only visible after sunset before setting itself , and rising in the morning sky before dawn . The constellation 's three @-@ letter abbreviation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is " CMi " .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Canis Minor contains only two stars brighter than fourth magnitude . At magnitude 0 @.@ 34 , Procyon , or Alpha Canis Minoris , is the seventh @-@ brightest star in the night sky , as well as one of the closest . Its name means " before the dog " or " preceding the dog " in Greek , as it rises an hour before the " Dog Star " , Sirius , of Canis Major . It is a binary star system , consisting of a yellow @-@ white main sequence star of spectral type F5 IV @-@ V , named Procyon A , and a faint white dwarf companion of spectral type DA , named Procyon B. Procyon B , which orbits the more massive star every 41 years , is of magnitude 10 @.@ 7 . Procyon A is 1 @.@ 4 times the Sun 's mass , while its smaller companion is 0 @.@ 6 times as massive as the Sun . The system is 11 @.@ 4 light @-@ years ( 3 @.@ 5 parsecs ) from Earth , the shortest distance to a northern @-@ hemisphere star of the first magnitude . Gomeisa , or Beta Canis Minoris , with a magnitude of 2 @.@ 89 , is the second @-@ brightest star in Canis Minor . Lying 162 light @-@ years ( 50 parsecs ) from the Solar System , it is a blue @-@ white main sequence star of spectral class B8 Ve . Although fainter to Earth observers , it is much brighter than Procyon , and is 250 times as luminous and three times as massive as the Sun . Although its variations are slight , Gomeisa is classified as a shell star ( Gamma Cassiopeiae variable ) , with a maximum magnitude of 2 @.@ 84 and a minimum magnitude of 2 @.@ 92 . It is surrounded by a disk of gas which it heats and causes to emit radiation .
Johann Bayer used the Greek letters Alpha to Eta to label the most prominent eight stars in the constellation , designating two stars as Delta ( named Delta1 and Delta2 ) . John Flamsteed numbered fourteen stars , discerning a third star he named Delta3 ; his star 12 Canis Minoris was not found subsequently . In Bayer 's 1603 work Uranometria , Procyon is located on the dog 's belly , and Gomeisa on its neck . Gamma , Epsilon and Eta Canis Minoris lie nearby , marking the dog 's neck , crown and chest respectively . Although it has an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 34 , Gamma Canis Minoris is an orange K @-@ type giant of spectral class K3 @-@ III C , which lies 318 light @-@ years ( 97 parsecs ) away . Its colour is obvious when seen through binoculars . It is a multiple system , consisting of the spectroscopic binary Gamma A and three optical companions , Gamma B , magnitude 13 ; Gamma C , magnitude 12 ; and Gamma D , magnitude 10 . The two components of Gamma A orbit each other every 389 @.@ 2 days , with an eccentric orbit that takes their separation between 2 @.@ 3 and 1 @.@ 4 astronomical units ( AU ) . Epsilon Canis Minoris is a yellow bright giant of spectral class G6.5IIb of magnitude of 4 @.@ 99 . It lies 988 – 1 @,@ 196 light @-@ years ( 303 – 367 parsecs ) from Earth , with 13 times the diameter and 750 times the luminosity of the Sun . Eta Canis Minoris is a giant of spectral class F0III of magnitude 5 @.@ 24 , which has a yellowish hue when viewed through binoculars as well as a faint companion of magnitude 11 @.@ 1 . Located 4 arcseconds from the primary , the companion star is actually around 440 AU from the main star and takes around 5000 years to orbit it .
Near Procyon , three stars share the name Delta Canis Minoris . Delta1 is a yellow @-@ white F @-@ type giant of magnitude 5 @.@ 25 located around 790 light @-@ years ( 240 parsecs ) from Earth . About 360 times as luminous and 3 @.@ 75 times as massive as the Sun , it is expanding and cooling as it ages , having spent much of its life as a main sequence star of spectrum B6V . Also known as 8 Canis Minoris , Delta2 is an F @-@ type main @-@ sequence star of spectral type F2V and magnitude 5 @.@ 59 which is 136 light @-@ years ( 42 parsecs ) distant . The last of the trio , Delta3 ( also known as 9 Canis Minoris ) , is a white main sequence star of spectral type A0Vnn and magnitude 5 @.@ 83 which is 680 light @-@ years ( 210 parsecs ) distant . These stars mark the paws of the Lesser Dog 's left hind leg , while magnitude 5 @.@ 13 Zeta marks the right . A blue @-@ white bright giant of spectral type B8II , Zeta lies around 623 light @-@ years ( 191 parsecs ) away from the Solar System .
Lying approximately 264 light @-@ years ( 81 parsecs ) away with an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 39 , HD 66141 is 6 @.@ 8 billion years old and has evolved into an orange giant of spectral type K2III with a diameter around 22 times that of the Sun , and weighing 1 @.@ 1 solar masses . It is 174 times as luminous as the Sun , with an absolute magnitude of − 0 @.@ 15 . HD 66141 was mistakenly named 13 Puppis , as its celestial coordinates were recorded incorrectly when catalogued and hence mistakenly thought to be in the constellation of Puppis ; Bode gave it the name Lambda Canis Minoris , which is now obsolete . The orange giant is orbited by a planet , HD 66141b , which was detected in 2012 by measuring the star 's radial velocity . The planet has a mass around 6 times that of Jupiter and a period of 480 days .
A red giant of spectral type M4III , BC Canis Minoris lies around 500 light @-@ years ( 150 parsecs ) distant from the Solar System . It is a semiregular variable star that varies between a maximum magnitude of 6 @.@ 14 and minimum magnitude of 6 @.@ 42 . Periods of 27 @.@ 7 , 143 @.@ 3 and 208 @.@ 3 days have been recorded in its pulsations . AZ , AD and BI Canis Minoris are Delta Scuti variables — short period ( six hours at most ) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology . AZ is of spectral type F0III , and ranges between magnitudes 6 @.@ 44 and 6 @.@ 51 over a period of 2 @.@ 3 hours . AD has a spectral type of F2III , and has a maximum magnitude of 9 @.@ 21 and minimum of 9 @.@ 51 , with a period of approximately 2 @.@ 95 hours . BI is of spectral type F2 with an apparent magnitude varying around 9 @.@ 19 and a period of approximately 2 @.@ 91 hours .
At least three red giants are Mira variables in Canis Minor . S Canis Minoris , of spectral type M7e , is the brightest , ranging from magnitude 6 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 2 over a period of 332 @.@ 94 days . V Canis Minoris ranges from magnitude 7 @.@ 4 to 15 @.@ 1 over a period of 366 @.@ 1 days . Similar in magnitude is R Canis Minoris , which has a maximum of 7 @.@ 3 , but a significantly brighter minimum of 11 @.@ 6 . An S @-@ type star , it has a period of 337 @.@ 8 days .
YZ Canis Minoris is a red dwarf of spectral type M4.5V and magnitude 11 @.@ 2 , roughly three times the size of Jupiter and 20 light @-@ years ( 6 @.@ 1 parsecs ) from Earth . It is a flare star , emitting unpredictable outbursts of energy for mere minutes , which might be much more powerful analogues of solar flares . Luyten 's Star ( GJ 273 ) is a red dwarf star of spectral type M3.5V and close neighbour of the Solar System . Its visual magnitude of 9 @.@ 9 renders it too faint to be seen with the naked eye , even though it is only 12 @.@ 39 light @-@ years ( 3 @.@ 80 parsecs ) away . Fainter still is PSS 544 @-@ 7 , an eighteenth @-@ magnitude red dwarf around 20 percent the mass of the Sun , located 685 light @-@ years ( 210 parsecs ) from Earth . First noticed in 1991 , it is thought to be a cannonball star , shot out of a star cluster and now moving rapidly through space directly away from the galactic disc .
The WZ Sagittae @-@ type dwarf nova DY CMi ( also known as VSX J074727.6 + 065050 ) flared up to magnitude 11 @.@ 4 over January and February 2008 before dropping eight magnitudes to around 19 @.@ 5 over approximately 80 days . It is a remote binary star system where a white dwarf and low mass star orbit each other close enough for the former star to draw material off the latter and form an accretion disc . This material builds up until it erupts dramatically .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
The Milky Way passes through much of Canis Minor , yet it has few deep @-@ sky objects . William Herschel recorded four objects in his 1786 work Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars , including two he mistakenly believed were star clusters . NGC 2459 is a group of five thirteenth- and fourteenth @-@ magnitude stars that appear to lie close together in the sky but are not related . A similar situation has occurred with NGC 2394 , also in Canis Minor . This is a collection of fifteen unrelated stars of ninth @-@ magnitude and fainter .
Herschel also observed three faint galaxies , two of which are interacting with each other . NGC 2508 is a lenticular galaxy of thirteenth @-@ magnitude , estimated at 205 million light @-@ years ( 63 million parsecs ) distance with a diameter of 80 thousand light @-@ years ( 25 thousand parsecs ) . Named as a single object by Herschel , NGC 2402 is actually a pair of near @-@ adjacent galaxies that appear to be interacting with each other . Only of fourteenth- and fifteenth @-@ magnitudes respectively , the elliptical and spiral galaxy are thought to be approximately 245 million
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was carried out with 13 tanks from the Badr Brigade , six armored cars , two mobile artillery cannons , and two anti @-@ air guns . Command and control of the forces loyal to the coup would take place at the Military Academy . A unit of revolutionary officers accompanied by tanks headed towards Al @-@ Bashaer Palace . By microphone , they voiced an appeal to the imamate Guard for tribal solidarity and to surrender Muhammad al @-@ Badr , who would be sent peacefully into exile . The imamate Guard refused to surrender and opened fire , prompting the revolutionary leaders to respond with tank and artillery shells . The rebels planned to deploy tanks and artillery in the coup .
The battle at the palace continued until guards surrendered to the revolutionaries the following morning . The radio station was first to fall , secured after a loyalist officer was killed and resistance collapsed . The armory was perhaps the easiest target , as a written order from Sallal was sufficient to open the storage facility , beat the royalists , and secure rifles , artillery and ammunition for the revolutionaries . The telephone exchange likewise fell without any resistance . At the Al @-@ Wusul Palace , revolutionary units remained secure under the guise of granting and protecting diplomats and dignitaries staying there to greet the new Imam of Yemen . By late morning on September 26 , all areas of San 'a were secure and the radio broadcast that Muhammad al @-@ Badr had been overthrown by the new revolutionary government in power . Revolutionary cells in the cities of Taiz , Al @-@ Hujja and the port city of Hodeida then began securing arsenals , airports and port facilities .
= = = = Coup aftermath = = = =
Al @-@ Badr and his personal servants managed to escape through a door in the garden wall in the back of the palace . Because of the curfew declared , they had to avoid the main streets . They decided to escape individually and meet in the village of Gabi al Kaflir , where they were reunited after a forty @-@ five @-@ minute walk . Sallal had to defeat a fellow revolutionary , Al @-@ Baidani , an intellectual holding a doctorate degree , who did not share in Nasser 's vision . On September 28 , the radio announced al @-@ Badr 's death . Sallal gathered tribesmen in San 'a and proclaimed : " The corrupt monarchy which ruled for a thousand years was a disgrace to the Arab nation and to all humanity . Anyone who tries to restore it is an enemy of God and man ! " By then , he had learned that al @-@ Badr was still alive and had made his way to Saudi Arabia .
Egyptian General Ali Abdul Hameed was dispatched by plane , and arrived on September 29 to assess the situation and needs of the Yemeni Revolutionary Command Council . Egypt sent a battalion of Special Forces ( Saaqah ) on a mission to act as personal guards for Sallal . They arrived at Hodeida on October 5 . Fifteen days after he had left San 'a , al @-@ Badr sent a man ahead to the Saudi Arabia to announce that he was alive . He then went there himself , crossing the border near Khobar , at the north @-@ eastern edge of the kingdom .
= = = Diplomatic attempts = = =
Saudi Arabia , fearing Nasserist encroachment , moved troops along its border with Yemen , as the Jordanian monarch dispatched his Army chief of staff for discussions with al @-@ Badr 's uncle , Prince Hassan . Between October 2 – 8 four Saudi cargo planes left Saudi Arabia loaded with arms and military material for Yemeni royalist tribesmen ; however , the pilots defected to Aswan . Ambassadors from Bonn , London , Washington D.C. and Amman supported the Imam while ambassadors from Cairo , Rome and Belgrade declared support for the republican revolution . The USSR was the first nation to recognize the new republic , and Nikita Khrushchev cabled Sallal : " Any act of aggression against Yemen will be considered an act of aggression against the Soviet Union . "
The United States was concerned that the conflict might spread to other parts of the Middle East . President John F. Kennedy rushed off notes to Nasser , Feisal , Hussein and Sallal . His plan was that Nasser 's troops should withdraw from Yemen while Saudi Arabia and Jordan halted their aid to the Imam . Nasser agreed to pull out his forces only after Jordan and Saudi Arabia " stop all aggressive operations on the frontiers " . Feisal and Hussein rejected Kennedy 's plan , since it would involve US recognition of the " rebels " . They insisted that the US should withhold recognition of Sallal 's Presidency since the Imam might still regain control of Yemen , and that Nasser had no intention of pulling out . The Saudis argued that Nasser wanted their oil fields and was hoping to use Yemen as a springboard for revolt in the rest of the Arabian peninsula . King Hussein of Jordan was also convinced that Nasser 's target was Saudi Arabia 's oil , and that if the Saudis went , he would be next .
Sallal declared " I warn America that if it does not recognize the Yemen Arab Republic , I shall not recognize it ! " . US Chargé d 'Affaires in Taiz , Robert Stookey , reported that the republican regime was in full control of the country , except in some border areas . However , the British government was insisting on the strength of the Imam 's tribal support . A letter written by President Kennedy to Faisal dated October 25 , which was kept confidential until January 1963 , said : " You may be assured of full US support for the maintenance of Saudi Arabian integrity " . American jet aircraft twice staged shows of force in Saudi Arabia . The first involved six F @-@ 100 jets staging stunt @-@ flying demonstrations over Riyadh and Jeddah ; on the second , two jet bombers and a giant jet transport , while returning to their base near Paris after a visit to Karachi , Pakistan , put on a demonstration over Riyadh .
Sallal proclaimed Yemen 's " firm policy to honor its international obligations " , including a 1934 treaty pledging respect for Britain 's Aden Protectorate . Nasser promised to " start gradual withdrawal " of its 18 @,@ 000 @-@ man force , " provided Saudi and Jordanian forces also retire from border regions " , but would leave his technicians and advisers behind . On December 19 , the US became the 34th nation to recognize the Yemen Arab Republic . United Nations recognition followed that of the US by a day . The UN continued to consider the republic the only authority in the land and completely ignored the royalists .
Britain , with its commitment to South Arabia and its base in Aden , considered the Egyptian invasion a real threat . Recognition of the republic posed a problem to several treaties Britain had signed with the sheiks and sultans of the South Arabian Federation . Saudi Arabia urged the British to identify themselves with the royalists . On the other hand , there were some in the British Foreign Office who believed Britain could buy security for Aden by recognizing the republic . However , Britain eventually decided not to recognize . Iran , Turkey and most of western Europe also withheld recognition . The republic did receive the recognition of West Germany , Italy , Canada and Australia , as well as the remaining Arab governments , Ethiopia and the entire communist bloc .
A week after the American recognition , Sallal boasted at a military parade the republic had rockets that could strike " the palaces of Saudi Arabia " , and in early January the Egyptians again bombed and strafed Najran , a Saudi Arabian city near the Yemenite border . The US responded with another aerial demonstration over Jeddah and a destroyer joined on January 15 . The US reportedly agreed to send antiaircraft batteries and radar @-@ control equipment to Najran . In addition , Ralph Bunche was sent to Yemen , where he met with Sallal and Egyptian Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer . On March 6 Bunche was in Cairo , where Nasser reportedly assured him that he would withdraw his troops from Yemen if the Saudis would stop supporting the royalists .
= = = Operation Hard @-@ surface = = =
While Bunche was reporting to UN Secretary @-@ General U Thant , the United States Department of State sought the help of ambassador Ellsworth Bunker . His mission was based on a decision made by the National Security Council , which was conceived by McGeorge Bundy and Robert Komer . The idea behind what became known as " Operation Hard @-@ surface " was to trade American protection ( or the appearance of it ) for a Saudi commitment to halt aid to the royalists , on the basis of which the Americans would get Nasser to withdraw his troops . The operation would consist of " eight little planes . "
Bunker arrived in Riyadh on March 6 . Faisal refused Bunker 's offer , which was also hitched to pledges of reform . The original instructions for Operation Hard @-@ surface were that American planes would " attack and destroy " any intruders over Saudi air space , but were later changed to read that the Saudis could defend themselves if attacked . Bunker evidently stuck to the original formula and stressed that if only Faisal would halt his aid to the royalists , the US would be able pressure Nasser to withdraw . Faisal eventually accepted the offer , and Bunker went on to meet with Nasser in Beirut , where the Egyptian President repeated the assurance he had given Bunche .
The Bunche and Bunker mission gave birth to the idea of an observer mission to Yemen , which eventually became the United Nations Yemen Observation Mission . The U.N. observer team , which would be set up by the former UN Congo commander , Swedish Major General Carl von Horn . His disengagement agreement called for ( 1 ) Establishment of a demilitarized zone extending twenty kilometers on either side of a demarcated Saudi Arabian Yemen border , from which all military equipment was to be excluded ; ( 2 ) Stationing of UN observers within this zone on both sides of the border to observe , report and prevent any continued attempt by the Saudis to supply royalist forces .
On April 30 , von Horn was sent to discover what kind of force was required . A few days later , he met with Amer in Cairo and found out that Egypt had no intention of drawing all its troops from Yemen . After a few more days , he was told by the Saudi deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs , Omar Saqqaff , that the Saudis would not accept any attempt by Egypt to leave security forces after their withdrawal . Saudi Arabia had already been cutting back on its support to the royalists , in part because Egypt 's projected plan for unity with Syria and Iraq made Nasser seem too dangerous . By that time , the war cost Egypt $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 a day and nearly 5 @,@ 000 casualties . Though promising to remove her troops , Egypt had the privilege of leaving an unspecified number for the " training " of Yemen 's republican army .
In June , von Horn went to San 'a , unsuccessfully trying to achieve the objective of 1 ) ending Saudi aid to the royalists , 2 ) creating a 25 @-@ mile demilitarized strip along the Saudi border , and 3 ) supervising the phased withdrawal of the Egyptian troops . In September , von Horn cabled his resignation to Thant , who announced that the mission would continue , due to " oral assurances " by Egypt and Saudi Arabia to continue financing it . The number of Egyptian troops increased , and in the end of January , the " Hard @-@ surface " squadron was withdrawn after a wrangle with Faisal . On September 4 , 1964 , the UN admitted failure and withdrew its mission .
= = = Egyptian offensives = = =
The Egyptian General Staff divided the Yemen War into three operational objectives . The first was the air phase , it began with jet trainers modified to strafe and carry bombs and ended with three wings of fighter @-@ bombers , stationed near the Saudi @-@ Yemeni border . Egyptian sorties went along the Tiahma Coast of Yemen and into the Saudi towns of Najran and Jizan . It was designed to attack royalist ground formations and substitute the lack of Egyptian formations on the ground with high @-@ tech air power . In combination with Egyptian air strikes , a second operational phase involved securing major routes leading to San 'a , and from there secure key towns and hamlets . The largest offensive based on this operational tactic was the March 1963 " Ramadan Offensive " that lasted until February 1964 , focused on opening and securing roads from San 'a to Sadah to the North , and San 'a to Marib to the East . The success of the Egyptian forces meant that royalist resistance could take refuge in hills and mountains to regroup and carry out hit @-@ and @-@ run offensives against republican and Egyptian units controlling towns and roads . The third strategic offensive was the pacification of tribes and their enticement to the republican government , meaning the expenditures of massive amounts of funds for humanitarian needs and outright bribery of tribal leaders .
= = = = Ramadan offensive = = = =
The Ramadan offensive began in February 1963 when Amer and Sadat arrived in San 'a . Amer asked Cairo to double the 20 @,@ 000 men in Yemen , and in early February the first 5 @,@ 000 of the reinforcement arrived . On February 18 a task force of fifteen tanks , twenty armored cars , eighteen trucks and numerous jeeps took off from San 'a ' moving northwards , heading for Sadah . More garrison troops followed . A few days later another task force , spearheaded by 350 men in tanks and armored cars , struck out from Sadah southeastwards toward Marib . The maneuvered into the Rub al @-@ Khali desert , perhaps well into Saudi territory , and there they were built up by an airlift . Then they headed westwards . On February 25 they occupied Marib and on March 7 they took Harib . A royalist force of 1 @,@ 500 men ordered down from Najran failed to stop them on their way out from Sadah . The royalist commander at Harib fled to Beihan , on the British @-@ protected side of the border . In the battle of El Argoup , 25 miles southeast of San 'a , 500 royalists under Prince Abdullah 's command attacked an Egyptian position on top of a sheer @-@ sided hill that was fortified with six Soviet T @-@ 54 tanks , a dozen armored cars and entrenched machine guns . The royalists advanced in a thin skirmish line and were plastered by artillery , mortars and strafing planes . They replied with rifles , one mortar with 20 rounds , and a bazooka with four rounds . The battle lasted a week and cost the Egyptians three tanks , seven armored cars and 160 dead . The Egyptians were now in positions from which they could hope to interdict the royalist movement of supplies in the mountains north and east of San 'a ' .
In the beginning of April the royalists held a conference with Faisal in Riyadh . They decided to adopt new tactics , including attempts to get supplies around the positions now held by the Egyptians by using camels instead of trucks to cross the mountains to reach the positions east of San 'a . Camel caravans from Beihan would swing into the Rub al @-@ Khali and enter Yemen north of Marib . It was also decided that the royalists must now strengthen their operations west of the mountains with three " armies " . By the end of April , they began to recover and contended to have regained some of positions from the Egyptians had taken in the Jawf , particularly the small but strategic towns of Barat and Safra , both in the mountains between Sadah and the Jawf , and were able to move freely in the eastern Khabt desert . In the Jawf they claimed to have cleaned up all Egyptian strong @-@ points except Hazm , and in the west the town of Batanah .
= = = = Haradh offensive = = = =
On June 12 , Egyptian infantry numbering at about 4 @,@ 000 , reinforced by the republican army and mercenaries from the Aden protectorate invaded the town of Beit Adaqah , about thirty miles west of San 'a , where Prince Abdullah held a front extending from the Hodeida road , through Kawakaban province , to southern Hajjah . In two days , the attackers advanced about twelve miles , before being repelled by a counter @-@ attack . The royalists admitted about 250 casualties . Next , the Egyptians attacked Sudah , about 100 miles north @-@ west of San 'a . They used the unpopularity of the local royalist commander to bribe several local sheiks and occupied the town unopposed . After a month , the sheiks sent delegations to al @-@ Badr soliciting pardons and asking for guns and money with which to fight the Egyptians . Al @-@ Badr sent new forces and managed to regain the surroundings of Sudah , though not the town itself .
On August 15 , the Egyptians launched an offensive from their major north @-@ western base in Haradh . They had 1 @,@ 000 troops and about 2 @,@ 000 republicans . The plan , as interpreted by British intelligence , seemed to have been to cut the thirty @-@ mile track southward through the mountains from the Saudi border at Khoubah to al @-@ Badr 's headquarters in the Qara mountains near Washa , and then to split into two task forces , one moving east through Washa to the headquarters and the other north @-@ eastwards along the track to the Saudi border below the Razih mountains . The Egyptians began their move on Saturday morning , moving along the Haradh and Tashar ravines . On Saturday and Sunday afternoons they were caught in heavy rain and their vehicles , including twenty tanks and about forty armored cars sank axle deep into the mud . The defenders left them alone until Monday at dawn . Al @-@ Badr left his headquarters at three that morning with 1 @,@ 000 men to direct a counterattack in the Tashar ravine , while Abdullah Hussein attacked in the Haradh ravine .
Meanwhile , the Egyptians had planned a coordinated drive from Sadah to the southwest , below the Razih mountains , hoping to link up with the force coming from Haradh . They were counting on a local sheik , whose forces were to supposed to join 250 Egyptian parachutists . The sheik failed to deliver , and the parachutists made their way back to Sadah , suffering losses from snipers on the way . Al @-@ Badr had sent radio messages and summonses by runner in all directions calling for reinforcement . He asked reserve forces training in the Jawf to arrive in trucks mounting 55- and 57 @-@ millimeter cannon and 81 millimeter mortars and heavy machine guns . They arrived within forty @-@ eight hours , in time to face the attackers . They outflanked the Egyptian columns , still stuck in mud in the ravines . They later announced they had knocked out ten of the Egyptian tanks and about half of their armored cars , and claimed to have shot down an Ilyushin bomber . The royalists also carried out two supporting movements . One was a raid on Jihana , in which several staff officers were killed . The second was an attempt , involving British advisors and French and Belgian mercenaries from Katanga , to bombard San 'a from a nearby mountain peak . Other diversionary operations included raids on Egyptian aircraft and tanks at the south airport of San 'a and a mortar at the Egyptian and republican residence in a suburb of Taiz . Although the Egyptians managed to drive al @-@ Badr out of his headquarters to a cave on Jabal Shedah , they could not close the Saudi border . They declared victory on the radio and on the press , but were obliged to agree to a ceasefire on the upcoming Erkwit conference on November 2 .
= = = Alexandria summit and Erkwit ceasefire = = =
In September , 1964 , Nasser and Faisal met in the Arab summit in Alexandria . By that time Egypt had 40 @,@ 000 troops in Yemen and had suffered an estimated 10 @,@ 000 casualties . In their official communiqué the two leaders promised to 1 ) cooperate fully to solve the existing differences between the various factions in Yemen , 2 ) work together in preventing armed clashes in Yemen , and 3 ) reach a solution by peaceful agreement . The communiqué was widely hailed in the Arab world , and Washington called it a " statesmanlike action " and a " major step toward eventual peaceful settlement of the long civil war . " Nasser and Faisal warmly embraced at Alexandria 's airport and called each other " brother " . Faisal said he was leaving Egypt " with my heart brimming with love for President Nasser . "
On November 2 , at a secret conference in Erkwit , Sudan , the royalists and republicans declared a ceasefire effective at 1 : 00 PM on Monday , November 8 . Tribesmen of both sides celebrated the decision until that day , and for two days after it went into effect , they fraternized at several places . On November 2 and 3 , nine royalists and nine republicans , with a Saudi and an Egyptian observer , worked out the terms . A conference of 168 tribal leaders was planned for November 23 . For the royalists , the conference was to become an embryo national assembly that would name a provisional national executive of two royalists , two republicans and one neutral , to administer the country provisionally and to plan a plebiscite . Until that plebiscite , which would decide whether Yemen would be a monarchy or a republic , both Sallal and al @-@ Badr were to step aside . At the end of the two days the Egyptians resumed their bombing of royalist positions . The conference planned for November 23 was postponed to the 30th , then indefinitely . The republicans blamed the royalists for not arriving , while the royalists blamed the Egyptian bombings .
= = = Royalist offensive = = =
Between December 1964 and February 1965 the royalists discerned four Egyptian attempts to drive directly into the Razih mountains . The intensity of these thrusts gradually diminished , and it was estimated that the Egyptians lost 1 @,@ 000 men killed , wounded and taken prisoner . Meanwhile , the royalists were building up an offensive . The Egyptian line of communications went from San 'a to Amran , then Khairath , where it branched off north @-@ eastwards to Harf . From Harf it turned due south to Farah , and then South @-@ eastwards to Humaidat , Mutamah and Hazm . From Hazm it led south @-@ eastwards to Marib and Harib . A military convoy went over this route twice a month . Since the royalists had closed the direct route across the mountains from San 'a to Marib , the Egyptians had no other way .
The royalists under the command of Prince Mohamed 's objective was to cut the Egyptians ' line and force them to withdraw . They intended to take over the garrisons along this line and establish positions from which they could interdict the Egyptian movement . They had prepared the attack with the help of the Nahm tribe , who tricked the Egyptians into believing that they were their allies and would take care of the mountain pass known as Wadi Humaidat themselves . The royalist deal was that the Nahm would be entitled to loot the ambushed Egyptians . The Egyptians may have suspected something was up , as they sent a reconnaissance aircraft over the area a day before the attack . The royalists thus occupied two mountains known as Asfar and Ahmar and installed 75 @-@ mm guns and mortars overlooking the wadi . On April 15 , the day after the last Egyptian convoy went through , the royalists launched a surprise attack . Both forces numbered at only a couple of thousands . The guns positioned on Asfar and Ahmar opened fire , and then the Nahm came out from behind the rocks . Finally , Prince Mohamed 's troops followed . This time , the royalists ' operation was fully coordinated by radio . Some of the Egyptians surrendered without resistance , others fled to Harah 800 yards to the north . Both sides brought reinforcements and the battle shifted between Harf and Hazm .
Meanwhile , Prince Abdullah bin Hassan began to raid Egyptian positions north @-@ east of San 'a at Urush , Prince Mohamed bin Mohsin was attacking the Egyptians with 500 men west of Humaidat , Prince Hassan struck out from near Sadah and Prince Hassan bin Hussein moved from Jumaat , west of Sadah , to within mortar @-@ firing distance of the Egyptian airfield west of Sadah . Fifty Egyptians surrendered at Mutanah , near Humaidat . They were eventually allowed to evacuate to San 'a with their arms . Mohamed 's policy was to keep officers as prisoners for exchange , and to allow soldiers to go in return for their arms . Three to five thousand Egyptian troops in garrisons on the eastern slopes of the mountains and in the desert now had to be supplied entirely by air .
= = = Stalemate = = =
The royalist radio tried to widen the split in republican ranks by promising amnesty to all non @-@ royalists once the Egyptians were withdrawn . Al @-@ Badr also promised a new form of government : " a constitutionally democratic system " ruled by a " national assembly elected by the people of Yemen " . At Sallal 's request , Nasser provided him with ammunition and troop reinforcements by transport plane from Cairo . By August , the royalists had seven " armies " , each varying in strength between 3 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 men , with a total somewhere between 40 @,@ 000 and 60 @,@ 000 . There were also five or six times as many armed royal tribesmen , and the regular force under Prince Mohamed . In early June they moved into Sirwah in eastern Yemen . On June 14 they entered Qaflan and on July 16 they occupied Marib . According to official Egyptian army figures , they had 15 @,@ 194 killed . The war was costing Egypt $ 500 @,@ 000 a day . The royalists had lost an estimated 40 @,@ 000 dead . In late August , Nasser decided to get the Soviets more involved in the conflict . He convinced them to cancel a $ 500 million debt he had incurred and provide military aid to the republicans . In early May , Sallal fired his Premier , General Hassan Amri , and appointed Ahmed Noman in his place . Noman was considered a moderate who believed in compromise . He had resigned as president of the republican Consultative Council in December in protest against Sallal 's " failure to fulfill the people 's aspirations " . Noman 's first act was to name a new 15 @-@ man Cabinet , maintaining an even balance between Yemen 's two main tribal groupings , the mountain Zaidi Shias , who were mostly royalist , and the Shafi 'i Sunnis , who were mostly republican .
= = = Nasser 's " long @-@ breath " strategy = = =
Egypt had run up a foreign debt of nearly $ 3 billion , and the gap between exports and imports had widened to a record $ 500 million for 1965 . On Victory Day in Port Said , Nasser conceded that " We are facing difficulties . We must all work harder and make sacrifices . I have no magic button that I can push to produce the things you want " . Premier Zakaria Mohieddin raised Egypt 's income tax , added a " defense tax " on all sales , and boosted tariffs on nonessential imports . He also hiked the cost of luxury goods 25 % and set low price ceilings on most foodstuffs . He sent 400 plainclothesmen to Cairo 's to arrest 150 shopkeepers for price violations . In March 1966 , the Egyptian forces , now numbering almost 60 @,@ 000 , launched their biggest offensive . The royalists counterattacked but the stalemate resumed . Egyptian @-@ supported groups executed sabotage bombings in Saudi Arabia .
In a speech on May Day , 1966 , Nasser said the war was entering a new phase . He launched what he called a " long @-@ breath strategy . " The plan was to pare the army from 70 @,@ 000 men to 40 @,@ 000 , withdraw from exposed positions in eastern and northern Yemen , and tighten the hold on particular parts of Yemen : the Red Sea coastline ; a northern boundary that takes in the well @-@ fortified town of Hajja and San 'a ; and the border with the South Arabian Federation , which was to become independent in 1968 . Nasser insisted that attacks on Najran , Qizan and other " bases of aggression " would continue , arguing that " these were originally Yemeni towns , which the Saudis usurped in 1930 " .
Assistant Secretary of State for the Near East and South Asia , flew in for talks with both Faisal and Nasser . In Alexandria , Nasser refused to pull out his troops , despite the risk of losing part or all of a new $ 150 million US food @-@ distribution program , and another $ 100 million worth of industrial @-@ development aid . Later that month , Alexei Kosygin counseled Nasser not to risk a stoppage of the U.S. Food for Peace program because Russia could not afford to pay the bill . The Russians were also willing to aid Nasser with arms and equipment in Yemen , but feared that a widening of the conflict to Saudi Arabia would lead to a " hot war " confrontation in the Middle East . Nasser was warned that " the Soviet Union would be displeased to see an attack on Saudi Arabia . "
In October , Sallal 's palace in San 'a was attacked with a bazooka , and insurgents began targeting an Egyptian army camp outside the city and setting fire to Egyptian installations , killing a reported 70 Egyptian troops . Sallal arrested about 140 suspects , including Mohamed Ruwainy , the ex @-@ Minister for Tribal Affairs , and Colonel Hadi Issa , former deputy chief of staff of the armed forces . Sallal accused Ruwainy and Issa of organizing a " subversive network seeking to plunge the country into terrorism and panic " and planning a campaign of assassination , financed by Saudi Arabia , Britain , Israel and the US . Ruwainy , Issa and five others were executed , while eight others received prison sentences ranging from five years to life . In February , 1967 , Nasser vowed to " stay in Yemen 20 years if necessary " , while Prince Hussein bin Ahmed said " We are prepared to fight for 50 years to keep Nasser out , just as we did the Ottoman Turks . " Tunisia broke diplomatic relations with the republic , saying that the Sallal government no longer has power to govern the country . Sallal 's chargé d 'affaires in Czechoslovakia flew to Beirut and announced that he was on his way to offer his services to the royalists . Nasser said that " As the situation now stands , Arab summits are finished forever . "
= = = = Chemical warfare = = = =
The first use of gas took place on June 8 , 1963 against Kawma , a village of about 100 inhabitants in northern Yemen , killing about seven people and damaging the eyes and lungs of twenty @-@ five others . This incident is considered to have been experimental , and the bombs were described as " home @-@ made , amateurish and relatively ineffective " . The Egyptian authorities suggested that the reported incidents were probably caused by napalm , not gas . The Israeli Foreign Minister , Golda Meir , suggested in an interview that Nasser would not hesitate to use gas against Israel as well . There were no reports of gas during 1964 , and only a few were reported in 1965 . The reports grew more frequent in late 1966 . On December 11 , 1966 , fifteen gas bombs killed two people and injured thirty @-@ five . On January 5 , 1967 , the biggest gas attack came against the village of Kitaf , causing 270 casualties , including 140 fatalities . The target may have been Prince Hassan bin Yahya , who had installed his headquarters nearby . The Egyptian government denied using poison gas , claiming that Britain and the US were using the reports as psychological warfare against Egypt . On February 12 , 1967 , it said it would welcome a UN investigation . On March 1 , U Thant said he was " powerless " to deal with the matter .
On May 10 , the twin villages of Gahar and Gadafa in Wadi Hirran , where Prince Mohamed bin Mohsin was in command , were gas bombed , killing at least seventy @-@ five . The Red Cross was alerted and on June 2 , it issued a statement in Geneva expressing concern . The Institute of Forensic Medicine at the University of Berne made a statement , based on a Red Cross report , that the gas was likely to have been halogenous derivatives - phosgene , mustard gas , lewisite , chlorine or cyanogen bromide . The gas attacks stopped for three weeks after the Six @-@ Day War of June , but resumed on July , against all parts of royalist Yemen . Casualty estimates vary , and an assumption , considered conservative , is that the mustard and phosgene @-@ filled aerial bombs caused approximately 1 @,@ 500 fatalities and 1 @,@ 500 injuries .
= = = Egyptian withdrawal = = =
By 1967 , Egyptian forces relied exclusively on defending a triangle linking Hodeida , Taiz and San 'a , while striking southern Saudi Arabia and North Yemen with air sorties . In August , 1967 , in order to make up for the 15 @,@ 000 Egyptian killed , captured or missing , as a result of the Six @-@ Day War , Nasser recalled 15 @,@ 000 of his troops from Yemen . Egypt imposed higher taxes on its middle and upper classes , raised workers ' compulsory monthly savings by 50 % , reduced overtime pay , cut the sugar ration by a third , and curtailed practically all major industrial programs . Only military expenditures were increased , by $ 140 million to an estimated $ 1 billion . Nasser also increased the price of beer , cigarettes , long @-@ distance bus and railroad fares and admission to movies . Egypt was losing $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 a week in revenues from the closing of the Suez Canal , on the other side of which , the Israelis were sitting on the Sinai wells that had produced half of Egypt 's oil supply . Egypt 's hard @-@ currency debt was now approaching $ 1 @.@ 5 billion and its foreign @-@ exchange reserves were down to $ 100 million .
As part of the Khartoum Resolution of August , Egypt announced that it was ready to end the war in Yemen . Egyptian Foreign Minister , Mahmoud Riad , proposed that Egypt and Saudi Arabia revive their Jeddah Agreement of 1965 . Faisal expressed satisfaction with Nasser 's offer , and al @-@ Badr promised to send his troops to fight with Egypt against Israel , should Nasser live up to the Jeddah agreement Nasser and Faisal signed a treaty under which Nasser would pull out his 20 @,@ 000 troops from Yemen , Faisal would stop sending arms to al @-@ Badr , and three neutral Arab states would send in observers . Sallal accused Nasser of betrayal . Nasser unfroze more than $ 100 million worth of Saudi assets in Egypt , and Faisal denationalized two Egyptian @-@ owned banks that he had taken over earlier that year . Saudi Arabia , Libya , and Kuwait agreed to provide Egypt with an annual subsidy of $ 266 million , out of which $ 154 million was to be paid by Saudi Arabia .
Sallal 's popularity among his troops declined , and after two bazooka attacks on his home by disaffected soldiers , he took Egyptian guards . He ordered the execution of his security chief , Colonel Abdel Kader Khatari , after Khatari 's police fired into a mob attacking an Egyptian command post in San 'a , and had refused to recognize the committee of Arab leaders appointed at Khartoum to arrange peace terms . He also fired his entire Cabinet and formed a new one , installing three army men in key ministries , and took over the army ministry and the foreign ministry for himself . Meanwhile , Nasser announced the release of three republican leaders who had been held prisoner in Egypt for more than a year , and who were in favor of peace with the royalists . The three were Qadi Abdul Rahman Iryani , Ahmed Noman and General Amri . When Sallal met with Nasser in Cairo in early November , Nasser advised him to resign and go into exile . Sallal refused and went to Baghdad , hoping to get support from other Arab Socialists . As soon as he left Cairo , Nasser sent a cable to San 'a , instructing his troops there not to block an attempt at a coup .
= = = Siege of Sana 'a = = =
On November 5 , Yemeni dissidents , supported by republican tribesmen called down to San 'a , moved four tanks into the city 's dusty squares , took over the Presidential Palace and announced over the government radio station that Sallal had been removed " from all positions of authority " . The coup went unopposed . In Baghdad , Sallal asked for political asylum , saying " every revolutionary must anticipate obstacles and difficult situations " . The Iraqi government offered him a home and a monthly grant of 500 dinars .
The new republican government was headed by Qadi Abdul Rahman Iryani , Ahmed Noman and Mohamed Ali Uthman . The Prime Minister was Mohsin al @-@ Aini . Noman , however , remained in Beirut . He was doubtful of his colleagues reluctance to negotiate with the Hamidaddin family , preferring to expel it instead . On November 23 , he resigned , and his place was taken by Hassan Amri . Prince Mohamed bin Hussein told the country 's chiefs " We have money , and you will have your share if you join us . If not , we will go on without you " . The chiefs agreed to mobilize their tribes . 6 @,@ 000 royalist regulars and 50 @,@ 000 armed tribesmen known as " the Fighting Rifles " surrounded San 'a , captured its main airport and severed the highway to the port of Hodeida , a main route for Russian supplies . In a battle twelve miles east of the capital , 3 @,@ 200 soldiers of both sides were killed , and an entire republican regiment reportedly deserted to the royalists . Bin Hussein gave them an ultimatum : " Surrender the city or be annihilated " . Iryani went to Cairo for what the Egyptian official press agency called " a medical checkup " . Foreign Minister Hassan Macky also left Yemen , leaving the government in charge of Amri . Amri declared a 6 p.m. curfew and ordered civilians to form militia units " to defend the republic " . In Liberation Square , six suspected royalist infiltrators were publicly executed by a firing squad , and their bodies were later strung up on poles .
The republicans boasted a new air force , while the royalists claimed to have shot down a MiG @-@ 17 fighter with a Russian pilot . The US State Department said that this claim , as well as reports of twenty @-@ four MiGs and forty Soviet technicians and pilots who had arrived in Yemen , were correct . In January , the republicans were defending San 'a with about 2 @,@ 000 regulars and tribesmen , plus armed townsmen and about ten tanks . They also had the backing of a score or more fighter aircraft piloted by Russians or Yemenis who passed a crash course in the Soviet Union . The city could still feed itself from the immediately surrounding countryside . Between 4 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 royalists suffered from republican air power , but had the advantage of high ground . However , they did not have enough ammunition , as the Saudis had halted arms deliveries after the Khartoum agreement and stopped financing the royalists after December .
= = = Final accords = = =
By February 1968 , the siege was lifted and the republicans had essentially won the war . Meanwhile , the British had withdrawn from the Federation of South Arabia , which had now become South Yemen . The royalists remained active until 1970 . Talks between the two sides commenced while the fighting went on . The Foreign Minister , Hassan Makki , said " Better years of talk than a day of fighting " . In 1970 , Saudi Arabia recognized the Republic , and a ceasefire was effected . The Saudis gave the republic a grant of $ 20 million , which was later repeated intermittently , and Yemeni sheikhs received Saudi stipends .
= = Aftermath = =
By 1971 , both Egypt and Saudi Arabia had disengaged from Yemen . South Yemen formed a connection with the Soviet Union . In September 1971 , Amri resigned after murdering a photographer in San 'a , and more power was given to Iryani , the effective President . By then , the royalists were integrated into the new republic , except for al @-@ Badr 's family , and a consultative Council was established . Clashes along the border between the states rose , and in 1972 a small war broke .
After the war , the tribes were better represented in the republican government . In 1969 , sheikhs were brought into the National Assembly and in 1971 into the Consultative Council . Under Iryani , the sheikhs , particularly the ones who fought for the republicans and were close to the mediation attempt . By the end of the war there was a breach between the older and more liberal politicians and republican sheiks , and certain army sheiks and activists from South Yemen . In the summer of 1972 , a border war broke and ended with a declaration from both North Yemen and South Yemen that they would reunite , but they did not . There were complaints in North Yemen about foreign influence by Saudi Arabia .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Royalists = = =
Muhammad al @-@ Badr led his campaign with the princes of the house of Hamidaddin . Those included Hassan bin Yahya , who had come from New York , Mohamed bin Hussein , Mohamed bin Ismail , Ibrahim al Kipsy , and Abdul Rahman bin Yahya . At fifty @-@ six , Hassan bin Yahya was the oldest and most distinguished . Prince Hassan was made Prime Minister and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . The Imam was joined by his childhood pen pal , American Bruce Conde , who set up the post office and would later rise to the rank of general in the Royalist forces .
In 1963 , the Saudis spent $ 15 million to equip royalist tribes , hire hundreds of European mercenaries , and establish their own radio station . Pakistan , which saw a chance to make money in the conflict , extended rifles to the royalists . Remnants of the Imam 's Army also had elements of the Saudi National Guard fight alongside its ranks . Iran subsidized royalist forces on and off , as the Shah felt compelled to provide al @-@ Badr ( a Zaidi ) with financing . The British allowed convoys of arms to flow through one of its allies in Northern Yemen , the Sheriff of Beijan , who was protected by the British administration in Aden . British military planes conducted night operations to resupply al @-@ Badr 's forces . The MI6 was responsible for contacting the royalists , and used the services of a private company belonging to Colonel David Stirling , founder of the Special Air Service ( SAS ) , who recruited dozens of former SAS men as advisors to the royalists . Britain participated in a $ 400 million British air defense program for Saudi Arabia . The Lyndon Johnson administration was more willing than Kennedy 's to support long @-@ range plans in support of the Saudi army . In 1965 , the US authorized an agreement with the Corps of Engineers to supervise the construction of military facilities and in 1966 it sponsored a $ 100 million program which provided the Saudi forces with combat vehicles , mostly trucks . Faisal also initiated an Islamic alignment called the Islamic Conference , to counter Nasser 's Arab socialism .
The tribes of Southern Saudi Arabia and Northern Yemen were closely linked , and the Saudis enticed thousands of Yemeni workers in Saudi Arabia to assist the royalist cause . In addition to the Saudis and British , the Iraqis also sent plane loads of Baathist Yemenis to undermine Sallal 's regime . The royalists fought for the Imam despite his father 's unpopularity . One sheik said " The Imams have ruled us for a thousand years . Some were good and some bad . We killed the bad ones sooner or later , and we prospered under the good ones " . The hill tribes were Shia , like the Imam , while the Yemenis of the coast and the south were Sunni , as were most Egyptians . President Sallal was himself a mountain Shia fighting with lowland Sunnis . Al @-@ Badr himself was convinced that he was Nasser 's biggest target , saying " Now I 'm getting my reward for befriending Nasser . We were brothers , but when I refused to become his stooge , he used Sallal against me . I will never stop fighting . I will never go into exile . Win or lose , my grave will be here " .
Al @-@ Badr had formed two royalist armies — one under his uncle Prince Hassan in the east and one under his own control in the west . Both armies controlled most of the north and east of Yemen , including the towns of Harib and Marib . The provincial capital of Northern Yemen , Sadah , which would have given the Imam a key strategic road towards the main capital San 'a , was controlled by the republicans . There were also areas like the town of Hajjah , where the royalists controlled the mountains while the Egyptians and republicans controlled the town and fortress . Mercenaries from France , Belgium and England , who had fought in Rhodesia , Malaya , Indochina and Algeria , were sent to assist the Imam in planning , training and giving the irregular forces the ability to communicate with one another and the Saudis . They trained tribesmen in the use of antitank weapons , such as the 106mm gun and in mining techniques . The numbers of mercenaries are estimated in the hundreds , although Egyptian sources at the time reported 15 @,@ 000 . Royalist tactics were confined to guerilla warfare , isolating conventional Egyptian and republican forces , and conducting attacks on supply lines .
= = = = British involvement 1962 – 1965 = = = =
Between 1962 and 1965 Britain engaged in covert operations in support of Royalist forces fighting the Egyptian backed Republican regime that had seized power in the Yemeni capital Sana 'a in September 1962 . Until the end of 1965 , the British presence in Aden was considered of high interest to the United Kingdom , linked to the realization of oil assets in the Middle East . The means to secure this presence however involved a bitter argument within the British government , with no coherency in decision making on the Yemen issue . The objective of the British was mainly keeping the Aden base via cooperating with the Federation of South Arabia , which complicated British relations with many global and regional players , as well as with the rulers of South Arabia themselves . The British involvement was executed mainly via the British Mercenary Organization ( BMO ) , which was capable to stage its own covert operations , independent of London and away from the view of their sponsor Saudi Arabia . The BMO was specifically formed to train and support the royalists on the course of the war .
According to Duff Hart @-@ Davis , the British mercenary leader Jim Johnson had originally considered buying their own aircraft , a Lockheed Constellation 749 . He then flew to Teheran to try to persuade the Iranians to do an air drop . Hurt Davis further claims that success was finally achieved by an adviser to the mercenaries , the MP Neil " Billy " McLean , who privately ( without the British government 's knowledge ) flew to Tel Aviv to meet Moshe Dayan , defense minister , and Meir Amit , head of Mossad . According to " Haaretz " newspaper , Tony Boyle contacted David Karon , the head of the Middle East department in the Tevel ( Cosmos ) section of the Mossad , and met with IAF commander Ezer Weizman and his officers . It was decided that the airdrops would be made . Haaretz suggested the crew of the airdrops were British ; while according to Hart @-@ Davis the crew were Israeli ( including the pilot named Arieh Oz ) , with Tony Boyle on board as an observer . Three decades after the war , former Mossad director , Shabtai Shavit , and Ariel Sharon both said Israel had been clandestinely involved in Yemen , though both remained vague concerning the nature and scale of the involvement . The airlifts were originally codenamed " Operation Gravy " , but were later renamed " Operation Porcupine " . The IAF 's largest transport plane , a Stratofreighter , was recruited for the British operation . According to Jones , what is clear however is that some of the mercenary air drops to the royalists ( code @-@ named " Mango " ) were organized by the British using an aircraft , which were contracted privately from IAF to the British mercenary operation and were either using Israeli air bases or Israeli transport planes themselves making the drops .
The first flight took off in March 1964 from Tel Nof Airbase . The first weapons drop , witnessed on the ground by British mercenary Lieutenant Colonel Johnny Cooper , provided the royalists with a morale @-@ boosting 180 old rifles , 34 @,@ 000 rounds of Mauser and 17 @,@ 000 rounds of .303 rifle ammunition , 72 six @-@ pounder antitank shells and 150 pounds of plastic explosive . According to Hart @-@ Davis , the Israelis had systematically concealed the source of the weapons delivered by the mercenaries , brazing out all the serial numbers , using Italian parachutes , and even ensuring that the packaging consisted of wood @-@ shavings from Cyprus . The contracted aircraft flew along the Saudi coastline . The Saudis did not have radar systems , and would later state they were not aware of the airlifts . The planes would make the drops and then refuel in French Somaliland ( now Djibouti ) and return to bases in Israel . During the sixth flight , Boyle suggested that the IAF aircraft would also be used to bomb San 'a . Weizman supported the idea and plans were made , but the Israel Defense Forces Chief of Staff ( Ramatkal ) Yitzhak Rabin and Israeli Prime Minister , Levi Eshkol , denied him . The Porcupine operation went on over a period of slightly more than two years , during which the Stratofreighter carried out 14 nighttime sorties from Tel Nof to Yemen .
British support to the royalists remained covert throughout . The Prime Minister Alec Douglas @-@ Home replied to Michael Foot 's parliamentary question on 14 May 1964 , having according to Hart @-@ Davis " to skate across thin ice " by saying " Our policy towards the Yemen is one of non @-@ intervention in the affairs of that country . It is not therefore our policy to supply arms to the Royalists in the Yemen , and the Yemen Government have not requested these or other forms of aid . " To a further question ( by George Wigg ) , Douglas @-@ Home said that " at no time in the last eighteen months have British arms been supplied to the Imam 's Government " . Hart @-@ Davis notes that this " may have been strictly true ; but ... a great many weapons of non @-@ British provenance had been spirited into the Yemen through Jim Johnson 's machinations . "
British mercenary involvement became public knowledge , when five letters addressed to Johnny Cooper were captured by the Egyptians in November 1963 . Their content was published by Al @-@ Ahram and then broadcast by Cairo radio on 1 May 1964 . Al @-@ Ahram quoted an estimate for British , French and other foreigners of " over 300 officers " , " directed from Britain and most probably under the command of British Intelligence " . On 5 July 1964 the Sunday Times published the letters , connecting " these Buchanesque freebooters " ( Cooper and his team ) with Tony Boyle .
However , the British Government was able to continue denying any knowledge of mercenary activity . On 21 July 1964 , Douglas @-@ Home replied to a parliamentary question by saying " Both the present High Commissioner and his predecessor have assured us that they were not aware that the person in question ( Tony Boyle ) was involved in any way " . The following day ( 22 July 1964 ) , Douglas @-@ Home sent a memorandum to the Foreign Secretary Rab Butler , in which he " decreed that the United Kingdom should ' make life intolerable ' for Nasser , ' with money and arms ' , and that this ' should be deniable if possible ' . " The result was that a secret Joint Action Committee was created to handle British policy on Yemen . The British support continued until 1965 , when the Kingdom decided to abandon its Aden Colony .
= = = = Saudi and Jordanian support = = = =
Saudis and Jordanians provided an active support to the royalists through the first years of war . The September 1962 coup d 'état in Yemen was perceived a threat to the monarchies in both Saudi Arabia and Jordan , prompting shipments of weapons to the royalists , beginning October 1 . The support to the monarchists was quickly countered by the Egyptian aid to the Republicans , rapidly spiraling the country into a full @-@ scale war , as the Republicans called for general mobilization and the Egyptians dispatching troops . On November 4 , with the war expanding across North Yemen , the Mecca Radio reported of Egyptian air force attacks on Saudi villages . The same day , a military alliance of Saudi Arabia and Jordan became widely known . Following the Egyptian raids on Saudi Arabia and the official Joint Defense Pact formed between Egypt and the Republicans , the Saudis decided to launch attacks on the Republicans in North Yemen .
The Jordanians withdrew from the war in 1963 , by recognizing the Republicans , but the Saudi support continued . At some point Saudi border towns and airfields were attacked by Egyptian forces in order to " prevent Saudi supplies and ammunition from reaching Royalist @-@ held areas in the Yemen " .
= = = Egyptian deployment = = =
Anwar Sadat was convinced that a regiment reinforced with aircraft could firmly secure Al @-@ Sallal and his free officer movement , but within three months of sending troops to Yemen , Nasser realized that this would require a larger commitment than anticipated . A little less than 5 @,@ 000 troops were sent in October 1962 . Two months later , Egypt had 15 @,@ 000 regular troops deployed . By late 1963 , the number was increased to 36 @,@ 000 ; and in late 1964 , the number rose to 50 @,@ 000 Egyptian troops in Yemen . In late 1965 , the Egyptian troop commitment in Yemen was at 55 @,@ 000 troops , which were broken into 13 infantry regiments of one artillery division , one tank division and several Special Forces as well as paratroop regiments . Ahmed Abu @-@ Zeid , who served as Egypt 's ambassador to royalist Yemen from 1957 to 1961 , sent numerous reports on Yemen that did not reach Ministry of Defense officials . He warned Egyptian officials in Cairo , including Defense Minister Amer , that the tribes were difficult and had no sense of loyalty or nationhood . He opposed sending Egyptian combat forces and , arguing that only money and equipment be sent to the Yemeni Free Officers , and warned that the Saudis would finance the royalists .
Egyptian field commanders complained of a total lack of topographical maps causing a real problem in the first months of the war . Commanders had difficulty planning military operations effectively or sending back routine and casualty reports without accurate coordinates . Field units were given maps that were only of use for aerial navigation . Chief of Egyptian Intelligence , Salah Nasr , admitted that information on Yemen was nonexistent . Egypt had not had an embassy in Yemen since 1961 ; therefore when Cairo requested information from the US ambassador to Yemen , all he provided was an economic report on the country .
In 1963 and 1964 the Egyptians had five squadrons of aircraft in Yemen at airfields near San 'a and Hodeida . They were using Yak @-@ 11 piston @-@ engined fighters , MiG @-@ 15 and MiG @-@ 17 jet fighters , Ilyushin Il @-@ 28 twin @-@ engined bombers , Ilyushin Il @-@ 14 twin @-@ engined transports and Mil Mi @-@ 4 transport helicopters . They were also flying four @-@ engined Tupolev bombers from bases in Egypt , such as Aswan . All the air crew were Egyptian , except for the Tupolev bombers which were thought to have mixed Egyptian and Russian personnel . The Ilyushin transports flying between Egypt and Hodeida had Russian crews . Throughout the war , the Egyptians relied on airlift . In January 1964 , when royalist forces placed San 'a under siege , Egyptian Antonov heavy @-@ lift cargo planes airlifted tons of food and kerosene into the region . The Egyptians estimate that hundreds of millions of dollars were spent to equip Egyptian and republican Yemeni forces , and in addition , Moscow refurbished the Al @-@ Rawda Airfield outside San 'a . The politburo saw a chance to gain a toehold on the Arabian Peninsula and accepted hundreds of Egyptian officers to be trained as pilots for service in the Yemen War .
Egyptian air and naval forces began bombing and shelling raids in the Saudi southwestern city of Najran and the coastal town of Jizan , which were staging points for royalist forces . In response , the Saudis purchased a British Thunderbird air defense system and developed their airfield in Khamis Mushayt . Riyadh also attempted to convince Washington to respond on its behalf . President Kennedy sent only a wing of jet fighters and bombers to Dhahran Airbase , demonstrating to Nasser the seriousness of American commitment to defending U.S. interests in Saudi Arabia .
= = Peace attempts : Khamir , Jeddah and Haradh conferences = =
= = = Khamir = = =
Noman spoke over Radio San 'a , offering reconciliation and inviting " all tribes of all persuasions " to meet with him the following week at Khamir , 50 miles north of San 'a , to achieve " the one thing which we all prize over anything else : peace for the nation . " In order to convince al @-@ Badr to come the conference , Noman announced that he personally would head the republican delegation at Khamir , and that Sallal would stay in San 'a . Al @-@ Badr and his ranking chiefs did not attend the conference , but a handful of pro @-@ royalist sheiks were present . The conference named a committee of five tribal and four religious leaders who were charged with seeking out the " beguiled brothers " , al @-@ Badr and his friends . Noman 's effort , including a private promise to reach a withdrawal of Egyptian troops , was backed by Nasser . Radio Cairo hailed the Khamir conference as the " dawn of a new era . " Sallal called the talks " a complete success " , while al @-@ Badr stated that " It is essential that the conflict which has devastated our beloved country be brought to an end by peaceful negotiations between the Yemeni people themselves . " However , by early June , when Noman said that Egypt 's 50 @,@ 000 troops would have to be replaced by a joint royalist @-@ republican peace force , the Nasserites lost interest in the deal . After Noman flew to Cairo to protest directly to Nasser , Sallal threw seven civilian Cabinet ministers into jail . Noman resigned , saying " It is obvious that Sallal and his cronies are more interested in war than peace " . Sallal soon named a new Cabinet to replace Noman 's , with 13 military men and two civilians .
= = = Jeddah = = =
By August , the war was costing Nasser $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 a day , when he arrived in Jedda harbor aboard his presidential yacht Hurriah ( Freedom ) to negotiate with Faisal . It was Nasser 's first visit to Saudi Arabia since 1956 . At the request of the Egyptians , due to assassination rumors , the banners and flags normally put up to celebrate a visiting dignitary were omitted , the sidewalks were cleared of people , and the car was a special bulletproof model . On the evening of his arrival , Nasser was welcomed at a banquet and reception for 700 guests . In less than 48 hours they reached full agreement . Once the agreement was signed , Faisal embraced Nasser and kissed him on both cheeks . The agreement provided for
The gradual withdrawal of the Egyptian force within a ten @-@ month period and the cessation of all Saudi help to the royalists ; and
The formation of a Yemen Congress of fifty , representing all factions , which would be charged with forming a transitional regime and establishing procedures for a national plebiscite to determine Yemen 's future government .
= = = Haradh = = =
On November 23 , the two sides met in Haradh . The first issue was the name of the transition state that was supposed to exist until a plebiscite could be held the following year . The royalists wanted the name " Kingdom of Yemen " but were willing to settle for a neutral title like " State of Yemen " . The republicans insisted on having the word " republic " or " republican " in the title . It was agreed to suspend the conference until after the month @-@ long fast of Ramadan , which was about to begin the following week . The conference reached a deadlock when the Egyptians , possibly due to a tactical decision made by Amer , encouraged the republicans to take a headstrong stand .
= Thirty @-@ Eight Snub =
" Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " is the second episode of the fourth season of the American television drama series Breaking Bad , and the 35th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on July 24 , 2011 . In the episode , Walter plots to kill Gus for fear of repercussions from him , while Jesse holds wild parties to try to forget his despair . Meanwhile , Skyler tries to purchase a car wash business , while Marie struggles to deal with Hank 's growing depression problems .
Written by George Mastras and directed by Michelle MacLaren , " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " featured guest appearances by Emily Rios as Andrea , Jim Beaver as black market gun vendor Lawson , and the first appearance by Ray Campbell in the recurring role of Gus ' henchman Tyrus Kitt . Due to filming commitments with the television series Supernatural , Beaver had only a half @-@ day to film his scene , which was set on a constructed set resembling a motel room . " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " included several unusual camera angles , including a shot from the point of view of a Roomba robotic vacuum cleaner , and an extremely high crane shot of Walter from 180 @-@ feet in the air .
Jesse 's party scenes , which symbolized the character 's internal guilt and fragile state of mind , included background songs by rapper Flavor Flav and the band Honey Claws . " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " received positive reviews , with some reviewers comparing it to the work of filmmakers Sergio Leone and Quentin Tarantino . It was seen by an estimated 1 @.@ 97 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , making it the second most @-@ watched episode of Breaking Bad by the fourth season , although it marked a significant decline in viewership compared to the previous episode , season premiere " Box Cutter " .
= = Plot = =
During a pre @-@ credits sequence , Walter ( Bryan Cranston ) purchases a Ruger LCR .38 snubnosed revolver from a black market gun dealer ( Jim Beaver ) . Secretly , Walter plans to use the concealable gun to kill his employer , drug kingpin Gus ( Giancarlo Esposito ) . Since falling out of favor with Gus , Walter believes Gus will kill him if he does not act first ; when the gun dealer asks why Walter needs the gun , he insists it is strictly for self @-@ defense . Later , Walter practices drawing the weapon . Elsewhere , Gus ' henchman Mike ( Jonathan Banks ) drinks coffee at a bar and discovers dried blood on his jacket sleeve belonging to Victor ( Jeremiah Bitsui ) , a former colleague whom Gus previously murdered . Although Mike is silent , he appears to harbor conflicted feelings about what happened to Victor . Meanwhile , Jesse ( Aaron Paul ) has purchased expensive gadgets , like a sophisticated sound system and the Roomba robotic vacuum cleaner , but remains miserable after having murdered Gale ( David Costabile ) to save Walter and himself . After his friends Badger ( Matt L. Jones ) and Skinny Pete ( Charles Baker ) visit , Jesse has them arrange a wild party with dozens of people dancing , drinking and doing drugs to further distract himself .
Later , while cooking meth at their lab , Walter waits for Gus to arrive so he can kill him . Instead , Victor 's replacement Tyrus ( Ray Campbell ) arrives with Mike , who informs Walter he will never see Gus again . That night , Walter drives to Gus ' house and approaches with the gun , but before he can cross the street , Walter receives a call from Tyrus , who says simply , " Go home , Walter . " The next day , as Walter approaches Mike at the bar , Mike tells Walter that he observed Walter tailing him to the bar . Mike then reveals he could tell that Walter was carrying a weapon in the lab . Walter suggests he and Mike are in the same danger , and Gus could easily kill Mike the same way he killed Victor . This visibly unnerves Mike , who appears to be aware of this . Walter asks that Mike get him in a room with Gus so he can kill him . In response , Mike punches Walter , knocking him to the floor , kicks him in the torso a few times and then leaves the bar .
Skyler ( Anna Gunn ) calls Walter to inquire about buying the car wash where Walter once worked , which they plan to use as a front business for Walter 's drug money . When Walter fails to act on the purchase , Skyler starts doing her own detailed research about the business 's expenses and revenues . She later approaches the car wash owner , Bogdan ( Marius Stan ) , about the proposed purchase , but he angrily rejects her , making sexist remarks and condemning Walter for having insulted Bogdan when he quit the car wash . Meanwhile , Marie ( Betsy Brandt ) continues struggling to deal with her husband Hank 's ( Dean Norris ) deepening depression as he copes with physical therapy from having been shot . The bed @-@ ridden and bitter Hank constantly ignores or insults Marie and , even after celebrating a successful session with his physical therapist , he refuses to share any of that excitement with Marie . Meanwhile , after three straight days of partying , Jesse tries to keep hanging out with Badger and Skinny Pete , but they are exhausted and go home , along with all of the other guests in Jesse 's house . Alone with his thoughts , a depressed Jesse breaks down and cries , sitting less than an inch away from his speakers at an extremely high volume .
= = Production = =
" Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " was written by George Mastras and directed by Michelle MacLaren . Filmed in February 2011 , the episode was edited by Kelley Dixon , one of a handful of editors who have regularly worked on the series . The direction in " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " included several camera angles from unusual viewpoints , including the perspective of Jesse 's Roomba , boxes of pizza , a baby 's vision and inside a car wash . The filming in Albuquerque , New Mexico was delayed by snow storms and record @-@ low temperatures which resulted in a state of emergency being declared . The episode featured guest performances by Emily Rios as Jesse 's ex @-@ girlfriend Andrea and Marius Stan as Bogdan , the car wash owner who constantly mistreated Walter when he worked for Bogdan in the pilot episode of Breaking Bad . Stan is not a professional actor but rather a physicist , and he was teaching at the University of Chicago when " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " was filmed . " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " also featured the first appearance by Ray Campbell as Tyrus Kitt , an employee of Gus who has replaced Victor , who was killed in the episode " Box Cutter " . The original script referred to the character simply as " New Victor " until Mastras came up with the name Tyrus .
Jim Beaver made an appearance on " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " as Lawson , the gun vendor from the opening scene . Beaver previously starred in the HBO western drama series Deadwood along with Breaking Bad star Anna Gunn . He also previously appeared in " Field Trip " , a sixth season episode of The X @-@ Files which was written by Breaking Bad creator Vince Gilligan . While Gilligan believed Beaver to be a talented actor , he had never met him during the filming of either show . The CW Network television series Supernatural , in which Beaver co @-@ stars , was filming at the same time as " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " , so Beaver flew in to Albuquerque for the Breaking Bad shoot and had only half a day to film the scenes . Mastras said he particularly enjoyed that the character tries to convince Walter to buy a gun legally because , " I like the aspect that you 've got this black market dealer who in an ironic way is the sound of morality here . "
Giancarlo Esposito is credited but does not appear , although his character 's voice is heard .
The motel room that Cranston and Beaver appear in was a set constructed by Breaking Bad production designer Mark Freeborn and construction coordinator William Gilpin . Director Michelle MacLaren wanted a genuine " rundown motel feel " , but believed it would be too difficult to film in an actual motel room because it would be too small for the cast and crew to fit inside . Instead , the set was designed so that several of the walls could be removed to make space for the cameras and crew . This allowed greater flexibility in shooting and camera angles , and the walls could be placed back into position if they were needed for the background of a shot . The first shot of the episode includes Walter speaking directly into the camera , and it quickly revealed he is speaking into a mirror in the motel room . MacLaren filmed the shot so it would be deliberately disorienting and unclear to the viewer where Walter was until the camera movement revealed the motel room . New York magazine writer Logan Hill interpreted Walter 's speaking into the mirror as a symbol for self @-@ reflection : " He stares at a mirror reflection of himself , studying his own image , wondering if the Walt other people see gives any hint of what he ’ s carrying inside . "
The scene when Walter approaches Gus ' house with plans to kill him ends with an extremely high crane shot of Walter standing alone in the middle of the street . MacLaren wanted that shot to be extremely effective because she believed it conveyed Walter 's helplessness , insignificance and lack of experience . Although the normal crane used for such overhead shots in Breaking Bad was only 30 feet tall , MacLaren rented a 180 @-@ foot @-@ tall crane specifically for that shot . Since the crew had only about four hours to shoot before losing the night @-@ time hours , the crane shot was the first one they filmed . It was shot by camera operators Andrew Voegeli , with dolly grip David Jaxx Nagro and gaffer Steven Litecky . Later , for the scene when Walter meets with Mike at a bar , MacLaren backlit Walter as he entered so only his silhouette would be visible when he entered . When the shots of Mike punching Walter was originally filmed , the staging involved Mike standing up , then Walter standing up , then Mike suddenly punching him . Vince Gilligan edited the scene to have Mike simply punch Walter instead to make the action faster and more surprising . The scene was arranged by stunt coordinator Al Goto , and actors Bryan Cranston and Jonathan Banks performed the stunts themselves . Mike kicks Walter several times after he falls , and Goto placed a large sandbag against Cranston 's torso for Banks to kick during those scenes .
The party scenes at Jesse 's house sought to illustrate Jesse 's internal guilt and self @-@ hatred for having murdered Gale Boetticher in the third season finale , " Full Measure " . Gilligan said these scenes were written because he wanted to demonstrate that the actions of the characters in Breaking Bad have major consequences . The writing staff spent weeks discussing how Jesse would react to having killed Gale , and went with the course of events in " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " in part because they felt it would be the most unexpected for the audience . Bryan Cranston praised these scenes , saying " I thought it was a great way to show a person going through a private hell . That everybody suffers , deals with their own personal loss in many different ways . " The scenes were shot on a set in a sound stage built by production designer Mark Freeborn and construction coordinator William Gilpin . Although scenes in Jesse 's house are occasionally filmed in an actual house , these particular scenes could not be shot there because the party was so messy . Breaking Bad music supervisor Thomas Golubic tried to select music appropriate for both the party and Jesse 's state of mind , using variations of punk rock , hip hop and dubstep . During one scene when Jesse , Skinny Pete and Badger are snorting meth together , Badger leans down outside of the shot to take the drugs , then Skinny Pete pops back up in a match cut . The shot was conceived by MacLaren during filming .
Mastras had Jesse buy a Roomba because he believed it was appropriate for Jesse 's frame of mind : " You don 't need it , it 's kind of inane . ... He 's just trying to fill his world with noise and with these things . " During the final shot of the episode , a steadicam shot filmed by Andrew Voegeli , Jesse turns his stereo system all the way up and leans directly against the pulsating speaker to try to shut out his pain . MacLaren wanted the speakers to pulse , but they could not actually play loud music without harming actor Aaron Paul . The special effects crew unsuccessfully tried several methods to make the speakers pulse , such as shaking them and pulling on strings , but they did not appear realistic . It was achieved after MacLaren visited a local stereo store and an employee provided her a bass tester which would run the stereo system with no noise , but cause the speakers to pulse as if music was playing . That employee was hired to come on the set and run the system , and the lights and pulsing were timed to match music which was later dubbed in .
= = Cultural references = =
Among the songs played by Jesse on his new sound system are " Money " by D / R Period , " Unga Bunga Bunga " by rapper Flavor Flav , " Raise Hell " by M.O.P and " Digital Animal " by Honey Claws . During a scene at Jesse 's house , Badger and Skinny Pete debate which zombie video games are better , Left 4 Dead , Resident Evil 4 and Call of Duty : World at War : Zombies . The zombies in the latter game , which are also Nazis , are described by Badger as " the Talibans of the zombie world " . The unusually large pizza purchased for Jesse 's party is a reference to the third season episode " Caballo sin Nombre " , when Walter flung a pizza of the same type onto the roof of his house after an argument with Skyler .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " was seen by an estimated 1 @.@ 97 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , making it the second most @-@ watched episode of Breaking Bad in series history . Nevertheless , it marked a significant drop in viewership compared to the previous week 's episode , fourth season premiere " Box Cutter " , which was seen by a series @-@ high of 2 @.@ 58 million household viewers . " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " received a 0 @.@ 9 rating among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , means 0 @.@ 9 percent of viewers in that age bracket watched the episode .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " received very positive reviews . Entertainment Weekly writer Melissa Maerz compared the direction in " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " to the film @-@ making of Sergio Leone , particularly in its " extreme close @-@ ups " , " tense silences " and the " saloon fight " between Walter and Mike . Time magazine writer James Poniewozik said the filming techniques used in Jesse 's party – " which starts off like a rap video then turns into some kind of distorted , jumpy tweak @-@ vision " – effectively conveyed Jesse 's frame of mind . He also liked the way the script conveyed Marie 's " increasing isolation " in dealing with Hank . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix called the episode a " terrific , unsettling hour " and particularly complimented director Michelle MacLaren and cinematographer Michael Slovis , especially for shooting Jesse 's party scenes " in a way that let you experience the chaos just as Jesse was trying to " . Sepinwall strongly praised Aaron Paul , who he said " keeps finding new layers of Jesse , and new talents to show them with " . New York magazine writer Logan Hill praised the film noir elements in the episode 's photography , and said the opening scene , with Walter staring into the mirror asking , " So , how 's it look ? " , refers to the season 's ongoing theme of internal self @-@ reflection and surveillance . Los Angeles Times writer Todd VanDerWerff said while the episode didn 't advance the plot very far , it included a great deal of internal development among the characters , which he called " an interesting new dynamic for the show to explore " . He also called Jesse 's emotional breakdown at the end " easily the most chilling thing so far this season " .
Paste magazine writer Brent Koepp called it " another incredible episode " and said the impending conflict between Walter and Gus " has the makings of one of television 's finest showdowns " . He also said the script made good use of the supporting characters , and that the growing distance between Hank and Marie was particularly well handled . Matt Seitz of Salon.com compared " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " to excellent third season episodes that had " very few scenes and sequences but luxuriated in them , allowing the characters ( and the viewer ) time to experience the tiny eddies and currents of the moment " . He also called an overhead shot of Walter standing outside Gus ' house alone " one of the best shots in the show 's history " . Tim Surette of TV.com especially praised the scene with Walter approaching Gus ' house , writing : " Breaking Bad has always been good at creating an air of tension , but now it seems as though the series has mastered it . He also said Paul 's acting during Jesse 's emotional breakdown " ripped my heart out and shredded it to pieces " . The Hollywood Reporter writer Tim Goodman said the photography and direction during Jesse 's party scenes was masterful : " Here we are four seasons into Breaking Bad and I shouldn 't still be amazed at the innovated visuals or perfectly honed sense of sound . These are masters at work , people . " Slate writers Jessica Grose and June Thomas both enjoyed the episode , although they found Walter 's character increasingly difficult to sympathize with . Both praised the scene when Mike attacked Walter , while Grose especially enjoyed Aaron Paul 's performance and Skyler 's subplot .
Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic complimented the opening scene with the gun purchase , which he called " reminiscent of season one , when the show took the slow , fascinating steps that no other program would touch " . He also complimented the episodes for taking the viewers " inside the minds " of Walter and Jesse . Craig McQuinn of The Faster Times enjoyed the slow pace of the episode and complimented the show 's lack of predictability , claiming he had no idea how Walter 's confrontation with Gus would end , " and that ’ s why I love this show " . Michael Arbeiter of Hollywood.com compared the opening scene to the works of Quentin Tarantino , and called the bar Mike frequents " the most beautifully shot setting I 've seen in TV lately " . He also called the subplot between Marie and Hank a " surprisingly interesting story " . Carl Williott of CNN complimented the shows ' " clever pieces of misdirection " by having Walter purchase a gun but never getting to use it , and by showing Mike 's conflicted emotions but having him side with Gus against Walter . However , Williott said the episode ultimately felt like a " placeholder " for bigger developments in the storyline . Not all reviews were entirely positive . CraveOnline writer Blair Marnell said Walter 's near @-@ assassination of Gus was " the highlight of the episode " , but felt Jesse 's story was " less compelling [ and ] extremely repetitive " , and he found the subplot with Hank and Marie difficult to enjoy because Hank was so unsympathetic .
= Cambodia women 's national football team =
The Cambodia women 's national football team represents Cambodia in international women 's association football and is governed by Football Federation of Cambodia ( FFC ) . As of June 2012 , no senior women 's national team exists though national youth sides , including an under @-@ 13 , under @-@ 14 and under @-@ 16 sides , do . While the national federation was founded in 1954 and has received support from Fédération Internationale de Football Association ( FIFA ) and Asian Football Confederation ( AFC ) , the development of women 's football has been slow with football not the most popular women 's sport in the country . The women 's first national championship was not held until 2010 .
The under @-@ 16 national team , coached by Sam Schweingruber , played in the nation 's first FIFA recognised women 's international in May 2009 when they played Laos , with Nith Pean being the first woman to score a goal in international play . The under @-@ 14 team is also coached by Schweingruber , and participated in the 2011 AFC U @-@ 14 Girls ' Festival of Football in Vietnam . The following year , the under @-@ 13 team competed in the 2012 AFC Girls Football Festival .
= = Background and development = =
The national association was founded in 1933 and became a FIFA affiliate in 1954 . The national federation is a member of ASEAN . There are no full @-@ time staff members employed by the federation to look after women 's football and representation of women 's football as a federation interest is not guaranteed by the federation .
AFC 's AID27 programme provides Cambodia a maximum of US $ 24 @,@ 000 a year between 2008 and 2012 to support women 's football in the country . FIFA @-@ supported grassroots development of the women 's game also exists . FIFA grass roots development officer Sam Schweingruber said of this : " In Cambodia , it was unthinkable at the outset for girls to take part in the Grassroots programme . We managed to push that through , and now it 's seen as perfectly normal . And that is bound to help in boosting the confidence of young Cambodian women , and making them feel more important . "
Football for women ranks between the 5th and 10th most popular sport in the country , though its popularity is increasing . Space to play sport is an issue facing all sports in the country . Between 2000 and 2006 , there were no registered female football players in the country , and none of the 65 football clubs in the country were open to women .
In 2007 , there were only two Cambodian women , Gne Kom ' Sorth and Lee Heang , who had a FIFA @-@ approved D @-@ license football coaching badge . Both were recruited through FIFA 's Spirit of Soccer program and worked to bring the game to areas with land mines . In 2008 , the Mine Risk Education Soccer tournament was held and several girls under @-@ 14 teams participated . The first women 's national championship was held in 2010 . Rights to broadcast the 2011 Women 's World Cup in the country were bought by the Cambodian Broadcasting Service . By 2012 , between Battambang or Phnom Penh , there were 400 girls playing in organised clubs .
The progress of women 's football in the country was described by FIFA in 2009 as historic . In 2009 , the Com @-@ Unity Women 's Football Seminar was held Phnom Penh . At the three @-@ day seminar , the Football Federation of Cambodia indicated their support for women 's football . A follow @-@ up event was supported by FIFA in 2010 .
Chheun Nipha from Cambodia participated in a 2012 AFC ' C ' Coaching Certificate Course organised as part of the AFC U @-@ 13 Girls ' Football Tournament 2012 . In 2012 , the women 's team participated in the Charity Cup , a competition designed to help with fundraising to send a team to compete at the Homeless World Cup . In May 2012 , an under @-@ 15 women 's football festival was held in Cambodia , organised by the German embassy and German Business Group Cambodia , and held at the University of Battambang . The competition was won by the Mighty Girls in a 2 @-@ 0 win over CFI .
= = Team = =
In 1985 , almost no country in the world had a women 's national football team , including Cambodia who have yet to play their first FIFA recognised match as of June 2012 . As of 2015 , the women 's national team has not competed at the Women 's World Cup . In 2005 , the country was one of seven teams that were expected to field a women 's football team to compete at the Asian Games in Marikina in December . In 2006 , a women 's national team did not officially exist . In March 2012 , the team was not ranked in the world by FIFA . The country 's kit colours are blue , white and red shirts , white shorts , and red socks .
= = Youth national teams = =
= = = Under @-@ 13 = = =
The Cambodia women 's national under @-@ 13 football team competed in the June 2012 AFC Girls Football Festival against other national sides from Thailand , Myanmar , the Philippines , Guam and Vietnam . The team played their first match against the Philippines . Cambodia lost to Vietnam 0 @-@ 1 in the bronze medal game . Julie Teo , AFC 's Head of Women 's Football said of the event : " The quality of teams is good and the tournament has a lot of close matches . Cambodia had improved a lot from the first day . " Srey Yuen was the captain in 2012 . Many of the players in 2012 were drawn from the CFI club side . The team is coached by Sam Schweingruber .
Sopha Kol , secretary general of FFC , said : " For the very first time , very young Cambodian girls represented Cambodia in a regional tournament like this one . ... It doesn 't matter if they win or lose as long as they start . If they don 't start now , their potential will be ignored . " AFC U @-@ 13 Girl Football Tournament 2012 , each game had two sessions with 25 minutes each and 10 minutes ' break while the football field is 80 metres long and 60 metres wide .
= = = Under @-@ 14 = = =
Kauw was a member of the Cambodia women 's national under @-@ 14 football team in 2011 . The assistant coach was Chhoeurn Nipha and the head coach was Sam Schweingruber . The team had a variety of players , including those who attended a football academy , school drop outs who returned just to play and girls from orphanages . The country participated in the AFC U @-@ 14 Girls ' Festival of Football in Vietnam , where like the other ten participating countries , they fielded two teams . This was the first time the country participated in the event . At the competition , Cambodia lost to the Philippines 3 @-@ 0 . Some of the players who participated had never left the country before .
= = = Under @-@ 16 = = =
The Cambodia women 's national under @-@ 16 football team has been coached by Sam Schweingruber since it was created in 2009 . The team played in their first FIFA recognised and sponsored international in spring of 2009 when they played Laos on 22 May . The team travelled 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 750 mi ) to the game via bus . Nith Pean scored a goal when her team was down 2 @-@ 0 to bring the score to 2 @-@ 1 . Her goal was the first ever goal scored by a Cambodian woman in a FIFA recognised match . That year , the team also played a match against Singapore . Two players on the 2009 under @-@ 16 team were Nin and Vesna , a pair of sisters from the SALT Academy . The sisters had been sexually exploited in Thailand but while at the Academy , they developed their skills . Nin eventually became the captain of the team .
= Rørvik Airport , Ryum =
Rørvik Airport , Ryum ( Norwegian : Rørvik lufthavn , Ryum ; IATA : RVK , ICAO : ENRM ) is a regional airport located at Ryumsjøen , 6 kilometers ( 4 mi ) south of Rørvik , in the municipality of Vikna , Nord @-@ Trøndelag county , Norway . The airport is owned and operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor and serves the municipalities of Vikna and Nærøy . The airport has a 950 @-@ meter ( 3 @,@ 117 ft ) asphalt runway numbered 04 – 22 . Widerøe flies to the airport with its Bombardier Dash 8 aircraft on contract with the Ministry of Transport and Communications . The airport opened in 1986 as a municipal airport . It was first served by Norving , but Widerøe took over the flights in 1988 . The airport was nationalized in 1996 . Ryum served 33 @,@ 532 passengers in 2014 .
= = History = =
Plans for an airport with short take @-@ off and landing flights was launched by the government in December 1983 . The airport was proposed along with five other regionals airport : Fagernes Airport , Leirin ; Førde Airport , Bringeland ; Mosjøen Airport , Kjærstad ; Røst Airport and Værøy Airport . The plans were passed by Parliament on 10 April 1984 . Grants for starting construction were issued on the 1985 state budget and operating permission was issued by the government on 6 September 1985 . The financing was split between the state ( 60 percent ) , Vikna Municipality ( 30 percent ) and Nord @-@ Trøndelag County Municipality ( 10 percent ) . The municipal funding was financed through a loan in Kommunalbanken . Most of the state funding was granted on the 1986 state budget , along with three other airports . The original target was for 12 @,@ 000 passengers per year .
The airport was estimated to cost NOK 15 to 16 million , but the lowest tender was between NOK 10 and 11 million . The airport ended having severe cost overruns — NOK 12 million combined with Førde Airport . Ryum was scheduled to be opened on 1 October 1986 , but there was too bad weather that day that the ceremonies could take place , as aircraft could not land . Rørvik was initially served by Norving , which flew two services with the Dornier Do 228 : Bodø – Rørvik – Namsos – Trondheim and Rørvik – Brønnøysund Monday through Friday . During the first winter several shortcomings were found in the terminal building and temperatures down to − 6 ° C ( 21 ° F ) were measured indoors .
Norving announced on 10 December 1987 that they would terminate all operations outside Finnmark . This took effect on 8 January 1988 , leaving Rørvik without a scheduled services . Manning of the airport was reduced from eight to six , but the airport remained open from 08 to 23 . From the summer schedules of 1988 , Rørvik was included in Widerøe 's services along the Helgeland coast . The airport had 7 @,@ 244 passengers in 1988 , and the combined subsidies per passengers was NOK 511 . This included NOK 1 @.@ 3 million in state operating subsidies to the airport , in addition to an operating deficit of NOK 1 million covered by the municipality .
From 1996 , Ryum and 25 other regional airports were taken over by the state and the Civil Aviation Administration ( later renamed Avinor ) . The airport had 17 @,@ 000 passengers in 1999 . Four years after the nationalization , the CAA proposed that Ryum and certain other regional airport be closed in an effort to reduce costs , but this was disapproved by the government . The airport received a renewed certification by the Civil Aviation Authority in 2001 , which in addition to new runway lighting required the airport to have a rescue boat . The ministry started a process in 2001 to consider using smaller aircraft than the 37 @-@ seat Dash 8 aircraft . The reason was that there were on average only 17 passengers per flight from Rørvik and Namsos Airport , Høknesøra combined . Airport security was introduced on 1 January 2005 . Since 2010 , Nord @-@ Trøndelag County Municipality has been pressing for an extension of the runway to 1 @,@ 199 meters ( 3 @,@ 934 ft ) and construction of a larger hangar .
= = Facilities = =
The airport is located at Ryumsjøen in Vikna , 6 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) south of Rørvik . Paid parking , taxis and car rental are available , but there is no bus service available to the airport . Ryum 's catchment area includes Nærøy .
The airfield 's elevation is 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 15 ft ) above mean sea level and it has a 830 @-@ by @-@ 30 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 723 by 98 ft ) runway aligned 04 – 22 ( roughly northeast – southwest ) . An extension of the runway and the runway end safety areas ( RESA ) was completed in November 2012 . The runway 's previous length was 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 625 ft ) . The western end of the runway is located on artificial land surrounded by sea . Precision approach runway ( SCAT @-@ I ) with non @-@ precision approachs RNAV and VOR / DME , but lacks instrument landing system .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
Rørvik Airport is served by Widerøe with Dash 8 @-@ 100 aircraft . The services are subsidized through public service obligations with the Ministry of Transport and Communications .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 2 September 2003 , a Cessna aircraft overshot the runway and landed in the sea after an emergency landing caused by loss of power immediately after take @-@ off . Two of the people on board were uninjured and the third injured only slightly .
= Let 's Get It On =
Let 's Get It On is the thirteenth studio album by American recording artist Marvin Gaye , released August 28 , 1973 , on Tamla Records . Recording sessions for the album took place during June 1970 to July 1973 at Hitsville U.S.A. and Golden World Studio in Detroit , and at Hitsville West in Los Angeles . Serving as Gaye 's first venture into the funk genre and romance @-@ themed music , Let 's Get It On incorporates smooth soul , doo @-@ wop , and quiet storm . It has been noted by critics for its sexually suggestive lyrics , and was cited by one writer as " one of the most sexually charged albums ever recorded " .
Following the breakthrough success of his socially conscious album What 's Going On ( 1971 ) , Let 's Get It On helped establish Gaye as a sex icon and furthered his mainstream appeal . It produced three singles — the title track , " Come Get to This " , and " You Sure Love to Ball " — that attained Billboard chart success . Let 's Get It On became the most commercially successful album of Gaye 's recording career , and it further expanded his creative control during his tenure with Motown . Its sexual balladry , multi @-@ tracking of Gaye 's vocals , and seductive , funk sound influenced later R & B artists and production .
The album has been regarded by many music writers and critics as a landmark recording in soul music . It furthered funk music 's popularity during the 1970s , and its smooth soul sound marked a change for his record label 's previous success with the " Motown Sound " formula . Let 's Get It On has been ranked on many critics and publications ' lists of the best albums of all time . In 2001 , it was reissued by Motown Records as a two @-@ disc deluxe edition release .
= = Background = =
In the spring of 1972 , Marvin Gaye was suffering from writer 's block . Following the release of his most commercially successful album up to that point , What 's Going On ( 1971 ) , and the soundtrack album to the blaxploitation film Trouble Man ( 1972 ) , Gaye had struggled to come up with new material after Motown Records had renegotiated a new contract with him . The contract provided him with more creative control over his recordings . The deal was worth $ 1 million , making him the highest @-@ earning soul artist , as well as the highest @-@ earning black artist , at the time . He was also struggling with deciding whether or not to relocate to Los Angeles , following Motown @-@ CEO Berry Gordy 's move of the record label and replacement of the Detroit @-@ based Hitsville U.S.A. ( Motown Studio A ) recording studio with the Hitsville West studio in Los Angeles . Amid relocation and his lack of material , Gaye was struggling with his conscience , as well as dealing with expectations from his wife , Gordy 's sister Anna . Gaye 's separation from Gordy pressured him emotionally . During this time , he had also been attempting to cope with past issues that had stemmed from his childhood .
During his childhood , Gaye had been physically abused by his preacher father Marvin Gay , Sr. , who disciplined his son under extremely moralistic and fundamentalist Christian teachings . As a result , the meaning and practice of sex had later become a disturbing question for Gaye . As an adult , he suffered with sexual impotence and became plagued by sadomasochistic fantasies , which haunted him in his dreams and provoked some guilt in his conscience . According to Gaye 's biographer David Ritz , " his view of sex was unsettled , tormented , riddled with pain " . Gaye learned to cope with his personal issues with a newly found spirituality . He began incorporating his new outlook into his music , as initially expressed through the socially conscious album What 's Going On , along with promotional photos of him wearing a kufi in honor of African traditional religions and his faith .
By winning over record executives with the success of What 's Going On , Gaye attained more creative control , which he would use , following his brief separation from wife Anna Gordy , to record an album that was meant to surface themes beyond sex . As with What 's Going On , Gaye wanted to have a deeper meaning than the general theme that was used to portray it ; in the case of the former , politics , and with its follow @-@ up effort , love and romance , which would be used by Gaye as a metaphor for God 's love . In his book Divided Soul : The Life of Marvin Gaye , David Ritz wrote of Gaye and the musical inspiration behind Gaye 's second landmark record :
If the most profound soul songs are prayers in secular dress , Marvin 's prayer is to reconcile the ecstasy of his early religious epiphany with a sexual epiphany . The hope for such a reconciliation , the search for sexual healing , is what drives his art ... The paradox is this : The sexiest of Marvin Gaye 's work is also his most spiritual . That 's the paradox of Marvin himself . In his struggle to wed body and soul , in his exploration of sexual passion , he expresses the most human of hungers — the hunger for God . In those songs of loss and lament — the sense of separation is heartbreaking . On one level , the separation is between man and woman . On a deeper level , the separation is between man and God .
In the album 's liner notes , Gaye explained his views on the themes of sex and love , stating " I can 't see anything wrong with sex between consenting anybodies . I think we make far too much of it . After all , one 's genitals are just one important part of the magnificent human body ... I contend that SEX IS SEX and LOVE IS LOVE . When combined , they work well together , if two people are of about the same mind . But they are really two discrete needs and should be treated as such . Time and space will not permit me to expound further , especially in the area of the psyche . I don 't believe in overly moralistic philosophies . Have your sex , it can be exciting , if you 're lucky . I hope the music that I present here makes you lucky . "
= = Recording = =
Gaye proceeded to record some more politically conscious material at the Golden World Records studio , known as Motown 's Studio B , as well as the preliminary vocals and instrumentation for some of the material to be featured on Let 's Get It On . Following the earlier sessions in Detroit at Golden World , Gaye recorded at Hitsville West in Los Angeles from February to July 1973 . Accompanied by an experienced group of session musicians called The Funk Brothers , who had contributed to Gaye 's What 's Going On , and received their first official credit , Gaye recorded the unreleased songs " The World is Rated X " and " Where Are We Going " and the single " You 're the Man " ( 1972 ) at Golden World . " Where Are We Going " was later covered by trumpeter Donald Byrd . Gaye had planned the release of an album titled You 're the Man , but it was later shelved for unknown reasons . The songs that were to be included on it , along with other unreleased recordings from Hitsville West and Golden World , were later featured on the 2
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annunciated at his first press conference as President when he stated that , appearances to the contrary , he was in favor of " an actual reduction in the numbers of nuclear weapons . " This would contradict the claims of Reagan @-@ victory @-@ school proponents such as Peter Schweitzer .
His third book , Superpower Illusions : How Myths and False Ideologies Led America Astray--And How to Return to Reality , published in 2010 , provides an analysis of the post Cold War period along with his policy prescriptions .
= = Teaching Diplomacy = =
Matlock has taught diplomacy at Princeton University , Columbia University and Hamilton College . In a 1997 interview , Matlock offers some advice to prospective diplomats : have an optimistic nature , get a liberal education , do not expect to change the world , know the country , know your own country , faithfully represent your government , find the mutual interests , and remember that timing is everything .
Matlock also gives his views on one of the basic distinctions in politics :
I don 't see much difference between a communist regime and a fascist regime . In fact , I think one of the greatest intellectual confusions that many have had over these decades is the whole right and left thing -- fascists are on the right , communists are on the left . Nonsense ! They come together and overlap , and we 're seeing this in Russia today where the allies are the nationalistic chauvinists and the communists . They are natural allies because they are authoritarians by nature . And more than authoritarians , they tend to be totalitarians , which means that they tend to destroy all of the elements of the civil society . To me that 's much more important than whether you 're philosophically right or left . You know , are you willing to create and live in a civil society , in an open society , or not ? That to me is the basic issue .
= = U.S. policy and politics = =
After leaving government service , Matlock has occasionally joined with other experts to criticize U.S. government policy . On June 26 , 1997 , he signed an Open Letter to Bill Clinton criticizing plans for NATO expansion . His reason for opposition , as given in his testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee , is the belief that NATO expansion will preclude significant nuclear arms reduction with Russia , and consequently increase the risk of a terrorist nuclear attack .
Matlock drew the ire of many Republicans during the 2004 Presidential election when he signed the Diplomats and Military Commanders for Change Official Statement of June 16 , 2004 , criticizing the policies of George W. Bush and endorsing John Kerry for President .
On Jan 4 , 2007 , Matlock joined with George Shultz , William Perry , Henry Kissinger and Sam Nunn to advocate a goal of a world free of nuclear weapons . On 23 September 2008 after a two @-@ day conference at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace , he joined several other former ambassadors to issue a joint statement on how Russia and the United States might move forward in their relations . He has endorsed the Global Zero Initiative , a plan to eliminate all nuclear weapons by 2030 . Matlock has also signed an open letter of May 13 , 2011 asking the implementors of the New START treaty between the U.S. Russia to make public the locations and aggregate numbers of nuclear weapons , in order to promote transparency and reduce mistrust .
On Jan 18 , 2011 he co @-@ signed an open letter to President Obama urging a United Nations resolution condemning Israeli settlements in the occupied territory .
= = Published works = =
The function of the " governing organs " of the Union of Soviet writers ( 1934 – 1950 ) OCLC 56176736 Columbia University Masters Thesis ( 1952 )
An index to the collected works of J. V. Stalin External Research Staff , Office of Intelligence Research , Dept. of State , ( 1955 ) ; reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corp ASIN B0006CV1AA ( 1971 ) ; Russian edition by Nendeln , Liechtenstein , Kraus Reprint , OCLC 30135390 ( 1973 )
Soviet strategy and tactics in tropical Africa OCLC 1658097 Oberammergau : U.S. Army Field Detachment " R " , Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff , Intelligence Dept. of the Army , the Army 's Institute of Advanced Russian Studies ( 1961 )
U.S.-Soviet relations : background and prospects OCLC 15103643 Washington , D.C. : U.S. Dept. of State , Bureau of Public Affairs , Office of Public Communication ( 1986 )
U.S.-Soviet relations : status and prospects OCLC 83571255 Studia diplomatica . - 39 ( 6 ) 1986 : 635 @-@ 648
The Czechoslovak National Council of America , Chicago District , proudly presents its thirty @-@ eighth annual ball OCLC 49382326 The Czechoslovak National Council of America ( January 21 , 1989 )
Autopsy on an Empire : The American Ambassador 's Account of the Collapse of the Soviet Union Random House ISBN 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 41376 @-@ 6 ( 1995 ) ; Russian edition ISBN 5 @-@ 7380 @-@ 0214 @-@ 8 ( 1995 ) ; Chinese edition ISBN 7 @-@ 5012 @-@ 0787 @-@ 9 ( 1996 )
The Chechen Tragedy , The New York Review of Books ( February 16 , 1995 )
Russia : The Power of the Mob , The New York Review of Books ( July 13 , 1995 )
The Go @-@ Between , The New York Review of Books ( February 1 , 1996 )
The Russian Prospect , The New York Review of Books ( February 29 , 1996 )
The Chechen Conflict and Russian Democratic Development Testimony before the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe ( March 6 , 1996 )
Dealing with a Russia in Turmoil : The Future of Partnership Foreign Affairs ( May / June 1996 )
The Struggle for the Kremlin , The New York Review of Books ( August 8 , 1996 )
'Struggle for the Kremlin ' : An Exchange , The New York Review of Books ( September 19 , 1996 )
Gorbachev : Lingering Mysteries , The New York Review of Books ( December 19 , 1996 )
'The Gorbachev Factor ' : An Exchange , The New York Review of Books ( March 27 , 1997 )
Gorbachev & the Coup : An Exchange , The New York Review of Books ( June 26 , 1997 )
Success Story , The New York Review of Books ( September 25 , 1997 )
Testimony to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee NATO Expansion And the International Coalition in Europe ( October 30 , 1997 )
Russia 's Leaking Nukes , The New York Review of Books ( February 5 , 1998 )
It 's a Bad Idea ; Vote Against It The Great NATO Debate , Center for War , Peace , and the News Media of New York University and MSNBC.com ( March 3 , 1998 )
Too Many Arms to Twist New York Times , OpEd Page ( March 22 , 1998 )
Chinese Checkers New York Times , Book Section ( September 13 , 1998 )
The Poor Neighbor New York Times , Book Section ( April 11 , 1999 )
The One Place NATO Could Turn for Help New York Times , OpEd Page ( April 20 , 1999 )
Why Were We in Vietnam ? New York Times , Books Section ( August 8 , 1999 )
Can Civilizations Clash ? American Philosophical Society Proceedings vol . 143 , 3 ( September , 1999 )
The Dreamer : The World According to Gorbachev Foreign Affairs ( January / February 2000 )
The Nowhere Nation , The New York Review of Books ( February 24 , 2000 )
Russia Votes : Will Democracy Win ? New York Times , OpEd Page ( March 26 , 2000 )
Policing the World New York Times , Books Section ( March 26 , 2000 )
'Ukraine Today ' , The New York Review of Books ( April 13 , 2000 )
Security : The Bottom Line Arms Control Today ( October , 2000 )
Read Their Lips New York Times , Book Section ( August 12 , 2001 )
Dmitri Sergeyevich Likhachev American Philosophical Society Proceedings vol . 145 , 3 ( September , 2001 )
The End of the Cold War : Rethinking the Origin and Conclusion of the US @-@ Soviet Conflict Harvard International Review Vol . 23 ( 3 ) ( Fall 2001 )
The War We Face , Reflections NTI Research Library ( October 15 , 2001 )
Nadezhda Mandel ’ shtam on the Russian Language ISSN 0036 @-@ 0341 OCLC 90621976 Russian Review , 61 , no . 4 ( 2002 ) : 503 @-@ 504
Deterring the Undeterrable New York Times , Books Section ( October 20 , 2002 )
Reagan and Gorbachev : How the Cold War Ended Random House ISBN 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 46323 @-@ 2 ( 2004 )
It Takes a Global Village New York Times , Books Section ( March 21 , 2004 )
Western Intelligence and the Collapse of the Soviet Union , 1980 – 1990 : Ten Years That Did Not Shake the World ( review ) Journal of Cold War Studies - Volume 6 , Number 2 , Spring 2004 , pp. 99 – 101
Putin ' Made a Big Mistake ' Interfering in Ukraine Politics Council on Foreign Relations , Interview by Bernard Gwertzman ( December 6 , 2004 )
On the Battlefields of the Cold War : A Soviet Ambassador 's Confession ( review ) The Russian Review ISSN 0036 @-@ 0341 , Volume 64 , Number 1 , ( January 2005 ) , 163 @-@ 164 .
Boris Yeltsin , the Early Years New York Times , Opinion Section , ( April 24 , 2007 )
Superpower Illusions : How Myths and False Ideologies Led America Astray--And How to Return to Reality Yale University Press ISBN 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 13761 @-@ 3 ( January 5 , 2010 )
= = Multimedia = =
Jennings , Peter , Jack Matlock , former Ambassador to the Soviet Union , tells reporters about the appointments and decisions which Gorbachev has made in his first day back from his three @-@ day exile by an unsuccessful coup d 'etat OCLC : 24821960 ( audio ) ( 1991 )
Ellison , Herbert J. and Wolf , Daniel , Messengers from Moscow debating the issues OCLC : 35243903 Beverly Hills , CA : Pacem Distribution International ( video ) ( 1996 )
Kreisler , Harry , The Collapse of the Soviet Union and the End of the Cold War : A Diplomat Looks Back ( video ) ( Feb 13 , 1997 )
Rose , Charlie , Charlie Rose with Stephen Cohen , Jack Matlock & Steven Solnick ; Joyce Maynard on YouTube ( video ) ( Sep 8 , 1998 )
Lopate , Leonard , Jack F. Matlock discusses his new book : Reagan and Gorbachev : How the Cold War Ended National Public Radio ( audio ) ( August 2 , 2004 )
Matlock , Jack F. , Where is Putin ’ s Russia Going ? World Affairs Councils of America ( video ) ( January 20 , 2006 )
World Affairs Council , Amb . Jack Matlock at WACA 2006 ( video ) ( Feb 26 , 2006 )
World Affairs Council , Living with Vladimir Putin 's Russia ( video ) ( May 1 , 2006 )
Rose , Charlie , The Death of Alexander Litvinenko ( video ) ( Dec 5 , 2006 )
Reese , James , Columbia University Forum - Where Is Russia Headed ? ( audio ) ( May 15 , 2007 )
World Affairs Council of Connecticut , Russia and the United States ( video ) ( Oct 10 , 2007 )
Hoover Institution , Regional Confrontations and Nuclear Proliferation ( video ) ( Oct 25 , 2007 )
UCLA International Institute , Living With Russia ( audio ) ( Nov 19 , 2007 )
Matlock , Jack , Living with Vladimir Putin 's Russia ( video ) ( Dec 5 , 2007 )
Miller Center of Public Affairs , Ambassador William C. Battle Symposium on American Diplomacy : 200 Years of Russian @-@ American Diplomatic Relations ( video ) ( Jan 22 , 2008 )
Council on Foreign Relations , Russia Update ( video ) ( Feb 22 , 2008 )
Speedie , David C. David Speedie Interviews Jack Matlock ( video ) ( July 18 , 2008 )
Bloomberg . Night Talk : An Interview With Amb . Jack Matlock on YouTube ( video ) ( August 19 , 2008 )
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . U.S. Russia Relations , The Longer View ( video ) ( Sep 23 , 2008 )
Woodrow Wilson School , Princeton University , Adlai Stevenson ’ s Lasting Legacy on YouTube ( video ) ( Sep 24 , 2008 )
University of California Irvine School of Social Sciences , Center for Global Peace and Conflict Studies , Ending the Cold War 20 Years Ago : Lessons for Today ( video ) ( Mar 9 , 2010 )
= Warcraft : Orcs & Humans =
Warcraft : Orcs & Humans is a real @-@ time strategy game ( RTS ) , developed by Blizzard Entertainment and published by Blizzard and Interplay Entertainment . The MS @-@ DOS version was released on 23 November 1994 and the Macintosh version in late 1996 . Sales were fairly high , reviewers were mostly impressed , and the game won three awards and was a finalist for three others . There was a CD re @-@ release , namely version 1 @.@ 21 ( CD version ) , that didn 't have the word @-@ from @-@ the @-@ user @-@ manual copy protection of prior versions . The sequel , Warcraft II : Tides of Darkness , became the main rival to Westwood Studios ' Command & Conquer series , and this competition fostered an RTS boom in the mid to late 1990s .
Although Warcraft : Orcs & Humans was not the first RTS title to offer multiplayer games , Blizzard 's game persuaded a wider audience that multiplayer facilities were essential for future RTS titles . The game introduced innovations in mission design and gameplay elements , which were adopted by other RTS developers .
Blizzard 's main emphases in these games were on skillful management of relatively small forces and on development of characterization and storyline within and between games played in the same universe .
= = Gameplay = =
Warcraft : Orcs & Humans is a real @-@ time strategy game ( RTS ) . The player takes the role of either the Human inhabitants of Azeroth , or the invading Orcs . In the single player campaign mode the player works through a series of missions , the objective of which varies , but usually involves building a small town , harvesting resources , building an army and then leading it to victory . In multiplayer games , the objective is always to destroy the enemy players ' forces . Some scenarios are complicated by the presence of wild monsters , but sometimes these monsters can be used as troops . The game plays in a medieval setting with fantasy elements . Both sides have melee units and ranged units , and also spellcasters .
= = = Modes = = =
Warcraft : Orcs & Humans 's gameplay expands the Dune II " build base , build army , destroy enemy " paradigm to include other modes of game play . These include several new mission types , such as conquering rebels of the player 's race , rescuing and rebuilding besieged towns , rescuing friendly forces from an enemy camp and then destroying the main enemy base , and limited @-@ forces missions , in which neither side can make further units , and making efficient use of one 's platoon is a key strategy element . In one mission , the player has to kill the Orc chief 's daughter .
The game also allows two players to compete in multiplayer contests by modem or local networks , and enables gamers with the MS @-@ DOS and Macintosh version to play each other . Multiplayer and AI skirmishes that are not part of campaigns were supported by a random map generator . The game also allowed spawn installations to be made .
= = = Economy and power = = =
Warcraft requires players to collect resources , and to produce buildings and units in order to defeat an opponent in combat . Non @-@ combatant builders deliver the resources to the Town Center from mines , from which gold is dug , and forests , where wood is chopped . As both are limited resources which become exhausted during the game , players must collect them efficiently , and also retain forests as defensive walls in the early game when combat forces are small .
The lower @-@ level buildings for Humans and Orcs have the same functions , but different sprites . The Town Hall stores resources and produces units that collect resources and construct buildings . Each Farm provides food for up to four units , and additional units cannot be produced until enough Farms are built . The Barracks produces all non @-@ magical combat units , including melee , ranged , mounted , and siege units . However all except the most basic also need assistance from other buildings , some of which can also upgrade units .
Each side can construct two types of magical buildings , each of which produces one type of spellcaster and researches more advanced spells for that type . These advanced buildings can be constructed only with assistance from other buildings . The Human Cleric and Orc Necrolyte can both defend themselves by magic and also see distant parts of the territory for short periods . The Cleric 's other spells are protective , healing the injured and making troops invisible , while the Necrolyte raises skeletons as troops and can make other units temporarily invulnerable , at the cost of severely damaging them when the spell dissipates . The Human Conjurer and Orc Warlock have energy blasts , wider @-@ range destruction spells and the ability to summon small , venomous monsters . The Conjurer can summon a water elemental , while the Warlock can summon a demonic melee unit .
= = = User interface = = =
The main screen has three areas : the largest , to the right , is the part of the territory on which the player is currently operating ; the top left is the minimap ; and , if a building or unit ( s ) is selected , the bottom left shows their status and any upgrades and the actions that can be performed . The status details include a building 's or unit 's health , including its progress if being constructed , and any upgrades the object has completed . The Menu control , at the very bottom on the left , provides access to save game , load game and other menu functions .
Initially most of the main map and minimap are blacked out , but the visible area expands as the player 's units explore the map . The mini @-@ map shows a summary of the whole territory , with green dots for the player 's buildings and units and red dots for enemy ones . The player can click in the main map or the minimap to scroll the main map around the territory .
All functions can be invoked by the mouse . Keys can also invoke the game setup , some of the menu options and some gameplay functions including scrolling and pausing the game . Players can select single units by clicking , and groups of up to four by shift @-@ clicking or bandboxing . To move units , players can shift the mouse to select units on the main map , move to the unit menu to select an action , and then back to the main map or minimap to specify the target area ; but shortcut keys can eliminate the middle mouse action in this cycle .
= = Storyline = =
The Orcs originated from another world Draenor , where the orcs , once a peaceful race , gone bloodthirsty from the blood of a pitlord . However , their Warlocks remained aloof , devoting their time to the research of magic . The Warlocks noticed a rift between the dimensions and , after many years , opened a small portal to another world . One Warlock explored and found a region , whose Human inhabitants called it " Azeroth " , from which the Warlock returned with strange plants as evidence of his discovery .
The Orcs enlarged the portal until they could transport seven warriors , who massacred a Human village . The raiding party brought back samples of good food and fine worksmanship , and a report that the Humans were defenseless . The Orcs ' raiding parties grew larger and bolder , until they assaulted Azeroth 's principal castle . However , the Humans had been training warriors of their own , especially the mounted , heavily armed Knights . These , assisted by Human Sorcerers , gradually forced the Orcs to retreat through the portal , which the Humans had not discovered .
For the next fifteen years , one faction of Orcs demanded that the portal be closed . However a chief of exceptional cunning realized that the Humans , although out @-@ numbered , had prevailed through the use of superior tactics , organization , and by magic . He united the clans , imposed discipline on their army and sought new magics from the Warlocks and Necromancers . Their combined forces were ready to overthrow the Humans .
= = Development and publication = =
The first RTS games appeared in the early 1980s or even in the 1970s , and others followed in the early 1990s . However , Westwood Studios 's Dune II , released for DOS in 1992 , established the pattern of modern RTS games . Blizzard Entertainment was surprised that no further RTS titles appeared in 1993 and early 1994 – although in fact Westwood had quietly been working on Command & Conquer since the completion of Dune II . To take advantage of the lull in RTS releases , Blizzard produced Warcraft : Orcs & Humans . While later " ... craft " games were famous for complex stories presented lavishly , the first member of the series had no script and was improvised in the recording studio by one of the game 's producers . The contract composer Gregory Alper wrote music that Blizzard staff found reminiscent of Holst 's The Planets . Demos in summer 1994 whetted appetites for the completed game , released for MS @-@ DOS in November 1994 and for the Macintosh in 1996 . The game was published by Blizzard in North America and by Interplay Entertainment in Europe , and Sold @-@ Out Software republished the MS @-@ DOS version in March 2002 .
= = Reception = =
Warcraft : Orcs & Humans became by far the company 's greatest success to that date , and for the first time made the company 's finances secure . In November 1995 Entertainment Weekly reported that the game ranked 19th of the top 20 CDs across all categories .
Although reviews did not appear until months later , MobyGames 's collection of reviews shows scores from 92 % to 75 % , except that MobyGames estimated a score of 40 % for a Swedish review . In Dragon Paul Murphy described the game as " great fun – absorbing and colorful , " and Scott Love praised its solid strategy , simple interface and fantasy theme . Warcraft : Orcs & Humans won PC Gamer ’ s Editors ' Choice Award , Computer Life ’ s Critics ' Pick and the Innovations Award at the Consumer Electronics Show , Winter 1995 . It was a finalist for Computer Gaming World ’ s Premier award , PC Gamer ’ s Strategy Game of the Year and the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences 's Best Strategy award .
The early stage of a game can be slow , as the player must produce a few basic buildings and peasants in order to gather resources , and then start building combat units . Meanwhile the AI does not have to spend as much effort on gathering resources and often starts with more buildings , which forces the player to spend more of each contest on the defensive .
While the basic units of the two sides were identical , the more advanced forces favored the Orcs , especially the Daemon , summoned by the Orc Warlock .
The user interface had an unsophisticated appearance , but worked in most respects . However the selecting of no more than four units at a time was restrictive . Gamers found the play hard work , as often two or three of the gamer 's units would attack without orders , while the rest still did nothing , and buildings could also lie idle without orders . There was no queuing of construction or research .
Some reviewers thought the game 's AI was unintelligent and predictable , and one wished for a facility to set the difficulty level . Others found the AI 's raids were well managed , and usually found the weaknesses in the gamer 's position . One reviewer found pathfinding adequate , while others found it very poor , and one considered this as typical of RTS games .
On both the DOS and Macintosh versions , the game ran very slowly during large battles .
The good stereo sound helped gamers to locate events that occurred outside the current viewport . Some reviewers like units ' speech effects , especially in response to repeated clicks , while others found this monotonous . Game Revolution ’ s review of the Mac version complained that Warcraft : Orcs & Humans ’ s graphics , which were ported from the DOS version 's VGA , did not exploit the Macintosh 's superior resolution . However , Game Revolution and Mac Gamer agreed that visual shortcomings did not reduce Mac gamers ' enjoyment of the engrossing gameplay . Both also complained that the Macintosh was released about a year later than the DOS version .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Predecessors and innovations = = =
The first RTS game was developed in the 1970s on a mainframe , and RTS for home computers appeared in the early 1980s . Dune II , released in 1992 , established conventions that most subsequent RTS games followed , including the " collect resources , build base and army , destroy opponents " pattern . Warcraft : Orcs & Humans , two years later , was the next well @-@ known RTS game , and introduced new types of missions , including conquering rebels of the player 's race and limited @-@ forces missions , in which neither side could make further units . It also included skirmishes which were single @-@ player games that were not part of a larger campaign . To support multiplayer and skirmishes , Warcraft : Orcs & Humans used a random map generator , a feature previously seen in the turn @-@ based strategy game Civilization . In 1995 Westwood 's RTS Command & Conquer series adopted the use of non @-@ standard mission types and skirmishes , and Microsoft 's Age of Empires included these features and a random map generator in 1997 .
Modem Wars , released in 1988 for DOS and the Commodore 64 , was the first RTS with multiplayer games by means of modems . Warcraft : Orcs & Humans , which allow two gamers to compete by modem or local networks , persuaded a wider audience that multiplayer competition was much more challenging than contests against the artificial intelligence ( AI ) , and made multiplayer facilities essential for future RTS titles .
Realms , released in 1991 for DOS , Amiga and Atari ST , had a medieval theme , with melee and ranged units , and allowed gamers to resolve combat automatically or in a RTS @-@ type style . Warcraft : Orcs & Humans was the first typical RTS to be presented in a medieval setting , and its units included spellcasters as well as melee and ranged units .
= = = Sequels = = =
The success of Warcraft : Orcs & Humans motivated Blizzard to publish a sequel , Warcraft II : Tides of Darkness , in December 1995 , and an expansion pack , Warcraft II : Beyond the Dark Portal , in 1996 . In autumn 1995 Westwood had released Command & Conquer , and the competition between these two sequels made the RTS genre popular , and defined the genre . Blizzard 's new game 's enhancements included : naval and air units , supported by new buildings and a new resource , oil ; excellent artwork rendered in SVGA graphics ; improved sound including additional responses from units ; a much better AI ; and new mechanisms such as patroling ( moving continuously along a route for surveillance or defense ) . A further generation of the Warcraft : Orcs & Humans lineage , called Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos , was released in July 2002 , and gained instant and enduring acclaim with both critics and players .
In April 1998 Blizzard released StarCraft , an RTS with the concepts and mechanisms of Warcraft but an interplanetary setting and three totally different races . Starcraft and its expansion StarCraft : Brood War were well received by critics , and became very successful . World of Warcraft , released in North America in November 2004 and in Europe in February 2005 , was Blizzard 's first attempt at a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game , and used the universe of the Warcraft RTS games , including characters that first appeared in Warcraft : Orcs & Humans . WoW was praised highly by critics , was the most popular MMORPG in 2008 , and in 2007 became the most profitable video game ever created .
Beyond video games , Warcraft franchises include board games , card games , books , and comics .
= = = Blizzard style of RTS games = = =
Warcraft : Orcs & Humans was a moderate critical and commercial success , and laid the ground for Blizzard 's style of RTS , in which personality was a distinctive element . The increasingly humorous responses to clicking a unit repeatedly became a trademark of the company . Warcraft : Orcs & Humans introduced characters that also appeared in the enormously successful massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game World of Warcraft . The company 's manuals presented detailed backstories and artwork . StarCraft used a futuristic theme , but placed the same emphasis on characterization . In all the Blizzard RTS games and in World of Warcraft , units must be managed carefully , rather than treated as expendable hordes . Blizzard has produced fewer expansion packs than Westwood , but integrated the story of each with its predecessors .
= Cyclone Joy =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Joy struck Australia in late 1990 , causing the third highest floods on record in Rockhampton , Queensland . This cyclone began as a weak tropical low near the Solomon Islands , and initially moved westward . On 18 December , it was named Joy , becoming the 2nd named storm of the 1990 – 91 Australian region cyclone season . After turning southwest , Joy developed a well @-@ defined eye and strengthened to maximum sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 103 mph ) while approaching Cairns in Far North Queensland . Brushing the city with strong winds , the cyclone soon weakened and turned southeast . Joy later curved back southwest , making landfall near Townsville , Queensland on 26 December . It dissipated the next day ; remnant moisture continued as torrential rainfall over Queensland for two weeks .
While drifting offshore northeastern Australia , the cyclone produced wind gusts as high as 124 km / h ( 77 mph ) in Cairns , strong enough to cause power outages . In Mackay , a tornado spawned by Joy damaged 40 homes , while torrential rainfall just south of the city peaked at over 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . Most storm @-@ associated damage was wrought by severe flooding , which persisted for weeks in hardest @-@ hit locations . Rains significantly increased water levels on 10 rivers , among them the Fitzroy River , which discharged about 18 trillion litres ( 4 @.@ 8 × 1012 US gallons ) of freshwater into Keppel Bay over 25 days . In turn , the Great Barrier Reef suffered biological damage from coral bleaching and decreased salinity . The Fitzroy River rose to a 9 @.@ 30 @-@ metre ( 30 @.@ 5 ft ) peak at Rockhampton , forcing thousands to evacuate homes ; some stranded individuals could only obtain food by helicopter . Elsewhere in Australia , storm moisture alleviated drought conditions and diminished fires near Sydney . Overall , Joy killed six people and caused A $ 300 million in damage ( $ 234 million USD ) . Afterwards , the Queensland government issued a disaster declaration for about 30 % of the state , and the name Joy was retired from the list of tropical cyclone names .
= = Meteorological history = =
In mid @-@ December , a monsoon trough persisted along the west Pacific Ocean , spawning a pair of tropical disturbances both north and south of the equator . In the northwestern Pacific Ocean , the system became Typhoon Russ . On 15 December , a tropical low formed east of the Solomon Islands . During the next few days , the system passed south of the country while slowly organizing . On 18 December , the Australia Bureau of Meteorology began tracking it , naming the system " Joy " after it upgraded the low to tropical cyclone status . A meteorologist from Darwin later apologised that the name was used so close to Christmas , although " Joy " was predetermined by a rotating list of list of tropical cyclone names . Also on 18 December , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began issuing warnings on the storm , labeling it as Tropical Cyclone 06P . With a ridge to the south , Joy continued generally west @-@ southwestward .
While in its origins , Joy was experiencing upper @-@ level wind shear , but as it approached the jet stream while turning to the southwest , conditions became more favourable for intensification . The storm quickly intensified , reaching the equivalent of a minimal hurricane on 21 December . At 00 : 00 UTC on 23 December , the Bureau estimated Joy reached peak 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 103 mph ) , which made the system a category 4 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . Around the same time , the JTWC also estimated the same peak winds , but sustained over one minute . Joy developed an eye about 50 km ( 31 mi ) in diameter with concentric eyewalls . The storm began moving slowly off the northeast coast of Australia , passing within 100 km ( 62 mi ) of Cairns , and the motion shifted to a southeast drift . A building high pressure area to the south caused the change in movement , and there were initial concerns the storm would loop to the west and affect Cairns again . Drier air caused Joy to weaken gradually from its peak to the equivalent of a strong tropical storm . At 06 : 00 UTC on 26 December , after turning back to the southwest , the storm made landfall near Townsville , Queensland , with winds estimated at 95 km / h ( 59 mph ) . That day , the JTWC discontinued advisories , and on 27 December , Joy dissipated inland over Queensland . A remnant system persisted into early January , producing continued rainfall across Queensland .
= = Preparations = =
Before Joy struck Australia , residents evacuated from resorts on Fitzroy and Green islands by boat or plane . Officials set up evacuation centres on the mainland and put the Australian Army on standby . The military evacuated its fleet of Blackhawk helicopters inland from RAAF Base Townsville . A man required rescue from Hope Island by helicopter in advance of the storm . The threat of the storm caused shopping malls and the airport near Cairns to close just before Christmas . Several flights were diverted or delayed , stranding about 1 @,@ 000 travellers , many of whom spent Christmas in the airport . Road travel was banned in some areas of northeastern Queensland , and residents in Port Douglas were forced to evacuate . The Flood Warning Centre in Brisbane issued 192 flood warnings related to Cyclone Joy in December and January , beginning on 23 December . Most of the warnings were related to increased water levels along rivers .
= = Impact = =
Joy passed within 80 km ( 50 mi ) of Green Island off the coast of Queensland , generating a wind gust of 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) . Heavy damage occurred on other islands , and one person drowned while surfing in Mackay . A boat became disabled during the storm , forcing its four occupants to ride out the storm for four days on Cockermouth Island until they were rescued by helicopter . Several boats were damaged in the Whitsunday Islands .
The storm and its remnants dropped heavy rainfall throughout Queensland for about two weeks , totaling over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) south of Mackay and over 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) between Bowen and St. Lawrence . The highest daily total was 458 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) about 30 km ( 19 mi ) west of Sarina . Three day rainfall totals around when Joy made landfall included 831 mm ( 32 @.@ 7 in ) in Blue Mountain and 506 mm ( 19 @.@ 9 in ) in Waitara . Rainfall continued through the region through March 1991 , resulting in the third largest flood in the region in over 100 years .
Overall , Cyclone Joy killed six people , including five in river flooding , and caused about A $ 300 million in damage ( $ 234 million USD ) . While stalling off the northeast Australia coast , Joy produced widespread gale force winds , with gusts to 124 km / h ( 77 mph ) recorded at Cairns . After the winds knocked over trees , causing power and phone outages , storm damage cut the water supply and briefly isolated Cairns due to debris blocking roads . An outer rainband struck Mackay as the storm moved ashore , spawning a tornado that damaged 40 houses , destroyed two others , and damaged a caravan park . The windstorm was unexpected there , and damage in Mackay was estimated at A $ 10 million . Flooding from rainfall affected about 90 % of the city , which restricted train travel , causing three trains to be canceled and stranding hundreds of travelers . In Port Douglas , Joy produced an inconsequential storm surge of 0 @.@ 5 m ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) . In Innisfail , the cyclone ruined 90 % of the town 's crops , and over 20 houses sustained wind damage . Banana farmers in the Cairns region lost a combined total of 1 @.@ 2 million bunches of the fruit . Collectively , crop damage totalled over A $ 70 million , mostly to sugar cane and banana . About 30 @,@ 000 head of livestock were killed in the region .
Rain from Cyclone Joy caused rampant flooding across the region , significantly raising water levels along 10 rivers . The Fitzroy River alone swelled to inundate about 4 @,@ 000 km2 ( 1 @,@ 500 sq mi ) of terrain . Heightened discharge caused extensive erosion along river channels that removed about 18 million tonnes ( 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 short tons ) of soil and vegetation . In late December , the Pioneer River at Mackay peaked at 7 @.@ 6 m ( 25 ft ) , safely within the confines of its levee system . The town of Giru endured flooding of streets and houses , which would reoccur several times through February . High water levels along the Tully River flooded a portion of the Bruce Highway . In the second week of January , the Herbert River peaked at 11 @.@ 32 m ( 37 @.@ 1 ft ) , causing residential flooding in Ingham . Elsewhere in Australia , moisture from the storm eased ongoing bushfires near Sydney .
At Rockhampton , the Fitzroy River rose to an initial peak of 9 @.@ 15 m ( 30 @.@ 0 ft ) , temporarily dropped , and rose to a final peak of 9 @.@ 30 m ( 30 @.@ 5 ft ) in early January 1991 , the third highest since records began in 1860 , after floods in 1918 and 1954 . Inflow from several tributaries ensured the Fitzroy River near Rockhampton remained over 8 m ( 26 ft ) for 13 days . The river entered 350 houses in what was the city 's most damaging flood since 1954 . The town was isolated for about three weeks after flooding covered roads , railways , and the airport . Before the worst of the flooding , Acting Premier Tom Burns declared a state of disaster for Rockhampton , giving local police the authority to force individuals living in flood zones to leave their homes . Ultimately , over 1 @,@ 000 people sought higher ground , staying mainly at the houses of friends or relatives , or at nearby schools . In an attempt to mitigate damage , 150 volunteers filled 43 @,@ 000 sandbags to protect properties . Nearby , residents rescued about 100 dogs from an affected kennel .
Storm @-@ related flooding damaged portions of the Great Barrier Reef through coral bleaching . Over 25 days , the Fitzroy River discharged about 18 trillion litres ( 4 @.@ 8 × 1012 US gallons ) of water into Keppel Bay , reaching the Great Barrier Reef in early January and causing a drop in salinity levels . On Great Keppel Island , about 85 % of shallow @-@ water reefs died . Reef damage also occurred in the Whitsunday Islands . The discharge from the Fitzroy River affected various islands and coral groups , depending on the offshore wind direction and ocean current . The water flow washed a group of freshwater turtles from the mainland to North West Island , though they were later returned to their native habitat . The influx of freshwater reduced commercial fishing productivity by 30 % .
= = Aftermath = =
Workers in Cairns had restored power and water supplies within a few days of Joy 's passage . After the initial flooding from Joy ended , there was additional rainfall in February 1991 that caused flooding across the region . Residual flooding cost the coal industry about A $ 60 million due to loss of production and hindered exporting . While Rockhampton was still isolated by flooding , a helicopter airdropped food to hundreds of stranded families , after the town experienced food and water shortages . Transportation to Rockhampton was not normalised until 20 January , when the airport and incoming roads were reopened . The city of Rockhampton later created a flood plain management policy as a result of the effects from Joy . The floods helped fill the drainage basin of the Peter Faust Dam within a few weeks , speeding up a process which would have otherwise taken several years . Months after the storm , the Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service collected reports on environmental impacts from the flooding ; they included some beneficial aspects such as new locations for animal breeding , and alleviation of drought conditions . The Queensland government upgraded a portion of the Bruce Highway near Rockhampton to reduce flooding in similar storms .
Officials declared about a third of the state of Queensland as a disaster area following Cyclone Joy , directing state funds toward recovery efforts . The Queensland government provided monetary assistance to eligible families in the disaster zone and offered special loans to farmers affected by the storm . The federal government agreed to contribute 75 % of overall relief costs . Following the cyclone 's impacts in Australia , the name Joy was later retired by the World Meteorological Organization .
= Qal 'at al @-@ Bahrain =
The Qal 'at al @-@ Bahrain ( in Arabic : قلعة البحرين ) , also known as the Bahrain Fort or Fort of Bahrain and previously as the Portugal Fort ( Qal 'at al Portugal ) is an archaeological site located in Bahrain , on the Arabian Peninsula . Archaeological excavations carried out since 1954 have unearthed antiquities from an artificial mound of 12 m ( 39 ft ) height containing seven stratified layers , created by various occupants from 2300 BC up to the 18th century , including Kassites , Portuguese and Persians . It was once the capital of the Dilmun civilization and was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005 .
= = History and explorations = =
The archaeological findings , which are unearthed in the fort , reveal much about the history of the country . The area is thought to have been occupied for about 5000 years and contains a valuable insight into the Copper and Bronze Ages of Bahrain . The first Bahrain Fort was built around three thousand years ago , on the northeastern peak of Bahrain Island . The present fort dates from the sixth century AD . The capital of the Dilmun civilization , Dilmun was , according to the Epic of Gilgamesh , the " land of immortality " , the ancestral place of Sumerians and a meeting point of gods .
The site has been termed as Bahrain 's " most important site in antiquity " . The first excavation at the site was carried out by a Danish expedition led by Geoffrey Bibby between 1954 and 1972 , and later by a French expedition from 1977 . Since 1987 Bahrain archaeologists have been involved with this work . The archaeological findings have revealed seven civilizations of urban structures beginning with Dilmun empire , the most important ancient civilization of the region . The Danish expedition revealed that it was a notable Hellenistic site .
= = Geography = =
The fort and the tell Qal 'at al @-@ Bahrain is built on , are located on the Bahrain island , on the northern seashore . On a clear day it is also seen from Saar . It stands like a " sentinel " near Manama , the capital of Bahrain ; it is 6 km ( 4 mi ) away from Manama on the fertile north coast . The tel is the largest in the Gulf region and was built close to the port and by reclamation of seashore land .
= = Description = =
Qal`at al @-@ Bahrain is a typical tell – an artificial mound created by many successive layers of human occupation . The strata spreads over a 180 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 16 @,@ 723 m2 ) area , which encompasses the tell . This testifies to a continuous human presence from about 2300 BC to the 16th century AD . About 25 % of the site has been excavated revealing structures of different types : residential , public , commercial , religious and military . They testify to the importance of the site as a trading port over the centuries . On the top of the 12 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 39 ft ) mound , there is the impressive Qal`at al @-@ Burtughal ( Portuguese fort ) , which gave the whole site its name , qal`a , meaning " fort " . As the site was the capital of the Dilmun civilisation , it contains the richest remains of this civilization , which was hitherto only known from written Sumerian references .
The site contains many areas and walls , including Saar necropolis , Al @-@ Hajjar necropolis , Kassite Palace , Madimat Hermand necropolis , Madimat Isa necropolis , Al @-@ Maqsha Necropolis , Palace of Uperi , Shakhura necropolis , and the Northern city wall . The ruins of the Copper Age consists of two sections of the fortification wall surrounding streets and houses , and a colossal building on the edge of the moat of the Portuguese fort in the centre . Barbar pottery has been unearthed around the walls of the central building , dating back to the same age as the Barbar Temples , although some of the other pottery and range of unearthed artefacts indicated that they predated the temples , dating back to 3000 BC or later . Relics of copper and ivory provide an insight into ancient trade links . Many vessels have been unearthed on the site , and Danish excavations of the Palace of Uperi area revealed " snake bowls " , sarcophagi , seals and a mirror , among other things .
= = Layout = =
The excavations of the tel has revealed a small settlement , the only one of that period in eastern Arabia , on its northern side . It has been inferred that the village was settled by people who developed agriculture near the oasis , planted palm trees , tended cattle , sheep and goats and also ventured into fishing in the Arabian Sea . The small houses they built were made of rough stone with clay or mortar as binding material . The plastered floors in the houses were said to have been spacious . Excavations also hinted that the village had streets which separated the housing complexes .
The fortifications seen in the excavated tel area were found around the township and were erected in cardinal directions . The fort walls are seen now only in the northern , western and southern slopes of the tel , and the eastern side is yet to be excavated . The fortifications covered an area of 15 ha ( 37 acres ) , and the walls were built with varying thickness by using stone masonry , and had gates which allowed transport and passing through , such as of donkey caravans . The fortifications were frequently raised , as noted from the gates erected at four levels ; the latest gate had two polished stone ( made of fine grained material ) pivots which fixed a double leafed gate . The western wall was seen well @-@ preserved for a length of 9 m ( 30 ft ) . The streets were laid in north – south direction and were 12 m ( 39 ft ) wide .
There was a palace in the centre of the tel at a commanding location consisting of several warehouses which were inferred as indicative of economic activity during the Dilmun period . Proceeding from here towards the north , along the street leads , to a large gate that probably was the entry to the palace grounds . The modest houses built in the same size and type of construction were laid along a network of roads .
The place prospered till 1800 BC after when it was deserted . Eventually the town became covered with drift sand from the sea .
= = Antiquaries = =
Metal artifacts found in the tel were limited to copper pieces , fishing tools and a socketed spearhead ; a workshop of 525 m ( 1 @,@ 722 ft ) size was also identified where copper casting two piece moulds and wax moulds were found . Small and large crucibles used for melting of metal were recovered in substantial quantities indicative of large scale manufacture by professional artisans . The copper ware was then traded in surrounding countries such as Oman and Mesopotamia . Dilmun stamp seals were also recovered from the excavations .
Pots and vessels were also recovered . Pots were used for cooking , while the large vessels for food import from Oman and Mesopotamia . Artifacts found there indicates the location . These include a cuneiform inscription and hematite , both of which link to Mesopotamia ; steatite bowls to Oman ; and carnelian beads , a stone weight and a few potsherds to the Indus Civilization .
= Typhoon Ellen ( 1983 ) =
Typhoon Ellen was considered the worst typhoon to hit China since 1979 . Typhoon Ellen was first noted as a tropical disturbance east of the International Dateline on August 26 , 1983 , and became a tropical storm soon after crossing the dateline on the morning of August 29 . Initially , strong wind shear inhibited development over the next five days , and the cyclone began to track south of west . On September 2 , conditions aloft finally improved and the cyclone strengthened into a typhoon on September 4 as it tracked west @-@ northwest . Approaching Luzon late on September 5 , Ellen intensified rapidly into a strong typhoon with winds of 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) before interaction with Luzon began to weaken the cyclone . Its final landfall was at Macau on the morning of September 9 as a minimal typhoon .
Despite passing north of the Philippines , the storm killed three and left 15 persons injured . Damage in the country totaled $ 680 @,@ 000 ( 1983 USD ) . While passing near Hong Kong , 50 @,@ 000 people lost electrical services . Around 200 homes were destroyed . A total 2 @,@ 000 people were left homeless , 1 @,@ 600 of which sought shelter . Throughout the city , eight people perished and 339 were hurt , including 120 seriously . Ellen spawned the second tornado ever recorded in Hong Kong , and the first ever recorded during a typhoon . Elsewhere , in Macao , little damage was reported . Offshore , 40 crew members had to be rescued in a shipwreck . In a separate incident , eight people were lost at sea . Furthermore , ten Taiwan fishing boats capsized in the South China Sea , resulting in 48 fishermen missing , though 103 persons also survived . Overall , damage totaled $ 79 million and 23 people died .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Ellen originated from a tropical disturbance located 500 km ( 310 mi ) south @-@ southwest of the Johnston Atoll on August 26 . Based on the development of rainbands , satellite intensity estimates indicated winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . The disturbance crossed the dateline two days later and a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) was subsequently issued . At 0000 UTC on August 29 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) first classified the system . Initially , the storm did not develop significantly due to strong wind shear caused by an intense high pressure area north of the cyclone . This also caused Ellen to turn west @-@ southwest . On August 31 , however , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started warning on the system , declaring it a tropical storm . The next day , the JTWC briefly downgraded the system into a tropical depression ; however , the JMA held the storm 's intensity to 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) for several days . On September 2 , however , the storm began to turn west @-@ northwest and environmental conditions became much more favorable for development , and the JMA upgraded Ellen into a severe tropical storm early the following morning . Later on September 3 , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PASAGA ) also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Herming . At 1200 UTC , the JTWC upgraded Ellen into a typhoon , though the JMA did not follow suit until early on September 4 .
After maintaining this intensity for 12 hours , Ellen deepened slightly that evening , though the JTWC suggests that the storm intensified into a Category 2 hurricane on the United States Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . By midday on September 5 , data from both agencies indicated that Ellen developed winds 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) while located 370 km ( 230 mi ) west of Luzon . Thereafter , Ellen began to rapidly intensify and according to the JTWC , the pressure decreased by 28 mbar ( 0 @.@ 83 inHg ) . At 0600 UTC on September 6 , Ellen reached peak intensity , with the JMA estimating winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a pressure of 925 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) . Meanwhile , the JTWC suggests that Ellen reached a peak intensity of 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) and a slightly higher pressure of 928 mbar ( 27 @.@ 4 inHg ) .
However , its peak intensity was short @-@ lived ; Typhoon Ellen soon began to weaken steadily as it moved through the Luzon Straits while interacting with Luzon . After turning northwest , the JMA reported the winds had reduced to 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) at 0000 UTC on September 7 . At that time , the JTWC noted that Ellen 's winds were equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane . However , the JMA suggests that the weakening trend leveled off late on September 7 . The next day , PASAGA ceased monitoring the system as it was no longer a threat to the Philippines . According to the JMA , the system moved ashore near Macao at 0000 UTC on September 9 as an 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) typhoon , though the JTWC estimates that the storm was a little weaker at landfall . Ellen dissipated rapidly overland , and the JTWC downgraded Elen into a tropical depression 12 hours later . However , the JMA kept watching the system until 0600 UTC on September 10 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Due to the storm 's threat to Hong Kong , a " no 10 @.@ hurricane signal " was issued . Across Hong Kong , schools and government offices were ordered to be closed and 250 shelters were opened . In addition , most shops and restaurants as well as all financial markets were closed .
Despite passing north of the Philippines , the storm killed three and left 15 persons injured . Damage in the country totaled $ 680 @,@ 000 . A total of 605 dwellings were damaged , excluding 105 that were destroyed . Upon making landfall in present @-@ day China , winds gusted to 154 mph ( 248 km / h ) at Stanley . Rainfall totaled 231 @.@ 8 mm ( 9 @.@ 13 in ) at Hong Kong 's Royal Observatory ( HKO ) . Twenty @-@ two ships were wrecked , including a 21 @,@ 000 @-@ ton freighter , forcing the rescue of all 40 crew members . A 185 ft ( 56 m ) yacht Osprey carried nine people , eight of which were lost and presumed dead . Several minor collisions were reported between ships . Along the coastal province Guadong in southern China , communications and public services were disrupted . Ferry services from Hong Kong to Macao were suspended . On September 8 , ten Taiwan fishing boats capsized in the South China Sea ; consequently , 48 fishermen were missing , though 103 persons survived and later took refuge in the Pratas Islands .
In Hong Kong , 50 @,@ 000 people lost power . About 200 houses were destroyed . More than 2 @,@ 000 people were left homeless , 1 @,@ 600 of the homeless sought emergency shelter . Flights to the Kai Tak Airport were cancelled as the airport was closed for 12 hours . Large areas of farmland were damaged . Throughout the city , eight people perished , including a girl who died after getting crushed by a falling cabinet . One man also died while in a field . Two sisters were killed via a landslide while a fireman died when trying to rescue someone . Additionally , 339 people were injured , including 120 seriously . Forty @-@ five people were injured due to flying glass and failing objects . Ellen also spawned the second tornado ever recorded in Hong Kong , and the first ever recorded during the passage of a typhoon . According to the HKO , Ellen was Hong Kong 's worst typhoon since Typhoon Hope of 1979 .
In nearby Macao , minor property damage was reported and 15 people were initially rendered as missing . However , by October 13 , 10 people remained missing and were then presumed dead . In all , damage totaled $ 79 million ( 1983 USD ) and 20 people were killed due to Typhoon Ellen in present @-@ day China .
= Druk Air =
Drukair Corporation Limited ( Dzongkha : འབྲུག ་ མཁའ ་ འགྲུལ ་ ལས ་ འཛིན ། , Wylie : ' brug mkha ' ' grul las ' dzin ) , operating as Drukair — Royal Bhutan Airlines , is the national airline of the Kingdom of Bhutan , headquartered in the western dzongkhag of Paro .
Founded in 1981 , ten years after Druk Gyalpo Jigme Dorji Wangchuck gradually began to open up the kingdom from self @-@ imposed isolation , and seven years after welcoming its first foreign visitors , the airline commenced operations in 1983 with flights from Calcutta to Paro utilising Dornier Do 228 aircraft . A switch to BAe 146 @-@ 100 equipment occurred in November 1988 , and in order to meet increased demand , those aircraft were replaced in 2004 with two Airbus A319s .
Drukair operates a modest scheduled flight network within the South Asian region from its base at Paro Airport and currently consists of ten destinations in five countries .
= = History = =
In 1968 , the Indian Border Roads Organisation built an airstrip in the Paro valley , which was initially utilised for on call helicopter operations by the Indian Armed Forces for the Royal Government of Bhutan . After consideration by King Jigme Singye Wangchuck and the Tshogdu , Drukair was established by Royal Charter on 5 April 1981 , ten years after the Druk Gyalpo , King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck gradually began to open up the Kingdom from self @-@ imposed isolation , and seven years after welcoming its first foreign visitors .
Paro Airport is located deep in a valley 2 @,@ 235 metres ( 7 @,@ 333 ft ) above sea level , and is surrounded by mountains as high as 4 @,@ 900 metres ( 16 @,@ 100 ft ) . At the time , the runway was 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) in length , giving the Bhutanese government specific requirements for a choice of aircraft to be operated . They required an 18 – 20 seat STOL @-@ capable aircraft with operating capabilities which included a high service ceiling , high rate of climb and high manoeuvrability . The major requirement for the aircraft was that it must be capable of flying Kolkata – Paro – Kolkata , a 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 750 mi ) round @-@ trip flight , without refuelling , due to minimal infrastructure being available at Paro for this purpose . Three different aircraft types were considered after flight tests in India and Bhutan between 1978 and 1980 ; however , none was deemed suitable .
In mid @-@ 1981 , the Indian government set up a committee to study its own requirements for a light transport aircraft . Based upon this competition , the Bhutanese government ordered one Dornier 228 @-@ 200 for delivery in January 1983 , with the option for a second aircraft for delivery in late 1983 . The first 18 @-@ seat Dornier 228 @-@ 200 landed at Paro Airport on 14 January 1983 , the exact time of landing , the number of passengers on board and even the direction the aircraft was parked on the airport apron being predetermined by the high lama of Paro Dzong .
The airline inaugurated scheduled revenue flights on 11 February 1983 , with Flight 101 departing Paro for Kolkata and returning the next day as Flight 102 . For the first four weeks the flight was operated three times a week , after which it was increased to a daily flight . At the time of service commencement , Paro Airport consisted of the runway , a two @-@ room air traffic control building ( with the ground floor acting as the check @-@ in counter ) and a departure lounge on the lawn . Prior to the establishment of the Department of Civil Aviation in January 1986 , the airline was responsible for the operation and maintenance of airport infrastructure . The airline commenced flights to Dhaka in Bangladesh on 30 October 1986 .
= = = Jet era = = =
On 30 December 1987 , a US $ 25 million order was placed with British Aerospace for a BAe 146 @-@ 100 STOL regional jet . The purchase of the aircraft was financed by the government , obtaining , for the first time in the country 's history , a commercial loan . In 1988 , the airlines ' operational base was shifted from Kolkata to Paro Airport and the airline also hired its first seven flight attendants who were trained by Thai Airways International . On 21 November 1988 , the BAe 146 was delivered to Paro Airport . With the introduction of the BAe 146 , Drukair was able to widen its network to link Paro with Delhi on 26 November 1988 , Bangkok on 28 January 1989 and Kathmandu in April 1989 . In the first full year of operational service with the BAe 146 , the airline achieved an average load factor of 50 – 60 percent , more than the 40 percent which was expected , carrying 12 @,@ 732 passengers over the 1989 – 1990 period . In 1990 , the runway at Paro Airport was lengthened from 1 @,@ 400 metres ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) to 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) and reinforced for heavier aircraft . A hangar was also constructed for the aircraft , which was funded by the Indian government as part of the Paro Airport Development Project .
The airlines ' only aircraft was requisitioned by King Jigme Singye on 9 November 1990 , in order to allow the king and his party to travel to Tokyo for the coronation of Akihito as Emperor of Japan . From Japan , the King then travelled to Malé in the Maldives for the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation summit between 21 – 23 November , and returned to Bhutan in order for the aircraft to re @-@ enter service with the airline on 25 November . Due to a requirement stipulated by the Bhutanese government that all foreign tourists , with the exception of Indian nationals , enter and leave Bhutan by air , the country 's tourism industry was brought to a halt , which saw the airline paying hefty penalties to disgruntled tour operators . This problem was somewhat alleviated when a second BAe 146 entered service in 1992 , and on 11 November 1993 , the airline introduced a 10 Executive Class on the aircraft . On 13 May 1991 , Drukair was registered under the Companies Act of Bhutan . Service to Yangon , the capital of Myanmar , began on 6 January 1997 .
During 2000 – 2001 , Drukair could operate with only one single aircraft for over a year due to a corrosion defect in its A5 @-@ RGD aircraft in the wing tanks that was detected during a check at Woodford . The wings were replaced . In 2002 , an RJ70 was wet @-@ leased from airBaltic to cover for maintenance to A5 @-@ RGE .
Drukair became the launch customer for the Avro RJX @-@ 85 in April 2000 when it placed an order with BAE Systems for two aircraft , with deliveries initially scheduled to take place in November 2001 and January 2002 . Delays in the first flight and certification of the RJX pushed back expected delivery to Drukair to after April 2002 . BAe Systems cancelled the RJX program in November 2002 , due to receiving orders from only two airlines , Drukair and British European . With British European threatening legal action to enforce their contract with BAE Systems , the aircraft manufacturer offered to fulfil the contract for Drukair , although airline management decided against acquiring the aircraft , citing potential problems with sourcing spare parts for the aircraft in future .
In order to find a replacement for the 2 BAe 146s , Drukair management fielded submissions from Airbus , Boeing and Embraer to determine their products ' suitability to meet Drukair 's stringent operational requirements . Bombardier was also invited by management to demonstrate the CRJ900 regional jet , however , the airline was advised by Bombardier the aircraft would be unsuited for operations at Paro . In February 2002 , the Airbus A319 became the largest aircraft to ever land at Paro Airport , when Airbus demonstrated the aircraft to the airline . By October , Boeing had withdrawn from the competition due to not being able to source an aircraft to demonstrate to the airline . With the Embraer E @-@ 190 yet to fly , it was expected that Drukair would order the A319 . However , the government had concerns regarding financing for the purchase , and in October the final decision was delayed . After a short period of time , the government instructed management to begin evaluations once again , and a Boeing 737 – 700 conducted eleven test flights at Paro Airport in February 2003 , in which it was demonstrated it met the requirements of the airline for operation into Paro .
Airbus signed a memorandum of understanding with Drukair in July 2003 for two 114 @-@ seat Airbus A319 @-@ 115 , powered by two CFM56 @-@ 5B engines , for delivery in the second half of 2004 . The purchase of the two jets , valued at 3 @,@ 534 @.@ 36 million Bhutanese ngultrum ( BTN ) , was the biggest single purchase ever made by Bhutan , and was largely responsible for a 250 percent increase in the Bhutanese trade deficit over the previous year for the financial year 2004 – 2005 . The Bhutanese government issued BTN 1 @,@ 767 @.@ 18 million in government bonds to pay for one aircraft and for only the second time in Bhutan 's history intended to seek a commercial loan for the other aircraft . However , in October 2004 it announced it would instead seek a soft loan for this purpose .
On 11 November 2003 , the king 's birthday , Drukair initiated services to Gaya , India . Bodh Gaya , 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) from Gaya , is the site of the Mahabodhi Temple where Siddhārtha Gautama , the Buddha , reached enlightenment , and 30 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 Bhutanese make the pilgrimage every year . Pilgrims have previously made the pilgrimage to Bodh Gaya via a 2 – 3 @-@ day overland trip from the Bhutanese border town of Phuntsholing , and Drukair management plans on acquiring 20 – 30 % of this traffic , although the airline had yet to record a profit on the route at of February 2006 . The following month , as a result of Royal Bhutan Army efforts to expel from Bhutan territory Indian separatist insurgent groups , notably the United Liberation Front of Asom and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland , flights to Dhaka were suspended from 29 December in order to prevent insurgents from using Drukair flights to escape to alleged hideouts in Bangladesh .
= = = Airbus era = = =
The first Airbus A319 arrived in Bhutan on 19 October 2004 ; the date chosen after a Buddhist astrologer was consulted to ensure the aircraft arrived in Bhutan on an auspicious day in the Buddhist calendar . Before entering service on commercial flights on 31 October 2004 , Drukair took their A319 on a country @-@ wide flight in honour of the ascencion of Crown Prince Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck to the Chhoetse Penlop . The second aircraft was delivered by Airbus to Drukair in December 2004 . On 31 August 2012 , Druk Air took delivery of a third Airbus A319 .
In July 2005 , the governments of India and Bhutan signed a new bilateral air services agreement which increased the allowable number of weekly flights between the two countries from 12 to 49 . In addition to destinations already served by Drukair , the cities of Mumbai , Chennai and Guwahati were included in their services agreement , with Bhutan being granted fifth freedom rights from several Indian cities to onward destinations such as Yangon , Dhaka and Singapore .
Domestic helicopter service was inaugurated in November 2005 , in line with a resolution by the Council of Ministers in April 2001 which stated that domestic services should be introduced . Thirty heliports across the country were identified , and the introduction of services saw , for example , the 550 kilometres ( 340 mi ) trip from Thimphu to Trashigang taking only one hour , instead of two to three days . The Eurocopter Ecureuil helicopter operated by the Nepalese operator , Air Dynasty , had by January 2006 seen 30 hours of service , netting Drukair US $ 3 @,@ 000 in profits .
Flights to Dhaka , suspended since 29 December 2003 , resumed on 23 October 2006 , and the airline was given rights to fly to Chittagong and Cox 's Bazar by the Bangladeshi authorities . The airline announced plans in July 2007 to start scheduled flights to Mumbai via Kathmandu from March 2008 , inline with the strategy of Drukair management to increase the number of Indian tourists travelling to Bhutan during the low season months of June through August and November through February . These plans were put on hold in March 2008 , due to Paro Airport not being able to handle night flights and the airline only being able to secure landing slots at Mumbai 's Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport at 3 am . Plans for services to Hong Kong , Singapore , Abu Dhabi , Dubai and Sharjah were also shelved .
The airline posted its first profit in 2007 of BTN 31 @.@ 15 million . The two BAe 146 aircraft were sold to Star Perú in October 2007 for US $ 3 @.@ 3 million , and left Bhutan for Peru in November and December 2007 .
Druk Gyalpo Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck on 11 November 2007 issued a Royal Kasho establishing Druk Holding and Investments Limited , a holding company which would manage existing and future investments of the Royal Bhutanese government . As a result , seven government @-@ owned companies , including Drukair , had their ownership transferred from the Ministry of Finance to the newly formed holding company . Incorporated on 13 November 2007 , Druk Holding and Investments announced in December 2007 that given Bhutan 's tourism industry being reliant on Drukair , the head of the government agency overseeing tourism development in Bhutan would become the chairperson of Drukair , and would be responsible for improving the performance of the national airline .
In March 2008 , Drukair introduced a new uniform for its flight attendants , consisting of a contemporary kira and tego . The uniforms were introduced for the centenary celebrations of the monarchy , as well as the airlines own silver jubilee . The uniform was chosen by way of a competition in which five Bhutanese fashion designers submitted entries , with the winner receiving a BTN 75 @,@ 000 prize . The textiles used in the new uniform were chosen via a competition which was jointly organised by Drukair and the United Nations Development Programme to promote the Bhutanese textile industry and culture .
Although the government of Bhutan goes to great lengths to prevent outside influences from intruding on Bhutanese culture , Drukair is not immune to problems which affect the airline industry and the world community at large . In June 2008 , citing hikes in the price of oil and the need to contain operational costs , the airline reduced frequencies across its network and announced an increase in airfares to offset the increased costs , whilst taking advantage of the lower cost of jet fuel at Delhi , Kolkata and Bangkok airports . Due to its small network which is reliant on fifth @-@ freedom rights , Drukair regularly leases its aircraft to other airlines , such as Myanmar Airways International , Indian Airlines and Bangkok Airways in order to keep utilisation rates on its aircraft higher than they would under normal circumstances , whilst at the same time earning extra revenue .
The airline was due to begin flights on 20 April 2009 to Bagdogra Airport in India , but had to delay the inaugural flight due to the lack of immigration and customs facilities at the airport . The inaugural flight to Bagdogra Airport left Paro Airport on 18 June 2009 , making Drukair the first international airline to operate into the airport . In Bagdogra , a ceremony was held which was attended by S. M. Krishna , the Indian Minister for External Affairs , and Lyonpo Ugyen Tshering , the Bhutanese Minister of Foreign Affairs .
= = Contemporary developments = =
Until 23 August 2010 Drukair was the only airline flying into Bhutan .
The airline is a lifeline for the Bhutanese people , connecting Bhutan with the outside world and supporting emerging inbound tourism and export markets . Drukair has recently been criticised for its unreliability — particularly by the Bhutanese tourism industry which is still in its infancy and regards the very company upon which it relies as its biggest threat .
In October 2009 , the Bhutanese government planned construction works of an airstrip in Yongphulla . The airstrip , which was expected to be 3 @,@ 900 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) in length and operational by March 2010 , would allow for service by small aircraft in the 15 – 16 seat category . The project was being financed with Nu . 34 million from the budget which was previously allocated to the development of domestic helicopter services . The airstrip would only be operational during the morning hours due to high winds in the afternoon , making safe operations risky .
Drukair is conducting a feasibility study into operating flights to the airstrip from Paro , as well as , two others which are under construction at Bathpalathang and Gelephu .
In 2006 the Indian government acting for the Bhutanese government , conducted a feasibility study into the viability of an international airport near the southern Bhutanese town of Gelephu . In the five @-@ year plan ( which covers 2008 – 2013 ) the sum of BTN 2 @,@ 826 million had been allocated by the Bhutanese government for development of the new airport . A preliminary survey was conducted by India in May 2006 and the survey team from the Airports Authority of India was to return and complete the final survey in September 2006 . In October 2008 the project was shelved , and the Bhutanese government decided that the airport at Gelephu would be used for domestic flights only .
Since then , the construction of a domestic airport at Gelephu has been scheduled to commence in late 2010 with the airport proposing to start operations in June 2011 . The Bhutanese Department of Civil Aviation ( DCA ) has indicated that Gelephu 's will be an ' all @-@ weather ' airport that may be able to accept some international traffic in the future .
Under the Vision 2020 Plan , the Royal Bhutanese Government has identified the requirement for improved external air links by 2017 , in an effort to increase tourism revenue 100 % by 2012 and 150 % by 2017 . Drukair is conducting feasibility studies into the commencement of operations to either Hong Kong or Singapore by March 2011 . The airline 's commercial manager has stated that preliminary studies show that Bhutanese traffic to Singapore would consist mainly of official travel , whilst traffic to Hong Kong would be mainly commercial , with good prospects for tourism development .
On 21 April 2010 , an ATR 42 turboprop regional aircraft was delivered to Paro under a nine @-@ month lease . The aircraft was used on flights from Paro to Kolkata and Kathmandu , and was on standby during the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation summit in Thimphu at the end of April . Drukair announced its intention to join the International Air Transport Association in 2009 .
= = Destinations = =
Drukair operates scheduled flights to the following destinations :
= = Fleet = =
As of March 2016 , the Drukair fleet consists of the following aircraft :
The ATR 42 first operated on a nine @-@ month lease from April 2010 was evaluated by the airline with the possibility of a future purchase . On 4 June 2011 , a purchased ATR 42 arrived in Paro . Drukair had bought the 48 @-@ seater with the view of using it to service the domestic routes to Bumthang and Yonphula in late 2011 .
= HMS Vindex ( 1915 ) =
HMS Vindex was a Royal Navy seaplane carrier during the First World War . The ship spent the bulk of her career operating the North Sea , where she twice unsuccessfully attacked the German Zeppelin base at Tondern and conducted anti @-@ Zeppelin patrols . One of her Bristol Scout aircraft made the first take @-@ off from an aircraft carrier in late 1915 . Another made the first interception of an airship by a carrier @-@ based aircraft in mid @-@ 1916 , when it unsuccessfully attacked the Zeppelin LZ17 . Vindex was transferred to the Mediterranean in 1918 and was sold back to her original owners in 1920 . She was requisitioned again in 1939 and served through World War II as a troopship under a different name . After the end of the war , the ship was returned to her owners and was sold for scrapping in 1954 .
= = Description and conversion = =
The ship had an overall length of 361 feet 6 inches ( 110 @.@ 2 m ) , a beam of 42 feet ( 12 @.@ 8 m ) , and a draught of 13 feet 8 inches ( 4 @.@ 2 m ) at deep load . She displaced 2 @,@ 950 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) . Her three direct @-@ drive steam turbines , each driving a propeller shaft , produced a total of 11 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 8 @,@ 200 kW ) . Steam was provided by four boilers . The ship carried 475 long tons ( 483 t ) of coal which meant that she could steam for 995 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 843 km ; 1 @,@ 145 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her crew numbered 218 , including 76 aviation personnel .
Vindex 's main armament consisted of four 50 @-@ calibre , 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 12 @-@ pounder 18 cwt guns , with 130 rounds stored for each gun . They fired 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 790 m / s ) ; this gave a maximum range of 9 @,@ 300 yd ( 8 @,@ 500 m ) . Their rate of fire was 15 rounds per minute . The ship also carried a single QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss anti @-@ aircraft gun for which she carried 55 rounds . This had a maximum depression of 8 ° and a maximum elevation of 60 ° . It fired a 6 @-@ pound ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 765 ft / s ( 538 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 20 rounds per minute . It had a maximum ceiling of 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , but an effective range of only 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . The 12 @-@ pounder guns were later replaced by two 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns .
Vindex was fitted with a 64 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 19 @.@ 5 m ) flying @-@ off deck forward , intended for aircraft with wheeled undercarriages , and a prominent hangar aft . Two electric cranes were fitted aft and two derricks forward to handle her aircraft . Initially she carried two dismantled single @-@ seat aircraft in her small forward hangar and five floatplanes in the hangar aft . Both aircraft in the forward hangar could be reassembled and flown off in about ten minutes . She was capable of operating up to seven aircraft , and during her career , operated a range of aircraft including the Sopwith Schneider , the Sopwith Pup and the Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter in addition to the aircraft mentioned .
= = Service = =
The ship was built in 1905 by Armstrong Whitworth , Newcastle upon Tyne as the Viking , a fast passenger ferry for the Isle of Man Steam Packet . Viking was requisitioned by the Royal Navy on 26 March 1915 for conversion to a seaplane carrier , and was purchased outright on 11 November 1915 . She was renamed HMS Vindex to avoid confusion with the destroyer HMS Viking .
Vindex was assigned to the Harwich Force in November 1915 and operated in the North Sea through 1917 . A Bristol Scout C made the first take @-@ off from the ship on 3 November 1915 with the ship steaming at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) ; the aircraft only used 46 feet ( 14 @.@
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negro " , reflecting Zaoutzes 's particularly dark complexion . In the same vein , Zaoutzes was known among Byzantines as " the Ethiopian " . Whatever his exact ancestry , he shared ethnic and geographical origin with the Emperor Basil I the Macedonian , a factor that probably played an important role in his ascent to high office during the latter 's reign .
In late 882 , the young Leo , Basil 's second son and heir after the death of his elder brother Constantine in 879 , was wedded to Theophano , a member of the Martinakes family . The bride was the choice of empress Eudokia Ingerina , and did not please Leo , who instead preferred the company of Zoe Zaoutzaina , the beautiful daughter of Stylianos Zaoutzes . Whether Zoe was actually his mistress is uncertain ; Leo himself strenuously denied this in later accounts . At that point , Zaoutzes held the post of mikros hetaireiarches , i.e. commander of the junior regiment of the Byzantine emperor 's mercenary bodyguard , the hetaireia . Leo 's relations with his father Basil were always strained , and when Theophano informed him of this affair , Basil reportedly became enraged , beat Leo until he bled , and married Zoe off to one Theodore Gouzouniates . Furthermore , in 883 , Leo was denounced as plotting against Basil and was imprisoned ; it was only through the intervention of patriarch Photios and Stylianos Zaoutzes that he was not also blinded . This affair does not seem to have hurt Zaoutzes 's own standing with Basil or his career , for by the end of Basil 's reign he was protospatharios and megas hetaireiarches ( senior commander of the hetaireia ) .
= = = Rise to prominence = = =
Leo spent three years in prison , until released and restored to his rank in late July 886 . Here too Zaoutzes played a major role , as he personally pleaded with the Byzantine emperor to secure Leo 's release . By that time , Basil was ailing , and on August 12 , 886 , he was gravely wounded during a hunt . Zaoutzes 's participation in the hunt raised suspicions of a conspiracy , but his complicity is generally rejected , as Basil survived for nine days , during which he did not punish Zaoutzes . Upon Basil 's death , Leo was crowned emperor , but Zaoutzes , who was awarded the titles of patrikios and magistros and the office of logothetes tou dromou , effectively assumed control of the government , directing state policy . One tradition , based on the Vita Euthymii ( the hagiography of Patriarch Euthymios I ) , holds that Basil himself appointed Zaoutzes as regent ( epitropos ) , but other sources indicate that his ascent to power was more gradual . It is indicative of his authority that most of Leo 's ordinances ( novels ) are directed to him in person , and in 893 , he succeeded in getting his protégé , Antony Kauleas , elected as Patriarch of Constantinople . In the same period ( between 886 and 893 ) , Emperor Leo VI himself delivered a homily on a church built on Zaoutzes 's orders in Constantinople .
Zaoutzes 's rise to prominence was consolidated in 891 – 893 , when he was given the newly created title of basileopator ( " father of the emperor " ) . His promotion to this new and enigmatic title has been a subject of controversy , as neither the reasons for the creation of the title nor its exact functions are known . The early date of his elevation precludes a relation to the eventual rise of his daughter Zoe to the imperial throne as Leo 's empress . Gratitude for Zaoutzes 's support against Basil may have played a role , and a common theory is that the office implied some form of tutorship over the emperor . The office certainly confirmed Zaoutzes as the senior secular official of the Byzantine Empire . However , although Zaoutzes has traditionally been regarded as an all @-@ powerful regent over a weak emperor , in no small part due to the account provided in the Vita Euthymii , the actual relationship between the two may have been quite different . A more careful evaluation of the source material has led modern scholarship to conclude that Leo was actively involved in government , and that Zaoutzes as chief minister was loyal and obsequious to his master .
An assessment of his record as the Byzantine Empire 's first minister is difficult . Of the few available sources on his career , the Vita Euthymii , compiled years after Zaoutzes 's death , is extremely hostile , seeking to pin the responsibility for several of the reign 's failures or unpopular decisions on him , and thus preserve Leo from blame . The account of the Vita is further colored by the fierce rivalry between Zaoutzes and Euthymios , then a synkellos and Leo 's spiritual father , over influence on the Byzantine emperor . Thus the Vita accuses Zaoutzes of being responsible for the sacking of the successful general Nikephoros Phokas the Elder from the army , as well as for the outbreak of hostilities with Bulgaria in 893 : allegedly , two of his protégés moved the main market for Bulgarian goods from Constantinople to Thessalonica and then proceeded to extract exorbitant fees from the Bulgarian merchants . When Leo , at the behest of Zaoutzes , rejected the merchants ' protests , the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon I found a pretext to attack Byzantium . It has , however , been recently suggested by the scholar Paul Magdalino that the transfer was in fact Leo 's initiative , aiming to enrich Thessalonica , whose patron saint , Saint Demetrius , he showed special favor to .
= = = Fall from favor and death = = =
Nevertheless , all this has led to the enduring image of an ineffectual leadership in foreign and military affairs under Zaoutzes . This may explain why , despite the resumption of Leo 's affair with Zoe , the relationship between Zaoutzes and the emperor became strained : tales of an alleged plot by Zaoutzes 's son to murder Leo in 894 / 895 indicate a rift between the two , and although Zaoutzes himself was not involved , a major quarrel between them ensued shortly after . Although they were reconciled , Zaoutzes 's standing seems to have declined further thereafter , as two of his protégés , found guilty of accepting bribes , were punished by Leo . Nevertheless , in late summer 898 , following the death of Theophano in December 865 or 866 and of Zoe 's first husband Gouzouniates in early 898 , Leo at last married Zoe , raising her to Augusta . In the next year , however , both Zoe and Stylianos died . Following their deaths , Leo proposed to marry yet again , choosing Eudokia Baïana as his wife . Zaoutzes 's numerous relatives , who had benefited from his patronage , were fearful of losing their positions to the new Empress 's relations , and conspired to overthrow Leo . Chief among them was Basil , Zoe 's nephew . The plot , however , was betrayed by the eunuch servant Samonas , and the conspiracy suppressed . The Zaoutzes relatives were exiled or confined to monasteries , and the clan 's power broken . Samonas himself was richly rewarded : he was taken into the imperial service and rapidly promoted , becoming parakoimomenos by 908 , before he too fell from favor .
= USS Cushing ( DD @-@ 55 ) =
USS Cushing ( Destroyer No. 55 / DD @-@ 55 ) was an O 'Brien @-@ class destroyer built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of William B. Cushing , a U.S. Navy officer best known for sinking the Confederate ironclad warship CSS Albemarle during the American Civil War .
Cushing was laid down by the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy , Massachusetts , in September 1913 and launched in January 1915 . The ship was a little more than 305 feet ( 93 m ) in length , just over 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) abeam , and had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) . She was armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns and had eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . Cushing was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) .
After her August 1915 commissioning , Cushing sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of seventeen destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Cushing was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland . Cushing made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of several ships sunk by the German craft .
Upon returning to the United States after the war , Cushing was placed in reserve in reduced commission . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia in August 1920 . She was struck for the Naval Vessel Register in January 1936 and sold for scrapping in June .
= = Design and construction = =
Cushing was authorized in March 1913 as the fifth of six ships of the O 'Brien class , which was an improved version of the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized in 1911 . Construction of the vessel was awarded to the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy , Massachusetts , which laid down her keel on 23 September 1913 . On 16 January 1915 , Cushing was launched by sponsor Miss M. L. Cushing , daughter of the ship 's namesake , William B. Cushing . The ship was the second ship named for Cushing , a U.S. Navy officer best known for sinking the Confederate ironclad warship Albemarle during the American Civil War . As built , the destroyer was 305 feet 3 inches ( 93 @.@ 04 m ) in overall length , 31 feet 1 inch ( 9 @.@ 47 m ) abeam , and drew 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 171 long tons ( 1 @,@ 190 t ) when fully loaded .
Cushing had two Zoelly steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional pair triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each connected to one of the propeller shafts , for cruising purposes . Four oil @-@ burning White @-@ Forster boilers powered the engines , which could generate 17 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) , moving the ship at up to 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) . Cushing reached a maximum speed of 30 @.@ 59 knots ( 56 @.@ 65 km / h ; 35 @.@ 20 mph ) during sea trials on 25 May 1916 , with her engines running at 16 @,@ 621 horsepower ( 12 @,@ 394 kW ) .
Cushing 's main battery consisted of 4 × 4 in ( 100 mm ) / 50 caliber Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 pounds ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 @-@ pound ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 feet per second ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yards ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .
Cushing was also equipped with eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the O 'Brien @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for Cushing or any of the other ships of the class .
= = Early career = =
USS Cushing was commissioned into the United States Navy on 21 August 1915 under the command of Lieutenant Commander T. A. Kittinger . Cushing served on the Neutrality patrol off Rose Bank , New York , until 28 December 1915 . She sailed to the Caribbean for fleet maneuvers on 4 January 1916 and after joining in fleet tactical exercises off Portland , Maine , and gunnery exercises off Norfolk , Virginia , she reported to Newport , Rhode Island , on 27 September to test torpedoes at the Naval Torpedo Station .
At 05 : 30 on Sunday , 8 October 1916 , wireless reports came in of a German submarine stopping ships near the Lightship Nantucket , off the eastern end of Long Island . After an SOS from the British steamer West Point was received at about 12 : 30 , Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves ordered Cushing and other destroyers at Newport to attend to survivors . The American destroyers arrived on the scene about 17 : 00 when the U @-@ boat , U @-@ 53 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose , was in the process of stopping the Holland @-@ America Line cargo ship Blommersdijk . Shortly after , U @-@ 53 stopped the British passenger ship Stephano . After Rose had given passengers and crew aboard both ships adequate time to abandon them , he sank the pair . In total , 226 survivors from U @-@ 53 's five victims were rescued by the destroyer flotilla .
After finishing out the rest of 1916 at Newport , Cushing again joined in exercises in the Caribbean for the first three months of 1917 .
= = World War I = =
After the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917 entering World War I , Cushing was put to sea from New York on 15 May 1917 with Cummings , Nicholson , O 'Brien , and Sampson . The destroyers arrived at Queenstown , Ireland , 24 May for duty in the war zone .
Cushing patrolled off the Irish coast , meeting and escorting convoys of merchant ships and troop transports to British ports and the French coast . German submarines were active in the area and Cushing conducted antisubmarine patrols and performed rescue work on the ships that were victims of U @-@ boats . On 4 June , she picked up 13 men adrift in a small boat , survivors of Italian brig Luisa .
The destroyer had a busy July . On the 7th , she assisted Perkins in rescuing survivors of the torpedoed and sinking British merchant ship SS Tarquah . The next day she responded to an SOS from SS Onitsha , which was being chased by an enemy submarine , and picked up 54 survivors of SS Obuasi which had already been sunk . On 16 July she escorted SS Tamele to safety after the merchantman had received five hits , and the same day fired on two submarines , U @-@ 49 and U @-@ 58 , at extremely long range following their attack on the Italian merchant vessel SS Lamia L. , from whom Cushing rescued 27 survivors .
On 12 September , five survivors from the British SS Vienna were saved after being adrift for 2 days . On 26 November , when RFA Crenella was torpedoed , Cushing stood by , giving damage control assistance which kept the merchantman from sinking , then escorted her into Queenstown . Cushing rejoined her convoy the next day . Continuing her convoy escort and patrol duty , Cushing on 23 April 1918 dropped fifteen depth charges on German submarine U @-@ 104 , damaging her severely ; HMS Jessamine sank U @-@ 104 later that same day . After 11 June 1918 , Cushing operated from Brest , France , escorting eleven troop convoys through the submarine zones into French ports , making two depth charge attacks without success in the process .
= = Postwar = =
Immediately after the Armistice was signed on 11 November 1918 , Cushing remained in French waters . She towed Murray , which had grounded on rocks in a French harbor , into Brest on 3 December . However , Cushing departed for the United States on 21 December , arriving in New York on 6 January 1919 . She was placed in reduced commission on 1 July , and transferred to the Philadelphia Navy Yard on 6 April 1920 . In July , she was assigned the hull code of DD @-@ 55 under the U.S. Navy 's alphanumeric classification system . Cushing was decommissioned on 7 August .
On 1 July 1933 , she dropped the name Cushing to free it for a new destroyer of the same name , becoming known only as DD @-@ 55 . The ship was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 7 January 1936 , and , on 30 June , was sold for scrapping in accordance with the London Naval Treaty for the limitation of naval armaments .
= League of Nations =
The League of Nations ( abbreviated as LN in English , La Société des Nations [ la sɔsjete de nɑsjɔ ̃ ] abbreviated as SDN or SdN in French ) was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War . It was the first international organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace . Its primary goals , as stated in its Covenant , included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration . Other issues in this and related treaties included labour conditions , just treatment of native inhabitants , human and drug trafficking , arms trade , global health , prisoners of war , and protection of minorities in Europe . At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935 , it had 58 members .
The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years . The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions , keep to its economic sanctions , or provide an army when needed . However , the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so . Sanctions could hurt League members , so they were reluctant to comply with them . During the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War , when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting Red Cross medical tents , Benito Mussolini responded that " the League is very well when sparrows shout , but no good at all when eagles fall out . "
After a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s , the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s . Germany withdrew from the League , as did Japan , Italy , Spain , and others . The onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose , which was to prevent any future world war . The League lasted for 26 years ; the United Nations ( UN ) replaced it after the end of the Second World War on 20 April 1946 and inherited a number of agencies and organisations founded by the League .
= = Origins = =
= = = Background = = =
The concept of a peaceful community of nations had been proposed as far back as 1795 , when Immanuel Kant 's Perpetual Peace : A Philosophical Sketch outlined the idea of a league of nations to control conflict and promote peace between states . Kant argued for the establishment of a peaceful world community , not in a sense of a global government , but in the hope that each state would declare itself a free state that respects its citizens and welcomes foreign visitors as fellow rational beings , thus promoting peaceful society worldwide . International co @-@ operation to promote collective security originated in the Concert of Europe that developed after the Napoleonic Wars in the 19th century in an attempt to maintain the status quo between European states and so avoid war . This period also saw the development of international law , with the first Geneva Conventions establishing laws dealing with humanitarian relief during wartime , and the international Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes .
The forerunner of the League of Nations , the Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union , was formed by the peace activists William Randal Cremer and Frédéric Passy in 1889 . The organisation was international in scope , with a third of the members of parliaments ( in the 24 countries that had parliaments ) serving as members of the IPU by 1914 . Its aims were to encourage governments to solve international disputes by peaceful means . Annual conferences were held to help governments refine the process of international arbitration . Its structure consisted of a council headed by a president , which would later be reflected in the structure of the League .
At the start of the 20th century , two power blocs emerged from alliances between the European Great Powers . It was these alliances that , at the start of the First World War in 1914 , drew all the major European powers into the conflict . This was the first major war in Europe between industrialised countries , and the first time in Western Europe that the results of industrialisation ( for example , mass production ) had been dedicated to war . The result of this industrialised warfare , which provided modern weapons , coupled with outdated 19th century strategies , led to an unprecedented casualty level : eight and a half million soldiers killed , an estimated 21 million wounded , and approximately 10 million civilian deaths .
By the time the fighting ended in November 1918 , the war had had a profound impact , affecting the social , political and economic systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical damage . Anti @-@ war sentiment rose across the world ; the First World War was described as " the war to end all wars " , and its possible causes were vigorously investigated . The causes identified included arms races , alliances , militaristic nationalism , secret diplomacy , and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit . One proposed remedy was the creation of an international organisation whose aim was to prevent future war through disarmament , open diplomacy , international co @-@ operation , restrictions on the right to wage war , and penalties that made war unattractive .
= = = Initial proposals = = =
At the start of the First World War the first schemes for international organisation to prevent future wars began to gain considerable public support , particularly in the United Kingdom and the United States . Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson , a British political scientist , coined the term " League of Nations " in 1914 and drafted a scheme for its organisation . Together with Lord Bryce , he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group , later the League of Nations Union . The group became steadily more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing Liberal Party . In Dickinson 's 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his " League of Peace " as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation . He felt that the secret diplomacy of the early twentieth century had brought about war and thus could write that , " the impossibility of war , I believe , would be increased in proportion as the issues of foreign policy should be known to and controlled by public opinion . " The ‘ Proposals ’ of the Bryce Group were circulated widely , both in England and the US , where they had a profound influence on the nascent international movement .
In 1915 , a similar body was set up in the United States by a group of like @-@ minded individuals , including William Howard Taft . It was called the League to Enforce Peace and was substantially based on the proposals of the Bryce Group . It advocated the use of arbitration in conflict resolution and the imposition of sanctions on aggressive countries . However , none of these early organisations envisioned a continuously functioning body ; with the exception of the Fabian Society in England , they maintained a legalistic approach that would limit the international body to a court of justice . The Fabians were the first to argue for a " Council " of states , necessarily the Great Powers , who would adjudicate world affairs , and for the creation of a permanent secretariat to enhance international co @-@ operation across a range of activities .
The British Foreign Secretary Lord Balfour commissioned the first official report into the matter in early 1918 , under the initiative of Lord Robert Cecil . The British committee was finally appointed in February 1918 . It was led by Walter Phillimore ( and became known as the Phillimore Committee ) , but also included Eyre Crowe , William Tyrrell , and Cecil Hurst . The recommendations of the so @-@ called Phillimore Commission included the establishment of a " Conference of Allied States " that would arbitrate disputes and impose sanctions on offending states . The proposals were approved by the British government , and much of the commission 's results were later incorporated into the Covenant of the League of Nations .
The French also drafted a much more far @-@ reaching proposal in June of that year ; they advocated annual meetings of a council to settle all disputes , as well as an " international army " to enforce its decisions .
The American President Woodrow Wilson instructed Edward House to draft a US plan which reflected Wilson 's own idealistic views ( first articulated in the Fourteen Points of January 1918 ) , as well as the work of the Phillimore Commission . The outcome of House 's work , and Wilson 's own first draft , proposed the termination of " unethical " state behavior , including forms of espionage and dishonesty . Methods of compulsion against recalcitrant states would include severe measures , such as " blockading and closing the frontiers of that power to commerce or intercourse with any part of the world and to use any force that may be necessary ... "
The two principal drafters and architects of the covenant of the League of Nations were Lord Robert Cecil ( a lawyer and diplomat ) and Jan Smuts ( a Commonwealth statesman ) . Smuts ' proposals included the creation of a Council of the great powers as permanent members and a non @-@ permanent selection of the minor states . He also proposed the creation of a Mandate system for captured colonies of the Central Powers during the war . Cecil focused on the administrative side , and proposed annual Council meetings and quadrennial meetings for the Assembly of all members . He also argued for a large and permanent secretariat to carry out the League 's administrative duties .
= = = Establishment = = =
At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 , Wilson , Cecil , and Smuts all put forward their draft proposals . After lengthy negotiations between the delegates , the Hurst @-@ Miller draft was finally produced as a basis for the Covenant . After more negotiation and compromise , the delegates finally approved of the proposal to create the League of Nations ( French : Société des Nations , German : Völkerbund ) on 25 January 1919 . The final Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted by a special commission , and the League was established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles . On 28 June 1919 , 44 states signed the Covenant , including 31 states which had taken part in the war on the side of the Triple Entente or joined it during the conflict .
The League would be made up of a General Assembly ( representing all member states ) , an Executive Council ( with membership limited to major powers ) , and a permanent secretariat . Member states were expected to " respect and preserve as against external aggression " the territorial integrity of other members and to disarm " to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety . " All states were required to submit complaints for arbitration or judicial inquiry before going to war . The Executive Council would create a Permanent Court of International Justice to make judgements on the disputes .
Despite Wilson 's efforts to establish and promote the League , for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in October 1919 , the United States did not join . Opposition in the Senate , particularly from two Republican politicians , Henry Cabot Lodge and William Borah , and especially in regard to Article X of the Covenant , ensured that the United States would not ratify the agreement .
The League held its first council meeting in Paris on 16 January 1920 , six days after the Versailles Treaty and the Covenant of the League of Nations came into force . On 1 November 1920 , the headquarters of the League was moved from London to Geneva , where the first General Assembly was held on 15 November 1920 .
= = Languages and symbols = =
The official languages of the League of Nations were French , English , and Spanish . The League considered adopting Esperanto as their working language and actively encouraging its use , but this proposal was never acted on . In 1921 , Lord Robert Cecil proposed the introduction of Esperanto into state schools of member nations , and a report was commissioned . When the report was presented two years later , it recommended the adoption of Cecil 's idea , a proposal that 11 delegates accepted . The strongest opposition came from the French delegate , Gabriel Hanotaux , partially to protect French , which he argued was already the international language . As a result of such opposition , the recommendation was not accepted .
In 1939 , a semi @-@ official emblem for the League of Nations emerged : two five @-@ pointed stars within a blue pentagon . They symbolised the Earth 's five continents and five " races " . A bow at the top displayed the English name ( " League of Nations " ) , while another at the bottom showed the French ( " Société des Nations " ) .
= = Principal organs = =
The main constitutional organs of the League were the Assembly , the Council , and the Permanent Secretariat . It also had two essential wings : the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Labour Organisation . In addition , there were a number of auxiliary agencies and commissions . Each organ 's budget was allocated by the Assembly ( the League was supported financially by its member states ) .
The relations between the Assembly and the Council and the competencies of each were for the most part not explicitly defined . Each body could deal with any matter within the sphere of competence of the League or affecting peace in the world . Particular questions or tasks might be referred to either .
Unanimity was required for the decisions of both the Assembly and the Council , except in matters of procedure and some other specific cases such as the admission of new members . This requirement was a reflection of the League 's belief in the sovereignty of its component nations ; the League sought solution by consent , not by dictation . However , in case of a dispute , the consent of the parties to the dispute was not required for unanimity .
The Permanent Secretariat , established at the seat of the League at Geneva , comprised a body of experts in various spheres under the direction of the general secretary . Its principal sections were Political , Financial and Economics , Transit , Minorities and Administration ( administering the Saar and Danzig ) , Mandates , Disarmament , Health , Social ( Opium and Traffic in Women and Children ) , Intellectual Cooperation and International Bureaux , Legal , and Information . The staff of the Secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and the Assembly and publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters , effectively acting as the League 's civil service . In 1931 the staff numbered 707 .
The Assembly consisted of representatives of all members of the League , with each state allowed up to three representatives and one vote . It met in Geneva and , after its initial sessions in 1920 , it convened once a year in September . The special functions of the Assembly included the admission of new members , the periodical election of non @-@ permanent members to the Council , the election with the Council of the judges of the Permanent Court , and control of the budget . In practice , the Assembly was the general directing force of League activities .
The League Council acted as a type of executive body directing the Assembly 's business . It began with four permanent members ( Great Britain , France , Italy , Japan ) and four non @-@ permanent members that were elected by the Assembly for a three @-@ year term . The first non @-@ permanent members were Belgium , Brazil , Greece , and Spain .
The composition of the Council was changed a number of times . The number of non @-@ permanent members was first increased to six on 22 September 1922 and to nine on 8 September 1926 . Werner Dankwort of Germany pushed for his country to join the League ; joining in 1926 , Germany became the fifth permanent member of the Council . Later , after Germany and Japan both left the League , the number of non @-@ permanent seats was increased from nine to eleven , and the Soviet Union was made a permanent member giving the Council a total of fifteen members . The Council met , on average , five times a year and in extraordinary sessions when required . In total , 107 sessions were held between 1920 and 1939 .
= = = Other bodies = = =
The League oversaw the Permanent Court of International Justice and several other agencies and commissions created to deal with pressing international problems . These included the Disarmament Commission , the Health Organisation , the International Labour Organisation ( ILO ) , the Mandates Commission , the International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation ( precursor to UNESCO ) , the Permanent Central Opium Board , the Commission for Refugees , and the Slavery Commission . Three of these institutions were transferred to the United Nations after the Second World War : the International Labour Organisation , the Permanent Court of International Justice ( as the International Court of Justice ) , and the Health Organisation ( restructured as the World Health Organisation ) .
The Permanent Court of International Justice was provided for by the Covenant , but not established by it . The Council and the Assembly established its constitution . Its judges were elected by the Council and the Assembly , and its budget was provided by the latter . The Court was to hear and decide any international dispute which the parties concerned submitted to it . It might also give an advisory opinion on any dispute or question referred to it by the Council or the Assembly . The Court was open to all the nations of the world under certain broad conditions .
The International Labour Organisation was created in 1919 on the basis of Part XIII of the Treaty of Versailles . The ILO , although having the same members as the League and being subject to the budget control of the Assembly , was an autonomous organisation with its own Governing Body , its own General Conference and its own Secretariat . Its constitution differed from that of the League : representation had been accorded not only to governments but also to representatives of employers ' and workers ' organisations . Albert Thomas was its first director .
The ILO successfully restricted the addition of lead to paint , and convinced several countries to adopt an eight @-@ hour work day and forty @-@ eight @-@ hour working week . It also campaigned to end child labour , increase the rights of women in the workplace , and make shipowners liable for accidents involving seamen . After the demise of the League , the ILO became an agency of the United Nations in 1946 .
The League 's health organisation had three bodies : the Health Bureau , containing permanent officials of the League ; the General Advisory Council or Conference , an executive section consisting of medical experts ; and the Health Committee . The Committee 's purpose was to conduct inquiries , oversee the operation of the League 's health work , and prepare work to be presented to the Council . This body focused on ending leprosy , malaria , and yellow fever , the latter two by starting an international campaign to exterminate mosquitoes . The Health Organisation also worked successfully with the government of the Soviet Union to prevent typhus epidemics , including organising a large education campaign .
The League of Nations had devoted serious attention to the question of international intellectual co @-@ operation since its creation . The First Assembly in December 1920 recommended that the Council take action aiming at the international organisation of intellectual work , which it did by adopting a report presented by the Fifth Committee of the Second Assembly and inviting a Committee on Intellectual Cooperation to meet in Geneva in August 1922 . The French philosopher Henri Bergson became the first chairman of the committee . The work of the committee included : inquiry into the conditions of intellectual life , assistance to countries where intellectual life was endangered , creation of national committees for intellectual co @-@ operation , co @-@ operation with international intellectual organisations , protection of intellectual property , inter @-@ university co @-@ operation , co @-@ ordination of bibliographical work and international interchange of publications , and international co @-@ operation in archaeological research .
Introduced by the second International Opium Convention , the Permanent Central Opium Board had to supervise the statistical reports on trade in opium , morphine , cocaine and heroin . The board also established a system of import certificates and export authorisations for the legal international trade in narcotics .
The Slavery Commission sought to eradicate slavery and slave trading across the world , and fought forced prostitution . Its main success was through pressing the governments who administered mandated countries to end slavery in those countries . The League secured a commitment from Ethiopia to end slavery as a condition of membership in 1923 , and worked with Liberia to abolish forced labour and intertribal slavery . The United Kingdom had not supported Ethiopian membership of the League on the grounds that " Ethiopia had not reached a state of civilisation and internal security sufficient to warrant her admission . "
The League also succeeded in reducing the death rate of workers constructing the Tanganyika railway from 55 to 4 percent . Records were kept to control slavery , prostitution , and the trafficking of women and children . Partly as a result of pressure brought by the League of Nations , Afghanistan abolished slavery in 1923 , Iraq in 1924 , Nepal in 1926 , Transjordan and Persia in 1929 , Bahrain in 1937 , and Ethiopia in 1942 .
Led by Fridtjof Nansen , the Commission for Refugees was established on 27 June 1921 to look after the interests of refugees , including overseeing their repatriation and , when necessary , resettlement . At the end of the First World War , there were two to three million ex @-@ prisoners of war from various nations dispersed throughout Russia ; within two years of the commission 's foundation , it had helped 425 @,@ 000 of them return home . It established camps in Turkey in 1922 to aid the country with an ongoing refugee crisis , helping to prevent disease and hunger . It also established the Nansen passport as a means of identification for stateless people .
The Committee for the Study of the Legal Status of Women sought to inquire into the status of women all over the world . It was formed in 1937 , and later became part of the United Nations as the Commission on the Status of Women .
= = Members = =
Of the League 's 42 founding members , 23 ( 24 counting Free France ) remained members until it was dissolved in 1946 . In the founding year , six other states joined , only two of which remained members throughout the League 's existence . An additional 15 countries joined later . The largest number of member states was 58 , between 28 September 1934 ( when Ecuador joined ) and 23 February 1935 ( when Paraguay withdrew ) .
The Soviet Union became a member on 18 September 1934 , and was expelled on 14 December 1939 for invading Finland . In expelling the Soviet Union , the League broke its own rule : only 7 of 15 members of the Council voted for expulsion ( United Kingdom , France , Belgium , Bolivia , Egypt , South Africa , and the Dominican Republic ) , short of the majority required by the Covenant . Three of these members had been made Council members the day before the vote ( South Africa , Bolivia , and Egypt ) . This was one of the League 's final acts before it practically ceased functioning due to the Second World War .
On 26 May 1937 , Egypt became the last state to join the League . The first member to withdraw permanently from the League was Costa Rica on 22 January 1925 ; having joined on 16 December 1920 , this also makes it the member to have most quickly withdrawn . Brazil was the first founding member to withdraw ( 14 June 1926 ) , and Haiti the last ( April 1942 ) . Iraq , which joined in 1932 , was the first member that had previously been a League of Nations mandate .
= = Mandates = =
At the end of the First World War , the Allied powers were confronted with the question of the disposal of the former German colonies in Africa and the Pacific , and the several non @-@ Turkish provinces of the Ottoman Empire . The Peace Conference adopted the principle that these territories should be administered by different governments on behalf of the League – a system of national responsibility subject to international supervision . This plan , defined as the mandate system , was adopted by the " Council of Ten " ( the heads of government and foreign ministers of the main Allied powers : Britain , France , the United States , Italy , and Japan ) on 30 January 1919 and transmitted to the League of Nations .
League of Nations mandates were established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations . The Permanent Mandates Commission supervised League of Nations mandates , and also organised plebiscites in disputed territories so that residents could decide which country they would join . There were three mandate classifications : A , B and C.
The A mandates ( applied to parts of the old Ottoman Empire ) were " certain communities " that had
... reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognised subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone . The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory .
The B mandates were applied to the former German colonies that the League took responsibility for after the First World War . These were described as " peoples " that the League said were
... at such a stage that the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience and religion , subject only to the maintenance of public order and morals , the prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade , the arms traffic and the liquor traffic , and the prevention of the establishment of fortifications or military and naval bases and of military training of the natives for other than police purposes and the defence of territory , and will also secure equal opportunities for the trade and commerce of other Members of the League .
South @-@ West Africa and certain of the South Pacific Islands were administered by League members under C mandates . These were classified as " territories "
... which , owing to the sparseness of their population , or their small size , or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation , or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the Mandatory , and other circumstances , can be best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory , subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population . "
= = = Mandatory powers = = =
The territories were governed by mandatory powers , such as the United Kingdom in the case of the Mandate of Palestine , and the Union of South Africa in the case of South @-@ West Africa , until the territories were deemed capable of self @-@ government . Fourteen mandate territories were divided up among seven mandatory powers : the United Kingdom , the Union of South Africa , France , Belgium , New Zealand , Australia and Japan . With the exception of the Kingdom of Iraq , which joined the League on 3 October 1932 , these territories did not begin to gain their independence until after the Second World War , in a process that did not end until 1990 . Following the demise of the League , most of the remaining mandates became United Nations Trust Territories .
In addition to the mandates , the League itself governed the Territory of the Saar Basin for 15 years , before it was returned to Germany following a plebiscite , and the Free City of Danzig ( now Gdańsk , Poland ) from 15 November 1920 to 1 September 1939 .
= = Resolving territorial disputes = =
The aftermath of the First World War left many issues to be settled , including the exact position of national boundaries and which country particular regions would join . Most of these questions were handled by the victorious Allied powers in bodies such as the Allied Supreme Council . The Allies tended to refer only particularly difficult matters to the League . This meant that , during the early interwar period , the League played little part in resolving the turmoil resulting from the war . The questions the League considered in its early years included those designated by the Paris Peace treaties .
As the League developed , its role expanded , and by the middle of the 1920s it had become the centre of international activity . This change can be seen in the relationship between the League and non @-@ members . The United States and Russia , for example , increasingly worked with the League . During the second half of the 1920s , France , Britain and Germany were all using the League of Nations as the focus of their diplomatic activity , and each of their foreign secretaries attended League meetings at Geneva during this period . They also used the League 's machinery to try to improve relations and settle their differences .
= = = Åland Islands = = =
Åland is a collection of around 6 @,@ 500 islands in the Baltic Sea , midway between Sweden and Finland . The islands are almost exclusively Swedish @-@ speaking , but in 1809 , the Åland Islands , along with Finland , were taken by Imperial Russia . In December 1917 , during the turmoil of the Russian October Revolution , Finland declared its independence , but most of the Ålanders wished to rejoin Sweden . However , the Finnish government considered the islands to be a part of their new nation , as the Russians had included Åland in the Grand Duchy of Finland , formed in 1809 . By 1920 , the dispute had escalated to the point that there was danger of war . The British government referred the problem to the League 's Council , but Finland would not let the League intervene , as they considered it an internal matter . The League created a small panel to decide if it should investigate the matter and , with an affirmative response , a neutral commission was created . In June 1921 , the League announced its decision : the islands were to remain a part of Finland , but with guaranteed protection of the islanders , including demilitarisation . With Sweden 's reluctant agreement , this became the first European international agreement concluded directly through the League .
= = = Upper Silesia = = =
The Allied powers referred the problem of Upper Silesia to the League after they had been unable to resolve the territorial dispute . After the First World War , Poland laid claim to Upper Silesia , which had been part of Prussia . The Treaty of Versailles had recommended a plebiscite in Upper Silesia to determine whether the territory should become part of Germany or Poland . Complaints about the attitude of the German authorities led to rioting and eventually to the first two Silesian Uprisings ( 1919 and 1920 ) . A plebiscite took place on 20 March 1921 , with 59 @.@ 6 percent ( around 500 @,@ 000 ) of the votes cast in favour of joining Germany , but Poland claimed the conditions surrounding it had been unfair . This result led to the Third Silesian Uprising in 1921 .
On 12 August 1921 , the League was asked to settle the matter ; the Council created a commission with representatives from Belgium , Brazil , China and Spain to study the situation . The committee recommended that Upper Silesia be divided between Poland and Germany according to the preferences shown in the plebiscite and that the two sides should decide the details of the interaction between the two areas – for example , whether goods should pass freely over the border due to the economic and industrial interdependency of the two areas . In November 1921 , a conference was held in Geneva to negotiate a convention between Germany and Poland . A final settlement was reached , after five meetings , in which most of the area was given to Germany , but with the Polish section containing the majority of the region 's mineral resources and much of its industry . When this agreement became public in May 1922 , bitter resentment was expressed in Germany , but the treaty was still ratified by both countries . The settlement produced peace in the area until the beginning of the Second World War .
= = = Albania = = =
The frontiers of Albania had not been set during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 , as they were left for the League to decide ; however , they had not yet been determined by September 1921 , creating an unstable situation . Greek troops held military operations in the south of Albania . Yugoslavian forces became engaged , after clashes with Albanian tribesmen , in the northern part of the country . The League sent a commission of representatives from various powers to the region . In November 1921 , the League decided that the frontiers of Albania should be the same as they had been in 1913 , with three minor changes that favoured Yugoslavia . Yugoslav forces withdrew a few weeks later , albeit under protest .
The borders of Albania again became the cause of international conflict when Italian General Enrico Tellini and four of his assistants were ambushed and killed on 24 August 1923 while marking out the newly decided border between Greece and Albania . Italian leader Benito Mussolini was incensed , and demanded that a commission investigate the incident within five days . Whatever the results of the investigation , Mussolini insisted that the Greek government pay Italy fifty million lire in reparations . The Greeks said they would not pay unless it was proved that the crime was committed by Greeks .
Mussolini sent a warship to shell the Greek island of Corfu , and Italian forces occupied the island on 31 August 1923 . This contravened the League 's covenant , so Greece appealed to the League to deal with the situation . The Allies , however , agreed ( at Mussolini 's insistence ) that the Conference of Ambassadors should be responsible for resolving the dispute because it was the conference that had appointed General Tellini . The League Council examined the dispute , but then passed on their findings to the Conference of Ambassadors to make the final decision . The conference accepted most of the League 's recommendations , forcing Greece to pay fifty million lire to Italy , even though those who committed the crime were never discovered . Italian forces then withdrew from Corfu .
= = = Memel = = =
The port city of Memel ( now Klaipėda ) and the surrounding area , with a predominantly German population , was under provisional Allied control according to Article 99 of the Treaty of Versailles . The French and Polish governments favoured turning Memel into an international city , while Lithuania wanted to annex the area . By 1923 , the fate of the area had still not been decided , prompting Lithuanian forces to invade in January 1923 and seize the port . After the Allies failed to reach an agreement with Lithuania , they referred the matter to the League of Nations . In December 1923 , the League Council appointed a Commission of Inquiry . The commission chose to cede Memel to Lithuania and give the area autonomous rights . The Klaipėda Convention was approved by the League Council on 14 March 1924 , and then by the Allied powers and Lithuania . In 1939 Germany retook the region following the rise of the Nazis and an ultimatum to Lithuania , demanding the return of the region under threat of war . The League of Nations failed to prevent the secession of the Memel region to Germany .
= = = Hatay = = =
With League oversight , the Sanjak of Alexandretta in the French Mandate of Syria was given autonomy in 1937 . Renamed Hatay , its parliament declared independence as the Republic of Hatay in September 1938 , after elections the previous month . It was annexed by Turkey with French consent in mid @-@ 1939 .
= = = Mosul = = =
The League resolved a dispute between the Kingdom of Iraq and the Republic of Turkey over control of the former Ottoman province of Mosul in 1926 . According to the British , who had been awarded a League of Nations mandate over Iraq in 1920 and therefore represented Iraq in its foreign affairs , Mosul belonged to Iraq ; on the other hand , the new Turkish republic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland . A League of Nations Commission of Inquiry , with Belgian , Hungarian and Swedish members , was sent to the region in 1924 ; it found that the people of Mosul did not want to be part of either Turkey or Iraq , but if they had to choose , they would pick Iraq . In 1925 , the commission recommended that the region stay part of Iraq , under the condition that the British hold the mandate over Iraq for another 25 years , to ensure the autonomous rights of the Kurdish population . The League Council adopted the recommendation and decided on 16 December 1925 to award Mosul to Iraq . Although Turkey had accepted League of Nations ' arbitration in the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 , it rejected the decision , questioning the Council 's authority . The matter was referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice , which ruled that , when the Council made a unanimous decision , it must be accepted . Nonetheless , Britain , Iraq and Turkey ratified a separate treaty on 5 June 1926 that mostly followed the decision of the League Council and also assigned Mosul to Iraq . It was agreed , however , that Iraq could still apply for League membership within 25 years and that the mandate would end upon its admittance .
= = = Vilnius = = =
After the First World War , Poland and Lithuania both regained their independence but soon became immersed in territorial disputes . During the Polish – Soviet War , Lithuania signed the Moscow Peace Treaty with the Soviet Union that laid out Lithuania 's frontiers . This agreement gave Lithuanians control of the city of Vilnius ( Lithuanian : Vilnius , Polish : Wilno ) , the old Lithuanian capital , but a city with a majority Polish population . This heightened tension between Lithuania and Poland and led to fears that they would resume the Polish – Lithuanian War , and on 7 October 1920 , the League negotiated the Suwałki Agreement establishing a cease @-@ fire and a demarcation line between the two nations . On 9 October 1920 , General Lucjan Żeligowski , commanding a Polish military force in contravention of the Suwałki Agreement , took the city and established the Republic of Central Lithuania .
After a request for assistance from Lithuania , the League Council called for Poland 's withdrawal from the area . The Polish government indicated they would comply , but instead reinforced the city with more Polish troops . This prompted the League to decide that the future of Vilnius should be determined by its residents in a plebiscite and that the Polish forces should withdraw and be replaced by an international force organised by the League . However , the plan was met with resistance in Poland , Lithuania , and the Soviet Union , which opposed any international force in Lithuania . In March 1921 , the League abandoned plans for the plebiscite . After unsuccessful proposals by Paul Hymans to create a federation between Poland and Lithuania , Vilnius and the surrounding area was formally annexed by Poland in March 1922 . After Lithuania took over the Klaipėda Region , the Allied Conference set the frontier between Lithuania and Poland , leaving Vilnius within Poland , on 14 March 1923 . Lithuanian authorities refused to accept the decision , and officially remained in a state of war with Poland until 1927 . It was not until the 1938 Polish ultimatum that Lithuania restored diplomatic relations with Poland and thus de facto accepted the borders .
= = = Colombia and Peru = = =
There were several border conflicts between Colombia and Peru in the early part of the 20th century , and in 1922 , their governments signed the Salomón @-@ Lozano Treaty in an attempt to resolve them . As part of this treaty , the border town of Leticia and its surrounding area was ceded from Peru to Colombia , giving Colombia access to the Amazon River . On 1 September 1932 , business leaders from Peruvian rubber and sugar industries who had lost land as a result organised an armed takeover of Leticia . At first , the Peruvian government did not recognise the military takeover , but President of Peru Luis Sánchez Cerro decided to resist a Colombian re @-@ occupation . The Peruvian Army occupied Leticia , leading to an armed conflict between the two nations . After months of diplomatic negotiations , the governments accepted mediation by the League of Nations , and their representatives presented their cases before the Council . A provisional peace agreement , signed by both parties in May 1933 , provided for the League to assume control of the disputed territory while bilateral negotiations proceeded . In May 1934 , a final peace agreement was signed , resulting in the return of Leticia to Colombia , a formal apology from Peru for the 1932 invasion , demilitarisation of the area around Leticia , free navigation on the Amazon and Putumayo Rivers , and a pledge of non @-@ aggression .
= = = Saar = = =
Saar was a province formed from parts of Prussia and the Rhenish Palatinate and placed under League control by the Treaty of Versailles . A plebiscite was to be held after fifteen years of League rule to determine whether the province should belong to Germany or France . When the referendum was held in 1935 , 90 @.@ 3 percent of voters supported becoming part of Germany , which was quickly approved by the League Council .
= = Other conflicts = =
In addition to territorial disputes , the League also tried to intervene in other conflicts between and within nations . Among its successes were its fight against the international trade in opium and sexual slavery , and its work to alleviate the plight of refugees , particularly in Turkey in the period up to 1926 . One of its innovations in this latter area was the 1922 introduction of the Nansen passport , which was the first internationally recognised identity card for stateless refugees .
= = = Greece and Bulgaria = = =
After an incident involving sentries on the Greek @-@ Bulgarian border in October 1925 , fighting began between the two countries . Three days after the initial incident , Greek troops invaded Bulgaria . The Bulgarian government ordered its troops to make only token resistance , and evacuated between ten thousand and fifteen thousand people from the border region , trusting the League to settle the dispute . The League condemned the Greek invasion , and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to Bulgaria .
= = = Liberia = = =
Following accusations of forced labour on the large American @-@ owned Firestone rubber plantation and American accusations of slave trading , the Liberian government asked the League to launch an investigation . The resulting commission was jointly appointed by the League , the United States , and Liberia . In 1930 , a League report confirmed the presence of slavery and forced labour . The report implicated many government officials in the selling of contract labour and recommended that they be replaced by Europeans or Americans , which generated anger within Liberia and led to the resignation of President Charles D. B. King and his vice @-@ president . The Liberian government outlawed forced labour and slavery and asked for American help in social reforms .
= = = Mukden Incident = = =
The Mukden Incident , also known as the " Manchurian Incident " or the " Far Eastern Crisis " , was one of the League 's major setbacks and acted as the catalyst for Japan 's withdrawal from the organisation . Under the terms of an agreed lease , the Japanese government had the right to station its troops in the area around the South Manchurian Railway , a major trade route between the two countries , in the Chinese region of Manchuria . In September 1931 , a section of the railway was lightly damaged by the Japanese Kwantung Army as a pretext for an invasion of Manchuria . The Japanese army claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway and in apparent retaliation ( acting contrary to the civilian government 's orders ) occupied the entire region of Manchuria . They renamed the area Manchukuo , and on 9 March 1932 set up a puppet government , with Pu Yi , the former emperor of China , as its executive head . This new entity was recognised only by the governments of Italy and Nazi Germany ; the rest of the world still considered Manchuria legally part of China . In 1932 , Japanese air and sea forces bombarded the Chinese city of Shanghai , sparking the January 28 Incident .
The League of Nations agreed to a request for help from the Chinese government , but the long voyage by ship delayed League officials . When they arrived , they were confronted with Chinese assertions that the Japanese had invaded unlawfully , while the Japanese claimed they were acting to keep peace in the area . Despite Japan 's high standing in the League , the subsequent Lytton Report declared Japan to be the aggressor and demanded Manchuria be returned to the Chinese . Before the report could be voted on by the Assembly , Japan announced its intention to push further into China . The report passed 42 – 1 in the Assembly in 1933 ( only Japan voting against ) , but instead of removing its troops from China , Japan withdrew from the League .
According to the Covenant , the League should have responded by enacting economic sanctions or declaring war ; it did neither . The threat of economic sanctions would have been almost useless because the United States , a non – League member , could continue trade with Japan . The League could have assembled an army , but major powers like Britain and France were too preoccupied with their own affairs , such as keeping control of their extensive colonies , especially after the turmoil of the First World War . Japan was therefore left in control of Manchuria until the Soviet Union 's Red Army took over the area and returned it to China at the end of the Second World War .
= = = Chaco War = = =
The League failed to prevent the 1932 war between Bolivia and Paraguay over the arid Gran Chaco region . Although the region was sparsely populated , it contained the Paraguay River , which would have given either landlocked country access to the Atlantic Ocean , and there was also speculation , later proved incorrect , that the Chaco would be a rich source of petroleum . Border skirmishes throughout the late 1920s culminated in an all @-@ out war in 1932 when the Bolivian army attacked the Paraguayans at Fort Carlos Antonio López at Lake Pitiantuta . Paraguay appealed to the League of Nations , but the League did not take action when the Pan @-@ American Conference offered to mediate instead . The war was a disaster for both sides , causing 57 @,@ 000 casualties for Bolivia , whose population was around three million , and 36 @,@ 000 dead for Paraguay , whose population was approximately one million . It also brought both countries to the brink of economic disaster . By the time a ceasefire was negotiated on 12 June 1935 , Paraguay had seized control of most of the region , as was later recognised by the 1938 truce .
= = = Italian invasion of Abyssinia = = =
In October 1935 , Italian dictator Benito Mussolini sent 400 @,@ 000 troops to invade Abyssinia ( Ethiopia ) . Marshal Pietro Badoglio led the campaign from November 1935 , ordering bombing , the use of chemical weapons such as mustard gas , and the poisoning of water supplies , against targets which included undefended villages and medical facilities . The modern Italian Army defeated the poorly armed Abyssinians and captured Addis Ababa in May 1936 , forcing Emperor of Ethiopia Haile Selassie to flee .
The League of Nations condemned Italy 's aggression and imposed economic sanctions in November 1935 , but the sanctions were largely ineffective since they did not ban the sale of oil or close the Suez Canal ( controlled by Britain ) . As Stanley Baldwin , the British Prime Minister , later observed , this was ultimately because no one had the military forces on hand to withstand an Italian attack . In October 1935 , the US President , Franklin D. Roosevelt , invoked the recently passed Neutrality Acts and placed an embargo on arms and munitions to both sides , but extended a further " moral embargo " to the belligerent Italians , including other trade items . On 5 October and later on 29 February 1936 , the United States endeavoured , with limited success , to limit its exports of oil and other materials to normal peacetime levels . The League sanctions were lifted on 4 July 1936 , but by that point Italy had already gained control of the urban areas of Abyssinia .
The Hoare – Laval Pact of December 1935 was an attempt by the British Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare and the French Prime Minister Pierre Laval to end the conflict in Abyssinia by proposing to partition the country into an Italian sector and an Abyssinian sector . Mussolini was prepared to agree to the pact , but news of the deal leaked out . Both the British and French public vehemently protested against it , describing it as a sell @-@ out of Abyssinia . Hoare and Laval were forced to resign , and the British and French governments dissociated themselves from the two men . In June 1936 , although there was no precedent for a head of state addressing the Assembly of the League of Nations in person , Haile Selassie spoke to the Assembly , appealing for its help in protecting his country .
The Abyssinian crisis showed how the League could be influenced by the self @-@ interest of its members ; one of the reasons why the sanctions were not very harsh was that both Britain and France feared the prospect of driving Mussolini and Adolf Hitler into an alliance .
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
On 17 July 1936 , the Spanish Army launched a coup d 'état , leading to a prolonged armed conflict between Spanish Republicans ( the elected leftist national government ) and the Nationalists ( conservative , anti @-@ communist rebels who included most officers of the Spanish Army ) . Julio Álvarez del Vayo , the Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs , appealed to the League in September 1936 for arms to defend Spain 's territorial integrity and political independence . The League members , however , would not intervene in the Spanish Civil War nor prevent foreign intervention in the conflict . Adolf Hitler and Mussolini continued to aid General Francisco Franco 's Nationalists , while the Soviet Union helped the Spanish Republic . In February 1937 , the League did ban foreign volunteers , but this was in practice a symbolic move .
= = = Second Sino @-@ Japanese War = = =
Following a long record of instigating localised conflicts throughout the 1930s , Japan began a full @-@ scale invasion of China on 7 July 1937 . On 12 September , the Chinese representative , Wellington Koo , appealed to the League for international intervention . Western countries were sympathetic to the Chinese in their struggle , particularly in their stubborn defence of Shanghai , a city with a substantial number of foreigners . However , the League was unable to provide any practical measures ; on 4 October , it turned the case over to the Nine Power Treaty Conference .
= = Failure of disarmament = =
Article 8 of the Covenant gave the League the task of reducing " armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations . " A significant amount of the League 's time and energy was devoted to this goal , even though many member governments were uncertain that such extensive disarmament could be achieved or was even desirable . The Allied powers were also under obligation by the Treaty of Versailles to attempt to disarm , and the armament restrictions imposed on the defeated countries had been described as the first step toward worldwide disarmament . The League Covenant assigned the League the task of creating a disarmament plan for each state , but the Council devolved this responsibility to a special commission set up in 1926 to prepare for the 1932 – 34 World Disarmament Conference . Members of the League held different views towards the issue . The French were reluctant to reduce their armaments without a guarantee of military help if they were attacked ; Poland and Czechoslovakia felt vulnerable to attack from the west and wanted the League 's response to aggression against its members to be strengthened before they disarmed . Without this guarantee , they would not reduce armaments because they felt the risk of attack from Germany was too great . Fear of attack increased as Germany regained its strength after the First World War , especially after Adolf Hitler gained power and became German Chancellor in 1933 . In particular , Germany 's attempts to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and the reconstruction of the German military made France increasingly unwilling to disarm .
The World Disarmament Conference was convened by the League of Nations in Geneva in 1932 , with representatives from 60 states . A one @-@ year moratorium on the expansion of armaments , later extended by a few months , was proposed at the start of the conference . The Disarmament Commission obtained initial agreement from France , Italy , Japan , and Britain to limit the size of their navies . The Kellogg – Briand Pact , facilitated by the commission in 1928 , failed in its objective of outlawing war . Ultimately , the Commission failed to halt the military build @-@ up by Germany , Italy and Japan during the 1930s . The League was mostly silent in the face of major events leading to the Second World War , such as Hitler 's remilitarisation of the Rhineland , occupation of the Sudetenland and Anschluss of Austria , which had been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles . In fact , League members themselves re @-@ armed . In 1933 , Japan simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgement , as did Germany the same year ( using the failure of the World Disarmament Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as a pretext ) , and Italy in 1937 . The final significant act of the League was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after it invaded Finland .
= = General weaknesses = =
The onset of the Second World War demonstrated that the League had failed in its primary purpose , the prevention of another world war . There were a variety of reasons for this failure , many connected to general weaknesses within the organisation . Additionally , the power of the League was limited by the United States ' refusal to join .
= = = Origins and structure = = =
The origins of the League as an organisation created by the Allied powers as part of the peace settlement to end the First World War led to it being viewed as a " League of Victors " . The League 's neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision . It required a unanimous vote of nine , later fifteen , Council members to enact a resolution ; hence , conclusive and effective action was difficult , if not impossible . It was also slow in coming to its decisions , as certain ones required the unanimous consent of the entire Assembly . This problem mainly stemmed from the fact that the primary members of the League of Nations were not willing to accept the possibility of their fate being decided by other countries , and by enforcing unanimous voting had effectively given themselves veto power .
= = = Global representation = = =
Representation at the League was often a problem . Though it was intended to encompass all nations , many never joined , or their period of membership was short . The most conspicuous absentee was the United States . President Woodrow Wilson had been a driving force behind the League 's formation and strongly influenced the form it took , but the US Senate voted not to join on 19 November 1919 . Ruth Henig has suggested that , had the United States become a member , it would have also provided support to France and Britain , possibly making France feel more secure , and so encouraging France and Britain to co @-@ operate more fully regarding Germany , thus making the rise to power of the Nazi Party less likely . Conversely , Henig acknowledges that if the US had been a member , its reluctance to engage in war with European states or to enact economic sanctions might have hampered the ability of the League to deal with international incidents . The structure of the US federal government might also have made its membership problematic , as its representatives at the League could not have made decisions on behalf of the executive branch without having the prior approval of the legislative branch .
In January 1920 , when the League was born , Germany was not permitted to join because it was seen as having been the aggressor in the First World War . Soviet Russia was also initially excluded , as Communist regimes were not welcomed . The League was further weakened when major powers left in the 1930s . Japan began as a permanent member of the Council , but withdrew in 1933 after the League voiced opposition to its invasion of Manchuria . Italy also began as a permanent member of the Council , but withdrew in 1937 . The League had accepted Germany , also as a permanent member of the Council , in 1926 , deeming it a " peace @-@ loving country " , but Adolf Hitler pulled Germany out when he came to power in 1933 .
= = = Collective security = = =
Another important weakness grew from the contradiction between the idea of collective security that formed the basis of the League and international relations between individual states . The League 's collective security system required nations to act , if necessary , against states they considered friendly , and in a way that might endanger their national interests , to support states for which they had no normal affinity . This weakness was exposed during the Abyssinia Crisis , when Britain and France had to balance maintaining the security they had attempted to create for themselves in Europe " to defend against the enemies of internal order " , in which Italy 's support played a pivotal role , with their obligations to Abyssinia as a member of the League .
On 23 June 1936 , in the wake of the collapse of League efforts to restrain Italy 's war against Abyssinia , the British Prime Minister , Stanley Baldwin , told the House of Commons that collective security had
failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might call military sanctions ... The real reason , or the main reason , was that we discovered in the process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war ... [ I ] f collective action is to be a reality and not merely a thing to be talked about , it means not only that every country is to be ready for war ; but must be ready to go to war at once . That is a terrible thing , but it is an essential part of collective security .
Ultimately , Britain and France both abandoned the concept of collective security in favour of appeasement in the face of growing German militarism under Hitler . In this context , the League of Nations was also the institution where the first international debate on terrorism took place following the 1934 assassination of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in Marseille , showing its conspiratorial features , many of which are detectable in the discourse of terrorism among states after 9 / 11 .
= = = Pacifism and disarmament = = =
The League of Nations lacked an armed force of its own and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions , which they were very unwilling to do . Its two most important members , Britain and France , were reluctant to use sanctions and even more reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League . Immediately after the First World War , pacifism became a strong force among both the people and governments of the two countries . The British Conservatives were especially tepid to the League and preferred , when in government , to negotiate treaties without the involvement of that organisation . Moreover , the League 's advocacy of disarmament for Britain , France , and its other members , while at the same time advocating collective security , meant that the League was depriving itself of the only forceful means by which it could uphold its authority .
When the British cabinet discussed the concept of the League during the First World War , Maurice Hankey , the Cabinet Secretary , circulated a memorandum on the subject . He started by saying , " Generally it appears to me that any such scheme is dangerous to us , because it will create a sense of security which is wholly fictitious " . He attacked the British pre @-@ war faith in the sanctity of treaties as delusional and concluded by claiming :
It [ a League of Nations ] will only result in failure and the longer that failure is postponed the more certain it is that this country will have been lulled to sleep . It will put a very strong lever into the hands of the well @-@ meaning idealists who are to be found in almost every Government , who deprecate expenditure on armaments , and , in the course of time , it will almost certainly result in this country being caught at a disadvantage .
The Foreign Office minister Sir Eyre Crowe also wrote a memorandum to the British cabinet claiming that " a solemn league and covenant " would just be " a treaty , like other treaties " . " What is there to ensure that it will not , like other treaties , be broken ? " Crowe went on to express scepticism of the planned " pledge of common action " against aggressors because he believed the actions of individual states would still be determined by national interests and the balance of power . He also criticised the proposal for League economic sanctions because it would be ineffectual and that " It is all a question of real military preponderance " . Universal disarmament was a practical impossibility , Crowe warned .
= = Demise and legacy = =
As the situation in Europe escalated into war , the Assembly transferred enough power to the Secretary General on 30 September 1938 and 14 December 1939 to allow the League to continue to exist legally and carry on reduced operations . The headquarters of the League , the Palace of Nations , remained unoccupied for nearly six years until the Second World War ended .
At the 1943 Tehran Conference , the Allied powers agreed to create a new body to replace the League : the United Nations . Many League bodies , such as the International Labour Organisation , continued to function and eventually became affiliated with the UN . The designers of the structures of the United Nations intended to make it more effective than the League .
The final meeting of the League of Nations took place on 18 April 1946 in Geneva . Delegates from 34 nations attended the assembly . This session concerned itself with liquidating the League : it transferred assets worth approximately $ 22 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( U.S. ) in 1946 , ( including the Palace of Peace and the League 's archives ) to the UN , returned reserve funds to the nations that had supplied them , and settled the debts of the League . Robert Cecil , addressing the final session , said :
Let us boldly state that aggression wherever it occurs and however it may be defended , is an international crime , that it is the duty of every peace @-@ loving state to resent it and employ whatever force is necessary to crush it , that the machinery of the Charter , no less than the machinery of the Covenant , is sufficient for this purpose if properly used , and that every well @-@ disposed citizen of every state should be ready to undergo any sacrifice in order to maintain peace ... I venture to impress upon my hearers that the great work of peace is resting not only on the narrow interests of our own nations , but even more on those great principles of right and wrong which nations , like individuals , depend .
The League is dead . Long live the United Nations .
The Assembly passed a resolution that " With effect from the day following the close of the present session of the Assembly [ i.e. , April 19 ] , the League of Nations shall cease to exist except for the sole purpose of the liquidation of its affairs as provided in the present resolution . " A Board of Liquidation consisting of nine persons from different countries spent the next 15 months overseeing the transfer of the League 's assets and functions to the United Nations or specialised bodies , finally dissolving itself on July 31 , 1947 .
Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were " institutionalized " , as opposed to the pre – First World War methods of law and politics . The principal Allies in the Second World War ( the UK , the USSR , France , the U.S. , and the Republic of China ) became permanent members of the United Nations Security Council in 1946 . ( In 1971 the People 's Republic of China replaced the Republic of China ( then only in control of Taiwan ) as permanent member of the UN Security Council , and in 1991 the Russian Federation replaced the USSR . ) Decisions of the Security Council are binding on all members of the UN ; however , unanimous decisions are not required , unlike in the League Council . Permanent members of the Security Council can wield a veto to protect their vital interests .
Like its predecessor , the United Nations does not have its own standing armed forces , but calls on its members to contribute to armed interventions , such as during the Korean War and for the peacekeeping mission in the former Yugoslavia .
= Yugoslav monitor Sava =
The Yugoslav monitor Sava was a Temes @-@ class river monitor built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as SMS Bodrog . She fired the first shots of World War I on the night of 28 July 1914 , when she and two other monitors shelled Serbian defences near Belgrade . She was part of the Danube Flotilla , and fought the Serbian and Romanian armies from Belgrade to the mouth of the Danube . In the closing stages of the war , she was the last monitor to withdraw towards Budapest , but was captured by the Serbs when she grounded on a sandbank downstream from Belgrade . After the war , she was transferred to the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) , and renamed Sava .
During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , Sava served with the 1st Monitor Division . Along with her fellow monitor Vardar , she laid mines in the Danube near the Romanian border during the first few days of the invasion . The two monitors fought off several attacks by the Luftwaffe , but were forced to withdraw to Belgrade . Due to high river levels and low bridges , navigation was difficult , and Sava was scuttled on 11 April . Some of her crew tried to escape cross @-@ country towards the southern Adriatic coast , but all were captured prior to the Yugoslav surrender . The vessel was later raised by the navy of the Axis puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia and continued to serve as Sava until the night of 8 September 1944 when she was again scuttled .
Following World War II , Sava was raised once again , and was refurbished to serve in the Yugoslav Navy from 1952 to 1962 . She was then transferred to a state @-@ owned company that was eventually privatised . As of 2014 , Sava was still in service as a gravel barge . In 2005 , the government of Serbia granted her limited heritage protection after citizens demanded that she be preserved as a floating museum , but little else has been done to restore her .
= = Description and construction = =
A Temes @-@ class river monitor , the ship was built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy by H. Schönichen , and designed by Austrian naval architect Josef Thiel . Originally named SMS Bodrog , she was laid down at Neupest on 14 February 1903 . Like her sister ship SMS Temes , she had an overall length of 57 @.@ 7 m ( 189 ft 4 in ) , a beam of 9 @.@ 5 m ( 31 ft 2 in ) , and a normal draught of 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) . Her standard displacement was 440 tonnes ( 430 long tons ) , and her crew consisted of 86 officers and enlisted men . Bodrog had two triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam was provided by two Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers , and her engines were rated at 1 @,@ 400 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 000 kW ) . As designed , she had a maximum speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) , and carried 62 tonnes ( 61 long tons ) of coal .
Bodrog was armed with two 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 35 guns in single gun turrets , a single 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 10 howitzer in a central pivot mount , and two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . The maximum range of her Škoda 120 mm guns was 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) , and her howitzer could fire its 20 kg ( 44 lb ) shells a maximum of 6 @.@ 2 km ( 3 @.@ 9 mi ) . Her armour consisted of belt , bulkheads and gun turrets 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick , and deck armour 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick . The armour on her conning tower was 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Bodrog was launched on 12 April 1904 , commissioned on 2 August 1904 , and completed on 10 November 1904 .
= = Career = =
= = = World War I = = =
= = = = Serbian campaign = = = =
Bodrog was part of the Danube Flotilla , and at the start of World War I she was based in Zemun , just upstream from Belgrade on the Danube , under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant ( LSL ) Paul Ekl . She shared the base with three other monitors and three patrol boats . Austria @-@ Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914 , and that night Bodrog and two other monitors fired the first shots of the war against Serb fortifications on the Zemun – Belgrade railway bridge over the Sava river and on Topčider Hill . The Serbs were outgunned by the monitors , and by August began to receive assistance from the Russians . This support included the supply and emplacement of naval guns and the establishment of river obstacles and mines . On 8 September , the Austro @-@ Hungarian base at Zemun was evacuated in the face of a Serbian counterattack . Bodrog and the minesweeper Andor conducted a deception operation towards Pančevo on 19 September , and six days later , Bodrog bombarded Serb positions on the bank of the Sava near Belgrade . On 28 September , she rendezvoused with the monitor SMS Szamos at Banovci , and the following day the two monitors targeted the Belgrade Fortress and conducted a reconnaissance of Zemun . On 1 October , Bodrog sailed to Budapest , where she was placed in dry dock for two weeks . She returned to the flotilla on 15 October . By November , French artillery support had arrived in Belgrade , endangering the monitor 's anchorage , and on 12 November , Ekl was replaced by LSL Olaf Wulff . The stalemate continued until the following month , when the Serbs evacuated Belgrade in the face of an Austro @-@ Hungarian assault . On 1 December , Bodrog and the newly commissioned monitor SMS Enns engaged the retreating Serbs . After less than two weeks , the Austro @-@ Hungarians retreated from Belgrade , and it was soon recaptured by the Serbs with Russian and French support . Bodrog continued in action against Serbia and her allies at Belgrade until December , when her base was withdrawn to Petrovaradin , near Novi Sad , for the winter .
The Germans and Austro @-@ Hungarians wanted to transport munitions down the Danube to the Ottoman Empire , so on 24 December 1914 , Bodrog and the minesweeper Almos escorted the steamer Trinitas loaded with munitions , the patrol boat b and two tugs from Zemun past Belgrade towards the Iron Gates gorge on the Serbian – Romanian border . The convoy ran the gauntlet of the Belgrade defences unharmed , but when it reached Smederevo it received information that the Russians had established a minefield and log barrier just south of the Iron Gates . It turned back under heavy fire , and withdrew as far as Pančevo without serious damage to any vessel . Bodrog returned to base , and the monitor SMS Inn was sent to guard the munitions and escort the convoy back to Petrovaradin . In January 1915 , British artillery arrived in Belgrade , further bolstering its defences , and Bodrog spent the first months of the year at Zemun . On 23 February , LSL Kosimus Böhm took command . On 1 March , Bodrog and several other vessels including the monitor SMS Körös were relocated to Petrovaradin . After the commencement of the Gallipoli campaign , munitions supply to the Ottomans became critical , so another attempt was planned . On 30 March , the steamer Belgrad left Zemun , escorted by Bodrog and Enns . The convoy was undetected as it sailed past Belgrade at night during a storm , but after the monitors returned to base , Belgrad struck a mine near Vinča , and after coming under heavy artillery fire , exploded near Ritopek . On 22 April 1915 , a British picket boat that had been brought overland by rail from Salonika was used to attack the Danube Flotilla anchorage at Zemun , firing two torpedoes without success .
In September 1915 , the Central Powers were joined by Bulgaria , and the Serbian Army soon faced an overwhelming Austro @-@ Hungarian , German and Bulgarian ground invasion . In early October , the Austro @-@ Hungarian 3rd Army attacked Belgrade , and Bodrog , along with the majority of the flotilla , was heavily engaged in support of crossings near the Belgrade Fortress and the island of Ada Ciganlija .
= = = = Romanian campaign = = = =
Following the capture of Belgrade on 11 October and the initial clearance of mines and other obstacles , the flotilla sailed downstream to Orșova near the Hungarian – Romanian border and waited for the lower Danube to be swept for mines . Commencing on 30 October 1915 , they escorted a series of munitions convoys down the Danube to Lom where the munitions were transferred to the Bulgarian railway system for shipment to the Ottoman Empire .
In November 1915 , Bodrog and the other monitors were assembled at Rustschuk , Bulgaria . The Central Powers were aware that the Romanians were negotiating to enter the war on the side of the Entente , so the flotilla established a sheltered base in the Belene Canal to protect the 480 @-@ kilometre ( 300 mi ) Danube border between Romania and Bulgaria . During 1915 , the 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns on the Bodrog were replaced with a single 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) L / 18 gun , and three machine guns were also fitted .
When the Romanians entered the war on 27 August 1916 , the monitors were again at Rustschuk , and were immediately attacked by three improvised torpedo boats operating out of the Romanian river port of Giurgiu . The torpedoes that were fired missed the monitors but struck a lighter loaded with fuel . Tasked with shelling Giurgiu the following day , the Second Monitor Division , consisting of Bodrog and three other monitors , set fire to oil storage tanks , the railway station and magazines , and sank several Romanian lighters . While the attack was underway , the First Monitor Division escorted supply ships back to the Belene anchorage . Bodrog and her companions then destroyed two Romanian patrol boats and an improvised minelayer on their way back to Belene . This was followed by forays of the Division both east and west of Belene , during which both Turnu Măgurele and Zimnicea were shelled .
On 2 October 1916 , Bodrog and Körös attacked a Romanian pontoon bridge being established across the Danube at Oryahovo , obtaining five direct hits , thus contributing to the defeat of the Romanian Flămânda Offensive . This was followed by action supporting the crossing of Generalfeldmarschall August von Mackensen 's Austro @-@ Hungarian Third Army at Sistow . Bodrog then wintered at Turnu Severin .
From 21 February 1917 , Bodrog and Körös were deployed as guardships at Brăila . On 1 March , Bodrog became stuck in ice at nearby Măcin . LSL Guido Taschler took command of Bodrog in 1918 . That year 's spring thaw saw Bodrog , Körös , Szamos , Bosna and several other vessels sent through the mouth of the Danube into the Black Sea as part of Flottenabteilung Wulff ( Fleet Division Wulff ) under the command of Flottenkapitän ( Fleet Captain ) Olav Wulff , arriving in Odessa on 12 April . On 15 July , she and Bosna sailed to the port of Nikolaev , and from 5 August , Bodrog was stationed at Cherson . On 12 September , she returned to Brăila along with other vessels .
Bodrog was sent to Reni near the mouth of the Danube to protect withdrawing Austro @-@ Hungarian troops , arriving there on 1 October . She then sailed upstream , reaching Rustschuk on 11 October , and Giurgiu two days later . On 14 October , she was deployed at Lom . She was the last Austro @-@ Hungarian monitor to withdraw towards Budapest and was the only one that failed to reach the city . On 31 October 1918 , Bodrog collided with a sand bank while navigating through heavy fog near Vinča . She was later captured by the Serbian Army .
= = = Interwar period and World War II = = =
From the Armistice to September 1919 , Bodrog was crewed by sailors of the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Kraljevina Srba , Hrvata i Slovenaca , KSCS ; later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) . Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , Bodrog was transferred to the KSCS along with a range of other vessels , including three other river monitors , but was not officially handed over to the KSCS Navy and renamed Sava until 15 April 1920 . Her sister ship Temes was transferred to Romania and renamed Ardeal . In 1925 – 26 , Sava was refitted , but by the following year only two of the four river monitors of the KSCS Navy were being retained in full commission at any time . In 1932 , the British naval attaché reported that Yugoslav ships were engaging in little gunnery training , and few exercises or manoeuvres , due to reduced budgets .
Sava was based at Dubovac when the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia began on 6 April 1941 . She was assigned to the 1st Monitor Division , and was responsible for the Romanian border on the Danube , under the operational control of the 3rd Infantry Division Dunavska . Her commander was Poručnik bojnog broda S. Rojos .
On that day , Sava and her fellow monitor Vardar fought off several attacks by individual Luftwaffe aircraft on their base . Over the next three days , the two monitors laid mines in the Danube near the Romanian border . On 11 April , they were forced to withdraw from Dubovac towards Belgrade . During their withdrawal , they came under repeated attacks by Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers . Sava and her fellow monitor were undamaged , and anchored at the confluence of the Danube and Sava near Belgrade at about 20 : 00 , where they were joined by the Morava . The three captains conferred , and decided to scuttle their vessels due to the high water levels in the rivers and low bridges , which meant there was insufficient clearance for the monitors to navigate freely . The crews of the monitors were then transshipped to two tugboats , but when one of the tugboats was passing under a railway bridge , charges on the bridge accidentally exploded and the bridge fell onto the tugboat . Of the 110 officers and men aboard the vessel , 95 were killed .
After the scuttling of the monitors , around 450 officers and men from the Sava and various other riverine vessels gathered at Obrenovac . Armed only with personal weapons and some machine guns stripped from the scuttled vessels , the crews started towards the Bay of Kotor in the southern Adriatic in two groups . The smaller of the two groups reached its objective , but the larger group only made it as far as Sarajevo by 14 April before they were obliged to surrender . The remainder made their way to the Bay of Kotor , which was captured by the Italian XVII Corps on 17 April .
Sava was raised and repaired by the navy of the Axis puppet state the Independent State of Croatia , and served under that name alongside her fellow monitor Morava , which was raised , repaired , and renamed Bosna . Along with six captured motorboats and ten auxiliary vessels , they made up the riverine police force of the Croatian state . Sava was part of the 1st Patrol Group of the River Flotilla Command , headquartered at Zemun . Her crew scuttled her near Slavonski Brod on the night of 8 September 1944 and defected to the Yugoslav Partisans .
= = = Post @-@ war period = = =
Sava was again raised and refurbished after World War II . Armed with two single 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) gun turrets , three single 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) gun mounts and six 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) weapons , she served in the Yugoslav Navy from 1952 to 1962 . Afterwards , she was placed into the hands of a state @-@ owned company , which was privatised after the breakup of Yugoslavia . As of 2014 , Sava was serving as a gravel barge . In 2005 , the government of Serbia granted her limited heritage protection after citizens demanded that she be preserved as a floating museum , though little else has been done to restore her as of 2014 . The ship is one of only two surviving Austro @-@ Hungarian river monitors from World War I , the other being SMS Leitha , a much older monitor , which has been a museum ship anchored alongside the Hungarian Parliament Building in Budapest since 2014 .
= = = Books and journals = = =
= = = Online sources = = =
= Aiphanes =
Aiphanes is a genus of spiny palms which is native to tropical regions of South and Central America and the Caribbean . There are about 26 species in the genus ( see below ) , ranging in size from understorey shrubs with subterranean stems to subcanopy trees as tall as 20 metres ( 66 ft ) . Most have pinnately compound leaves ( leaves which are divided into leaflets arranged feather @-@ like , in pairs along a central axis ) ; one species has entire leaves . Stems , leaves and sometimes even the fruit are covered with spines . Plants flower repeatedly over the course of their lifespan and have separate male and female flowers , although these are borne together on the same inflorescence . Although records of pollinators are limited , most species appear to be pollinated by insects . The fruit are eaten by several birds and mammals , including at least two species of amazon parrots .
Carl Ludwig Willdenow coined the name Aiphanes in 1801 . Before that , species belonging to the genus had been placed in Bactris or Caryota . The name Martinezia had also been applied to the genus , and between 1847 and 1932 it was generally used in place of Aiphanes . Max Burret resurrected the name Aiphanes in 1932 , and laid the basis for the modern concept of the genus . Aiphanes is most closely related to several other genera of spiny palms — Acrocomia , Astrocaryum , Bactris and Desmoncus . Two species are widely planted as ornamentals and the fruit , seeds or palm heart of several species have been eaten by indigenous peoples of the Americas for millennia .
= = Description = =
Aiphanes is a genus of spiny palms ranging from 20 @-@ metre ( 66 ft ) tall subcanopy trees to small shrubs with subterranean stems growing in the forest understorey . Its name combines the Ancient Greek ai , meaning " always " , with phaneros , meaning " evident " , " visible " or " conspicuous " . In their 1996 monograph on the genus , botanists Finn Borchsenius and Rodrigo Bernal pointed out that " ironically , species of Aiphanes are generally very hard to spot and find in dense vegetation and , accordingly , are among the most poorly collected neotropical palms " .
= = = Stems = = =
While some species are single @-@ stemmed , others form multi @-@ stemmed ( caespitose ) clumps . Coupled with variation in stem size , this produces a diversity of growth forms in the genus — solitary ( single @-@ stemmed ) palms that grow into the subcanopy of the forest , solitary or caespitose palms that grow in the forest understorey and acaulescent palms which lack an aboveground stem .
Two species are characterised by an acaulescent growth habit — A. acaulis and A. spicata . Two other species — A. ulei and A. weberbaueri — occur in both acaulescent populations and those which produce above @-@ ground stems . Several species are single @-@ stemmed understorey palms , an unusual growth form . Aiphanes grandis and A. minima are single @-@ stemmed palms which grow to be more than 10 metres ( 33 ft ) tall , while the remainder are multi @-@ stemmed understorey species . Multi @-@ stemmed palms range from plants with a single main stem and a few basal suckers to caespitose clumps of 20 densely packed stems . A variety of growth forms can exist within a single species and this appears to be influenced by habitat and environmental conditions .
= = = Leaves = = =
The leaves of Aiphanes species are usually pinnately divided — rows of leaflets emerge on either side of the axis of the leaf in a feather @-@ like or fern @-@ like pattern . The sole exception to this is A. macroloba which has entire leaves . They are usually spirally arranged , but some species have a distichous leaf arrangement , a condition that is normal in palm seedlings but uncommon among adults . Old leaf bases detach cleanly from the stem , except in A. hirsuta subsp. fosteriorum , which often has old leaf bases attached to the newer portions of the stem .
Leaves are spiny but the degree varies both within and among species . Leaf sheaths are always densely spiny but the spines usually become smaller and sparser towards the ends of the leaves .
= = = Spines = = =
Spines are characteristic of Aiphanes and other members of the subtribe Bactridinae . They are found almost everywhere on the plants and are especially well @-@ developed on the stem , leaf bases , and the peduncle . In Aiphanes , the spines are formed from the outer tissues of the plant and are not derived through the modification of other plant organs . They range from less than 1 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 04 in ) to more than 25 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) long .
= = = Flowers = = =
Aiphanes species are pleonanthic — they flower repeatedly over the course of their lifespan — and monoecious , meaning that there are separate male and female flowers , but individuals plants bear both types of flowers . In Aiphanes , male and female flowers are borne together on the same inflorescence . Usually only a single inflorescence is borne at each node , although A. gelatinosa often bears then in groups of three at a single node . The inflorescence usually consists of a main axis consisting of a peduncle and a rachis . The rachis bears rachillae , which are smaller branches which themselves bear the flowers , while the peduncle is the main stalk connecting the rachis with the stem of the plant . In some species there is second @-@ order branching — the rachillae themselves are branched and the flowers are borne on these branches .
Flowers are usually borne in groups of three — one female flower together with two male flowers . In some species groups of four flowers ( two male and two female ) have been reported . At the far end of the inflorescence , away from the axis of the tree , pairs of male flowers replace the triads of male and female flowers . Flower colour is poorly known . It must be recorded from live plants , since preserved flowers lose their colour over time , and records of these species in the wild are incomplete . Male flowers tend to fall into two groups — those with cream or yellow flowers and those with some amount of purple in the flowers . Female flowers are even less well known than male flowers .
Pollen grains are usually spherical to ellipsoid in shape , sometimes triangular , about 20 to 30 micrometres along their long axis and 20 to 30 µm in diameter . They are typically monosulcate , meridionosulcate or more rarely trichotomosulcate . The sulcus is a furrow which runs along the surface of the pollen grain and is usually the site at which pollination occurs . Monosulcate pollen has a single furrow that runs along the pole of the pollen grain . Meridionosulcate pollen have a furrow that runs along the equator of the pollen grain . Trichotomosulcate pollen , on the other hand , has three furrows . The outer layer of the pollen is covered to a greater or lesser extent with ridges , spines or warts . This " sculpting " tends to be more pronounced in species that are fly @-@ pollinated and less pronounced in those that are pollinated by beetles or bees .
= = = Fruit = = =
The fruit of Aiphanes species is usually a red , spherical , single @-@ seeded drupe . A thin skin ( or epicarp ) , which can be either smooth or spiny , covers the fleshy mesocarp , which is typically orange and sweet . The mesocarp of A. horrida has one of the highest reported carotene contents of any plant product and is also rich in protein . The endocarp , which encases the seed , is brown or black and very hard at maturity . Seeds are light brown with a thin seed coat ( or testa ) and white endosperm , which is sweet and tastes somewhat like coconut .
= = = Karyotype = = =
Published chromosome counts exist for two species , Aiphanes minima and A. horrida ; haploid chromosome counts vary from 15 to 18 . Borchsenius and Bernal report that it is difficult to get accurate chromosome counts in palms and that differences in chromosome counts may reflect these difficulties .
= = Taxonomy = =
Aiphanes is placed in the subfamily Arecoideae , the tribe Cocoseae and the subtribe Bactridinae , together with the genera Desmoncus , Bactris , Acrocomia and Astrocaryum .
In his 1932 revision of the genus , German botanist Max Burret recognised 32 species . Seventeen of these were new species , mostly based on collections made by German botanist Wilhelm Kalbreyer in northern Colombia between 1877 and 1881 . Working with a very narrow species concept , and not being familiar with the variation present in natural populations , Burret placed almost every specimen into a distinct species . The bombing of the Berlin Herbarium during the Second World War destroyed the only known collections for 13 of these 32 species , further complicating the situation .
The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature requires each species to be represented by a type collection . The destruction of Burret 's type collections left many species only known from his original descriptions , which generally lacked illustrations . Other specimens ( called neotypes ) were designated to replace these , either by Rodrigo Bernal and colleagues in 1989 or by Borchsenius and Bernal in their 1996 monograph of the genus . Bernal and colleagues attempted to retrace Kalbreyer 's travels in northern Colombia and collect specimens from as close as possible to the location of the original collections .
Burret divided Aiphanes into two subgenera , Brachyanthera and Macroanthera . Eleven species were placed in Macroanthera , while the remainder were placed in Brachyanthera . In their 1996 monograph , Borchsenius and Bernal questioned the applicability of these subgenera . They recognised that if Macroanthera was reduced to three species ( A. horrida , A. eggersii and A. minima ) it could form a viable grouping , but that this would leave Brachyanthera overly heterogeneous . Consequently , they abandoned Burret 's use of subgenera .
In the three decades following Burret 's delimitation of the genus a further 15 species were described , bringing the total species count to 47 . Borchsenius and Bernal determined that many of these names were synonyms , although American botanist George Proctor disagreed with their decision to lump A. acanthophylla into A. minima . Borchsenius and Bernal also described one new species , Aiphanes spicata , bringing the total number of accepted species to 22 . In two cases the destruction of the only known collections made it impossible to be absolutely certain that a name was a synonym . The current World Checklist of Selected Plant Families , maintained by Rafaël Govaerts at the Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew , recognises 26 species , including four species described since the publication of Borchsenius and Bernal 's monograph .
Burret divided Aiphanes into two subgenera , Brachyanthera and Macroanthera . Eleven species were placed in Macroanthera , with the remainder in Brachyanthera . In their 1996 monograph , Borchsenius and Bernal questioned the applicability of these subgenera . They recognised that if Macroanthera was reduced to three species ( A. horrida , A. eggersii and A. minima ) it could form a viable grouping , but that this would leave Brachyanthera overly heterogeneous . Consequently , they abandoned Burret 's use of subgenera .
= = = History = = =
The earliest botanical description of a species in the genus was made by French botanist Charles Plumier , who described two species based on his visits to the West Indies between 1689 and 1695 . Both of Plumier 's species are now considered to be Aiphanes minima . The same species was described by Dutch botanist Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin in 1763 . Spanish botanist José Celestino Mutis produced a detailed description of A. lindeniana and illustrations of that species and what is thought to be A. horrida in 1779 .
In 1791 Joseph Gaertner included a species of Aiphanes in his De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum , calling it Bactris minima . This is the oldest validly published name for any member of the genus . The name Aiphanes was coined by German botanist Carl Ludwig Willdenow in 1801 . He described a single species , A. aculeata , in 1806 .
Jacquin had used the name Caryota horrida to describe a plant that belonged to the same species ( and may have been the same individual ) described by Willdenow . Borchsenius and Bernal cite an 1809 publication date for Jacquin 's description , which gave precedence to Willdenow 's name . However , the more recent World Checklist ( 2006 ) gives an 1801 publication date for Jacquin 's description , making A. horrida the correct name for the species .
In 1816 Alexander von Humboldt , Aimé Bonpland and Carl Sigismund Kunth described Martinezia caryotifolia , adding another name to the list of synonyms for A. horrida . Since the original diagnostic characters of Martinezia did not fit any existent species , it was redefined by Kunth to fit M. caryotifolia . Consequently , Martinezia came to replace Aiphanes and the latter name was rarely used between 1847 and 1932 . In 1857 Hermann Karsten created a new genus , Marara , to accommodate two Colombian species , M. bicuspidata ( later shown to be a synonym for A. horrida ) and M. erinacea ( now A. erinacea ) . Hermann Wendland attempted to resurrect Aiphanes in 1878 , merging Martinezia and Marara into it , but his proposal was ignored . In 1901 Orator F. Cook created two new genera — Curima , into which he put A. minima , and Tilmia , which housed A. horrida . In 1932 , after publishing a species in Martinezia , Burret changed his mind about the genus and synonymised it with Aiphanes . This led to the current delimitation of the genus .
= = = Species = = =
Species accepted by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families :
= = Distribution and status = =
The genus Aiphanes ranges from the Dominican Republic and Panama in the north , to Trinidad and Tobago in the east , across Colombia and down along the Andes to Bolivia . In Brazil it only occurs along the border with Peru . Aiphanes is primarily South American — one species ( A. hirsuta ) is present in Panama and two others ( A. horrida and A. minima ) are found in the Caribbean . Aiphanes minima , which is endemic to the insular Caribbean , is the only species absent from the South American mainland . Although A. horrida has been reported from Guyana and southern Venezuela these reports have not been verified with herbarium vouchers .
Aiphanes horrida is the most widely distributed species . It ranges from Trinidad to Bolivia but is absent from Ecuador and northern Peru . Other species have narrower ranges with one centre of diversity in western Colombia and Ecuador and another minor one in northeastern Peru . The 2006 IUCN Red List includes three species which are endangered by habitat destruction — A. grandis , A. leiostachys and A verrucosa — and three others considered vulnerable to the same threat — A. chiribogensis , A. duquei and A. lindeniana . Rodrigo Bernal and Gloria Galeano expanded this list in a 2005 review of the status of Colombian palms . They listed two species as critically endangered — A. graminifolia , a species that was first described in 2002 , and A. leiostachys ( which was classified as endangered in the IUCN Red List ) . They classified two species as endangered — A. acaulis and A. parvifolia — and two species as vulnerable — A. gelatinosa and A. pilaris . They also classified six species as near threatened — A. erinacea , A. hirsuta , A. lindeniana ( vulnerable according to the IUCN Red List ) , A. linearis , A. macroloba and A. simplex . The threats to these species were not listed , but Jens @-@ Christian Svenning reported that A. erinacea was threatened by logging given its limited distribution and poor ability to regenerate in disturbed forests . In addition to these , A. deltoidea , which is widely distributed across the western Amazon Rainforest , is present at such low densities that it was classified as a rare species by Francis Kahn and Farana Moussa in 1994 .
= = Habitat and ecology = =
Aiphanes species are palms of the forest understorey and subcanopy . The most widely distributed species , A. horrida , occurs both in tropical dry forest and in more humid forest types , but there is a gap in its distribution which coincides with the wettest forests of the upper Amazon Basin . Two other species , A. minima and A. eggersii , are also found in drier environments ; A. eggersii is found in areas receiving as little as 500 mm ( 20 in ) of precipitation annually . The remaining species are found in montane forests at high elevations or in wet — often very wet — lowland forests , including areas receiving as much as 9 @,@ 000 mm ( 350 in ) of annual precipitation .
Records of visits by pollinators exist for only a few species , but most of these suggest that the species are pollinated by insects . Flowers of A. chiribogensis produce small quantities of nectar , but lack a scent . Fruit flies ( Drosophilidae ) , fungus gnats ( Mycetophilidae , Sciaridae ) , midges ( Cecidomyiidae , Ceratopogonidae ) and micromoths ( Lepidoptera ) were recorded visiting these flowers , but bees and hover flies were not . Aiphanes eggersii was thought to be pollinated by bees and possibly by wind . Fruit flies ( Drosophilidae ) , hover flies ( Syrphidae ) , biting midges ( Ceratopogonidae ) and leaf beetles ( Chrysomelidae ) were recorded visiting the flowers of A. erinacea , but bees were not . Aiphanes horrida was reportly pollinated by wind , bees ( Meliponidae ) , weevils ( Curculionidae ) and bugs ( Hemiptera ) . Flies and weevils were observed on the flowers of A. simplex .
The fruit of A. horrida is rich in vitamins and energy and likely to be eaten by many animals . Oilbirds are reported to eat its fruit and disperse its seeds . Squirrels are also reported to consume the fruit , despite the spiny nature of the tree . The fruit , flowers and seeds of A. minima are consumed by the vulnerable Saint Vincent amazon ( Amazona guildingii ) and is also considered a potentially important food species for the critically endangered Puerto Rican amazon ( Amazona vittata ) .
Several species show clumped distributions . Dispersal limitation has been invoked to explain the clumped distribution of adults and limited recruitment of seedlings in both A. erinacea in Ecuador and A. minima in Puerto Rico . Similarly , the rarity of A. lindeniana and A. simplex in Colombian forests may be linked to limited seed production and the limited effectiveness of seed dispersal by avian and mammalian frugivores .
= = Uses = =
Aiphanes species have a long history of human use . The remains of carbonised seeds thought to belong to A. horrid
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. Tony , suffering from the effects of the venom , says they should dissect Alaya , but the Doctor warns that it would be seen as an act of war . The Doctor decides to travel in the TARDIS down the drilling shaft to talk to the rest of the Silurians and work out a truce ; Nasreen accompanies him .
Amy awakens to find herself strapped to an examining table , near to where Ambrose 's husband Mo is also ensnared . Mo explains that the Silurians intended to vivisect her , as they have vivisected him — awake . The Doctor and Nasreen arrive underground in the TARDIS ; the Doctor explains about the Silurians and says that he expects to encounter only a few of the creatures . The show ends on a cliffhanger as the Doctor and Nasreen behold an immense Silurian civilisation in the caverns below the earth .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
Steven Moffat contacted Chris Chibnall , asking him to return to writing for Doctor Who . Chibnall had previously written the Doctor Who episode " 42 " as well as episodes of the spin @-@ off series Torchwood . Moffat and executive producer Piers Wenger gave him the brief of Silurians , a drill , and that it was a two @-@ parter . The Silurians were villains who had previously appeared in the 1970 serial Doctor Who and the Silurians and the 1984 serial Warriors of the Deep . For research , Chibnall read the original novel Doctor Who and the Cave Monsters and watched the original serial , noting the freedom writer Malcolm Hulke took with the novel in things he could not have done in the television format . Chibnall wanted there to be a large Silurian city in contrast to the small human village on the surface . Knowing that the Silurians were not as popular and recurring as other villains , Moffat instructed Chibnall to bring the creatures to a new audience , and Chibnall decided to start out with knowing nothing about them and then introducing them in " the most exciting and scary way possible for people who 've never seen them before " . Chibnall also considered bringing back the Silurians ' amphibious cousins the Sea Devils , but decided that doing two races of monster was much tougher and the story was " so clearly about the Silurians and what the Silurians want " .
Chibnall , having enjoyed when the Doctor and his companion were separated , made the decision for Amy to be absent for most of the episode . Moffat also thought that , at the point in the middle of the series , it was appropriate to show the Doctor behave differently with other people . A deleted scene , parts of which were shown on the accompanying behind @-@ the @-@ scenes show Doctor Who Confidential , was filmed , depicting Amy discussing with the Doctor how she had seen herself with Rory ten years in the future , and if that would really happen .
With the absence of Amy , Chibnall thought that Nasreen became a " de facto companion " . Meera Syal , who was cast as Nasreen , had been a fan of the series since childhood and had been trying to secure a role in the show since its revival in 2005 and was pleased when she received it . Syal described her character as " a very high @-@ up , innovative geologist " who became good friends with the Doctor as the two admired each other 's passion .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
Moffat wanted the Silurians to be redesigned and without their former third eye , as Davros also had a third eye and he wanted the Silurians to be " completely different " . They were intended to be a different branch of the same species , and so the original Silurians still existed . Chibnall wrote for the redesigned Silurians to be beautiful and it was intended for the redesign to capture the actors ' features and allow them to give stronger performances and differentiate themselves . Chibnall believed that it complemented the theme in the two @-@ parter about how the humans and Silurians were alike and different . Due to the expensive prosthetics needed , extra Silurians wore face masks which prevented the need for every actor portraying a Silurian to receive the facial prosthetics . Chibnall also incorporated a poisonous tongue into the new branch of Silurians .
" The Hungry Earth " and the second part , " Cold Blood " made up the fourth production block of the series and were filmed in late October and November 2009 in the Upper Boat Studios and Llanwynno , Wales . In an interview , Syal stated that they did the location filming first . The drill itself was automatic and done by computer . For the scene in which Amy is dragged underneath the ground , Gillan stood on boxes and lowered herself into a stone compartment . Two pieces of rubber were at the opening of the compartment which expanded as she lowered herself down . A layer of soil was spread across the rubber ; Gillan 's ears were taped over to make sure the soil did not enter her ears . Gillan , initially scared at performing the stunt , put some of her fear and claustrophobia into the scene as she expected Amy felt the same way .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Hungry Earth " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 22 May 2010 at 6 : 15 p.m. The time was earlier than usual to make way for the finale of Over the Rainbow , broadcast afterwards . Initial overnight ratings showed that the episode was watched by 4 @.@ 39 million viewers on BBC One , a 30 @.@ 8 % audience share . Based on this figure , it was the lowest @-@ rated episode since Doctor Who had returned to television in 2005 . When final consolidated ratings were calculated , it was shown that the episode was watched by 6 @.@ 49 million viewers ; 6 @.@ 01 on BBC One and an additional 0 @.@ 48 million viewers on BBC HD . The episode was the ninth most @-@ watched programme on the week ending Sunday 23 May 2010 , and the 20th programme across all channels . The episode also received an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered " excellent " .
" The Hungry Earth " was released in Region 2 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 2 August 2010 with the episodes " Amy 's Choice " and " Cold Blood " . It was then re @-@ released as part of the Complete Fifth Series boxset on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Dan Martin , writing for The Guardian , said that the episode set up an " interesting quandary " but , although many elements were introduced , " not a lot actually seems to happen " . He was also critical of the family members and found he did not care about any of them besides Elliot and Nasreen , and although the scene in which Amy was pulled into the ground was " effective and poignant " , it left a lack of " Pond @-@ life " in the rest of the episode . However , he did commend the prosthetics department for their redesigned Silurians . Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph was pleased that it " didn 't disappoint " him . He praised the choice to show the Doctor 's pacifism and Amy 's few but memorable " nightmarish " scenes . However , he was not favourable to Meera Syal 's performance and considered the Silurian 's redesign too " radical and divorced " from their original appearance , most notably the absence of their third eye .
Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times gave the episode a positive review , saying that it felt " like proper , classic Doctor Who " in terms of " gripping storytelling , terrific pace , spooky direction , a grand idea ... a small @-@ scale Earth setting in the near future , characters worth caring about ... plenty of meat for the three leads " and " a companion in real peril " . He particularly praised the performances of Syal and Smith . He also enjoyed the Silurian 's redesign , saying that the old one " would ... look ridiculous today " . Though he " missed " the old voice from Peter Halliday , he said he adjusted to Neve McIntosh . AOL TV reviewer Brad Trechak was positive towards the comparisons that could be made between conflicts throughout history to the human @-@ Silurian conflict , but called the episode a " wasted opportunity " . He felt that it was " more suspense and adventure than horror " , wishing that it was scarier , and also commented that it was " very simplistic " and did not re @-@ introduce the Silurians as well as it would have , had they been part of the overall storyline .
IGN 's Matt Wales rated the episode 8 out of 10 , assessing it as a " slender but satisfying success " . He said that the narrative was " simplistic " without much depth , but that the " strong supporting cast " and " sympathetic characters " made it a " refreshingly involving tale " . He also praised Smith 's Doctor , who " delivered admirably " and carried out the show with the absence of Amy . Ian Berriman for SFX magazine gave the episode three out of five stars , mainly displeased with the redesign of the Silurians , although he was positive toward their " venomous tongue lash " and costume . He also criticised the " clunky " scripting and questioned some technical aspects . However , he praised the scene of Amy being dragged into the earth , as well as Alaya 's hunt for Elliot in the graveyard and the interaction between the Doctor and Elliot .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Hungry Earth " / " Cold Blood " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= Racha ( film ) =
Racha ( English : Sensational ) , also spelt Rachcha , is a 2012 Indian Telugu @-@ language action film directed by Sampath Nandi and co @-@ written by the Paruchuri Brothers . Produced by R. B. Choudary in association with N. V. Prasad and Paras Jain under their banner Megaa Super Good Films , it features Ram Charan and Tamannaah in the lead roles , with Mukesh Rishi , Dev Gill and Kota Srinivasa Rao playing the antagonists . The film marks the Telugu debut of Ajmal Ameer and R. Parthiepan who makes a crucial cameo appearance .
The film focuses on the attempts made by a gambler Raj to make Chaitra , a medical student , fall in love with him as a part of a bet where he is challenged by his rival James . Raj accepts the challenge to meet the expenses of his adopted father 's liver transplantation but later discovers that he has been trapped by James and Chaitra for a purpose .
The film was edited by Gautham Raju ; Sameer Reddy provided the cinematography ; Mani Sharma composed the film 's score and soundtrack . Made on a budget of ₹ 320 million , the Principal photography commenced in June 2011 and was shot in various locations throughout Asia , mainly in Telangana , Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu of India apart from Sri Lanka and Bangkok . The film was also shot in the Anji County of China making it the first Telugu film to do so .
The film was released worldwide on 5 April 2012 to mixed reviews from critics . However , the film collected a share of ₹ 450 million in its lifetime at the global box office and became one of the highest grossing Telugu films of the year . The film received four nominations at the 60th Filmfare Awards South where it won the award for best choreography . It also received five nominations at 2nd South Indian International Movie Awards but did not win any .
Racha was dubbed into Tamil as Ragalai and into Malayalam as Raksha . The former was released on 6 April 2012 while the latter was released a week later . Both the dubbed versions were commercially successful . The film was dubbed into Hindi as Betting Raja in 2014 .
= = Plot = =
Raj ( Ram Charan ) is a Hyderabad @-@ based gambler living with his adopted parents who supports his means of living . Tragedy strikes the family when his adopted father ( M. S. Narayana ) is diagnosed with cirrhosis as a result of alcoholism . Raj needs ₹ 2 million for his father 's liver transplantation , which must be done within a month . As he is on the lookout for money , he is approached by James ( Ajmal Ameer ) , his rival in betting , with a betting challenge . James dares Raju to make Chaitra ( Tamannaah ) , a dental student and the daughter of a dreaded and influential businessman Bellary ( Mukesh Rishi ) to fall in love with him . If he is able to complete the task before 31 December 2011 , James will give him the money needed for his father 's operation and if not , he has to give up betting forever .
Desperate for the money , Raj takes up the challenge and begins wooing Chaitra . Initially , she appears to spurn his advances and sets him even tougher challenges to propose her . Raj successfully overcomes all these challenges and Chaitra soon reciprocates his advances . Bellary finds out about their relationship and sends his henchmen to kill the couple on the night of 31 December . Raj and Chaitra successfully dodge the henchmen and escape to Srisailam . Bellary , with the help of his corrupt minister @-@ friend Baireddanna ( Kota Srinivasa Rao ) and the latter 's Dubai @-@ based son ( Dev Gill ) , begins a search for them . At Srisailam , James rescues the couple from Bellary 's henchmen but gets stabbed by Baireddanna 's son who also kidnaps Chaitra . An injured James then reveals about Raj 's past .
Raj 's father Suryanarayana ( R. Parthiepan ) was a respected man in Rayadurg and his best friend , a rich man named Ramamurthy ( Nassar ) , was Chaitra 's father . Chaitra and Raj were childhood friends . Bellary , who is Ramamurthy 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , found out about the presence of iron ore under Ramamurthy 's land and along with Baireddanna , decided to exploit the ore for their own benefit . When Suryanarayana and Ramamurthy objected , they and their families , except Raj and Chaitra , were killed by Bellary and Baireddanna . Chaitra was adopted by Bellary who planned to kill her when she becomes an adult so that he could acquire Ramamurthy 's land . Chaitra , who was aware about Raj 's love for making bets , told her childhood friend James to trap Raj by placing the bet ( which took place earlier in the movie ) so that Bellary and Baireddanna can be destroyed using him . Raj decides to avenge his father 's death and kills Bellary , Baireddanna and his son at Rayadurg . He rescues Chaitra and distributes Ramamurthy 's land to the villagers after marrying her .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
R. B. Choudary , in association with N. V. Prasad and Paras Jain , produced a film titled Merupu directed by Dharani starring Ram Charan and Kajal Aggarwal in the lead roles whose production began on 30 April 2010 . There was no proper script except a vague one @-@ line for the film then and a song was shot on Charan . After the release of Orange ( 2010 ) , Charan and the producers asked Dharani to come up with its bound script . He narrated it to both Charan and his father Chiranjeevi . When Dharani quoted a high budget , Chiranjeevi and the producers suggested a reduction .
After completing a schedule , Merupu was shelved and later , N. V. Prasad approved a script narrated by Sampath Nandi and announced in late February 2011 . The film 's official launch ceremony was conducted on 12 June 2011 at Ramanaidu Studios in Hyderabad where the film 's working title was announced as Racha . Mani Sharma was signed to compose the film 's music . Sameer Reddy was recruited as the film 's cinematographer while Raju Sundaram and Shobi choreographed the songs along with Prem Rakshith . The film 's Telugu logo was unveiled on 14 February 2012 and the title was confirmed as Racha where the first two letters were taken from Ram and the other three letters were taken from Charan . The first look poster featuring Charan was unveiled on 18 February 2012 .
= = = Casting = = =
Charan left for an abroad trip for a complete make @-@ over of his attire and practised different dancing steps as part of his homework for the film . He also underwent training in strict physical exercise for about 45 days in David Barton 's gym . Reports in early March 2011 suggested that Tamannaah would be signed in as the female lead , who was finalised for the same in mid May 2011 . She was confirmed to play the role of a rich woman who falls in love with a poor man . She later revealed in an interview that her character is integral to the film 's main plot and its layers get revealed as the film progresses .
R. Parthiepan made a cameo appearance as Charan 's father in the film marking his Telugu debut who accepted it after Nandi explained the role 's importance . Ajmal Ameer 's inclusion in the film 's cast was confirmed in late July 2011 . He revealed later that every character in the film would be introduced through his role which would be a cameo appearance , adding that it would be an impactful one bringing twists in the story . He could not dub for his role since he was shooting for a Tamil film in France . Brahmanandam and Krishna Bhagavaan were included in the film 's cast in early October 2011 . Dev Gill was signed to play one of the antagonists . He revealed that all his action sequences will be with Charan only . Lisa Haydon performed an item number in the film .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography commenced in June 2011 at Hyderabad . The next schedule began at Sri Lanka in early July 2011 . Tamannaah joined the film 's sets on 7 July 2011 and she revealed that the film would be shot in the jungles of Sri Lanka in a long schedule . A song featuring Charan and Tamannaah was shot in Sri Lanka in late July 2011 on whose completion the schedule was wrapped up . Filming continued at Bangkok till 15 August 2011 . Later , a dance academy set was erected in the outskirts of Hyderabad where few comedy scenes were shot .
Few scenes were shot in a set erected near the Aluminium factory at Gachibowli . Tamannaah and Brahmanandam participated in the film 's shoot at Hyderabad till 6 October 2011 after which the makers planned to shoot the film in China . After much silent shoot in Hyderabad , filming continued at Goa . During the shoot of Charan 's introduction scene , the cables fixed to the train failed and Charan , who was sitting in a car on the railway track , jumped from the car and was injured . After the schedule 's completion , Charan visited Sabarimala to end his Aiyyappa Deeksha .
The song Vaana Vaana Velluvaye was shot on Charan and Tamannaah in early November 2011 . A special set in Annapurna Studios was erected where the song was shot for four days after which the film 's China schedule commenced from 12 November 2011 . A song and a fight sequence was shot at a Bamboo forest in Anji County of Zhejiang province till the end of November 2011 . Racha became the first Telugu film to be shot in the dense forest of interior China . On its completion , Charan took a break for ten days . The film 's shoot resumed at Rayalacheruvu near Tirupathi in December 2011 . After a brief shoot at Ramoji Film City , the last schedule began in Chennai on 17 January 2012 . The shooting of the title song choreographed by Prem Rakshith was wrapped up at Buddha Statue of Hyderabad on 23 January 2012 .
The film 's shoot continued at Periyar National Park of Kerala in February 2012 . Charan and Tamannaah were filming for a song sequence on a boat when the park 's deputy director Sanjay Kumar insisted that the duo should use life jackets as they were entering a risky spot . After few disagreements , the film 's shoot was temporarily halted and some long shots were shot when the duo used the jackets . The forest officials also restricted the entry of about 20 vehicles and 100 members into the park due to which the shoot was limited to a small portion of a song .
After spraining his leg during the song shoot at Annapurna Studios , Charan was advised to take a bed rest for three to four weeks . He rejoined the shoot on 25 March 2012 to complete the remaining two songs . After completing the shoot for the song Dillaku Dillaku at Annapurna Studios in Hyderabad , the last song Singarenundi was shot at Anaimalai Hills and Siruvani Waterfalls near Pollachi on Charan and Tamannaah . On its completion , the film 's team returned to Hyderabad and the principal photography came to an end on 1 April 2012 .
= = Music = =
Mani Sharma composed the film 's soundtrack and background score . The soundtrack consists of 5 songs . The song Vaana Vaana Velluvaye from the film Gang Leader was remixed for this film . Aditya Music and Star Music marketed the soundtrack albums of the Telugu and Tamil versions respectively . The soundtrack was released by hosting a promotional event at People 's Plaza near Necklace road on 11 March 2012 .
= = Release = =
The film was initially scheduled for a release in March 2012 . After Charan suffered a muscle tear in his leg , the film 's shoot was delayed due to which the film 's release was postponed to 5 April 2012 . The film 's Tamil dubbed version titled Ragalai was announced in mid March 2012 after the release of Maaveeran . Racha was awarded an ' U / A ' certificate by Central Board of Film Certification on 3 April 2012 .
After Competition Commission of India imposed a fine on Karnataka Film Chamber of Commerce for restricting free trade , Racha released in Karnataka in more than 120 screens . Ragalai was released on 6 April 2012 . The Malayalam dubbed version Raksha released on 13 April 2012 though it was planned for a simultaneous release with Ragalai . Racha 's Television broadcasting rights were sold to Gemini TV . Both the Indian and overseas DVDs and Blu @-@ rays of the Telugu version were marketed by Aditya Videos .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Sify called the film a " paisa vasool " one and stated " Both , actor Ram Charan and his director Sampath Nandi play a safe game by following the same pattern of earlier mass @-@ masala movies . Rachcha offers nothing new but has enough elements that entertain the mass audiences and mega fans . " Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu stated " Within the framework of pleasing the actor 's fan clubs , the film works . But the sense of déjà vu in the tale of revenge is palpable . Even when you tune yourself into watching a mass entertainer and don 't expect anything intellectually stimulating , you do miss the ingenuity and spark that were the hallmark of mass entertainer blockbusters like Singam , Pokiri or Kick . Go without expectations and you will be entertained . "
Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India gave the film 3 out of 5 stars and felt that the film is designed for the " hardcore Mega Fans and it makes no bones about it " . He added " Clearly there are a lot of prospective hooting opportunities for the die hard Ram Charan fans . As for the other kind of audience , well , you 'll have to ask them . We suspect they might just be feeling a little unattended " . Praising the screenplay written by Sampath Nandi , Ramchander of Oneindia Entertainment stated " Finally , Sampath Nandi has come out with a good film . Though , the story is not that great and is quite predictable one , the ability of the director made it quite interesting . "
Rating the film 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , CNN @-@ IBN felt that the film was technically brilliant but lacked a credible storyline . They termed the film 's presentation as a " lacklustre and ordinary " one . Radhika Rajamani of Rediff.com gave 2 out of 5 stars and criticised the film for its predictability and stereotypical pattern and stated that Racha is a potboiler meant for the masses and not for a discerning audience . Praising the lead pair 's performances by calling them as one of the reasons to watch this film , IndiaGlitz opined that at the end , Racha means " telling an old story with lot 's of bells and whistles — over the top dialogues , destructive fights , falling back on the poor , etc . "
= = = Box office = = =
Racha debuted with an average occupancy of 90 % and collected ₹ 85 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) at the AP / Nizam box office in its first day . The film collected a total of ₹ 150 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) by the end of its first weekend and by then , Ragalai had a successful theatrical run . In its first week , the film collected ₹ 244 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 6 million ) at AP / Nizam box office out of which ₹ 75 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) was from Nizam region . The film collected ₹ 25 million ( US $ 370 @,@ 000 ) in Karnataka , taking its first week Indian box office total to ₹ 269 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 0 million ) . By late April 2012 , the film collected ₹ 150 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) nett in Karnataka .
In four weeks , Racha grossed ₹ 534 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 9 million ) at the global box office including the collections of the dubbed versions with a distributor share of ₹ 374 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 6 million ) at the AP / Nizam box office . The film completed a 50 @-@ day run in 127 direct centres across the AP / Nizam region out of which 38 screens were from Ceded region and 16 screens were from Nizam region . By then , the film was declared a blockbuster . The film completed a 100 @-@ day run in 38 centres across Andhra Pradesh on 13 July 2012 . Racha collected a lifetime share of ₹ 450 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 7 million ) at the worldwide box office and became one of the highest grossing Telugu films of the year .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = In popular culture = =
The specially designed axe used by Ram Charan in the film 's climax was auctioned by Movie Artist Association . In a press meet , Tammanaah showcased the axe to the media and the proceeds of its sale were announced to be used to educate poor children in Telugu cinema . In Aagadu ( 2014 ) , Brahmanandam performed a spoof on this film along with two other 2014 Telugu films Legend and Race Gurram .
= Brumby =
A Brumby is a free @-@ roaming feral horse in Australia . Although found in many areas around the country , the best @-@ known Brumbies are found in the Australian Alps region in south @-@ eastern Australia . Today , most of them are found in the Northern Territory , with the second largest population in Queensland . A group of Brumbies is known as a " mob " or " band " .
Brumbies are the descendants of escaped or lost horses , dating back in some cases to those belonging to the early European settlers , including the " Capers " from South Africa , Timor Ponies from Indonesia , British pony and draught horse breeds , and a significant number of Thoroughbreds and Arabians .
Today they live in many places , including some National Parks . Occasionally they are mustered and domesticated for use as campdrafters , working stock horses on farms or stations , but also as trail horses , show horses , Pony Club mounts and pleasure horses . They are the subject of some controversy – regarded as a pest and threat to native ecosystems by environmentalists and the government , but also valued by others as part of Australia 's heritage , with supporters working to prevent inhumane treatment or extermination , and rehoming Brumbies who have been captured .
= = History = =
= = = Origin of the term = = =
The term Brumby refers to a feral horse in Australia . Its first recorded use in print is in the Australasian magazine from Melbourne in 1880 , which said that Brumbies were the bush name in Queensland for ' wild ' horses . In 1885 , the Once a Month magazine suggested that rumbies was a New South Wales term , and the poet Banjo Paterson stated in the introduction for his poem Brumby 's Run published in the Bulletin in 1894 that Brumby was the word for free @-@ roaming horses . Its derivation is obscure , and may have come about from one or more of the following possibilities :
Horses left behind by Sergeant James Brumby from his property at Mulgrave Place in New South Wales , when he left for Tasmania in 1804 .
An Aboriginal word baroomby meaning " wild " in the language of the Pitjara Indigenous Australians on the Warrego and Nogoa Rivers in southern Queensland .
A letter in 1896 to the Sydney Morning Herald says that baroombie is the word for horse among the Aboriginal people of the Balonne , Nebine , Warrego and Bulloo Rivers .
Baramba , which was the name of a creek and station in the Queensland district of Burnett , established in the 1840s and later abandoned , leaving many of the horses to escape into the wild .
It has also been suggested that the name derives from the Irish word bromach or bromaigh .
= = = Early horse imports = = =
Horses first arrived in Australia in 1788 with the First Fleet . They were imported for farm and utility work ; recreational riding and racing were not major activities . By 1800 , only about 200 horses are thought to have reached Australia . Horse racing became popular around 1810 , resulting in an influx of Thoroughbred imports , mostly from England . Roughly 3 @,@ 500 horses were living in Australia by 1820 , and this number had grown to 160 @,@ 000 by 1850 , largely due to natural increase . The long journey by sea from England , Europe , and Asia meant that only the strongest horses survived the trip , making for a particularly healthy and strong Australian stock , which aided in their ability to flourish .
= = = Origin of feral herds = = =
Horses were likely confined primarily to the Sydney region until the early 19th century , when settlers first crossed the Blue Mountains and opened expansion inland . Horses were required for travel , and for cattle and sheep droving as the pastoral industry grew . The first report of an escaped horse is in 1804 , and by the 1840s some horses had escaped from settled regions of Australia . It is likely that some escaped because fences were not properly installed , when fences existed at all , but it is believed that most Australian horses became feral because they were released into the wild and left to fend for themselves . This may have been the result of pastoralists abandoning their settlements , and thus their horses , due to the arid conditions and unfamiliar land that combined to make farming in Australia especially difficult . After World War I , the demand for horses by defence forces declined with the growth in mechanization , which led to a growth in the number of unwanted animals that were often set free . Throughout the 20th century , the replacement of horses with machines in farming led to further falls in demand , and therefore may have also contributed to increases in feral populations .
Currently , Australia has at least 400 @,@ 000 horses roaming the continent . It is also estimated that , during non @-@ drought periods , the feral horse population increases at a rate of 20 percent per year . Drought conditions and brushfires are natural threats . Despite population numbers , feral horses are generally considered to be a moderate pest . Where they are allowed to damage vegetation and cause erosion , the impact on the environment can be detrimental , and for that reason can be considered a serious environmental threat . However , because they also have cultural and potential economic value , the management of Brumbies presents a complex issue .
Brumbies roaming in the Australian Alps of south @-@ eastern Australia are thought to be descendants of horses which were owned by the pastoralist and pioneer , Benjamin Boyd .
= = = Pangaré Brumbies = = =
On the coast south of Geraldton , Western Australia the Brumbies there are known as ‘ Pangare Ponies ’ , as they appear to carry the rare Pangaré gene . This colouring is commonly known as mealy and is seen mainly in a number of old breeds such as British Ponies , Timor Ponies , Haflingers and even Belgian Draught Horses . The gene causes lightening in parts of a horse ’ s coat , resulting in a mealy coloured muzzle , forearms , flanks , and the belly . It is sometimes seen in chestnut horses with flaxen coloured manes and tails .
The Pangaré Brumbies appear have adapted well to their coastal environment , where they are consuming saltbush , which they do not appear to be damaging . The Department of Environment and Conservation and the Outback Heritage Horse Association of Western Australia ( OHHAWA ) are monitoring these particular Brumbies to ensure the careful management of these unusual feral horses .
= = Uses = =
Brumbies have been captured , fitted with GPS tracking collars , and used in extensive comparative research into the effect of terrain on the morphology and health of different horses ’ hooves . They have their paths of movement , diet , watering patterns , and mob structure tracked and recorded .
Captured Brumbies can be trained as stock horses and other saddle horses . Encouraging viewing of feral herds may also have potential as a tourist attraction . Brumbies are sometimes sold into the European horse meat market after their capture , and contribute millions of dollars to the Australian economy . Approximately 30 % of horses for meat export originates from the feral population . The hides and hair of these horses are also used and sold .
Wild Brumbies are used in Brumby training camps by organisations that promote positive interaction between troubled , high @-@ risk youths . These camps usually last several weeks , allowing youths to train a wild Brumby to become a quiet , willing saddle horse while improving the youths ’ self @-@ esteem .
Wild Brumbies are also used in the Brumby catch and handle event in stockman ’ s challenge competitions , where riders are required to catch a free running Brumby from their horse within a time limit of a few minutes . Sectional points are awarded for the stockman ’ s challenge for care and skill in catching the Brumby and their ability to teach them to lead . These demanding challenges for riders are held in New South Wales at Dalgety , Tamworth and Murrurundi plus The Man From Snowy River Challenge in Corryong , Victoria . Several New South Wales show societies , including Walcha , Bellingen and Dorrigo hold special classes for registered Brumbies at their annual agricultural shows .
= = Environmental impact = =
Horses were first described as pests in Australia in the 1860s . Their environmental impact may include soil loss , compaction , and erosion ; trampling of vegetation ; reduction in the vastness of plants ; increased tree deaths by chewing on bark ; damage to bog habitats and waterholes ; spreading of invasive weeds ; and various detrimental effects on population of native species . In some cases , when feral horses are startled , they may damage infrastructure , including troughs , pipes , and fences . However , Brumbies are also credited for help keeping tracks and trails clear for bush walkers and service vehicles in some areas .
In some habitats , hooves of free @-@ roaming horses compact the soil , and when the soil is compacted , air spaces are minimized , leaving nowhere for water to collect . When this occurs , soil in areas where horses are prevalent has a water penetration resistance over 15 times higher than that in areas without horses . Trampling also causes soil erosion and damages vegetation , and because the soil cannot hold water , plant regrowth is hindered . Horse trampling also has the potential to damage waterways and bog habitats . Trampling near streams increases runoff , reducing the quality of the water and causing harm to the ecosystem of the waterway . Horse excrement tends to foul these waterways , as does the accumulation of carcasses that result when feral horses perish , adding to the negative environmental impact of this exotic species in Australia .
Alpine areas , such as those of Kosciuszko National Park , are at particular risk ; low @-@ growing alpine flora is highly vulnerable to trampling , and the short summers mean little time for plants to grow and recover from damage . The biodiversity there is high , with 853 species of plant , 21 of which are found nowhere else . Erosion in the limestone karst areas leads to runoff and silting . Sphagnum moss is an important component of highland bogs , and is trampled by horses seeking water .
Feral horses may also reduce the richness of plant species . Exposure of soil caused by trampling and vegetation removal via grazing , combined with increased nutrients being recycled by horse dung , favour weed species , which then invade the region and overtake native species , diminishing their diversity . The dispersal of weeds is aided by the attachment of seeds to the horses ’ manes and tails , and are also transferred via horse dung after consumption of weeds in one location and excrement in another . Although the effects of the weeds that actually germinate after transfer via dung is debated , the fact that a large number of weed species are dispersed via this method is of concern to those interested in the survival of native plant species in Australia . The effect on plants and plant habitats are more pronounced during droughts , when horses travel greater distances to find food and water . They consume the already threatened and limited vegetation , and their negative influences are more widespread . Feral horses may also chew the bark of trees , which may leave some trees vulnerable to external threats . This has occurred during drought , among eucalyptus species on the Red Range plateau . It appears as though feral horses may prefer these species .
= = = Interaction with other animal species = = =
The changes in vegetation that result when feral horses overpopulate a region affects bird species by removing plants upon which they feed , as well as altering the habitat of the birds and their prey . Feral horse grazing is also linked to a decline in reptiles and amphibians due to habitat loss . In addition , the grazing and trampling near waterways influences aquatic fauna . In areas frequented by horses , crab densities are higher , increasing the propensity for predation on fish . As a result , fish densities decline as the removal of vegetation renders them more susceptible to predation .
In areas where horses are abundant , macropod populations are less prevalent . This is most likely due to the horses ’ consumption of vegetation upon which the macropods normally feed . When horses are removed , signs of the presence of various macropods , specifically the black @-@ footed rock wallaby , increase . Thus , competition with horses may be the reason for the decline in macropod populations in certain areas .
Brumby populations also may have the potential to pass exotic diseases , such as equine influenza and African horse sickness to domestic horses . They also may carry tick fever , which can be passed to both horses and cattle . This can lead to high fatalities among domestic populations , causing many farmers to call for the management of feral horses .
Like all livestock , Brumbies can carry the parasite Cryptosporidium parvum , which can result in serious gastroenteritis in people drinking contaminated drinking water .
= = Population management = =
Although poor management of feral horses may pose an ecological and environmental threat in some parts of Australia , their management is made difficult by issues of feasibility and public concern . Currently , management attempts vary , as feral horses are considered pests in some states , such as South Australia , but not others , including Queensland . There is also controversy over removal of Brumbies from National Parks . The primary argument in favour of the removal of Brumbies is that they impact on fragile ecosystems and damage and destroy endangered native flora and fauna .
Public concern is a major issue in control efforts as many advocate for the protection of Brumbies , including the Aboriginal people , who believe feral horses belong to the country . Other horse interest groups resent the labelling of horses as “ feral ” and are completely opposed to any measures that threaten their survival . While some Animal welfare groups such as the RSPCA reluctantly accept culling , other organizations such as Save the Brumbies oppose lethal culling techniques and attempt to organise relocation of the animals instead . It has been argued that relocation , which often involves hours of helicopter mustering , would be more traumatic for the horses .
Meanwhile , conservationist groups , such as the Australian Conservation Foundation , favour humane culling as a means of control because of the damage Brumby overpopulation can cause to native flora and fauna , but are also generally opposed to various means of extermination . This makes management a challenge for policymakers , though at present , the cost of allowing overpopulation of feral horses seems to outweigh other concerns .
= = = Population control methods = = =
The traditional method of removal , called Brumby running , is reminiscent of Banjo Paterson 's iconic poem , The Man from Snowy River where expert riders rope the Brumbies and remove them to a new location .
Options for population control include fertility control , ground and helicopter shooting , and mustering and trapping . None of the methods provide complete freedom from suffering for the horses , and the cost of each is very high . The costs include those that are economic , such as research , equipment purchases , and labour expenditures , as well as moral concerns over the welfare of the horses . As a result , more effective and efficient means of control have been called for .
Fertility control is a non @-@ lethal method of population management that is usually viewed as the most humane treatment , and its use is supported by the RSPCA . While it appears as though these treatments are effective in the breeding season immediately following injection , the lasting effects are debated . Because it is costly and difficult to treat animals repeatedly , this method , despite being ideal , is not widely implemented .
Shooting by trained marksmen is considered to be the most practical method of control due to its effectiveness . The NSW Department of Primary Industries believe shooting is the preferred method of population control as it does not subject the horses to the stresses of mustering , yarding , and long @-@ distance transportation , all of which are related to ' capture and removal ' methods . Horses that are only initially wounded from shooting are tracked and dispatched if they are in accessible , open country . However , shooting of horses in mountain ranges is not regarded as a humane means of control . Helicopter shootings allow for aerial reconnaissance of a large area to target the densest populations , and shooters may get close enough to the target animals to ensure termination . This method is considered the most effective and cost efficient means of control , but disapproval is high amongst those that believe it is inhumane . Organizations supporting Brumbies argue that aerial shooting is unnecessary and that alternative population control methods have not been given adequate trials , while government officials express concern about the need to control rapidly growing populations in order to avoid ecological problems associated with too many feral horses in certain areas .
Mustering is a labour @-@ intensive process that results in one of two major outcomes : slaughter for sale , or relocation . It may be assisted by feed @-@ luring in which bales of hay are strategically placed to attract feral horses to a location where capture is feasible . Complicating this process is low demand for the captured horses , making it less desirable than fertility control or shooting , which reduce the population without having to find alternative locations for them .
= = = Management in national parks = = =
Between 22 October and 24 October 2000 , approximately 600 Brumbies were shot in the Guy Fawkes River National Park by the National Parks and Wildlife Service . As a result of the public outcry that followed the NSW Government established a Steering Committee to investigate alternative methods of control . Since the campaign began to remove horses from the national park , over 400 have been passively trapped and taken from the Park , and 200 of these have been re @-@ homed .
A NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service cull during 2006 and 2007 in Kosciuszko National Park , where there were an estimated 1700 horses in 2005 , resulted in a reduction of 64 horses .
The NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service commenced a plan in 2007 to reduce Brumby numbers by passive trapping in the Oxley Wild Rivers National Park . Over 60 Brumbies captured in the Apsley River Gorge have now been re @-@ homed .
In 2008 the third phase of an aerial culling of Brumbies took place , by shooting 700 horses from a helicopter , in Carnarvon Gorge in Carnarvon National Park , Queensland .
= = In literature and media = =
Brumbies , called " wild bush horses " , are mentioned in Banjo Paterson 's poem The Man from Snowy River . This poem was expanded into the films The Man from Snowy River and The Man from Snowy River II ( US title : " Return to Snowy River " – UK title : " The Untamed " ) – also The Man from Snowy River ( TV series ) and The Man from Snowy River : Arena Spectacular .
Another Banjo Paterson poem , called Brumby 's Run , describes a mob of Brumbies running wild . Paterson was inspired to write the poem when he read of a N.S.W. Supreme Court Judge , who on hearing of Brumby horses , asked : " Who is Brumby , and where is his Run ? "
The popular Silver Brumby books by Elyne Mitchell were written for children and young adults . The stories describe the adventures of Thowra , a Brumby stallion . These stories were dramatised and made into a movie of the same name ( also known as The Silver Stallion : King of the Wild Brumbies ) , starring Russell Crowe and Caroline Goodall . And also an animated children 's television series .
The Brumby was adopted as an emblem in 1996 by then newly formed ACT Brumbies , a rugby union team based in Canberra , Australia competing in what was then known as Super 12 , now Super Rugby .
= Wandsworth Bridge =
Wandsworth Bridge crosses the River Thames in west London . It carries the A217 road between the area of Battersea , near Wandsworth Town Station , in the London Borough of Wandsworth on the south of the river , and the areas of Sands End and Parsons Green , in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham , on the north side .
The first bridge on the site was a toll bridge built by Julian Tolmé in 1873 , in the expectation that the western terminus of the Hammersmith and City Railway would shortly be built on the north bank , leading to a sharp increase in the number of people wanting to cross the river at this point . The railway terminus was not built , and problems with drainage on the approach road made access to the bridge difficult for vehicles . Wandsworth Bridge was commercially unsuccessful , and in 1880 it was taken into public ownership and made toll @-@ free . Tolmé 's bridge was narrow and too weak to carry buses , and in 1926 a Royal Commission recommended its replacement .
In 1937 Tolmé 's bridge was demolished . The present bridge , an unadorned steel cantilever bridge designed by Sir Thomas Peirson Frank , was opened in 1940 . At the time of its opening it was painted in dull shades of blue as camouflage against air raids , a colour scheme it retains . Although Wandsworth Bridge is one of the busiest bridges in London , carrying over 50 @,@ 000 vehicles daily , it has been described as " probably the least noteworthy bridge in London " .
= = Background = =
Although opposite each other across the River Thames , Fulham on the north bank and Wandsworth on the south bank were historically isolated from each other ; the nearest crossing points were at Putney Bridge to the west and Battersea Bridge to the east , both over a mile from Wandsworth . The fast flowing but narrow River Wandle at Wandsworth was well @-@ situated for driving watermills , leading to the rapid spread of industry in the area during the 19th century . Nearby Battersea Railway Bridge opened in 1863 , but as the local population grew and London 's built @-@ up area began to encroach during the 19th century , pressure from local residents and businesses for a road bridge to be built increased .
In 1864 , it was expected that the newly formed Hammersmith and City Railway would build its western terminus on the north bank of the river between Chelsea and Fulham . In 1864 , in anticipation of the new railway line generating high demand for a river crossing , an Act of Parliament was passed granting permission to the Wandsworth Bridge Company to build a bridge , to be financed by tolls , with the proviso that the bridge would be at least 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide and cross the river with no more than three spans . Rowland Mason Ordish designed an Ordish – Lefeuvre Principle bridge to comply with the Act 's specifications , of a similar design to his nearby Albert Bridge . Wandsworth Bridge and Albert Bridge were authorised on the same day , and were the last private tollbridges authorised in London .
= = 1873 bridge = =
The company was unable to finance the building of Ordish 's design , and in 1870 a new Act of Parliament was passed giving the company permission to build a bridge 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide , crossing the river with five spans . Ordish was asked to design a cheaper bridge to the new specifications but refused to change the design , so Julian Tolmé was appointed designer in his place . Tolmé designed a starkly functional lattice truss bridge of wrought iron . It cost £ 40 @,@ 000 ( about £ 3 @.@ 2 million in 2016 ) to build , and consisted of five identical spans , supported by four pairs of concrete @-@ filled iron piers ; each of the cylindrical piers was sunk 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) into the riverbed . The bridge was due to open in early 1873 , but the workmen building it went on strike , and a third Act of Parliament was necessary to give the company time to resolve the dispute and complete the project .
Wandsworth Bridge was formally opened in a small ceremony in 1873 , and a celebratory buffet was provided at the nearby Spread Eagle pub . A utilitarian structure made of mismatched materials purchased for cheapness , the new bridge elicited unenthusiastic responses ; the Illustrated London News remarked at the time of its opening that " No attempt has been made to produce architectural effect , the structure being substantial rather than ornamental " . A 1 ⁄ 2d toll was charged on pedestrians , and carts were charged 6d .
In 1867 the formerly independent Hammersmith and City Railway was absorbed by the Metropolitan Railway and the Great Western Railway , and was operated from then on by Metropolitan Railway trains . The plan for a terminus in Fulham was abandoned , and the line instead turned west at Hammersmith to run over London and South Western Railway tracks to Richmond . Although Wandsworth Town railway station , near the southern end of the bridge , had provided direct connections to central London since 1846 , the lack of rail connections opening on the north bank meant the area on the Fulham side remained undeveloped , and bridge usage was low . Tolmé 's design was not sturdy enough to carry heavy vehicles , and drainage problems on the approach road to the north discouraged vehicles from using Wandsworth Bridge .
= = = Public ownership = = =
Wandsworth Bridge never raised enough toll revenue to cover the costs of repairs and maintenance . In 1877 the Metropolis Toll Bridges Act was passed , and in 1880 Wandsworth Bridge , along with other London bridges , was taken into the public ownership of the Metropolitan Board of Works . Despite having run at a loss throughout its lifetime , the Board of Works paid £ 53 @,@ 313 ( about £ 4 @.@ 5 million in 2016 ) for the bridge , a substantial premium on its £ 40 @,@ 000 construction cost . On 26 June 1880 Edward , Prince of Wales , and Alexandra , Princess of Wales , presided over a ceremony abolishing tolls over the three bridges .
By the time it was taken into public ownership , the bridge was in very poor condition . In 1891 a weight limit of 5 tons was introduced , and in 1897 a 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) speed limit was imposed . With its narrowness and weight restrictions , by this point it was effectively a footbridge . As narrowness and weight restrictions meant that it was unable to carry buses , in 1926 a Royal Commission recommended its replacement and the London County Council agreed to finance a new bridge on the site . In 1928 it was decided instead to give priority to widening the much busier Putney Bridge , and the replacement of Wandsworth Bridge was delayed .
= = 1940 bridge = =
In 1935 , the Ministry of Transport agreed to finance 60 percent of the projected £ 503 @,@ 000 ( about £ 31 @.@ 5 million in 2016 ) cost of a replacement bridge , and the London County Council approved a new design , by Sir Thomas Peirson Frank , for a three @-@ span steel cantilever bridge 60 feet ( 18 m ) in width , allowing two lanes of traffic in each direction , and designed to allow widening to 80 feet ( 24 m ) if necessary . The design featured distinctive low curves , intended to reflect the low riverbanks in the area . The design was presented to the Royal Fine Art Commission for approval , with a covering note stating that " in the design of the bridge a severe simplicity of treatment has been carried out , expressed in a technique essentially related to the material proposed for its construction " . Although the Commission expressed concern that the bridge might be too narrow , the design was approved . The work was put out for tender , with a stipulation that all materials used in the construction of the new bridge should be of British origin or manufacture .
The contract for the new bridge was awarded to Messrs Holloway Brothers ( London ) , and work began in 1937 . A temporary footbridge that had been used during the redevelopment of Chelsea Bridge between 1935 and 1937 was re @-@ erected alongside Wandsworth Bridge , and the existing bridge demolished . The new bridge was expected to be complete in 1939 ; however , a shortage of steel in the buildup to the Second World War delayed its opening until 25 September 1940 . The steel panels cladding the bridge were painted in varying shades of blue to camouflage it from German and Italian air raids , a colour scheme it retains today . Although it is one of London 's busiest bridges , carrying over 50 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , its drab colour scheme and minimalist design have led to it being described as " probably the least noteworthy bridge in London " .
= = = Later developments = = =
Historically , the southern approach roads had been in poor condition and confusing to use . In 1969 the Greater London Council built the A214 road , a three @-@ lane dual carriageway linking the southern end of Wandsworth Bridge to Tooting . At the immediate southern end of the bridge is a large roundabout adjacent to Wandsworth Town railway station , where Bridgend Road ( A217 ) , York Road ( A3205 ) , Swandon Way ( A217 ) and Trinity Road ( A214 ) meet . The roundabout is a noted example of 1960s modernist design , and served as the setting for parts of A Clockwork Orange in 1971 . In 2007 approval was granted for a series of 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) glass cone @-@ shaped " flames " designed by architect Steven Lenczner , which would change colour with the tides , to be added to the bridge deck . The cost , estimated at £ 800 @,@ 000 , would be raised by private sponsorship . The " flames " were to be raised above the sightlines of drivers to avoid causing a distraction .
Wandsworth Bridge now marks the boundary above which a lower speed limit on the Thames is enforced . A 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) speed limit is now in force downstream from Wandsworth to Margaretness but because of the number of rowers using the upper reaches of the river , all of the tidal Thames upstream of Wandsworth Bridge is subject to a strictly enforced speed limit of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) .
= Mega Man 4 =
Mega Man 4 , known in Japan as Rockman 4 Aratanaru Yabō ! ! ( ロックマン4 新たなる野望 ! ! , Rokkuman Fō Aratanaru Yabō ! ! , lit . " Rockman 4 : A New Ambition ! ! " ) , is a action @-@ platform game developed by Capcom for the Nintendo Entertainment System . It is the fourth game in the original Mega Man series and was originally released in Japan in 1991 . The game was localized in North America the following January , and in Europe in 1993 .
The game 's story takes place after the third defeat and supposed death of Dr. Wily , and features the Earth coming under threat from a mysterious scientist named Dr. Cossack and his eight " Robot Masters " . Fearing the worst , Dr. Light sends Mega Man to save the world once again . Mega Man 4 carries on the same action and platforming gameplay as the first three games , in which the player completes a series of stages in any order and adds the weapon of each stage 's boss to Mega Man 's arsenal . One notable added feature is the " New Mega Buster " ( often shortened to " Mega Buster " ) , an upgraded arm cannon that lets the player charge a regular shot into a much more powerful blast . The development team was mindful that this innovation would change the overall feel of the game .
Despite Mega Man 4 receiving positive critical reviews during its early 1990s release , the game is widely regarded today to represent a downward shift from the quality of the first three games in the series . The Mega Buster itself has been considered an overused mechanic by several sources . Mega Man 4 was re @-@ released on the Japanese PlayStation , PlayStation Network , and mobile phones ; the North American Mega Man Anniversary Collection ; and worldwide on the Virtual Console for 3 Nintendo systems ( Wii , Nintendo 3DS and Wii U ) .
= = Plot = =
Mega Man 4 takes place in an unspecified year during the 21st century , described as the year " 200X " . One year after the events of Mega Man 3 , a mysterious Russian scientist named Dr. Cossack unleashes an army of robots with the intention of world domination , much like Dr. Wily before him . Dr. Light calls upon his own greatest creation , the hero Mega Man , to go after Cossack 's Robot Masters , who have seized control of eight cities . He also equips Mega Man with the New Mega Buster , which he developed in secret .
Upon defeating the eight Robot Masters — Toad Man , Bright Man , Pharaoh Man , Ring Man , Dust Man , Skull Man , Dive Man , and Drill Man — Mega Man makes his way to Cossack 's icy fortress . However , in the middle of his battle with Cossack , Mega Man 's brother Proto Man teleports in with Cossack 's daughter , Kalinka . The girl begs Mega Man to stop fighting her father and elaborating that Dr. Wily had kidnapped her and forced her father into building an army of robots . With Wily 's plan undone by Proto Man , he steps out of the shadows . Mega Man pursues his nemesis and fights through the scientist 's Wily Castle , but Wily manages to escape in the end . Mega Man escapes as the fortress begins to self @-@ destruct , and rides home on the top of a passing train , where he is greeted by Roll and Rush .
= = Gameplay = =
Mega Man 4 features similar gameplay to the previous three games . The player must complete a series of eight stages in an order of the player 's choosing . The protagonist , Mega Man , is able to run , jump , shoot , and climb his way past obstacles and enemies ; the game also retains the slide ability which debuted in Mega Man 3 . At the end of each stage is a Robot Master boss . Upon defeating a Robot Master , Mega Man gains the Robot Master 's signature weapon , which can then be used by the player in subsequent stages . Once all eight Robot Masters are destroyed , two separate sets of linear stages must be completed to finish the game . One major addition to the gameplay in Mega Man 4 is the " Mega Buster " , an upgraded version of Mega Man 's arm cannon . By holding down the firing button , the player can now charge a shot , resulting in a blast far more powerful than the standard shot . This feature was later used in subsequent incarnations of the franchise .
The hero 's dog Rush makes a return from Mega Man 3 with the ability to transform into " Coil " , " Jet " , and " Marine " modes for navigating different environments . Aside from Rush , two additional support items called the " Wire Adaptor " and the " Balloon Adaptor " also aid the player in reaching areas not normally accessible . However , these hidden adaptors must be found in the stages rather than being awarded for defeating a Robot Master . Like the Master Weapons , the three Rush modes and the two adaptors are each limited to an amount of weapon power that drains when in use . The character " Flip Top " Eddie is introduced in Mega Man 4 . Eddie , who went on to appear in later Mega Man games , provides the player with a random item ( such as health or ammunition ) at designated points in some of the levels .
= = Development = =
Mega Man series artist Keiji Inafune , credited as " Inafking " , stated that the development team had very few problems while working on Mega Man 4 . Inafune designed Dr. Cossack and Kalinka as two new storyline characters for the game . Cossack , who was originally named " Dr. Vice " , was made much younger than Dr. Light and Dr. Wily . Inafune also considered giving him American traits , but decided upon influences from Russia instead . Kalinka was created because so many male characters already existed in the series at this point . However , Inafune did not intend for players to compare her to Mega Man 's sister Roll . The idea for Eddie originally came about during the development of Mega Man 2 . Eddie was designed as a supporting character that " would behave like a lottery " , either pleasantly surprising or disappointing the player with the item he gives Mega Man .
Mega Man 4 was the first game in the series for Hayato Kaji , credited as " K. Hayato " , a prominent designer for many later Mega Man games . Kaji was responsible for the chargeable Mega Buster , a gameplay mechanic that would become a staple of the series . " We knew adding a two @-@ level or three @-@ level charge would change the whole flavor of the game in some respects , and we were very mindful of that , " Inafune explained . The Robot Masters in Mega Man 4 are a result of a design contest for fans held in Japan . With over 70 @,@ 000 character submissions , the development team spent an extended period of time narrowing them down to only eight bosses . According to Kaji , the team was very satisfied with many of the chosen designs and almost no changes were made to their original illustrations . They were so impressed with Skull Man that they scrapped an entire level being created just so they could restart it and devote it to that Robot Master . The winning eight contestants of the design contest were each issued a special " golden cartridge " edition of Mega Man 4 . As there are only eight of these cartridges in existence , they are extremely rare and fetch a large collector 's price today . The musical score for Mega Man 4 was composed by Minae Fujii , credited as " Ojalin " , while the sound programming and sound effects were handled by Yasuaki Fujita , credited as " Bun Bun " , who had composed the soundtrack for Mega Man 3 the previous year .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Mega Man 4 has received mostly positive critical reviews . Reviews contemporary with the game 's release by the United States magazine Nintendo Power and the United Kingdom publications Nintendo Magazine System and Total ! all found Mega Man 4 to have high quality graphics , sound , and gameplay . However , they also noted very little improvement over previous entries in the series . GamePro was satisfied with the lack of changes . " Mega Man 4 continues the tradition — crazed robot baddies , good character graphics , great background art and warped , mechanical music , " the reviewer said . " When you have a good game , why make radical changes ? Capcom sticks to the blueprints in Mega Man 4 — guaranteeing happiness for Mega Man fans everywhere . " Mega Man 4 made it into IGN 's " Top 100 NES Games " list at number 95 , with staff writer Matt Casamassina praising its attempt at better narrative and an essentially similar experience to the first three Mega Man games . Lucas M. Thomas of IGN stated that , as a stand @-@ alone title , the game is one of the best experiences available from the NES library , although not when compared to its superior predecessors . He enjoyed the use of a second set of castle levels to significantly extend the length of the game , a tradition carried on by the next two titles in the series .
Numerous video game journalists and enthusiasts including Thomas , Craig Skistimas of ScrewAttack , GameSpot editors Christian Nutt and Justin Speer , and 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish , refer to the fourth installment as a turning point for the quality of titles in the Mega Man series . Nutt and Speer admitted that the series was beginning to deteriorate with this game , likely due to the growing reputation of the more powerful Super Nintendo Entertainment System at the time of its release . Parrish proclaimed , " Here 's where the series starts to go off the rails a bit -- the Dr. Wily fake out was silly , the music was terrible , the bosses and weapons were uninspired , and the ability to charge up the Mega Buster is often cited as a game @-@ breaking innovation . " Thomas identified the chargeable Mega Buster as disrupting the balance of the game and rendering many of the Master Weapons useless , one of the concepts that set the Mega Man games apart from other action @-@ platformers .
Mega Man 4 was re @-@ released for the PlayStation as part of the Rockman Complete Works series in 1999 . This version of the game features a special " navi mode " that guides players through each level and has arranged music remixes . A port of the Complete Works edition was released on the PlayStation 2 and Nintendo GameCube in 2004 and the Xbox in 2005 , as part of the North American @-@ exclusive Mega Man Anniversary Collection . The NES version has also been re @-@ released on Japanese i @-@ mode mobile phones in 2005 , worldwide on the Wii 's downloadable Virtual Console service in 2010 , and on the Japanese PlayStation Network in 2011 .
Elements from the game were included in the Archie Comics Mega Man series , with Pharaoh Man , Dr. Cossack , and Kalinka being introduced in the fourth story arc , " Spiritus Ex Machina " rather than in an adaptation of the game . Bright Man was later introduced early as well , with the Cossacks and the Robot Masters making recurring appearances through the series prior to it going on hiatus . The final issues of the series led up into the events of the game , with Proto Man reluctantly aiding Dr. Wily in kidnapping Kalinka and Dr. Cossack launching his Robot Master attack and making his declaration of war . Issue 55 @-@ the last issue before the hiatus @-@ also featured Dr. Light experiencing a vision of future events , including the conflict between Mega Man and Cossack 's Robot Masters .
= Lithium =
Lithium ( from Greek : λίθος lithos , " stone " ) is a chemical element with the symbol Li and atomic number 3 . It is a soft , silver @-@ white metal belonging to the alkali metal group of chemical elements . Under standard conditions , it is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element . Like all alkali metals , lithium is highly reactive and flammable . For this reason , it is typically stored in mineral oil . When cut open , it exhibits a metallic luster , but contact with moist air corrodes the surface quickly to a dull silvery gray , then black tarnish . Because of its high reactivity , lithium never occurs freely in nature , and instead , appears only in compounds , which are usually ionic . Lithium occurs in a number of pegmatitic minerals , but due to its solubility as an ion , is present in ocean water and is commonly obtained from brines and clays . On a commercial scale , lithium is isolated electrolytically from a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride .
The nucleus of the lithium atom verges on instability , since the two stable lithium isotopes found in nature have among the lowest binding energies per nucleon of all stable nuclides . Because of its relative nuclear instability , lithium is less common in the solar system than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements even though the nuclei are very light in atomic weight . For related reasons , lithium has important links to nuclear physics . The transmutation of lithium atoms to helium in 1932 was the first fully man @-@ made nuclear reaction , and lithium @-@ 6 deuteride serves as a fusion fuel in staged thermonuclear weapons .
Lithium and its compounds have several industrial applications , including heat @-@ resistant glass and ceramics , lithium grease lubricants , flux additives for iron , steel and aluminium production , lithium batteries , and lithium @-@ ion batteries . These uses consume more than three quarters of lithium production .
Trace amounts of lithium are present in all organisms . The element serves no apparent vital biological function , since animals and plants survive in good health without it , though non @-@ vital functions have not been ruled out . The lithium ion Li + administered as any of several lithium salts has proved to be useful as a mood @-@ stabilizing drug in the treatment of bipolar disorder in humans .
= = Properties = =
= = = Atomic and physical = = =
Like the other alkali metals , lithium has a single valence electron that is easily given up to form a cation . Because of this , lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity as well as a highly reactive element , though it is the least reactive of the alkali metals . Lithium 's low reactivity is due to the proximity of its valence electron to its nucleus ( the remaining two electrons are in the 1s orbital , much lower in energy , and do not participate in chemical bonds ) .
Lithium metal is soft enough to be cut with a knife . When cut , it possesses a silvery @-@ white color that quickly changes to gray as it oxidizes to lithium oxide . While it has one of the lowest melting points among all metals ( 180 ° C ) , it has the highest melting and boiling points of the alkali metals .
Lithium has a very low density ( 0 @.@ 534 g / cm3 ) , comparable with pine wood . It is the least dense of all elements that are solids at room temperature ; the next lightest solid element ( potassium , at 0 @.@ 862 g / cm3 ) is more than 60 % denser . Furthermore , apart from helium and hydrogen , it is less dense than any liquid element , being only 2 / 3 as dense as liquid nitrogen ( 0 @.@ 808 g / cm3 ) . Lithium can float on the lightest hydrocarbon oils and is one of only three metals that can float on water , the other two being sodium and potassium .
Lithium 's coefficient of thermal expansion is twice that of aluminium and almost four times that of iron . Lithium is superconductive below 400 μK at standard pressure and at higher temperatures ( more than 9 K ) at very high pressures ( > 20 GPa ) . At temperatures below 70 K , lithium , like sodium , undergoes diffusionless phase change transformations . At 4 @.@ 2 K it has a rhombohedral crystal system ( with a nine @-@ layer repeat spacing ) ; at higher temperatures it transforms to face @-@ centered cubic and then body @-@ centered cubic . At liquid @-@ helium temperatures ( 4 K ) the rhombohedral structure is prevalent . Multiple allotropic forms have been identified for lithium at high pressures .
Lithium has a mass specific heat capacity of 3 @.@ 58 kilojoules per kilogram @-@ kelvin , the highest of all solids . Because of this , lithium metal is often used in coolants for heat transfer applications .
= = = Chemistry and compounds = = =
Lithium reacts with water easily , but with noticeably less energy than other alkali metals . The reaction forms hydrogen gas and lithium hydroxide in aqueous solution . Because of its reactivity with water , lithium is usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant , often petroleum jelly . Though the heavier alkali metals can be stored in more dense substances , such as mineral oil , lithium is not dense enough to be fully submerged in these liquids . In moist air , lithium rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating of lithium hydroxide ( LiOH and LiOH · H2O ) , lithium nitride ( Li3N ) and lithium carbonate ( Li2CO3 , the result of a secondary reaction between LiOH and CO2 ) .
When placed over a flame , lithium compounds give off a striking crimson color , but when it burns strongly the flame becomes a brilliant silver . Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapors . Lithium is flammable , and it is potentially explosive when exposed to air and especially to water , though less so than the other alkali metals . The lithium @-@ water reaction at normal temperatures is brisk but nonviolent because the hydrogen produced does not ignite on its own . As with all alkali metals , lithium fires are difficult to extinguish , requiring dry powder fire extinguishers ( Class D type ) . Lithium is the only metal which reacts with nitrogen under normal conditions .
Lithium has a diagonal relationship with magnesium , an element of similar atomic and ionic radius . Chemical resemblances between the two metals include the formation of a nitride by reaction with N2 , the formation of an oxide ( Li
2O ) and peroxide ( Li
2O
2 ) when burnt in O2 , salts with similar solubilities , and thermal instability of the carbonates and nitrides . The metal reacts with hydrogen gas at high temperatures to produce lithium hydride ( LiH ) .
Other known binary compounds include halides ( LiF , LiCl , LiBr , LiI ) , sulfide ( Li
2S ) , superoxide ( LiO
2 ) , and carbide ( Li
2C
2 ) . Many other inorganic compounds are known in which lithium combines with anions to form salts : borates , amides , carbonate , nitrate , or borohydride ( LiBH
4 ) . Lithium aluminium hydride ( LiAlH
4 ) is commonly used as a reducing agent in organic synthesis .
Multiple organolithium reagents are known in which there is a direct bond between carbon and lithium atoms , effectively creating a carbanion . These are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles . In many of these organolithium compounds , the lithium ions tend to aggregate into high @-@ symmetry clusters by themselves , which is relatively common for alkali cations . LiHe , a very weakly interacting van der Waals compound , has been detected at very low temperatures .
= = = Ferromagnetism in Lithium @-@ 6 as a cryogenic gas = = =
Experimental evidence suggests that , in its gaseous form at temperatures of about 150 nanoKelvin , lithium @-@ 6 exhibits ferromagnetism ; if fully confirmed , this is the first example of ferromagnetism observed in any gas under any conditions . Reservations on the reality of the demonstration are tenuous however , largely the desirability of direct observation that the spins of the atoms were parallel .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes , 6Li and 7Li , the latter being the more abundant ( 92 @.@ 5 % natural abundance ) . Both natural isotopes have anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon ( compared to the neighboring elements on the periodic table , helium and beryllium ) ; lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission . The two lithium nuclei have lower binding energies per nucleon than any other stable nuclides other than deuterium and helium @-@ 3 . As a result of this , though very light in atomic weight , lithium is less common in the Solar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements . Seven radioisotopes have been characterized , the most stable being 8Li with a half @-@ life of 838 ms and 9Li with a half @-@ life of 178 ms . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives that are shorter than 8 @.@ 6 ms . The shortest @-@ lived isotope of lithium is 4Li , which decays through proton emission and has a half @-@ life of 7 @.@ 6 × 10 − 23 s .
7Li is one of the primordial elements ( or , more properly , primordial nuclides ) produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis . A small amount of both 6Li and 7Li are produced in stars , but are thought to be " burned " as fast as produced . Additional small amounts of lithium of both 6Li and 7Li may be generated from solar wind , cosmic rays hitting heavier atoms , and from early solar system 7Be and 10Be radioactive decay . While lithium is created in stars during stellar nucleosynthesis , it is further burned . 7Li can also be generated in carbon stars .
Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes , including mineral formation ( chemical precipitation ) , metabolism , and ion exchange . Lithium ions substitute for magnesium and iron in octahedral sites in clay minerals , where 6Li is preferred to 7Li , resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration . The exotic 11Li is known to exhibit a nuclear halo . The process known as laser isotope separation can be used to separate lithium isotopes , in particular 7Li from 6Li .
Nuclear weapons manufacture and other nuclear physics applications are a major source of artificial lithium fractionation , with the light isotope 6Li being retained by industry and military stockpiles to such an extent that it has caused slight but measurable change in the 6Li to 7Li ratios in natural sources , such as rivers . This has led to unusual uncertainty in the standardized atomic weight of lithium , since this quantity depends on the natural abundance ratios of these naturally @-@ occurring stable lithium isotopes , as they are available in commercial lithium mineral sources .
= = Occurrence = =
= = = Astronomical = = =
According to modern cosmological theory , lithium — in both stable isotopes ( lithium @-@ 6 and lithium @-@ 7 ) — was one of the 3 elements synthesized in the Big Bang . Though the amount of lithium generated in Big Bang nucleosynthesis is dependent upon the number of photons per baryon , for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated , and there is a " cosmological lithium discrepancy " in the Universe : older stars seem to have less lithium than they should , and some younger stars have much more . The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the " mixing " of lithium into the interior of stars , where it is destroyed , while lithium is produced in younger stars . Though it transmutes into two atoms of helium due to collision with a proton at temperatures above 2 @.@ 4 million degrees Celsius ( most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors ) , lithium is more abundant than current computations would predict in later @-@ generation stars .
Though it was one of the three first elements to be synthesized in the Big Bang , lithium , together with beryllium and boron are markedly less abundant than other elements . This is a result of the low temperature necessary to destroy lithium , and a lack of common processes to produce it .
Lithium is also found in brown dwarf substellar objects and certain anomalous orange stars . Because lithium is present in cooler , less @-@ massive brown dwarfs , but is destroyed in hotter red dwarf stars , its presence in the stars ' spectra can be used in the " lithium test " to differentiate the two , as both are smaller than the Sun . Certain orange stars can also contain a high concentration of lithium . Those orange stars found to have a higher than usual concentration of lithium ( such as Centaurus X @-@ 4 ) orbit massive objects — neutron stars or black holes — whose gravity evidently pulls heavier lithium to the surface of a hydrogen @-@ helium star , causing more lithium to be observed .
= = = Terrestrial = = =
Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth , it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity . The total lithium content of seawater is very large and is estimated as 230 billion tonnes , where the element exists at a relatively constant concentration of 0 @.@ 14 to 0 @.@ 25 parts per million ( ppm ) , or 25 micromolar ; higher concentrations approaching 7 ppm are found near hydrothermal vents .
Estimates for the Earth 's crustal content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight . In keeping with its name , lithium forms a minor part of igneous rocks , with the largest concentrations in granites . Granitic pegmatites also provide the greatest abundance of lithium @-@ containing minerals , with spodumene and petalite being the most commercially viable sources . Another significant mineral of lithium is lepidolite . A newer source for lithium is hectorite clay , the only active development of which is through the Western Lithium Corporation in the United States . At 20 mg lithium per kg of Earth 's crust , lithium is the 25th most abundant element .
According to the Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium , " Lithium is a comparatively rare element , although it is found in many rocks and some brines , but always in very low concentrations . There are a fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits but only comparatively few of them are of actual or potential commercial value . Many are very small , others are too low in grade . "
The US Geological Survey estimates that in 2010 , Chile had the largest reserves by far ( 7 @.@ 5 million tonnes ) and the highest annual production ( 8 @,@ 800 tonnes ) . One of the largest reserve bases of lithium is in the Salar de Uyuni area of Bolivia , which has 5 @.@ 4 million tonnes . Other major suppliers include Australia , Argentina and China .
In June 2010 , the New York Times reported that American geologists were conducting ground surveys on dry salt lakes in western Afghanistan believing that large deposits of lithium are located there . " Pentagon officials said that their initial analysis at one location in Ghazni Province showed the potential for lithium deposits as large as those of Bolivia , which now has the world 's largest known lithium reserves . " These estimates are " based principally on old data , which was gathered mainly by the Soviets during their occupation of Afghanistan from 1979 – 1989 " . Stephen Peters , the head of the USGS 's Afghanistan Minerals Project , said that he was unaware of USGS involvement in any new surveying for minerals in Afghanistan in the past two years . ' We are not aware of any discoveries of lithium , ' he said . "
= = = Biological = = =
Lithium is found in trace amount in numerous plants , plankton , and invertebrates , at concentrations of 69 to 5 @,@ 760 parts per billion ( ppb ) . In vertebrates the concentration is slightly lower , and nearly all vertebrate tissue and body fluids contain lithium ranging from 21 to 763 ppb . Marine organisms tend to bioaccumulate lithium more than terrestrial organisms . Whether lithium has a physiological role in any of these organisms is unknown .
= = History = =
Petalite ( LiAlSi4O10 ) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist and statesman José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva in a mine on the island of Utö , Sweden . However , it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson , then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius , detected the presence of a new element while analyzing petalite ore . This element formed compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium , though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and more alkaline . Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name " lithion / lithina " , from the Greek word λιθoς ( transliterated as lithos , meaning " stone " ) , to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral , as opposed to potassium , which had been discovered in plant ashes , and sodium which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood . He named the metal inside the material " lithium " .
Arfwedson later showed that this same element was present in the minerals spodumene and lepidolite . In 1818 , Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color to flame . However , both Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate the pure element from its salts . It was not isolated until 1821 , when William Thomas Brande obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide , a process that had previously been employed by the chemist Sir Humphry Davy to isolate the alkali metals potassium and sodium . Brande also described some pure salts of lithium , such as the chloride , and , estimating that lithia ( lithium oxide ) contained about 55 % metal , estimated the atomic weight of lithium to be around 9 @.@ 8 g / mol ( modern value ~ 6 @.@ 94 g / mol ) . In 1855 , larger quantities of lithium were produced through the electrolysis of lithium chloride by Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen . The discovery of this procedure led to commercial production of lithium in 1923 by the German company Metallgesellschaft AG , which performed an electrolysis of a liquid mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride .
The production and use of lithium underwent several drastic changes in history . The first major application of lithium was in high @-@ temperature lithium greases for aircraft engines and similar applications in World War II and shortly after . This use was supported by the fact that lithium @-@ based soaps have a higher melting point than other alkali soaps , and are less corrosive than calcium based soaps . The small market for lithium soaps and lubricating greases was supported by several small mining operations mostly in the United States .
The demand for lithium increased dramatically during the Cold War with the production of nuclear fusion weapons . Both lithium @-@ 6 and lithium @-@ 7 produce tritium when irradiated by neutrons , and are thus useful for the production of tritium by itself , as well as a form of solid fusion fuel used inside hydrogen bombs in the form of lithium deuteride . The United States became the prime producer of lithium in the period between the late 1950s and the mid @-@ 1980s . At the end , the stockpile of lithium was roughly 42 @,@ 000 tonnes of lithium hydroxide . The stockpiled lithium was depleted in lithium @-@ 6 by 75 % , which was enough to affect the measured atomic weight of lithium in many standardized chemicals , and even the atomic weight of lithium in some " natural sources " of lithium ion which had been " contaminated " by lithium salts discharged from isotope separation facilities , which had found its way into ground water .
Lithium was used to decrease the melting temperature of glass and to improve the melting behavior of aluminium oxide when using the Hall @-@ Héroult process . These two uses dominated the market until the middle of the 1990s . After the end of the nuclear arms race , the demand for lithium decreased and the sale of Department of Energy stockpiles on the open market further reduced prices . But in the mid @-@ 1990s , several companies started to extract lithium from brine which proved to be a less expensive method than underground or even open @-@ pit mining . Most of the mines closed or shifted their focus to other materials because only the ore from zoned pegmatites could be mined for a competitive price . For example , the US mines near Kings Mountain , North Carolina closed before the turn of the 21st century .
The development of lithium ion batteries increased the demand for lithium and became the dominant use in 2007 . With the surge of lithium demand in batteries in the 2000s , new companies have expanded brine extraction efforts to meet the rising demand .
= = Production = =
Lithium production has greatly increased since the end of World War II . The metal is separated from other elements in igneous minerals . Lithium salts are extracted from water in mineral springs , brine pools and brine deposits . The metal is produced through electrolysis from a mixture of fused 55 % lithium chloride and 45 % potassium chloride at about 450 ° C. In 1998 it was about 95 USD / kg ( or 43 USD / lb ) .
= = = Reserves = = =
Worldwide identified reserves in 2008 were estimated by the US Geological Survey ( USGS ) as 13 million tonnes , though it is difficult to accurately estimate the world 's lithium reserves .
Deposits are found in South America throughout the Andes mountain chain . Chile is the leading producer , followed by Argentina . Both countries recover lithium from brine pools . In the United States lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada . However , half the world 's known reserves are located in Bolivia , along the central eastern slope of the Andes . In 2009 , Bolivia negotiated with Japanese , French and Korean firms to begin extraction . According to USGS , Bolivia 's Uyuni Desert has 5 @.@ 4 million tonnes of lithium . A newly discovered deposit in Wyoming 's Rock Springs Uplift is estimated at 228 @,@ 000 tons . Additional deposits in the same formation were extrapolated to be as much as 18 million tons .
Opinions differ about potential growth . A 2008 study concluded that " realistically achievable lithium carbonate production will be sufficient for only a small fraction of future PHEV and EV global market requirements " , that " demand from the portable electronics sector will absorb much of the planned production increases in the next decade " , and that " mass production of lithium carbonate is not environmentally sound , it will cause irreparable ecological damage to ecosystems that should be protected and that LiIon propulsion is incompatible with the notion of the ' Green Car ' " .
However , according to a 2011 study conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California , Berkeley , the currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large @-@ scale battery production for electric vehicles because an estimated 1 billion 40 kWh Li @-@ based batteries could be built with current reserves - about 10 kg of lithium per car . Another 2011 study by researchers from the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found sufficient resources to support global demand until 2100 , including the lithium required for the potential widespread transportation use . The study estimated global reserves at 39 million tons , and total demand for lithium during the 90 @-@ year period analyzed at 12 – 20 million tons , depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates .
On June 9 , 2014 , the Financialist stated that demand for lithium was growing at more than 12 percent a year ; according to Credit Suisse , this rate exceeds projected availability by 25 percent . The publication compared the 2014 lithium situation with oil , whereby " higher oil prices spurred investment in expensive deepwater and oil sands production techniques " ; that is , the price of lithium will continue to rise until more expensive production methods that can boost total output receive the attention of investors .
= = = Pricing = = =
After the 2007 financial crisis , major suppliers such as Sociedad Química y Minera ( SQM ) dropped lithium carbonate pricing by 20 % . Prices rose in 2012 . A 2012 Business Week article outlined the oligopoly in the lithium space : " SQM , controlled by billionaire Julio Ponce , is the second @-@ largest , followed by Rockwood , which is backed by Henry Kravis ’ s KKR & Co . , and Philadelphia @-@ based FMC " . Global consumption may jump to 300 @,@ 000 metric tons a year by 2020 from about 150 @,@ 000 tons in 2012 , to match demand for lithium batteries that has been growing at about 25 percent a year , outpacing the 4 percent to 5 percent overall gain in lithium .
= = = = Geothermal wells = = = =
A potential source is geothermal wells . Geothermal fluids carry leachates to the surface ; recovery of lithium has been demonstrated in the field . The lithium is separated by simple filtration . The process and environmental costs are primarily those of the already @-@ operating well ; net environmental impacts may thus be positive .
= = = = Seawater = = = =
Lithium is present in seawater , but practical extraction techniques have yet to be commercialized .
= = = Extraction = = =
= = = = Brine evaporation = = = =
As of 2015 most of the world ’ s lithium production is in South America , where lithium @-@ containing brine is extracted from underground pools and concentrated by solar evaporation . In 2010 , Simbol Materials received a $ 3 million grant from the U.S. Department of Energy for a pilot project to show the financial feasibility of extracting high @-@ quality lithium from geothermal brine . It uses brine from the 49 @.@ 9 @-@ megawatt Featherstone geothermal power plant in California 's Imperial Valley . The extracted fluid is passed through a series of membranes , filters and adsorption materials to extract lithium . The standard extraction technique is to evaporate water from brine . Each batch takes from 18 to 24 months .
= = = = Dialysis = = = =
In 2015 researchers announced a new seawater extraction process using dialysis . The dialysis cell uses a superconducting membrane . Lithium is the only ion in the seawater that can pass through the membrane .
= = = = Reverse osmosis = = = =
Reverse osmosis has been proposed as an alternative , but has not been commercialized .
= = Uses = =
= = = Ceramics and glass = = =
Lithium oxide is widely used as a flux for processing silica , reducing the melting point and viscosity of the material and leading to glazes with improved physical properties including low coefficients of thermal expansion . Worldwide , this is the single largest use for lithium compounds . Glazes containing lithium oxides are used for ovenware . Lithium carbonate ( Li2CO3 ) is generally used in this application because it converts to the oxide upon heating .
= = = Electrical and electronics = = =
Late in the 20th century , lithium became an important component of battery electrolytes and electrodes , because of its high electrode potential . Because of its low atomic mass , it has a high charge- and power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio . A typical lithium @-@ ion battery can generate approximately 3 volts per cell , compared with 2 @.@ 1 volts for lead @-@ acid or 1 @.@ 5 volts for zinc @-@ carbon cells . Lithium @-@ ion batteries , which are rechargeable and have a high energy density , should not be confused with lithium batteries , which are disposable ( primary ) batteries with lithium or its compounds as the anode . Other rechargeable batteries that use lithium include the lithium @-@ ion polymer battery , lithium iron phosphate battery , and the nanowire battery .
= = = Lubricating greases = = =
The third most common use of lithium is in greases . Lithium hydroxide is a strong base and , when heated with a fat , produces a soap made of lithium stearate . Lithium soap has the ability to thicken oils , and it is used to manufacture all @-@ purpose , high @-@ temperature lubricating greases .
= = = Metallurgy = = =
Lithium ( e.g. as lithium carbonate ) is used as an additive to continuous casting mould flux slags where it increases fluidity , a use which accounts for 5 % of global lithium use ( 2011 ) . Lithium compounds are also used as additives ( fluxes ) to foundry sand for iron casting to reduce veining .
Lithium ( as lithium fluoride ) is used as an additive to aluminium smelters ( Hall – Héroult process ) , reducing melting temperature and increasing electrical resistance , a use which accounts for 3 % of production ( 2011 ) .
When used as a flux for welding or soldering , metallic lithium promotes the fusing of metals during the process and eliminates the forming of oxides by absorbing impurities . Alloys of the metal with aluminium , cadmium , copper and manganese are used to make high @-@ performance aircraft parts ( see also Lithium @-@ aluminium alloys ) .
= = = Silicon nano @-@ welding = = =
Lithium has been found effective in assisting the perfection of silicon nano @-@ welds in electronic components for electric batteries and other devices .
= = = Other chemical and industrial uses = = =
= = = = Pyrotechnics = = = =
Lithium compounds are used as pyrotechnic colorants and oxidizers in red fireworks and flares .
= = = = Air purification = = = =
Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are hygroscopic and are used as desiccants for gas streams . Lithium hydroxide and lithium peroxide are the salts most used in confined areas , such as aboard spacecraft and submarines , for carbon dioxide removal and air purification . Lithium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air by forming lithium carbonate , and is preferred over other alkaline hydroxides for its low weight .
Lithium peroxide ( Li2O2 ) in presence of moisture not only reacts with carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate , but also releases oxygen . The reaction is as follows :
2 Li2O2 + 2 CO2 → 2 Li2CO3 + O2 .
Some of the aforementioned compounds , as well as lithium perchlorate , are used in oxygen candles that supply submarines with oxygen . These can also include small amounts of boron , magnesium , aluminum , silicon , titanium , manganese , and iron .
= = = = Optics = = = =
Lithium fluoride , artificially grown as crystal , is clear and transparent and often used in specialist optics for IR , UV and VUV ( vacuum UV ) applications . It has one of the lowest refractive indexes and the farthest transmission range in the deep UV of most common materials . Finely divided lithium fluoride powder has been used for thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry ( TLD ) : when a sample of such is exposed to radiation , it accumulates crystal defects which , when heated , resolve via a release of bluish light whose intensity is proportional to the absorbed dose , thus allowing this to be quantified . Lithium fluoride is sometimes used in focal lenses of telescopes .
The high non @-@ linearity of lithium niobate also makes it useful in non @-@ linear optics applications . It is used extensively in telecommunication products such as mobile phones and optical modulators , for such components as resonant crystals . Lithium applications are used in more than 60 % of mobile phones .
= = = = Organic and polymer chemistry = = = =
Organolithium compounds are widely used in the production of polymer and fine @-@ chemicals . In the polymer industry , which is the dominant consumer of these reagents , alkyl lithium compounds are catalysts / initiators. in anionic polymerization of unfunctionalized olefins . For the production of fine chemicals , organolithium compounds function as strong bases and as reagents for the formation of carbon @-@ carbon bonds . Organolithium compounds are prepared from lithium metal and alkyl halides .
Many other lithium compounds are used as reagents to prepare organic compounds . Some popular compounds include lithium aluminium hydride ( LiAlH4 ) , lithium triethylborohydride , n @-@ Butyllithium and tert @-@ butyllithium are commonly used as extremely strong bases called superbase .
= = = = Military applications = = = =
Metallic lithium and its complex hydrides , such as Li [ AlH4 ] , are used as high @-@ energy additives to rocket propellants . Lithium aluminum hydride can also be used by itself as a solid fuel .
The Mark 50 torpedo stored chemical energy propulsion system ( SCEPS ) uses a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride gas , which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium . The reaction generates heat , creating steam to propel the torpedo in a closed Rankine cycle .
Lithium hydride containing lithium @-@ 6 is used in thermonuclear weapons , where it encases the core of the bomb .
= = = Nuclear = = =
Lithium @-@ 6 is valued as a source material for tritium production and as a neutron absorber in nuclear fusion . Natural lithium contains about 7 @.@ 5 % lithium @-@ 6 from which large amounts of lithium @-@ 6 have been produced by isotope separation for use in nuclear weapons . Lithium @-@ 7 gained interest for use in nuclear reactor coolants .
Lithium deuteride was the fusion fuel of choice in early versions of the hydrogen bomb . When bombarded by neutrons , both 6Li and 7Li produce tritium — this reaction , which was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested , was responsible for the runaway yield of the Castle Bravo nuclear test . Tritium fuses with deuterium in a fusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve . Although details remain secret , lithium @-@ 6 deuteride apparently still plays a role in modern nuclear weapons as a fusion material .
Lithium fluoride , when highly enriched in the lithium @-@ 7 isotope , forms the basic constituent of the fluoride salt mixture LiF @-@ BeF2 used in liquid fluoride nuclear reactors . Lithium fluoride is exceptionally chemically stable and LiF @-@ BeF2 mixtures have low melting points . In addition , 7Li , Be , and F are among the few nuclides with low enough thermal neutron capture cross @-@ sections not to poison the fission reactions inside a nuclear fission reactor .
In conceptualized ( hypothetical ) nuclear fusion power plants , lithium will be used to produce tritium in magnetically confined reactors using deuterium and tritium as the fuel . Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare , and must be synthetically produced by surrounding the reacting plasma with a ' blanket ' containing lithium where neutrons from the deuterium @-@ tritium reaction in the plasma will fission the lithium to produce more tritium :
6Li + n → 4He + 3T .
Lithium is also used as a source for alpha particles , or helium nuclei . When 7Li is bombarded by accelerated protons 8Be is formed , which undergoes fission to form two alpha particles . This feat , called " splitting the atom " at the time , was the first fully man @-@ made nuclear reaction . It was produced by Cockroft and Walton in 1932 .
In 2013 , the US Government Accountability Office said a shortage of lithium @-@ 7 critical to the operation of 65 out of 100 American nuclear reactors “ places their ability to continue to provide electricity at some risk ” . The problem stems from the decline of US nuclear infrastructure . The equipment needed to separate lithium @-@ 6 from lithium @-@ 7 is mostly a cold war leftover . The US shut down most of this machinery in 1963 , when it had a huge surplus of separated lithium , mostly consumed during the twentieth century . The report said it would take five years and $ 10 million to $ 12 million to reestablish the ability to separate lithium @-@ 6 from lithium @-@ 7 .
Reactors that use lithium @-@ 7 heat water under high pressure and transfer heat through heat exchangers that are prone to corrosion . The reactors use lithium to counteract the corrosive effects of boric acid , which is added to the water to absorb excess neutrons .
= = = Medicine = = =
Lithium is useful in the treatment of bipolar disorder . Lithium salts may also be helpful for related diagnoses , such as schizoaffective disorder and cyclic major depression . The active part of these salts is the lithium ion Li + . They may increase the risk of developing Ebstein 's cardiac anomaly in infants born to women who take lithium during the first trimester of pregnancy .
Lithium has also been researched as a possible treatment for cluster headaches .
= = Precautions = =
Lithium is corrosive and requires special handling to avoid skin contact . Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds ( which are often alkaline ) initially irritate the nose and throat , while higher exposure can cause a buildup of fluid in the lungs , leading to pulmonary edema . The metal itself is a handling hazard because contact with moisture produces the caustic lithium hydroxide . Lithium is safely stored in non @-@ reactive compounds such as naphtha .
= = = Regulation = = =
Some jurisdictions limit the sale of lithium batteries , which are the most readily available source of lithium for ordinary consumers . Lithium can be used to reduce pseudoephedrine and ephedrine to methamphetamine in the Birch reduction method , which employs solutions of alkali metals dissolved in anhydrous ammonia .
Carriage and shipment of some kinds of lithium batteries may be prohibited aboard certain types of transportation ( particularly aircraft ) because of the ability of most types of lithium batteries to fully discharge very rapidly when short @-@ circuited , leading to overheating and possible explosion in a process called thermal runaway . Most consumer lithium batteries have built @-@ in thermal overload protection to prevent this type of incident , or are otherwise designed to limit short @-@ circuit currents . Internal shorts from manufacturing defect or physical damage can lead to spontaneous thermal runaway .
= Key ( company ) =
Key is a Japanese visual novel studio which formed on July 21 , 1998 as a brand under the publisher VisualArt 's and is located in Kita , Osaka , Japan . Key released their debut visual novel Kanon in June 1999 , which combined an elaborate storyline , an up @-@ to @-@ date anime @-@ style drawing style , and a musical score which helped to set the mood for the game . Key 's second game Air released in September 2000 had a similar if not more complex storyline to Kanon and a more thorough gameplay . Both Kanon and Air were originally produced as adult games , but Key broke this trend with their third title Clannad which was released in April 2004 for all ages . Key has worked in the past with Interchannel and Prototype for the consumer port releases of the brand 's games . Key collaborated with P.A. Works and Aniplex to produce the anime series Angel Beats ! ( 2010 ) and Charlotte ( 2015 ) . The brand 's ninth game Rewrite was released in June 2011 , and a fan disc for the game titled Rewrite Harvest festa ! was released in July 2012 . The first volume in the six @-@ part Angel Beats ! episodic visual novel was released in June 2015 . Key will release the kinetic novel Harmonia in 2016 .
Co @-@ founder Jun Maeda is a prominent figure in the brand , having contributed to the planning , scenario , and music composition in the majority of Key 's visual novels . Itaru Hinoue , also a co @-@ founder , is Key 's main artist and was the art director for Key 's first three games . Na @-@ Ga , another prominent artist in the brand , mainly worked with background art in earlier games , but with Key 's sixth game Little Busters ! was given the position of co @-@ art director with Hinoue . Shinji Orito , Key 's main composer and another co @-@ founder , has composed music for the majority of Key 's titles . Yūto Tonokawa , a scenario writer , first worked on the scenario in Little Busters ! .
Key has been an active participant at the Comiket convention since Comiket 57 in December 1999 , where they sold Kanon @-@ related products ; Key 's latest appearance at Comiket was at Comiket 89 in December 2015 . In 2001 , VisualArt 's created the record label Key Sounds Label to release music albums and singles with music related to Key 's visual novels . Between December 2007 and August 2010 , Key produced an Internet radio show called Key Net Radio in regards to the brand .
= = History = =
Before forming Key , the founding members worked for another visual novel development company called Nexton under the brand Tactics . At the time of Dōsei 's production , Tactics ' first game , four of Key 's original staff worked on the game : Itaru Hinoue as art director , Shinji Orito as musical composer , and Miracle Mikipon and Shinory contributing to the computer graphics . After Dōsei , the rest of Key 's founding staff — Naoki Hisaya , Jun Maeda and OdiakeS — joined Tactics and contributed to two more games : Moon released on November 21 , 1997 , and One : Kagayaku Kisetsu e released on May 29 , 1998 . Due to differing opinions between Nexton and most of the production staff in Tactics on how to produce the brand 's next game , most of Tactics ' staff left Nexton to pursue work in another publishing company where they could have the freedom to produce their next game .
Itaru Hinoue , who had previously worked at VisualArt 's once before , introduced Key 's founding members to the president of VisualArt 's , Takahiro Baba . Baba gave the developers the freedom they desired , and they officially transferred to VisualArt 's where they formed Key on July 21 , 1998 . With the production of Key 's debut title Kanon still in its early stages , a brand name had still not been decided on by the developers . The tentative brand name was Azurite ( アズライト , Azuraito ) at first , but Jun Maeda was not pleased with this and wanted a name that would capture the image of the brand . Maeda came upon the name Key when he saw it on a sign for a musical instrument store he would always pass on his way to work and instantly liked the name . The name Key for the studio was ultimately decided by majority rule . Key released Kanon on June 4 , 1999 as an adult game , though the scenes containing adult content were kept to a minimum . This gave the player more of a focus on the characters ' stories and on the visuals and music , especially for a visual novel at the time of its release . A year later , on September 8 , 2000 , Key released their second game Air , which was also an adult game and similar in storytelling to Kanon .
Key 's third game Clannad is a visual novel similar to Key 's previous games , but contains no adult content . Clannad was meant to be released in 2002 , but was delayed , leading to the game finally being released on April 28 , 2004 . Seven months after Clannad 's release , Key released their shortest game , Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet , on November 29 , 2004 with a rating for all ages . Planetarian , in contrast to Key 's past games , is a linear visual novel that does not require the user to make choices during gameplay ; this is what is referred to as a kinetic novel . The brand 's fifth game is Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life , an adult game and spin @-@ off to Clannad released on November 25 , 2005 , which expanded on the scenario of the heroine Tomoyo Sakagami from Clannad . Key released their sixth game , Little Busters ! , on July 27 , 2007 with no adult content , but released another version of the game entitled Little Busters ! Ecstasy on July 25 , 2008 with added adult content , story , and visuals .
In commemoration of Key 's ten @-@ year anniversary , Key and VisualArt 's held a two @-@ day event between February 28 and March 1 , 2009 called " Key 10th Memorial Fes : Ano Hi kara Hajimatta Bokura no Toki o Kizamu Uta " ( ～ あの日から始まった僕らの時を刻む唄 ～ ) . Key collaborated with P.A. Works and Aniplex to produce the anime series Angel Beats ! that aired between April and June 2010 . Key 's eighth game Kud Wafter was released on June 25 , 2010 as an adult spin @-@ off of Little Busters ! , which expanded on the scenario of the heroine Kudryavka Noumi from Little Busters ! and Ecstasy . Key released their ninth game Rewrite on June 24 , 2011 with a rating for all ages , and an all ages fan disc to Rewrite titled Rewrite Harvest festa ! was released on July 27 , 2012 . In commemoration of Key 's 15 @-@ year anniversary , the first volume in the six @-@ part Angel Beats ! episodic visual novel , Angel Beats ! -1st beat- , was released on June 26 , 2015 . Key again collaborated with P.A. Works and Aniplex to produce the anime series Charlotte that aired between July and September 2015 . Key is aiming to release the kinetic novel Harmonia in 2016 , and it will be released on Steam in English before it is released in Japan .
= = = Key Sounds Label = = =
In 2001 , VisualArt 's created the record label Key Sounds Label ( KSL ) . The music albums and singles released by Key after this were put under this label , meaning that this does not include the first two albums and one single which were released before it was officially formed . The first album on this label was Humanity ... , though the only direct connection to Key 's works is that it contains a remixed version of the opening theme to Air . The albums under the label are mainly composed by Key 's signature composers : Jun Maeda , Shinji Orito and Magome Togoshi . Three of the singles feature songs sung by Lia and one album , Love Song , features the singer Riya from Eufonius . Three drama CDs have been released as well .
To celebrate Key 's ten @-@ year anniversary , Key hosted a concert called KSL Live World 2008 : Way to the Little Busters ! EX on May 10 , 2008 in Tokyo , Japan , and again on May 17 , 2008 in Osaka , Japan . Each time , the concert lasted for two and a half hours and featured songs sung by Lia , Rita , Chata , and Tomoe Tamiyasu who have previously sung songs for singles and albums released under Key Sounds Label . Another concert called KSL Live World 2010 : Way to the Kud @-@ Wafter was held in Tokyo between May 21 – 22 , 2010 . A third content called KSL Live World 2013 : Way to the Little Busters ! Refrain was held in Koto , Tokyo on September 16 , 2013 . A fourth concert called KSL Live World : Way to the Angel Beats ! -1st- was held in Akihabara , Tokyo on April 11 and April 12 , 2015 . A fifth concert called KSL Live World 2016 : The Animation Charlotte & Rewrite was held in Toyosu , Tokyo on April 30 , 2016 .
= = = Key Net Radio = = =
Key produced 30 episodes of an Internet radio show called Key Net Radio ( Keyらじ , Key Raji ) in regards to the brand between December 13 , 2007 and August 30 , 2010 . It was hosted by Shinji Orito and Itaru Hinoue of Key , and another woman named Chiro who works for Pekoe , another visual novel studio under VisualArt 's . Listeners could submit thoughts about the show and any requests they may have for the show , along with submitting questions to the host trio . The broadcasts were available via download on Key 's official website and were available for download on the radio show 's official blog for the first nine broadcasts . The broadcasts could also be listened to on VisualArt 's ' YouTube channel named Visual Channel .
For the first six episodes , the show had five corners , or parts , which started with opening greetings from the hosts and went on to thoughts and impressions that listeners had about the show . This moved on to an informal talk between the hosts , followed by a section where entries previously submitted by listeners concerning their enthusiasm for Key were read by the hosts . The fourth corner concerned answering questions that had been submitted by listeners , and the final corner had Orito playing the flute ; listeners could submit suggestions for songs he was to play . Two more corners were added starting with the seventh broadcast . The first corner added concerns scary stories that the hosts can tell themselves , or read from submissions by listeners , and was added partly because Hinoue enjoys such stories . The second corner added deals with submissions by listeners describing a new fictional character , and Hinoue takes these submissions and forms a new fictional character out of combining elements from multiple submissions together . During the broadcasts , tracks from the soundtracks released under Key Sounds Label play in the background .
= = = Comiket involvement = = =
Comiket , short for Comic Market , is a large comic convention held twice a year in Tokyo , Japan during August and December , which are referred to as the summer and winter Comic Markets , respectively . Key has been an active participant in the convention since Comiket 57 in December 1999 , where they sold Kanon @-@ related products ( as Kanon was their only release at the time ) ; one such product was a Zippo lighter . The first Air @-@ related products Key sold at the convention were at Comiket 59 in December 2000 . Typical products include : postcards , telephone cards , calendars , posters , and albums . The products Key sells at Comiket are all related to the visual novels the brand produces .
Key , through VisualArt 's , generally participates at the winter Comiket in conjunction with other brands under VisualArt 's , but has been known to appear at the summer Comiket too , such as with Comiket 70 in August 2006 where they sold Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet related products . The combined total of the products Key sells at a given Comiket range in price between 3 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 yen . This includes the selling of music albums released under Key 's record label Key Sounds Label which has been releasing albums since Comiket 60 in August 2001 with the release of the label 's first two albums , Humanity ... and " Natsukage / Nostalgia " . If there are any unsold products by the end of a given Comiket , VisualArt 's has been known to set up an online mail order to sell the remaining goods from all the brands under VisualArt 's that participated at Comiket . After Comiket 73 in December 2007 , VisualArt 's started taking mail orders on March 4 , 2008 , and only six days later on March 10 , 2008 , Key reported that all of Key 's goods sold at Comiket 73 were now sold out . At the end of the second day of Comiket 75 in December 2008 , all of Key 's goods at the convention were sold out .
= = Staff = =
= = = Main = = =
Key 's main staff members are attached to the visual novel studio , and therefore VisualArt 's . One of the founding members of Key , Jun Maeda , has worked on the planning for the individual projects and was one of the main scenario writers ; he has also composed music for the majority of Key 's games . Maeda stepped down as the main scenario writer after Little Busters ! Ecstasy , but continues to work on the music for Key 's games . Itaru Hinoue , another founding member , is Key 's main artist and was the sole art director and character designer for four of Key 's games . Na @-@ Ga , another prominent artist in the brand , mainly worked with background art in earlier games , but was first given the position of co @-@ art director with Hinoue with Little Busters ! . Further computer graphics have been provided in the past by Shinory and Mochisuke , two graphic artists in Key . Shinji Orito , another founding member and Key 's main composer , has composed music for the majority of Key 's games . With Maeda no longer contributing to the scenario , scenario writer Yūto Tonokawa joined Key and first worked on the scenario in Little Busters ! .
= = = Former and outsourced = = =
Many of Key 's staff have left the brand over time , or have been employed as outsourced contributors . Naoki Hisaya had worked as one of the main scenario writers for Kanon , but once the project was complete , he left the brand ; Hisaya later provided the original concept for Sola . Another member of the staff that made Kanon was OdiakeS , an outsourced composer who has since helped Key with two music albums , one each released for Air and Clannad , but has done nothing with Key since 2004 . Three staff members only worked with Key on Air : Takashi Ishikawa as one of the scenario writers , Kazuki Fujii as a scenario assistant , and Din as a background artist . Air and Clannad had Tōya Okano and Kai who contributed as scenario writers ; Kai later headed the planning and design of Kud Wafter . One of the original computer graphics artists , Miracle Mikipon , left after Clannad . Two other outsourced graphic artists , Minimo Tayama and Torino , have often contributed on Key 's games .
Scenario writer Yūichi Suzumoto worked with Key between Air and Planetarian . Eeji Komatsu worked as the art director for Planetarian , and another artist , Fumio , worked as the art director for Tomoyo After . Leo Kashida worked as an outsourced writer with Key on Tomoyo After and Little Busters ! . Chika Shirokiri , another outsourced writer who worked with Key on Little Busters ! , also wrote the scenario for Kud Wafter . Manack and members of PMMK composed music in Little Busters ! , and members of MintJam helped with arrangement . Magome Togoshi had been with Key since before Kanon 's release , working as one of the signature composers , but left the brand in October 2006 after contributing to the soundtrack of Little Busters ! . Jun 'ichi Shimizu composed all the music in Kud Wafter . Two outsourced writers worked on the scenario for Rewrite : Ryukishi07 of 07th Expansion , and Romeo Tanaka . Rewrite also featured three outsourced musical composers : Maiko Iuchi of I 've Sound , Sōshi Hosoi , and Ryō Mizutsuki .
= = Impact = =
According to Satoshi Todome 's work , A History of Adult Games , Key 's impact on the visual novel ( primarily the adult game variant ) world stems from before Key was formed and most of the founding members of Key worked for Tactics under Nexton . Due to an influence by Leaf 's visual novel To Heart released in 1997 , the developers at Tactics created a simple formula for a game : a comedic first half with a heart @-@ warming romantic middle followed by a tragic separation and finally an emotional reunion formed what is known as a " crying game " or " nakige " . The main purpose of such a game is to make the player feel for the characters and make them cry due to emotional scenarios which serves to leave a bigger impact on the player after the game is over . Tactics ' second title One : Kagayaku Kisetsu e was created based on this formula .
After One was complete , the development team quit Tactics to form Key where they developed their first title Kanon also based upon this formula . Kanon was " heavily hyped [ and ] had gamers impatient until its release . It was only one game released by Key so far , and yet [ it ] had already sent major shockwaves around the industry . And yet another game [ Air ] , two years later , sent even more shockwaves . Air was equally hyped and well received . " The success of One and Kanon on Key 's formula to create a " crying game " was later adopted by other visual novel developing companies which were influenced by this formula . Examples of this include : Kana : Little Sister by Digital Object , the Memories Off series by KID , D.C. : Da Capo by Circus , Snow by Studio Mebius ( also under VisualArt 's ) , and Wind : A Breath of Heart by Minori .
Ryukishi07 of 07th Expansion wrote in 2004 how he was influenced by Key 's works during the planning of Higurashi no Naku Koro ni . Ryukishi07 played Key 's games as a reference , among other visual novels , and analyzed them to figure out the reason why they were found to be so popular . He figured that the secret was due to how the stories would start with ordinary , enjoyable days , but then a sudden occurrence would happen leading the player to cry due to the shock value . He used a similar model for the basis of Higurashi but instead of leading the player to cry , Ryukishi07 wanted to scare the player with the addition of horror elements . In this way , Ryukishi07 wished to be in some way associated with Key who he described as a " masterpiece maker " .
Key is one of 17 brands under VisualArt 's with games included in the Lycèe Trading Card Game published by Broccoli . Characters from Key 's first five games through Tomoyo After were included in the first three out of four VisualArt 's card sets , and characters from Little Busters ! through Rewrite were featured in the fifth through seventh VisualArt 's card sets . There are also numerous rare promotional cards with characters from Key titles . Other big @-@ name visual novel companies included in the card game include : AliceSoft , August , Leaf , Navel , and Type @-@ Moon .
= = = Leaf , Key BBS = = =
A bulletin board system ( BBS ) based on the interface of the large Japanese Internet forum 2channel ( 2ch ) was formed on January 26 , 2000 named " Leaf , Key BBS " ( leaf , key掲示板 , leaf , key Keijiban ) , otherwise nicknamed as " Leaf @-@ Key Board " ( 葉鍵板 , Ha @-@ Kagi Ita ) . The board originated from 2ch 's video game discussion board due to a dispute involving the game Kizuato in December 1999 ; Kizuato was an early game of another visual novel producing brand named Leaf . Ultimately , fans of the game moved to 2ch 's adult game board , but there was not much resolution , and at the time Key fans on the board were being shunned for discussions on Kanon and , at the time , Key 's upcoming game Air . This resulted finally with the Leaf and Key fans moving away from 2ch and forming again on the PINKchannel Internet forum . The board serves as a discussion board for anything related to Leaf and Key . This includes the games the companies produce , but also the companies themselves and the staff that make up those companies . The BBS gets approximately 900 posts per day as of March 2010 . Like 2ch , the board has a default anonymous posting setting , and the default name is " Nanashi @-@ san Dayomon " ( 名無しさんだよもん , lit . " Mr. Nameless @-@ dayomon " ) , a reference to the heroine Mizuka Nagamori from One : Kagayaku Kisetsu e who uses the words " dayo " and " mon " frequently .
= Darejan Dadiani =
Darejan Dadiani ( Georgian : დარეჯანი ) , also known as Daria ( დარია ; Russian : Дарья Георгиевна , Darya Georgyevna ) ( 20 July 1738 – 8 November 1807 ) , was Queen Consort of Kakheti , and later Kartli @-@ Kakheti in Eastern Georgia , as the third wife of King Erekle II ( also known as Heraclius II ) . She was a daughter of Katsia @-@ Giorgi Dadiani , a member of the princely house of Mingrelia . Darajan married Heraclius in 1750 and their marriage lasted 48 years until his death in 1798 ; the union produced 23 children . In the final years of her husband 's reign , Darejan exerted significant influence on politics and court affairs . She was skeptical of the pro @-@ Russian policies of Heraclius II and his successor , her step @-@ son , George XII , whose progeny she tried to prevent from succeeding to the throne of Georgia . After the Russian annexation of Georgia , Queen Dowager Darejan was deported to Russia proper in 1803 . She died in St. Petersburg at the age of 69 and was buried at the Alexander Nevsky Lavra .
= = Early life and marriage = =
Darejan was a daughter of Katsia @-@ Giorgi Dadiani , a younger son of Bezhan Dadiani , Prince of Mingrelia in western Georgia . She was only 12 years old in 1750 , when Heraclius , then reigning in Kakheti , chose her as his third wife , a year after his second wife , Ana Abashidze , died . The marriage was negotiated on Heraclius 's behalf by his relative , Princess Khoreshan , daughter of the late King of Kartli Jesse and wife of Prince Jesse Amilakhvari . The bride was brought by Khoreshan and Saba , Bishop of Ninotsminda , to Surami , where Heraclius met her . The wedding was then lavishly celebrated at the court of Heraclius 's father , Teimuraz II , King of Kartli , in Tbilisi . In 1762 , Heraclius of Kakheti succeeded on his father 's death as king of Kartli , thus uniting both eastern Georgian kingdoms into a single state .
= = Issue of succession = =
The couple 's first better documented child , Princess Elene , was born in 1753 , followed by 22 more between 1755 and 1782 . As her sons grew up , Darejan 's desire to secure the right of succession for her offspring against Heraclius 's eldest surviving son of his second marriage to Anna Abashidze , the Crown Prince George , became the cornerstone of Darejan 's involvement in the politics of Georgia . In the last years of Heraclius II 's life , she became more involved and influential . In 1791 , Darejan persuaded her husband to overturn the principle of primogeniture in favor of fraternal inheritance , mandating in his will that after his death , his eldest son George would become king , but that after George 's death , the throne would pass to the next surviving son of Heraclius , rather than to George 's offspring . The surviving sons of Heraclius and Darejan — Iulon , Vakhtang , Mirian , Alexander , and Parnaoz — thus , emerged in the line of succession . After Heraclius 's death in 1798 , the now King George XII , reneged on the will of the late king , declaring it invalid on account of it being forced upon his father . This occasioned a further breakdown in already strained relations between George XII and Darejan and his
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the millennium , the Lombard Landolfus Sagax , held that Philip had confessed to Fabian , Bishop of Rome , instead of Babylas .
By the late 17th century , when Tillemont wrote his Histoire des Empereurs , it was no longer possible to make the argument that Philip was a Christian " ſans difficulté " , " without difficulty " . And when Jean @-@ Baptiste Louis Crévier wrote his L 'Histoire des empereurs des Romains , jusqu 'à Constantin in 1749 , he affirmed the contrary , that Philip was not a Christian at all : " ... it is easy to judge what degree of credit ought to be given to this story of his penance ; which , besides , is not fully and exactly related by any ancient author . To make out an account of it any way tolerable , they have been obliged to patch several evidences together , and to supply and alter the one by the other . The shortest and safest course is not to admit of a perplexed and ill supported narrative . We have no great temptation to torture history in order to claim such a Christian . "
Edward Gibbon , in the first volume of his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ( 1776 ) , would take the same position : " The public and even partial favour of Philip towards the sectaries of the new religion , and his constant reverence for the ministers of the church , gave some colour to the suspicion , which prevailed in his own times , that the emperor himself was become a convert to the faith ; and afforded some grounds for a fable which was afterwards invented , that he had been purified by confession and penance from the guilt contracted by the murder of his innocent predecessor . " And the fable has — " as usual " — " been embellished " . To Gibbon , the matter is " curious , rather than important " , and the man he credits with disposing of it , Friedrich Spanheim ( d . 1649 ) , is said to have shown " much superfluous learning " in the task .
French historians of the 19th and 20th century were more favorable to the notion . Paul Allard , in his Histoire des persecutions pendant la premiere moitié du troisième siecle ( 1881 ) ; René Aigrain , in his chapter " Arabie " in the Dictionnaire d 'Histoire et de Géographie Ecclésiastique ; Henri Grégoire , in Les persécutions dans l 'empire romain ( 1964 ) ; and Jean Daniélou and Henri @-@ Irénée Marrou , in The Christian Centuries 1 : The First Six Hundred Years ( English tr . , 1964 ) , all strongly supported the notion . English and German scholars were less likely to accept it . Ecclesiastical historians of the 19th century , like John Mason Neale , B. J. Kidd , and H. M. Gwatkin , gave the notion some credence , but less than their full support . Critical historians , like Ernst Stein , Karl Johannes Neumann , and John Gregg , denied it entirely .
In the late 20th century , a small number of articles and book chapters discussed the matter . John York 's " The Image of Philip the Arab " ( 1972 ) argued that the literary material on Philip 's reign was deeply biased against the emperor . York attempted to correct the narrative , and rehabilitate Philip 's reputation . He held that Eusebius ' logos was derived from an oral tradition originating in Antioch , and that Origen 's letters cannot have definitively proven Philip 's Christianity , since ( he follows Jerome 's Liber de viris inlustribus 54 here ) those letters were addressed to Philip 's son . Because of this fact , York declared that Philip 's Christianity was only " probable " , not certain . H. Crouzel 's " Le christianisme de l 'empereur Philippe l 'Arabe " ( 1975 ) argued that the Antiochene tradition , as represented by Chrysostom and Leontius , was independent of Eusebius , and that Eusebius was , likewise , ignorant of it . The sources of Eusebius ' logos were instead Origen 's letters to Philip and Severa . Crouzel is not entirely certain on this point ; it is only " très probable " , " very probable " . In spite of Crouzel 's arguments , Pierre Nautin 's Origène ( 1977 ) was very skeptical of accounts of Philip 's Christianity , and Hans Pohlsander 's " Philip the Arab and Christianity " ( 1980 ) , adducing Philip 's commitment to traditional civic religion as evidence , denied all accounts of Philip 's Christianity .
In a lengthy chapter of his 1984 book Rome and the Arabs , Irfan Shahîd argued that Philip deserved the title of " First Christian Emperor " . The chapter is divided into five parts : ( 1 ) a brief listing of the sources ; ( 2 ) a lengthy address to Ernst Stein 's arguments against accounts of Philip 's Christianity ; ( 3 ) an explanation of Eusebius ' caution and dissimulation ; ( 4 ) an exposition of the Latin authors ' accounts of Philip 's Christianity ; and ( 5 ) Eusebius ' relationship with the unnamed bishop in his passage , Babylas , and Babylas ' importance in ecclesiastical history . He follows the main body of the chapter with an appendix addressing the articles by York , Crouzel , and Pohlsander , " Philip the Arab and Christianity " , and noting the judgments of the scholars who reviewed his draft .
Currently , there is no consensus on the issue of Philip 's Christianity . Timothy Barnes , who reviewed Shahîd 's chapters on " The First Christian Emperor " and " Eusebius and the Arabs " in 1979 , would only say that Eusebius " [ presents ] Philip as a Christian " , in his Constantine and Eusebius ( 1981 ) . Warwick Ball , author of Rome and the East : The transformation of an empire ( 2000 ) , argued in favor of Philip 's Christianity . David Potter , author of The Roman Empire at Bay ( 2004 ) , treated the matter dismissively : accounts of Philip 's Christianity were simply " bogus " , Potter wrote , and works that accepted them should be treated with less respect on that count alone . Some scholars , like Glen Bowersock , took a middle route . Bowersock , reviewing Shahîd 's Rome and the Arabs for the Classical Review in 1986 , wrote : " I doubt many will be convinced by the extreme position that [ Shahîd ] has taken , but his arguments do offer some basis for believing that Philip was seriously interested in the religion " . He reiterated that view in his Roman Arabia ( 1980 , 3rd rev. ed . 1994 ) .
For the French Byzantinologist Gilbert Dagron , Philip 's Christianity is a legend - albeit a very old one - that intended , in a Late Roman / Early Byzantine context , to foster the idea of a Roman Empire that was Christian almost from the beginning , thereby melding Roman Imperial ideology and Christianism , and therefore offering a base for other later legends showing Roman emperors , beginning with Augustus , to be aware and / or sympathetic to Christian revelation , forming a legendary corpus that was brought together during the 6th century by the chronicler John Malalas .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
= = = Modern sources = = =
= 2011 Michigan Wolverines football team =
The 2011 Michigan Wolverines football team , sometimes known as Team 132 in reference to the 132 @-@ year tradition of the Michigan football program , was an American football team that represented the University of Michigan during the 2011 NCAA Division I FBS football season .
Under first @-@ year head coach Brady Hoke , Michigan compiled a record of 11 – 2 and finished in second place in the newly formed Legends Division of the Big Ten Conference . Hoke , hired in January 2011 following the firing of previous head coach Rich Rodriguez , was named Big Ten Coach of the Year by both the media and the coaches and was a finalist for national coach of the year honors . Highlights of Michigan 's 2011 season included a 35 – 31 victory over Notre Dame in the first night game ever played at Michigan Stadium , a 45 – 17 victory over Nebraska in the Cornhuskers ' first year in the Big Ten , and the first victory over arch @-@ rival Ohio State since 2003 . Michigan 's season ended with a 23 – 20 overtime victory against Virginia Tech in the 2012 Sugar Bowl .
Under first @-@ year defensive coordinator Greg Mattison , Michigan 's defense went from being ranked 107th in scoring defense in 2010 ( 35 @.@ 2 points per game ) to being ranked sixth ( 17 @.@ 38 points per game ) in 2011 . The team 's leaders on defense included senior nose tackle Mike Martin , who started 29 consecutive games for Michigan , and safety Jordan Kovacs , who was a quarterfinalist for the Lott Trophy and a semifinalist for the Burlsworth Trophy . Mattison was selected as one of five finalists for the 2011 Broyles Award , awarded to the best assistant coach in college football .
On offense , Michigan had two players , Denard Robinson and Fitzgerald Toussaint , rush for 1 @,@ 000 yards each for the first time since 1975 . Robinson led the Big Ten in total offense per game for the second year in a row and also led the Wolverines in scoring with 96 points . Place @-@ kicker Brendan Gibbons was the team 's second leading scorer with 93 points having converted 13 of 17 field goal attempts and 54 of 55 extra points . Senior David Molk won the Rimington Trophy as the best center in college football and also became Michigan 's first consensus All @-@ American since 2007 . Junior Hemingway was the team 's leading receiver with 699 receiving yards and led the conference in yards per reception ( 20 @.@ 6 ) for the second year in a row .
= = Preseason = =
In 2010 , Michigan became bowl eligible for the first time since 2007 and faced the Mississippi State Bulldogs in the Gator Bowl , which Michigan lost 52 – 14 . The 2010 Wolverines finished the season ranked eighth nationally in total offense with quarteback Denard Robinson setting several individual records . However , the defensive unit finished 110th in total defense .
On January 4 , 2011 , after Michigan 's loss in the Gator Bowl , and following a 15 – 22 record in three seasons under head coach Rich Rodriguez , athletic director David Brandon announced that Rodriguez had been fired and a national search was underway to select a new head coach . Brady Hoke was hired as Michigan 's new head coach on January 11 . Hoke 's hiring triggered speculation that Denard Robinson would transfer , as it was believed that Hoke would run a pro @-@ style offense with Michigan 's new offensive coordinator Al Borges , but Robinson announced one day after Hoke 's hiring that he would return to Michigan for the 2011 season . On defense , Michigan hired defensive coordinator Greg Mattison from the Baltimore Ravens . Mattison had previously been the defensive coordinator for Michigan 's 1995 and 1996 teams . Following Hoke 's hiring , the team was dubbed " Team 132 " in recognition of the 132 seasons of Michigan football .
During the first eight months of 2011 , seven Michigan players announced plans to transfer to other schools . The first to go was backup quarterback Tate Forcier who announced on January 22 that he was leaving the team , having previously been declared academically ineligible for the Gator Bowl . The other departures were ( 1 ) starting safety Ray Vinopal , who cited personal reasons for transferring to Pittsburgh , ( 2 ) cornerback Cullen Christian who also transferred to Pittsburgh , ( 3 ) wide receiver D.J. Williamson , ( 4 ) incoming offensive guard Tony Posada , ( 5 ) wide receiver Je 'Ron Stokes who transferred to Bowling Green , and ( 6 ) incoming tight end Chris Barnett .
On August 7 , 2011 , Hoke announced that wide receiver Darryl Stonum ( the team 's second leading receiver in 2010 ) was suspended and would be redshirted due to drunken driving related violations . Additionally , due to an unspecified team rules violations , punter Will Hagerup ( who had been suspended for one game in 2010 ) was suspended for the first four games , while wide receiver Terrence Robinson was suspended for the first game .
On August 28 , 2011 , the team named tight end Kevin Koger , defensive tackle Mike Martin , and center David Molk as its co @-@ captains for the 2011 season . Michigan returned 17 of 22 starters from the 2010 team — ten on offense and seven on defense . In addition to Vinopal , Michigan was forced to replace starters offensive guard Stephen Schilling , linebacker Jonas Mouton , cornerback James Rogers , and defensive Greg Banks , as well as back @-@ up linebacker Obi Ezeh , who was a former starter for the Wolverines . Other 2010 Wolverines in NFL training camps included Martell Webb and Perry Dorrestein . A total of 26 former Wolverine student @-@ athletes were on opening day 53 @-@ man NFL active rosters .
Six Michigan players were listed on preseason watch lists : ( 1 ) Denard Robinson for the Walter Camp Award ( best college player ) , Maxwell Award ( best offensive player ) , and Davey O 'Brien Award ( best quarterback ) , Paul Hornung Award ( most versatile player ) , and Manning Award ( best quarterback ) , ( 2 ) Mike Martin for the Bednarik Trophy ( best defensive player ) , Outland Trophy ( best interior lineman ) , and Lombardi Award ( best lineman ) , ( 3 ) David Molk for the Outland Trophy , Lombardi Award , and Rimington Trophy ( best center ) , ( 4 ) Kevin Koger for the John Mackey Award ( best tight end ) , ( 5 ) Roy Roundtree for the Fred Biletnikoff Award ( best wide receiver ) , and ( 6 ) Ryan Van Bergen for the Ted Hendricks Award ( best defensive end ) .
= = Recruiting = =
= = = Position key = = =
= = = Recruits = = =
Michigan 's recruiting class was ranked No. 27 by Scout and No. 21 by Rivals . It was not ranked by ESPN . The program received 20 letters of intent on National Signing Day , February 2 , 2011 .
= = Rankings = =
Michigan began the season unranked in the Top 25 of both the AP Poll and the Coaches ' Poll , but by midseason had risen to # 10 in the Coaches ' Poll and # 11 in the AP Poll . After its loss to Michigan State , Michigan fell to # 17 in the Coaches ' Poll and # 18 in the AP Poll . Michigan rose to # 13 in the AP and Coaches ' Polls and # 15 in the BCS Poll before its game against Iowa , falling after the loss to # 22 in the AP Poll , # 21 in the Coaches ' Poll , and # 24 in the BCS Poll . Michigan finished the regular season ranked # 12 in the Coaches ' Poll , and # 13 in the AP and BCS Polls . Following its win over Virginia Tech in the Sugar Bowl , Michigan ended the season ranked # 9 in the Coaches ' Poll and # 12 in the AP Poll .
Source : ESPN.com : 2011 NCAA Football Rankings
= = Schedule = =
The schedule was as follows :
= = Radio = =
On August 8 , 2011 , the University of Michigan announced a five @-@ year extension of its contract with CBS Radio . Detroit 's WWJ became the new flagship station . All games were broadcast by radio on the Michigan Wolverines Football Network and on Sirius XM Satellite Radio . The radio announcers were Frank Beckmann ( play @-@ by @-@ play ) , Jim Brandstatter ( color commentary ) , and Doug Karsch ( sideline reports ) .
= = Game notes = =
= = = vs. Western Michigan = = =
In the opening game of the season , Michigan hosted the Western Michigan Broncos . When the teams last met in 2009 , the Wolverines won 31 – 7 .
In a game shortened by lightning , Michigan defeated Western Michigan 34 – 10 . Western Michigan scored the only points of the first quarter with a one @-@ yard touchdown run by Antoin Scriven . Michigan answered with three consecutive touchdowns in the second quarter : a one @-@ yard run by Fitzgerald Toussaint , a 94 @-@ yard interception return by Brandon Herron ( the longest interception return for a touchdown in Michigan program history ) , and a two @-@ yard touchdown run by Toussaint . Following Michigan 's third touchdown , the extra point attempt was blocked . The Broncos scored their final points of the game on a 36 @-@ yard field goal by John Potter just before halftime . In the third quarter , Herron returned a fumble 29 yards for a touchdown , and Michael Shaw scored on a 44 @-@ yard touchdown run ( the longest touchdown run of his career ) . After two rain delays in the third quarter , the game was stopped due to lightning in the area and Michigan was awarded the win . The temperature on the field at kickoff was over 137 ° F , and by the end of the game it had dropped to 84 ° F , a difference of 53 ° F. This was the first Michigan football game to be ended due to weather before all 60 minutes were played and the second game in Michigan Stadium history that featured a weather delay ( the first coming in a 2006 game against Central Michigan ) .
Jordan Kovacs and Brandon Herron led the defense . Kovacks forced the fumble that was returned for a touchdown , had two quarterback sacks and ten tackles , and was named the Lott Trophy 's IMPACT Player of the Week . Herron became the first Michigan player to post two defensive touchdowns and the first since Tom Harmon to have two return touchdowns of any kind in a game . In recognition of his efforts , Herron was named Big Ten Defensive Player of the Week , Walter Camp National Defensive Player of the Week , National Defensive Performer of Week 1 and National Linebacker Performer of the Week by College Football Performance Awards ( CFPA ) , and Big Ten Defensive Player of the Week by College Sports Madness . He was also nominated for Defensive Performance of the Year by Intersport .
The NCAA originally determined that it would not count player and team statistics for the game , because three quarters had not been completed . At the end of November 2011 , the NCAA reversed the decision and determined that statistics from the game would be counted .
= = = vs. Notre Dame = = =
Following its opener against Western Michigan , Michigan renewed its rivalry with the Notre Dame Fighting Irish . In the first night game in Michigan Stadium history , both teams wore " throwback @-@ style " jerseys . Michigan 's jerseys did not entirely match any worn in team history ; however , they incorporated " design elements from different eras of Michigan football . " During the previous meeting , Denard Robinson set a school record for total yardage in a single game at 502 yards , as Michigan defeated Notre Dame 28 – 24 in a wild affair . Due to the significance of the game , ESPN announced on August 5 that College GameDay would be held in Ann Arbor for the first time since November 17 , 2007 , when Michigan hosted Ohio State , which was Michigan head coach Lloyd Carr 's final regular season game before he retired . At the game , 1991 Heisman Trophy winner Desmond Howard was honored in recognition of his recent induction into the College Football Hall of Fame . A 1991 consensus All @-@ American , Howard became the first receiver in history to lead the Big Ten Conference in scoring , and he set or tied five NCAA records and 12 single @-@ season Michigan records during his senior year . Charles Woodson was also honored . A C @-@ 47 conducted the pre @-@ game flyover and two parachuters from the 101st Airborne Division entered the stadium at halftime .
Michigan came back from a 17 @-@ point deficit to defeat Notre Dame 35 – 31 , scoring the winning touchdown with two seconds remaining . Notre Dame started the scoring with two consecutive touchdowns in the first quarter , with the first coming from a seven @-@ yard catch by Theo Riddick , and the second from a four @-@ yard run by Cierre Wood . Michigan 's only points of the first half came on a 43 @-@ yard reception by Junior Hemingway in the second quarter . Notre Dame answered with a 38 @-@ yard field goal by David Ruffer just before halftime to extend its lead to ten points . The score at halftime was 17 – 7 in favor of Notre Dame . The only points of the third quarter were when Notre Dame 's T. J. Jones caught a 15 @-@ yard touchdown pass . In the fourth quarter Michigan rallied from behind , scoring three consecutive touchdowns : first a one @-@ yard run by Denard Robinson after Stephen Hopkins fumbled at the goal line , then a 47 @-@ yard catch by Jeremy Gallon , then a 21 @-@ yard catch by Vincent Smith to give them their first lead of the game . Notre Dame responded almost immediately , as Theo Riddick scored his second touchdown of the game less than a minute later on a 29 @-@ yard catch . Michigan received the ball on its 20 @-@ yard line with 30 seconds remaining , and drove 80 yards in 28 seconds with Roy Roundtree scoring the game @-@ winning touchdown with two seconds left in the game .
Michigan 's 17 @-@ point comeback against Notre Dame tied for the third @-@ biggest comeback in Michigan history and tied for the second @-@ biggest comeback at Michigan Stadium . The game 's announced crowd of 114 @,@ 804 set the all @-@ time attendance record for a football game — college or NFL — and broke the Michigan Stadium attendance record . The previous Michigan Stadium record was 113 @,@ 411 spectators , established at the 2010 " Big Chill at the Big House " ice hockey game . In recognition of his performance during the game , the Big Ten named Denard Robinson its Offensive Player of the Week , while the Davey O 'Brien Award named him its Quarterback of the Week . He was also named Rivals.com 's Big Ten and National Player of the Week and won the Capital One Cup Impact Performance of the Week . The team was recognized as the Tostitos Fiesta Bowl National Team of Week .
= = = vs. Eastern Michigan = = =
In the third week of the season , Michigan hosted the Eastern Michigan Eagles . Michigan won the previous meeting between the two schools in 2009 by a 45 – 17 score .
Michigan defeated Eastern Michigan 31 – 3 . In the first quarter , Eastern Michigan sustained five drives into Michigan territory , but their drives stalled on a fumble , an interception , and a stop by the Michigan defense on fourth down from the one @-@ yard line . On the first play of the second quarter , the Eagles took a 3 – 0 lead on a 21 @-@ yard field goal by Kody Fulkerson . Michigan did not score until the 9 : 28 mark in the second quarter with a nine @-@ yard touchdown pass from Denard Robinson to Kevin Koger . The Wolverines added to the lead later in the second quarter on an 11 @-@ yard touchdown run by Robinson giving Michigan a 14 – 3 lead at halftime . In the third quarter , Michigan added two more touchdowns on a one @-@ yard touchdown run by Fitzgerald Toussaint and a 19 @-@ yard touchdown catch by Drew Dileo . The final points of the game came on a 21 @-@ yard field goal by Brendan Gibbons in the fourth quarter .
In holding Eastern Michigan to three points , Michigan put in its best performance in scoring defense since a 38 – 0 shutout of Notre Dame on September 15 , 2007 . The defense also held the Eagles to 29 passing yards – the lowest total for a Michigan opponent since Rice recorded 15 passing yards in 1999 . Denard Robinson rushed for 198 yards . Robinson 's 52 @-@ yard run early in the second quarter was his longest to that point of the season , later eclipsed by a 53 @-@ yard run against San Diego State . After Robinson completed seven of 18 passes with an interception , the Associated Press called it " another lackluster passing performance . " Vincent Smith also contributed 118 rushing yards rushing on nine carries . The Wolverines improved to 10 – 0 in the all @-@ time series against Eastern Michigan .
= = = vs. San Diego State = = =
In its final game of non @-@ conference play , Michigan hosted the San Diego State Aztecs . This meeting was the first between the two schools since 2004 , and came nine months after Brady Hoke left San Diego State for Michigan . During the previous meeting , Michigan escaped a potential upset by San Diego State , winning 24 – 21 .
Michigan defeated San Diego State 28 – 7 . Denard Robinson scored all three touchdowns in the first half : a five @-@ yard run and then a 53 @-@ yard run in the first quarter , and then in the second quarter on a one @-@ yard run . In the third quarter , San Diego State scored its only points of the game with a 16 @-@ yard catch by Colin Lockett following a fumble by Michigan 's Stephen Hopkins . In the fourth quarter , Michigan sealed its victory with a seven @-@ yard touchdown run by Vincent Smith .
Robinson carried the ball 21 times for 200 yards and three touchdowns and also passed for 93 yards . It was Robinson 's third career 200 @-@ yard rushing game and matched his career best for rushing touchdowns . Robinson became one of only three Wolverines players to register three or more 200 @-@ yard rushing games in program history . Mike Hart ( 2004 – 07 ) holds the record with five , while Ron Johnson ( 1966 – 68 ) also has three . Robinson passed Illinois ' Isiah Williams to move into the second spot among the Big Ten Conference 's career leaders in rushing yards by a quarterback . Robinson earned Big Ten Conference Co @-@ Offensive Player of the Week recognition .
= = = vs. Minnesota = = =
In its first game of the Big Ten season , Michigan hosted the Minnesota Golden Gophers for the Little Brown Jug . Michigan won the previous meeting between the two schools in 2008 29 – 6 .
Michigan dominated in all aspects of the game and defeated Minnesota 58 – 0 . In the first quarter Vincent Smith ran in a three @-@ yard touchdown , which was followed by a Denard Robinson nine @-@ yard touchdown run . In the second quarter Drew Dileo caught a 17 @-@ yard pass from Vincent Smith , which was followed by a Vincent Smith 28 @-@ yard touchdown reception , his second touchdown of the game . Michigan 's next scoring play came on a 25 @-@ yard field goal by Brendan Gibbons . Just before halftime , Kevin Koger caught an 18 @-@ yard pass for a touchdown . After the break , Fitzgerald Touissant rushed for a one @-@ yard touchdown . Next came two more field goals from Gibbons : first from 32 yards , then in the fourth quarter from 38 yards . Michigan scored its final points when Courtney Avery picked up a Minnesota fumble and ran it back 83 yards for a touchdown .
The game was Michigan 's first shutout of a Big Ten opponent since a 20 – 0 win at Penn State on October 6 , 2001 , and its first shutout of any opponent since a 38 – 0 win against Notre Dame on September 15 , 2007 . The 58 – 0 win over the Golden Gophers was Michigan 's largest margin of victory over Minnesota in the series ' history . The previous best was 51 ( 58 – 7 ) in 1993 . The game also marked Michigan 's largest margin of victory over any opponent since a 69 – 0 victory over Northwestern in October 1975 . ( Michigan also defeated Indiana by an identical 58 – 0 score in October 2000 . ) Vincent Smith became the first running back in FBS to pass for a touchdown and have touchdowns rushing and receiving since C.J. Spiller on November 14 , 2009 , against North Carolina State . He is the fifth Big Ten player to do so since 1996 and the first since Mike Kafka , who accomplished the feat for Northwestern on September 19 , 2009 . Michigan outgained Minnesota 580 to 177 . Minnesota 's total yardage was the lowest allowed by Michigan since the game against Minnesota in 2008 . Michigan rushed for 363 yards of offense , its third straight game of rushing for more than 300 yards . This is the first time this has occurred since the 1987 season .
= = = at Northwestern = = =
After the battle for the Little Brown Jug , Michigan traveled to Evanston , Illinois , for the first time since 2007 to play the Northwestern Wildcats . During the previous meeting between the schools in 2008 , Northwestern won 21 – 14 .
Michigan scored 28 unanswered points to erase a ten @-@ point deficit and defeat Northwestern 42 – 24 . Michigan scored first on a nine @-@ yard reception by Steve Watsdon . Northwestern replied with a 15 @-@ yard touchdown run by Kain Colter , and then took the lead on a seven @-@ yard run by Treyvon Green . In the second quarter , Michigan 's Jeremy Gallon caught a 25 @-@ yard touchdown reception . The Wildcats responded with a two @-@ yard touchdown run by Adonis Smith , and scored their final points of the game with a 20 @-@ yard field goal by Jeff Budzien . Michigan dominated the second half with four unanswered touchdowns . In the third quarter , Denard Robinson scored on a two @-@ yard run , then Devin Gardner scored on a one @-@ yard run . In the fourth quarter , Michael Shaw scored on a two @-@ yard run , and Denard Robinson capped the victory with a five @-@ yard run .
Michigan 's 541 yard offensive performance was the second straight week the offense gained more than 500 yards of offense , and was the second highest total of the season , only beaten by the previous week 's total of 581 yards against Minnesota . Denard Robinson 's 337 yards of passing were one yard shy of his career high ; he threw for 338 yards against Notre Dame on Sept . 10 , 2011 . Michigan started a season 6 – 0 for the first time since 2006 . Jordan Kovacs had two solo tackles for a loss , both on fourth down . Brady Hoke 's 6 – 0 start was the first 6 – 0 start by a first @-@ year Michigan coach since Bennie Oosterbaan did so in 1948 .
= = = at Michigan State = = =
After its game against Northwestern , Michigan traveled to East Lansing to battle their in @-@ state rival , the Michigan State Spartans , for the Paul Bunyan Trophy . Michigan was searching for its first win against Michigan State since 2007 . Michigan State won the previous meeting 34 – 17 . The Wolverines wore legacy road uniforms for the game with Michigan State , which were the road version of the uniform worn against Notre Dame . It was the first time that Michigan wore all white road uniforms since the 1976 Orange Bowl against Oklahoma . Michigan State also wore special alternate uniforms colored dark green , bronze and black .
Michigan State continued its recent dominance over Michigan , winning 28 – 14 . The first half was relatively quiet , with each team only scoring one touchdown in the first quarter . Michigan 's Denard Robinson ran in one from 15 yards out , with Michigan State responding with a one @-@ yard touchdown run by Edwin Baker . After halftime , State 's Kirk Cousins threw a 10 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Keshawn Martin to take the lead . The Spartans added more points with another touchdown catch by Martin , this one from 13 yards out . In the fourth quarter , Michigan scored their only points of the second half with a 34 @-@ yard touchdown catch and run by Roy Roundtree . State sealed their victory with a 39 @-@ yard interception return touchdown by Isaiah Lewis , handing Michigan their first loss of the season .
The game was Michigan 's first against a ranked opponent in the 2011 season . Michigan 's record against Michigan State in the overall series dropped to 68 – 35 – 2 , while its record in games involving the Paul Bunyan Trophy dropped to 35 – 23 – 2 . Denard Robinson 's passing performance put him over 4 @,@ 000 yards in his career , the 10th Michigan quarterback to do so , and his rushing performance moved him past Tim Biakabutuka for 10th place . Punter Will Hagerup placed four of his seven punts inside Michigan State 's 20 @-@ yard line , and three of those inside the 15 @-@ yard line . The victory was Michigan State 's fourth in a row against Michigan , the first time Michigan State had done this since a streak between 1959 and 1962 .
= = = vs. Purdue = = =
Following its trip to East Lansing and its bye week , Michigan hosted the Purdue Boilermakers for its homecoming game . During the previous meeting between the two schools , Michigan defeated Purdue 27 – 16 in a turnover filled game caused by heavy rain . The game ball was delivered via jet pack , as Michigan 's homecoming theme for the year was space .
Michigan defeated Purdue 36 – 14 . Purdue scored its only points of the first half when Caleb TerBush threw a 48 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Gary Bush . Michigan dominated the game following the Purdue score . The Wolverines responded to Purdue 's touchdown with a touchdown of their own , a two @-@ yard run by Denard Robinson , which was its fifth consecutive opening drive touchdown . In the second quarter , Michigan scored a safety when Mike Martin tackled Caleb TerBush in the end zone . A few minutes later , Michigan 's Brendan Gibbons kicked a 37 @-@ yard field goal . Michigan added more points with a two @-@ yard touchdown run by Fitzgerald Toussaint . The final score of the first half was a 22 @-@ yard Michigan field goal with no time left on the clock . After the intermission , Michigan scored the only points of the third quarter when Fitzgerald Toussaint scored his second touchdown of the game , this time on a 59 @-@ yard rush . The teams traded scores in the final quarter . First Michigan 's Michael Shaw ran in a touchdown from 37 yards out , which was followed by Purdue 's Robert Marve throwing a 19 @-@ yard touchdown pass to O.J. Ross . With the win , Michigan 's record against Purdue improved to 43 – 14 .
Junior quarterback Denard Robinson completed 9 @-@ of @-@ 14 passes for 170 yards and carried the ball 15 times for 63 yards and a touchdown . He scored his 29th career rushing touchdown on a two @-@ yard run midway through the first quarter . Robinson moved to ninth place among Michigan 's all @-@ time leaders in the category , where he is tied with Butch Woolfolk ( 1978 – 81 ) . Robinson has scored at least one rushing touchdown in seven straight games . Fitzgerald Toussaint recorded career highs in carries ( 20 ) and rushing yards ( 170 ) and matched a career best with two rushing touchdowns . Toussaint 's second touchdown — a 59 @-@ yard rush in the third quarter — was the longest rush for a touchdown of his career , but missed his overall career long by two yards ( 61 yards vs. Bowling Green , September 25 , 2010 ) . The Apollo 15 flight crew , which consisted of all Michigan graduates , was honored during the first quarter .
= = = at Iowa = = =
For its ninth game , Michigan traveled to Iowa City to meet the Iowa Hawkeyes . Iowa won the 2010 game , 38 – 28 .
Iowa defeated Michigan 24 – 16 after Michigan was unable to score a touchdown from the three @-@ yard line at the end of the game . Iowa scored first with a four @-@ yard touchdown run by Marcus Coker . Michigan responded with a five @-@ yard touchdown catch by Fitzgerald Toussaint , their only points of the first half ; however , the extra point was botched due to a bad snap . In the second quarter , Iowa 's Brad Herman caught a one @-@ yard pass from James Vandenberg for a touchdown . Iowa 's Mike Meyer then kicked a 42 @-@ yard field goal to add to the Hawkeyes ' lead . After halftime , Michigan 's Brendan Gibbons scored the only points of the 3rd quarter with a 32 @-@ yard field goal . Iowa then scored its only points of the second half when Marcus Coker scored his second touchdown of the day , this time with a 13 @-@ yard rush . Michigan responded with a seven @-@ yard touchdown catch by Kevin Koger .
Junior Hemingway had 64 yards on five catches to pass Adrian Arrington and take over 20th place with 1 @,@ 453 career yards . Fitzgerald Toussaint made his first career touchdown reception on just the third catch of his career . Denard Robinson moved to ninth place all @-@ time on the Michigan career rushing yards list , with his then total of 2 @,@ 933 yards surpassing Gordon Bell 's total of 2 @,@ 900 yards .
= = = at Illinois = = =
Following its trip to Iowa , Michigan played on the road for the second consecutive week against the Illinois Fighting Illini . In 2010 , the Wolverines and Illini had played in the highest combined scoring game in Michigan Stadium history , with Michigan prevailing 67 – 65 in triple overtime .
Michigan dominated the game , defeating Illinois 31 – 14 . Michigan scored two touchdowns in the first half . Fitzgerald Toussaint ran for 121 yards in the first quarter , including a 65 @-@ yard run on the second play of the game to set up a nine @-@ yard touchdown run by Denard Robinson . In the second quarter , Robinson scored his second rushing touchdown of the game on a two @-@ yard run . Michigan lost another scoring opportunity in the second quarter after tight end Kevin Koger gained 40 yards on a pass from Robinson . Robinson ran for an apparent touchdown from the eight @-@ yard line , but the call was reversed when replay officials ruled that Robinson had stepped out of bounds at the two @-@ yard line . On fourth down from the one @-@ yard line , Robinson was stopped after a low snap slowed his momentum . A fumble by Robinson ended another drive , and Brendan Gibbons missed a 38 @-@ yard field goal with one minute left in the half . Michigan 's defense held Illinois to 30 total yards in the first half . In the third quarter , Gibbons kicked a 27 @-@ yard field goal , but Illinois responded with a touchdown on a one @-@ yard run by Nathan Scheelhaase . Denard Robinson left the game in the third quarter after sustaining a blow to his wrist . In the fourth quarter , J.T. Floyd intercepted a Scheelhaase pass and returned it 43 yards into Illinois territory . Shortly thereafter , backup quarterback Devin Gardner threw a 27 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Martavious Odoms to put Michigan ahead 24 – 7 . Illinois closed the gap to 24 – 14 on an 18 @-@ play drive capped by a one @-@ yard touchdown run by Jason Ford . After the touchdown , the Illini attempted an onside kick , but Michigan recovered , and Toussaint ran 27 yards for Michigan 's fourth and final touchdown .
Michigan 's defense forced three turnovers , sacked the Illinois quarterback four times , and held Illinois ' offense to 37 rushing yards on 33 attempts for an average of 1 @.@ 1 yards per carry . Mike Martin led the defense with nine tackles . After the game , Michigan 's defensive coordinator Greg Mattison became emotional as he told reporters : " That was a Michigan defense . ... Nobody knows what went on inside of these guys and for them to stick together and to play like they played tonight , and like they have tried in every game , it says a lot about them . " Defensive end Ryan Van Bergen , who recorded 2 @.@ 5 sacks , three tackles for loss and seven tackles overall , was named the Big Ten 's Co @-@ Defensive Player of the Week . Toussaint 's 65 @-@ yard touchdown run and his total of 192 rushing yards were career highs .
= = = vs. Nebraska = = =
In the penultimate game of the 2011 regular season , Michigan hosted the Nebraska Cornhuskers , competing in their first season as a member of the Big Ten Conference and appearing in Michigan Stadium for the first time since 1962 . The teams had last met in the 2005 Alamo Bowl , which Nebraska won 32 – 28 . In celebration of Military Appreciation Day , Michigan held a card stunt and had a flyover of four F @-@ 16 fighter jets prior to kickoff , and the Wolverines wore American flag patches on their jerseys . Michigan also honored former head coach Lloyd Carr at the game .
Michigan dominated Nebraska , winning 45 – 17 . Michigan took an early lead when Jeremy Gallon caught a six @-@ yard touchdown pass and then added three more points when Brendan Gibbons kicked a 42 @-@ yard field goal . Late in the first quarter , Nebraska narrowed the gap when Brandon Kinnie caught a 54 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Taylor Martinez . In the second quarter , each team scored once . The Cornhuskers ' Brett Maher kicked a 51 @-@ yard field goal , and Denard Robinson responded with a 14 @-@ yard touchdown run . Michigan led 17 – 10 at halftime . At the start of the third quarter , Nebraska 's Kenny Bell fumbled while returning the opening kickoff , and Michigan recovered the ball . The turnover led to a one @-@ yard touchdown run by Denard Robinson . Fitzgerald Toussaint also scored on a one @-@ yard touchdown run in the third quarter . Later in the third quarter , Nebraska closed the gap to 31 – 17 on a three @-@ yard touchdown run by Ameer Abdullah . Josh Furman also blocked a punt in the third quarter , the first punt block by Michigan since 2009 . In the fourth quarter , Michigan outscored Nebraska 14 – 0 with a 38 @-@ yard touchdown catch by Martavious Odoms and a 31 @-@ yard run by Toussaint .
Michigan 's defense held Nebraska to three successful conversions on 13 third downs . The Wolverines ran 80 plays in the game and maintained possession for 41 minutes and 13 seconds during the 60 minutes of play . Denard Robinson was honored for the sixth time in his career as the Big Ten 's Offensive Player of the Week , having run for two touchdowns , passed for two more , and accounted for 263 yard of total offense ( 180 passing yards and 83 rushing yards ) , more than the entire Nebraska team . Michigan improved to 4 – 2 – 1 in its all @-@ time series against Nebraska .
= = = vs. Ohio State = = =
The Wolverines completed the regular season at home with the 108th Michigan – Ohio State rivalry game against the Ohio State Buckeyes . Ohio State won the 2010 game 37 – 7 , but later vacated the win as part of its self @-@ imposed sanctions after it was discovered that five players had received improper benefits and had played while ineligible . This was the first time the schools met with both having head coaches in their first season since 1929 , when Harry Kipke became the head coach at Michigan and Sam Willaman became the head coach at Ohio State .
Michigan defeated Ohio State for the first time in eight years , winning 40 – 34 . Ohio State took the lead in the first quarter when Corey Brown caught a 54 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Braxton Miller . Michigan tied it up when Denard Robinson ran 41 yards for a touchdown and took the lead when Ohio State 's Mike Adams committed a holding penalty in the end zone for a safety . Michigan extended its lead to 16 – 7 when Junior Hemingway caught a 26 @-@ yard pass for a touchdown . In the second quarter , Ohio State 's Drew Basil completed a 45 @-@ yard field goal , and the Buckeyes took a 17 – 16 lead when Braxton Miller ran 19 yards for a touchdown . Michigan regained the lead on a six @-@ yard touchdown run by Denard Robinson . Ohio State responded with a 43 @-@ yard touchdown pass to DeVier Posey and led 24 – 23 at halftime . In the third quarter , Martavious Odoms scored for Michigan on a 20 @-@ yard touchdown pass . After a muffed punt by Michigan 's Will Hagerup at the end of the third quarter , Drew Basil kicked a 21 @-@ yard field goal early in the fourth quarter . Michigan responded with a four @-@ yard touchdown catch by Kevin Koger , and Daniel Herron ran for an Ohio State touchdown from four yards out . Michigan scored the final points of the game on a career @-@ long 43 @-@ yard field goal by Brendan Gibbons . The Wolverines sealed the victory when Courtney Avery intercepted a Braxton Miller pass with 39 seconds remaining .
Denard Robinson completed 14 of 17 passes for 167 yards and three touchdowns and rushed for 170 yards and two touchdowns . He became the first Michigan player in the modern era to score two rushing and two passing touchdowns in the consecutive games . Fitzgerald Toussaint also rushed for 120 yards to pass the 1 @,@ 000 yard mark , giving the Wolverines a duo of 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard rushers for the first time since 1975 when Gordon Bell and Rob Lytle accomplished the feat . The Wolverines improved to 58 @-@ 44 @-@ 6 in the all @-@ time series against the Buckeyes . With the victory , Michigan also concluded its first undefeated season at home since 2006 , along with its first ever eight win season at home . Brady Hoke became the second Michigan head coach to win 10 games in his first season , with the first being Fielding Yost .
= = = vs. Virginia Tech = = =
On December 4 , Michigan was selected to play in the Sugar Bowl against the Virginia Tech Hokies . It was Michigan 's first BCS bowl game since the 2006 season , when Michigan was defeated by the USC Trojans in the 2007 Rose Bowl . The meeting between the Hokies and the Wolverines was the first between the two schools . Virginia Tech was forced to use its third @-@ string kicker during the game , as first @-@ string kicker Cody Journell was suspended for the game as a result of an arrest for breaking @-@ and @-@ entering , while second @-@ string kicker Tyler Weiss was suspended from the game and sent home for missing curfew .
Virginia Tech dominated the majority of the first half . In the first quarter , Virginia Tech 's third @-@ string kicker Justin Myer kicked a 37 @-@ yard field goal , which was the only scoring play of the quarter . Myer added a 43 @-@ yard field goal in the second quarter . At the end of the half , however , Denard Robinson threw a 45 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Junior Hemingway to give Michigan a 7 – 6 lead and on the ensuing kickoff , Michigan 's J.B. Fitzgerald forced a fumble , which Michigan recovered . Michigan 's Brendan Gibbons kicked a 24 @-@ yard field goal as time expired . In the third quarter , Michigan scored another touchdown on a Denard Robinson to Junior Hemingway pass , this time from 18 yards out . This scoring drive followed an interception by linebacker Frank Clark . Virginia Tech responded with another Justin Myer field goal , this time from 36 yards away . In the fourth quarter , Virginia Tech 's quarterback Logan Thomas trimmed Michigan 's lead to two points , and then promptly tied the game throwing a successful two @-@ point conversion to Marcus Davis . Michigan responded with a 39 @-@ yard Brendan Gibbons field goal , but Virginia Tech tied the game with two seconds remaining via a 25 @-@ yard field goal by Myer . In overtime , Virginia Tech seemingly scored the go @-@ ahead touchdown on a Logan Thomas to Danny Coale pass , but video review overturned the play . The next play saw Myer miss a 37 @-@ yard field goal . Michigan received the ball and saw Gibbons kick the game @-@ winning 37 @-@ yard field goal .
The game was Michigan 's fifth BCS bowl appearance . With the victory , Michigan won the only BCS bowl that it had not yet won , improved its bowl record to 20 – 21 , and improved its record against the ACC to 19 – 3 . Michigan also moved to 2 – 0 in overtime in bowl games , with the previous victory coming in the 2000 Orange Bowl . Hemingway , who caught both Michigan touchdowns , was named the Sugar Bowl MVP . Brady Hoke became the eighth coach to lead a team to a BCS bowl and third to win a BCS bowl in his first season .
= = Depth chart = =
Starters and backups .
= = Captains / Co @-@ Captains = =
Season Captains Kevin Koger ( TE- # 86 ) , David Molk ( C- # 50 ) , and Michael Martin ( DT- # 68 )
Game Co @-@ Captains Zachary Johnson ( S- # 36 ) -Michigan vs. Michigan State University on October 15 , 2011 Jared VanSlyke ( DB- # 31 ) -Michigan vs. Virginia Tech on December 4 , 2012
= = Awards and honors = =
At the conclusion of the season , several Wolverines players and coaches received national and / or conference honors . David Molk received the Rimington Trophy as the best center in college football . He was also a consensus All @-@ American , receiving first @-@ team honors from the Associated Press , Football Writers Association of America , Scout.com , Sporting News , and the Walter Camp Football Foundation . Molk also received the inaugural Rimington – Pace Big Ten Offensive Lineman of the Year award .
Brady Hoke won the Hayes – Schembechler Coach of the Year , as selected by conference coaches , and the Dave McClain Coach of the Year , as picked by the media . Hoke was also a finalist for national coach of the year honors in the Bear Bryant Award , Liberty Mutual Coach of the Year Award , and Eddie Robinson Coach of the Year award . Defensive coordinator Greg Mattison was selected as one of five finalists for the 2011 Broyles Award .
Three Michigan players received second @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten honors : ( 1 ) Mike Martin by both the coaches and the media , ( 2 ) Denard Robinson by the media , and ( 3 ) Taylor Lewan by the coaches . Lewan also received honorable mention All @-@ American recognition by the Pro Football Weekly , and Robinson received the same recognition from Sports Illustrated . Jake Ryan , Desmond Morgan , Matt Wile and Blake Countess all earned 2011 Big Ten All @-@ Freshman team recognition from both ESPN.com and BTN.com , while Ryan , Morgan and Countess earned 2011 College Football News All @-@ Freshman honorable mention honors as well . Countess was also a Sporting News All @-@ Freshman selection , while Ryan was a second team Rivals.com All @-@ Freshman selection . Safety Jordan Kovacs was named a quarterfinalist for the Lott Trophy and a semifinalist for the 2011 Burlsworth Trophy . He also received the Big Ten Sportsmanship Award for the Michigan program .
Several Michigan players were invited to post @-@ season all @-@ star games : Junior Hemingway Kevin Koger to the 2012 East – West Shrine Game , David Molk and Mike Martin to the 2012 Senior Bowl , Michael Shaw to the Casino del Sol All @-@ Star Game , Marell Evans to the NFLPA Collegiate Bowl , and Martavious Odoms to the Battle of Florida All @-@ Star Game .
= = Statistics = =
Michigan finished the season ranked third in the Big Ten in total offense and second in scoring offense . Defensively , the team improved dramatically finishing fourth in total defense in the Big Ten and 17th in the country .
Denard Robinson led the Big Ten in total offense for the second consecutive year and finished fifth in the conference in rushing with an average of 90 @.@ 46 rushing yards per game . Jeremy Gallon finished third in the conference with an average of 10 @.@ 11 yards per punt return . Kenny Demens led the team in tackles with 7 @.@ 23 per game . The per game team rankings below include 120 Football Bowl Subdivision teams and 12 Big Ten Conference teams .
The per game rankings below include players who played in 75 % of teams ' games and were ranked in the top 100 national leaders and top 25 conference leaders :
= = 2012 NFL Draft = =
Three Michigan players ( Mike Martin , Junior Hemingway and David Molk ) were invited to the 2012 NFL Scouting Combine . The 2012 NFL Draft was held in late April . Martin was drafted 82nd overall by the Tennessee Titans ; Molk was drafted 226th by the San Diego Chargers ; and Hemingway 238th by the Kansas City Chiefs . Prior to the draft , the Houston Texans informed Ryan Van Bergen that they were targeting him with their sixth round pick . However the team drafted two defensive linemen in earlier rounds ( Whitney Mercilus and Jared Crick ) and did not pick Van Bergen ; he subsequently signed with the Carolina Panthers , minutes after the draft ended on April 28 . Later that day , Troy Woolfolk and Michael Shaw announced via Twitter through their agents that they had signed with the Dallas Cowboys and Washington Redskins , respectively . Seniors J.B. Fitzgerald ( linebacker ) and Will Heininger ( defensive lineman ) announced that they did not intend to pursue careers playing professional football . Toney Clemons , who had previously transferred from Michigan to Colorado was drafted in the seventh round .
= = Roster = =
= Jasmin Ouschan =
Jasmin Ouschan ( pronounced yaz @-@ MEEN ocean , German pronunciation : [ ˈjasmɪn ˈɔʊʃan ] ; born 10 January 1986 ) is an Austrian professional pool player from Klagenfurt , Carinthia . Her first professional competition occurred in 2002 , but she did not officially become a professional member of the Women 's Professional Billiards Association ( WPBA ) until 2007 . She is currently one of the top @-@ ranked women in the world according to the 2010 prize money list and by the WPBA rankings . At times , she has been ranked as the number one female player in the world . Since 2006 , she has been listed among the top @-@ ten women in the annual prize money rankings . Ouschan competes regularly with men on the EuroTour and in 2008 became the first woman to earn a medal in an open world pool championship .
In international competition she has earned the World Games 2005 gold medal and World Games 2009 silver medal in nine @-@ ball . As of 2013 , she has earned a total of twenty @-@ nine individual European Championship gold medals ( ten in eight @-@ ball , ten in nine @-@ ball , six in straight pool and three in ten @-@ ball ) since 1999 , including eighteen ( four in eight @-@ ball , five in nine @-@ ball , six in straight pool and three in ten @-@ ball ) since joining the open Women 's division in 2005 . She was the Youth European Champion in eight @-@ ball six consecutive years from 1999 – 2004 .
In the 2010 Pool & Billiard European Championship , held in Zagreb , Croatia , she became the first woman to sweep gold medals in all four disciplines contested ( eight @-@ ball , nine @-@ ball , ten @-@ ball and straight pool ) . In 2010 , she also won the Women 's World 10 @-@ Ball Championship .
= = Background = =
Born and raised in Klagenfurt , Ouschan began playing pool at a very early age because her parents owned a pool hall . Although she had a miniature table of her own , she aspired to play on the regulation size table and started playing by standing on a box . She has trained with Michael Neumann since the age of six and continues to train with him to this day . She has a younger brother named Albin . She graduated from high school in 2004 and has since taken coursework to become an accredited pool trainer in Europe .
= = Career = =
She has earned eight open European Championship titles in eight @-@ ball ( 2006 , 2008 , 2009 ) , nine @-@ ball ( 2005 , 2009 ) , and straight pool ( 2005 – 2007 ) in the women 's division . She also won eleven Youth European Championship titles in eight @-@ ball ( 1999 – 2004 ) and nine @-@ ball ( 1999 – 2001 , 2003 , 2004 ) .
= = = Pre @-@ professional = = =
In 1996 , she entered at a tournament in Austria in which players like Allison Fisher , Gerda Hofstaetter and Franziska Stark participated and placed 4th place behind these three well established players . In 1998 , she earned a silver medal in eight @-@ ball and a bronze medal in nine @-@ ball at the Youth European Championship . Starting in 1999 , she won gold medals in both events every year as a Youth until 2004 except in 2002 when she earned a silver in nine @-@ ball .
Her first professional competition was the Florida Classic 2002 . In 2002 , she had professional earnings of US $ 1 @,@ 750 in prize money for taking first place in the 2002 WPBA Amateur Nationals . In 2005 , she had earnings of $ 1 @,@ 700 . That year she became the World Games women 's nine @-@ ball champion . She also moved up to the Women 's division in the annual European Championships in 2005 and has earned at least one gold medal each year since .
In 2006 , she was ranked sixth among women in the prize money year @-@ end rankings with a total of $ 36 @,@ 251 in earnings . That year , she won the May 14 — 20 , 2006 BCA Open Nine @-@ ball Championship women 's division , defeating the UK 's Allison Fisher and earning $ 20 @,@ 000 . She has competed in what have traditionally been regarded as men 's tournaments , especially while participating in the EuroTour . She placed 5th in the men 's World Straight Pool Championship in 2006 , which was won by Thorsten Hohmann . She also finished 3rd in the women 's World Pool 10 @-@ ball Championship in Manila , Philippines .
= = = Professional = = =
In 2007 , she joined the WPBA . That year , she was ranked ninth among women in the prize money year @-@ end rankings with a total of $ 23 @,@ 000 in earnings . Her best payday for the year was a second @-@ place finish at the WPBA San Diego Classic for which she earned $ 8 @,@ 300 . She competed again at the Men 's World Straight Pool Championship in 2007 but lost to Warren Kiamco in the last 16 to finish in 9th place .
In 2008 , she was ranked fourth among women in the prize money year @-@ end rankings with a total of $ 44 @,@ 059 in earnings . During the season , she reached the top of the world rankings . Her largest victory that year was the September 14 WPBA Carolina Classic 7 – 1 win over Jeanette Lee , which earned her $ 13 @,@ 500 . In 2008 , she reached the Men 's World Straight Pool Championship semifinal by beating Mika Immonen and defending champion Oliver Ortmann , but then lost against Francisco Bustamante . However , her third @-@ place finish resulted in the first medal won by any woman in an open world pool championship .
In April 2009 , she won the European Championship eight @-@ ball competition . She was also the world 's top @-@ ranked woman in early 2009 . On June 21 , 2009 she earned $ 12 @,@ 700 for winning the WPBA Great Lakes Classic . On July 25 , she earned a silver medal after losing to Allison Fisher at the 2009 World games . Ouschan also won the October 14 – 18 , 2009 WPBA Pacific Coast Classic and the November 11 – 15 , 2009 WPBA Nationals . She finished third among women in 2009 with earnings of $ 58 @,@ 578 .
In the March 2010 , European Championships she swept all four disciplines , including the newly contested ten @-@ ball . First in straight pool she defeated fellow Austrian Gerda Hofstatter . Then in ten @-@ ball , she defeated German Ina Jentschura . Next , she defeated Norwegian Line Kjorsvik in eight @-@ ball . Finally , she defeated Hofstatter again in the nine @-@ ball championship . She became the first woman to win more than two gold medals in a single competition . In October in Manila , Philippines , she won the Yalin Women ’ s World 10 @-@ ball championship . During the year , she also won the WPBA September 23 – 26 , 2010 Atlanta Classic held in Atlanta , Georgia . Her 2010 total of $ 41 @,@ 391 ranked second among women .
In January 2011 , she won the WPBA Masters by defeating Karen Corr at Mount Pleasant , Michigan for a prize of $ 7 @,@ 500 @.@ 00 . At the 2011 European Championships , she won gold medals in straight pool , ten @-@ ball and nine @-@ ball , but did not medal in eight @-@ ball . On March 26 , she defeated Kjorsvik for the straight pool title 75 – 31 . Then , on April 1 , she defeated Hofstatter , 7 – 2 in nine @-@ ball . On April 2 , she defeated Nataliya Seroshtan 6 – 1 in ten @-@ ball . Her 2011 total of $ 31 @,@ 300 ranked eighth among women .
Her 2012 total of $ 30 @,@ 470 ranked fifth among women . At the European Championships , she won gold at the 10 @-@ ball competition , and she placed in bronze in the other three individual events as well as the team competition .
Her 2013 total of $ 26 @,@ 048 ranked eighth among women . At the European Championships , she won gold at both the straight pool and the 9 @-@ ball competitions , and she placed in bronze in the other two individual events as well as the team competition .
= = Equipment and sponsors = =
She shoots with Predator / MEZZ ( regular with 314 shaft ) and Predator BK2 ( Break ) cue sticks . She is sponsored by Kärnten Sport ( Kaernten Sport ) Kelag , Sportsunion , Predator , and Justis Cue Cases . Her home club is the PBC Eintracht Klagenfurt .
= 2nd Ranger Infantry Company ( United States ) =
The 2nd Ranger Infantry Company ( Airborne ) was a Ranger light infantry company of the United States Army active during the Korean War . As a small special operations unit , it specialized in irregular warfare . A segregated unit , all of its personnel , including its officers , were African @-@ Americans .
Activated and trained as a successor organization to the 2nd Ranger Battalion from World War II , the 2nd Ranger Company was formed and trained extensively in airborne warfare . Deployed to South Korea in December 1950 , the company quickly adopted the motto of " Buffalo Rangers " and worked extensively as a scouting force for the U.S. 7th Infantry Division . In this role , the company undertook several major operations against the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army , including Operation Tomahawk in early 1951 .
Even though racial politics often resulted in the company receiving untrained replacements , it performed well in many small @-@ scale engagements during this time . In the summer of 1951 , the company was employed along the front line as an advance force to push back Chinese attacks as the front lines became more static . The company was highly regarded for its actions capturing and holding Hill 581 during the Battle of the Soyang River , in which the company inflicted hundreds of casualties on the Chinese without a single Ranger being killed .
Disbanded in August 1951 along with all the other Ranger companies , the unit 's soldiers accrued several awards in its 10 @-@ month existence . These included four campaign streamers , nine Silver Star Medals and over 100 Purple Heart Medals . Subsequent research has focused on the economy of force of how the Rangers were employed and how their performance was impacted by the racist policies of their time .
= = Origins = =
On 25 June 1950 the Korean War began when the North Korean People 's Army invaded the Republic of Korea ( ROK ) with 90 @,@ 000 well @-@ trained and equipped troops who easily overran the smaller and more poorly equipped Republic of Korea Army . In response , the United States ( U.S. ) and United Nations ( UN ) began an intervention campaign to prevent South Korea from collapsing . The U.S. troops engaged the North Koreans first at the Battle of Osan where they were badly defeated on 5 July by the better @-@ trained North Koreans . From there , the U.S. and UN suffered a steady stream of defeats that pushed them back to the Pusan Perimeter by August . At the same time , North Korean agents began to infiltrate behind UN lines and attack military targets and cities .
UN units , spread out along the Pusan Perimeter , had a difficult time repelling these units as they were untrained in combating guerrilla warfare . North Korean special forces units like the NK 766th Independent Infantry Regiment had great success in defeating ROK troops , prompting U.S. Army Chief of Staff General J. Lawton Collins to order the creation of an elite force which could " infiltrate through enemy lines and attack command posts , artillery , tank parks , and key communications centers or facilities . " All U.S. Army Ranger units , which had previously undertaken this role , had been disbanded after World War II because they required time @-@ consuming training , specialization , and expensive equipment . With the defeat of the NK 766th Regiment at the Battle of P 'ohang @-@ dong , and the strength of U.S. infantry units in question , U.S. commanders felt the recreation of Ranger units was essential . In early August as the Battle of Pusan Perimeter began , the Eighth United States Army ordered Lieutenant Colonel John H. McGee , the head of its G @-@ 3 Operations miscellaneous division , to create a new experimental Army Ranger unit , the Eighth Army Ranger Company , to trial the concept of reestablishing small light infantry companies that specialized in infiltration and irregular warfare . In the meantime , the Ranger Training Center was established at Fort Benning , Georgia .
= = = Organization = = =
With the successful development of the Eighth Army Ranger Company , the establishment of additional Ranger companies was ordered . The composition of the new 2nd Army Ranger Infantry Company was formulated on the Table of Organization and Equipment documents of the World War II Ranger units . The 2nd Ranger Infantry Company was organized into three heavily armed platoons , which were overseen by a headquarters element of five men . Each platoon comprised 36 men in three squads : two assault squads and one heavy weapons squad . Each platoon was also furnished with 60 mm M2 mortars , M20 Super Bazookas , and M1918 Browning Automatic Rifles . One sniper was designated for each platoon , with the remainder of the troops being equipped with M1 Garand and M2 Carbine rifles . They were authorized two vehicles : an M38 Jeep and an M35 2 ½ ton cargo truck . Overall , the company was far more heavily armed than both the Eighth Army Ranger Company and standard infantry companies . Like the other numbered Ranger companies , its organization called for 5 officers and 107 enlisted men .
The troops for the Ranger company were to be Airborne qualified , so the Ranger Training Center heavily recruited troops from the 82nd Airborne Division and 11th Airborne Division who had already completed United States Army Airborne School . In spite of this , only one Ranger operation in the conflict ever required an airborne landing . They initially wore a black and gold scroll as a shoulder sleeve insignia , but that insignia was later redesignated the Ranger Tab and the Rangers adopted a black , red and white scroll similar to that unofficially worn by Ranger Battalions in World War II .
Soon after arriving in Korea , the unit took to the nickname " Buffalo Rangers , " which U.S. newspapers had applied to the unit as a homage to the Buffalo Soldiers . " Buffalo " subsequently became both the division 's motto as well as its password for patrols upon their return to company lines . The 2nd Ranger Company was the only Ranger company in the history of the U.S. Army to consist entirely of African @-@ Americans .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and training = = =
The U.S. Army , which up until that point typically did not allow African @-@ American soldiers to serve in special forces units , authorized African @-@ Americans to apply to become Rangers . However , in spite of Executive Order 9981 , which had de @-@ segregated the U.S. military in 1948 , the Army opted to pool all black applicants into one company . By 1950 , most units were still de facto segregated , and in the 82nd Airborne Division , Ranger applicants came from the all @-@ black units including the 3rd Battalion , 505th Airborne Infantry , the 758th Tank Battalion and the 80th Anti @-@ Aircraft Artillery Battalion . Many of the applicants were World War II veterans who had seen combat , and many others had served with the 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion .
Of a pool of 5 @,@ 000 applicants , on 2 October the Ranger Training School selected 22 officers and 314 enlisted men for the first three Ranger companies , which were entirely white . A fourth , all African @-@ American company was organized several days later . The 2nd Ranger Infantry Company ( Airborne ) was organized on 9 October 1950 , assuming the lineage of A Company of the 2nd Ranger Battalion . It had an initial strength of 135 enlisted men and 5 officers under the command of First Lieutenant Warren E. Allen , company commander , and Second Lieutenant James C. Queen , executive officer . Originally it had been designated the 4th Ranger Infantry Company ( Airborne ) , but the two companies switched designations , apparently to prevent accusations of racial discrimination . The unit was formally activated on 25 October 1950 at Fort Benning .
The Rangers trained extensively in reconnaissance , long @-@ range patrols , motorized scouting , setting up roadblocks , land navigation , camouflage , concealment , and adjusting indirect fire . They undertook frequent live fire exercises , many at night , simulating raids , ambushes and infiltrations . The Rangers trained 60 hours per week and ran 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) each day and frequently held 20 miles ( 32 km ) speed marches , which were considered traditions for Ranger training from World War II . The training for the numbered companies included much of the program used by Second Lieutenant Ralph Puckett to train the Eighth Army Ranger Company . In spite of a 30 percent dropout rate , most of the men completed the course and graduated on 15 November 1950 . The Rangers left Fort Benning on 3 December and traveled to Camp Stoneman , California , with the 4th Ranger Company . They sailed for Japan on 9 December aboard the transport USS General H.W. Butner bound for the front lines in the Korean War . The company arrived at Yokohama , Japan , on 24 December , and was flown from Tachikawa Air Base to Taegu five days later .
= = = Korea = = =
Arriving in Korea at 11 : 15 on 30 December , the 2nd Ranger Company was attached to the 32nd Regimental Combat Team , 7th Infantry Division , X Corps which was regrouping in Yonchon having been badly mauled in the Battle of Chosin Reservoir , a battle which signaled the unexpected entry of Chinese troops into the war . The next day , the division was ordered to Tanyang and Wonju to block Chinese southward advance along main roads and railroads in the area . On 6 January the Rangers arrived at Changnim @-@ ni with the regimental headquarters , where they were used as a security element for its medical units to protect them from infiltration . The Rangers established counter @-@ guerrilla patrols around the regiment 's main aid station and headquarters . They first saw combat at 02 : 00 on 7 January , driving off 20 North Korean guerrillas who had inadvertently run into one of their roadblocks . They then repulsed a company @-@ sized second attack on the position . In this action , the Rangers lost their first killed in action , Sergeant First Class Isaac Baker , as well as three wounded . The North Koreans had 50 killed . At 09 : 00 9 January , 3rd Platoon conducted a patrol to Changnim where they ambushed an advance North Korean patrol , killing 11 while suffering one wounded in a six @-@ hour firefight from 09 : 00 to 14 : 45 . The company soon created a " curfew , " attacking anyone they encountered after dark , a move which effectively disrupted communications and resupply to the local Chinese guerrilla unit , which instead opted to move out of the Rangers ' area of operation .
On 14 January , the Rangers formed the armored spearhead of the 1st Battalion , 32nd Infantry attack on the village of Majori @-@ ri , as part of an offensive to push Chinese forces back from the Tanyang area . The company entered the village at 07 : 30 and was ambushed by a battalion of Chinese troops entrenched there in fortified positions . The Rangers were able to capture the village and fend off a counterattack with their heavy weapons , suffering five killed and five wounded while killing 100 Chinese soldiers . However , as it moved to reinforce another U.S. infantry company advancing north , the 2nd Ranger Company was hit by a strong Chinese counterattack , and was forced to withdraw after running out of ammunition . It suffered another six killed and three wounded .
Continued patrols and skirmishes in the Tanyang area , as well as non @-@ battle casualties to frostbite and sickness in the middle of the Korean winter , whittled down the 2nd Ranger Company to 67 men by the end of January . X Corps commander Major General Ned Almond ordered all black replacements to be sent to the Ranger company , even though they had not been trained as Rangers . This action , seen as a racist move by historians , was done to keep Almond 's troops segregated . Although Ranger replacements were in short supply and the order effectively ensured that the company was brought back to at full strength , it nevertheless reduced the company 's effectiveness . Reinforcements from many career fields , including many non @-@ combat troops , joined the company and had to be retrained .
The 7th Infantry Division reached full strength and saw action around Chungju and Pyeongchang as part of an effort to push the North Korean and Chinese forces back above the 38th parallel and away from Seoul . In early February , the 7th Infantry Division engaged in a series of successful " limited objective " small unit attacks and ambushes before advancing slowly as it cleared enemy hilltop positions throughout the remainder of the month . In this time , the 2nd Ranger Company acted as a probing force and spearhead for attacks . On 20 February it led the 17th Infantry Regiment in an attack on Chuchon , taking the town from a superior force of Chinese troops . The action was undertaken with several war correspondents observing the battle , bringing international attention to the Ranger unit . The Rangers were commended for a particularly aggressive attack in which they pursued and surprised a Chinese column moving into the village , persisting in their attack with fixed bayonets even when it became apparent that the Chinese force was larger than anticipated . The Chinese were routed in heavy fighting . A few days later , field commanders reported to The Pentagon that the company was performing extremely well , and it was pulled from the lines for a new mission .
= = = Operation Tomahawk = = =
On 28 February 1951 , the 2nd Ranger Company was attached to the 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team ( RCT ) , alongside the 4th Ranger Infantry Company , and began unit training jumps and tactical exercises in preparation for a combat parachute drop . These exercises continued throughout March 1951 , as much of the UN force conducted the aggressive Operation Ripper as a large @-@ scale counteroffensive against the Chinese and North Korean forces . To follow @-@ up this attack , Lieutenant General Matthew Ridgway , commander of the Eighth Army , planned Operation Tomahawk , a mission to insert the 187th RCT and the Rangers behind the Chinese lines to cut off Chinese supplies and force them to retreat north of Seoul . During the three weeks of training , the Rangers were reinforced by another platoon of African @-@ American Rangers directly from Ranger school under Lieutenant Antonio Anthony .
On 23 March , the 187th and attached Rangers were dropped around Munsan @-@ ni , 24 miles ( 39 km ) northwest of Seoul , with the mission to hold an airhead to interfere with the Chinese and North Korean logistical network , and linkup with the 6th Medium Tank Battalion 18 hours after drop . The force of 3 @,@ 500 left Taegu in 150 transports , over the Yellow Sea and over the North Korean coast . The 2nd Ranger Company dropped from its aircraft at 09 : 15 , the first time in history U.S. Army Rangers conducted an aerial insertion into combat . Suffering only two Rangers injured from the jump , the force was nonetheless able to surprise and capture several positions of the NK 19th Division .
The Rangers massed and moved south to a terrain feature known as Hill 151 , the linkup point with the 6th Tank Battalion . The company surprised and overwhelmed a Chinese platoon in a village 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the hill , killing six and capturing twenty . They then took the hill despite North Korean resistance , killing eleven and capturing one , and forcing two platoons of North Koreans to retreat from the hill . The Rangers suffered one killed and two wounded . By 18 : 00 they had linked up with the advancing 64th Medium Tank Battalion of the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division . Over the next five days , the Rangers commenced mopping up North Korean and Chinese resistance , advancing 20 miles ( 32 km ) north .
= = = Retraining and lull = = =
In April , the 2nd Ranger Infantry Company was reattached to the 7th Infantry Division , this time to the 31st Regimental Combat Team . The company spent the month training replacements , with up to 400 enlisted men filtering into the company . By May , the process of transferring these men to other units began as U.S. Army units throughout Korea , driven by necessity , began slowly desegregating . The Rangers eventually settled at a force of 123 men , among them the first white member of the unit , medic Joe Russo .
By May , the Rangers were emplaced at Hill 258 , on the front lines between the 31st RCT and the 7th Marine Regiment of the U.S. 1st Marine Division . They conducted frequent patrols along an outpost network , often encountering and engaging Chinese troops . They fortified the hill and surrounding areas , which served as an advance outpost to warn the 7th Infantry Division if the Chinese attacked . During this period , the fighting entered a lull , and troops resumed their rest and recuperation rotations . Allen , Pryor , and Freeman left on one such rotation with a number of men , leaving Queen and only 80 enlisted men on the hill .
= = = Hill 581 = = =
Shortly after this , however , Chinese infiltrators began appearing regularly in the undermanned 2nd Company 's area , and by 15 May , Queen discovered the Chinese were moving in force to Hill 581 , several miles from their position , from which the Chinese could fortify and attack Hill 258 . Queen led the platoon on a sneak attack of the Chinese force on 17 May , covered by 7th Division artillery fire . At 15 : 00 , they engaged the surprised Chinese , conducting a double envelopment supported by continued artillery fire . By 17 : 00 , the Rangers secured Hill 581 from the Chinese , who suffered 50 killed and 90 wounded in the attack .
Chinese troops counterattacked in force at 23 : 00 , with two battalions of infantry supported by snipers and mortar fire . Aided by 7th Division artillery fire , the Rangers held the hill against Chinese resistance . The Rangers repulsed four successive Chinese assaults by one of the battalions , expending all of their grenades by 02 : 00 on 18 May , and running short on ammunition by 03 : 00 . At that point , the second Chinese battalion commenced its assault , surprising the Rangers and driving them from the peak of Hill 581 . Queen counterattacked and retook the hill by 05 : 00 . At 06 : 45 , the Chinese gave up the attack , having been severely mauled . In the unsuccessful attempt to take Hill 581 , Chinese losses amounted to at least 120 killed and several hundred injured . The Rangers , having relied on tight interlocking crossfire and well dug @-@ in positions , suffered only 10 wounded in the battle . Commanders in the 7th Infantry Division were stunned by the 2nd Ranger Company 's effectiveness in the fight , and as a result of the action , the company came to be considered a model unit .
The 2nd Ranger Company then moved east to help relieve the 7th Marines , which was reeling from Chinese attacks . In three days of intermittent fighting , the company conducted a number of search and destroy missions . This culminated in an attack on Hill 545 , where an estimated company of Chinese troops , who had previously pushed the Marines back , were themselves surprised by the Rangers and forced to withdraw , losing 15 killed to the Rangers ' two wounded .
= = = Final battles and disbandment = = =
In June 1951 , with peace talks underway in Panmunjom , the Ranger company was employed aggressively in offensive roles as a means to secure a better position for the UN at the bargaining table . After a number of operations north of the 38th parallel with the 7th Division , on 8 June the Rangers were moved to attack Hill 772 , an operation crafted by Allen to win a strategically advantageous high ground position along the front line . That morning , the company , with support from 7th Division artillery , advanced on the hill , which was first blanketed with napalm strikes from U.S. Air Force P @-@ 51 Mustangs . Chinese forces resisted sporadically but withdrew at the end of the day having lost eight men killed and another thirty wounded . Against this the Rangers had lost only seven wounded . On 11 July , the Rangers continued the attack , backed by the 31st RCT who seized high ground near Sanying @-@ ni and forced Chinese troops to retreat further . In this attack , one Ranger was killed and eight were wounded .
Following this , another lull in fighting along the 38th parallel occurred , during which both sides took time to fortify their positions and conduct fewer patrols . As the need for offensive action diminished , on 10 July , the U.S. Army ordered the deactivation of all of its Ranger companies . In doing so , the Army noted that the establishment of the Ranger companies had only been a trial directed by The Pentagon , which had been completed . The decision was further clarified in relation to the 2nd Ranger Company , with the Army stating that " racial differences " had prevented the company from being used effectively in offensive operations .
As a result of the decision to disband the Ranger units , the 2nd Ranger Company was deactivated on 1 August 1951 while it was still in Korea . Like many of the other Ranger units , most of the 2nd Ranger Company veterans were folded into the 187th RCT . As an airborne unit , it was believed that by sending the men to the 187th , their airborne skills could be used . Nevertheless , in the end it turned out that Operation Tomahawk was the last airborne jump of the war and as a result , the former Rangers did not get a chance to exercise these skills again .
= = Awards and decorations = =
The 2nd Ranger Infantry Company was awarded four campaign streamers for its service in the Korean War . In 1955 , the unit was again designated A Company of the 2nd Battalion , 75th Ranger Regiment , and that unit carries on the 2nd Ranger Company 's lineage .
Rangers of the company also received numerous individual decorations . Nine Rangers received Silver Star Medals and 11 received Bronze Star Medals . A total of 103 Purple Heart Medals were awarded to 84 members of the company , with 11 Rangers receiving two Purple Hearts and four Rangers receiving three .
= = Analysis = =
The 2nd Ranger Infantry Company was one of sixteen Ranger companies formed in 1950 , and one of seven to see combat in Korea . Subsequent military science studies of the Korean War Rangers have analyzed their economy of force , focusing on how well the U.S. military employed the Rangers as special forces . In a thorough analysis of the operations of all Ranger units in the Korean War , Major Chelsea Y. Chae proposed in a 1996 thesis to the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College that Rangers in Korea were misused and ineffective . Chae contended that the Ranger formations ' lack of support personnel made them a logistical and administrative liability , as they had to be attached to conventional units for support . Furthermore , Chae argued that the small size of the Ranger units meant they lacked the manpower to conduct basic tactical maneuvers , and their employment with divisional elements meant they did not have the necessary intelligence information to conduct effective infiltration operations . He concluded that these problems were due to " lack of understanding of Ranger capabilities , limitations inherent in Rangers ' force structure , and basic distrust of elite forces . "
In his own 2003 thesis , Lieutenant Colonel Victor J. Bond said the 2nd Ranger Company 's performance in Korea had been exemplary , in spite of racial discrimination against it . The troops , who had already been well trained members of airborne units before joining the company , quickly gained cohesion and were exceptional soldiers . Bond also contended that the Rangers did not properly receive credit for their actions in Korea , noting the company did not receive the Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation or the U.S. Presidential Unit Citation even though units to which they were attached were decorated . Bond also said many of the accomplishments of the company were attributed to white units , due in part to the command climate precipitated by Almond .
= = Finnigan 's War = =
The 2nd Ranger Infantry Company was honored in the 2013 Korean War documentary " Finnigan 's War " directed by Conor Timmis . Members of the 2nd Ranger Infantry Company interviewed in the film include Herculano Dias , Donald Allen and Paul T. Lyles . Ranger Herculano Dias recalls the unit 's unique combat accomplishments . Ranger Paul T. Lyles recalls his harrowing encounter with a North Korean tree sniper . Ranger Donald Allen recalls caring for a wounded white soldier and ends his interview with the line " when the bullets start to fly , everyone is the same color " .
= Verbascum thapsus =
Verbascum thapsus ( great mullein or common mullein ) is a species of mullein native to Europe , northern Africa , and Asia , and introduced in the Americas and Australia .
It is a hairy biennial plant that can grow to 2 meters tall or more . Its small yellow flowers are densely grouped on a tall stem , which grows from a large rosette of leaves . It grows in a wide variety of habitats , but prefers well @-@ lit disturbed soils , where it can appear soon after the ground receives light , from long @-@ lived seeds that persist in the soil seed bank . It is a common weedy plant that spreads by prolifically producing seeds , but it rarely becomes aggressively invasive , since its seeds require open ground to germinate . It is a very minor problem for most agricultural crops , since it is not a very competitive species , being intolerant of shade from other plants and unable to survive tilling . It also hosts many insects , some of which can be harmful to other plants . Although individuals are easy to remove by hand , populations are difficult to eliminate permanently .
It is widely used for herbal remedies , with well @-@ established emollient and astringent properties . Mullein remedies are especially recommended for coughs and related problems , but also used in topical applications against a variety of skin problems . The plant has also been used to make dyes and torches .
= = Description = =
Verbascum thapsus is a dicotyledonous plant that produces a rosette of leaves in its first year of growth . The leaves are large , up to 50 cm long . The second year plants normally produce a single unbranched stem , usually 1 – 2 m tall . In the eastern part of its range in China , it is , however , only reported to grow up to 1 @.@ 5 m tall . The tall pole @-@ like stems end in a dense spike of flowers that can occupy up to half the stem length . All parts of the plants are covered with star @-@ shaped trichomes . This cover is particularly thick on the leaves , giving them a silvery appearance . The species ' chromosome number is 2n = 36 .
On flowering plants the leaves are alternately arranged up the stem . They are thick and decurrent , with much variation in leaf shape between the upper and lower leaves on the stem , ranging from oblong to oblanceolate , and reaching sizes up to 50 cm long and 14 cm across ( 19 inches long and 5 inches wide ) . They become smaller higher up the stem , and less strongly decurrent down the stem . The flowering stem is solid and 2 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( nearly an inch ) across , and occasionally branched just below the inflorescence , usually following damage . After flowering and seed release the stem and fruits usually persist in winter , drying into dark brown , stiff structures of densely packed , ovoid @-@ shaped and dry seed capsules . The dried stems may persist into the following spring or even the next summer . The plant produces a shallow taproot .
Flowers are pentamerous with ( usually ) five stamen , a 5 @-@ lobed calyx tube and a 5 @-@ petalled corolla , the latter bright yellow and an 1 @.@ 5 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) wide . The flowers are almost sessile , with very short pedicels ( 2 mm , 0 @.@ 08 in ) . The five stamens are of two types , with the three upper stamens being shorter , their filaments covered by yellow or whitish hairs , and having smaller anthers , while the lower two stamens have glabrous filaments and larger anthers . The plant produces small ovoid ( 6 mm , 0 @.@ 24 in ) capsules that split open by way of two valves , each capsule containing large numbers of minute brown seeds less than a millimetre ( 0 @.@ 04 in ) in size , marked with longitudinal ridges . A white @-@ flowered form , V. thapsus f. candicans , is known to occur . Flowering lasts for up to three months from early to late summer ( June to August in northern Europe ) , with flowering starting at the bottom of the spike and progressing irregularly upward ; each flower opens for part of a day and only a few open at the same time around the stem .
= = Taxonomy = =
For the purpose of botanical nomenclature , Verbascum thapsus was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum . The specific epithet thapsus had been first used by Theophrastus ( as Θάψος , Thapsos ) for an unspecified herb from the Ancient Greek settlement of Thapsos , near modern Syracuse , Sicily , though it is often assimilated to the ancient Tunisian city of Thapsus .
At the time , no type specimen was specified , as the practice only arose later , in the 19th century . When a lectotype ( type selected amongst original material ) was designated , it was assigned to specimen 242 @.@ 1 of Linnaeus ' herbarium , the only V. thapsus specimen . The species had previously been designated as type species for Verbascum . European plants exhibit considerable phenotypical variation , which has led to the plant acquiring many synonyms over the years . Introduced American populations show much less variation .
The taxonomy of Verbascum has not undergone any significant revision since Svanve Mürbeck 's monographies in the 1930s , with the exception of the work of Arthur Huber @-@ Morath , who used informal group in organizing the genus for the floras of Iran and Turkey to account for many intermediate species . Since Huber @-@ Morath 's groups are not taxonomical , Mürbeck 's treatment is the most current one available , as no study has yet sought to apply genetic or molecular data extensively to the genus . In Mürbeck 's classification , V. thapsus is placed in section Bothrospermae subsect . Fasciculata ( or sect . Verbascum subsect . Verbascum depending on nomenclatural choices ) alongside species such as Verbascum nigrum ( black or dark mullein ) , Verbascum lychnitis ( white mullein ) and Verbascum sinuatum ( wavy @-@ leaved mullein ) .
= = = Subspecies and hybrids = = =
There are three usually recognized subspecies :
V. thapsus subsp. thapsus ; type , widespread .
V. thapsus subsp. crassifolium ( Lam . ) Murb . ; Mediterranean region and to 2000 metres in southwestern Austria . ( syn. subsp. montanum ( Scrad . ) Bonnier & Layens )
V. thapsus subsp. giganteum ( Willk . ) Nyman ; Spain , endemic .
In all subspecies but the type , the lower stamens are also hairy . In subsp. crassifolium , the hairiness is less dense and often absent from the upper part of the anthers , while lower leaves are hardly decurrent and have longer petioles . In subsp. giganteum , the hairs are densely white tomentose , and lower leaves strongly decurrent . Subsp. crassifolium also differs from the type in having slightly larger flowers , which measure 15 – 30 mm wide , whereas in the type they are 12 – 20 mm in diameter . Both subsp. giganteum and subsp. crassifolium were originally described as species . Due to its morphological variation , V. thapsus has had a great many subspecies described . A recent revision led its author to maintain V. giganteum but sink V. crassifolium into synonymy .
The plant is also parent to several hybrids ( see table ) . Of these , the most common is V. × semialbum Chaub . ( × V. nigrum ) . All occur in Eurasia , and three , V. × kerneri Fritsch , V. × pterocaulon Franch. and V. × thapsi L. ( syn . V. × spurium W.D.J.Koch ) , have also been reported in North America .
= = = Common names = = =
V. thapsus is known by a variety of names . European reference books call it " great mullein " . In North America , " common mullein " is used while western United States residents commonly refer to mullein as " cowboy toilet paper " .
In the 19th century it had well over 40 different common names in English alone . Some of the more whimsical ones included " hig candlewick " , " indian rag weed " , " bullicks lungwort " , " Adams @-@ rod " , " hare 's @-@ beard " and " ice @-@ leaf " . Vernacular names include innumerable references to the plant 's hairiness : " woolly mullein " , " velvet mullein " or " blanket mullein " , " beggar 's blanket " , " Moses ' blanket " , " poor man 's blanket " , " Our Lady 's blanket " or " old man 's blanket " , and " feltwort " , and so on ( " flannel " is another common generic name ) .
Some names refer to the plant 's size and shape : " shepherd 's club ( s ) " or " staff " , " Aaron 's Rod " ( a name it shares with a number of other plants with tall , yellow inflorescences ) , and a plethora of other " X 's staff " and " X 's rod " . The name " velvet dock " or " mullein dock " is also recorded , where " dock " is a British name applied to any broad @-@ leaved plant .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Verbascum thapsus has a wide native range including Europe , northern Africa and Asia , from the Azores and Canary Islands east to western China , north to the British Isles , Scandinavia and Siberia , and south to the Himalayas . In northern Europe , it grows from sea level up to 1 @,@ 850 m altitude , while in China it grows at 1 @,@ 400 – 3 @,@ 200 m altitude .
It has been introduced throughout the temperate world , and is established as a weed in Australia , New Zealand , tropical Asia , La Réunion , North America , Hawaii , Chile , Hispaniola and Argentina . It has also been reported in Japan .
In the United States it was imported very early in the 18th century and cultivated for its medicinal and piscicide properties . By 1818 , it had begun spreading so much that Amos Eaton thought it was a native plant . In 1839 it was already reported in Michigan and in 1876 , in California . It is now found commonly in all the states . In Canada , it is most common in the Maritime Provinces as well as southern Quebec , Ontario and British Columbia , with scattered populations in between .
Great mullein most frequently grows as a colonist of bare and disturbed soil , usually on sandy or chalky ones . It grows best in dry , sandy or gravelly soils , although it can grow in a variety of habitats , including banksides , meadows , roadsides , forest clearings and pastures . This ability to grow in a wide range of habitats has been linked to strong phenotype variation rather than adaptation capacities .
= = Ecology = =
Great mullein is a biennial and generally requires winter dormancy before it can flower . This dormancy is linked to starch degradation activated by low temperatures in the root , and gibberellin application bypasses this requirement . Seeds germinate almost solely in bare soil , at temperatures between 10 ° C and 40 ° C. While they can germinate in total darkness if proper conditions are present ( tests give a 35 % germination rate under ideal conditions ) , in the wild , they in practice only do so when exposed to light , or very close to the soil surface , which explains the plant 's habitat preferences . While it can also grow in areas where some vegetation already exists , growth of the rosettes on bare soil is four to seven times more rapid .
Seeds germinate in spring and summer . Those that germinate in autumn produce plants that overwinter if they are large enough , while rosettes less than 15 cm ( 6 in ) across die in winter . After flowering the entire plant usually dies at the end of its second year , but some individuals , especially in the northern parts of the range , require a longer growth period and flower in their third year . Under better growing conditions , some individuals flower in the first year . Triennial individuals have been found to produce fewer seeds than biennial and annual ones . While year of flowering and size are linked to the environment , most other characteristics appear to be genetic .
A given flower is open only for a single day , opening before dawn and closing in the afternoon . Flowers are self @-@ fecundating and protogynous ( with female parts maturing first ) , and will self @-@ pollinate if they have not been pollinated by insects during the day . While many insects visit the flowers , only some bees actually accomplish pollination . V. thapsus ' flowering period lasts from June to August in most of its range , extending to September or October in warmer climates . Visitors include halictid bees and hoverflies . The hair on lower stamens may serve to provide footholds for visitors .
The seeds maintain their germinative powers for decades , up to a hundred years , according to some studies . Because of this , and because the plant is an extremely prolific seed bearer ( each plant produces hundreds of capsules , each containing up to 700 + seeds , with a total up to 180 @,@ 000 or 240 @,@ 000 seeds ) , it remains in the soil seed bank for extended periods of time , and can sprout from apparently bare ground , or shortly after forest fires long after previous plants have died . Its population pattern typically consists of an ephemeral adult population followed by a long period of dormancy as seeds . Great mullein rarely establishes on new grounds without human intervention because its seeds do not disperse very far . Seed dispersion requires the stem to be moved by wind or animal movement ; 75 % of the seeds fall within 1 m of the parent plant , and 93 % fall within 5 m .
Megachilid bees of the genus Anthidium use the hair ( amongst that of various woolly plants ) in making their nests . The seeds are generally too small for birds to feed on , although the American goldfinch has been reported to consume them . Other bird species have been reported to consume the leaves ( Hawaiian goose ) or flowers ( palila ) , or to use the plant as a source when foraging for insects ( white @-@ headed woodpecker ) .
= = Fossil record = =
Seed of Verbascum thapsus has been recorded from part of the Cromer Forest Bead series and at West Wittering in Sussex from some parts of the Ipswichian interglacial layers .
= = Agricultural impacts and control = =
Because it cannot compete with established plants , great mullein is no longer considered a serious agricultural weed and is easily crowded out in cultivation , except in areas where vegetation is sparse to begin with , such as Californian semi @-@ desertic areas of the Eastern Sierra Nevada . In such ecological contexts , it crowds out native herbs and grasses ; its tendency to appear after forest fires also disturbs the normal ecological succession . Although not an agricultural threat , its presence can be very difficult to completely eradicate , and is especially problematic in overgrazed pastures . The species is legally listed as a noxious weed in the American state of Colorado ( Class C ) and Hawaii , and the Australian state of Victoria ( regionally prohibited in the West Gippsland region , and regionally controlled in several others ) .
Despite not being an agricultural weed in itself , it hosts a number of insects and diseases , including both pests and beneficial insects . It is also a potential reservoir of the cucumber mosaic virus , Erysiphum cichoraceum ( the cucurbit powdery mildew ) and Texas root rot . A study found V. thapsus hosts insects from 29 different families . Most of the pests found were western flower thrips ( Frankliniella occidentalis ) , Lygus species such as the tarnished plant bug ( L. lineolaris ) , and various spider mites from the family Tetranychidae . These make the plant a potential reservoir for overwintering pests .
Other insects commonly found on great mullein feed exclusively on Verbascum species in general or V. thapsus in particular . They include mullein thrips ( Haplothrips verbasci ) , Gymnaetron tetrum ( whose larva consume the seeds ) and the mullein moth ( Cucullia verbasci ) . Useful insects are also hosted by great mullein , including predatory mites of the genera Galendromus , Typhlodromus and Amblyseius , the minute pirate bug Orius tristicolor and the mullein plant bug ( Campylomma verbasci ) . The plant 's ability to host both pests and beneficials makes it potentially useful to maintain stable populations of insects used for biological control in other cultures , like Campylomma verbasci and Dicyphus hesperus ( Miridae ) , a predator of whiteflies . A number of pest Lepidoptera species , including the Stalk Borer ( Papaipema nebris ) and Gray Hairstreak ( Strymon melinus ) , also use V. thapsus as a host plant .
Control of the plant , when desired , is best managed via mechanical means , such as hand pulling and hoeing , preferably followed by sowing of native plants . Animals rarely graze it because of its irritating hairs , and liquid herbicides require surfactants to be effective , as the hair causes water to roll off the plant , much like the lotus effect . Burning is ineffective , as it only creates new bare areas for seedlings to occupy . G. tetrum and Cucullia verbasci usually have little effect on V. thapsus populations as a whole . Goats and chickens have also been proposed to control mullein . Effective ( when used with a surfactant ) contact herbicides include glyphosate , triclopyr and sulfurometuron @-@ methyl . Ground herbicides , like tebuthiuron , are also effective , but recreate bare ground and require repeated application to prevent regrowth .
= = Uses = =
Great mullein has been used since ancient times as a remedy for skin , throat and breathing ailments . It has long had a medicinal reputation , especially as an astringent and emollient , as it contains mucilage , several saponins , coumarin and glycosides . Dioscorides recommended it for diseases of the lung and it is now widely available in health and herbal stores . Non @-@ medical uses have included dyeing and making torches .
= = = Medical uses = = =
Dioscorides first recommended the plant 2000 years ago , against pulmonary diseases , and this has remained one of its primary uses , especially against cough . Leaf decoctions or herbal teas were used for expectoration , consumption , dry cough , bronchitis , sore throat and hemorrhoids . Leaves were also smoked against pulmonary ailments , a tradition that in America was rapidly transmitted to Native American peoples . The Zuni people , however , use the plant in poultices of powdered root applied to sores , rashes and skin infections . An infusion of the root is also used to treat athlete 's foot . The combination of expectorant saponins and emollient mucilage makes the plant particularly effective for cough . All preparations meant to be drunk have to be finely filtered to eliminate the irritating hairs .
Oil from the flowers was used against catarrhs , colics and , in Germany , earaches , frostbite , eczema and other external conditions . Topical application of various V. thapsus @-@ based preparations was recommended for the treatment of warts , boils , carbuncles , hemorrhoids , and chilblains , amongst others . Recent studies have found that great mullein contains glycyrrhizin compounds with bactericide and potential anti @-@ tumoral action . These compounds are concentrated in the flowers . The German Commission E sanctioned medicinal use of the plant for catarrhs . It was also part of the National Formulary in the United States and United Kingdom . The plant 's leaves , in addition to the seeds , have been reported to contain rotenone , although quantities are unknown .
= = = Other uses = = =
Like many ancient medicinal plants ( Pliny the Elder describes it in his Naturalis Historia ) , great mullein was linked to witches , although the relationship remained generally ambiguous , and the plant was also widely held to ward off curses and evil spirits . The seeds contain several compounds ( saponins , glycosides , coumarin , rotenone ) that are toxic to fish , and have been widely used as piscicide for fishing .
The flowers provide dyes of bright yellow or green , and have been used for hair dye . The dried leaves and hair were made into candle wicks , or put into shoes to help with insulating them . The dried stems were also dipped into suet or wax to make torches . Due to its weedy capacities , the plant , unlike other species of the genus ( such as V. phoeniceum ) , is not often cultivated .
The stalk can also be dried as a spindle for making fire either by hand drill or bow drill .
= Daft Punk =
Daft Punk are a French electronic music duo consisting of producers Guy @-@ Manuel de Homem @-@ Christo and Thomas Bangalter . The two achieved significant popularity in the late 1990s as part of the French house movement and were met with continuous success in the years following , combining elements of house music with funk , techno , disco , rock , and synthpop . They are also known for their visual stylization and disguises associated with their music ; specifically , the duo have worn ornate helmets and gloves to assume robot personas in most of their public appearances since 2001 . They rarely grant interviews or appear on television .
Bangalter and de Homem @-@ Christo were originally in a rock band called Darlin ' together , which disbanded after a short period of time , leaving the two to experiment musically with drum machines and synthesizers . The duo became Daft Punk , releasing their debut album Homework on Virgin Records in 1997 to highly positive reviews . They were managed from 1996 to 2008 by Pedro Winter ( Busy P ) , the head of Ed Banger Records . The 2001 release of Discovery was even more successful , driven by the club singles " One More Time " , " Digital Love " , and " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " . In March 2005 , the duo released the album Human After All to mixed reviews . However , the singles " Robot Rock " and " Technologic " achieved success in the United Kingdom .
Daft Punk toured throughout 2006 and 2007 and released the live album Alive 2007 , which won a Grammy Award for Best Electronic / Dance Album . The duo composed the score of the film Tron : Legacy in 2010 and released its soundtrack album . In January 2013 , Daft Punk left Virgin Records for Sony Music Entertainment 's subsidiary label Columbia , and released Random Access Memories in 2013 to worldwide critical acclaim . The album 's lead single " Get Lucky " became an international success , peaking in the top 10 in 32 countries . Random Access Memories led to five Grammy wins in 2014 , including Album of the Year as well as Record of the Year for " Get Lucky " .
= = History = =
= = = 1987 – 93 : Early career = = =
Thomas Bangalter and Guy @-@ Manuel de Homem @-@ Christo met in 1987 while attending the Lycée Carnot , a secondary school in Paris . The two became good friends and later recorded demo tracks with others from the school . This eventually led to the formation of the guitar @-@ based group called Darlin ' with Laurent Brancowitz in 1992 . Bangalter and de Homem @-@ Christo played bass and guitar , respectively , while Brancowitz performed on drums . The trio had branded themselves after The Beach Boys song of the same name , which they covered along with an original composition . Stereolab released both tracks on a multi @-@ artist Duophonic Records EP and invited the band to open for stage shows in the United Kingdom . Bangalter felt that " The rock n ' roll thing we did was pretty average , I think . It was so brief , maybe six months , four songs and two gigs and that was it . " A negative review in Melody Maker by Dave Jennings subsequently dubbed the music " a daft punky thrash . " Instead of dismissing the review , they found it amusing . As de Homem @-@ Christo stated , " We struggled so long to find [ the name ] Darlin ' , and this happened so quickly . " Darlin ' soon disbanded , leaving Brancowitz to pursue other efforts with Phoenix . Bangalter and de Homem @-@ Christo formed Daft Punk and experimented with drum machines and synthesizers .
= = = 1993 – 99 : Homework = = =
In September 1993 , Daft Punk attended a rave at EuroDisney , where they met Stuart Macmillan of Slam , co @-@ founder of the label Soma Quality Recordings . The demo tape given to Macmillan at the rave formed the basis for Daft Punk 's debut single , " The New Wave " , a limited release in 1994 . The single also contained the final mix of " The New Wave " called " Alive " , which was to be featured on Daft Punk 's first album .
Daft Punk returned to the studio in May 1995 to record " Da Funk " . It became the duo 's first commercially successful single the same year . After the success of " Da Funk " , Daft Punk looked to find a manager . The duo eventually settled on Pedro Winter , who regularly promoted it and other artists at his Hype night clubs . The band signed with Virgin Records in September 1996 and made a deal through which the duo licensed its tracks to the major label through its production company , Daft Trax . Bangalter spoke of the duo 's decision to sign with Virgin :
Many record companies offered us deals . They came from everywhere , but we decided to wait — partly because we didn 't want to lose control of what we had created . We turned down many record companies . We weren 't interested in the money , so we turned down labels that were looking for more control than we were willing to give up . In reality , we 're more like partners with Virgin .
With regard to the artistic control and freedom , Bangalter stated :
We 've got much more control than money . You can 't get everything . We live in a society where money is what people want , so they can 't get the control . We chose . Control is freedom . People say we 're control freaks , but control is controlling your destiny without controlling other people . We 're not trying to manipulate other people , just controlling what we do ourselves . Controlling what we do is being free . People should stop thinking that an artist that controls what he does is a bad thing . A lot of artists today are just victims , not having control , and they 're not free . And that 's pathetic . If you start being dependent on money , then money has to reach a point to fit your expenses .
" Da Funk " and " Alive " were later included on Daft Punk 's 1997 debut album Homework . In February of that year , the UK dance magazine Muzik published a Daft Punk cover feature and described Homework as " one of the most hyped debut albums in a long long time . " According to The Village Voice , the album revived house music and departed from the Eurodance formula . As noted by critic Alex Rayner , Homework brought together established club styles and the " burgeoning eclecticism " of big beat . The most successful single from Homework was " Around the World " , which is known for the repeating chant of the song 's title . " Da Funk " was also included on The Saint film soundtrack . Daft Punk produced a series of music videos for Homework directed by Spike Jonze , Michel Gondry , Roman Coppola and Seb Janiak . The collection of videos was released in 1999 and titled D.A.F.T. : A Story About Dogs , Androids , Firemen and Tomatoes .
= = = 1999 – 2004 : Discovery = = =
By 1999 , the duo was well into the recording sessions for its second album , which had begun a year earlier . The 2001 release of Discovery took on a slicker and distinctly synthpop @-@ oriented style , initially stunning fans of Daft Punk 's previous material in Homework . The group states that the album was conceived as an attempt to reconnect with a playful , open @-@ minded attitude associated with the discovery phase of childhood . This accounts for the heavy use of themes and samples from the late ' 70s to early ' 80s era on the album . The album reached No. 2 in the United Kingdom , and its single , " One More Time " , was a major club and mainstream hit that nearly topped the UK Singles Chart . The song is well known for being heavily autotuned and compressed . The song and album created a new generation of fans mainly familiar with the second Daft Punk release . The singles " Digital Love " and " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " were also very successful in the UK and on the United States dance chart . " Digital Love " was subsequently covered by the bands Kodaline and Hellogoodbye . The song " Face to Face " hit No. 1 on the USA club play charts despite a limited single release . A 45 @-@ minute excerpt from a Daftendirektour performance recorded at Birmingham , UK in 1997 was also released in 2001 , titled Alive 1997 . The year 2003 saw the release of the feature @-@ length animated film , Interstella 5555 : The 5tory of the 5ecret 5tar 5ystem . Daft Punk produced the film under the supervision of Leiji Matsumoto , who is their childhood hero . The album Daft Club was also released to promote the film . It features a collection of remixes previously made available through an online membership service of the same name .
= = = 2004 – 08 : Human After All = = =
Starting on 13 September and ending on 9 November 2004 , Daft Punk devoted six weeks to the creation of new material . The duo later released the resulting album Human After All in March 2005 . Reviews were mixed , mostly citing its overly repetitive nature and seemingly rushed recording . The singles taken from this album were " Robot Rock " , " Technologic " , " Human After All " , and " The Prime Time of Your Life " . The earliest official statement from Daft Punk concerning the album was " we believe that Human After All speaks for itself . "
A Daft Punk anthology CD / DVD titled Musique Vol . 1 1993 – 2005 was released on 4 April 2006 . It contains music videos for " Robot Rock ( Maximum Overdrive ) " and " The Prime Time of Your Life " directed by Daft Punk and Tony Gardner , respectively . Daft Punk also released a remix album of Human After All called Human After All : Remixes . A limited edition included two kubricks of Daft Punk as robots .
On 21 May 2006 , Daft Punk premiered its first directed film , Daft Punk 's Electroma , at the Cannes Film Festival sidebar Director 's Fortnight . The film does not include Daft Punk 's own music , which is a first for the duo considering its previous DVD and film releases ( D.A.F.T. for Homework and Interstella 5555 for Discovery ) . Midnight screenings of the film were shown in Paris theaters starting from the end of March 2007 . Initial public comments have since been positive .
Daft Punk released its second live album titled Alive 2007 on 19 November 2007 . It contains the duo 's performance in Paris from its Alive 2007 tour . The live version of " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " from Alive 2007 was released as a single . Olivier Gondry directed a music video for the single that features footage shot by 250 audience members at Daft Punk 's Brooklyn appearance at KeySpan Park , Coney Island .
= = = 2008 – 11 : Tron : Legacy = = =
Following the Alive 2007 tour , the duo focused on other projects . A 2008 interview with Pedro Winter revealed that Daft Punk returned to its Paris studio to work on new material . Winter also stepped down from managing the duo to focus attention on his Ed Banger Records label and his work as Busy P. He stated in a later interview that Daft Punk is working with an unspecified management company in Los Angeles . The duo held its Daft Arts production office at the Jim Henson Studios complex in Hollywood . In 2008 , Daft Punk placed 38th in a worldwide official poll of DJ Magazine after debuting at position 71 in the year before . On 8 February 2009 , Daft Punk won Grammy Awards for Alive 2007 and its single " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " .
Daft Punk provided eleven new mixes featuring its music for the video game DJ Hero . The duo also appears in the game as a pair of playable characters , along with a unique venue . The duo appears wearing its Discovery @-@ era helmets and Human After All @-@ era leather attire . Daft Punk 's playable likenesses are absent from the sequel DJ Hero 2 , which includes a remixed version of the song " Human After All " .
At the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , it was announced that the duo composed 24 tracks for the film Tron : Legacy . Daft Punk 's score was arranged and orchestrated by Joseph Trapanese . The band collaborated with him for two years on the score , from pre @-@ production to completion . The score features an 85 @-@ piece orchestra , recorded at AIR Lyndhurst Studios in London . Joseph Kosinski , director of the film , referred to the score as being a mixture of orchestral and electronic elements . The members of Daft Punk also make a cameo appearance as disc jockey programs wearing their trademark robot helmets within the film 's virtual world . Tron : Legacy co @-@ star Olivia Wilde stated that the duo may be involved with future promotional events related to the film . A teaser trailer features Daft Punk and their track " Derezzed " from Tron : Legacy . The soundtrack album of the film was released on 6 December 2010 . A deluxe 2 @-@ disc edition of the album was also released that includes a poster of the duo from the film . Additional bonus tracks are also available through various online vendors . An official music video for " Derezzed " , with a running time of less than two minutes , also premiered on the MTV Networks on the same day the album was released . The video , which features Olivia Wilde as Quorra in specially shot footage , along with images of Daft Punk in Flynn 's Arcade , was later made available for purchase from the iTunes Store and included in the DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases of the film . Walt Disney Records released a remix album of the score titled Tron : Legacy Reconfigured on 5 April 2011 .
In 2010 Daft Punk were admitted into the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres , an order of merit of France . Bangalter and de Homem @-@ Christo were individually awarded the rank of Chevalier ( knight ) .
= = = 2011 – present : Random Access Memories = = =
Soma Records released a previously unpublished Daft Punk track called " Drive " that was made while the duo was still with Soma Records and recording " Rollin ' and Scratchin ' " and " Da Funk " . The track was included in a twentieth anniversary multi @-@ artist compilation of the Soma label . In October 2011 , Daft Punk placed 28th in a " top @-@ 100 DJs of 2011 " list by DJ Magazine after appearing at position 44 in the year before . On 19 January 2012 , Daft Punk ranked No. 2 on Mixmag 's Greatest Dance Acts of All Time , with The Prodigy at No. 1 by just a few points .
Daft Punk worked on their fourth studio album , Random Access Memories in collaboration with musician Paul Williams and Chic frontman Nile Rodgers . In May 2012 it was also announced that Italian musician Giorgio Moroder had collaborated with the duo , recording a monologue about his life in a vocal booth containing microphones ranging from 1960 to present day . Chilly Gonzales stated in an interview that he had performed material for the duo 's project in a one @-@ day session : " I played for hours and they ’ re gonna grab what they grab and turn it into whatever . " He also said that the album would be released " next spring " . Fourplay member Nathan East later mentioned that he had contributed to the project .
In October 2012 , Daft Punk provided a fifteen @-@ minute mix of songs by blues musician Junior Kimbrough for Hedi Slimane 's Yves Saint Laurent fashion show . The duo also placed 44th in DJ Magazine 's annual Top 100 DJs list .
In January 2013 , de Homem @-@ Christo revealed that Daft Punk was in the process of signing with Sony Music Entertainment through the Columbia Records label , and that the album would have a spring release . A gradual promotional rollout was later launched featuring billboards and television spots , leading to the reveal of the album title and the release date of 21 May 2013 . On 3 April , the official Random Access Memories website launched The Collaborators , a series of documentary videos about the album . Later that month , a video preview for the song " Get Lucky " featuring Rodgers and Pharrell Williams was played at the 2013 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival . The radio edit of the song was released as a digital download single one week later on 19 April 2013 . " Get Lucky " became Daft Punk 's first UK No. 1 single on 28 April 2013 remaining at number one for 4 weeks ( as of 24 May ) and the Spotify music streaming website reported that the song is the most @-@ streamed new song in the service 's history . At the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards , Daft Punk debuted a trailer for their single " Lose Yourself to Dance , " and presented the award for " Best Female Video " alongside Rodgers and Pharrell .
For the 56th Annual Grammy Awards , Random Access Memories was awarded the Grammy for Best Dance / Electronica Album , Album of the Year and Best Engineered Album , Non @-@ Classical , while " Get Lucky " received the Grammy for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance and the Record of the Year . Daft Punk also performed a medley at the ceremony with Rodgers , Pharrell , and Stevie Wonder of " Get Lucky " , " Le Freak " , " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " , " Another Star " , " Lose Yourself to Dance " , and " Around the World " . Pharrell later released his second studio album G I R L , in which Daft Punk performed additional vocals for the song " Gust of Wind " .
On 10 March 2014 , an unreleased Daft Punk song called " Computerized " surfaced on the Internet . The song features Jay Z and appears to contain elements of " The Son of Flynn " from the Tron : Legacy soundtrack .
In April 2015 , Daft Punk appeared in a short tribute to Nile Rodgers as part of a documentary on Rodgers ' life titled " Nile Rodgers : From Disco to Daft Punk " . In the short clip , the two send a " transmission " to Rodgers with the message , " Dear Nile , We are sending you this transmission to thank you for all your amazing songs . Your music continues to inspire the world ... With love , Daft Punk " .
Later in 2015 , a documentary on Daft Punk titled Daft Punk Unchained was released . The film covers Daft Punk 's music career from the 1990s up to and including their 2014 Grammy appearance . The documentary features interviews with Nile Rodgers , Kanye West , Pharrell Williams , and others who have interacted with the duo in their projects .
= = Influences = =
Bangalter and de Homem @-@ Christo have credited many sources that influenced their musical style . Years before producing electronic music as a duo , they shared tastes for Elton John , MC5 , The Rolling Stones , The Beach Boys and The Stooges . Bangalter recalled that the records motivated him to learn English as a second language , since he wanted to understand the lyrics . The duo 's mutual admiration for rock bands led to the founding of their own indie group called Darlin ' . Bangalter explained : " It was still maybe more a teenage thing at that time . It 's like , you know , everybody wants to be in a band . " They also drew inspiration from the rock and acid house in the United Kingdom during the early 1990s . De Homem @-@ Christo referred to Screamadelica by Primal Scream as the record that " put everything together " in terms of genre " .
The liner notes of Homework pay tribute to a large number of musical artists and contain a quote from Brian Wilson . Bangalter stated : " In Brian Wilson 's music you could really feel the beauty — it was very spiritual . Like Bob Marley , too . " When questioned on the success of Daft Punk 's debut album and the rising popularity of their associated musical genre , Bangalter responded , " before us you had Frankie Knuckles or Juan Atkins and so on . The least you can do is pay respect to those who are not known and who have influenced people . " The Daft Punk track " Teachers " , from Homework , refers to several influences , such as Romanthony and Todd Edwards . De Homem @-@ Christo stated : " Their music had a big effect on us . The sound of their productions — the compression , the sound of the kick drum and Romanthony 's voice , the emotion and soul — is part of how we sound today . " A 2011 Bodytonic podcast featured tracks from all of the artists named in " Teachers " , the Brian Wilson speech quoted in the liner notes of Homework , and a Kraftwerk @-@ like 1983 track produced by Daniel Vangarde , father of Bangalter .
Romanthony and Edwards later collaborated with Daft Punk on tracks for Discovery . For the album , Daft Punk focused on new styles of electronic music . A major inspiration was the Aphex Twin single " Windowlicker " , which was " neither a purely club track nor a very chilled @-@ out , down @-@ tempo relaxation track " , according to Bangalter . The duo also utilized vintage equipment to recreate the sound of an artist from a previous era . As stated by de Homem @-@ Christo , " On ' Digital Love ' you get this Supertramp vibe on the bridge , " which was generated through an in @-@ studio Wurlitzer piano . During a later interview , de Homem @-@ Christo clarified that " we
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didn 't make a list of artists we like and copy their songs . " Daft Punk would collaborate with Edwards again on the song " Fragments of Time " , featured on the 2013 album Random Access Memories .
During a 2009 interview , Bangalter named Andy Warhol as one of Daft Punk 's early artistic influences . For the Tron : Legacy soundtrack , the duo drew inspiration from Wendy Carlos , the composer of the original Tron film , as well as Max Steiner , Bernard Herrmann , John Carpenter , Vangelis , Philip Glass and Maurice Jarre . Daft Punk later sought a " west coast vibe " during the production of Random Access Memories , referencing such bands as Fleetwood Mac , The Doobie Brothers and the Eagles . They also highlighted the influence of Jean Michel Jarre in an interview following the album 's release .
= = Visual components and image = =
Daft Punk are noted for their use of visual components associated with their musical productions . The music videos for their singles from Homework featured distinctive characters and placed emphasis on storytelling instead of musical performance . The album Discovery subsequently became the soundtrack to Interstella 5555 .
Their outward personas have also changed over time . In one of the duo 's earliest magazine appearances , de Homem @-@ Christo stated in a Jockey Slut interview that , " We don 't want to be photographed . [ ... ] We don 't especially want to be in magazines . We have a responsibility . " Although they allowed a camera crew to film them for a French television arts program at the time , Daft Punk did not wish to speak on screen " because it is dangerous . " During their Homework years , the duo would usually wear masks to hide their appearance . When not wearing disguises , they occasionally preferred to be replaced by animation ( as they appeared in The Work of Director Michel Gondry DVD ) or have their faces digitally obscured for press kits . Few official photos of the duo 's faces exist , including a blurry one found in the Homework liner notes .
In their more visible Discovery years , they appeared wearing robotic headgear and metallic gloves for publicity photo shoots , interviews , live shows and music videos . The helmets were produced by Paul Hahn of Daft Arts and the French directors Alex and Martin , the duo who also designed them . With engineering by Tony Gardner and Alterian , Inc . , they are capable of various LED effects . Wigs were originally attached to both helmets , but the duo removed them just before the outfits were publicly unveiled in 2001 . Daft Punk introduced the costumes to many U.S. television viewers in an advertisement during a special presentation of the music videos from the Discovery album during Cartoon Network 's Toonami block . Thomas Bangalter once stated , " We did not choose to become robots . There was an accident in our studio . We were working on our sampler , and at exactly 9 : 09 am on September 9 , 1999 , it exploded . When we regained consciousness , we discovered that we had become robots . "
Daft Punk have said that they donned their robot outfits to easily merge the characteristics of humans and machines . However , Bangalter later stated that the costumes were initially the result of shyness . " But then it became exciting from the audience 's point of view . It 's the idea of being an average guy with some kind of superpower . " When asked whether the duo expressed themselves differently within the robotic suits , Bangalter stated " No , we don 't need to . It 's not about having inhibitions . It 's more like an advanced version of glam , where it 's definitely not you . " With the release of Human After All , the musical duo 's outfits became slightly less complicated by consisting of black leather jacket and pants and simplified versions of the Discovery headgear . The attire was designed by Hedi Slimane . Bangalter stated that , " We never like to do the same thing twice . It 's more fun and entertaining for us to do something different , whether it 's wearing masks or developing a persona that merges fiction and reality . We 're happy to give back to the masses " .
According to Bangalter , the duo has a " general rule about not appearing in videos . " Although Daft Punk rarely grants interviews , Bangalter is cited as being the more talkative and opinionated one of the duo . With regard to fame and stardom , he said :
In the same interview , he was also asked a question if stardom can be avoided .
During the filming and promotion of Daft Punk 's Electroma , the duo went to great lengths to avoid showing their faces . While on the set of the film , the duo chose to be interviewed with their backs turned . As reported on October 2006 , the band went as far as to wear black cloth over their heads during a televised interview . During this interview they noted that the use of cloth bags in particular had been a spontaneous decision , reflecting their willingness to experiment with their perceived image in the media .
It is believed that the mystery of their identity and the elaborate nature of their disguises have added to their popularity . The iconic status of the robotic costumes has been compared to the makeup of KISS and the leather jacket worn by Iggy Pop .
Bangalter has noted , " The mask gets very hot , but after wearing it as long as I have , I am used to it . " He later stated that the helmets in their current iteration are fitted with ventilators to prevent overheating .
= = Live performances = =
In the mid @-@ to @-@ late nineties , Daft Punk performed live without costumes in many places including the United States . In 1996 , the duo were featured at an Even Furthur event in Wisconsin , their first public performance in the U.S. In addition to live original performances , they performed a number of times in various clubs using vinyl records from their collection . They were known for incorporating various styles of music into their DJ sets at that time .
In 1997 they did their Daftendirektour to promote Homework in several cities throughout the world . For this tour Daft Punk opted to utilize their home studio equipment for the live stage . As Bangalter stated , " Everything was synched up — the drum machines , the bass lines . The sequencer was just sending out the tempos and controlling the beats and bars . On top of this structure we built all these layers of samples and various parts that we could bring in whenever we wanted to . " 25 May 1997 saw them perform at the Tribal Gathering festival at Luton Hoo , England , headlining with Orbital and Kraftwerk . Also of note is the performance of 8 November in Birmingham , UK , from which came the recording of Alive 1997 .
The Alive 2006 / 2007 tour began with a sole United States performance at the Coachella Festival in Indio , California in May 2006 . Several festival appearances in Europe followed throughout the summer . Two consecutive performances also took place at the Summer Sonic Festival in Japan , held in Osaka and Chiba City respectively . Daft Punk 's final performance of the year occurred in the autumn , when they visited South America and played their second U.S. performance at the Bang ! Music Festival in Miami , Florida .
In June 2007 , the duo resumed touring , beginning with an appearance at the RockNess music festival in the United Kingdom . After further shows and festival performances in Europe , the act returned to North America for a full @-@ fledged eight date tour . This reached many markets for the first time on the trek and included a headline festival slot at Lollapalooza in Chicago . A second leg of shows in October followed , consisting of an appearance at the Vegoose music festival in Las Vegas , Nevada and three shows in Mexico . In December 2007 , the duo returned to Japan to play a trio of dates . This was followed by a series of special shows in Australia , dubbed " Never Ever Land " . The dates featured regular tour stalwarts SebastiAn and Kavinsky and were ultimately the fastest selling Daft Punk @-@ related events to date . The tour eventually culminated in Sydney at the Showground Main Arena .
Daft Punk mixed and composed much of the music for the Louis Vuitton Spring / Summer 2008 Womenswear Full Show on 7 October 2007 . The duo later stated in an EMI @-@ sponsored live webchat that there would be no tour performances for 2008 , and that they would instead focus on new projects .
Daft Punk made a surprise appearance at the 50th Grammy Awards on 10 February 2008 . The duo appeared with Kanye West to perform a reworked version of " Stronger " on stage at the Staples Center in Los Angeles . For the appearance , Daft Punk utilized four JazzMutant Lemur controllers . A press release specified that this was the first televised live performance by the duo in their career . Bangalter 's wife Élodie Bouchez also attended the event .
In February 2009 , a website stated that a " hidden " tour had been set for 2009 . An event for 13 February 2009 in Shanghai , China was mentioned in the website . It was later revealed to be a hoax unaffiliated with Daft Punk and a scam to sell tickets for a nonexistent event . Representatives of the band announced that Daft Punk had no tour plans for 2009 , but stated that the duo was looking forward to performing in China during their next world tour " in 2010 or 2011 " . The announcement also stated that all of Daft Punk 's shows are and would be posted on their official MySpace page , and that the page can therefore be used to verify validity . In September 2010 , The Daily Swarm reported that the duo would perform live sets in major cities to promote the film Tron : Legacy .
Daft Punk made a surprise guest appearance during the encore of Phoenix 's show of 20 October 2010 at Madison Square Garden in New York City . They played a medley of " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " and " Around the World " before the song segued into Phoenix 's song " 1901 " . The duo also included elements of their tracks " Rock 'n Roll " , " Human After All " , as well as one of Bangalter 's side projects , " Together " .
Daft Punk performed at the 56th Grammy Awards ceremony on 26 January 2014 . The duo 's performance featured Stevie Wonder , Nile Rodgers , Pharrell Williams as well as Random Access Memories session musicians Nathan East , Omar Hakim , Paul Jackson , Jr. and Chris Caswell . The ensemble performed the Grammy @-@ winning " Get Lucky " before moving into a medley consisting of Chic 's " Le Freak " and Stevie Wonder 's " Another Star " as well as elements of Daft Punk 's " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " , " Lose Yourself to Dance " , and " Around the World " . The stage backdrop used for the performance was designed by Daft Arts to resemble a recording studio , incorporating a functioning mixing console operated by Daft Punk .
= = Appearances in media and tributes = =
Daft Punk 's popularity has been partially attributed to their appearances in mainstream media . The duo appeared with Juliette Lewis in an advertisement for The Gap , featuring the single " Digital Love " , and were contractually obliged to appear only in Gap clothing . In the summer of 2001 , Daft Punk appeared in an advertisement on Cartoon Network 's Toonami timeslot , promoting the official Toonami website and the duo 's animated music videos for their album Discovery . The music videos later appeared as scenes in the feature @-@ length film Interstella 5555 : The 5tory of the 5ecret 5tar 5ystem , in which Daft Punk make a cameo appearance as their robot alter @-@ egos . The duo later appeared in a television advertisement wearing their Discovery @-@ era headgear to promote Sony Ericsson 's Premini mobile phone . Their robotic costumes also make an appearance in the " Masterclass " section on Chilly Gonzales ' 2006 DVD release From Major to Minor . In 2010 , Daft Punk appeared in Adidas advertisements promoting a Star Wars @-@ themed clothing line .
The duo has also been acknowledged in works by other artists . " Losing My Edge " , the first single by LCD Soundsystem , bragged about being the first to " play Daft Punk to the rock kids . " LCD Soundsystem also recorded the song " Daft Punk Is Playing at My House " , which reached No. 29 in the UK and was nominated for the 2006 Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording . The Soulwax remix of the song also contains samples of many Daft Punk tracks as well as tracks by Thomas Bangalter . The song " Number 1 Girl " by the Dutch music project Le Le mentions the names Thomas Bangalter and Guy @-@ Manuel de Homem @-@ Christo among other producers and artists . In the Flight of the Conchords episode " Sally " , a music video for the Flight of the Conchords song " Robots " is shot with homemade robot costumes fashioned by the band 's manager , Murray . Jemaine comments , " It doesn 't look like Daft Punk . We wanted ones like Daft Punk . "
A number of Daft Punk tracks have been sampled or covered by other artists . " Technologic " was sampled by Swizz Beatz for the Busta Rhymes song " Touch It " . In a later remix of " Touch It " the line " touch it , bring it , pay it , watch it , turn it , leave it , start , format it " from " Technologic " was sung by R & B and rap artist Missy Elliott . Kanye West 's 2007 song " Stronger " from the album Graduation features a vocal sample of Daft Punk 's " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " . Daft Punk 's robotic costumes make an appearance in the music video for " Stronger " . The track " Daftendirekt " from Daft Punk 's album Homework was sampled for the Janet Jackson song " So Much Betta " from her 2008 album Discipline . The track " Aerodynamic " was sampled for Wiley 's 2008 single " Summertime " . " Veridis Quo " from the album Discovery was sampled for the Jazmine Sullivan song " Dream Big " from her 2008 album Fearless . DJs Marc Mysterio and Téo Moss released a cover version of " One More Time " featuring the vocals of Yardi Don . Daft Punk 's " Around the World " was sampled for JoJo 's 2009 song " You Take Me ( Around the World ) " . The song " Cowboy George " by The Fall contains a clip of " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " .
Daft Punk has also produced music for other artists . They produced the Teriyaki Boyz 's debut single " HeartBreaker " on the album Beef or Chicken ? . The song contains a sample of " Human After All " . Daft Punk later produced N.E.R.D 's song " Hypnotize U " . Daft Punk are featured on the cover of the December 2010 issue of British publication Dazed & Confused to promote the film Tron : Legacy , for which the duo composed the score . They also made a cameo appearance within the film as masked DJs at the " End of Line " nightclub .
In 2011 , Coca @-@ Cola distributed limited edition bottles designed by Daft Punk , called Daft Coke . They were only sold in France . A newer version of these themed bottles now exist as collectors items , some parts of the bottles such as the cap and Coke logo being plated in gold . In a December 2012 episode of The Simpsons titled " The Day the Earth Stood Cool " , recurring character Disco Stu wears an outfit which is very similar in design to Bangalter 's . The online role @-@ playing game World of Warcraft references the musicians with non @-@ player characters Guyo Crystalgear and Tivilix Bangalter , which wear distinctive diving suits and helmets based on the duo 's signature appearance . Daft Punk , along with Courtney Love were photographed for the " Music Project " of fashion house Yves Saint Laurent . The duo appear in their new sequined suits custom made by Hedi Slimane , holding and playing their new instruments with bodies made of lucite . In 2013 , Bandai Tamashii released a S.H. Figuarts ( SHF ) action figure for Daft Punk coinciding with the release of Random Access Memories in Japan . Following a series a teaser trailers , Daft Punk made a rare public appearance at the 2013 Monaco Grand Prix in May on behalf of the Lotus F1 Team , who supported the duo by racing in specially @-@ branded cars emblazoned with the band 's logo . Daft Punk were scheduled to appear on the episode of The Colbert Report on 6 August to promote Random Access Memories , but were unable to do so because of contractual obligations regarding the duo 's later appearance at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards . According to Stephen Colbert , Daft Punk were unaware of any exclusivity agreement and were halted by MTV executives the morning prior to the taping .
In the 2014 animated film My Little Pony : Equestria Girls - Rainbow Rocks , the character Rarity briefly dons an outfit with a helmet similar to that of de Homem @-@ Christo . The 2014 French drama film Eden includes appearances by two actors who portray Daft Punk at various points in their career . The duo was later satirized in a 2015 episode of Family Guy . In the 2016 reboot of The Powerpuff Girls , two ghosts shaped like both elements of Daft Punk appear in the episode Puffdora 's Box .
A cappella group Pentatonix performed a medley of Daft Punk songs , released as a YouTube video . As of December 2015 , the video had been viewed over 170 million times . The medley won for Best Arrangement , Instrumental or a Cappella of the 57th Grammy Awards .
An hour long documentary named Daft Punk Unchained was televised on 24 June 2015 in France and on 9 February 2016 in the UK . [ 1 ] It documented the rise to fame and the lives of Daft Punk members Guy @-@ Manuel de Homem @-@ Christo and Thomas Bangalter and their pioneering influence on the electronic music scene .
Daft Punk was referenced and parodied by the pigs in The Angry Birds Movie as " Daft Piggy " along with Steve Aoki ( as " Steve Aoinki " ) in the movie .
= = Discography = =
Homework ( 1997 )
Discovery ( 2001 )
Human After All ( 2005 )
Random Access Memories ( 2013 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Christian Science =
Christian Science is a set of beliefs and practices belonging to the metaphysical family of new religious movements . It was developed in 19th @-@ century New England by Mary Baker Eddy , who argued in her book Science and Health ( 1875 ) that sickness is an illusion that can be corrected by prayer alone . The book became Christian Science 's central text , along with the Bible , and by 2001 had sold over nine million copies .
Eddy and 26 followers were granted a charter in 1879 to found the Church of Christ , Scientist , and in 1894 the Mother Church , The First Church of Christ , Scientist , was built in Boston , Massachusetts . Christian Science became the fastest growing religion in the United States , with nearly 270 @,@ 000 members by 1936 , a figure that had declined by 1990 to just over 100 @,@ 000 . The church is known for its newspaper , the Christian Science Monitor , which won seven Pulitzer Prizes between 1950 and 2002 , and for its Reading Rooms , which are open to the public in around 1 @,@ 200 cities .
Eddy described Christian Science as a return to " primitive Christianity and its lost element of healing . " There are key differences between Christian Science theology and that of other branches of Christianity . In particular , adherents subscribe to a radical form of philosophical idealism , believing that reality is purely spiritual and the material world an illusion . This includes the view that disease is a mental error rather than physical disorder , and that the sick should be treated not by medicine , but by a form of prayer that seeks to correct the beliefs responsible for the illusion of ill health .
The church does not require that Christian Scientists avoid all medical care – adherents use dentists , optometrists , obstetricians , physicians for broken bones , and vaccination when required by law – but maintains that Christian Science prayer is most effective when not combined with medicine . Between the 1880s and 1990s the avoidance of medical treatment led to the deaths of several adherents and their children . Parents and others were prosecuted for , and in a few cases convicted of , manslaughter or neglect .
= = Overview = =
= = = Metaphysical family = = =
Several periods of Protestant Christian revival nurtured a proliferation of new religious movements in the United States . In the latter half of the 19th century these included what came to be known as the metaphysical family : groups such as Christian Science , Divine Science , the Unity School of Christianity and ( later ) the United Church of Religious Science . From the 1890s the liberal section of the movement became known as New Thought , in part to distinguish it from the more authoritarian Christian Science .
The term metaphysical referred to the movement 's philosophical idealism , a belief in the primacy of the mental world . Adherents believed that material phenomena were the result of mental states , a view expressed as " life is consciousness " and " God is mind . " The supreme cause was referred to as Divine Mind , Truth , God , Love , Life , Spirit , Principle or Father – Mother , reflecting elements of Plato , Hinduism , Berkeley , Hegel , Swedenborg and transcendentalism .
The metaphysical groups became known as the mind @-@ cure movement because of their strong focus on healing . Medical practice was in its infancy , and patients regularly fared better without it . This provided fertile soil for the mind @-@ cure groups , who argued that sickness was an absence of " right thinking " or failure to connect to Divine Mind . The movement traced its roots in the United States to Phineas Parkhurst Quimby ( 1802 – 1866 ) , a New England clockmaker turned mental healer , whose motto was " the truth is the cure . " Mary Baker Eddy had been a patient of his , leading to debate about how much of Christian Science was based on his ideas .
New Thought and Christian Science differed in that Eddy saw her views as a unique and final revelation . Eddy 's idea of malicious animal magnetism marked another distinction ( that people can be harmed by the bad thoughts of others ) , introducing an element of fear that was absent from the New Thought literature . Most significantly , she dismissed the material world as an illusion , rather than as merely subordinate to Mind , leading her to reject the use of medicine , or materia medica , and making Christian Science the most controversial of the metaphysical groups . Reality for Eddy was purely spiritual .
= = = Christian Science theology = = =
Christian Science leaders place their religion within mainstream Christian teaching , according to J. Gordon Melton , and reject any identification with the New Thought movement . Eddy was strongly influenced by her Congregationalist upbringing . In founding the Church of Christ , Scientist , in April 1879 , she wrote that she wanted it to " reinstate primitive Christianity and its lost element of healing . " Later she suggested that Christian Science was a kind of second coming and that Science and Health was an inspired text . In 1895 , in the Manual of the Mother Church , she ordained the Bible and Science and Health as " Pastor over the Mother Church . "
According to the church 's tenets , adherents accept " the inspired Word of the Bible as [ their ] sufficient guide to eternal Life ... acknowledge and adore one supreme and infinite God ... [ and ] acknowledge His Son , one Christ ; the Holy Ghost or divine Comforter ; and man in God 's image and likeness . "
Christian Science theology differs in several respects from that of traditional Christianity . Eddy 's Science and Health reinterprets key Christian concepts , including the Trinity , divinity of Jesus , atonement and resurrection ; from the 1883 edition she included a glossary that redefined the Christian vocabulary , and added with a Key to the Scriptures to the title . At the core of Eddy 's theology is the view that the spiritual world is the only reality and is entirely good , and that the material world , with its evil , sickness and death , is an illusion . Eddy saw humanity as an " idea of Mind " that is " perfect , eternal , unlimited , and reflects the divine , " according to Bryan Wilson ; what she called " mortal man " is simply humanity 's distorted view of itself . Despite her view of the non @-@ existence of evil , an important element of Christian Science theology is that evil thought , in the form of malicious animal magnetism , can cause harm , even if the harm is only apparent .
Eddy viewed God not as a person , but as " All @-@ in @-@ all . " Although she often described God as if discussing personhood – she used the term " Father – Mother God " ( as did Ann Lee , the founder of Shakerism ) , and in the third edition of Science and Health referred to God as " she " – God is mostly represented in Christian Science by the synonyms " Mind , Spirit , Soul , Principle , Life , Truth , Love . " The Holy Ghost is Christian Science , and heaven and hell are states of mind .
There is no supplication in Christian Science prayer . The process involves the Scientist engaging in a silent argument to affirm to herself the unreality of matter , something Christian Science practitioners will do for a fee , including in absentia , to address ill health or other problems . Wilson writes that Christian Science healing is " not curative ... on its own premises , but rather preventative of ill health , accident and misfortune , since it claims to lead to a state of consciousness where these things do not exist . What heals is the realization that there is nothing really to heal . " It is a closed system of thought , viewed as infallible if performed correctly ; healing confirms the power of Truth , but its absence derives from the failure , specifically the bad thoughts , of individuals .
Eddy accepted as true the creation narrative in the Book of Genesis up to chapter 2 , verse 6 – that God created man in his image and likeness – but rejected the rest " as the story of the false and the material , " according to Wilson . Her theology is nontrinitarian ; she viewed the Trinity as suggestive of polytheism . She saw Jesus as a Christian Scientist , a " Way @-@ shower " between humanity and God , and distinguished between Jesus the man and the concept of Christ , the latter a synonym for Truth and Jesus the first person fully to manifest it . The crucifixion was not a divine sacrifice for the sins of humanity , the atonement ( the forgiveness of sin through Jesus 's suffering ) " not the bribing of God by offerings , " writes Wilson , but an " at @-@ one @-@ ment " with God .
Her views on life after death were vague and , according to Wilson , " there is no doctrine of the soul " in Christian Science : " [ A ] fter death , the individual continues his probationary state until he has worked out his own salvation by proving the truths of Christian Science . " Eddy did not believe that the dead and living could communicate .
To the more conservative of the Protestant clergy , Eddy 's view of Science and Health as divinely inspired was a challenge to the Bible 's authority . " Eddyism " was viewed as a cult ; one of the first uses of the modern sense of the word was in A. H. Barrington 's Anti @-@ Christian Cults ( 1898 ) , a book about Spiritualism , Theosophy and Christian Science . In a few cases Christian Scientists were expelled from Christian congregations , but ministers also worried that their parishioners were choosing to leave . In May 1885 the London Times ' Boston correspondent wrote about the " Boston mind @-@ cure craze " : " Scores of the most valued Church members are joining the Christian Scientist branch of the metaphysical organization , and it has thus far been impossible to check the defection . " In 1907 Mark Twain described the appeal of the new religion :
= = Birth of the religion = =
= = = Mary Baker Eddy = = =
Born Mary Morse Baker on a farm in Bow , New Hampshire , Eddy was the youngest of six children in a family of Protestant Congregationalists . Her father , Mark Baker , was a deeply religious man , although , according to one account , " Christianity to him was warfare against sin , not a religion of human brotherhood . " In common with most women at the time Eddy was given little formal education , but said she had read widely at home . From childhood she lived with protracted ill health , complaining of chronic indigestion and spinal inflammation , and according to biographers experiencing fainting spells . The literary critic Harold Bloom described her as " a kind of anthology of nineteenth @-@ century nervous ailments . "
Eddy 's first husband died just before her 23rd birthday , six months after they married and three months before their son was born , leaving her penniless ; as a result of her poor health she lost custody of the boy when he was four , although sources differ as to whether she could have prevented this . Her second husband left her after 13 years of marriage ; Eddy said that he had promised to become her child 's legal guardian , but it is unclear whether he did , and Eddy lost contact with her son until he was in his thirties . ( Per the legal doctrine of coverture , women in the United States could not then be their own children 's guardians . )
Her third husband , Asa Gilbert Eddy , died five years after they married ; she believed he had been killed by malicious animal magnetism . Six years later , when she was 67 and apparently in need of loyalty and affection , she legally adopted a 41 @-@ year @-@ old homeopath as her second son .
Eddy was by all accounts charismatic and able to inspire great loyalty , although Gillian Gill writes that she could also be irrational and unkind . According to Bryan Wilson , she exemplified the female charismatic leader , and was viewed as the head of the Christian Science church even after her death ; he wrote in 1961 that her name – Christian Scientists call her Mrs. Eddy or " our beloved Leader " – was still included in all articles published in the Christian Science journals .
It was in part because of her unusual personality that Christian Science flourished , despite the numerous disputes she initiated among her followers . " She was like a patch of colour in those gray communities , " McClure 's wrote , " She never laid aside her regal air ; never entered a room or left it like other people . " Mark Twain , a prominent critic of hers , described her in 1907 as " vain , untruthful [ and ] jealous , " but " [ i ] n several ways ... the most interesting woman that ever lived , and the most extraordinary . "
= = = Phineas Parkhurst Quimby = = =
Eddy tried every remedy for her ill health , including a three @-@ month stay at the Vail 's Hydropathic Institute in Hill , New Hampshire . She told the Boston Post in 1883 that , for the seven years prior to 1862 ( most of her second marriage ) , she had been effectively confined to her bed or room .
In 1861 Eddy heard of a healing method developed by Phineas Parkhurst Quimby , a former clockmaker in Portland , Maine . Self @-@ styled Dr. P. P. Quimby , a practitioner of the " Science of Health , " Quimby had become interested in healing after recovering suddenly from a condition he believed was consumption ( tuberculosis ) . After attending a lecture in Maine in 1837 by the French mesmerist Charles Poyen , Quimby began to practise mesmerism himself . Mesmerism was named after Franz Mesmer ( 1734 – 1815 ) , a German physician who argued for the existence of a fluid through which bodies could influence each other , a force he called animal magnetism . Quimby and an assistant , Lucius Burkmar , traveled around Maine and New Brunswick giving demonstrations ; Burkmar , in a trance , would offer mind readings and suggestions for cures .
Quimby abandoned mesmerism around 1847 when he realized that it was suggestion that was effecting the apparent cures . He came to the view that disease was a mental state . When Jesus healed a paralysed arm he had known , Quimby wrote , " that the arm was not the cause but the effect , and he addressed Himself to the intelligence , and applied His wisdom to the cause . " In so doing Jesus had relied upon Christ , a synonym for Truth , Science and God , a power that Quimby believed all human beings could access . Quimby referred to this idea , in February 1863 , as " Christian science , " a phrase he used only once in writing . He wrote :
By 1856 Quimby had 500 patients a year . He would sit next to them and explain that the disease was something their minds could control ; sometimes he would wet his hands and rub their heads , but it was the talking that helped them , he said , not the manipulation . Quimby began to write his thoughts down around 1859 – his work was published posthumously as The Quimby Manuscripts in 1921 – and was generous in allowing his patients to copy one of his essays , " Questions and Answers . " This became an issue , from 1883 onwards , when Eddy was accused of having based Christian Science on his work .
= = = Eddy as Quimby 's patient = = =
When Eddy first met Quimby in Portland in October 1862 , she had to be helped up the stairs to his consulting rooms . She spoke highly of him the following month in a letter to the Portland Evening Courier : " This truth which he opposes to the error of giving intelligence to matter and placing pain where it never placed itself ... changes the currents of the system to their normal action ... " In a second letter she offered to supply quotations from Quimby 's " theory of Christ ( not Jesus ) . " Between then and May 1864 , Eddy returned to see Quimby several times , staying for weeks in Portland and visiting him daily . She wrote to him regularly , and composed a sonnet for him , " Mid light of science sits the sage profound . "
Eddy first used mental healing on a patient in March 1864 , when one of Quimby 's patients in Portland , Mary Ann Jarvis , suffered a relapse when she returned home to Warren , Maine . Eddy stayed with her for two months , giving Jarvis mental healing to ease a breathing problem , and writing to Quimby six times for absent treatment for herself . She called the latter " angel visits " ; in one of her letters to Quimby , she said that she had seen him in her room . In April she gave a public lecture in Warren , contrasting mental healing with Spiritualism , entitled : " P. P. Quimby 's Spiritual Science healing disease , as opposed to Deism or Rochester Rapping Spiritualism . "
= = = Fall in Lynn = = =
Quimby died on January 16 , 1866 , three months after Eddy 's father . Eddy wrote a poem on January 22 , " Lines on the Death of Dr. P. P. Quimby , Who Healed with the Truth that Christ Taught , in Contradistinction to All Isms , " which was published in a local newspaper . Two weeks later , on February 1 , she slipped on ice in Lynn , Massachusetts , injuring her head and neck :
Christian Scientists call this " the fall in Lynn , " and see it as the birth of their religion . Decades later Eddy wrote that , on the third day after the fall , she had been helped by reading a certain Bible passage . In several editions of Science and Health she identified it as Mark 3 , but later said that it had been Matthew 9 : 2 @-@ 8 , a passage about Jesus healing the paralytic at Capernaum : " As I read , the healing Truth dawned upon my sense ; and the result was that I rose , dressed myself , and ever after was in better health than I had before enjoyed . " The physician who treated her at the time , Alvin M. Cushing , swore in an affidavit in 1907 that the injury had not been a serious one , and that Eddy had responded to morphine and a homeopathic remedy ; she had not said anything to him about a miraculous healing .
The fall in Lynn in 1866 was one of several experiences Eddy associated with the development of mental healing . In the first edition of Science and Health ( 1875 ) , she wrote that she had " made our first discovery that science mentally applied would heal the sick " in 1864 , while she was seeing Quimby , and in 1883 told the Boston Post that she had " laid the foundations of mental healing " in 1853 , when she was practising homeopathy . Elsewhere in the first edition of Science and Health she attributed the discovery to her difficulties with chronic indigestion as a child . In other editions she attributes the same difficulties to someone else . Eddy first linked the fall in Lynn to Christian Science in 1871 , in a letter to a prospective student :
Whether Eddy considered herself healed at the time is unclear . Two weeks after the fall she requested treatment from another patient of Quimby 's , Julius Dresser . In June that year the Mayor of Lynn told the city Eddy had sent them a letter " in which she states that owing to the unsafe condition of [ the streets ] ... she slipped and fell , causing serious personal injuries , from which she has little prospect of recovering , and asking for pecuniary recompense for the injuries received . " In February 1867 Eddy and her husband , Daniel Patterson , a dentist , filed a lawsuit against the city to recover damages .
= = = Teaching Sally Wentworth = = =
In March 1866 , a month after the fall , Eddy and her husband ( then married for 13 years ) moved into an unfurnished room in Lynn . At some point her husband left and Eddy was evicted , unable to pay the $ 1 @.@ 50 weekly rent . He appears to have returned briefly – they moved to a boarding house in July , and in August he paid Dr. Cushing 's bill from the fall – but the marriage was over . He sent her $ 200 a year for a time , and they divorced in 1873 .
Her first student was Hiram Crafts , a shoe worker in whose house she stayed , who advertised for patients himself in May 1867 , offering a cure for " Consumption , Catarrh , Scrofula , Dyspepsia and Rheumatism . " Eddy asked Crafts to set up a practice with her , but the plan came to nothing . In addition to teaching , Eddy had started to write ; toward the end of 1866 she began work on an allegorical interpretation of Genesis , intended as the first volume of a book ( never published ) , The Bible in its Spiritual Meaning .
In the summer of 1868 , while lodging with Spiritualist Sarah Bagley in Amesbury , Eddy advertised for students in a Spiritualist magazine , the Banner of Light , as Mary B. Glover ( her first husband 's surname ) . The ad promised a " principle of science " that would heal with " [ n ] o medicine , electricity , physiology or hygiene required for unparalleled success in the most difficult cases . " Sally Wentworth , another Spiritualist , offered Eddy $ 300 @-@ worth of bed and board in Stoughton if Eddy would treat her daughter 's lung condition and teach Wentworth the healing method . Eddy stayed there for two years , from 1868 to 1870 , teaching Wentworth with Quimby 's unpublished essay , " Questions and Answers . " She acknowledged that the manuscript was Quimby 's , and spoke often of how she had promised to teach his healing method , which at the time she called Moral Science .
= = = Moral Science practice in Lynn = = =
Eddy was asked to leave the Wentworths ' in early 1870 . They fell out over several issues , including her request that they pay a printer $ 600 to publish her Genesis manuscript , which apparently ran to over 100 @,@ 000 words .
She returned to Amesbury to stay with Sally Bagley , where she resumed contact with Richard Kennedy . Kennedy had been a fellow lodger two years earlier when he was working in a box factory , and had become one of her earliest students . She now asked him to join her in opening a Moral Science practice in Lynn ; he would see patients and she would teach . He agreed to pay her $ 1 @,@ 000 for the previous two years ' tuition . Kennedy rented rooms in Lynn in June 1870 , and placed a sign in the yard , " Dr. Kennedy " ; he was 21 and Eddy 49 . The practice became popular . McClure 's wrote that people would say : " Go to Dr. Kennedy . He can 't hurt you , even if he doesn 't help you . "
Lynn was a center of the shoe industry and most of Eddy 's students were factory workers or artisans . She charged $ 100 , raised a few weeks later to $ 300 , for a three @-@ week course of 12 lessons ( reduced in 1888 to seven ) . Eddy based the lessons on a revised version of Quimby 's " Questions and Answers " manuscript , now called " The Science of Man , by which the sick are healed , Embracing Questions and Answers in Moral Science , " and on three shorter manuscripts , " The Soul 's Inquiry of Man , " " Spiritualism " and " Individuality , " which she had written for her classes . " Questions and Answers " began : " What is God ? " The answer : " Principle , wisdom , love , and truth . " Two books on mental healing appeared around that time that may have influenced Eddy 's thinking : The Mental Cure ( 1869 ) and Mental Medicine ( 1872 ) , both by Warren Felt Evans , another former patient of Quimby 's .
Eddy allowed her students to make copies of the manuscripts , but they were forbidden , under a $ 3 @,@ 000 bond , from showing them to anyone . The students agreed to pay Eddy 10 percent annually of income derived from her work , and $ 1 @,@ 000 if they failed to practice or teach it . She at first taught them to rub patients ' heads , to " lay [ their ] hands where the belief is to rub it out forever " ; Kennedy would manipulate each student 's head and solar plexus before class in preparation . The head rubbing was abandoned when the women complained about having to take their hair down , and the stomach rubbing held no appeal for them either . Eventually Eddy told them to ignore that part of the manuscript , and from then on Christian Science healing did not involve touching patients .
In 1879 Eddy sued two of the students ( unsuccessfully ) for royalties from their practices . They testified that she had claimed she no longer needed to eat and had seen the dead raised . Eddy told the judge she meant she had " seen the dead in understanding raised . "
= = = Mary B. Glover 's Christian Scientists ' Home = = =
Kennedy decided toward the end of 1871 to end his business partnership with Eddy . She had accused him in front of others of cheating at cards ; it was one of several scenes she had caused between them and he walked out on her . There was a temporary reconciliation , but he was unhappy about the abandonment of head rubbing , and after a dispute between Eddy and a student over a refund was played out in the local press , he decided to go his own way .
Once Kennedy and Eddy had settled their financial affairs in May 1872 , she was left with $ 6 @,@ 000 . Peel writes that at this point she had already written 60 pages of Science and Health . She was renting rooms in Lynn at 9 Broad Street , when 8 Broad Street came on the market . In March 1875 she purchased it for $ 5 @,@ 650 , taking in students to pay the mortgage . It was in the attic room of this house that she completed Science and Health .
Shortly after moving in , Eddy became close to another student , Daniel Spofford . He was 33 years old and married when he joined her class ; he later left his wife in the hope that he might marry Eddy , but his feelings were not reciprocated . Spofford and seven other students agreed to form an association that would pay Eddy a certain amount a week if she would preach to them every Sunday . They called themselves the Christian Scientists ' Association .
Eddy placed a sign on 8 Broad Street , Mary B. Glover 's Christian Scientists ' Home . According to McClure 's , there was a regular turnover of tenants and domestic staff , whom Eddy accused of stealing from the house ; she blamed Richard Kennedy for using mesmerism to turn people against her . According to Peel , there was gossip about the attractive woman , the men who came and went , and whether she was engaged in witchcraft . She was hurt , he wrote , but made light of it : " Of course I believe in free love ; I love everyone . "
= = = Science and Health = = =
= = = = Publication = = = =
Eddy copyrighted her book , then called The Science of Life , in July 1874 . Three of her students , George Barry , Elizabeth Newhall and Daniel Spofford , paid a Boston printer , W. F. Brown and Company , $ 2 @,@ 200 to produce the first edition . The printer began work in September 1874 , but stopped whenever the advance payment ran out , so progress was slow . The book – Science and Health by Mary Baker Glover , with eight chapters and 456 pages – finally appeared on October 30 , 1875 , published in the name of the Christian Science Publishing Company .
The book was positively received by Amos Bronson Alcott , who in 1876 wrote to Eddy that she had " reaffirm [ ed ] in modern phrase the Christian revelations , " and that he was pleased it had been written by a woman . The printer 's proofreading had been poor . Martin Gardner called the first edition a " chaotic patchwork of repetitious , poorly paragraphed topics , " with spelling , punctuation and grammatical mistakes .
Eddy changed printers for the second edition , which was also poorly proofread , and for the third edition in 1881 switched again , this time to John Wilson & Sons , University Press , Cambridge , MA . John Wilson and his successor , William Dana Orcutt , continued to print the book until after Eddy 's death . To the 6th edition in 1883 , Eddy added with a Key to the Scriptures ( later retitled with Key to the Scriptures ) , a 20 @-@ page glossary containing her definitions of biblical terms . The book sold 15 @,@ 000 copies between 1875 and 1885 .
In August 1885 , on the advice of John Wilson , she hired one of his proofreaders , the Rev. James Henry Wiggin , as an editor and literary adviser . The issue of how much Wiggin contributed to Science and Health is controversial . A former Unitarian clergyman , he was the book 's editor from the 16th edition in 1886 until the 50th in 1891 – 22 editions appeared between 1886 and 1888 alone – and according to his literary executor , speaking after Wiggin 's death , said he had rewritten it . Robert Peel wrote that Wiggin had " toned up " Eddy 's style , but had not affected her thinking . In a letter to Wiggin in July 1886 , Eddy wrote : " Never change my meaning , only bring it out . "
Eddy continued to revise the book until her death in 1910 . In 1902 she added a chapter , " Fruitage , " recounting healing testimonies from the Christian Science Journal and Christian Science Sentinel . There were over 400 editions ( the final ran to 18 chapters and 600 pages ) , seven of them major revisions , according to Gottschalk , and members were encouraged to buy them all . Other income derived from the sale of rings and brooches , pictures of Eddy , and in 1889 the Mary Baker Eddy souvenir spoon ; Eddy asked every Christian Scientist to buy at least one , or a dozen if they could afford to . When the copyright on Science and Health expired in 1971 , the church persuaded Congress to extend it to 2046 . The bill was supported by two of President Richard Nixon 's aides , Christian Scientists H. R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman . The law was overturned as unconstitutional in 1987 , after a challenge by United Christian Scientists , an independent group . By 2001 Science and Health had sold over nine million copies .
= = = = Sickness as error = = = =
Science and Health expanded on Eddy 's view that sickness was a mental error . People said that simply reading Science and Health had healed them ; cures were claimed for everything from cancer to blindness . Eddy wrote in the New York Sun in December 1898 , in an article called " To the Christian World , " that she had personally healed tuberculosis , diphtheria and " at one visit a cancer that had eaten the flesh of the neck and exposed the jugular vein so that it stood out like a cord . I have physically restored sight to the blind , hearing to the deaf , speech to the dumb , and have made the lame walk . " Eddy wrote that her views had derived , in part , from having witnessed the apparent recovery of patients she had treated with homeopathic remedies so diluted they were drinking plain water . She concluded that Divine Mind was the healer :
She argued that even naming and reading about disease could turn thoughts into physical symptoms , and that the recording of ages might reduce the human lifespan . To explain how individuals could be harmed by poison without holding beliefs about it , she referred to the power of majority opinion . Eddy allowed exceptions from Christian Science prayer , including for dentistry , optometry and broken limbs ; she said she had healed broken bones using " mental surgery , " but that this skill would be the last to be learned . But for the most part ( then and now ) , Christian Scientists believe that medicine and Christian Science are incompatible . Medicine asserts that something needs to be fixed , while Christian Science asserts that spiritual reality is perfect and beliefs to the contrary need to be corrected .
In the 1890s Richard Cabot of Harvard Medical School studied the healing testimonies published by the Christian Science Journal , which Eddy founded in 1883 , for his senior thesis . He wrote in McClure 's in 1908 that the claims were based on self @-@ diagnosis or secondhand reports from doctors , and attributed them to the placebo effect . In 1900 medical lecturer William Purrington called the beneficiaries " hysterical patients ... the victims of obscure nervous ailments . "
Rodney Stark writes that a key to Christian Science 's appeal at the time was that its success rate compared favorably with that of physicians , particularly when it came to women 's health . Most doctors had not been to medical school , there were no antibiotics , and surgical practices were poor . By comparison the placebo effect ( being treated at all , no matter what the treatment was ) worked well . Stark argues that the " very elaborate and intensely psychological Christian Science ' treatments ' maximize such effects , while having the advantage of not causing further harm . "
= = = Malicious animal magnetism = = =
In January 1877 Eddy spurned an approach from Daniel Spofford , and to everyone 's surprise married another of her students , Asa Gilbert Eddy . Eddy already believed that her former student and business partner Richard Kennedy was plotting against her . Weeks after the wedding Spofford was suspected too . She had hinted in October 1876 that he might be a successor , but instead he was expelled from the Christian Scientists ' Association for " immorality " after quarrelling with her over money . She filed lawsuits against him and others for royalties or unpaid tuition fees . McClure 's wrote that Eddy required " absolute and unquestioning conformity " from her students .
The conviction that she was at the center of plots and counter @-@ plots became a feature of Eddy 's life . She believed that several students were using what she called " malicious animal magnetism , " or evil thought , against her . ( She also referred to it as An . Mag . , Mes . , M.A.M. , m.a.m. , mesmerism , malicious mesmerism , animal magnetism , mental malpractice , malicious malpractice , and mental influence . )
Wilson writes that the concept of malicious animal magnetism was an important one in Christian Science . In 1881 Eddy added a 46 @-@ page chapter on it , " Demonology , " to Science and Health . From the 16th edition in 1886 , when James Henry Wiggin became the book 's editor , the chapter was reduced and renamed , and in the final edition is a seven @-@ page chapter called " Animal Magnetism Unmasked " . Eddy spoke openly about it , including to the press . When her husband died in 1882 she told the Boston Globe that malicious animal magnetism had killed him .
While Eddy argued that reality was entirely spiritual ( and therefore entirely good ) , it remained true that human beings were affected by their belief in evil , which meant it had power , even if the power was an illusion . Evil was " like a bankrupt to whom credit is still granted , " writes Wilson . To defend herself against it , Eddy organized " watches , " during which students ( known as mental or metaphysical workers ) would give " adverse treatment " to her enemies . This was called " taking up the enemy in thought . " According to former students , Eddy would tell them to say ( often with Richard Kennedy in mind ) : " You are affected as you wish to affect me . Your evil thought reacts upon you , " then call Kennedy bilious , consumptive or poisoned by arsenic .
Eddy set up what she called a secret society of her students ( known as the P. M. , or private meeting ) to deal with malicious animal magnetism , but said that the group only met twice . In her later years , Wilson writes , Eddy concluded that individuals ought not to be " taken up in thought , " and came to see animal magnetism as an impersonal force . From 1890 she felt that her students were focusing on it too much , and thereafter public discussion of malicious animal magnetism declined , although Gottschalk adds that it continued to play an important role in the teaching of Christian Science . Adam H. Dickey , Eddy 's private secretary for the last three years of her life , wrote that hour @-@ long watches were held in her home three times a day to protect her against it . The Manual of the Mother Church forbids members from practising it , and requires that Christian Science teachers instruct students " how to defend themselves against mental malpractice , and never to return evil for evil . "
= = = Witchcraft trial , conspiracy charge = = =
In May 1878 Eddy brought a case against Daniel Spofford , in Salem , Massachusetts , for practicing mesmerism . It came to be known as the second Salem witchcraft trial . The case was filed in the name of one of Spofford 's patients , Lucretia Brown , who said that he had bewitched her , though Eddy appeared in court on Brown 's behalf . In preparation for the hearing , Eddy organized a 24 @-@ hour watch at 8 Broad Street , during which she asked 12 students to think about Spofford for two hours each and block malicious mesmerism from him . She arrived at the court with 20 supporters , including Amos Bronson Alcott ( a " cloud of witnesses , " according to the Boston Globe ) , but Judge Horace Gray dismissed the case .
The attempt to have Spofford tried was not the end of the dispute . In October 1878 Eddy 's husband and another student , Edward Arens , were charged with conspiring to murder Spofford . A barman said they had offered him $ 500 to do it ; after a complex series of claims and counter @-@ claims , the charges were dropped when a witness retracted his statement . Eddy attributed the allegation to a plot by former students to undermine sales of the second edition of Science and Health , just published . Her lawyer had to apply for an attachment order against her house to collect his fee .
= = Growth = =
= = = Establishing the church , move to Boston = = =
On August 23 , 1879 , 26 members of the Christian Scientists ' Association were granted a charter to form the Church of Christ ( Scientist ) . Services were held in people 's homes in Lynn and later in Hawthorne Hall , Boston . On January 31 , 1881 , Eddy was granted a charter to form the Massachusetts Metaphysical College to teach " pathology , ontology , therapeutics , moral science , metaphysics , and their application to the treatment of disease . " The college lived wherever Eddy did ; a new sign appeared on 8 Broad Street .
In October 1881 there was a revolt . Eight church members resigned , signing a document complaining of Eddy 's " frequent ebullitions of temper , love of money , and the appearance of hypocrisy . " Only a few students remained , including Calvin Frye , who became Eddy 's most loyal personal assistant . They appointed Eddy pastor of the church in November 1881 , and drew up a resolution in February 1882 that she was " the chosen messenger of God to the nations . "
Despite the support , the resignations ended Eddy 's time in Lynn . The church was struggling and her reputation had been damaged by the disputes . By now 61 years old , she decided to move to Boston , and in early 1882 rented a house at 569 Columbus Avenue , a silver plaque announcing the arrival of the Massachusetts Metaphysical College . The college 's prospectus , published in 1884 , offered three diplomas : Christian Scientist ( C.S. ) for Christian Scientists ' Association members ; Christian Metaphysician ( C.M. ) for Eddy 's 12 @-@ lesson course and three years ' practice ; and Doctor of Christian Science ( D.C.S. ) for C.M.s whose " life and character conform to Divine science . " Students could study metaphysics , science of the scriptures , mental healing and obstetrics , using two textbooks , Science and Health and the Bible . Between 1881 and October 1889 , when Eddy closed the college , 4 @,@ 000 students took the course at $ 300 per person or married couple , making her a rich woman . Mark Twain wrote that she had turned a sawdust mine ( possibly Quimby 's ) into a Klondike .
= = = Death of Asa Gilbert Eddy = = =
Eddy 's husband , Asa Gilbert Eddy , died of heart disease on June 4 , 1882 , shortly after the move to Boston . She invited the Boston Globe to her home on the day of his death to allege that he had been killed by malicious animal magnetism , courtesy of " certain parties here in Boston , who had sworn to injure them . " The Globe wrote :
A doctor performed an autopsy and showed Eddy her husband 's diseased heart , but she responded by giving more interviews about mesmerism . Fraser wrote that the articles made Eddy a household name , a real @-@ life version of the charismatic and beautiful Verena Tarrant in Henry James 's The Bostonians ( 1885 – 1886 ) , with her interest in spiritualism , women 's rights and the mind cure . Shortly after the death , Eddy moved next door to 571 Columbus Avenue with several students . The following year , 1883 , she founded the Journal of Christian Science ( later called the Christian Science Journal ) , which spread news of her ideas across the United States .
= = = Tremont Temple , first church building = = =
In 1885 Eddy was accused of promoting Spiritualism and pantheism by the Reverend Adoniram J. Gordon , in a letter read out by Joseph Cook during one of his popular Monday lectures at Tremont Temple in Boston . She demanded a right of reply , and on March 16 , 1885 , she told the congregation that she was not a Spiritualist , and that she believed in God as the Supreme Being and in the atonement . She described Christian Science healing as " Christ come to destroy the power of the flesh . " Stephen Gottschalk wrote that the occasion marked the " emergence of Christian Science into American religious life . "
The first church building was erected in 1886 in Oconto , Wisconsin , by local women who believed Christian Science had helped them . For a down payment of $ 2 @,@ 000 and a mortgage of $ 8 @,@ 763 , the church purchased land in Falmouth Street , Boston , for the erection of a building . Eddy asked Augusta Stetson , a prominent Scientist , to establish a church in New York . By the end of 1886 Christian Science teaching institutes had sprung up around the United States .
In December 1887 Eddy moved to a $ 40 @,@ 000 , 20 @-@ room house at 385 Commonwealth Avenue , Boston . She had been teaching four to six classes a year , and by 1889 had probably made at least $ 100 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 2 @,@ 634 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . By 1890 the Church of Christ ( Scientist ) had 8 @,@ 724 members in the United States , having started 11 years earlier with just 26 .
= = = Eddy 's debt to Quimby = = =
Eddy 's debt to Phineas Parkhurst Quimby became the " single most controversial issue " of her life , according to Gillian Gill . Quimby was not the only source Eddy stood accused of having copied ; Ernest Sutherland Bates and John V. Dittemore , Bryan Wilson , Charles S. Braden and Martin Gardner identified several texts she had used without attribution . For example , an open letter from Eddy to the church , dated September 1895 and published in Eddy 's Miscellaneous Writings 1883 – 1896 ( 1897 ) , is almost identical to Hugh Blair 's essay " The Man of Integrity , " published in Lindley Murray 's The English Reader ( 1799 ) .
Eddy acknowledged Quimby 's influence in her early years . When a prospective student asked in 1871 whether her methods had been used before , she replied :
Later she drew a distinction between their methods , arguing that Quimby 's involved one mind healing another , while hers depended on a connection with Divine Mind . In February 1883 Julius Dresser , a former patient of Quimby 's , accused Eddy in letters to the Boston Post of teaching Quimby 's work as her own . In response Eddy disparaged Quimby as a mesmerist and said she had experimented with mental healing in or around 1853 , nine years before she met him . She wrote later : " We caught some of his thoughts , and he caught some of ours ; and both of us were pleased to say this to each other . "
The issue went to court in September 1883 , when Eddy complained that her student Edward Arens had copied parts of Science and Health in a pamphlet , and Arens counter @-@ claimed that Eddy had copied it from Quimby in the first place . Quimby 's son was so unwilling to produce his father 's manuscripts that he sent them out of the country ( perhaps fearing litigation with Eddy or that someone would tamper with them ) , and Eddy won the case . Things were stirred up further by Eddy 's pamphlet Historical Sketch of Metaphysical Healing ( 1885 ) , in which she again called Quimby a mesmerist , and by the publication of Julius Dresser 's The True History of Mental Healing ( 1887 ) .
The charge that Christian Science came from Quimby , not divine revelation , stemmed in part from Eddy 's use of Quimby 's manuscript ( right ) when teaching Sally Wentworth and others in 1868 – 1870 . Eddy said she had helped to fix Quimby 's unpublished work , and now stood accused of having copied her own corrections . Against this , Lyman P. Powell , one of Eddy 's biographers , wrote in 1907 that Quimby 's son held an almost identical copy , in Quimby 's wife 's handwriting , of the Quimby manuscript that Eddy had used when teaching Sally Wentworth . It was dated February 1862 , eight months before Eddy met Quimby .
In July 1904 the New York Times obtained a copy of the Quimby manuscript from Sally Wentworth 's son , and juxtaposed passages with Science and Health to highlight the similarities . It also published Eddy 's handwritten notes on Quimby 's manuscript to show what the newspaper alleged was the transition from his words to hers . Quimby 's manuscripts were published in 1921 . Eddy 's biographers continued to disagree about his influence on Eddy . Bates and Dittemore , the latter a former director of the Christian Science church , argued in 1932 that " as far as the thought is concerned , Science and Health is practically all Quimby , " except for malicious animal mesmerism . Robert Peel , who also worked for the church , wrote in 1966 that Eddy may have influenced Quimby as much as he influenced her . Gardner argued in 1993 that Eddy had taken " huge chunks " from Quimby , and Gill in 1998 that there were only general similarities .
= = = First prosecutions = = =
In 1887 Eddy started teaching a " metaphysical obstetrics " course , two one @-@ week classes . She had started calling herself " Professor of Obstetrics " in 1882 ; McClure 's wrote : " Hundreds of Mrs. Eddy 's students were then practising who knew no more about obstetrics than the babes they helped into this world . " The first prosecutions took place that year , when practitioners were charged with practicing medicine without a licence . All were acquitted during the trial , or convictions were overturned on appeal .
The first manslaughter charge was in March 1888 , when Abby H. Corner , a practitioner in Medford , Massachusetts , attended to her daughter during childbirth ; the daughter bled to death and the baby did not survive . The defense argued that they might have died even with medical attention , and Corner was acquitted . To the dismay of the Christian Scientists ' Association ( the secretary resigned ) , Eddy distanced herself from Corner , telling the Boston Globe that Corner had only attended the college for one term and had never entered the obstetrics class .
From then until the 1990s around 50 parents and practitioners were prosecuted , and often acquitted , after adults and children died without medical care ; charges ranged from neglect to second @-@ degree murder . The American Medical Association ( AMA ) declared war on Christian Scientists ; in 1895 its journal called Christian Science and similar ideas " molochs to infants , and pestilential perils to communities in spreading contagious diseases . " Juries were nevertheless reluctant to convict when defendants believed they were helping the patient . There was also opposition to the AMA 's effort to strengthen medical licensing laws . Historian Shawn Peters writes that , in the courts and public debate , Christian Scientists and Jehovah 's Witnesses linked their healing claims to early Christianity to gain support from other Christians .
Vaccination was another battleground . A Christian Scientist in Wisconsin won a case in 1897 that allowed his son to attend public school despite not being vaccinated against smallpox . Others were arrested in 1899 for avoiding vaccination during a smallpox epidemic in Georgia . In 1900 Eddy advised adherents to obey the law , " and then appeal to the gospel to save ... [ themselves ] from any bad results . " In October 1902 , after seven @-@ year @-@ old Esther Quimby , the daughter of Christian Scientists , died of diphtheria in White Plains , New York ( she had received no medical care and had not been quarantined ) , the authorities pursued manslaughter charges . The controversy prompted Eddy to declare that " until public thought becomes better acquainted with Christian Science , the Christian Scientists shall decline to doctor infectious or contagious diseases , " and from that time the church required Christian Scientists to report contagious diseases to health boards .
= = = Building the Mother Church = = =
In 1888 Eddy became close to another of her students , Ebenezer Johnson Foster , a homeopath and graduate of the Hahnemann Medical College . He was 41 and she was 67 , but apparently in need of affection and loyalty she adopted him legally in November that year , and he changed his name to Ebenezer Johnson Foster Eddy .
A year later , in October 1889 , Eddy closed the Massachusetts Metaphysical College ; according to Bates and Dittemore , the state attorney was investigating colleges that were fraudulently graduating medical students . She also foreclosed the mortgage on the land in Boston the church had purchased , then purchased it herself for $ 5 @,@ 000 through a middle man , though it was worth considerably more . She told the church they could have the land for their building on condition they formally dissolve the church ; this was apparently intended to quash internal rebellions that had been bothering her . The following year she dissolved the National Christian Science Association . Wilson writes that the dissolutions allowed her to create a central church controlled by a five @-@ person board of directors that answered only to her , which gave the church a stability that helped it survive her death .
The cornerstone of The First Church of Christ , Scientist , containing the Bible , Eddy 's writings and a list of directors and financial contributors , was laid in May 1894 in the Back Bay area of Boston . Church members raised funds for the construction , and the building was finished in December 1894 at a cost of $ 250 @,@ 000 . It contained a " Mother 's Room " in the tower for Eddy 's personal use , furnished with rare books , silks , tapestries , rugs , a dressing gown and slippers , though she spent only one night there and it was later turned into a storage room . The archway into the room was made of Italian marble , and the word Mother was engraved on the floor .
Within two years the Boston membership had exceeded the original church 's capacity . By 1903 the block around the church had been purchased by Christian Scientists , and in 1906 the Mother Church Extension , accommodating 5 @,@ 000 people , was completed at a cost of $ 2 million . This attracted the criticism that , whereas Christian Scientists spent money on a magnificent church , they maintained no hospitals , orphanages or missions in the slums .
Christian Science went on to become the fastest @-@ growing American religion in the early 20th century . The federal religious census recorded 85 @,@ 717 Christian Scientists in 1906 ; 30 years later it was 268 @,@ 915 . In 1890 there were seven Christian Science churches in the United States , a figure that had risen to 1 @,@ 104 by 1910 . Churches began to appear in other countries too : 58 in England , 38 in Canada and 28 elsewhere by 1910 .
= = = View of Mark Twain = = =
Mark Twain was a prominent contemporaneous critic of Eddy 's . His first article about Christian Science was published in Cosmopolitan in October 1899 . Another three appeared in 1902 – 1903 in North American Review , then a book , Christian Science ( 1907 ) . He also wrote " The Secret History of Eddypus , the World Empire " ( 1901 – 1902 ) , in which Christian Science replaces Christianity and Eddy becomes the Pope .
Twain described Eddy as " [ g ] rasping , sordid , penurious , famishing for everything she sees – money , power , glory – vain , untruthful , jealous , despotic , arrogant , insolent , pitiless where thinkers and hypnotists are concerned , illiterate , shallow , incapable of reasoning outside of commercial lines , immeasurably selfish . "
Science and Health he called " strange and frantic and incomprehensible and uninterpretable , " and argued that Eddy had not written it herself . " There is nothing in Christian Science that is not explicable , " he wrote , " for God is one , Time is one , Individuality is one , and may be one of a series , one of many , as an individual man , individual horse ; whereas God is one , not one of a series , but one alone and without an equal . " Eddy apart , Twain felt ambivalent toward mind @-@ cure , arguing that " the thing back of it is wholly gracious and beautiful . " His daughter Clara Clemens became a Christian Scientist and wrote a book about it , Awake to a Perfect Day ( 1956 ) .
= = = McClure 's articles = = =
The first history of Christian Science appeared in McClure 's magazine in 14 installments from January 1907 to June 1908 , preceded by an editorial in December 1906 . The essence of the articles , which included court documents and affidavits from Eddy 's associates , was that Eddy 's chief concern was money , and that she had derived Christian Science from Quimby . The material was also published as a book , The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science ( 1909 ) . It became the key source for most non @-@ church histories of the religion . The editor @-@ in @-@ chief assigned five writers to work on the series , including the novelist Willa Cather as the principal author . The book was kept out of print from early in its life by the Christian Science church , which bought the original manuscript . It was republished in 1971 by Baker Book House when its copyright expired , and again in 1993 by the University of Nebraska Press .
= = = Next Friends suit , Eddy 's death = = =
In March 1907 several of Eddy 's relatives filed an unsuccessful lawsuit , the " Next Friends suit , " against members of Eddy 's household , alleging that she was unable to manage her own affairs . Calvin Frye , her long @-@ time personal assistant , was a particular target of the allegations . The New York World 's front @-@ page story in October 1906 , headline " Mrs. Mary Baker G. Eddy Dying ; Footman and Dummy Control Her , " said that Eddy was housebound and dying of cancer , that her staff had taken control of her fortune , and that another woman was impersonating her in public .
The newspaper persuaded Eddy 's family ( or " next friends " ) to file a lawsuit . Several joined the action , including Eddy 's biological son , George Glover , and adoptive son , Ebenezer J. Foster Eddy . Eddy was interviewed in her home in August 1907 by the judge and two psychiatrists , who concluded that she was mentally competent . In response to the McClure 's and New York World stories , Eddy asked the church in July 1908 to found the Christian Science Monitor as a platform for responsible journalism . It appeared in November that year , with the motto " To injure no man , but to bless all mankind , " and went on to win seven Pulitzer Prizes between 1950 and 2002 .
Eddy died two years later , on the evening of Saturday , December 3 , 1910 , aged 89 . The Mother Church announced at the end of the Sunday morning service that Eddy had " passed from our sight . " It said that " the time will come when there will be no more death , " but that Christian Scientists " do not look for [ Mrs. Eddy 's ] return in this world . " Her estate was valued at $ 1 @.@ 5 million , most of which she left to the church .
= = Decline = =
A census at the height of the religion 's popularity in 1936 counted c . 268 @,@ 915 Christian Scientists in the United States ( 2 @,@ 098 per million ) . The movement has been in decline since then . The church has sold buildings to free up funds . It closed 23 of its churches in Los Angeles between 1960 and 1995 . In 2004 it sold the First Church of Christ , Scientist , Manhattan , to the Crenshaw Christian Center for $ 14 million . ( The building was sold again in 2014 to be converted into condominiums . )
There were an estimated 106 @,@ 000 Scientists in the United States in 1990 ( 427 per million ) , according to Rodney Stark . In 2009 the church said that for the first time more new members had been admitted from Africa than from the United States , although it offered no numbers .
The Manual of the Mother Church prohibits the church from publishing membership figures , but it does provide the names of Christian Science practitioners , Scientists trained to offer Christian Science prayer on behalf of others . In 1941 there were 11 @,@ 200 practitioners in the United States , against 965 in 2015 ( 1 @,@ 249 worldwide ) . Stark writes that clusters of practitioners listed in the Christian Science Journal in 1998 were living in the same retirement communities .
Stark attributes the rise of the movement in the late @-@ 19th and early @-@ 20th centuries to several factors , chiefly that medical practice was in its infancy . Because patients often fared better without medical treatment , Christian Science prayer was favorable in comparison . Other factors included that the church retained cultural continuity with Christianity by stressing that it was Christian and adopting its terms , despite the new content Eddy introduced . It was not puritanical . Members were expected not to drink or smoke , but could otherwise do as they pleased , and several exceptions to the avoidance of medicine were permitted .
In 1906 72 percent of Christian Scientists in the United States were female , against 49 percent of the population . The church was attractive to women because it offered professional opportunities when it was difficult for women to find work outside the home . As Christian Scientists they could become practitioners after just 12 lessons . Of the 14 practitioners listed in the first edition of the Christian Science Journal , 12 were women .
The increased efficacy of medicine around World War II heralded the religion 's decline . Stark charts the use of sulfonamide to kill bacteria , the availability of penicillin in the 1940s and breakthroughs in immunology . Other factors were increased career opportunities for women , and that much of the membership was elderly . In 1998 30 percent of Christian Scientists were over 65 . Eddy was in her sixties by the time the movement began to spread . Stark writes that the " characteristics of the earliest members of a movement will tend to be reproduced in subsequent converts . " A significant percentage of Scientists remained single ( Eddy placed little emphasis on marriage and family ) , or became Scientists when their children were adults and unlikely to be converted . Christian Science did not have missionaries , so it relied on internal growth , but the conversion rate within families was not high . In a study cited by Stark , of 80 people raised within Christian Science just 26 ( 33 percent ) became Scientists themselves .
= = Healing practices = =
= = = Christian Science prayer = = =
Christian Scientists avoid almost all medical treatment , relying instead on Christian Science prayer . Christian Science prayer consists of silently arguing with oneself . There are no appeals to a personal god , and no set words . Caroline Fraser wrote in 1999 that the practitioner might repeat to herself , " the allness of God using Eddy 's seven synonyms – Life , Truth , Love , Spirit , Soul , Principle and Mind , " then that " Spirit , Substance , is the only Mind , and man is its image and likeness ; that Mind is intelligence ; that Spirit is substance ; that Love is wholeness ; that Life , Truth , and Love are the only reality . " She might deny other religions , the existence of evil , mesmerism , astrology , numerology and the symptoms of whatever the illness is . She concludes , Fraser writes , by asserting that disease is a lie , that this is the word of God and that it has the power to heal .
Christian Science practitioners are certified by the Church of Christ , Scientist , to charge a fee for Christian Science prayer . There were 1 @,@ 249 practitioners worldwide in 2015 ; in the United States in 2010 they charged $ 25 – $ 50 for an e @-@ mail , telephone or face @-@ to @-@ face consultation . Their training is a two @-@ week , 12 @-@ lesson course called primary class , based on the Recapitulation chapter of Science and Health . Practitioners wanting to teach primary class take a six @-@ day " normal class , " held in Boston once every three years , to become Christian Science teachers . There are also Christian Science nursing homes . They offer no medical services ; the nurses are Christian Scientists who have completed a course of religious study and training in basic skills , such as feeding and bathing .
= = = Testimonials = = =
The Christian Science Journal and Christian Science Sentinel publish anecdotal healing " testimonials , " which must be accompanied by statements from three verifiers : " people who know [ the testifier ] well and have either witnessed the healing or can vouch for [ the testifier 's ] integrity in sharing it . " Philosopher Margaret P. Battin writes that the seriousness with which these are treated by Christian Scientists ignores factors such as false positives caused by self @-@ limiting conditions . Because no negative accounts are published , the testimonials strengthen people 's tendency to rely on anecdotes .
The church published 53 @,@ 900 such accounts between 1900 and April 1989 . A church study , published in 1989 , examined 10 @,@ 000 of them , 2 @,@ 337 of which the church said involved conditions that had been medically diagnosed , and 623 of which were " medically confirmed by follow @-@ up examinations . " The report offered no evidence of the medical follow @-@ up . The Massachusetts Committee for Children and Youth listed among the report 's flaws that it had failed to compare the rates of successful and unsuccessful Christian Science treatment .
= = = Religious exemptions = = =
The main criticism Christian Scientists face is that their children are denied equal protection under the law . Sick and disabled children have been told the only thing wrong with them is " incorrect " thinking , and practitioners have told parents that the parents ' thoughts can harm their children . The church maintains that members are free to choose medical care , but several have said they fear ostracism . The American Academy of Pediatrics regards failure to seek medical care for children as " child neglect , regardless of the motivation . "
In the United States the Christian Science church has persuaded federal and local government to create and maintain religious @-@ exemption statutes , using the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment . The Free Exercise Clause ( italicized ) reads : " Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion , or prohibiting the free exercise thereof .... " Many of the exemptions say that in life @-@ threatening situations children must have access to medical care , but without early access the seriousness of an illness may not be recognized , in part because Christian Scientists are encouraged not to educate themselves about physical ailments .
After the conviction for manslaughter in 1967 of the Christian Scientist mother of five @-@ year @-@ old Lisa Sheridan , who died without medical care in Cape Cod , Massachusetts , the church lobbied the United States Department of Health , Education , and Welfare ( HEW ) to add a religious exemption to the Code of Federal Regulations . Added in 1974 , this stated that parents who did not provide medical treatment for a child for religious reasons would not be considered negligent . States were thereafter obliged to include exemptions or lose funding ; the wording of the exemptions made clear that they referred to Christian Science .
Largely as a result of lobbying by Children 's Healthcare is a Legal Duty , the government eliminated the HEW regulation in 1983 , but 39 states , Guam and the District of Columbia still had religious exemptions in their civil codes on child abuse and neglect as of February 2015 . Forty @-@ eight US states allowed religious exemptions for compulsory vaccination as of June 2015 . In Australia the church was the only group with a religious exemption for vaccination as of April 2015 ; the government said that it planned to remove it .
= = = Child deaths , prosecutions = = =
In over 50 cases between 1887 and the early 1990s , prosecutors charged Christian Scientists after adults and children died of treatable illnesses without medical care . The death in 1967 of five @-@ year @-@ old Lisa Sheridan of pneumonia , in Cape Cod , Massachusetts , was the first of several in the 20th century known within the church as the " child cases , " according to Fraser . Her mother was convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to five years ' probation . It was after this prosecution that the church began lobbying for religious exemptions .
In 1977 16 @-@ month @-@ old Matthew Swan died of bacterial meningitis in Detroit , Michigan , after his parents were persuaded not to seek timely medical care ; they responded by founding Children 's Healthcare is a Legal Duty ( CHILD ) in 1983 . Between 1980 and 1990 seven Christian Scientist parents in the United States were prosecuted ; there were four convictions , two overturned . In 1988 12 @-@ year @-@ old Ashley King died in Phoenix , Arizona , after living for months with a tumor on her leg that had a 41 @-@ inch ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) circumference ; her parents pleaded guilty to reckless endangerment . A prominent case in Massachusetts was Commonwealth v. Twitchell in 1990 , which saw the parents of two @-@ year @-@ old Robyn Twitchell convicted of involuntary manslaughter after he died of peritonitis . The conviction was overturned ; the appellate court ruled that the couple had " reasonably believed " they could rely on Christian Science prayer without being prosecuted .
The first time the church was held liable ( overturned on appeal ) was in 1993 after 11 @-@ year @-@ old Ian Lundman died of hyperglycaemia in Minnesota in 1989 . The church sent a Christian Science nurse to sit with him ; doctors testified that he could have been saved by an insulin injection up to two hours before his death . The mother and stepfather were charged with manslaughter , but the charges were dismissed . The boy 's father sued the mother , stepfather , practitioner , nurse , nursing home and church . He was awarded $ 5 @.@ 2 million compensatory damages , later reduced to $ 1 @.@ 5 million , and $ 9 million in punitive damages against the church . The Minnesota State Court of Appeals overturned the award against the church and nursing home in 1995 , finding that a judgment that forced the church to " abandon teaching its central tenet " was unconstitutional , and that , while the individuals had a duty of care toward the boy , the church and nursing home did not .
= = Church of Christ , Scientist = =
= = = Governance = = =
In the hierarchy of the Church of Christ , Scientist , only the Mother Church in Boston , The First Church of Christ , Scientist , uses the definite article in its name . Otherwise the first Christian Science church in any city is called First Church of Christ , Scientist , then Second Church of Christ , Scientist , and so on , followed by the name of the city ( for example , Third Church of Christ , Scientist , London ) . When a church closes , the others in that city are not renamed .
Founded in April 1879 , the Church of Christ , Scientist is led by a president and five @-@ person board of directors . There is a public @-@ relations department , known as the Committee on Publication , with representatives around the world ; this was set up by Eddy in 1898 to protect her own and the church 's reputation . The church was accused in the 1990s of silencing internal criticism by firing staff , delisting practitioners and excommunicating members .
The church 's administration is headquartered on Christian Science Center on the corner of Massachusetts Avenue and Huntington Avenue , Boston . The 14 @.@ 5 @-@ acre site includes the Mother Church ( 1894 ) , Mother Church Extension ( 1906 ) , the Christian Science Publishing Society building ( 1934 ) – which houses the Mary Baker Eddy Library and the church 's administrative staff – the Sunday School building ( 1971 ) , and the Church Colonnade building ( 1972 ) . It also includes the 26 @-@ story Administration Building ( 1972 ) , designed by Araldo Cossutta of I. M. Pei & Associates , which until 2008 housed the administrative staff from the church 's 15 departments . There is also a children 's fountain and a 690 x 100 ft ( 210 x 30 m ) reflecting pool .
= = = Manual of the Mother Church = = =
Eddy 's Manual of The Mother Church ( first published 1895 ) lists the church 's by @-@ laws . Requirements for members include daily prayer and daily study of the Bible and Science and Health . Members must subscribe to church periodicals if they can afford to , and pay an annual tax to the church of not less than one dollar .
Prohibitions include engaging in mental malpractice ; visiting a store that sells " obnoxious " books ; joining other churches ; publishing articles that are uncharitable toward religion , medicine , the courts or the law ; and publishing the number of church members . The manual also prohibits engaging in public debate about Christian Science without board approval , and learning hypnotism . It includes " The Golden Rule " : " A member of The Mother Church shall not haunt Mrs. Eddy 's drive when she goes out , continually stroll by her house , or make a summer resort near her for such a purpose . "
= = = Services = = =
The Church of Christ , Scientist has no clergy , sermons or rituals , and performs no baptisms , marriages or burials . Its main religious texts are the Bible and Science and Health . Each church has two Readers , who read aloud from those texts during services , and select hymns from the Christian Science Hymnal . There are Sunday morning and Wednesday evening services . Members offer testimonials during the Wednesday meetings about any success they attribute to Christian Science , including recovery from ill health .
= = = Notable members = = =
Notable Scientists have included Directors of Central Intelligence William H. Webster and Admiral Stansfield M. Turner ; Richard Nixon 's chief of staff H. R. Haldeman ; and Chief Domestic Advisor John Ehrlichman . NASA astronaut Alan Shepard and the viscountess Nancy Astor were Christian Scientists , as was naval officer Charles Lightoller , who survived the sinking of the Titanic in 1912 .
There used to be a concentration of Scientists in the film industry , including Joan Crawford , Carol Channing , Doris Day , Cecil B. DeMille , Horton Foote , George Hamilton , Mary Pickford , Ginger Rogers , Mickey Rooney , Jean Stapleton and King Vidor . Robert Duvall and Val Kilmer are Christian Scientists .
Those raised by Christian Scientist parents include jurist Helmuth James Graf von Moltke , military analyst Daniel Ellsberg , Ellen DeGeneres , Henry Fonda , Audrey Hepburn , Elizabeth Taylor and Robin Williams . Actor Anne Archer was also raised within Christian Science . She left the church when her son , Tommy Davis , was a child , and both became prominent in the Church of Scientology .
= = = Christian Science Publishing Society = = =
The Christian Science Publishing Society publishes several periodicals , including the Christian Science Monitor , winner of seven Pulitzer Prizes between 1950 and 2002 . This had a daily circulation in 1970 of 220 @,@ 000 , which by 2008 had contracted to 52 @,@ 000 . In 2009 it moved to a largely online presence with a weekly print run . In the 1980s the church produced its own television programs , and in 1991 it founded a 24 @-@ hour news channel , which closed with heavy losses after 13 months .
The church also publishes the weekly Christian Science Sentinel , the monthly Christian Science Journal , and the Herald of Christian Science , a non @-@ English publication . In April 2012 JSH @-@ Online made back issues of the Journal , Sentinel and Herald available online to subscribers .
The church faced internal dissent in 1991 over its decision to publish The Destiny of The Mother Church . Written and privately printed in 1943 by Bliss Knapp , former president of the Mother Church , the book suggested that Eddy was the Woman of the Apocalypse of the New Testament . Knapp and his family bequeathed $ 98 million to the church on condition that it publish and authorize the book by 1993 ; otherwise the money would go to Stanford University and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art . The church published and made the book available in Christian Science reading rooms . One senior employee was fired for failing to support the church 's decision , and 18 of the 21 editorial staff of the religious journals resigned . In the end the other parties disputed that making the book available in Reading Rooms constituted authorization , and the bequest was split three ways .
= = = Works by Mary Baker Eddy = = =
= Mitch McGary =
Mitchell Neil William " Mitch " McGary ( born June 6 , 1992 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Oklahoma City Thunder of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . A native of Chesterton , Indiana , McGary declared for the NBA draft after completing his sophomore season for the 2013 – 14 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team . He was drafted 21st overall by the Thunder in the 2014 NBA draft .
At the time of his National Letter of Intent signing with Michigan Wolverines basketball , ESPN.com and Scout.com ranked McGary as the number two player in the United States high school class of 2012 , while Rivals.com ranked him as the number three prospect . He was not only the consensus top power forward recruit in the nation , but also the top big man according to most sources at the time . After his signing , however , McGary fell down in the rankings as his underdeveloped offensive skills became apparent .
At Michigan , McGary became the sixth man as well as the leading shot blocker and rebounder for the 2012 – 13 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team . During the season , he was twice named Big Ten Freshman of the Week . He became the regular starter during the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament and earned South All @-@ Regional Team and NCAA All @-@ Tournament Team recognition as he helped the team reach the championship game . He led all Big Ten Freshman in rebounding .
= = Background = =
Mitch McGary was born on June 6 , 1992 , and grew up in the Chesterton , Indiana , area . He played in YMCA and Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) basketball leagues as a youth , and his father , Tim , who had never played organized sports , coached him until fourth grade . McGary 's mother is named Valerie . When McGary was younger , his father thought his athletic future was in baseball . McGary played on the 2007 – 08 Chesterton High School junior varsity team as a freshman , while eventual three @-@ time Michigan Wolverines captain Zack Novak was a senior on the varsity team . That year he also was a 6 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) , 190 @-@ pound ( 86 kg ) freshman tight end on the high school football team , but his father made him quit football as he continued to grow . His local Indiana SPY Players AAU basketball team included future Michigan teammates Max Bielfeldt and Glenn Robinson III , son of Glenn Robinson . McGary joined the varsity basketball team the following season and played two years . McGary is afflicted with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . He eventually transferred to Brewster Academy , a prep school in Wolfeboro , New Hampshire , to repeat his junior year because his parents thought the discipline would be good for him . Before transferring to Brewster , McGary was the tallest kid in his school and in the basketball conference that he played in . McGary shoots left @-@ handed .
As late as March 2011 , McGary ranked 92nd in the national class of 2012 by Rivals.com. During the LeBron James Skills Academy in July , McGary stood out as the best player in attendance . He was invited to participate in the 5th annual Nike Global Challenge the following month . Due to an ankle injury he did not participate . However , later that month , he participated in the Boost Mobile Elite 24 event , where he shattered a backboard . His other 2011 summer camps included Pittsburgh Jam Fest , the National Basketball Players Association Top 100 camp and the Under Armour Best of the Best Camp , where he was the most valuable player . Also in August , ESPN reported that McGary had narrowed his list of schools to six : University of Florida , University of Maryland , University of North Carolina , University of Michigan , Duke University and University of Kentucky . Because McGary does not like to be the bearer of bad news , when he narrowed his list , he had his father contact the coaches of the teams no longer in contention for his services . McGary scheduled his official Michigan visit for the beginning of September . McGary completed his official campus visits to University of Michigan , University of North Carolina , and Duke University , in that order , by October 4 . However , due to injuries suffered a few weeks earlier while shattering the backboard , he only played pick @-@ up games at Duke . He also made an unofficial visit to Florida prior to these official visits . While Michigan assistant coach Bacari Alexander was recruiting him , a Brewster Academy groundskeeper relayed a story about McGary consoling a freshman who was in tears when his parents dropped him off on the first day of school . Alexander says the groundskeeper told him that " McGary spotted the kid from a distance , stopped his conversation and ran to him , consoled him and brought him into school with his group of friends . " Alexander said that McGary 's character made him a great fit for Michigan .
His reported best friend , Robinson had committed to Michigan on September 14 , 2010 . In a press conference broadcast on ESPNU on November 3 , 2011 , McGary announced his verbal commitment to Michigan over his other two finalist Florida and Duke . Within hours of the commitment , ESPN ranked Michigan 's recruiting class the fifth best in the nation . After several other schools announced their commitments , Michigan , which had been outside the top 25 at the end of October , ranked the number 7 class in the nation , according to ESPN . He waited until November 9 to sign his National Letter of Intent so that his parents , who were still living in Indiana , could be present . Both of his parents had liked head coach Mike Krzyzewski and had hoped that he would choose Duke . At the time of their November 2011 National Letter of Intent signings , Nik Stauskas , Robinson and McGary gave Michigan a consensus top 10 entering class for its 2012 class .
McGary was technically eligible for the 2012 NBA Draft . Brewster entered the 2012 NEPSAC Class AAA Boys ' Basketball Tournament undefeated and ranked number 1 in the nation according to the Five @-@ Star Basketball Rankings published in Sports Illustrated , but lost in the semifinals of the tournament to Northfield Mount Hermon School , who was led by future teammate Spike Albrecht , in overtime on March 2 . In the overtime period , McGary missed a game @-@ tying free throw with 17 @.@ 3 seconds remaining . His Brewster team defeated Massanutten Military Academy and Notre Dame Prep to reach the March 7 championship game in the National Prep Championship against Hargrave Military Academy . Brewster won the National Prep Championship Game . The 2011 – 12 Brewster team was reported to have eight future Division I basketball players , including Florida State commit Aaron Thomas , Xavier commit Semaj Christon , NC State commit T. J. Warren , and JaKarr Sampson . JaKarr Sampson earned both the 2012 National Prep Championship MVP and New England Preparatory School Athletic Council ( NEPSAC ) AAA Player of the Year , leaving McGary with a supporting role .
McGary was invited to participate in the four @-@ team All @-@ American Championship along with future teammate Robinson in New Orleans on April 1 , 2012 . Six days later , McGary represented USA Basketball at the 15th annual Nike Hoops Summit as part of the 2012 USA Junior National Select Team . Following the season , he was named as one of 40 Parade All @-@ Americans .
During his senior season , scouts became aware that McGary was less polished offensively than he had appeared . By January , his ranking had been reduced from number 2 overall to about number 20 . He eventually settled between 26th and 30th by Scout.com , ESPN and Rivals.com in the final class of 2012 overall rankings .
= = College career = =
The 2011 – 12 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team had been co @-@ champions of 2011 – 12 Big Ten Conference , but lost both of its co @-@ captains , Zack Novak and Stu Douglass , to graduation and three players as transfers . The team was returning a nucleus of All @-@ Big Ten players Trey Burke and Tim Hardaway , Jr .
= = = Freshman = = =
In the third game of the season and the third of his career , McGary posted a game @-@ high 9 rebounds in 17 minutes of play off the bench against Cleveland State on November 13 . McGary also went 3 @-@ for @-@ 3 on his field goals . McGary reached double figures in scoring for the first time December 4 against Western Michigan ( Michigan 's eighth game of the season ) when he scored 10 points on 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 shooting in 14 minutes of play off the bench . He had his first 10 @-@ rebound game on December 11 against the Binghamton Bearcats . On December 20 , he posted his first double @-@ double with a then career @-@ high 11 rebounds and 10 points as well as a then career @-@ high 3 steals in just 18 minute of play against Eastern Michigan . On December 24 , he was recognized as Big Ten Freshman of the Week . On January 6 , McGary tied then career high with 11 rebounds , tied a then career high 2 assists and set a career high with 3 blocked shots against Iowa . On January 28 , Michigan was ranked number one in the AP Poll with 51 of the 65 first place votes . It marked the first time Michigan ranked atop the AP Poll since the Fab Five 1992 – 93 team did so on December 5 , 1992 .
After enduring an injured ankle against Illinois , starting center Jordan Morgan sat out the January 30 Northwestern game . McGary posted 11 rebounds again , against Northwestern . In the subsequent games , Morgan continued to be in a day @-@ to @-@ day condition , playing minimal or no minutes . McGary played a career @-@ high 29 minutes , tallying then career highs of 14 points and 4 steals , along with 6 rebounds , on February 5 in an overtime victory against Ohio State . On February 9 , McGary played 32 minutes in an overtime loss to Wisconsin , totaling 12 points , 3 steals and 8 rebounds . For his efforts in two overtime games on the week , McGary earned his second Big Ten Freshman of the Week honor on February 11 . On February 12 in Michigan 's 25th game of the season , McGary made his first appearance in the starting lineup in the rivalry game against Michigan State . Michigan lost 75 – 52 with McGary posting a team @-@ high 4 rebounds . Morgan returned to the starting lineup in the February 17 Penn State contest , but he only played 7 minutes . Although McGary started again against Illinois on February 24 , Morgan played more minutes than McGary and Jon Horford . On March 14 , in the first round of the 2013 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament against Penn State , McGary posted his second career double @-@ double , reaching 10 points and 10 rebounds in the first half , but only adding one more rebound in the second half .
Prior to the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , Jeff Goodman of CBSSports.com named Michigan with McGary first among tournament teams in terms of having the most future NBA talent on its roster ( in the absence of Kentucky who was relegated to the 2013 National Invitation Tournament ) . As a number four seed , Michigan defeated its first NCAA tournament opponent , South Dakota State , 71 – 56 on March 21 with McGary making his third start of the season and contributing 13 points and 9 rebounds . The 27th victory of the season gave the team its most wins in 20 years and matched head coach John Beilein 's career high . Two days later McGary made his fourth career start , adding career highs of 21 points on 10 @-@ for @-@ 11 shooting and 14 rebounds against VCU in a 78 – 53 victory . In the first two tournament games combined , he shot 16 @-@ for @-@ 20 . On March 29 against Kansas , McGary earned his third consecutive start and 5th start of the season . He scored a career @-@ high 25 points and career @-@ high tying 14 rebounds , marking his second consecutive and fourth career double @-@ double . He shot 12 @-@ for @-@ 17 in the game . McGary joined Blake Griffin ( 2009 ) as the only two players in the last 15 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournaments to achieve 14 or more rebounds and 21 or more points in back @-@ to @-@ back games . With his tournament run , McGary became the Big Ten Conference leader in field goal percentage ( although he slipped just below Victor Oladipo at the end of the season ) . In the regional finals on March 31 against Florida , McGary contributed 9 rebounds and 11 points , including 8 points as Michigan opened up a 13 – 0 lead to start the game . McGary , also added a career @-@ high 5 steals during his fourth consecutive start . McGary and Stauskas joined Most Outstanding Player Trey Burke on the 5 @-@ man South All @-@ Regional team . Following the regional championship postgame prayer and with Mrs. Beilein 's consent , McGary and Tim Hardaway , Jr. gave head coach John Beilein a gatorade shower . In the April 6 national semifinal against Syracuse , McGary contributed 10 points and 12 rebounds along with a career @-@ high 6 assists . Two nights later , Michigan lost in the championship game to Louisville by an 82 – 76 margin as McGary contributed 6 points , 6 rebounds , a steal , a block and an assist . McGary made the 7 @-@ man All @-@ Tournament team ( which was revised multiple times ) along with teammates Burke and Albrecht . In his six NCAA Tournament starts , he averaged a double @-@ double with 14 @.@ 3 points and 10 @.@ 8 rebounds . McGary finished the season as the Big Ten conference freshman leader in rebounding and placed second to Victor Oladipo in field goal percentage ( 59 @.@ 87 % vs. 59 @.@ 82 % ) .
= = = = 2013 NBA Draft = = = =
Prior to the Final Four , McGary stated that he would not enter the 2013 NBA Draft , but a few days later said he had been
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lab 's direct connection with that . The production team 's intention was to spend more time exploring the nitty @-@ gritty of survival in the post @-@ virus world and how the various characters coped .
Filming took place in various locations around Birmingham including Baskerville House ( exterior ) and the former ITV Central studios ( interior ) standing in for a fictional hospital .
= = Series 1 DVD extras and Easter egg = =
Making of featurette
Character profiles
Effects reel
Easter egg
On disc one the easter egg can be revealed by going to the main menu , highlighting episode selection then when the grey corpuscle appears press up and the corpuscle selects . This reveals around nine to ten minutes of behind the scenes footage .
= = Media = =
To tie in with the broadcast of the series Terry Nation 's 1976 novelisation was released as a new edition by Orion Books . The 2008 series is credited as being based on this novel .
A web site was launched to tie in with the series , entitled " Survivors Interactive " , which included interviews with actors , clips from the programme and original character pieces @-@ to @-@ camera . The interactive component was based on visitors selecting characters from the show and then answering either / or dilemma @-@ based questions , which are then profiled by what type of survivor they would make as they travel through the post @-@ plague environment .
The first series was released by 2 Entertain Video on DVD on 26 January 2009 , and includes special features such as an Easter Egg , A New World – The Making of Survivors documentary , character profiles and a Survivors Special Effects featurette .
In 2013 , when the show was added to the Netflix platform , it was the highest watched program and consequently , Netflix were in contact with the BBC for discussions on continuing the program . Nothing since has been heard of this rumour .
Classic TV Press published the book Worlds Apart : an unofficial and unauthorised guide to the BBC 's remake of Survivors ( March 2010 ) , written by Rich Cross , shortly after transmission of the second series completes . The book incorporates : in depth synopses and reviews for all the episodes from Series 1 and 2 ; insights into the making of the series ; examination of the similarities and differences between the new series and the 1970s series ; a photographic guide to filming locations ; and exclusive production shots .
= = Differences from the source material = =
In the credits , the re @-@ imagined series is said to be based on the 1976 novel by Terry Nation ; however , there are a number of differences between the series and its source material . In the novel , Jenny Richards survives , whereas her counterpart in the 2008 series , Jenny Collins , does not ; this means that Greg Preston and Jenny cannot have a child as the years unfold . Abby Grant still falls in love with Jimmy Garland ; however in the book , he eventually dies from septicaemia .
There is a Tom Price in the 1970s novelisation and series . However , in the novelisation , he was a Welsh tramp who witnessed the climactic accidental killing of Abby Grant by her son , Peter . In the television series , he was an escaped convict who joined Abby 's community .
The television characters Anya Raczynski , Najid Hanif , and Al Sadiq have no direct counterparts in the book . Samantha Willis does not appear in the book , either , but her television characterisation incorporates and parallels some of the personality and leadership ambitions of the book character Arthur Wormley , a " ruthless former trade union leader , " who establishes a paramilitary organisation called the National Unity Force which is responsible for Abby 's community 's eventual decision to leave Britain for the Mediterranean in the latter chapters of the novelisation .
At the end of the book , Peter Grant , who has joined a nomadic gang of feral adolescents , accidentally shoots and kills Abby , whom he has not seen for the last four years . However , at the end of the current incarnation of Survivors series 2 , Peter shoots but doesn 't kill Tom , and Abby is finally reunited with Peter , without her accidental death .
The television portrayal of Sarah Boyer is probably the closest character to her portrayal in the novelisation . In the book , her companion was named Vic , not Bob , and in the 1970s series , she was named Anne Tranter . Vic 's fate is not revealed in the novelization , but it can be inferred that he starved to death . In the 2008 television series , Bob survives his initial abandonment . In the 1970s series , Anne ( Sarah in the 2008 version ) leaves during Episode 11 ; in the 2008 version , she dies from a mutated version of the virus .
= John Diefenbaker =
John George Diefenbaker , PC , CH , QC ( / ˈdiːfənˌbeɪkər / ; September 18 , 1895 – August 16 , 1979 ) was the 13th Prime Minister of Canada , serving from June 21 , 1957 to April 22 , 1963 . He was the only Progressive Conservative ( PC or Tory ) party leader between 1930 and 1979 to lead the party to an election victory , doing so three times , although only once with a majority of seats in the Canadian House of Commons .
Diefenbaker was born in southwestern Ontario in 1895 . In 1903 , his family migrated west to the portion of the North @-@ West Territories which would shortly thereafter become the province of Saskatchewan . He grew up in the province , and was interested in politics from a young age . After brief service in World War I , Diefenbaker became a noted criminal defence lawyer . He contested elections through the 1920s and 1930s with little success until he was finally elected to the House of Commons in 1940 .
Diefenbaker was repeatedly a candidate for the PC leadership . He gained that party position in 1956 , on his third attempt . In 1957 , he led the Tories to their first electoral victory in 27 years ; a year later he called a snap election and spearheaded them to one of their greatest triumphs . Diefenbaker appointed the first female minister in Canadian history to his Cabinet , as well as the first aboriginal member of the Senate . During his six years as Prime Minister , his government obtained passage of the Canadian Bill of Rights and granted the vote to the First Nations and Inuit peoples . In foreign policy , his stance against apartheid helped secure the departure of South Africa from the Commonwealth of Nations , but his indecision on whether to accept Bomarc nuclear missiles from the United States led to his government 's downfall . Diefenbaker is also remembered for his role in the 1959 cancellation of the Avro Arrow project .
Factionalism returned in full force as the Progressive Conservatives fell from power in 1963 , and while Diefenbaker 's performance as Opposition Leader was heralded , his second loss at the polls prompted opponents within the party to a leadership convention in 1967 . Diefenbaker stood for re @-@ election as party leader at the last moment , but only attracted minimal support and withdrew . He remained an MP until his death in 1979 , two months after Joe Clark became the next Tory Prime Minister .
= = Early life = =
Diefenbaker was born on September 18 , 1895 , in Neustadt , Ontario , to William Thomas Diefenbaker and the former Mary Florence Bannerman . His father was the son of German immigrants from Adersbach ( near Sinsheim ) in Baden ; Mary Diefenbaker was of Scottish descent and Diefenbaker was Baptist . The family moved to several locations in Ontario in John 's early years . William Diefenbaker was a teacher , and had deep interests in history and politics , which he sought to inculcate in his students . He had remarkable success doing so ; of the 28 students at his school near Toronto in 1903 , four , including his son , John , served as Conservative MPs in the 19th Canadian Parliament beginning in 1940 .
The Diefenbaker family moved west in 1903 , for William Diefenbaker to accept a position near Fort Carlton , then in the Northwest Territories ( now in Saskatchewan ) . In 1906 , William claimed a quarter @-@ section , 160 acres ( 0 @.@ 65 km2 ) of undeveloped land near Borden , Saskatchewan . In February 1910 , the Diefenbaker family moved to Saskatoon , the site of the University of Saskatchewan . William and Mary Diefenbaker felt that John and his brother Elmer would have greater educational opportunities in Saskatoon .
John Diefenbaker had been interested in politics from an early age , and told his mother at the age of eight or nine that he would some day be Prime Minister . She told him that it was an impossible ambition , especially for a boy living on the prairies . She would live to be proved wrong . John 's first contact with politics came in 1910 , when he sold a newspaper to Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier , in Saskatoon to lay the cornerstone for the University 's first building . The present and future Prime Ministers conversed , and when giving his speech that afternoon , Sir Wilfrid commented on the newsboy who had ended their conversation by saying , " I can 't waste any more time on you , Prime Minister . I must get about my work . "
After graduating from high school in Saskatoon , in 1912 , Diefenbaker entered the University of Saskatchewan . He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1915 , and his Master of Arts the following year .
Diefenbaker was commissioned a lieutenant into the 196th ( Western Universities ) Battalion , CEF in May 1916 . In September , Diefenbaker was part of a contingent of 300 junior officers sent to Britain for pre @-@ deployment training . Diefenbaker related in his memoirs that he was hit by a shovel , and the injury eventually resulted in his being invalided home . Diefenbaker 's recollections do not correspond with his army medical records , which show no contemporary account of such an injury , and his biographer , Denis Smith , speculates that any injury was psychosomatic .
After leaving the military in 1917 , Diefenbaker returned to Saskatchewan where he resumed his work as an articling student in law . He received his law degree in 1919 , the first student to secure three degrees from the University of Saskatchewan . On June 30 , 1919 , he was called to the bar , and the following day , opened a small practice in the village of Wakaw , Saskatchewan .
= = Barrister and candidate ( 1919 – 1940 ) = =
= = = Wakaw days ( 1919 – 1924 ) = = =
Although Wakaw had a population of only 400 , it sat at the heart of a densely populated area of rural townships and had its own district court . It was also easily accessible to Saskatoon , Prince Albert and Humboldt , places where the Court of King 's Bench sat . The local people were mostly immigrants , and Diefenbaker 's research found them to be particularly litigious . There was already one barrister in town , and the residents were loyal to him , initially refusing to rent office space to Diefenbaker . The new lawyer was forced to rent a vacant lot and erect a two @-@ room wooden shack .
Diefenbaker won the local people over through his success ; in his first year in practice , he tried 62 jury trials , winning approximately half of his cases . He rarely called defence witnesses , thereby avoiding the possibility of rebuttal witnesses for the Crown , and securing the last word for himself . In late 1920 , he was elected to the village council to serve a three @-@ year term .
Diefenbaker would often spend weekends with his parents in Saskatoon . While there , he began to woo Olive Freeman , daughter of the Baptist minister , but in 1921 , she moved with her family to Brandon , Manitoba , and the two lost touch for more than 20 years . He then courted Beth Newell , a cashier in Saskatoon , and by 1922 , the two were engaged . However , in 1923 , Newell was diagnosed with tuberculosis , and Diefenbaker broke off contact with her . She died the following year . Diefenbaker was himself subject to internal bleeding , and may have feared that the disease would be transmitted to him . In late 1923 , he had an operation at the Mayo Clinic for a gastric ulcer , but his health remained uncertain for several more years .
After four years in Wakaw , Diefenbaker so dominated the local legal practice that his competitor left town . On May 1 , 1924 , Diefenbaker moved to Prince Albert , leaving a law partner in charge of the Wakaw office .
= = = Aspiring politician ( 1924 – 1929 ) = = =
Since 1905 , when Saskatchewan entered Confederation , the province had been dominated by the Liberal Party , which practised highly effective machine politics . Diefenbaker was fond of stating , in his later years , that the only protection a Conservative had in the province was that afforded by the game laws .
Diefenbaker 's father , William , was a Liberal ; however , John Diefenbaker found himself attracted to the Conservative Party . Free trade was widely popular throughout Western Canada , but Diefenbaker was convinced by the Conservative position that free trade would make Canada an economic dependent of the United States . However , he did not speak publicly of his politics . Diefenbaker recalled in his memoirs that , in 1921 , he had been elected as secretary of the Wakaw Liberal Association while absent in Saskatoon , and had returned to find the association 's records in his office . He promptly returned them to the association president . Diefenbaker also stated that he had been told that if he became a Liberal candidate , " there was no position in the province which would not be open to him . "
It was not until 1925 that Diefenbaker publicly came forward as a Conservative , a year in which both federal and Saskatchewan provincial elections were held . Journalist and historian Peter C. Newman , in his best @-@ selling account of the Diefenbaker years , suggested that this choice was made for practical , rather than political reasons , as Diefenbaker had little chance of defeating established politicians and securing the Liberal nomination for either the House of Commons or the Legislative Assembly . The provincial election took place in early June ; Liberals would later claim that Diefenbaker had campaigned for their party in the election . On June 19 , however , Diefenbaker addressed a Conservative organizing committee , and on August 6 , was nominated as the party 's candidate for the federal riding of Prince Albert , a district in which the party 's last candidate had lost his election deposit . A nasty campaign ensued , in which Diefenbaker was called a " Hun " because of his German @-@ derived surname . The 1925 federal election was held on October 29 ; he finished third behind the Liberal and Progressive Party candidates , losing his deposit .
The winning candidate , Charles McDonald , did not hold the seat long , resigning it to open a place for the Prime Minister , William Lyon Mackenzie King , who had been defeated in his Ontario riding . The Tories ran no candidate against Mackenzie King in the by @-@ election on February 15 , 1926 , and he won easily . Although in the 1925 federal election , the Conservatives had won the greatest number of seats , Mackenzie King continued as Prime Minister with the tacit support of the Progressives . Mackenzie King held office for several months until he finally resigned when the Governor General , Lord Byng , refused a dissolution . Conservative Party leader Arthur Meighen became Prime Minister , but was quickly defeated in the House of Commons , and Byng finally granted a dissolution of Parliament . Diefenbaker , who had been confirmed as Conservative candidate , stood against Mackenzie King in the 1926 election , a rare direct electoral contest between two Canadian Prime Ministers . Mackenzie King triumphed easily , and regained his position as Prime Minister .
= = = Perennial candidate ( 1929 – 1940 ) = = =
Diefenbaker stood for the Legislative Assembly in the 1929 provincial election . He was defeated , but Saskatchewan Conservatives formed their first government , with help from smaller parties . As the defeated Conservative candidate for Prince Albert City , he was given charge of political patronage there , and was created a King 's Counsel . Three weeks after his electoral defeat , he married Saskatoon teacher Edna Brower .
Diefenbaker chose not to stand for the House of Commons in the 1930 federal election , citing health reasons . The Conservatives gained a majority in the election , and party leader R. B. Bennett became Prime Minister . Diefenbaker continued a high @-@ profile legal practice , and in 1933 , ran for mayor of Prince Albert . He was defeated by 48 votes in an election in which over 2 @,@ 000 ballots were cast .
In 1934 , when the Crown prosecutor for Prince Albert resigned to become the Conservative Party 's legislative candidate , Diefenbaker took his place as prosecutor . Diefenbaker did not stand in the 1934 provincial election , in which the governing Conservatives lost every seat . Six days after the election , Diefenbaker resigned as Crown prosecutor . The federal government of Bennett was defeated the following year and Mackenzie King returned as Prime Minister . Judging his prospects hopeless , Diefenbaker had declined a nomination to stand again against Mackenzie King in Prince Albert . In the waning days of the Bennett government , the Saskatchewan Conservative Party President was appointed a judge , leaving Diefenbaker , who had been elected the party 's vice president , as acting president of the provincial party .
Saskatchewan Conservatives eventually arranged a leadership convention for October 28 , 1936 . Eleven people were nominated , including Diefenbaker . The other ten candidates all deemed the provincial party in such hopeless shape that they withdrew , and Diefenbaker won the position by default . Diefenbaker asked the federal party for $ 10 @,@ 000 in financial support , but the funds were refused , and the Conservatives were shut out of the legislature in the 1938 provincial elections for the second consecutive time . Diefenbaker himself was defeated in the Arm River riding by 190 votes . With the province @-@ wide Conservative vote having fallen to 12 % , Diefenbaker offered his resignation to a post @-@ election party meeting in Moose Jaw , but it was refused . Diefenbaker continued to run the provincial party out of his law office , and paid the party 's debts from his own pocket .
Diefenbaker quietly sought the Conservative nomination for the federal riding of Lake Centre , but was unwilling to risk a divisive intra @-@ party squabble . In what Diefenbaker biographer Smith states " appears to have been an elaborate and prearranged charade " , Diefenbaker attended the nominating convention as keynote speaker , but withdrew when his name was proposed , stating a local man should be selected . The winner among the six remaining candidates , riding president W. B. Kelly , declined the nomination , urging the delegates to select Diefenbaker , which they promptly did . Mackenzie King called a general election for March 25 , 1940 . The incumbent in Lake Centre was the Deputy Speaker of the House of Commons , Liberal John Frederick Johnston . Diefenbaker campaigned aggressively in Lake Centre , holding 63 rallies and seeking to appeal to members of all parties . On election day , he defeated Johnston by 280 votes on what was otherwise a disastrous day for the Conservatives , who won only 39 seats out of the 245 in the House of Commons — their lowest total since Confederation .
= = Parliamentary rise ( 1940 – 1957 ) = =
= = = Mackenzie King years ( 1940 – 1948 ) = = =
Diefenbaker joined a shrunken and demoralized Conservative caucus in the House of Commons . The Conservative leader , Robert Manion , failed to win a place in the Commons in the election , which saw the Liberals take 181 seats . The Tories sought to be included in a wartime coalition government , but Mackenzie King refused . The House of Commons had only a slight role in the war effort ; under the state of emergency , most business was accomplished through the Cabinet issuing Orders in Council .
Diefenbaker was appointed to the House Committee on the Defence of Canada Regulations , an all @-@ party committee which examined the wartime rules which allowed arrest and detention without trial . On June 13 , 1940 , Diefenbaker made his maiden speech as an MP , supporting the regulations , and emphatically stating that most Canadians of German descent were loyal . When the Mackenzie King government sought to force Canadians of Japanese descent from the Pacific Coast , Diefenbaker fought against the government 's actions . However , his efforts were unsuccessful , and the forced relocation and internment of many Japanese @-@ Canadians proceeded .
According to Diefenbaker biographer Smith , the Conservative MP quietly admired Mackenzie King for his political skills . However , Diefenbaker proved a gadfly and an annoyance to Mackenzie King . Angered by the words of Diefenbaker and fellow Conservative MP Howard Green in seeking to censure the government , the Prime Minister referred to Conservative MPs as " a mob " . When Diefenbaker accompanied two other Conservative leaders to a briefing by Mackenzie King on the war , the Prime Minister exploded at Diefenbaker ( a constituent of his ) , " What business do you have to be here ? You strike me to the heart every time you speak . "
The Conservatives elected a floor leader , and in 1941 approached former Prime Minister Meighen , who had been appointed as a senator by Bennett , about becoming party leader again . Meighen agreed , and resigned his Senate seat , but lost a by @-@ election for an Ontario seat in the House of Commons . He remained as leader for several months , although he could not enter the chamber of the House of Commons . Meighen sought to move the Tories to the left , in order to undercut the Liberals and to take support away from the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation ( CCF , the predecessor of the New Democratic Party ( NDP ) ) . To that end , he sought to draft the Liberal @-@ Progressive premier of Manitoba , John Bracken , to lead the Conservatives . Diefenbaker objected to what he saw as an attempt to rig the party 's choice of new leader and stood for the leadership himself at the party 's 1942 leadership convention . Bracken was elected on the second ballot ; Diefenbaker finished a distant third in both polls . At Bracken 's request , the convention changed the party 's name to " Progressive Conservative Party of Canada " . Bracken chose not to seek entry to the House through a by @-@ election , and when the Conservatives elected a new floor leader , Diefenbaker was defeated by one vote .
Bracken was elected to the Commons in the 1945 general election , and for the first time in five years the Tories had their party leader in the House of Commons . The Progressive Conservatives won 67 seats to the Liberals ' 125 , with smaller parties and independents winning 52 seats . Diefenbaker increased his majority to over 1 @,@ 000 votes , and had the satisfaction of seeing Mackenzie King defeated in Prince Albert — but by a CCF candidate . The Prime Minister was returned in an Ontario by @-@ election within months .
Diefenbaker staked out a position on the populist left of the PC party . Though most Canadians were content to look to Parliament for protection of civil liberties , Diefenbaker called for a Bill of Rights , calling it " the only way to stop the march on the part of the government towards arbitrary power " . He objected to the great powers used by the Mackenzie King government to attempt to root out Soviet spies after the war , such as imprisonment without trial , and complained about the government 's proclivity for letting its wartime powers become permanent .
= = = Leadership contender ( 1948 – 1956 ) = = =
In early 1948 , Mackenzie King , by now aged 73 , announced his retirement ; later that year Louis St. Laurent succeeded him . Although Bracken had nearly doubled the Tory representation in the House , prominent Tories were increasingly unhappy with his leadership , and pressured him to stand down . These party bosses believed that Ontario Premier George A. Drew , who had won three successive provincial elections and had even made inroads in francophone ridings , was the man to lead the Progressive Conservatives to victory . When Bracken resigned on July 17 , 1948 , Diefenbaker announced his candidacy . The party 's backers , principally financiers headquartered on Toronto 's Bay Street , preferred Drew 's conservative political stances to Diefenbaker 's Western populism . Tory leaders packed the leadership convention in Ottawa in favour of Drew , appointing more than 300 delegates at @-@ large . One cynical party member commented , " Ghost delegates with ghost ballots , marked by the ghostly hidden hand of Bay Street , are going to pick George Drew , and he 'll deliver a ghost @-@ written speech that 'll cheer us all up , as we march briskly into a political graveyard . " Drew easily defeated Diefenbaker on the first ballot . St. Laurent called an election for June 1949 , and the Tories were decimated , falling to 41 seats , only two more than the party 's 1940 nadir . Despite intense efforts to make the Progressive Conservatives appeal to Quebecers , the party won only two seats in the province .
Newman argued that but for Diefenbaker 's many defeats , he would never have become Prime Minister :
If , as a neophyte lawyer , he had succeeded in winning the Prince Albert seat in the federal elections of 1925 or 1926 , ... Diefenbaker would probably have been remembered only as an obscure minister in Bennett 's Depression cabinet ... If he had carried his home @-@ town mayoralty in 1933 , ... he 'd probably not be remembered at all ... If he had succeeded in his bid for the national leadership in 1942 , he might have taken the place of John Bracken on his six @-@ year march to oblivion as leader of a party that had not changed itself enough to follow a Prairie radical ... [ If he had defeated Drew in 1948 , he ] would have been free to flounder before the political strength of Louis St. Laurent in the 1949 and 1953 campaigns .
The governing Liberals repeatedly attempted to deprive Diefenbaker of his parliamentary seat . In 1948 , Lake Centre was redistricted to remove areas which strongly supported Diefenbaker . In spite of that , he was returned in the 1949 election , the only PC member from Saskatchewan . In 1952 , a redistricting committee dominated by Liberals abolished Lake Centre entirely , dividing its voters among three other ridings . Diefenbaker stated in his memoirs that he had considered retiring from the House ; with Drew only a year older than he was , the Westerner saw little prospect of advancement , and had received tempting offers from Ontario law firms . However , the gerrymandering so angered him that he decided to fight for a seat . Diefenbaker 's party had taken Prince Albert only once , in 1911 , but he decided to stand in that riding for the 1953 election , and was successful . He would hold that seat for the rest of his life . Even though Diefenbaker campaigned nationally for party candidates , the Progressive Conservatives gained little , rising to 51 seats as St. Laurent led the Liberals to a fifth successive majority . In addition to trying to secure his departure from Parliament , the government opened a home for unwed Indian mothers next door to Diefenbaker 's home in Prince Albert .
Diefenbaker continued practising law . In 1951 , he gained national attention by accepting the Atherton case , in which a young telegraph operator had been accused of negligently causing a train crash by omitting crucial information from a message . Twenty @-@ one people were killed , mostly Canadian troops bound for Korea . Diefenbaker paid $ 1 @,@ 500 and sat a token bar examination to join the Law Society of British Columbia to take the case , and gained an acquittal , prejudicing the jury against the Crown prosecutor and pointing out a previous case in which interference had caused information to be lost in transmission .
Although Edna Diefenbaker had been devoted to advancing her husband 's career , in the mid @-@ 1940s she began to suffer mental illness , and was placed in a private mental hospital for a time . She later fell ill from leukemia , and died in 1951 . In 1953 , Diefenbaker married Olive Palmer ( formerly Olive Freeman ) , whom he had courted while living in Wakaw . Olive Diefenbaker became a great source of strength to her husband . There were no children born of either marriage .
Diefenbaker won Prince Albert in 1953 , even as the Tories suffered a second consecutive disastrous defeat under Drew . Speculation arose in the press that the leader might be pressured to step aside . Drew was determined to remain , however , and Diefenbaker was careful to avoid any action that might be seen as disloyal . However , Diefenbaker was never a member of the " Five O 'clock Club " of Drew intimates who met the leader in his office for a drink and gossip each day . By 1955 , there was a widespread feeling among Tories that Drew was not capable of leading the party to a victory . At the same time , the Liberals were in flux as the aging St. Laurent tired of politics . Drew was able to damage the government in a weeks @-@ long battle over the TransCanada pipeline in 1956 — the so @-@ called Pipeline Debate — in which the government , in a hurry to obtain financing for the pipeline , imposed closure before the debate even began . The Tories and the CCF combined to obstruct business in the House for weeks before the Liberals were finally able to pass the measure . Diefenbaker played a relatively minor role in the Pipeline Debate , speaking only once .
= = = Leader of the Opposition ; 1957 election = = =
By 1956 , the Social Credit Party was becoming a potential rival to the Tories as Canada 's main right @-@ wing party . Canadian journalist and author Bruce Hutchison discussed the state of the Tories in 1956 :
When a party calling itself Conservative can think of nothing better than to outbid the Government 's election promises ; when it demands economy in one breath and increased spending in the next ; when it proposes an immediate tax cut regardless of inflationary results ... when in short , the Conservative party no longer gives us a conservative alternative after twenty @-@ one years ... then our political system desperately requires an opposition prepared to stand for something more than the improbable chance of quick victory .
In August 1956 , Drew fell ill and many within the party urged him to step aside , feeling that the Progressive Conservatives needed vigorous leadership with an election likely within a year . He resigned in late September , and Diefenbaker immediately announced his candidacy for the leadership . A number of Progressive Conservative leaders , principally from the Ontario wing of the party , started a " Stop Diefenbaker " movement , and wooed University of Toronto president Sidney Smith as a possible candidate . When Smith declined , they could find no one of comparable stature to stand against Diefenbaker . At the convention in Ottawa in December , Diefenbaker won on the first ballot , and the dissidents reconciled themselves to his victory . After all , they reasoned , Diefenbaker was now 61 and unlikely to lead the party for more than one general election , an election they believed would be won by the Liberals regardless of who led the Tories .
In January 1957 , Diefenbaker took his place as Leader of the Official Opposition . In February , St. Laurent informed him that Parliament would be dissolved in April for an election on June 10 . The Liberals submitted a budget in March ; Diefenbaker attacked it for overly high taxes , failure to assist pensioners , and a lack of aid for the poorer provinces . Parliament was dissolved on April 12 . St. Laurent was so confident of victory that he did not even bother to make recommendations to the Governor General to fill the 16 vacancies in the Senate .
Diefenbaker ran on a platform which concentrated on changes in domestic policies . He pledged to work with the provinces to reform the Senate . He proposed a vigorous new agricultural policy , seeking to stabilize income for farmers . He sought to reduce dependence on trade with the United States , and to seek closer ties with the United Kingdom . St. Laurent called the Tory platform " a mere cream @-@ puff of a thing — with more air than substance " . Diefenbaker and the PC party used television adroitly , whereas St. Laurent stated that he was more interested in seeing people than in talking to cameras . Though the Liberals outspent the Progressive Conservatives three to one , according to Newman , their campaign had little imagination , and was based on telling voters that their only real option was to re @-@ elect St. Laurent .
Diefenbaker characterized the Tory program in a nationwide telecast on April 30 :
It is a program ... for a united Canada , for one Canada , for Canada first , in every aspect of our political and public life , for the welfare of the average man and woman . That is my approach to public affairs and has been throughout my life ... A Canada , united from Coast to Coast , wherein there will be freedom for the individual , freedom of enterprise and where there will be a Government which , in all its actions , will remain the servant and not the master of the people .
The final Gallup poll before the election showed the Liberals ahead , 48 % to 34 % . Just before the election , Maclean 's magazine printed its regular weekly issue , to go on sale the morning after the vote , editorializing that democracy in Canada was still strong despite a sixth consecutive Liberal victory . On election night , the Progressive Conservative advance started early , with the gain of two seats in reliably Liberal Newfoundland . The party picked up nine seats in Nova Scotia , five in Quebec , 28 in Ontario , and at least one seat in every other province . The Progressive Conservatives took 112 seats to the Liberals ' 105 : a plurality , but not a majority . While the Liberals finished some 200 @,@ 000 votes ahead of the Tories nationally , that margin was mostly wasted in overwhelming victories in safe Quebec seats . St. Laurent could have legally stayed in office until Diefenbaker could defeat him on the floor of the Commons . However , with the minor parties pledging to cooperate with a Tory government , St. Laurent chose not to do so , making Diefenbaker Prime Minister @-@ designate of Canada .
= = Prime Minister ( 1957 – 1963 ) = =
= = = Domestic events and policies = = =
= = = = Minority government = = = =
When John Diefenbaker took office as Prime Minister of Canada on June 21 , 1957 , only one Progressive Conservative MP , Earl Rowe , had served in federal governmental office , for a brief period under Bennett in 1935 . Rowe was no friend of Diefenbaker , and was given no place in his government . Diefenbaker appointed Ellen Fairclough as Secretary of State for Canada , the first woman to be appointed to a Cabinet post , and Michael Starr as Minister of Labour , the first Canadian of Ukrainian descent to serve in Cabinet .
As the Parliament buildings had been lent to the Universal Postal Union for its 14th congress , Diefenbaker was forced to wait until the fall to convene Parliament . However , the Cabinet approved measures that summer , including increased price supports for butter and turkeys , and raises for federal employees . Once the 23rd Canadian Parliament was opened on October 14 by Queen Elizabeth II — the first to be opened by any Canadian monarch — the government rapidly passed legislation , including tax cuts and increases in old age pensions . The Liberals were ineffective in opposition , with the party in the midst of a leadership race after St. Laurent 's resignation as party leader .
With the Conservatives leading in the polls , Diefenbaker wanted a new election , hopeful that his party would gain a majority of seats . It was then Canadian constitutional practice that the Governor General could refuse a dissolution early in a parliament 's term , unless the government had been defeated in the House , or was winning divisions by only a handful of votes . Diefenbaker sought a pretext for a new election .
Such an excuse presented itself when former Minister of External Affairs Lester Pearson attended his first parliamentary session as Leader of the Opposition on January 20 , 1958 , four days after becoming the Liberal leader . In his first speech as leader , Pearson ( recently returned from Oslo where he had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize ) , moved an amendment to supply ( a technical device whereby oppositions attempt to secure the government 's resignation ) , and called , not for an election , but for the Progressive Conservatives to resign , allowing the Liberals to form a government . Pearson stated that the condition of the economy required " a Government pledged to implement Liberal policies " . Government MPs laughed at Pearson , as did members of the press who were present . Pearson later recorded in his memoirs that he knew that his " first attack on the government had been a failure , indeed a fiasco " . Diefenbaker spoke for two hours and three minutes , and devastated his Liberal opposition . He mocked Pearson , contrasting the party leader 's address at the Liberal leadership convention with his speech to the House :
On Thursday there was shrieking defiance , on the following Monday there is shrinking indecision ... The only reason that this motion is worded as it is is that my honourable friends opposite quake when they think of what will happen if an election comes ... It is the resignation from responsibility of a great party .
Diefenbaker read from an internal report provided to the St. Laurent government in early 1957 , warning that a recession was coming , and stated :
Across the way , Mr. Speaker , sit the purveyors of gloom who would endeavour for political purposes , to panic the Canadian people ... They had a warning ... Did they tell us that ? No . Mr. Speaker , why did they not reveal this ? Why did they not act when the House was sitting in January , February , March , and April ? They had the information ... You concealed the facts , that is what you did .
According to the Minister of Finance , Donald Fleming , " Pearson looked at first merry , then serious , then uncomfortable , then disturbed , and finally sick . " Pearson recorded in his memoirs that the Prime Minister " tore me to shreds " . Prominent Liberal frontbencher Paul Martin called Diefenbaker 's response " one of the greatest devastating speeches " and " Diefenbaker 's great hour " . On February 1 , Diefenbaker asked the Governor General , Vincent Massey , to dissolve Parliament , alleging that though St. Laurent had promised cooperation , Pearson had made it clear he would not follow his predecessor 's lead . Massey agreed to the dissolution , and Diefenbaker set an election date of March 31 , 1958 .
= = = = 1958 election = = = =
The 1958 election campaign saw a huge outpouring of public support for the Progressive Conservatives . At the opening campaign rally in Winnipeg on February 12 voters filled the hall until the doors had to be closed for safety reasons . They were promptly broken down by the crowd outside . At the rally , Diefenbaker called for " [ a ] new vision . A new hope . A new soul for Canada . " He pledged to open the Canadian North , to seek out its resources and make it a place for settlements . The conclusion to his speech expounded on what became known as " The Vision " ,
This is the vision : One Canada . One Canada , where Canadians will have preserved to them the control of their own economic and political destiny . Sir John A. Macdonald saw a Canada from east to west : he opened the west . I see a new Canada — a Canada of the North . This is the vision !
Pierre Sévigny , who would be elected an MP in 1958 , recalled the gathering , " When he had finished that speech , as he was walking to the door , I saw people kneel and kiss his coat . Not one , but many . People were in tears . People were delirious . And this happened many a time after . " When Sévigny introduced Diefenbaker to a Montreal rally with the words " Levez @-@ vous , levez @-@ vous , saluez votre chef ! " ( Rise , rise , salute your chief ! ) according to Postmaster General William Hamilton " thousands and thousands of people , jammed into that auditorium , just tore the roof off in a frenzy . " Michael Starr remembered , " That was the most fantastic election ... I went into little places . Smoky Lake , Alberta , where nobody ever saw a minister . Canora , Saskatchewan . Every meeting was jammed ... The halls would be filled with people and sitting there in the front would be the first Ukrainian immigrants with shawls and hands gnarled from work ... I would switch to Ukrainian and the tears would start to run down their faces ... I don 't care who says what won the election ; it was the emotional aspect that really caught on . "
Pearson and his Liberals faltered badly in the campaign . The Liberal Party leader tried to make an issue of the fact that Diefenbaker had called a winter election , generally disfavoured in Canada due to travel difficulties . Pearson 's objection cut little ice with voters , and served only to remind the electorate that the Liberals , at their convention , had called for an election . Pearson mocked Diefenbaker 's northern plans as " igloo @-@ to @-@ igloo " communications , and was assailed by the Prime Minister for being condescending . The Liberal leader spoke to small , quiet crowds , which quickly left the halls when he was done . By election day , Pearson had no illusions that he might win the election , and hoped only to salvage 100 seats . The Liberals would be limited to less than half of that .
On March 31 , 1958 , the Tories won what is still the largest majority ( in terms of percentage of seats ) in Canadian federal political history , winning 208 seats to the Liberals ' 48 , with the CCF winning 8 and Social Credit wiped out . The Progressive Conservatives won a majority of the votes and of the seats in every province except British Columbia ( 49 @.@ 8 % ) and Newfoundland . Quebec 's Union Nationale political machine had given the PC party little support , but with Quebec voters minded to support Diefenbaker , Union Nationale boss Maurice Duplessis threw the machinery of his party behind the Tories .
= = = = Mandate ( 1958 – 1962 ) = = = =
An economic downturn was beginning in Canada by 1958 . Because of tax cuts instituted the previous year , the budget presented by the government predicted a small deficit for 1957 – 58 , and a large one , $ 648 million , for the following year . Minister of Finance Fleming and Bank of Canada Governor James Coyne proposed that the wartime Victory Bond issue , which constituted two @-@ thirds of the national debt and which was due to be redeemed by 1967 , be refinanced to a longer term . After considerable indecision on Diefenbaker 's part , a nationwide campaign took place , and 90 % of the bonds were converted . However , this transaction led to an increase in the money supply , which in future years would hamper the government 's efforts to respond to unemployment .
As a trial lawyer , and in opposition , Diefenbaker had long been concerned with civil liberties . On July 1 , 1960 , Dominion Day , he introduced the Canadian Bill of Rights in Parliament , and the bill rapidly passed and was proclaimed on August 10 , fulfilling a lifetime goal of Diefenbaker 's . The document purported to guarantee fundamental freedoms , with special attention to the rights of the accused . However , as a mere piece of federal legislation , it could be amended by any other law , and the question of civil liberties was to a large extent a provincial matter , outside of federal jurisdiction . One lawyer remarked that the document provided rights for all Canadians , " so long as they don 't live in any of the provinces " . Diefenbaker had appointed the first First Nations member of the Senate , James Gladstone in January 1958 , and in 1960 , his government extended voting rights to all native people .
Diefenbaker pursued a " One Canada " policy , seeking equality of all Canadians . As part of that philosophy , he was unwilling to make special concessions to Quebec 's francophones . Thomas Van Dusen , who served as Diefenbaker 's executive assistant and wrote a book about him , characterized the leader 's views on this issue :
There must be no compromise with Canada 's existence as a nation . Opting out , two flags , two pension plans , associated states , Two Nations and all the other baggage of political dualism was ushering Quebec out of Confederation on the instalment plan . He could not accept any theory of two nations , however worded , because it would make of those neither French nor English second @-@ class citizens .
Diefenbaker 's disinclination to make concessions to Quebec , along with the disintegration of the Union Nationale , the failure of the Tories to build an effective structure in Quebec , and Diefenbaker appointing few Quebecers to his Cabinet , none to senior positions , all led to an erosion of Progressive Conservative support in Quebec . Diefenbaker did recommend the appointment of the first French @-@ Canadian governor general , Georges Vanier .
By mid @-@ 1961 , differences in monetary policy led to open conflict with Bank of Canada Governor Coyne , who adhered to a tight money policy . Appointed by St. Laurent to a term expiring in December 1961 , Coyne could only be dismissed before then by the passing of an Act of Parliament . Coyne defended his position by giving public speeches , to the dismay of the government . The Cabinet was also angered when it learned that Coyne and his board had passed amendments to the bank 's pension scheme which greatly increased Coyne 's pension , without publishing the amendments in the Canada Gazette as required by law . Negotiations between Minister of Finance Fleming and Coyne for the latter 's resignation broke down , with the governor making the dispute public , and Diefenbaker sought to dismiss Coyne by legislation . Diefenbaker was able to get legislation to dismiss Coyne through the House , but the Liberal @-@ controlled Senate invited Coyne to testify before one of its committees . After giving the governor a platform against the government , the committee then chose to take no further action , adding its view that Coyne had done nothing wrong . Once he had the opportunity to testify ( denied him in the Commons ) , Coyne resigned , keeping his increased pension , and the government was extensively criticized in the press .
By the time Diefenbaker called an election for June 18 , 1962 , the party had been damaged by loss of support in Quebec and in urban areas as voters grew disillusioned with Diefenbaker and the Tories . The PC campaign was hurt when the Bank of Canada was forced to devalue the Canadian dollar to 92 1 ⁄ 2 US cents ; it had previously hovered in the range from 95 cents to par with the United States dollar . Privately printed satirical " Diefenbucks " swept the country . On election day , the Progressive Conservatives lost 92 seats , but were still able to form a minority government . The New Democratic Party ( the successor to the CCF ) and Social Credit held the balance of power in the new Parliament .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
= = = = Britain and the Commonwealth = = = =
Diefenbaker attended a meeting of the Commonwealth Prime Ministers in London shortly after taking office in 1957 . He generated headlines by proposing that 15 % of Canadian spending on US imports instead be spent on imports from the United Kingdom . Britain responded with an offer of a free trade agreement , which was rejected by the Canadians . As the Harold Macmillan government in the UK sought to enter the Common Market , Diefenbaker feared that Canadian exports to the UK would be threatened . He also believed that the mother country should place the Commonwealth first , and sought to discourage Britain 's entry . The British were annoyed at Canadian interference . Britain 's initial attempt to enter the Common Market was vetoed by French President Charles de Gaulle .
Through 1959 , the Diefenbaker government had a policy of not criticizing South Africa and its apartheid government . In this stance , Diefenbaker had the support of the Liberals but not that of CCF leader Hazen Argue . In 1960 , however , the South Africans sought to maintain membership in the Commonwealth even if South African white voters chose to make the country a republic in a referendum scheduled for later that year . South Africa asked the Commonwealth Prime Minister 's Conference to allow it to remain in the Commonwealth regardless of the result of the referendum . Diefenbaker privately expressed his distaste for apartheid to South African External Affairs Minister Eric Louw and urged him to give the black and coloured people of South Africa at least the minimal representation they had originally had . Louw , attending the conference as Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd recovered from an assassination attempt , refused . The conference resolved that an advance decision would be interfering in South Africa 's internal affairs .
On October 5 , 1960 , South Africa 's white voters decided to make the country a republic . At the Prime Ministers ' Conference in 1961 , Verwoerd formally applied for South Africa to remain in the Commonwealth . The prime ministers were divided . Diefenbaker broke the deadlock by proposing that the conference not reject South Africa 's application , but instead state in a communique that racial equality was a principle of the Commonwealth . This was adopted , although Britain and New Zealand disagreed with Diefenbaker 's proposal . South Africa could not accept the communique , and withdrew its application to remain in the Commonwealth . According to Peter Newman , this was " Diefenbaker 's most important contribution to international politics ... Diefenbaker flew home , a hero . "
= = = = Policy towards the United States = = = =
= = = = = " Ike " and " John " : the Eisenhower years = = = = =
American officials were uncomfortable with Diefenbaker 's initial election , believing they had heard undertones of anti @-@ Americanism in the campaign . After years of the Liberals , one US State Department official noted , " We 'll be dealing with an unknown quantity . " Diefenbaker 's 1958 landslide was viewed with disappointment by the US officials , who knew and liked Pearson from his years in diplomacy and who felt the Liberal Party leader would be more likely to institute pro @-@ American policies . However , US President Dwight Eisenhower took pains to foster good relations with Diefenbaker . The two men found much in common , from Western farm backgrounds to a love of fishing , and Diefenbaker had an admiration for war leaders such as Eisenhower and Churchill . Diefenbaker wrote in his memoirs , " I might add that President Eisenhower and I were from our first meeting on an ' Ike – John ' basis , and that we were as close as the nearest telephone . " The Eisenhower – Diefenbaker relationship was sufficiently strong that the touchy Canadian Prime Minister was prepared to overlook slights . When Eisenhower addressed Parliament in October 1958 , he downplayed trade concerns that Diefenbaker had publicly expressed . Diefenbaker said nothing and took Eisenhower fishing .
Diefenbaker had approved plans to join the United States in what became known as NORAD , an integrated air defence system , in mid @-@ 1957 . Despite Liberal misgivings that Diefenbaker had committed Canada to the system before consulting either the Cabinet or Parliament , Pearson and his followers voted with the government to approve NORAD in June 1958 .
In 1959 , the Diefenbaker government cancelled the development and manufacture of the Avro CF @-@ 105 Arrow . The Arrow was a supersonic jet interceptor built by Avro Canada in Malton , Ontario , to defend Canada in the event of a Soviet attack . The interceptor had been under development since 1953 , and had suffered from many cost overruns and complications . In 1955 , the RCAF stated it would only need nine squadrons of Arrows , down from 20 , as originally proposed . According to C. D. Howe , the former minister responsible for postwar reconstruction , the St. Laurent government had serious misgivings about continuing the Arrow program , and planned to discuss its termination after the 1957 election . In the run @-@ up to the 1958 election , with three Tory @-@ held seats at risk in the Malton area , the Diefenbaker government authorized further funding . Even though the first test flights of the Arrow were successful , the US government was unwilling to commit to a purchase of aircraft from Canada . In September 1958 , Diefenbaker warned that the Arrow would come under complete review in six months . The company began seeking out other projects including a US @-@ funded " saucer " program that became the VZ @-@ 9 Avrocar , and also mounted a public relations offensive urging that the Arrow go into full production . On February 20 , 1959 , the Cabinet decided to cancel the Avro Arrow , following an earlier decision to permit the United States to build two Bomarc missile bases in Canada . The company immediately dismissed its 14 @,@ 000 employees , blaming Diefenbaker for the firings , though it rehired 2 @,@ 500 employees to fulfil existing obligations .
Although the two leaders had a strong relationship , by 1960 US officials were becoming concerned by what they viewed as Canadian procrastination on vital issues , such as whether Canada should join the Organization of American States ( OAS ) . Talks on these issues in June 1960 produced little in results . Diefenbaker hoped that US Vice President Richard Nixon would win the 1960 US presidential election , but when Nixon 's Democratic rival , Senator John F. Kennedy won the race , he sent Senator Kennedy a note of congratulations . Kennedy did not respond until Canadian officials asked what had become of Diefenbaker 's note , two weeks later . Diefenbaker , for whom such correspondence was very meaningful , was annoyed at the President @-@ elect 's slowness to respond . In January 1961 , Diefenbaker visited Washington to sign the Columbia River Treaty . However , with only days remaining in the Eisenhower administration , little else could be accomplished .
= = = = = Bilateral antipathy : the Kennedy administration = = = = =
The Kennedy administration began its dealings with Canada badly , with Kennedy mispronouncing Diefenbaker 's name in a press conference announcing the Prime Minister 's visit to Washington in February 1961 . A furious Diefenbaker brought up in Cabinet whether to send a note of protest at the gaffe to Washington ; his colleagues were inclined to let the matter pass . When the two met in Washington on February 20 , Diefenbaker was impressed by Kennedy , and invited him to visit Ottawa . President Kennedy , however , told his aides that he never wanted " to see the boring son of a bitch again " . The Ottawa visit also began badly : at the welcome at the airport , Kennedy again mispronounced Diefenbaker 's name and stated that after hearing the Prime Minister 's ( notoriously bad ) French , he was uncertain if he should venture into the language ( Kennedy 's French was equally bad ) . After meeting with Diefenbaker , Kennedy accidentally left behind a briefing note suggesting he " push " Diefenbaker on several issues , including the decision to accept nuclear weapons on Canadian soil , which bitterly divided the Cabinet . Diefenbaker was also annoyed by Kennedy 's speech to Parliament , in which he urged Canada to join the OAS ( which Diefenbaker had already rejected ) , and by the President spending most of his time talking to Leader of the Opposition Pearson at the formal dinner . Both Kennedy and his wife Jackie were bored by Diefenbaker 's Churchill anecdotes at lunch , stories that Jackie Kennedy later described as " painful " .
Diefenbaker was initially inclined to go along with Kennedy 's request that nuclear weapons be stationed on Canadian soil as part of NORAD . However , when an August 3 , 1961 , letter from Kennedy which urged this was leaked to the media , Diefenbaker was angered and withdrew his support . The Prime Minister was also influenced by a massive demonstration against nuclear weapons , which took place on Parliament Hill . Diefenbaker was handed a petition containing 142 @,@ 000 names .
By 1962 , the American government was becoming increasingly concerned at the lack of a commitment from Canada to take nuclear weapons . The interceptors and Bomarc missiles with which Canada was being supplied as a NORAD member were either of no use or of greatly diminished utility without nuclear devices . Canadian and American military officers launched a quiet campaign to make this known to the press , and to advocate for Canadian agreement to acquire the warheads . Diefenbaker was also upset when Pearson was invited to the White House for a dinner for Nobel Prize winners in April , and met with the President privately for 40 minutes . When the Prime Minister met with retiring American Ambassador Livingston Merchant , he angrily disclosed the paper Kennedy had left behind , and hinted that he might make use of it in the upcoming election campaign . Merchant 's report caused consternation in Washington , and the ambassador was sent back to see Diefenbaker again . This time , he found Diefenbaker calm , and the Prime Minister pledged not to use the memo , and to give Merchant advance word if he changed his mind . Canada appointed a new ambassador to Washington , Charles Ritchie , who on arrival received a cool reception from Kennedy and found that the squabble was affecting progress on a number of issues .
Though Kennedy was careful to avoid overt favouritism during the 1962 Canadian election campaign , he did allow his pollster , Lou Harris , to work clandestinely for the Liberals . Several times during the campaign , Diefenbaker stated that the Kennedy administration desired his defeat because he refused to " bow down to Washington " . After Diefenbaker was returned with a minority , Washington continued to press for acceptance of nuclear arms , but Diefenbaker , faced with a split between Defence Minister Douglas Harkness and External Affairs Minister Howard Green on the question , continued to stall , hoping that time and events would invite consensus .
When the Cuban Missile Crisis erupted in October 1962 , Kennedy chose not to consult with Diefenbaker before making decisions on what actions to take . The US President sent former Ambassador Merchant to Ottawa to inform the Prime Minister as to the content of the speech that Kennedy was to make on television . Diefenbaker was upset at both the lack of consultation and the fact that he was given less than two hours advance word . He was angered again when the US government released a statement stating that it had Canada 's full support . In a statement to the Commons , Diefenbaker proposed sending representatives of neutral nations to Cuba to verify the American allegations , which Washington took to mean that he was questioning Kennedy 's word . When American forces went to a heightened alert , DEFCON 3 , Diefenbaker was slow to order Canadian forces to match it . Harkness and the Chiefs of Staff had Canadian forces clandestinely go to that alert status anyway , and Diefenbaker eventually authorized it . The crisis ended without war , and polls found that Kennedy 's actions were widely supported by Canadians . Diefenbaker was severely criticized in the media .
= = = Downfall = = =
On January 3 , 1963 , NATO Supreme Commander General Lauris Norstad visited Ottawa , in one of a series of visits to member nations prior to his retirement . At a news conference , Norstad stated that if Canada did not accept nuclear weapons , it would not be fulfilling its commitments to NATO . Newspapers across Canada criticized Diefenbaker , who was convinced the statement was part of a plot by Kennedy to bring down his government . Although the Liberals had been previously indecisive on the question of nuclear weapons , on January 12 , Pearson made a speech stating that the government should live up to the commitments it had made .
With the Cabinet still divided between adherents of Green and Harkness , Diefenbaker made a speech in the Commons on January 25 that Fleming ( by then Minister of Justice ) termed " a model of obfuscation " . Harkness was initially convinced that Diefenbaker was saying that he would support nuclear warheads in Canada . After talking to the press , he realized that his view of the speech was not universally shared , and he asked Diefenbaker for clarification . Diefenbaker , however , continued to try to avoid taking a firm position . On January 30 , the US State Department issued a press release suggesting that Diefenbaker had made misstatements in his Commons speech . For the first time ever , Canada recalled its ambassador to Washington as a diplomatic protest . Though all parties condemned the State Department action , the three parties outside the government demanded that Diefenbaker take a stand on the nuclear weapon issue .
The bitter divisions within the Cabinet continued , with Diefenbaker deliberating whether to call an election on the issue of American interference in Canadian politics . At least six Cabinet ministers favoured Diefenbaker 's ouster . Finally , at a dramatic Cabinet meeting on Sunday , February 3 , Harkness told Diefenbaker that the Prime Minister no longer had the confidence of the Canadian people , and resigned . Diefenbaker asked ministers supporting him to stand , and when only about half did , stated that he was going to see the Governor General to resign , and that Fleming would be the next Prime Minister . Green called his Cabinet colleagues a " nest of traitors " , but eventually cooler heads prevailed , and the Prime Minister was urged to return and to fight the motion of non @-@ confidence scheduled for the following day . Harkness , however , persisted in his resignation . Negotiations with the Social Credit Party , which had enough votes to save the government , failed , and the government fell , 142 – 111 .
Two members of the government resigned the day after the government lost the vote . As the campaign opened , the Tories trailed in the polls by 15 points . To Pearson and his Liberals , the only question was how large a majority they would win . Peter Stursberg , who wrote two books about the Diefenbaker years , stated of that campaign :
For the old Diefenbaker was in full cry . All the agony of the disintegration of his government was gone , and he seemed to be a giant revived by his contact with the people . This was Diefenbaker 's finest election . He was virtually alone on the hustings . Even such loyalists as Gordon Churchill had to stick close to their own bailiwicks , where they were fighting for their political lives .
Though the White House maintained public neutrality , privately Kennedy made it clear he desired a Liberal victory . Kennedy lent Lou Harris , his pollster to work for the Liberals again . On election day , April 8 , 1963 , the Liberals claimed 129 seats to the Tories ' 95 , five seats short of an absolute majority . Diefenbaker held to power for several days , until six Quebec Social Credit MPs signed a statement that Pearson should form the government . These votes would be enough to give Pearson support of a majority of the House of Commons , and Diefenbaker resigned . The six MPs repudiated the statement within days . Nonetheless , Pearson formed a government with the support of the NDP .
= = Later years ( 1963 – 1979 ) = =
= = = Return to opposition = = =
Diefenbaker continued to lead the Progressive Conservatives , again as Leader of the Opposition . In November 1963 , upon hearing of Kennedy 's assassination , the Tory leader addressed the Commons , stating , " A beacon of freedom has gone . Whatever the disagreement , to me he stood as the embodiment of freedom , not only in his own country , but throughout the world . " In the 1964 Great Canadian Flag Debate , Diefenbaker led the unsuccessful opposition to the Maple Leaf flag , which the Liberals pushed for after the rejection of Pearson 's preferred design showing three maple leaves . Diefenbaker preferred the existing Canadian Red Ensign or another design showing symbols of the nation 's heritage . He dismissed the adopted design , with a single red maple leaf and two red bars , as " a flag that Peruvians might salute " . At the request of Quebec Tory Léon Balcer , who feared devastating PC losses in the province at the next election , Pearson imposed closure , and the bill passed with the majority singing " O Canada " as Diefenbaker led the dissenters in " God Save the Queen " .
In 1966 , the Liberals began to make an issue of the Munsinger affair — two officials of the Diefenbaker government had slept with a woman suspected of being a Soviet spy . In what Diefenbaker saw as a partisan attack , Pearson established a one @-@ man Royal Commission , which , according to Diefenbaker biographer Smith , indulged in " three months of reckless political inquisition " . By the time the commission issued its report , Diefenbaker and other former ministers had long since withdrawn their counsel from the proceedings . The report faulted Diefenbaker for not dismissing the ministers in question , but found no actual security breach .
There were calls for Diefenbaker 's retirement , especially from the Bay Street wing of the party as early as 1964 . Diefenbaker initially beat back attempts to remove him without trouble . When Pearson called an election in 1965 in the expectation of receiving a majority , Diefenbaker ran an aggressive campaign . The Liberals fell two seats short of a majority , and the Tories improved their position slightly at the expense of the smaller parties . After the election , some Tories , led by party president Dalton Camp , began a quiet campaign to oust Diefenbaker .
In the absence of a formal leadership review process , Camp was able to stage a de facto review by running for re @-@ election as party president on the platform of holding a leadership convention within a year . His campaign at the Tories ' 1966 convention occurred amidst allegations of vote rigging , violence , and seating arrangements designed to ensure that when Diefenbaker addressed the delegates , television viewers would see unmoved delegates in the first ten rows . Other Camp supporters tried to shout Diefenbaker down . Camp was successful in being re @-@ elected thereby forcing a leadership convention for 1967 . Diefenbaker initially made no announcement as to whether he would stand , but angered by a resolution at the party 's policy conference which spoke of " deux nations " or " two founding peoples " ( as opposed to Diefenbaker 's " One Canada " ) , decided to seek to retain his leadership . Although Diefenbaker entered at the last minute to stand as a candidate for the leadership , he finished fifth on each of the first three ballots , and withdrew from the contest , which was won by Nova Scotia Premier Robert Stanfield .
Diefenbaker addressed the delegates before Stanfield spoke :
My course has come to an end . I have fought your battles , and you have given me that loyalty that led us to victory more often than the party has ever had since the days of Sir John A. Macdonald . In my retiring , I have nothing to withdraw in my desire to see Canada , my country and your country , one nation .
= = = Final years and death = = =
Diefenbaker was embittered by his loss of the party leadership . Pearson announced his retirement in December 1967 , and Diefenbaker forged a wary relationship of mutual respect with Pearson 's successor , Pierre Trudeau . Trudeau called a general election for June 1968 ; Stanfield asked Diefenbaker to join him at a rally in Saskatoon , which Diefenbaker refused , although the two appeared at hastily arranged photo opportunities . Trudeau obtained the majority against Stanfield that Pearson had never been able to obtain against Diefenbaker , as the PC party lost 25 seats , 20 of them in the West . The former Prime Minister , though stating , " The Conservative Party has suffered a calamitous disaster " in a CBC interview , could not conceal his delight at Stanfield 's humiliation , and especially gloated at the defeat of Camp , who made an unsuccessful attempt to enter the Commons . Diefenbaker was easily returned for Prince Albert .
Although Stanfield worked to try to unify the party , Diefenbaker and his loyalists proved difficult to reconcile . The division in the party broke out in well @-@ publicised dissensions , as when Diefenbaker called on Progressive Conservative MPs to break with Stanfield 's position on a bilingualism bill , and nearly half the caucus voted against their leader or abstained . In addition to his parliamentary activities , Diefenbaker travelled extensively and began work on his memoirs , which were published in three volumes between 1975 and 1977 . Pearson died of cancer in 1972 , and Diefenbaker was asked if he had kind words for his old rival . Diefenbaker shook his head and said only , " He shouldn 't have won the Nobel Prize . "
By 1972 , Diefenbaker had grown disillusioned with Trudeau , and campaigned wholeheartedly for the Tories in that year 's election . Diefenbaker was reelected comfortably in his home riding , and the Progressive Conservatives came within two seats of matching the Liberal total . Diefenbaker was relieved both that Trudeau had been humbled and that Stanfield had been denied power . Trudeau regained his majority two years later in an election that saw Diefenbaker , by then the only living former Prime Minister , have his personal majority grow to 11 @,@ 000 votes .
In the 1976 New Year Honours , Diefenbaker was created a Companion of Honour , an accolade bestowed as the personal gift of the Sovereign . After a long illness , Olive Diefenbaker died on December 22 , a loss which plunged Diefenbaker into despair .
Joe Clark succeeded Stanfield as party leader in 1976 , but as Clark had supported the leadership review , Diefenbaker held a grudge against him . Diefenbaker had supported Claude Wagner for leader , but when Clark won , stated that Clark would make " a remarkable leader of this party " . However , Diefenbaker repeatedly criticized his party leader , to such an extent that Stanfield publicly asked Diefenbaker " to stop sticking a knife into Mr. Clark " — a request Diefenbaker did not agree to . According to columnist Charles Lynch , Diefenbaker regarded Clark as an upstart and a pipsqueak .
In 1978 , Diefenbaker announced that he would stand in one more election , and under the slogan " Diefenbaker — Now More Than Ever " , weathered a campaign the following year during which he apparently suffered a mild stroke , although the media were told he was bedridden with influenza . In the May election Diefenbaker defeated NDP candidate Stan Hovdebo ( who , after Diefenbaker 's death , would win the seat in a by @-@ election ) by 4 @,@ 000 votes . Clark had defeated Trudeau , though only gaining a minority government , and Diefenbaker returned to Ottawa to witness the swearing @-@ in , still unreconciled to his old opponents among Clark 's ministers . Two months later , Diefenbaker died in his study about a month before his 84th birthday .
Diefenbaker had extensively planned his funeral in consultation with government officials . He lay in state in the Hall of Honour in Parliament for two and a half days ; 10 @,@ 000 Canadians passed by his casket . The Maple Leaf Flag on the casket was partially obscured by the Red Ensign . After the service , his body was taken by train on a slow journey to its final destination , Saskatoon ; along the route , many Canadians lined the tracks to watch the funeral train pass . In Winnipeg , an estimated 10 @,@ 000 people waited at midnight in a one @-@ kilometre line to file past the casket which made the trip draped in a Canadian flag and Diefenbaker 's beloved Red Ensign . In Prince Albert , thousands of those he had represented filled the square in front of the railroad station to salute the only man from Saskatchewan ever to become Prime Minister . His coffin was accompanied by that of his wife Olive , disinterred from temporary burial in Ottawa . Prime Minister Clark delivered the eulogy , paying tribute to " an indomitable man , born to a minority group , raised in a minority region , leader of a minority party , who went on to change the very nature of his country , and change it forever " . John and Olive Diefenbaker rest outside the Diefenbaker Centre , built to house his papers , on the campus of the University of Saskatchewan .
= = Legacy = =
Most of the policies that Diefenbaker held dear did not survive the 16 years of Liberal rule which followed his fall . By the end of 1963 , the first of the Bomarc warheads entered Canada , where they remained until the last were finally phased out during John Turner 's brief government in 1984 . Diefenbaker 's decision to have Canada remain outside the OAS was not reversed by Pearson , and it was not until 1989 , under the Tory government of Brian Mulroney , that Canada joined .
But several defining features of modern Canada can be traced back to Diefenbaker . Diefenbaker 's Bill of Rights remains in effect , and signalled the change in Canadian political culture that would eventually bring about the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , which came into force after his death . Diefenbaker was the first to appoint women and ethnic minorities to Cabinet . It was under Diefenbaker that Canada finally achieved universal adult suffrage , with the granting of the vote to Native Canadians in 1960 . The removal of explicit racial discrimination from the criteria for admission to Canada under the Immigration Act of 1961 was a factor in the creation of today 's multi @-@ cultural and multi @-@ ethnic Canada .
Diefenbaker reinvigorated a moribund party system in Canada . Clark and Mulroney , two men who , as students , worked on and were inspired by his 1957 triumph , became the only other Progressive Conservatives to lead the party to election triumphs . Diefenbaker 's biographer , Denis Smith , wrote of him , " In politics he had little more than two years of success in the midst of failure and frustration , but he retained a core of deeply committed loyalists to the end of his life and beyond . The federal Conservative Party that he had revived remained dominant in the prairie provinces for 25 years after he left the leadership . " The Harper government , believing that Tory prime ministers have been given short shrift in the naming of Canadian places and institutions , named the former Ottawa City Hall , now a federal office building , the John G. Diefenbaker Building . It also gave Diefenbaker 's name to a human rights award and an icebreaking vessel . Harper often invoked Diefenbaker 's northern vision in his speeches .
Conservative Senator Marjory LeBreton worked in Diefenbaker 's office during his second time as Opposition Leader , and has said of him , " He brought a lot of firsts to Canada , but a lot of it has been air @-@ brushed from history by those who followed . " Historian Michael Bliss , who published a survey of the Canadian Prime Ministers , wrote of Diefenbaker :
From the distance of our times , Diefenbaker 's role as a prairie populist who tried to revolutionize the Conservative Party begins to loom larger than his personal idiosyncrasies . The difficulties he faced in the form of significant historical dilemmas seem less easy to resolve than Liberals and hostile journalists opined at the time . If Diefenbaker defies rehabilitation , he can at least be appreciated . He stood for a fascinating and still relevant combination of individual and egalitarian values ... But his contemporaries were also right in seeing some kind of disorder near the centre of his personality and his prime @-@ ministership . The problems of leadership , authority , power , ego , and a mad time in history overwhelmed the prairie politician with the odd name .
= Premiere ( The O.C. ) =
" Premiere " ( also known as " Pilot " ) is the series premiere of the television series The O.C. , which premiered on the Fox network on August 5 , 2003 . Written by series creator Josh Schwartz and directed by executive producer Doug Liman , the episode depicts the introduction of troubled teenager Ryan Atwood ( Benjamin McKenzie ) into the wealthy lifestyle of the Cohen family in Newport Beach , Orange County , California .
The casting directors , Patrick J. Rush and Alyson Silverberg , began selecting the principal cast eight to ten weeks before filming started . The role of Ryan was particularly hard to cast . Seth Cohen ( Adam Brody ) was based on Schwartz 's experiences at the University of Southern California as a " neurotic Jewish kid from the East Coast in a land of water polo players " . Other central characters in the episode are Seth 's parents — Sandy ( Peter Gallagher ) and Kirsten ( Kelly Rowan ) — and teenage next @-@ door neighbor Marissa Cooper ( Mischa Barton ) .
The series premiere led the first half @-@ hour of its time slot in viewership . It was generally well received by critics , and earned Schwartz a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for Best Screenplay in an Episodic Drama . Rush and Silverberg received an Artios Award nomination for excellence of casting in the Dramatic Pilot category . Originally broadcast and released in a 1 @.@ 33 : 1 aspect ratio , it was remastered in a widescreen ratio for the series DVD , released in November 2007 . The episode was released on MiniDVD on April 26 , 2005 , and is available to purchase from video on demand services .
= = Plot = =
A cold open shows Trey Atwood ( Bradley Stryker ) and his brother Ryan stealing a car . The police chase and arrest the boys , resulting in a prison term for Trey and a short stay in juvenile hall for the underage Ryan . A conversation between Ryan and his public defender , Sandy Cohen ( Peter Gallagher ) , establishes Ryan as a smart boy with a rough upbringing ; he has three truancies and two suspensions , but his SAT I scores are in the ninety @-@ eighth percentile . When Ryan 's mother , Dawn ( Daphne Ashbrook ) , collects Ryan , Sandy gives his business card to the boy . At home in Chino , Dawn asks Ryan to leave , and her boyfriend , A.J. ( Ron Del Barrio ) , expels him from the house . Standing at a payphone with nowhere to go , Ryan calls Sandy for help . As Sandy drives Ryan to his house in Newport Beach , the opening credits and the theme tune play — unlike the other episodes , there is no title sequence .
While Sandy tries to convince his wife , Kirsten ( Kelly Rowan ) to allow Ryan to stay in the pool house for a night , Ryan meets the girl next door , Marissa Cooper ( Mischa Barton ) . When her boyfriend Luke ( Chris Carmack ) picks her up , Marissa invites Ryan to attend a fashion show fundraiser the following night . On a sailing trip the next day , the Cohens ' son , Seth ( Adam Brody ) reveals to Ryan that he has a crush on Summer ( Rachel Bilson ) and would like to sail to Tahiti with her , but that she never pays him any attention . Later , Marissa leaves for the fashion show with her mother Julie ( Melinda Clarke ) , her father Jimmy ( Tate Donovan ) , and her younger sister Kaitlin ( Shailene Woodley ) . The Cohens and Ryan also attend the show .
Summer invites Ryan to a party after the show , and Ryan convinces Seth to join him . For the first time , Seth is introduced to the sex- , drug- , and alcohol @-@ fueled side of Newport . He experiences the wildness of a party for the first time , while Ryan flirts with Marissa . Luke takes a girl to the beach . Later at the party , Ryan rebuffs an intoxicated Summer , but Seth misinterprets the encounter and reveals Ryan 's real background . Seth walks down the beach , and is bullied by a group of water polo players that includes Luke . Ryan defends Seth by punching Luke , but Luke 's friends intervene and beat up Ryan and Seth . After returning to the Cohens , Ryan sees that Marissa 's friends left her passed out on her drive ; he carries her to the Cohens ' pool house to sleep . When Kirsten finds Seth and Ryan asleep in the pool house the next morning , she is unhappy with Ryan 's new influence and insists to Sandy that Ryan leaves . Sandy drives Ryan back to Chino , but when they find his home empty , they return to Newport .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
In 2002 , Schwartz met with Joseph " McG " McGinty Nichol and Stephanie Savage of production company Wonderland Sound and Vision . They told Schwartz they wanted to create a television show based in McG 's hometown of Newport Beach . Savage suggested producing a police or extreme sports 21 Jump Street @-@ style show , but Schwartz knew little about the genre . Having had experience with people from Newport Beach during his time at the University of Southern California , Schwartz came back to them with his own characters . The show was pitched to Fox and Warner Bros in August 2002 . Fox targeted a summer launch for the show , and Doug Liman was brought in to direct the premiere after McG withdrew due his scheduling conflicts with Charlie 's Angels 2 . The show was confirmed for the 2003 – 2004 schedule in May , and an August 5 , 2003 broadcast date was selected in June .
= = = Casting = = =
Casting directors Patrick J. Rush and Alyson Silverberg began casting the main roles eight to ten weeks before filming began , with input from Schwartz , McG and Savage . Rush and Silverberg were later nominated in the Dramatic Pilot category of the Casting Society of America 's Artios Awards .
In February 2003 , Peter Gallagher became the first actor cast , playing Sandy Cohen . Kelly Rowan auditioned five times before being cast as Sandy 's wife , Kirsten , in March 2003 . Rush found the role of Ryan Atwood particularly hard to cast , as the producers wanted the " perfect " actor . Benjamin McKenzie was only invited to audition for the role after Warner Bros. made them aware of the actor following his unsuccessful audition for a UPN sitcom . McKenzie joined the cast in March 2003 . He lacked working experience and later described his selection as " a tremendous leap of faith " on the producers ' part . The role of Seth Cohen was derived from Schwartz 's experiences at the University of Southern California as a " neurotic Jewish kid from the East Coast in a land of water polo players " . Adam Brody first read for the part of Ryan , but found the bad @-@ boy image did not suit him . In a recall for the role of Seth , Brody lost the producers ' interest by ad @-@ libbing much of the script ; he joined the cast in March 2003 after a second interview .
Mischa Barton , who had met McG on Fastlane , portrayed Marissa Cooper . She was cast in February 2003 . Tate Donovan , who played Jimmy Cooper , was cast in March 2003 . Melinda Clarke guest @-@ starred as Julie Cooper , but read for the role of Kirsten in her audition as there were not enough scripted lines for Julie at the time . Rachel Bilson , who was recommended to Schwartz after an unsuccessful audition for Everwood , guest @-@ starred as Summer Roberts , whom the producers had envisaged as a tall Californian blonde . Clarke and Bilson joined as regular cast members later in the season . Chris Carmack , who played Luke Ward , was credited as a guest star for the episode ; he joined the regular cast in the next episode .
= = = Filming = = =
Although the show is set in Newport Beach , financial penalties imposed for filming outside the " Thirty Mile Zone " forced production to the Manhattan Beach , Los Angeles County region . The scenes set in Ryan 's hometown of Chino were filmed in Los Angeles . The show was predominantly shot on 35 mm film stock . Unusually for the show , a scene in the Atwood home in Chino was shot using a hand @-@ held camera by Liman . Savage said this ensured the show " doesn 't feel like glossy soap opera " .
The Cohen family home was shot on location in Malibu . A mock pool house was built for use in the pilot , and taken down after filming completed . The Cohen 's home was recreated on a soundstage at Raleigh Studios in Manhattan Beach for filming during the rest of the series ; external shots of the house remained in use . The fashion show was filmed at the Wilshire Ebell Theatre ; though it did not advance the story , Schwartz described it as necessary to show the world in which the characters lived . The party at Holly 's beach house following the fashion show was filmed at a beach house in Malibu over three consecutive nights .
= = Broadcast and distribution = =
The episode premiered at 9 : 00 p.m. ( EDT ) on August 5 , 2003 on Fox , and was simulcast in Canada on CTV . Fox gave the show an early summer premiere to try to establish an audience before the network switched to coverage of post @-@ season baseball in October , and ahead of " the clutter of the fall preview weeks " . In the United Kingdom , the episode first aired at 9 : 00 p.m. ( GMT ) on March 7 , 2004 on Channel 4 , and in Australia on the Nine Network . The episode was released on MiniDVD on April 26 , 2005 , after release plans with other Warner Bros. titles for March were discarded . Although the premiere was originally broadcast and released in a 1 @.@ 33 : 1 aspect ratio , it was remastered in a widescreen ratio for the Region 1 complete series DVD release . The Region 2 release retained the original aspect ratio . The episode is available on video on demand service Amazon Unbox in the United States , and from the iTunes Store in the United States and United Kingdom .
= = Reception = =
The pilot episode attracted 7 @.@ 46 million viewers in the United States , second in its time slot behind the season finale of Last Comic Standing . The O.C. received a rating / share of 6 @.@ 8 / 11 in the first half @-@ hour , ranking first between 9 and 9 : 30 p.m. , but lost the lead in the second half @-@ hour with a rating of 6 @.@ 7 / 10 . The episode received the highest rating of the night in the 12- to 17 @-@ year @-@ old demographic , but in its target audience demographic of 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , it received a less @-@ than @-@ expected Nielsen Rating of 2 @.@ 9 / 8 . The show built on the audience of lead @-@ in show American Juniors , and Fox said that they were " fairly happy with the show 's performance " . Schwartz received a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for Best Screenplay in an Episodic Drama , with casting directors Rush and Silverberg nominated in the Dramatic Pilot category of the Artios Awards . The episode was criticized by City Manager Glen Rojas for its " negative portrayal " of Chino .
Entertainment Weekly 's Carina Chocano praised The O.C. for being different , claiming that it was " refreshingly free of both [ Aaron ] Spelling @-@ style camp and the twee earnestness that has characterized more recent teen dramas " . Robert Bianco of USA Today drew comparisons with the successful Fox show Beverly Hills , 90210 , saying that " The O.C. is better @-@ written and better @-@ acted by a cast that just might be , incredibly enough , even better @-@ looking " . He praised the cast 's skill and attractiveness as well as the show 's ability to " come up with a few smart deviations from the genre norm " . Nancy Franklin of The New Yorker criticized the plot for being too predictable , but praised Adam Brody as Seth , stating that " he talks too much and too fast , he mumbles , and he projects zero physical confidence . In short , his character is adorable . " Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette felt that " [ Benjamin ] McKenzie , at times , is prone to overdramatizing scenes " , and considered the young characters " so detestable and yet bland " that it made the show " almost painful " to watch . He nevertheless affirmed that the show had " positive attributes " that made it enjoyable . Andrew Grossman of The Boston Globe commented that " Brody is instantly likable as Seth " and that Barton " does a nice job with Marissa 's torn @-@ between @-@ two @-@ worlds angst " , but stated that Ryan " doesn 't seem to have many clear personality traits " . Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle called the episode " superb " and described McKenzie as " essentially playing James Dean " . He compared the actor to Russell Crowe and noted that McKenzie " pull [ ed ] the whole thing off with aplomb " .
= = Popular culture = =
Luke 's line , " Welcome to the O.C. , bitch " , which he says after beating up Ryan , became a tagline for the show . TV Land placed the line as 83rd in its 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catchphrases in 2006 . Hadley Freeman of The Guardian noted that the teen @-@ focused show made many cultural references due to a " renewed interest in the teen market " , adding that the use of cropped tops , micro @-@ minis , and beaded flip @-@ flops showed a " decidedly West Coast approach to fashion " . The episode 's cultural references to fashion included Julie Cooper 's question to her pre @-@ pubescent daughter , " Do you like my hair this straight or is it too Avril Lavigne ? " , while another mother complains , " What are you doing putting my daughter in Calvin Klein ? She was supposed to be in Vera Wang ! " Teenage misfit Seth complains that " Every day 's a fashion show for these kids " .
The episode generated interest in the program 's music and was regarded as " the show to be heard on " . Michael Peck from TV Guide said that he received a large quantity of mail that inquired about the song " Into Dust " by Mazzy Star , which played when Ryan carried Marissa into his bedroom . Other featured music was The All @-@ American Rejects ' 2003 hit , " Swing , Swing " , and " Hands Up " by The Black Eyed Peas from their 2003 multi @-@ platinum album , Elephunk . Among Schwartz 's favorite musical moments from the show was Joseph Arthur 's " Honey and the Moon " , which Schwartz claimed helped him write the pilot . The title track " California " introduced the band Phantom Planet into the mainstream .
= Edinburgh International Climbing Arena =
Edinburgh International Climbing Arena ( EICA : Ratho , formerly the Ratho Adventure Centre ) is an adventure sports facility located in Ratho , near Edinburgh , Scotland . Built in a disused quarry , it is the largest indoor climbing wall in the world .
Financial problems months after it opened in December 2003 put the Arena into receivership . It was purchased by the City of Edinburgh Council and fully reopened in May 2007 after a further programme of works costing around GB £ 6 million . The centre is now used by both recreational climbers and for competitions , and is also home to the Scottish National Judo Academy .
= = History = =
Originally used for supplying stone to the Central Belt of Scotland due to its proximity to the Union Canal , the quarry expanded from around a third of its present size in 1853 to the current outline in 1895 . Edinburgh climbers Rab Anderson , Duncan McCallum and architect David Taylor formed the Ratho Quarry Company , and purchased the quarry in 1995 as the site for the climbing centre . The quarry , which had been unused for around ninety years , was filled with compacted rubble and heavily overgrown with trees and shrubs , making assessment of the site difficult until significant work had been carried out , but the assumption that the floor of the quarry was flat proved to be correct . Plans unveiled in late 2001 showed the estimated cost to be GB £ 7 million , with funding of GB £ 1 @.@ 5 million to come from a Sportscotland lottery fund grant .
The climbing centre is located in the smaller of two lobes of a figure of eight that make up the quarry . After 250 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 250 @,@ 000 long tons ; 280 @,@ 000 short tons ) of rubble was removed , the quarry was shown to have a broadly level floor and be almost 30 metres ( 98 ft ) deep . During construction in April 2002 , the partially completed roof was ripped off in a storm .
When it opened in December 2003 , the centre was the largest indoor climbing arena in the world , but problems during construction increased the final cost to GB £ 22 million . In March 2004 the centre went into receivership due to a leaky roof , poor management , and a lack of money , leaving a number of contractors unpaid . It was purchased by the City of Edinburgh Council in October 2005 for GB £ 3 @.@ 87 million , and then closed in August 2006 to allow full completion of the venue .
It reopened on 25 May 2007 , under the management of Edinburgh Leisure , a non @-@ profit organisation which provides sport and leisure facilities on behalf of the City of Edinburgh Council . GB £ 6 million was spent overhauling the roof , the plumbing , improving the car park and converting an unopened scuba diving tank into a dedicated bouldering room . Under new management , more emphasis was placed on making the centre accessible to families and visitors as well as experienced climbers . The roof , consisting of 8 @,@ 500 square metres ( 91 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of tensioned fabric , was replaced at the end of 2013 at a cost of around GB £ 500 @,@ 000 .
= = Climbing = =
There are over 11 @,@ 000 bolt @-@ on holds in the centre , with 300 routes ranging in difficulty from grades 2 to 8b . The Aerial Assault course is an assault course suspended 30 metres ( 98 ft ) above the main hall , which takes around 30 minutes and is open to anybody over 1 @.@ 4 metres ( 4 ft 7 in ) tall . As well as a trio of boulders in the centre of the main hall , there is a dedicated bouldering room , with routes ranging in difficulty from V0 to V15 .
Two identical speed walls allow speed climbing competitions to be conducted head to head , and there is an articulated competition wall known as " The Hanger " that can be raised or lowered to change the angle of overhang .
The larger " lobe " of the quarry is also used for outdoor climbing , although some of the rock is described as " loose and scary " . Formed from dolerite , there are around 65 known routes .
= = Services and facilities = =
The centre contains the world 's largest indoor climbing arena , as well as bouldering facilities , the Scottish National Judo Academy , and an aerial assault course .
Within the centre there is a Tiso outdoor shop and a HoneyPot Ceramics studio , as well as a cafe overlooking the main arena . The centre has a gym that is available when not in use by Scottish National Judo Academy . Other classes are held in the Fitness Studio .
= = Events = =
= = = Competitions = = =
The centre hosted the UIAA @-@ ICC Boulder & Lead World Cup in December 2003 .
The centre also hosted the IFSC World Youth Championship in 2004 and 2010 , and the British Lead Climbing Championships every year until Awesome Walls in Sheffield took over in 2013 .
= = = Theatre = = =
In the Edinburgh International Festival 2013 , Leaving Planet Earth used the centre as the stage .
= = = Politics = = =
On 20 April 2015 the Scottish National Party held their manifesto launch for the 2015 general election in the main climbing arena .
= Confessions Part II =
" Confessions Part II " is a song by R & B singer Usher , produced by Jermaine Dupri and Bryan @-@ Michael Cox for Usher 's fourth album Confessions . Written by Usher , Dupri and Cox , the song is a confession of a man to his woman about his impregnated mistress , a continuation of " Confessions Part I " which relates to a man 's infidelity . Its personal content evoked rumors and early responses from the public even before its release , believing that Usher was asserting the truth ; however , Dupri divulged that the story behind the album is his and Usher explained that he only took inspiration from his friends ' similar experiences .
" Confessions Part II " received mixed reviews from critics . The song was released as the third single from the album , following the success of " Burn " . The single reached number one on Billboard Hot 100 for two weeks , becoming the album 's third consecutive number @-@ one single . Internationally , the single had lesser success than the album 's previous releases .
= = Background and release = =
When he started working on his fourth studio album Confessions after the release of his 2001 album 8701 , Usher chose not to branch out much with musical collaborators ; instead , he chose to continue creating music with his previous producers . He again enlisted producer @-@ songwriter Jermaine Dupri , who had produced songs for Usher 's two previous albums . Dupri approached Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , asking him to become a collaborator . Cox has been a frequent partner of Dupri who had produced hits for Usher as well . Like " Burn " , the second single from the album , Dupri and Cox conversed about a situation , creating the idea of the prospective song . However , they were concerned because they needed somebody to write such a song and they never thought Usher would do it . The concept became " Confessions " .
Usher started recording the song on July 2003 in New York City . One day , before the night was over , Usher was singing about impregnating a mistress and becoming displeased , having found that she is three months pregnant . The theme of cheating inspired him and Dupri , and they then decided to produce two parts of " Confessions " : Part I and Part II . Usher said that the former is a " dramatization where a guy confesses all the stuff he 's been doing " against his woman . The latter speaks of impregnating a mistress .
While Confessions was still in production , Usher promised " real talk " in it . He decided " to let it all hang out by singing about some of his own little secrets , as well as a few bones from his homies ' skeleton @-@ filled closets . " He explained : " All of us have our Pandora 's boxes or skeletons in our closets . I let a few of them out , you know . I 've got a lot to say . I 've got a lot of things and stuff built in me that I just want to let go of . " He further noted that , for the most part , the album 's subject matter is " very personal " . Dupri expected people to question some of the personal lyrics they associated in the song .
" Confessions Part II " was released as the third single from the album , following " Burn " . The single was released in the United States as a 12 " single on August 24 , 2004 . It was released in Germany on October 18 , and Australia on October 26 , 2004 , featuring the album and remix version of the track and a song called " Whatever I Want " . In the United Kingdom , it was a double A @-@ side with " My Boo " , the fourth single from the album . It was released in the country on December 28 , 2004 , and re @-@ released on January 18 , 2005 .
= = Lyrical interpretation = =
Usher held few listening parties for the album prior to its release . Shortly after , people came up with different interpretations of " Confessions Part II " , among other personal songs in the album . In 2003 , Usher 's two @-@ year relationship with TLC 's Chilli was going to " flame @-@ out " , which partly contributed to the concept of " Burn " . They finally broke up early in 2004 because of " irreconcilable differences and because the two found it almost impossible to make compromises " which partly triggered public speculation that some of the songs in the album are in reference to his personal struggle . They referred to the song speaking about Usher 's " infidelity " to Chilli .
Alongside the " cheating " rumors , the public inferred from the lyrics that Usher had impregnated a mistress in real life . Usher , however , emphasized that he was not in a relationship and " got another girl pregnant " and he was singing a " character " . The similarity of situations he faced before and experiences of his friends collectively inspired him to write the song . In the middle of rumors , Dupri admitted that the stories behind the songs in the album are his . He stated , " me cheating on my steady girlfriend , having a baby with that other woman and having to confess to everything that happened to my main girl . " Behind rumors , Usher refuted in an interview with MTV News :
People assume things , because as I said , I pull from my personal experiences to make my music ... I never experienced [ fathering a child outside of a relationship ] firsthand , but it 's something I wanted to talk about ... and it 's something that has happened to me in the past ... As I said , I have a few deep , dark ones that I 've kept stowed away in a closet for a minute ... That 's why I take this time to speak to you guys and let you know really what it is ... I will tell you that I loved [ Chilli ] a lot and she obviously loved me ; it just didn 't work out . But cheating is not what caused the relationship to collide and crash . That ain 't what broke it up .
= = Composition = =
" Confessions Part II " is an R & B song composed in the key of F minor . Set in common time , the song is performed with a moderate groove . The song follows the chord progression of D ♭ maj7 @-@ E ♭ -Fm7 , and Usher 's voice spans from the low note of E ♭ 4 to the high note of f6 . The lyrics are constructed in the inverted chorus @-@ verse form . There are four choruses and two verses , and then a break between the third and final chorus which Usher speaks the lyrics .
The lyrics of " Confessions Part II " centers on a confession about impregnating a mistress . For the prelude , Usher tells his significant other that he impregnated his mistress . " Confessions Part II " apologizes what he had done in part one . Usher said of the song that right after he confessed with his real woman , he hoped she would still give him a chance . Dupri said that " Confessions Part II " is one of the songs which speak about breakups in relationships .
= = Reception = =
Many critics found the song intriguing and came up with interpretations of it as well . Andrew McGregor of the BBC questioned if " Confessions Part II " , as well as " Truth Hurts " , are only " mere theatre " or telling the truth . Laura Sinagra of Rolling Stone focuses on how Usher admits in the song about impregnating a mistress . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commented that Usher was at an age when " getting his ' chick on the side ' " seemed appropriate . Outside of rumors , Jem Aswad of Entertainment Weekly said that the best songs from the album were " Confessions Part II " and " Burn " , which he described as having smooth melodies . Matt Cibula of Popmatters said of the flow of the concept does not work . He pointed out that in the second part , Usher claims he " barely knows the other lady " , while in the first part , he already said that she was his ex @-@ girlfriend . He furthered called it the " wimpiest " song on the theme of the album . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times called it a " tricky infidelity narrative " .
" Confessions Part II " was nominated for Best R & B / Soul , Male at the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards . At the 2005 American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers Pop Music Awards , Dupri received the ASCAP Golden Note Award for co @-@ writing the song , alongside his many achievements and contributions to American popular music . British record company EMI was recognized as Publisher of the Year for the song , including " Burn " and songs by Alicia Keys , Beyoncé Knowles , Britney Spears .
= = Chart performance = =
" Confessions Part II " lived up to the success of its predecessors in the United States , though not as overwhelmingly . The single debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 48 , a higher entry than those of " Yeah ! " and " Burn " did , while " Yeah ! " was still at the top of the chart and " Burn " at number three . It peaked at number one on July 27 , 2004 , replacing " Burn " ' s eighth non @-@ consecutive chart run , and stayed there for two weeks . It failed to match the number of days at top spot of the previous two releases , and remained on the top ten for 13 weeks . The single left the chart after 25 weeks . The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on for reaching half a million shipments .
Internationally , " Confessions Part II " had lesser success . The single debuted at number five in Australia , becoming its highest entry , and failed to reach a higher position . The single reached number five in the United Kingdom , peaked at number seven in Ireland , and below top ten in the Netherlands and France , where it reached # 43
= = Music video = =
The music video of " Confessions Part II " was co @-@ directed by Usher and music video director Chris Robinson , who also directed the video for the album 's fourth single , " My Boo " . " Confessions ( Interlude ) " serves as the opening of the video . Set in a studio , Usher receives a phone message and finds out that he impregnated his mistress . After he speaks the spoken section of the interlude and gets in a car , " Confessions Part II " proceeds . Usher is set in a dark lit room , with only one chair . He occasionally shows a large ring on his ring finger . In the middle of the video , he lies on a piano and in his imagination , his woman and mistress are beside him . The next scene shows Usher in a brown car singing , goes out and kneels before his woman to confess . She refuses to listen and slaps Usher , then leaves and he becomes shirtless . Alone , Usher stands in front of a wide mirror , which breaks into pieces accompanied by a roaring sound , ending the same way " Confessions Part II " started , with him sitting on a chair .
The music video successfully charted on video programs . It debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live on June 28 , 2004 , the same entry as " Burn " . The music video reached number one on the countdown , and retired on September 15 , 2004 at number seven . Like " Yeah ! " , " Confessions Part II " video remained on TRL for 50 days .
The official remix of " Confessions Part II " was included on the re @-@ release of Confessions , and features additional verses by Usher , Shyne ( rapped his verse on the phone while in prison ) , Kanye West , Twista and Jermaine Dupri . The song is also parodied by " Weird Al " Yankovic on his album Straight Outta Lynwood ( 2006 ) as " Confessions Part III " .
= = Track Listings = =
UK CD 1
" Confessions Part II "
" My Boo " ( Duet with Alicia Keys )
UK CD 2
" Confessions Part II "
" My Boo " ( Duet with Alicia Keys )
" Confessions Part II " ( Remix ) ( featuring Shyne , Kanye West & Twista )
" Confessions Part II " ( Music Video )
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= Kampoeng Rawa =
Kampoeng Rawa ( alternatively Kampung Rawa , both Indonesian for " Swamp Hamlet " ) is a tourist attraction in Ambarawa , Central Java , located within the green belt around Lake Rawa Pening . Opened in August 2012 , it is owned and operated by twelve groups of farmers and fishermen who were funded by the Artha Prima Credit Union . It is intended to improve the welfare of local farmers and fishermen while promoting an understanding of the lake 's ecology . Facilities include a floating restaurant , pendopo , crafts centre , fishing area , and docks . During holidays the site may be visited by several thousand people . It has been challenged for its lack of permission to build in the green belt and the possible ecological impact .
= = Location and facilities = =
Kampoeng Rawa is located at Kilometer 3 of the South Ring Road in Ambarawa , Semarang , Central Java , a road used for travel between Yogyakarta and Semarang that was opened in 2012 . Administratively , the complex is part of the Bejalen Hamlet . The complex is situated in the middle of many rice paddies and borders Lake Rawa Pening . From the site visitors have a view of Mount Merbabu and Mount Telomoyo , both to the south .
The 300 @-@ seat restaurant at Kampoeng Rawa floats in a small lake and serves Indonesian dishes using locally produced ingredients , including catfish , gourami , and tilapia . Dishes included nasi goreng and mie goreng . Customers can sit in the main hall or one of the floating gazebos . All are floated by plastic drums , and to reach the main hall customers must use covered boats which are guided by a rope .
In the center of the complex is an open stage , a craft center , and a pendopo for special events . This has included weddings , colouring contests , training sessions , and seminars . A variety of activities and facilities are available onsite , including ATVs , flying fox , jet skis , and fishing . Boats leave from a dock and travel through a canal to Lake Rawa Pening .
= = History = =
The concept for Kampoeng Rawa emerged in 2004 , when a group of farmers and fishermen from the Rawa Pening area received a billion rupiah grant from the Artha Prima Credit Union . They decided to establish a tourist attraction through which they could sell their wares ( later extended to include arts and crafts ) while raising awareness of and protecting the Rawa Pening ecosystem . In preparation for the 2013 Visit Jateng campaign , in 2011 they began planning a complex which would include culinary tourism and water activities . Artha Prima trained some locals as wait staff , cashiers , and security guards .
Twelve groups of farmers and fishermen , a total of 325 individuals , banded together in the Kampoeng Rawa Association on 4 August 2012 . This group was tasked with managing the new tourist site , which opened , despite construction being incomplete , shortly before Eid al @-@ Fitr ( 18 – 19 August ) . The site was quickly popular , receiving an average of 2 @,@ 000 visitors a day during the Eid holidays , and became a common location for events held by the local government . In late August 2012 , the cost of entry was Rp . 2 @,@ 500 per person , with an additional parking fee of Rp . 5 @,@ 000 per car , although various activities were extra . During the four @-@ day Eid al @-@ Fitr holiday in 2013 , the attraction received over 14 @,@ 000 visitors .
Controversy over Kampoeng Rawa had developed by late 2012 , when the Water Resource Management Agency declared that the site was illegally located in the green belt around Lake Rawa Pening . In 2013 , the ecologist Sudharto of Diponegoro University stated that the area around Rawa Pening had to be clear of all buildings , otherwise the water flow and ecosystem would be disturbed . It was also found that the permits for the establishment had not been obtained . However , the Regent of Semarang , Sudharto , was supportive of Kampoeng Rawa , stating that the complex not only improved the welfare of the farmers and fishermen , but stopped feuds over the use of rice paddies in the area .
In early 2014 , as part of an incentive to close unlicensed buildings in the regency , police posted notification that the Kampoeng Rawa site was unlicensed . The manager of Kampoeng Rawa , Agus Sumarno , stated that they had tried to gain permission for their buildings , but both the provincial and regional governments had stated that they were unable to issue it . When the police banner later disappeared , there were reports that the site 's management had taken it down , although the management stated that it had fallen under a hard wind . The head of the Semarang Regency Council , Bambang Kusriyanto , stated that he had confirmed Kampoeng Rawa 's management had applied for permission and called for the government to process the request expediently .
= Quistclose trusts in English law =
A Quistclose trust is a trust created where a creditor has lent money to a debtor for a particular purpose . In the event that the debtor uses the money for any other purpose , it is held on trust for the creditor . Any inappropriately spent money can then be traced , and returned to the creditors . The name and trust comes from the House of Lords decision in Barclays Bank Ltd v Quistclose Investments Ltd ( 1970 ) , although the underlying principles can be traced back further . There has been much academic debate over the classification of Quistclose trusts in existing trusts law : whether they are resulting trusts , express trusts , constructive trusts or , as Lord Millett said in Twinsectra Ltd v Yardley , illusory trusts .
= = Definition = =
A Quistclose trust is a method by which a moneylender can hold a security interest in loans , through inserting a clause into the contract which limits the purposes for which the borrower can use the money . If the funds are used for a different purpose , a trust is created around the money for the benefit of the moneylender . This allows the moneylender to trace any inappropriately spent funds , and , in the case of the borrower 's insolvency , prevents the money from being taken by creditors . The name and trust comes from the House of Lords decision in Barclays Bank Ltd v Quistclose Investments Ltd , in which Lord Wilberforce maintained that in Quistclose situations , the intention must be to create a secondary trust for the benefit of the moneylender , arising if the " primary trust " ( the appropriate use of the money ) is not fulfilled . The idea of a primary and secondary trust comes from Toovey v Milne , where money was lent by A to B , to pay off his debts . When B went bankrupt and returned the money to A , the courts held that the creditors could not recover this money , as it was held in a form comparable to a trust . Most situations in which a trust will arise require that a specific use of the money is identified by the contract .
= = Categorisation = =
The primary problem with Quistclose trusts is their categorisation within the accepted types of trust . The two @-@ part trust structure ( primary and secondary trusts ) explained by Lord Wilberforce in Quistclose does not appear elsewhere in English trusts law , and the type of trust used affects the rights available to the parties . Quistclose trusts have variously been considered resulting , express or constructive in nature . An alternate explanation is given by Lord Millett in Twinsectra Ltd v Yardley ; this is that the Quistclose trust is an " illusory trust " , where the apparent beneficiary ( the moneylender , for example ) takes no active role . This trust is created by the intention of either party , and is revocable at any time . The problems with this idea are that the facts in Quistclose are not those of a normal illusory trust , and Millett failed to consider the mutual intention of the parties and any underlying contracts .
= = = Resulting trust = = =
Lord Wilberforce , in Quistclose , stated that the contract gives the moneylender an equitable interest in the loan . Under Wilberforce 's two @-@ stage trust , the interest in the money first goes from the lender to the borrower ( the primary trust ) and then , when the trust 's purpose fails , reverses ( the secondary trust ) . In Twinsectra Lord Millett also explained that a Quistclose trust is a resulting trust , but held that the lender retains the interest throughout the transaction , with no need for this interest to reverse if the purpose of the loan fails . The problem with Wilberforce 's analysis , as explained by Alastair Hudson , Professor of Equity and Law at Queen Mary , University of London , is that because the resulting trust only comes into existence after the misuse of the loan , it may come too late ; if the money is not available when the claim is brought , there is no remedy . The borrower may already have spent the money , or already be insolvent and the subject of claims by creditors .
Another flaw with both Wilberforce 's and Millett 's explanations is that if the interest is retained by the lender from the outset of the contract , it is not a resulting trust at all ; the complete transfer of money should end the lender 's equitable interest . It could be argued that the creation of a Quistclose trust is not based on the recovery of the original interest , but the creation of a new one . Doubts have also been raised about the Twinsectra case in general , in that the facts of the case did not create a stereotypical Quistclose trust ; this causes problems with applying Millett 's analysis .
= = = Express trust = = =
The second possibility is that Quistclose trusts are express trusts . If the contract included a provision that the money was to only be used for certain purposes , it could be interpreted that this money is held on trust until it is used for those purposes . The borrower would be a trustee ; using the money for any other purpose would be in violation of the trustee 's duties , and so void . This trust would be created as soon as the contract is agreed , with the normal requirement for it to be validly created . Two problems with this are that it has not been upheld by the English courts , and that the courts would require those explicit terms to be part of the contract ; Hudson considers it the most advantageous however , because it would offer the simplest protection of the money by not requiring the contract to be breached for the trust to come into existence . In Swiss Bank Corporation v Lloyds Bank Ltd , the courts considered a situation similar to Quistclose , in that a loan agreement was made where the borrowers explicitly agreed to follow guidelines on the use of the money , something they failed to do . The Court of Appeal and the House of Lords refused to constitute any kind of trust or return the money however , applying Lord Wrenbury 's judgment in Palmer v Carey , when he said that " such a stipulation will not amount to an equitable assignment " .
= = = Constructive trust = = =
The third main theory is that Quistclose trusts could be constructive trusts , which are created when the future trustee uses the money in an " unconscionable " manner . In Quistclose situations , the requirement of " unconscionableness " could be met by the borrower using the money for a purpose other than the one for which it was lent , allowing the lender to claim an equitable interest in it . In Carreras Rothmans Ltd v Freeman Mathews Treasure Ltd , the Quistclose trust principle was said by Peter Gibson J. to be that " equity fastens on the conscience of the person who receives from another property transferred for a specific purpose only and not therefore for the
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carried Prince Heinrich . The squadron visited numerous ports in the Mediterranean , including state visits to Italy and the Ottoman Empire . Wilhelm II also stopped in Greece , where he attended the wedding of his sister Sophie to the Greek crown prince Constantine . The squadron remained in the Mediterranean until April 1890 , when it returned to Germany . Wacht , meanwhile , was forced to remain in Trieste for six months due to a serious problem with her boiler tubes , which required lengthy repairs . The ship led the torpedo boat flotilla in the Maneuver Squadron in 1893 . In early 1894 , Wacht was assigned to the II Division of the Maneuver Squadron as the divisional dispatch vessel . The division was commanded by Rear Admiral Otto von Diederichs . During the 1896 annual maneuvers , Wacht was assigned to the I Division .
On 4 September 1901 , Wacht collided with the ironclad Sachsen while on extensive training maneuvers with the rest of the fleet . Wacht was sunk , but the crew was safely evacuated and neither ship suffered casualties . During the maneuvers , Wacht attempted to pass between Sachsen and Württemberg . However , Wacht 's helmsman misjudged the distance and passed too closely in front of Sachsen . Sachsen immediately attempted to reverse course to avoid ramming the ship , but the two vessels collided . Sachsen 's ram bow tore a large hole in Wacht , which began to slowly sink . The battleship Weissenburg attempted to tow Wacht to shallow water , but several of Wacht 's internal bulkheads collapsed under the strain and the ship quickly sank . Nevertheless , her crew was taken off safely ; neither ship suffered any casualties .
= Grown Woman ( Kelly Rowland song ) =
" Grown Woman " is a song by American singer Kelly Rowland , recorded during the recording sessions for her third studio album Here I Am ( 2011 ) . It was written by singer @-@ songwriter Ne @-@ Yo as well as Magnus Beite and Bernt Stray , and co @-@ written and produced by Norwegian duo StarGate . The mid @-@ tempo R & B song 's lyrics revolve around Rowland " assert [ ing ] her maturity and clue [ ing ] her suitors in on what won ’ t fly when it comes to relationships . " It was conceived after Rowland approached Ne @-@ Yo to work on her third album , and asked for a record which would declare she 's grown . " Grown Woman " was described by critics as different from what is normally called R & B.
It was serviced to Rhythmic , Urban , and Urban AC stations in the United States on June 29 , 2010 as one of two lead singles for Here I Am It was also released for digital download in some parts of Europe , Canada , and the United States on July 26 , 2010 . It was moderately successful across the airplay formats as it debuted on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Chart at number eighty @-@ seven , just two days after being serviced to radio . In subsequent weeks , the single peaked at number fifty @-@ one . An accompanying music video for " Grown Woman " was reported to have been filmed in mid @-@ late August 2010 , but has not yet been released . Despite being moderately successful , " Grown Woman " was later excluded from Here I Am .
= = Background = =
Following the announcement that Rowland 's international lead single , " Commander " , would not be released in the United States , a new single , penned by Ne @-@ Yo , was announced as the new American lead single . Titled " Shake Them Haters Off " , the up @-@ tempo song sees Rowland " flexing her muscles . " However , those plans were changed once again when , on June 11 , 2010 , " Shake Them Haters Off " was replaced with two new lead singles . On June 29 , 2010 , " Rose Colored Glasses " was sent to Top 40 / Mainstream radio stations as a pop single , and also released for digital download on the same day . " Grown Woman " was also sent to radio on June 29 , but to Rhythmic , Urban , and Urban AC radio stations . The single cover was revealed on June 17 , 2010 via Rowland 's official website . Rap Up called the cover " grown and sexy . " It was released for download on July 27 , 2010 in the United States .
= = Lyrics and composition = =
" Grown Woman " is an urban R & B song written by Ne @-@ Yo , Magnus Beite , Bernt Stray , and Norwegian production team StarGate ( who also produced the song ) . Jeremy Helligar of True / Slant commented the song was " still to the left of what normally passes for modern R & B. " Originally revealed as " Grown Ass Woman " and later changed to " Grown Woman , " the lyrics and theme of the song are based on a woman who " asserts her maturity and clues her suitors in on what won ’ t fly when it comes to relationships . " The song is one of three records which Ne @-@ Yo co @-@ wrote for Rowland after the singer specifically approached him to pen records for her album . Its concept was devised in a brief conversation between the pair . Rowland said , " ' Ne @-@ Yo asked me what I wanted to talk about , ' and I replied ' I 'm in a different space . Change is very comfortable for me , and I 'm happy where I am ' . [ I ] want a record that declared that I 'm Grown ! "
= = Radio and chart performance = =
The single was officially available for airplay on June 29 , 2010 . Two days later , it made its US chart debut on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart at number eighty @-@ seven . Additionally , during the first week of radio adds , " Grown Woman " became the number one added song to Urban adult contemporary stations . As a result , the song made its debut on the US Hot Urban AC Airplay Chart at number thirty @-@ three and rose nineteen places on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart to number sixty @-@ eight . Since then , it has gone on to peak at number twenty @-@ two on the Urban AC Airplay chart , having amassed about 920 @,@ 000 + audience impressions . It has also peaked on the Urban Contemporary Airplay chart at number thirty @-@ two .
= = Music video and promotion = =
Rowland told New York station 103 @.@ 5 KTU FM that the music video for " Grown Woman " was due to be filmed in the last week of July 2010 . The filming of the video was rescheduled to the weekend beginning August 21 , 2010 in Los Angeles . It is currently unknown if the clip was filmed or if it will be released . Rowland did , however , perform the song live for the first time at Ne @-@ Yo 's post @-@ American Music Awards Vevo party on November 21 , 2010 .
= = Track listing = =
US Digital download
" Grown Woman " – 3 : 45
= = Charts = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= Papa Don 't Preach =
" Papa Don 't Preach " is a song by American singer Madonna from her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) . The song was written by Brian Elliot with additional lyrics by Madonna , and produced by Stephen Bray and Madonna . The song also appears remixed on the 1990 compilation album The Immaculate Collection and in its original form on the 2009 compilation album Celebration . The song 's musical style combines pop and classical styling , and its lyrics deal with teenage pregnancy and abortion . It was based on teen gossip Elliot heard outside his studio , which has a large front window that doubles as a mirror where schoolgirls from the North Hollywood High School in Los Angeles regularly stopped to fix their hair and chat .
Released as the album 's second single in mid @-@ 1986 , the song was a commercial success . It became Madonna 's fourth number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 , and performed well internationally , reaching the top position in the United Kingdom and Australia . It was well received by music critics and was frequently cited as a highlight in the album . The music video , directed by James Foley , shows Madonna 's second image makeover , featuring her with a more toned and muscular body , and cropped platinum blonde hair . It portrayed a storyline where Madonna is trying to tell her father about her pregnancy . The images are juxtaposed with shots of Madonna dancing and singing in a small , darkened studio , and spending a romantic evening with her boyfriend .
Shortly after its release , the song caused heated discussions about its lyrical content . Women 's organizations and others in the family planning field criticized Madonna for encouraging teenage pregnancy , while groups opposed to abortion saw the song as having a positive pro @-@ life message . Madonna has performed " Papa Don 't Preach " in four of her world tours , most recently The MDNA Tour in 2012 . The song also caused her first conflict with the Vatican , as she dedicated it to Pope John Paul II , who urged Italian fans to boycott her concerts during the Who 's That Girl World Tour in 1987 . In 2002 , British singer Kelly Osbourne recorded a hard rock cover of the song which was included as a bonus track on her debut album Shut Up .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
During the autumn of 1985 , Madonna started writing and recording songs for her third studio album , True Blue . She brought back Steve Bray and hired a new songwriter collaborator , Patrick Leonard , to help her co @-@ write eight of the album 's nine tracks . The album 's first track " Papa Don 't Preach " , was written by Brian Elliot , who described it as " a love song , maybe framed a little bit differently " . The song is based on teen gossip he heard outside his studio , which has a large front window that doubles as a mirror where schoolgirls from the North Hollywood High School in Los Angeles regularly stopped to fix their hair and chat . The song was sent to Madonna by Michael Ostin , the same Warner Bros. executive that discovered " Like a Virgin " . Madonna only contributed with some minor lyrical revisions , making " Papa Don 't Preach " the only song on the album that she did not have a strong hand in writing . In 2009 , during an interview with Rolling Stone Madonna was asked by the interviewer Austin Scaggs as to why the theme of the song was meaningful to her . She replied saying ,
[ The song ] just fit right in with my own personal zeitgeist of standing up to male authorities , whether it 's the pope , or the Catholic Church or my father and his conservative , patriarchal ways . ... For ' Papa Don 't Preach ' there were so many opinions – that 's why I thought it was so great . Is she for ' schma @-@ smortion ' , as they say in Knocked Up ? Is she against abortion ?
= = Composition = =
" Papa Don 't Preach " is a dance @-@ pop song with instrumentation from acoustic , electric , and rhythm guitars , keyboards , and string arrangements . It is set in common time , and moves at a moderate tempo of 116 beats per minute . The song is written in the key of F minor . The combination of key and tempo produces a disjuncture between pop and classical rhythms , underlined by the instrumentation during the introduction .
The song begins with a distinctly Vivaldian style , as the fast tempo and classical @-@ style chord progression anticipates the lyrics to follow . The opening chords and the melody emphasize the tonic of the leading notes : Fm – E ♭ – D ♭ – Cm – D ♭ – E ♭ – Fm – D ♭ – E ♭ – Fm , resembling a Baroque work . This is followed by the sound of dance music , produced by a powerful beat from the instruments . Madonna 's vocal range spans from F3 to C5 , and has a different sound from her previous work , more mature , centered , and with a lower range .
The lyrics show Madonna 's interest in her Roman Catholic upbringing , as the song theme is about a girl who admits to her father that she is pregnant and refuses to have an abortion or give up the baby for adoption despite what her friends are telling her to do . It is constructed in a verse @-@ chorus form , with a bridge before the third and final chorus . At the beginning , she addresses her father directly , asking him to talk to her as an adult , " You should know by now that I 'm not a baby " . The transition to the chorus employs a more dramatic voice with a higher range , ending nearly in cries as she sings the word " Please " . Leading to the chorus , Madonna switches to a pleading voice , singing the song 's main hook in a high tone . During the bridge , the song features a Spanish @-@ inspired rhythm , one of the earliest examples of the influence that Hispanic music had on Madonna 's musical style .
= = Critical response = =
" Papa Don 't Preach " was lauded by pop music critics . Davitt Sigerson from Rolling Stone magazine in a review of the album True Blue said that if there is a problem with the album " it 's the lack of outstanding songs " , adding that " only the magnificent ' Papa Don 't Preach ' has the high @-@ profile hook to match ' Like a Virgin ' , ' Dress You Up ' and ' Material Girl ' . " In its review of True Blue , Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that " she is using the music to hook in critics just as she 's baiting a mass audience with such masterstrokes as ' Papa Don 't Preach ' . " Robert Christgau in a review for The Village Voice felt that " she [ Madonna ] doesn 't speak for the ordinary teenaged stiff any more " , adding that the " antiabortion content of ' Papa Don 't Preach ' isn 't unequivocal , and wouldn 't make the song bad by definition if it were , the ambiguity is a cop @-@ out rather than an open door , which is bad . "
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine said that " with songs like ' Papa Don 't Preach ' , Madonna made the transition from pop tart to consummate artist , joining the ranks of 80s icons like Michael Jackson and Prince . " David Browne from Entertainment Weekly in a review of her first compilation album The Immaculate Collection , commented that " in theory a 30 @-@ ish urban sophisticate singing in the voice of a pregnant teen , sounds ridiculous " , but added that " with the help of collaborators like Stephen Bray and Patrick Leonard , though , turns into a perfectly conceived pop record " . In 2005 , the same magazine placed the song at number 486 on its list of " The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born " . In 1987 , the song was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 29th Grammy Awards , but lost to Barbra Streisand 's The Broadway Album .
= = Chart performance = =
" Papa Don 't Preach " was released in the United States in June 1986 . It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 42 and , within eight weeks of release , reached the top of the chart , making it Madonna 's fourth number @-@ one single in the US . It maintained the top position for two weeks and spent 18 weeks on the chart . It also reached a peak of four on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart and a peak of number 16 on the Adult Contemporary chart . In October 1998 , the single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of a million copies of the single . It placed at position 29 for the Billboard Year @-@ End chart for 1986 . In Canada the song debuted at number 53 of the RPM singles chart on July 5 , 1986 , reached the top for two weeks in August 1986 , and stayed on the chart for 20 weeks . It placed at position 13 on the RPM Year @-@ End chart for 1986 .
In the United Kingdom , " Papa Don 't Preach " was released on June 16 , 1986 . The song debuted at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart before climbing to number one two weeks later . It then spent three consecutive weeks at the top , stayed 15 weeks on the chart , and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in August 1986 for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies of the single . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 645 @,@ 000 copies in the UK .
Across Europe , " Papa Don 't Preach " was successful , topping the Eurochart Hot 100 for 11 weeks . It reached the top position of the singles charts in Belgium , Ireland , Italy , and Norway , and peaked inside the top five in Austria , France , Germany , the Netherlands , Spain and Switzerland .
= = Music video = =
For the music video , Madonna sported a complete image makeover . She changed the heavy jewelry and make @-@ up , and adopted the gamine look , which is notably applied to describe the style and appearance that Shirley MacLaine and Audrey Hepburn used during the 1950s . In the video Madonna played a tomboy , dressed in jeans , a black leather jacket , and a slogan T @-@ shirt with the caption " Italians do it better " . The video alternated between tomboy shots and those of a sexier Madonna with a more toned and muscular body , cropped platinum blonde hair , and figure @-@ revealing clothing , consisting of a 1960s @-@ style black bustier top and capri pants .
The video was directed by James Foley , who worked with Madonna in her music video for " Live to Tell " , produced by David Naylor and Sharon Oreck , and Michael Ballhaus was in charge of the photography . The video was shot on location over three days in Staten Island , New York and Manhattan . Staten Island was chosen on Foley 's suggestion as it was where he grew up : " We talked about wanting to tap into a working @-@ class environment , because by that time she had done ' Material Girl ' and ' Like a Virgin ' and other stuff that was very glamorous and stylized . She wanted to do something a bit more grounded and ' drama ' . " Actor Alex McArthur was signed to play Madonna 's boyfriend and the father of her child in the video . Madonna had spotted McArthur in a small role as a naive youth in the 1985 film Desert Hearts , and she thought he was a natural to play her mechanic boyfriend . " I was out in the garage working on my Harley , " said McArthur , " I answered the phone and a voice said , ' Hi , this is Madonna . I would like you to be in my next video . ' "
The music video starts with shots of the New York skyline , the Staten Island Ferry , and character close @-@ ups . Madonna plays a teenager , who is seen walking along a lane . Then it shows her thinking about her father , played by Danny Aiello , and how much he loves her . She then sees her boyfriend , played by actor Alex McArthur , coming along . The images are juxtaposed with shots of Madonna dancing and singing in a small , darkened studio . Madonna then moves away from her friends , who warn her from her boyfriend . She and her boyfriend spend a romantic evening together on a barge where they reflect upon their lives after watching an elderly couple . Then Madonna finds out that she is pregnant and after much hesitation tells her father . They have a few hours of tension between them . Her father eventually accepts the pregnancy , and the final scene is a reconciliatory embrace between father and daughter .
Georges @-@ Claude Guilbert , author of Madonna as Postmodern Myth , compared her look in the video as a " combination of Marilyn Monroe , Jean Seberg and Kim Novak . " He added that it was hard for him to believe that " [ Madonna ] did not know that she was going to cause a huge controversy with the video ... With such a song and video , she was throwing in America 's face the image of a country ravaged by the abortion debate , which is far from being resolved . " Lynda Hart , one of the authors of Acting Out : Feminist Performances , felt that the video " alternated between two competing representations of Madonna ... Charging coercion , both sides make the video as an invitation to a certain way of life , in the process denying it the stylistic invocation of a rhetoric of self @-@ authorization . " At the 1987 MTV Video Music Awards , the " Papa Don 't Preach " video won the Best Female Video award , and was nominated for Best Cinematography and Best Overall Performance .
= = Live performances = =
Madonna has performed the song on four of her world tours . She premiered the song in 1987 , during her Who 's That Girl World Tour , where she danced around the stage wearing a white Spanish @-@ style dress designed by Marlene Stewart , and a black leather jacket similar to the one she used in the music video . The screen in the background showed portraits of Pope John Paul II and then @-@ President of the U.S. Ronald Reagan , along with scenes of John Perry III 's short film , The Nightmare , ending with the words " Safe Sex " , as Madonna finished the song . She dedicated the song to the Pope , marking her first conflict with the Vatican , as Pope John Paul II urged Italian fans to boycott her concerts . Two different performances of the song on this tour can be found on the videos : Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan , filmed in Tokyo , Japan , on June 22 , 1987 , and Ciao Italia : Live from Italy , filmed in Turin , Italy , on September 4 , 1987 .
Three years later on her Blond Ambition World Tour in 1990 , Madonna evoked Catholic images during the " Papa Don 't Preach " performance . She wore a black kaftan made of chiffon and energetically danced , accompanied by six male dancers , with a platform full of votive candles in the background . Two different performances were taped and released on video , the Blond Ambition Japan Tour 90 , taped in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 .
In 2004 , during the Re @-@ Invention World Tour , Madonna performed the song wearing a Scottish kilt , and a T @-@ shirt that said " Kabbalists do it Better " on most of the shows , and " Brits do it Better " and " Irish do it Better " T @-@ shirts during the shows in the United Kingdom and Ireland , reminiscent of the one she used in the song 's music video . Madonna also performed a shorter , abbreviated version of " Papa Don 't Preach " in the MDNA Tour in 2012 . Wearing a black tight outfit , Madonna sang the song while crawling around on the ground , then towards the end of the performance , several dancers wearing military clothing and animal masks surrounded and tied her up and took her to the main stage , giving way to the next performance , " Hung Up " .
= = Cover versions = =
" Papa Don 't Preach " has been covered by numerous artists . In 1986 , " Weird Al " Yankovic included the song as the last in his polka meldey " Polka Party ! " from his album of the same name . In 2002 , British singer Kelly Osbourne recorded together with Incubus ' members Mike Einziger ( guitar ) , and José Pasillas ( drums ) , a hard rock cover of the song that was produced by her brother Jack Osbourne . It was included as a bonus track on her debut album Shut Up and on the soundtrack of MTV 's reality television program The Osbournes .
The song was released in the United Kingdom on September 2002 , peaking at number three . In the rest of Europe , the song peaked inside the top ten in Ireland and Finland , and the top twenty in Sweden . In Australia the song debuted at number three , and received a platinum certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . This version was panned by music critics , who thought that the cover " makes precisely zero sense " , and that it " reeks of opportunism " , also criticizing Incubus ' collaboration , describing it as " unimaginative " , and that " their presence makes the whole mess barely distinguishable " .
French group Mad 'House made an Eurodance cover of the song , that was included on their 2002 album Absolutely Mad . Covers of the song on tribute albums include Brook Barros on The Music of Madonna , released in 2005 , and a jazz version on Bo . Da 's Plays Madonna in Jazz , released in 2007 . The song has been sampled at the beginning of Mario Winans ' 2004 single " Never Really Was " , and a slowed @-@ down version by Keshia Chanté sample the song in the 2006 single " Fallen " . In 2001 , Picturehouse released a quiet acoustic cover on the first Even Better Than the Real Thing covers album . The television show Glee released an acoustic cover version performed by Dianna Agron as her character Quinn Fabray , a pregnant teenager , in 2009 .
= = Legacy = =
As the song 's popularity increased in the United States , so did the criticism and support it received from groups concerned with pregnancy and abortion . In July 1986 , shortly after the release of the video for " Papa Don 't Preach " , Madonna commented on the controversy surrounding the song , to music critic Stephen Holden from The New York Times :
Papa Don 't Preach " is a message song that everyone is going to take the wrong way . Immediately they 're going to say I am advising every young girl to go out and get pregnant . When I first heard the song , I thought it was silly . But then I thought , wait a minute , this song is really about a girl who is making a decision in her life . She has a very close relationship with her father and wants to maintain that closeness . To me it 's a celebration of life . It says , ' I love you , father , and I love this man and this child that is growing inside me ' . Of course , who knows how it will end ? But at least it starts off positive .
People who criticized the song 's message included Ellen Goodman , a national syndicated columnist , who called the video " a commercial for teenage pregnancy " . Feminist lawyer Gloria Allred , the spokeswoman of the National Organization for Women ( NOW ) , angrily called for Madonna to make a public statement or another record supporting the opposite point of view . Alfred Moran , the executive director of Planned Parenthood of New York City , also criticized the song , fearing that it would undermine efforts to promote birth control among adolescents and that it would encourage teenage pregnancy . Recalling how his agency 's clinics were filled in 1985 with girls wearing clothes that were an imitation of Madonna 's style , Moran said that the song 's message is " that getting pregnant is cool and having the baby is the right thing and a good thing and don 't listen to your parents , the school , anybody who tells you otherwise — don 't preach to me , Papa . The reality is that what Madonna is suggesting to teenagers is a path to permanent poverty . "
In contrast , groups opposed to abortion saw " Papa Don 't Preach " as a positive , pro @-@ life song . Susan Carpenter @-@ McMillan , the president of the California chapter of Feminists for Life ( FFL ) in the U.S. , said that " abortion is readily available on every street corner for young women . Now what Madonna is telling them is , hey , there 's an alternative . " Tipper Gore , a founder of the Parents Music Resource Center ( PMRC ) , who a year earlier denounced Madonna for the sexual lyrical content of her single " Dress You Up " , and had led a campaign against explicit content in music , commended Madonna for speaking candidly about such a serious subject and important social issue . When speaking of the song , Gore said " the song speaks to a serious subject with a sense of urgency and sensitivity in both the lyrics and Madonna 's rendition . It also speaks to the fact that there 's got to be more support and more communication in families about this problem , and anything that fosters that I applaud . "
The song 's writer , Brian Elliot , commented about the debate : " I just wanted to make this girl in the song a sympathetic character . As a father myself , I 'd want to be accessible to my children 's problems . " Madonna avoided the controversy , and did not comment on the song 's use as a pro @-@ life statement . Her publicist , Liz Rosenberg , said that " she [ Madonna ] is singing a song , not taking a stand " , adding that " her philosophy is people can think what they want to think . " Danny Aiello , having appeared in the video as the titular " Papa " , recorded " Papa Wants the Best for You " later that year , an answer song written by Artie Schroeck from the father 's point of view .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Brian Elliot – Music and lyrics
Madonna – additional lyrics , producer , lead vocals
Stephen Bray – producer , synth bass , percussion , drums , keyboards
Reggie Lucas – producer of " Ain 't No Big Deal "
David Williams – rhythm guitar
Bruce Gaitsch – electric guitar
John Putnam – acoustic guitar , electric guitar
Fred Zarr – additional keyboards
Johnathan Moffett – percussion
Billy Meyers – string arrangement
Siedah Garrett – background vocals
Edie Lehmann – background vocals
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Syzygy ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Syzygy " is the thirteenth episode of the third season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on January 26 , 1996 , on Fox . It was written by series creator Chris Carter and directed by Rob Bowman . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Syzygy " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 8 , being watched by 16 @.@ 04 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed reviews , with many critics and fans upset by the negative portrayal of Mulder and Scully .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate the murders of high school students in a small town where everyone is acting strangely . They discover that two teens are responsible , due to a rare planetary alignment that affects their behavior .
The episode 's title refers to an astronomical alignment of three celestial objects , usually the sun , the Earth , and a moon or planet . Mulder and Scully 's behavior in the episode was written specifically by Carter to alert the show 's audience that Mulder and Scully would not become a romantic partnership . In addition , the episode contained various fan in @-@ jokes , such as Scully getting upset because Mulder is always the driver , which was inspired by nitpicking from fans .
= = Plot = =
In Comity , New Hampshire , a group of high school students hold a eulogy for their dead friend , the purported victim of a local Satanic cult . Two girls , Terri Roberts and Margi Kleinjan , get a ride home from a jock , Jay " Boom " DeBoom ( Ryan Reynolds ) . The girls tell Boom that the cult seeks a blonde virgin as a next victim , convincing him to turn off the road . The next day , the police find Boom hanging from a cliff . Out of sight of the police , Terri and Margi sit at the top , laughing .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) arrive in Comity after arguing over directions along the way . They meet a local detective , Angela White , and go to Boom 's funeral . Scully , in a bad mood , is skeptical of these claims . The high school principal , Bob Spitz , interrupts the funeral by ranting Inquisitorial @-@ style about Satanic cults murdering their children when suddenly the coffin starts smoking and catches on fire . Mulder and Scully go into separate rooms to interview Margi and Terri , both of whom offer an identical story about a satanic ceremony where a baby was sacrificed . Scully thinks their stories are cliché and points out the fact that the belief in a satanic conspiracy is illogical and paranoid . Looking at the latest victim 's body , Mulder and Detective White find a burn mark in the shape of a horned beast ; Scully says she doesn 't see anything . Mulder goes to see White to apologize for Scully 's behavior and the two visit the local astrologist Madame Zirinka who claims the town 's crazy behavior is due to the rare planetary alignment of the planets Mars , Uranus , and Mercury . Terri and Margi watch basketball practice , lusting over one of the players , Scott , whose girlfriend is fellow cheerleader Brenda ( much to Terri and Margi 's displeasure ) . One of the other players accidentally spills a table of drinks on them , so they cause the basketball to bounce underneath the bleachers and it closes when he goes to get it , killing him . Scully is angry at Mulder for ditching her to be with Detective White .
A town mob searches for a mass grave in the woods and finds a bag belonging to the town pediatrician filled with bones , which Spitz mistakenly assumes belonged to a child . The angry mob goes to see the doctor , who claims the bag was sold . The bones end up belonging to " Mr. Tippy " , a dog that belonged to Terri . Scully gets upset over a joke Mulder makes and tells him she 's returning to Washington . Margi and Terri celebrate their birthday and Brenda uses a Ouija board to know who she will marry ; everyone thinks it 's Scott before the planchette veers away from the C and spells out Satan . Upset , Brenda rushes to the bathroom where Margi and Terri are chanting " Bloody Mary " and is locked in , killed by glass from a shattered mirror . Detective White heads to Mulder 's hotel room because she found a box which inside had her cat 's collar , and then she makes a romantic gesture towards Mulder but they are interrupted by Scully who informs them about Brenda 's death . Terri and Margi try to console Scott , who tells them off . Turned down , Terri is mad at him but Margi still likes him and leaves .
Mulder goes to visit Madame Zirinka again , who tells him that the planets come into alignment like this only once every 84 years , and additional alignments will cause anyone born on January 12 , 1979 ( Margi and Terri 's birthdate ) to have all the energy in the cosmos focused on them . Margi goes to see Scott alone but an angry Terri arrives . The two argue with each other and end up accidentally killing Scott . Margi goes to Mulder , telling him that Terri is responsible for the murders , while Terri goes to see Scully and tells her the opposite . The agents call each other and bring both girls to the police station , where the place starts shaking and all the guns go off on their own . Mulder locks the girls in a room together and their power goes away once the clock ticks midnight . When the town mob and Detective White finally see Terri and Margi as the culprits , Spitz claims it was the work of Satan , oblivious to the cosmic alignment 's energy . Mulder and Scully drive home , arguing again over directions ; when Scully defiantly runs a stop sign , Mulder notifies her but she tells him to shut up , which he does .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter and directed by Rob Bowman . Bowman was not a fan of the episode , saying " The show proved to be much more difficult than I anticipated , and there wasn 't enough time to shoot the show properly because we were so close to the Christmas break . I felt extremely pressured and frustrated , although there are things in it I love , particularly the banter between Mulder and Scully . But overall , I thought the show was very oblique . I don 't feel that the characters ever knew what was going on and I don 't think it is all that cool that kids are murdering people . I didn 't feel like I was shooting an episode of the X @-@ Files , and I think I let Chris Carter down a bit . "
The name of this episode , " Syzygy " refers to an astrological alignment of three celestial objects , usually the sun , the Earth , and a moon or planet . The name of the high school in this episode , Grover Cleveland Alexander High School was a reference to a question David Duchovny got wrong during his appearance on a celebrity edition of Jeopardy ! . The scene where Mulder sees a Keystone Kops movie playing on every channel was originally meant to include the movie A Clockwork Orange , but the rights to the footage were too expensive so the producers settled on another choice . Carter felt that in retrospect it ended up being a better fit .
Fox Mulder and Dana Scully 's fight in the episode where Scully gets upset due to Mulder always driving grew out of nitpicking from fans about the fact that Mulder always seems to be the one driving the car . Mulder 's joke about Scully 's " little feet " was a joke that Carter had made before at an X @-@ Files convention in Pasadena , California . Gillian Anderson stated that these have been things that fans on the internet have been nitpicking about since the beginning of the show . David Duchovny later explained that the comedic episodes of the series were often more ludicrous than the other episodes in the show . He noted , " There 's The X @-@ Files of the stand @-@ alone , and then there 's The X @-@ Files of the mythology , and then there are the comedic X @-@ Files as well , in which the characters are really not quite the characters that we know . "
= = Reception = =
" Syzygy " premiered on the Fox network on January 26 , 1996 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky One on November 13 , 1996 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 8 with a 17 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 17 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 16 @.@ 04 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing .
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Entertainment Weekly gave " Syzygy " an A , describing the episode as " another uproarious send @-@ up , this time of teen venom , B @-@ movie paranoia , and our agents ' painfully restrained rapport " , with praise to the villains and the discussion on why Mulder always drives , considered " one of Mulder 's and Scully 's funniest exchanges " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave a B- , describing it as " an entertaining hour that never rises to the level of those other episodes " like " Humbug " and " War of the Coprophages " . VanDerWerff argued that " Syzygy " was an attempt by Carter to try and emulate the writing style of Darin Morgan 's scripts , without success ; he noted " the laughs here are emptier than they were the week before in ' Coprophages ' " — and adding that " every time you think the episode has figured out a way to plant its foot firmly in comedic territory , there 's a horribly judged moment of ' drama , ' like Mulder 's final monologue . " Connie Ogle of Popmatters listed Margi and Terri among the best monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week characters of the series , describing " Syzygy " as a " hilarious send @-@ up of Heathers " .
Not all reviews were positive . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris called the outing " a lost opportunity , " noting that the episode 's humor " falls flat , because the humor exists in a vacuum " . Furthermore , she argued that if the episode had been played @-@ straight , then " Syzygy " could have " been a horror classic " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . The two criticized the episode for following on the heels of Darin Morgan 's " War of the Coprophages " , which they argued was a superior episode of the series . Shearman and Pearson further noted that the episode was " simply not very funny " . Fox Mulder and Dana Scully 's odd behavior towards each other resulted in criticism from critics and fans on the Internet . Vitaris called the relationship between Mulder and Scully in the episode " ugly " . Shearman and Pearson called the scenes featuring Mulder and Scully 's bickering " hard to stomach " . Chris Carter was somewhat disappointed in the reaction that the episode received , stating that there were hints to the satiric nature of the episode strewn throughout " Syzygy " that fans simply did not understand . Other fans understood what transpired , but disliked the episode due to their desire for Mulder and Scully to become a romantically involved couple . X @-@ Files fans in San Francisco printed up T @-@ shirts featuring the phrase " Sure . Fine . Whatever . " spoken multiple times by Scully in this episode .
= Sawtooth National Forest =
Sawtooth National Forest is a federally protected area that covers 2 @,@ 110 @,@ 408 acres ( 854 @,@ 052 ha ) in the U.S. states of Idaho ( ~ 96 percent ) and Utah ( ~ 4 percent ) . Managed by the U.S. Forest Service in the U.S. Department of Agriculture , it was originally named the Sawtooth Forest Reserve in a proclamation issued by President Theodore Roosevelt on May 29 , 1905 . On August 22 , 1972 a portion of the forest was designated as the Sawtooth National Recreation Area ( SNRA ) , which includes the Sawtooth , White Clouds , and Hemingway – Boulders wilderness areas . The forest is managed as four units : the SNRA and the Fairfield , Ketchum , and Minidoka Ranger Districts .
Sawtooth National Forest is named for the Sawtooth Mountains , which traverse part of the SNRA . The forest also contains the Albion , Black Pine , Boise , Boulder , Pioneer , Raft River , Smoky , Soldier , Sublett , and White Cloud mountain ranges , as well as Hyndman Peak , the ninth @-@ highest point in Idaho at 12 @,@ 009 feet ( 3 @,@ 660 m ) above sea level . Sawtooth National Forest contains land cover types which include sagebrush steppe , spruce @-@ fir forests , alpine tundra , and over 1 @,@ 100 lakes and 3 @,@ 500 miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ) of rivers and streams . Plants and animals found only in the Sawtooth National Forest and adjacent lands include Christ 's Indian paintbrush , Davis ' springparsley , the South Hills crossbill , and the Wood River sculpin .
The area that is now Sawtooth National Forest was first occupied by people as early as 8000 BC and by the Shoshone tribe after 1700 AD . The first European descendants migrating from the eastern United States arrived in the area around the 1820s ; they were mainly explorers , trappers , and prospectors , and they founded many of the current towns around what later became the forest . Sawtooth National Forest offers facilities for recreation , with four ski areas , whitewater and flatwater boating , hunting , 81 campgrounds , and over 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) of trails and roads for hiking , mountain biking , and all @-@ terrain vehicle use , including two National Recreation Trails .
= = Forest history = =
The Forest Reserve Act of 1891 gave the President the authority to establish forest reserves in the U.S. Department of the Interior . After passage of the Transfer Act of 1905 , forest reserves became part of the U.S. Department of Agriculture in the newly created U.S. Forest Service . Sawtooth National Forest was created as the Sawtooth Forest Reserve in the Department of Agriculture by proclamation of President Theodore Roosevelt on May 29 , 1905 . The forest 's initial area was 1 @,@ 947 @,@ 520 acres ( 788 @,@ 130 ha ) , and it was named after the Sawtooth Mountains in the northwestern part of the forest . On November 6 , 1906 , President Roosevelt announced the addition of 1 @,@ 392 @,@ 640 acres ( 563 @,@ 580 ha ) to the Sawtooth Forest Reserve , which then also constituted much of the present @-@ day Salmon @-@ Challis and Boise National Forests . These lands were split into separate National Forests by executive order on June 26 and July 1 , 1908 . The forest 's area underwent a number of smaller changes in the early 20th century . The Fairfield Ranger District was established in 1906 and merged with the Shake Creek Ranger District in 1972 to form the present @-@ day Fairfield District . The Cassia Forest Reserve was established on June 12 , 1905 and the Raft River Forest Reserve on November 5 , 1906 . The names of the forest reserves were changed to national forests on March 4 , 1907 . Formed from the consolidation of Cassia and Raft River National Forests , the Minidoka National Forest was created on July 1 , 1908 and then added to Sawtooth National Forest on July 1 , 1953 .
In 1936 , Democratic U.S. Senator from Idaho James P. Pope introduced the first legislation to establish a national park in the Sawtooths . Under Pope 's proposal , the park would have been approximately 30 mi ( 48 km ) long and 8 to 15 mi ( 13 to 24 km ) wide . The rest of Idaho 's congressional delegation did not support the proposal , which occurred at a time when the National Park Service was taking a more preservation @-@ oriented stance , and the bill died . On October 12 , 1937 , the Forest Service established the Sawtooth Primitive Area in the Sawtooth Mountains . Subsequently , Sawtooth National Forest began to extensively develop recreation opportunities , including new campgrounds , trails , and roads .
In 1960 , Democrat Frank Church , a U.S. Senator from Idaho , first introduced legislation for a feasibility study to survey the area for national park status . While Church allowed the 1960 feasibility study legislation to die , he introduced a bill in 1963 to create Sawtooth Wilderness National Park , which would primarily encompass the existing Sawtooth Primitive Area . Although the 1963 bill also was not voted on , Church admitted that it was not designed to pass but rather to encourage thorough feasibility studies by both the Forest Service and National Park Service . A 1965 joint report by the two agencies recommended either a national park administered by the National Park Service or a national recreation area managed by the Forest Service . In April 1966 , Church introduced two bills , one to establish Sawtooth National Park and another to establish the Sawtooth National Recreation Area ( SNRA ) . The SNRA bill was cosponsored by Republican Leonard B. Jordan , another Senator from Idaho , because it preserved the area while also permitting traditional uses such as logging , hunting , and grazing . The legislation was not supported by Idaho 's members of the U.S. House of Representatives .
In 1968 the American Smelting and Refining Company ( ASARCO ) discovered a molybdenum deposit at the base of Castle Peak , the highest peak in the White Cloud Mountains . ASARCO filed paperwork with the Forest Service to construct roads and to allow for an open pit mine below Castle Peak to extract the ore . The proposed mine would have been 350 ft ( 110 m ) deep , 700 ft ( 210 m ) wide , and 7 @,@ 000 ft ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) long . About 20 @,@ 000 short tons ( 18 @,@ 000 t ) of material would be processed daily with 99 @.@ 5 percent being deposited in waste piles and settling ponds . ASARCO estimated that the mine would create 350 jobs and $ 1 million ( $ 6 @.@ 8 million today ) in taxes per year , while the roads would open up opportunities for further exploration . The Forest Service would not be able to stop mining and protect the White Cloud Mountains because the General Mining Act of 1872 gave mining rights to anyone who had located a lode or placer . Nationally , opposition to the mine mounted , while in 1970 Republican Idaho Governor Don Samuelson voiced support for the mine , saying that ASARCO was not , " going to tear down mountains . They are only going to dig a hole . " He also characterized Castle Peak as , " nothing but sagebrush on one side and scraggly trees on the other . " Samuelson lost reelection in 1970 to Cecil D. Andrus , a Democrat and supporter of preserving the forest who later ( 1977 – 81 ) served as U.S. interior secretary in the Carter Administration .
In March 1971 , Idaho 's congressional delegation , which included Senators Church and Jordan and Republican Representatives James A. McClure and Orval H. Hansen , was finally united and introduced legislation to create the SNRA . On August 22 , 1972 Public Law 22 @-@ 400 establishing the SNRA , covering 756 @,@ 019 acres ( 305 @,@ 950 ha ) , and banning mining passed both the House of Representatives and Senate and was signed into law by Republican President Richard Nixon . This legislation included the White Cloud and Boulder Mountains as part of the SNRA . The 217 @,@ 088 @-@ acre ( 87 @,@ 852 ha ) Sawtooth Primitive Area became the Sawtooth Wilderness ( also in the SNRA ) as part of the National Wilderness Preservation System under the Wilderness Act of 1964 . The original bill also authorized $ 19 @.@ 8 million ( $ 112 million today ) for land acquisition and up to $ 26 million ( $ 147 million today ) for development . The SNRA was dedicated in a ceremony held on the shores of Redfish Lake on September 1 , 1972 . The Burley and Twin Falls Ranger Districts of Sawtooth National Forest were consolidated on October 16 , 2002 into the Minidoka Ranger District . On August 7 , 2015 President Obama signed the Sawtooth National Recreation Area and Jerry Peak Wilderness Additions Act to create the Hemingway – Boulders , Jim McClure – Jerry Peak , and White Clouds wilderness areas , which cover a total of 275 @,@ 665 acres ( 111 @,@ 558 ha ) of central Idaho , primarily in Sawtooth National Forest .
= = Management = =
Sawtooth National Forest is managed by the U.S. Forest Service , an agency within the Department of Agriculture , as four units : the Fairfield ( 420 @,@ 720 acres or 170 @,@ 260 hectares ) , Ketchum ( 321 @,@ 544 acres or 130 @,@ 124 hectares ) , and Minidoka ( 604 @,@ 108 acres or 244 @,@ 474 hectares ) Ranger Districts and Sawtooth National Recreation Area ( SNRA ) . The Minidoka Ranger District is separated into the Albion ( 95 @,@ 000 acres or 38 @,@ 000 hectares ) , Black Pine ( 90 @,@ 000 acres or 36 @,@ 000 hectares ) , Cassia ( 234 @,@ 000 acres or 95 @,@ 000 hectares ) , Raft River ( 95 @,@ 000 acres or 38 @,@ 000 hectares ) , and Sublett ( 90 @,@ 000 acres or 36 @,@ 000 hectares ) divisions .
Guard stations and work camps dot the forest . The SNRA headquarters and main visitor center are located north of the city of Ketchum , while there is a ranger station in Stanley and visitor center at Redfish Lake . There are more than 25 @,@ 000 acres ( 10 @,@ 000 ha ) of private land inholdings within the forest , and it is bordered by the Boise and Salmon @-@ Challis National Forests as well as private , state , and Bureau of Land Management land . Curlew National Grassland is 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the Sublett Division 's eastern boundary . Small portions of the area originally designated as Sawtooth National Forest are managed by the Boise and Challis National Forests , while the Sawtooth manages portions of the Boise and Challis National Forests .
Sawtooth National Forest balances interests of different groups , such as those interested in recreation , preservation , or resource extraction . The forest practices conservation of resources , in some areas allowing for production of raw materials , such as lumber for construction purposes and wood pulp for paper products , alongside recreational uses , while in other areas only recreation is permitted . Additionally , mineral extraction through mining and oil and natural gas exploration and recovery are also conducted , though in Sawtooth National Forest this has become less common due to a consensus to protect the natural surroundings . Leases offered to ranchers to allow them to graze cattle and sheep on the forest are common . The forest provides guidelines and enforces environmental regulations to ensure that resources are not overexploited and that necessary commodities are available for future generations .
= = = Wilderness = = =
The Sawtooth Wilderness was originally designated the Sawtooth Primitive Area in 1937 before becoming part of the National Wilderness Preservation System in 1972 under the Wilderness Act . Although entirely managed by Sawtooth National Forest , only about a quarter ( 25 @.@ 33 percent ) of the Sawtooth Wilderness lies within the area Congressionally designated as Sawtooth National Forest , with the majority ( 69 @.@ 13 percent ) lying in Boise National Forest and a relatively small portion ( 5 @.@ 54 percent ) in Salmon @-@ Challis National Forest . According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency , the Sawtooth Wilderness has some of the clearest air in the lower 48 states .
On August 7 , 2015 President Barack Obama signed the Sawtooth National Recreation Area and Jerry Peak Wilderness Additions Act creating the Hemingway – Boulders ( 67 @,@ 998 acres or 27 @,@ 518 hectares ) , Jim McClure – Jerry Peak ( 116 @,@ 898 acres or 47 @,@ 307 hectares ) , and White Clouds ( 90 @,@ 769 acres or 36 @,@ 733 hectares ) wilderness areas covering a combined 275 @,@ 665 acres ( 111 @,@ 558 ha ) of Sawtooth National Forest , Salmon @-@ Challis National Forest , and Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) land after it passed Congress on August 4 , 2015 . The Hemingway – Boulders Wilderness is entirely within SNRA , while all but 450 acres ( 180 ha ) of the White Clouds Wilderness is in the SNRA , with the rest managed by the BLM . The Jim McClure – Jerry Peak wilderness is entirely outside the administered area of Sawtooth National Forest , but partially within the area designated as Sawtooth National Forest and thus managed by Salmon @-@ Challis National Forest and the BLM . The 2015 bill and previous versions were introduced by Republican Representative Mike Simpson , while prior bills had proposed to designate 312 @,@ 000 acres ( 126 @,@ 000 ha ) of wilderness as part of the controversial Central Idaho Economic Development and Recreation Act ( CIEDRA ) . CIEDRA would have opened over 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 200 @,@ 000 ha ) adjacent to the new wilderness areas to motorized vehicle use , given 5 @,@ 693 acres ( 2 @,@ 304 ha ) of public land to local municipalities , and established a " no net loss " policy for motorized trails .
Prior to the 2015 wilderness designations , the White Cloud and Boulder mountains were part of the largest unprotected roadless area in the United States outside of Alaska . In the absence of Congressional action that would designate the Boulder @-@ White Clouds region as wilderness , the area had been studied for possible protection as a national monument by presidential proclamation under the Antiquities Act . Former Secretary of the Interior Dirk Kempthorne initially studied the area for national monument status , but did not recommend it because Congressional action seemed likely . The 2015 bill passed after receiving increased attention when President Obama indicated he would designate a national monument in the area if the wilderness bill did not pass . Additionally , other large areas of the forest are parts of proposed wilderness areas , such as through the Northern Rockies Ecosystem Protection Act . These other proposals have gained no support among Idaho 's congressional delegation because the bills could place undue public use and development restrictions on Idaho 's public lands .
The Wilderness Act enhanced the protection status of remote or undeveloped land already contained within federally administered protected areas . Passage of the act ensured that no human improvements would take place aside from those already existing . The protected status in wilderness @-@ designated zones prohibits road and building construction , oil and mineral exploration or mining , and logging , and also prohibits the use of motorized equipment and bicycles . The ways people may enter wilderness areas are on foot or on horseback .
= = Natural resources = =
= = = Flora = = =
About 47 percent of the forest 's land is forested , and an additional 3 percent can support trees , but does not currently have any . Lower elevations in Sawtooth National Forest often have sagebrush and grassland vegetation types , while forested areas contain a variety of tree species . Lodgepole pine forms nearly monotypic forests in part of the SNRA with sparse vegetation under the tree cover . Plants that can be found under lodgepole pines include grasses , scattered forbs , dwarf huckleberry , and grouse whortleberry . Douglas @-@ fir and quaking aspen are found in similar environments throughout the forest with understories of low shrubs , such as common snowberry and white spirea . Aspen is also found throughout the forest at elevations ranging from 5 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) to 11 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) .
The highest elevation forests contain whitebark pine , Engelmann spruce , subalpine fir , and limber pine , including the largest individual whitebark pine in North America . Based on tree ring chronologies , some of the whitebark pines are believed to be 700 to 1000 or more years old . The highest elevation forests typically have understories of grasses and forbs that are resistant to freezing at any point of the growing season . Willows , alders , cottonwoods , and sedges are found in riparian areas . Ponderosa pine occupy the dry , lower elevations near the western edge of the forest and historically persisted due to the occurrence of frequent non @-@ lethal fires . Ponderosa pine forest understories typically consist of perennial grasses such as Idaho fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass . In the slightly moister ponderosa pine forests grasses such as pinegrass are found with a cover of shrubs including white spirea , common snowberry , and mallow ninebark .
The Minidoka District is separated from the rest of the forest by the Snake River Plain , also known as Idaho 's potato belt ; snowmelt from the forest provides a steady supply of water to the plain . The Minidoka District is a part of the Basin and Range Province , and while much of the vegetation here is similar to the northern part of the forest , the presence of Rocky Mountain juniper is notable as well as is the occasional cactus plant . In these pinyon @-@ juniper woodlands trees also include singleleaf pinyon , Utah juniper , and curl @-@ leaf mountain mahogany . Idaho 's rarest plant , the Christ 's Indian paintbrush , is endemic to 200 acres ( 81 ha ) on upper elevations of Mount Harrison in the Albion Mountains in the Minidoka District . Davis ' springparsley is also endemic to the Albion Mountains . Additionally , the forest contains potential habitat for the threatened Ute lady 's tresses .
Exotic species ( also known as invasive or non @-@ native species ) are often unintentionally introduced by people traveling from outside the forest by sticking to vehicle tires , shoes , or cattle and are usually found near roadways , campgrounds , and other areas used by people . The Forest Service has an invasive species control effort that identifies and attempts to contain the further spread of non @-@ native plants . Invasive plants of particular concern in the forest include spotted knapweed , yellow starthistle , rush skeletonweed , leafy spurge , and cheatgrass .
The mountain pine beetle is a native insect species that is known to experience large outbreaks that infest forest groves , and is particularly common in areas with numerous lodgepole pines and fir trees . A large infestation occurred from 1995 through 2003 , and the beetle wiped out areas of lodgepole pine in the SNRA , an area historically too cold for outbreaks to occur .
= = = Fauna = = =
Sawtooth National Forest is home to over 243 bird species , 78 mammals , 28 reptiles and amphibians , and 29 fish . Invasive zebra and quagga mussels are potential threats to the forest 's aquatic ecosystems because they can spread rapidly and cover large surface areas , including human structures , thus altering ecosystems , removing native mussels and threatening native fish . Wolves were controversially reintroduced to the SNRA in the mid @-@ 1990s to restore the ecosystem stability that they provide as top predators.This included managing high elk populations , which had inhibited new vegetation growth . Opponents to the reintroduction included hunters concerned that wolves would inhibit their ability to hunt the highest number of game species possible , ranchers concerned for the welfare of their animals , and land developers concerned that a species listed under the Endangered Species Act may restrict what they can do to their land .
Along with cougars , timber wolves are the largest top predators that live in the forest and have no predators of their own except humans . Most of the area 's native mammal species are present in the forest , with the exception of grizzly bears , which have become locally extinct . Plans for their reintroduction to central Idaho have been proposed since the 1990s , but have not progressed because of concerns similar to those with the wolf reintroduction as well as fears for human safety . The northern and high elevation areas of the forest contain habitat for wolverines and the endangered Canadian lynx , but no recent sightings of these species have been reported .
Elk ( also known as wapiti ) , mule deer , and pronghorn ( also called pronghorn antelope ) are some of the most commonly seen large mammals . During winter , pronghorn that spend the summer in the Sawtooth Valley migrate south to the lower elevations on the Snake River Plain , and some sections of the forest are closed to motorized use to protect the elk winter range . Bighorn sheep are rare sights in the forest , but the forest contains one @-@ third of Idaho 's mountain goat population , and they are commonly seen at high elevations in the Boulder , White Cloud , Pioneer , and Sawtooth mountains . Other mammals in the forest include the coyote , moose , bobcat , beaver , yellow @-@ bellied marmot , pika , and badger .
Bull trout are one of the management indicator species for the forest . Population monitoring efforts are undertaken every year to provide an assessment of forest health . They were selected because they are dependent upon specific habitat conditions and are sensitive to habitat changes . Bull trout are only found in parts of the Salmon , Boise , and Payette river watersheds on the Fairfield District and the SNRA . The forest is home to the longest salmon migration in the continental United States , but with the damming of the Columbia River , salmon populations have collapsed . Redfish Lake was named for the sockeye salmon that would return to breed in the lake and its tributaries and historically had 10 @,@ 000 to 35 @,@ 000 adult fish return to the lake annually . Between 1990 and 1998 a total of 16 adult fish returned to Redfish Lake , but populations have recovered somewhat , and in 2014 approximately 1400 adult fish returned , up from 1100 in 2011 . Repeated efforts to repopulate the sockeye salmon have taken place in the Columbia River watershed , and in 2008 the first salmon season in 31 years was held for chinook salmon in the upper Salmon River . Brook trout have been introduced to the forest and are now an invasive species that compete with the threatened bull trout . The Wood River sculpin is a fish species that is endemic to the Big Wood River and its tributaries on the Ketchum District and is listed as vulnerable by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) Red List . Rainbow trout , cutthroat trout , and mountain whitefish are all native to portions of the forest waterways .
243 bird species have been observed in the upper Salmon River Basin , with an additional 36 accidental species , or those that are not normally found in the region but have been observed on at least one occasion . Bald eagles can be found on the forest , particularly along rivers , while golden eagles are occasionally seen over the sagebrush steppe . Northern goshawks are listed by the Forest Service as a sensitive species and are found on the forest . Black @-@ billed magpies are common on the forest , and sandhill cranes are seen during the breeding season in the Sawtooth Valley . Black rosy finch breed at the highest elevations in the northern section of the forest , while greater sage @-@ grouse can be found in sagebrush habitats throughout the forest .
The South Hills crossbill is a finch endemic to the South Hills and Albion Mountains in the Minidoka District . It rarely interbreeds with similar crossbills that are present in its range , and it has been proposed as a separate species created via ecological speciation . The American Ornithologists ' Union failed to find consensus on the issue so the South Hills crossbill is still considered a subspecies of the red crossbill .
There are few reptiles in the forest . Snakes species include bullsnakes and rubber boas , as well as western rattlesnakes , which are most likely to be found at lower elevations and in the Minidoka District . Amphibians including the Columbia spotted frog , long @-@ toed salamander , and the Rocky Mountain tailed frog are relatively common .
= = = Fire ecology = = =
Sawtooth National Forest has an active Fire Management Program which recognizes that forest fires are a natural part of the ecosystem , but this was not always the case . The 1987 forest plan did not recognize fire as an ecosystem process or as a tool for ecosystem management ; this was rectified in the 2012 forest plan . Previous firefighting efforts , which emphasized quickly extinguishing all fires , caused dead and dying trees to accumulate well in excess of the level found when fires are allowed to burn out naturally . Historically speaking , fires became more common in parts of the SNRA after the development of lodgepole pine forests , which occurred prior to 1450 AD . Between 1989 and 1998 there were on average 50 fires per year , with 58 percent of them caused by lightning . The Smoky Mountains of Idaho were named from the frequent forest fires , and in 2007 the Castle Rock Fire burned 48 @,@ 000 acres ( 19 @,@ 000 ha ) of the Smoky Mountains near Ketchum . In 2005 the Valley Road Fire burned 40 @,@ 800 acres ( 16 @,@ 500 ha ) in the White Cloud Mountains after being ignited from embers that came from a trash barrel which were blown out on a windy day . In August 2013 the Beaver Creek Fire and the Kelley Fire were both ignited by lightning and burned 111 @,@ 490 acres ( 45 @,@ 120 ha ) and 17 @,@ 346 acres ( 7 @,@ 020 ha ) , respectively , of the Fairfield and Ketchum ranger districts . Another lightning @-@ caused fire , the McCan Fire , burned 23 @,@ 389 acres ( 9 @,@ 465 ha ) of the Fairfield Ranger District and other lands north of Fairfield in 2013 . Both natural and prescribed fires are used as a tool to maintain desired vegetation and fuel levels . While the forest 's fire plan operates within historical fire regimes , locally fire is actively suppressed to protect human life , investments , and resources .
The forest maintains a full @-@ time fire staff throughout the summer , not only to control and extinguish fires that pose threats to people and structures but also to set controlled burns . Their jobs include maintaining a high level of preparedness , keeping a vigilant lookout for fire activity , responding to reports of fires , maintaining equipment , monitoring weather and relative atmospheric dryness , and preparing daily fire activity reports , which are used to post fire information for visitors and staff . The forest has wildland fire engines , pumps , hand tools and fire hose at its disposal . A helicopter can be summoned quickly , along with support from the South Central Idaho Interagency Dispatch Center , including a team of smokejumpers and air tankers used to provide air support in dropping flame retardant and water . There are small areas around Stanley and Mount Harrison where aerial retardant would not be used in the case of a fire . The 10 @-@ member Sawtooth Helitack crew was established in 1963 and is based at Friedman Memorial Airport in Hailey . In the case of larger fires , the National Interagency Fire Command can quickly mobilize available resources . Only four of the original fire lookout towers remain standing in the forest , but they are no longer in use : Iron Mountain , Horton Peak , Lookout Mountain , and Mount Harrison , which was last fully staffed in 2007 . Many of these towers were built by the Civilian Conservation Corps during the Great Depression .
= = Geography and geology = =
The elevation in the forest ranges from 4 @,@ 514 feet ( 1 @,@ 376 m ) at Rock Creek south of Twin Falls to 12 @,@ 009 feet ( 3 @,@ 660 m ) above sea level at the top of Hyndman Peak , an elevation gain of 7 @,@ 495 feet ( 2 @,@ 284 m ) . The mountains of the Minidoka District are part of the Basin and Range Province , while those in the northern section of the forest are part of the Rocky Mountains . The Sawtooth Mountains have at least 50 peaks over 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) high .
The mountains of Sawtooth National Forest have a varied geological history . The northern Sawtooth Mountains formed from the Eocene Sawtooth batholith , while south of Alturas Lake the Sawtooth , Smoky , and Soldier mountains formed from the Cretaceous granodiorite of the Idaho Batholith . Foothills of the Smoky Mountains are from the Pennsylvanian and Permian Dollarhide formations . The White Cloud Mountains are underlain by the gray granodiorite of the Idaho batholith , while some of the exposed rock is baked impure limestone from the Permian Grand Prize Formation . The central mass of the Raft River Mountains consists of Precambrian metamorphic rocks with Elba quartzite and interlayered schist on the southern slopes and Cambrian quartzite outcrops on the western part of the range . Below the Sublett Mountains the Phosphoria Formation , a basal phosphorite overlain by a thick sequence of chert and cherty sandstone , reaches its greatest thickness . Soils in the northern part of the forest are generally deep and highly fertile in lowlands but shallow and less so on steep slopes . In the Minidoka Ranger District , soils are generally productive , derived from volcanic and sedimentary material , shallow on steep slopes , and deep in the lowlands .
The Boulder , Pioneer , Sawtooth , Smoky , and White Cloud mountains are generally jagged , while the ranges on the Minidoka District , the Albion , Black Pine , Raft River , and Sublett mountains , are generally smooth and rolling . Galena Summit is a mountain pass at 8 @,@ 701 ft ( 2 @,@ 652 m ) on Idaho State Highway 75 between Stanley and Ketchum , roughly where the Boulder and Smoky Mountains meet . While not in Sawtooth National Forest , Banner Creek Summit is a 7 @,@ 037 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 145 m ) mountain pass on Idaho State Highway 21 at the northern end of the Sawtooth Mountains at the border of the Boise and Challis National Forests .
= = = Waterways = = =
There are over 1 @,@ 100 lakes covering 7 @,@ 600 acres ( 3 @,@ 100 ha ) and an estimated 7 @,@ 500 miles ( 12 @,@ 100 km ) of temporary and permanent streams and rivers in the forest . Over 680 miles ( 1 @,@ 090 km ) of streams are found in the Fairfield District , over 500 miles ( 800 km ) in the Ketchum District , and over 450 miles ( 720 km ) in the Minidoka District . The entire northern portion of the forest is in the watershed of the Snake River , a tributary of the Columbia River . The Salmon River 's headwaters are in the upper Sawtooth Valley , and this river drains much of the SNRA and follows a tortuous , overall northwesterly course before flowing into the Snake River 425 mi ( 684 km ) downstream . The eastern side of the Sawtooth Mountains is drained by the South Fork of the Payette River . The northern Soldier Mountains , southern Smoky Mountains , and much of the Fairfield District are drained by the South Fork of the Boise River , which flows into Anderson Ranch Reservoir just west of the forest . The Ketchum District , part of the SNRA , and the southern slopes of the Fairfield District are drained by the Big Wood River . Much of the Minidoka District is also drained by the Snake River via the Raft River and other tributaries , but portions of the Black Pine and Raft River Mountains drain into the Great Salt Lake . The annual water yield from the forest is estimated just below 2 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 acre foot ( 2 @.@ 8 × 109 m3 ) .
Most of the forest 's lakes are the result of glaciation and occur in the SNRA in the Sawtooth and White Cloud Mountains , but lakes can be found in most of the other mountain ranges of the forest . There are over 20 lakes in the Fairfield District , 90 in the Ketchum District , and 6 lakes and 3 reservoirs in the Minidoka District . The largest lake on the forest is Redfish Lake , a moraine @-@ dammed lake that is 4 @.@ 5 mi ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) long , 0 @.@ 72 mi ( 1 @.@ 16 km ) wide , and up to 387 ft ( 118 m ) deep . Other large lakes include Alturas , Pettit , Sawtooth , Stanley , and Yellow Belly lakes .
= = = Seismology = = =
The Sawtooth Fault is a 40 mi ( 64 km ) long east @-@ dipping normal fault that runs along the base of the Sawtooth Mountains and was discovered and mapped in 2010 . It is believed to be capable of producing an earthquake measuring up to 7 @.@ 5 on the Richter magnitude scale , with one of the most recent large earthquakes occurring 4 @,@ 000 years ago and an earlier one 7 @,@ 000 years ago .
= = = Glaciology = = =
Sawtooth National Forest has a history of alpine glaciation that is most obvious in the Sawtooth Mountains , and while no surface glaciers exist today , perennial snow fields and rock glaciers remain , usually on north or east facing slopes . There have been 202 perennial snow fields mapped in the Sawtooth Mountains , and while none have been mapped elsewhere on the forest , some may still exist in the Boulder , Pioneer , and White Cloud Mountains . The Sawtooth Mountains were last extensively glaciated in the Pleistocene , but glaciers probably existed during the Little Ice Age , which ended around 1850 AD . Evidence of past glaciation is abundant in the Sawtooth , White Cloud , Boulder , and Smoky mountains , as well as the north and east @-@ facing slopes of the Albion , Raft River , and Soldier mountains . Remnants of the glaciers include glacial lakes , moraines , horns , hanging valleys , cirques , and arêtes .
= = Climate = =
Much of Sawtooth National Forest receives less than 15 inches ( 38 cm ) of precipitation a year , with higher elevations typically receiving more precipitation . Summer and early fall are usually drier than winter in most of the forest , while in the lowlands of the Minidoka District , such as near Oakley , the spring may be the wettest season . Winter snowfall provides a steady water supply to the streams during the summer . Locally , climate may depend on mountains that block moist air and river valleys that can funnel weather systems . Dry lightning is common in summer and fall . The growing season ranges from 150 days in the lower valleys to less than 30 days in the highest alpine areas . The climate charts below are ordered ( left to right ) from highest to lowest in both latitude and elevation .
= = Human history = =
Spear points dating to 12 @,@ 000 years ago document the earliest presence of Paleo @-@ Indians in the area , and there are nearly 1 @,@ 500 known heritage sites in the forest . After AD 1700 , the Shoshone , also known as the Sheepeater people , as well as the Bannock and Northern Paiute tribes , harvested fish , game , roots , timber , tubers , and rocks for tools while living in small groups at the northern end of the forest .
Trappers and explorers arrived in southern Idaho in the early 19th century . They established immigrant trails in the region by 1849 , including the Oregon and California trails . The forest was used by early settlers primarily for extractive industries . Fur trappers of the Hudson 's Bay Company discovered the Stanley Basin in the northern part of the forest in the 1820s , but mostly avoided it due to the scarcity of beaver . For early settlers , the welfare of their community was dependent upon timber supply , regulation of stream flow for irrigation , and use of the land for cattle range . Mining began in the 1860s , peaked in the 1880s , and fluctuated over the following century with the extraction of gold , silver , lead , and zinc . The Black Pine Division of the forest was explored in the late 1800s , and the Tallman Mine began producing gold in the 1920s with production peaking from 1949 to 1954 . The Black Pine Mine again produced gold from 1992 through November 1997 , when the mine 's parent company , Pegasus Gold , declared bankruptcy . The location of the mine has since been reclaimed .
Towns around the forest , including Stanley , Ketchum , and Sawtooth City , were founded as mining towns in the latter part of the 19th century by prospectors and trappers , including Civil War veteran Captain John Stanley , after whom the town of Stanley is named . Ketchum is named after the trapper and guide David Ketchum , while the Sublett Mountains are named after trapper William Sublette , who lived in the area in the 1830s . Most of the logging in the region was for firewood and timber for miners and homesteaders . For much of the 20th century , sheep and cattle grazing were the primary large @-@ scale land uses of the forest . Sheep drives were common in the Wood River Valley after the mining boom and shepherds from southern Idaho drove their flocks north to graze the upper elevation areas in Sawtooth National Forest . The original sheepherders were Basque Americans , while today many of the sheepherders are Peruvians contracted through the Department of Labor .
In 1936 the Union Pacific Railroad and its chairman W. Averell Harriman developed Sun Valley and the Bald Mountain ski area — the first winter @-@ destination resort in the United States developed for the purpose of increasing railroad passenger numbers . The area became popular with celebrities , including Ernest Hemingway and Gary Cooper . On July 2 , 1961 Hemingway committed suicide at his home overlooking the Big Wood River ; he is buried at the Ketchum Cemetery .
On February 9 , 1945 a B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber crashed on Mount Harrison in the Albion Division of the forest during a training mission in dense fog . All nine crew were killed in the crash , and their bodies were found inside the plane and recovered over the following days . The plane 's remains have never been removed . A memorial service was held on July 29 , 2004 and a plaque was permanently installed honoring those who died .
= = Recreation = =
Sawtooth National Forest receives over one million visitors a year . Two visitor centers , one at the SNRA headquarters north of Ketchum and one at Redfish Lake , provide orientation , books , maps , and interpretive displays and are staffed by either forest service interpreters or volunteers . The forest 's ranger stations also provide these services , but without interpretive displays . Along the roadways , exhibits showcase key parts of the forest , and there are plentiful day use and picnic areas . There are more than 81 campgrounds in the forest , with 12 in the Fairfield District , 6 in the Ketchum District , 25 in the Minidoka District , and 38 in the SNRA . Most of the campgrounds are on a first come first served basis , while some can be reserved .
Visiting distant backcountry areas requires accessing hiking trails and then backpacking or horseback riding into remote destinations . Free permits are required for use of the wilderness and can be obtained at trailheads . Group size is restricted in the wilderness , open fires are not permitted in some high @-@ use areas , and visitors are expected to follow Leave No Trace practices . There are abundant trails throughout the forest , with over 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) in the SNRA , 440 miles ( 710 km ) in the Fairfield District , and 341 miles ( 549 km ) in the Minidoka District . Two National Recreation Trails are found on the forest , the Fishhook Creek Boardwalk at Redfish Lake and the Wood River Nature Trail at the Wood River Campground .
All @-@ terrain vehicles are allowed on over 500 mi ( 800 km ) of forest roads and some trails , but access may be restricted depending on season and environmental conditions . The Sun Valley area has an extensive network of mountain biking trails . Hunting and fishing are popular recreational activities permitted throughout the forest , provided that proper permits are obtained and the applicable rules and regulations are followed . Hunting and fishing licenses are available from the state of Idaho through the Idaho Department of Fish and Game .
The SNRA is the primary destination for mountain climbers and rock climbers within the forest . Thompson Peak and Hyndman Peak are two popular peaks to hike to , and Mount Heyburn is a popular rock climbing destination . Opportunities for rafting and kayaking on the upper Salmon River with conditions range from flatwater to class IV whitewater . Water levels are highest during snowmelt in spring and early summer . The large lakes in the Sawtooth Valley , including Redfish , Alturas , Pettit , and Stanley lakes , have developed boat accesses . Redfish Lake has a lodge with a marina , restaurant , and various activities . There are numerous hot springs distributed across the forest and open to public use . A few have developed tubs , including those in the Baumgartner Campground .
= = = Winter activities = = =
Winter activities include downhill skiing , cross @-@ country skiing , snowshoeing , and snowmobiling . The first destination winter resort in the U.S. was developed at Sun Valley in 1936 with ski slopes on Bald Mountain and Dollar Mountain . There are four ski areas in Sawtooth National Forest as well as the Rotarun Ski Area just west of Hailey and Dollar Mountain in Sun Valley , but these are just outside the forest 's boundary . There are snowshoe loops and 78 mi ( 126 km ) of groomed backcountry ski trails around Galena Lodge in the SNRA . Sno @-@ Cat and heliskiing opportunities also exist in the forest . Over 50 mi ( 80 km ) of groomed snowmobile trails and warming huts are found in the Fairfield District , and there are 30 mi ( 48 km ) in the Cassia Division .
= = = Scenic roads = = =
Sawtooth National Forest is home to four of Idaho 's scenic byways , three of which intersect in Stanley . Idaho State Highway 75 is designated as the Sawtooth Scenic Byway for 115 @.@ 7 mi ( 186 @.@ 2 km ) from Shoshone north to Stanley . Highway 75 from Stanley to Challis and U.S. Route 93 from Challis north to the Montana border are designated as the Salmon River Scenic Byway for 161 @.@ 7 mi ( 260 @.@ 2 km ) . Idaho State Highway 21 is the Ponderosa Pine Scenic Byway for 130 @.@ 9 mi ( 210 @.@ 7 km ) from Stanley to Boise . The City of Rocks Backcountry Byway follows a series of roads for 49 mi ( 79 km ) around the Albion Mountains and through the City of Rocks National Reserve at the southern end of the Albion Mountains .
= = Popular culture = =
Movies , television shows , and documentaries have been filmed in and around Sawtooth National Forest , particularly around the Sun Valley area . Movies filmed in Sun Valley include I Met Him in Paris ( 1937 ) , Sun Valley Serenade ( 1941 ) , and Bus Stop ( 1956 ) . Clint Eastwood 's 1985 film Pale Rider was filmed in the SNRA , mostly in the Boulder Mountains in late 1984 . The opening credits scene was shot south of Stanley in front of the Sawtooth Mountains . The SNRA was one of the settings of the 2010 3 @-@ D computer animated film Alpha and Omega .
Beginning in 1986 Idaho license plates depicted a basic mountain range that was supposed to represent the Sawtooths ; in 1991 the plates were revised to more accurately represent the mountains . The Idaho Division of Motor Vehicles also created a license plate depicting the SNRA .
= Home Soil =
" Home Soil " is the 18th episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . It first aired in broadcast syndication on February 22 , 1988 . Robert Sabaroff , Karl Geurs and Ralph Sanchez developed the story , with Sabaroff producing the teleplay . " Home Soil " is one of five episodes of the series directed by Corey Allen .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet crew on the Federation starship Enterprise @-@ D. In the episode , the crew of the Enterprise investigate the murder of a crewman on a terraforming colony and discover a crystalline life form possessing intelligence .
The production team encountered problems with the sets , casting , and scheduling . Due to issues with the script , it was delivered to Allen just one day before shooting . Nine million viewers watched the episode , the second lowest number of viewers for the first season of The Next Generation . Critical reception was mixed , with one reviewer noting that unlike the original Star Trek series , " Home Soil " explored the realm of hard science fiction . Critics compared the appearance of inorganic life forms in the story to the plot of the original Star Trek series episode , The Devil in the Dark .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise arrives at the terraforming colony on Velara III , as the project is behind schedule . The director , Kurt Mandl ( Walter Gotell ) , insists they are on time but Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) orders an away team to the surface after Counselor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) senses that Mandl is hiding something . After they arrive , one of Mandl 's team is killed by a malfunctioning laser drill . During Lt. Commander Data 's ( Brent Spiner ) inspection of the tool , it begins to fire at him , but his quick android reflexes allow him to dodge the shot and render the drill harmless . He finds the programming of the laser was rewritten to fire upon the staff . Nearby , a crystal is discovered giving off irregular light and radiation patterns . The crystal is brought aboard the Enterprise to study and Picard orders a halt to the terraforming .
Dr. Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) and Data discover the crystal may be alive . When the crystal attempts to interact with the Enterprise 's computers , it is placed into a containment force field . The crystal begins to grow and gains access to the computer 's translation program and attempts to communicate with the crew , treating the humans as an enemy , derisively calling them " ugly bags of mostly water " . Picard discovers that Mandl and his team previously encountered the crystals ; at the time , they had considered the possibility that the crystals were alive , but Mandl insisted on continuing to terraform . The terraformers used a drilling process responsible for removing the saline water layer from the water table of Velara III . This saline layer acted as a conductor , allowing many separate crystals to function as one life form . In a defensive response to the drilling , the crystal life form rewrote the laser 's software and attacked the terraformers .
Data hypothesizes that a single crystal is not intelligent , but when linked to other crystals , their intelligence is formidable . As the crystalline life form accesses higher @-@ level functions of the Enterprise 's computer , Picard and the crew try to transport it to the surface but the crystal blocks all attempts to transport it off the ship . Data and Lt. Geordi La Forge ( LeVar Burton ) discover the presence of cadmium in the crystal and suspect it has photoelectric properties . They disable the lights in the medical lab and the crystal immediately begs for life . Picard peacefully negotiates to return the crystal life form to the surface of the planet where Starfleet will institute a quarantine , leaving the life form to live in peace .
= = Production = =
Re @-@ writes on " Home Soil " continued throughout shooting , with Corey Allen receiving pages on the day before filming , something that Allen described as a " struggle " . Of the story in general , The Next Generation writer and producer Maurice Hurley said it was " An interesting idea , but the execution fell apart . " He felt that in addition to the script , there were issues with casting , sets and the time in which to shoot . The story bears similarities to the Space : 1999 episode " All That Glisters " , which also featured intelligent water @-@ ingesting rocks that communicated with humanoids .
Andrew Probert created a matte painting of the outside of the terraforming station which never made it into the show . The guest stars in " Home Soil " included Walter Gotell , who was better known for appearing in the James Bond film franchise as General Gogol . The crystalline life form 's description for humanoids in the episode spawned the phrase , " ugly bags of mostly water " , which has been used as the title of a documentary about Star Trek fans , and as the name of a song by the band Streetnix , as well as being referenced by Dream Warriors in the lyrics of My Definition of a Boombastic Jazz Theme . [ 1 ]
= = Reception and home media release = =
The episode first aired on February 22 , 1988 . It received Nielsen ratings of 9 million on the first broadcast , which was a decrease of over a million from the previous episode " When the Bough Breaks " , which received ratings of 10 @.@ 2 during the previous week . The next new episode was broadcast three weeks later , when " Coming of Age " gained ratings of 10 @.@ 1 million . " Home Soil " was the second lowest viewed episode of the first season , with " The Last Outpost " viewed by 100 @,@ 000 fewer viewers .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com , saying that " while this episode has its flaws , it 's a wonderful example of science fiction , one that doesn 't skimp on suspense , action , and Trek 's trademark compassion . " He didn 't like the film direction by Allen , saying that the director had a " bizarre insistence on unnatural , stage @-@ y blocking and positioning and obsession with extreme closeups " . DeCandido also thought that the plot suffered " amnesia regarding the Horta " from The Original Series episode " The Devil in the Dark " . He gave " Home Soil " an overall score of seven out of ten . Michelle Erica Green , in her review for TrekNation , thought that the episode was " less interesting " than the " Horta attacks and mind @-@ melds " of " The Devil in the Dark " . She also felt " Home Soil " was too similar " in the science fiction and in the storytelling " to the previous episode , " When the Bough Breaks " .
Zack Handlen , who watched the episode for The A.V. Club , thought that the " hard sci @-@ fi " worked well as it was an area that The Original Series never went near . He thought that the story was different enough from " The Devil in the Dark " — although the Horta was silicon based , it was at least easily recognisable as an alien creature . " This makes it less exciting as a creature , but more intriguing as an idea , " Handlen argues . While he felt that the episode was a " winner " , he conceded that it was " a bit on the dry side " . James Hunt , whilst writing for the website Den of Geek , noted that the Enterprise fought a space @-@ bound crystalline entity several episodes earlier in " Datalore " , which he considered " a lot more impressive than these crystal microbrains ... Okay , it wouldn 't talk to them , but nor did it die the moment someone switched the frickin ' lights off . " He felt that " Home Soil " was a generic Star Trek episode and thought that it was similar to The Original Series in tone .
" Home Soil " was first released on VHS cassette in the United States and Canada on August 26 , 1992 . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 . The most recent release was as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
= The Day the Music Died =
On February 3 , 1959 , rock and roll musicians Buddy Holly , Ritchie Valens , and J. P. " The Big Bopper " Richardson were killed in a plane crash near Clear Lake , Iowa , together with the pilot , Roger Peterson . The event later became known as " The Day the Music Died " , after singer @-@ songwriter Don McLean so referred to it in his 1971 song " American Pie " .
At the time , Holly and his band , consisting of Waylon Jennings , Tommy Allsup , and Carl Bunch , were playing on the " Winter Dance Party " tour across the Midwest . Rising artists Valens and Richardson had joined the tour as well .
The long journeys between venues on board the cold , uncomfortable tour buses adversely affected the performers , with cases of flu and even frostbite . After stopping at Clear Lake to perform , and frustrated by such conditions , Holly decided to charter a plane to reach their next venue in Moorhead , Minnesota . Richardson , who had flu , swapped places with Jennings taking the latter 's seat on the plane , while Allsup lost his seat to Valens on a coin toss .
Soon after take @-@ off , late at night and in poor , wintry weather conditions , the pilot lost control of the light aircraft , a Beechcraft Bonanza , which subsequently crashed into a cornfield , leaving no survivors .
= = Background = =
Buddy Holly terminated his association with the Crickets in November 1958 . For the start of the " Winter Dance Party " tour , he assembled a band consisting of Waylon Jennings ( bass ) , Tommy Allsup ( guitar ) , and Carl Bunch ( drums ) , and the opening vocals of Frankie Sardo . The tour was set to cover 24 Midwestern cities in as many days . New hit artist Ritchie Valens , J. P. " The Big Bopper " Richardson and Dion DiMucci ( of Dion and the Belmonts fame ) joined the tour to promote their recordings and make an extra profit .
The tour began in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , on January 23 , 1959 . The amount of travel soon became a logistical problem . The distance between venues had not been properly considered when the performances were scheduled . Adding to the disarray , the tour bus was not equipped for the weather . Its heating system broke down shortly after the tour began , in Appleton , Wisconsin . While flu spread among the rest of the performers , drummer Bunch was hospitalized in Ironwood , Michigan , for severely frostbitten feet . The musicians replaced that bus with a school bus and kept traveling . As Holly 's group had been the backing band for all of the acts , Holly , Valens , and DiMucci took turns playing drums for each other at the performance in Green Bay , Wisconsin , and Clear Lake , Iowa .
On Monday , February 2 , the tour arrived in Clear Lake . The town had not been a scheduled stop , but the tour promoters , hoping to fill an open date , called the manager of the local Surf Ballroom , Carroll Anderson ( 1920 @-@ 2006 ) , and offered him the show . He accepted , and they set the show for that night . By the time Holly arrived at the venue that evening , he was frustrated with the tour bus and decided to charter a plane to take him , after the show , to Fargo , North Dakota . The party would have picked him up for the next tour stop , in Moorhead , Minnesota , saving him the journey in the bus and leaving him time to get some rest .
= = Flight arrangements = =
Manager Anderson called Hubert Dwyer , owner of the Dwyer Flying Service , a company in Mason City , Iowa , to charter the plane to fly to Hector Airport in Fargo , the closest one to Moorhead . Flight arrangements were made with Roger Peterson , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old local pilot described as a " young married man who built his life around flying " .
The flying service charged a fee of $ 36 per passenger for the flight on the 1947 single @-@ engined , V @-@ tailed Beechcraft 35 Bonanza ( registration N3794N ) , which could seat three passengers plus the pilot . A popular misconception , originating from Don McLean 's eponymous song about the crash , was that the plane was called American Pie . In fact , no record exists of any name ever having been given to N3794N .
Richardson had contracted flu during the tour and asked Waylon Jennings for his seat on the plane . When Holly learned that Jennings was not going to fly , he said in jest : " Well , I hope your ol ' bus freezes up . " Jennings responded : " Well , I hope your ol ' plane crashes " , a humorous but ill @-@ fated response that haunted him for the rest of his life .
Ritchie Valens , who had once had a fear of flying , asked Tommy Allsup for his seat on the plane . The two agreed to toss a coin to decide . Bob Hale , a DJ with KRIB @-@ AM , was working the concert that night and flipped the coin in the ballroom 's side @-@ stage room shortly before the musicians departed for the airport . Valens won the coin toss for the seat on the flight . Dion had been approached to join the flight , although it is unclear exactly when he was asked . Dion decided that since the $ 36 fare ( equivalent to US $ 292 @.@ 20 in today 's money ) equaled the monthly rent his parents paid for his childhood apartment , he could not justify the indulgence .
= = Take @-@ off and crash = =
After the show ended , Anderson drove Holly , Valens , and Richardson to the Mason City Municipal Airport . The weather at the time of departure was reported as light snow , a ceiling of 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) AMSL with sky obscured , visibility 6 miles ( 9 @,@ 700 m ) and winds from 20 to 30 mph ( 32 to 48 km / h ) . Although deteriorating weather was reported along the planned route , the weather briefings pilot Peterson received failed to relay the information .
The plane took off normally from runway 17 ( today 's runway 18 ) at 12 : 55 a.m. Central Time on Tuesday , February 3 . Dwyer , the owner of the flight service company , witnessed the take @-@ off from a platform outside the control tower . He was able to see clearly the aircraft 's tail light for most of the brief flight , which started with an initial left turn onto a northwesterly heading and a climb to 800 ft . The tail light was then observed gradually descending until it disappeared out of view . Around 1 : 00 a.m. , when Peterson failed to make the expected radio contact , repeated attempts to establish communication were made , at Dwyer 's request , by the radio operator , but they were all unsuccessful .
Later that morning , Dwyer , having heard no word from Peterson since his departure , took off in another airplane to retrace his planned route . Within minutes , at around 9 : 35 a.m. , he spotted the wreckage less than 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) northwest of the airport . The sheriff 's office , alerted by Dwyer , dispatched Deputy Bill McGill , who drove to the crash site , a cornfield belonging to Albert Juhl .
The Bonanza had impacted terrain at high speed , estimated to have been around 170 mph ( 270 km / h ) , banked steeply to the right and in a nose @-@ down attitude . The right wing tip had struck the ground first , sending the aircraft cartwheeling across the frozen field for 540 feet ( 160 m ) , before coming to rest against a wire fence at the edge of Juhl 's property .
The bodies of Holly and Valens had been ejected from the torn fuselage and lay near the wreckage . Richardson 's body had been thrown over the fence and into the cornfield of Juhl 's neighbor Oscar Moffett , while pilot Peterson 's body was entangled in the plane 's wreckage . With the rest of the entourage en route to Minnesota , it fell to ballroom manager Carroll Anderson , who had driven the party to the airport and witnessed the plane 's takeoff , to identify the bodies of the musicians . County coroner Ralph Smiley certified that all four victims died instantly , citing the cause of death as " gross trauma to brain " for the three artists and " brain damage " for the pilot .
= = Aftermath = =
Holly 's pregnant wife , María Elena , learned of his death from the reports on television . A widow after only six months of marriage , she suffered a miscarriage shortly after , reportedly due to " psychological trauma " . Holly 's mother , on hearing the news on the radio at home in Lubbock , Texas , screamed and collapsed . María Elena Holly did not attend the funeral and has never visited the gravesite . She later said in an interview : " In a way , I blame myself . I was not feeling well when he left . I was two weeks pregnant , and I wanted Buddy to stay with me , but he had scheduled that tour . It was the only time I wasn 't with him . And I blame myself because I know that , if only I had gone along , Buddy never would have gotten into that airplane . "
The " Winter Dance Party " tour did not stop ; Waylon Jennings and Tommy Allsup continued performing for two more weeks , with Jennings taking Holly 's place as lead singer . Meanwhile , the funerals of the victims were being held individually ; Holly and Richardson were buried in Texas , Valens in California , and pilot Peterson in Iowa .
= = Official investigation = =
The official investigation was carried out by the Civil Aeronautics Board ( CAB , precursor to the NTSB ) . It emerged that pilot Roger Peterson had over four years of flying experience , of which one with Dwyer Flying Service , and had accumulated 711 flying hours , of which 128 on Bonanzas . He had also logged 52 hours of instrument flying training , although had passed only his written examination , and was not yet qualified to operate in weather that required flying solely by reference to instruments . He , and Dwyer Flying Service itself , was certified to operate only under visual flight rules , which essentially require that the pilot must be able to see where he is going . However , on the night of the accident , the low clouds obscuring the stars , the lack of a visible horizon , and the absence of ground lights over the sparsely populated area would have made visual flight virtually impossible .
Furthermore , Peterson , who had failed an instrument checkride nine months before the accident , had received his instrument training on airplanes equipped with a conventional artificial horizon , as source of aircraft attitude information , while N3794N was equipped with an older @-@ type Sperry F3 attitude gyroscope . Crucially , the two types of instruments display the same aircraft pitch attitude information graphically in opposite ways .
The CAB concluded that the accident was due to " the pilot 's unwise decision to embark on a flight " that required instrument flying skills he had not demonstrated to have . A contributing factor was the pilot 's unfamiliarity with the old @-@ style attitude gyroscope fitted on board the aircraft , which may have caused him to believe he was climbing when he was , in fact , descending ( an example of spatial disorientation ) . Another contributing factor was the " seriously inadequate " weather briefing provided to the pilot , which " failed to even mention adverse flying condition which should have been highlighted " .
= = Subsequent investigations = =
On March 6 , 2007 , in Beaumont , Texas , the body of J.P. Richardson was exhumed to rebury it in a more fitting part of the local Forest Lawn cemetery . The musician 's son Jay Perry took the opportunity to have his father 's body re @-@ examined to verify the original findings , and asked forensic anthropologist William Bass to carry out the procedure .
Among the rumors surrounding the accident this second examination sought to verify was that an accidental firearm discharge took place on board the aircraft and caused the crash , since two months after the event , a farmer had found at the crash site a .22 pistol known to have belonged to Buddy Holly . Another rumor had Richardson surviving the initial impact and crawling out of the aircraft in search for help , prompted by the fact that his body was found farther from the wreckage than the other three .
Dr. Bass and his team took several X @-@ rays of Richardson 's body and eventually concluded that the musician had indeed died instantly from extensive , nonsurvivable fractures to almost all of his bones ; no traces of lead from any bullet was found , either . Coroner Smiley 's original report was therefore confirmed .
= = = Calls to reopen the investigation = = =
In March 2015 , the National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) , the successor to the Civil Aeronautics Board , received a request to reopen the investigation into the accident . The request was made by L. J. Coon , a retired pilot from New England , who felt that the conclusion of the 1959 investigation was inaccurate . Coon suspected a possible failure of the right rudder , or a problem with the fuel system , as well as a possible improper weight distribution . Coon also argued that Peterson may have tried to land the plane and that his efforts should be recognized . In April 2015 , the NTSB declined the request , citing that the evidence presented by Coon was insufficient to merit the reconsideration of the original findings .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Notification of victims ' families = = =
Following the miscarriage suffered by Holly 's wife and the circumstances in which she was informed of his death , a policy was later adopted by authorities not to disclose victims ' names until after their families have been informed .
= = = Memorials = = =
A memorial service for Roger Peterson was held at Redeemer Lutheran Church , Ventura , Iowa , on February 5 . A funeral was held the next day at St. Paul Lutheran Church in his hometown of Alta ; Peterson was buried in Buena Vista Memorial Cemetery in nearby Storm Lake . Peterson 's grave site is located at coordinates N 42 39 @.@ 189 W 095 13 @.@ 996 . Peterson 's parents would later receive condolence letters from the families of Holly and Valens .
= = = = Films = = = =
The accident is mentioned in the biographical film The Buddy Holly Story ( 1978 ) .
The accident is also depicted in the Ritchie Valens biopic La Bamba ( 1987 ) .
= = = = Memorial concerts = = = =
Fans of Holly , Valens , and Richardson have been gathering for annual memorial concerts at the Surf Ballroom in Clear Lake since 1979 . The 50th @-@ anniversary concert took place on February 2 , 2009 , with Delbert McClinton , Joe Ely , Wanda Jackson , Los Lobos , Los Lonely Boys , Chris Montez , Bobby Vee , Graham Nash , Peter and Gordon , Tommy Allsup , and a house band featuring Chuck Leavell , James " Hutch " Hutchinson , Bobby Keys and Kenny Aronoff . Jay P. Richardson , the son of the Big Bopper , was among the participating artists , and Bob Hale was the master of ceremonies , as he was at the 1959 concert .
= = = = Monuments = = = =
In June 1988 , a four @-@ foot @-@ tall granite memorial bearing the names of Peterson and the three entertainers was dedicated outside The Surf Ballroom with Peterson 's widow , parents and sister in attendance ; the event marked the first time that the families of Holly , Richardson , Valens and Peterson had gathered together .
In 1988 , Ken Paquette , a Wisconsin fan of the 1950s era , erected a stainless steel monument that depicts a guitar and a set of three records bearing the names of the three performers perished in the accident . The monument is on private farmland , about 1 ⁄ 4 mi ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) west of the intersection of 315th Street and Gull Avenue , 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of Clear Lake . A large plasma @-@ cut steel set of Wayfarer @-@ style glasses , constructed by Michael Connor of Clear Lake , similar to those Holly wore , sits at the access point to the crash site .
Paquette also created a similar stainless steel monument to the three musicians located outside the Riverside Ballroom in Green Bay , Wisconsin , where Holly , the Big Bopper , and Valens played their second @-@ to @-@ last show on the night of February 1 , 1959 . This second memorial was unveiled on July 17 , 2003 . In February 2009 , a further memorial made by Paquette for pilot Roger Peterson was unveiled at the crash site .
= = = = Roads = = = =
A road originating near the Surf Ballroom , extending north and passing to the west of the crash site , is now known as Buddy Holly Place .
= = = = Songs = = = =
Eddie Cochran 's " Three Stars " ( 1959 ) is the first song to commemorate the musicians .
Don McLean later addressed the accident in his song " American Pie " ( 1971 ) , dubbing it " the Day the Music Died " , which for McLean symbolized the " loss of innocence " of the early rock @-@ and @-@ roll generation .
Waylon Jennings mentioned the accident in his song " A Long Time Ago " ( 1978 ) , which he co @-@ wrote with Shel Silverstein . In the song , he says , " Don 't ask me who I gave my seat to on that plane | I think you already know . "
= = = Books = = =
= Alvin Plantinga 's free will defense =
Alvin Plantinga 's version of the free will defense is an attempt to refute the logical problem of evil : the argument that the existence of an omnipotent , omniscient , omnibenevolent God in an evil world is a logical contradiction .
The core of the argument is the definition of " omnipotence " . Plantinga argues that God , in spite of being omnipotent , has some limitations on his power .
Plantinga 's argument is that " It is possible that God , even being omnipotent , could not create a world with free creatures who never choose evil . Furthermore , it is possible that God , even being omnibenevolent , would desire to create a world , which contains evil if moral goodness requires free moral creatures . " While Plantinga 's free will defense has received fairly widespread acceptance among theologians , many still contend that it fails to adequately resolve the problem of evil , or that it only addresses moral evil , not natural evil , or that it requires an incompatibilist libertarian view of free will in order to be effective .
= = Logical problem of evil = =
The logical problem of evil emerges from four core propositions :
An all @-@ powerful ( omnipotent ) God could prevent evil from existing in the world .
An all @-@ knowing ( omniscient ) God would know that there was evil in the world .
An all @-@ good ( omnibenevolent ) God would wish to prevent evil from existing in the world .
There is evil in the world .
As J. L. Mackie has highlighted , there would appear to be a contradiction between these propositions such that they cannot all be true . Given that the fourth proposition would appear to be undeniable , it can be inferred from the above that one of the other three must be false , and thus there cannot be an all @-@ good , all @-@ knowing and all @-@ powerful God . To put it another way , if God does exist , He must be either " impotent , ignorant or wicked " .
The problem , and various solutions to it , have been debated by philosophers since at least the time of Epicurus in the fourth century BC . One of the most historically significant replies to the problem is the free will theodicy of Augustine of Hippo , which has been extensively criticized .
= = Plantinga 's argument = =
As opposed to a theodicy ( a justification for God 's actions ) , Plantinga puts forth a defense , offering a new proposition that is intended to demonstrate that it is logically possible for an omnibenevolent , omnipotent and omniscient God to create a world that contains moral evil . Significantly , Plantinga does not need to assert that his new proposition is true , merely that it is logically valid . In this way Plantinga 's approach differs from that of a traditional theodicy , which would strive to show not just that the new propositions are sound , but that they are also either true , prima facie plausible , or that there are good grounds for making them . Thus the burden of proof on Plantinga is lessened , and yet his approach may still serve as a defense against the claim by Mackie that the simultaneous existence of evil and an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God is " positively irrational " .
As Plantinga summarised his defense :
A world containing creatures who are significantly free ( and freely perform more good than evil actions ) is more valuable , all else being equal , than a world containing no free creatures at all . Now God can create free creatures , but He can 't cause or determine them to do only what is right . For if He does so , then they aren 't significantly free after all ; they do not do what is right freely . To create creatures capable of moral good , therefore , He must create creatures capable of moral evil ; and He can 't give these creatures the freedom to perform evil and at the same time prevent them from doing so . As it turned out , sadly enough , some of the free creatures God created went wrong in the exercise of their freedom ; this is the source of moral evil . The fact that free creatures sometimes go wrong , however , counts neither against God 's omnipotence nor against His goodness ; for He could have forestalled the occurrence of moral evil only by removing the possibility of moral good .
Plantinga 's argument is that even though God is omnipotent , it is possible that it was not in his power to create a world containing moral good but no moral evil ; therefore , there is no logical inconsistency involved when God , although wholly good , creates a world of free creatures who chose to do evil . The argument relies on the following propositions :
There are possible worlds that even an omnipotent being can not actualize .
A world with morally free creatures producing only moral good is such a world .
Plantinga refers to the first statement as " Leibniz 's lapse " as the opposite was assumed by Leibniz . The second proposition is more contentious . Plantinga rejects the compatibilist notion of freedom whereby God could directly cause agents to only do good without sacrificing their freedom . Although it would contradict a creature 's freedom if God were to cause , or in Plantinga 's terms strongly actualize , a world where creatures only do good , an omniscient God would still know the circumstances under which creatures would go wrong . Thus , God could avoid creating such circumstances , thereby weakly actualizing a world with only moral good . Plantinga 's crucial argument is that this possibility may not be available to God because all possible morally free creatures suffer from " transworld depravity " .
= = = Transworld depravity = = =
Plantinga 's idea of weakly actualizing a world can be viewed as having God actualizing a subset of the world , letting the free choices of creatures complete the world . Therefore , it is certainly possible that a person completes the world by only making morally good choices ; that is , there exist possible worlds where a person freely chooses to do no moral evil . However , it may be the case that for each such world , there is some morally significant choice that this person would do differently if these circumstances were to occur in the actual world . In other words , each such possible world contains a world segment , meaning everything about that world up to the point where the person must make that critical choice , such that if that segment was part of the actual world , the person would instead go wrong in completing that world . Formally , transworld depravity is defined as follows :
A person P suffers from transworld depravity if and only if the following holds : for every world W such that P is significantly free in W and P does only what is right in W , there is an action A and a maximal world segment S ´ such that
S ´ includes A ' s being morally significant for P
S ´ includes P ' s being free with respect to A
S ´ is included in W and includes neither P ' s performing A nor P ' s refraining from performing A
If S ´ were actual , P would go wrong with respect to A.
Less formally : Consider all possible ( not actual ) worlds in which you always choose the right . In all those , there will be a subpart of the world that says you were free to choose a certain right or wrong action , but does not say whether you chose it . If that subpart were actual ( in the real world ) , then you 'd chose the wrong .
Plantinga says that " What is important about the idea of transworld depravity is that if a person suffers from it , then it wasn 't within God 's power to actualize any world in which that person is significantly free but does no wrong — that is , a world in which he produces moral good but no moral evil " and that it is logically possible that every person suffers from transworld depravity .
= = Reception = =
According to Chad Meister , professor of philosophy at Bethel College , most philosophers accept Plantinga 's free will defense and thus see the logical problem of evil as having been sufficiently rebutted . Robert Adams says that " it is fair to say that Plantinga has solved this problem . That is , he has argued convincingly for the consistency of God and evil . " William Alston has said that " Plantinga [ ... ] has established the possibility that God could not actualize a world containing free creatures that always do the right thing . " William L. Rowe has written " granted incompatibilism , there is a fairly compelling argument for the view that the existence of evil is logically consistent with the existence of the theistic God " , referring to Plantinga 's argument .
In Arguing about Gods , Graham Oppy offers a dissent , acknowledging that " [ m ] any philosophers seem to suppose that [ Plantinga 's free will defense ] utterly demolishes the kinds of ' logical ' arguments from evil developed by Mackie " but continuing " I am not sure this is a correct assessment of the current state of play " . Concurring with Oppy , A.M. Weisberger writes “ contrary to popular theistic opinion , the logical form of the argument is still alive and beating . ” Among contemporary philosophers , most discussion on the problem of evil presently revolves around the evidential problem of evil , namely that the existence of God is unlikely , rather than illogical .
= = Criticisms = =
Derk Pereboom while acknowledging that " many of those involved in this debate agree that Plantinga has provided a successful response to the abstract logical problem of evil " , delineates a number objections , including the following :
Michael Tooley insists that the more pressing problem is the logical compatibility of the existence of God with the actual evils in the world , a problem referred to as " the logical problem of horrendous evil " by Marilyn McCord Adams .
David Lewis argues that even if each person would go wrong for some world segments , it would be possible for God to cause the person to do the right thing in just these cases , preserving selectively some significant moral freedom .
= = = Incompatibilist view of free will = = =
Critics of Plantinga 's argument , such as philosophers J. L. Mackie and Antony Flew , have responded that it presupposes a libertarian , incompatibilist view of free will ( free will and determinism are metaphysically incompatible ) , while their view is a compatibilist view of free will ( free will and determinism , whether physical or divine , are metaphysically compatible ) . The view of compatibilists such as Mackie and Flew is that God could have created a world containing moral good but no moral evil . In such a world people could have chosen to only perform good deeds , even though all their choices were predestined . Plantinga dismisses compatibilism , according to which a person is free if , and only if she could have done otherwise if she wanted to do otherwise by saying that it is " altogether paradoxical " . He thinks that " this objection ... seems utterly implausible . One might as well claim that being in jail doesn 't really limit one 's freedom on the grounds that if one were not in jail , he 'd be free to come and go as he pleased " . Regarding Flew 's criticism Plantinga concludes that " his objection is in an important sense merely verbal and thus altogether fails to damage the free will defense . "
= = = The problem of natural evil = = =
Another issue with Plantinga 's defense is that it does not address the problem of natural evil , since natural evil is not brought about by the free choices of creatures . Plantinga 's reply is a suggestion that it is at least logically possible that perhaps free , nonhuman persons are responsible for natural evils ( e.g. rebellious spirits or fallen angels ) . This suggestion assigns the responsibility for natural evils to other moral actors .
= = = " Omnipotent God " of Alvin Plantinga has limited power = = =
A recent objection to the defense is due to Geirsson and Losonsky , who question the interpretation of the fourth assertion in the definition of transworld depravity ( " If S ´ were actual , P would go wrong with respect to A " ) . This is a contingent fact : it is true in the actual world , but false in the world W. So one may ask if this contingent fact was up to God or not . If it was caused to be true by God , one may wonder why God actualized a world in which this person is transworld depraved when God could have actualized a world where this person , at least with respect to this action , would not suffer from such conditional depravity . If on the other hand , the fact is not up to God , we must accept that an omnipotent God has no power over contingent facts about the world ; after all , there do exist possible worlds where the conditional statement in question is not true . Geirsson and Losonsky note that Mackie 's reasons for rejecting Plantinga 's defense were quite similar :
But how could there be logically contingent states of affairs , prior to the creation and existence of any created beings with free will , which an omnipotent God would have to accept and put up with ? This suggestion is simply incoherent .
Despite these objections , many philosophers consider Plantinga 's defense , with its implicit libertarianism , to be a strong reply to the logical problem of evil . However , other philosophers argue that Plantinga 's defense is unsuccessful .
= Stig Inge Bjørnebye =
Stig Inge Bjørnebye ( born 11 December 1969 ) is a retired Norwegian footballer who played in Norway , England , and Denmark , most notably for Liverpool . His preferred position was left back , which he occupied for domestic clubs and the national team . Bjørnebye was appointed assistant manager of Norway in 2003 , relinquishing the role three years later to succeed Tom Nordlie as manager of IK Start .
For club and country , Bjørnebye was noted for his precise deliveries from the flanks . Described as a " solid , no @-@ nonsense full @-@ back " , Bjørnebye played competitive football for 16 years , and appeared in 194 Premier League matches , until injury compelled retirement in March 2003 . He represented the Norwegian national team in the 1994 and 1998 FIFA World Cup and the Euro 2000 and was capped 75 times , scoring once .
= = Club career = =
Stig Inge Bjørnebye was born in Elverum , the son of skier Jo Inge Bjørnebye , who competed in the 1968 and 1972 Winter Olympics . As a child , Bjørnebye exhibited an interest in emulating his father by becoming a ski jumper .
His footballing career began as a youth player with home club Elverum IL , before joining Strømmen IF in the late 1980s . He moved to Kongsvinger IL in 1989 , establishing himself as a first @-@ team regular in the Norwegian Premier League . After three seasons with Kongsvinger , he transferred to Rosenborg in 1992 , where he in his inaugural season won the Norwegian Premier League and Norwegian Cup , in the final of , which he scored the deciding goal against Lillestrøm SK .
His performances merited inclusion in the national team and attracted the attention of Liverpool 's manager Graeme Souness , who bought Bjørnebye for £ 600 @,@ 000 less than one year after moving to Rosenborg . Signed as a replacement for David Burrows , Bjørnebye debuted inauspiciously on 19 December 1992 in a 5 – 1 defeat to Coventry City . Initial difficulties adapting to the Premier League caused many fans to question his displays on the pitch and he returned to Norway on loan to Rosenborg in 1994 .
Bjørnebye 's experiences as a Reds ' player in the 1994 – 95 season under the management of Roy Evans , were markedly more successful than that of previous campaigns . He gained a regular place in the senior team , supplanting the left back position from Julian Dicks , and featured in the 2 – 1 win against Bolton Wanderers in the final of the 1995 League Cup Final on 2 April 1995 . Subsequent injury , a broken leg sustained on 5 April 1995 in a 3 – 1 win match against Southampton , terminated his season and he was replaced by Steve Harkness .
Unavailable for several months , Bjørnebye appeared just twice
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an extremely slow speed , due to his weight ) . Wiggum ultimately lets the villain escape , feeling that he will meet him again " each and every week , always in more sexy and exciting ways " .
The Love @-@ matic Grampa is a sitcom @-@ style television series about Moe 's love life . He receives advice from the ghost of Abraham Simpson , who was crushed by a store shelf containing cans of figs that toppled on him and subsequently " while travelling up toward Heaven ... got lost along the way " and now possesses Moe 's love tester machine . Moe ends up getting a date he meets at the bar . On Grampa 's advice he takes his date out to a French restaurant and hides the Love Tester in the bathroom so he can get advice while at the restaurant . After Kearney , Dolph and Jimbo whack the machine because it said they were gay , it malfunctions and advises Moe to tell his date that " her rump 's as big as the Queen 's , and twice as fragrant " . Moe returns with a bowl of snails dumped on his head and his dependence on the machine is revealed , so he confesses to receiving advice . His date is actually happy when she hears this , flattered that Moe would go to all that trouble for her . Grampa asks to be introduced to an attractive payphone in front of the restaurant , much to the mirth of Moe and his date .
The Simpson Family Smile @-@ Time Variety Hour is a comedy show featuring various songs and sketches in a parody of The Brady Bunch Hour . It features Homer , Marge , Bart , and Maggie . Lisa refuses to participate , but is replaced by an attractive blonde bombshell ( voiced by Pamela Hayden ) . After the introduction there is a sketch , where the family are portrayed as beavers living in a dam with Tim Conway as a skunk and Homer 's boss . The show ends with a medley of songs sung by the family , Jasper Beardley and Waylon Smithers .
Troy ends the special with a look at the upcoming season of The Simpsons , filled with ridiculous plot twists , such as Homer turning Lisa into a frog using magic powers , the discovery of Bart 's two long lost identical brothers ( one African American , the other a cowboy ) , Selma marrying Lenny , Bumblebee Man , and Itchy ( in succession ) , and Homer meeting an alien named Ozmodiar whom only he can see .
= = Production = =
Ken Keeler came up with the idea for the episode from the one sentence statement : " Let 's do spin @-@ offs " . His idea was to use intentionally bad writing and " crazy plots " , which underlines their critique of spin @-@ offs in general . After he had pitched the idea it was decided that " it was an idea that ought to work pretty well " and production went ahead . Creator Matt Groening was uneasy about the idea , feeling that it could be mistranslated as actually bad sitcom writing . He also did not like the idea of breaking the fourth wall and the concept of saying that the Simpsons were just actors in a television show . The idea was later explored in the season 11 episode " Behind the Laughter " . One of the " crazy " ideas was the inclusion of the character of Ozmodiar , who was originally included in the script for an earlier episode but was considered too ridiculous for the time . When this episode came along the character seemed to fit with the story and was included . Even though Keeler came up with the story , David S. Cohen , Dan Greaney and Steve Tompkins wrote the scripts for the three segments . Cohen wrote Chief Wiggum P.I. , Greaney wrote Love @-@ matic Grampa and Tompkins wrote The Simpson Family Smile @-@ Time Variety Hour .
The episode demanded a different approach to directing than a usual The Simpsons episode . Director Neil Affleck had to animate each segment so that it fit the style of the show it parodied . The Love @-@ matic Grampa segment for instance emulates a three camera setup , as is normally used in sitcoms .
Three guest stars appear in the episode ; Phil Hartman as Troy McClure , Tim Conway as himself and Gailard Sartain as Big Daddy . McClure is used as a host of the episode , something he had previously done in the episode " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " . Conway appears as himself . Conway , a comic veteran , is known for his work on The Carol Burnett Show , which has a similar format to The Simpson Family Smile @-@ Time Variety Hour . Due to Lisa being substituted for an older teenager in the third segment , Yeardley Smith only has one line in the entire episode .
= = = Proposed real spin @-@ offs = = =
Over the course of the show , the staff have considered producing several spin @-@ off television series and films , based on The Simpsons . In 1994 , Matt Groening pitched a live action spin @-@ off from The Simpsons that centered on Krusty and would star Dan Castellaneta . He and Michael Weithorn wrote a pilot script where Krusty moved to Los Angeles and got his own talk show . A recurring joke throughout the script was that Krusty lived in a house on wooden stilts which were continuously being gnawed by beavers . Eventually , the contract negotiations fell apart and Groening decided to stop work on the project .
" 22 Short Films About Springfield " sparked the idea amongst the staff for a spin @-@ off series entitled Tales from Springfield . The proposed show would focus on the town in general , rather than the Simpson family . Every week would be a different scenario : three short stories , an adventure with young Homer or a story about a background character that was not tied in to the Simpson family at all . The idea never came to anything , as Groening realized that the staff did not have the manpower to produce another show as well as The Simpsons . The staff believe it is something that they would still be interested in doing , and that " could happen someday . "
Groening also expressed a wish to make Simpstasia , a parody of Fantasia ; it was never produced , partly because it would have been too difficult to write a feature @-@ length script . Before his death , Phil Hartman had said he had wished to make a live action Troy McClure film , and several of the show 's staff had expressed a desire to help create it . Matt Groening later told Empire that the idea never " got further than enthusiasm " , but " would have been really fun " .
= = Cultural references = =
The whole episode is a satire of unoriginal , poor television writing and references and parodies many television series . When Troy McClure mentions that Fox can only fill up three slots for the next season , the three series are Melrose Place , The X @-@ Files and The Simpsons itself . On the museum of television Troy walks by posters of spin @-@ offs , such as The Ropers ( spun off from Three 's Company ) , Laverne & Shirley ( spun off from Happy Days ) , Rhoda , a show that Julie Kavner , the voice of Marge , once starred in , ( spun off from The Mary Tyler Moore Show ) and Fish ( spun off from Barney Miller ) , to demonstrate the power of spin @-@ offs . Troy walks by a poster of The Jeffersons ( a spin @-@ off of All in the Family ) twice , because the writers could not think of any more spin @-@ offs .
Chief Wiggum , P.I. is a parody of police @-@ dramas , such as Miami Vice , Magnum , P.I. and Starsky and Hutch . Skinner emulates Don Johnson from Miami Vice in order to look scruffier . The character of Big Daddy is based on Dr. John , who comes from New Orleans . The chef in the restaurant resembles Paul Prudhomme .
The Love @-@ matic Grampa is a parody of fantasy sitcoms such as Mister Ed , I Dream of Jeannie and Bewitched as well as having similarities to My Mother the Car . The Love @-@ matic Grampa machine singing " Daisy Bell " in a distorted manner when its electrical circuits are failing is a reference to HAL from the 1968 film 2001 : A Space Odyssey . Grampa also references All Quiet on the Western Front , when Moe says he " wrote the book on love " . Moe 's date , Betty , looks somewhat like Tress MacNeille , the actress who voiced her .
The Simpson Family Smile @-@ Time Variety Hour is a parody of the 1960s and 1970s live variety shows . Mainly it is a parody of The Brady Bunch Hour , a short @-@ lived spin @-@ off of the 1970s sitcom The Brady Bunch . The replacement of Lisa in the third segment with another girl reflects the recasting of Jan Brady in the Brady Bunch Hour when Eve Plumb refused to participate . The Simpson family is made to look like The Partridge Family . Also , the segment holds numerous references to Laugh @-@ In . Kent Brockman introduces the show from inside a broadcast booth in a style similar to Laugh @-@ In , there is a joke wall similar to the one in Laugh @-@ In where The Sea Captain opens a porthole . There is also a Laugh @-@ In @-@ like montage wherein other characters comment on the skit itself . When Hans Moleman reads a poem , it is based on Henry Gibson reading a poem on Laugh @-@ In . Other shows parodied during the variety show include The Sonny and Cher Comedy Hour , and The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour .
The songs parodied during the third segment are :
" I Want Candy " by The Strangeloves , performed by the Simpson family .
" Peppermint Twist " by Joey Dee and the Starliters , performed by Bart , Lisa and Maggie .
" Lollipop " by Ronald & Ruby , performed by Jasper Beardley .
" Whip It " by Devo , performed by Waylon Smithers .
In the planned future for the show , Homer meets a green space alien named Ozmodiar that only he can see . This is a reference to The Great Gazoo , a character added into some of the final episodes of The Flintstones .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Simpsons Spin @-@ Off Showcase " finished 61st place in the weekly ratings for the week of May 5 – May 11 , 1997 with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 3 . It was the seventh @-@ highest @-@ rated show on the Fox Network that week . Even though Troy mentions that The Simpsons , Melrose Place , and The X @-@ Files are the only shows worth a slot in the next season 's lineup , three other Fox shows actually did better than The Simpsons that week . These were Beverly Hills , 90210 , King of the Hill , and Married … with Children .
The writers later noted that the episode divided fans . Essentially , those who loved it were those who realised that the writing was deliberately bad as a way of parodying bad writing , while others who did not appreciate this distinction were less enthusiastic . Matt Groening feared that the fans would interpret the episode in a negative light and was uneasy about the episode when it was in production . He later went on to say that the episode " turned out great " . The writers of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood called it , " A very clever spin on the alternates offered by the Treehouse of Horrors run . Each of the spin @-@ offs is very clever in its own way . " It has also figured as one of the favorite episodes on a number of " best of " lists . Entertainment Weekly placed the episode 19th in their top 25 Simpsons episode list . In an interview for Star @-@ News , The Simpsons writer Don Payne revealed that the episode was in his personal top six of the best The Simpsons episodes . Additionally , Gary Mullinax , a staff writer for The News Journal , picked the episode as part of his top @-@ ten list .
= Star Trek : The Next Generation ( season 3 ) =
The third season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation commenced airing in broadcast syndication in the United States on September 25 , 1989 and concluded on June 18 , 1990 after airing 26 episodes . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. Season three featured the return of Gates McFadden as Dr. Beverly Crusher after she was replaced by Diana Muldaur for the second season . The season also saw the debut of several actors who would reappear in the same roles and others throughout the franchise , such as Dwight Schultz as Lt. Reginald Barclay , and Tony Todd as Kurn .
Further changes occurred to the writing staff , with Michael Piller brought on board as executive producer after Michael I. Wagner held the position for three weeks . Ronald D. Moore also joined the staff following the submission of a script for " The Bonding " . Hans Beimler , Richard Manning , Melinda M. Snodgrass and Ira Steven Behr all left the staff at the end of the season . Actor Wil Wheaton also asked to leave following the way his character , Wesley Crusher , was written during the season , a decision he later regretted . Other changes included a modification to the opening sequence , and changes to the Starfleet uniforms on the show , which resulted in the creation of Patrick Stewart 's " Picard Maneuver " .
The season opened with Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 8 for " Evolution " with the highest rated episode being " Yesterday 's Enterprise " which scored 11 @.@ 9 . This was the highest rating received since the sixth episode of the first season . The lowest rating of the season was received by the 23rd episode , " Ménage à Troi " , which was given a score of 9 @.@ 1 . After a couple of initial ranking decreases , the episodes in the second half of the season rose back to third place in its timeslot . The season was well received by critics , who called it one of the best of the series . Particular praise was given to several episodes including " Yesterday 's Enterprise " , " Sins of the Father " and the first part of " The Best of Both Worlds " . Box sets of the season have been released both on DVD and Blu @-@ ray , and " The Best of Both Worlds " was given a limited theatrical release .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Senior writer Maurice Hurley left at the end of season two , and Michael I. Wagner was brought onto the show by executive producer Rick Berman . Wagner 's tenure was brief , lasting three weeks , and he recommended Michael Piller to replace him . Wagner and Piller had previously worked together on the 1988 American television series Probe . Piller 's agent had advised him not to join Star Trek as he would be " pigeon @-@ holed as a freelance writer " , but he ignored the advice . He would also look at leaving at the end of the season , but stayed after Berman and show creator Gene Roddenberry convinced him . Piller wrote the episode that opened the season , " Evolution " and took over as executive producer from " The Bonding " onwards . He explained to the writing staff that there was two requirements for every episode , saying that " every episode is going to be about a character 's growth . And every episode has to be about something . "
The season also saw internal promotions to the existing writing staff . Both Hans Beimler and Richard Manning became co @-@ producers , while Melinda M. Snodgrass became an executive script consultant . Following " The Vengeance Factor " , Ira Steven Behr joined the crew as a writing producer . All four writers left the series at the end of the season . Behr would go on to become executive producer for Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Richard Danus also acted as executive story editor between " Booby Trap " through to " Yesterday 's Enterprise " . Because of the open door policy on spec scripts Piller employed , the season saw the first script for Ronald D. Moore with " The Bonding " . Because of his success with that script , he was subsequently hired as executive story editor from " Sins of the Father " onwards .
Because of the way his character was written during season three , Wesley Crusher actor Wil Wheaton asked to be written out of the series . It was a decision he later regretted , as he realised that all the main cast outside of Picard , Riker and Data had similar roles at the time . He praised the writing of Moore in " The Bonding " and Piller in " Evolution " , and said that " Yesterday 's Enterprise " was one of his favourite episodes . The season also saw a relaxation in Gene Roddenberry 's previous direction that The Next Generation could not touch on aspects of The Original Series . This was seen in the episode " Sarek " , but was specifically related to the end of the episode where Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard mentions Spock during a mind meld with Sarek . Piller described this one act as " the breakthrough which allowed us to open the doors , that allowed us to begin to embrace our past . "
= = = Casting = = =
Gates McFadden returned to the role of Doctor Beverly Crusher in the third season , the character had been written out for season two and replaced with Diana Muldaur playing Doctor Katherine Pulaski . Roddenberry had ensured that Crusher was not written out permanently to allow for her return in the future . Keith DeCandido blamed her departure on Maurice Hurley . After he left the series , McFadden returned . Fans started a letter @-@ writing campaign to reinstate McFadden throughout the second season . Both Roddenberry and Berman decided that it would be better to bring back McFadden than to look for a third doctor in three years as they agreed that the Pulaski character was not working .
Season three saw further appearances for several recurring characters from the franchise , including John de Lancie as Q in " Déjà Q " , Majel Barrett as Lwaxana Troi in " Ménage à Troi " , who had both appeared in multiple episodes of previous seasons . It also featured an appearance by Mark Lenard as Sarek . Lenard had previously appeared in this role in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Journey to Babel " as well as the film franchise . Denise Crosby , whose character Tasha Yar was killed in the first season episode " Skin of Evil " , returned in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " due to changes to the timeline seen in the series . The events of that episode would set up appearances in The Next Generation for the actress as the half @-@ Romulan character Sela in later seasons .
The season also featured the first appearance of actors who would later reappear both in The Next Generation and later series of the franchise . These included Tony Todd as Worf 's brother Kurn , who would appear in this role later in the series and also in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . " Hollow Pursuits " marked the first appearance of Dwight Schultz as Lt. Reginald Barclay in the franchise . He would become a recurring character in the series , and go on to appear in several episodes of Star Trek : Voyager and the film Star Trek : First Contact ( 1996 ) . Schultz had previously been known for his role as Murdock in the television series The A @-@ Team .
Susan Gibney appeared as Dr. Leah Brahms in " Booby Trap " , and would later return in that role in " Galaxy 's Child " . Gibney was also considered for the role of the Captain Janeway in Voyager and played Captain Erika Benteen in the Deep Space Nine episode " Paradise Lost " . An actor who later gained a recurring role in Deep Space Nine following an appearance the third season of The Next Generation was Max Grodénchik . He appeared as the Ferengi Sovak in " Captain 's Holiday " , and as another Ferengi in the fifth season 's " The Perfect Mate " . In DS9 , he was initially cast as a " Ferengi Pit Boss " in the pilot episode , " Emissary " . That character would soon become Rom , who by the end of the series was the leader of his race . Jennifer Hetrick also made her first appearance in " Captain 's Holiday " as Vash . She would also appear as that character in " Qpid " and Deep Space Nine 's " Q @-@ Less " .
Andreas Katsulas made his first appearances as the Romulan Tomalak in " The Enemy " and " The Defector . He would later reappear in episodes of later seasons , in both " Future Imperfect " and the series finale " All Good Things ... " . Charles Cooper and Patrick Massett appeared as K 'mpec and Duras respectively in " Sins of the Father " , and would also appear in those roles once more in " Reunion " in the fourth season . A number of other actors also appeared during the season in prominent guest star roles , including Saul Rubinek , Tricia O 'Neil , Harry Groener and James Sloyan . Groener returned to Star Trek during the final season of Star Trek : Enterprise in a different role during the episodes " Demons " and " Terra Prime " .
= = = Crew and effects = = =
Robert Blackman joined the crew prior to the start of the season as costume designer . He had been recommended by his predecessor , Durinda Rice Wood . He later recalled that he wasn 't interested in the job and only took the interview as a favor , but he was so struck by producer David Livingston 's enthusiasm that he accepted the post . One of his tasks was to redesign the Starfleet costumes which had been used for the first two seasons . The previous versions were made of spandex and caused back problems in the cast . The new costumes cost $ 3 @,@ 000 , and were made out of a wool gabardine .
With Roddenberry 's permission , Blackman changed the primary color on the uniforms to black with only blocks of red , gold or blue to signify the branch . This change was intended to set off the faces of the cast and to smooth out their figures on screen . While the men 's costumes became two piece outfits , the costumes for McFadden and Marina Sirtis remained as jumpsuits requiring them to maintain a specific weight each . It was following the introduction of these costumes that the nickname of the " Picard Maneuver " was given to Patrick Stewart 's habit of tugging down his uniform tunic . Blackman also overhauled the Starfleet Admiral 's uniforms , and worked on a variety of alien costumes including designed Klingon and Vulcan outfits .
Associate producer Peter Lauritson was promoted to co @-@ producer and both Michael Okuda and Rick Sternbach were credited with the addition title of technical consultant due the level of technical help they had been giving the writers since the start of the series . The opening sequence of the series was changed from the third season onwards . Instead of showing the Enterprise exiting the Solar System as in the first two seasons , it now showed the vessel coming in from the Milky Way .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
By the end of season two , The Next Generation had risen to become the third most viewed series in its timeslot . " Evolution " opened the third season with Nielsen ratings 10 @.@ 8 according to Nielsen Media Research . These were among the second lowest ratings of the season , with only the 23rd episode , " Menage a Troi " , scoring lower with 9 @.@ 1 . Although other episodes received higher Nielsen ratings , they were ranked lower in comparison to other series in the same timeslot . " The Bonding " was ranked 6th , while " The Vengeance Factor " was ranked 5th . Following the latter , the series rose back to 3rd with only occasional drops to 4th place . " Yesterday 's Enterprise " was the highest rated with Nielsen ratings of 11 @.@ 9 . It was the highest rated episode since the eighth episode of the first season , " Justice " which was broadcast on November 8 , 1987 .
= = = Reviews = = =
Keith DeCandido for Tor.com thought that the third season was where the series " really came into its own " . He praised the changes to the show , such as the modification to the uniforms , and especially the new writing staff that joined the crew during the third season . He said that some of the episodes were highlights of the franchise , not just The Next Generation . Those episodes praised were " Sins of the Father " , " Yesterday 's Enterprise " and the first episode of " The Best of Both Worlds " . He particularly thought that the season finale had never been matched in the entire franchise . He summed up the season by saying that it had " solidified TNG as a show that had finally outgrown the shadow of its predecessor and could stand on its own as a truly fine television show . "
Michael Simpson in his review of the Blu @-@ ray release for SciFiNow magazine said that season three was where the series " found its feet " . He thought that the increase in quality was due to the changes in writing staff , such as the addition of Piller , Echevarria and Moore . He also said that it was the most consistent and memorable season of the series , and several episodes were an " object lesson in clever , suspenseful plotting " . Richard Edwards in his review for SFX magazine , said that it was in the third season that the " chemistry really clicked " between the main cast . He compared it to The Original Series , saying that in this season the show started " to vie with Kirk and co for the mantle of Trek 's definitive incarnation " . He too praised " Yesterday 's Enterprise " , " Sins of the Father " and " Best of Both Worlds " , calling the latter the show 's greatest story . In Jeremy Conrad 's review of season three for IGN , he said that " Yesterday 's Enterprise " and the first part of " Best of Both Worlds " lifted the season and " define [ d ] it as the best of all seven years " .
= = = Accolades = = =
" Yesterday 's Enterprise " was nominated in three categories at the 1990 Emmy Awards , winning one for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series . " Deja Q " was also nominated in two categories , but was not successful in either . In total , the series was nominated for nine awards , with the only other win coming in the category of Outstanding Art Direction for a Series for " Sins of the Father " . " Allegiance " , " Tin Man " and " Hollow Pursuits " were the other episodes nominated . For the second year in the role , the series was nominated in two categories at the Youth in Film Awards . At the 1990 awards , they were for Best Off @-@ Prime Time Family Series and Best Young Actor in an Off @-@ Primetime Family Series for Wil Wheaton . However , it did not win in either categories .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = Episodes = =
In the following table , episodes are listed by the order in which they aired .
= = Home media release = =
The previous Blu @-@ ray releases of The Next Generation has been marked by one @-@ day cinematic releases of chosen episodes . For the third season , the cliffhanger episode was broadcast for the first time with both parts of " Best of Both Worlds " shown in cinemas on April 25 , 2013 . The two @-@ part episode also received an individual Blu @-@ ray release which coincided with the releases of the season three box set .
= What Were You Hoping For ? =
What Were You Hoping For ? is the third studio album by American recording artist Van Hunt , released September 27 , 2011 , on his independent label Godless Hotspot in a joint venture with distributor Thirty Tigers . It is the follow @-@ up to Hunt 's 2006 album On the Jungle Floor and follows a period of label conflict and mainstream obscurity for Hunt . Recording sessions for the album took place primarily at Santa Fe Tracking Station in Los Angeles , where Hunt applied a minimalist recording approach and worked with a backing band comprising drummer Ruth Price , percussionist Melissa Mattey , and keyboardist Peter Dyer .
Written and produced by Hunt , What Were You Hoping For ? expands on his previous work 's blend of R & B and rock music forms . Hunt sought to achieve a rawer musical aesthetic and incorporated rough rhythms , rock dynamics , and studio effects . Inspired by Hunt 's experience in Los Angeles at the onset of the late @-@ 2000s recession , the album 's subject matter deals with issues in contemporary society and dissonance in modern life . Music writers have noted the album for its predominantly rock style , incorporation of funk and soul , eccentric songs , varying musical structure , and Hunt 's eclectic vocal range .
Upon its release , What Were You Hoping For ? received rave reviews from music critics , who praised its musical direction , Hunt 's performance , and his songwriting . However , it received some backlash from Hunt 's fanbase for its stylistic departure from his past work . The album produced one single , " Eyes Like Pearls " , and performed modestly on music charts , reaching number 50 on the Billboard Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums . Hunt promoted What You Were Hoping For ? with a national tour that spanned September to October 2011 , and featured session band members Ruth Price and Peter Dyer .
= = Background = =
In 2006 , Hunt released his second album On the Jungle Floor to critical success , but little commercial notice , despite a costly marketing campaign by his label Capitol Records . After corporate restructuring by Capitol 's parent label EMI , his contract was taken over by another EMI label , Blue Note Records . Hunt subsequently went to work on his first project for Blue Note , entitled Popular . Characterized by him as " an edgy , funk kind of rock record " , Hunt approached the album with a more aggressive , rock @-@ inspired direction , with music that was less conventional than on his previous albums . Upon the album 's completion in 2007 , Hunt decided to relocate from his native Atlanta , Georgia to Los Angeles , California in order to advance his career in the music industry , as well as pursue a relationship there with a woman .
Scheduled for a January 2008 release , Popular was promoted with five months of concert performances by Hunt , press coverage , and the release of promotional copies , including the four @-@ song EP The Popular Machine ( 2007 ) and advance CDs for the media and radio people . However , weeks before its scheduled release , the album was shelved by Blue Note , with whom Hunt had been experiencing differences , and they subsequently parted ways . Blue Note had felt that the album was not profitable enough to release . Hunt could not release Popular himself without repaying the project 's costs back to EMI and obtaining rights to the album 's master recordings . According to him , EMI requested twice the original costs , and in his opinion , the money for promoting Popular was not " strategically spent well " by the label . Hunt discussed the situation in an interview for Creative Loafing , saying that " They opted to not sell it to me at a price that I could afford . They 've got it and I 'm sure they 'll come out with it when they deem it necessary and profitable . " Of his decision to relocate to Los Angeles , he later quipped , " Here I am , and the relationship has done much better than the career . "
With his career on hold , Hunt continued recording new songs and demos , posting them on his MySpace page , while Popular gained exposure among listeners through online music sharing . In 2009 , he released the compilation album Use in Case of Emergency as a free download through his website . It featured previously unreleased material recorded by Hunt prior to Popular . He also continued touring , worked on an autobiographical book of short stories , entitled Tales of Friction , and studied classical piano . Hunt also took up photography after his girlfriend purchased him a camera . He started out on the streets of Los Angeles , where he photographed subjects on street corners and discarded objects , including furniture and numerous couches he found abandoned on the streets . In an interview for PopMatters , he explained how his photographying of people there inspired him : " It 's sad as you can quite imagine . It 's also kind of welcoming to me . Sometimes I do get a chance to talk to them and hear a bit of their story . I 'm not the only one out here who had an idea of trying to make it happen . Some of us are luckier than others . Some of us are more prepared than others . That 's just the truth of the situation . " Along with photography , he was stimulated creatively after reading Legs McNeil 's 1997 book Please Kill Me : The Uncensored Oral History of Punk and relating to its themes of artistic frustration and rebelliousness .
In a 2009 interview for The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution , Hunt discussed working as an independent artist , stating " Creatively it is certainly liberating , but the rest of it is really not that fun . I wanted a happy medium between the system of recording , marketing and distribution which I think is very important to any product you want to bring to market ... but I never had that with the record industry . Now that I 'm on the other side of it trying to be the artist and the industry , I realize what the importance of the system was , but I also realize there was a lot that was missing since it is basically dying now . " He also said that he intends on recording another album " at least one more time and then go on tour , and then I don 't know . "
= = Recording and production = =
Hunt began working on tracks for a follow @-@ up project in 2008 . Two songs from those sessions , " Moving Targets " and " Eyes Like Pearls " , were included on What Were You Hoping For ? . After setting up his own label in 2009 , Hunt began a new process for What Were You Hoping For ? , writing and recording songs for 10 months . In an interview for the Chicago Tribune , he said of his expectations for the album 's recording : " I really wasn 't sure what it would wind up being sonically . I love Bach cello suites , I love punk music , I love old blues , negro spiritual quartets , Muddy Waters ' ' You Need Love . ' There is a simplicity but also a bite that connects all that music , from the growl in the cello to the timbre in Muddy 's voice . I wanted simple music , but with bite , over which I could lay my lyrical shenanigans . "
Hunt played several instruments , including guitar , keyboards , drums , bass synthesizer , and the electronic drum . When he finished writing and recording the demos , Hunt began the album 's primary recording sessions at Santa Fe Tracking Station in Los Angeles . With What Were You Hoping For ? , Hunt pursued a " harder edge " and rawer aesthetic than featured on his previous work . He also wanted to explore a self @-@ described " gnarly " guitar sound inspired by the work of Muddy Waters and The Stooges ' 1973 album Raw Power . Hunt attempted the sound in the past , but encountered discouragement from management . He discussed his direction for the album in an interview for The Boombox , stating " [ I ] t wasn 't necessarily punk music . It was more about trying to capture the growl of a cello . That to me is as nasty as it can get . That 's a beautiful sound to me . When people talk about the distortion on the guitar , I hear the same thing with that growl of a cello . " Hunt wanted to take advantage of his newfound feeling of artistic freedom and lack of concern over marketability .
Hunt approached the recording sessions differently than on his previous records . Rather than guiding personnel through replicating his demos for the album , he allowed members of his backing band to improvise their parts . For most songs , Hunt recorded with drummer Ruth Price , percussionist and engineer Melissa Mattey , and keyboardist and programmer Peter Dyer . Price and Dyer had auditioned for him at the Musicians Institute in Hollywood and had previously toured with Hunt . He rehearsed with Price for approximately two weeks before recording the final tracks in order to adjust to more rock @-@ based dynamics , including a different set of tempos , chord changes , and faster time cadences , that he wanted for the songs . Price was adept in playing both loose and tight drumming styles for certain songs . Hunt and his band were inspired by recording artists Curtis Mayfield and Iggy Pop , whom he said " brought this kind of intelligence along with the rawness . It was really bold . They just didn 't give a shit . I was like , that 's the attitude that I 'm feeling right now . I feel like I 've finally shed the music that I grew up with . "
They subsequently recorded basic tracks , and Hunt approached Peter Dyer to create a backing soundscape for the tracks . What Were You Hoping For ? was later mixed by Melissa Mattey . Hunt has cited its minimalist recording process as his " most hands off approach ... thus far on an album " , calling the approach " musically adept but also stringently unique . People might describe it as futuristic . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
Expanding on his previous work 's blend of R & B and rock music forms , What Were You Hoping For ? incorporates hard rock , lively funk , sparse ballads , and elements of soul , punk rock , and progressive rock . The music has a loose feel , with grittier guitar and more low fidelity production than on Hunt 's previous albums . The album 's songs are primarily guitar @-@ based and contain jagged , rumbling rhythms , loose guitar riffs , funk licks , and studio effects , including an adundant use of reverb . Their musical structures are characterized by eccentric arrangements , shifting melodies , and rhythms that vary at offbeat intervals . The songs also feature tense , aggressive soundscapes with sonic influences derived from 1960s psychedelic music and 1970s rock music . Jim Farber from the New York Daily News notes the prevalence of rock music on the album and describes its music as " a surrealist 's notion of soul : prog @-@ rock swayed by R & B ... Lots of songs have the skewed melodic structures of ' 70s Zappa , tempered by ' 80s Red Hot Chili Peppers . " Geraud Blanks of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel characterizes the album 's music as " an amalgamation of Prince 's psychedelic funk , Jimi Hendrix rock and Curtis Mayfield soul " . Hunt 's falsetto vocals on the album feature silky timbre and style . He sings in a variety of musical modes on the songs .
Hunt 's songwriting on the album is characterized by resolute lyrics , multi @-@ layered storylines , social commentary , a droll perspective , poetic subtlety , thematic subtext , and whimsy . Songs on the album are unified by a theme of tension and dissonance in modern life . The songs explore topics and issues in contemporary society and culture , including gentrification , identity politics , and mass consumption , accompanied by a sense of hope in Hunt 's lyrics . Hunt explains the album to have a " loose concept " , with songs unified by subject matter concerning " unspoken issues around society " , and says of his lyrical sentiments on the album , " It fits my personality that no matter what 's going on I 'm going to answer it honestly with a wink and a smile . As cliché as it might be , I feel like every situation needs a laugh . " L. Michael Gipson of Creative Loafing notes David Bowie and Lenny Kravitz as references points for Hunt 's songwriting , and writes that What Were You Hoping For ? explores " both sides of the political aisles " with metaphorical songs such as " North Hollywood " , " Designer Jeans " , and the title track , as well as themes concerning an intimate relationship with the songs " Moving Targets " , " Falls ( Violet ) " , and " Cross Dresser " .
Certain songs were inspired by the effects of the late @-@ 2000s recession and Hunt 's experience in North Hollywood , a district marked by population density , low income , and other recession @-@ related issues . Hunt said of the district , " There 's so many issues resulting from the recession . People are poor and struggling . " He cited North Hollywood 's " blue @-@ collar aesthetic " as an inspiration for the songwriting : " It 's kind of stepchild , not just to Hollywood but Studio City and Sherman Oaks . North Hollywood isn 't particularly small , but it doesn 't carry the same weight as the other places around it . " Greg Kot calls Hunt 's compositions " frisky and playful " , and writes that most of the album 's lyrical setting is North Hollywood " in decline , populated with hustlers , two @-@ timers ... Money is tight and girlfriends are fickle . Todd Martens of the Los Angeles Times comments that much of the album " deals with economic difficulties and its effect on self @-@ identity and love " , and writes of its North Hollywood theme , " Songs about or set in Los Angeles aren 't a rarity . Yet amid the glamour , the noir and the inner @-@ city grit lies plenty of unexplored territory . Van Hunt spends a significant portion of [ the album ] traversing it . " Of Hunt 's perspective on the album , Martens writes that " [ his ] idea of beauty may be somewhat twisted ... informed by artistic roadblocks and career rejection " .
The opening track " North Hollywood " is an affectionate ode to Hunt 's community at the time . Its lyrics portray the district as the " crown jewel of saboteurs " and reference its population of misfits and low @-@ lifes , including evicting landlords and conniving starlets . The song features abrasive funk , distorted guitar , and a heavy beat . " Watching You Go Crazy Is Driving Me Insane " features a melodic punk and garage rock style , with dark humor in its lyrics . It is about a couple whose financial difficulties affect their relationship . " Designer Jeans " features lyrics with psychedlic musings on the contemporary social climate , including criticism of " mass production and consumption of opinions " and the erasure of independent thought . " Plum " is an ode to a lover 's posterior . " Falls ( Violet ) " is a ballad with a sketchy country music feel . Its narrator expresses support to a woman he is infatuated with as she dates someone else . " Moving Targets " is a bedroom ballad with sparse , 1980s @-@ styled percussion and an Isley Brothers influence . Its lyrics use warfare imagery in detailing a romance . " Eyes Like Pearls " features hard rock guitar and earnest , romantic lyrics , which Hunt explained to The Huffington Post : " It 's a very passionate love , one that 's rarely known in one 's life . They 're obviously tears of joy , but it 's a passion beyond anything I 've ever known . It 's a relationship where somebody understands me and who I understand . "
" A Time Machine Is My New Girlfriend " is a frenetic rocker with a Bo Diddley rhythm , and lyrics cautioning listeners that relationships can come with " late fees " . Hunt explained its lyrics to be a metaphor for his lover making him feel younger . The title track features metronomic drumming and chicken scratch riffs . It is about people from different economic classes falling in love after social and economic conditions moved them into the same neighborhood . The setting is described in the first verse , " It 's the end of white flight / even tycoons are licking their wounds / economic blight got the neighborhood looking gap @-@ toothed / end of white flight / maybe now you see something you like / money tight and you 're hating your life " . Hunt said that writing the song was " essentially a response to some of the things I have seen as a result of the global recession we are going through . I wasn 't trying to make any political statement . I was more making a philosophical comment that essentially says we have all these unspoken issues in our society . But I see a collision of those ideas and unresolved issues . My question is what could you have been hoping for when we make the kind of decisions in our society that we have made . "
The Prince @-@ inspired " Cross Dresser " has a new wave style and whimsical lyrics in which the narrator holds on to the memory of his lost love by wearing her clothes . Hunt said that he did not intend for the song to have a meaning other than the explicit : " I just thought it was funny . It 's one of those things that people talk about , but that 's never really happened to me . But I literally wrote it in 20 minutes . It felt good ... It was really quick and I just thought it was something silly and funny . " " It 's a Mysterious Hustle " features somber strings , a languid rhythm , an eerie piano vamp , and bitter singing by Hunt . It was recorded solely by Hunt , who played guitar , keyboards , and electronic drums . Its lyrics are about having to " work your way through the crowd " and " overcome the place you come from " , and view the world as " no place to raise a child " . Its spoken word conclusion preaches , " If you follow the beaten path , it will keep you tied to the past . "
= = Release and reception = =
What Were You Hoping For ? was released on September 27 , 2011 , by Hunt 's independent record label Godless Hotspot in a joint venture with Nashville @-@ based distributor Thirty Tigers . It was distributed by RED Distribution . Thirty Tigers reached out to Hunt during 2009 and offered their distribution and marketing services to him pending the album 's completion . He subsequently assembled a marketing team and Godless Hotspot . What Were You Hoping For ? was executive @-@ produced by music manager and executive Randy Jackson , who originally helped Hunt get his first major @-@ label record contract in 2003 . The album 's cover is a photograph taken by Hunt in North Hollywood that depicts an elderly woman looking askance at a collection of white garbage bags set against a concrete wall . The interior packaging of the album also features Hunt 's photography , including a kaleidoscopic collage of photographed subjects in the fold @-@ out CD booklet .
In each of the months leading up to its release , Hunt promoted the album by releasing new songs as free downloads . They were made available through music websites , blogs , and his own website . The song " June " was released through The Huffington Post on June 15 . Excluded from the album , it is a somber , jazz @-@ styled track that contrasts the album 's raw aesthetic , with upright bass and blue chord changes . Hunt explained the song to be " about a somber girl . I 'm identifying with her somberness , but trying to make her smile ... [ T ] he June bloom has set in her and she 's struggling with it . " On July 7 , Hunt released another non @-@ album track , " The Savage , Sincere L of P " , on Paste 's website . It features a soulful rock style and lyrics about the pleasures of the flesh and " the savage , sincere look of pleasure " . The album 's lead single , " Eyes Like Pearls " , was released on September 9 via Hunt 's Facebook page . Hunt also promoted the album with a 20 @-@ date national headlining tour , his first national tour since 2008 . It began on September 19 at Webster Hall in New York City and concluded on October 13 at Yoshi 's in San Francisco . He performed with members of his session band , drummer Ruth Price and keyboardist Peter Dyer , as well as guitarist Douglas Showalter . Prior to the tour , they had played at the 21st NAACP Theatre Awards gala on August 29 .
What You Were Hoping For ? received rave reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 90 , based on six reviews . AllMusic 's Andy Kellman called it " a rare lean , focused album where the in @-@ the @-@ red moments are just as effective as the twilight ballads " , while Jason Heller of The A.V. Club said the record was " twice as raw and thrice as hungry as anything the neo @-@ soul mastermind has previously released ... a full @-@ throated , full @-@ throttle challenge " . Writing for WBEZ , Jim DeRogatis called it " as joyful , free @-@ ranging , and wildly inventive a psychedelic @-@ soul classic as any you can name " , writing that Hunt 's compositions make " even the wildest , most genre @-@ defying flights of fancy ... instantly accessible and equally stimulating to brain and booty . " Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot dubbed it Hunt 's " most adventurous album yet " because he " stretches the parameters of R & B with a refreshing lack of self @-@ consciousness ... His craftsmanship never devolves into shtick . " Kot later named it the fourth @-@ best album of 2011 and wrote that although it is musically varied , " the glue is Hunt 's acuity as a songwriter ; he knows how to drop hooks and turn a smart phrase , and this album brims with surprises . " Michael Tedder from Paste was slightly more critical , feeling that Hunt " sometimes comes off a bit like he 's exploring the idea of a genre more than actually writing a song " . He cited drummer Ruth Price as the record 's " the secret weapon " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times called it " a messy album , sometimes thrillingly so , a mélange of psychedelic rock , punk energy and R & B desperation " .
Although What You Were Hoping For ? was acclaimed by critics , it received some backlash from Hunt 's fanbase and listeners , who were ambivalent about its stylistic departure from his previous work . He addressed the criticism in an interview for the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel : " Other recording artists will supply their fans with an album full of songs they will enjoy for 15 or 20 years . I 'm a man that grows , progresses and matures , I want to grow [ musically ] with the people who want to go with me on that journey ... An artist should put out work that the culture should inspire to as opposed to trying to meet the culture , that 's backwards to me . I don 't just sit down and worry about what people will like , my job is to express myself as honest as I possibly can . " What You Were Hoping For ? peaked at number 19 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers Albums , which is a weekly music chart that ranks top @-@ selling albums by new or developing acts , defined as those who have never appeared in the top 100 of the Billboard 200 or in the top 10 of Billboard 's component charts . The album also reached number 50 on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart .
= = Track listing = =
All songs were written , arranged , and produced by Van Hunt .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for What Were You Hoping For ? adapted from Allmusic .
Awful Gazelle – photography
Jim DeMain – mastering
Peter Dyer – Fender Rhodes , keyboards , synthesizer
Kevin Guarnieri – guitar engineer , vocal engineer
Van Hunt – arranger , composer , drums , guitar , keyboards , piano , producer , strings , synthesizer
Jose Izabal – engineer
Randy Jackson – executive producer
Madly – recitation , vocals
J. P. Maramba – upright bass
Melissa Mattey – mixing , percussion , vocal engineer , vocals
Alistair Philip – recitation
Ruth Price – drums
A. Prince – design
= = Charts = =
= Georges Vézina =
Joseph Georges Gonzague Vézina ( / ˈvɛzᵻnə / ; French : [ ʒɔʁʒ vezina ] ; January 21 , 1887 – March 27 , 1926 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender who played seven seasons in the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) and nine in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , all with the Montreal Canadiens . After being signed by the Canadiens in 1910 , Vézina played in 327 consecutive regular season games and a further 39 playoff games , before leaving early during a game in 1925 due to illness . Vézina was diagnosed with tuberculosis , and died on March 27 , 1926 .
The only goaltender to play for the Canadiens between 1910 and 1925 , Vézina helped the team win the Stanley Cup in 1916 and 1924 , while reaching the Stanley Cup Finals three more times . Nicknamed the " Chicoutimi Cucumber " for his calm composure while in goal , Vézina allowed the fewest goals against in the league seven times in his career : four times in the NHA and three times in the NHL . In 1918 , Vézina became the first NHL goaltender to both record a shutout and earn an assist on a goal . At the start of the 1926 – 27 NHL season , the Canadiens donated the Vezina Trophy to the NHL as an award to the goaltender who allowed the fewest goals during the season . Since 1981 , the award has been given to the most outstanding goaltender as determined by a vote of NHL general managers . In Vézina 's hometown of Chicoutimi , the sports arena is named the Centre Georges @-@ Vézina in his honour . When the Hockey Hall of Fame opened in 1945 , Vézina was one of the original nine inductees .
= = Personal life = =
Georges , the youngest of eight children , was born on January 21 , 1887 , in Chicoutimi , Quebec , to Jacques Vézina , a local baker and an immigrant from St. Nicolas de La Rochelle in France , and his wife Clara . The younger Georges attended school at the Petit Séminaire de Chicoutimi until the age of fourteen , when he left the school to help at his father 's bakery . He played hockey from a young age , participating in informal street hockey matches with others his own age . Vézina partook in these matches in his shoes , and used skates for the first time at age 16 when he joined the local team in Chicoutimi . As Chicoutimi was in a remote area of Quebec , more than 200 kilometres from Quebec City , the hockey club was not in any organised league . Rather the club , known as the Saguenéens ( " People from the Saguenay " , the region where Chicoutimi is located ) , toured the province , playing exhibition games against a variety of clubs .
Vézina married Marie @-@ Adélaïde @-@ Stella Morin on June 3 , 1908 , in Chicoutimi . After Vézina 's death , it was reported that he fathered 22 children . This rumour was started when the Canadiens ' manager , Leo Dandurand , told reporters that Vézina " speaks no English and has twenty @-@ two children , including three sets of triplets , and they were all born in the space of nine years . " In actuality the Vézinas only had two children and Georges spoke broken English . In 1912 they had their first child , a son named Jean @-@ Jules . A second son was born the night of the Montreal Canadiens ' first Stanley Cup win in 1916 . To honour the event , Georges named the child Marcel Stanley . When not playing hockey , Vézina operated a tannery in Chicoutimi , living a quiet life .
= = Playing career = =
= = = NHA = = =
On February 17 , 1910 , the Chicoutimi Hockey Club played an exhibition match against the Montreal Canadiens . Though playing an inferior team the Canadiens failed to score a goal , losing the game . This prompted Joseph Cattarinich , goaltender for the Canadiens , to convince his team to offer a tryout to Georges Vézina , who was Chicoutimi 's goaltender . Vézina initially refused the offer , staying in Chicoutimi until the Canadiens returned in December of that year . This time they convinced Georges , along with his brother Pierre , to come to Montreal . The two Vézina brothers arrived on December 22 , 1910 . While Pierre failed to make the team , Georges impressed the Canadiens , especially with the use of his stick to block shots . Vézina was signed to a contract for C $ 800 per season , and made his professional debut December 31 , 1910 , against the Ottawa Senators . He would play all 16 games for the Canadiens in the 1910 – 11 season , finishing with a record of eight wins and eight losses , while allowing the fewest goals in the league .
The following season Vézina again led the league in goals against , as well as winning eight games , along with 10 losses . Vézina recorded his first career shutout during the 1912 – 13 season , defeating Ottawa 6 – 0 on January 18 , 1913 , for one of his nine wins in the season . The Canadiens finished first in the NHA for the first time in 1913 – 14 , in a tie with the Toronto Blueshirts . Once again , Vézina led the league with the fewest goals against , while posting 13 victories and seven losses . Under the NHA rules , the first place team would play in the Stanley Cup Finals , but due to the tie for first , the Canadiens had to play a two @-@ game , total @-@ goals series against Toronto . Vézina shut out the Blueshirts in the first game , a 2 – 0 win for Montreal , but let in six goals in the second game , allowing the Blueshirts to play for the Stanley Cup , which they won .
After losing 14 games and finishing last in the NHA in 1914 – 15 , Vézina and the Canadiens won 16 games during the 1915 – 16 season , placing the team first in the league . As league leaders , the Canadiens earned the right to play in the 1916 Stanley Cup Finals , where they faced off against the Portland Rosebuds , champions of the rival Pacific Coast Hockey Association . The Canadiens defeated the Rosebuds three games to two in the best @-@ of @-@ five @-@ games series , winning the Stanley Cup for the first time in team history . Vézina 's second son was born the night of the fifth game , which coupled with a bonus of $ 238 each member of the Canadiens received for the championship , led to him considering the series as the pinnacle of his career . The following season Vézina again led the NHA with the fewest goals against , the fourth time in seven years he did so , helping the Canadiens to again reach the Stanley Cup Finals , where they lost to the Seattle Metropolitans .
= = = NHL = = =
The NHA gave way to the National Hockey League ( NHL ) in November 1917 , with Vézina and the Canadiens joining the new league . On February 18 , 1918 , he became the first goaltender in NHL history to record a shutout , by blanking the Torontos 9 – 0 . On December 28 , 1918 , he became the first goaltender to be credited with an assist , on a goal by Newsy Lalonde , who had just picked up the puck after a save by Vézina . He finished the season with 12 wins , allowing the fewest goals against . Vézina also set a record , which was shared with Clint Benedict of the Ottawa Senators , for the fewest shutouts needed to lead the league , with one .
In 1918 – 19 Vézina won 10 games and helped the Canadiens defeat the Ottawa Senators in the NHL playoffs for the right to play for the Stanley Cup against the PCHA champion , the Seattle Metropolitans . Held in Seattle , the two teams were tied in the best @-@ of @-@ five series when it was cancelled due to the Spanish flu epidemic , the first time the Stanley Cup was not awarded . In the 10 playoff games prior to the cancellation , Vézina had won six games , lost three and tied one , with one shutout . Vézina recorded nearly identical records the next two seasons , with 13 wins , 11 losses and a goals against average above four in both 1919 – 20 and 1920 – 21 . He won 12 games the following season , as the Canadiens again failed to qualify for the Stanley Cup .
After winning 13 games in 1922 – 23 , Vézina led the Canadiens into the NHL playoffs , where they lost the two @-@ game , total @-@ goal series to the Senators , who would win the Stanley Cup . The following season saw Vézina return to leading the league in fewest goals against . His average of 1 @.@ 97 goals per game was the first time a goaltender had averaged fewer than two goals against per game . With another 13 @-@ win season in 1923 – 24 , the Canadiens reached the NHL playoffs , where they again faced the Ottawa Senators . This time the Canadiens won the series , then defeated the Vancouver Maroons of the PCHA before reaching the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in five years . Playing the Calgary Tigers of the Western Canada Hockey League , Vézina and the Canadiens won the best @-@ of @-@ three series two games to none , as Vézina recorded a shutout in the second game . The championship was the Canadiens ' first as a member of the NHL and second title as a club . After a 17 @-@ win season in 1924 – 25 where Vézina recorded a goals @-@ against average of 1 @.@ 81 to again lead the league , the Canadiens reached the Stanley Cup Finals . The Canadiens only qualified after the Hamilton Tigers , the regular season champions , were suspended for refusing to play in the playoffs unless they were paid more . Facing the Victoria Cougars , the Canadiens lost the series three games to one .
Returning to Montreal for training camp for the 1925 – 26 season , Vézina was noticeably ill , though he said nothing about it . By the time of the Canadiens ' first game on November 28 against the Pittsburgh Pirates , he had lost 35 pounds in a span of six weeks , and had a fever of 102 Fahrenheit . Regardless , he took to the ice , and completed the first period without allowing a goal . Vézina began vomiting blood in the intermission before returning for the start of the second period . He then collapsed in his goal area , and left the game , with former U.S. Olympic team goaltender Alphonse Lacroix taking his place .
The day after the game , Vézina was diagnosed with tuberculosis and advised to return home . He made a last trip into the Canadiens ' dressing room on December 3 to say a final goodbye to his teammates . Dandurand would later describe Vézina as sitting in his corner of the dressing room with " tears rolling down his cheeks . He was looking at his old pads and skates that Eddie Dufour [ the Canadiens trainer ] had arranged in Georges ' corner . Then , he asked one little favour — the sweater he had worn in the last world series . " Vézina returned to his hometown of Chicoutimi with his wife Marie , where he died in the early hours on Saturday , March 27 , 1926 , at l 'Hôtel @-@ Dieu hospital . Though he played only one period for the Canadiens during the entire season , the team honoured his entire $ 6 @,@ 000 salary , a testament to how important Vézina had been to the team .
= = Legacy = =
One of the dominant goaltenders in the NHA and early NHL , Vézina led the Canadiens to five Stanley Cup Finals appearances , where they won the title twice . Seven times in his career , Vézina had the lowest goals @-@ against average in the league he played , and he had the second @-@ best average another five times . From when he joined the Canadiens in 1910 , until being forced to retire in 1925 , Vézina never missed a game nor allowed a substitute , playing in 328 consecutive regular season games and an additional 39 playoff games . Though he played the bulk of his career in an era when goaltenders could not leave their feet to make a save ( the rule was changed in 1918 ) , Vézina is regarded as one of the greatest goaltenders in hockey history ; the Montreal Standard referred to him as the " greatest goaltender of the last two decades " in their obituary .
Well liked in Montreal , Vézina was often seen as the best player on the ice for the Canadiens , and was respected by his teammates , who considered him the spiritual leader of the team . Referred to as " le Concombre de Chicoutimi " ( the " Chicoutimi Cucumber " ) for his cool demeanour on the ice , he was also known as " l 'Habitant silencieux " ( the " silent Habitant " , Habitant being a nickname for the Canadiens ) , a reference to his reserved personality . He often sat in a corner of the team 's dressing room alone , smoking a pipe and reading the newspaper . When news of Vézina 's death was announced , newspapers across Quebec paid tribute to the goalie with articles about his life and career . Hundreds of Catholic masses were held in honour of the devout Vézina , and more than 1 @,@ 500 people filled the Chicoutimi cathedral for his funeral .
A lasting legacy of Vézina was the trophy named after him . At the start of the 1926 – 27 season , Leo Dandurand , Leo Letourneau and Joseph Cattarinich , owners of the Montreal Canadiens , donated the Vezina Trophy to the NHL in honour of Vézina . It was to be awarded to the goaltender of the team who allowed the fewest goals during the regular season . The inaugural winner of the trophy was Vézina 's successor in goal for the Canadiens , George Hainsworth . He went on to win the trophy the next two seasons as well . In 1981 , the NHL changed the format of awarding the trophy , instead giving it to the goaltender deemed best in the league based on a poll of NHL general managers . The Hockey Hall of Fame was established in 1945 and among the first nine inductees was Vézina . In 1998 Vézina was ranked number 75 on The Hockey News ' list of the 100 Greatest Hockey Players . In honour of the first professional athlete to come from Chicoutimi , the city renamed their hockey arena the Centre Georges @-@ Vézina in 1965 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
NHA statistics are from Trail of the Stanley Cup .
NHL statistics are from NHL.com.
= Dave ( Lost ) =
" Dave " is the 43rd episode of Lost and the 18th episode of the second season . The episode was directed by Jack Bender , and written by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz . It first aired on April 5 , 2006 , on ABC . In flashbacks , Hugo " Hurley " Reyes is in a mental institution , where he deals with an imaginary friend , Dave . Libby also has a brief flashback in this episode , revealing that she attended the institution along with Hurley . The island events in the present day have Hurley seeing Dave on the island , while other survivors confront " Henry Gale " ( Michael Emerson ) after his stated backstory is revealed to be false .
The episode addresses a fan theory which considered the events of the series to be hallucinations or dreams . The character of Dave was written as both a side of Hurley who denied his problems and an analogue to Hurley 's disappeared father , and his scenes were filmed so that his reveal as imaginary would be a plot twist .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashback = = =
Hurley ( Jorge Garcia ) is in a mental institution , where he is friends with Dave ( Evan Handler ) , who tells Hurley to ignore the doctors , avoid his medication , and try to escape . One day , Hurley 's doctor , Dr. Brooks ( Bruce Davison ) , proves to Hurley that Dave is not real , by taking a photo of the two , and then showing Hurley that Dave is not in the picture . Later that night , Dave wakes Hurley up to escape with him from the institute . Dave hops out of a window , but Hurley confronts him and declares that Dave is not real , and shuts the window on him before going back to bed .
A later flashback reveals that during the moment Dr. Brooks took the picture of Hurley and Dave , another patient was staring at Hurley from across the room , Libby ( Cynthia Watros ) , which explains why Hurley has had this faint recognition of Libby while on the island .
= = = On the island = = =
Hurley confesses to Libby that he has an eating disorder , and shows her a stash of Dharma food . Hurley expresses interest in getting rid of it , and she encourages him to do so . Just after Hurley destroys his supplies , other survivors go into the jungle . Following them , Hurley and Libby see that an enormous package of food parachuted from the sky . After Hurley panics at the suggestion of again being in charge of the supplies , he sees Dave , and tries to follow him as he goes into the jungle .
After Hurley loses Dave 's trail twice , and berates Sawyer ( Josh Holloway ) for mocking him , he decides to leave the beach and go to the caves . On the way , Dave reappears , and tells Hurley that everything that has happened since the night of the escape attempt has been a fantasy — that after Dave escaped , Hurley went into a catatonic state and has imagined everything since then . As proof , Dave points out the appearances of the numbers said by another intern , Leonard ( Ron Bottitta ) in both Hurley 's winning lottery ticket and the hatch computer number @-@ sequence . Dave takes Hurley to a cliff , and tells him to jump and get out of his dream , before jumping off himself . Before Hurley can decide whether or not to follow Dave , Libby finds him . Hurley states to her he believes everything happening is not real , and is only a comatose dream , including her , but Libby convinces him otherwise , in part by kissing him .
In the hatch , Sayid ( Naveen Andrews ) and Ana @-@ Lucía ( Michelle Rodriguez ) interrogate " Henry Gale " ( Michael Emerson ) . After Henry 's new cover @-@ up story is proved false , Henry finally admits that he is indeed an Other , but says he would be killed if he talks . Later , Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) confronts the prisoner , demanding to know if he let himself be caught , thinking it might have been to find the Swan . " Henry " , however , calls the hatch a " joke " , saying that during the lockdown , he never entered the numbers into the computer or pushed the button ; he simply stood there , and watched the timer 's numbers turn to red hieroglyphs before they reset back on their own . Locke , however , replies angrily that Henry is lying , but he replies that he 's " done lying " .
= = Production = =
ABC was concerned about the content of the episode , arguing that the idea that the story could be all in Hurley 's head was offering an explanation for the show as a whole , since a recurring theory among the fandom was that the events of the series were hallucinations . The character of Dave was meant to be a side of Hurley who felt he had no problem , and encourages Hurley to overeat , and is played by Evan Handler in a way director Jack Bender described as " mischievous , impish @-@ like " . Showrunner Carlton Cuse revealed his name comes from Hurley 's father , David Reyes - who would later appear in the series played by Cheech Marin - because the writers " wanted Hurley to imagine a friend and have that be wrapped up in his unresolved relationship with his dad " . The final scene with Libby was so secret that only Jack Bender and his assistant director had it in their scripts , and to prevent Libby from being the only woman in the mental institution , every woman on the set , including Bender 's daughter Sophie , was dressed in robes and pajamas to appear as background characters .
Director Bender decided to depict Dave in a way audiences would first believe him to be real , but without the character actually interacting with the physical world , similar to films such as The Sixth Sense and A Beautiful Mind . For the scene in which Dave walks through the jungle with Hurley , red and orange flowers were placed to add some " magic " to the scene , something Bender described as a " ' Hurley in Wonderland ' feel " . The scene in which Hurley attacks Sawyer was intended to be a humorous moment , with Bender suggesting that the tent be knocked over , and Josh Holloway adding Sawyer trying to escape but being pulled back .
The scene in which Dave starts listing to Hurley why the island events are occurring in his mind suffered from continuous interruption , as military exercises on Joint Base Pearl Harbor @-@ Hickam led to many takes being ruined by plane noises . Weather problems also plagued production , with loud waves causing Hurley 's and Libby 's beach scene to be redubbed in post @-@ production , and rain on one day changing the location of the basketball game scene to an indoor court , and also leading to a second day of filming on the cliff . The cliff was digitally redesigned in post @-@ production to appear as if the actors were standing on the edge . Dave 's jump was done by making a stunt double jump in front of a bluescreen , with the body hitting the water and resulting splash being rendered through computer graphics . The mental hospital was shot at the Laniakea YWCA in Honolulu , except for Dr. Brooks 's office , which was done inside a studio .
= = Reception = =
16 @.@ 38 million American viewers tuned into this episode . Reviews were mixed . Scott Brown of Entertainment Weekly praised Jorge Garcia 's and Michael Emerson 's performances , and said that the episode made the island " feel dangerous again " . Ryan J. Budke of TV Squad felt that the B @-@ story in the hatch was more interesting than Hurley 's scenes , and considered " Dave " depressing , in opposition to the other " so light @-@ hearted " Hurley @-@ centered episodes . IGN 's Chris Carabott gave the episode a 7 out of 10 , considering it entertaining even if it " doesn 't really impact the series as a whole , " but the website later ranked " Dave " as the 9th worst Lost episode ever , describing it as meaningless and saying the flashback " felt pretty extraneous . " New York magazine listed " Dave " sixth in a " Twenty Most Pointless Episodes of Lost " list , considering that " using an episode to disprove a theory that wasn ’ t so prevalent was a waste of time . " On the other hand , the Los Angeles Times ranked the episode as the 30th best of the series , describing it as " perhaps the most misunderstood episode of Lost ever , " saying that Dave not being real was meant to be a twist , but just " the biggest expression of just how messed up Hurley was before he found the island . "
= Mr. Lady Records =
Mr. Lady Records ( or Mr. Lady Records and Video ) was a San Francisco @-@ based lesbian @-@ feminist independent record label and video art distributor . Artists on the label included Le Tigre and The Butchies . OutSmart magazine noted that Mr. Lady was " queercore 's strongest label . "
The label was founded in 1996 in Durham , North Carolina by musician Kaia Wilson and artist / UNC photography professor Tammy Rae Carland , aiming to redress what they saw as a lack of feminist record labels at the time . As well as a range of recording artists , the label was also heavily involved in other events that promoted feminist thinking and music , such as the Michigan Womyn 's Music Festival – which led to some controversy in 1999 – and various art showcases . Mr. Lady closed down in June 2004 .
= = Founding = =
Kaia Wilson was a member of lesbian punk group The Butchies , and felt their " out politics held them back . " Without a record company to specifically represent the work of herself and other " out " female musicians , Wilson and her girlfriend , Tammy Rae Carland , found their opportunities limited . Subsequently , they formed Mr. Lady to redress the " lack of enough women and / or dyke run record labels , " which they felt led to an " extremely limited amount of affordable and accessible means for independent artists to distribute their work . " Thus , Mr. Lady Records was started with , in Wilson 's words , " $ 35 and a lotta ... faith . "
Wilson stated the name " Mr. Lady " came from a trip to Italy while on tour with Team Dresch : " I saw a store called Mr. Baby , and it freaked me out . Then everyone started calling me Mr. Baby . Then I became Mr. Baby onstage . I had my own theme song and everything . I wore a little eyeliner mustache . From there it changed into Mr. Lady , which just seemed like a good name for a queer label . " It also related to Ladyman , Wilson 's first solo LP , produced with the aid of Melissa York after they both left lesbian " supergroup " Team Dresch .
= = Artists and releases = =
Mr. Lady Records released recordings by groups such as Kathleen Hanna 's lo @-@ fi group Le Tigre ( who released their first two records – Le Tigre and Feminist Sweepstakes – with Mr. Lady ) , punk group The Butchies ( of whom Kaia Wilson is the lead singer ) , British group Electrelane , Tara Jane O 'Neil , spoken @-@ word collective Sister Spit ( Sini Anderson and Michelle Tea ) , and others . In March 2001 , Calling All Kings & Queens , a sampler album , was released which featured eighteen tracks from various artists and friends of the label , including Sleater @-@ Kinney and Team Dresch . It followed 1999 's New Women 's Music Sampler .
= = A focus on women musicians = =
No band that signed with Mr. Lady contained a male artist . Carland said " It 's not that we 're necessarily never going to put out a band with men in it , but it 's just kind of organically happened that way . We wanted to focus on putting out music by women . We do consider ourselves a feminist business and part of that involves prioritizing work made by women . "
Due to their work with Mr. Lady , Wilson and Carland were described as two of the " 100 most influential gay people in the world " by About.com in 2002 .
= = Growing popularity = =
Although initially a vehicle for Wilson to release her own albums , Mr. Lady grew into a label whose musical and political contributions gained national attention . During a review of Tami Hart 's debut release with Mr. Lady , online magazine PopMatters described the label as " one of the bright spots in new music . Whether the groups or singers are punk or indie , they are all anti @-@ mainstream hip , political , and good – really good . " Discorder magazine described the label in 2004 as " lead [ ing ] the way when it came to releasing music that was as politically significant as it was danceable . "
Initially distributing music through mail order , the label signed a deal to distribute records nationally across the US in 2001 . The Independent Weekly described the label as having " grown from a community that perhaps needed it the most , " contrasting the scarcity of a gay / lesbian @-@ oriented label in the southern United States at the time with the many in New York .
= = Involvement with the Michigan Womyn 's Music Festival = =
In 1999 , Mr. Lady records ( along with one of its artists , The Butchies ) , were involved in issues surrounding the debate as to whether transsexual women should be entitled to attend the Michigan Womyn 's Music Festival , which had a formal stance against allowing transsexual and transgender women to attend the festival . In response to a request from transgender activists to boycott the festival , Mr. Lady released a statement which defended the festival , believing that they did not consider an event for " womyn born womyn " and the transgender community to be mutually exclusive , but backed the right of the festival to exclude those not born as women .
Kaia Wilson confirmed this in a June 1999 statement : " [ W ] e strongly believe that transgender / transsexual people are an important part of the queer community and that they face an enormous amount of opposition . [ ... ] We know that the MWMF started as a separatist event for womyn born womyn and we personally still feel the continued need for that kind of space and event . [ ... ] We don 't think that our support of the trans communities and womyn born womyn communities are in direct contradiction to each other . "
Formally backing the festival 's trans @-@ exclusion policy led to protests and boycotts aimed towards Mr. Lady acts , Wilson and The Butchies in particular . Groups such as Camp Trans , and many participants in the queercore community disagreed with Mr. Lady 's stance and felt that the group and label exploited transgender images . The label went defunct in June 2004 .
= = Showcases = =
Mr. Lady Records has sponsored numerous showcases of feminist and lesbian music , including events at the Weisman Art Museum at the University of Minnesota Twin Cities campus in Minneapolis , Minnesota ( working with the Queer Student Cultural Center ) and " Mr. Sister " , a showcase at the National Queer Arts Festival in 2003 at the Center for Lesbian Gay Bi Transgender Art & Culture in San Francisco .
= = Artists formerly on Mr. Lady = =
Artists formerly on Mr. Lady include :
The Butchies
Sarah Dougher
Electrelane
The Haggard
Tami Hart
Kiki and Herb
Le Tigre
The Moves
The Need
Tara Jane O 'Neil
Gretchen Phillips
Amy Ray
Sextional
Radio Sloan
The Sissies
Sister Spit
Tracy + the Plastics
V for Vendetta
Kaia Wilson
= Joseph W. Kennedy =
Joseph William Kennedy ( May 30 , 1916 – May 5 , 1957 ) was an American chemist who was a co @-@ discoverer of plutonium , along with Glenn T. Seaborg , Edwin McMillan and Arthur Wahl . During World War II he was head of the CM ( Chemistry and Metallurgy ) Division at the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos laboratory , where he oversaw research onto the chemistry and metallurgy of uranium and plutonium . After the war , he was recruited as a professor at Washington University in St. Louis , where he is credited with transforming a university primarily concerned with undergraduate teaching into one that also boasts strong graduate and research programs . He died of cancer of the stomach at the age of 40 .
= = Early life = =
Joseph William Kennedy was born in Nacogdoches , Texas on May 30 , 1916 , the son of Joseph and Mattie Kennedy . He attended Stephen F. Austin State Teachers College , from which he received a Bachelor of Arts ( BA ) degree , and the University of Kansas , which awarded him a Master of Arts ( MA ) degree . He then entered the University of California , Berkeley , where he earned his Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD ) degree , writing his thesis on " Studies of nuclear isomerism in tellurium , element 43 , and zinc " , under the supervision of George Ernest Gibson .
= = Plutonium = =
In February 1940 , Glenn Seaborg and Edwin McMillan produced plutonium @-@ 239 through the bombardment of uranium . In their experiments bombarding uranium with deuterons , they observed the creation of neptunium , element 93 , which then underwent beta @-@ decay to form a new element , plutonium , with 94 protons . Kennedy built a series of detectors and counters to verify the presence of plutonium . He used mica sliced razor thin to produce a window to count alpha particle emissions , and ionization chamber with a magnetic field to separate the beta particles from the neptunium from alpha particles from the plutonium .
On March 28 , 1941 , Seaborg , physicist Emilio Segrè and Kennedy were able to demonstrate not only the presence of plutonium , but that was fissile , an important distinction that was crucial to the decisions made in directing Manhattan Project research . Arthur Wahl then began exploring the chemistry of the newly discovered element . In 1966 , Room 307 of Gilman Hall on the campus at the Berkeley , where they did this work , was declared a U.S. National Historic Landmark .
= = Manhattan Project = =
Kennedy was one of the early recruits to Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos National Laboratory , arriving in March 1943 . He became acting head of the Chemistry and Metallurgy ( CM ) Division . There was concern amongst the project leadership about Kennedy , as he was only 26 years old at the time . An approach was therefore made to Charles Thomas from Monsanto . Thomas agreed to co @-@ ordinate the Chemistry efforts of the different Manhattan Project laboratories , but he did not wish to move to New Mexico . Despite his youth , Kennedy officially became CM Division leader in April 1944 .
The CM Division was responsible for the purification and fabrication of materials for the bomb , including the core , tamper and initiator . The chemistry and metallurgy of uranium was fairly well known , although it did yield a few surprises , but that of plutonium was almost completely unknown . The element had only been discovered a short time before , and existed only in microgram amounts . Educated guesses about its chemistry tended to be wrong , and as research progressed it was found to have unusual properties , including no less than six allotropes . There was rivalry between its discoverers , with Wahl and Kennedy 's group at Los Alamos competing with Seaborg 's in Chicago to produce the best process for purifying the metal . This competition ended abruptly when Segrè 's group at Los Alamos discovered that high levels of a hitherto undiscovered plutonium @-@ 240 isotope in reactor @-@ produced plutonium meant that an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon was required , and a high degree of purity was therefore unnecessary .
Kennedy 's chemists were able to reduce uranium hydride to uranium @-@ 235 metal with 99 @.@ 96 % efficiency , and the metallurgists worked out how to cast and press it into the required shapes . While the chemists worked out how to purify plutonium , the metallurgists had to figure out how to cast it into a solid sphere . Eric Jette 's CM @-@ 8 ( Uranium and Plutonium Metallurgy ) group found that they could stabilise plutonium in its malleable δ phase by alloying it with gallium . For his services , he was awarded the Medal for Merit by the President Harry S. Truman in 1946 .
= = Post war = =
In 1945 , Kennedy was recruited as a professor at Washington University in St. Louis , and was installed as Chairman of the Department of Chemistry in 1946 , a role he continued in until his death . Kennedy brought with him Wahl , Lindsay Helmholz , David Lipkin , Herbert Potratz , and Samuel Weissman , who all served on the faculty at Washington University . Up to this time , Washington University was primarily concerned with undergraduate teaching . Kennedy is credited with transforming it into a university that also has boasts strong graduate and research programs .
Along with Seaborg , McMillan and Wahl , Kennedy received $ 400 @,@ 000 dollars from the Atomic Energy Commission in compensation for their scientific work . He died on May 5 , 1957 at the age of 40 after a battle with cancer of the stomach . The Kennedy Lecture series is named in his honor . It is given every year in Washington University .
= Andy 's Play =
" Andy 's Play " is the third episode of the seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 129th episode overall . Written by Charlie Grandy and directed by John Stuart Scott , the episode aired on NBC in the United States on October 7 , 2010 . Guest stars include Robert Mammana , Phil Abrams and Robert R. Shafer .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) lands a role in a local production of Sweeney Todd and invites the entire office to the performance , hoping to impress his former girlfriend , Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) . While Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) struggles to put his jealousy aside , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) have trouble with their less @-@ than @-@ stellar babysitter , Erin .
Originally , the producers and writers wanted the in @-@ show musical to be performed badly , but they later changed their minds and decided that the musical should be quality work , according to Helms . The episode featured several guest actors and actresses to round out the parts in the musical . " Andy 's Play " was viewed by 6 @.@ 95 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 5 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 , marking a slight drop in the ratings when compared to the previous week . Despite this , the episode was the highest @-@ ranked NBC series of the night and received positive reviews from critics , many of whom enjoyed the character @-@ driven story .
= = Plot = =
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) is going to perform in a local production of Sweeney Todd , and he wants his co @-@ workers to come . He makes a special effort to invite Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) , whom he hopes to win back with a good performance . Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is especially hard to convince , since he is still upset that he was not asked to play the part of Sweeney Todd after his own audition . Andy informs him that no one auditioning got the part of Sweeney Todd , which was instead given to a veteran " world class " actor , and Michael agrees to go . Jim ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) say they want to go , but have been unable to find a babysitter for their daughter Cece . Erin agrees to come , but she later decides to babysit Cece so Pam and Jim can come instead .
On the night of the show , Darryl Philbin reads from the program that contrary to Andy 's assumption , the actor ( Robert Mammana ) playing Sweeney Todd has no acting or singing experience , and was discovered by the director while singing karaoke . Put out by this , Michael steals a bottle of wine from the concessions table , which he and his co @-@ workers drink during the show . Andy , upset that Erin is not in the audience , repeatedly checks for messages from her on his cell phone . While he is on stage , his phone rings in his pocket , disrupting the musical and forcing the performers to improvise . To make matters worse , Michael drops his bottle of wine , causing a commotion as it rolls . Then he loses grip of balloons he brought to his seat , which pop as they hit the top of the hall . This startles a baby , and the sound of her cries alerts Jim and Pam to the fact that Erin came to the play with Cece , exciting Andy , but angering Jim and Pam . At the end of the show , everyone cheers except for Michael , who angrily boos the actor playing Sweeney Todd . During the party for the performers afterwards , the director compliments Michael on the " energy " of his audition and encourages him to audition again , suggesting that he felt that Sweeney Todd simply wasn 't the right production for Michael 's acting style .
Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) , having found a loophole in her parenting contract with Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) which permits him to develop romantic feelings for her , attempts to attract him . She uses another technicality in the contract to force him to take her to Andy 's play as a date , and wears uncharacteristically revealing clothing . But when Dwight becomes lustful , Angela rebuffs him and insists that they count the date as one of their five required instances of sexual intercourse . Meanwhile , Andy and Erin chat backstage , and Erin states how happy she is that they are spending time together outside of the Office . This moment ends when Erin leaves with her boyfriend , Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) . As Andy sulks backstage , his co @-@ workers arrive and cheer him up .
= = Production = =
" Andy 's Play " was written by supervising producer Charlie Grandy , his fifth writing credit for the show . The episode was directed by John Stuart Scott , his first and only directing credit for the show . With the seventh season of The Office being Carell 's last , the writers decided to divide the season into two distinct halves ; the first half would " celebrate Carell 's finale year and highlight different actors on the show " , whereas the second half would focus on his departure and the search for a new manager . As such , " Andy 's Play " was one of the first episode of the season to specifically highlight " potential heirs to the throne " , in this case Ed Helms ' character , Andy .
According to Helms , the original script called for the musical numbers to be " slaughtered " by the actors and actresses . However , as the episode was being finalized , the producers decided for the cast to " perform razor @-@ sharp renditions " of the songs instead . Due to the ensemble nature of the musical featured in the episode , guest actors and actresses were required . Actor Robert Mammana portrayed Mitchel Walsh , who played the title role in the play within the play . Heather Marie Marsden played Mrs. Lovett , Maxwell Glick appeared Tobias , and Phil Abrams appeared as Shelby Thomas Weems , the musical 's director .
The Season Seven DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Andy discussing the " crowd dynamic " at musicals and music events , Gabe discussing his history of playing Ichabod Crane in three separate play productions , Pam and Jim discussing how hard it is to get a babysitter , Michael ordering flowers , Andy getting a pep talk from his director , Phyllis worrying about Cynthia and Bob bonding , and Kevin talking to his sister who happens to be playing a part in the musical .
= = Cultural references = =
The songs featured in the episode from the actual Sweeney Todd musical are " The Ballad of Sweeney Todd " , " Johanna " , and " By the Sea " . Erin accidentally references The Baby @-@ sitters Club , a series of novels by Ann M. Martin , when talking about breaking into the babysitting business in Scranton . Michael brings balloons to the musical , Phyllis notes that they remind her of the 2009 Pixar film Up . Jim mentions that trying to put CeCe to sleep reminds him of the 2008 war film The Hurt Locker . The ending scene features Michael auditioning for the musical by re @-@ acting of an entire episode of the American police procedural and legal drama television series Law & Order , complete with opening monologue and theme music . Andy sings Macy Gray 's single " I Try " with the rest of the office to cheer himself up at the end of the episode .
= = Reception = =
" Andy 's Play " first aired on October 7 , 2010 . In its original American broadcast , it was viewed by an estimated 6 @.@ 95 million viewers with a 3 @.@ 5 rating / 10 percent share among adults between the age of 18 and 49 . This means that 3 @.@ 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old households watched the episode , and ten percent of that demographic had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . This marked a 0 @.@ 2 rating decrease from the previous weeks episode , although the episode ranked second in its time slot and was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
This episode received mostly positive reviews from critics . James Poniewozik of Time magazine wrote that , " ' Andy 's Play ' was the kind of strong , character driven episode I 've missed from the show — not just good by later season standards but an actual good Office episode , period . " Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic wrote that the episode was a reminder of " what has always been great about this show " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix wrote that the episode " worked largely because it embraced [ the ] idea " that " the bonds you form at work go deeper than carpet , and that if you work with people long enough they can feel like your family . " He ultimately concluded that the episode was one that " makes me happy [ that ] I spent an evening in the company of these goofballs . "
Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club gave the episode a " B + " , stating that it was " inconclusive " proof whether or not Andy could be the show 's lead , in advance of Steve Carell 's exit from the series , but that " in terms of providing entertainment , I think the episode worked quite well " and was " honest and charming " . Vulture writer Phoebe Reilly was slightly critical of Apple product placements — Ryan 's iPad and Andy 's iPhone — but found the use of the second " still funny : the signature chirp of Andy ’ s iPhone interrupts a scene , prompting him to pretend it ’ s a bird that he has to silence by saying , ' He 's gone to sleep now . I 've closed his beak . ' "
Many reviews commented upon Andy 's phone @-@ interrupted onstage scene . Poniewozik praised " Andy ’ s flop @-@ sweat attempt to improvise his way out of his cellphone 's going off while running up against the limits of what his character knows about Sweeney " , calling it " hilarious " . Forcella was complimentary towards " the awkward moment when his phone didn 't stop ringing and [ Andy ] had to explain it on stage " , noting that it had " brilliant timing and execution . "
= Hanley Castle High School =
Hanley Castle High School , formerly known as Hanley Castle Grammar School , was probably founded in 1326 , making it one of the oldest schools in England . Located in the village of Hanley Castle , 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 2 km ) from the small town of Upton @-@ upon @-@ Severn , Worcestershire , for much of the 20th century it was a selective boys grammar school that grew from about 50 to around 200 day @-@ pupils and boarders . In 1972 , the school opened its doors to girls . In 1974 it became a mixed gender , voluntary controlled comprehensive school and it started to intake pupils at age 14 on transfer from the Hill School in nearby Upton @-@ upon @-@ Severn . The school reverted to being an 11 – 18 school in the 1990s and the population of students grew over time to around 900 in 2012 . In 2011 the school became an academy .
The campus comprises 17th century Grade II listed buildings that are still in use alongside those of the major expansions of the late 20th , and early 21st century . The school serves a large , mainly rural area roughly bounded by Malvern to the west , Worcester to the north , and the county of Gloucestershire to the south .
= = History = =
In 1326 a chantry school was established to teach local children music , reading and writing , so that they could become part of the choir of St Mary 's church . Deeds dating from 1523 and 1544 are the earliest extant documents , and the Church of England episcopal archives record a Philippus Frye as being a master at the school in 1582 . In 1633 new trustees were installed , and in 1733 the school house was rebuilt on funds donated by Sir Nicholas and Mr Edmund Lechmere . For several centuries , the school functioned under the patronage of the baronets and hereditary peers of the Lechmere family who have been settled in Hanley Castle , Worcestershire , since the 11th century . The baronets were traditionally chairmen or members of the board of governors until at least the mid @-@ 1970s . The school 's emblem is the same pelican that is the central feature of the Lechmere family coat of arms . In 1868 in order to improve the teaching standards , a new headmaster was installed by the trustees , the school was rebuilt in 1869 and divided into an endowed grammar school for the sons of the middle classes and an elementary school providing the labouring and agricultural classes with a basic education . Following further changes in 1893 , the primary school was named St Mary 's Primary School and was relocated in the nearby hamlet of Cross Hands and the grammar school provided education for boys from the age of 8 to 17 .
In 1909 funds were allocated by Worcestershire County Council for the construction of new classrooms and the appointment of governors was supervised by the council . The number of students increased from 55 in 1921 , to 172 in 1946 with 4 boys in the sixth form . By the late 1950s , a first modern extension including new classrooms a science laboratory , and modern sanitary facilities had been constructed , and the number of pupils had increased to 217 boys aged 11 to 18 who were generally admitted by selection after passing the Eleven Plus exam . About 50 of the pupils were boarders , and although government owned , the school was still run very much on the traditional lines of a typical English " Public School " of which there were many in the Malvern area . With 42 students in the sixth form in 1962 , an urgent request for further extensions to the school became a subject of debate in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom .
Compared with other schools in the county , Hanley Castle was still small , and in 1969 following changes in government education policy , the school was developed more on the lines of a comprehensive school to introduce a focus on vocational as well as academic education . The boarding section was closed down , the dormitories , resident staff quarters , and the clinic were converted to classrooms and teachers ' offices , and girls were admitted for the first time in 1972 , allowing them to benefit from its high standards of teaching . In 1974 the school became a comprehensive school and was renamed Hanley Castle High School . At this stage , although there were still pupils under the age of 14 , the new intake of pupils came each year by transfer of pupils from " The Hill School " ( now closed ) at Tunnel Hill , Upton @-@ upon @-@ Severn . Prior to that The Hill had been a state secondary school for children aged 11 – 18 . The Hill was renamed " The Hill Junior High School " in 1974 as part of the same round of changes . In 1991 , Hanley Castle High School returned to being an age 11 – 18 High School following the two @-@ tier school system , and the Hill Junior High School was closed . By 2002 the student population at Hanley Castle High School had increased to around 850 , and to around 1 @,@ 000 by 2006 . On 23 September 2011 the school celebrated the beginning of the new school year with its newly granted academy status . Presiding over the event , the Member of Parliament for the constituency , Harriett Baldwin stated “ Hanley Castle has been a successful school for hundreds of years and I am delighted to be able to mark its transformation into an academy . I feel enormous pride whenever I visit the school and it is clear that the staff and governors are doing an amazing job . ”
= = Architecture = =
The school has existed for almost 700 years , and has retained many of its original features . The oldest parts are listed buildings dating from around 1600 , include the Grade II western wing , formerly a dormitory and since the 21st century largely converted to use for administration and teachers ' facilities , and the former headmaster 's house now serving as the sixth form centre . Additions to the campus in the late 20th and early 21st centuries have been carefully designed to harmonise with the historic architecture without disturbing the original character , and include science laboratories , a gym , a sports hall , and a performance hall , as well as new classrooms . A £ 2 million dedicated language centre was added in 2008 .
= = Facilities = =
With the changes in 1969 many of the old traditions were lost in the course of modernisation along with the demolition of older buildings that have been replaced by extensive expansion . The school nevertheless retains its centuries @-@ old stance as the focal point of the tiny village , and its high standards of academic achievement . The campus now comprises many new buildings that include six science laboratories , two computer rooms , two music rooms , a drama studio , two art studios and five craft , design and technology work areas . Funded by Worcester County Council and Malvern Hills District Council , a £ 650 @,@ 000 sports hall accommodating four badminton courts was added in 2002 . The school also has a self @-@ contained sixth @-@ form college on site , with around 200 students studying for their A levels . A modern , purpose built 2 @-@ storey language centre was added to the campus in 2008 , and is fully equipped with language learning technology including overhead LCD projectors , interactive whiteboards , and laptop computers to convert any of the classrooms into language laboratories . A new music block has also been added . .
= = Catchment = =
Hanley Castle High School is located in the middle of a rural area surrounded by farms , small villages and hamlets , and is bounded to the east by the River Severn . The nearest urban centres are the small town of Upton @-@ upon @-@ Severn at 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 2 km ) and Malvern at about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 5 km ) . The main feeder schools include Castlemorton C.E. Primary School , Eldersfield Corse Lawn C.E. Primary School , Hanley Swan ( St. Gabriel 's ) Primary School , Kempsey Primary School , Longdon St. Mary 's C.E. Primary School , Pendock C.E. Primary School , Upton @-@ upon @-@ Severn C.E. Primary School , and Welland Primary School , and schools in the Malvern area . Admissions are accepted according to priorities of pupils ' needs and location within and outside the general catchment area .
= = Curriculum = =
Core subjects taught in the school follow the National Curriculum . The Sixth Form offers courses at AS / A2 / BTEC Levels and include : , Art & Design , Biology , Business StudiesCh , Chemistry , Dance , Design & Technology , Economics , English Lang & Lit , English Language , English Literature , Fashion BTEC , Film Studies , Food , Nutrition and Health , French , German , Spanish , Further Maths , Geography , Government & Politics , History , Home Economics , Information Technology , Maths , Modern Foreign Languages , Music , Music Technology , Philosophy , Product Design , Psychology , Sociology , Sport & Physical Education , and Theatre Studies .
As a designated Language College , the school offers French , German and Spanish to GCSE level and French and German to A @-@ level . A fast @-@ track programme for advanced linguists enabling them to take their first modern language GCSE in Year 9 and then continue with AS level or a new language in Years 10 and 11 . Some pupils can choose to take a GCSE in all three languages . Extra curricular clubs also provide experience in Italian , Swedish , and Chinese Mandarin .
= = Academy = =
In 2011 following a successful application , the school was converted to Academy , a new status introduced by the Department of Education ( DoE ) in 2010 for well performing schools that accords them more autonomy of management and direct government funding . Under the government scheme , the school benefits from release from control of the LEA , thus enabling the school to directly hire staff and set their own rates of pay , design its own structure of curricula , and to set its own annual school year calendar . Through the DoE Young People ’ s Learning Agency the school may also receive additional grants that would not be available from the local education authority ( LEA ) .
= = Academic achievement = =
Ofsted judges Hanley Castle to be a good school with outstanding features , among them : the quality of teaching and learning , support for vulnerable learners , well behaved pupils , a peer system of reporting incidents to senior pupils in confidence , good leadership and management , and a range of extra @-@ curricular activities and clubs . In her report inspector Rashida Sharif describes Hanley Castle as a " vibrant and dynamic school that has not stood still since its last inspection , held in March 2006 . " The school 's academic performance in GCSE results was ranked in 2004 among the top 200 state schools in the country , and throughout the years 2005 – 2008 was consistently and significantly higher than both the county and national averages , while The Guardian league table also places it as one of the top performing schools in the county for 2007 – 08 . The number of A @-@ level results has increased from 16 points ( 61 % ) in 1997 to 769 ( adjusted for increased in students ) points ( 76 % ) in 2007 . In 2011 , 88 % of Year 11 students achieved 5 A * - C passes , and 73 % including English and Maths . In 2012 98 % of students passed their A @-@ level exams with 10 % reaching grade A and 67 % at grade C.
= = = Awards = = =
The school has several achievement awards , including the International School and Healthy School awards , its specialist status in languages in 2006 , and its financial management standard in schools in 2007 / 08 In May 2003 the school was one of only 274 schools in the country to receive the Artsmark Gold Award from the Arts Council England . The school is part of the Leading Aspect Award with the Hanley Castle Pyramid scheme that combines the school with eight of its major feeder primary schools within the framework of effective implementation of the government ’ s Modern Languages Entitlement at Key Stage 2 through Primary and Secondary Partnership . The school also has International School and Healthy School awards .
= = Sport = =
For over a hundred years the school has maintained a tradition of sports , and by 1890 Hanley Castle Grammar School was fielding a cricket team . Students represent the school in a number of sports including hockey , netball , rugby , football , volleyball , tennis , cricket , badminton , athletics , cross @-@ country and swimming , and the facilities include a sports hall and a fully equipped gymnasium , outdoor tennis courts , and two large fields for cricket , rugby , track , and athletics . The school continues an ancient tradition and hosts an annual sporting event known as the " Hanley Run " in which around 900 runners compete in a cross country running race . While the run is compulsory for junior students , everyone from year 10 and above , ( including staff ) may participate of their own free will . Additionally , netball , hockey , basketball , table tennis , indoor football , badminton , and girls football are also offered as organised extra @-@ curricular activities .
= = Colleges = =
As a traditional boys grammar school , students were allocated to three houses , Hall , Lane , and Rhydd for the purpose of inter @-@ house sports events . The modern school has a system of three ' colleges ' : Gilbert College ( green ) named after Gilbert de Hanley , a local 12th century forester ; Burley College ( blue ) , that takes its name from the Anglo @-@ Saxon word burh leah and referring to the land on which stood the 13th century Hanley Castle built by King John ; and Horton College ( yellow ) from the former Anglo @-@ Saxon name horh tun for Roberts End , a nearby ancient pottery settlement .
= = In popular culture = =
Novelist P.G. Wodehouse whose aunt , Lucy Apollonia Wodehouse , was the wife of the vicar of Hanley Castle based several stories in the area . Severn End , the stately home of the Lechmere Baronets , is said to be the inspiration for Brinkley Court , the country seat for Bertie Wooster 's Aunt Dahlia . In addition , Hanley Castle Grammar School , 50 metres from St Mary 's Church , was the model for Market Snodsbury Grammar School , in Right Ho Jeeves ( 1934 ) . with at least one of the stories mentioning the School Hall , now the school library , in detail .
= = Alumni = =
Many alumni are members of the Old Hancastrians Association , which is chaired by a school governor , and organises annual events . Former pupils often return to visit the school and sign the Old Boy 's ( and girls ) book which is hosted in the nearby medieval village inn .
= = = Hanley Castle High School = = =
Among the alumni from the shorter history of the comprehensive school are David Gayler , a politician who contested for the Liberal Democrat Cotswold seat in 1997 and has been a Member of Gloucestershire County Council since 1993 , Paul Titchener who was Mayor of Brackley , Northamptonshire in 2001 and again in 2005 @.@ and author David Mitchell whose novels have been awarded many major literary prizes and twice shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize . His novel Cloud Atlas has been made into a $ 100 million Hollywood film ( 2012 ) .
= = = Hanley Castle Grammar School = = =
One of the earliest recorded notable students was Walter Battison Haynes ( 1859 – 1900 ) who was awarded the Mozart Scholarship at the Leipzig Conservatorium and on leaving the Conservatorium received the highest certificate given to a pupil ; professor of harmony and composition at the Royal Academy of Music ; organist and choirmaster , Chapel Royal , Savoy . Admiral Sir William George Tennant , Royal Navy officer and former Lord Lieutenant of Worcestershire was a pupil at the school before joining the Royal Navy in 1905 at the age of 15 . In 1940 he commanded Operation Dynamo , the evacuation of the Allied soldiers from the beaches of Dunkirk . Professor Nigel Coates , architect , and since 1995 Professor of Architectural Design at the Royal College of Art was educated at the school from 1961 to 1967 . P. H. Newby CBE who attended the school from 1931 to 1936 , was winner of the first Booker Prize , and Managing Director BBC Radio from 1975 to 1978 . Peter Pumfrey , ( Class of 1946 ) , is Emeritus Professor and former Dean of the Faculty of Education at Manchester University , a Fellow of the British Psychological Society , and a Chartered Psychologist . Robert Welch MBE , designer and silversmith whose style helped define British modernism , also briefly played cricket for Worcestershire County Cricket Club while at school . Jazz trombonist Chris Barber was educated at the grammar school during World War II before returning to London at the age of 15 . His version of Sidney Bechet 's " Petite Fleur " spent twenty @-@ four weeks in the UK Singles Charts , making it to No. 3 and selling over one million copies , and was awarded a gold disc .
= Joseph Francis Shea =
Joseph Francis Shea ( September 5 , 1925 – February 14 , 1999 ) was an American aerospace engineer and NASA manager . Born in the New York City borough of the Bronx , he was educated at the University of Michigan , receiving a Ph.D. in Engineering Mechanics in 1955 . After working for Bell Labs on the radio inertial guidance system of the Titan I intercontinental ballistic missile , he was hired by NASA in 1961 . As Deputy Director of NASA 's Office of Manned Space Flight , and later as head of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office , Shea played a key role in shaping the course of the Apollo program , helping to lead NASA to the decision in favor of lunar orbit rendezvous and supporting " all up " testing of the Saturn V rocket . While sometimes causing controversy within the agency , Shea was remembered by his former colleague George Mueller as " one of the greatest systems engineers of our time " .
Deeply involved in the investigation of the 1967 Apollo 1 fire , Shea suffered a nervous breakdown as a result of the stress that he suffered . He was removed from his position and left NASA shortly afterwards . From 1968 until 1990 he worked as a senior manager at Raytheon in Lexington , Massachusetts , and thereafter became an adjunct professor of aeronautics and astronautics at MIT . While Shea served as a consultant for NASA on the redesign of the International Space Station in 1993 , he was forced to resign from the position due to health issues .
= = Early life and education = =
Shea was born September 5 , 1925 , and grew up in the Bronx , the eldest son in a working @-@ class Irish Catholic family . His father worked as a mechanic on the New York City Subway . As a child , Shea had no interest in engineering ; he was a good runner and hoped to become a professional athlete . He attended a Catholic high school and graduated when he was only sixteen .
On graduating in 1943 , Shea enlisted in the U.S. Navy and enrolled in a program that would put him through college . He began his studies at Dartmouth College , later moving to MIT and finally to the University of Michigan , where he would remain until he earned his Doctorate in 1955 . In 1946 , he was commissioned as an Ensign in the Navy and received a Bachelor of Science degree in Mathematics . Shea went on to earn a MSc ( 1950 ) and a Ph.D. ( 1955 ) in Engineering Mechanics from the University of Michigan . While obtaining his doctorate , Shea found the time to teach at the university and to hold down a job at Bell Labs .
= = Systems engineer = =
After receiving his doctorate , Shea took a position at Bell Labs in Whippany , New Jersey . There he first worked as systems engineer on the radio guidance system of the Titan I intercontinental ballistic missile ( ICBM ) and then as the development and program manager on the inertial guidance system of the Titan II ICBM . Shea 's specialty was systems engineering , a new type of engineering developed in the 1950s that focused on the management and integration of large @-@ scale projects , turning the work of engineers and contractors into one functioning whole . He played a significant role in the Titan I project ; as George Mueller writes , " [ H ] e contributed a considerable amount of engineering innovation and project management skill and was directly responsible for the successful development of this pioneering guidance system . " In addition to Shea 's technical abilities , it quickly became obvious that he was also an excellent manager of people . Known for his quick intellect , he also endeared himself to his subordinates through small eccentricities such as his fondness for bad puns and habit of wearing red socks to important meetings . During the critical days of the Titan project Shea moved into the plant , sleeping on a cot in his office so as to be available at all hours if he was needed .
Having brought in the project on time and on budget , Shea established a reputation in the aerospace community . In 1961 he was offered and accepted a position with Space Technology Laboratories , a division of TRW Inc . , where he continued to work on ballistic missile systems .
= = NASA career = =
In December 1961 , NASA invited Shea to interview for the position of deputy director of the Office of Manned Space Flight ( OMSF ) . D. Brainerd Holmes , Director of the OMSF , had been searching for a deputy who could offer expertise in systems engineering , someone with the technical abilities to supervise the Apollo program as a whole . Shea was recommended by one of Holmes ' advisors , who had worked with him at Bell Labs . Although Shea had worked at Space Technology Labs for less than a year , he was captivated by the challenge offered by the NASA position . " I could see they needed good people in the space program , " he later said , " and I was kind of cocky in those days . "
= = = Lunar orbit rendezvous = = =
When Shea was hired by NASA , President John F. Kennedy 's commitment to landing men on the Moon was still only seven months old , and many of the major decisions that shaped the Apollo program were yet to be made . Foremost among these was the mode that NASA would use to land on the Moon . When Shea first began to consider the issue in 1962 , most NASA engineers and managers — including Wernher von Braun , the director of the Marshall Space Flight Center — favored either an approach called direct ascent , where the Apollo spacecraft would land on the Moon and return to the Earth as one unit , or Earth orbit rendezvous , where the spacecraft would be assembled while still in orbit around the Earth . However , dissenters such as John Houbolt , a Langley engineer , favored an approach that was then considered to be more risky : lunar orbit rendezvous , in which two spacecraft would be used . A command / service module ( CSM ) would remain in orbit around the Moon , while a lunar module would land on the Moon and return to dock with the CSM in lunar orbit , then be discarded .
In November 1961 , John Houbolt had sent a paper advocating lunar orbit rendezvous ( LOR ) to Robert Seamans , the deputy administrator of NASA . As Shea remembered , " Seamans gave a copy of Houbolt 's letter to Brainerd Holmes [ the director of OMSF ] . Holmes put the letter on my desk and said : Figure it out . " Shea became involved in the lunar orbit rendezvous decision as a result of this letter . While he began with a mild preference for earth orbit rendezvous , Shea " prided himself " , according to space historians Murray and Cox , " on going wherever the data took him " . In this case , the data took him to NASA 's Langley Research Center in Hampton , Virginia , where he met with John Houbolt and with the Space Task Group , and became convinced that LOR was an option worth considering .
Shea 's task now became to shepherd NASA to a firm decision on the issue . This task was complicated by the fact that he had to build consensus between NASA 's different centers — most notably the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston headed by Robert Gilruth , and the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville , Alabama , headed by Wernher von Braun . Relations between the centers were not good , and it was a major milestone in the progress of the Apollo program when von Braun and his team finally came to accept the superiority of the LOR concept . NASA announced its decision at a press conference on July 11 , 1962 , only six months after Shea had joined NASA . Space historian James Hansen concludes that Shea " played a major role in supporting Houbolt 's ideas and making the ... decision in favor of LOR " , while his former colleague George Mueller writes that " it is a tribute to Joe 's logic and leadership that he was able to build a consensus within the centers at a time when they were autonomous . "
During his time at the OMSF , Shea helped to resolve many of the other inevitable engineering debates and conflicts that cropped up during the development of the Apollo spacecraft . In May 1963 , he formed a Panel Review Board , bringing together representatives of the many committees that aimed to coordinate work between NASA centers . Under Shea 's leadership , this coordination became far more efficient .
= = = Program manager = = =
In October 1963 , Shea became the new manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office ( ASPO ) in Houston . Although technically a demotion , this new position gave Shea the responsibility for managing the design and construction of the Apollo command and lunar modules . Of particular concern to Shea was the performance of North American Aviation , the contractor responsible for the command module . As he later recounted :
I do not have a high opinion of North American and their motives in the early days . Their first program manager was a first @-@ class jerk .... There were spots of good guys , but it was just an ineffective organization . They had no discipline , no concept of change control .
It was Shea 's responsibility to bring that engineering discipline to North American and to NASA 's management of its contractors . His systems management experience served him well in his new post . In the coming years , any change to the design of the Apollo spacecraft would have to receive its final approval from Joe Shea . He kept control of the program using a management tool that he devised for himself — a looseleaf notebook , more than a hundred pages in length , that would be put together for him every week summarizing all of the important developments that had taken place and decisions that needed to be made . Presented with the notebook on Thursday evenings , Shea would study and annotate it over the weekend and return to work with new questions , instructions , and decisions . This idiosyncratic tool allowed him to keep tabs on a complex and ever @-@ expanding program .
Shea 's relationship with the engineers at North American was a difficult one . While Shea blamed North American 's management for the continuing difficulties in the development of the command module , project leader Harrison Storms felt that NASA itself was far from blameless . It had delayed in making key design decisions , and persisted in making significant changes to the design once construction had begun . While Shea did his part in attempting to control the change requests , Storms felt that he did not understand or sympathize with the inevitable problems involved in the day @-@ to @-@ day work of manufacturing .
Shea was a controversial figure even at the Manned Spacecraft Center . Not having been at Langley with the Space Task Group , he was considered an " outsider " by men such as flight director Chris Kraft . Kraft recalled that " the animosity between my people and Shea 's was intense " . Relations between Shea and other NASA centers were even more fraught . As the deputy director of OMSF , Shea had sought to extend the authority of NASA Headquarters over the fiercely independent NASA centers . This was particularly problematic when it came to the Marshall Space Flight Center , which had developed its own culture under Wernher von Braun . Von Braun 's philosophy of engineering differed from Shea 's , taking a consensual rather than top @-@ down approach . As one historian recounts , von Braun felt that " Shea had ' bitten off ' too much work and was going to ' wreck ' the centers engineering capabilities . "
The friction between Shea and Marshall , which had begun when Shea was at OMSF , continued after he moved to his new position . He became deeply involved in supporting George Mueller 's effort to impose the idea of " all up " testing of the Saturn V rocket on the unwilling engineers at Marshall . Von Braun 's approach to engineering was a conservative one , emphasizing the incremental testing of components . But the tight schedule of the Apollo program didn 't allow for this slow and careful process . What Mueller and Shea proposed was to test the Saturn V as one unit on its very first flight , and Marshall only reluctantly came to accept this approach in late 1963 . When later asked how he and Mueller had managed to sell the idea to von Braun , Shea responded that " we just told him that 's the way it 's going to be , finally . "
Shea 's role in resolving differences within NASA , and between NASA and its contractors , placed him in a position where criticism was inevitable . However , even Shea 's critics could not help but respect his engineering and management skills . Everyone who knew Shea considered him to be a brilliant engineer , and his time as manager at ASPO only served to solidify a reputation that had been formed during his time on the Titan project . Of Shea 's work in the mid @-@ 1960s , Murray and Cox write that " these were Joe Shea 's glory days , and whatever the swirl of opinions about this gifted , enigmatic man , he was taking an effort that had been foundering and driving it forward . " Shea 's work also won wider attention , bringing him public recognition that approached that accorded to Wernher von Braun or Chris Kraft . Kraft had appeared on the cover of Time in 1965 ; Time planned to offer Shea the same honor in February 1967 , the month in which the first manned Apollo mission was scheduled to occur .
= = = Apollo 1 fire = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
Problems with the Apollo command module continued through the testing phase . The review meeting for the first spacecraft intended for a manned mission took place on August 19 , 1966 . One issue of concern was the amount of Velcro in the cabin , a potential fire hazard in the pure @-@ oxygen atmosphere of the spacecraft , if there were to be a spark . As Shea later recounted :
And so the issue was brought up at the acceptance of the spacecraft , a long drawn @-@ out discussion . I got a little annoyed , and I said , " Look , there 's no way there 's going to be a fire in that spacecraft unless there 's a spark or the astronauts bring cigarettes aboard . We 're not going to let them smoke . " Well , I then issued orders at that meeting , " Go clean up the spacecraft . Be sure that all the fire rules are obeyed . "
Although the spacecraft passed its review , the crew finished the meeting by presenting Joe Shea with a picture of the three of them seated around a model of the capsule , heads bowed in prayer . The inscription was simple :
It isn 't that we don 't trust you , Joe , but this time we 've decided to go over your head .
On January 25 , 1967 , the Apollo 1 crew began a series of countdown tests in the spacecraft on the pad at Cape Kennedy . Although Shea had ordered his staff to direct North American to take action on the issue of flammable materials in the cabin , he had not supervised the issue directly , and little if any action had been taken . During pad testing , the spacecraft suffered a number of technical problems , including broken and static @-@ filled communications . Wally Schirra , the backup commander for the mission , suggested to Shea that he should go through the countdown test in the spacecraft with the crew in order to experience first @-@ hand the issues that they were facing . Although Shea seriously considered the idea , it proved to be unworkable because of the difficulties of hooking up a fourth communications loop for Shea . The hatch would have to be left open in order to run the extra wires out , and leaving the hatch open would make it impossible to run the emergency egress test that had been scheduled for the end of the day on the 27th . As Shea later told the press , joining the crew for the test " would have been highly irregular " .
A " plugs @-@ out " spacecraft test , simulating the launch countdown , took place on January 27 . While Shea was in Florida for the beginning of the test , he decided to leave before it concluded . He arrived back at his office in Houston at about 5 : 30 p.m. CST . At 5 : 31 p.m. CST ( 6 : 31 p.m. EST ) a massive fire broke out in the Apollo command module . Unable to escape , the three astronauts inside the spacecraft — Gus Grissom , Ed White and Roger Chaffee — were killed .
= = = = Investigation = = = =
Immediately after the fire , Shea and his ASPO colleagues at Houston boarded a NASA plane to the Kennedy Space Center . They landed at about 1 : 00 a.m. , only five hours after the fire had broken out . At a meeting that morning with Robert Gilruth , George Mueller and George Low , Shea helped to determine the individuals who would be on the NASA review board looking into the causes of the fire . Additionally , he persuaded George Mueller , head of NASA 's Office of Manned Space Flight , to allow him to act as Mueller 's deputy in Florida , supervising the progress of the investigation .
Named to the advisory group chosen to support the review board , Shea threw himself into the investigation , working eighty @-@ hour weeks . Although the precise source of ignition was never found , it soon became clear that an electrical short somewhere in the command module had started the fire , probably sparked by a chafed wire . What was less clear was where to apportion responsibility . NASA engineers tended to point to what they saw as shoddy workmanship by North American Aviation . By contrast , North American executives blamed NASA management for its decision over their objections to pressurize the command module with pure oxygen to a pressure far in excess of that needed in space , in which almost any material — including Velcro , with which the cabin was filled — would instantly burst into flames if exposed to a spark . Whatever the precise distribution of responsibility , Shea remained haunted by the feeling that he , personally , was responsible for the deaths of three astronauts . For years after the fire , he displayed the portrait given to him by the Apollo 1 crew in the front hallway of his own home .
= = = = Breakdown = = = =
The pressure of the investigation took a psychological toll on Shea . He had trouble sleeping and began to resort to barbiturates and alcohol in order to help him cope . Shea was not the only NASA employee who found the aftermath of the fire difficult to handle : Robert Seamans wrote that " key people from Houston would fly up to Washington to testify and literally sob all the way on the plane " , and a man who worked under Shea suffered a nervous breakdown and was reportedly taken to a mental hospital in a straitjacket . A few weeks after the fire , Shea 's colleagues began to notice that he too was behaving erratically . Chris Kraft , whose father had suffered from schizophrenia , later related Shea 's behavior in one meeting :
Joe Shea got up and started calmly with a report on the state of the investigation . But within a minute , he was rambling , and in another thirty seconds , he was incoherent . I looked at him and saw my father , in the grip of dementia praecox . It was horrifying and fascinating at the same time .
NASA administrator James Webb became increasingly worried about Shea 's mental state . Specifically , he was concerned that Shea might not be able to deal with the hostile questioning that he would receive from the congressional inquiry into the Apollo 1 fire . Senator Walter Mondale had accused NASA engineers of " criminal negligence " with regard to the design and construction of the Apollo command module , and it was reliably expected that Shea would be in the firing line . In March , Webb sent Robert Seamans and Charles Berry , NASA 's head physician , to speak with Shea and ask him to take an extended voluntary leave of absence . This would , they hoped , protect him from being called to testify . A press release was already prepared , but Shea refused , threatening to resign rather than take leave . As a compromise , he agreed to meet with a psychiatrist and to abide by an independent assessment of his psychological fitness . Yet this approach to removing Shea from his position was also unsuccessful . As one of his friends later recounted :
The psychiatrists came back saying , ' He 's so smart , he 's so intelligent ! ' Here Joe was , ready to kill himself , but he could still outsmart the psychiatrists .
= = = = Reassignment = = = =
Finally Shea 's superiors were forced to take a more direct approach . On April 7 it was announced that Shea would be moving to NASA Headquarters in Washington , D.C. , where he would serve as George Mueller 's deputy at the Office of Manned Space Flight . He was replaced as chief of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office by George Low . While Shea had already acted as Mueller 's de facto deputy in Florida during the investigation , the reality of this permanent posting was very different . When Shea 's reassignment was announced , one of his friends gave an anonymous interview to Time magazine in which he said that " if Joe stays in Washington , it 'll be a promotion . If he leaves in three or four months , you 'll know this move amounted to being fired . "
Shea himself accepted the reassignment only reluctantly , feeling that " it was as if NASA was trying to hide me from the Congress for what I might have said " . Once in the job , he grew increasingly dissatisfied with a posting that he considered to be a " non @-@ job " , later commenting that " I don 't understand why , after everything I had done for the program ... I was only one that was removed . That 's the end of the program for me . " Only six months after the fire , and some two months after taking his new position , Shea left NASA in order to become a Vice President at the Polaroid Corporation in Waltham , Massachusetts . He had not been called to testify before the congressional inquiry into the fire .
= = Post @-@ NASA career = =
In 1968 , Shea took a position at Raytheon in Lexington , Massachusetts . He would remain with the company until his retirement in 1990 , serving as Senior Vice President for Engineering from 1981 through 1990 . After leaving Raytheon , Shea became an adjunct professor of aeronautics and astronautics at MIT .
In February 1993 , NASA administrator Daniel Goldin appointed Shea to the chairmanship of a technical review board convened to oversee the redesign of the troubled International Space Station project . However , Shea was hospitalized shortly after his appointment . By April he was well enough to attend a meeting where the design team formally presented the preliminary results of its studies , but his behavior at the meeting again called his capacities into question . As The Washington Post reported :
Shea made a rambling , sometimes barely audible two @-@ hour presentation that left many of those present speculating about his ability to do the job . A longtime friend said , " That 's not the real Joe Shea . He is normally incisive and well @-@ organized . "
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the origins and meanings of these names . Varkari tradition suggests that the name Vitthala ( also spelled as Vitthal , Viththal , Vittala and Vithal ; Marathi : विठ ् ठल , Viṭṭhala ; Kannada : ವಿಠ ್ ಠಲ and Telugu : విఠ ్ ఠల ; Viṭhala ) is composed of two Sanskrit @-@ Marathi words : viṭ , which means ' brick ' ; and thal , which may have originated from the Sanskrit sthala , meaning ' standing ' . Thus , Vitthala would mean ' one standing on a brick ' . William Crooke , orientalist , supported this explanation . The prescribed iconography of Vithoba stipulates that he be shown standing arms @-@ akimbo upon a brick , which is associated with the legend of the devotee Pundalik .
However , the Varkari poet @-@ saint Tukaram proposed a different etymology — that Vitthala is composed of the words vittha ( ignorance ) and la ( one who accepts ) , thus meaning ' one who accepts innocent people who are devoid of knowledge ' . Historian Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar offers yet another possibility — that Vitthu ( Viṭhu ) is a Kannada corruption of the name Vishnu adopted in Marathi . The suffixes -la and -ba ( meaning ' father ' in Marathi ) were appended for reverence , producing the names Vitthala and Vithoba . This corruption of Vishnu to Vitthu could have been due to the tendency of Marathi and Kannada people to pronounce the Sanskrit ṣṇ ( / ʃn / ) as ṭṭh ( / ʈʈʰ / ) , attested since the 8th century .
According to research scholar M. S. Mate of the Deccan College , Pundalik — who is assumed to be a historical figure — was instrumental in persuading the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana alias Bittidev to build the Pandharpur temple dedicated to Vishnu . The deity was subsequently named as Vitthala , a derivative of Bittidev , by the builder @-@ king . Other variants of the name include Viṭhurāyā ( King Vitthala ) , and Viṭhāī ( Mother Vitthala ) . The people of Gujarat add the suffix -nath ( Lord ) to Vitthala , which yields the name Vitthal @-@ nath . The additional honorific suffix -ji may be added , giving the name Vitthalnathji . This name is generally used in the Pushtimarg sect .
Panduranga ( Marathi : पांडुरंग , Kannada : ಪಾಂಡುರಂಗ , Telugu : పాండురంగ ; all Paṇḍuraṇga ) , also spelt as Pandurang and Pandaranga , is another popular epithet for Vithoba , which means ' the white god ' in Sanskrit . The Jain author @-@ saint Hemachandra ( 1089 – 1172 AD ) notes it is also used as an epithet for the god Rudra @-@ Shiva . Even though Vithoba is depicted with dark complexion , he is called a " white god " . Bhandarkar explains this paradox , proposing that Panduranga may be an epithet for the form of Shiva worshipped in Pandharpur , and whose temple still stands . Later , with the increasing popularity of Vithoba 's cult , this was also transferred to Vithoba . Another theory suggests that Vithoba may initially have been a Shaiva god ( related to Shiva ) , only later identified with Vishnu , thus explaining the usage of Panduranga for Vithoba . Crooke , however , proposed that Panduranga is a Sanskritised form of Pandaraga ( belonging to Pandarga ) , referring to the old name of Pandharpur . Another name , Pandharinath , also refers to Vithoba as the lord of Pandhari ( yet another variant for Pandharpur ) .
Finally , Vithoba is also addressed by the names of Lord Vishnu like Hari and Narayana , in the Vaishnav religions .
= = Origins and development = =
Reconstruction of the historical development of Vithoba worship has been much debated . In particular , several alternative theories have been proposed regarding the earliest stages , as well as the point at which he came to be recognised as a distinct deity . The Pandurangashtakam stotra , a hymn attributed to Adi Shankaracharya of the 8th century , indicates that Vithoba worship might have already existed at an early date .
According to Richard Maxwell Eaton , author of A Social History of the Deccan , Vithoba was first worshipped as a pastoral god as early as the 6th century . Vithoba 's arms @-@ akimbo iconography is similar to Bir Kuar , the cattle @-@ god of the Ahirs of Bihar , who is now also associated with Krishna . Vithoba was probably later assimilated into the Shaiva pantheon and identified with the god Shiva , like most other pastoral gods . This is backed by the facts that the temple at Pandharpur is surrounded by Shaiva temples ( most notably of the devotee Pundalik himself ) , and that Vithoba is crowned with the Linga , symbol of Shiva . However , since the 13th century , the poet @-@ saints like Namdev , Eknath and Tukaram identified Vithoba with Vishnu .
Christian Lee Novetzke of the University of Washington suggests that Vithoba 's worship migrated from Karnataka to the formerly Shaiva city of Pandharpur some time before 1000 CE ; but under the possible influence of a Krishna @-@ worshipping Mahanubhava sect , the town was transformed into a Vaishnava center of pilgrimage . This proposal is consistent with contemporary remnants of Shaiva worship in the town .
The religious historian R.C. Dhere , winner of the Sahitya Akademi Award for his book Sri Vitthal : Ek Mahasamanvaya , opines that Vithoba worship may be even older — " Vedic or pre @-@ Vedic " , hence pre @-@ dating the worship of Krishna . According to this theory , Vithoba is an amalgam of various local heroes , who gave their lives to save their cattle . He was first worshipped by the Dhangar , the cattle @-@ owning caste of Maharashtra . The rise of the Yadava dynasty , which had cowherd ancestry , could have led to the glorification of Vithoba as Krishna , who is often depicted as a cowherd . This Vaishnavization of Vithoba also led to conversion of the Shaiva Pundarika shrine to the Vaishnava shrine of the devotee Pundalik , who — according to legend — brought Vithoba to Pandharpur . There may have been an attempt to assimilate Vithoba into Buddhism ; today , both are viewed as a form of Vishnu in Hinduism .
Despite assimilation in Vaishnavism as Krishna @-@ Vishnu , Vithoba does not inherit the erotic overtones of Krishna , such as his dalliance with the gopis ( milkmaids ) . Vithoba is associated more with " compassion , an infinite love and tenderness for his bhaktas ( devotees ) that can be compared to the love of the mother for her children .. pining for the presence of his devotees the way a cow pines for her far @-@ away calf . "
G. A. Deleury , author of The cult of Vithoba , proposes that the image of Vithoba is a viragal ( hero stone ) , which was later identified with Vishnu in his form as Krishna , and that Pundalik transformed the Puranic , ritualistic puja worship into more idealised bhakti worship — " interiorized adoration prescinding caste distinction and institutional priesthood .. " Indologist Dr. Tilak suggests that Vithoba emerged as " an alternative to the existing pantheon " of brahminical deities ( related to classical , ritualistic Hinduism ) . The emergence of Vithoba was concurrent with the rise of a " new type of lay devotee " , the Varkari . While Vishnu and Shiva were bound in rigid ritualistic worship and Brahmin ( priestly ) control , Vithoba , " the God of the subaltern , became increasingly human . " Vithoba is often praised as the protector of the poor and needy . Stevenson ( 1843 ) suggests that Vithoba could have been a Jain saint , as the Vithoba images were similar to Jain images .
= = = Pandharpur temple and inscriptions = = =
Scholastic investigation of Vithoba 's history often begins with consideration of the dating of the chief temple at Pandharpur , which is believed to be the earliest Vithoba temple . The oldest part of the temple dates to the Yadava period of the 12th and 13th centuries . Most of the temple is believed to have been built in the 17th century , though addition to the temple has never ceased . The date the temple was first established is unclear to Bhandarkar , but he insists there is clear evidence to suggest it existed by the 13th century . According to S. G. Tulpule , the temple stood as early as 1189 . In fact , a monument dated 1189 records establishment of a small Vithoba shrine at the present location of the temple ; thus , Tulpule concludes , the worship of Vithoba predates 1189 .
A stone inscription dated 1237 , found on an overhead beam of the present Vithoba temple , mentions that the Hoysala king Someshvara donated a village for the expense of the bhoga ( food offering ) for " Vitthala " . An inscription on a copper plate , dated 1249 , records the Yadava king Krishna granting to one of his generals the village Paundrikakshetra ( kshetra of Pundarik ) , on the river Bhimarathi , in the presence of the god Vishnu . Another stone inscription in Pandharpur narrates a sacrifice at Pandurangapura due to which " people and Vitthal along with the gods were gratified " . Thus from the 13th century , the city is known as the city of Panduranga . Inside the temple , a stone inscription records gifts to the temple between 1272 and 1277 from various donors , notably the Yadava king Ramachandra 's minister Hemadri .
Ranade believes that an inscription , found in Alandi and referring to Vitthala and Rakhumai , is the oldest related to Vithoba , and dates it to 1209 . However , the name Pandaranga is found on a Rashtrakuta copper plate inscription , dated 516 . Citing this , Pande infers that Vithoba 's cult was well established by the 6th century .
= = = Central image = = =
The physical characteristics of the central murti ( image ) of Vithoba at Pandharpur , and various textual references to it , have inspired theories relating to Vithoba worship . Sand concludes , from a version of Pundalik 's legend in the Skanda Purana ( see Legend below ) , that two distinct murtis must have existed at Pandharpur — one each of tirtha and kshetra type . The earlier one was a tirtha murti , an image purposely sited near a holy body of water ( tirtha ) , in this case facing west , on the Bhima riverbed , near the Pundalik shrine . The later murti , according to Sand , was a kshetra murti , located at a place of holy power ( kshetra ) , in this case facing east , on the hill where the current temple has stood since about 1189 . Thus , Sand proposes that the worship of Vithoba may predate the temple itself .
Deleury suggests that although the temple may have been built in the 13th century , given the Hemadpanthi style architecture , the statue of Vithoba is of an earlier style so may have been carved for an earlier , smaller shrine that existed in Pandharpur . The workmanship of the image is earlier than the style of the Yadava ( 1175 – 1318 ) , the Anhivad Chalukya ( 943 – 1210 ) and even the Ajmer Chohans ( 685 – 1193 ) eras . Although no other existing Vishnu temple has iconography like Pandharpur 's Vithoba , Deleury finds similarities between the Pandharpur image and the third @-@ century , arms @-@ akimbo Vishnu images at Udaygiri Caves , Madhya Pradesh but declares that they are from different schools of sculpture .
= = = Pundalik = = =
The devotee Pundalik , thrower of the brick ( see Legend below ) , is a major character in the legends of Vithoba . He is commonly perceived to be a historical figure , connected with the establishment and propagation of the Vithoba @-@ centric Varkari sect . Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar considers Pundalik to be the founder of the Varkari sect and the one who promulgated the sect in Maratha country . Stevenson ( 1843 ) goes further , suggesting he might have been a Jain or a Buddhist , since Varkari tradition is a combination of Jain and Buddhist morals , and Vithoba is viewed as Vishnu in his form as Buddha . Frazer , Edwards and P.R. Bhandarkar ( 1922 ) all suggest that Pundalik tried to unify Shiva and Vishnu , and that this sect originated in Karnataka . Ranade ( 1933 ) thinks that Pundalik , a Kannada saint , was not only the founder of the Varkari sect but also the first great devotee or first high priest of the Pandharpur temple . Upadhyaya supports the priest theory but declines the Kannada origin theory . According to M. S. Mate , Pundalik was instrumental in coaxing the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana to build the Pandharpur temple to Vishnu , placing him in the early 12th century . Other scholars like Raeside ( 1965 ) , Dhanpalvar ( 1972 ) , and Vaudeville ( 1974 ) have questioned the historicity of Pundalik altogether , and dismissed him as a mythical figure .
= = = Identifications = = =
Primarily , there are three Hindu deities associated with Vithoba : Vishnu , Krishna and Shiva . Gautama Buddha is also associated with Vithoba , consistent with Hindu deification of the Buddha as the ninth incarnation of Vishnu . However , Varkari consider Vithoba to be the svarup ( original ) Vishnu himself , not an Avatar ( manifestation ) of Vishnu like Krishna , despite legends and consorts linking Vithoba to Krishna . However , even the Mahanubhavas , who rose in the 13th century as a Krishna @-@ worshipping sect , not only dismissed the notion that Vithoba is Krishna but also frequently vilified Vithoba .
In some traditions though , Vithoba is also worshipped as a form of Shiva . The Dhangars still consider Vithoba to be a brother of the god Viroba , and view Vithoba as a Shaiva god rather than a Vaishnava one . Underhill proposes that the shrine of Pandharpur is a combined form of Vishnu @-@ Shiva established by the Bhagavata sect that worships Vishnu @-@ Shiva — the Lord , which is what bhagavata means . However , for the chief priests of the Pandharpur temple — Brahmins of the Badva family — " Viṭhobā is neither Viṣṇu nor Śiva . Viṭhobā is Viṭhobā " ( IAST original ) . Despite this , some priests of the temple point to marks on the Vithoba image 's chest as proof of Vithoba being Vishnu , in his form as Krishna .
Vithoba 's image replaces the traditional representation of Buddha , when depicted as the ninth avatar of Vishnu , in some temple sculptures and Hindu astrological almanacs in Maharashtra . In the 17th century , Maratha artists sculpted an image of Pandharpur 's Vithoba in the Buddha 's place on a panel showing Vishnu 's avatars . This can be found in the Shivneri Caves . Stevenson goes so far as to call devotees of Vithoba ( Vithal @-@ bhaktas ) Buddhist Vaishnavas ( Bauddho @-@ Vaishnavas ) , since they consider Vithoba to be the ninth — namely Buddha — avatar of Vishnu . Some of the poet @-@ saints praised Vithoba as a form of Buddha . B. R. Ambedkar , an Indian political leader and Buddhist convert , suggested that the image of Vithoba at Pandharpur was in reality the image of the Buddha .
= = Iconography = =
All Vithoba images are generally modelled on his central image in Pandharpur . The Pandharpur image is a black basalt sculpture that is 3 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 14 m ) tall . Vithoba is depicted as dark young boy . The poet @-@ saints have called him " Para @-@ brahman with a dark complexion " . He wears high , conical headgear or a crown , interpreted as Shiva 's symbol — the Linga . Thus , according to Zelliot , Vithoba represents Shiva as well as Vishnu . The first Varkari poet @-@ saint , Dnyaneshwar ( 13th century ) , states that Vithoba ( Vishnu ) carries Shiva , who according to Vaishnavism is Vishnu 's first and foremost devotee , on his own head .
Vithoba is shown standing arms @-@ akimbo on the brick thrown by the devotee Pundalik . He wears a necklace of tulsi @-@ beads , embedded with the legendary kaustubha gem , and makara @-@ kundala ( fish @-@ shaped earrings ) that the poet @-@ saint Tukaram relates to the iconography of Vishnu . Pandharpur 's Vithoba holds a shankha ( conch ) in his left hand and a chakra ( discus ) or lotus flower in his right , all of which are symbols traditionally associated with Vishnu . Some images depict Vithoba 's right hand making a gesture that has been traditionally misunderstood as a blessing ; no gesture of blessing is present in the Pandharpur image . Though usually depicted two @-@ armed , four @-@ armed representations of the deity also exist .
The Pandharpur image , when not clothed by its attendant priest to receive devotees , provides Vithoba with the detailed features distinctive of a male body , visible in full relief . However , close inspection of the stonework reveals the outline of a loincloth , supported by a kambarband ( waist belt ) , traced by thin , light carvings . Other images and pictures depict Vithoba clothed , usually with pitambara – a yellow dhoti and various gold ornaments — the manner in which he is attired by the priests in the daily rites .
The Pandharpur image also bears , on the left breast , the mark known as the srivatsalanchhana — said to be a curl of white hair , usually found on the breast of Vishnu and Krishna images . The image is also dignified with a ring @-@ shaped mark called shriniketana on the right breast , mekhala ( a three @-@ stringed waist @-@ belt ) , a long stick ( kathi ) embedded in the ground between the legs , and double ring and pearl bracelets on the elbows .
= = Consorts = =
Vithoba is usually depicted with his main consort , Rakhumai , on his left side . Rakhumai ( or Rakhamai ) literally means ' mother Rukmini ' . Rukmini is traditionally viewed as the wife of Krishna . Hindus generally consider Krishna to be a form of Vishnu , hence his consort as a form of Lakshmi . Rakhumai is depicted in the arms @-@ akimbo posture , standing on a brick . She has an independent cella in the Pandharpur temple complex . According to Ghurye , Rukmini — a princess of the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra — was elevated to the status of the main consort instead of Radha , because of her affiliation with the region . According to Dhangar tradition , Rukhumai is worshipped by the community as Padmavati or Padubai , a protector of the community and cattle in particular . Dhangar folklore explains the reason behind separate shrines for Vithoba and Padubai as the outcome of Vithoba invoking a curse on his consort , and his non @-@ attachment to samsara ( the householder 's life ) . Apart from Rakhumai , two other consorts Satyabhama and Rahi ( derived from Radha ) are worshipped too . All three consorts are regarded as Krishna 's in Hindu mythology .
= = Worship = =
Vithoba is a popular deity in Maharashtra and Karnataka ; devotees also exist in Telangana , Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu , Kerala and Gujarat , but not in the same numbers . Vithoba is worshipped and revered by most Marathis , but he is not popular as a kuldevta ( family deity ) . The main temple of Vithoba , which includes a distinct , additional shrine for his consort Rakhumai , is located at Pandharpur . In this context , Pandharpur is affectionately called " Bhu @-@ Vaikuntha " ( the place of residence of Vishnu on earth ) by devotees . Devotees from across Maharashtra , Karnataka and Telangana , visit Vithoba 's central temple at Pandharpur , since the times of Dnyaneshwar ( 13th century ) .
Two distinct traditions revolve around the worship of Vithoba in Maharashtra : ritual worship inside the temple by the Brahmin priests of the Badva family ; and spiritual worship by the Varkaris . The ritual worship includes five daily rites . First , at about 3 am , is an arati to awaken the god , called kākaḍāratī . Next comes the pañcāmṛtapūjā , a puja that includes a bath with five ( pancha ) sweet substances called panchamrita . The image is then dressed to receive morning devotions . The third rite is another puja involving re @-@ dressing and lunch at noon . This is known as madhyāhṇapūjā . Afternoon devotions are followed by a fourth rite for dinner at sunset — the aparāhṇapūjā . The final rite is śerāratī , an arati for putting the god to sleep . In addition to the rites at the main temple in Pandharpur , Haridasa traditions dedicated to Vitthala flourish in Karnataka .
= = = Varkari sect = = =
The Varkari Panth ( Pilgrim Path ) or Varkari Sampradaya ( Pilgrim Tradition ) is one of the most important Vaishnava sects in India . It is a monotheistic , bhakti sect , focused on the worship of Vithoba and based on traditional Bhagavata dharma . The sect is a " Shaiva @-@ Vaishnava synthesis " and " nominal Vaishnavism , containing a free mix of other religions " . It is believed to have originated in Karnataka and migrated to Maharashtra . This last theory is based on a reference to Vithoba as " Kannada " ( belonging to Karnataka ) in the work of the first of the poet @-@ saints , Dnyaneshwar . However , this word can also be interpreted as " difficult to understand " . Varkaris and scholars who believe Pundalik to have been a historical figure also consider him to be founder of the cult of Vithoba . This is evidenced by the liturgical call — Pundalikavarada Hari Vitthala ! — which means " O Hari Vitthala ( Vithoba ) , who has given a boon to Pundalik ! " However , according to Zelliot , the sect was founded by Dnyaneshwar ( also spelled Jnaneshwar ) , who was a Brahmin poet and philosopher and flourished during the period 1275 – 1296 . Varkaris also give him credit with the saying — Dnyanadev rachila paya — which means " Dnyaneshwar laid the foundation stone " .
Namdev ( c . 1270 – 1350 ) , a Shudra tailor , wrote short Marathi devotional poems in praise of Vithoba called abhangas ( literally ' unbroken ' ) , and used the call @-@ and @-@ response kirtan ( literally ' repeating ' ) form of singing to praise the glory of his Lord . Public performance of this musical devotion led to the spread of the Vithoba faith , which accepted women , Shudras and outcaste " untouchables " , something forbidden in classical brahminical Hinduism . In the times of Muslim rulers , the faith faced stagnation . However , after the decline of the Vijayanagara empire , when wars erupted in the Deccan region , the Muslim rulers had to accept the faiths of Maharashtra in order to gather the support of its people . In this period , Eknath ( c . 1533 – 99 ) revived the Varkari tradition . With the foundation of the Maratha empire under Shivaji , Tukaram ( c . 1568 – 1650 ) , a Shudra grocer , further propagated the Vithoba @-@ centric tradition throughout the Maharashtra region .
All these poet @-@ saints , and others like Janabai , the maidservant of Namdev , wrote poetry dedicated to Vithoba . This Marathi poetry advocates pure devotion , referring to Vithoba mostly as a father , or in the case of the female saint Janabai 's poetry , as a mother ( Vithabai ) . Not only women , like Janabai , but also a wide variety of people from different castes and backgrounds wrote abhangas in praise of Vithoba : Visoba Khechara ( who was an orthodox Shaiva and teacher of Namdev ) , Sena the barber , Narhari the goldsmith , Savata the gardener , Gora the potter , Kanhopatra the dancing girl , Chokhamela the " untouchable " Mahar , and even the Muslim Sheikh Muhammad ( 1560 – 1650 ) . Anyone born Shaiva or Vaishnava who considers Vithoba his maya @-@ baap ( mother @-@ father ) and Pandharpur his maher ( maternal house of a bride ) is accepted as a Varkari by the sect irrespective of the barriers of caste . Varkaris often practice Vithoba japa ( meditative repetition of a divine name ) , and observe a fast on the ekadashi of each month .
= = = Haridasa sect = = =
Haridasa means servant ( dasa ) of Vishnu ( Hari ) . According to Haridasa tradition , their sampradaya , also known as Haridasa @-@ kuta , was founded by Achalananda Vitthala ( c . 888 ) . It is a distinct branch within Vaishnavism , centered on Vitthala ( the Haridasa – Kannada name for Vithoba ) . Where Varkari are normally associated with Maharashtra , Haridasa are normally associated with Karnataka . The scholar Sharma considers Vithoba worship first emerged in Karnataka , only later moving to Maharashtra . He argues this on the basis of the reference by Dnyaneshwar , mentioned in section " Varkari sect " above . Lutgendorf credits the movement to Vyasatirtha ( 1478 – 1539 ) , the royal guru ( rajguru ) to king Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara empire . Vitthala enjoyed royal patronage in this era . Krishnadevaraya is also credited with building Vitthala 's temple at the then capital city Vijayanagara ( modern Hampi ) .
Haridasas consider the temple of Pandharpur to be sacred , as well that of Hampi , and worship Vitthala along with forms of Krishna . Haridasa literature generally deals with praise dedicated to Vitthala and Krishna . Haridasa poets like Vijaya Vitthala , Gopala Vitthala , Jagannatha Vitthala , Venugopala Vitthala and Mohana Vitthala assumed pen @-@ names ending with " Vitthala " , as an act of devotion . The Haridasa poet Purandara Dasa or Purandara Vitthala ( 1484 – 1564 ) , " father of Carnatic music " , often ended his Kannada language compositions with a salutation to Vitthala .
= = = Pushtimarg sect = = =
The founder of the Hindu sect Pushtimarg – Vallabhacharya ( 1479 – 1531 ) is believed to have visited Pandharpur at least twice and was ordered to marry by Vithoba ( called Vitthalnath or Vitthalnathji in the sect ) and have children so that he could be born as Vallabhacharya 's son . Later , Vallabhacharya married . His second son and successor was recognized as a manifestation of Vithoba and named Vitthalnath , also known as Gusainji .
= = = Festivals = = =
The festivals associated with Vithoba primarily correspond to the bi @-@ annual yatras ( pilgrimages ) of the Varkaris . The pilgrims travel to the Pandharpur temple from Alandi and Dehu , towns closely associated with poet @-@ saints Dnyaneshwar and Tukaram respectively . Along the way , they sing abhangas ( devotional songs ) dedicated to Vithoba and repeat his name , carrying the palkhis ( palanquins ) of the poet @-@ saints . Varkaris do not engage in ritual worship but only practice darshan ( visual adoration ) of the deity . The ritual worship by the priests is restricted to five days each around the Ashadha ( June – July ) and Kartik ( October – November ) Ekadashis , when a large number of Varkaris participate in the yatras . In smaller numbers , the Varkaris also visit the temple on two other Ekadashis — in the Hindu months of Magha and Chaitra .
More than 800 @,@ 000 Varkaris travel to Pandharpur for the yatra on Shayani Ekadashi , the 11th day of the waxing moon in the lunar month of Ashadha . Both Shayani Ekadashi and Prabodhini Ekadashi ( in the waxing half of Kartik ) , are associated with the mythology of Vishnu . Hindus believe that Vishnu falls asleep in Ksheersagar ( a cosmic ocean of milk ) , while lying on the back of Shesha @-@ nāga ( the cosmic serpent ) . His sleep begins on Shayani Ekadashi ( literally the ' sleeping 11th ' ) and he finally awakens from his slumber , four months later , on Prabodhini Ekadashi . The celebrations in Ashadha and Kartik continue until the full @-@ moon in those months , concluding with torchlight processions . Inscriptions dating to the 11th century mention the Ekadashi pilgrimages to Pandharpur . On Shayani Ekadashi and Prabodini Ekadashi , the chief minister or a minister of Maharashtra state performs ritual components of worship on behalf of the Government of Maharashtra . This form of worship is known as sarkari @-@ mahapuja .
Apart from the four Ekadashis , a fair is held on Dussera night at Pandharpur , when devotees dance on a large slab ( ranga @-@ shila ) before Vithoba , accompanied with torchlight processions . Other observances at the Pandharpur temple include : Ranga @-@ Panchami , when gulal ( red powder ) is sprinkled on the god 's feet ; and Krishna Janmashtami , Krishna 's birthday , when devotees dance and sing in front of Vithoba for nine days . Other sacred days include Wednesdays , Saturdays and all other Ekadashis , all of which are considered holy in Vaishnavism .
= = = Devotional works = = =
Devotional works dedicated to Vithoba can be categorised into the Varkari tradition , the Brahmin tradition and what Raeside calls a " third tradition " , that includes both Varkari and Brahmin elements . The Varkari texts are written in Marathi , the Brahmin texts in Sanskrit , and the " third tradition " are Marathi texts written by Brahmins .
The Varkari texts are : Bhaktalilamrita and Bhaktavijaya by Mahipati , Pundalika @-@ Mahatmya by Bahinabai , and a long abhanga by Namdev . All these texts describe the legend of Pundalik . The Brahmin texts include : two versions of Panduranga @-@ Mahatmya from the Skanda Purana ( consisting of 900 verses ) ; Panduranga @-@ Mahatmya from the Padma Purana ( consisting of 1 @,@ 200 verses ) ; Bhima @-@ Mahatmya , also from the Padma Purana ; and a third devotional work , yet again called Panduranga @-@ Mahatmya , which is found in the Vishnu Purana . The " third tradition " is found in two works : Panduranga @-@ Mahatmya by the Brahmin Sridhara ( consisting of 750 verses ) , and another work of the same name written by Prahlada Maharaj ( consisting of 181 verses ) .
In addition to the above , there are many abhangas , the short Marathi devotional poems of the Varkaris , and many stutis ( songs of praise ) and stotras ( hymns ) , some of them originating from the Haridasa tradition . The best known of these is " Pandurangastaka " or " Pandurangastrotra " , attributed to Adi Shankaracharya , although this attribution is questioned . A text called " Tirthavali @-@ Gatha " , attributed to Namdev or Dnyaneshwar but possibly a collection of writings of many poet @-@ saints , also centers on the propagation of Varkari faith and Vithoba worship . Other devotional works include aratis like " Yuge atthavisa vitevari ubha " by Namdev and " Yei O Vitthala maje mauli re " . These aratis sing of Vithoba , who wears yellow garments ( a characteristic of Vishnu ) and is served by Garuda ( mount of Vishnu ) and Hanuman ( the monkey god , devotee of Rama — an avatar of Vishnu ) . Finally , the Telugu poet Tenali Ramakrishna ( 16th century ) refers to Vithoba , as Panduranga , in his poem Panduranga @-@ Mahatmyamu : " ( O Parvati ) , accepting the services of Pundarika and Kshetrapala ( Kala @-@ bhairava ) , becoming the wish fulfilling tree by assuming a subtle body for the sake of devotees , fulfilling their wishes , the deity Panduranga resides in that temple . "
= = = Temples = = =
There are many Vithoba temples in Maharashtra , and some in Karnataka , Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh . However , the main centre of worship is Vithoba 's temple in Pandharpur . The temple 's date of establishment is disputed , though it is clear that it was standing at the time of Dnyaneshwar in the 13th century . Along with Vithoba and his consorts — Rukmini , Satyabhama and Radha — other Vaishnava deities are worshipped . These include : Venkateshwara , a form of Vishnu ; Mahalakshmi , a form of Vishnu 's consort Lakshmi ; Garuda and Hanuman ( see previous section ) . Shaiva deities are also worshipped , such as : Ganesha , the elephant @-@ headed god of wisdom and beginnings ; Khandoba , a form of Shiva ; and Annapurna , a form of Shiva 's consort Parvati . The samadhis ( memorials ) of saints like Namdev , Chokhamela and Janabai , and of devotees such as Pundalik and Kanhopatra , are in and around the temple . Other significant temples in Maharashtra are located : at Dehu , the birthplace of Tukaram , which attracts visitors at all ekadashis of the year ; at Kole ( Satara district ) , in memory of Ghadge Bova , which has a fair on the fifth day of the bright fortnight ( waxing moon ) in Magha month ; at Kolhapur and Rajapur , which host fairs on Shayani Ekadashi and Prabodini Ekadashi ; Madhe — a refuge of the Pandharpur image when it was moved to protect from Muslim invaders and finally at the Birla Mandir in Shahad .
Several temples are found in Goa , the well @-@ known ones being the temples at Sanquelim , Sanguem and Gokarna Math . Similarly temple festivals celebrated in Vitthala temples in Margao , Ponda attract a lot a pilgrims . Vitthal is also worshipped as Vitthalnath at the Nathdwara in Rajasthan .
Vithoba was introduced to South India during the Vijayanagara and Maratha rule . In South India he is generally known as Vitthala . The Hampi temple ( mentioned above ) is a World Heritage site and the most important of Vitthala 's temples outside Maharashtra . Constructed in the 15th century , the temple is believed to have housed the central image from Pandharpur , which the Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya took " to enhance his own status " or to save the image from plunder by Muslim invaders . It was later returned to Pandharpur by Bhanudas ( 1448 – 1513 ) , the great @-@ grandfather of poet @-@ saint Eknath . Today , the temple stands without a central image , though between 1516 and 1565 , most important transactions , which would have been carried out previously in the presence of the original state deity Virupaksha ( a form of Shiva ) , were issued in presence of the central image of Vitthala . Three of Madhvacharya 's eight mathas ( monasteries ) in Karnataka — Shirur , Pejavara and Puttige — have Vitthala as their presiding deity . A Vitthaleshwara temple stands at Mulbagal , Karnataka . In Tamil Nadu , Vitthala shrines are found in Srirangam , Vittalapuram near thiruporur and in Tirunelveli district , and Thennangur , Govindapuram near Kumbakonam and sculptures are also found in Kanchi .
= = Legend = =
Legends regarding Vithoba usually focus on his devotee Pundalik or on Vithoba 's role as a savior to the poet @-@ saints of the Varkari faith . As discussed in the devotional works section above , the Pundalik legend appears in the Sanskrit scriptures Skanda Purana and Padma Purana . It is also documented in Marathi texts : Panduranga @-@ Mahatmya by a Brahmin called Sridhara ; another work of the same name written by Prahlada Maharaj ; and also in the abhangas of various poet @-@ saints .
There are three versions of the Pundalik legend , two of which are attested as textual variants of the Skanda Purana ( 1 @.@ 34 – 67 ) . According to the first , the ascetic Pundarika ( Pundalik ) is described as a devotee of god Vishnu and dedicated to the service of his parents . The god Gopala @-@ Krishna , a form of Vishnu , comes from Govardhana as a cowherd , accompanied by his grazing cows , to meet Pundarika . Krishna is described as in digambar form , wearing makara @-@ kundala , the srivatsa mark ( described above ) , a head @-@ dress of peacock feathers , resting his hands on his waist and keeping his cow @-@ stick between his thighs . Pundarika asks Krishna to remain in this form on the banks of the river Bhima . He believes that Krishna 's presence will make the site a tirtha and a kshetra . The location is identified with modern @-@ day Pandharpur , which is situated on the banks of the Bhima . The description of Krishna resembles the characteristics of the Pandharpur image of Vithoba .
The second version of the legend depicts Vithoba appearing before Pundalik as the five @-@ year @-@ old Bala Krishna ( infant Krishna ) . This version is found in manuscripts of both Puranas , Prahlada Maharaj , and the poet @-@ saints , notably Tukaram . The remaining version of the Pundalik legend appears in Sridhara and as a variant in the Padma Purana . Pundalik , a Brahmin madly in love with his wife , neglected his aged parents as a result . Later , on meeting sage Kukkuta , Pundalik underwent a transformation and devoted his life to the service of his aged parents . Meanwhile , Radha , the milkmaid @-@ lover of Krishna , came to Dwarka , the kingdom of Krishna , and sat on his lap . Radha did not honour Rukmini , the chief queen of Krishna , nor did Krishna hold Radha accountable for the offence . Offended , Rukmini left Krishna and went to the forest of Dandivana near Pandharpur . Saddened by Rukmini 's departure , Krishna searched for his queen and finally found her resting in Dandivana , near Pundalik 's house . After some coaxing , Rukmini was pacified . Then Krishna visited Pundalik and found him serving his parents . Pundalik threw a brick outside for Krishna to rest on . Krishna stood on the brick and waited for Pundalik . After completing his services , Pundalik asked that his Lord , in Vithoba form , remain on the brick with Rukmini , in Rakhumai form , and bless His devotees forever .
Other legends describe Vithoba coming to the rescue of his devotees in the form of a commoner , an outcast Mahar " untouchable " or a Brahmin beggar . Mahipati , in his work Pandurangastrotra , narrates how Vithoba helped female saints like Janabai in their daily chores , such as sweeping the house and pounding the rice . He narrates how Vithoba came to the aid of Sena the barber . The king of Bidar had ordered Sena to be arrested for not coming to the palace despite royal orders . As Sena was engrossed in his prayers to Vithoba , Vithoba went to the palace in the form of Sena to serve the king , and Sena was saved . Another tale deals with a saint , Damaji , the keeper of the royal grain store , who distributed grain to the people in famine . Vithoba came as an outcaste with a bag of gold to pay for the grain . Yet another story narrates how Vithoba resurrected the child of Gora Kumbara ( potter ) , who had been trampled into the clay by Gora while singing the name of Vithoba .
= Rodney Atkins =
Rodney Allan Atkins ( born March 28 , 1969 ) is an American country music artist . Signed to Curb Records in 1996 , he charted his first single on the Billboard country chart in 1997 , but did not release an album until 2003 's Honesty , which included the number 4 hit " Honesty ( Write Me a List ) " .
If You 're Going Through Hell , his second album , was released in 2006 . Its first two singles , " If You 're Going Through Hell ( Before the Devil Even Knows ) " and " Watching You " , each spent four weeks at the top of the country music chart , and were respectively ranked as the top country songs of 2006 and 2007 according to Billboard Year @-@ End . The album , which has since been certified platinum in the United States , produced two more number 1 singles in " These Are My People " and " Cleaning This Gun ( Come On In Boy ) " . It 's America ( 2009 ) included the number 1 single " It 's America " and the top 5 hit " Farmer 's Daughter " , which was added to a later reissue of the album . Take a Back Road ( 2011 ) produced his sixth number 1 in its title track . Atkins has received six nominations from the Academy of Country Music and two from the Country Music Association , winning Top New Male Vocalist from the former in 2006 .
= = Biography = =
Rodney Atkins was born in Knoxville , Tennessee . His biological mother , who was 19 at the time , became pregnant with him after a " traumatic first date " . She hid the pregnancy from her parents and put him up for adoption at the Holston United Methodist Home for Children in Greeneville , Tennessee . His first adoptive parents , Charles Hutchins and Linda Weems , returned him to the home after he developed a major respiratory infection . Allan and Margaret Atkins , who had lost a newborn about a year prior , inquired after the child , but decided not to proceed due to surgery that Margaret had just undergone . Meanwhile , another couple adopted him , but also returned him soon after when he developed colic . After Margaret Atkins recovered , she proceeded to adopt him . Atkins did not meet his biological mother until 2008 , and has never revealed her identity .
The Atkins family moved frequently in his youth , eventually settling in Claiborne County , Tennessee . He attended high school at Powell Valley High in Speedwell , Tennessee . During high school , Atkins played guitar in his spare time at events and festivals . He went to college at Tennessee Technological University in Cookeville , Tennessee , where he made friends with songwriters and soon began writing himself . In the mid @-@ 1990s , Atkins moved to Nashville , Tennessee to pursue a recording career . He signed with Curb Records in 1996 , the same week that LeAnn Rimes did .
= = Musical career = =
= = = Rodney Atkins = = =
Atkins 's debut single , " In a Heartbeat " , spent one week at number 74 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks ( now Hot Country Songs ) chart dated for August 30 , 1997 . Its b @-@ side , " God Only Knows " , was also released as a single , but did not chart . His debut album was slated for release on September 17 of the same year , but it was never released due to Atkins ' dissatisfaction with his material . He discussed his dissatisfaction while sitting next to Curb Records owner Mike Curb on an airplane ; Curb allowed him to switch producers , and Atkins chose Ted Hewitt , with whom he had been working on demos . Hewitt also changed Atkins ' style from a cowboy appearance and a vocal style similar to Roy Orbison to a more polished appearance . Atkins , Hewitt , and Max T. Barnes wrote the track " Don 't Think I Won 't " on Mark Wills ' 1998 album Wish You Were Here , but he was otherwise inactive until 2002 . " In a Heartbeat " later appeared on the soundtrack of the 2008 film Camille .
= = = Honesty = = =
In mid @-@ 2002 , Rodney Atkins released his third single , " Sing Along " . Both it and its followup , " My Old Man " , peaked in the lower regions of the Top 40 on the country chart . He entered the Top 10 for the first time in late 2003 @-@ early 2004 with " Honesty ( Write Me a List ) " , which went on to peak at number 4 on the country charts and 57 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song was the title track to his album Honesty , which was released by the end of 2003 . " Someone to Share It With " and " Monkey in the Middle " were also issued as singles , with the former peaking at number 41 on the country charts . Atkins told the Associated Press that he chose to record " Honesty " because he and producer Ted Hewitt wanted a twelfth song for the album , and co @-@ writer David Kent had recommended it to Hewitt .
Jeffrey B. Remz of Country Standard Time gave the album a mixed review . He thought that Atkins seemed too similar in sound to labelmate Tim McGraw , but praised some of the songs for having strong melodies . A more favorable review came from Matt Bjorke of About.com , who called it a " confident debut from a talented newcomer . "
= = = If You 're Going Through Hell = = =
Having been absent from the country music charts for most of 2004 and 2005 , he returned in 2006 with a single entitled " If You 're Going Through Hell ( Before the Devil Even Knows ) " , which served as the lead @-@ off to his second released album , If You 're Going Through Hell . With this album , Atkins once again changed his musical image . He started wearing baseball caps and performing " songs about his life . " " If You 're Going Through Hell " became his first number 1 , spending four weeks at the top of the Hot Country Songs charts ; it was also the top country hit of 2006 according to Billboard Year @-@ End .
Following " If You 're Going Through Hell " was " Watching You " , which Atkins wrote with Steve Dean and Brian Gene White . This song was inspired by Atkins ' son , Elijah , who also stars in its music video . " Watching You " was also a four @-@ week number 1 hit , and the top country song of 2007 on the Billboard Year @-@ End charts . " These Are My People " and " Cleaning This Gun ( Come On In Boy ) " also went to number 1 , making If You 're Going Through Hell the first country album to include four number 1 singles since Tim McGraw 's 2001 album Set This Circus Down . The album 's final single was " Invisibly Shaken " , which Lee Greenwood previously recorded on his 2003 album Stronger Than Time . Atkins ' version of the song peaked at number 41 . If You 're Going Through Hell received a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of one million copies , while " If You 're Going Through Hell " , " Watching You " , and " Cleaning This Gun " all received gold certifications for 500 @,@ 000 music downloads . These songs also made top 40 on the Hot 100 while they were climbing the country charts , while " These Are My People " reached number 42 . Atkins also received the 2006 Academy of Country Music award for Top New Male Vocalist , and " If You 're Going Through Hell " was nominated for Song of the Year . Atkins toured in late 2007 @-@ early 2008 as an opening act on Brad Paisley 's Bonfires & Amplifiers Tour .
J. Poet of Allmusic gave the album a positive review , praising the " less produced sound " and Atkins ' vocals on the singles . A mixed review came from Country Standard Time , whose Robert Loy criticized Atkins for singing " about what a good ol ' boy he is " on several songs , but adding that " it 's fairly obvious he 's at least as country as anybody else on the charts these days " .
= = = It 's America = = =
Atkins ' thirteenth single , " It 's America " , was released in November 2008 . It was the first single from his third album , It 's America , released in March 2009 . Atkins promoted the album through appearances on Larry King Live and a pre @-@ sale promotion on his website . On the chart dated May 2 , 2009 , " It 's America " became his fifth number 1 hit . Its followup , " 15 Minutes " , was released in May 2009 and peaked at number 20 in September . Atkins re @-@ wrote the album 's third single , " Chasin ' Girls " , for his wife to make it more applicable to their life at the time . After executives at Curb saw the lyrics , the re @-@ written version was released as the album 's third single , but did not make top 40 . " Farmer 's Daughter " followed in early 2010 , and after it reached top 5 late in the year , Curb added it and the re @-@ recording of " Chasin ' Girls " to a re @-@ issue of It 's America . The label also re @-@ released If You 're Going Through Hell for exclusive sale at Cracker Barrel restaurants , with " Farmer 's Daughter " and the previously @-@ unreleased song " More Like Your Memory ( Always Takes Me Back ) " added to the track listing .
It 's America received mixed reviews . Todd Sterling of Allmusic and Liz Jungers of Roughstock both criticized it for lacking musical variety . It was more favorably reviewed at Country Standard Time , with critic Jeff Lincoln criticizing the title track as " forced " but saying that otherwise , " Atkins has found his niche of singing about the southern tribe . "
= = = Take a Back Road = = =
" Take a Back Road " , the lead @-@ off single and title track to his fourth album Take a Back Road , was released in April 2011 . It became his sixth number 1 late in the year , and accounted for his highest placement on the Hot 100 , at number 23 . The song was co @-@ written by Luke Laird and Rhett Akins , the latter of whom co @-@ wrote " Farmer 's Daughter " . " He 's Mine " was the album 's second single . The song was originally recorded by Billy Ray Cyrus , and Atkins chose to release it because it received positive reactions from fans in concert . It peaked at number 23 on the country chart in April 2012 . " Just Wanna Rock N ' Roll " , the album 's third single , peaked at number 31 on the Country Airplay chart in late 2012 .
Country Standard Time called Atkins " the type of wholesome country musician that you would enjoy hanging out with on a Sunday afternoon with your wife and kids . " It received a " B " from Entertainment Weekly , whose Mikael Wood wrote that Atkins " makes for a first @-@ rate correspondent from Anytown , USA . "
= = = Greatest Hits = = =
In September 2013 , Atkins released the single " Doin ' It Right " , which peaked at 53 on the Country Airplay chart . It was followed in October 2014 by " Eat Sleep Love You Repeat " , which was co @-@ written by Walker Hayes and Ryan Bizarri . The latter song appears on Atkins ' Greatest Hits compilation , released in February 2015 . This album also includes ten of his previous singles , plus the album cut " About the South " from If You 're Going Through Hell .
= = Family and personal life = =
He married Tammy Jo McDonald in 1998 , and the two had a son named Elijah . He also had two stepdaughters , Lindsey and Morgan , from McDonald 's previous marriage .
Atkins was arrested in November 2011 for allegedly trying to smother his wife with a pillow , while his 10 @-@ year @-@ old son watched . He was released on $ 2 @,@ 500 bail three hours after the arrest , and was ordered by the Williamson County , Tennessee court to take an anger assessment which found no need for any further action . The altercation was disputed by Atkins ' lawyer , who stated that it was purely verbal . Atkins filed for divorce within 24 hours of the alleged assault . The divorce was settled in late @-@ September 2012 . In February 2012 , Atkins was cleared of the domestic assault charge .
In June 2013 , Atkins became engaged to singer Rose Falcon . The couple married on November 10 , 2013 .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Honesty ( 2003 )
If You 're Going Through Hell ( 2006 )
It 's America ( 2009 )
Take a Back Road ( 2011 )
TBA ( 2016 )
Compilation Albums
Greatest Hits ( 2015 )
Number @-@ one singles
" If You 're Going Through Hell ( Before the Devil Even Knows ) " ( 2006 )
" Watching You " ( 2007 )
" These Are My People " ( 2007 )
" Cleaning This Gun ( Come On In Boy ) " ( 2008 )
" It 's America " ( 2009 )
" Take a Back Road " ( 2011 )
= Uriel Sebree =
Uriel Sebree ( February 20 , 1848 – August 6 , 1922 ) was a career officer in the United States Navy . He entered the Naval Academy during the Civil War and served until 1910 , retiring as a rear admiral . He is best remembered for his two expeditions into the Arctic and for serving as acting governor of American Samoa . He was also commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Pacific Fleet .
After graduating from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1867 , Sebree was posted to a number of vessels before being assigned to a rescue mission to find the remaining crew of the missing Polaris in the Navy 's first mission to the Arctic . This attempt was only a partial success — the Polaris crew was rescued by a British ship rather than the US Navy — but this led to Sebree 's selection eleven years later for a second expedition to the Arctic . That mission to rescue Adolphus Greely and the survivors of the Lady Franklin Bay expedition was a success . Sebree was subsequently appointed as the second acting governor of American Samoa . He served in this position for only a year before returning to the United States . In 1907 , he was promoted to rear admiral and given command of the Pathfinder Expedition around the South American coast before being appointed commander of the 2nd Division of the Pacific Fleet and then commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the entire fleet . He retired in 1910 and died in Coronado , California , in 1922 . Two geographical features in Alaska — Sebree Peak and Sebree Island — are named for Admiral Sebree .
= = Early life and career = =
Uriel Sebree was born in Fayette , Missouri , on February 20 , 1848 , to Judge John Sebree , called " one of the prominent citizens of old Howard County " by the Jefferson County Tribune , and his wife . Uriel was the first of two sons . His brother , Frank P. Sebree , became a lawyer . Uriel entered the United States Naval Academy on July 23 , 1863 , during the American Civil War . After his graduation in 1867 , his first assignment was on board USS Canandaigua . Over the next few years Sebree won repeated promotion : to ensign in 1868 , master in 1870 , and lieutenant in 1871 . In 1873 he transferred to the ironclad USS Dictator .
One episode in Sebree 's early military history which influenced his later career was his participation in the second Polaris rescue mission . The Polaris expedition was an 1871 – 72 exploration of the Arctic that had aimed to reach the North Pole . The expedition was troubled from the start : its leader , Charles Francis Hall , died in mysterious circumstances before the end of their first winter . The following year , the Polaris remained trapped in ice and unable to return home . During a violent storm , the crew was separated into two groups : a small group of explorers was stranded on the now @-@ crippled Polaris and the remainder were marooned on an ice floe . These latter 19 survivors were discovered by chance and rescued by the civilian whaler USS Tigress . Because of the Tigress 's success , the Navy chartered the ship , temporarily rechristened her USS Tigress , and used her to launch a rescue attempt to locate the remainder of the crew . For this attempt the ship would be commanded by a group of eight navy officers , led by Captain James A. Greer , although much of the original civilian crew was retained . Lieutenant Sebree was one of the officers chosen for the mission .
This rescue mission was the first official United States military expedition to the Arctic ; previous expeditions , including that of the Polaris itself , had been led by civilians . The Tigress sailed from New York on July 14 , 1873 , traveling first to St. John 's , Newfoundland and then to Godhavn and Upernavik in Greenland before following the coast further north . The crew searched North Star Bay , Northumberland Island , and Hartstene Bay before discovering the first sign of the Polaris crew : a camp on Littleton Island where they had wintered , now occupied by Inuit . The missing men , the rescuers were told , had constructed makeshift boats salvaged from their destroyed ship and traveled south . Acting on this clue , the Tigress searched the Baffin Island coast to Cumberland Sound , and then the Greenland coast from Ivigtut to Fiskenæsset and the Davis Strait , before returning to St. John 's for fuel . Once there , they learned that the Polaris survivors had been rescued by a British ship and that their search was over . After returning to New York the Tigress was transferred back to civilian use .
After this expedition , Sebree was assigned to the screw frigate USS Franklin where he remained for three years . In 1878 , he was assigned to work with the United States Coast Survey on board the A. D. Bache . The following year he was given his first two commands : the Silliman and then the Thomas R. Gedney , both ships of the United States Coast Survey . He remained on the latter ship for nearly three years before being assigned to USS Brooklyn in 1882 . In 1883 , he was given his first command of a Navy ship , USS Pinta , with orders to sail to Alaska .
= = = Court martial = = =
On October 3 , 1883 , prior to leaving for Alaska , the Pinta collided with the civilian brig Tally Ho off the coast of Nantucket . Sebree was not held directly responsible for the collision , as he was below deck at the time , but it was alleged that he did not do enough to determine whether the other ship was damaged before sailing away . Charges were brought against him in November and in December he was found guilty of " culpable negligence and inefficiency in the performance of his duty " . He was sentenced to be suspended from rank and duty for three years with an official reprimand from the Secretary of the Navy . Believing the sentence to be too harsh , Secretary William E. Chandler reduced it to a public reprimand only . Sebree was subsequently transferred to USS Powhatan , although not as the ship 's commanding officer .
= = = Greely Relief Expedition = = =
One month after joining the Powhatan , Sebree was transferred again , this time to serve as the executive officer of USS Thetis for another trip into the Arctic . In 1881 , Army Lieutenant Adolphus Greely had left on an expedition to establish a base at Lady Franklin Bay on northern Ellesmere Island ( now part of the Canadian territory of Nunavut ) . Greely was left with provisions for three years but was to expect supply ships in 1882 and 1883 . Both attempts to resupply the expedition failed and , with Greely 's provisions running low , the Navy prepared an expedition in early 1884 to attempt a resupply or rescue . The expedition was led by Captain Winfield Scott Schley and consisted of lead ship USS Thetis ( with Sebree as the executive officer and navigator ) , USS Bear , and the borrowed HMS Alert . Many of the officers , including Sebree , were selected for their previous Arctic experience . The Thetis left New York on May 1 , 1884 , and the group slowly progressed through the ice of Melville Bay , chasing clues and records left by the expedition , to finally discover the survivors of Greely 's camp off Cape Sabine on June 22 , 1885 . Of the 25 members of the expedition , only 6 survived ( one more died on the return journey ) . The expedition sailed first for Upernavik , Greenland , arriving on July 2 , 1884 , and then made its way back to the United States , landing at Portsmouth , New Hampshire on August 1 , 1884 . Schley later reported that a delay of just two more days would have been fatal to the remaining six members of the expedition . Sebree and the other members of the relief expedition gained fame from the voyage . Even ten years later , in 1895 , a report by The New York Times celebrating the 50th anniversary of the United States Naval Academy listed Sebree as one of the most " famous " graduates , despite his relatively low rank .
After his return from the expedition Sebree taught at the Naval Academy for two years before being transferred to the 13th Lighthouse District , to serve as the lighthouse inspector for Oregon and Washington Territory . While stationed there he was promoted to lieutenant commander in March 1889 .
= = = Valparaíso riots = = =
In September 1889 he was made the executive officer of USS Baltimore , again under Captain Schley . Both men were still serving aboard the Baltimore when its sailors were attacked in Valparaiso , Chile in October 1891 , and gave testimony toward the events during the later investigation .
From September 1892 to July 1893 , Sebree served as assistant to the inspector of the 3rd Lighthouse District .
Sebree taught at the Academy from 1893 to 1896 . At the end of his time there , he was briefly given command of USS Wheeling ( PG @-@ 14 ) before being put in command of the Thetis , which was doing survey work off the coast of California . In 1897 he was promoted to commander . During the Spanish – American War , Sebree again commanded the Wheeling in the Pacific for the duration of the war . His assignment was to patrol the coast of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands , far from both the Caribbean and Pacific theaters of the war , and he saw no significant action . After the war , he was transferred to the 12th Lighthouse District as an inspector .
= = American Samoa = =
On October 9 , 1901 , Sebree was promoted to captain and received orders to travel to American Samoa to take command of USS Abarenda ( AC @-@ 13 ) and to be commandant of the United States Naval Station Tutuila . Three days later , he was promoted to captain . At this time the commandant of the naval station was considered the acting governor of the territory as Congress had not yet formalized the U.S. Navy 's role there . Sebree was the replacement for Commandant Benjamin Franklin Tilley , who had recently had charges brought against him for immorality and drunkenness . While Sebree was in transit to the islands , Tilley was tried and acquitted of the charges against him but the decision to replace him was not changed . Captain Sebree arrived in Samoa and took up his new post on November 27 , 1901 .
= = = Acting governor = = =
Unlike Tilley , who had been the first acting governor of the territory , Sebree was very concerned about his legal status . Officially , he was only commandant of the naval station then under construction , although the deed of cession of the territory acknowledged his theoretical authority to govern the people . He was concerned that lawsuits could be brought against him or future acting governors until the situation was clarified and made official by the United States government . To this end , he made a recommendation to the United States Congress to assemble a panel to consider the territory 's status and requested that an Assistant Secretary of the Navy come to the territory to meet with him . Both requests were refused . A further example of this ambiguity came in March 1902 , when Sebree received orders to give up command of the Abarenda to give him additional time as commandant and " governor " . To these orders , he responded that he still had not been officially made " governor " and that , if he were to act as a governor , he should be given the proper credentials and legal authority to do so . The Navy did not respond directly to Sebree 's request , but he was given command of USS Wheeling three months later .
Despite his protests , Sebree did act as the governor of the territory . During his administration , the United States Congress approved $ 35 @,@ 000 to pay off debts related to construction costs for the naval station , and planning began for the construction of a lighthouse on Aunu 'u . The Fita Fita Guard , the local militia that Tilley had organized , continued its training , and Sebree arranged to train some members of the force as a military @-@ style brass band . Sebree also attempted to improve local agriculture and even petitioned the Department of Agriculture for assistance , but was turned down .
= = = Petition for civilian government = = =
Tensions escalated between foreign traders on Samoa and the local populace , due in part to controls which Tilley had put in place to protect Samoan farmers from exploitation . Dr. David Starr Jordan , a prominent American biologist doing research in the territory , was so concerned by these tensions that he sent a letter to President Theodore Roosevelt asking that a trader not be made governor of the territory , if a civil administration were created . Shortly after , many traders and locals , including a Samoan tax collector , circulated a petition requesting a change in the way the copra crop was taxed and asking for the Navy to cease governing the territory . The petition was sent to members of Congress and the cause was picked up by California representative Julius Kahn and gathered significant press coverage . This movement eventually reached President Roosevelt ; his decision was not to act on the petition .
On December 16 , 1902 , Sebree was granted a leave of absence to return to the United States and care for his wife who had been badly hurt in a fall . In his place , Lieutenant Commander Henry Minett , Sebree 's executive officer , was made acting commandant of the station and therefore acting governor of the territory . He was also given command of the Wheeling . Captain Edmund Beardsley Underwood was selected as Sebree 's replacement , but that decision was not made official immediately , and Underwood remained in Washington to consult with Sebree and President Roosevelt on the governance of the territory . Underwood 's selection was not announced until May 1903 .
= = Later career = =
Following his wife 's recovery , Sebree returned to service and was given command of USS Wisconsin ( BB @-@ 9 ) on February 11 , 1903 . The Wisconsin was the flagship of the North Squadron of the Pacific fleet under Robley D. Evans . While under Sebree 's command , the Wisconsin and her crew were evaluated as one of the best , according to annual targeting exercises .
= = = Nicholson court @-@ martial = = =
In the late summer of 1903 , Paymaster Rishworth Nicholson of USS Don Juan de Austria assaulted a German Consul at a ball in Yantai , China . He was promptly brought up on charges of " drunkenness " , " scandalous conduct tending to the destruction of good morals " , and " falsehood " and taken to the Wisconsin for his court martial . Sebree and a group of six other officers found him guilty of the first charge , guilty of a lesser offense for the second charge , and not guilty on the third . His sentence was determined to be a reduction in grade equivalent to one year of seniority . Three of the officers , not including Sebree , wrote a supplementary opinion requesting clemency for Nicholson .
However , Rear Admiral Evans , the commander of the Asiatic Squadron , rejected the verdict as inadequate and requested that the court reconsider the decision . The court reconvened and returned the same judgment and sentence . In response , Evans wrote a scathing critique of the process , calling it a " travesty of justice " and stating that Nicholson 's actions were " less reprehensible than his judges " . This critical essay was required to be posted at every naval base and on every ship in the Pacific and was reprinted in full by The New York Times and other civilian newspapers . Evans banned the three officers who had publicly requested clemency from participating in future courts martial . Press reports questioned whether Evans had that authority as the military justice system was intended to be impartial . In late September 1903 , the three officers who had been named in the critique filed a protest with Secretary of the Navy William Henry Moody stating that Admiral Evans had overstepped his authority by publicly reprimanding them without a court martial and that charges should be brought against him . On November 18 , 1903 , Moody denied the petition and the sentences were left to stand .
During this controversy , Sebree remained silent on the issue , and it is unknown whether he was a member of the majority or not . Evans commented in his critique that he was unsure who the other supporters of the majority decision were . As criticism swirled around the trial itself , the editors of the magazine United Service defended Sebree and stated that he had " universal esteem throughout the Navy service " and that he had a " large experience , sound judgment , even temper and most excellent record " . Following this announcement , Sebree was transferred to the Naval War College in Rhode Island to work as an instructor and as Secretary of the Lighthouse Board .
= = = Lightship No. 58 incident = = =
In December 1905 , a storm and mechanical failures caused major problems for the crew of the lightvessel Lightship No. 58 anchored off of Nantucket . Her crew , led by Captain James Jorgensen , fought for two days to prevent the vessel from foundering , but were ultimately unsuccessful . They were rescued by Captain Gibbs of the Azalea . The fallout over this incident caused enough of a stir that the military had to respond to it directly . Under Navy rules , the eleven officers and crew members of the No. 58 were denied pay while they were recovering from their injuries and until they were posted to new vessels under a regulation that prohibited pay to sailors whose ships had sunk . The sailors appealed to Sebree , as Secretary of the Lighthouse Board , but he did not or could not accommodate them . Instead , the officers were given commendations by Secretary Victor H. Metcalf and " preference in future appointments " . Admiral Dewey and Captain Sebree made a second recommendation , which was approved , that Captain Gibbs receive a commendation and a pay increase for his service .
= = = Pathfinder Squadron = = =
Sebree was promoted to rear admiral in 1907 and was given command of a squadron of two ships : his flagship , USS Tennessee , and USS Washington . This so @-@ called " Pathfinder Squadron " would travel from New York to California via Cape Horn . This mission allowed the Navy to show off two of its newest cruisers to South American governments as well as transfer ships to the Pacific Fleet in what was seen as an example of American gunboat diplomacy . Along the way , Sebree had formal meetings with Brazilian President Afonso Pena , Peruvian President José Pardo y Barreda , and United States diplomatic staff in both countries . He also met with representatives in Chile and other countries . When the squadron finally arrived in California , it was joined by USS California and participated in public @-@ relations events at West Coast ports . The diplomatic mission over , the Pathfinder Squadron , with the California and others , became the 2nd division of the United States Pacific Fleet , with Sebree remaining in command . Rear Admiral William T. Swinburne was placed in command of the full fleet .
On June 5 , 1908 , Sebree was nearly killed during a speed trial of the Tennessee off the coast of California . He had just completed a tour of the starboard boiler room when a steam pipe burst , instantly killing two officers and wounding ten others , three fatally . Witnesses reported that Sebree and other officers had left the boiler room only 50 seconds earlier .
In August 1908 , the full Pacific Fleet was dispatched to numerous ports in the Pacific Ocean on a diplomatic mission similar to the one undertaken by Sebree in South America the previous year . On this voyage , Sebree and Swinburne met with leaders and representatives from the Territory of Hawaii , the Philippines , Western Samoa , and Panama . While visiting the Western Samoan capital of Apia , Sebree was presented with a souvenir album of Samoan scenery in honor of his time as governor of neighboring American Samoa .
= = = Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet = = =
On April 15 , 1909 , Admiral Swinburne , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Pacific Fleet , announced his retirement , and Sebree was appointed to replace him on May 17 . Good public relations remained a major goal of the fleet , and in June , the fleet was displayed at the Alaska – Yukon – Pacific Exposition . President William Howard Taft led the exposition 's opening ceremony , and many American dignitaries were in attendance .
Sebree 's final mission before his retirement saw him lead the Pacific Fleet on a tour of ports in east Asia . The fleet left San Francisco on September 5 , 1909 , sailing west to the Philippines , with only brief stops en route . Speed testing was a major goal of the early part of the voyage and he and his fleet of eight ships broke speed records by sailing to Honolulu in just over four days . Six of the eight ships were able to make the voyage in that time ; the Colorado and West Virginia had mechanical failures which prevented them from completing the voyage on time . On the Colorado , those failures led to the deaths of two crewmen due to a steam pipe explosion . From Hawaii , the fleet moved on to Manila where the ships performed target practices and exercises , as well as being cleaned and repainted , before resuming their primary mission by sailing to Yokohama , Japan . In Japan , the fleet dispersed and small groups of cruisers were dispatched to the ports of British @-@ controlled Hong Kong , Wusong in China , and Kobe , Japan . Afterwards , the fleet returned home . Just before Sebree 's retirement the Pacific Fleet was split into two : a smaller Pacific Fleet and an Asiatic Fleet commanded by Rear Admiral John Hubbard . On February 19 , 1910 , Sebree officially retired and was replaced as head of the Pacific Fleet by Rear Admiral Giles B. Harber .
Shortly after retiring , Sebree was given a farewell banquet which included British Field Marshal Herbert Kitchener as a notable guest and California Governor James Gillett as toastmaster . In retirement , Sebree continued to attend Navy functions . In 1916 , Sebree reported that the United States Navy lagged behind the world 's other major navies . A single dreadnought , he claimed , could ravage the entire Pacific Fleet which was at that time relying on submarines for defense . The Atlantic Fleet already had dreadnoughts in commission .
Sebree died at his home in Coronado , California on August 6 , 1922 . He and his wife , Anne Bridgman Sebree , are buried in Arlington National Cemetery . They had one son , John Bridgman Sebree ( 1889 @-@ 1948 ) , who served in the United States Marine Corps .
= = Honors and awards = =
Sebree Peak and Sebree Island , both in Alaska , are named for the admiral .
= Maryland Route 2 =
Maryland Route 2 ( MD 2 ) is the longest state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The 79 @.@ 24 @-@ mile ( 127 @.@ 52 km ) route runs from Solomons Island in Calvert County north to an intersection with U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) and US 40 Truck ( North Avenue ) in Baltimore . The route runs concurrent with MD 4 through much of Calvert County along a four @-@ lane divided highway known as Solomons Island Road , passing through rural areas as well as the communities of Lusby , Port Republic , Prince Frederick , and Huntingtown . In Sunderland , MD 2 splits from MD 4 and continues north as two @-@ lane undivided Solomons Island Road into Anne Arundel County , still passing through rural areas . Upon reaching Annapolis , the route runs concurrent with US 50 and US 301 around the city . Between Annapolis and Baltimore , MD 2 runs along the Governor Ritchie Highway ( also known as the Ritchie Highway ) , a multilane divided highway that heads through suburban areas of businesses and residences , passing through Arnold , Severna Park , Pasadena , Glen Burnie , and Brooklyn Park . In Baltimore , the route heads north on city streets and passes through the downtown area of the city .
What would become part of MD 2 was originally planned as two different state roads in 1909 . The portion between Solomons and Annapolis was built as a gravel road called Solomons Island Road between 1910 and 1915 . The portion of road between Annapolis and Glen Burnie was built as part of the Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard , a road authorized in 1910 to connect Baltimore and Annapolis and was completed in 1924 with the construction of a bridge over the Severn River leading to Annapolis . A state road between Glen Burnie and Baltimore was completed in 1911 . MD 2 wad designated in 1927 between Solomons and Baltimore , using Solomons Island Road , streets through Annapolis , the Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard , and the state road between Glen Burnie and Baltimore . MD 2 was marked up to US 1 in Baltimore in 1939 . In the 1930s , MD 2 was realigned onto the four @-@ lane Governor Ritchie Highway between Annapolis and Baltimore , the former routing along Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard became MD 648 . Ritchie Highway became a divided highway in 1950 . Between the 1930s and the 1950s , several upgrades and realignments occurred to the portion of MD 2 between Solomons and Annapolis . MD 2 was realigned to bypass Annapolis on the US 50 freeway in 1955 , with MD 450 replacing the route through Annapolis . The route between Solomons and Sunderland became concurrent with MD 416 in 1960 , which was renumbered to MD 4 in 1965 . Between the 1960s and the 1980s , MD 2 / MD 4 between Solomons and Sunderland was widened into a divided highway , with the bypassed former alignments becoming multiple sections of MD 765 . The Ritchie Highway portion of the route was originally the main route between Annapolis and Baltimore until Interstate 97 ( I @-@ 97 ) was completed in the 1990s .
= = Route description = =
MD 2 serves as a north – south route located a short distance to the west of the Chesapeake Bay in Calvert and Anne Arundel counties and in the city of Baltimore in Maryland . In Calvert County , the route runs through mostly rural areas , passing through the communities of Solomons Island , Lusby , Port Republic , Prince Frederick , Huntingtown , Sunderland , and Owings . Between Solomons Island and Sunderland , the route runs concurrent with MD 4 . In Anne Arundel County , MD 2 runs through rural areas of the southern part of the county before reaching the Annapolis area , where it shares a concurrency with the John Hanson Highway . From Annapolis , the route heads through suburban areas in the northern part of Anne Arundel County as the Ritchie Highway , passing through Arnold , Severna Park , Pasadena , Glen Burnie , and Brooklyn Park . It continues north into Baltimore , where it heads toward its terminus north of the downtown area . At 79 @.@ 24 mi ( 127 @.@ 52 km ) , it is the longest state highway in Maryland .
= = = Calvert County = = =
MD 2 heads north on Solomons Island Road , a two @-@ lane undivided road in Solomons Island , Calvert County from an intersection with Lore Road and an off @-@ ramp from northbound MD 4 known as MD 2G . A short distance later , a portion of MD 765 called MD 765R continues north along Solomons Island Road , while MD 2 merges onto MD 4 to form a concurrency with that route on a four @-@ lane divided highway a short distance north of where MD 4 crosses the Patuxent River over the Governor Thomas Johnson Bridge . Upon merging with MD 4 , the road continues north as Solomons Island Road , passing commercial areas to the east and a U.S. Navy Recreation Center to the west . It continues north @-@ northeast into wooded areas , with MD 765 running a short distance to the east of the road . This portion of the road , also known as the Louis L. Goldstein Highway in honor of Louis L. Goldstein , a former Comptroller of Maryland , intersects with MD 760 ( Rousby Hall Road ) . MD 2 / MD 4 heads north to an intersection with MD 497 ( Cove Point Road ) and turns north @-@ northwest , passing near Calvert Cliffs State Park .
MD 765 eventually crosses the route in Lusby and runs to the west of it as Pardoe Road , where it is officially called MD 765Q . MD 765 ends at the road a short distance to the north and emerges to the east of the road again as Nursery Road a short distance later . Solomons Island Road intersects MD 2N ( Calvert Cliffs Parkway ) , which provides access to the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant and another segment of MD 765 which runs to the west of the route on Saw Mill Road . MD 2 / MD 4 turns to the west , intersecting MD 765 in before turning north @-@ northwest again with MD 765 running to the east of the route as St. Leonard Road through the community of St. Leonard . MD 2 / MD 4 continues through woodland with some residences and businesses , before turning west into a mix of farmland and woodland , intersecting MD 264 ( Broomes Island Road ) and MD 765 again in Port Republic .
Past this intersection , the road continues west through a mix of farms , woods with some residences and businesses . MD 2 / MD 4 turns north as it intersects MD 506 ( Sixes Road ) and a different segment of MD 765 known as MD 765A branches off to the east of MD 2 / MD 4 onto Main Street as the road approaches Prince Frederick . The road passes woodland before heading northwest into commercial areas of Prince Frederick . Here , MD 2 / MD 4 crosses MD 231 . Beyond this intersection , the road passes more businesses , turning north and intersecting MD 765 ( Main Street ) again . A short distance past MD 765 , Solomons Island Road intersects MD 402 ( Dares Beach Road ) . MD 2 / MD 4 passes more businesses as well as the Calvert Memorial Hospital before heading into areas of farms , woods , and residences . It intersects MD 263 ( Plum Point Road ) , then
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continues to Huntingtown , where MD 524 loops west of the route into Huntingtown as Old Town Road . Past Huntingtown , the road continues through more rural areas of woodland and farmland with residential areas before MD 2 splits from MD 4 in Sunderland .
At the split , MD 4 heads northwest on four @-@ lane divided Southern Maryland Boulevard while MD 2 heads northeast on two @-@ lane undivided Solomons Island Road . Shortly after splitting from MD 4 , the route intersects the eastern terminus of MD 262 ( Lower Marlboro Road ) before heading into woodland with areas of residences and businesses . Another section of MD 765 called Wayside Drive loops to the west of MD 2 for a distance before MD 765 loops again to the east on Mt . Harmony Lane . MD 765 returns to MD 2 past this intersection and MD 778 then loops to the east of the route on Old Solomons Island Road . The route continues north to an intersection with MD 260 ( Chesapeake Beach Road ) near Owings .
In Calvert County , the daily traffic counts on MD 2 range from a high of 47 @,@ 681 vehicles at the intersection with MD 402 along the MD 4 concurrency in Prince Frederick to a low of 6 @,@ 051 vehicles at the southern terminus in Solomons Island in 2007 .
= = = Anne Arundel County = = =
Just past the MD 260 intersection , MD 2 crosses into Anne Arundel County where it continues through a mix of farmland and woodland . It intersects Friendship Road / Sansbury Road at a roundabout , which connects to MD 261 , before intersecting MD 778 again . The route junctions with MD 423 ( Fairhaven Road ) . The road proceeds through rural areas with some residences , coming to an intersection with MD 256 ( Deale Road ) . A short distance later , MD 2 crosses MD 258 ( Bay Front Road ) and continues north , with former alignments of the road designated as suffixed segments of MD 778 . The road reaches Lothian , where it intersects MD 408 ( Mount Zion @-@ Marlboro Road ) and MD 422 ( Bayard Road ) .
At the roundabout , MD 2 makes a turn to the northeast , passing through agricultural areas with some homes . It intersects MD 255 ( Owensville Road ) before passing through the community of Harwood , and then through Birdsville . The road heads northeast , with residential development increasing as the road approaches its intersection with MD 214 ( Central Avenue ) . Here , MD 2 widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway and heads through commercial areas , intersecting MD 253 ( Mayo Road ) adjacent to Lee Airport . Past this intersection , the road traverses residential areas before it crosses over the South River . The former alignments of MD 2 around the bridge are designated as MD 553 . Upon crossing the river , MD 2 continues past residential neighborhoods and widens to six lanes . It comes to an interchange with MD 665 ( Aris T. Allen Boulevard ) . Past the MD 665 interchange , the route heads into commercial areas on the outskirts of Annapolis , with MD 393 ( Old Solomons Island Road ) branching off from the route and paralleling it to the east . MD 2 crosses MD 450 ( West Street ) before the route merges onto US 50 , US 301 , and unsigned I @-@ 595 ( John Hanson Highway ) .
At the point MD 2 merges onto the John Hanson Highway , the road is eight lanes wide . The road heads through wooded areas , narrowing to six lanes , before coming to an interchange with MD 70 ( Rowe Boulevard ) . At this interchange , the unsigned I @-@ 595 designation ends , while US 50 , US 301 , and MD 2 continue northeast on the John Hanson Highway . The route passes under MD 436 ( Ridgely Avenue ) and runs near residential neighborhoods before crossing over the Severn River on the Pearl Harbor Memorial Bridge . After crossing the Severn River , the road comes to an interchange with the Governor Ritchie Highway . Here , MD 2 leaves US 50 / US 301 by heading north on the Governor Ritchie Highway while MD 450 continues south into Annapolis on that road .
MD 2 heads north on the Ritchie Highway , a four @-@ lane divided highway , passing through wooded residential areas of Arnold . The route intersects the north end of a segment of MD 648 ( Baltimore Annapolis Boulevard ) , which branches off and runs west of the route a short distance later . It passes the campus of Anne Arundel Community College and intersects College Drive . The road continues through wooded neighborhoods with some businesses , eventually reaching Severna Park . Here , the route heads through commercial areas , intersecting McKinsey Road near the Severna Park Marketplace ( formerly the Severna Park Mall ) . A short distance later , MD 2 intersects MD 648 ( Baltimore @-@ Annapolis Road ) , forming a brief concurrency with that route before MD 648 heads to the east of it again . The road continues past residences before reaching Pasadena . Shortly after , MD 2 intersects the southern end of MD 10 ( Arundel Expressway ) . Past MD 10 , the route heads into commercial areas as a six @-@ lane road before coming to an interchange with MD 100 .
Immediately past this interchange , the route intersects MD 177 ( Mountain Road ) and continues north past more businesses and the Marley Station Mall . MD 2 narrows to four lanes again and continues through residential neighborhoods in Glen Burnie . Before the intersection with Fitzallen Road / Aquahart Road , the route passes Harundale Plaza , which was originally the Harundale Mall , the first enclosed mall on the East Coast , built in 1958 . The road passes more residences and then businesses before again crossing over MD 648 . Past MD 648 , the route continues through commercial areas consisting of numerous businesses and runs a short distance to the east of MD 3 Bus . ( Crain Highway ) . It intersects Maryland Route 270 ( Furnace Branch Road ) before MD 3 Bus. merges into MD 2 . The route continues north as a six @-@ lane highway and intersects MD 710 ( Ordnance Road ) . It passes more businesses before coming to an exit and southbound entrance with a spur of I @-@ 895 ( I @-@ 895B ) that provides access to and from I @-@ 97 , westbound I @-@ 695 , and I @-@ 895 . A short distance later , MD 2 interchanges with I @-@ 695 ( Baltimore Beltway ) at a partial interchange . At this interchange , MD 711 ( Arundel Corporation Road ) provides the access from eastbound I @-@ 695 to MD 2 . Past I @-@ 695 , MD 2 continues north as a four @-@ lane divided highway that runs through residential and commercial areas of Arundel Gardens , intersecting the western terminus of MD 171 ( Church Street ) . Past MD 171 , the route passes through more commercial areas in Brooklyn Park before coming to an intersection with MD 170 ( Belle Grove Road ) at the boundary of Baltimore city .
In Anne Arundel County , the daily traffic counts on MD 2 range from a high of 121 @,@ 851 vehicles at the west end of the concurrency with the John Hanson Highway in Annapolis to a low of 14 @,@ 192 vehicles at the intersection with MD 258 in the southern part of the county in 2007 .
= = = Baltimore City = = =
MD 2 enters Baltimore , where it becomes Potee Street and is maintained by the Baltimore Department of Transportation . The route heads through urban residential and commercial areas in the Brooklyn neighborhood , intersecting MD 173 ( Patapsco Avenue ) . A short distance later , it comes to an interchange with I @-@ 895 ( Harbor Tunnel Thruway ) a short distance later that has access from northbound MD 2 to northbound I @-@ 895 and from southbound I @-@ 895 to southbound MD 2 . The route passes under a CSX railroad line and splits into a one @-@ way pair consisting of four lanes in each direction , with the northbound direction of MD 2 following Hanover Street and the southbound direction of MD 2 following Potee Street . The route crosses over the Patapsco River and continues into the Cherry Hill neighborhood , running to the west of the Middle Branch of the Patapsco River with Hanover Street passing by Harbor Hospital . Past the Waterview Avenue intersection , MD 2 becomes two @-@ way Hanover Street , a five @-@ lane street . It crosses over the Middle Branch on the Hanover Street Bridge and continues north through industrial areas . MD 2 Truck heads east from the route on McComas Street prior to the interchange with I @-@ 95 . Past the I @-@ 95 interchange , MD 2 heads through the Federal Hill neighborhood through areas of rowhomes as a two @-@ lane street .
At the intersection with Montgomery Street , MD 2 splits into another one @-@ way pair with the northbound direction running east on Montgomery Street and then turning north on Light Street , intersecting MD 2 Truck ( Key Highway ) and passing by the Maryland Science Center , and the southbound direction following Hughes Street to Hanover Street . Along this one @-@ way pair , the route carries one lane in each direction with the exception of Light Street , where the northbound direction has four lanes . Both directions of MD 2 join again along eight @-@ lane divided Light Street and the route heads toward the Inner Harbor . Near Harborplace , the route splits into another one @-@ way pair with northbound MD 2 running along three @-@ lane Calvert Street and southbound MD 2 running along four @-@ lane St. Paul Street . The route crosses many streets in downtown Baltimore , including Pratt Street , Lombard Street , Baltimore Street , Fayette Street , and Saratoga Street . The one @-@ way pair passes by Mercy Medical Center before coming to US 40 . Calvert Street passes under US 40 ( the Orleans Street Viaduct ) while St. Paul Street intersects US 40 as it follows the one @-@ way pair of Franklin Street westbound and Mulberry Street eastbound .
Past US 40 , the route heads away from the downtown area and passes more rowhomes . It comes to an interchange with I @-@ 83 ( Jones Falls Expressway ) and crosses over the Northeast Corridor rail line adjacent to Penn Station . Past the train station , MD 2 intersects the southern terminus of MD 25 , which follows a one @-@ way pair along eastbound Lanvale Street ( carrying the southbound direction ) and westbound Lafayette Avenue ( carrying the northbound direction ) , before it comes to its northern terminus at US 1 and US 40 Truck ( North Avenue ) .
In Baltimore , the daily traffic counts on MD 2 range from a high of 58 @,@ 375 vehicles along Light Street near the Inner Harbor to a low of 6 @,@ 075 vehicles along Hanover Street in the Federal Hill neighborhood in 2005 .
= = History = =
= = = Construction of state highways = = =
Solomons Island Road was one of the original state roads marked for improvement to form a statewide system by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . The highway was graded and surfaced as an improved dirt road from Owings south to Hunting Creek in 1910 and 1911 and from there to Prince Frederick between 1911 and 1913 . Solomons Island Road from Prince Frederick south to Solomons was graded and surfaced as a dirt road in 1913 except for two segments : a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide shell road was built through Solomons and a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide gravel road was built for 3 @.@ 6 miles ( 5 @.@ 8 km ) through Lusby . This highway was improved to a gravel road for its whole length and several dangerous curves were modified by 1919 . Solomons Island Road from Lothian to Edgewater was built as a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide gravel road in 1915 . The state road between Edgewater and Annapolis was also finished by 1915 .
In 1910 , the Maryland General Assembly authorized funding for the construction of a boulevard between Annapolis and Baltimore . This boulevard , which would have a minimum road width of 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) , would begin in Annapolis , cross the Severn River , head northwest to Glen Burnie , and continue through Anne Arundel and Baltimore counties to the tracks of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in South Baltimore . The newly formed Maryland State Roads Commission was placed in charge of constructing the new Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard . The boulevard was constructed as a 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) wide macadam road from the Severn River north to Arnold and from Severna Park to Pasadena in 1910 and 1911 . The sections between Arnold and Severna Park and from Pasadena to Glen Burnie were completed in 1912 . The boulevard followed much of what is today MD 648 , with the major difference being in Pasadena , where instead of following Waterford Road north to MD 177 , the boulevard headed northwest along what are discontinuous segments of MD 915 to Lipins Corner .
Unrelated to the Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard , the commission constructed a 14 @-@ to @-@ 18 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 to 5 @.@ 5 m ) wide macadam road from Glen Burnie to Brooklyn , which was then in Anne Arundel County , in 1915 . In Brooklyn , the new highway connected with the south end of the Light Street Bridge that crossed the Patapsco River into Baltimore . With a road completed from Annapolis to Baltimore , the roads commission suggested that it should not be required to complete a road between Glen Burnie and South Baltimore . The commission asked the Maryland General Assembly to pass a bill releasing the commission from the responsibility of completing the highway from Glen Burnie to South Baltimore . However , the Maryland General Assembly disagreed with the Maryland State Roads Commission and passed a bill in 1914 requiring the commission to finish the boulevard between Glen Burnie and South Baltimore . The Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard north from Glen Burnie to Baltimore was finished in 1916 . The final gap in the Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard was filled when the first modern Severn River Bridge was completed in 1924 . This 1 @,@ 850 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 560 m ) concrete bridge , which had a roadway width of 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) and a steel bascule draw with a horizontal clearance of 75 feet ( 23 m ) , replaced a narrow one @-@ lane bridge . The entire length of the Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard was widened to 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) with a pair of 3 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) wide concrete shoulders by 1927 . The highway 's bridge over Marley Creek was rebuilt from a width of 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) to 36 feet ( 11 m ) in 1926 .
When Maryland assigned state route numbers in 1927 , MD 2 was designated between Solomons and Baltimore . The route followed Solomons Island Road from Solomons to west of Annapolis , where it ran concurrent with US 50 into the city on West Street . MD 2 passed through downtown Annapolis on College Avenue and King George Street before it left the city on the Severn River Bridge and continued north along Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard to Glen Burnie . From Glen Burnie , MD 3 continued along Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard while MD 2 headed north to Baltimore and connected to Potee Street . MD 2 was designated in Baltimore in 1939 to follow Hanover Street north to US 1 .
= = = Improvements = = =
In 1930 , a concrete cut @-@ off was built in Glen Burnie that allowed MD 2 traffic to bypass the community 's central intersection to the northeast . In 1934 , the Maryland State Roads Commission recommended expanding Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard to at least 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) in width for its entire length , with a width of 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) urged from MD 177 to MD 3 and on MD 2 from the center of Glen Burnie to Furnace Branch . The first portion of Governor Ritchie Highway was completed as a four @-@ lane divided upgrade to existing MD 2 from the Baltimore city limit in Brooklyn Park to Furnace Branch in 1934 and 1935 . Construction on the remainder of Governor Ritchie Highway began in 1936 and was completed south from Furnace Branch to the Severn River in 1938 . All old segments of MD 2 were redesignated MD 648 by 1939 , with MD 2 designated on the Governor Ritchie Highway . This highway was named for former Maryland Governor Albert C. Ritchie . The Governor Ritchie Highway portion of MD 2 was upgraded to a divided highway in 1950 . Throughout the mid 20th @-@ century , a commercial district developed along MD 2 in Glen Burnie , which included several car dealerships and the Harundale Mall . In 1953 , the freeway to the north of Annapolis was completed . A divided highway connector between Solomons Island Road and this freeway was built in 1955 , and MD 2 was rerouted to bypass Annapolis along with US 50 on this freeway . The former alignment of US 50 and MD 2 in Annapolis was designated as MD 450 .
By 1934 , the Maryland State Roads Commission proposed Solomons Island Road be widened from 16 to 18 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 to 5 @.@ 5 m ) to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) from Owings to MD 509 . The first upgrades to MD 2 between Solomons and Prince Frederick occurred in 1937 , when the highway was widened and resurfaced with bituminous stabilized gravel from Prince Frederick south to Port Republic . The highway was upgraded from Port Republic south through St. Leonard to beyond Quaker Swamp , with several relocations including a relocation at that creek , in 1939 and 1940 . The MD 2 reconstruction continued south a few miles to the northern end of Lusby in 1942 , a stretch widened to 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) and resurfaced with bituminous stabilized gravel . The highway through Lusby was relocated , reconstructed , and surfaced with bituminous stabilized gravel in 1944 . The gravel portions of MD 2 from Port Republic to Lusby were bituminous stabilized in 1946 . The reconstruction of MD 2 from Prince Frederick to Solomons concluded in 1949 when the highway from Solomons north to the southern end of Lusby was relocated , resurfaced , and surfaced with bituminous stabilized gravel .
MD 2 originally followed Armory Road through the northern part of Prince Frederick . By 1946 , the highway had been relocated to its modern alignment and paved north of Armory Road to Sunderland . The bypassed portion of Armory Road was marked as MD 750 by 1950 but may have been removed from the state highway system by 1952 . MD 2 was widened to 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) and resurfaced with bituminous concrete through Prince Frederick in 1950 . This improvement occurred contemporaneously with or shortly before the construction of the Prince Frederick bypass ; MD 2 moved to the new 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide bituminous stabilized gravel highway in the autumn of 1951 . The bypass was resurfaced with bituminous concrete in 1954 and 1955 . By 1956 , the old road through the county seat was marked as the first section of MD 765 .
The route was paved between Owings and Edgewater by 1946 . MD 2 from Owings to Edgewater starting receiving its first major upgrades in the 1950s , including several relocations of the highway . The bypassed portions of MD 2 became segments of MD 778 , with the letter suffix on the highway designation corresponding to the order the sections were bypassed . The highway from Edgewater south to Harwood ( then known as Butlers ) was widened and resurfaced with bituminous stabilized gravel in 1950 and 1951 . MD 2 from Harwood south to Lothian was widened and resurfaced with bituminous stabilized gravel in 1952 and 1953 . Old Solomons Island Road between Harwood Road and Polling House Road in Harwood remained part of the state highway system until 1987 .
In 1960 , MD 416 was designated concurrent with MD 2 between Solomons and Sunderland . In 1965 , the MD 416 concurrency was replaced by an overlap with MD 4 . Also , MD 2 was shifted to a new alignment between Sunderland and Owings , with the former route becoming MD 765 . MD 2 / MD 4 was widened to a divided highway between Huntingtown and the split in Sunderland in 1967 . The divided highway was extended to south of Huntingtown in 1969 , bypassing Huntingtown to the east . The former alignment through the community became MD 524 . In 1970 , MD 2 / MD 4 became a divided highway between Prince Frederick and south of Huntingtown . In January 1978 , MD 4 was rerouted north of Solomons onto the Governor Thomas Johnson Bridge over the Patuxent River . In 1979 , the divided highway was extended south from Prince Frederick to Port Republic . MD 2 / MD 4 was shifted west to a new divided highway between south of St. Leonard to Port Republic in 1981 , with the former two @-@ lane routing designated part of MD 765 . In 1987 , MD 2 / MD 4 between Solomons and south of St. Leonard was shifted to a new divided highway . The bypassed alignment through Lusby and Solomons became another part of MD 765 .
The Ritchie Highway was originally the main route between Baltimore and Annapolis prior to the completion of I @-@ 97 in 1995 . Originally , MD 10 was intended to provide a limited @-@ access route between Baltimore and Annapolis , but this route was not completed south of Pasadena after it was deemed that an alternative freeway along the MD 3 corridor ( present @-@ day I @-@ 97 ) , which required less destruction of residences and businesses , should be built .
In 2010 , a project improved the intersection of MD 2 / MD 4 and MD 231 in Prince Frederick . This project is a prelude to a larger project to expand MD 2 / MD 4 to six lanes between MD 765 south of Prince Frederick and Stoakley Road north of Prince Frederick .
= = Junction list = =
= = Related routes = =
= = = Maryland Route 2 Truck = = =
Maryland Route 2 Truck is a truck bypass of the Federal Hill neighborhood south of downtown Baltimore , Maryland , United States . The route runs east from MD 2 ( Hanover Street ) on McComas Street , paralleling I @-@ 95 . From McComas Street , at exit 55 of Interstate 95 just west of the Fort McHenry Tunnel , the route continues onto Key Highway and heads north and west to Light Street ( MD 2 ) , mostly paralleling the Northwest Harbor and serving the piers on the harbor .
The road was laid out to a width of 160 feet ( 50 m ) from Light Street to Locust Point in the early 1910s , providing better access to the new city @-@ owned piers in preparation for increased trade via the Panama Canal and existing steamship lines to Europe . It was named Key Highway because it was originally planned to extend to Fort McHenry , near where Francis Scott Key wrote " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner . " However , the extension of the road to the fort was never built . A rail line ran the length of Key Highway , connecting to the tracks in Pratt Street via Light Street . A two @-@ lane extension of the highway and rail line was built in 1930 , branching off the old route east of Ludlow Street and running south under Fort Avenue to McComas Street . The short portion of the old road east of the extension is now East Key Highway ; the rail tracks have been removed .
= = = Auxiliary routes = = =
MD 2A runs along an unnamed road from a dead end north to an intersection with MD 2 / MD 4 in Lusby , Calvert County , where it continues as MD 765 . The route is 0 @.@ 13 mi ( 0 @.@ 21 km ) long .
MD 2AB runs along an unnamed road from MD 778N east to MD 2 in Anne Arundel County . The route is 0 @.@ 04 mi ( 0 @.@ 064 km ) long .
MD 2AC runs along Monticello Drive from MD 2 / MD 4 north to a cul @-@ de @-@ sac in Lusby , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 39 mi ( 0 @.@ 63 km ) long .
MD 2AD runs along Solomons Island Road from the interchange with I @-@ 595 / US 50 / US 301 / MD 2 , where the road heads south as part of MD 2 , north to Jennifer Road , where the road becomes Medical Parkway , in Annapolis , Anne Arundel County . The route is 0 @.@ 20 mi ( 0 @.@ 32 km ) long .
MD 2AE runs along Coster Mill Bridge Road from MD 2T / MD 2Z east to MD 2 / MD 4 in Lusby , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 03 mi ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) long .
MD 2AF runs along Nursery Road from MD 2 / MD 4 east to MD 765P in Lusby , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 04 mi ( 0 @.@ 064 km ) long .
MD 2AG runs along an unnamed road from MD 4 , heading south before curving east under the Governor Thomas Johnson Bridge before ending at Solomons Island Road south in Solomons , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 20 mi ( 0 @.@ 32 km ) long .
MD 2B runs along an unnamed road that parallels MD 2 / MD 4 to the west , coming to dead ends on both ends and intersecting MD 2H along the way , in Lusby , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 29 mi ( 0 @.@ 47 km ) long .
MD 2C runs along Henry Court from MD 2K north to a dead end in St. Leonard , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 14 mi ( 0 @.@ 23 km ) long .
MD 2D runs along David Gray Road and Kingsberry Drive from a dead end north to a private driveway in St. Leonard , Calvert County , intersecting MD 2O . The route is 0 @.@ 14 mi ( 0 @.@ 23 km ) long .
MD 2E runs along an unnamed road that parallels MD 2 / MD 4 to the west , coming to dead ends on both ends and intersecting MD 2I along the way , in St. Leonard , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 25 mi ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) long .
MD 2F runs along an unnamed road from a dead end north to MD 765S in St. Leonard , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 14 mi ( 0 @.@ 23 km ) long .
MD 2G runs along an unnamed road from MD 4 east to the southern terminus of MD 2 in Solomons , Calvert County , where it continues as Lore Road . The route is 0 @.@ 03 mi ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) long .
MD 2H runs along an unnamed road from MD 2B east to MD 2 / MD 4 in Lusby , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 03 mi ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) long .
MD 2I runs along an unnamed road from MD 2E , where it continues west as West End Boulevard , east to MD 2 / MD 4 , where it continues east as MD 2J , in St. Leonard , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 03 mi ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) long .
MD 2J runs along Western Shores Boulevard from MD 2 / MD 4 , where it continues west as MD 2I , east to MD 765 in St. Leonard , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 13 mi ( 0 @.@ 21 km ) long .
MD 2K runs along Lancaster Drive from MD 2C east to MD 2 / MD 4 in St. Leonard , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 03 mi ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) long .
MD 2L runs along Parran Road from a bridge over Leonard Creek northeast to MD 2 / MD 4 in St. Leonard , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 11 mi ( 0 @.@ 18 km ) long .
MD 2M runs along an unnamed road from a dead end north to MD 2 / MD 4 in Lusby , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 10 mi ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) long .
MD 2N runs along Calvert Cliffs Parkway from MD 2 / MD 4 east to the entrance of the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant in Lusby , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 11 mi ( 0 @.@ 18 km ) long .
MD 2O runs along David Gray Road from MD 2D east to MD 2 / MD 4 in St. Leonard , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 04 mi ( 0 @.@ 064 km ) long .
MD 2P runs along White Sands Drive from Heron Lane east to MD 2 / MD 4 in Lusby , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 14 mi ( 0 @.@ 23 km ) long .
MD 2Q runs along an unnamed road from MD 2 / MD 4 east to MD 765Q in Lusby , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 06 mi ( 0 @.@ 097 km ) long .
MD 2S parallels MD 2 / MD 4 to the west , running from two dead ends and intersecting MD 2Y , in Lusby , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 15 mi ( 0 @.@ 24 km ) long .
MD 2T runs along Coster Road from the beginning of state maintenance north to MD 2AE / MD 2Z in Lusby , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 28 mi ( 0 @.@ 45 km ) long .
MD 2V runs along Dowell Road from MD 765Q / MD 765R northwest to MD 2 / MD 4 in Solomons , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 03 mi ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) long .
MD 2W runs along Creston Lane from MD 765X east to MD 2 / MD 4 in Solomons , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 03 mi ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) long .
MD 2X runs along Newtown Road from MD 765R east to Schooner Loop in Solomons , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 03 mi ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) long .
MD 2Y runs along Mystic Lane from MD 2 / MD 4 northwest to MD 2S in Lusby , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 02 mi ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) long .
MD 2Z runs along Mill Bridge Road from MD 2AE / MD 2T north to the end of state maintenance in Lusby , Calvert County . The route is 0 @.@ 11 mi ( 0 @.@ 18 km ) long .
= Southtown Center =
Southtown Center , colloquially known as Southtown , is a regional shopping mall in Bloomington , Minnesota , a suburb of the Twin Cities . Southtown Center consists of 534 @,@ 650 square feet ( 50 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail space . The center contains 38 retail tenants and is anchored by AMF Bowling Centers , Bed Bath & Beyond , Herberger 's , Kohl 's , and T.J. Maxx .
The first phase of Southtown Center opened on November 3 , 1960 , with two more phases proceeding in 1963 and 1964 . The mall is partially enclosed , while the majority of the center contains open air structures . Several additional buildings were constructed on the property throughout the years , while minimal renovations took place to maintain the mall 's appearance .
= = History = =
= = = 1960 – 62 : Construction , grand opening , and additions = = =
Southtown Center opened on November 3 , 1960 in Bloomington , Minnesota and became Bloomington 's " first regional shopping center " . The center was developed by Kraus @-@ Anderson , Inc . , a Bloomington @-@ based construction firm , with founder Lloyd Engelsma taking over as the site 's project manager . According to Engelsma , Southtown was built atop " a strip of cow pasture " near a busy intersection in Bloomington , taking up nearly 37 acres of land ; Engelsma had " high expectations for the new center . " During construction of the mall , three labor strikes occurred which heavily delayed construction ; unideal and inclement weather created further setbacks during the construction . Montgomery Ward , a Chicago @-@ based department store , announced that they would be opening up a location at Southtown , and became the mall 's only anchor ; Ward filled a 188 @,@ 050 square feet ( 17 @,@ 000 m2 ) building , the largest Ward department store in the United States .
After the center 's opening , several additions took place at the mall . During 1963 , a 43 @,@ 000 square feet ( 4 @,@ 000 m2 ) AMF Bowling Center was constructed on the north side of the property ; the bowling alley is still currently in use today . In 1964 , a Mann Theatres was constructed on the property ; Southtown Mann Theatre became the first movie theater to be attached to a shopping center in the Twin Cities . However , the cinema was completely remodeled in 1980 , removing some its original decor , before being torn down in 1995 to make way for additional retail .
= = = 1998 – present : Store closings and rezoning = = =
Montgomery Ward prospered as Southtown 's largest tenant until 1998 , when Ward announced that they would be closing nine underperforming locations as part of their " ongoing operations and strategic initiatives to return to profitability . " Filling Ward 's vacancy was Herberger 's , a Minnesota department store , who had agreed to purchase several other closed Montgomery Ward stores in the Twin Cities area . Toys " R " Us agreed to lease the other side of the Ward store that Herberger 's hadn 't leased .
In September 2014 , several plans were created by the city of Bloomington in order to rezone several parts of the shopping center . However , Southtown 's owner , Kraus @-@ Anderson , stated that the rezoning would " threaten Southtown 's existence and that customers like things how they are . " Several Bloomington locals and customers of Southtown created a website to persuade the city of Bloomington not to continue with any redeveloping plans . Despite the creation of the website and Kraus @-@ Anderson 's frustration and concern during the proposed redevelopment , the city council approved the project in July 2015 . In April of the same year , Southtown 's 44 @,@ 548 square feet ( 4 @,@ 100 m2 ) Toys " R " Us closed after their 26 @-@ year lease expired . Despite this closing , Southtown Center has maintained a 99 percent occupancy rate for many years .
= Always Be My Baby =
" Always Be My Baby " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , taken from her fifth studio album , Daydream ( 1995 ) . It was released by Columbia Records on March 9 , 1996 as the third U.S. single and fourth overall . The song was written by Carey , Jermaine Dupri and Manuel Seal , who also produced the song . A mid @-@ tempo song , its lyrics describe the feeling of attachment and unity Carey feels towards her estranged lover , even though they are no longer together . She says he will always be a part of her and will " always be her baby " even after they move on .
Music critics praised " Always Be My Baby " . The song became Carey 's 11th chart topper on the Billboard Hot 100 , tying her with Madonna and Whitney Houston for most number one singles for a female artist . It spent two weeks atop the chart and became Carey 's eighth chart @-@ topper on the Canadian Singles Chart . In other regions , the song performed moderately , peaking at number three in the United Kingdom , number five in New Zealand , number 17 in Australia and in the top 20 in most music markets where it charted .
The song 's music video features scenes of Carey frolicking by a campsite , as well as swinging on a large swing over a lake . Additional inter @-@ cuts include scenes of two children , one male and female , sneaking out at night and spending time together by a campfire similar to Carey 's location . Most scenes from the video were filmed at The Fresh Air Fund 's Camp Mariah , named after Mariah Carey for her generous support and dedication to Fresh Air Fund children . The song was performed live during her Daydream World Tour ( 1996 ) and many of her future tours and concerts . " Always Be My Baby " was also featured in Carey 's compilation albums : Number 1 's ( 1998 ) , Greatest Hits ( 2001 ) , The Ballads ( 2008 ) and Number 1 to Infinity ( 2015 ) .
= = Background and recording = =
While Carey was writing and recording Daydream in early 1995 , she began searching for different producers , in order to give her work a new sound . Jermaine Dupri , who had risen to fame during that period , began working with Carey on material for her album . After recording the song in December 1994 , Carey recalled that she chose to work with Dupri because he had a " very distinct vibe . " Additionally , Carey commissioned the assistance of hip @-@ hop and contemporary R & B producer , Manuel Seal . As Seal played different keys on the piano , Carey led him with the melody she was " hearing inside her head " and began humming the phrase " always be my baby . " In an interview with Fred Bronson , Carey discussed the process it took to write and produce the song :
Jermaine , Manuel and I sat down and Jermaine programmed the drums . I told him the feel I wanted and Manuel put his hands on the keyboards and I started singing the melody . We went back and forth with the bridge and the B @-@ section . I had the outline of the lyrics and started singing ' Always be my baby ' off the top of my head .
Like producers before him , Dupri commended Carey 's vocal abilities , " she can pretty much do anything with her voice . She 's really strong vocally . " Another musical craft the song featured was the inclusion of heavy background vocals of her lower registers , with Carey then belting and singing the higher notes over the her background vocals and melody , creating a " double voice effect . " When discussing the technique used in the background vocals , Carey said :
The background vocals are an important part of the picture for me . That 's why I like to do them myself a lot of the time , or initially I 'll lay down the tracks . I 'll double my voice or do a couple of tracks of my own voice . It 's easy for me to match my voice . And then if I 'm going to use other background singers , I 'll let them go on top of mine .
= = Composition = =
" Always Be My Baby " is a ballad , which incorporates pop and contemporary R & B genres . It has a moderate tempo of 76 beats per minute . The song features a " double voice " which is an effect Carey created in the studio , where her lower vocal notes are used as backup , and her higher chest notes are used as the song 's main focal point . The song 's instrumentation is written in the key of E major and increases by one semitone to F major . It is set in signature common time . Carey 's vocals span from the note of B2 to F5 .
= = Critical analysis = =
The song earned positive reviews from music critics . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly complimented the song 's " relaxed swing " and felt its instrumentation helped make it a standout from the album . Stephen Holden , editor of The New York Times , complimented " Always Be My Baby , " calling it one of " the best on the album . " At the 38th Grammy Awards the song received a nomination for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance .
= = Chart performance = =
" Always Be My Baby " was released by Columbia Records on March 9 , 1996 in Europe , and debuted at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 on the issue dated April 6 , 1996 , behind Celine Dion 's " Because You Loved Me , " which had replaced Carey 's previous single , " One Sweet Day " , at number one . " Always Be My Baby " stayed at number two for four weeks , and topped the Hot 100 on May 4 , 1996 , where it spent two weeks before returning to the number two position for an additional five weeks . At the end of its US chart run , the song spent a total of nine weeks at number two , the fourth longest stay in the chart 's history . The song became Carey 's 11th chart topper in the United States , tying her with pop singers Whitney Houston and Madonna as the female solo artist with the most number one singles , a record she passed soon after . After spending two weeks atop the Hot 100 , the three singles from Daydream had given Carey a combined 26 weeks ( six months ) atop the chart , something never duplicated by another artist until Usher and The Black Eyed Peas in the mid to late 2000s . In Canada , the song became Carey 's eighth chart topper , after it ascended to the number one position on the Canadian RPM Singles Chart during the week of May 20 , 1996 .
While it charted well outside the US , the song didn 't manage to chart as high as her previous two singles " Fantasy " and " One Sweet Day . " In Australia , the song entered the Australian Singles Chart at number 28 during the week of March 13 , 1996 . The song spent 16 weeks fluctuating in the chart before spending its last week at number 47 on June 30 . " Always Be My Baby " was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 35 @,@ 000 units . The song debuted and peaked at number five in New Zealand , spending three consecutive weeks at the position . After 16 weeks , the song fell off the singles chart and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . In the United Kingdom , the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number three , where it peaked . In its second week , the song fell to number four , staying on the chart for a total of ten weeks . As of 2008 , sales in the UK are estimated at 220 @,@ 000 . In Ireland , the song peaked at number ten on the Irish Singles Chart , spending nine weeks in the chart . In the Netherlands , " Always Be My Baby " entered the singles chart at number 43 during the week on April 20 , 1996 . The song peaked at number 27 , spending one week at the position and five weeks in the chart overall . " Always Be My Baby " entered the singles chart in Sweden at number 58 during the week of May 3 , 1996 . After peaking at number 38 and spending a total of five weeks in the chart , the song fell off the Swedish Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Always Be My Baby " was the second video Carey 's directed . In it , she is the seemingly happy narrator of a tale of young love , as a young boy and a girl elope in the middle of the night . The video was filmed on location at Carey 's sponsored charity , the Fresh Air Fund upstate New York camp . The video begins with scenes of Carey on a lakeside tire @-@ swing , smiling and beginning to retell a story of young love . As she sits upon the swing , scenes of two children sneaking out of their bungalow in the middle of the night are shown . They frolic together beside a fireplace , soon coming up to the lakeside swing Carey had been on before . They soon go swimming wearing their clothes , much like Carey did in her video for " Dreamlover " though she does not jump into the water herself this time . As they jump into the water , Carey is then seen by the campfire they passed on their journey to the lake , smiling with friends and enjoying herself by the fire . Eventually the boy and girl are seen kissing underwater . The video concludes with scenes of the young boy and girl walking together back to their bungalow , walking hand @-@ in @-@ hand . Having possibly witnessed the entire event , Carey is seen once again by the large swing , chuckling and staring into the night 's sky .
An alternate video was shot for the song 's remix . It too was directed by Carey , and was shot in black and white . The shot of Carey in a beret that would become the cover for this single is a scene from the video . The video features cameo appearances by Da Brat and Xscape . It begins with Carey and the duo spending time recording the song in Carey 's in @-@ home studio . In the video , Carey is wearing a large white , straw hat and features long golden hair . As the trio finishes the song , scenes of Carey by her pool are shown , with cameos made by her dog , Jack . Brat and Xscape are seen poolside with Carey , playing cards and drinking beer , as the trio further bond and laugh . Towards the end of the video , scenes of the trio in the studio are shows , and intermingled with snippets of Carey walking inside her mansion , shared with then husband Tommy Mottola . The video ends with Carey and Brat bonding by the studio and pool .
= = Live performances and cover versions = =
Carey performed the song throughout the entire run of her Daydream World Tour ( 1996 ) , Rainbow World Tour ( 2000 ) , The Adventures of Mimi ( 2006 ) , and The Elusive Chanteuse Show ( 2014 ) and during select shows on her Charmbracelet World Tour ( 2002 – 03 ) , and Angels Advocate Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) . During the Japanese shows in 1996 , Carey donned a white suit and jacket , and featured three female back @-@ up singers . Red spotlights were used throughout the performance , as well as some light dance routines . During her Rainbow World Tour , Carey wore a two piece outfit , a pair of pants and top , with golden heels . Three back @-@ up singers were provided , one male and two female , while Carey interacted with the front row fans . On her Adventures of Mimi Tour in 2006 , Carey donned a pair of black leggings , worn with a bikini @-@ like top . Wearing Christian Louboutin pumps , Carey sang on the arena 's secondary stage , where she sang three of the set @-@ list 's titles . On her Elusive Chanteuse Show in 2014 , Carey often used the song as her encore , entering the stage in a tight @-@ fitted blue gown and black gloves . Carey included the song in her 2015 Las Vegas residency , Mariah Carey Number 1 's , where she walked through the audience for the second verse and chorus .
On the seventh season of American Idol , David Cook performed a rock arrangement of the song during the April 15 , 2008 episode , in which Carey mentored the contestants on her songs . His version received high praise from all three judges , and even Carey herself . Cook 's studio recording of the song was released on the iTunes Store during the show 's run as " Always Be My Baby ( American Idol Studio Version ) - Single " and was among the season 's best @-@ selling singles .
In 2016 British DJ Sigala released the single Say You Do , which incorporates parts of the song into its chorus .
= = Official versions and remixes = =
Carey recorded three different sets of vocals for " Always Be My Baby . "
The main remix of the song was also produced by Jermaine Dupri . Known as the " Mr. Dupri Mix , " it features re @-@ sung vocals with all of the lyrics and most of the melodic structure retained while using a sample of the song " Tell Me If You Still Care " by The SOS Band . It includes a rap from Da Brat and background vocals from Xscape .
Carey recorded yet another set of vocals for dance remixes produced by David Morales that were only released on maxi @-@ single in the UK . Named the " Always Club Mix " ( along with its edit , the " Def Classic Radio Mix " ) , this club remix of the song has a totally new melodic structure , with the lyrics altered to fit the new melody and song structure . DJ Satoshi Tomiie also created a dance dub that used these new vocals ; calling it the " ST Dub , " it appeared on the maxi @-@ single that included the Morales mixes .
The original album vocals were also remixed into a reggae version that included Jamaican @-@ American reggae rap artist Li 'l Vicious . Called the " Reggae Soul Mix , " this remix includes a rap breakdown by Vicious , with him shouting over Carey 's vocals throughout the track .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Daydream liner notes .
Mariah Carey – co @-@ production , arrangement , songwriting , vocals , background vocals
Jermaine Dupri – co @-@ production , songwriting
Manuel Seal Jr . – co @-@ production , songwriting
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Chart successions = =
= The One Hundredth =
" The One Hundredth " ( also known as " The One With The Triplets " ) is the third episode of Friends ' fifth season and 100th episode overall . It first aired on the NBC network in the United States on October 8 , 1998 . Continuing from the previous episode , the group arrive at the hospital after Phoebe ( Lisa Kudrow ) goes into labor . Meanwhile , Rachel ( Jennifer Aniston ) tries to set Monica ( Courteney Cox ) and herself up with two male nurses , which causes problems between Monica and Chandler ( Matthew Perry ) .
The episode was directed by Kevin S. Bright and co @-@ written by series creators David Crane & Marta Kauffman . The producers wanted to mark the landmark episode with a major event , choosing to bring a culmination to Phoebe 's surrogacy storyline . Earlier scripts had the character insistent on keeping hold of the babies , with the writers later deciding it would better off having a sendoff , to keep it dramatic . In its original broadcast on NBC , " The One Hundredth " acquired a 17 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating , finishing the week ranked second and received good reviews since airing .
= = Plot = =
Phoebe ( Lisa Kudrow ) , Rachel ( Jennifer Aniston ) , Joey ( Matt LeBlanc ) and Ross ( David Schwimmer ) are hosting the 100th Episode and arrive at the hospital , where Phoebe tells the nurse at the desk that she is in labor . In Phoebe ’ s hospital room , Ross and Rachel enter with bad news : her doctor fell and hit her head in the shower , meaning she 's unable to make it to the birth . The replacement doctor , Dr. Harad assures Phoebe that she 's in good hands , until he spontaneously declares his admiration for Fonzie , from Happy Days several times . Phoebe demands that Ross goes and find her another doctor , but when the replacement is too young for her liking , Dr. Harad returns . She moreover begs Rachel to talk to her brother Frank , and convince him to let her keep one of the triplets , after having second thoughts over the surrogate process . In the delivery room , Phoebe gives birth to two girls and a boy . Rachel breaks the news to Phoebe that she won ’ t be able to keep one of the babies . She asks her friends to leave , in order to have a moment alone with the triplets .
Rachel informs Monica ( Courteney Cox ) that she has managed to find two male nurses who would be willing to go out on a date with either of them . Monica declines the offer at first , not wanting to jeopardize her secret relationship with Chandler ( Matthew Perry ) but when he assumes she is willing to go out with nurse Dan , Monica decides to date him after all . Chandler in response asks a female nurse to go out on a date with him ; she declines immediately , adding to his embarrassment . After Phoebe gives birth , Chandler approaches Monica in a hallway to ask if she is really going to date Dan . She replies to him that since both of them are just " goofing around " , she figured why not " goof around " with Dan too ; Chandler asks if Monica had checked up the term in the dictionary , noting the technical definition is “ two friends who care a lot about each other , and have amazing sex , and just want to spend more time together ” . Monica , smitten by Chandler 's words , kisses him and goes to call off her date with Dan .
Meanwhile , Joey is in a hospital room of his own , where a doctor informs him that he 's suffering from kidney stones . As they 're too close to his bladder , Joey is given two options : wait until he passes them naturally , or have a procedure , which he finds too invasive . Opting for the former , he gives ' birth ' to the kidney stones , concurrent with Phoebe ’ s birth .
= = Production = =
" The One Hundredth " was co @-@ written by show creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman and directed by Kevin S. Bright . The episode takes place in a hospital , meaning none of the usual filming sets were used , thus surprising several members of the audience . Crane commented that the hundred episode was a " big milestone " for the series and to mark the major event , Lisa Kudrow 's character Phoebe would give birth to triplets . This brought a culmination to the surrogacy story arc , which began in the fourth season ; it was developed to accommodate Lisa Kudrow 's real life pregnancy . When Kudrow accepted the surrogate mother storyline , the idea of having more than one baby was " comically funny " to Kauffman , and giving birth to triplets or " their brother 's children " was something never seen on television . Phoebe 's pregnancy gave the writers incredible license for her to " be just outrageously mean and still have it be funny " . In order to prepare for the labor and birthing scenes , Kauffman watched a video of her cousin giving birth .
In earlier drafts of the episode , the idea of Phoebe keeping one of the babies was more extreme . The writers decided instead they were better off having the character saying goodbye to keep it dramatic . The birth scenes were recorded in advance to deal with light sensitivity and noise issues . Heidi Beck , a professional nurse was retained ; she acquired a stop watch for every minute the baby was under the light . Real life triplets were used and coated with grape jelly as an alternative to vernix . In the final scene , dolls were employed as it was filmed in front of the studio audience .
The main subplot involved Monica and Chandler discussing their relationship . The writers felt they needed an additional subplot , involving Joey going through a parallel experience to Phoebe 's pregnancy — the difference being him " giving birth " to a kidney stone . This meant doing research on the condition , finding it " really disturbing stuff " . Matt LeBlanc and Matthew Perry had a difficult time filming the prognosis scene as actor Iqbal Theba , who played Joey 's doctor , pronounced ' kidney stone ' in a humorous manner .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The One Hundredth " finished second in ratings for the week of October 5 – 11 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 17 @.@ 7 . It was the second @-@ highest rated show on the NBC network that week after ER . In the United Kingdom the episode premiered on Sky1 on January 21 , 1999 and was watched by 2 @.@ 17 million viewers , making the program the most watched on the channel that week .
Entertainment Weekly rated the episode " B " , in its review of the fifth season . It criticized the " Arthur Fonzarelli @-@ obsessed obstetrician , " plot , though going on to praise Phoebe 's " sweet interaction " with the newborn babies . Robert Bianco of USA Today felt the episode made use of the entire ensemble , noting " Phoebe 's predictably and humorously off @-@ center response to labor " being the highlight . Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide disapproved of Ribisi 's performance , adding " Ultimately , “ One Hundredth ” had some good moments , but it wasn ’ t a great episode . "
" The One Hundredth " was Kudrow 's favorite episode of the series . She liked the episode as " it was nice that Phoebe could play such a big part in something as momentous as the 100th episode " .
= Scott Special =
The Scott Special , also known as the Coyote Special , the Death Valley Coyote or the Death Valley Scotty Special , was a one @-@ time , record @-@ breaking ( and the best @-@ known ) passenger train operated by the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway ( Santa Fe ) from Los Angeles , California , to Chicago , Illinois , at the request of " Death Valley Scotty " . At the time of its transit in 1905 , the Scott Special made the 2 @,@ 265 @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 645 km ) trip between the two cities at the fastest speed recorded to date ; in doing so , it established the Santa Fe as the leader in high @-@ speed travel between Chicago and the West Coast . The Scott Special made the trip in 44 hours and 54 minutes breaking the previous records , set in 1900 by the Peacock Special , by 13 hours and 2 minutes , and in 1903 by the Lowe Special , by 7 hours and 55 minutes . Santa Fe 's regular passenger service from Los Angeles to Chicago at the time was handled on a 2 ½ -day schedule by the California Limited . It was not until the 1936 introduction of the Super Chief that Santa Fe trains would regularly exceed the speeds seen on the Scott Special .
= = Background = =
Death Valley Scotty ( born September 20 , 1872 , as Walter Edward Scott ) had used some ore samples he collected near Cripple Creek , Colorado , as a ruse to convince some bankers in 1902 that he had a claim on a high @-@ grade ore mine in Death Valley , California . By 1905 he had conned the banks out of nearly $ 10 @,@ 000 . Another con he ran in 1905 earned Scott an additional $ 4 @,@ 000 . It was then that he met E. Burdon Gaylord , the owner of the Big Bell mine . Gaylord needed a flashy way to promote his mine and Scott sought the money behind the mine ; the two formed a partnership in which Gaylord would finance Scott and Scott would promote the mine like no other .
After a few high @-@ priced and newsworthy train trips around the southwest , Scott met with the Santa Fe 's General Passenger Agent , J. J. Byrne , at the railroad 's office in Los Angeles on July 8 , 1905 . Once Scott ( who had already travelled cross @-@ country on the Santa Fe some thirty @-@ two times ) got in to talk to Byrne , the arrangements were made , thanks to a deposit from Scott of $ 5 @,@ 500 in cash . The two agreed on a 46 @-@ hour schedule from Los Angeles to Chicago that would begin the following day .
The passenger list for the train was a mere four people : Scott himself , his wife , F. N. Holman , and Charles E. Van Loan , a writer for the Los Angeles Examiner ( and one who was adept at helping Scotty create his " miner " persona , inflating the amounts Scotty really spent while " promoting " his " mine " ) . The schedule involved operating a three car train across the system , led by no less than 19 different locomotives . The engineers of these locomotives came to be known as the " Nervy Nineteen " .
= = Equipment used = =
The special train consisted of three passenger cars pulled by one locomotive . The three cars used were baggage car # 210 , dining car # 1407 , and Pullman Muskegon . Altogether , the three cars weighed a total of 170 short tons ( 155 metric tons ) . While the three cars remained constant throughout the run of the Scott Special , the locomotive did not . In order to prevent delays on the trip as the train would need to stop for water and fuel , nineteen locomotives were prepared along the route so that as one reached the end of its supplies , it would relay the three cars off to the next fully fueled and ready locomotive to continue the run . For the more strenuous grades over Cajon Pass in California and Raton Pass in New Mexico and Colorado , helpers were added to get the train up and over the summits . At various points throughout the run , problems such as hotboxes did occur , or in one instance a complete mechanical failure of the locomotive , but in each case , the train 's crew was able to get the train to the next relay point , and they usually arrived ahead of schedule .
= = Route and schedule = =
The special departed from Santa Fe 's La Grande Station in Los Angeles at 1 : 00 pm Pacific Time on July 9 , 1905 . The locomotive and three cars left the station and the cheering crowds , estimated at 20 @,@ 000 people , and began its run eastward . The number of people at La Grande Station is remarkable in itself since the train 's schedule was planned only one day before the event ; the Santa Fe used the train as an opportunity to publicize itself and got the word out to news agencies across the railroad 's territory .
In rail transport terminology , the Scott Special operated as an " extra " train . Normally such trains are not allowed any special considerations for schedule and are switched into sidings to clear the main line for the railroad 's regularly scheduled trains . For this run , however , the special was afforded rights over all of the railroad 's regular trains ; all other trains were required to clear the main line no less than one hour before the special was scheduled to pass . As most of the Santa Fe was still a single track railroad , this meant that quite a few regular trains were put into sidings to wait for the special . This accommodation , along with the numerous locomotive changes en route helped to ensure that the train would arrive in Chicago within the 46 @-@ hour schedule .
The first locomotive and crew change occurred in Barstow after the train had passed through Cajon Pass . At one point after passing Cajon summit , the train was clocked at 96 mph ( 155 km / h ) . The locomotive and crew were again changed successively at Needles , Seligman , Williams , Winslow and Gallup before the train arrived in Albuquerque , New Mexico , at 9 : 30 am on July 10 .
To cross Raton Pass , locomotives and crews were changed at Las Vegas , Raton and La Junta . From La Junta , the train was powered by a succession of 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 type locomotives that were swapped across the plains in Syracuse , Dodge City , Newton , Emporia , Argentine and Marceline to the Mississippi River crossing at Shopton , Iowa , near Fort Madison . Locomotive 530 was scheduled to take the train completely between Dodge City and Newton , but a burst cylinder head in Kent necessitated adding locomotive 1095 for the 26 miles ( 42 km ) between Kent and Newton .
En route , Scott and his guests enjoyed the finest meals that the Fred Harvey Company had to offer . Menu selections included such luxurious offerings as caviar , iced consommé , and Porterhouse steak à la Coyote .
One more locomotive and crew took the train to Chillicothe where it made its final locomotive change for the last leg into Chicago . Engineer Charles Losee piloted the train for its entire run across Illinois , at an average speed of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , staying aboard the train during the locomotive change in Chillicothe . The train officially arrived at Dearborn Station at 11 : 54 am Central Time on July 11 .
= = Legacy and preservation = =
The speed record set by the Scott Special stood for many years and was not beaten in regular service until the introduction of the Super Chief in 1936 . What makes the Scott Special especially remarkable is that it was run under normal operating conditions :
[ The ] run was made under normal conditions of track , motive power , and equipment , and practically on a moment 's notice . No racing machines were used . The locomotives were the plain , everyday kind , taken from regular runs and manned by employees taking their regular turn . To be sure , the main line was kept clear , and even the exclusive California Limited put on the side track . The Scott Special had the right @-@ of @-@ way . That was the only favor shown it , though the engineers understood they had permission to ' let her out a few notches ' , and they did so , when they could with safety .
In 1955 , on the 50th anniversary of the special 's run , the Scott Special was re @-@ enacted for television . For the show " Death Valley Days " , the production crew was able to reuse Santa Fe locomotive number 1010 , the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 locomotive that was used in the original run between Needles and Seligman ( and the only unit still on Santa Fe 's active roster ) . Robert Hinze , a fireman on the original Scott Special , was on hand to aid in the recreation as the replica train worked over Cajon Pass in California . In October 1984 , the Santa Fe donated locomotive 1010 to the California State Railroad Museum , where it remains on static display .
The 100th anniversary of the Scott Special was commemorated with localized events and interpretive displays along the train 's route sponsored by various historical organizations . One such display was shown at Joliet , Illinois , by the Blackhawk Chapter of the National Railway Historical Society ; the Scott Special passed Joliet just after 11 : 00 am on July 11 , 1905 .
Amtrak 's daily Southwest Chief follows nearly the same route as the Scott Special . As of 2006 , the Southwest Chief makes the journey in just under 43 hours , departing Los Angeles Union Station at 6 : 45 pm Pacific Time , and scheduled to arrive at Chicago Union Station at 3 : 20 pm Central Time on the second day of the trip .
= = = General = = =
Armitage , Merle ( 1986 ) [ 1973 ] . Homage to the Santa Fe . Hawthorne , California : Omni Publications. pp. 87 – 92 .
Bryant , Jr . , Keith L. ( 1974 ) . History of the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway . Trans @-@ Anglo Books , Glendale , CA . ISBN 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 6066 @-@ 0 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Duke , Donald ( 1997 ) . Santa Fe ... The Railroad Gateway to the American West , Volume 2 . San Marino , CA : Golden West Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 87095 @-@ 110 @-@ 6 .
Signor , John R. , compiler ( 2006 ) . " Death Valley Scotty 's ' Coyote Special ' " . The Warbonnet 12 ( 1 ) : 17 – 29 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
" The Record Breaking Run of the Scott Special : Los Angeles to Chicago in 44 hours & 54 minutes " . Central Pacific Railroad Museum . Retrieved March 20 , 2006 .
Waters , Leslie L. ( 1950 ) . Steel Trails to Santa Fe . Lawrence , Kansas : University of Kansas Press. pp. 389 – 392 .
= = = Specific = = =
= Bennie Oosterbaan =
Benjamin " Bennie " Oosterbaan ( February 4 , 1906 – October 25 , 1990 ) was a three @-@ time first team All @-@ American football end for the Michigan Wolverines football team , two @-@ time All @-@ American basketball player for the basketball team , and an All @-@ Big Ten Conference baseball player for the baseball team . He is widely regarded as one of the greatest football players in Michigan history . He was selected by Sports Illustrated as the fourth greatest athlete in the history of the U.S. state of Michigan in 2003 and one of the eleven greatest college football players of the first century of the game ( ending in 1968 ) .
During his collegiate athletic career he was a Big Ten batting champion in baseball , Big Ten scoring champion in basketball , and Big Ten touchdown leader in football . He was the first University of Michigan athlete to become a first @-@ team All @-@ American in basketball and the first three @-@ time first @-@ team football All @-@ American . In high school , he had been an All @-@ American basketball player , a state champion in track and field , and an All @-@ state player in baseball and football . In addition to his All @-@ American collegiate performances as an end , Oosterbaan threw three touchdown passes in the dedication game of Michigan Stadium .
After his playing career ended , Oosterbaan spent several decades working for the University of Michigan Athletic Department until the 1970s . Oosterbaan served as the football , basketball , and baseball coach for the University . Oosterbaan 's 1948 Michigan Wolverines football team won an Associated Press national championship , and his 1950 squad won the 1951 Rose Bowl . He later served as the director of athletic alumni relations .
= = Athletic career = =
Born in Muskegon , Michigan , Oosterbaan began his athletic career at Muskegon High School where he was selected by the Detroit News as an All @-@ State end . In his junior year ( 1923 ) , he led the Muskegon basketball team to a state championship and was named a High School All @-@ American in basketball . He was also an All @-@ State baseball player and state champion discus thrower . According to a Michigan Today article , he probably could have made the 1928 Summer Olympics team in the discus .
At Michigan , Bennie Oosterbaan earned nine letters — three apiece in football , basketball , and baseball . In its obituary of Oosterbaan , The Sporting News described him as a phenomenal student @-@ athlete who in his senior year at Michigan " was captain of the football team , led the Big Ten Conference in scoring in basketball and was the league 's leading hitter in baseball , a sport he had not pursued while in high school . "
Oosterbaan was both a scholar and an athlete . In 1928 , he was awarded the Western Conference Medal of Honor for proficiency as a scholar @-@ athlete . That season he was captain , most valuable player , and an All @-@ American in football ; Big Ten scoring champion and All @-@ American in basketball ; and Big Ten batting average champion in what may be the most dominant three sport performance in any conference in a single year .
= = = Football = = =
After a year on the freshmen football team , he was invited to varsity tryouts . A star receiver and defensive end in a time when the forward pass was still evolving , Oosterbaan united with quarterback Benny Friedman as a passing combination . As a sophomore in 1925 , Oosterbaan led the Big Ten with eight touchdowns . That year , the Wolverines outscored their opponents 227 – 3 . The team shut out every team they faced , except a 3 – 2 defeat to Northwestern at Soldier Field late in the season . Oosterbaan 's defensive play was outstanding as well , and he was key in shutting out the Fighting Illini and Red Grange 3 – 0 in 1925 a year after he scored four touchdowns in the first twelve minutes . Five players from the 1925 team were named All @-@ Americans , including Benny Friedman and Oosterbaan . He was briefly kicked off of the team during the year by an assistant coach for lining up incorrectly before coach Fielding H. Yost brought him back .
In 1926 , Friedman and Oosterbaan were both named All @-@ Americans after leading the Wolverines to a 7 – 1 record and their second consecutive Big Ten Conference championship . That year , his 60 @-@ yard run with a recovered fumble helped Michigan to a 7 – 6 victory over Minnesota in the annual Little Brown Jug game . The Wolverines outscored their opponents , 191 – 38 , and suffered their only loss to Navy , 10 – 0 , in front of 80 @,@ 000 fans at Baltimore Stadium .
The following year , Friedman had moved on to the NFL , and Oosterbaan was named the team 's captain and Most Valuable Player . Oosterbaan was a skilled passer , once throwing for three touchdowns passes in the Michigan Stadium dedication game against rival Ohio State University on October 22 , 1927 . Oosterbaan was also selected as an All @-@ American for the third consecutive season . He is one of only two players at Michigan ever to receive consensus All @-@ American honors three times — Anthony Carter being the other . The Wolverines went 20 – 4 in Oosterbaan 's career at Michigan .
= = = Basketball = = =
In addition to football , Oosterbaan was an All @-@ American basketball forward . He led the Big Ten Conference in scoring ( 178 points ) in his senior year . He was named All @-@ American in both 1927 and 1928 and was a member of Michigan 's first back @-@ to @-@ back Western conference champions under E. J. Mather during the 1925 – 26 and 1926 – 27 seasons ( the latter being Michigan 's first outright champion and Oosterbaan 's first basketball All @-@ American selection ) . Oosterbaan was the first Michigan All @-@ American in basketball . He twice recorded double @-@ doubles in this low scoring era .
= = = Baseball = = =
Oosterbaan was also an All @-@ Conference baseball player who won the Big Ten batting title in 1927 . He played both First baseman and pitcher .
= = Coaching career = =
After graduating , Oosterbaan declined offers to play professional football and baseball . According to friend and player Ron Kramer , Oosterbaan grew up in the Dutch Reformed Church and did not sign a professional football or baseball contract " because of his religious background and his mother . Dutch Reformed didn 't play football on Sundays . "
Instead , Oosterbaan stayed on at the University of Michigan as an assistant coach for the football and basketball teams . He began as an assistant football coach immediately after graduating , and he remained an assistant coach of the football team for twenty years before succeeding Fritz Crisler . After serving 10 seasons as an assistant coach , he also became the head basketball coach in 1938 and served in that capacity until 1946 . The basketball team had an 81 – 72 record while Oosterbaan was the head coach . Oosterbaan employed an uptempo style of play that differed from that of his predecessor Franklin Cappon . Oosterbaan was also head coach of the freshman baseball team .
In 1948 , Oosterbaan took over as head coach of the football team at Michigan . Crisler named Oosterbaan as his successor after the 1948 Rose Bowl in which Michigan beat the USC Trojans by a score of 49 – 0 . Crisler described Oosterbaan as " the best offensive mind in college football . " Oosterbaan led the Wolverines to an Associated Press ( AP ) national championship in his first season and won Coach of the Year honors . His 1950 team won the 1951 Rose Bowl after Oosterbaan obtained consent from the Conference to hold extra practices . His teams won Big Ten championships in each of his first three seasons but did not win another under his tenure . He coached at Michigan until 1958 , compiling a 63 – 33 – 4 record .
Oosterbaan believed success was fleeting . He once was quoted in Time Magazine as saying , " I 'm on top now , and there is a lot of backslapping . But what of seasons to come ? Let me lose the opener or a couple of other games next fall , and then watch how I 'm blasted . " As coach , he had a reputation as a mild @-@ mannered man who aspired to live by the maxims of his own college football coach , Fielding Yost .
Oosterbaan had an mild @-@ mannered coaching style . " Poise " was his favorite word when it came to inspiring his team . He coached without using a lot of yelling and screaming . Oosterbaan motivated his players without using sarcasm or losing his temper , and rarely used locker room pep talks .
Oosterbaan resigned as the head football coach in 1958 . At the time , he said : " The pressure finally got to me . Not the kind that comes from outside . Not from my bosses or the fans . I mean the pressure that builds up inside a head coach whether he wins or loses . " After Oosterbaan quit as football coach he was succeeded by Bump Elliott . In 1959 , Oosterbaan became Michigan 's director of athletic alumni relations and held that position until he retired in 1972 .
= = Personal life = =
Oosterbaan died in 1990 , having spent his entire career associated with the University of Michigan . As one of his obituaries noted , he " went to Ann Arbor as a freshman in 1924 — and never left . " All @-@ American Ron Kramer said of his former coach : " Bennie Oosterbaan is the Michigan tradition . The man gave his whole life to Michigan . " When he died he was the most recent Michigan football coach to have a team ranked # 1 in the nation at the end of the season .
Oosterbaan 's wife of 57 years , Delmas , had predeceased him a few months earlier on July 23 . He was survived by his sister , Grace Hedner ; his daughter , Anna Wilson ; and two grandsons . Two of his brothers , Guy and Andy , died when Oosterbaan was a young man . Oosterbaan is no relation to John Paul Oosterbaan who was a member of the 1989 NCAA Championship basketball team . While at the University of Michigan he was a member of Alpha Sigma Phi fraternity .
Don Lund , Michigan 's associate athletic director for alumni relations who also played basketball for Oosterbaan said : " There 's no question he was the greatest athlete we ever had here at Michigan . " Ohio State Buckeyes football coach Woody Hayes once said of Oosterbaan : " If he weren 't from Michigan , I 'd like to have my own son play for him . "
= = Honors and awards = =
Bennie Oosterbaan 's jersey number 47 was the first Michigan football jersey number retired , and until 2011 , it was one of only five numbers retired by the Michigan football program . In 2012 , the Michigan Football Legends program led to the reissue of the No. 47 jersey to linebacker Jake Ryan , bearing a patch ( pictured at right ) honoring Oosterbaan . Each player to wear the jersey will also dress at a locker bearing a plaque with Oosterbaan 's name and his time of tenure at Michigan .
In 1954 , he was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame . He was a member of the fourth class of inductees into the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame in 1958 . Oosterbaan was a member of the inaugural 1978 class of inductees into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor . The Michigan football indoor practice facility was named Oosterbaan Field House . In 2000 , he was selected to the Michigan All @-@ Century team .
American sports @-@ writer , Grantland Rice selected him and Don Hutson as the ends for the all @-@ time All @-@ American team of the first half of the 20th century . A poll of Michigan alumni and friends in 1979 selected Oosterbaan as Michigan 's greatest all @-@ time football player . In 1969 , Sports Illustrated named him to the eleven @-@ man All @-@ Century team for the period 1869 – 1968 .
In 1999 , Sports Illustrated published a list of " The 50 Greatest Sports Figures From Michigan " ( in all sports ) , and ranked Oosterbaan fourth on the list behind Joe Louis , Magic Johnson and Charlie Gehringer . He was the highest ranked football player , ahead of Michigan Wolverines Ron Kramer ( # 7 ) , Fielding H. Yost ( # 9 ) , Rick Leach ( # 22 ) , Fritz Crisler ( # 31 ) , and Harry Kipke ( # 40 ) .
= = Head coaching record = =
= Sleep hygiene =
Sleep hygiene is the recommended behavioral and environmental practice that is intended to promote better quality sleep . This recommendation was developed in the late 1970s as a method to help people with mild to moderate insomnia , but , as of 2014 , the evidence for effectiveness of individual recommendations is " limited and inconclusive " . Clinicians assess the sleep hygiene of people who present with insomnia and other conditions , such as depression , and offer recommendations based on the assessment . Sleep hygiene recommendations include establishing a regular sleep schedule , using naps with care , not exercising physically or mentally too close to bedtime , limiting worry , limiting exposure to light in the hours before sleep , getting out of bed if sleep does not come , not using bed for anything but sleep and sex , avoiding alcohol as well as nicotine , caffeine , and other stimulants in the hours before bedtime , and having a peaceful , comfortable and dark sleep environment .
= = Assessment = =
Practice of sleep hygiene and knowledge of sleep hygiene practices can be assessed with measures such as the Sleep Hygiene Index , Sleep Hygiene Awareness and Practice Scale , or the Sleep Hygiene Self @-@ Test . For younger individuals , sleep hygiene can be assessed by the Adolescent Sleep Hygiene Scale or the Children 's Sleep Hygiene Scale .
= = Recommendations = =
Clinicians choose among recommendations for improving sleep quality for each individual and counselling is presented as a form of patient education .
= = = Sleep schedule = = =
One set of recommendations relates to the timing of sleep . For adults , getting less than 7 – 8 hours of sleep is associated with a number of physical and mental health deficits , and therefore a top sleep hygiene recommendation is allowing enough time for sleep . Clinicians will frequently advise that these hours of sleep are obtained at night instead of through napping , because while naps can be helpful after sleep deprivation , under normal conditions naps may be detrimental to nighttime sleep . Negative effects of napping on sleep and performance have been found to depend on duration and timing , with shorter midday naps being the least disruptive . There is also focus on the importance of awakening around the same time every morning and generally having a regular sleep schedule .
= = = Activities = = =
Exercise is an activity that can facilitate or inhibit sleep quality ; people who exercise experience better quality of sleep than those who do not , but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep . Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep @-@ wake schedule aligned with nature 's daily light @-@ dark cycle .
Activities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep , so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended . Conversely , continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep . Similarly , good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime . Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep , so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time .
Generally , for people experiencing difficulties with sleep , spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep , so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep ( or sex ) .
= = = Foods and substances = = =
A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep , due to stimulant effects or disruptive digestive demands . Avoiding nicotine , caffeine ( including coffee , energy drinks , soft drinks , tea , chocolate , and some pain relievers ) , and other stimulants in the hours before bedtime is recommended by most sleep hygiene specialists , as these substances activate neurobiological systems that maintain wakefulness . Alcohol near bedtime is frequently discouraged by clinicians , because , although alcohol can induce sleepiness initially , the arousal caused by metabolizing alcohol can disrupt and significantly fragment sleep . Smoking tobacco products before bed is also thought to reduce one 's quality of resting by decreasing the time spent in deep sleep , leading to sleep fragmentation and nocturnal restlessness . Both consumption of a large meal just before bedtime , requiring effort to metabolize it all , and hunger have been associated with disrupted sleep ; clinicians may recommend eating a light snack before bedtime . Lastly , limiting intake of liquids before bedtime can prevent interruptions due to urinations .
= = = Sleep environment = = =
Arranging a sleep environment that is quiet , very dark , and cool is recommended . Noises , light , and uncomfortable temperatures have been shown to disrupt continuous sleep . Other recommendations that are frequently made , though less studied , include selecting comfortable mattresses , bedding , and pillows , and eliminating a visible bedroom clock , to prevent focusing on time passing when trying to fall asleep .
In 2015 , a systematic review of studies on mattresses concluded that medium @-@ firm , custom @-@ inflated mattresses were best for pain and neutral spinal alignment .
= = Effectiveness = =
Sleep hygiene studies use different sets of sleep hygiene recommendations , and the evidence that improving sleep hygiene improves sleep quality is weak and inconclusive as of 2014 . Most research on sleep hygiene principles has been conducted in clinical settings , and there is a need for more research on non @-@ clinical populations .
The strength of research support for each recommendation varies ; some of the more robustly researched and supported recommendations include the negative effects of noisy sleep environments , alcohol consumption in the hours before sleep , engaging in mentally difficult tasks before sleep , and trying too hard to fall asleep . There is a lack of evidence for the effects of certain sleep hygiene recommendations , including getting a more comfortable mattress , removing bedroom clocks , not worrying , and limiting liquids . Other recommendations , such as the effects of napping or exercise , have a more complicated evidence base . The effects of napping , for example , seem to depend on the length and timing of napping , in conjunction with how much cumulative sleep an individual has had in recent nights .
There is support showing positive sleep outcomes for people who follow more than one sleep hygiene recommendation .
While there is inconclusive evidence that sleep hygiene alone is effective as a treatment for insomnia , some research studies have shown improvement in insomnia for patients who receive sleep hygiene education in combination with cognitive behavioral therapy practices .
= = Special populations = =
Sleep hygiene is a central component of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia . Sleep hygiene recommendations have been shown to reduce or eliminate the symptoms of insomnia . Specific sleep disorders may require other or additional treatment approaches , and continuing difficulties with sleep may require additional assistance from healthcare providers .
College students are at risk of engaging in poor sleep hygiene and also of being unaware of the resulting effects of sleep deprivation . Because of irregular weekly schedules and the campus environment , college students may be likely to have variable sleep @-@ wake schedules across the week , take naps , drink caffeine or alcohol near bedtime , and sleep in disruptive sleeping environments . Because of this , it is important to have sleep hygiene education on college campuses .
Similarly , shift workers have difficulty maintaining a healthy sleep @-@ wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours . Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine , as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety , but should be timed carefully . Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake , additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping .
Due to symptoms of low mood and energy , individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene , such as taking naps during the day , consuming alcohol near bedtime , and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day . In addition to sleep hygiene education , bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression . Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep @-@ wake schedule , but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly , especially when related to seasonal affective disorder .
Individuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations . Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions to sleep , reducing the ability to stay asleep and to achieve restful sleep . For individuals with allergies or asthma , additional considerations must be given to potential triggers in the bedroom environment . Medications that might improve ability to breathe while sleeping may also impair sleep in other ways , so there must be careful management of decongestants , asthma controllers , and antihistamines .
= = Implementation = =
Sleep hygiene strategies include advice about timing of sleep and food intake in relationship to exercise and sleeping environment . Recommendations depend on knowledge of the individual situation ; counselling is presented as a form of patient education .
As attention to the role of sleep hygiene in promoting public health has grown , there has been an increase in the number of resources available in print and on the internet . Organizations running public health initiatives include the National Sleep Foundation and the Division of Sleep Medicine at Harvard Medical School , both of which have created public websites with sleep hygiene resources , such as tips for sleep hygiene , instructional videos , sleep hygiene self @-@ assessments , poll statistics on sleep hygiene , and tools to find sleep professionals . A cooperative agreement between the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Academy of Sleep Medicine was established in 2013 to coordinate the National Healthy Sleep Awareness Project , with one of their aims being to promote sleep hygiene awareness .
= = History = =
While the term sleep hygiene was first introduced in 1939 by Nathaniel Kleitman , a book published in 1977 by psychologist Peter Hauri introduced the concept within the context of modern sleep medicine . In this book Hauri outlined a list of behavioral rules intended to promote improved sleep . Similar concepts are credited to Paolo Mantegazza who published a related original book in 1864 . The 1990 publication of the International Classification of Sleep Disorders ( ICSD ) introduced the diagnostic category Inadequate Sleep Hygiene . Inadequate sleep hygiene was a subclassification of Chronic Insomnia Disorder in the ICSD @-@ II published in 2005 ; it was removed from the 2014 ICSD @-@ III along with two other classifications , because " they were not felt to be reliably reproducible in clinical practice . "
Specific sleep hygiene recommendations have changed over time . For example , advice to simply avoid sleeping pills was included in early sets of recommendations , but as more drugs to help with sleep have been introduced , recommendations concerning their use have become more complex .
= Tony Bennett =
Anthony Dominick Benedetto ( born August 3 , 1926 ) , known professionally by his stage name Tony Bennett , is an American singer of traditional pop standards , big band , show tunes , and jazz . He is also a painter , having created works under the name Anthony Benedetto that are on permanent public display in several institutions . He is the founder of the Frank Sinatra School of the Arts in Astoria , Queens , New York .
Born and raised in Astoria to an Italian @-@ American family , Bennett began singing at an early age . He fought in the final stages of World War II as a U.S. Army infantryman in the European Theater . Afterward , he developed his singing technique , signed with Columbia Records and had his first number @-@ one popular song with " Because of You " in 1951 . Several top hits such as " Rags to Riches " followed in the early 1950s . He then refined his approach to encompass jazz singing . He reached an artistic peak in the late 1950s with albums such as The Beat of My Heart and Basie Swings , Bennett Sings . In 1962 , Bennett recorded his signature song , " I Left My Heart in San Francisco " . His career and his personal life experienced an extended downturn during the height of the rock music era .
Bennett staged a comeback in the late 1980s and 1990s , putting out gold record albums again and expanding his reach to the MTV Generation while keeping his musical style intact . He has won 19 Grammy Awards ( including a Lifetime Achievement Award , presented in 2001 ) and two Emmy Awards , and was named an NEA Jazz Master and a Kennedy Center Honoree . He has sold over 50 million records worldwide .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1926 – 43 : Early life = = =
Anthony Dominick Benedetto was born on August 3 , 1926 , in Astoria , Queens , New York , to grocer John Benedetto and seamstress Anna Suraci . In 1906 , John had emigrated from Podàrgoni , a rural eastern district of the southern Italian city of Reggio Calabria . Anna had been born in the U.S. shortly after her parents also emigrated from the Calabria region in 1899 . Other relatives came over as well as part of the mass migration of Italians to America . Tony grew up with an older sister , Mary , and an older brother , John Jr . With a father who was ailing and unable to work , the children grew up in poverty . John Sr. instilled in his son a love of art and literature and a compassion for human suffering , but died when Tony was 10 years old . The experience of growing up in the Great Depression and a distaste for the effects of the Hoover Administration would make the child a lifelong Democrat .
Young Tony grew up listening to Al Jolson , Eddie Cantor , Judy Garland , and Bing Crosby as well as jazz artists such as Louis Armstrong , Jack Teagarden , and Joe Venuti . His Uncle Dick was a tap dancer in vaudeville , giving him an early window into show business , and his Uncle Frank was the Queens borough library commissioner . By age 10 he was already singing , and performed at the opening of the Triborough Bridge , standing next to Mayor Fiorello La Guardia who patted him on the head . Drawing was another early passion of his ; he became known as the class caricaturist at P.S. 141 and anticipated a career in commercial art . He began singing for money at age 13 , performing as a singing waiter in several Italian restaurants around his native Queens .
He attended New York 's School of Industrial Art where he studied painting and music and would later appreciate their emphasis on proper technique . But he dropped out at age 16 to help support his family . He worked as a copy boy and runner for the Associated Press in Manhattan and in several other low @-@ skilled , low @-@ paying jobs . However , he mostly set his sights on a professional singing career , returning to performing as a singing waiter , playing and winning amateur nights all around the city , and having a successful engagement at a Paramus , New Jersey , nightclub .
= = = 1944 – 50 : World War II and after = = =
Benedetto was drafted into the United States Army in November 1944 , during the final stages of World War II . He did basic training at Fort Dix and Fort Robinson as part of becoming an infantry rifleman . Benedetto ran afoul of a sergeant from the South who disliked the Italian from New York City and heavy doses of KP duty or BAR cleaning resulted . Processed through the huge Le Havre replacement depot , in January 1945 , he was assigned as a replacement infantryman to the 255th Infantry Regiment of the 63rd Infantry Division , a unit filling in for the heavy losses suffered in the Battle of the Bulge . He moved across France , and later , into Germany . As March 1945 began , he joined the front line and what he would later describe as a " front @-@ row seat in hell . "
As the German Army was pushed back to its homeland , Benedetto and his company saw bitter fighting in cold winter conditions , often hunkering down in foxholes as German 88 mm guns fired on them . At the end of March , they crossed the Rhine and entered Germany , engaging in dangerous house @-@ to @-@ house , town @-@ after @-@ town fighting to clean out German soldiers ; during the first week of April , they crossed the Kocher River , and by the end of the month reached the Danube . During his time in combat , Benedetto narrowly escaped death several times . The experience made him a pacifist ; he would later write , " Anybody who thinks that war is romantic obviously hasn 't gone through one , " and later say , " It was a nightmare that 's permanent . I just said , ' This is not life . This is not life . ' " At the war 's conclusion he was involved in the liberation of a Nazi concentration camp near Landsberg , where some American prisoners of war from the 63rd Division had also been held .
Benedetto stayed in Germany as part of the occupying force , but was assigned to an informal Special Services band unit that would entertain nearby American forces . His dining with a black friend from high school – at a time when the Army was still racially segregated – led to his being demoted and reassigned to Graves Registration Service duties . Subsequently , he sang with the 314th Army Special Services Band under the stage name Joe Bari ( a name he had started using before the war , chosen after the city and province in Italy and as a partial anagram of his family origins in Calabria ) . He played with many musicians who would have post @-@ war careers .
Upon his discharge from the Army and return to the States in 1946 , Benedetto studied at the American Theatre Wing on the GI Bill . He was taught the bel canto singing discipline , which would keep his voice in good shape for his entire career . He continued to perform wherever he could , including while waiting tables . Based upon a suggestion from a teacher at American Theatre Wing , he developed an unusual approach that involved imitating , as he sang , the style and phrasing of other musicians — such as that of Stan Getz 's saxophone and Art Tatum 's piano — helping him to improvise as he interpreted a song . He made a few recordings as Bari in 1949 for small Leslie Records , but they failed to sell .
In 1949 , Pearl Bailey recognized Benedetto 's talent and asked him to open for her in Greenwich Village . She had invited Bob Hope to the show . Hope decided to take Benedetto on the road with him , and simplified his name to Tony Bennett . In 1950 , Bennett cut a demo of " Boulevard of Broken Dreams " and was signed to the major Columbia Records label by Mitch Miller .
= = = 1951 – 59 : First successes = = =
Warned by Miller not to imitate Frank Sinatra ( who was just then leaving Columbia ) , Bennett began his career as a crooner of commercial pop tunes . His first big hit was " Because of You " , a ballad produced by Miller with a lush orchestral arrangement from Percy Faith . It started out gaining popularity on jukeboxes , then reached number one on the pop charts in 1951 and stayed there for ten weeks , selling over a million copies . This was followed to the top of the charts later that year by a similarly @-@ styled rendition of Hank Williams 's " Cold , Cold Heart " , which helped introduce Williams and country music in general to a wider , more national audience . The Miller and Faith tandem continued to work on all of Bennett 's early hits . Bennett 's recording of " Blue Velvet " was also very popular and attracted screaming teenaged fans at concerts at the famed Paramount Theater in New York ( Bennett did seven shows a day , starting at 10 : 30 a.m. ) and elsewhere .
On February 12 , 1952 , Bennett married Ohio art student and jazz fan Patricia Beech , whom he had met the previous year after a nightclub performance in Cleveland . Two thousand female fans dressed in black gathered outside the ceremony at St. Patrick 's Cathedral in Manhattan , New York , in mock mourning . The couple had two sons , D 'Andrea ( Danny , born 1954 ) and Daegal ( Dae , born 1955 ) .
A third number @-@ one came in 1953 with " Rags to Riches " . Unlike Bennett 's other early hits , this was an up @-@ tempo big band number with a bold , brassy sound and a double tango in the instrumental break ; it topped the charts for eight weeks . Later that year , the producers of the upcoming Broadway musical Kismet had Bennett record " Stranger in Paradise " as a way of promoting the show during a New York newspaper strike . The song reached the top , the show was a hit , and Bennett began a long practice of recording show tunes . " Stranger in Paradise " was also a number @-@ one hit in the United Kingdom a year and a half later and started Bennett 's career as an international artist .
Once the rock and roll era began in 1955 , the dynamic of the music industry changed and it became harder and harder for existing pop singers to do well commercially . Nevertheless , Bennett continued to enjoy success , placing eight songs in the Billboard Top 40 during the latter part of the 1950s , with " In the Middle of an Island " reaching the highest at number nine in 1957 .
For a month in August – September 1956 , Bennett hosted a NBC Saturday night television variety show , The Tony Bennett Show , as a summer replacement for The Perry Como Show . Patti Page and Julius La Rosa had in turn hosted the two previous months , and they all shared the same singers , dancers , and orchestra . In 1959 , Bennett would again fill in for The Perry Como Show , this time alongside Teresa Brewer and Jaye P. Morgan as co @-@ hosts of the summer @-@ long Perry Presents .
= = = 1954 – 65 : A growing artistry = = =
In 1954 , the guitarist Chuck Wayne became Bennett 's musical director . Bennett released his first long @-@ playing album in 1955 , Cloud 7 . The album was billed as featuring Wayne and showed Bennett 's leanings towards jazz . In 1957 , Ralph Sharon became Bennett 's pianist , arranger , and musical director , replacing Wayne . Sharon told Bennett that a career singing " sweet saccharine songs like ' Blue Velvet ' " wouldn 't last long , and encouraged Bennett to focus even more on his jazz inclinations .
The result was the 1957 album The Beat of My Heart . It used well @-@ known jazz musicians such as Herbie Mann and Nat Adderley , with a strong emphasis on percussion from the likes of Art Blakey , Jo Jones , Latin star Candido Camero , and Chico Hamilton . The album was both popular and critically praised . Bennett followed this by working with the Count Basie Orchestra , becoming the first male pop vocalist to sing with Basie 's band . The albums Basie Swings , Bennett Sings ( 1958 ) and In Person ! ( 1959 ) were the well @-@ regarded fruits of this collaboration , with " Chicago " being one of the standout songs .
Bennett also built up the quality , and therefore , the reputation of his nightclub act ; in this he was following the path of Sinatra and other top jazz and standards singers of this era . In June 1962 , Bennett staged a highly promoted concert performance at Carnegie Hall , using a stellar line @-@ up of musicians including Al Cohn , Kenny Burrell , and Candido , as well as the Ralph Sharon Trio . The concert featured 44 songs , including favorites like " I 've Got the World on a String " and " The Best Is Yet To Come " . It was a big success , further cementing Bennett 's reputation as a star both at home and abroad . Bennett also appeared on television , and in October 1962 he sang on the initial broadcast of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson .
Also in 1962 , Bennett released his recording of " I Left My Heart in San Francisco " , a decade @-@ old but little @-@ known song originally written for an opera singer . Although this reached only number 19 on the Billboard Hot 100 , it spent close to a year on various other charts and increased Bennett 's exposure . The album of the same title was a top 5 hit and both the single and album achieved gold record status . The song won Grammy Awards for Record of the Year and Best Male Solo Vocal Performance . Over the years , this would become known as Bennett 's signature song . In 2001 , it was ranked 23rd on an RIAA / NEA list of the most historically significant Songs of the 20th Century .
Bennett 's following album , I Wanna Be Around ... ( 1963 ) , was also a top @-@ 5 success , with the title track and " The Good Life " each reaching the top 20 of the pop singles chart along with the top 10 of the Adult Contemporary chart .
The next year brought the Beatles and the British Invasion , and with them still more musical and cultural attention to rock and less to pop , standards , and jazz . Over the next couple of years , Bennett had minor hits with several albums and singles based on show tunes ; his last top @-@ 40 single was the number 34 " If I Ruled the World " from Pickwick in 1965 , but his commercial fortunes were clearly starting to decline . An attempt to break into acting with a role in the poorly received 1966 film The Oscar met with middling reviews for Bennett ; he did not enjoy the experience and did not seek further roles .
A firm believer in the American Civil Rights movement , Bennett participated in the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches . Years later he would continue this commitment by refusing to perform in apartheid South Africa .
= = = 1965 – 79 : Years of struggle = = =
Ralph Sharon and Bennett parted ways in 1965 . There was great pressure on singers such as Lena Horne and Barbra Streisand to record " contemporary " rock songs , and in this vein , Columbia Records ' Clive Davis suggested that Bennett do the same . Bennett was very reluctant , and when he tried , the results pleased no one . This was exemplified by Tony Sings the Great Hits of Today ! ( 1970 ) , before which Bennett became physically ill at the thought of recording . It featured misguided attempts at Beatles and other current songs and a ludicrous psychedelic art cover .
Years later , Bennett would recall his dismay at being asked to do contemporary material , comparing it to when his mother was forced to produce a cheap dress . By 1972 , he had departed Columbia for the Verve division of MGM Records ( Philips in the UK ) and had relocated for a stint in London , where he hosted a television show from the Talk of the Town nightclub in conjunction with Thames Television , Tony Bennett from the Talk of the Town . With his new label , he tried a variety of approaches , including some more Beatles material , but found no renewed commercial success , and in a couple more years he was without a recording contract .
Bennett and his wife Patricia had been separated since 1965 , their marriage a victim of Bennett 's spending too much time on the road , among other factors . In 1969 , Patricia sued him for divorce on grounds of adultery . In 1971 , their divorce became official . Bennett had become involved with aspiring actress Sandra Grant while filming The Oscar in 1965 ; the couple lived together for several years , and on December 29 , 1971 , they quietly married in New York . They had two daughters , Joanna ( born 1970 ) and Antonia ( born 1974 ) , and moved to Los Angeles .
Taking matters into his own hands , Bennett started his own record company , Improv . He cut some songs that would later become favorites , such as " What is This Thing Called Love ? " , and made two well @-@ regarded albums with jazz pianist Bill Evans , The Tony Bennett / Bill Evans Album ( 1975 ) and Together Again ( 1976 ) , but Improv lacked a distribution arrangement with a major label and by 1977 , it was out of business .
As the decade neared its end , Bennett had no recording contract , no manager , and was not performing many concerts outside of Las Vegas . His second marriage was failing ( they would completely separate in 1979 and the marriage was dissolved by court order on July 1 , 1983 ) . He had developed a drug addiction , was living beyond his means , and had the Internal Revenue Service trying to seize his Los Angeles home .
= = = 1979 – 89 : Turnaround = = =
After a near @-@ fatal cocaine overdose in 1979 , Bennett called his sons Danny and Dae for help . " Look , I 'm lost here , " he told them . " It seems like people don 't want to hear the music I make . "
Danny Bennett , an aspiring musician himself , also came to a realization . The band Danny and his brother had started , Quacky Duck and His Barnyard Friends , had foundered and Danny 's musical abilities were limited . However , he had discovered during this time that he did have a head for business . His father , on the other hand , had tremendous musical talent , but was having trouble sustaining a career from it and had little financial sense . Danny signed on as his father 's manager .
Danny got his father 's expenses under control , moved him back to New York , and began booking him in colleges and small theaters to get him away from a " Vegas " image . After some effort , a successful plan to pay back the IRS debt was put into place . The singer had also reunited with Ralph Sharon as his pianist and musical director ( and would remain with him until Sharon 's retirement in 2002 ) . By 1986 , Tony Bennett was re @-@ signed to Columbia Records , this time with creative control , and released The Art of Excellence . This became his first album to reach the charts since 1972 .
= = = 1990 – 95 : An unexpected audience = = =
Danny Bennett felt that younger audiences who were unfamiliar with his father would respond to his music if given a chance . No changes to Tony 's formal appearance , singing style , musical accompaniment ( The Ralph Sharon Trio or an orchestra ) , or song choice ( generally the Great American Songbook ) were necessary or desirable . Accordingly , Danny began regularly to book his father on Late Night with David Letterman , a show with a younger , " hip " audience . This was subsequently followed by appearances on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien , The Simpsons , Muppets Tonight , and various MTV programs . In 1993 , Bennett played a series of benefit concerts organized by alternative rock radio stations around the country . The plan worked ; as Tony later remembered , " I realized that young people had never heard those songs . Cole Porter , Gershwin – they were like , ' Who wrote that ? ' To them , it was different . If you 're different , you stand out . "
During this time , Bennett continued to record , first putting out the acclaimed look @-@ back Astoria : Portrait of the Artist ( 1990 ) , then emphasizing themed albums such as the Sinatra homage Perfectly Frank ( 1992 ) and the Fred Astaire tribute Steppin ' Out ( 1993 ) . The latter two both achieved gold status and won Grammys for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance ( Bennett 's first Grammys since 1962 ) and further established Bennett as the inheritor of the mantle of a classic American great .
As Bennett was seen at MTV Video Music Awards shows side @-@ by @-@ side with the likes of the Red Hot Chili Peppers and Flavor Flav , and as his " Steppin ' Out with My Baby " video received MTV airplay , it was clear that , as The New York Times said , " Tony Bennett has not just bridged the generation gap , he has demolished it . He has solidly connected with a younger crowd weaned on rock . And there have been no compromises . "
The new audience reached its height with Bennett 's appearance in 1994 on MTV Unplugged . ( He quipped on the show , " I 've been unplugged my whole career . " ) Featuring guest appearances by rock and country stars Elvis Costello and k.d. lang ( both of whom had an affinity for the standards genre ) , the show attracted a considerable audience and much media attention . The resulting MTV Unplugged : Tony Bennett album went platinum and , besides taking the Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance Grammy award for the third straight year , also won the top Grammy prize of Album of the Year .
= = = 1996 – present : No retirement = = =
Since his comeback , Bennett has financially prospered ; by 1999 , his assets were worth $ 15 to 20 million . He had no intention of retiring , saying in reference to masters such as Pablo Picasso , Jack Benny , and Fred Astaire : " right up to the day they died , they were performing . If you are creative , you get busier as you get older . " Bennett continued to record and tour steadily , doing a hundred shows a year by the end of the 1990s . In concert Bennett often makes a point of singing one song ( usually " Fly Me to the Moon " ) without any microphone or amplification , demonstrating his skills at vocal projection . One show , Tony Bennett 's Wonderful World : Live From San Francisco , was made into a PBS special . Bennett also created the idea behind , and starred in the first episode of , the A & E Network 's popular Live by Request series , for which he won an Emmy Award . In addition to numerous television guest performances , Bennett has had cameo appearances as himself in films such as The Scout , Analyze This , and Bruce Almighty .
In 1998 he made an unlikely but successful appearance at a mud @-@ soaked Glastonbury in an immaculate suit and tie . Bennett also published The Good Life : The Autobiography of Tony Bennett in 1998 . A series of albums , often based on themes ( such as Duke Ellington , Louis Armstrong , Billie Holiday , blues , or duets ) , has met with good acceptance ; Bennett has won eleven more Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance or Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album Grammys in the subsequent years , most recently for the year 2016 . Bennett has sold over 50 million records worldwide during his career .
Accolades came to Bennett . For his contribution to the recording industry , Tony Bennett was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1560 Vine Street . Bennett was inducted into the Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame in 1997 , was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2001 , and received a lifetime achievement award from the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) in 2002 . In 2002 , Q magazine named Tony Bennett in its list of the " 50 Bands To See Before You Die " . On December 4 , 2005 , Bennett was the recipient of a Kennedy Center Honor . Later , a theatrical musical revue of his songs , called I Left My Heart : A Salute to the Music of Tony Bennett was created and featured some of his best @-@ known songs such as " I Left My Heart in San Francisco " , " Because of You " , and " Wonderful " . The following year , Bennett was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame .
Bennett frequently donates his time to charitable causes , to the extent that he is sometimes nicknamed " Tony Benefit " . In April 2002 , he joined Michael Jackson , Chris Tucker and former President Bill Clinton in a fundraiser for the Democratic National Committee at New York 's Apollo Theater . He has also recorded public service announcements for Civitan International .
In the late 1980s , Bennett entered into a long @-@ term romantic relationship with Susan Crow , a former New York City schoolteacher who was 40 years his junior . Bennett and Crow founded Exploring the Arts , a charitable organization dedicated to creating , promoting , and supporting arts education . At the same time they founded ( and named after Bennett 's friend ) the Frank Sinatra School of the Arts in Queens , a public high school dedicated to teaching the performing arts , which opened in 2001 and would have a very high graduation rate . On June 21 , 2007 , Bennett married Crow in a private civil ceremony in New York that was witnessed by former Governor Mario Cuomo .
Danny Bennett continues to be Tony 's manager while Dae Bennett is a recording engineer who has worked on a number of Tony 's projects and who has opened Bennett Studios in Englewood , New Jersey . Tony 's younger daughter Antonia is an aspiring jazz singer .
In August 2006 , Bennett turned eighty years old . The birthday itself was an occasion for publicity , which then extended through the rest of the following year . Duets : An American Classic reached the highest place ever on the albums chart for an album by Bennett and garnered two Grammy Awards ; concerts were given , including a high @-@ profile one for New York radio station WLTW @-@ FM ; a performance was done with Christina Aguilera and a comedy sketch was made with affectionate Bennett impressionist Alec Baldwin on Saturday Night Live ; a Thanksgiving @-@ time , Rob Marshall @-@ directed television special Tony Bennett : An American Classic on NBC , which would win multiple Emmy Awards ; receipt of the Billboard Century Award ; and guest @-@ mentoring on American Idol season 6 as well as performing during its finale . He received the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ' Humanitarian Award . Bennett was awarded the National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Masters Award in 2006 , the highest honor that the United States bestows upon jazz musicians .
The year 2008 saw Bennett making two appearances on " New York State of Mind " with Billy Joel at the final concerts given at Shea Stadium , and in October releasing the album A Swingin ' Christmas with The Count Basie Big Band , for which he made a number of promotional appearances at holiday time . In 2009 , Bennett performed at the conclusion of the final Macworld Conference & Expo for Apple Inc . , singing the " The Best Is Yet to Come " and " I Left My Heart In San Francisco " to a standing ovation , and later making his Jazz Fest debut in New Orleans . In February 2010 , Bennett was one of over 70 artists singing on " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " , a charity single in aid of the 2010 Haiti earthquake . In October he performed " I Left My Heart in San Francisco " at AT & T Park before the third inning of Game 1 of the 2010 World Series and sang " God Bless America " during the seventh @-@ inning stretch . Days later he sang " America the Beautiful " at the Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear in Washington , D.C.
In September 2011 , Bennett appeared on The Howard Stern Show and named American military actions in the Middle East as the root cause of the September 11 attacks . Bennett also claimed that former President George W. Bush personally told him at the Kennedy Center in December 2005 that he felt he had made a mistake invading Iraq , to which a Bush spokesperson replied , " This account is flatly wrong . " Following bad press resulting from his remarks , Bennett clarified his position , writing : " There is simply no excuse for terrorism and the murder of the nearly 3 @,@ 000 innocent victims of the 9 / 11 attacks on our country . My life experiences , ranging from the Battle of the Bulge to marching with Martin Luther King , made me a life @-@ long humanist and pacifist , and reinforced my belief that violence begets violence and that war is the lowest form of human behavior . "
In September 2011 , Bennett released Duets II , a follow @-@ up to his first collaboration album , in conjunction with his 85th birthday . He sings duets with seventeen prominent singers of varying techniques , including Aretha Franklin , Willie Nelson , Queen Latifah , and Lady Gaga . Bennett appears on the season 2 premiere of Blue Bloods performing " It Had To Be You " with Carrie Underwood . His duet with Amy Winehouse on " Body and Soul " — reportedly the last recording she made before her death — charted on the lower reaches of the Billboard Hot 100 , making Bennett the oldest living artist to appear there , as well as the artist with the greatest span of appearances . The single did well in Europe , where it reached the top 15 in several countries . The album then debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , making Bennett the oldest living artist to reach that top spot , as well as marking the first time he had reached it himself . A model of Koss headphones , the Tony Bennett Signature Edition ( TBSE1 ) , was created for this milestone ( Bennett having been one of the early adopters of the Koss product back in the 1960s ) . In November 2011 , Columbia released Tony Bennett – The Complete Collection , a 73 @-@ CD plus 3 @-@ DVD set , which although not absolutely " complete " , finally brought forth many albums that had not had a previous CD release , as well as some unreleased material and rarities . In December 2011 , Bennett appeared at the Royal Variety Performance in Salford in the presence of HRH Princess Anne .
In the wake of the premature deaths of Winehouse and Whitney Houston , Bennett called for the legalization of drugs in February 2012 . In October 2012 , Bennett released Viva Duets , an album of Latin American music duets , featuring Vicente Fernández , Juan Luis Guerra , and Vicentico among others . The recording and filming for the project , in Fort Lauderdale , was co @-@ sponsored by the city . On October 31 , 2012 , Bennett performed " I Left My Heart in San Francisco " in front of more than 100 @,@ 000 fans at a City Hall ceremony commemorating the 2012 World Series victory by the San Francisco Giants . He published another memoir , Life is a Gift : The Zen of Bennett , and a documentary film produced by his son Danny was released , also titled The Zen of Bennett .
In September 2014 , Bennett performed for the first time in Israel , with his jazz quartet at the Charles Bronfman Auditorium in Tel Aviv , receiving a standing ovation . He also made a surprise cameo appearance on stage with Lady Gaga at Hayarkon Park , Tel Aviv , the previous evening . The performance took place days before the release that month of the two stars ' much @-@ delayed collaborative effort and resultant Grammy @-@ winning album , Cheek to Cheek , which debuted at number one on the Billboard charts , extending the 88 @-@ year @-@ old Bennett 's record for the oldest artist to do so . At the end of 2014 , Bennett and Lady Gaga kicked off their co @-@ headlining Cheek to Cheek Tour .
On September 25 , 2015 , he released an album composed by Jerome Kern , featuring Bill Charlap on piano , called The Silver Lining : The Songs of Jerome Kern . On November 1 , 2015 , Bennett , joined by the choir from the Frank Sinatra School , sang " America the Beautiful " before Game 5 of the baseball World Series between the Kansas City Royals and New York Mets at Citi Field .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Painting = = =
Bennett has also had success as a painter , done under his real name of Anthony Benedetto or just Benedetto . He followed up his childhood interest with professional training , work , and museum visits throughout his life . He sketches or paints every day , often of views out of hotel windows when he is on tour .
He has exhibited his work in numerous galleries around
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the world . He was chosen as the official artist for the 2001 Kentucky Derby , and was commissioned by the United Nations to do two paintings , including one for its 50th anniversary . His painting " Homage to Hockney " ( for his friend David Hockney , painted after Hockney drew him ) is on permanent display at the Butler Institute of American Art in Youngstown , Ohio . His " Boy on Sailboat , Sydney Bay " is in the permanent collection at the National Arts Club in Gramercy Park in New York , as is his " Central Park " at the Smithsonian American Art Museum in Washington , D.C. His paintings and drawings have been featured in ARTnews and other magazines , and sell for as much as $ 80 @,@ 000 apiece . Many of his works were published in the art book Tony Bennett : What My Heart Has Seen in 1996 . In 2007 , another book involving his paintings , Tony Bennett in the Studio : A Life of Art & Music , became a best @-@ seller among art books .
= = = Musical style = = =
Regarding his choices in music , Bennett reiterated his artistic stance in a 2010 interview :
I 'm not staying contemporary for the big record companies , I don 't follow the latest fashions . I never sing a song that 's badly written . In the 1920s and ' 30s , there was a renaissance in music that was the equivalent of the artistic Renaissance . Cole Porter , Johnny Mercer and others just created the best songs that had ever been written . These are classics , and finally they 're not being treated as light entertainment . This is classical music .
= = Awards and recognition = =
Bennett has won 19 Grammy Awards including a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award , as follows ( years shown are the year in which the ceremony was held and the award was given , not the year in which the recording was released ) :
Best Solo Vocal Performance , Male , 1963 , " I Left My Heart in San Francisco "
Record of the Year , 1963 , " I Left My Heart in San Francisco "
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance , 1993 , Perfectly Frank
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance , 1994 , Steppin ' Out
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance , 1995 , MTV Unplugged : Tony Bennett
Album of the Year , 1995 , MTV Unplugged : Tony Bennett
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance , 1997 , Here 's to the Ladies
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance , 1998 , Tony Bennett on Holiday
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance , 2000 , Bennett Sings Ellington : Hot & Cool
Lifetime Achievement Award , 2001
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album , 2003 , Playin ' with My Friends : Bennett Sings the Blues
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album , 2004 , A Wonderful World ( with k.d. lang )
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album , 2006 , The Art of Romance
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album , 2007 , Duets : An American Classic
Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals , 2007 , " For Once in My Life " ( with Stevie Wonder )
Best Pop Duo / Group Performance , 2012 , " Body and Soul " ( with Amy Winehouse )
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album , 2012 , Duets II
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album , 2015 , Cheek to Cheek ( with Lady Gaga )
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album , 2016 , The Silver Lining : The Songs of Jerome Kern ( with Bill Charlap )
Bennett has won two Emmy Awards , as follows ( years shown are the year in which the ceremony was held and the award was given , not the year in which the program aired ) :
Primetime Emmy Award for Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program , 1996 , Live by Request
Primetime Emmy Award for Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program , 2007 , Tony Bennett : An American Classic
Bennett has gained other notable recognition :
New York City 's Bronze Medallion , 1969
Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame
Induction into the Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame , 1997
Society of Singers Lifetime Achievement Award , 2000
Lifetime achievement award from the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers , 2002
Kennedy Center Honoree , 2005
Induction into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Humanitarian Award , 2006
National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Masters Award , 2006
Induction into the International Civil Rights Walk of Fame , 2007
Induction into the New Jersey Hall of Fame , 2011
Honorary doctorates from the Berklee College of Music ( 1974 ) , The Art Institute of Boston ( 1994 ) , Roosevelt University 's Chicago Musical College ( 1995 ) , George Washington University ( 2001 ) , Cleveland Institute of Music ( 2010 ) , the Juilliard School ( 2010 ) , and Fordham University ( 2012 ) .
= = Works = =
= = = Discography = = =
Bennett has released over 70 albums during his career , almost all for Columbia Records . The biggest selling of these in the U.S. have been I Left My Heart in San Francisco , MTV Unplugged : Tony Bennett , and Duets : An American Classic , all of which went platinum for shipping one million copies . Eight other albums of his have gone gold in the U.S. , including several compilations . Bennett has also charted over 30 singles during his career , with his biggest hits all occurring during the early 1950s and none charting between 1968 and 2010 .
= = = Filmography = = =
In 2014 , Bennett starred in American Masters ' Bing Crosby Rediscovered , a documentary film that tells the story of his life as well as his important role in popular music . In 2015 , Bennett starred in the documentary film that depicts the life of late singer Amy Winehouse , entitled Amy , and in 2015 , he starred in a Barnes & Noble commercial with Lady Gaga .
= = = Books = = =
Bennett , Tony ( 1996 ) . Tony Bennett : What My Heart Has Seen . Rizzoli . ISBN 0 @-@ 8478 @-@ 1972 @-@ 8 .
Bennett , Tony ; Friedwald , Will ( 1998 ) . The Good Life : The Autobiography Of Tony Bennett . Pocket Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 02469 @-@ 8 .
Bennett , Tony ; Sullivan , Robert ( 2007 ) . Tony Bennett in the Studio : A Life of Art & Music . Sterling Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 4027 @-@ 4767 @-@ 5 .
Bennett , Tony ( 2012 ) . Life is a Gift : The Zen of Bennett . HarperCollins . ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 220706 @-@ 7 .
= Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football =
The Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team represents the Georgia Institute of Technology in the sport of American football . The Yellow Jackets team , also known as the " Ramblin ' Wreck " , and historically as the " Engineers " , competes in the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) and the Coastal Division of the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) . The Georgia Institute of Technology has fielded a football team since 1892 and has an all @-@ time record of 700 – 471 – 43 ( a .594 winning percentage ) . The Yellow Jackets play in Bobby Dodd Stadium at Historic Grant Field in Atlanta , Georgia , which has a capacity of 55 @,@ 000 . The Yellow Jackets have won four Division I @-@ A college football national championships and fifteen conference titles .
A number of successful collegiate and professional football players once played for Tech . The school has 48 first @-@ team All @-@ Americans and over 150 alumni who have played in the NFL . Among the most lauded and most notable players the school has produced are Calvin Johnson , Demaryius Thomas , Keith Brooking , Joe Hamilton , Joe Guyon , and Billy Shaw . In addition to its players , Tech 's football program has been noted for its coaches and its , in many cases bizarre traditions and game finishes . Among the team 's former coaches are John Heisman , for whom the Heisman Trophy is named , and Bobby Dodd , for whom the Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Award and the school 's stadium are named . Heisman led the team to the highest @-@ scoring game in American football history , and both Heisman and Dodd led Tech 's football team to national championships . Dodd also led the Jackets on their longest winning streak ( 8 games ) against the University of Georgia , Tech 's most time @-@ endured rival .
= = History = =
= = = The beginnings : 1892 – 1903 = = =
Tech began its football program with several students forming a loose @-@ knit troop of footballers called the Blacksmiths . On November 5 , 1892 , Tech played its first football game against Mercer University . The team lost to Mercer 12 – 6 in Macon , Georgia . Tech played two other games during their first season and lost both of them for a season record of 0 – 3 . Discouraged by these results , the Blacksmiths sought a coach to improve their record . Leonard Wood , an Army officer and Atlantan , heard of Tech 's football struggles and volunteered to player @-@ coach the team .
Over the span of 1892 – 1903 , Tech only won 8 games , tied in 5 , and lost 32 . In 1893 , Tech played against the University of Georgia for the first time . Tech defeated Georgia 28 – 6 for the school 's first @-@ ever victory . The angry Georgia fans threw stones and other debris at the Tech players during and after the game . The poor treatment of the Blacksmiths by the Georgia faithful gave birth to the rivalry now known as Clean , Old @-@ Fashioned Hate .
In 1902 , Jesse Thrash was the team 's first All @-@ Southern selection . He began the season as a sub and closed it as the undisputed star of the Tech team . Oliver Jones Huie was selected by Ga Tech 's athletic association to coach the football team for the 1903 season when the team won 3 and lost 5 games . A professional coach was desperately needed if Tech wished to build a truly competitive football program . The first game of the 1903 season was a 73 – 0 destruction at the hands of John Heisman 's Clemson ; shortly after the season , Tech offered Heisman a coaching position .
= = = Heisman 's legend : 1904 – 1919 = = =
John Heisman put together 16 consecutive non @-@ losing seasons , amassed 104 wins , including three undefeated campaigns and a 32 @-@ game undefeated streak . From 1915 to 1918 Georgia Tech went 30 – 1 – 2 and outscored opponents 1611 to 93 utilizing his jump shift offense . He would also muster a 5 @-@ game winning streak against the hated Georgia Bulldogs from 1904 – 1908 before incidents led up to the cutting of athletic ties with Georgia in 1919 .
Heisman was hired by Tech for $ 2 @,@ 250 a year and 30 % of the home ticket sales . Heisman would not disappoint the Tech faithful as his first season was an 8 – 1 – 1 performance , the first winning season since 1893 . One source relates : " The real feature of the season was the marvelus advance made by the Georgia School of Techology which burst from fetters that kept it in the lowest class for ten years . " His team posted victories over Georgia , Tennessee , University of Florida at Lake City , and Cumberland , and a tie with his last employer , Clemson . He suffered just one loss , to another first year coach , Mike Donahue of Auburn .
The 1905 team went 6 – 0 – 1 . The 1906 team beat Auburn for the first time . Stars of this early period for Tech include Lob Brown and Billy Wilson . The 1907 and 1908 teams were led by " Twenty Percent " Davis .
Pat Patterson was All @-@ Southern in 1910 . Patterson was captain in 1911 , a season in which future coach William Alexander was a reserve quarterback . Heisman helped students construct Grant Field in 1913 , when Alf McDonald was quarterback . The 1915 team went undefeated .
Arguably the most notable game of Heisman 's career was the most lopsided victory in college football history . In 1916 , Cumberland College ended its football program and attempted to cancel a scheduled game with Heisman 's Jackets . Heisman , however , was seeking vengeance for a 22 – 0 baseball loss to Cumberland in the spring of 1916 , a game in which Heisman suspected Cumberland of hiring professional players to pose as Cumberland students . Heisman refused the game 's cancellation and Cumberland mustered up a group of commonfolk to play Tech . Tech won 222 – 0 . Neither team achieved a first down other than a touchdown , as Cumberland either punted or turned the ball over before a first down and Tech scored on almost every play from scrimmage . Jim Preas , Tech 's kicker , kicked 16 point after tries , which is still a record for a single game .
In 1917 Tech won its first national championship behind the backfield of Everett Strupper , Joe Guyon , Al Hill , and Judy Harlan . It was the first national title for a Southern team , and for many years the " Golden Tornado " was considered the finest team the region ever produced . Strupper and captain Walker Carpenter were the first two players from the Deep South ever selected first @-@ team All @-@ American .
Heisman challenged Pop Warner 's undefeated Pittsburgh team to a decisive national championship game , but he declined . In the next season of 1918 , Tech lost a lopsided game to Pitt 32 – 0 . Center Bum Day became the first player from the south selected for Walter Camp 's first team . In 1919 , Auburn upset Tech for the SIAA crown . By 1919 , Heisman had divorced his wife and felt that he would embarrass his wife socially if he remained in Atlanta . Heisman moved to Pennsylvania , leaving Tech in the hands of William Alexander .
= = = Alexander continues the trend : 1920 – 1944 = = =
Alexander had attended Georgia Tech and after graduating as valedictorian of his class in 1912 , taught mathematics at Tech and served as Heisman 's assistant coach . In 1920 , he was given the job of head coaching Tech 's football team . He retained and Heisman 's shift and in his first season he saw Tech win an SIAA title behind captain Buck Flowers , the first Georgia Tech played inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame . Tech suffered its only loss again to Warner 's Pitt , and finished the season with a win over rival Auburn . Tackle Bill Fincher made Camp 's first team All @-@ America .
The 1921 and 1922 teams also claimed SIAA titles . The 1921 team suffered its only loss to undefeated , eastern power Penn State . Tech was captained by fullback Judy Harlan . Future Tech fullback Sam Murray was asked about a certain strong runner in the 1930s , " He 's good . But if I were playing again , I would have one wish – never to see earing down upon me a more fearsome picture of power than Judy Harlan blocking for Red Barron . " Barron ran for 1 @,@ 459 yards on the season .
From 1923 to 1925 , though Tech failed to claim a conference title , it had one of its best @-@ ever players : fullback Doug Wycoff , " the outstanding back of the South for the past two years . " Coach Alexander recalled " The work of Douglas Wycoff against Notre Dame two years in succession was brilliant in the extreme , as was his plunging against Penn . State when we defeated them twice . " Tech and UGA renewed their annual rivalry game in 1925 after an eight @-@ year hiatus . Quarterback Ike Armstrong thought the game clock read five seconds remaining in the game when in actuality it was five minutes . Williams set up his offense for a field goal and kicked it to put Tech up 3 – 0 on first down . Luckily for Williams , Tech won 3 – 0 .
In 1927 , Alexander instituted " the Plan . " Georgia was highly rated to start the 1927 season , known as the " dream and wonder team , " and justified their rating throughout the season going 9 – 0 in their first 9 games . Alexander 's plan was to minimize injuries by benching his starters early no matter the score of every game before the UGA finale . On December 3 , 1927 , UGA rolled into Atlanta on the cusp of a national and conference title . Tech 's well rested starters were helped by the rain and shut out the Bulldogs 12 – 0 , ending any chance of UGA 's first national title , while netting the SIAA title .
Alexander 's 1928 team amassed a perfect record and won the school 's second national title . The team was led at center by captain Peter Pund and upset Notre Dame . " I sat at Grant Field and saw a magnificent Notre Dame team suddenly recoil before the furious pounding of one man – Pund , center , " said legendary coach Knute Rockne . " Nobody could stop him . I counted 20 scoring plays that this man ruined . " The 1928 team was also the very first Tech team to attend a bowl game . The team was invited to the Rose Bowl to play California . The game was a defensive struggle , with the first points scored after a Georgia Tech fumble . The loose ball was scooped up by California center Roy Riegels and then accidentally returned in the wrong direction . Riegels returned the ball all the way to California 's 3 @-@ yard line . After Riegels was finally tackled by his own team , the Bears opted to punt from the end zone . The punt was blocked and converted by Tech into a safety giving Tech a 2 – 0 lead . Cal scored a touchdown and a point after but Tech would score another touchdown to win the game 8 – 7 . This victory made Tech the 10 – 0 undefeated national champion of 1928 .
Coach Alexander found campus spirit to be particularly low following the Great Depression . His successful football program ( and the other athletic teams ) had very few student fans attending the games . He helped to establish a spirit organization known as the Yellow Jacket Club in 1930 to bolster student spirit . The group would later become the Ramblin ' Reck Club . The 1939 team was SEC co @-@ champion .
The only retired jersey in Georgia Tech football history is No. 19 . The number belonged to Tech halfback Clint Castleberry . Castleberry played on the # 5 ranked 1942 Tech team as a true freshman and was third place in the 1942 Heisman Trophy voting . After ending his freshman year at Tech , Castleberry elected to join the war effort and signed up for the Army Air Corps . While co @-@ piloting a B @-@ 26 Marauder over Africa , Castleberry , his crew , and another B @-@ 26 disappeared and were never heard from again . Castleberry has been memorialized on Grant Field ever since , with a prominent No. 19 on display in the stadium .
The 1943 and 1944 teams won SEC titles . Coach Alexander finally retired in 1944 after winning 134 games as head coach and taking Tech to the Rose Bowl , Orange Bowl , Cotton Bowl Classic , and Sugar Bowl . To this day , Alexander has the second most victories of any Tech football coach . The record for most coaching victories in Tech history is still held by Alexander 's then coordinator and eventual successor Bobby Dodd .
= = = Dodd wins titles , sets records , & beats the Dogs : 1945 – 1966 = = =
Bobby Dodd took over the Georgia Tech football program following Coach Alexander 's retirement in 1944 . Dodd 's coaching philosophy revolved around player treatment and character development . He did not believe in intense physical practices but rather precise and well executed practices . Dodd 's philosophy translated to winning . He set the record for career wins at Tech at 165 career coaching wins including a 31 @-@ game winning streak from 1951 – 1952 . He also managed to capture two Southeastern Conference Titles and the 1952 National Title , which concluded a 12 – 0 perfect season and Sugar Bowl conquest of previously undefeated , seventh ranked Mississippi Ole Miss . , in a season that also included victories over Orange Bowl champions , 9th ranked , Alabama , 15th ranked Gator Bowl champions Florida Gators football , 16th ranked Duke , and a 7 – 4 rival Georgia . While 9 – 0 Michigan State would capture the AP and UP titles , the Yellow Jackets ' were ranked first in the International News Service poll .
Dodd also understood the deep @-@ seated rivalry with the University of Georgia . His teams won 8 games in a row over the Bulldogs from 1946 – 1954 outscoring the Bulldogs 176 – 39 during the winning streak . This 8 – game winning streak against Georgia remains the longest winning streak by either team in the series . Dodd would finish his career with a 12 – 9 record against the Bulldogs .
Dodd 's tenure included Georgia Tech 's withdrawal from the Southeastern Conference . The initial spark for Dodd 's withdrawal was a historic feud with Alabama Crimson Tide Coach Bear Bryant . The feud began when Tech was visiting the Tide at Legion Field in Birmingham in 1961 . After a Tech punt , Alabama fair @-@ caught the ball . Chick Granning of Tech was playing coverage and relaxed after the signal for the fair catch . Darwin Holt of Alabama continued play and smashed his elbow into Granning 's face causing severe fracturing in his face , a broken nose , and blood @-@ filled sinuses . Granning was knocked unconscious and suffered a severe concussion , the result of which left him unable to play football ever again . Dodd sent Bryant a letter asking Bryant to suspend Holt after game film indicated Holt had intentionally injured Granning . Bryant never suspended Holt . The lack of discipline infuriated Dodd and sparked Dodd 's interest in withdrawing from the SEC .
Another issue of concern for Dodd was Alabama 's and other SEC schools ' over @-@ recruitment of players . Universities would recruit more players than they had roster space for . During the summer practice sessions , the teams in question would cut the players well after signing day thus preventing the cut players from finding new colleges to play for . Dodd appealed the SEC administration to punish the " tryout camps " of his fellow SEC members but the SEC did not . Finally , Dodd withdrew Georgia Tech from the SEC in 1964 . Tech would remain an independent like Notre Dame and Penn State ( at the time ) during the final four years of Dodd 's coaching tenure . In 1967 , Dodd passed the head coach position to his favorite coordinator , Bud Carson . Dodd simply retained his athletic director position , which he had acquired in 1950 . He would not retire from athletic directing until 1976 .
= = = Coaching in Dodd 's shadow : 1967 – 1986 = = =
Bud Carson was Tech 's defensive coordinator in 1966 . His job was to appease the massive Tech fan base Bobby Dodd had accumulated . Carson was not the charismatic leader like Dodd but rather a strategy man that enjoyed intense game planning . Carson 's most notable achievements included recruiting Tech 's first ever African American scholarship athlete and being the first Tech head coach to be fired .
Carson recruited Eddie McAshan to play quarterback in 1970 . After several Summer practices , McAshan won the starting quarterback job and became the first African American quarterback to start for a major Southeastern university . This decision initially polarized Georgia Tech 's fan base , but after winning his first 4 starts and leading Tech to a 9 – 3 season after three straight 4 – 6 seasons , McAshan won the hearts of the Tech faithful . McAshan 's besting of UGA in the annual rivalry game made McAshan a fixture on campus . The following season , however , led to Carson 's demise . In 1971 , Tech went 6 – 6 and a fan base used to Bobby Dodd 's 8 wins per season average forced Carson out by James E. Boyd 's hand . Carson went on to form the Steel Curtain Pittsburgh Steelers defense .
Bill Fulcher supplanted Bud Carson . Fulcher appeared to be the right choice but quit after two seasons , overwhelmed by the Tech fan base . Fulcher 's tenure included a terrible feud with Eddie McAshan , which peaked before the 1972 UGA game . McAshan had requested additional tickets for the game so that his family could attend . Fulcher refused the ticket request and McAshan sat out of practice in protest . Fulcher responded by suspending the quarterback for the UGA game and the upcoming Liberty Bowl . The story exploded on the national scene when Jesse Jackson attended the UGA game , allowing McAshan to sit with him outside of the stadium in protest .
Pepper Rodgers was hired soon after Fulcher quit . Rodgers was hired away from the UCLA Bruins and like Carson and Fulcher , simply could not return Tech to its national prominence of Dodd 's era , and after six seasons , Rodgers had accumulated only 34 wins and barely a 50 % winning percentage . Rodgers flamboyant demeanor shortened his welcome at the school , and Athletic Director Doug Weaver , replaced him with Bill Curry . Homer Rice became Athletic Director , and attempted to reinvigorate Tech 's program by joining the Atlantic Coast Conference in 1980 . The Georgia Tech football program reached its lowest point in modern history after the hiring of Bill Curry , who had no experience as a head coach , but was a refreshing change after the flamboyant Rodgers . Curry 's first two Tech teams from 1980 – 1981 went 2 @-@ 19 @-@ 1 with the only bright spots being a brilliant 24 @-@ 21 victory over Bear Bryant 's Alabama team at Legion Field to open the 1981 season and a 3 @-@ 3 slug fest in 1980 with then No.1 rated Notre Dame at Grant Field . Things had gotten so bad , they could only get better . He slowly rebuilt the team , restored a winning mentality to the Georgia Tech fan base , and in 1985 Tech won 9 games , including a 17 @-@ 14 victory over Michigan State in the All American Bowl .
Tech 's 1984 – 1985 teams featured the " Black Watch " defense . The Black Watch defense was created by defensive coordinator Don Lindsey and featured linebackers Ted Roof and Jim Anderson , safety Mark Hogan , and lineman Pat Swilling . The elite defensive players were awarded black stripes down the center of their helmets and black GT emblems on the side of their helmets . Curry 's leadership and ability to build a winning program sparked interest from the Crimson Tide and Alabama hired Curry away from Tech in 1986 . After Curry 's departure , Tech hired the talented Maryland Terrapins Coach Bobby Ross , who departed a Maryland athletic program in turmoil after the Len Bias tragedy .
= = = Old gold gets new shine : 1987 – 1991 = = =
Bobby Ross came from Maryland after winning three ACC titles over four years . Ross ' first season at Tech experienced a severe talent vacuum after Curry 's departure , and the players Ross inherited resisted the changes he demanded . The team only won two games , and Ross contemplated ending his coaching career after a humbling loss to Wake Forest in 1987 . Ross decided to remain at Tech and continued to rebuild Tech 's program . The turning point came in 1989 with the recruitment of Shawn Jones and several other key freshman . After two seasons and only five total wins , Jones helped the Jackets rebound at the end of the 1989 season .
In Jones ' sophomore season , Tech powered through their schedule and won the ACC . The four game unbeaten streak in 1989 extended all the way through 1990 and into the 1991 Citrus Bowl . The key victory in the streak was a huge 41 @-@ 38 come from behind upset victory over then No.1 ranked Virginia in Charlottesville before a nationwide TV audience . Tech demolished Nebraska 45 – 21 in the 1991 Citrus Bowl , finishing the season 11 – 0 – 1 , and earning a share of the 1990 National Title with the Colorado Buffaloes .
Tech 's winning streak ended against Penn State in the 1991 Kick Off Classic . Ross and Jones never replicated that 1990 season but managed to win 8 games in 1991 making Shawn Jones one of the most heralded quarterbacks in Tech history . Ross was offered a head coach position after the 1991 season for the San Diego Chargers , which he took . After first considering Ross assistant coaches , Ralph Friedgen and George O 'Leary , Tech hired Bill Lewis away from East Carolina soon after Ross ' departure .
= = = Controversies and Heisman contention : 1992 – 2001 = = =
When Lewis was hired , the Tech faithful hoped he would continue to build on Ross ' success . He had just led East Carolina to an 11 @-@ 1 record and a final ranking of ninth in the nation . However , Lewis ' first season at Tech in 1992 saw the Jackets collapse to only a 5 @-@ 6 record just two years removed from a national championship . Preseason All @-@ American Shawn Jones suffered from nagging injuries , leaving Tech 's offense inept . After Jones ' fourth year ran out , redshirt freshman Donnie Davis stepped in to fill his shoes in 1993 . However , in two years The Lewis era had completely squandered the successful momentum established by Bobby Ross .
During the Summer of ' 94 , George O 'Leary was rehired as defensive coordinator . With Davis injured in spring practice , Lewis recruited Tom Luginbill as his replacement . Luginbill was a proficient passer at Palomar College , a junior college in California , and his first two games in 1994 showed promise . Tech almost upset Arizona who was projected as the No. 1 team in the nation by Sports Illustrated and won 45 @-@ 26 over Western Carolina . However , Tech lost its next 6 games before Lewis was fired with three games remaining in the season . O 'Leary was named interim coach for the rest of the season , and was appointed head coach in 1995 . O 'Leary 's first season saw Senior Donnie Davis return as starter and Tech won 6 games . O 'Leary 's second season saw the emergence of Joe Hamilton as starter when Brandon Shaw struggled in his first two starts . Hamilton would eventually lead the Jackets back to bowl contention and Tech attended its first bowl in six years , the 1997 Carquest Bowl .
Hamilton 's prowess as a runner and passer thrilled the Georgia Tech fans . Offensive coordinator Ralph Friedgen utilized a complex offense with Hamilton that featured option football mixed in with complex timing routes . Hamilton racked up yardage , touchdowns , and wins for Tech . In 1998 , Hamilton and Tech 's high powered offense won 10 games and a season ending victory over Notre Dame in the Gator Bowl . Hamilton 's senior year put him on the national stage . He was a leading candidate for the Heisman Trophy against rushing phenomenon Ron Dayne . Hamilton passed for over 3000 yards and rushed for over 700 yards . But while Hamilton dazzled , the Georgia Tech defense was a liability ( they allowed around 28 points per game ) , and may have ultimately cost Hamilton the 1999 Heisman Trophy . In a late @-@ season , nationally @-@ televised game against Wake Forest , Tech gave up 26 points and Hamilton threw two interceptions and no touchdowns . As an indirect result , Dayne went on to win the Heisman ( Joe was runner @-@ up ) . Hamilton 's Georgia Tech career ended on a sour note in the 2000 Gator Bowl against the Miami , where the Jackets lost 28 – 13 . The following season , redshirt junior George Godsey , a more traditional pocket passer , succeeded Hamilton at the helm of Tech 's powerful offense . The drop @-@ off was minimal — Godsey continued where Hamilton left off , winning 9 games in 2000 and 8 games in 2001 . In 2000 , Godsey also led Tech to their third straight victory over the archival Georgia Bulldogs .
The end of the 2001 season saw George O 'Leary entertain a coaching offer from Notre Dame after Bob Davie announced resignation as Irish head coach . O 'Leary was eventually awarded the position , but it was revoked shortly thereafter when Notre Dame discovered that O 'Leary had fabricated several aspects of his resume . He claimed to have played three years for the University of New Hampshire and to have attained a master 's degree from New York University ; in actuality , he had attended NYU but did not graduate , and he never played a down of New Hampshire football . Following O 'Leary 's departure , Mac McWhorter was named interim head coach for Georgia Tech 's bowl game , a victory over Stanford in the 2002 Seattle Bowl . The following spring , Chan Gailey was hired to replace O 'Leary as Georgia Tech 's head coach .
= = = Great upsets , upsetting losses , and a termination : 2002 – 2007 = = =
Chan Gailey came to Georgia Tech in 2002 after head coaching stints with the Dallas Cowboys , Samford Bulldogs , and Troy Trojans . Gailey 's first team in 2002 managed to win seven games under the quarterbacking of A.J. Suggs . The most notable game of the 2002 season was an upset of National Title Contender North Carolina State . Georgia Tech rallied in the fourth quarter to upset NC State and end Philip Rivers 's Heisman Trophy hopes . In 2003 , eleven Georgia Tech players were found academically ineligible . Despite the academic losses and the playing of true freshman Reggie Ball , Gailey would lead Tech to a seven @-@ win season and humiliation of Tulsa in the Humanitarian Bowl . P.J. Daniels racked up over 300 yards rushing in the effort .
2004 and 2005 saw Georgia Tech improve talent and skill wise but Tech won seven games again . Star Calvin Johnson arrived as a true freshman in 2004 . His performance against Clemson in 2004 helped cement Johnson 's place in the annals of all @-@ time Tech greats . Two off @-@ the @-@ field problems affected the Yellow Jackets ' 2005 season . First , Reuben Houston , a starting cornerback , was arrested for possession of over one hundred pounds of marijuana . Houston was dismissed from the football team immediately following this arrest but a later court order forced Coach Gailey to allow Houston to return to the team . Houston would see little playing time following the court order .
At the end of the 2005 season , an NCAA investigation found that eleven ineligible players had played for the Yellow Jackets between the 1998 and 2005 seasons . These players played while not making progress towards graduation on the NCAA @-@ approved schedule . The football victories for that season were initially revoked , and Georgia Tech was put on two years of NCAA probation . Twelve football scholarships were stricken from Georgia Tech 's allotment for the 2006 and 2007 freshman classes . The Georgia Tech Athletic Department appealed this decision by the NCAA , and the records were restored but scholarship reductions and probation remained . Athletic Director Dave Braine retired in January 2006 , and Dan Radakovich was hired as Athletic Director .
Gailey 's most successful year at Georgia Tech was in 2006 with nine victories and the ACC Coastal Division championship . The Yellow Jackets football team reached its first New Year 's Bowl since the 1999 Gator Bowl and played the West Virginia Mountaineers in the Gator Bowl . Tashard Choice led the ACC in rushing yards and Calvin Johnson led the ACC in receptions and receiving yardage . After an impressive 33 @-@ 3 victory at Notre Dame to open the 2007 season , the team slid to finish 7 @-@ 6 . On the morning of Monday , November 26 , 2007 , Gailey was fired from the Yellow Jackets , two days after another heartbreaking loss to the University of Georgia .
The Yellow Jackets ' Athletic Department hired Paul Johnson , then the head coach at Navy and former Georgia Southern head coach , as Gailey 's replacement on December 7 , 2007 .
= = = Paul Johnson era : 2008 – present = = =
On Friday , December 7 , 2007 , less than two weeks after Georgia Tech announced the firing of Chan Gailey , Paul Johnson was announced as the new Georgia Tech head football coach . Johnson was hired under a seven @-@ year contract worth more than $ 11 million . Johnson immediately began installing his unique flexbone option offense at Georgia Tech . By the regular season 's end , Johnson had led the Yellow Jackets to a 9 – 3 record including an ACC Coastal Division Co @-@ Championship and a 45 – 42 win in Athens , GA over arch @-@ rival UGA , Tech 's first win against the Bulldogs since 2000 . In recognition of his accomplishments in his first season , Johnson was named 2008 ACC Coach of the Year by the Atlantic Coast Sports Media Association as well as the CBSSports.com coach of the year .
Several weeks after Johnson 's defeat of rival Georgia , Georgia Tech rewarded Johnson with a new contract worth $ 17 @.@ 7 million , a 53 % raise that made him the second highest paid coach in the ACC before he had even completed his first year in the conference . In 2009 , Johnson led the Yellow Jackets to their first win over Florida State in Tallahassee in school history , a 49 @-@ 44 shootout that featured over 1000 total yards between the two teams . One week later , Johnson defeated No. 4 Virginia Tech 28 @-@ 23 at Bobby Dodd Stadium . The win broke an 0 – 17 losing streak to top five opponents at Grant Field in the past 47 years . On October 24 , 2009 , Johnson led the Yellow Jackets to their first win against the Virginia Cavaliers in Charlottesville , VA since 1990 . At Duke University Johnson and his team clinched the ACC Coastal Division for the first time since 2006 . Still , Johnson and company could not win their second game in a row over hated Georgia as the Bulldogs upset Tech 30 – 24 in the final home game of the season in 2009 . On December 5 the Jackets defeated the Clemson Tigers to make them ACC champions , a title that would be vacated on July 14 , 2011 due to NCAA infractions . The Yellow Jackets went on to lose to Iowa in the Orange Bowl , 24 @-@ 14 .
Georgia Tech had another significant win over the Clemson Tigers on October 29 , 2011 at Bobby Dodd Stadium . Clemson was ranked nationally No. 5 at the time , and the Tigers suffered their first defeat of the season at the hands of the Yellow Jackets . Tevin Washington led the Yellow Jackets to a 31 – 17 upset victory by rushing for 176 yards on 27 carries and a touchdown , which was the most rushing yards ever by a Georgia Tech quarterback . In addition , Clemson 's offense was almost completely shutdown by Georgia Tech 's defense in the first half , and the Tigers were plagued by turnovers , which contributed to the win for the Yellow Jackets .
In 2012 , Georgia Tech was declared the winner of the ACC Coastal Division on November 19 , 2012 . Georgia Tech clinched the Coastal Division by beating Duke 42 – 24 and finished with 5 @-@ 3 league record . Georgia Tech played against Florida State in the 2012 ACC Championship Game on December 1 in Charlotte , which was coach Paul Johnson ’ s second appearance in the title game . The Yellow Jackets lost to the Seminoles 21 – 15 .
The 2014 Yellow Jackets , despite being predicted to finish 5th in Coastal Division by ESPN , garnered a 10 @-@ 2 regular season record ( 6 @-@ 2 ACC ) , including wins over then No. 19 Clemson and No. 9 Georgia to finish the regular season ranked No. 11 by the College Football Playoff Committee . The highlight of the season came when Georgia Tech defeated the Bulldogs in Athens in an overtime game that featured numerous swings in momentum . After a couple of controversial calls that gave UGA the advantage , the Rambling Wreck fought back , staying with the Bulldogs . With 18 seconds left , the Yellow Jackets delivered 30 @-@ yard drive that ended up with Harrison Butker 's 53 @-@ yard field goal sending the game into overtime . After a 1 @-@ yard rushing touchdown by Georgia Tech RB Zack Laskey , the win was clinched by the Jackets when cornerback D.J. White intercepted UGA quarterback , Hutson Mason . Georgia Tech won the Atlantic Coast Conference Coastal Division and met No. 4 Florida State in the 2014 ACC Championship Game in Charlotte , NC , losing 37 @-@ 35 . The 2014 appearance marked Georgia Tech 's third ACC Championship Game in seven seasons under Paul Johnson . With the advent of the College Football Playoff , Florida State was chosen in the top four ( ranked No. 3 ) , under which circumstance the Orange Bowl selected Georgia Tech , now ranked No. 12 , as its replacement to face the No. 7 Mississippi State Bulldogs on December 31 , 2014 . In the orange bowl game , Justin Thomas led the Jackets to a dominating 49 @-@ 34 win over No. 7 Mississippi State . The Yellow Jackets finished the season 11 – 3 , No. 8 in AP poll and No. 7 in the American Coaches Poll .
= = Home stadium = =
The Yellow Jackets play their home games at Bobby Dodd Stadium at Historic Grant Field in Atlanta , Georgia . Upon his hiring in 1904 , John Heisman insisted that the Institute acquire its own football field . Grant Field was constructed to appease Heisman as well as bring a true home field advantage to Tech football .
From 1893 – 1912 , the team used area parks such as Brisbane Park , Ponce de Leon Park , and Piedmont Park as the home field . Georgia Tech took out a seven @-@ year lease on what is now the southern end of Grant Field , although the land was not adequate for sports , due to its unleveled , rocky nature . In 1905 , Heisman had 300 convict laborers clear rocks , remove tree stumps , and level out the field for play ; Tech students then built a grandstand on the property . The land was purchased by 1913 , and John W. Grant donated $ 15 @,@ 000 towards the construction of the field 's first permanent stands ; the field was named Grant Field in honor of the donor 's deceased son , Hugh Inman Grant .
The stadium now sits amongst a unique urban skyline and is the oldest Division I FBS football stadium . In fact , the only Division I stadiums older are Franklin Field at the University of Pennsylvania and Harvard Stadium . Grant Field was natural grass until 1971 . The astroturf was replaced by grass in 1995 . The stadium officially holds 55 @,@ 000 but has held up to 56 @,@ 412 in 2005 and 56 @,@ 680 in 2006 .
= = Logos and uniforms = =
The interlocking GT logo was created in 1967 at the request of Bobby Dodd . One of the varsity players was asked to design a logo for the helmets . Several variations of the design were submitted , including a yellow jacket design . The yellow jacket was not submitted because to make the insect look mean it would have to be stinging and therefore flying backwards . The interlocking GT was selected during the summer of 1967 and formalized into decals for the helmets . Over the years it became the official logo for Georgia Tech Athletics .
When head coach Paul Johnson was hired in 2008 , the Yellow Jackets adopted a new uniform style . One year later , the uniforms were altered to change the yellow to gold . A year after that , the uniforms were altered again . This time , the team adopted separate white uniforms for both home and away games , while retaining the previous styles ' navy and gold jerseys for occasions when the Yellow Jackets could not wear white at home .
= = Rivalries = =
Georgia – Georgia Tech 's fight songs and cheers are tailored to belittle the University of Georgia Bulldogs , and the perennial catch @-@ phrase for Georgia Tech fans for many decades has been " To Hell with Georgia " . Georgia Tech and the Univ. of Georgia have played each other in football over 100 times ( and hundreds more times in basketball , baseball , track and field , tennis , etc . ) and this rivalry has become known as Clean , Old @-@ Fashioned Hate . The annual football game is by far the most important game on the schedule for most Georgia Tech sports fans . The winner of this game takes home the Georgia State Governor 's Cup . Georgia Tech trails Georgia in the all @-@ time series 64 @-@ 40 @-@ 5 .
Auburn Tigers – The Yellow Jackets have played the Auburn University Tigers more than 80 times in football , and the series of football games between the two is the second @-@ oldest in the Southeast . Auburn Univ. or A.P.I. is by far Georgia Tech 's second @-@ most @-@ often played opponent in football . The rivalry is also intense in basketball , baseball , etc .
This rivalry lost some luster when the Georgia Tech Athletics discarded its membership in the Southeastern Conference in 1963 to become an independent institute . However , the Yellow Jackets continued their annual series of football games with the Auburn Tigers through 1987 , and with the University of Georgia though the present day . Georgia Tech and Auburn play football games in occasional years , and games in other sports regularly . Even though the Yellow Jackets have joined the Atlantic Coast Conference for all sports in recent decades , from a historical perspective , the Auburn Tigers are Georgia Tech 's second @-@ highest sports rivalry , behind only the Georgia Bulldogs . Georgia Tech trails Auburn in the all time series 41 @-@ 47 @-@ 4 , but beat Auburn at Tech 's Bobby Dodd Stadium in 2003 and in Auburn to open the 2005 season .
Clemson Tigers – The Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets and the Clemson Tigers have the fourth @-@ most @-@ played series in Georgia Tech football history . Clemson is Tech 's closest opponent , geographically , in the Atlantic Coast Conference . Also , in the ACC 's new two @-@ division arrangement , each team has one football opponent in the opposite division which has been selected as the two teams ' official cross @-@ division rival that they play every year . The Yellow Jackets and the Clemson Tigers are one of these six pairs . In addition to their geographical closeness and the Heisman connection , the Georgia Tech – Clemson pairing is also a logical one because of both schools ' long history in engineering , technology , and science education . Recently , the game has become known for last @-@ minute , extremely close finishes . From 1996 to 2001 , each of the six games was decided by exactly three points .
In 1977 ( before the Yellow Jackets had even joined the ACC ) , this football series was being considered for termination by the administration of Georgia Tech . Clemson football fans , in an effort to show their economic impact on the Atlanta , Ga . , area , brought with them to Atlanta large stockpiles of two @-@ dollar bills that were stamped with Clemson Tiger Paws . Georgia Tech leads Clemson in the all time series 50 @-@ 25 @-@ 2 .
Notre Dame – The Georgia Tech @-@ Notre Dame Fighting Irish football rivalry is infamous more for atrocious off @-@ the @-@ field behavior , rather than the actual games . Georgia Tech fans pelted the Notre Dame players , coaches , and visiting fans with fish and liquor bottles during the games played at Bobby Dodd Stadium during the 1960s and 1970s . One of the more noteworthy games was the 1980 3 – 3 slug fest at Grant Field during Bill Curry 's first season , when then No.1 ranked Notre Dame left Grant Field with its hopes for a national championship in ruins , and once again the visitors were pelted with fish . The football game in 1975 was made famous nationwide in the movie Rudy , in which the Notre Dame player Rudy Ruettiger tackles the Georgia Tech quarterback Rudy Allen . Georgia Tech trails Notre Dame in the all @-@ time series 27 – 6 – 1 . In 2015 , The Yellow Jackets will play the Fighting Irish on September 19 as part of a deal with Notre Dame and the Atlantic Coast Conference .
Virginia Tech- The Georgia Tech – Virginia Tech ( V.P.I. - Virginia Polytechnic Institute ) rivalry has grown considerably since Virginia Tech entered the ACC . In previous years , the teams played infrequently . The intra @-@ conference game has often seen both teams ranked and the outcome has played a key part in determining the winner of the ACC Coastal Division . Since the ACC switched to Division format in 2005 , the winner of this game has gone on to win the Coastal Division all but once , with VT winning seven times and GT winning three times . Dubbed the Battle of the Techs , the game has seen some very close , very intense match @-@ ups .
Tennessee – Georgia Tech and Tennessee haven 't met since 1987 but have scheduled a labor day game in Atlanta in 2017 that will renew the rivalry between the two . When Georgia Tech was part of the Southeastern Conference they played annually . After Georgia Tech left the SEC in 1964 , the teams still met until 1987 .
= = Traditions = =
Colors – Georgia Tech football features old gold and white uniforms with old gold helmets . Navy blue and black have been used as alternate jerseys . In 2006 , Georgia Tech featured a throwback jersey based on Bud Carson @-@ era uniforms . The jerseys were mustard gold and the helmets were white .
Songs – The fight songs for Georgia Tech are " Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech " and " Up With the White and Gold " . If Georgia Tech scores a touchdown , then both songs are played . If Georgia Tech only kicks a field goal , " Ramblin ' Wreck " is played . For some big plays , a shortened version of either song is played .
Nicknames – Georgia Tech football teams have had several nicknames over the years including the " Blacksmiths " , the " Engineers " , the " Golden Tornado " , or just the " Techs " . Officially , the teams are called the " Yellow Jackets " or the " Ramblin ' Wreck " .
Mascots – The " Ramblin ' Wreck " and the yellow jacket " Buzz " are the mascots of Georgia Tech football . The " Ramblin ' Wreck " is a 1930 Ford Model A Sports Coupe , and it has led the football team on to Grant Field every game since September 30 , 1961 . " Buzz " began pacing the sidelines of Grant Field as a mischievous anthropomorphized yellow jacket during the 1970s . " Buzz " was ranked the number three top mascot in all of college football by " America 's Best " and the " Top Ten " Web site .
Yellow Jacket Alley – " Yellow Jacket Alley " is an event staged before every game . It is a players ' walk in which the team and coaches walk from the buses to the stadium , and the fans surround and cheer the walking players .
Steam Whistle – An industrial steam whistle has been present on Georgia Tech 's campus ever since the early industrial shop years . It typically was blown for the change of classes at five minutes before the hour . On football game days , the whistle is blown after every Yellow Jackets ' score , and again after every Yellow Jackets ' victory .
Student Section – The student sections for the Yellow Jackets ' home football games are primarily located in the North and South End Zones of Grant Field . Until the 2011 season , Flash Card displays were performed by the student section every football season since 1957 . A semi @-@ official student cheering section called the " Swarm " is located in the North End Zone adjacent to the marching band . The Swarm began in 1996 .
RAT Caps - Incoming Georgia Tech freshmen are referred to as RATs , which stands for Recruits At Tech , although in recent years the Student Government has begun incorrectly using Recently Acquired Tech Students . A RAT is encouraged to wear the gold colored beanie caps with the front bill worn turned up and bearing the students name , hometown , major , class year and the letters " RAT " . A RAT should record the scores of each football game on the sides of their RAT Cap , written right side up for victories , upside down for losses , and sideways for ties . A RAT should write the " Good Word " on their caps : " To HELL with georgia " . It is the responsibility of a RAT to know the fight songs , the Alma Mater , all of the cheers and the " Good Word " . Before ACC conference regulations prohibited the practice , upperclassmen ordered " RATs on the field " before each home game , and RATs would line up in the end zone along both sides of the entry way from the locker room forming an alley way for the Ramblin ' Wreck to drive through leading the team out onto the field . The ACC forced an end to this tradition after the 1980 season . The RAT cap tradition is most strictly observed by members of the marching band .
Marching Band - Even though Georgia Tech is a high @-@ ranking Institute of Technology , and not a college of the arts and humanities , it still fields a 300 + member marching band at all home football games and Bowl Games . A smaller Pep Band attends road games which the full band doesn 't attend . Among other songs , the Yellow Jacket Marching Band always plays the Georgia Tech fight songs and the Alma Mater , and in addition , it plays " When You Say Budweiser , You 've Said It All " at the completion of the third quarter .
= = Team achievements = =
Georgia Tech Yellow Jacket football has been ranked as the 18th most prestigious college football program in American history by ESPN U.
= = = National championships = = =
= = = Conference championships = = =
= = = Divisional championships = = =
= = = Bowl games = = =
Georgia Tech has appeared in 41 bowl games and ranks ninth in all time bowl wins with 23 . Georgia Tech 's first four bowl game appearances , the Rose Bowl ( 1929 ) , Orange Bowl , Cotton Bowl Classic , and Sugar Bowl , marked the first time a team had competed in all four of the Major Bowl Games .
= = Individual achievements = =
= = = Heisman Trophy finalists = = =
Georgia Tech has had several players receive votes in the Heisman Trophy balloting . Eddie Prokop finished fifth in the 1943 Heisman voting , Lenny Snow finished 14th in the 1966 voting , Eddie Lee Ivery finished 8th in the 1978 voting , and Calvin Johnson finished 10th in the 2006 voting . Billy Lothridge is the only Tech player to receive votes in multiple years . He was 8th in 1962 and runner @-@ up in 1963 . Clint Castleberry was the only freshman in the history of the Heisman to finish as high as third until Herschel Walker 's third @-@ place finish in 1980 . Castleberry and Walker , however , were both surpassed in 2004 by true freshman Adrian Peterson 's Heisman runner @-@ up season . Joe Hamilton tied Lothridge 's runner @-@ up status in 1999 .
= = = All @-@ Americans = = =
Georgia Tech has fielded 50 First Team All @-@ Americans . The first All @-@ Americans at Tech were Walker Carpenter and Everett Strupper in 1917 while the most recent were Durant Brooks in 2007 , Michael Johnson in 2008 , and Derrick Morgan in 2009 , and Shaquille Mason in 2014 .
= = = Position award winners = = =
Three Georgia Tech players have been awarded the highest collegiate award possible for their position . Joe Hamilton won the Davey O 'Brien Award after his senior season in 1999 , Calvin Johnson won the Fred Biletnikoff Award after his junior season in 2006 , and Durant Brooks won the Ray Guy Award in 2007 . Hamilton and Johnson were the only Tech players to be named ACC Player of the Year until Jonathan Dwyer received the honor in 2008 .
= = = Post @-@ collegiate accolades = = =
Georgia Tech has had three coaches and thirteen players inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame just down the street in Atlanta , Georgia . Coaches Heisman , Alexander , and Dodd were inducted in the 1954 , 1951 , and 1993 classes respectively .
Georgia Tech has over 150 alumni that have played in the National Football League . Tech has had ten players selected in the first round of the NFL draft since its inception in 1937 . The first Georgia Tech player ever to be drafted was Middleton Fitzsimmons in 1937 . He was drafted 2nd in the 10th round by the Chicago Bears . The first Tech player selected in the first round was Eddie Prokop in 1945 and the most recent first round Yellow Jackets were Demaryius Thomas and Derrick Morgan in 2010 .
Two Yellow Jackets have been inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame . Joe Guyon played professional football from 1920 @-@ 1927 . Guyon was a collegiate teammate of Jim Thorpe at Carlisle Indian Industrial School before transferring to Georgia Tech . His playing career began with the Canton Bulldogs and finished with the New York Giants . He was inducted into the Hall of Fame in the class of 1966 . Billy Shaw played professional football for the Buffalo Bills from 1961 @-@ 1969 . He was inducted into the Hall of Fame in the class of 1999 .
= = Future non @-@ conference opponents = =
Announced schedules as of March 31 , 2016
= = Endnotes = =
= Spanish Texas =
Spanish Texas was one of the interior provinces of the Spanish colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain from 1690 until 1821 .
= = History = =
Spain had claimed ownership of the territory , which comprised part of the present @-@ day U.S. state of Texas , including the land north of the Medina and Nueces Rivers , but did not attempt to colonize the area until after locating evidence of the failed French colony of Fort Saint Louis in 1689 . In 1690 , Alonso de León escorted several Catholic missionaries to east Texas , where they established the first mission in Texas . When native tribes resisted the Spanish invasion of their homeland , the missionaries returned to Mexico , abandoning Texas for the next two decades .
The Spanish returned to southeastern Texas in 1716 , establishing several missions and a presidio to maintain a buffer between Spanish territory and the French colonial Louisiana district of New France . Two years later in 1718 , the first civilian settlement in Texas , San Antonio , was established as a way station between the missions and the next @-@ nearest existing settlement . The new town quickly became a target for raids by the Lipan Apache .
The raids continued periodically for almost three decades , until in 1749 when Spanish settlers and the Lipan Apache peoples made peace . But the treaty angered the enemies of the Apache , and resulted in raids on Spanish settlements by the Comanche , Tonkawa , and Hasinai tribes . Fear of Indian attacks and the remoteness of the area from the rest of the Viceroyalty discouraged settlers from moving to Texas . It remained one of the least @-@ populated by immigrants provinces . The threat of attacks did not decrease until 1785 , when Spain and the Comanche peoples made a peace agreement . The Comanche tribe later assisted in defeating the Lipan Apache and Karankawa tribes , who had continued to cause difficulties for settlers . An increase in the number of missions in the province allowed for a peaceful Indian reductions of other tribes , and by the end of the 18th century , only a few of the nomadic hunting and gathering tribes in the area had not been converted .
France formally relinquished its claim to its region of Texas in 1762 , when French Louisiana was ceded to the Spanish Empire . The inclusion of Spanish Louisiana into New Spain meant that Texas was no longer essentially a buffer province . The easternmost Texas settlements were disbanded , with the population relocating to San Antonio . However , in 1799 Spain gave Louisiana back to France , and in 1803 Napoléon Bonaparte ( and France ) sold the territory , known as the Louisiana Purchase , to the United States . U.S. President Thomas Jefferson insisted that the purchase included all land to the east of the Rocky Mountains and to the north of the Rio Grande , although its large southwestern expanse was within New Spain . The dispute was not resolved until the Adams – Onís Treaty compromise in 1819 , when Spain ceded Spanish Florida to the United States in return for recognition of the Sabine River as the eastern boundary of Spanish Texas and western boundary of the Missouri Territory . The U.S. claims on the vast Spanish territories west of the Sabine River into Santa Fe de Nuevo México province ( New Mexico ) .
During the Mexican War of Independence from 1810 – 1821 , Texas experienced much turmoil . Governor Manuel María de Salcedo was overthrown by rebels in 1810 , but persuaded his jailer to release him and assist him in organizing a counter @-@ coup . Three years later , the Republican Army of the North , consisting primarily of Indians and Americans , again overthrew the Texas government and executed Salcedo . The Spanish response was brutal , and by 1820 fewer than 2000 Hispanic citizens remained in Texas . Spain was forced to relinquish its control of New Spain in 1821 , with Texas becoming a province of the newly formed nation of Mexico , leading to the period in Texas history known as Mexican Texas .
The Spanish left a deep mark on Texas . Their European livestock caused mesquite to spread inland while farmers tilled and irrigated the land , changing the landscape forever . The Spanish language provided the names for many of the rivers , towns , and counties that currently exist , and Spanish architectural concepts still flourish . Although Texas eventually adopted much of the Anglo @-@ American legal system , many Spanish legal practices were retained , including the concept of a homestead exemption and community property .
= = Location = =
Spanish Texas ( Tejas ) was a colonial province within the northeastern mainland region of the Viceroyalty of New Spain . On its southern edge , Tejas was bordered by the province of Coahuila . The boundary between the provinces was set at the line formed by the Medina River and the Nueces River , 100 miles ( 161 km ) northeast of the Rio Grande . On the east , Texas bordered La Louisiane ( French Louisiana ) . Although Spain claimed that the Red River formed the boundary between the two , France insisted that the border was the Sabine River , 45 miles ( 72 km ) to the west . After Mexican independence from Spain , it was within Coahuila y Tejas from 1824 to 1835 .
= = Initial colonization attempts = =
Although Alonso Álvarez de Pineda claimed Texas for Spain in 1519 , the area was largely ignored by Spain until the late seventeenth century . In 1685 , the Spanish learned that France had established a colony in the area between New Spain and Florida . Believing the French colony was a threat to Spanish mines and shipping routes , Spanish King Carlos II 's Council of War recommended that " Spain needed swift action ' to remove this thorn which has been thrust into the heart of America . The greater the delay the greater the difficulty of attainment . ' " Having no idea where to find the French colony , the Spanish launched ten expeditions — both land and sea — over the next three years . While unable to fulfill their original goal of locating the French settlement , the expeditions did provide Spain a deeper understanding of the geography of the Gulf Coast region . The last expedition , in 1689 , discovered a French deserter living in southern Texas with the Coahuiltecans . In April 1689 , the Frenchman helped guide the Spanish , under Alonso de León , to Fort Saint Louis , which had been destroyed by Karankawa Indians . De León 's expedition also met representatives of the Caddo people , who lived between the Trinity and the Red Rivers . The Caddo expressed interest in learning about Christianity .
De León sent a report of his findings to Mexico City , where it " created instant optimism and quickened religious fervor " . The Spanish government was convinced that the destruction of the French fort was " proof of God 's ' divine aid and favor ' " . In his report de León recommended that presidios be established along the Rio Grande , the Frio River , and the Guadalupe River and that missions be established among the Hasinai Indians , whom the Spanish called the Tejas , in East Texas . In Castilian Spanish , this was often written as the phonetic equivalent Texas , which became the name of the future province .
= = = Missions = = =
The viceroy approved the establishment of a mission but rejected the idea of presidios , primarily because New Spain was chronically short of funds . On March 26 , 1690 , Alonso de León set out with 110 soldiers and several missionaries . The group stopped first to burn Fort Saint Louis to the ground , and then they proceeded to East Texas . Mission San Francisco de los Tejas was completed near the Hasinai village of Nabedaches in late May , and its first mass was conducted on June 1 . The missionaries refused to allow the unruly soldiers to remain near the missions , and when de León returned to Mexico later that year , only 3 of his initial 110 soldiers remained to assist the monks . Father Damián Massanet , the priest in charge of the mission , left on June 2 to meet the tribes north of the mission before returning to Mexico to request an additional 14 priests and 7 lay brothers .
On January 23 , 1691 , Spain appointed the first governor of Texas , General Domingo Terán de los Ríos . Terán was ordered to help establish seven new missions , including two more among the Tejas Indians , four amongst the Kadohadachos , and one for the tribes near the Guadalupe River . He was only able to recruit 10 friars and 3 lay brothers . His expedition reached the existing mission in August , 1691 and discovered that the priests there had established a second mission , Santísimo Nombre de María , five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east of San Francisco de los Tejas . One of the priests had died , leaving two to operate the missions . The Indians regularly stole their cattle and horses and were becoming insolent . With provisions running low , Terán chose not to establish any more missions . When he left Texas later that year , most of the missionaries chose to return with him , leaving only 3 religious people and 9 soldiers at the missions .
The group also left a smallpox epidemic . The Indians had no natural immunity to the disease and at first blamed the outbreak on the baptismal waters . After thousands of natives had succumbed , the survivors rose up against the missions . In 1693 , the Caddo warned the Franciscan missionaries to leave the area or be killed . The missionaries buried the church bells and burned the mission , then returned to Mexico . Although this first Spanish attempt to settle Texas failed , it provided Spain an increased awareness of the terrain , rivers , and coastline of Texas and convinced the government that " even the most tractable of Indians " could only be converted " by a combination of coercion and persuasion " . For the next 20 years , Spain again ignored Texas .
= = Conflict with France = =
During the early eighteenth century France again provided the impetus for Spain 's interest in Texas . In 1699 , French forts were established at Biloxi Bay and on the Mississippi River , ending Spain 's exclusive control of the Gulf Coast . Although Spain " refused to concede France 's right to be in Louisiana " and warned King Louis XIV of France that he could be excommunicated for ignoring the 200 @-@ year @-@ old papal edict giving the Americas to Spain , they took no further actions to stop France 's encroachment or expand the Spanish presence . The two countries became allies during the War of the Spanish Succession and cooperated in the Americas . Despite their friendship , Spain remained unwilling to allow the French to trade within their territory . On hearing rumors of French incursions into Texas in 1707 , the viceroy of New Spain ordered all provincial governors to prevent the entry of foreigners and their goods . To dissuade the Tejas Indians from accepting goods from the French , a contingent of soldiers under Pedro de Aguirre traveled into Texas . His expedition reached only as far as the Colorado River and turned around after learning that the Tejas chief was still unhappy with the Spanish . The group did visit the area around the San Antonio River , and was much impressed with the land and availability of water . They believed the river to be unnamed and called it San Antonio de Padua , not realizing that Terán and Massanet had camped nearby years before on the feast day of Saint Anthony of Padua and had given the river the same name .
In 1711 , Franciscan missionary Francisco Hidalgo , who had served in the earlier Texas missions , wanted to reestablish missions with the Caddos . The Spanish government was unwilling to provide the funding and troops for the project , so Hidalgo approached the French governor of Louisiana , Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac for help . Cadillac was under orders to turn Louisiana into a profitable colony and believed that Spanish settlers closer to Louisiana could provide new trading opportunities . He sent Louis Juchereau de St. Denis , along with brothers Pierre and Robert Talon , who , as children , had been spared at the massacre of Fort Saint Louis , to find Hidalgo and offer assistance . In July 1714 , the French delegation reached the Spanish frontier , at that time around the Rio Grande , where Hidalgo was located . Although St. Denis was arrested and questioned , he was ultimately released . The Spanish recognized that the French could become a threat to other Spanish areas , and ordered the reoccupation of Texas as a buffer between French settlements in Louisiana and New Spain .
On April 12 , 1716 , an expedition led by Domingo Ramón left San Juan Bautista for Texas , intending to establish four missions and a presidio which would be guarded by twenty @-@ five soldiers . The party of 75 people included 3 children , 7 women , 18 soldiers , and 10 missionaries . These were the first recorded female settlers in Spanish Texas . After marrying a Spanish woman , St. Denis also joined the Spanish expedition .
The party reached the land of the Hasinai people in late June 1716 and was greeted warmly . On July 3 , mission San Francisco was reestablished as Mission Nuestro Padre San Francisco de los Tejas for the Neche Indians . Several days later , Mission Nuestra Señora de la Purísima Concepción was established at the main village of the Hainai , the head tribe of the Hasinai Confederacy , along the Angelina River . A third mission , Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe , was established 15 miles ( 24 km ) east of Purísima Concepción , at the main village of the Nacogdoche tribe , at what is now Nacogdoches . A final mission , San José de los Nazonis , was built among the Nazoni Indians just north of present @-@ day Cushing . A presidio , Nuestra Señora de los Dolores , was built opposite San Francisco de los Tejas .
During this period , the area was named " New Philippines " by the missionaries in the twin hopes of gaining royal patronage , and that the Spanish efforts would be as successful as in the Philippines a century and a half earlier . The alternate name persisted in use for about 40 years , but had virtually disappeared from use ( in favor of ' Texas ' ) by the end of the century . The name however persisted in documents , especially in land grants
At the same time , the French were building a fort in Natchitoches to establish a more westward presence . The Spanish countered by founding two more missions just west of Natchitoches , San Miguel de los Adaes and Dolores de los Ais . The missions were located in a disputed area ; France claimed the Sabine River to be the western boundary of Louisiana , while Spain claimed the Red River was the eastern boundary of Texas , leaving an overlap of 45 miles ( 72 km ) .
The new missions were over 400 miles ( 640 km ) from the nearest Spanish settlement , San Juan Bautista . It was difficult to reprovision the missions , and by 1718 the missionaries were in dire straits . Martín de Alarcón , who had been appointed governor of Texas in late 1716 , wished to establish a way station between the settlements along the Rio Grande and the new missions in East Texas . The Coahuiltecans had built a thriving community near the headwaters of the San Antonio River , in the area the Spanish had admired in 1707 . Alarcón led a group of 72 people , including 10 families , into Texas on April 9 , 1718 . They brought with them 548 horses , 6 droves of mules , and other livestock . On May 1 , the group created a temporary mud , brush and straw structure to serve as a mission , San Antonio de Valero , whose chapel was later known as the Alamo . The mission was initially populated with three to five Indians that one of the missionaries had raised since childhood . Alarcon built a presidio , San Antonio de Béxar one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the mission , . Alarcón also chartered the municipality of Béjar , now San Antonio . Given a status higher than a village ( pueblo ) but lower than a city ( ciudad ) , San Antonio became the only villa in Texas , and the colonists who settled there relied on farming and ranching to survive . With the new settlement established , Alarcón continued on to the East Texas missions , where he found evidence of much illicit trade with France .
The following year , the War of the Quadruple Alliance broke out , aligning Spain against France , England , the Dutch Republic , and Austria . The war was fought primarily over Italy , but England and France used the war as an excuse to attempt to take over Spanish interests in North America . In June 1719 , 7 Frenchmen from Natchitoches took control of Mission San Miguel de los Adaes from its sole defender , who did not know that the countries were at war . The French soldiers explained that 100 additional soldiers were coming , and the Spanish colonists , missionaries , and remaining soldiers abandoned the area and fled to San Antonio .
The Marquis of San Miguel de Aguayo volunteered to reconquer Texas and raised an army of 500 soldiers . Aguayo was named the governor of Coahuila and Texas and the responsibilities of his office delayed his trip to Texas by a year , until late 1720 . Just before he departed , the fighting in Europe halted , and King Felipe V of Spain ordered them not to invade Louisiana , but instead find a way to retake Eastern Texas without using force . The expedition brought with them over 2 @,@ 800 horses , 6 @,@ 400 sheep and many goats ; this constituted the first large " cattle " drive in Texas . This greatly increased the number of domesticated animals in Texas and marked the beginning of Spanish ranching in Texas .
In July 1721 , while approaching the Neches River , Aguayo 's expedition met St. Denis , who had returned to the French and was leading a raid on San Antonio . Realizing that he was badly outnumbered , St. Denis agreed to abandon East Texas and return to Louisiana . Aguayo then ordered the building of a new Spanish fort Nuestra Señora del Pilar de los Adaes , located near present @-@ day Robeline , Louisiana , only 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Natchitoches . The new fort became the first capital of Texas , and was guarded by 6 cannon and 100 soldiers . The six East Texas missions were reopened , and Presidio Dolores , now known as Presidio de los Tejas , was moved from the Neches River to a site near mission Purísima Concepción near the Angelina River . The Spaniards then built another fort , Presidio La Bahía del Espíritu Santo , known as La Bahía , on the site of the former French Fort St. Louis . Nearby they established a mission , Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga ( also known as La Bahía ) , for the Coco , Karankawa , and Cujane Indians . Ninety men were left at the garrison . Aguayo returned to Mexico City in 1722 and resigned his governorship . At the beginning of his expedition , Texas had consisted only of San Antonio and about 60 soldiers ; at his resignation , the province had grown to consist of 4 presidios , over 250 soldiers , 10 missions , and the small civilian town of San Antonio .
= = Settlement difficulties = =
Shortly after Aguayo returned to Mexico , the new viceroy of New Spain , Juan de Acuña , marqués de Casafuerte , was ordered to cut costs accrued for the defense of the northern part of the territory . Acuña appointed Colonel Pedro de Rivera y Villalón to inspect the entire northern frontier . Beginning in what is now California in November 1724 , Rivera spent the next three years inspecting the northern frontier , reaching San Antonio in August 1727 . His reports of Los Adaes , Presidio Nuestra Señora de Loreto , and the presidio at San Antonio were favorable , but he was unimpressed with Presidio de los Tejas , whose 25 soldiers were guarding empty missions . The native population had refused to congregate into communities around the missions and refused baptism unless they were on the brink of death . Because the Indians were well @-@ armed , the Franciscans were unable to compel them to join the missions . The frustrated missionaries finally petitioned the Spanish government for 50 soldiers to burn the Indians ' houses of worship and force them to build homes near the missions . No troops were forthcoming .
Rivera recommended closing Presidio de los Tejas and reducing the number of soldiers at the other presidios . His suggestions were approved in 1729 , and 125 troops were removed from Texas , leaving only 144 soldiers divided between Los Adaes , La Bahía , and San Antonio . The three East Texas missions which had depended on Presidio de los Tejas were relocated along the San Antonio River in May 1731 , increasing the number of missions in the San Antonio area to five . The San Antonio missions usually contained fewer than 300 Indians . Many of those who lived at the mission had nowhere else to go , and belonged to small tribes that have since become extinct .
Spain discouraged manufacturing in its colonies and limited trade to Spanish goods handled by Spanish merchants and carried on Spanish vessels . Most of the ports , including all of those in Texas , were closed to commercial vessels in the hopes of dissuading smugglers . By law , all goods bound for Texas had to be shipped to Veracruz and then transported over the mountains to Mexico City before being sent to Texas . This caused the goods to be very expensive in the Texas settlements . Settlers were often forced to turn to the French for supplies , as the fort at Natchitoches was well @-@ stocked and goods did not have to travel as far . Without many goods to trade , however , the remaining Spanish missionaries and colonists had little to offer the Indians , who remained loyal to the French traders .
= = = Apache raids = = =
The tribes traded freely , and soon many had acquired French guns , while others had traded for Spanish horses . Tribes without access to either resource were left at a disadvantage . The Lipan Apache , who had been seasonal farmers , were soon pressed by the Comanche , who had horses , and the Wichita , who had guns . The Apaches were bitter enemies of the Tejas of East Texas and had transferred their enmity to the Spanish as friends of the Tejas . After discovering San Antonio in 1720 , the Apache began repeatedly raiding the area to steal livestock , especially horses . An average of 3 Spaniards died each year in Texas as a result of Apache attacks , with approximately 100 animals taken each year . In retaliation , the Spanish launched multiple attacks on the Apaches , capturing horses and mules , hides and other plunder , and taking Apache captives , whom the Spanish used as household servants . By 1731 , however , the San Antonio garrison was begging the government for help in negotiating a peace with the tribes .
The Spanish government believed that settlers would defend their property , alleviating the need for some of the presidios . Texas was an unappealing prospect for most settlers , however , due to the armed nomadic tribes , high costs , and lack of precious metals . In 1731 , the Spanish government resettled 55 people , mostly women and children , from the Canary Islands to San Antonio . At that time , only 300 Hispanic settlers lived in San Antonio , with 200 others dispersed throughout the rest of the colony . The new immigrants began farming and renamed the town San Fernando de Béxar , establishing the first municipal , and only civilian , government in Texas . Juan Leal Goraz , the oldest of the settlers , was appointed the first councilman .
As the first settlers of the municipality , the Islanders and their descendants were designated hidalgos . The established settlers resented the Islanders for their new titles and exclusive privileges within the city government . The newcomers did not know how to handle horses , rendering them useless in mounted warfare against the Apaches . Unlike the established settlers , who relied on ranching , the Islanders were primarily farmers , and their refusal to build fences led to many disagreements when livestock trampled the fields . By the early 1740s , however , intermarriage and the need for closer economic ties had helped to alleviate some of the infighting , and the original settlers were given permission to serve as magistrates and council members .
The threat of Apache raids led to a constant state of unease in San Antonio , and some families left the area , while others refused to leave the safety of the town to tend their livestock . The problems culminated with a late @-@ night raid on San Antonio by 350 Apache on June 30 , 1745 , retaliation for a Spanish military campaign several months before . The attackers were repelled with the assistance of 100 Indians from Mission Valero . The Apache also preyed on other tribes , including the Deadose and Tonkawa . In the 1740s , these weaker tribes requested missions along the San Gabriel River in the hopes that the Spanish could protect them from attack . Mission San Francisco Xavier was established at the confluence of the San Gabriel River and Bushy Creek in January 1746 to serve the Deadose , Mayeye , and Coco Indians . In 1748 alone , the Apaches raided the mission four times , killing three soldiers and four of the Indian residents . Many of the resident Indians fled the mission due to the threat of attacks . This did not deter the missionaries , who founded two more missions , San Ildefonso and Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria , in the area the following year . Within six months , all of the potential converts at San Ildefonso had left . By 1755 , the missions were transferred to a new location on the San Marcos River .
= = = Missions for the Apache = = =
A peace was finally declared in August 1749 , when a group of Apache chiefs and Spanish officials " symbolically [ buried ] the trouble between the two parties " by burying weapons in the plaza at San Antonio . The Spanish also promised to provide military assistance to the Apache . The Lipan Apache had asked for missions several times , and in 1757 all property of the former San Gabriel missions , as well as the military garrison which briefly protected them , was transferred to new Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá along the San Saba River northwest of San Antonio . A log stockade was constructed three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the mission , on the other side of the river , so that the soldiers would not corrupt the Indians . The stockade could hold up to 400 including the 237 women and children who accompanied the soldiers .
Apaches shunned the mission , and on March 16 , 1758 , a band of Comanche , Tonkawa , and Hasinai tribes , angry that the Spaniards were assisting their enemies , pillaged and burned the mission , killing eight people . The San Sabá mission was the only Spanish mission in Texas to be completely destroyed by Indians , and it was never rebuilt . Although the Indian force had 2000 members , they chose not to attack the fort .
The Spanish government refused to abandon the area completely out of fear that such an action would make them appear weak . While they planned a response , Indians raided the San Saba horse herd , stealing all of the horses and pack mules and killing 20 soldiers . In October 1759 , Spain sent the San Sabá commander , Colonel Diego Ortiz Parrilla , on an expedition north to the Red River to avenge the attack . The tribes were forewarned and led Parrilla 's army to a fortified Wichita village , surrounded by a stockade and a moat , where natives brandished French guns and waved a French flag . After a skirmish in which 52 Spaniards were killed , wounded , or deserted , the Spanish retreated . The San Sabá presidio was replaced with a limestone fortress and a moat , but the Comanches and their allies remained close and killed any soldiers who ventured out . By 1769 , Spain abandoned the fort .
In 1762 , missionaries established two unauthorized missions south of San Sabá , in the Nueces River valley . For several years the Apache lived in the missions most of the year , but left in winter to hunt buffalo . One of the missions closed in 1763 , when the Apache never returned from their hunt . The surviving mission closed in January 1766 , after a force of 400 natives from the northern tribes attacked , killing 6 Apaches and taking 25 captives as well as all the livestock in the valley . Forty @-@ one Spanish troops and their small cannon ambushed the northern tribes as they returned to East Texas . Before the Spanish were forced to retreat , over 200 Indians and 12 Spanish soldiers died . After the battle , the Apache refused to return to the mission and returned to raiding near San Antonio . Raids by the northern tribes decreased , however .
= = Peace with France = =
Indians confirmed in 1746 that French traders periodically arrived by sea to trade with tribes in the lower Trinity River region . Eight years later , the Spanish learned of rumors that the French had opened a trading post at the mouth of the Trinity River . In September 1754 , the governor , Jacinto de Barrios y Jáuregui sent soldiers to investigate , and they captured five Frenchmen who had been living at an Indian village . To dissuade the French from returning , Spain built the presidio of San Agustín de Ahumada and the mission of Nuestra Señora de la Luz de Orcoquisac near the mouth of the Trinity at Galveston Bay . Conditions were awful at the new location , and both the presidio and the mission were closed in 1770 .
The Presidio La Bahía was moved from the Guadalupe River to Goliad on the San Antonio River in 1749 . Within five years , a new mission for the Karankawa tribes , Nuestra Señora del Rosario de los Cuhanes , was built upstream of the presidio . This mission survived for many years . Despite the new missions and presidios , Texas was one of the least populated provinces on the northern frontier of New Spain . By 1760 , almost 1 @,@ 200 Hispanic people lived in Texas , with half in San Antonio , 350 at Los Adaes , and 260 at La Bahía . Other Spaniards lived in what is now the El Paso area , but that was considered part of New Mexico and not part of Texas .
On November 3 , 1762 , as part of the Treaty of Fontainebleau , France ceded the portion of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to Spain . Spain had assisted France against Britain in the Seven Years ' War , and lost both Manila and Havana to the British . Although the Louisiana colony was a financial liability , King Carlos III of Spain reluctantly accepted it , as that meant France was finally ceding its claim to Texas . At the Treaty of Paris on February 10 , 1763 , Great Britain recognized Spain 's right to the lands west of the Mississippi . Great Britain received the remainder of France 's North American territories , and Spain exchanged some of their holdings in Florida for Havana .
With France no longer a threat to Spain 's North American interests , the Spanish monarchy commissioned the Marquis of Rubí to inspect all of the presidios on the northern frontier of New Spain and make recommendations for the future . Rubí 's two @-@ year journey , beginning in early 1766 , covered seven thousand miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) from the Gulf of California to East Texas . This was the first comprehensive look at the New Spain frontier since the 1720s , when Pedro de Rivera conducted his expedition . Rubí was unimpressed with the presidio at San Saba , which he declared to be the worst in the kingdom of New Spain . He recommended that only the presidios at San Antonio and La Bahía be maintained , and that East Texas be totally abandoned , with all population moving to San Antonio . With Louisiana in Spanish control , there was no need for Los Adaes to reside so closely to Natchitoches , especially after the missions had relocated to San Antonio . In August 1768 , the acting governor , Juan María Vicencio , Baron of Ripperdà , moved his headquarters and the garrison to San Antonio , and in 1772 San Antonio became the new Texas capital . Los Adaes was abandoned completely . The new governor also augmented the garrison at San Antonio to protect the town from recurring Indian attacks . A new presidio , Fuerte de Santa Cruz de Cibolo , was also established 40 miles ( 64 km ) southeast of San Antonio to protect farmers and ranchers from attacks .
As a result of Rubí 's recommendations , Presidio de San Agustín de Ahumada was closed in 1771 , leaving the Texas coast unoccupied except for La Bahía . In July 1772 , however , the governor of Texas heard rumors that English traders were building a settlement in the area of the Texas coast that had been abandoned . The commander of La Bahía was sent to find the settlement , but saw no sign of other Europeans . His expedition did , however , discover that the San Jacinto River emptied into Galveston Bay and not into the Gulf of Mexico .
= = = Founding of Nacogdoches = = =
The 500 Hispanic settlers who had lived near Los Adaes had to resettle in San Antonio in 1773 . In the six years between the inspection and the removal of the settlers , the immigrant population of East Texas had increased from 200 Europeans to 500 , a mixture of Spanish , French , Indians , and a few blacks . The settlers were given only five days to prepare to relocate to San Antonio . Many of them perished during the three @-@ month trek and others died soon after arriving .
After protesting , they were permitted in the following year to return to East Texas , but only as far as the Trinity River , 175 miles ( 282 km ) from Natchitoches . Led by Antonio Gil Y 'Barbo , the settlers founded the town of Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Bucareli " where the trail from San Antonio to Los Adaes crossed the Trinity . " The settlers helped smuggle contraband goods from Louisiana to San Antonio , and also helped the soldiers with coastal reconnaissance .
In May 1776 , King Carlos III created a new position , the Comandancia General of the Commandancy General of the Internal Provinces of the North ( Provincias Internas ) , to control frontier areas across northern New Spain , including Spanish Texas . The first appointee , Teodoro de Croix , served as governor and commander in chief of the area from 1776 until 1783 . As de Croix prepared to take office , his predecessor , Baron of Ripperdà , wrote a detailed report , dated April 27 , 1777 , of the settlements in Texas . One @-@ third of the report detailed the village of Bucareli , which he labeled as " ' of the greatest importance as a means of acquiring reports of a coast as extensive as it is uninhabited . ' " The Bucareli settlers regularly performed coastal explorations and developed a friendship with the Bidai tribe , who reported any signs of foreigners along the coast . In the summer of 1777 , Gil Ybarbo discovered that a group of Englishmen had come from the sea and stayed long enough to plant a crop near the Neches River . He led an expedition to find the Englishmen , but , although they discovered the fields , the expedition did not find any of the settlers .
In 1779 , the Comanches began raiding the Bucareli area , and the settlers chose to move further east to the old mission of Nacogdoches , where they founded the town of the same name . The new town quickly became a waystation for contraband . The settlers did not have authorization to move , and no troops were assigned to protect the new location until 1795 .
= = Conflict with the Native Americans = =
= = = Karankawa difficulties = = =
In 1776 , Indians at the Bahia missions told the soldiers that the Karankawas had massacred a group of Europeans who had been shipwrecked near the mouth of the Guadalupe River . After finding the remains of an English commercial frigate , the soldiers warned the Karankawa to refrain from attacking seamen . The soldiers continued to explore the coast , and reported that foreign powers could easily build a small settlement on the barrier islands , which were difficult to access from the mainland , and then ascend the Trinity or San Jacinto Rivers into the heart of Texas . Captain Luis Cazorla , the commander of the La Bahía presidio , recommended that Spain build a small fort on the barrier islands and provide a shallow @-@ draft vessel to continually reconnoiter the coast . The fort would be both a deterrent to the more bloodthirsty tribes and to the English . The Spanish government , fearful of smuggling , declined to give permission for a port or a boat on the Texas coast .
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25 percent casualties during the engagement .
After participating in the Battle of Spotsylvania , Edwards was promoted to command of the 4th Brigade , 2nd Division of the VI Corps . Edwards commanded this unit during the remainder of the Overland Campaign including such engagements as the Battle of North Anna and the Battle of Cold Harbor .
After the close of the Overland Campaign , in July 1864 , Edwards 's brigade was re @-@ organized and became the 3rd Brigade , 1st Division of the VI Corps . Three divisions of the VI Corps were then transferred to the command of Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley and took part in the Valley Campaigns of the summer and fall of 1864 .
The turning point in this campaign for the Union Army came during the Battle of Opequon at Winchester , Virginia on September 19 , 1864 . During this engagement , Edwards was temporarily promoted to the command of the 1st Division of the VI Corps and performed well , earning the attention of Maj. Gen. Sheridan . Subsequently , Sheridan appointed Edwards the commandant of Winchester . On December 12 , 1864 , President Abraham Lincoln nominated Edwards for the award of the honorary grade of brevet brigadier general , United States Volunteers , to rank from October 19 , 1864 , for gallantry at the Battle of Spotsylvania and at the Battle of Opequon ( Third Winchester ) . The U.S. Senate confirmed the award on February 14 , 1865 . When Sheridan embarked on his southward offensive through the Shenandoah Valley in October 1864 , he asked Edwards to become his provost marshal general . However , Edwards preferred to retain command of his brigade and to return to the Army of the Potomac .
Edwards and his brigade returned to the Army of the Potomac in the midst of the long Siege of Petersburg . During the Third Battle of Petersburg on April 2 , 1865 , Edwards 's brigade was the first Union unit to break through the Confederate works outside Petersburg . After the Confederates had evacuated their fortifications , Edwards personally received the surrender of the city from the mayor of Petersburg .
On May 19 , 1865 , President Andrew Johnson nominated Edwards to the full grade of brigadier general , United States Volunteers , to rank from May 19 , 1865 . However , the President did not present the nomination of Edwards for the promotion to the U. S. Senate until January 13 , 1866 . Although Edwards had been mustered out of the U.S. Volunteers on January 15 , 1866 , the Senate confirmed the promotion on February 23 , 1866 . On July 9 , 1866 , President Andrew Johnson nominated Edwards for the award of the honorary grade of brevet major general , United States Volunteers , to rank from April 5 , 1865 , for capturing Confederate Lieutenant General Richard S. Ewell , Major General Custis Lee , ( son of Robert E. Lee ) , who was captured by David Dunnels White of the 37th Massachusetts Regiment , which was part of Oliver Edwards ' command , and an entire brigade of Confederate soldiers at the Battle of Sayler 's Creek , Virginia during the Appomattox Campaign . The U.S. Senate confirmed the award on July 23 , 1866 .
After the close of the war , Edwards continued his service in the army for the remainder of 1865 and was offered a permanent position in the Regular Army . He declined , however , resigned his commission on January 15 , 1866 and was mustered out that day .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
After the war , Edwards returned to Warsaw , Illinois and his wife , Ann Eliza Johnston Edwards , whom he had married in September 1863 when on leave from the army . They had two children , John E. Edwards and Julia Katherine Edwards . He spent three years as postmaster in Warsaw and then returned to Massachusetts to continue his career in manufacturing .
In 1870 , Edwards was hired by the Florence Machine Company in Northampton , Massachusetts and eventually became general superintendent of the company . During this time , Edwards patented a number of inventions including the Florence ice skate and the Florence oil stove . He resigned his position with the Florence Machine Company in 1875 and returned to Warsaw where he went into early retirement for several years . His plans changed , however , when he was offered the position of general manager of the Gardner Machine and Gun Company in England in 1882 . The company manufactured Gardner guns , which had been invented in the United States but the rights to which were purchased by the British Army . Edwards managed the company for a few years , however poor health required him to resign and return to Warsaw and retirement .
His remaining years were spent pursuing leisure interests and also supporting various organizations such as the Grand Army of the Republic . Edwards died in Warsaw on April 28 , 1904 .
= Mathematical economics =
Mathematical economics is the application of mathematical methods to represent theories and analyze problems in economics . By convention , the applied methods refer to those beyond simple geometry , such as differential and integral calculus , difference and differential equations , matrix algebra , mathematical programming , and other computational methods . An advantage claimed for the approach is its allowing formulation of theoretical relationships with rigor , generality , and simplicity .
Mathematics allows economists to form meaningful , testable propositions about wide @-@ ranging and complex subjects which could less easily be expressed informally . Further , the language of mathematics allows economists to make specific , positive claims about controversial or contentious subjects that would be impossible without mathematics . Much of economic theory is currently presented in terms of mathematical economic models , a set of stylized and simplified mathematical relationships asserted to clarify assumptions and implications .
Broad applications include :
optimization problems as to goal equilibrium , whether of a household , business firm , or policy maker
static ( or equilibrium ) analysis in which the economic unit ( such as a household ) or economic system ( such as a market or the economy ) is modeled as not changing
comparative statics as to a change from one equilibrium to another induced by a change in one or more factors
dynamic analysis , tracing changes in an economic system over time , for example from economic growth .
Formal economic modeling began in the 19th century with the use of differential calculus to represent and explain economic behavior , such as utility maximization , an early economic application of mathematical optimization . Economics became more mathematical as a discipline throughout the first half of the 20th century , but introduction of new and generalized techniques in the period around the Second World War , as in game theory , would greatly broaden the use of mathematical formulations in economics .
This rapid systematizing of economics alarmed critics of the discipline as well as some noted economists . John Maynard Keynes , Robert Heilbroner , Friedrich Hayek and others have criticized the broad use of mathematical models for human behavior , arguing that some human choices are irreducible to mathematics .
= = History = =
The use of mathematics in the service of social and economic analysis dates back to the 17th century . Then , mainly in German universities , a style of instruction emerged which dealt specifically with detailed presentation of data as it related to public administration . Gottfried Achenwall lectured in this fashion , coining the term statistics . At the same time , a small group of professors in England established a method of " reasoning by figures upon things relating to government " and referred to this practice as Political Arithmetick . Sir William Petty wrote at length on issues that would later concern economists , such as taxation , Velocity of money and national income , but while his analysis was numerical , he rejected abstract mathematical methodology . Petty 's use of detailed numerical data ( along with John Graunt ) would influence statisticians and economists for some time , even though Petty 's works were largely ignored by English scholars .
The mathematization of economics began in earnest in the 19th century . Most of the economic analysis of the time was what would later be called classical economics . Subjects were discussed and dispensed with through algebraic means , but calculus was not used . More importantly , until Johann Heinrich von Thünen 's The Isolated State in 1826 , economists did not develop explicit and abstract models for behavior in order to apply the tools of mathematics . Thünen 's model of farmland use represents the first example of marginal analysis . Thünen 's work was largely theoretical , but he also mined empirical data in order to attempt to support his generalizations . In comparison to his contemporaries , Thünen built economic models and tools , rather than applying previous tools to new problems .
Meanwhile , a new cohort of scholars trained in the mathematical methods of the physical sciences gravitated to economics , advocating and applying those methods to their subject , and described today as moving from geometry to mechanics . These included W.S. Jevons who presented paper on a " general mathematical theory of political economy " in 1862 , providing an outline for use of the theory of marginal utility in political economy . In 1871 , he published The Principles of Political Economy , declaring that the subject as science " must be mathematical simply because it deals with quantities . " Jevons expected the only collection of statistics for price and quantities would permit the subject as presented to become an exact science . Others preceded and followed in expanding mathematical representations of economic problems .
= = = Marginalists and the roots of neoclassical economics = = =
Augustin Cournot and Léon Walras built the tools of the discipline axiomatically around utility , arguing that individuals sought to maximize their utility across choices in a way that could be described mathematically . At the time , it was thought that utility was quantifiable , in units known as utils . Cournot , Walras and Francis Ysidro Edgeworth are considered the precursors to modern mathematical economics .
= = = = Augustin Cournot = = = =
Cournot , a professor of mathematics , developed a mathematical treatment in 1838 for duopoly — a market condition defined by competition between two sellers . This treatment of competition , first published in Researches into the Mathematical Principles of Wealth , is referred to as Cournot duopoly . It is assumed that both sellers had equal access to the market and could produce their goods without cost . Further , it assumed that both goods were homogeneous . Each seller would vary her output based on the output of the other and the market price would be determined by the total quantity supplied . The profit for each firm would be determined by multiplying their output and the per unit Market price . Differentiating the profit function with respect to quantity supplied for each firm left a system of linear equations , the simultaneous solution of which gave the equilibrium quantity , price and profits . Cournot 's contributions to the mathematization of economics would be neglected for decades , but eventually influenced many of the marginalists . Cournot 's models of duopoly and Oligopoly also represent one of the first formulations of non @-@ cooperative games . Today the solution can be given as a Nash equilibrium but Cournot 's work preceded modern game theory by over 100 years .
= = = = Léon Walras = = = =
While Cournot provided a solution for what would later be called partial equilibrium , Léon Walras attempted to formalize discussion of the economy as a whole through a theory of general competitive equilibrium . The behavior of every economic actor would be considered on both the production and consumption side . Walras originally presented four separate models of exchange , each recursively included in the next . The solution of the resulting system of equations ( both linear and non @-@ linear ) is the general equilibrium . At the time , no general solution could be expressed for a system of arbitrarily many equations , but Walras 's attempts produced two famous results in economics . The first is Walras ' law and the second is the principle of tâtonnement . Walras ' method was considered highly mathematical for the time and Edgeworth commented at length about this fact in his review of Éléments d 'économie politique pure ( Elements of Pure Economics ) .
Walras ' law was introduced as a theoretical answer to the problem of determining the solutions in general equilibrium . His notation is different from modern notation but can be constructed using more modern summation notation . Walras assumed that in equilibrium , all money would be spent on all goods : every good would be sold at the market price for that good and every buyer would expend their last dollar on a basket of goods . Starting from this assumption , Walras could then show that if there were n markets and n @-@ 1 markets cleared ( reached equilibrium conditions ) that the nth market would clear as well . This is easiest to visualize with two markets ( considered in most texts as a market for goods and a market for money ) . If one of two markets has reached an equilibrium state , no additional goods ( or conversely , money ) can enter or exit the second market , so it must be in a state of equilibrium as well . Walras used this statement to move toward a proof of existence of solutions to general equilibrium but it is commonly used today to illustrate market clearing in money markets at the undergraduate level .
Tâtonnement ( roughly , French for groping toward ) was meant to serve as the practical expression of Walrasian general equilibrium . Walras abstracted the marketplace as an auction of goods where the auctioneer would call out prices and market participants would wait until they could each satisfy their personal reservation prices for the quantity desired ( remembering here that this is an auction on all goods , so everyone has a reservation price for their desired basket of goods ) .
Only when all buyers are satisfied with the given market price would transactions occur . The market would " clear " at that price — no surplus or shortage would exist . The word tâtonnement is used to describe the directions the market takes in groping toward equilibrium , settling high or low prices on different goods until a price is agreed upon for all goods . While the process appears dynamic , Walras only presented a static model , as no transactions would occur until all markets were in equilibrium . In practice very few markets operate in this manner .
= = = = Francis Ysidro Edgeworth = = = =
Edgeworth introduced mathematical elements to Economics explicitly in Mathematical Psychics : An Essay on the Application of Mathematics to the Moral Sciences , published in 1881 . He adopted Jeremy Bentham 's felicific calculus to economic behavior , allowing the outcome of each decision to be converted into a change in utility . Using this assumption , Edgeworth built a model of exchange on three assumptions : individuals are self @-@ interested , individuals act to maximize utility , and individuals are " free to recontract with another independently of ... any third party . "
Given two individuals , the set of solutions where the both individuals can maximize utility is described by the contract curve on what is now known as an Edgeworth Box . Technically , the construction of the two @-@ person solution to Edgeworth 's problem was not developed graphically until 1924 by Arthur Lyon Bowley . The contract curve of the Edgeworth box ( or more generally on any set of solutions to Edgeworth 's problem for more actors ) is referred to as the core of an economy .
Edgeworth devoted considerable effort to insisting that mathematical proofs were appropriate for all schools of thought in economics . While at the helm of The Economic Journal , he published several articles criticizing the mathematical rigor of rival researchers , including Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman , a noted skeptic of mathematical economics . The articles focused on a back and forth over tax incidence and responses by producers . Edgeworth noticed that a monopoly producing a good that had jointness of supply but not jointness of demand ( such as first class and economy on an airplane , if the plane flies , both sets of seats fly with it ) might actually lower the price seen by the consumer for one of the two commodities if a tax were applied . Common sense and more traditional , numerical analysis seemed to indicate that this was preposterous . Seligman insisted that the results Edgeworth achieved were a quirk of his mathematical formulation . He suggested that the assumption of a continuous demand function and an infinitesimal change in the tax resulted in the paradoxical predictions . Harold Hotelling later showed that Edgeworth was correct and that the same result ( a " diminution of price as a result of the tax " ) could occur with a discontinuous demand function and large changes in the tax rate .
= = Modern mathematical economics = =
From the later @-@ 1930s , an array of new mathematical tools from the differential calculus and differential equations , convex sets , and graph theory were deployed to advance economic theory in a way similar to new mathematical methods earlier applied to physics . The process was later described as moving from mechanics to axiomatics .
= = = Differential calculus = = =
Vilfredo Pareto analyzed microeconomics by treating decisions by economic actors as attempts to change a given allotment of goods to another , more preferred allotment . Sets of allocations could then be treated as Pareto efficient ( Pareto optimal is an equivalent term ) when no exchanges could occur between actors that could make at least one individual better off without making any other individual worse off . Pareto 's proof is commonly conflated with Walrassian equilibrium or informally ascribed to Adam Smith 's Invisible hand hypothesis . Rather , Pareto 's statement was the first formal assertion of what would be known as the first fundamental theorem of welfare economics . These models lacked the inequalities of the next generation of mathematical economics .
In the landmark treatise Foundations of Economic Analysis ( 1947 ) , Paul Samuelson identified a common paradigm and mathematical structure across multiple fields in the subject , building on previous work by Alfred Marshall . Foundations took mathematical concepts from physics and applied them to economic problems . This broad view ( for example , comparing Le Chatelier 's principle to tâtonnement ) drives the fundamental premise of mathematical economics : systems of economic actors may be modeled and their behavior described much like any other system . This extension followed on the work of the marginalists in the previous century and extended it significantly . Samuelson approached the problems of applying individual utility maximization over aggregate groups with comparative statics , which compares two different equilibrium states after an exogenous change in a variable . This and other methods in the book provided the foundation for mathematical economics in the 20th century .
= = = Linear models = = =
Restricted models of general equilibrium were formulated by John von Neumann in 1937 . Unlike earlier versions , the models of von Neumann had inequality constraints . For his model of an expanding economy , von Neumann proved the existence and uniqueness of an equilibrium using his generalization of Brouwer 's fixed point theorem . Von Neumann 's model of an expanding economy considered the matrix pencil A - λ B with nonnegative matrices A and B ; von Neumann sought probability vectors p and q and a positive number λ that would solve the complementarity equation
pT ( A - λ B ) q = 0 @,@
along with two inequality systems expressing economic efficiency . In this model , the ( transposed ) probability vector p represents the prices of the goods while the probability vector q represents the " intensity " at which the production process would run . The unique solution λ represents the rate of growth of the economy , which equals the interest rate . Proving the existence of a positive growth rate and proving that the growth rate equals the interest rate were remarkable achievements , even for von Neumann . Von Neumann 's results have been viewed as a special case of linear programming , where von Neumann 's model uses only nonnegative matrices . The study of von Neumann 's model of an expanding economy continues to interest mathematical economists with interests in computational economics .
= = = = Input @-@ output economics = = = =
In 1936 , the Russian – born economist Wassily Leontief built his model of input @-@ output analysis from the ' material balance ' tables constructed by Soviet economists , which themselves followed earlier work by the physiocrats . With his model , which described a system of production and demand processes , Leontief described how changes in demand in one economic sector would influence production in another . In practice , Leontief estimated the coefficients of his simple models , to address economically interesting questions . In production economics , " Leontief technologies " produce outputs using constant proportions of inputs , regardless of the price of inputs , reducing the value of Leontief models for understanding economies but allowing their parameters to be estimated relatively easily . In contrast , the von Neumann model of an expanding economy allows for choice of techniques , but the coefficients must be estimated for each technology .
= = = Mathematical optimization = = =
In mathematics , mathematical optimization ( or optimization or mathematical programming ) refers to the selection of a best element from some set of available alternatives . In the simplest case , an optimization problem involves maximizing or minimizing a real function by selecting input values of the function and computing the corresponding values of the function . The solution process includes satisfying general necessary and sufficient conditions for optimality . For optimization problems , specialized notation may be used as to the function and its input ( s ) . More generally , optimization includes finding the best available element of some function given a defined domain and may use a variety of different computational optimization techniques .
Economics is closely enough linked to optimization by agents in an economy that an influential definition relatedly describes economics qua science as the " study of human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means " with alternative uses . Optimization problems run through modern economics , many with explicit economic or technical constraints . In microeconomics , the utility maximization problem and its dual problem , the expenditure minimization problem for a given level of utility , are economic optimization problems . Theory posits that consumers maximize their utility , subject to their budget constraints and that firms maximize their profits , subject to their production functions , input costs , and market demand .
Economic equilibrium is studied in optimization theory as a key ingredient of economic theorems that in principle could be tested against empirical data . Newer developments have occurred in dynamic programming and modeling optimization with risk and uncertainty , including applications to portfolio theory , the economics of information , and search theory .
Optimality properties for an entire market system may be stated in mathematical terms , as in formulation of the two fundamental theorems of welfare economics and in the Arrow – Debreu model of general equilibrium ( also discussed below ) . More concretely , many problems are amenable to analytical ( formulaic ) solution . Many others may be sufficiently complex to require numerical methods of solution , aided by software . Still others are complex but tractable enough to allow computable methods of solution , in particular computable general equilibrium models for the entire economy .
Linear and nonlinear programming have profoundly affected microeconomics , which had earlier considered only equality constraints . Many of the mathematical economists who received Nobel Prizes in Economics had conducted notable research using linear programming : Leonid Kantorovich , Leonid Hurwicz , Tjalling Koopmans , Kenneth J. Arrow , and Robert Dorfman , Paul Samuelson , and Robert Solow . Both Kantorovich and Koopmans acknowledged that George B. Dantzig deserved to share their Nobel Prize for linear programming . Economists who conducted research in nonlinear programming also have won the Nobel prize , notably Ragnar Frisch in addition to Kantorovich , Hurwicz , Koopmans , Arrow , and Samuelson .
= = = = Linear optimization = = = =
Linear programming was developed to aid the allocation of resources in firms and in industries during the 1930s in Russia and during the 1940s in the United States . During the Berlin airlift ( 1948 ) , linear programming was used to plan the shipment of supplies to prevent Berlin from starving after the Soviet blockade .
= = = = Nonlinear programming = = = =
Extensions to nonlinear optimization with inequality constraints were achieved in 1951 by Albert W. Tucker and Harold Kuhn , who considered the nonlinear optimization problem :
Minimize <formula> ( <formula> ) subject to <formula> i ( <formula> ) ≤ 0 and <formula> j ( <formula> )
= 0 where
<formula> ( . ) is the function to be minimized
<formula> i ( . ) ( <formula> =
1 , ... , <formula> ) are the functions of the <formula> inequality constraints
<formula> j ( . ) ( <formula> = 1 , ... , <formula> ) are the functions of the <formula> equality constraints .
In allowing inequality constraints , the Kuhn – Tucker approach generalized the classic method of Lagrange multipliers , which ( until then ) had allowed only equality constraints . The Kuhn – Tucker approach inspired further research on Lagrangian duality , including the treatment of inequality constraints . The duality theory of nonlinear programming is particularly satisfactory when applied to convex minimization problems , which enjoy the convex @-@ analytic duality theory of Fenchel and Rockafellar ; this convex duality is particularly strong for polyhedral convex functions , such as those arising in linear programming . Lagrangian duality and convex analysis are used daily in operations research , in the scheduling of power plants , the planning of production schedules for factories , and the routing of airlines ( routes , flights , planes , crews ) .
= = = = Variational calculus and optimal control = = = =
Economic dynamics allows for changes in economic variables over time , including in dynamic systems . The problem of finding optimal functions for such changes is studied in variational calculus and in optimal control theory . Before the Second World War , Frank Ramsey and Harold Hotelling used the calculus of variations to that end .
Following Richard Bellman 's work on dynamic programming and the 1962 English translation of L. Pontryagin et al . ' s earlier work , optimal control theory was used more extensively in economics in addressing dynamic problems , especially as to economic growth equilibrium and stability of economic systems , of which a textbook example is optimal consumption and saving . A crucial distinction is between deterministic and stochastic control models . Other applications of optimal control theory include those in finance , inventories , and production for example .
= = = = Functional analysis = = = =
It was in the course of proving of the existence of an optimal equilibrium in his 1937 model of economic growth that John von Neumann introduced functional analytic methods to include topology in economic theory , in particular , fixed @-@ point theory through his generalization of Brouwer 's fixed @-@ point theorem . Following von Neumann 's program , Kenneth Arrow and Gérard Debreu formulated abstract models of economic equilibria using convex sets and fixed – point theory . In introducing the Arrow – Debreu model in 1954 , they proved the existence ( but not the uniqueness ) of an equilibrium and also proved that every Walras equilibrium is Pareto efficient ; in general , equilibria need not be unique . In their models , the ( " primal " ) vector space represented quantitites while the " dual " vector space represented prices .
In Russia , the mathematician Leonid Kantorovich developed economic models in partially ordered vector spaces , that emphasized the duality between quantities and prices . Kantorovich renamed prices as " objectively determined valuations " which were abbreviated in Russian as " o. o. o . " , alluding to the difficulty of discussing prices in the Soviet Union .
Even in finite dimensions , the concepts of functional analysis have illuminated economic theory , particularly in clarifying the role of prices as normal vectors to a hyperplane supporting a convex set , representing production or consumption possibilities . However , problems of describing optimization over time or under uncertainty require the use of infinite – dimensional function spaces , because agents are choosing among functions or stochastic processes .
= = = Differential decline and rise = = =
John von Neumann 's work on functional analysis and topology in broke new ground in mathematics and economic theory . It also left advanced mathematical economics with fewer applications of differential calculus . In particular , general equilibrium theorists used general topology , convex geometry , and optimization theory more than differential calculus , because the approach of differential calculus had failed to establish the existence of an equilibrium .
However , the decline of differential calculus should not be exaggerated , because differential calculus has always been used in graduate training and in applications . Moreover , differential calculus has returned to the highest levels of mathematical economics , general equilibrium theory ( GET ) , as practiced by the " GET @-@ set " ( the humorous designation due to Jacques H. Drèze ) . In the 1960s and 1970s , however , Gérard Debreu and Stephen Smale led a revival of the use of differential calculus in mathematical economics . In particular , they were able to prove the existence of a general equilibrium , where earlier writers had failed , because of their novel mathematics : Baire category from general topology and Sard 's lemma from differential topology . Other economists associated with the use of differential analysis include Egbert Dierker , Andreu Mas @-@ Colell , and Yves Balasko . These advances have changed the traditional narrative of the history of mathematical economics , following von Neumann , which celebrated the abandonment of differential calculus .
= = = Game theory = = =
John von Neumann , working with Oskar Morgenstern on the theory of games , broke new mathematical ground in 1944 by extending functional analytic methods related to convex sets and topological fixed @-@ point theory to economic analysis . Their work thereby avoided the traditional differential calculus , for which the maximum – operator did not apply to non @-@ differentiable functions . Continuing von Neumann 's work in cooperative game theory , game theorists Lloyd S. Shapley , Martin Shubik , Hervé Moulin , Nimrod Megiddo , Bezalel Peleg influenced economic research in politics and economics . For example , research on the fair prices in cooperative games and fair values for voting games led to changed rules for voting in legislatures and for accounting for the costs in public – works projects . For example , cooperative game theory was used in designing the water distribution system of Southern Sweden and for setting rates for dedicated telephone lines in the USA .
Earlier neoclassical theory had bounded only the range of bargaining outcomes and in special cases , for example bilateral monopoly or along the contract curve of the Edgeworth box . Von Neumann and Morgenstern 's results were similarly weak . Following von Neumann 's program , however , John Nash used fixed – point theory to prove conditions under which the bargaining problem and noncooperative games can generate a unique equilibrium solution . Noncooperative game theory has been adopted as a fundamental aspect of experimental economics , behavioral economics , information economics , industrial organization , and political economy . It has also given rise to the subject of mechanism design ( sometimes called reverse game theory ) , which has private and public @-@ policy applications as to ways of improving economic efficiency through incentives for information sharing .
In 1994 , Nash , John Harsanyi , and Reinhard Selten received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences their work on non – cooperative games . Harsanyi and Selten were awarded for their work on repeated games . Later work extended their results to computational methods of modeling .
= = = Agent @-@ based computational economics = = =
Agent @-@ based computational economics ( ACE ) as a named field is relatively recent , dating from about the 1990s as to published work . It studies economic processes , including whole economies , as dynamic systems of interacting agents over time . As such , it falls in the paradigm of complex adaptive systems . In corresponding agent @-@ based models , agents are not real people but " computational objects modeled as interacting according to rules " ... " whose micro @-@ level interactions create emergent patterns " in space and time . The rules are formulated to predict behavior and social interactions based on incentives and information . The theoretical assumption of mathematical optimization by agents markets is replaced by the less restrictive postulate of agents with bounded rationality adapting to market forces .
ACE models apply numerical methods of analysis to computer @-@ based simulations of complex dynamic problems for which more conventional methods , such as theorem formulation , may not find ready use . Starting from specified initial conditions , the computational economic system is modeled as evolving over time as its constituent agents repeatedly interact with each other . In these respects , ACE has been characterized as a bottom @-@ up culture @-@ dish approach to the study of the economy . In contrast to other standard modeling methods , ACE events are driven solely by initial conditions , whether or not equilibria exist or are computationally tractable . ACE modeling , however , includes agent adaptation , autonomy , and learning . It has a similarity to , and overlap with , game theory as an agent @-@ based method for modeling social interactions . Other dimensions of the approach include such standard economic subjects as competition and collaboration , market structure and industrial organization , transaction costs , welfare economics and mechanism design , information and uncertainty , and macroeconomics .
The method is said to benefit from continuing improvements in modeling techniques of computer science and increased computer capabilities . Issues include those common to experimental economics in general and by comparison and to development of a common framework for empirical validation and resolving open questions in agent @-@ based modeling . The ultimate scientific objective of the method has been described as " test [ ing ] theoretical findings against real @-@ world data in ways that permit empirically supported theories to cumulate over time , with each researcher 's work building appropriately on the work that has gone before . "
= = Mathematicization of economics = =
Over the course of the 20th century , articles in " core journals " in economics have been almost exclusively written by economists in academia . As a result , much of the material transmitted in those journals relates to economic theory , and " economic theory itself has been continuously more abstract and mathematical . " A subjective assessment of mathematical techniques employed in these core journals showed a decrease in articles that use neither geometric representations nor mathematical notation from 95 % in 1892 to 5 @.@ 3 % in 1990 . A 2007 survey of ten of the top economic journals finds that only 5 @.@ 8 % of the articles published in 2003 and 2004 both lacked statistical analysis of data and lacked displayed mathematical expressions that were indexed with numbers at the margin of the page .
= = Econometrics = =
Between the world wars , advances in mathematical statistics and a cadre of mathematically trained economists led to econometrics , which was the name proposed for the discipline of advancing economics by using mathematics and statistics . Within economics , " econometrics " has often been used for statistical methods in economics , rather than mathematical economics . Statistical econometrics features the application of linear regression and time series analysis to economic data .
Ragnar Frisch coined the word " econometrics " and helped to found both the Econometric Society in 1930 and the journal Econometrica in 1933 . A student of Frisch 's , Trygve Haavelmo published The Probability Approach in Econometrics in 1944 , where he asserted that precise statistical analysis could be used as a tool to validate mathematical theories about economic actors with data from complex sources . This linking of statistical analysis of systems to economic theory was also promulgated by the Cowles Commission ( now the Cowles Foundation ) throughout the 1930s and 1940s .
= = = Earlier work in econometrics = = =
The roots of modern econometrics can be traced to the American economist Henry L. Moore . Moore studied agricultural productivity and attempted to fit changing values of productivity for plots of corn and other crops to a curve using different values of elasticity . Moore made several errors in his work , some from his choice of models and some from limitations in his use of mathematics . The accuracy of Moore 's models also was limited by the poor data for national accounts in the United States at the time . While his first models of production were static , in 1925 he published a dynamic " moving equilibrium " model designed to explain business cycles — this periodic variation from overcorrection in supply and demand curves is now known as the cobweb model . A more formal derivation of this model was made later by Nicholas Kaldor , who is largely credited for its exposition .
= = Application = =
Much of classical economics can be presented in simple geometric terms or elementary mathematical notation . Mathematical economics , however , conventionally makes use of calculus and matrix algebra in economic analysis in order to make powerful claims that would be more difficult without such mathematical tools . These tools are prerequisites for formal study , not only in mathematical economics but in contemporary economic theory in general . Economic problems often involve so many variables that mathematics is the only practical way of attacking and solving them . Alfred Marshall argued that every economic problem which can be quantified , analytically expressed and solved , should be treated by means of mathematical work .
Economics has become increasingly dependent upon mathematical methods and the mathematical tools it employs have become more sophisticated . As a result , mathematics has become considerably more important to professionals in economics and finance . Graduate programs in both economics and finance require strong undergraduate preparation in mathematics for admission and , for this reason , attract an increasingly high number of mathematicians . Applied mathematicians apply mathematical principles to practical problems , such as economic analysis and other economics @-@ related issues , and many economic problems are often defined as integrated into the scope of applied mathematics .
This integration results from the formulation of economic problems as stylized models with clear assumptions and falsifiable predictions . This modeling may be informal or prosaic , as it was in Adam Smith 's The Wealth of Nations , or it may be formal , rigorous and mathematical .
Broadly speaking , formal economic models may be classified as stochastic or deterministic and as discrete or continuous . At a practical level , quantitative modeling is applied to many areas of economics and several methodologies have evolved more or less independently of each other .
Stochastic models are formulated using stochastic processes . They model economically observable values over time . Most of econometrics is based on statistics to formulate and test hypotheses about these processes or estimate parameters for them . Between the World Wars , Herman Wold developed a representation of stationary stochastic processes in terms of autoregressive models and a determinist trend . Wold and Jan Tinbergen applied time @-@ series analysis to economic data . Contemporary research on time series statistics consider additional formulations of stationary processes , such as autoregressive moving average models . More general models include autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity ( ARCH ) models and generalized ARCH ( GARCH ) models .
Non @-@ stochastic mathematical models may be purely qualitative ( for example , models involved in some aspect of social choice theory ) or quantitative ( involving rationalization of financial variables , for example with hyperbolic coordinates , and / or specific forms of functional relationships between variables ) . In some cases economic predictions of a model merely assert the direction of movement of economic variables , and so the functional relationships are used only in a qualitative sense : for example , if the price of an item increases , then the demand for that item will decrease . For such models , economists often use two @-@ dimensional graphs instead of functions .
Qualitative models are occasionally used . One example is qualitative scenario planning in which possible future events are played out . Another example is non @-@ numerical decision tree analysis . Qualitative models often suffer from lack of precision .
= = Classification = =
According to the Mathematics Subject Classification ( MSC ) , mathematical economics falls into the Applied mathematics / other classification of category 91 :
Game theory , economics , social and behavioral sciences
with MSC2010 classifications for ' Game theory ' at codes 91Axx and for ' Mathematical economics ' at codes 91Bxx .
The Handbook of Mathematical Economics series ( Elsevier ) , currently 4 volumes , distinguishes between mathematical methods in economics , v. 1 , Part I , and areas of economics in other volumes where mathematics is employed .
Another source with a similar distinction is The New Palgrave : A Dictionary of Economics ( 1987 , 4 vols . , 1 @,@ 300 subject entries ) . In it , a " Subject Index " includes mathematical entries under 2 headings ( vol . IV , pp. 982 – 3 ) :
Mathematical Economics ( 24 listed , such as " acyclicity " , " aggregation problem " , " comparative statics " , " lexicographic orderings " , " linear models " , " orderings " , and " qualitative economics " )
Mathematical Methods ( 42 listed , such as " calculus of variations " , " catastrophe theory " , " combinatorics , " " computation of general equilibrium " , " convexity " , " convex programming " , and " stochastic optimal control " ) .
A widely used system in economics that includes mathematical methods on the subject is the JEL classification codes . It originated in the Journal of Economic Literature for classifying new books and articles . The relevant categories are listed below ( simplified below to omit " Miscellaneous " and " Other " JEL codes ) , as reproduced from JEL classification codes # Mathematical and quantitative methods JEL : C Subcategories . The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics ( 2008 , 2nd ed . ) also uses the JEL codes to classify its entries . The corresponding footnotes below have links to abstracts of The New Palgrave Online for each JEL category ( 10 or fewer per page , similar to Google searches ) .
JEL : C02 - Mathematical Methods ( following JEL : C00 - General and JEL : C01 - Econometrics )
JEL : C6 - Mathematical Methods ; Programming Models ; Mathematical and Simulation Modeling JEL : C60 - General
JEL : C61 - Optimization techniques ; Programming models ; Dynamic analysis
JEL : C62 - Existence and stability conditions of equilibrium
JEL : C63 - Computational techniques ; Simulation modeling
JEL : C67 - Input – output models
JEL : C68 - Computable General Equilibrium models
JEL : C7 - Game theory and Bargaining theoryJEL : C70 - General
JEL : C71 - Cooperative games
JEL : C72 - Noncooperative games
JEL : C73 - Stochastic and Dynamic games ; Evolutionary games ; Repeated Games
JEL : C78 - Bargaining theory ; Matching theory
= = Criticisms and defences = =
= = = Adequacy of mathematics for qualitative and complicated economics = = =
Friedrich Hayek contended that the use of formal techniques projects a scientific exactness that does not appropriately account for informational limitations faced by real economic agents .
In an interview , the economic historian Robert Heilbroner stated :
I guess the scientific approach began to penetrate and soon dominate the profession in the past twenty to thirty years . This came about in part because of the " invention " of mathematical analysis of various kinds and , indeed , considerable improvements in it . This is the age in which we have not only more data but more sophisticated use of data . So there is a strong feeling that this is a data @-@ laden science and a data @-@ laden undertaking , which , by virtue of the sheer numerics , the sheer equations , and the sheer look of a journal page , bears a certain resemblance to science . . . That one central activity looks scientific . I understand that . I think that is genuine . It approaches being a universal law . But resembling a science is different from being a science .
Heilbroner stated that " some / much of economics is not naturally quantitative and therefore does not lend itself to mathematical exposition . "
= = = Testing predictions of mathematical economics = = =
Philosopher Karl Popper discussed the scientific standing of economics in the 1940s and 1950s . He argued that mathematical economics suffered from being tautological . In other words , insofar that economics became a mathematical theory , mathematical economics ceased to rely on empirical refutation but rather relied on mathematical proofs and disproof . According to Popper , falsifiable assumptions can be tested by experiment and observation while unfalsifiable assumptions can be explored mathematically for their consequences and for their consistency with other assumptions .
Sharing Popper 's concerns about assumptions in economics generally , and not just mathematical economics , Milton Friedman declared that " all assumptions are unrealistic " . Friedman proposed judging economic models by their predictive performance rather than by the match between their assumptions and reality .
= = = Mathematical economics as a form of pure mathematics = = =
Considering mathematical economics , J.M. Keynes wrote in The General Theory :
It is a great fault of symbolic pseudo @-@ mathematical methods of formalising a system of economic analysis ... that they expressly assume strict independence between the factors involved and lose their cogency and authority if this hypothesis is disallowed ; whereas , in ordinary discourse , where we are not blindly manipulating and know all the time what we are doing and what the words mean , we can keep ‘ at the back of our heads ’ the necessary reserves and qualifications and the adjustments which we shall have to make later on , in a way in which we cannot keep complicated partial differentials ‘ at the back ’ of several pages of algebra which assume they all vanish . Too large a proportion of recent ‘ mathematical ’ economics are merely concoctions , as imprecise as the initial assumptions they rest on , which allow the author to lose sight of the complexities and interdependencies of the real world in a maze of pretentious and unhelpful symbols .
= = = Defense of mathematical economics = = =
In response to these criticisms , Paul Samuelson argued that mathematics is a language , repeating a thesis of Josiah Willard Gibbs . In economics , the language of mathematics is sometimes necessary for representing substantive problems . Moreover , mathematical economics has led to conceptual advances in economics . In particular , Samuelson gave the example of microeconomics , writing that " few people are ingenious enough to grasp [ its ] more complex parts ... without resorting to the language of mathematics , while most ordinary individuals can do so fairly easily with the aid of mathematics . "
Some economists state that mathematical economics deserves support just like other forms of mathematics , particularly its neighbors in mathematical optimization and mathematical statistics and increasingly in theoretical computer science . Mathematical economics and other mathematical sciences have a history in which theoretical advances have regularly contributed to the reform of the more applied branches of economics . In particular , following the program of John von Neumann , game theory now provides the foundations for describing much of applied economics , from statistical decision theory ( as " games against nature " ) and econometrics to general equilibrium theory and industrial organization . In the last decade , with the rise of the internet , mathematical economicists and optimization experts and computer scientists have worked on problems of pricing for on @-@ line services --- their contributions using mathematics from cooperative game theory , nondifferentiable optimization , and combinatorial games .
Robert M. Solow concluded that mathematical economics was the core " infrastructure " of contemporary economics :
Economics is no longer a fit conversation piece for ladies and gentlemen . It has become a technical subject . Like any technical subject it attracts some people who are more interested in the technique than the subject . That is too bad , but it may be inevitable . In any case , do not kid yourself : the technical core of economics is indispensable infrastructure for the political economy . That is why , if you consult [ a reference in contemporary economics ] looking for enlightenment about the world today , you will be led to technical economics , or history , or nothing at all .
= = Mathematical economists = =
Prominent mathematical economists include , but are not limited to , the following ( by century of birth ) .
= = = 19th century = = =
= = = 20th century = = =
= Sally Hemings =
Sarah " Sally " Hemings ( c . 1773 – 1835 ) was an enslaved woman of mixed race owned by President Thomas Jefferson . She is believed to have had a long @-@ term relationship and six children of record with him , of whom four survived to adulthood ; and were given freedom by Jefferson . Hemings was the youngest of six siblings by the widowed planter John Wayles and his mixed @-@ race slave Betty Hemings ; Sally and her siblings were three @-@ quarters European and half @-@ siblings of Jefferson 's wife , Martha Wayles Skelton .
In 1787 , Hemings , aged 14 , accompanied Jefferson 's youngest daughter Mary ( " Polly " ) to London and then to Paris , where the widowed Jefferson , aged 44 at the time , was serving as the United States Minister to France . Hemings spent two years there . It is believed by most historians that Jefferson began a sexual relationship with Hemings either in France or soon after their return to Monticello . Hemings was a slave in Jefferson 's house until his death .
The historical question of whether Jefferson was the father of Hemings ' children is known as the Jefferson – Hemings controversy . Following renewed historic analysis in the late 20th century and a 1998 DNA study that found a match between the Jefferson male line and a descendant of Hemings ' last son , Eston Hemings , there is a near @-@ consensus among historians that the widower Jefferson fathered her son Eston Hemings and probably all her children . A small number of historians , however , still disagree .
Hemings ' children lived in Jefferson 's house as slaves and were trained as artisans . Jefferson freed all of Hemings ' surviving children : Beverly , Harriet , Madison , and Eston , as they came of age ( they were the only slave family freed by Jefferson ) . They were seven @-@ eighths European in ancestry , and three of the four entered white society as adults . Descendants of those three identified as white . Hemings was " given her time " , lived her last nine years freely with her two younger sons in Charlottesville , Virginia , and saw a grandchild born in the house her sons owned .
= = Early life = =
Sally Hemings was born about 1773 to Betty Hemings ( 1735 – 1807 ) , a biracial slave . Her father was their master John Wayles ( 1715 – 1773 ) . Her mother Betty was the daughter of Susanna , an enslaved African , and John Hemings , an English sea captain . Susanna and Betty Hemings were first held by Francis Eppes IV , where Susanna was referred to as Susanna Epps . John Hemings tried to buy them from Eppes , but the planter refused to give them up . The mother and daughter were inherited by Francis 's daughter , Martha Eppes , who took them with her as personal servants upon her marriage to the planter John Wayles . His parents were Edward Wayles and Ellen Ashburner @-@ Wayles , both of Lancaster , England .
After Martha 's death , Wayles married and was widowed twice more . Several sources assert that the widower John Wayles took his slave Betty Hemings as a concubine and had six children by her during the last 12 years of his life ; the youngest of these was Sally Hemings . They were half @-@ siblings to his daughters by his wives ; his first child , Martha Wayles ( named after her mother , John Wayles 's first wife ) , married the young planter Thomas Jefferson .
The biracial children of Betty Hemings by Wayles were three @-@ quarters European in ancestry and very fair @-@ skinned . ( They had a white maternal grandfather and two white paternal grandparents . ) Since 1662 in Virginia slave law , children born to enslaved mothers were considered slaves under the principle of partus sequitur ventrem . Elizabeth and her children , including Sally Hemings , and all their children , were legally slaves , although the fathers were the white masters and the children were majority @-@ white in ancestry .
After Wayles died in 1773 , his daughter Martha and Jefferson inherited the Hemings family among a total of 135 slaves from his estate , as well as 11 @,@ 000 acres of land . The youngest Wayles @-@ Hemings child was Sally , an infant that year and about 25 years younger than Martha . Scholars have noted that as the mixed @-@ race Wayles @-@ Hemings children grew up at Monticello , they were trained and given assignments as skilled artisans and domestic servants , at the top of the slave hierarchy . Betty Hemings ' other children and their descendants , also mixed race , also had privileged assignments . None worked in the fields .
= = Hemingses in Paris = =
In 1784 , the widower Thomas Jefferson was appointed the American envoy to France ; he took his oldest daughter Martha ( Patsy ) with him to Paris , as well as some of his personal slaves . Among them was Sally 's older brother James Hemings , who became trained as a chef in French cuisine . Jefferson left his two younger daughters in the care of friends in the US . After Lucy died of whooping cough in 1787 , Jefferson sent for his surviving daughter , nine @-@ year @-@ old Maria ( Polly ) Jefferson , to live with him . The teenage slave Sally Hemings was chosen to accompany Polly to France after an older slave became pregnant and could not make the journey . Originally , Jefferson arranged for Polly to " be in the care of her nurse , a black woman , to whom she is confided with safety " [ Letter from Thomas Jefferson to Abigail Adams , Dec. 21 , 1786 ] . According to Abigail Adams , " The old Nurse whom you expected to have attended her , was sick and unable to come . She has a Girl about 15 or 16 with her . " [ Letter from Abigail Adams to Thomas Jefferson , June 26 , 1787 ] .
Polly and Sally landed in London , where they stayed with Abigail and John Adams from June 26 until July 10 , 1787 . Jefferson 's associate , Mr. Petit , arranged transportation and escorted the girls to Paris . In a letter to Jefferson on June 27 , 1787 , Abigail wrote , " The Girl who is with [ Polly ] is quite a child , and Captain Ramsey is of opinion will be of so little Service that he had better carry her back with him . But of this you will be a judge . She seems fond of the child and appears good naturd . " On July 6 , Abigail wrote to Jefferson , " The Girl she has with her , wants more care than the child , and is wholy incapable of looking properly after her , without some superiour to direct her . "
Sally Hemings remained in France for 26 months ; slavery was abolished in that country after the Revolution in 1789 . Jefferson paid wages to her and James while they were in Paris . He paid Sally Hemings the equivalent of $ 2 a month . In comparison , he paid his Parisian scullion $ 2 @.@ 50 a month , and James Hemings $ 4 a month as chef in training . The French servants earned from $ 8 to $ 12 a month . Toward the end of their stay , James used his money to pay for a French tutor and learn the language . Sally Hemings also was learning French . There is no record of where she lived : it may have been with Jefferson and her brother in the Hôtel de Langeac on the Champs @-@ Elysées , or at the convent Abbaye de Panthemont where the girls Maria and Martha were schooled . Whatever the weekday arrangements , Jefferson and his retinue spent weekends together at his villa . Jefferson purchased some fine clothing for Hemings , which suggests that she accompanied Martha as a lady 's maid to formal events .
Under French law , both Sally and James could have petitioned for their freedom , as the 1789 revolutionary constitution in France abolished slavery in principle . Hemings had the legal right to remain in France as a free person ; if she returned to Virginia with Jefferson , it would be as a slave . According to her son Madison 's memoir , Hemings became pregnant by Jefferson in Paris . She was about 16 at the time . She agreed to return with him to the United States based on his promise to free their children when they reached the age of 21 years . Hemings ' strong ties to her mother , siblings and extended family probably drew her back to Monticello .
= = Return to the United States = =
In 1789 , Sally and James Hemings returned to the United States with Jefferson . He was 46 years old and seven years a widower . As shown by Jefferson 's father @-@ in @-@ law , John Wayles , wealthy Virginia widowers frequently took enslaved women as concubines . Historian Joshua D. Rothman noted that it was not unusual for the time for Jefferson to choose to do so . White society simply expected these men to be discreet .
According to Madison Hemings , Sally Hemings ' first child died soon after her return from Paris . Those Jefferson records that have survived mutilation and purge note that Hemings had six children after her return to the US :
Harriet Hemings ( I ) ( October 5 , 1795 - December 7 , 1797 )
Beverley Hemings ( possibly named William Beverley Hemings ) ( April 1 , 1798 - after 1873 )
unnamed daughter ( or possibly named Thenia after Hemings ' sister Thenia ) ( born in 1799 and died in infancy )
Harriet Hemings ( II ) ( May 22 , 1801 - after 1863 )
Madison Hemings ( possibly named James Madison Hemings ) ( January 19 , 1805 – 1877 )
Eston Hemings ( possibly named Thomas Eston Hemings ) ( May 21 , 1808 – 1856 )
Jefferson recorded slave births in his Farm Book . Unlike his practice in recording births of other slaves , he did not note the father of Hemings ' children .
Sally Hemings ' documented duties at Monticello included being a nursemaid @-@ companion , lady 's maid , chambermaid , and seamstress . It is not known whether she was literate , and she left no known writings . She was described as very fair , with " straight hair down her back " . Jefferson 's grandson , Thomas Jefferson Randolph , described her as " light colored and decidedly good looking " . As an adult she may have lived in a room in Monticello 's " South Dependencies " , a wing of the mansion which was accessible to the main house through a covered passageway .
Hemings never married . As a slave , she could not have a marriage recognized under Virginia law , but many slaves at Monticello are known to have taken partners in common @-@ law marriages and had stable lives . ( No such marriage for Hemings is noted in the records . ) While Sally Hemings worked at Monticello , she had her children nearby . According to her son Madison , while young , the children " were permitted to stay about the ' great house ' , and only required to do such light work as going on errands " . At the age of 14 , each of the children began their training : the brothers with the plantation 's skilled master of carpentry , and Harriet as a spinner and weaver . The three boys all learned to play the violin ( Jefferson played the violin ) .
In 1822 at the age of 24 , Beverley " ran away " from Monticello and was not pursued . His sister Harriet Hemings , 21 , followed in the same year . The overseer Edmund Bacon said that he gave her $ 50 ( US $ 988 in 2016 dollars ) and put her on a stagecoach to the North , presumably to join her brother . In his memoir , published posthumously , Bacon said Harriet was " near white and very beautiful " , and that people said Jefferson freed her because she was his daughter . Madison Hemings said that Beverley and Harriet each entered white society in Washington , DC , and each married well .
Of the hundreds of slaves he owned , in his lifetime Jefferson formally freed only two slaves : Hemings ' older brothers Robert , who had to buy his freedom , and James Hemings ( who was required to train his brother Peter for three years to get his freedom ) . He freed five slaves in his will - all males from the extended Hemings family , including Madison and Eston Hemings , his two " natural " children . Harriet was the only female slave he allowed to go free . In addition to manumission for the Hemings men in his will , he petitioned the legislature to allow them to stay in the state . No documentation has been found for Sally Hemings ' emancipation .
Jefferson 's married daughter Martha Randolph informally freed the elderly Hemings by giving her " her time . " As the historian Edmund S. Morgan has noted , " Hemings herself was withheld from auction and freed at last by Jefferson 's daughter , Martha Jefferson Randolph , who was , of course , her niece . " This informal freedom allowed Hemings to live in Virginia with her two youngest sons in nearby Charlottesville for the next nine years until her death . In the Albemarle County 1833 census , all three were recorded as free white persons . Jefferson inherited a great amount of wealth at a young age , but was bankrupt by the time he died . His entire estate , including his slaves , were sold to repay his debts . Hemings lived to see a grandchild born in a house that her sons owned .
= = Jefferson – Hemings controversy = =
The Jefferson – Hemings controversy is related to the question of whether , after Jefferson became a widower , he had an intimate relationship with Sally Hemings , resulting in his fathering her six children of record . The controversy dates from the 1790s . A relationship between Jefferson and Hemings was first reported in 1802 , by one of Jefferson ’ s enemies , a political journalist named James T. Callender , after he noticed several light skinned slaves at Monticello . However , Jefferson never publicly denied this accusation . In the late 20th century , historians began reanalyzing the body of evidence . In 1997 , Annette Gordon @-@ Reed published a book , Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings : An American Controversy , that analyzed the historiography of the controversy , demonstrating how historians since the 19th century had accepted early assumptions . They favored Jefferson family testimony while criticizing Hemings family testimony as " oral history " , and failed to note all the facts . A consensus began to emerge after the results of a DNA analysis in 1998 , which showed no match between the Carr male line , proposed for more than 150 years as the father ( s ) , and the one Hemings descendant tested . It did show a match between the Jefferson male line and the Eston Hemings descendant .
Since 1998 and the DNA study , many historians have concluded that the widower Jefferson had an intimate , long relationship with Hemings , and fathered six children with her , four of whom survived to adulthood . The Thomas Jefferson Foundation ( TJF ) , which runs Monticello , conducted an independent historic review in 2000 , as did the National Genealogical Society in 2001 ; scholars concluded Jefferson was probably the father of all Hemings ' children . In an article that appeared in Science , eight weeks after the DNA study , Eugene Foster , the lead co @-@ author of the DNA study , is reported to have " made it clear that the data establish only that Thomas Jefferson was one of several candidates for the paternity of Eston Hemings " .
In an interview in 2000 , the historian Annette Gordon @-@ Reed said of the change in historical scholarship about Jefferson and Hemings : " Symbolically , it 's tremendously important for people ... as a way of inclusion . Nathan Huggins said that the Sally Hemings story was a way of establishing black people 's birthright to America . "
Critics , such as the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society ( TJHS ) Scholars Commission ( 2001 ) , have argued against the TJF report and reached different conclusions about the DNA tests . All but one of the 13 scholars expressed considerable skepticism about the conclusions . The TJHS report suggested that Jefferson 's younger brother Randolph Jefferson could have been the father , and that Hemings may have had multiple partners . Three of the Hemings children were given names from the Randolph family , relatives of Thomas Jefferson through his mother . Herbert Barger , the founder and current Director Emeritus of the TJHS and the husband of a Jefferson descendant , assisted Foster in the DNA study .
In 2012 , the Smithsonian Institution and the Thomas Jefferson Foundation held a major exhibit at the National Museum of American History : Slavery at Jefferson 's Monticello : The Paradox of Liberty ; it says that " evidence strongly support [ s ] the conclusion that [ Thomas ] Jefferson was the father of Sally Hemings ' children . "
= = Descendants = =
In 2008 Gordon @-@ Reed published The Hemingses of Monticello : An American Family , which explored the extended family , including James and Sally 's lives in France , Monticello and Philadelphia , during Thomas Jefferson 's lifetime . She was not able to find much new information about Beverly or Harriet Hemings , who left Monticello as young adults and entered the white community , probably changing their names . More documentation reveals the lives of the younger sons Madison Hemings and Eston Hemings , and of their descendants , from Madison 's memoir , a wide variety of historical records , and newspaper accounts .
Eventually three of Hemings ' four surviving children , except for Madison , chose to identify as white adults in the North ; they were seven @-@ eighths European in ancestry and this was consistent with their appearance . In his memoir , Madison Hemings said both Beverley and Harriet married well in the white community in Washington , DC . Harriet was described by Edmund Bacon , the longtime Monticello overseer , as " nearly as white as anybody , and very beautiful " . For some time Madison wrote to both his siblings , and learned of their marriages . He knew that Harriet had children and was living in Maryland , but gradually she and Beverly stopped responding to his letters and the siblings lost touch .
Both Madison and Eston Hemings married free women of color in Charlottesville . After their mother 's death in 1835 , they and their families moved to Chillicothe in the free state of Ohio . Census records classified them as " mulatto " , at that time meaning mixed race . The census enumerator , usually a local person , classified individuals in part according to who their neighbors were and what was known of them .
A high demand for slaves in the Deep South and passage of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 heightened the risk for free blacks of being kidnapped by slave catchers , as they needed little documentation to claim blacks as fugitives . Legally free people of color , Eston Hemings and his family moved to Madison , Wisconsin to be further away from slave catchers . There he changed his name to " Eston H. Jefferson " to acknowledge his paternity , and all the family adopted the surname . From then on the Jeffersons lived in the white community .
Madison Hemings ' family were the only Hemings descendants who continued to identify with the black community . They intermarried within the community of free people of color before the Civil War . Over time , some of their descendants are known to have passed into the white community , while many others have identified within the black community .
Both Eston and Madison achieved some success in life , were well respected by their contemporaries , and had children who repeated and built on their successes . They worked as carpenters , and Madison also had a small farm . Eston became a professional musician and bandleader , " a master of the violin , and an accomplished ' caller ' of dances " , who " always officiated at the ' swell ' entertainments of Chillicothe " . He was in demand across southern Ohio . A neighbor described him as , " Quiet , unobtrusive , polite and decidedly intelligent , he was soon very well and favorably known to all classes of our citizens , for his personal appearance and gentlemanly manners attracted everybody 's attention to him . "
= = Grandchildren and other descendants = =
Madison 's sons fought on the Union side in the Civil War . Thomas Eston Hemings enlisted in the United States Colored Troops ( USCT ) ; captured , he spent time at the Andersonville POW camp and died in a POW camp in Meridian , Mississippi . According to a Hemings descendant , his brother James attempted to cross Union lines and " pass " as a white man to enlist in the Confederate army to rescue him . Later , James Hemings was rumored to have moved to Colorado and perhaps passed into white society . Like some others in the family , he disappeared from the record and the rest of his biography remains unknown . A third son , William Hemings , enlisted in the regular Union Army as a white man . Madison 's last known male @-@ line descendant , William never married and was not known to have had children . He died in 1910 in a veterans ' hospital .
Some of Madison Hemings ' children and grandchildren who remained in Ohio suffered from the limited opportunities for blacks at that time , working as laborers , servants or small farmers . They tended to marry within the mixed @-@ race community in the region , who became established as people of education and property .
Madison 's daughter Ellen Wayles Hemings married Alexander Jackson Roberts , a graduate of Oberlin College . When their first son was young , they moved to Los Angeles , California , where the family and its descendants became leaders in the twentieth century . Their first son Frederick Madison Roberts ( 1879 – 1952 ) – Sally Hemings ' and Jefferson 's great @-@ grandson – was the first person of known black ancestry elected to public office on the West Coast : he served for nearly 20 years in the California State Assembly from 1919 to 1934 . Their second son William Giles Roberts was also a leader . Their descendants have had a strong tradition of college education and public service .
Eston 's sons also enlisted in the Union Army , both as white men from Madison . His first son John Wayles Jefferson had red hair and gray eyes like his grandfather Jefferson . By the 1850s , John Jefferson in his 20s was proprietor of the American Hotel in Madison . At one time he operated it with his younger brother Beverley . He was commissioned as a Union officer during the Civil War , during which he was promoted to the rank of Colonel and served at the Battle of Vicksburg . He wrote letters about the war to the newspaper in Madison which were published . After the war , John Jefferson returned to Wisconsin , where he wrote frequently for newspapers and published accounts about his war experiences . He later moved to Memphis , Tennessee , where he became a successful and wealthy cotton broker . He never married or had known children , and left a sizeable estate .
Eston 's second son Beverley Jefferson also served in the regular Union Army . After operating the American Hotel with his brother John , he later separately operated the Capital Hotel . He also built a successful horse @-@ drawn " omnibus " business . He and his wife Anna M. Smith had five sons , three of whom reached the professional class as a physician , attorney , and manager in the railroad industry . According to his 1908 obituary , Beverly Jefferson was " a likeable character at the Wisconsin capital , and a familiar of statesmen for half a century " . His friend Augustus J. Munson wrote , " Beverly Jefferson [ ' s ] death deserves more than a passing notice , as he was a grandson of Thomas Jefferson ... [ He ] was one of God 's noblemen - gentle , kind , courteous , charitable . " Beverley and Anna 's great @-@ grandson John Weeks Jefferson is the Eston Hemings descendant whose DNA was tested in 1998 ; it matched the Y @-@ chromosome of the Thomas Jefferson male line .
As of 2007 , there are known male @-@ line descendants of Eston Hemings / Jefferson , and known female @-@ line descendants of Madison Hemings ' three daughters : Sarah , Harriet , and Ellen .
= = = For young readers = = =
Jane Feldman , Shannon Lanier , Jefferson 's Children : The Story of One American Family : ( Random House , 2001 ) , for ages 10 and up
Kimberly Brubaker Bradley , " Jefferson 's Sons " : ( Dial Books for Young Readers , 2011 ) , historical fiction for ages 10 and up
= Aluminium chloride =
Aluminium chloride ( AlCl3 ) is the main compound of aluminium and chlorine . It is white , but samples are often contaminated with iron trichloride , giving it a yellow colour . The solid has a low melting and boiling point . It is mainly produced and consumed in the production of aluminium metal , but large amounts are also used in other areas of chemical industry . The compound is often cited as a Lewis acid . It is an example of an inorganic compound that " cracks " at mild temperature , reversibly changing from a polymer to a monomer .
= = Structure = =
AlCl3 adopts three different structures , depending on the temperature and the state ( solid , liquid , gas ) . Solid AlCl3 is a sheet @-@ like layered cubic close packed layers . In this framework , the Al centres exhibit octahedral coordination geometry . In the melt , aluminium trichloride exists as the dimer Al2Cl6 , with tetracoordinate aluminium . This change in structure is related to the lower density of the liquid phase ( 1 @.@ 78 g / cm3 ) vs solid aluminium trichloride ( 2 @.@ 48 g / cm3 ) . Al2Cl6 dimers are also found in the vapour phase . At higher temperatures , the Al2Cl6 dimers dissociate into trigonal planar AlCl3 , which is structurally analogous to BF3 . The melt conducts electricity poorly , unlike more ionic halides such as sodium chloride .
= = Reactions = =
Anhydrous aluminium chloride is a powerful Lewis acid , capable of forming Lewis acid @-@ base adducts with even weak Lewis bases such as benzophenone and mesitylene . It forms tetrachloroaluminate AlCl4 − in the presence of chloride ions .
Aluminium chloride reacts with calcium and magnesium hydrides in tetrahydrofuran forming tetrahydroaluminates .
= = = Reactions with water = = =
Aluminium chloride is hygroscopic , having a very pronounced affinity for water . It fumes in moist air and hisses when mixed with liquid water as the Cl − ions are displaced with H2O molecules in the lattice to form the hexahydrate AlCl3 · 6H2O ( also white to yellowish in color ) . The anhydrous phase cannot be regained on heating as HCl is lost leaving aluminium hydroxide or alumina ( aluminium oxide ) :
Al ( H2O ) 6Cl3 → Al ( OH ) 3 + 3 HCl + 3 H2O
On strong heating ( ~ 400 ° C ) , the aluminium oxide is formed from the aluminium hydroxide via :
2 Al ( OH ) 3 → Al2O3 + 3 H2O
Aqueous solutions of AlCl3 are ionic and thus conduct electricity well . Such solutions are found to be acidic , indicative of partial hydrolysis of the Al3 + ion . The reactions can be described ( simplified ) as :
[ Al ( H2O ) 6 ] 3 + ⇌ [ Al ( OH ) ( H2O ) 5 ] 2 + + H +
Aqueous solutions behave similarly to other aluminium salts containing hydrated Al3 + ions , giving a gelatinous precipitate of aluminium hydroxide upon reaction with dilute sodium hydroxide :
AlCl3 + 3 NaOH → Al ( OH ) 3 + 3 NaCl
= = Synthesis = =
Aluminium chloride is manufactured on a large scale by the exothermic reaction of aluminium metal with chlorine or hydrogen chloride at temperatures between 650 to 750 ° C ( 1 @,@ 202 to 1 @,@ 382 ° F ) .
2 Al + 3 Cl2 → 2 AlCl3
2 Al + 6 HCl → 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2
Aluminum chloride may be formed via a single displacement reaction between copper chloride and aluminum metal .
2Al + 3 CuCl2 → 2AlCl3 + 3Cu
In the US in 1993 , approximately 21 @,@ 000 tons were produced , not counting the amounts consumed in the production of aluminium .
Hydrated aluminium trichloride is prepared by dissolving aluminium oxides in hydrochloric acid . Metallic aluminum also readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid ─ releasing hydrogen gas and generating considerable heat . Heating this solid does not produce anhydrous aluminium trichloride , the hexahydrate decomposes to aluminium hydroxide when heated :
Al ( H2O ) 6Cl3 → Al ( OH ) 3 + 3 HCl + 3 H2O
Aluminium also forms a lower chloride , aluminium ( I ) chloride ( AlCl ) , but this is very unstable and only known in the vapour phase .
= = Uses = =
= = = Anhydrous aluminium trichloride = = =
AlCl3 is probably the most commonly used Lewis acid and also one of the most powerful . It finds application in the chemical industry as a catalyst for Friedel – Crafts reactions , both acylations and alkylations . Important products are detergents and ethylbenzene . It also finds use in polymerization and isomerization reactions of hydrocarbons .
The Friedel – Crafts reaction is the major use for aluminium chloride , for example in the preparation of anthraquinone ( for the dyestuffs industry ) from benzene and phosgene . In the general Friedel – Crafts reaction , an acyl chloride or alkyl halide reacts with an aromatic system as shown :
The alkylation reaction is more widely used than the acylation reaction , although its practice is more technically demanding because the reaction is more sluggish . For both reactions , the aluminium chloride , as well as other materials and the equipment , should be dry , although a trace of moisture is necessary for the reaction to proceed . A general problem with the Friedel – Crafts reaction is that the aluminium chloride catalyst sometimes is required in full stoichiometric quantities , because it complexes strongly with the products . This complication sometimes generates a large amount of corrosive waste . For these and similar reasons , more recyclable or environmentally benign catalysts have been sought . Thus , the use of aluminium trichloride in some applications is being displaced by zeolites .
Aluminium chloride can also be used to introduce aldehyde groups onto aromatic rings , for example via the Gattermann @-@ Koch reaction which uses carbon monoxide , hydrogen chloride and a copper ( I ) chloride co @-@ catalyst .
Aluminium chloride finds a wide variety of other applications in organic chemistry . For example , it can catalyse the " ene reaction " , such as the addition of 3 @-@ buten @-@ 2 @-@ one ( methyl vinyl ketone ) to carvone :
AlCl3 is also widely used for polymerization and isomerization reactions of hydrocarbons . Important examples include the manufacture of ethylbenzene , which used to make styrene and thus polystyrene , and also production of dodecylbenzene , which is used for making detergents .
Aluminium chloride combined with aluminium in the presence of an arene can be used to synthesize bis ( arene ) metal complexes , e.g. bis ( benzene ) chromium , from certain metal halides via the so @-@ called Fischer @-@ Hafner synthesis .
= = = Hydrated aluminium chlorides = = =
The hexahydrate has few applications , but aluminium chlorohydrate is a common component in antiperspirants at low concentrations . Hyperhidrosis sufferers need a much higher concentration ( 12 % or higher ) , sold under such brand names as Xeransis , Drysol , DryDerm , sunsola , Maxim , Odaban , CertainDri , B + Drier , Chlorhydrol , Anhydrol Forte and Driclor .
= = Symmetry and dipole moment = =
Aluminium chloride belongs to the point group D3h in its monomeric form and D2h in its dimeric form . Both forms of aluminium chloride , however , do not possess a dipole moment because the bond dipole moments cancel each other out .
= = Safety = =
Anhydrous AlCl3 reacts vigorously with bases , so suitable precautions are required . It can cause irritation to the eyes , skin , and the respiratory system if inhaled or on contact .
Aluminum chloride has been established as a neurotoxin .
= Arsenal Training Centre =
The Arsenal Training Centre , often referred to as its geographical location London Colney in Hertfordshire , is the training ground of Arsenal Football Club . It houses ten
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ete no Joi : Kusumoto Ine ( " The First Woman Doctor in Japan : Kusumoto Ine " ) appeared in 1992 as part of the Denki : Ningen ni Manabō ( " Biography : Learn from People " ) series of biographies for youths . The cartoonist Maki Masaki adapted Ine 's story to comics in Siebold O @-@ Ine in 1995 ; Masaki depicts Ine with red @-@ tinted hair and focuses the story on Ine 's strength of will in the face of the trials she underwent both as a female medical student and an ai no ko ( " love child " ) , a derogatory term for a mixed @-@ race child .
= Utah State Route 101 =
State Route 101 ( SR @-@ 101 ) is a 21 @.@ 811 @-@ mile ( 35 @.@ 101 km ) long state highway located in the U.S. state of Utah . The route serves as a spur route into the Uinta @-@ Wasatch @-@ Cache National Forest through the cities of Wellsville and Hyrum , with an intermediate intersection with U.S. Route 89 ( US @-@ 89 ) and US @-@ 91 . SR @-@ 101 starts at an intersection of Main Street and SR @-@ 23 ( Center Street ) . Heading generally eastward , the highway terminates at the Hardware Ranch Wildlife Management Area . SR @-@ 101 was first designated in 1931 as a loop off SR @-@ 1 from Logan , south to Hyrum , and west to Wellsville .
= = Route description = =
Located entirely in Cache County , SR @-@ 101 starts at an intersection of Main Street and SR @-@ 23 ( Center Street ) . The highway heads easterly for the first 0 @.@ 4 mi ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) before it turns northeasterly , crossing the Little Bear River and intersects US @-@ 89 / US @-@ 91 at a traffic light controlled at @-@ grade interchange . After the interchange , SR @-@ 101 turns to the southeast after entering Wellsville city limits . At 400 West , SR @-@ 101 turns south for 3 blocks before turning back to the east , and intersecting SR @-@ 165 .
After leaving Hyrum , SR @-@ 101 dips to the southeast again , entering the Uinta @-@ Wasatch @-@ Cache National Forest and a canyon formed by the Blacksmith Fork River . The final 13 @.@ 9 mi ( 22 @.@ 4 km ) are inside the forest , serving as an access route to several campgrounds , as well as a diversion dam , and electric plant . The route comes to an end at the Hardware Ranch Wildlife Management Area , a working ranch owned and run by the state of Utah .
For the year 2007 , a daily average of 5 @,@ 075 cars traveled along SR @-@ 101 at the intersection with US @-@ 89 / US @-@ 91 . This represents only a slight growth from previous years ( in 2006 , the average was 5 @,@ 005 ; in 2005 , 4 @,@ 620 ) . Nineteen percent of this traffic was composed of trucks . The lowest amount of traffic is accounted for on the final stretch of the highway through the Uinta @-@ Wasatch @-@ Cache National Forest , with an average of 670 cars per day traveling to the Hardware Ranch visitors center . This represents a small increase from previous years , with an average of 635 cars per day in 2006 and 585 cars per day in 2005 traveling to the visitors center .
= = History = =
SR @-@ 101 was formed in 1931 as a loop off SR @-@ 1 ( now US @-@ 91 ) from Logan south to Hyrum and west to Wellsville . The road from Hyrum east to the Hardware Ranch was added to the state highway system in 1949 as State Route 242 , and that route was extended south to SR @-@ 39 in 1965 . The legislature redefined the Hyrum @-@ area routes in 1969 , taking SR @-@ 101 east from Wellsville to the Hardware Ranch over former SR @-@ 242 , and returning the extension to SR @-@ 39 to local control . The leg of former SR @-@ 101 from Hyrum north to Logan became part of a new SR @-@ 165 at that time . On March 17 , 1972 , the roadway connecting the Hardware Ranch Visitors Center to SR @-@ 101 was added to the state route system as an addition to SR @-@ 101 . The connector road was previously designated Collector Road 311 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Cache County .
= Nicholas de Balmyle =
Nicholas de Balmyle ( d . 1319 × 1320 ) , also called Nicholas of St Andrews , was a Scottish administrator and prelate in the late 13th century and early 14th century . A graduate of an unknown university , he served his earliest years as a clergyman at St Andrews , moving on to hold churches in Lothian as well as deputising ( as Official ) to two archdeacons of Lothian .
In the late summer and in the autumn of 1296 , between the death of Bishop William Fraser and the arrival of the new Bishop of St Andrews William de Lamberton , Nicholas was placed in charge of the diocese of St Andrews as Official . Nicholas thereafter can be found exercising a senior role in Scottish affairs , and by early 1301 he was Chancellor of Scotland . In his late 60s or ( more probably ) his 70s by this stage , Nicholas was an extremely old man , yet in 1307 he became Bishop of Dunblane . He held this position until his death in either 1319 or 1320 .
= = Background and early life = =
It is highly unlikely that Nicholas was born later than the 1230s , as he was styled Magister by 1259 , indicating that by that date he possessed a Master 's degree . It was rare for someone under twenty years old or even older to have such a qualification in this period . The university or universities he attended are not known .
Until 1295 , Nicholas was referred to as Nicholas of St Andrews ( de Sancto Andrea ) , but in February of that year he began to be called de Balmyle , one source referring to him as de Balmyll dictus de Sancto Andrea ( de Balmyle called de Sanctoandrea ) . It is probable that he adopted de Sancto Andrea when he finished training at St Andrews and went elsewhere , and that he dropped it in 1295 when he moved back .
Nicholas ' apparent surname , de Balmyle , points to an association with Balmyle near Meigle , in the region where Gowrie and Angus border , though that is only one of two possible locations .
= = Early career = =
As a graduate , Nicholas is first found active at St Andrews in the entourage of Gamelin , Bishop of St Andrews , in 1259 . He does not appear very often in any witness lists during the following few decades , but does appear along with other St Andrews clerics witnessing a charter of William , Earl of Mar at Falkland on 21 January 1268 .
He disappeared from the records until found as Official to the Archdeacon of Lothian ( 1283 × 1285 ) . It is possible that in this period he left Scotland for further study . The position of Official was held under the absentee Archdeacon of Lothian , Adam de Gullane , and afterwards , Archdeacon William Frere , and was probably held along with the post of vicar of Haddington ; the latter he definitely held by 1295 . Nicholas is found as Official in a document dating certainly between 1273 and 1285 , a document which can probably be more precisely dated to between 1283 and 1285 .
He was pastor of the church of Calder Comitis , Midlothian , by September 1296 . Both churches were indirectly under the patronage of the Bishop of St Andrews , William Fraser . The rector of Haddington was St Andrews Cathedral Priory and although the church of Calder Comitis was normally under the patronage of the Mormaer of Fife , at that point in time the wardship of the young mormaer 's lands was being held by the Bishop of St Andrews .
On 6 November 1292 , he acted as a substitute auditor on behalf of John de Balliol at Berwick in the Great Cause . The latter was the legal process by which Edward I , King of the English , mediated the succession dispute to the Scottish throne , the end result of which Balliol was selected by King Edward to be king on condition of open subordination .
Nicholas attended King John 's first parliament in February 1293 at Scone . He is found witnessing a charter at Newbattle Abbey on 20 November 1293 , as Archdeacon William Frere 's Official , and on 20 December is mentioned by Frere as a commissary of the Official of the diocese of St Andrews appointed to adjudicate on 4 January 1294 , a case involving Kelso Abbey . He witnessed a charter along with Archdeacon Frere and Bishop William Fraser at Inchmurdo on 13 February 1295 .
= = Nicholas and the wars of Scottish independence = =
In 1296 , the agreement that had followed from the Great Cause between King Edward I and the King of the Scots , John Balliol , broke down . King Edward resolved to depose King John , invading the kingdom and beginning the Wars of Scottish Independence . Nicholas , as pastor of Calder @-@ Comitis , swore fealty to King Edward at Berwick on 28 August 1296 . His lands were restored thereafter , on 2 September , Edward having notionally confiscated all the lands of the Scottish clergy earlier in the year pending homage .
In the following year , William Fraser , the Bishop of St Andrews , died , and it was Nicholas who was chosen to be Official of the diocese and to administer it during the vacancy . He performed this function until the return to Scotland from France of the new bishop , William de Lamberton .
After his return in August 1299 , Lamberton was Guardian of Scotland and Nicholas became his close associate . Nicholas can be seen to have benefited as a result . He became Chancellor of Scotland by 30 January 1301 . Balmyle 's pension for being Chancellor was to be paid by Arbroath Abbey , for which the abbey later fell into arrears .
Later in the year , in April , he was one of four Scottish envoys sent to Canterbury for abortive talks with the English and French . In the next few years , Nicholas ' activities are difficult to trace , but he was probably involved in much diplomatic activity , including perhaps having a hand in drawing up the brief which Baldred Bisset would later deliver to the pope in the interests of Scottish independence . It was probably in this time too that Nicholas became a clerk at Arbroath Abbey and perhaps a canon of Dunblane Cathedral .
Nicholas may have remained as Chancellor until 1305 . His accession as Chancellor by 1301 corresponded with a renewed emphasis on the authority of King John in government documents . Becoming Chancellor by 1301 , in the words of Geoffrey Barrow , meant that he became " one of the handful of key men who directed the national struggle " .
= = Episcopal election = =
Following the death of his namesake Nicholas , Bishop of Dunblane ( and former Abbot of Arbroath ) , Nicholas de Balmyle was among the canons of Dunblane with the responsibility of selecting a successor . Bishop Nicholas had died sometime between 1306 ( after his last attestation on 26 January ) and late 1307 . The election was done by compromissarii ( a short @-@ list of canons delegated to perform election ) , with John , Abbot of Arbroath excluded from the vote , perhaps because of his known pro @-@ English tendencies .
The seven compromissarii were the dean ( name not known ) , Maurice , Abbot of Inchaffray , William , Abbot of Lindores , Michael , Abbot of Cambuskenneth , William de Eaglesham , Henry de Stirling , and Nicholas de Balmyle . They were instructed to elect from among themselves , and their decision was the promotion of Nicholas de Balmyle . Nicholas , Bishop @-@ elect of Dunblane , travelled to the Apostolic See along with proctors of the cathedral chapter . After the election was confirmed by Pope Clement V , Nicholas was consecrated by Nicholas , Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Ostia at Poitiers on 11 December 1307 .
It was Geoffrey Barrow 's belief , supported by Donald Watt , that their decision was the result of pressure from the new Scottish king , Robert de Brus , who may have valued Balmyle 's experience and trusted his political record . The usual secular patron of the diocese was the Mormaer of Strathearn , but the incumbent Maol Íosa III was at that stage a prisoner @-@ exile at Rochester in England , thus allowing Robert to take his place .
= = Bishop of Dunblane = =
When Nicholas returned to Scotland , and the exact nature of his activities over the next few years , remain unclear matters . His episcopal rank makes it likely that he attended the parliaments and took part in the affairs of the kingdom during the early years of his episcopate , but direct proof is lacking .
He witnessed a charter of Cambuskenneth Abbey along with John de Kininmund , Bishop of Brechin , on 12 September 1311 . He is found witnessing many ecclesiastical and royal documents through 1312 , 1313 and beyond . He witnessed royal acts at Inchture and Dundee in April 1312 , at Ayr on 27 May 1315 , at Edinburgh on 9 March 1317 , at Scone on 14 June that year , at Melrose on 24 July 1317 , again at Scone on 3 December 1318 and at Arbroath on 8 February 1319 .
On 6 October 1312 , he came to an agreement with Bernard , Abbot of Arbroath , which resolved Nicholas ' complaints concerning the non payment of his pension as well as more official disputes between the bishopric of Dunblane and the abbey . In the following year he was in a dispute with Dunfermline Abbey regarding the church of Logie @-@ Atheron in Stirlingshire , a dispute which was never resolved during Nicholas ' episcopate .
On 9 May 1315 , he is found at Perth assisting William de Sinclair , Bishop of Dunkeld , in a judgment regarding Donnchadh de Strathearn . On 27 March 1318 he was named as papal mandatory to oversee the provision of the Italian Robert Barducii of Florence to the deanery of Glasgow Cathedral .
It is not known exactly when Bishop Nicholas died . The see of Dunblane is first known to have been vacant on 30 January 1320 and Bishop Nicholas ' last appearance in the records was witnessing a charter of Coupar Angus Abbey at Arbroath on 8 February 1318 : his death therefore fell between these two points .
= Five Short Graybles =
" Five Short Graybles " is the second episode of the fourth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written and storyboarded by Tom Herpich , Skyler Page , and Cole Sanchez , from a story by Patrick McHale , Kent Osborne , and Pendleton Ward . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on April 9 , 2012 . The episode guest stars Emo Philips as Cuber .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . This episode is a series of short stories — concerning BMO ( voiced by Niki Yang ) , Finn and Jake , Princess Bubblegum ( voiced by Hynden Walch ) , the Ice King ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) , and Lumpy Space Princess ( voiced by Pendleton Ward ) — all centered on a common theme of the five senses , hosted by a mysterious man named Cuber from the future .
The episode 's premise was conceived when Ward was forced to cut a scene involving a high @-@ five from a previous script . Ward enjoyed the scene so much that he decided to write an entire episode based around high @-@ fives . Originally , it was planned for live action footage of Ward to appear in the episode , introducing each clip . This , however , was later scrapped in favor of the character of Cuber . " Five Short Graybles " , along with other episodes of Cartoon Network programming , helped make the network the number one television destination for boys aged 2 – 11 , 6 @-@ 11 , and 9 @-@ 14 on Monday nights , according to Nielsen ratings , and Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club applauded the various elements that the show was able to include in only an 11 @-@ minute episode .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with a futuristic character named Cuber ( voiced by Emo Philips ) announcing to the audience that they will be watching five short vignettes that are all unified by one theme . Cuber challenges the audience to then guess the theme .
The first short focuses on BMO ( voiced by Niki Yang ) , who talks to itself in the mirror , pretending as if it is talking to another character called " Football " . BMO insists that it is a real , living boy , and attempts to demonstrate this to Football by brushing its teeth and using the toilet . Unbeknownst to BMO , Finn and Jake are watching the activity from outside a window . The focus then shifts to Finn and Jake , who attempt to experience the ultimate high five . Eventually , Finn places himself in a catapult , and Jake stretches himself into a slingshot , and the two launch themselves across Ooo .
The next vignette focuses on Princess Bubblegum ( voiced by Hynden Walch ) as she tries to create the perfect sandwich using bizarre science . After exhausting herself going to extreme and ridiculous lengths to produce and combine all the ingredients perfectly , she offers the sandwich to Cinnamon Bun ( voiced by Dee Bradley Baker ) , who merely shoves it into his pastry body and belches foodstuff onto the princess . The action then shifts to the Ice King ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) , who smells a stench in his ice castle . After mistakenly assuming that the smell was being caused by Gunter the penguin 's flatulence , the Ice King realizes that his armpits are actually the source of the smell . After taking a shower , he ponders aloud as to how he got so smelly . Gunter then proceeds to flatulate underneath his arms .
The final vignette focuses on Lumpy Space Princess ( voiced by Pendleton Ward ) as she attempts to win a talent show by singing a song entitled " These Lumps " . Before she can perform , however , a group of candy citizens steal her song . Lumpy Space Princess becomes enraged and throws a basketball into the audience , which hits an audience member and accidentally makes a basket in the process . Due to the impressiveness of this action , Peppermint Butler ( voiced by Steve Little ) names her the winner . Just then , Finn and Jake collide in mid @-@ air , producing a high five that reverberates across Ooo . The duo are named the winner , much to Lumpy Space Princess ' chagrin .
The episode comes to a close with Cuber revealing that the theme was the five senses : BMO saw Football in the mirror , Finn and Jake touched each other 's hands , Princess Bubblegum made a tasty sandwich , Ice King smelled something foul , and Lumpy Space Princess heard music .
= = Production = =
" Five Short Graybles " was written and storyboarded by Tom Herpich , Skyler Page , and Cole Sanchez , from a story developed by series creator Pendleton Ward , Patrick McHale , and Kent Osborne . The episode was directed by Larry Leichliter . This was the first episode that Page worked on for the series ; he was so excited to be working on the series that after he finished the storyboard , he traveled to Hawaii as a personal reward . The episode can trace its genesis to a short , but humorous scene involving a high five that Ward had been forced to cut from an episode . Ward was unhappy about the edit , and later jokingly said via his Twitter that he would make an episode entirely about high @-@ fives . Although Ward was being facetious , the idea of using a high five as an overarching plot point was then used in " Five Short Graybles " .
Sanchez storyboarded the scenes with Ice King , as well as the scenes with Lumpy Space Princess . He later noted that the two sections were united by the fact that they both featured characters who were " being a little bit mean " to others . Originally , it was planned for live action footage of Ward to appear in the episode ; he would have introduced each clip , serving as a framing device . This idea , however , was eventually vetoed . Herpich came up with the idea to replace Ward with a futuristic man named Cuber , as well as the idea to give him dialogue so that he would sound like he was speaking a " dialect from thousand of years in the future " . According to Herpich , the word " graybles " is a supposed distortion of the word " fables " .
The episode guest stars Emo Philips as Cuber . He would later reprise his role for the fifth season episodes " Five More Short Graybles " , " Another Five More Short Graybles " , and the sixth season episode " Graybles 1000 + " . Every one of Philips 's voice recording takes was so different that Nate Cash , one of the series ' creative directors , had to piece together disparate recordings to make the final composition . The episode also contains the short song " These Lumps " , sung by Lumpy Space Princess . Ward himself had a difficult time singing this song was because he was trying to both sing the song on pitch and retain Lumpy Space Princess 's accent .
= = Reception = =
" Five Short Graybles " first aired on Cartoon Network on April 9 , 2012 . Together with other episodes of Cartoon Network programming , the episodes helped make the network the number one television destination for boys aged 2 – 11 , 6 @-@ 11 , and 9 @-@ 14 on Monday nights , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode first saw physical release as part of the eponymous 2012 DVD , Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow , which included 16 episodes from the series ' first four seasons . It was later re @-@ released as part of the complete fourth season DVD in October 2014 .
Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A " , describing it as " very weird " and " bizarre " . Sava wrote that it is " unbelievable that all of [ the activity in the episode ] happens in 10 minutes , which goes to show just how much material is packed into every episode of this series . " He also noted that Cuber revealing the uniting theme was " a reminder to all the adults in the audience that the show that ’ s making them laugh so hard is targeted to kids in grade school " .
= Scott Smith ( American politician ) =
Scott Smith ( born 1956 ) is an American businessman and politician , elected as the 38th mayor of Mesa , Arizona , on May 20 , 2008 . He took office on June 2 , 2008 and served until April 16 , 2014 , when he resigned to run for Governor of Arizona in the Republican Primary . In 2013 @-@ 14 , he served as president of the United States Conference of Mayors . His previous employment includes serving as president of both Great Western Homes and K. Hovnanian Homes . He also has financial and business consulting experience as well as a history of involvement in community organizations .
= = Early life and education = =
Smith spent his early childhood in Tucson , Arizona then grew up in Mesa after his family moved there in 1967 , when his father assumed the role of superintendent of Mesa Public Schools . He was a star basketball player at Westwood High School and graduated in 1974 . He obtained a BS in accounting in 1980 from the Brigham Young University Marriott School of Management . He subsequently attended Arizona State University where he obtained an MBA in 1985 and a juris doctorate in 1996 from the Arizona State University College of Law .
= = Business career = =
Prior to his time in office , Smith held various professional positions . Between 1988 and 1993 he was an accounting and finance instructor at the University of Phoenix . He held leadership roles in home building companies : from 1994 to 2003 he was president of Great Western Homes , and from 2003 to 2007 he was a regional president for K. Hovnanian Homes . Before and during the time that he held these aforementioned positions he was active as a financial and business consultant at ExecuShare , Ltd . Smith also held a variety of quasi @-@ public roles , such as the 2006 – 07 campaign chairman for the Mesa United Way and as a member of the citizens tax initiative committee .
= = 2008 election for mayor of Mesa = =
Smith launched his campaign for mayor on May 1 , 2007 , with former U.S. Congressman Matt Salmon as his campaign chairman . Incumbent Keno Hawker was term limited . The primary election had two other candidates : restaurant businessman / three term city councilman Rex Griswold and vice @-@ mayor / two term city councilwoman Claudia Walters . Smith ranked first with 39 % of the vote , qualifying for the run @-@ off election . Griswold ranked second with 33 % of the vote and Walters was last with 28 % of the vote .
Walters endorsed Smith . In the May run @-@ off election , Smith defeated Griswold 56 % -44 % . It was the first time that a candidate defeated someone who had resigned from the City Council to run for mayor in more than a generation . Al Brooks was successful in 1983 and Willie Wong was successful in 1991 . His first attempt at public office , Smith was the first person since 1966 to be elected mayor of Mesa without having first served on the Mesa City Council .
= = Mayor of Mesa ( 2008 @-@ present ) = =
= = = First term = = =
Smith 's first term of office ran from June 2 , 2008 to January 22 , 2013 . Mesa , which is in Maricopa County , Arizona , along with Phoenix , is part of the Phoenix metropolitan area . It is the thirty @-@ ninth most populous city in the United States and the third most populous city in the state of Arizona ( after Phoenix and Tucson ) according to 2010 United States Census Bureau estimates . It is the largest of seven incorporated areas with populations of 100 @,@ 000 or more ( followed by Glendale , Chandler , Scottsdale , Gilbert , Tempe and Peoria ) that surround Phoenix in its metropolitan area .
On August 6 , 2008 , after two months as mayor , Smith served as ceremonial driver for the first run of METRO Light Rail , a new light rail transit for Phoenix , Mesa and Tempe . The 20 @-@ mile ( 32 km ) light rail system had its grand opening on December 27 , 2008 .
Economic development has been a key aspect of Smith 's administration . During his first term , two major citywide elections involving economic development opportunities were brought to the voters . First , in March 2009 , Smith led the charge for a development deal that would bring a 1 @,@ 200 room Gaylord Hotel and Resort to the Mesa Proving Grounds . Proposition 300 , passed by the largest margin in the history of the city with 84 % of voters approving .
In November 2011 , voters in Mesa were asked to approve an incentive package that would build the Chicago Cubs a new spring training facility . The Cubs , who had trained in Mesa for over 50 years , had offers to move their operations to Naples , Florida . Taking the lead again , Smith helped Proposition 420 pass with 63 % of the vote . Renderings of the planned stadium , and accompanying " Wrigleyville West " entertainment district were released prior to the election and it is expected that the stadium will be complete by the 2014 spring training season . In August 2011 , it was reported that the Arizona State University baseball team would join the Cubs and move their facilities to the new stadium upon completion instead of renovating Packard Stadium , however they later moved to Phoenix Municipal Stadium .
Smith has pushed his H.E.A.T. initiative to focus on industries of opportunity that Mesa has had success in . H.E.A.T. is an acronym for healthcare , education , aerospace and tourism / technology .
Smith played a significant role in the Air Force Research Lab ( AFRL ) agreement , which allows Mesa to lease the facility and eventually own it while maintaining its highly classified status . The AFRL site is the only such secured facility in Arizona and is one of just a handful in the United States .
In January 2011 Smith unveiled iMesa , an initiative designed to invigorate Mesa through transformative community projects . Leveraging technology for civic engagement , iMesa is a grassroots improvement effort where residents submit , vote and comment on ideas that will transform the community .
= = = Second term = = =
Smith was unopposed in his election for a second four @-@ year term on August 28 , 2012 . His second term of office runs from January 22 , 2013 to January 23 , 2017 . Smith is term limited .
He was president of the United States Conference of Mayors ( USCM ) . He is the first Arizona mayor to serve as president of the organization .
The Wall Street Journal , Politico and the Arizona Republic have run op @-@ ed pieces about the national debt crisis co @-@ authored by Smith , then USCM president Antonio Villaraigosa ( mayor of Los Angeles ) and USCM vice president Michael Nutter ( mayor of Philadelphia ) . Smith has also been featured on Bloomberg TV , MSNBC with Andrea Mitchell , CNBC 's The Kudlow Report and in the Washington Post .
= = 2014 election for governor = =
After much speculation throughout 2013 , Mayor Smith announced that he would run for Arizona Governor on January 9 , 2014 .
He was endorsed by Governor Jan Brewer on August 6 , 2014 , adding energy to his campaign ahead of the Republican primary . However , he placed second to Doug Ducey in the Republican gubernatorial primary .
= = National news coverage = =
Smith published an article in The Ripon Forum in 2013 discussing his successes as a mayor . Smith implemented a reorganization of city government , saving nearly 20 % of the total budget in doing so . He began commercial airline service at Phoenix @-@ Mesa Gateway Airport . Additionally , Smith oversaw the development of five new fire stations , two new police stations and over $ 150 million in street and road improvements , and oversaw development of a three @-@ mile extension of the Mesa light rail .
= = Personal life = =
He has raised his children in Mesa .
= Texas Revolution =
The Texas Revolution ( October 2 , 1835 – April 21 , 1836 ) began when colonists ( primarily from the United States ) in the Mexican province of Texas rebelled against the increasingly centralist Mexican government . After a decade of political and cultural clashes between the Mexican government and the increasingly large population of American settlers in Texas , hostilities erupted in October 1835 . Texians ( English @-@ speaking settlers ) disagreed on whether the ultimate goal was independence or a return to the Mexican Constitution of 1824 . While delegates at the Consultation ( provisional government ) debated the war 's motives , Texians and a flood of volunteers from the United States defeated the small garrisons of Mexican soldiers by mid @-@ December 1835 .
The Consultation declined to declare independence and installed an interim government , whose infighting led to political paralysis and a dearth of effective governance in Texas . An ill @-@ conceived proposal to invade Matamoros siphoned much @-@ needed volunteers and provisions from the fledgling Texas army . In March 1836 , a second political convention declared independence and appointed leadership for the new Republic of Texas .
Determined to avenge Mexico 's honor , President Antonio López de Santa Anna vowed to personally retake Texas . His Army of Operations entered Texas in mid @-@ February 1836 and found the Texians completely unprepared . Mexican General José de Urrea led a contingent of troops on the Goliad Campaign up the Texas coast , defeating all Texian troops in his path and executing most of those who surrendered . Santa Anna led a larger force to San Antonio de Béxar ( or Béxar ) , where his troops defeated the Texian garrison in the Battle of the Alamo , killing almost all of the defenders .
For the next month , a newly created Texian army under the command of Sam Houston steadily retreated towards the border with Louisiana ; terrified civilians fled with the army , in a melee known as the Runaway Scrape . On March 31 , Houston paused his men at Groce 's Landing on the Brazos River , and for the next two weeks , the Texians received rigorous military training . Becoming complacent and underestimating the strength of his foes , Santa Anna further subdivided his troops . On April 21 , Houston 's army staged a surprise assault on Santa Anna and his vanguard force at the Battle of San Jacinto . The Mexican troops were quickly routed , and vengeful Texians executed many who tried to surrender . Santa Anna was taken hostage ; in exchange for his life , he ordered the Mexican army to retreat south of the Rio Grande . Mexico refused to recognize the Republic of Texas , and intermittent conflicts between the two countries continued into the 1840s . The annexation of Texas as the 28th state of the United States , in 1845 , led directly to the Mexican – American War .
= = Background = =
After a failed attempt by France to colonize Texas in the late 17th century , Spain developed a plan to settle the region . On its southern edge , along the Medina and Nueces Rivers , Spanish Texas was bordered by the province of Coahuila . On the east , Texas bordered Louisiana . Following the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 , the United States also claimed the land west of the Sabine River , all the way to the Rio Grande . Although the United States officially renounced that claim as part of the Transcontinental Treaty with Spain in 1819 , many Americans continued to believe that Texas should belong to their nation , and over the next decade the United States made several offers to purchase the region .
Following the Mexican War of Independence , Texas became part of Mexico . Under the Constitution of 1824 , which defined the country as a federal republic , the provinces of Texas and Coahuila were combined to become the state Coahuila y Tejas . Texas was granted only a single seat in the state legislature , which met in Saltillo , hundreds of miles away . After months of grumbling by Tejanos ( Mexican @-@ born residents of Texas ) outraged at the loss of their political autonomy , state officials agreed to make Texas a department of the new state , with a de facto capital in San Antonio de Béxar .
Texas was very sparsely populated , with fewer than 3 @,@ 500 residents , and only about 200 soldiers , which made it extremely vulnerable to attacks by native tribes and American filibusters . In the hopes that an influx of settlers could control the Indian raids , the bankrupt Mexican government liberalized immigration policies for the region . Finally able to settle legally in Texas , Anglos from the United States soon vastly outnumbered the Tejanos . Most of the immigrants came from the southern United States . Many were slave owners , and most brought with them significant prejudices against other races , attitudes often applied to the Tejanos , . Mexico 's official religion was Roman Catholicism , yet the majority of the immigrants were Protestants who distrusted Catholics .
Mexican authorities became increasingly concerned about the stability of the region . The colonies teetered at the brink of revolt in 1829 , after Mexico abolished slavery . In response , President Anastasio Bustamante implemented the Laws of April 6 , 1830 , which , among other things , prohibited further immigration to Texas from the United States , increased taxes , and reiterated the ban on slavery . Settlers simply circumvented or ignored the laws . By 1834 , an estimated 30 @,@ 000 Anglos lived in Coahuila y Tejas , compared to only 7 @,@ 800 Mexican @-@ born residents .
In 1832 , Antonio López de Santa Anna led a revolt to overthrow Bustamante . Texians , or English @-@ speaking settlers , used the rebellion as an excuse to take up arms . By mid @-@ August , all Mexican troops had been expelled from east Texas . Buoyed by their success , Texians held two political conventions to persuade Mexican authorities to weaken the Laws of April 6 , 1830 . In November 1833 the Mexican government attempted to address some of the concerns , repealing some sections of the law and granting the colonists further concessions , including increased representation in the state legislature . Stephen F. Austin , who had brought the first American settlers to Texas , wrote to a friend that " Every evil complained of has been remedied . " Mexican authorities were quietly watchful , concerned that the colonists were maneuvering towards secession .
Santa Anna soon revealed himself to be a centralist , transitioning the Mexican government to a centralized government . In 1835 , the 1824 Constitution was overturned ; state legislatures were dismissed , militias disbanded . Federalists throughout Mexico were appalled . Citizens in the states of Oaxaca and Zacatecas took up arms . After Santa Anna 's troops subdued the rebellion in Zacatecas in May , he gave his troops two days to pillage the city ; over 2 @,@ 000 noncombatants were killed . The governor of Coahuila y Tejas , Agustín Viesca , refused to dissolve the legislature , instead ordering that the session reconvene in Béxar , further from the influence of the Mexican army . Although prominent Tejano Juan Seguín raised a militia company to assist the governor , the Béxar ayuntamiento ( city council ) ordered him not to interfere , and Viesca was arrested before he reached Texas .
Public opinion in Texas was divided . Editorials in the United States began advocating complete independence for Texas . After several men staged a minor revolt against customs duties in Anahuac in June , local leaders began calling for a public meeting to determine whether a majority of settlers favored independence , a return to federalism , or the status quo . Although some leaders worried that Mexican officials would see this type of gathering as a step towards revolution , by the end of August most communities had agreed to send delegates to the Consultation , scheduled for October 15 .
As early as April 1835 , military commanders in Texas began requesting reinforcements , fearing the citizens would revolt . Mexico was ill @-@ prepared for a large civil war , but continued unrest in Texas posed a significant danger to the power of Santa Anna and of Mexico . If the people of Coahuila also took up arms , Mexico faced losing a large portion of its territory . Without the northeastern province to act as a buffer , it was likely that United States influence would spread , and the Mexican territories of Nuevo Mexico and Alta California would be at risk of future American encroachment . Santa Anna had no wish to tangle with the United States , and he knew that the unrest needed to be subdued before the United States could be convinced to become involved . In early September , Santa Anna ordered his brother @-@ in @-@ law , General Martín Perfecto de Cos , to lead 500 soldiers to Texas to quell any potential rebellion . Cos and his men landed at the port of Copano on September 20 . Austin called on all municipalities to raise militias to defend themselves .
= = Texian offensive : October – December 1835 = =
= = = Gonzales = = =
In the early 1830s , the army loaned the citizens of Gonzales a small cannon for protection against Indian raids . After a Mexican soldier bludgeoned a Gonzales resident on September 10 , 1835 , tensions rose even further , and Mexican authorities felt it unwise to leave the settlers with a weapon . Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea , commander of all Mexican military forces in Texas , sent a small detachment of troops to retrieve the cannon . After settlers escorted the group from town without the cannon , Ugartechea sent 100 dragoons with Lieutenant Francisco de Castañeda to demand compliance , with orders to avoid force if possible .
Many of the settlers believed Mexican authorities were manufacturing an excuse to attack the town and eliminate the militia . Texians stalled Castañeda 's attempts to negotiate the cannon 's return for several days as they waited for reinforcements from other colonies . In the early hours of October 2 , approximately 140 Texian volunteers attacked Castañeda 's force . After a brief skirmish , Castañeda requested a meeting with Texian leader John Henry Moore . Castañeda revealed that he shared their federalist leanings , but that he was honor @-@ bound to follow orders . As Moore returned to camp , the Texians raised a homemade white banner with an image of the cannon painted in black in the center , over the words " Come and Take It " . Realizing that he was outnumbered and outgunned , Castañeda led his troops back to Béxar . In this first battle of the revolution , two Mexican soldiers were killed , and one Texian was injured when he fell off his horse . Although the event was , as characterized by historian William C. Davis , " an inconsequential skirmish in which one side did not try to fight " , Texians soon declared it a victory over Mexican troops . News of the skirmish spread throughout the United States , encouraging many adventurers to come to Texas to join the fight .
Volunteers continued to arrive in Gonzales . On October 11 , the troops unanimously elected Austin , who had no official military experience , the leader of the group he had dubbed the Army of the People . From the beginning , the volunteer army proved to have little discipline . Austin 's first official order was to remind his men that they were expected to obey their commanding officers . Buoyed by their victory , the Texians were determined to drive the Mexican army out of Texas , and they began preparing to march to Béxar .
= = = Gulf Coast campaign = = =
After learning that Texian troops had attacked Castañeda at Gonzales , Cos made haste for Béxar . Unaware of his departure , on October 6 , Texians in Matagorda marched on Presidio La Bahía in Goliad to kidnap him and steal the $ 50 @,@ 000 that was rumored to accompany him . On October 10 , approximately 125 volunteers , including 30 Tejanos , stormed the presidio . The Mexican garrison surrendered after a thirty @-@ minute battle . One or two Texians were wounded and three Mexican soldiers were killed with seven more wounded .
The Texians established themselves in the presidio , under the command of Captain Philip Dimmitt , who immediately sent all the local Tejano volunteers to join Austin on the march to Béxar . At the end of the month , Dimmitt sent a group of men under Ira Westover to engage the Mexican garrison at Fort Lipantitlán , near San Patricio . Late on November 3 , the Texians took the undermanned fort without firing a shot . After dismantling the fort , they prepared to return to Goliad . The remainder of the Mexican garrison , which had been out on patrol , approached . The Mexican troops were accompanied by 15 – 20 loyal centralists from San Patricio , including all members of the ayuntamiento . After a thirty @-@ minute skirmish , the Mexican soldiers and Texian centralists retreated . With their departure , the Texian army controlled the Gulf Coast , forcing Mexican commanders to send all communication with the Mexican interior overland . The slower land journey left Cos unable to quickly request or receive reinforcements or supplies .
On their return to Goliad , Westover 's group encountered Governor Viesca . After being freed by sympathetic soldiers , Viesca had immediately traveled to Texas to recreate the state government . Dimmitt welcomed Viesca but refused to recognize his authority as governor . This caused an uproar in the garrison , as many supported the governor . Dimmitt declared martial law and soon alienated most of the local residents . Over the next few months , the area between Goliad and Refugio descended into civil war . Goliad native Carlos de la Garza led a guerrilla warfare campaign against the Texian troops . According to historian Paul Lack , the Texian " antiguerilla tactics did too little to crush out opposition but quite enough to sway the uncommitted toward the centralists . "
= = = Siege of Béxar = = =
While Dimmitt supervised the Texian forces along the Gulf Coast , Austin led his men towards Béxar to engage Cos and his troops . Confident that they would quickly rout the Mexican troops , many Consultation delegates chose to join the military . Unable to reach a quorum , the Consultation was postponed until November 1 . On October 16 , the Texians paused 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Béxar . Austin sent a messenger to Cos giving the requirements the Texians would need to lay down their arms and " avoid the sad consequences of the Civil War which unfortunately threatens Texas " . Cos replied that Mexico would not " yield to the dictates of foreigners " .
The approximately 650 Mexican troops quickly built barricades throughout the town . Within days the Texian army , about 450 strong , initiated a siege of Béxar , and gradually moved their camp nearer Béxar . On October 27 , an advance party led by James Bowie and James Fannin chose Mission Concepción as the next campsite and sent for the rest of the Texian army . On learning that the Texians were temporarily divided , Ugartechea led troops to engage Bowie and Fannin 's men . The Mexican cavalry was unable to fight effectively in the wooded , riverbottom terrain , and the weapons of the Mexican infantry had a much shorter range than those of the Texians . After three Mexican infantry attacks were repulsed , Ugartechea called for a retreat . One Texian soldier had died , and between 14 and 76 Mexican soldiers were killed . Although Texas Tech University professor emeritus Alwyn Barr noted that the battle of Concepción " should have taught ... lessons on Mexican courage and the value of a good defensive position " , Texas history expert Stephen Hardin believes that " the relative ease of the victory at Concepción instilled in the Texians a reliance on their long rifles and a contempt for their enemies " .
As the weather turned colder and rations grew smaller , groups of Texians began to leave , most without permission . Morale was boosted on November 18 , when the first group of volunteers from the United States , the New Orleans Greys , joined the Texian army . Unlike the majority of the Texian volunteers , the Greys looked like soldiers , with uniforms , well @-@ maintained rifles , adequate ammunition , and some semblance of discipline .
After Austin resigned his command to become a commissioner to the United States , soldiers elected Edward Burleson as their new commander . On November 26 , Burleson received word that a Mexican pack train of mules and horses , accompanied by 50 – 100 Mexican soldiers , was within 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of Béxar . After a near mutiny , Burleson sent Bowie and William H. Jack with cavalry and infantry to intercept the supplies . In the subsequent skirmish , the Mexican forces were forced to retreat to Béxar , leaving their cargo behind . To the disappointment of the Texians , the saddlebags contained only fodder for the horses ; for this reason the battle was later known as the Grass Fight . Although the victory briefly uplifted the Texian troops , morale continued to fall as the weather turned colder and the men grew bored . After several proposals to take Béxar by force were voted down by the Texian troops , on December 4 Burleson proposed that the army lift the siege and retreat to Goliad until spring . In a last effort to avoid a retreat , Colonel Ben Milam personally recruited units to participate in an attack . The following morning , Milam and Colonel Frank W. Johnson led several hundred Texians into the city . Over the next four days , Texians fought their way from house to house towards the fortified plazas near the center of town .
Cos received 650 reinforcements on December 8 , but to his dismay most of them were raw recruits , including many convicts still in chains . Instead of being helpful , the reinforcements were mainly a drain on the dwindling food supplies . Seeing few other options , on December 9 , Cos and the bulk of his men withdrew into the Alamo Mission on the outskirts of Béxar . Cos presented a plan for a counterattack ; cavalry officers believed that they would be surrounded by Texians and refused their orders . Possibly 175 soldiers from four of the cavalry companies left the mission and rode south ; Mexican officers later claimed the men misunderstood their orders and were not deserting . The following morning , Cos surrendered . Under the terms of the surrender , Cos and his men would leave Texas and no longer fight against supporters of the Constitution of 1824 . With his departure , there was no longer an organized garrison of Mexican troops in Texas , and many of the Texians believed that the war was over . Burleson resigned his leadership of the army on December 15 and returned to his home . Many of the men did likewise , and Johnson assumed command of the 400 soldiers who remained .
According to Barr , the large number of American volunteers in Béxar " contributed to the Mexican view that Texan opposition stemmed from outside influences " . In reality , of the 1 @,@ 300 men who volunteered to fight for the Texian army in October and November 1835 , only 150 – 200 arrived from the United States after October 2 . The rest were residents of Texas with an average immigration date of 1830 . Volunteers came from every municipality , including those that were partially occupied by Mexican forces . However , as residents returned to their homes following Cos 's surrender , the Texian army composition changed dramatically . Of the volunteers serving from January through March 1836 , 78 percent had arrived from the United States after October 2 , 1835 .
= = Regrouping : November 1835 – February 1836 = =
= = = Texas Consultation and the Matamoros Expedition = = =
The Consultation finally convened on November 3 in San Felipe with 58 of the 98 elected delegates . After days of bitter debate , the delegates voted to create a provisional government based on the principles of the Constitution of 1824 . Although they did not declare independence , the delegates insisted they would not rejoin Mexico until federalism had been reinstated . The new government would consist of a governor and a General Council , with one representative from each municipality . Under the assumption that these two branches would cooperate , there was no system of checks and balances .
On November 13 , delegates voted to create a regular army and named Sam Houston its commander @-@ in @-@ chief . In an effort to attract volunteers from the United States , soldiers would be granted land bounties . This provision was significant , as all public land was owned by the state or the federal government , indicating that the delegates expected Texas to eventually declare independence . Houston was given no authority over the volunteer army led by Austin , which predated the Consultation . Houston was also appointed to the Select Committee on Indian Affairs . Three men , including Austin , were asked to go to the United States to gather money , volunteers , and supplies . The delegates elected Henry Smith as governor . On November 14 , the Consultation adjourned , leaving Smith and the Council in charge .
The new Texas government had no funds , so the military was granted the authority to impress supplies . This policy soon resulted in an almost universal hatred of the Council , as food and supplies became scarce , especially in the areas around Goliad and Béxar , where Texian troops were stationed . Few of the volunteers agreed to join Houston 's regular army . The Telegraph and Texas Register noted that " some are not willing , under the present government , to do any duty ... That our government is bad , all acknowledge , and no one will deny . "
Leaders in Texas continued to debate whether the army was fighting for independence or a return to federalism . On December 22 , Texian soldiers stationed at La Bahía issued the Goliad Declaration of Independence . Unwilling to decide the matter themselves , the Council called for another election , for delegates to the Convention of 1836 . The Council specifically noted that all free white males could vote , as well as Mexicans who did not support centralism . Smith tried to veto the latter requirement , as he believed even Tejanos with federalist leanings should be denied suffrage .
Leading federalists in Mexico , including former governor Viesca , Lorenzo de Zavala , and José Antonio Mexía , were advocating a plan to attack centralist troops in Matamoros . Council members were taken with the idea of a Matamoros Expedition . They hoped it would inspire other federalist states to revolt and keep the bored Texian troops from deserting the army . Most importantly , it would move the war zone outside Texas . The Council officially approved the plan on December 25 , and on December 30 Johnson and his aide Dr. James Grant took the bulk of the army and almost all of the supplies to Goliad to prepare for the expedition . Historian Stuart Reid posits that Grant was a British secret agent , and that his plan to take Matamoros , and thus tie Texas more tightly to Mexico , may have been an unofficial scheme to advance British interests in the region .
Petty bickering between Smith and the Council members increased dramatically , and on January 9 , 1836 , Smith threatened to dismiss the Council unless they agreed to revoke their approval of the Matamoros Expedition . Two days later the Council voted to impeach Smith and named James W. Robinson the Acting Governor . It was unclear whether either side actually had the authority to dismiss the other . By this point , Texas was essentially in anarchy .
Under orders from Smith , Houston successfully dissuaded all but 70 men from continuing to follow Johnson . With his own authority in question following Smith 's impeachment , Houston washed his hands of the army and journeyed to Nacogdoches to negotiate a treaty with Cherokee leaders . Houston vowed that Texas would recognize Cherokee claims to land in East Texas as long as the Indians refrained from attacking settlements or assisting the Mexican army . In his absence , Fannin , as the highest @-@ ranking officer active in the regular army , led the men who did not want to go to Matamoros to Goliad .
The Council had neglected to provide specific instructions on how to structure the February vote for convention delegates , leaving it up to each municipality to determine how to balance the desires of the established residents against those of the volunteers newly arrived from the United States . Chaos ensued ; in Nacogdoches , the election judge turned back a company of 40 volunteers from Kentucky who had arrived that week . The soldiers drew their weapons ; Colonel Sidney Sherman announced that he " had come to Texas to fight for it and had as soon commence in the town of Nacogdoches as elsewhere " . Eventually , the troops were allowed to vote . With rumors that Santa Anna was preparing a large army to advance into Texas , rhetoric degenerated into framing the conflict as a race war between Anglos defending their property against , in the words of David G. Burnet , a " mongrel race of degenerate Spaniards and Indians more depraved than they " .
= = = Mexican Army of Operations = = =
News of the armed uprising at Gonzales reached Santa Anna on October 23 . Aside from the ruling elite and members of the army , few in Mexico knew or cared about the revolt . Those with knowledge of the events blamed the Anglos for their unwillingness to conform to the laws and culture of their new country . Anglo immigrants had forced a war on Mexico , and Mexican honor insisted that the usurpers be defeated . Santa Anna transferred his presidential duties to Miguel Barragán in order to personally lead troops to put an end to the Texian revolt . Santa Anna and his soldiers believed that the Texians would be quickly cowed . The Mexican Secretary of War , José María Tornel , wrote : " The superiority of the Mexican soldier over the mountaineers of Kentucky and the hunters of Missouri is well known . Veterans seasoned by 20 years of wars can 't be intimidated by the presence of an army ignorant of the art of war , incapable of discipline , and renowned for insubordination . "
At this time , there were only 2 @,@ 500 soldiers in the Mexican interior . This was not enough to crush a rebellion and provide security — from attacks by both Indians and federalists — throughout the rest of the country . With funds loaned by the Roman Catholic Church specifically to finance the war in Texas , Santa Anna began to assemble a new army , which he dubbed the Army of Operations in Texas . A majority of the troops had been conscripted or were convicts who chose service in the military over jail . The Mexican officers knew that the Brown Bess muskets they carried lacked the range of the Texian weapons , but Santa Anna was convinced that his superior planning would nonetheless result in an easy victory . Corruption was rampant , and supplies were not plentiful . Almost from the beginning , rations were short , and there were no medical supplies or doctors . Few troops were issued heavy coats or blankets for the winter .
In late December , at Santa Anna 's behest , the Mexican Congress passed the Tornel Decree , declaring that any foreigners fighting against Mexican troops " will be deemed pirates and dealt with as such , being citizens of no nation presently at war with the Republic and fighting under no recognized flag . " In the early nineteenth century , captured pirates were executed immediately . The resolution thus gave the Mexican army permission to take no prisoners in the war against the Texians . This information was not widely distributed , and it is unlikely that most of the American recruits serving in the Texian army were aware that there would be no prisoners @-@ of @-@ war .
By December 1835 , 6 @,@ 019 soldiers had begun their march towards Texas . Progress was slow . There were not enough mules to transport all of the supplies , and many of the teamsters , all civilians , quit when their pay was delayed . The large number of soldaderas — women and children who followed the army — reduced the already scarce supplies . In Saltillo , Cos and his men from Béxar joined Santa Anna 's forces . Santa Anna regarded Cos 's promise not to take up arms in Texas as meaningless because it had been given to rebels .
From Saltillo , the army had three choices : advance along the coast on the Atascocita Road from Matamoros to Goliad , or march on Béxar from the south , along the Laredo road , or from the west , along the Camino Real . Santa Anna ordered General José de Urrea to lead 550 troops to Goliad . Although several of Santa Anna 's officers argued that the entire army should advance along the coast , where supplies could be gained via sea , Santa Anna instead focused on Béxar , the political center of Texas and the site of Cos 's defeat . His brother @-@ in @-@ law 's surrender was seen as a blow to the honor of his family and to Mexico ; Santa Anna was determined to restore both . Santa Anna may also have thought Béxar would be easier to defeat , as his spies had informed him that most of the Texian army was along the coast , preparing for the Matamoros Expedition . Santa Anna led the bulk of his men up the Camino Real to approach Béxar from the west , confounding the Texians , who had expected any advancing troops to approach from the south . On February 17 , they crossed the Nueces River , officially entering Texas .
Temperatures reached record lows , and by February 13 an estimated 15 – 16 inches ( 38 – 41 cm ) of snow had fallen . A large number of the new recruits were from the tropical climate of the Yucatán and had been unable to acclimate to the harsh winter conditions . Some of them died of hypothermia , and others contracted dysentery . Soldiers who fell behind were sometimes killed by Comanche raiding parties . Nevertheless , the army continued to march towards Béxar . As they progressed , settlers in their path in South Texas evacuated northward . The Mexican army ransacked and occasionally burned the vacant homes . Santa Anna and his commanders received timely intelligence on Texian troop locations , strengths , and plans , from a network of Tejano spies organized by de la Garza .
= = Santa Anna 's offensive : February – March 1836 = =
= = = Alamo = = =
Fewer than 100 Texian soldiers remained at the Alamo Mission in Béxar , under the command of Colonel James C. Neill . Unable to spare the number of men necessary to mount a successful defense of the sprawling facility , in January Houston sent Bowie with 30 men to remove the artillery and destroy the complex . In a letter to Governor Smith , Bowie argued that " the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Béxar out of the hands of the enemy . It serves as the frontier picquet guard , and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna , there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march towards the Sabine . " The letter to Smith ended , " Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy . " Few reinforcements were authorized ; cavalry officer William B. Travis arrived in Béxar with 30 men on February 3 and five days later , a small group of volunteers arrived , including the famous frontiersman Davy Crockett . On February 11 , Neill left to recruit additional reinforcements and gather supplies . In his absence , Travis and Bowie shared command .
When scouts brought word on February 23 that the Mexican advance guard was in sight , the unprepared Texians gathered what food they could find in town and fell back to the Alamo . By late afternoon , Béxar was occupied by about 1 @,@ 500 Mexican troops , who quickly raised a blood @-@ red flag signifying no quarter . For the next 13 days , the Mexican army besieged the Alamo . Several small skirmishes gave the defenders much @-@ needed optimism , but had little real impact . Bowie fell ill on February 24 , leaving Travis in sole command of the Texian forces . The same day , Travis sent messengers with a letter To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World , begging for reinforcements and vowing " victory or death " ; this letter was reprinted throughout the United States and much of Europe . Texian and American volunteers began to gather in Gonzales , waiting for Fannin to arrive and lead them to reinforce the Alamo . After days of indecision , on February 26 Fannin prepared to march his 300 troops to the Alamo ; they turned back the next day , having traveled less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . Fewer than 100 Texian reinforcements reached the fort .
Approximately 1 @,@ 000 Mexican reinforcements arrived on March 3 . The following day , a local woman , likely Bowie 's relative Juana Navarro Alsbury , was rebuffed by Santa Anna when she attempted to negotiate a surrender for the Alamo defenders . This visit increased Santa Anna 's impatience , and he scheduled an assault for early on March 6 . Many of his officers were against the plan ; they preferred to wait until the artillery had further damaged the Alamo 's walls and the defenders were forced to surrender . Santa Anna was convinced that a decisive victory would improve morale and sound a strong message to those still agitating in the interior and elsewhere in Texas .
In the early hours of March 6 , the Mexican army attacked the fort . Troops from Béxar were excused from the front lines , so that they would not be forced to fight their families and friends . In the initial moments of the assault the Mexican troops were at a disadvantage . Although their column formation allowed only the front rows of soldiers to fire safely , inexperienced recruits in the back also discharged their weapons ; many Mexican soldiers were unintentionally killed by their own comrades . As Mexican soldiers swarmed over the walls , at least 80 Texians fled the Alamo and were cut down by Mexican cavalry . Within an hour , almost all of the Texian defenders , estimated at 182 – 257 men , were killed . Between four and seven Texians , possibly including Crockett , surrendered . Although General Manuel Fernández Castrillón attempted to intercede on their behalf , Santa Anna insisted that the prisoners be executed immediately .
Most Alamo historians agree that 400 – 600 Mexicans were killed or wounded . This would represent about one @-@ third of the Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault , which historian Timothy Todish remarks is " a tremendous casualty rate by any standards " . The battle was militarily insignificant , but had an enormous political impact . Travis had succeeded in buying time for the Convention of 1836 , scheduled for March 1 , to meet . If Santa Anna had not paused in Béxar for two weeks , he would have reached San Felipe by March 2 and very likely would have captured the delegates or caused them to flee .
The survivors , primarily women and children , were questioned by Santa Anna and then released . Susanna Dickinson was sent with Travis 's slave Joe to Gonzales , where she lived , to spread the news of the Texian defeat . Santa Anna assumed that knowledge of the disparity in troop numbers and the fate of the Texian soldiers at the Alamo would quell the resistance , and that Texian soldiers would quickly leave the territory .
= = = Goliad Campaign = = =
Urrea reached Matamoros on January 31 . A committed federalist himself , he soon convinced other federalists in the area that the Texians ' ultimate goal was secession and their attempt to spark a federalist revolt in Matamoros was just a method of diverting attention from themselves . Mexican double agents continued to assure Johnson and Grant that they would be able to take Matamoros easily . While Johnson waited in San Patricio with a small group of men , Grant and between 26 and 53 others roamed the area between the Nueces River and Matamoros . Although they were ostensibly searching for more horses , it is likely Grant was also attempting to contact his sources in Matamoros to further coordinate an attack .
Just after midnight on February 27 , Urrea 's men surprised Johnson 's forces . Six Texians , including Johnson , escaped ; the remainder were captured or killed . After learning of Grant 's whereabouts from local spies , Mexican dragoons ambushed the Texians at Agua Dulce Creek on March 2 . Twelve Texians were killed , including Grant , four were captured , and six escaped . Although Urrea 's orders were to execute those captured , he instead sent them to Matamoros as prisoners .
On March 11 , Fannin sent Captain Amon B. King to help evacuate settlers from the mission in Refugio . King and his men instead spent a day searching local ranches for centralist sympathizers . They returned to the mission on March 12 and were soon besieged by Urrea 's advance guard and de la Garza 's Victoriana Guardes . That same day , Fannin received orders from Houston to destroy Presidio La Bahía ( by then renamed Fort Defiance ) and march to Victoria . Unwilling to leave any of his men behind , Fannin sent William Ward with 120 men to help King 's company . Ward 's men drove off the troops besieging the church , but rather than return to Goliad , they delayed a day to conduct further raids on local ranches .
Urrea arrived with almost 1 @,@ 000 troops on March 14 . At the battle of Refugio , an engagement markedly similar to the battle of Concepción , the Texians repulsed several attacks and inflicted heavy casualties , relying on the greater accuracy and range of their rifles . By the end of the day , the Texians were hungry , thirsty , tired , and almost out of ammunition . Ward ordered a retreat , and under cover of darkness and rain the Texian soldiers slipped through Mexican lines , leaving several severely wounded men behind . Over the next several days , Urrea 's men , with the help of local centralist supporters , rounded up many of the Texians who had escaped . Most were executed , although Urrea pardoned a few after their wives begged for their lives , and Mexican Colonel Juan José Holzinger insisted that all of the non @-@ Americans be spared .
By the end of the day on March 16 , the bulk of Urrea 's forces began marching to Goliad to corner Fannin . Still waiting for word from King and Ward , Fannin continued to delay his evacuation from Goliad . As they prepared to leave on March 18 , Urrea 's advance guard arrived . For the rest of the day , the two cavalries skirmished aimlessly , succeeding only in exhausting the Texian oxen , which had remained hitched to their wagons with no food or water throughout the day .
The Texians began their retreat on March 19 . The pace was unhurried , and after travelling only 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) , the group stopped for an hour to rest and allow the oxen to graze . Urrea 's troops caught up to the Texians later that afternoon , while Fannin and his force of about 300 men were crossing a prairie . Having learned from the fighting at Refugio , Urrea was determined that the Texians would not reach the cover of timber approximately 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) ahead , along Coleto Creek . As Mexican forces surrounded them , the Texians formed a tight hollow square for defense . They repulsed three charges during this battle of Coleto , resulting in about nine Texians killed and 51 wounded , including Fannin . Urrea lost 50 men , with another 140 wounded . Texians had little food , no water , and declining supplies of ammunition , but voted to not try to break for the timber , as they would have had to leave the wounded behind .
The following morning , March 20 , Urrea paraded his men and his newly arrived artillery . Seeing the hopelessness of their situation , the Texians with Fannin surrendered . Mexican records show that the Texians surrendered at discretion ; Texian accounts claim that Urrea promised the Texians would be treated as prisoners @-@ of @-@ war and granted passage to the United States . Two days later , a group of Urrea 's men surrounded Ward and the last of his group less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Victoria . Over Ward 's vehement objections , his men voted to surrender , later recalling they were told they would be sent back to the United States .
On Palm Sunday , March 27 , Fannin , Ward , Westover , and their men were marched out of the presidio and shot . Mexican cavalry were stationed nearby to chase down any who tried to escape . Approximately 342 Texians died , and 27 either escaped or were spared by Mexican troops . Several weeks after the Goliad massacre , the Mexican Congress granted an official reprieve to any Texas prisoners who had incurred capital punishment .
= = = Texas Convention of 1836 = = =
The Convention of 1836 in Washington @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Brazos on March 1 attracted 45 delegates , representing 21 municipalities . Within an hour of the convention 's opening , George C. Childress submitted a proposed Texas Declaration of Independence , which passed overwhelmingly on March 2 . On March 6 , hours after the Alamo had fallen , Travis 's final dispatch arrived . His distress was evident ; delegate Robert Potter immediately moved that the convention be adjourned and all delegates join the army . Houston convinced the delegates to remain , and then left to take charge of the army . With the backing of the Convention , Houston was now commander @-@ in @-@ chief of all regular , volunteer , and militia forces in Texas .
Over the next ten days , delegates prepared a constitution for the Republic of Texas . Parts of the document were copied verbatim from the United States Constitution ; other articles were paraphrased . The new nation 's government was structured similarly to that of the United States , with a bicameral legislature , a chief executive , and a supreme court . In a sharp departure from its model , the new constitution expressly permitted impressment of goods and forced housing for soldiers . It also explicitly legalized slavery and recognized the people 's right to revolt against government authority . After adopting the constitution on March 17 , delegates elected interim officers to govern the country and then adjourned . David G. Burnet , who had not been a delegate , was elected president . The following day , Burnet announced the government was leaving for Harrisburg .
= = Retreat : March – May 1836 = =
= = = Texian retreat : The Runaway Scrape = = =
On March 11 , Santa Anna sent one column of troops to join Urrea , with instructions to move to Brazoria once Fannin 's men had been neutralized . A second set of 700 troops under General Antonio Gaona would advance along the Camino Real to Mina , and then on to Nacogdoches . General Joaquín Ramírez y Sesma would take an additional 700 men to San Felipe . The Mexican columns were thus moving northeast on roughly parallel paths , separated by 40 – 50 miles ( 64 – 80 km ) .
The same day that Mexican troops departed Béxar , Houston arrived in Gonzales and informed the 374 volunteers ( some without weapons ) gathered there that Texas was now an independent republic . Just after 11 p.m. on March 13 , Susanna Dickinson and Joe brought news that the Alamo garrison had been defeated and the Mexican army was marching towards Texian settlements . A hastily convened council of war voted to evacuate the area and retreat . The evacuation commenced at midnight and happened so quickly that many Texian scouts were unaware the army had moved on . Everything that could not be carried was burned , and the army 's only two cannon were thrown into the Guadalupe River . When Ramírez y Sesma reached Gonzales the morning of March 14 , he found the buildings still smoldering .
Most citizens fled on foot , many carrying their small children . A cavalry company led by Seguín and Salvador Flores were assigned as rear guard to evacuate the more isolated ranches and protect the civilians from attacks by Mexican troops or Indians . The further the army retreated , the more civilians joined the flight . For both armies and the civilians , the pace was slow ; torrential rains had flooded the rivers and turned the roads into mud pits .
As news of the Alamo 's fall spread , volunteer ranks swelled , reaching about 1 @,@ 400 men on March 19 . Houston learned of Fannin 's defeat on March 20 and realized his army was the last hope for an independent Texas . Concerned that his ill @-@ trained and ill @-@ disciplined force would only be good for one battle and aware that his men could easily be outflanked by Urrea 's forces , Houston continued to avoid engagement , to the immense displeasure of his troops . By March 28 , the Texian army had retreated 120 miles ( 190 km ) across the Navidad and Colorado Rivers . Many troops deserted ; those who remained grumbled that their commander was a coward .
On March 31 , Houston paused his men at Groce 's Landing , roughly 15 miles ( 24 km ) north of San Felipe . Two companies that refused to retreat further than San Felipe were assigned to guard the crossings on the Brazos River . For the next two weeks , the Texians rested , recovered from illness , and , for the first time , began practicing military drills . While there , two cannon , known as the Twin Sisters , arrived from Cincinnati , Ohio . Interim Secretary of War Thomas Rusk joined the camp , with orders from Burnet to replace Houston if he refused to fight . Houston quickly persuaded Rusk that his plans were sound . Secretary of State Samuel P. Carson advised Houston to continue retreating all the way to the Sabine River , where more volunteers would likely flock from the United States and allow the army to counterattack . Unhappy with everyone involved , Burnet wrote to Houston : " The enemy are laughing you to scorn . You must fight them . You must retreat no further . The country expects you to fight . The salvation of the country depends on your doing so . " Complaints within the camp became so strong that Houston posted notices that anyone attempting to usurp his position would be court @-@ martialed and shot .
Santa Anna and a smaller force had remained in Béxar . After receiving word that the acting president , Miguel Barragán , had died , Santa Anna seriously considered returning to Mexico City to solidify his position . Fear that Urrea 's victories would position him as a political rival convinced Santa Anna to remain in Texas to personally oversee the final phase of the campaign . He left on March 29 to join Ramírez y Sesma , leaving only a small force to hold Béxar . At dawn on April 7 , their combined force marched into San Felipe and captured a Texian soldier , who informed Santa Anna that the Texians planned to retreat further if the Mexican army crossed the Brazos River . Unable to cross the Brazos due to the small company of Texians barricaded at the river crossing , on April 14 a frustrated Santa Anna led a force of about 700 troops to capture the interim Texas government . Government officials fled mere hours before Mexican troops arrived in Harrisburg , and Santa Anna sent Colonel Juan Almonte with 50 cavalry to intercept them in New Washington . Almonte arrived just as Burnet shoved off in a rowboat , bound for Galveston Island . Although the boat was still within range of their weapons , Almonte ordered his men to hold their fire so as not to endanger Burnet 's family .
At this point , Santa Anna believed the rebellion was in its final death throes . The Texian government had been forced off the mainland , with no way to communicate with its army , which had shown no interest in fighting . He determined to block the Texian army 's retreat and put a decisive end to the war . Almonte 's scouts incorrectly reported that Houston 's army was going to Lynchburg Crossing , on Buffalo Bayou , in preparation for joining the government in Galveston , so Santa Anna ordered Harrisburg burned and pressed on towards Lynchburg .
The Texian army had resumed their march eastward . On April 16 , they came to a crossroads ; one road led north towards Nacogdoches , the other went to Harrisburg . Without orders from Houston and with no discussion amongst themselves , the troops in the lead took the road to Harrisburg . They arrived on April 18 , not long after the Mexican army 's departure . That same day , Deaf Smith and Henry Karnes captured a Mexican courier carrying intelligence on the locations and future plans of all of the Mexican troops in Texas . Realizing that Santa Anna had only a small force and was not far away , Houston gave a rousing speech to his men , exhorting them to " Remember the Alamo " and " Remember Goliad " . His army then raced towards Lynchburg . Out of concern that his men might not differentiate between Mexican soldiers and the Tejanos in Seguín 's company , Houston originally ordered Seguín and his men to remain in Harrisburg to guard those who were too ill to travel quickly . After loud protests from Seguín and Antonio Menchaca , the order was rescinded , provided the Tejanos wear a piece of cardboard in their hats to identify them as Texian soldiers .
= = = San Jacinto = = =
The area along Buffalo Bayou had many thick oak groves , separated by marshes . This type of terrain was familiar to the Texians and quite alien to the Mexican soldiers . Houston 's army , comprising 900 men , reached Lynch 's Ferry mid @-@ morning on April 20 ; Santa Anna 's 700 @-@ man force arrived a few hours later . The Texians made camp in a wooded area along the bank of Buffalo Bayou ; while the location provided good cover and helped hide their full strength , it also left the Texians no room for retreat . Over the protests of several of his officers , Santa Anna chose to make camp in a vulnerable location , a plain near the San Jacinto River , bordered by woods on one side , marsh and lake on another . The two camps were approximately 500 yards ( 460 m ) apart , separated by a grassy area with a slight rise in the middle . Colonel Pedro Delgado later wrote that " the camping ground of His Excellency 's selection was in all respects , against military rules . Any youngster would have done better . "
Over the next several hours , two brief skirmishes occurred . Texians won the first , forcing a small group of dragoons and the Mexican artillery to withdraw . Mexican dragoons then forced the Texian cavalry to withdraw . In the melee , Rusk , on foot to reload his rifle , was almost captured by Mexican soldiers , but was rescued by newly arrived Texian volunteer Mirabeau B. Lamar . Over Houston 's objections , many infantrymen rushed onto the field . As the Texian cavalry fell back , Lamar remained behind to rescue another Texian who had been thrown from his horse ; Mexican officers " reportedly applauded " his bravery . Houston was irate that the infantry had disobeyed his orders and given Santa Anna a better estimate of their strength ; the men were equally upset that Houston hadn 't allowed a full battle .
Throughout the night , Mexican troops worked to fortify their camp , creating breastworks out of everything they could find , including saddles and brush . At 9 a.m. on April 21 , Cos arrived with 540 reinforcements , bringing the Mexican force to 1 @,@ 200 men , which outnumbered the Texians . Cos 's men were raw recruits rather than experienced soldiers , and they had marched steadily for more than 24 hours , with no rest and no food . As the morning wore on with no Texian attack , Mexican officers lowered their guard . By afternoon , Santa Anna had given permission for Cos 's men to sleep ; his own tired troops also took advantage of the time to rest , eat , and bathe .
Not long after the Mexican reinforcements arrived , Houston ordered Smith to destroy Vince 's Bridge , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) away , to slow down any further Mexican reinforcements . At 4 p.m. the Texians began creeping quietly through the tall grass , pulling the cannon behind them . The Texian cannon fired at 4 : 30 , beginning the battle of San Jacinto . After a single volley , Texians broke ranks and swarmed over the Mexican breastworks to engage in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . Mexican soldiers were taken completely by surprise . Santa Anna , Castrillón , and Almonte yelled often conflicting orders , attempting to organize their men into some form of defense . Within 18 minutes , Mexican soldiers abandoned their campsite and fled for their lives . The killing lasted for hours .
Many Mexican soldiers retreated through the marsh to Peggy Lake . Texian riflemen stationed themselves on the banks and shot at anything that moved . Many Texian officers , including Houston and Rusk , attempted to stop the slaughter , but they were unable to gain control of the men . Texians continued to chant " Remember the Alamo ! Remember Goliad ! " while frightened Mexican infantry yelled " Me no Alamo ! " and begged for mercy to no avail . In what historian Davis called " one of the most one @-@ sided victories in history " , 650 Mexican soldiers were killed and 300 captured . Eleven Texians died , with 30 others , including Houston , wounded .
Although Santa Anna 's troops had been thoroughly vanquished , they did not represent the bulk of the Mexican army in Texas . An additional 4 @,@ 000 troops remained under the commands of Urrea and General Vicente Filisola . Texians had won the battle due to mistakes made by Santa Anna , and Houston was well aware that his troops would have little hope of repeating their victory against Urrea or Filisola . As darkness fell , a large group of prisoners were led into camp . Houston initially mistook the group for Mexican reinforcements and shouted out that all was lost .
= = = Mexican retreat = = =
Santa Anna had successfully escaped towards Vince 's Bridge . Finding the bridge destroyed , he hid in the marsh and was captured the following day . He was brought before Houston , who had been shot in the ankle and badly wounded . Texian soldiers gathered around , calling for the Mexican general 's immediate execution . Bargaining for his life , Santa Anna suggested that he order the remaining Mexican troops to stay away . In a letter to Filisola , who was now the senior Mexican official in Texas , Santa Anna wrote that " yesterday evening [ we ] had an unfortunate encounter " and ordered his troops to retreat to Béxar and await further instructions .
Urrea urged Filisola to continue the campaign . He was confident that he could successfully challenge the Texian troops . According to Hardin , " Santa Anna had presented Mexico with one military disaster ; Filisola did not wish to risk another . " Spring rains ruined the ammunition and rendered the roads almost impassable , with troops sinking to their knees in mud . Mexican troops were soon out of food , and began to fall ill from dysentery and other diseases . Their supply lines had completely broken down , leaving no hope of further reinforcements . Filisola later wrote that " Had the enemy met us under these cruel circumstances , on the only road that was left , no alternative remained but to die or surrender at discretion " .
For several weeks after San Jacinto , Santa Anna continued to negotiate with Houston , Rusk , and then Burnet . Santa Anna suggested two treaties , a public version of promises made between the two countries , and a private version that included Santa Anna 's personal agreements . The Treaties of Velasco required that all Mexican troops retreat south of the Rio Grande and that all private property — code for slaves — be respected and restored . Prisoners @-@ of @-@ war would be released unharmed , and Santa Anna would be given passage to Veracruz immediately . He secretly promised to persuade the Mexican Congress to acknowledge the Republic of Texas and to recognize the Rio Grande as the border between the two countries .
When Urrea began marching south in mid @-@ May , many families from San Patricio who had supported the Mexican army went with him . When Texian troops arrived in early June , they found only 20 families remaining . The area around San Patricio and Refugio suffered a " noticeable depopulation " in the Republic of Texas years . Although the treaty had specified that Urrea and Filisola would return any slaves their armies had sheltered , Urrea refused to comply . Many former slaves followed the army to Mexico , where they could be free . By late May the Mexican troops had crossed the Nueces . Filisola fully expected that the defeat was temporary and that a second campaign would be launched to retake Texas .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Military = = =
When Mexican authorities received word of Santa Anna 's defeat at San Jacinto , flags across the country were lowered to half staff and draped in mourning . Denouncing any agreements signed by a prisoner , Mexican authorities refused to recognize the Republic of Texas . Filisola was derided for leading the retreat and quickly replaced by Urrea . Within months , Urrea gathered 6 @,@ 000 troops in Matamoros , poised to reconquer Texas . His army was redirected to address continued federalist rebellions in other regions .
Most in Texas assumed the Mexican army would return quickly . So many American volunteers flocked to the Texian army in the months after the victory at San Jacinto that the Texian government was unable to maintain an accurate list of enlistments . Out of caution , Béxar remained under martial law throughout 1836 . Rusk ordered that all Tejanos in the area between the Guadalupe and Nueces Rivers migrate either to east Texas or to Mexico . Some residents who refused to comply were forcibly removed . New Anglo settlers moved in and used threats and legal maneuvering to take over the land once owned by Tejanos . Over the next several years , hundreds of Tejano families resettled in Mexico .
For years , Mexican authorities used the reconquering of Texas as an excuse for implementing new taxes and making the army the budgetary priority of the impoverished nation . Only sporadic skirmishes resulted . Larger expeditions were postponed as military funding was consistently diverted to other rebellions , out of fear that those regions would ally with Texas and further fragment the country . The northern Mexican states , the focus of the Matamoros Expedition , briefly launched an independent Republic of the Rio Grande in 1839 . The same year , the Mexican Congress considered a law to declare it treasonous to speak positively of Texas . In June 1843 , leaders of the two nations declared an armistice .
= = = Republic of Texas = = =
On June 1 , Santa Anna boarded a ship to travel back to Mexico . For the next two days , crowds of soldiers , many of whom had arrived that week from the United States , gathered to demand his execution . Lamar , by now promoted to Secretary of War , gave a speech insisting that " Mobs must not intimidate the government . We want no French Revolution in Texas ! " , but on June 4 soldiers seized Santa Anna and put him under military arrest . According to Lack , " the shock of having its foreign policy overturned by popular rebellion had weakened the interim government irrevocably " . A group of soldiers staged an unsuccessful coup in mid @-@ July . In response , Burnet called for elections to ratify the constitution and elect a Congress , the sixth set of leaders for Texas in a twelve @-@ month period . Voters overwhelmingly chose Houston the first president , ratified the constitution drawn up by the Convention of 1836 , and approved a resolution to request annexation to the United States . Houston issued an executive order sending Santa Anna to Washington , D.C. , and from there he was soon sent home .
During his absence , Santa Anna had been deposed . Upon his arrival , the Mexican press wasted no time in attacking him for his cruelty towards those executed at Goliad . In May 1837 , Santa Anna requested an inquiry into the event . The judge determined the inquiry was only for fact @-@ finding and took no action ; press attacks in both Mexico and the United States continued . Santa Anna was disgraced until the following year , when he became a hero of the Pastry War .
The first Texas Legislature declined to ratify the treaty Houston had signed with the Cherokee , declaring he had no authority to make any promises . Although the Texian interim governments had vowed to eventually compensate citizens for goods that were impressed during the war efforts , for the most part livestock and horses were not returned . Veterans were guaranteed land bounties ; in 1879 , surviving Texian veterans who served more than three months from October 1 , 1835 through January 1 , 1837 were guaranteed an additional 1 @,@ 280 acres ( 520 ha ) in public lands . Over 1 @.@ 3 million acres ( 559 thousand ha ) of land were granted ; some of this was in Greer County , which was later determined to be part of Oklahoma .
Republic of Texas policies changed the status of many living in the region . The constitution forbade free blacks from living in Texas permanently . Individual slaves could only be freed by congressional order , and the newly emancipated person would then be forced to leave Texas . Women also lost significant legal rights under the new constitution , which substituted English common law practices for the traditional Spanish law system . Under common law , the idea of community property was eliminated , and women no longer had the ability to act for themselves legally – to sign contracts , own property , or sue . Some of these rights were restored in 1845 , when Texas added them to the new state constitution . During the Republic of Texas years , Tejanos likewise faced much discrimination .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
Mexican authorities blamed the loss of Texas on United States intervention . Although the United States remained officially neutral , 40 percent of the men who enlisted in the Texian army from October 1 through April 21 arrived from the United States after hostilities began . More than 200 of the volunteers were members of the United States Army ; none were punished when they returned to their posts . American individuals also provided supplies and money to the cause of Texian independence . For the next decade , Mexican politicians frequently denounced the United States for the involvement of its citizens .
The United States agreed to recognize the Republic of Texas in March 1837 but declined to annex the territory . The fledgling republic now attempted to persuade European nations to agree to recognition . In late 1839 France recognized the Republic of Texas after being convinced it would make a fine trading partner .
For several decades , official British policy was to maintain strong ties with Mexico in the hopes that the country could stop the United States from expanding further . When the Texas Revolution erupted , Great Britain had declined to become involved , officially expressing confidence that Mexico could handle its own affairs . In 1840 , after years in which the Republic of Texas was neither annexed by the United States nor reabsorbed into Mexico , Britain signed a treaty to recognize the nation and act as a mediator to help Texas gain recognition from Mexico .
The United States voted to annex Texas as the 28th state in March 1845 . Two months later , Mexico agreed to recognize the Republic of Texas as long as there was no annexation to the United States . On July 4 , 1845 , Texans voted for annexation . This prompted the Mexican – American War , in which Mexico lost almost 55 percent of its territory to the United States and formally relinquished its claim on Texas .
= = Legacy = =
Although no new fighting techniques were introduced during the Texas Revolution , casualty figures were quite unusual for the time . Generally in 19th @-@ century warfare , the number of wounded outnumbered those killed by a factor of two or three . From October 1835 through April 1836 , approximately 1 @,@ 000 Mexican and 700 Texian soldiers died , while the wounded numbered 500 Mexican and 100 Texian . The deviation from the norm was due to Santa Anna 's decision to label Texian rebels as traitors and to the Texian desire for revenge .
During the revolution , Texian soldiers gained a reputation for courage and militance . Lack points out that fewer than five percent of the Texian population enrolled in the army during the war , a fairly low rate of participation . Texian soldiers recognized that the Mexican cavalry was far superior to their own . Over the next decade , the Texas Rangers borrowed Mexican cavalry tactics and adopted the Spanish saddle and spurs , the riata , and the bandana .
The Texas Veterans Association , composed solely of revolutionary veterans living in Texas , was active from 1873 through 1901 and played a key role in convincing the legislature to create a monument to honor the San Jacinto veterans . In the late 19th century , the Texas Legislature purchased the San Jacinto battlesite , which is now home to the San Jacinto Monument , the tallest stone column monument in the world . In the early 20th century , the Texas Legislature purchased the Alamo Mission , now an official state shrine . In front of the church , in the center of Alamo Plaza , stands a cenotaph designed by Pompeo Coppini which commemorates the defenders who died during the battle . More than 2 @.@ 5 million people visit the Alamo every year .
The Texas Revolution has been the subject of poetry and of many books , plays and films . Most English @-@ language treatments reflect the perspectives of the Anglos and are centered primarily on the battle of the Alamo . From the first novel depicting events of the revolution , 1838 's Mexico versus Texas , through the mid @-@ 20th century , most works contained themes of anticlericalism and racism , depicting the battle as a fight for freedom between good ( Anglo Texian ) and evil ( Mexican ) . In both English- and Spanish @-@ language literature , the Alamo is often compared to the battle of Thermopylae . The 1950s Disney miniseries Davy Crockett , which was largely based on myth , created a worldwide craze for everything Alamo @-@ related . Within several years , John Wayne directed and starred in one of the best @-@ known and perhaps least historically accurate film versions , The Alamo ( 1960 ) . Notably , this version made the first attempt to leave behind racial stereotypes ; it was still banned in Mexico . In the late 1970s , works about the Alamo began to explore Tejano perspectives , which had been all but extinguished even from textbooks about the revolution , and to explore the revolution 's links to slavery .
= Japanese serow =
The Japanese serow ( Capricornis crispus ) is a Japanese goat @-@ antelope , an even @-@ toed ungulate mammal . It is found in dense woodland in Japan , primarily in northern and central Honshu . The animal is seen as a national symbol of Japan and is subject to protection in conservation areas .
Adult Japanese serow stand about 81 centimetres ( 32 in ) tall and weigh 30 – 45 kilograms ( 66 – 99 lb ) . They are black to whitish , and colouring lightens in summer . The fur is very bushy , especially the tail . Both sexes have short , backwards @-@ curving horns and are difficult to distinguish by sight . Japanese serow are found in dense mountain forests where they eat leaves , shoots , and acorns . They are diurnal and feed in early mornings and late afternoons . Serows are solitary , or gather in couples or small family groups . The animal marks its territory with sweet @-@ and @-@ sour @-@ smelling preorbital gland secretions , and males and females have separate territories that may overlap .
In the mid @-@ 20th century the Japanese serow was hunted to near @-@ extinction . In 1955 the Japanese government passed a law designating it a " Special National Monument " to protect it from poachers . Populations have since grown so greatly that IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals ranks it " least concern " . Complaints from foresters and farmers led in 1979 to the 1955 law 's repeal . Since then the serow has had protected status in 13 designated protected areas over 23 prefectures , and has been subject to culling as a pest outside conservation areas . Conservationists have labelled it a " living national treasure of the forest " . Athletes with superior agility and speed draw comparisons with the serow , and the Yamaha Motor Company has marketed the XT 225 enduro motorcycle as the Yamaha Serow .
= = Taxonomy = =
Coenraad Jacob Temminck first described the Japanese serow in 1836 , and named it Antilope crispa . John Edward Gray gave it its current name in 1846 . Pierre Marie Heude proposed many new genera and species in a system published in 1898 ; Capricornis became Capricornulus , which included crispus , pryerianus , and saxicola . The system did not find acceptance .
There is no fossil record of the Japanese serow ; its evolutionary history and the closeness of its relation to the Taiwan serow ( Capricornis swinhoei ) are speculative Its taxonomic position has led to its being called a " living fossil " . Karyotype studies indicate it was the earliest species to split from the common Capricornis ancestor . The closest relative to the Japanese Serow is the Taiwan serow ( Capricornis swinhoei ) . Genetically , there is little difference between Japanese and Taiwan serows ; their karyotype is essentially the same : 2n = 50 , FN = 60 . The Taiwan serow is smaller and shorter @-@ haired , with browner fur and a white patch under the chin and throat .
Phylogenetically Capricornis is closer to goats and sheep than cattle . The nomenclature and status of Capricornis taxa are not completely resolved . Some researchers have considered Capricornis a junior synonym of Naemorhedus , a classification that includes gorals ; molecular analysis has not supported this classification . Capricornis has a lower canine , which Naemorhedus species usually do not .
In Japan , the serow is widely thought of as a kind of deer , though deer and serows are not even of the same infraclass . In the past , the Japanese word kamoshika was written using the Chinese character for shika , meaning " deer " . Today , when written using Chinese characters , the characters for " antelope " and " sheep " are used . Sometimes the serow is mistaken for a wild boar .
= = Appearance and anatomy = =
The Japanese serow is a small bovid whose displayed morphology is primitive in relation to other bovids . It has a stocky body whose size varies little between sexes or geographic location ; it stands about 70 – 85 centimetres ( 28 – 33 in ) tall ( 70 – 75 centimetres ( 28 – 30 in ) at the shoulder ) and weighs 30 – 45 kilograms ( 66 – 99 lb ) . The hoof is cloven . Compared to mainland serow , the ears are shorter and the coat is typically longer and woollier — about 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) on the body . It has a bushy tail of 6 – 6 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) and no mane .
Its fur is whitish around the neck and on the body may be black , black with dorsal white spot , dark brown , or whitish ; the coat lightens in summer . There are three well @-@ developed skin glands : large preorbital glands in both sexes , which increase in size as the animal ages ; poorly developed interdigital glands in all four legs , and preputial glands . The adult 's 32 permanent teeth form by 30 months , and have a dental formula of 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 3 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 . The inner sides of the teeth become blackened with a hard @-@ to @-@ remove substance , likely tree resin . The tongue has a V @-@ shaped apex .
Differentiation between the sexes is not well developed ; body size , growth , survival , and feeding habits show negligible difference . Both sexes have short , backwards @-@ curving horns measuring 12 – 16 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) ; the sheaths have a series of transverse rings . Horns begin to develop at about four months and continue to grow throughout the lifespan .
Environment affects the size of the first growth ring . Size , curvature , and thickness and number of transverse rings are indicative of age . Up to two years , there are thicker transverse rings , of greater length and flexion than in adults . Into adulthood , thinner horn rings force the thick transverse rings upward . Growth increment slows earlier in maturation in females than in males . Researchers use genitalia and sexual behaviour to distinguish the sexes . Females have two pairs of mammae .
Hearing is sensitive and eyesight is strong — the serow is able to detect and react to movement from a distance , and it can see well in low lighting . Sense of smell is also strong , and the serow can be observed raising its head and sniffing the air around it .
= = Distribution , ecology , and behaviour = =
Capricornis crispus is the only wild bovine ruminant in Japan , and is endemic to three of the four main islands of Japan : primarily northern and central Honshu , and small areas in Shikoku and Kyushu . It can tolerate colder , snowier climates than mainland serows . The animal is found solitary , in pairs , or in small family groups in open grassland and forests at an elevation of about 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , and uses caves to rest in . It prefers temperate deciduous forest , but also lives in broad @-@ leaved or subalpine coniferous forest made up of Japanese beech Japanese oak , alpine meadow , and coniferous plantations . Population density is low , at an average of 2 @.@ 6 per square kilometre ( 6 @.@ 7 / sq mi ) , and no greater than 20 per square kilometre ( 52 / sq mi ) .
C. crispus is philopatric and territorial , and marks trees with sweet @-@ sour @-@ smelling preorbital gland secretions to indicate its territory . Males and females establish separate , overlapping ranges , typically 10 – 15 hectares ( 25 – 37 acres ) , the male 's typically larger than the female 's . Aggression is rare , but the serow may react with hostility to territorial breaches . The animal has few predators , as Japanese wolves have become extinct ; bears may prey on the serow . It flees with a whistling snort when it detects danger . It is an agile , sure @-@ footed mountain dweller that is able to sprint up mountains and to jump from cliff to cliff to safety , an agility hunters have likened to the ninja .
The diurnal Japanese serow is a browser that feeds in early morning and late afternoon , primarily on fleshy or coniferous leaves , plant shoots , and acorns . It feeds on alder , sedge , Japanese witch @-@ hazel ( Hamamelis Japonica ) , and Japanese cedar . It adjusts its diet to what food is locally available , and as a ruminant , the serow has a four @-@ chambered stomach . Studies indicate that even severe winters have negligible impact on the serow 's food intake , suggesting that , given its solitary social structure , it selects its territory to ensure sufficient food supply . Defecation occurs in set locations .
Life expectancies may be up to 20 – 25 years . Parapoxvirus is common , though rarely fatal ; Infection causes papular and nodular lesions . There have been epidemics of contagious pustular dermatitis . Bacteria such as E. coli and Lyme borreliosis are common , and Toxoplasma gondii has been reported . C. crispus is susceptible to numerous parasites , such as the nematode Trichuris discolor and the lungworm Protostrongylus shiozawai .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Capricornis crispus is socially monogamous . Females reach sexual maturity at 30 months . First breeding takes place at age 2 @.@ 5 – 3 years ; breeding occurs once a year , between September and January . In a courtship ritual resembling that of goats or gazelles , the male Japanese serow licks the female 's mouth , strikes her on the hind legs with his forelegs , and rubs her genitalia with his horns . Both sexes display Flehmen responses .
Birth takes place between June and August after a gestation period of about 210 – 220 days . It takes about half an hour , as the female walks about . The single fawn is 30 centimetres ( 1 ft ) tall and reaches adult height in a year . The fawn stays with its mother for a year or two . It then moves gradually from its mother 's range until it establishes its own . Young that do not disperse on their own may be chased away by the mother .
' ' C. crispus ' ' in its natural habitat
= = Relationship with humans = =
The earliest record of human contact with the serow is of a small number of prehistoric Jōmon period bones unearthed by archaeologists , primarily in mountainous regions . It is speculated the serow was hunted for its hide and for food . What is believed to be the earliest written record appears in the Nihon Shoki ( 720 ) : the Emperor Tenmu ( r . 672 – 686 ) sent the hides of a yamashishi to senior statesmen ; this yamashishi likely refers to the serow , and recurs elsewhere in the Nihon Shoki .
The 8th @-@ century Man 'yōshū contains a waka poem by Kakinomoto no Hitomaro that mentions a group of shishi ; a number of writers have concluded this animal is the serow , but others have pointed out the serow is normally solitary . Heian period ( 794 – 1185 ) documents record gifts of serow horns brought to the capital . Japan 's earliest extant medical work , the Daidōruijuhō ( 808 ) , appears to record the use of serow horn and flesh for medicinal purposes .
For centuries following the Heian period mention of the serow becomes scarce . There is some belief that it was still hunted for medicinal use . The Edo period ( 1603 – 1868 ) saw records increase . The Wakan Sansai Zue encyclopaedia of 1712 contains an illustrated entry on the serow . Laws prohibiting hunting came into effect , but exception were made where animals damaged crops . Following the Meiji Restoration in 1868 , realistic depictions appeared of the serow , beginning with one in Keisuke Ito 's Fauna Japonica ( 1870 ) .
= = = Hunting and conservation = = =
The serow has long been hunted in Japan , especially in northern Japan where , along with bear @-@ hunting , serow @-@ hunting was strongly associated with matagi culture . Throughout Japan 's mountainous regions the serow has been a valued catch , its various body parts used without waste . Prized in particular its meat — until the mid @-@ 20th century serow meat was so widely eaten in these regions the animal itself was known as " meat " . Its waterproof hides were used for rafters ' backflaps , its horns were ground as a preventative against diseases such as beriberi , and a cure for stomachaches was made from the serow 's small intestines and gall bladder .
An animal that once inhabited deep forests far from populated areas , the Japanese serow has increasingly penetrated the outskirts of villages . In western Honshū , it had become extinct by the 20th century . Elsewhere it had been hunted to such a severe degree that the Japanese government declared it a " Non @-@ Game Species " in a 1925 hunting law . In 1934 the Law for Protection of Cultural Properties designated it a " Natural Monument Species " .
Poaching continued , so in 1955 the government declared the Japanese serow a " Special Natural Monument " , at which point overhunting had brought its numbers to 2000 – 3000 . Populations grew as the police put an end to poaching , and post @-@ War monoculture conifer plantations created favourable environments for the animal . By the 1980s , population estimates had grown to up to 100 @,@ 000 and serow range had reached 40 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 15 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Between 1978 and 2003 , its distribution increased 170 % , and population had stabilized .
Conflicts with agriculture and forestry led to a 1978 repeal of the full protection the animal received under the 1955 designation . Thenceforth 13 designated protection areas were established over 23 prefectures . They cover about 20 % of the serow range , have a total area of 11 @,@ 800 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 600 sq mi ) , and range in size from 143 square kilometres ( 55 sq mi ) to 2 @,@ 180 square kilometres ( 840 sq mi ) . Culling removed 20 @,@ 000 outside of conservation areas between 1978 and 2005 .
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals ranked the Japanese serow as " Least Concern " in 2008 , as it has wide distribution in Japan , and a large , stable or increasing population . The Law for Protection of Cultural Properties and Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law provide for the legal management of the Japanese serow . In 1979 the Agency for Cultural Affairs , Environmental Agency , and Forestry Agency reached an agreement on serow management measures , such as the establishment of protection areas and culling as pest control . The measures met with resistance from conservationists , naturalist organizations , and some biologists , as the animal had previously been fully protected . A 1999 amendment to the Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law allowed prefectures to manage wildlife populations ; by 2007 seven plans had been established for serow management outside of conservation areas .
Foresters have raised concerns that the rising serow populations have interfered with post @-@ War mountainside reforestation efforts , as the animal feeds on the saplings of Japanese cypress , Japanese cedar , and Japanese red pine , species with commercial significance . Serow have caused damage to farm crops in mountain villages , and the villagers have objected to conservationists ' efforts . Damage by serows to forests has been characterized in parts of Japan in criminal or martial terms : the media have referred to the problems as ningen to shika no sensō ( " the war between humans and deer " ) and kamoshika sensō , ( " serow war " ) .
Frustration with government and conservationists led 400 foresters to launch a lawsuit in the 1980s over serow damage to timber plantations . Foresters in Gifu Prefecture have justified the shooting of serows in the legs , as such shooting would not be fatal . Estimating accurate population numbers has been difficult . Foresters see the serow as a harmful animal , and resent government interference in controlling serow @-@ hunting . They have accused the government and wildlife experts of undercounting serows , while conservationists have counteraccused that foresters may inflate population numbers and levels of forestry damage to promote their own interests .
Conservationists such as Shin Gotō believe that the increased visibility is due not to an absolute increase in populations , but to deforestation which has driven the animal further from its traditional home . Serows close to populated areas may feed on farms and cypress , including saplings . Clearcutting practices may also contribute to the problem , as clearcut forests create areas of rapid herbaceous growth ideal for herbivores , who see population increases . The situation is temporary , though , and after regrowth of trees leads to the forest canopy closing over after 15 – 20 years , the herbivore populations are displaced as the herbaceous growth ceases to flourish .
In the 1990s , as the number of young plantations decreased , so did forestry damage from serows . Concern instead turned to damage caused by sika deer , wild boars , and Japanese macaques . In Kyushu in particular , increased grazing and browsing competition from sika deer may be slowing growth of serow populations .
= = = Conservation areas = = =
= = = Cultural significance = = =
Labelled a " living national treasure of the forest " , the Japanese serow has achieved emblematic status in Japan with national associations . It is seen as a relic species harking back to the formation of the Japanese archipelago as distinct from mainland Asia . In a symbolic gesture in 1973 , the Chinese government gifted Japan a giant panda , to which the Japanese government returned two Japanese serow . Municipalities and other regions of Japan have adopted the serow as a local symbol .
In Japan , the Japanese serow is most commonly known as kamoshika or kamoshishi . It has historically been given a variety of names , often based on its appearance , some of which translate as " mountain sheep " , " wool deer " , " nine tail cow " , and " cow demon " . Regional names abound , some of which translate as " dancing beast " , " foolish beast " , or " idiot " . Japanese people often characterize the serow as " weird " or " abnormal " , and it is seen as a " phantom animal " as it tends to live alone in the depths of distant forests , and appears to observe forest workers from areas high in the mountains .
The serow has a reputation in Japan for its speed and agility . Superior athletes are compared to the serow , as it is known not only for its agility , but also its sprinting ability . The Yamaha Motor Company has marketed the XT 225 sport motorcycle as the Yamaha Serow , and the title character of the Miyazaki @-@ directed animated film Princess Mononoke ( 1997 ) uses a serow @-@ like creature as a mount . In Japanese , the word ochiru means both " to fail an exam " and " to fall " ; as the serow is known for its sure @-@ footedness on mountain cliffs , students can buy omamori charms marked with a serow hoofprint in the hope it will help them pass exams .
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Journals = = = =
= = = = Web = = = =
= Walrus =
The walrus ( Odobenus rosmarus ) is a large flippered marine mammal with a discontinuous distribution about the North Pole in the Arctic Ocean and subarctic seas of the Northern Hemisphere . The walrus is the only living species in the family Odobenidae and genus Odobenus . This species is subdivided into three subspecies : the Atlantic walrus ( O. r. rosmarus ) which lives in the Atlantic Ocean , the Pacific walrus ( O. r. divergens ) which lives in the Pacific Ocean , and O. r. laptevi , which lives in the Laptev Sea of the Arctic Ocean .
Adult walruses are easily recognized by their prominent tusks , whiskers , and bulkiness . Adult males in the Pacific can weigh more than 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) and , among pinnipeds , are exceeded in size only by the two species of elephant seals . Walruses live mostly in shallow waters above the continental shelves , spending significant amounts of their lives on the sea ice looking for benthic bivalve mollusks to eat . Walruses are relatively long @-@ lived , social animals , and they are considered to be a " keystone species " in the Arctic marine regions .
The walrus has played a prominent role in the cultures of many indigenous Arctic peoples , who have hunted the walrus for its meat , fat , skin , tusks , and bone . During the 19th century and the early 20th century , walruses were widely hunted and killed for their blubber , walrus ivory , and meat . The population of walruses dropped rapidly all around the Arctic region . Their population has rebounded somewhat since then , though the populations of Atlantic and Laptev walruses remain fragmented and at low levels compared with the time before human interference .
= = Etymology = =
The origin of the word walrus is thought by J.R.R. Tolkien to derive from a Germanic language , and it has been attributed largely to either the Dutch language or Old Norse . Its first part is thought to derive from a word such as Dutch walvis ' whale ' . Its second part has also been hypothesized to come from the Old Norse word for ' horse ' . For example , the Old Norse word hrossvalr means ' horse @-@ whale ' and is thought to have been passed in an inverted form to both Dutch and the dialects of northern Germany as walros and Walross . An alternate theory is that is comes from the Dutch words wal ' shore ' and reus ' giant ' .
The species name rosmarus is Scandinavian . The Norwegian manuscript Konungsskuggsja , thought to date from around AD 1240 , refers to the walrus as " rosmhvalr " in Iceland and " rostungr " in Greenland ( walruses were by now extinct in Iceland and Norway , while the word evolved on in Greenland ) . Several place names in Iceland , Greenland and Norway may originate from walrus sites : Hvalfjord , Hvallatrar and Hvalsnes to name some , all being typical walrus breeding grounds .
The archaic English word for walrus — morse — is widely thought to have come from the Slavic languages , which in turn borrowed it from Finno @-@ Ugric languages . Compare морж ( morž ) in Russian , mursu in Finnish , morša in Northern Saami , and morse in French . Olaus Magnus , who depicted the walrus in the Carta Marina in 1539 , first referred to the walrus as the ros marus , probably a Latinization of morž , and this was adopted by Linnaeus in his binomial nomenclature .
The coincidental similarity between morse and the Latin word morsus ( " a bite " ) supposedly contributed to the walrus 's reputation as a " terrible monster " .
The compound Odobenus comes from odous ( Greek for ' tooth ' ) and baino ( Greek for ' walk ' ) , based on observations of walruses using their tusks to pull themselves out of the water . The term divergens in Latin means ' turning apart ' , referring to their tusks .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The walrus is a mammal in the order Carnivora . It is the sole surviving member of the family Odobenidae , one of three lineages in the suborder Pinnipedia along with true seals ( Phocidae ) and eared seals ( Otariidae ) . While there has been some debate as to whether all three lineages are monophyletic , i.e. descended from a single ancestor , or diphyletic , recent genetic evidence suggests all three descended from a caniform ancestor most closely related to modern bears . Recent multigene analysis indicates the odobenids and otariids diverged from the phocids about 20 – 26 million years ago , while the odobenids and the otariids separated 15 – 20 million years ago . Odobenidae was once a highly diverse and widespread family , including at least twenty species in the subfamilies Imagotariinae , Dusignathinae and Odobeninae . The key distinguishing feature was the development of a squirt / suction feeding mechanism ; tusks are a later feature specific to Odobeninae , of which the modern walrus is the last remaining ( relict ) species .
Two subspecies of walrus are widely recognized : the Atlantic walrus , O. r. rosmarus ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) and the Pacific walrus , O. r. divergens ( Illiger , 1815 ) . Fixed genetic differences between the Atlantic and Pacific subspecies indicate very restricted gene flow , but relatively recent separation , estimated at 500 @,@ 000 and 785 @,@ 000 years ago . These dates coincide with the hypothesis derived from fossils that the walrus evolved from a tropical or subtropical ancestor that became isolated in the Atlantic Ocean and gradually adapted to colder conditions in the Arctic . From there , it presumably recolonized the North Pacific Ocean during high glaciation periods in the Pleistocene via the Central American Seaway .
An isolated population in the Laptev Sea is considered by some authorities , including many Russian biologists and the canonical Mammal Species of the World , to be a third subspecies , O. r. laptevi ( Chapskii , 1940 ) , and is managed as such in Russia . Where the subspecies separation is not accepted , whether to consider it a subpopulation of the Atlantic or Pacific subspecies remained under debate until 2009 , when multiple lines of molecular evidence showed it to represent the westernmost population of the Pacific walrus .
= = Anatomy = =
While some outsized Pacific males can weigh as much as 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) , most weigh between 800 and 1 @,@ 700 kg ( 1 @,@ 800 and 3 @,@ 700 lb ) . An occasional male of the Pacific subspecies far exceeds normal dimensions . In 1909 , a walrus hide weighing 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) was collected from an enormous bull in Franz Josef Land , while in August 1910 , Jack Woodson shot a 4 @.@ 9 m ( 16 ft ) long walrus , harvesting its 450 kg ( 1 @,@ 000 lb ) hide . Since a walrus 's hide usually accounts for about 20 % of its body weight , the total body mass of these two giants is estimated to have been at least 2 @,@ 300 kg ( 5 @,@ 000 lb ) . The Atlantic subspecies weighs about 10 – 20 % less than the Pacific subspecies . Male Atlantic walrus weigh an average of 900 kg ( 2 @,@ 000 lb ) . The Atlantic walrus also tends to have relatively shorter tusks and somewhat more flattened snout . Females weigh about two @-@ thirds as much as males , with the Atlantic females averaging 560 kg ( 1 @,@ 230 lb ) , sometimes weighing as little as 400 kg ( 880 lb ) , and the Pacific female averaging 800 kg ( 1 @,@ 800 lb ) . Length typically ranges from 2 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 6 m ( 7 @.@ 2 to 11 @.@ 8 ft ) . Newborn walruses are already quite large , averaging 33 to 85 kg ( 73 to 187 lb ) in weight and 1 to 1 @.@ 4 m ( 3 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 6 ft ) in length across both sexes and subspecies . All told , the walrus is the third largest pinniped species , after the two elephant seals . Walruses maintain such a high body weight because of the blubber stored underneath their skin . This blubber keeps them warm and the fat provides energy to the walrus .
The walrus 's body shape shares features with both sea lions ( eared seals : Otariidae ) and seals ( true seals : Phocidae ) . As with otariids , it can turn its rear flippers forward and move on all fours ; however , its swimming technique is more like that of true seals , relying less on flippers and more on sinuous whole body movements . Also like phocids , it lacks external ears .
The extraocular muscles of the walrus are well @-@ developed . This and its lack of orbital roof allow it to protrude its eyes and see in both a frontal and dorsal direction . However , vision in this species appears to be more suited for short @-@ range .
= = = Tusks and dentition = = =
The most prominent feature of the walrus is its long tusks . These are elongated canines , which are present in both male and female walruses and can reach a length of 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) and weigh up to 5 @.@ 4 kg ( 12 lb ) . Tusks are slightly longer and thicker among males , which use them for fighting , dominance and display ; the strongest males with the largest tusks typically dominate social groups . Tusks are also used to form and maintain holes in the ice and aid the walrus in climbing out of water onto ice . Tusks were once thought to be used to dig out prey from the seabed , but analyses of abrasion patterns on the tusks indicate they are dragged through the sediment while the upper edge of the snout is used for digging . While the dentition of walruses is highly variable , they generally have relatively few teeth other than the tusks . The maximal number of teeth is 38 with dentition formula : 3 @.@ 1 @.@ 4 @.@ 23 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 2 , but over half of the teeth are rudimentary and occur with less than 50 % frequency , such that a typical dentition includes only 18 teeth 1 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 00 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 0
= = = Vibrissae = = =
Surrounding the tusks is a broad mat of stiff bristles ( ' mystacial vibrissae ' ) , giving the walrus a characteristic whiskered appearance . There can be 400 to 700 vibrissae in 13 to 15 rows reaching 30 cm ( 12 in ) in length , though in the wild they are often worn to much shorter lengths due to constant use in foraging . The vibrissae are attached to muscles and are supplied with blood and nerves , making them highly sensitive organs capable of differentiating shapes 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) thick and 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) wide .
= = = Skin = = =
Aside from the vibrissae , the walrus is sparsely covered with fur and appears bald . Its skin is highly wrinkled and thick , up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) around the neck and shoulders of males . The blubber layer beneath is up to 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . Young walruses are deep brown and grow paler and more cinnamon @-@ colored as they age . Old males , in particular , become nearly pink . Because skin blood vessels constrict in cold water , the walrus can appear almost white when swimming . As a secondary sexual characteristic , males also acquire significant nodules , called " bosses " , particularly around the neck and shoulders .
The walrus has an air sac under its throat which acts like a floatation bubble and allows it to bob vertically in the water and sleep . The males possess a large baculum ( penis bone ) , up to 63 cm ( 25 in ) in length , the largest of any land mammal , both in absolute size and relative to body size .
= = Life history = =
= = = Reproduction = = =
Walruses live to about 20 – 30 years old in the wild . The males reach sexual maturity as early as seven years , but do not typically mate until fully developed at around 15 years of age . They rut from January through April , decreasing their food intake dramatically . The females begin ovulating as soon as four to six years old . The females are polyestrous , coming into heat in late summer and also around February , yet the males are fertile only around February ; the potential fertility of this second period is unknown . Breeding occurs from January to March , peaking in February . Males aggregate in the water around ice @-@ bound groups of estrous females and engage in competitive vocal displays . The females join them and copulate in the water .
Gestation lasts 15 to 16 months . The first three to four months are spent with the blastula in suspended development before it implants itself in the uterus . This strategy of delayed implantation , common among pinnipeds , presumably evolved to optimize both the mating season and the birthing season , determined by ecological conditions that promote newborn survival . Calves are born during the spring migration , from April to June . They weigh 45 to 75 kg ( 99 to 165 lb ) at birth and are able to swim . The mothers nurse for over a year before weaning , but the young can spend up to five years with the mothers . Walrus milk contains higher amounts of fats and protein compared to land animals but lower compared to phocid seals . This lower fat content in turn causes a slower growth rate among calves and a longer nursing investment for their mothers . Because ovulation is suppressed until the calf is weaned , females give birth at most every two years , leaving the walrus with the lowest reproductive rate of any pinniped .
= = = Migration = = =
The rest of the year ( late summer and fall ) , walruses tend to form massive aggregations of tens of thousands of individuals on rocky beaches or outcrops . The migration between the ice and the beach can be long @-@ distance and dramatic . In late spring and summer , for example , several hundred thousand Pacific walruses migrate from the Bering Sea into the Chukchi Sea through the relatively narrow Bering Strait .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Range and habitat = = =
The majority of the population of the Pacific walrus spends its summers north of the Bering Strait in the Chukchi Sea of the Arctic Ocean along the northern coast of eastern Siberia , around Wrangel Island , in the Beaufort Sea along the north shore of Alaska , and in the waters between those locations . Smaller numbers of males summer in the Gulf of Anadyr on the southern coast of the Siberian Chukchi Peninsula , and in Bristol Bay off the southern coast of Alaska , west of the Alaska Peninsula . In the spring and fall , walruses congregate throughout the Bering Strait , reaching from the western coast of Alaska to the Gulf of Anadyr . They winter over in the Bering Sea along the eastern coast of Siberia south to the northern part of the Kamchatka Peninsula , and along the southern coast of Alaska . A 28 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old fossil walrus was dredged up from the bottom of San Francisco Bay , indicating Pacific walruses ranged that far south during the last ice age . There were roughly 200 @,@ 000 Pacific walruses according to the most recent ( 1990 ) census @-@ based estimate .
The much smaller population of Atlantic walruses ranges from the Canadian Arctic , across Greenland , Svalbard , and the western part of Arctic Russia . There are eight hypothetical subpopulations of walruses , based largely on their geographical distribution and movements : five west of Greenland and three east of Greenland . The Atlantic walrus once ranged south to Cape Cod , Massachusetts , and as late as the eighteenth century was found in large numbers in the greater Gulf of St. Lawrence region , sometimes in colonies of up to 7 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 individuals . This population was nearly eradicated by commercial harvest ; their current numbers , though difficult to estimate , probably remain below 20 @,@ 000 . In April 2006 , the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed the population of the northwest Atlantic walrus in Quebec , New Brunswick , Nova Scotia , Newfoundland and Labrador as having been eradicated in Canada .
The isolated population of Laptev walruses is confined year @-@ round to the central and western regions of the Laptev Sea , the eastmost regions of the Kara Sea , and the westmost regions of the East Siberian Sea . The current population of these walruses has been estimated to be between 5 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 .
The limited diving abilities of walruses brings them to depend on shallow waters ( and the nearby ice floes ) for reaching their food supply .
= = = Diet = = =
Walruses prefer shallow shelf regions and forage primarily on the sea floor , often from sea ice platforms . They are not particularly deep divers compared to other pinnipeds ; their deepest recorded dives are around 80 m ( 260 ft ) . They can remain submerged for as long as half an hour .
The walrus has a diverse and opportunistic diet , feeding on more than 60 genera of marine organisms , including shrimp , crabs , tube worms , soft corals , tunicates , sea cucumbers , various mollusks , and even parts of other pinnipeds . However , it prefers benthic bivalve mollusks , especially clams , for which it forages by grazing along the sea bottom , searching and identifying prey with its sensitive vibrissae and clearing the murky bottoms with jets of water and active flipper movements . The walrus sucks the meat out by sealing its powerful lips to the organism and withdrawing its piston @-@ like tongue rapidly into its mouth , creating a vacuum . The walrus palate is uniquely vaulted , enabling effective suction .
Aside from the large numbers of organisms actually consumed by the walrus , its foraging has a large peripheral impact on benth
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in military activities to subvert the American government to register with the Justice Department . Voorhis also served as a member of the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) though Time magazine stated he could be " counted upon ... to temper rightist blasts for leftist lambs " .
Voorhis was generally highly regarded by his colleagues and others in Washington . Senator Paul Douglas of Illinois considered Voorhis " a political saint " , and said of Voorhis that " [ d ] riven by conscience , he had a compulsion to master every subject that came before the House , and having mastered it , he spoke his mind . " Voorhis would make five @-@ minute speeches in the House of Representatives at any opportunity , on matters ranging from local concerns in his district to international monetary issues . The press nicknamed him " Kid Atlas " , seeming to carry the weight of the world on his shoulders . The press corps also voted him the most honest congressman , and the fifth most intelligent . However , Interior Secretary Harold Ickes described Voorhis 's 1943 resignation from HUAC as the representative being " [ w ] obbly as usual " .
Voorhis 's 12th district leaned Republican , the more so after Voorhis survived an attempt , in 1941 , to gerrymander him out of office by removing strong Democratic precincts from the 12th during the decennial redistricting . Nevertheless , Voorhis was re @-@ elected by 13 @,@ 000 votes in 1942 , and by a similar margin two years later . Despite the Republican leanings of his district , Voorhis had not faced any strong opposition prior to 1946 . Elected as part of the Roosevelt landslide of 1936 , in 1938 he faced an opponent so shy that Voorhis had to introduce him to the crowd at a joint appearance . In 1940 , he faced a military school principal , and his 1942 opponent , radio preacher and former Prohibition Party gubernatorial candidate Robert P. Shuler , " even embarrassed GOP regulars " . In 1944 , the 12th district Republicans were bitterly divided , and Voorhis easily triumphed .
Voorhis was a conscientious congressman towards his constituents , careful to remember births , anniversaries , and in @-@ district events . In fact , after the birth of Tricia Nixon near the start of the 1946 campaign , Voorhis 's office sent the Nixon family a copy of a government publication called Infant Care , of which congressmen received 150 a month . On April 1 , 1946 , Richard Nixon sent Voorhis a thank you letter for the pamphlet .
Aside from the act named for him , Voorhis succeeded in enacting few new laws , a fact Nixon used against him in 1946 when he argued that Voorhis 's legislation had only " transferred jurisdiction over the raising of rabbits from one government department to another " . The New York Times wrote of him in 1947 , " He was ineffectual in terms of practical results . "
= = = = 1946 campaign = = = =
As Voorhis served his fifth term in the House , local Republicans searched for a candidate capable of defeating him . Richard Nixon answered the call . Nixon , who was still in the Navy when approached , wrote of Voorhis , " His ' conservative ' reputation must be blasted . But my main efforts are being directed toward building up a positive , progressive group of speeches that tell what we want to do , not what the Democrats have failed to do ... I 'm really hopped up over this deal , and I believe we can win . " However , " wheelhorse " Republicans deemed Nixon 's campaign hopeless .
As was usual in California at the time , both Nixon and Voorhis cross @-@ filed in the other party 's primary , a practice Voorhis had long adopted . Winning both primaries virtually assured election . Each candidate won his own party 's primary , with Voorhis garnering a considerable number of votes in the Republican primary , and outpolling Nixon by 7 @,@ 000 votes overall . Nixon gained momentum , however , when the newspapers pointed out that Voorhis 's total percentage of the vote had decreased from 60 % in 1944 to 53 @.@ 5 % .
Voorhis had the advantage of incumbency , but this was balanced by other factors favoring Nixon . Due to the press of Congressional business , Voorhis was able to devote only two months to the campaign , while Nixon campaigned in the district for ten months . Voorhis 's time was further limited when , while en route to California from Washington D.C. in August , he was forced to have surgery for hemorrhoids in Ogden , Utah . He spent two weeks in an Ogden hotel recuperating from the operation .
Nixon alleged that a vote against Voorhis was " a vote against the P.A.C. Political Action Committee , affiliated with the Congress of Industrial Organizations ( CIO ) , its Communist principles , and its gigantic slush fund . " The Nixon campaign distributed 25 @,@ 000 thimbles labeled " Nixon for Congress / Put the needle in the P.A.C. "
Voorhis 's supposed involvement with and endorsement by the CIO 's P.A.C. , which was believed to be a Communist front organization , was a major issue in the campaign . Nixon 's campaign manager claimed to have proof of Voorhis 's involvement with the group . On September 13 , the two candidates met at a debate at South Pasadena Junior High School . When Nixon was challenged to produce proof of the allegation , Nixon took from his pocket a local bulletin of the National Citizens Political Action Committee that contained an endorsement of Voorhis . This was a different group , also affiliated with the CIO . While Voorhis 's staff was aware of this endorsement , no one had told the representative . Voorhis , confronted with the bulletin , noted that these were two different groups . Nixon responded by reading the names of the boards of directors of the two groups , with many names in common . After the debate , Voorhis asked Congressman Chester E. Holifield for his view of how it had gone , and Holifield responded , " Jerry , he cut you to pieces . " Voorhis had been successfully linked with " the PAC " , though he had refused to accept the endorsement of any PAC unless it renounced Communist influence . Nixon defeated Voorhis by over 15 @,@ 000 votes and Time magazine praised the future president for " politely avoid [ ing ] personal attacks on his opponent " .
The day after the election , Voorhis issued a concession statement , " I have given the best years of my life to serving this district in Congress . By the will of the people , that work is ended . I have no regrets about the record I have written . " In his 1947 book , Confessions of a Congressman , Voorhis attributed his defeat to tremendous amounts of money supposedly spent by the Nixon forces . When Nixon read the book , he commented , " What I am wondering is where all the money went that we were supposed to have had ! "
Nixon 's defeat of Voorhis has been cited as the start of a number of red @-@ baiting campaigns by the future president that later elevated him to the Senate and the Vice @-@ Presidency and eventually put him in position to run for president . Voorhis later deemed himself " the first victim of the Nixon @-@ Chotiner formula for political success . " In 1958 , Voorhis alleged that voters had received anonymous phone calls alleging that he was a Communist , that newspapers had stated that he was a fellow traveler , and that when Nixon got angry , he would " do anything " .
In spite of any hard feelings , Voorhis sent Nixon a letter of congratulations in early December 1946 . The two men met for an hour at Voorhis 's office and parted , according to Voorhis , as friends . Voorhis 's final letter as a congressman , on December 31 , was to his father , who had been his political adviser throughout his congressional career , " It has been primarily due to your help , your confidence , your advice ... above all to a feeling I have always had that your hand was on my shoulder . Thanks ... God bless you . "
= = Later life = =
After leaving office , Voorhis remained in his Alexandria , Virginia , house , completing his book , Confessions of a Congressman . In early 1947 , he was offered the job of executive director of the Cooperative League of the USA . The Voorhis family relocated to Winnetka , Illinois , near the League 's Chicago headquarters . The League , which included both consumer and producer cooperatives , had fallen on hard times in the postwar period . Under his leadership , the League 's financial position gradually improved and some major cooperatives that had remained aloof from the League were persuaded to join . The League expanded its purview , founding the Group Health Association of America and the National Association of Housing Cooperatives .
Voorhis was urged to run again for Congress against Nixon in 1948 by Stephen Zetterberg , who , when Voorhis declined ( in part due to health reasons ) , himself ran in the Democratic primary . Nixon , facing no opposition in the Republican primary , entered and won the Democratic poll , eliminating Zetterberg from the race and ensuring his re @-@ election .
In 1954 , the former congressman led the U.S. delegation to the International Cooperative Alliance congress in Paris , successfully opposing Soviet plans to give greater representation to Eastern European countries , which was seen as a means of eventual communist control of the organization . Voorhis occasionally testified before Congressional committees , usually in opposition to bills which would tax cooperatives . He shut down the League 's moribund New York office and opened an office in Los Angeles . Voorhis encouraged the forming of cooperatives in Latin America and in 1963 , the first hemisphere @-@ wide conference of cooperatives took place in Montevideo , Uruguay . Stanley Dreyer , Voorhis 's eventual successor as executive director , was put in charge of these international operations . In January 1967 , Voorhis retired from the League .
Five days after Nixon 's defeat in the 1962 California gubernatorial election , Voorhis appeared on TV as a Nixon detractor , with Murray Chotiner and Republican Michigan Congressman Gerald Ford defending the former vice @-@ president on Howard K. Smith 's ABC News and Comment program , " The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon " . Voorhis complained about the way Nixon had conducted himself in the 1946 race. but was overshadowed by fellow detractor and Nixon nemesis Alger Hiss . Hiss 's participation led to such an uproar that sponsors pulled back from underwriting the program , and News and Comment left the air in the spring of 1963 .
Having spent 23 years in Winnetka , Voorhis moved back with his wife to the old 12th district to an apartment in Claremont . After almost a quarter century of silence on his defeat by Nixon , he wrote The Strange Case of Richard Milhous Nixon , a book in which he stated that Nixon was " quite a ruthless opponent " whose " one cardinal and unbreakable rule of conduct " was " to win , whatever it takes to do it " . " I did not expect my loyalty to America 's constitutional government to be attacked , " he wrote .
As the Nixon presidency slowly collapsed , Voorhis spoke out more frequently . In 1972 , he said , " Sour grapes to criticize the man who beat me , but I just wouldn 't be human if I said I liked spending the second half of my life as ' the man who Nixon beat ' " . After Nixon resigned as President , Voorhis , noted , " Here is the philosophy of doing @-@ anything @-@ to @-@ win receiving its just and proper reward . " Voorhis , believing he had been labeled a subversive by Nixon , " took some satisfaction " in stating that Nixon himself had been the subversive , seeking , according to Voorhis , to impose " a virtual dictatorship " on the country .
In 1972 , Voorhis and his wife entered a retirement home in Claremont . Nonetheless , he continued to work on a number of committees and advisory boards . His activities ranged from the California Commission on Aging ( appointed by Governor Jerry Brown ) to working as a teacher 's aide to Tom Hayden 's Campaign for Economic Democracy . Voorhis died at the retirement home from emphysema on September 11 , 1984 . In addition to his widow , he left two sons and a daughter . Fellow Nixon opponent and former California governor Pat Brown eulogized him , saying , " He was a great man . Not many like him these days . " Voorhis is buried in Mountain View Cemetery in Altadena , California . His papers are held by the Claremont Colleges ' Honnold @-@ Mudd Library Special Collections .
An elementary school in El Monte , California , is named for the former congressman . Cal Poly Pomona considers Voorhis one of its founders and has named a park and an ecological reserve for him .
= Shaktism =
Shaktism or Shaktidharma ( Sanskrit : Śāktaṃ , शाक ् तं ; lit . , " doctrine of power " or " doctrine of the Goddess " ) is a denomination of Hinduism that focuses worship upon Shakti or Devi – the Hindu Divine Mother – as the absolute , ultimate Godhead . It is , along with Shaivism , Vaishnavism , and Smartism , one of the primary schools of devotional Hinduism and is especially popular in Bengal and Assam .
Shaktism regards Devi ( lit . , ' the Goddess ' ) as the Supreme Brahman itself , with all other forms of divinity , considered to be merely her diverse manifestations . In the details of its philosophy and practice , Shaktism resembles Shaivism . However , Shaktas ( Sanskrit : Śākta , शाक ् त ) , practitioners of Shaktism , focus most or all worship on Shakti , as the dynamic feminine aspect of the Supreme Divine . Shiva , the masculine aspect of divinity , is considered solely transcendent , and his worship is usually relegated to an auxiliary role .
Cults of goddess worship are ancient in India . The branch of Hinduism that worships the goddess , known as Devi , is called Shaktism . Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle , and Devi is often depicted as Parvati the consort of Shiva or as Lakshmi the consort of Vishnu . She is also depicted in other guises , such as the fierce Kali or Durga . Shaktism is closely related with Tantric Hinduism , which teaches rituals and practices for purification of the mind and body . The Mother Goddess has many forms . Some are gentle , some are fierce . Shaktas use chants , real magic , holy diagrams , yoga and rituals to call forth cosmic forces .
Over the course of its history , Shaktism has inspired great works of Sanskrit literature and Hindu philosophy , and it continues to strongly influence popular Hinduism today . Shaktism is practiced throughout the Indian subcontinent and beyond , in numerous forms , both Tantric and non @-@ Tantric ; however , its two largest and most visible schools are the Srikula ( lit . , family of Sri ) , strongest in South India , and the Kalikula ( family of Kali ) , which prevails in northern and eastern India .
= = Overview = =
= = = Shakti and Shiva = = =
Shaktas conceive the Goddess as the supreme , ultimate Godhead . She is considered to be simultaneously the source of all creation , as well as its embodiment and the energy that animates and governs it . It has been observed that " nowhere in the religious history of the world do we come across such a completely female @-@ oriented system . "
Shaktism 's focus on the Divine Feminine does not imply a rejection of Masculine or Neuter divinity . However , both are deemed to be inactive in the absence of Shakti . As set out in the first line of Adi Shankara 's renowned Shakta hymn , Saundaryalahari ( c . 800 CE ) : " If Shiva is united with Shakti , he is able to create . If he is not , he is incapable even of stirring . " This is the fundamental tenet of Shaktism , as emphasized in the widely known image of the goddess Kali striding atop the seemingly lifeless body of Shiva .
Broadly speaking , Shakti is considered to be the cosmos itself – she is the embodiment of energy and dynamism , and the motivating force behind all action and existence in the material universe . Shiva is her transcendent masculine aspect , providing the divine ground of all being . " There is no Shiva without Shakti , or Shakti without Shiva . The two [ ... ] in themselves are One . "
As expressed by the historian V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar ( here referring to Shiva as Brahman ) , " Shaktism is dynamic Hinduism . The excellence of Shaktism lies in its affirmation of Shakti as Consciousness and of the identity of Shakti and Brahman . In short , Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman . " In religious art , this cosmic dynamic is powerfully expressed in the half @-@ Shakti , half @-@ Shiva deity known as Ardhanari .
Shaktism views the Devi as the source , essence and substance of virtually everything in creation , seen or unseen , including Shiva himself . In the Devi @-@ Bhagavata Purana , a central Shakta scripture , the Devi declares :
I am Manifest Divinity , Unmanifest Divinity , and Transcendent Divinity . I am Brahma , Vishnu and Shiva , as well as Saraswati , Lakshmi and Parvati . I am the Sun and I am the Stars , and I am also the Moon . I am all animals and birds , and I am the outcaste as well , and the thief . I am the low person of dreadful deeds , and the great person of excellent deeds . I am Female , I am Male in the form of Shiva .
In the above quote we see that the supreme Mahashakti declares herself as both the masculine Trimurti and the feminine Tridevi , and that Divinity transcends the human notion of gender .
The religious scholar C. MacKenzie Brown explains that Shaktism " clearly insists that , of the two genders , the feminine represents the dominant power in the universe . Yet both genders must be included in the ultimate if it is truly ultimate . The masculine and the feminine are aspects of the divine , transcendent reality , which goes beyond but still encompasses them . Devi , in her supreme form as consciousness thus transcends gender , but her transcendence is not apart from her immanence . "
= = = Association with tantra = = =
A widely misunderstood aspect of Shaktism is its close association with Tantrism – an ambiguous , often provocative concept that suggests everything from orthodox temple worship in the south of India , to black magic and occult practices in North India , to ritualized sexual practices ( sometimes referred to as " Neotantra " or " Navatantra " ) in the West . In fact , not all forms of Shaktism are Tantric in nature , just as not all forms of Tantra are Shaktic in nature .
When the term " Tantra " is used in relation to authentic Hindu Shaktism , it most often refers to a class of ritual manuals , and – more broadly – to an esoteric methodology of Goddess @-@ focused spiritual practice ( sadhana ) involving mantra , yantra , nyasa , mudra and certain elements of traditional kundalini yoga , all practiced under the guidance of a qualified guru after due initiation ( diksha ) and oral instruction to supplement various written sources .
In its social interactions , Shakta Tantra is " free from all sorts of caste and patriarchal prejudices . A woman or a shudra is entitled to function in the role of guru . All women are regarded as manifestations of Shakti , and hence they are the object of respect and devotion . Whoever offends them incurs the wrath of the great goddess . Every [ male aspirant ] has to realize the latent Female Principle within himself , and only by [ thus ] ' becoming female ' is he entitled to worship the Supreme Being " .
More controversial ritual practices , such as the " Five Ms " or panchamakara , are employed under certain circumstances by some Tantric Shakta sects . However , these elements tend to be overemphasized and sensationalized by commentators ( both friendly and hostile ) who are ill @-@ informed regarding authentic doctrine and practice . Moreover , even within the tradition there are wide differences of opinion regarding the proper interpretation of the panchamakara , and some lineages reject them altogether .
In sum , the complex social and historical interrelations of Tantric and non @-@ Tantric elements in Shaktism – and Hinduism in general – are an extremely fraught and nuanced topic of discussion . However , as a general rule :
Ideas and practices that collectively characterize Tantrism pervade classical Hinduism [ and ] it would be an error to consider Tantrism apart from its complex interrelations with non @-@ Tantric traditions . Literary history demonstrates that Vedic @-@ oriented brahmins have been involved in Shakta Tantrism from its incipient stages of development , that is , from at least the sixth century . While Shakta Tantrism may have originated in [ pre @-@ Vedic , indigenous ] goddess cults , any attempt to distance Shakta Tantrism from the Sanskritic Hindu traditions [ ... ] will lead us astray .
= = Principal deities = =
Shaktas may approach the Devi in any of a vast number of forms ; however , they are all considered to be but diverse aspects of the one supreme goddess .
With the many names used to refer to her – Devī , Caṇḍikā , Ambikā , Kālī , and a profusion of others – it is easy to forget that the Devi is indeed one . [ In the central Shakta scripture Devi Mahatmyam ] , the Devi reveals that she is one without a second , saying , " I am alone here in the world . Who else is there besides me ? " Following this proclamation of divine unity , which has been called the mahāvākya , or great dictum of Devīmāhātmya , she explains that all [ other goddesses ] are but projections of her power , as are all the other forms she inhabits .
The primary Devi form worshiped by a Shakta is his or her ishta @-@ devi . The selection of this deity can depend on many factors , including family tradition , regional practice , guru lineage , personal resonance and so on . There are literally thousands of goddess forms , many of them associated with particular temples , geographic features or even individual villages .
Nonetheless , several highly popular goddess forms are known and worshiped throughout the Hindu world , and virtually every female deity in Hinduism is believed to be a manifestation of one or more of these " basic " forms . The best @-@ known benevolent goddesses of popular Hinduism include :
Adi Parashakti ( Shree Bhagavathy ) : Para Brahman itself - the Goddess as Original , Transcendent Source of the Universe .
Durga ( Amba , Ambika ) : The Goddess as Mahadevi , Material Manifestation of Supreme Divinity ( Brahman )
Lakshmi ( Sri ) : The Goddess of Material Fulfillment ( wealth , health , fortune , love , beauty , fertility , etc . ) ; consort ( shakti ) of Vishnu
Parvati ( Gauri , Uma ) : The Goddess of Spiritual Fulfillment ( divine love ; the saguna [ i.e. having material qualities ] form of Adi @-@ Parashakti ) ; consort ( shakti ) of Shiva
Saraswati : The Goddess of Cultural Fulfillment ( knowledge / education , music , arts and sciences , etc . ) ; consort ( shakti ) of Brahma ; identified with the Sarasvati River
Gayatri : The Goddess as Mother of Mantras
Ganga : The Goddess as Divine River ; identified with the Ganges River
Sita : The Goddess as Rama 's consort
Radha : The Goddess as Krishna 's lover
Sati ( goddess ) ( Dakshayani ) : The Goddess of Marital relations ; original consort ( shakti ) of Shiva [ Incarnation of Adi Parashakti ] .
The majority of the worship is to Durga or Kali . Durga as such is rarely worshiped , Durga is rather a general terminology for mother goddess , mostly her deity are worshiped in temple the name of Bhagavathy or Mahadevi ( A generalized term used in temples for worshiping Mother Goddess ) etc . In that , most of the temples for doing rites assume certain forms of Durga as the deity , E.g. The Bhagavathy Temple of Kanyakumari is a Durga or Devi temple , but the Sankalpa is that of Devi Katyayani . Any of the Navadurga is considered as Sankalpa while worshiping Devi Durga . The Navadurga are Shailaputri , Brahmacharini , Chandraghanta , Kushmanda , Skandamata , Katyayini , Kaalratri , Mahagauri , Siddhidaatri ; these are the forms of Durga for worshiping .
Kali is directly worshiped as such in the form of Bhadrakali ( Translation : Mahamaya Kali ( ' Bha ' means delusion or maya and ' dra ' is a superlative means the most or the mightiest ) ) in south India and Maha Kali in Bengal region .
= = = Tantric deities = = =
Goddess groups – such as the " Nine Durgas " ( Navadurga ) , " Eight Lakshmis " ( Ashta @-@ Lakshmi ) or the " Fifteen Nityas " – are very common in Hinduism . But perhaps no group reveals the elements of Shaktidharma better than the Ten Mahavidyas ( Dasamahavidya ) . Through them , Shaktas believe , " the one Truth is sensed in ten different facets ; the Divine Mother is adored and approached as ten cosmic personalities . " The Mahavidyas are considered Tantric in nature , and are usually identified as :
Kali : The Goddess beyond all forms , time and universe , Death or " Devourer " of Time ( Supreme Deity of Kalikula systems )
Tara : The Goddess as Guide and Protector , or the Goddess as Savior
Lalita @-@ Tripurasundari ( Shodashi ) : The Goddess Who is " Beautiful in the Three Worlds " ( Supreme Deity of Srikula systems ) ; the " Tantric Parvati "
Bhuvaneshvari : The Goddess as World Mother , or the Goddess Whose Body is the Earth / Cosmos
Bhairavi : The Fierce Goddess
Chhinnamasta : The Self @-@ Decapitated Goddess
Dhumavati : The Widow Goddess
Bagalamukhi : The Goddess Who Paralyzes Enemies
Matangi : The Outcaste Goddess ( in Kalikula systems ) ; the Prime Minister of Lalita ( in Srikula systems ) ; the " Tantric Saraswati "
Kamala : The Lotus Goddess ; the " Tantric Lakshmi "
Other major goddess groups include the Sapta @-@ Matrika ( " Seven Little Mothers " ) , " who are the energies of different major gods , and described as assisting the great Shakta Devi in her fight with demons " , and the 64 Yoginis .
= = Historical and philosophical development = =
The beginnings of Shaktism are shrouded in the mists of prehistory . The earliest Mother Goddess figurine unearthed in India , belonging to the Upper Paleolithic , has been carbon @-@ dated to approximately 20 @,@ 000 BCE . Thousands of female statuettes dated as early as c . 5500 BCE have been recovered at Mehrgarh , one of the most important Neolithic sites in world archaeology . While it is impossible to reconstruct the spiritual beliefs of a civilization so distantly removed in time , current archaeological and anthropological evidence suggests that the religion of the great Indus Valley Civilization is probably a direct predecessor of modern Shaktism .
As the Indus Valley Civilization slowly declined and dispersed , its peoples mixed with other groups to eventually give rise to Vedic Civilization ( c . 1500 - 600 BCE ) . Shaktism as it exists today began with the literature of the Vedic Age ; further evolved during the formative period of the Hindu epics ; reached its full flower during the Gupta Age ( 300 @-@ 700 CE ) , and continued to expand and develop thereafter .
The most central and pivotal text in Shaktidharma is the Devi Mahatmya ( also known as the Durga Saptashati , Chandi or Chandi @-@ Path ) , composed some 1 @,@ 600 years ago . Here , for the first time , " the various mythic , cultic and theological elements relating to diverse female divinities were brought together in what has been called the ' crystallization of the Goddess tradition . ' "
Other important texts include the canonical Shakta Upanishads , as well as Shakta @-@ oriented Puranic literature such as the Devi Purana and Kalika Purana , the Lalita Sahasranama ( from the Brahmanda Purana ) , the Devi Gita ( from the Devi @-@ Bhagavata Purana ) , Adi Shankara 's Saundaryalahari and the Tantras .
Elements of Shaktism – most notably , the ubiquity of goddess worship in some form – has infused popular Hinduism . Its pervasive influence on the religion is also reflected in the Hindu adage , " When in public , be a Vaishnava . When among friends , be a Shaiva . But in private , always be a Shakta . "
Recent developments related to Shaktism include the emergence of Bharat Mata ( " Mother India " ) symbolism , the increasing visibility of Hindu female saints and gurus , and the prodigious rise of the " new " goddess Santoshi Mata following release of the Indian film Jai Santoshi Maa ( " Hail to the Mother of Satisfaction " ) in 1975 . Linda Johnsen in ' The Complete Idiot 's Guide to Hinduism ' notes :
Today just as 10 @,@ 000 years ago , images of the Goddess are everywhere in India . You 'll find them painted on the sides of trucks , pasted to the dashboards of taxis , postered on the walls of shops . You 'll often see a color painting of the Goddess prominently displayed in Hindu homes . Usually the picture is hung high on the wall so you have to crane your neck backward , looking up toward her feet . [ ... ] In India , Goddess worship is not a ' cult , ' it 's a religion , [ ... ] an extraordinarily spiritually and psychologically mature tradition . Millions of people turn every day with heartfelt yearning to the Mother of the Universe . "
= = Worship = =
Shaktism encompasses a nearly endless variety of beliefs and practices – from primitive animism to philosophical speculation of the highest order – that seek to access the Shakti ( Divine Energy or Power ) that is believed to be the Devi 's nature and form . Its two largest and most visible schools are the Srikula ( family of Sri ) , strongest in South India , and the Kalikula ( family of Kali ) , which prevails in northern and eastern India .
= = = Srikula : family of Sri = = =
The Srikula ( family of Sri ) tradition ( sampradaya ) focuses worship on Devi in the form of the goddess Lalita @-@ Tripura Sundari , who is regarded as the Great Goddess ( Mahadevi ) . Rooted in first @-@ millennium Uttarakhand , Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir Valley , Srikula became a force in South India no later than the seventh century , and is today the prevalent form of Shaktism practiced in South Indian regions such as Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , Kerala , Tamil Nadu and Tamil areas of Sri Lanka .
The Srikula 's best @-@ known school is Srividya , " one of Shakta Tantrism 's most influential and theologically sophisticated movements . " Its central symbol , the Sri Chakra , is probably the most famous visual image in all of Hindu Tantric tradition . Its literature and practice is perhaps more systematic than that of any other Shakta sect .
Srividya largely views the Goddess as " benign [ saumya ] and beautiful [ saundarya ] " ( in contrast to Kalikula 's focus on " terrifying [ ugra ] and horrifying [ ghora ] " goddess forms such as Kali or Durga ) . In Srikula practice , moreover , every aspect of the Goddess – whether malignant or gentle – is identified with Lalita .
Srikula adepts most often worship Lalita using the abstract Sri Chakra yantra , which is regarded as her subtle form . The Sri Chakra can be visually rendered either as a two @-@ dimensional diagram ( whether drawn temporarily as part of the worship ritual , or permanently engraved in metal ) or in the three @-@ dimensional , pyramidal form known as the Sri Meru . It is not uncommon to find a Sri Chakra or Sri Meru installed in South Indian temples , because – as modern practitioners assert – " there is no disputing that this is the highest form of Devi and that some of the practice can be done openly . But what you see in the temples is not the srichakra worship you see when it is done privately . "
The Srividya paramparas can be further broadly subdivided into two streams , the Kaula ( a vamamarga practice ) and the Samaya ( a dakshinamarga practice ) . The Kaula or Kaulachara , first appeared as a coherent ritual system in the 8th century in central India , and its most revered theorist is the 18th @-@ century philosopher Bhaskararaya , widely considered " the best exponent of Shakta philosophy . "
The Samaya or Samayacharya finds its roots in the work of the 16th @-@ century commentator Lakshmidhara , and is " fiercely puritanical [ in its ] attempts to reform Tantric practice in ways that bring it in line with high @-@ caste brahmanical norms . " Many Samaya practitioners explicitly deny being either Shakta or Tantric , though scholars argues that their cult remains technically both . The Samaya @-@ Kaula division marks " an old dispute within Hindu Tantrism , " and one that is vigorously debated to this day .
= = = Kalikula : family of Kali = = =
The Kalikula ( family of Kali ) form of Shaktism is most dominant in Nepal , northern and eastern India , and is most widely prevalent in West Bengal , Assam , Bihar and Odisha , as well as parts of Maharashtra , Bangladesh and some parts of Kerala . Kalikula lineages focus upon the Devi as the source of wisdom ( vidya ) and liberation ( moksha ) . They generally stand " in opposition to the brahmanic tradition , " which they view as " overly conservative and denying the experiential part of religion . "
The main deities of Kalikula are Kali , Chandi and Durga . Other goddesses that enjoy veneration are Tara and all the other Mahavidyas as well as regional goddesses such as Manasa , the snake goddess , and Sitala , the smallpox goddess – all of them , again , considered aspects of the Divine Mother .
In Nepal devi is mainly worshipped as Kali , Bhawani , Matrika and Navadurga.There are many shakti peeth in Nepal including the main shakti peeth Guhyeshwari temple of Guhyeshwari Devi also called as Guhekali Bhagawati on the bank of holy Bagmati river . She is one of the important deity in kalikula . Two major centers of Shaktism in West Bengal are Kalighat in Calcutta and Tarapith in Birbhum district . In Calcutta , emphasis is on devotion ( bhakti ) to the goddess as Kali :
She is " the loving mother who protects her children and whose fierceness guards them . She is outwardly frightening – with dark skin , pointed teeth , and a necklace of skulls – but inwardly beautiful . She can guarantee a good rebirth or great religious insight , and her worship is often communal – especially at festivals , such as Kali Puja and Durga Puja . Worship may involve contemplation of the devotee 's union with or love of the goddess , visualization of her form , chanting [ of her ] mantras , prayer before her image or yantra , and giving [ of ] offerings . "
At Tarapith , Devi 's manifestation as Tara ( " She Who Saves " ) or Ugratara ( " Fierce Tara " ) is ascendant , as the goddess who gives liberation ( kaivalyadayini ) . [ ... ] The forms of sadhana performed here are more yogic and tantric than devotional , and they often involve sitting alone at the [ cremation ] ground , surrounded by ash and bone . There are shamanic elements associated with the Tarapith tradition , including " conquest of the goddess ' , exorcism , trance , and control of spirits . "
The philosophical and devotional underpinning of all such ritual , however , remains a pervasive vision of the Devi as supreme , absolute divinity . As expressed by the nineteenth @-@ century saint Ramakrishna , one of the most influential figures in modern Bengali Shaktism :
Kali is none other than Brahman . That which is called Brahman is really Kali . She is the Primal Energy . When that Energy remains inactive , I call It Brahman , and when It creates , preserves , or destroys , I call It Shakti or Kali . What you call Brahman I call Kali . Brahman and Kali are not different . They are like fire and its power to burn : if one thinks of fire one must think of its power to burn . If one recognizes Kali one must also recognize Brahman ; again , if one recognizes Brahman one must recognize Kali . Brahman and Its Power are identical . It is Brahman whom I address as Shakti or Kali .
= = = Festivals = = =
Shaktas celebrate most major Hindu festivals , as well as a huge variety of local , temple- or deity @-@ specific observances . A few of the more important events are listed below :
= = = = Navratri = = = =
The most important Shakta festival is Navratri ( lit . , " Festival of Nine Nights " ) , also known as " Sharad Navratri " because it falls during the Hindu month of Sharad ( October / November ) . This festival – often taken together with the following tenth day , known as Dusshera or Vijayadashami – celebrates the goddess Durga 's victory over a series of powerful demons in the Devi Mahatmya . In Bengal , the last four days of Navaratri are called Durga Puja , and mark one episode in particular : Durga 's iconic slaying of Mahishasura ( lit . , the " Buffalo Demon " ) .
While Hindus of all denominations celebrate the autumn Navratri festival , Shaktas also celebrate two additional Navratris – one in the spring and one in the summer . The spring festival is known as Vasanta Navaratri or Chaitra Navatri , and celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra ( March / April ) . Srividya lineages dedicate this festival to Devi 's form as the goddess Lalita . The summer festival is called Ashada Navaratri , as it is held during the Hindu month of Ashadha ( June / July ) . The hugely popular Vaishno Devi temple in Jammu observes its major Navaratri celebration during this period . Ashada Navaratri , on the other hand , is considered particularly auspicious for devotees of the boar @-@ headed goddess Varahi , one of the seven Matrikas named in the Devi Mahatmya .
= = = = Vasant Panchami = = = =
Fifth day of Magha Gupta Navratri is very important for all branches of Shakta @-@ pantha . Specially in Vindhyachal mahashakti peetham , thousands of chandipatha and other secret rituals performed this day to please Aadishakti . This is the festival of union of Shakti & Shiv ( Shiva @-@ Shiv ) . On the same basis Shiva @-@ Shiv Sammoh is formed by Awadhoot Kripanandnath at Awadhoot Ashram , Vindhyachal in 1980 .
= = = = Diwali and others = = = =
Lakshmi Puja is observed by Shaktas and many other Hindus on the full moon night following the autumn Durga Puja . Lakshmi 's biggest festival , however , is Diwali ( or Deepavali ; the " Festival of Lights " ) , a major Hindu holiday celebrated across India and in Nepal as Tihar . In North India , Diwali marks the beginning of the traditional New Year , and is held on the night of the new moon in the Hindu month of Kartik ( usually October or November ) . Shaktas ( and many non @-@ Shaktas ) celebrate it as another Lakshmi Puja , placing small oil lamps outside their homes and praying for the goddess 's blessings . Diwali coincides with the celebration of Kali Puja , popular in Bengal , and some Shakta traditions focus their worship on Devi as Kali rather than Lakshmi .
Jagaddhatri Puja is celebrated on the last four days of the Navaratis , following Kali Puja . It is very similar to Durga Puja in its details and observance , and is especially popular in Bengal and some other parts of Eastern India .
Gauri Puja is performed on the fifth day after Ganesh Chaturthi , during Ganesha Puja in Western India , to celebrate the arrival of Gauri , Mother of Ganesha , to come and bring her son back home .
There are variant dates for Saraswati Puja , depending upon region and local tradition . Commonly , on the fifth day of the Hindu month of Phalguna ( January – February ) , students offer their books and musical instruments to Saraswati and pray for her blessings in their studies . In some parts of India , Saraswati Puja is celebrated in the month of Magh ; in others , during the final three days of Navratri .
Major Shakta temple festivals are Meenakshi Kalyanam and Ambubachi Mela . Meenakshi Kalyanam observes the auspicious occasion of Devi 's marriage ( as Meenakshi ) to Lord Sundareshwara ( Shiva ) is centered on the Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai , Tamil Nadu . It runs for 12 days , counting from the second day of the lunar month of Chaitra , in April or May . Ambubachi Mela is a celebration of the yearly menstruation of the goddess , held in June / July ( during the monsoon season ) at Kamakhya Temple , Guwahati , Assam . Here the Devi is worshiped in the form of a yoni @-@ like stone over which a naturally red @-@ tinted spring flows .
= = = Temples = = =
There are thousands of Shakti temples ; vast or tiny , famous or obscure . Moreover , countless cities , towns , villages and geographic landmarks are named for various forms of the Devi . " In this vast country , holy resorts of the goddess are innumerable and the popularity of her cult is proved even in the place @-@ names of India . "
At various times , different writers have attempted to organize some of these into lists of " Shakti Peethas " ; literally " Seats of the Devi " , or more broadly , " Places of Power " . Numbering anywhere from four to 51 ( in the most famous list , found in the Tantra Cudamani ) , " the peethas [ became ] a popular theme of the medieval writers , many of whom took the greatest liberty in fabricating the place names , the goddesses and their bhairavas [ consorts ] . "
= = = Animal sacrifice = = =
Animals are sacrificed in all parts of India , mainly at temples of Goddesses such as Bhavani or Kali .
The Rajput of Rajasthan offer a sacrifice of buffalo or goat to their family Goddess ( Kuldevta ) during the festival of Navaratri . The ritual requires slaying of the animal with a single stroke . In the past it was considered a rite of passage for young men . The ritual is directed by a Brahmin priest .
Animal sacrifice is practiced in southern Indian states of Karnataka , Andhra Pradesh , and Tamil Nadu by local Hindu people . It is most notably done in front of local or clan deities . The ritual involves most caste members of the village with each caste performing different roles . In Karnataka , the Goddess receiving the sacrifice tends to be Renuka . The animal is either a male buffalo or a goat .
The Kathar or Kutadi community of Maharashtra while observing the Pachvi ceremony , after delivery of a child in the family , offer worship to their family Goddess Saptashrungi with a sacrifice of a goat . Following this they hold the naming ceremony of the child on the 12th day .
In some sacred groves of India , particularly in Western Maharashtra , animal sacrifice is practiced to pacify female deities that are supposed to rule the groves . Animal sacrifice is also practiced by some caste Hindus in Maharashtra at temples of Goddess Ekvira at Karla caves or Tuljapur Bhavani .
Animal sacrifices are performed at many temples in some eastern states of India and Nepal where the female nature of Brahman is worshiped in the form of Kali and Durga . This involves slaying of goats , chickens and sometimes male Water buffalos . A number Tantric Puranas specify the ritual for how the animal should be slayed . In Bengal , a priest recites the Gayatri Mantra in the ear of animal to be sacrificed , to free it from the cycle of life and death .
Animal sacrifice en masse occurs during the three @-@ day @-@ long Gadhimai festival in Nepal . In 2009 it was speculated that more than 250 @,@ 000 animals were killed while 5 million devotees attended the festival .
In India , ritual of animal sacrifice is practised in many villages before certain powerful and terrifying forms of the Devi . In this form of worship , animals , usually goats , are decapitated and the blood is offered to deity often by smearing some of it on a post outside the temple . For instance , Kandhen Budhi is the reigning deity of Kantamal in Boudh district of Orissa , India . Every year , animals like goat and fowl are sacrificed before the deity on the occasion of her annual Yatra / Jatra ( festival ) held in the month of Aswina ( September – October ) . The main attraction of Kandhen Budhi Yatra is Ghusuri Puja . Ghusuri means a piglet , which is sacrificed to the goddess every three years . During the Bali Jatra , male goats are offered as a sacrifice to the goddess Samaleswari in her temple in Sambalpur , Orissa .
Bali Jatra of Sonepur in Orissa , India is an annual festival celebrated in the month of Aswina ( September – October ) when animal sacrifice is an integral part of the ritual worship of deities : Samaleswari , Sureswari and Khambeswari . Bali refers to animal sacrifice and hence this annual festival is called Bali Jatra .
= = Shaktism as a distinct tradition within Hinduism = =
Shaktism has at times been dismissed as a superstitious , black magic @-@ infested practice that hardly qualifies as a true religion at all . A representative criticism of this sort issued from an Indian scholar in the 1920s :
The Tantras are the Bible of Shaktism , identifying all Force with the female principle in nature and teaching an undue adoration of the wives of Shiva and Vishnu to the neglect of their male counterparts . It is certain that a vast number of the inhabitants of India are guided in their daily life by Tantrik [ sic ] teaching , and are in bondage to the gross superstitions inculcated in these writings . And indeed it can scarcely be doubted that Shaktism is Hinduism arrived at its worst and most corrupt stage of development . "
Scholars variously attribute such criticism to ignorance , misunderstanding or sectarian bias on the part of some observers , as well as unscrupulous practices by some Shaktas . " It is in this context that many Hindus in India today deny the relevance of Tantra to their tradition , past or present , identifying what they call tantra @-@ mantra as so much mumbo @-@ jumbo . "
Within Hinduism , it is not uncommon to encounter assertions that the Shaiva and Vaishnava schools of Hinduism lead to moksha , or spiritual liberation , whereas Shaktism leads only to siddhis ( occult powers ) and bhukti ( material enjoyments ) – or , at best , to Shaivism . For example , the late Shaiva leader Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami taught that worship of the feminine manifest is merely a vehicle for reaching the masculine unmanifest , or Parasiva . Subramuniya 's successor , Satguru Bodhinatha Veylanswami , recently published an essay on different Hindu approaches to God that did not discuss Shaktism at all .
Shakta theologians counter that each of the Divine Mother 's forms is a Brahma Vidya , or self @-@ contained path to supreme wisdom . The sadhaka of any one of these goddess forms " attains ultimately , if his aspiration is such , the supreme purpose of life – Self @-@ realisation and God @-@ realisation . " Mataji Devi Vanamali of the Vanamali ashram in Rishikesh summarizes the Shakta position as follows :
In her transcendental aspect she is Prakriti , the form of the absolute Brahman . Therefore , when we worship the Divine Mother , we are not only offering adoration to the supreme in its aspect of motherhood but also adoring the supreme absolute . She is that aspect of the supreme power by whose grace alone we shall ultimately released from the darkness of ignorance and the bondage of maya and taken to the abode of immortal knowledge , immortality , and bliss . "
= = Expansion beyond South Asia = =
The practice of Shaktism is no longer confined to South Asia . Traditional Shakta temples have sprung up across Southeast Asia , the Americas , Europe , Australia and elsewhere – some enthusiastically attended by non @-@ Indian as well as Indian diaspora Hindus . Examples in the United States include the Kali Mandir in Laguna Beach , California ; and Sri Rajarajeswari Peetam , a Srividya temple in rural Rush , New York . The Rush temple was the subject a 2006 in @-@ depth academic study exploring the " dynamics of diaspora Hinduism , " including the serious entry and involvement of non @-@ Indians in traditional Hindu religious practice .
Shaktism has become a focus of some Western spiritual seekers attempting to construct new Goddess @-@ centered faiths . An academic study of Western Kali enthusiasts noted that , " as shown in the histories of all cross @-@ cultural religious transplants , Kali devotionalism in the West must take on its own indigenous forms if it is to adapt to its new environment . "
Some writers and thinkers , " notably feminists and participants in New Age spirituality who are attracted to goddess worship " , have explored Kali in a new light . She is considered a " symbol of wholeness and healing , associated especially with repressed female power and sexuality . " These new interpretations mainly originate in " feminist sources , almost none of which base their interpretations on a close reading of Kali 's Indian background " and tend to demonstrate the difficulty of " import [ ing ] the worship of a goddess from another culture [ ... ] when the deep symbolic meanings embedded in the native culture are not available . "
Some Westerners believe that many central concepts of Shaktism – including aspects of kundalini yoga as well as goddess worship – were once " common to the Hindu , Chaldean , Greek and Roman civilizations , " but were largely superseded in the West , as well as the Near and Middle East , with the rise of the Abrahamic religions :
Of these four great ancient civilizations , working knowledge of the inner forces of enlightenment has survived on a mass scale only in India . Only in India has the inner tradition of the Goddess endured . This is the reason the teachings of India are so precious . They offer us a glimpse of what our own ancient wisdom must have been . The Indians have preserved our lost heritage . [ ... ] Today it is up to us to locate and restore the tradition of the living Goddess . We would do well to begin our search in India , where for not one moment in all of human history have the children of the living Goddess forgotten their Divine Mother .
= Ila ( Hinduism ) =
Ila ( Sanskrit : इल ) or Ilā ( Sanskrit : इला ) is an androgyne in Hindu mythology , known for their sex changes . As a man , he is known as Ila or Sudyumna and as a woman , is called Ilā . Ilā is considered the chief progenitor of the Lunar dynasty of Indian kings - also known as the Ailas ( " descendants of Ilā " ) .
While many versions of the tale exist , Ila is usually described as a daughter or son of Vaivasvata Manu and thus the sibling of Ikshvaku , the founder of the Solar Dynasty . In versions in which Ila is born female , she changes into a male form by divine grace soon after her birth . After mistakenly entering a sacred grove as an adult , Ila is either cursed to change his / her gender every month or cursed to become a woman . As a woman , Ilā married Budha , the god of the planet Mercury and the son of the lunar deity Chandra ( Soma ) , and bore him a son called Pururavas , the father of the Lunar dynasty . After the birth of Pururavas , Ilā is transformed into a man again and fathered three sons .
In the Vedas , Ilā is praised as Idā ( Sanskrit : इडा ) , goddess of speech , and described as mother of Pururavas .
The tale of Ila 's transformations is told in the Puranas as well as the Indian epic poems , the Ramayana and the Mahabharata .
= = Birth = =
According to the Linga Purana and the Mahabharata , Ilā was born as the eldest daughter of Vaivasvata Manu , the progenitor of mankind , and his wife Shraddha . However , the parents desired a son and so prayed and performed austerities to propitiate the deities Mitra and Varuna , who changed Ilā 's sex . The boy was named Sudyumma . The Bhagavata Purana , the Devi @-@ Bhagavata Purana , the Kurma Purana , the Harivamsa , the Markandeya Purana and the Padma Purana ( referred to as " Bhagavata Purana et al. texts " further ) narrate a variant : Ila 's parents could not have any children for a long time and approached the sage Agastya for a solution . The sage performed a yajna ( fire sacrifice ) dedicated to Mitra and Varuna to attain a son for the couple . Due to either an error in the ritual , or a failure to offer the appropriate sacrifice , Mitra and Varuna instead sent a daughter to the couple . In one version , the couple supplicated the deities , who transformed Ilā 's gender . In another version , this transformation happens after the erroneous hymns are rectified and the son is called Ila . According to a variant , Shraddha wished for a daughter ; Vashistha heeded her wish while performing the sacrifice and thus , a daughter was born . However , Manu desired a son so Vashistha appealed to Vishnu to change the gender of his daughter . Ilā was renamed Sudhyumna . The accounts describe Ila as either the eldest or the youngest child of Manu . As the child of Manu , Ila had nine brothers , the most notable was Ikshvaku , the founder of the Solar dynasty . As the son of Manu , Ila is the grandson of Surya . According to another account found in the Vayu Purana and the Brahmanda Purana , Ilā was born female and remained female .
In the Ramayana , Ila is born as a son of Kardama , the Prajapati born of the god Brahma 's shadow . Ila 's tale is told in the Uttara Kanda chapter of the Ramayana , while describing the greatness of the Ashvamedha - the horse sacrifice .
= = Curse and marriage to Budha = =
In the Ramayana , the Linga Purana and the Mahabharata , Ila grows to become the king of Bahlika . While hunting in a forest , Ila accidentally trespassed Sharavana ( " Forest of Reeds " ) , the sacred grove of the goddess Parvati , the consort of the god Shiva . Upon entering Sharavana , all male beings except for Shiva , including trees and animals , are transformed into females . In the Ramayana , even Shiva had assumed the form of a female to please the goddess . One legend tells that a female yakshini disguised herself as a deer and purposefully led Ila to the grove in order to save her husband from the king . The Linga Purana and the Mahabharata emphasize the sex change of Ila to be a deliberate act of Shiva to start the Lunar dynasty . The Bhagavata Purana et al. texts tell that Ila 's entire entourage as well as his horse also changed their genders .
According to the Ramayana , when Ila approached Shiva for help , Shiva laughed with scorn but the compassionate Parvati reduced the curse and allowed Ila to switch genders every month . However , as a male he would not remember his life as a female and vice versa . While Ilā roamed the forest in her new form with her female attendants , Budha , the god of the planet Mercury and the son of the moon @-@ god Chandra , noticed her . Although he had been practising asceticism , Ilā 's beauty caused him to fall in love with her at first sight . Budha turned Ilā 's attendants into Kimpurushas ( hermaphrodite , lit . " is it a man ? " ) and ordered them to run away , promising that they would find mates as Ilā had .
Ilā married Budha and spent an entire month making love to him . However , Ilā woke one morning as Ila and remembered nothing about the past month . Budha told Ila that his retinue had been killed in a rain of stones and convinced Ila to stay with him for a year . During each month she spent as a woman , Ilā had pleasure with Budha . During each month as a man , Ila turned to pious ways and performed austerities under the guidance of Budha . In the ninth month , Ilā gave birth to Pururavas , who grew to become the first king of the Lunar dynasty . Then , as per the advice of Budha and Ila 's father Kardama , Ila pleased Shiva with a horse sacrifice and Shiva restored Ila 's masculinity permanently .
Another legend from the Vishnu Purana credits Vishnu of restoring Ilā 's manhood as Sudyumma . The Bhagavata Purana et al. texts tell that after Pururavas 's birth , the nine brothers of Ila - by horse sacrifice - or the sage Vasistha – the family priest of Ila – pleased Shiva to compel him to give the boon of alternate month manhood to Ila , turning him into a Kimpurusha . The Linga Purana and the Mahabharata record the birth of Pururavas , but do not narrate the end of Ila 's alternating gender condition . In fact , the Mahabharata describes Ilā to be the mother as well as the father of Pururavas . According to another account found in the Vayu Purana and the Brahmanda Purana , Ilā was born female , married Budha , then was transformed into a male called Sudyumna . Sudyumna was then cursed by Parvati and transformed once again into a female , but became a man once again through Shiva 's boon .
In almost all versions of the tale , Ila wants to live as a man , but in the Skanda Purana , Ila desires to be a woman . The king Ela ( Ila ) entered Parvati 's grove at Sahya mountain and became the woman Ilā . Ilā wished to remain a woman and serve Parvati ( Gauri ) and Ganga , the goddess of the Ganges river . However , the goddesses dissuaded him and told him that life as a woman was a curse and full of sorrow . Ilā bathed in a sacred pool and returned as Ela , bearded and deep @-@ voiced .
= = Later life and descendents = =
The descendants of Ilā through Pururavas are known as Ailas after Ilā or as the Lunar Dynasty ( Chandravamsa ) due to their descent from Budha , the son of the moon @-@ god Chandra . Most versions of tale call Ilā the father as well as the mother of the Ailas . The Linga Purana and the Mahabharata , in which Sudyumma 's curse does not end , state that as a male , Sudyumma also bore three sons named Utkala , Gaya and Vinatashva ( also known as Haritashva and Vinata ) . The three sons ruled the kingdom for their father as Sudyumma was unable to do so himself due his alternating gender . The sons and their principalities are called the Saudyumnas . Utkala , Gaya , and Vinatashva ruled Utkala country , Gaya , and eastern regions including northern Kurus respectively . With the assistance of the family priest Vasistha , Sudyumma regained control of the entire kingdom . He was succeeded by Pururavas .
In the Matsya Purana , Ila was disinherited after becoming a female or kimpurusha . Ila 's father passed his inheritance directly to Pururavas , ignoring the three sons Ila @-@ Sudyumma bore as a male . Pururavas ruled from Pratishtanapura ( present @-@ day Allahabad ) , where Ila stayed with him . The Ramayana says that having returned to manhood , Ila ruled Pratishtana while his son Shashabindu ruled over Bahlika . The Devi @-@ Bhagavata Purana tells that as a man Sudyumma governed the kingdom and as a woman remained indoors . His subjects were disturbed by his sex changes and did not respect him as they once had . When Pururavas attained adulthood , Sudyumma left his kingdom to Pururavas and went to the forest for penance . The sage Narada told Sudyumma a nine @-@ syllable mantra , Navakshara , which would please the Supreme Goddess . Pleased with his austerities , the Goddess emerged before Sudyumma , who was in his female form Ilā . Sudyumma praised the Goddess , who merged the king 's soul with herself and thus , Ilā gained salvation .
The Bhagavata Purana , the Devi @-@ Bhagavata Purana and the Linga Purana declare that Ila ascended to heaven with both male and female anatomy . Ila is considered the chief progenitor of the Lunar Dynasty through Pururavas and of the Solar Dynasty through his brother Iksavaku and sons Utkala , Gaya , and Vinatashva . The marriage of Ilā , a descendant of the Sun , and Budha , the son of the Moon , is the first union of the solar and lunar races recorded in the scriptures .
= = In Vedic literature = =
In Vedic literature , Ilā is also known as Idā . Idā in the Rigveda , signifies food and refreshment , personified as the goddess of speech . Ilā @-@ Idā is also associated with Sarasvati , the goddess of knowledge . Ilā @-@ Idā is mentioned a number of times in the Rigveda , mostly in the hymns known as Āprīsūktas . She is often mentioned along with Sarasvati and Bharati ( or Mahi ) and Pururavas is described as her son . Idā is the instructor of Manu , in performing ritual sacrifices . According to Sayana - a commentator on the Vedas , she presides over the Earth .
In the Shatapatha Brahmana , Manu performed a fire @-@ sacrifice in order to have children . Idā emerged from the sacrifice . She was claimed by Mitra @-@ Varuna , but she lived with Manu and together they initiated the race of Manu . In this text , Idā is the goddess of the sacrificial meal . She is described as the Mānavi ( daughter of Manu ) and Ghṛtapadī ( with the ghee @-@ dripping foot ) and she is represented by a cow , also known as Idā during a sacrifice . Pururavas is mentioned as the son of Ilā in the text .
= M @-@ 143 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 143 , also known as Michigan Avenue , is a previously unsigned spur state trunkline highway in the south central region of the US state of Michigan . The M @-@ 143 portion of Michigan Avenue runs from the East Lansing city limit to a junction with M @-@ 43 at Grand River Avenue . This highway is the second time that there has been an M @-@ 143 in Michigan . The first was a connection to the original Cheboygan State Park . The current is a remnant of M @-@ 43 in the Lansing area .
= = Route description = =
Michigan Avenue travels through the Greater Lansing area on an east – west axis which runs through the Capitol Building in downtown Lansing . While disconnected between Martin Luther King Jr . Boulevard and Capitol Avenue in the downtown area , the eastern portion of Michigan Avenue begins at the Capitol and runs easterly , ending in downtown East Lansing . For much of its length in the City of Lansing , Michigan Avenue is a five @-@ lane thoroughfare maintained by the city . Just west of US Highway 127 ( US 127 ) , the street transitions into a six @-@ lane boulevard and proceeds easterly to the East Lansing city limit . From that point easterly for about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to M @-@ 43 at Grand River Avenue in downtown East Lansing , Michigan Avenue is state @-@ maintained as a four- to six @-@ lane boulevard designated M @-@ 143 . Michigan Avenue here is the northern boundary of the main campus of Michigan State University near the Red Cedar River . This highway designation was not signed on Michigan Avenue for a number of years , even though the street was under the control of the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , MDOT 's traffic surveys showed that on average , between 19 @,@ 503 and 20 @,@ 308 vehicles used the trunkline daily . No section of M @-@ 143 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designation = = =
The first usage of M @-@ 143 was designated from US 27 ( now M @-@ 27 ) south of Cheboygan eastward for about a mile on Lincoln Avenue to the original Cheboygan State Park in 1931 . The park was removed from the state park system during World War II . The highway along Lincoln Avenue was transferred back to local control in late 1960 .
= = = Current designation = = =
In late 1962 , US 16 was decommissioned in the state of Michigan as Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) was completed . With the removal of US 16 , several highways were rerouted through Lansing . M @-@ 43 was rerouted along M @-@ 78 to Grand River Avenue and then along Grand River Avenue to replace US 16 east to Webberville . The former M @-@ 43 on Michigan Avenue east of Cedar and Larch streets was redesignated M @-@ 143 .
As part of the creation of the Capitol Loop , M @-@ 143 and Michigan Avenue in Lansing was partially transferred back to local control . The section between Cedar and Larch streets was retained as part of the new Capitol Loop and the remainder inside the city of Lansing was removed from the state trunkline highway system on October 13 , 1989 . At the time , M @-@ 143 in the City of East Lansing was not transferred , and MDOT removed the signage , creating an unsigned trunkline .
Since then , MDOT has used the trunkline 's designation on maps and in brochures related to a 2013 reconstruction project on Michigan Avenue in East Lansing . Signage has also been erected , and the highway has been restored to the official state map in 2013 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Ingham County .
= Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell =
Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell is a 1908 lyrical poem book written by Jean Louis De Esque . The publication includes a preface by the author with two poetic works , " When I am Gone " and " Betelguese . " The latter poem has been called a " classic " work that utilized off @-@ beat language , considered to be a delight to the philologist . It has been compared to the poetic works of George Sterling and Kenneth Patchen .
The book was published during the height of the nature fakers controversy , and it has been suggested that De Esque elected to release Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell while Theodore Roosevelt was on a trip to Africa in an effort to avoid potential conflict that might have resulted from Roosevelt 's awareness of its content .
= = Publication = =
Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell was published by Connoisseur 's Press in Jersey City , New Jersey on July 1 , 1908 . An application for copyright was submitted on September 28 , 1907 . Two copies were received by the Library of Congress on August 28 , 1909 . For the publishing company , Betelguese was considered its first work of distinction after several years of modest publications .
The book features a frontispiece by painter Nicholas Briganti , an illustration of Typhon the Greek " Father of all monsters . " Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell opens with a prefatory note by De Esque written on September 22 , 1907 , in which he reveals that the writing of the poem began when he was " up at [ his ] desk mauling and drubbing the English language with a vengeance for thirty @-@ six consecutive hours , and that [ he ] awoke at 12 @.@ 30 A.M , " and began writing the poem " Betelguese , " continuing to work on it until the early morning . The writer later explained that he repeated this process over the next fifteen nights , completing the work at a total of 8116 words . The preface is succeeded with a photograph of Jean Louis De Esque and a short poem entitled " When I Am Gone . " Finally , the publication concludes with the eponymous poetic work " Betelguese , " making the length of Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell in total 104 pages .
= = = Promotion = = =
To promote Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell , Connoisseur 's Press took out advertisements months before its release in various literary publications . This included Publishers Weekly , The Bookseller , and The Bookman , which showcased Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell alongside three other works by De Esque which were published in the same year : The Flight of a Soul , The Seasons and other poems , and Silence , the latter which was published under the pseudonym " Stewart . " In these advertisements , Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell was listed as being printed on fine , handmade rag paper . The hardcover book featured a gold @-@ stamped title on maroon cloth , with a height of 19 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 7 in ) . The book also included a color frontispiece and was printed in Cheltenham typeface . It sold for US $ 1 @.@ 25 .
The advertisement also called Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell a unique work with " absolutely nothing like it written since Dante 's Inferno . "
= = " Betelguese " = =
Betelguese is one of a number of historical variant spellings of Betelgeuse , a red supergiant in the constellation of Orion .
By his own admission , De Esque chose to place hell on this star , over placing hell on Earth , the Moon or the Sun because it was " a celestial pariah , an outcast , the largest of all known comets or outlawed suns in the universe . " The latter three were rejected by De Esque : the Sun because it was uninhabitable for animal or vegetable life , and the Moon because it was once part of the Earth . De Esque also describes Betelguese on pg . 77 with :
In full , the poem is rife with descriptions of the terrifying aspects of hell , those that dwell there , and the actions thereof . Among those in De Esque 's hell are Thomas Fortune Ryan , John Pierpont Morgan , August Belmont , Jr. and John D. Rockefeller . Also appearing regularly throughout " Betelguese " are many Greek mythological figures , including the subject of the frontispiece , Typhon .
Similar to what would be a recurring double @-@ quatrain , the rhyme scheme of most of " Betelguese " has four lines to a stanza , wherein the two successive stanzas , line one rhymes with line five , line two with line six and so on ; or , " ABCD @-@ ABCD . " The following sets of two stanzas have their own rhyming words . Additionally , " Betelguese " was written in an octametric ( 8 @-@ syllable ) meter , where De Esque contracts typically multi @-@ syllable words , such as " cavern 'd " to be read as two syllables , as opposed to " poisoned " to be read as three syllables .
= = = Reception = = =
The main work , " Betelguese " , has been called a " study in unconscious parody " by the Manchester Literary Club , a " classic " by Bookseller and Stationer , and a " frabjous poem " by the Saturday Review . It has also been called an " yrie poem " by Publishers Weekly .
Featured in the section " In the World of Books " of April 18 , 1909 edition of the Los Angeles Herald , Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell was likened to George Sterling 's poem " The Wine of Wizardry " . In comparing the two poetic works , the columnist felt that " Betelguese " had made " Mr. Sterling 's poor dragons look like small pink lizards , " stating that De Esque 's work had " immortalized the dreams of the opium eater . " In later years , it had also been compared to the poetic work of Kenneth Patchen .
On its verbose language , one editor at Manchester Literary Club felt that the " enthusiastic philologist " would " make heaven " of Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell . However , a review in March 28 , 1909 edition of the Salt Lake Tribune was mixed on De Esque 's off @-@ beat use of the English language , stating , " it is plentifully sprinkled with weird words without any particular meaning . " The Salt Lake Tribune columnist went on to say that " Betelguese was a " wild sort of rhapsody , which is less fierce than one might suppose from the subtitle . "
Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell was published during the nature fakers conflict ; the Los Angeles Herald columnist further suggests that the book was intentionally released during one of US President Theodore Roosevelt 's trips to Africa . According to them , lines such as " mildewed screes " and " poisoned skinks " would have shocked Roosevelt ; he goes on to say that he " hopes the poet will have ready an explanation before Colonel Roosevelt returns from Africa . "
= 1993 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1993 Atlantic hurricane season was a below average Atlantic hurricane season that produced ten tropical cyclones and tropical storms , four hurricanes , and one major hurricane . It officially started on June 1 and ended on November 30 , dates which conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic Ocean . The first tropical cyclone , Tropical Depression One , developed on May 31 , while the final storm , Tropical Depression Ten , dissipated on September 30 , well before the average dissipation date of a season 's last tropical cyclone ; this represented the earliest end to the hurricane season in ten years . The most intense hurricane , Emily , was a Category 3 on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale that paralleled close to the North Carolina coastline causing minor damage and a few deaths before moving out to sea .
The most significant named storm of the season was Hurricane Gert , a tropical cyclone that devastated several countries in Central America and Mexico . Throughout the impact areas , damage totaled to $ 170 million ( 1993 USD ) and 102 fatalities were reported . The remnants of Gert reached the Pacific Ocean and was classified as Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E. Another significant system was Tropical Storm Bret , which resulted in 184 deaths and $ 25 million in losses as it tracked generally westward across Trinidad , Venezuela , Colombia , and Nicaragua . In the Pacific Ocean , the remnants of Bret were attributed to the development of Hurricane Greg . Three other tropical cyclones brought minor to moderate effects on land ; they were Tropical Depression One and Tropical Storms Arlene and Cindy . The storms of the 1993 Atlantic hurricane season collectively caused 339 fatalities and $ 319 million in losses .
= = Season summary = =
= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) and the Weather Research Center ( WRC ) . A normal season as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) has 12 @.@ 1 named storms , of which 6 @.@ 4 reach hurricane strength , and 2 @.@ 7 become major hurricanes . In December 1992 , Gray anticipated a near average season with 11 named storms , 6 hurricanes , and 3 major hurricanes . Another predication on April 16 , 1993 was unchanged from the previous forecast . In June , Gray revised the number of hurricanes to seven , though the forecast of named storms and major hurricanes remained the same . By August , the number hurricanes predicted was lowered back to six , matching the December 1992 and April forecasts . The sole prediction made by the WRC called for seven named storms and five hurricanes , though no forecast was made on the numbers of major hurricanes .
= = = Season activity = = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , those activity began a day early with the development of Tropical Depression One on May 31 . It was a below average season in which 10 tropical depressions formed . Eight of the depressions attained tropical storm status , and four of these attained hurricane status . In addition , one tropical cyclone eventually attained major hurricane status , which is below the 1981 – 2010 average of 2 @.@ 7 per season . The low amount of activity is attributed to abnormally strong wind shear across the Atlantic basin . Only one hurricanes and three tropical storm made landfall during the season ; Tropical Depression One and Hurricane Emily also caused land impacts . However , the storm collectively caused 339 deaths and $ 302 @.@ 7 million in damage . The last storm of the season , Tropical Depression Ten , became extratropical on September 30 , two months before the official end of the season on November 30 .
Tropical cyclogenesis in the 1993 Atlantic hurricane season began with the development of Tropical Depression One on May 31 . However , in the following two months , minimal activity occurred , with only one named storm , Arlene , in June . August was the most active month , with four tropical cyclones developing , including Tropical Storms Bret , Cindy , and Dennis , as well as Hurricane Emily . Although September is the climatological peak of hurricane season , only two system formed that month , which were Hurricane Floyd and Gert . Thereafter , activity briefly halted until Hurricane Harvey developed in October . The final tropical cyclone , Tropical Depression Ten , became extratropical on September 30 , two months before the official end of the season on November 30 .
Overall , the season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 39 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One = = =
A westward @-@ moving tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression One near the Isle of Youth on May 31 . Due to strong wind shear and its proximity to land , the depression was unable to strengthen and struck western Cuba later that day . It emerged into the Straits of Florida early on June 1 and began to organize and intensify slightly further , but nonetheless remained below tropical storm intensity . Around that time , an approaching short
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@-@ layer mean flow caused the depression to track west @-@ northwest . It is estimated that by 12 : 00 UTC on August 24 , the depression became Tropical Storm Dennis , based on satellite imagery .
Early on August 25 , Dennis attained its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) . After peak intensity , a relatively strong mid- to upper @-@ level trough caused Dennis to turn north @-@ northwestward on August 26 . Thereafter , an increase in vertical wind shear and a decrease in sea surface temperatures caused the storm to begin weakening . Eventually , the low @-@ level circulation became nearly void of deep convection . On August 27 , Dennis was downgraded to a tropical depression . The storm later curved west @-@ southwestward , while located about midway between Bermuda and the southernmost islands of Cape Verde .
= = = Hurricane Floyd = = =
A tropical wave crossed the west coast of Africa on August 28 . Although had it a well @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation , the system was not classified as a tropical cyclone . While tracking west , deep convection diminished and was nearly non @-@ existent by August 31 , though the cloud pattern began re @-@ developing on September 3 . Eventually , the system curved northwestward and remained well away from the Lesser Antilles . Because a reconnaissance flight into the system indicated a low @-@ level circulation with persistent deep convection , it is estimated that the system became Tropical Depression Seven at 12 : 00 UTC on September 7 , while located about 440 mi ( 710 km ) north @-@ northwest of San Juan , Puerto Rico . Only six hours after becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Floyd . Initially , strong southwesterly wind shear prevented further significant intensification .
The storm accelerated north @-@ northwestward after becoming embedded within fast air currents , which was as Floyd moved between a strong trough and a subtropical high pressure area . Later on September 8 , the storm passed about 230 mi ( 370 km ) west of Bermuda . By early on September 9 , convection developed along the once exposed low @-@ level circulation . After a buoy reported a two @-@ minute sustained wind speed of 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) and an eye appeared on satellite imagery , Floyd was upgraded to a hurricane at 18 : 00 UTC on September 9 . While accelerating at nearly 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) , the storm began losing tropical characteristics as a result of colder sea surface temperatures and became extratropical at 18 : 00 UTC on September 10 . The remnants of Floyd continued rapidly eastward and struck Brittany , France , at an intensity equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane . While passing southeast of Newfoundland , the storm produced light rainfall , peaking at about 0 @.@ 86 in ( 22 mm ) .
= = = Hurricane Gert = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on September 5 . The system slowly organize while tracking across the Atlantic Ocean and much of the Caribbean Sea . It developed into a tropical depression while located north of Panama on September 14 . On the following day , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Gert before moving ashore in Nicaragua . After weakening to a tropical depression , it proceeded into Honduras and reorganized into a tropical storm over the Gulf of Honduras on September 17 . Gert made landfall in Belize on the following day and again weakened to a depression while inland . After crossing the Yucatán Peninsula , Gert emerged over warm water in the Bay of Campeche , and strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane on September 20 . The hurricane then made landfall on the Gulf Coast of Mexico near Tuxpan , Veracruz , with winds of 100 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Rugged terrain quickly disrupted its structure and Gert entered the Pacific Ocean as a tropical depression from Nayarit on September 21 . Five days later , the depression dissipated near Baja California .
Because Gert had a broad wind circulation , it produced widespread and heavy rainfall across Central America , which , combined with saturated soil from Tropical Storm Bret a month earlier , caused significant flooding of property and crops . Although hurricane @-@ force winds occurred upon landfall in Mexico , the worst effects in the country were due to flooding and mudslides induced by torrential rain . Following the overflow of several rivers , deep flood waters submerged extensive parts of Veracruz and Tamaulipas and forced hundreds of thousands to evacuate , including 200 @,@ 000 in the Tampico area alone . The heaviest rainfall occurred further inland over the mountainous region of San Luis Potosí , where as much as 31 @.@ 41 in ( 798 mm ) of precipitation were measured . In the wake of the disaster , the road networks across the affected countries were severely disrupted and thousands of people became homeless . Extensive , but less severe flooding occurred in Costa Rica , El Salvador , Guatemala , Honduras , and Nicaragua . Throughout the effected areas , flooding damaged or destroyed more than 40 @,@ 000 buildings . The storm caused at least 102 fatalities and more than $ 170 million in damage .
= = = Hurricane Harvey = = =
A tropical wave passed south of Cape Verde on September 12 . By the following day , satellite imagery indicated a cloud system center . The system tracked northwestward across the Atlantic Ocean with slow further development . Due to interaction with an upper @-@ level low on September 18 , the system began to significantly organize . After a ship known as ELFS reported winds of 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) , it is estimated that Tropical Depression Nine developed at 18 : 00 UTC on September 18 , while located about 400 miles ( 640 km ) south @-@ southeast of Bermuda . The depression initially moved north @-@ northwest , though an approaching short @-@ wave trough eventually caused it to northeastward .
Convection remained disorganized and the low @-@ level circulation was exposed on September 19 . However , by the following day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Harvey . Thereafter , the storm began to rapidly intensify and developed an eye appeared on satellite imagery . While accelerating northeastward , Harvey was upgraded to a hurricane at 18 : 00 UTC on September 20 . However , decreasing sea surface temperatures caused Harvey to immediately weaken back to a tropical storm , while also losing tropical characteristics . At 18 : 00 UTC on September 20 , Harvey transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located well east of Newfoundland . Six hours later , the extratropical remnants of Harvey were absorbed into a frontal band .
= = = Tropical Depression Ten = = =
Tropical Depression Ten developed about 185 mi ( 300 km ) southeast of Bermuda at 18 : 00 UTC on September 29 . Initially , convection associated with the depression was confined to north and east of the center . The depression was difficult to track , though wind observations in Bermuda suggested that it passed just north of the island between 0300 and 07 : 00 UTC on September 30 . Although no intensification was predicted , the National Hurricane Center noted that interaction with the approaching cold front could result in baroclinic strengthening . The depression did not organize further and merged with the cold front at 00 : 00 UTC on October 1 .
= = Storm names = =
Below is a list of names used for systems that reached at least tropical storm intensity in north Atlantic Ocean during the 1993 Atlantic hurricane season . This was the same list used for the 1987 season . Following the season , the World Meteorological Organization did not retire any names , resulting in the entire list being re @-@ used in the 1999 season . Names that were not assigned during the 1993 Atlantic hurricane season are marked in gray .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of the storms in the 1993 Atlantic hurricane season . It mentions all of the season 's storms and their names , landfall ( s ) , peak intensities , damages , and death totals . The damage and death totals in this list include impacts when the storm was a precursor wave or post @-@ tropical low , and all of the damage figures are in 1993 USD .
= Manchester City F.C. =
Manchester City Football Club is a football club in Manchester , England . Founded in 1880 as St. Mark 's ( West Gorton ) , they became Ardwick Association Football Club in 1887 and Manchester City in 1894 . The club moved to the City of Manchester Stadium in 2003 , having played at Maine Road since 1923 .
The club 's most successful period was in the late 1960s and early 1970s when they won the League Championship , FA Cup , League Cup and European Cup Winners ' Cup under the management team of Joe Mercer and Malcolm Allison . After losing the 1981 FA Cup Final , the club went through a period of decline , culminating in relegation to the third tier of English football for the only time in their history in 1998 . Having regained their Premier League status in the early 2000s , the club was purchased in 2008 by Abu Dhabi United Group and has become one of the wealthiest in the world . Since 2011 the club have won six major honours , including the Premier League in 2012 and 2014 .
By 2014 – 15 , Manchester City had the sixth @-@ highest revenue in the footballing world with an annual revenue of € 463 @.@ 5 million . In 2016 , Forbes magazine estimated they were the world 's sixth most valuable football club , worth $ 1 @.@ 92 billion .
= = History = =
City gained their first honours by winning the Second Division in 1899 ; with it came promotion to the highest level in English football , the First Division . They went on to claim their first major honour on 23 April 1904 , beating Bolton Wanderers 1 – 0 at Crystal Palace to win the FA Cup ; City narrowly missed out on a League and Cup double that season after finishing runners @-@ up in the League but City became the first club in Manchester to win a major honour . In the seasons following the FA Cup triumph , the club was dogged by allegations of financial irregularities , culminating in the suspension of seventeen players in 1906 , including captain Billy Meredith , who subsequently moved across town to Manchester United . A fire at Hyde Road destroyed the main stand in 1920 , and in 1923 the club moved to their new purpose @-@ built stadium at Maine Road in Moss Side .
In the 1930s , Manchester City reached two consecutive FA Cup finals , losing to Everton in 1933 , before claiming the Cup by beating Portsmouth in 1934 . During the 1934 cup run , Manchester City broke the record for the highest home attendance of any club in English football history , as 84 @,@ 569 fans packed Maine Road for a sixth round FA Cup tie against Stoke City in 1934 – a record which still stands to this day . The club won the First Division title for the first time in 1937 , but were relegated the following season , despite scoring more goals than any other team in the division . Twenty years later , a City team inspired by a tactical system known as the Revie Plan reached consecutive FA Cup finals again , in 1955 and 1956 ; just as in the 1930s , they lost the first one , to Newcastle United , and won the second . The 1956 final , in which Manchester City beat Birmingham City 3 – 1 , is one of the most famous finals of all @-@ time , and is remembered for City goalkeeper Bert Trautmann continuing to play on after unknowingly breaking his neck .
After relegation to the Second Division in 1963 , the future looked bleak with a record low home attendance of 8 @,@ 015 against Swindon Town in January 1965 . In the summer of 1965 , the management team of Joe Mercer and Malcolm Allison was appointed . In the first season under Mercer , City won the Second Division title and made important signings in Mike Summerbee and Colin Bell . Two seasons later , in 1967 – 68 , Manchester City claimed the League Championship for the second time , clinching the title on the final day of the season with a 4 – 3 win at Newcastle United and beating their close neighbours Manchester United into second place . Further trophies followed : City won the FA Cup in 1969 , before achieving European success by winning the European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1970 , beating Górnik Zabrze 2 – 1 in Vienna . City also won the League Cup that season , becoming the second English team to win a European trophy and a domestic trophy in the same season .
The club continued to challenge for honours throughout the 1970s , finishing one point behind the league champions on two occasions and reaching the final of the 1974 League Cup . One of the matches from this period that is most fondly remembered by supporters of Manchester City is the final match of the 1973 – 74 season against arch @-@ rivals Manchester United , who needed to win to have any hope of avoiding relegation . Former United player Denis Law scored with a backheel to give City a 1 – 0 win at Old Trafford and confirm the relegation of their rivals . The final trophy of the club 's most successful period was won in 1976 , when Newcastle United were beaten 2 – 1 in the League Cup final .
A long period of decline followed the success of the 1960s and 1970s . Malcolm Allison rejoined the club to become manager for the second time in 1979 , but squandered large sums of money on unsuccessful signings , such as Steve Daley . A succession of managers then followed – seven in the 1980s alone . Under John Bond , City reached the 1981 FA Cup final but lost in a replay to Tottenham Hotspur . The club were twice relegated from the top flight in the 1980s ( in 1983 and 1987 ) , but returned to the top flight again in 1989 and finished fifth in 1991 and 1992 under the management of Peter Reid . However , this was only a temporary respite , and following Reid 's departure Manchester City 's fortunes continued to fade . City were co @-@ founders of the Premier League upon its creation in 1992 , but after finishing ninth in its first season they endured three seasons of struggle before being relegated in 1996 . After two seasons in Division One , City fell to the lowest point in their history , becoming the second ever European trophy winners to be relegated to their country 's third league tier , after 1 . FC Magdeburg of Germany .
After relegation , the club underwent off @-@ the @-@ field upheaval , with new chairman David Bernstein introducing greater fiscal discipline . Under manager Joe Royle , City were promoted at the first attempt , achieved in dramatic fashion in a play @-@ off against Gillingham . A second successive promotion saw City return to the top division , but this proved to have been a step too far for the recovering club , and in 2001 City were relegated once more . Kevin Keegan replaced Royle as manager in the close season , and achieved an immediate return to the top division as the club won the 2001 – 02 Division One championship , breaking club records for the number of points gained and goals scored in a season in the process . The 2002 – 03 season was the last at Maine Road , and included a 3 – 1 derby victory over rivals Manchester United , ending a run of 13 years without a derby win . City also qualified for European competition for the first time in 25 years . In the 2003 close season the club moved to the new City of Manchester Stadium . The first four seasons at the stadium all resulted in mid @-@ table finishes . Former England manager Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson became the club 's first manager from overseas when appointed in 2007 . After a bright start performances faded in the second half of the season , and Eriksson was sacked in June 2008 . Eriksson was replaced by Mark Hughes two days later on 4 June 2008 .
By 2008 , the club was in a financially precarious position . Thaksin Shinawatra had taken control of the club a year before , but his political travails saw his assets frozen . Then , in August 2008 , the club was purchased by the Abu Dhabi United Group . The takeover was immediately followed by a flurry of bids for high @-@ profile players ; the club broke the British transfer record by signing Brazilian international Robinho from Real Madrid for £ 32 @.@ 5 million . Performances were not a huge improvement on the previous season despite the influx of money however , with the team finishing tenth , although they did well to reach the quarter @-@ finals of the UEFA Cup . During the summer of 2009 , the club took transfer spending to an unprecedented level , with an outlay of over £ 100 million on players Gareth Barry , Roque Santa Cruz , Kolo Touré , Emmanuel Adebayor , Carlos Tevez and Joleon Lescott . In December 2009 , Mark Hughes – who had been hired shortly before the change in ownership but was originally retained by the new board – was replaced as manager by Roberto Mancini . City finished the season in fifth position in the Premier League , narrowly missing out on a place in the Champions League , and competed in the UEFA Europa League in season 2010 – 11 .
Continued investment in players followed in successive seasons , and results began to match the upturn in player quality . City reached the 2011 FA Cup Final , their first major final in over thirty years , after defeating derby rivals Manchester United in the semi @-@ final , the first time they had knocked their rival out of a cup competition since 1975 . They defeated Stoke City 1 – 0 in the final , securing their fifth FA Cup , the club 's first major trophy since winning the 1976 League Cup . In the same week , the club qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time since 1968 with a 1 – 0 Premier League win over Tottenham Hotspur . On the last day of the 2010 – 11 season , City passed Arsenal for third place in the Premier League , thereby securing qualification directly into the Champions League group stage .
Strong performances continued to follow in the 2011 – 12 season , with the club beginning the following season in commanding form , including beating Tottenham 5 – 1 at White Hart Lane and humbling Manchester United by a 6 – 1 scoreline in United 's own stadium . Although the strong form waned half @-@ way through the season , and City at one point fell eight points behind their arch rivals with only six games left to play , a slump by United allowed the blue side of Manchester to draw back level with two games to go , setting up a thrilling finale to the season with both teams going into the last day equal on points . Despite City only needing a home win against a team in the relegation zone , they fell a goal behind by the end of normal time , leading some of United 's players to finish their game celebrating in the belief that they had won the league . Two goals in injury time – including one scored almost five minutes after normal time had elapsed – resulted in an almost @-@ literal last @-@ minute title victory , City 's first in 44 years , and became only the fifth team to win the Premier League since its creation in 1992 . In the aftermath that followed , the event was described by media sources from the UK and around the world as the greatest moment in Premier League history . The game was also notable for former player Joey Barton 's sending off , where he committed three separate red card @-@ able incidents on three different players in the space of only a few seconds , resulting in a 12 @-@ game ban .
The following season City failed to capitalise on the gains made in the first two full seasons of Mancini 's reign . While City rarely seemed likely to drop below second in the table , they posed little title challenge all season . In the UEFA Champions League , the club was eliminated at the group stage for a second successive season , while a second FA Cup final in three seasons ended in a 1 – 0 defeat to relegated Wigan Athletic . Mancini was dismissed two days later , ostensibly as he had failed to reach his targets for the season , but BBC Sports Editor David Bond reported that he had been sacked for his poor communication and relationships with players and executives . In his place was appointed the Chilean Manuel Pellegrini . In Pellegrini 's first season , City won the League Cup and regained the Premier League title on the last day of the season .
L1
= Level 1 of the football league system ; L2 =
Level 2 of the football league system ; L3 = Level 3 of the football league system .
= = Club badge and colours = =
Manchester City 's home colours are sky blue and white . Traditional away kit colours have been either maroon or ( from the 1960s ) red and black ; however , in recent years several different colours have been used . The origins of the club 's home colours are unclear , but there is evidence that the club has worn blue since 1892 or earlier . A booklet entitled Famous Football Clubs – Manchester City published in the 1940s indicates that West Gorton ( St. Marks ) originally played in scarlet and black , and reports dating from 1884 describe the team wearing black jerseys bearing a white cross , showing the club 's origins as a church side . The red and black away colours used infrequently yet recurrently come from former assistant manager Malcolm Allison , who believed that adopting the colours of A.C. Milan would inspire City to glory . Allison 's theory worked , with City winning the 1969 FA Cup Final , 1970 League Cup Final and the 1970 European Cup Winners ' Cup Final in red and black stripes as opposed to the club 's home kit of sky blue .
City have previously worn three other badges on their shirts , prior to their current badge which was implemented in 2016 . The first , introduced in 1970 , was based on designs which had been used on official club documentation since the mid @-@ 1960s . It consisted of a circular badge which used the same shield as the current badge , inside a circle bearing the name of the club . In 1972 , this was replaced by a variation which replaced the lower half of the shield with the red rose of Lancashire . On occasions when Manchester City plays in a major cup final , the usual badge has not been used ; instead shirts bearing a badge of the arms of the City of Manchester are used , as a symbol of pride in representing the city of Manchester at a major event . This practice originates from a time when the players ' shirts did not normally bear a badge of any kind , but has continued throughout the history of the club . For the 2011 FA Cup Final , City used the usual badge with a special legend , but the Manchester coat of arms was included as a small monochrome logo in the numbers on the back of players ' shirts .
A new club badge was adopted in 1997 , as a result of the previous badge being ineligible for registration as a trademark . This badge was based on the arms of the city of Manchester , and consisted of a shield in front of a golden eagle . The eagle is an old heraldic symbol of the city of Manchester ; a golden eagle was added to the city 's badge in 1958 ( but has since been removed ) , representing the growing aviation industry . The shield features a ship on its upper half representing the Manchester Ship Canal , and three diagonal stripes in the lower half symbolise the city 's three rivers – the Irwell , the Irk and the Medlock . The bottom of the badge bears the motto Superbia in Proelio , which translates as Pride in Battle in Latin . Above the eagle and shield are three stars , which are purely decorative .
On 15 October 2015 , following years of criticism from the fans over the design of the 1997 badge , the club announced that they intended to carry out a fan consultation on whether to disregard the club badge and institute a new design . After the consultation , the club announced in late November 2015 that the current club badge would be replaced in due course by a new version which would be designed in the style of the older , circular variants . A design purporting to be the new badge was unintentionally leaked two days early prior to the official unveiling on 26 December 2015 by the IPO when the design was trademarked on 22 December . The new design was officially unveiled at the club 's home match on 26 December against Sunderland .
= = = Kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors = = =
Manchester City 's shirts have been sponsored by Etihad Airways since 2009 . Previous sponsors have been Saab ( 1982 – 84 ) , Philips ( 1984 – 87 ) , Brother ( 1987 – 99 ) , Eidos ( 1999 – 2002 ) , First Advice ( 2002 – 04 ) , and Thomas Cook ( 2004 – 07 ) . Their kits have been manufactured by Nike since 2013 . Prior manufacturers have been Umbro ( 1974 – 97 , 2009 – 13 ) , Kappa ( 1997 – 99 ) , Le Coq Sportif ( 1999 – 2003 , 2007 – 09 ) , and Reebok ( 2003 – 07 ) .
= = Players = =
As of 1 July 2016 .
= = = First team squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = On loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Retired numbers = = =
23 Marc @-@ Vivien Foé , Midfielder ( 2002 – 03 ) – posthumous honour .
Since 2003 , Manchester City have not issued the squad number 23 . It was retired in memory of Marc @-@ Vivien Foé , who was on loan to the club from Lyon at the time of his death on the field of play whilst playing for Cameroon in the 2003 Confederations Cup .
= = = Player of the Year = = =
= = Halls of Fame = =
= = = Manchester City Hall of Fame = = =
The following former Manchester City players and managers are inductees in the Manchester City F.C. Hall of Fame , and are listed according to the year of their induction :
Last updated : 31 March 2011 .
Source : list of MCFC Hall of Fame inductees
= = = National Football Museum Hall of Fame = = =
The following former Manchester City players and managers are inductees in the English Football Hall of Fame ( a.k.a. the National Football Museum Hall of Fame ) and are listed according to the year of their induction within the various categories :
Last updated : 1 May 2014 .
Source : list of NFM Hall of Fame inductees
= = = Scottish Football Museum Hall of Fame = = =
The following former Manchester City players and managers are inductees in the Scottish Football Hall of Fame ( a.k.a. the Scottish Football Museum Hall of Fame ) and are listed according to the year of their induction within the various categories :
Last updated : 30 March 2011 .
Source : list of SFM Hall of Fame inductees
= = = Welsh Sports Hall of Fame = = =
The following former Manchester City players are inductees in the Welsh Sports Hall of Fame and are listed according to the year of their induction :
= = Non @-@ playing staff = =
= = = Corporate hierarchy = = =
= = = Management hierarchy = = =
= = = Notable managers = = =
Table correct as of 6 July 2015
= = Supporters = =
Manchester City has a large fanbase in relation to its comparative lack of success on the pitch . Since moving to the City of Manchester Stadium , Manchester City 's average attendances have been in the top six in England , usually in excess of 40 @,@ 000 . Even in the late 1990s , when the club were relegated twice in three seasons and playing in the third tier of English football ( then Division Two , now Football League One ) , home attendances were in the region of 30 @,@ 000 , compared to an average for the division of fewer than 8 @,@ 000 . Research carried out by Manchester City in 2005 estimates a fanbase of 886 @,@ 000 in the United Kingdom and a total in excess of 2 million worldwide , although since the purchase of the club by Sheikh Mansour and the club 's recent trophies , that figure has ballooned to many times that size .
Manchester City 's officially recognised supporters club is the Manchester City FC Supporters Club ( 1949 ) , formed from a merger of two existing organisations in 2010 : the Official Supporters Club ( OSC ) and the Centenary Supporters Association ( CSA ) . There have been several fanzines published by supporters ; the longest running is King of the Kippax and it is the only one still published . The City fans ' song of choice is a rendition of " Blue Moon " , which despite its melancholic theme is belted out with gusto as though it were a heroic anthem . City supporters tend to believe that unpredictability is an inherent trait of their team , and label unexpected results " typical City " . Events that fans regard as " typical City " include City 's being the only reigning English champions ever to be relegated ( in 1938 ) , the only team to score and concede over 100 goals in the same season ( 1957 – 58 ) , or the more recent example that City were the only team to beat Chelsea in the 2004 – 05 Premier League , yet in the same season City were knocked out of the FA Cup by Oldham Athletic , a team two divisions lower .
Manchester City 's biggest rivalry is with neighbours Manchester United , against whom they contest the Manchester derby . Before the Second World War , when travel to away games was rare , many Mancunian football fans regularly watched both teams even if considering themselves " supporters " of only one . This practice continued into the early 1960s but as travel became easier , and the cost of entry to matches rose , watching both teams became unusual and the rivalry intensified . A common stereotype is that City fans come from Manchester proper , while United fans come from elsewhere . A 2002 report by a researcher at Manchester Metropolitan University found that while it was true that a higher proportion of City season ticket holders came from Manchester postcode areas ( 40 % compared to United 's 29 % ) , there were more United season ticket holders , the lower percentage being due to United 's higher overall number of season ticket holders ( 27 @,@ 667 compared to City 's 16 @,@ 481 ) ; not highlighted in the report was that within the City of Manchester itself , there were more City season ticket holders ( approximately 4 for every 3 United ) . The report noted that since the compiling of data in 2001 , the number of both City and United season ticket holders had risen ; expansion of United 's ground and City 's move to the City of Manchester Stadium have caused season ticket sales to increase further .
In the late 1980s , City fans started a craze of bringing inflatable objects to matches , primarily oversized bananas . One disputed explanation for the craze is that in a match against West Bromwich Albion chants from fans calling for the introduction of Imre Varadi as a substitute mutated into " Imre Banana " . Terraces packed with inflatable @-@ waving supporters became a frequent sight in the 1988 – 89 season as the craze spread to other clubs ( inflatable fish were seen at Grimsby Town ) , with the phenomenon reaching a peak at City 's match at Stoke City on 26 December 1988 , a match declared by fanzines as a fancy dress party . In August 2006 , the club became the first to be officially recognised as a " gay @-@ friendly " employer by campaign group Stonewall ( UK ) . In 2010 , City supporters adopted an exuberant dance , dubbed The Poznań , from fans of Polish club Lech Poznań .
= = Ownership and finances = =
The holding company of Manchester City F.C. , Manchester City Limited , is a private limited company , with approximately 54 million shares in issue . The club has been in private hands since 2007 , when the major shareholders agreed to sell their holdings to UK Sports Investments Limited ( UKSIL ) , a company controlled by former Thailand prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra . UKSIL then made a formal offer to buy the shares held by several thousand small shareholders .
Prior to the Thaksin takeover , the club was listed on the specialist independent equity market PLUS ( formerly OFEX ) , where it had been listed since 1995 . On 6 July 2007 , having acquired 75 % of the shares , Thaksin de @-@ listed the club and re @-@ registered it as a private company . By August UKSIL had acquired over 90 % of the shares , and exercised its rights under the Companies Act to " squeeze out " the remaining shareholders , and acquire the entire shareholding . Thaksin Shinawatra became chairman of the club and two of Thaksin 's children , Pintongta and Oak Chinnawat also became directors . Former chairman John Wardle stayed on the board for a year , but resigned in July 2008 following Nike executive Garry Cook 's appointment as executive chairman in May . The club made a pre @-@ tax loss of £ 11m in the year ending 31 May 2007 , the final year for which accounts were published as a public company .
Thaksin 's purchase prompted a period of transfer spending at the club , spending in around £ 30 million , whereas over the previous few seasons net spending had been among the lowest in the division . A year later , this investment was itself dwarfed by larger sums . On 1 September 2008 , Abu Dhabi @-@ based Abu Dhabi United Group Investment and Development Limited completed a takeover of Manchester City . The deal , worth a reported £ 200 million , was announced on the morning of 1 September . It sparked various transfer " deadline @-@ day " rumours and bids such as the club 's attempt to gazump Manchester United 's protracted bid to sign Dimitar Berbatov from Tottenham Hotspur for a fee in excess of £ 30 million . Minutes before the transfer window closed , the club signed Robinho from Real Madrid for a British record transfer fee of £ 32 @.@ 5 million . The wealth of the new owners meant that in the summer of 2009 , the club was able to finance the purchase of several experienced international players prior to the new season , spending more than any other club in the Premier League .
= = = City Football Group = = =
Created in the 2013 – 14 season to manage the global footballing interests of Abu Dhabi United Group , the City Football Group is an umbrella corporation owning stakes in a network of global clubs for the purposes of resource sharing , academy networking and marketing . Through the City Football Group , City owns stakes in a number of clubs :
Melbourne City FC ( 2014 – present )
On 23 January 2014 it was announced that Manchester City had partnered with the Australian rugby league franchise Melbourne Storm , purchasing a majority stake in A @-@ League team Melbourne City FC .
Yokohama F. Marinos ( 2014 – present )
On 20 May 2014 it was announced that Manchester City had partnered with the Japanese Automotive company Nissan to become a minority shareholder in Yokohama based J @-@ League side , Yokohama F. Marinos .
New York City FC ( 2015 – present )
On 21 May 2013 it was announced that Manchester City had partnered with the American baseball franchise the New York Yankees to introduce the 20th Major League Soccer expansion team , New York City FC as its majority shareholder . The club began play in the 2015 Major League Soccer season .
= = Stadium = =
Manchester City 's stadium is the City of Manchester Stadium , also known as Eastlands and the Etihad Stadium since July 2011 because of sponsorship commitments . The stadium is situated in East Manchester and is part of a 200 @-@ year operating lease from Manchester City Council after the 2002 Commonwealth Games . The stadium has been City 's home since the end of the 2002 – 03 season , when the club moved from Maine Road . Before moving to the stadium , Manchester City spent in excess of £ 30 million to convert it to football use . The field of play was lowered by several metres , adding another tier of seating around the entire pitch . A new North Stand was also built . The inaugural match at the new stadium was a 2 – 1 win over FC Barcelona in a friendly match . The current capacity as of summer 2013 stands at 47 @,@ 405 after various stadium renovations under the new owners since 2008 .
Manchester City have used several grounds during their history : after playing home matches at five stadiums between 1880 and 1887 , the club settled at Hyde Road Football Stadium , its home for 36 years . After a fire destroyed the Main Stand in 1920 , the club started to seek a new site and moved to the 84 @-@ 000 capacity Maine Road three years later . Maine Road , nicknamed the " Wembley of the North " by its designers , hosted the largest @-@ ever crowd at an English club ground when 84 @,@ 569 attended an FA Cup tie against Stoke City on 3 March 1934 . Though Maine Road was redeveloped several times over its 80 @-@ year lifespan , by 1995 its capacity was restricted to 32 @,@ 000 , prompting the search for a new ground which culminated in the move to the City of Manchester Stadium in 2003 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Domestic = = =
= = = = Leagues = = = =
First Division / Premier LeagueWinners ( 4 ) : 1936 – 37 , 1967 – 68 , 2011 – 12 , 2013 – 14
Second Division / First DivisionWinners ( 7 ) : 1898 – 99 , 1902 – 03 , 1909 – 10 , 1927 – 28 , 1946 – 47 , 1965 – 66 , 2001 – 02
Third Division Play @-@ offs
Winners ( 1 ) : 1998 – 99
= = = = Cups = = = =
FA Cup
Winners ( 5 ) : 1903 – 04 , 1933 – 34 , 1955 – 56 , 1968 – 69 , 2010 – 11
Football League Cup
Winners ( 4 ) : 1969 – 70 , 1975 – 76 , 2013 – 14 , 2015 – 16
FA Community Shield
Winners ( 4 ) : 1937 , 1968 , 1972 , 2012
= = = European = = =
UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1969 – 70
= = = Doubles = = =
1969 – 70 : League Cup and UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup
2013 – 14 : League and League Cup
= = Club records = =
Record League victory – 11 – 3 v. Lincoln City ( 23 March 1895 , most goals scored ) 10 – 0 v. Darwen ( 18 February 1899 , widest margin of victory )
Record FA Cup victory – 12 – 0 v. Liverpool Stanley ( 4 October 1890 )
Record League defeat – 0 – 8 v. Burton Wanderers ( 26 December 1894 ) , 0 – 8 v. Wolverhampton Wanderers ( 23 December 1933 ) , 1 – 9 v. Everton ( 3 September 1906 ) , 2 – 10 v. Small Heath ( 17 March 1893 )
Record FA Cup defeat – 0 – 6 v. Preston North End ( 30 January 1897 ) , 2 – 8 v. Bradford Park Avenue ( 30 January 1946 )
Highest home attendance – 84 @,@ 569 v. Stoke City ( 3 March 1934 ) ( remains the record home attendance in English football )
Most League appearances – 561 + 3 sub , Alan Oakes 1958 – 76
Most appearances overall – 676 + 4 sub , Alan Oakes 1958 – 76
Most goals scored overall – 177 , Eric Brook 1928 – 40
Most goals scored in a season – 38 , Tommy Johnson 1928 – 29
Record transfer fee paid – £ 55 million to VfL Wolfsburg for Kevin De Bruyne , Aug 2015 He made his debut for the team in the Premier League on 12 September against Crystal Palace , replacing injured Sergio Agüero in the 25th minute .
Record transfer fee received – £ 22 million from Valencia for Álvaro Negredo , July 2015
= Becket Hill State Park Reserve =
Becket Hill State Park Reserve is a public recreation area lying adjacent to Nehantic State Forest in the town of Lyme , Connecticut , United States . The state park is listed by the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection as an undeveloped , walk @-@ in park totaling 260 acres ( 110 ha ) with no officially listed activities . The park 's name is sometimes misspelled as Beckett Hill .
= = History = =
Becket Hill State Park Reserve is named for an early settler of the area named Becket and the land was part of the Nehantic tribe 's territory . This state park was acquired by the State of Connecticut in order to preserve the hill , but unlike the abutting Nehantic State Forest , Becket Hill has accessibility problems and is returning to its natural state . In 1961 , the land for the Becket Hill State Park Reserve was given to the State of Connecticut by the George Dudley Seymour Trust . Beckett Hill was first listed on the Connecticut Register and Manual for 1962 with its present 260 acres of undeveloped land . The Becket Hill State Park Reserve is the 76th designated Connecticut State Park .
= = Activities = =
The reserve is an undeveloped , walk @-@ in park with access through the Lyme section of Nehantic State Forest , which is entered from Connecticut Route 156 . Bushwhacking is required as no roads or trails cross from the forest to the state park reserve . The reserve 's boundary with the state forest is created by 69 @-@ acre ( 28 ha ) Uncas Lake and Falls Brook , a stream that connects Uncas Lake with 30 @-@ acre ( 12 ha ) Norwich Pond . Boat launches for non @-@ motorized craft are located on each . The waters are stocked with brook , brown and rainbow trout by the State of Connecticut and other fish include largemouth bass , yellow perch and sunfish .
= Rosetta Stone =
The Rosetta Stone is a rock stele , found in 1799 , inscribed with a decree issued at Memphis , Egypt , in 196 BC on behalf of King Ptolemy V. The decree appears in three scripts : the upper text is Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs , the middle portion is Demotic script , and the lowest is Ancient Greek . Because it presents essentially the same text in all three scripts ( with some minor differences among them ) , the stone provided the key to the modern understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphs .
The stone , carved in black granodiorite , is believed to have originally been displayed within a temple , possibly at nearby Sais . It was probably moved during the early Christian or medieval period , and was eventually used as building material in the construction of Fort Julien near the town of Rashid ( Rosetta ) in the Nile Delta . It was rediscovered there in July 1799 by a soldier named Pierre @-@ François Bouchard of the Napoleonic expedition to Egypt . It was the first Ancient Egyptian bilingual text recovered in modern times , and it aroused widespread public interest with its potential to decipher this previously untranslated hieroglyphic language . Lithographic copies and plaster casts began circulating among European museums and scholars . Meanwhile , British troops defeated the French in Egypt in 1801 , and the original stone came into British possession under the Capitulation of Alexandria and was transported to London . It has been on public display at the British Museum almost continuously since 1802 . It is the most @-@ visited object in the British Museum .
Study of the decree was already under way when the first full translation of the Greek text appeared in 1803 . It was 20 years , however , before the transliteration of the Egyptian scripts was announced by Jean @-@ François Champollion in Paris in 1822 ; it took longer still before scholars were able to read Ancient Egyptian inscriptions and literature confidently . Major advances in the decoding were recognition that the stone offered three versions of the same text ( 1799 ) ; that the demotic text used phonetic characters to spell foreign names ( 1802 ) ; that the hieroglyphic text did so as well , and had pervasive similarities to the demotic ( Thomas Young , 1814 ) ; and that , in addition to being used for foreign names , phonetic characters were also used to spell native Egyptian words ( Champollion , 1822 – 1824 ) .
Ever since its rediscovery , the stone has been the focus of nationalist rivalries , including its transfer from French to British possession during the Napoleonic Wars , a long @-@ running dispute over the relative value of Young and Champollion 's contributions to the decipherment , and , since 2003 , demands for the stone 's return to Egypt .
Two other fragmentary copies of the same decree were discovered later , and several similar Egyptian bilingual or trilingual inscriptions are now known , including two slightly earlier Ptolemaic decrees ( the Decree of Canopus in 238 BC , and the Memphis decree of Ptolemy IV , ca . 218 BC ) . The Rosetta Stone is , therefore , no longer unique , but it was the essential key to modern understanding of Ancient Egyptian literature and civilization . The term Rosetta Stone is now used in other contexts as the name for the essential clue to a new field of knowledge .
= = Description = =
The Rosetta Stone is listed as " a stone of black granite , bearing three inscriptions ... found at Rosetta " in a contemporary catalogue of the artifacts discovered by the French expedition and surrendered to British troops in 1801 . At some period after its arrival in London , the inscriptions on the stone were coloured in white chalk to make them more legible , and the remaining surface was covered with a layer of carnauba wax designed to protect the Rosetta Stone from visitors ' fingers . This gave a dark colour to the stone that led to its mistaken identification as black basalt . These additions were removed when the stone was cleaned in 1999 , revealing the original dark grey tint of the rock , the sparkle of its crystalline structure , and a pink vein running across the top left corner . Comparisons with the Klemm collection of Egyptian rock samples showed a close resemblance to rock from a small granodiorite quarry at Gebel Tingar on the west bank of the Nile , west of Elephantine in the region of Aswan ; the pink vein is typical of granodiorite from this region .
The Rosetta Stone is currently 112 @.@ 3 centimetres ( 3 ft 8 in ) high at its highest point , 75 @.@ 7 cm ( 2 ft 5 @.@ 8 in ) wide , and 28 @.@ 4 cm ( 11 in ) thick . It weighs approximately 760 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 680 lb ) . It bears three inscriptions : the top register in Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs , the second in the Egyptian demotic script , and the third in Ancient Greek . The front surface is polished and the inscriptions lightly incised on it ; the sides of the stone are smoothed , but the back is only roughly worked , presumably because this would have not been visible when it was erected .
= = = Original stele = = =
The Rosetta Stone is a fragment of a larger stele . No additional fragments were found in later searches of the Rosetta site . Owing to its damaged state , none of the three texts is absolutely complete . The top register , composed of Egyptian hieroglyphs , suffered the most damage . Only the last 14 lines of the hieroglyphic text can be seen ; all of them are broken on the right side , and 12 of them on the left . The following register of demotic text has survived best ; it has 32 lines , of which the first 14 are slightly damaged on the right side . The final register of Greek text contains 54 lines , of which the first 27 survive in full ; the rest are increasingly fragmentary due to a diagonal break at the bottom right of the stone .
= = Memphis decree and its context = =
The stele was erected after the coronation of King Ptolemy V and was inscribed with a decree that established the divine cult of the new ruler . The decree was issued by a congress of priests who gathered at Memphis . The date is given as " 4 Xandicus " in the Macedonian calendar and " 18 Meshir " in the Egyptian calendar , which corresponds to March 27 , 196 BC . The year is stated as the ninth year of Ptolemy V 's reign ( equated with 197 / 196 BC ) , and it is confirmed by naming four priests who officiated in that same year : Aëtus son of Aëtus was priest of the divine cults of Alexander the Great and the five Ptolemies down to Ptolemy V himself ; his three colleagues , named in turn in the inscription , led the worship of Berenice Euergetis ( wife of Ptolemy III ) , Arsinoe Philadelphos ( wife and sister of Ptolemy II ) , and Arsinoe Philopator , mother of Ptolemy V. However , a second date is also given in the Greek and hieroglyphic texts , corresponding to 27 November 197 BC , the official anniversary of Ptolemy 's coronation . The inscription in demotic conflicts with this , listing consecutive days in March for the decree and the anniversary . It is uncertain why such discrepancies exist , but it is clear that the decree was issued in 196 BC and that it was designed to re @-@ establish the rule of the Ptolemaic kings over Egypt .
The decree was issued during a turbulent period in Egyptian history . Ptolemy V Epiphanes reigned from 204 to 181 BC , the son of Ptolemy IV Philopator and his wife and sister Arsinoe . He had become ruler at the age of five after the sudden death of both of his parents , who were murdered in a conspiracy that involved Ptolemy IV 's mistress Agathoclea , according to contemporary sources . The conspirators effectively ruled Egypt as Ptolemy V 's guardians until a revolt broke out two years later under general Tlepolemus , when Agathoclea and her family were lynched by a mob in Alexandria . Tlepolemus , in turn , was replaced as guardian in 201 BC by Aristomenes of Alyzia , who was chief minister at the time of the Memphis decree .
Political forces beyond the borders of Egypt exacerbated the internal problems of the Ptolemaic kingdom . Antiochus III the Great and Philip V of Macedon had made a pact to divide Egypt 's overseas possessions . Philip had seized several islands and cities in Caria and Thrace , while the Battle of Panium ( 198 BC ) had resulted in the transfer of Coele @-@ Syria , including Judea , from the Ptolemies to the Seleucids . Meanwhile , in the south of Egypt , there was a long @-@ standing revolt that had begun during the reign of Ptolemy IV , led by Horwennefer and by his successor Ankhwennefer . Both the war and the internal revolt were still ongoing when the young Ptolemy V was officially crowned at Memphis at the age of 12 ( seven years after the start of his reign ) , and the Memphis decree issued .
The stele is a late example of a class of donation stelae , which depicts the reigning monarch granting a tax exemption to the resident priesthood . Pharaohs had erected these stelae over the previous 2 @,@ 000 years , the earliest examples dating from the Egyptian Old Kingdom . In earlier periods , all such decrees were issued by the king himself , but the Memphis decree was issued by the priests , as the maintainers of traditional Egyptian culture . The decree records that Ptolemy V gave a gift of silver and grain to the temples . It also records that there was particularly high Flooding of the Nile in the eighth year of his reign , and he had the excess waters dammed for the benefit of the farmers . In return for these concessions , the priesthood pledged that the king 's birthday and coronation days would be celebrated annually , and that all the priests of Egypt would serve him alongside the other gods . The decree concludes with the instruction that a copy was to be placed in every temple , inscribed in the " language of the gods " ( hieroglyphs ) , the " language of documents " ( demotic ) , and the " language of the Greeks " as used by the Ptolemaic government .
Securing the favour of the priesthood was essential for the Ptolemaic kings to retain effective rule over the populace . The High Priests of Memphis — where the king was crowned — were particularly important , as they were the highest religious authority of the time and had influence throughout the kingdom . Given that the decree was issued at Memphis , the ancient capital of Egypt , rather than Alexandria , the centre of government of the ruling Ptolemies , it is evident that the young king was anxious to gain their active support . Hence , although the government of Egypt had been Greek @-@ speaking ever since the conquests of Alexander the Great , the Memphis decree , like the two preceding decrees in the series , included texts in Egyptian to display its relevance to the general populace by way of the literate Egyptian priesthood .
There exists no one definitive English translation of the decree because of the minor differences between the three original texts , and because modern understanding of the ancient languages continues to develop . An up @-@ to @-@ date translation by R. S. Simpson appears on the British Museum website , based on the demotic text . It can be compared with Edwyn R. Bevan 's full translation in The House of Ptolemy ( 1927 ) , based on the Greek text with footnote comments on variations between this and the two Egyptian texts .
The stele almost certainly did not originate in the town of Rashid ( Rosetta ) where it was found , but more likely came from a temple site farther inland , possibly the royal town of Sais . The temple from which it originally came was probably closed around AD 392 when Eastern Roman emperor Theodosius I ordered the closing of all non @-@ Christian temples of worship . The original stele broke at some point , its largest piece becoming what we now know as the Rosetta Stone . Ancient Egyptian temples were later used as quarries for new construction , and the Rosetta Stone probably was re @-@ used in this manner . Later it was incorporated in the foundations of a fortress constructed by the Mameluke Sultan Qaitbay ( ca . 1416 / 18 – 1496 ) to defend the Bolbitine branch of the Nile at Rashid . There it lay for at least another three centuries until its rediscovery .
Two other inscriptions of the Memphis decrees have been found since the discovery of the Rosetta Stone : the Nubayrah Stele , and an inscription found at the Temple of Philae ( on the Philae obelisk ) . Unlike the Rosetta Stone , their hieroglyphic inscriptions were relatively intact . The inscriptions on the Rosetta Stone had been deciphered long before the discovery of the other copies of the decree , but subsequent Egyptologists , including Wallis Budge , used these other inscriptions to further refine the actual hieroglyphs that must have been used in the lost portions of the hieroglyphic register on the Rosetta Stone .
= = Rediscovery = =
On Napoleon 's 1798 campaign in Egypt , the expeditionary army was accompanied by the Commission des Sciences et des Arts , a corps of 167 technical experts ( savants ) . On July 15 , 1799 , French soldiers under the command of Colonel d 'Hautpoul were strengthening the defences of Fort Julien , a couple of miles north @-@ east of the Egyptian port city of Rosetta ( Modern day Rashid ) . Lieutenant Pierre @-@ François Bouchard spotted a slab with inscriptions on one side that the soldiers had uncovered . He and d 'Hautpoul saw at once that it might be important and informed general Jacques @-@ François Menou , who happened to be at Rosetta . The find was announced to Napoleon 's newly founded scientific association in Cairo , the Institut d 'Égypte , in a report by Commission member Michel Ange Lancret noting that it contained three inscriptions , the first in hieroglyphs and the third in Greek , and rightly suggesting that the three inscriptions would be versions of the same text . Lancret 's report , dated July 19 , 1799 , was read to a meeting of the Institute soon after July 25 . Bouchard , meanwhile , transported the stone to Cairo for examination by scholars . Napoleon himself inspected what had already begun to be called la Pierre de Rosette , the Rosetta Stone , shortly before his return to France in August 1799 .
The discovery was reported in September in Courrier de l 'Égypte , the official newspaper of the French expedition . The anonymous reporter expressed a hope that the stone might one day be the key to deciphering hieroglyphs . In 1800 , three of the Commission 's technical experts devised ways to make copies of the texts on the stone . One of these experts was Jean @-@ Joseph Marcel , a printer and gifted linguist , who is credited as the first to recognise that the middle text was written in the Egyptian demotic script , rarely used for stone inscriptions and seldom seen by scholars at that time , rather than Syriac as had originally been thought . It was artist and inventor Nicolas @-@ Jacques Conté who found a way to use the stone itself as a printing block . A slightly different method for reproducing the inscriptions was adopted by Antoine Galland . The prints that resulted were taken to Paris by General Charles Dugua . Scholars in Europe were now able to see the inscriptions and attempt to read them .
After Napoleon 's departure , French troops held off British and Ottoman attacks for another 18 months . In March 1801 , the British landed at Aboukir Bay . General Jacques @-@ François Menou had been one of the first to see the stone in 1799 , and he was now in command of the French expedition . His troops , including the Commission , marched north towards the Mediterranean coast to meet the enemy , transporting the stone along with other antiquities of all kinds . Menou was defeated in battle , and the remnant of his army retreated to Alexandria where they were surrounded and besieged , the stone now inside the city . He admitted defeat and surrendered on August 30 .
= = From French to British possession = =
After the surrender , a dispute arose over the fate of French archaeological and scientific discoveries in Egypt , including a group of artifacts , biological specimens , notes , plans , and drawings collected by the members of the commission . Menou refused to hand them over , claiming that they belonged to the Institute . British General John Hely @-@ Hutchinson refused to relieve the city until Menou gave in . Scholars Edward Daniel Clarke and William Richard Hamilton , newly arrived from England , agreed to examine the collections in Alexandria and claimed to have found many artifacts that the French had not revealed . In a letter home , Clarke said that " we found much more in their possession than was represented or imagined " .
Hutchinson claimed that all materials were property of the British Crown , but French scholar Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire said to Clarke and Hamilton that they would rather burn all their discoveries than turn them over , referring ominously to the destruction of the Library of Alexandria . Clarke and Hamilton pleaded the French scholars ' case and Hutchinson finally agreed that items such as natural history specimens would be the scholars ' private property . Menou quickly claimed the stone , too , as his private property ; had this been accepted , he would have been able to take it to France . General Hutchinson was equally aware of the stone 's unique value , and he rejected Menou 's claim . Eventually an agreement was reached , and the transfer of the objects was incorporated into the Capitulation of Alexandria signed by representatives of the British , French , and Ottoman forces .
It is not clear exactly how the stone was transferred into British hands , as contemporary accounts differ . Colonel Tomkyns Hilgrove Turner was to escort it to England , but he claimed later that he had personally seized it from Menou and carried it away on a gun @-@ carriage . In a much more detailed account , Edward Daniel Clarke stated that a French " officer and member of the Institute " had taken him , his student John Cripps , and Hamilton secretly into the back streets behind Menou 's residence and revealed the stone hidden under protective carpets among Menou 's baggage . According to Clarke , their informant feared that the stone might be stolen if French soldiers saw it . Hutchinson was informed at once and the stone was taken away — possibly by Turner and his gun @-@ carriage .
Turner brought the stone to England aboard the captured French frigate HMS Egyptienne , landing in Portsmouth in February 1802 . His orders were to present it and the other antiquities to King George III . The King , represented by War Secretary Lord Hobart , directed that it should be placed in the British Museum . According to Turner 's narrative , he and Hobart agreed that the stone should be presented to scholars at the Society of Antiquaries of London , of which Turner was a member , before its final deposit in the museum . It was first seen and discussed there at a meeting on March 11 , 1802 .
During the course of 1802 , the Society created four plaster casts of the inscriptions , which were given to the universities of Oxford , Cambridge , and Edinburgh and to Trinity College Dublin . Soon afterwards , prints of the inscriptions were made and circulated to European scholars . Before the end of 1802 , the stone was transferred to the British Museum , where it is located today . New inscriptions painted in white on the left and right edges of the slab stated that it was " Captured in Egypt by the British Army in 1801 " and " Presented by King George III " .
The stone has been exhibited almost continuously in the British Museum since June 1802 . During the middle of the 19th century , it was given the inventory number " EA 24 " , " EA " standing for " Egyptian Antiquities " . It was part of a collection of ancient Egyptian monuments captured from the French expedition , including a sarcophagus of Nectanebo II ( EA 10 ) , the statue of a high priest of Amun ( EA 81 ) , and a large granite fist ( EA 9 ) . The objects were soon discovered to be too heavy for the floors of Montagu House ( the original building of The British Museum ) , and they were transferred to a new extension that was built onto the mansion . The Rosetta Stone was transferred to the sculpture gallery in 1834 shortly after Montagu House was demolished and replaced by the building that now houses the British Museum . According to the museum 's records , the Rosetta Stone is its most @-@ visited single object , and a simple image of it has been the museum 's best selling postcard for several decades .
The Rosetta Stone was originally displayed at a slight angle from the horizontal , and rested within a metal cradle that was made for it , which involved shaving off very small portions of its sides to ensure that the cradle fit securely . It originally had no protective covering , and it was found necessary by 1847 to place it in a protective frame , despite the efforts of attendants to ensure that it was not touched by visitors . Since 2004 , the conserved stone has been on display in a specially built case in the centre of the Egyptian Sculpture Gallery . A replica of the Rosetta Stone is now available in the King 's Library of the British Museum , without a case and free to touch , as it would have appeared to early 19th @-@ century visitors .
The museum was concerned about heavy bombing in London toward the end of the First World War in 1917 , and the Rosetta Stone was moved to safety , along with other portable objects of value . The stone spent the next two years 15 m ( 50 ft ) below ground level in a station of the Postal Tube Railway at Mount Pleasant near Holborn . Other than during wartime , the Rosetta Stone has left the British Museum only once : for one month in October 1972 , to be displayed alongside Champollion 's Lettre at the Louvre in Paris on the 150th anniversary of its publication . Even when the Rosetta Stone was undergoing conservation measures in 1999 , the work was done in the gallery so that it could remain visible to the public .
= = Reading the Rosetta Stone = =
There had been no understanding of the Ancient Egyptian language and script , before the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and its eventual decipherment , since shortly before the fall of the Roman Empire . The usage of the hieroglyphic script had become increasingly specialised even in the later Pharaonic period ; by the 4th century AD , few Egyptians were capable of reading hieroglyphs . Monumental use of hieroglyphs ceased after the closing of all non @-@ Christian temples in 391 by Roman Emperor Theodosius I ; the last known inscription is dated to 24 August 396 AD , found at Philae and known as the Graffito of Esmet @-@ Akhom .
Hieroglyphs retained their pictorial appearance , and classical authors emphasised this aspect , in sharp contrast to the Greek and Roman alphabets . For example , in the 5th century the priest Horapollo wrote Hieroglyphica , an explanation of almost 200 glyphs . His work was believed to be authoritative , yet it was misleading in many ways , and this and other works were a lasting impediment to the understanding of Egyptian writing . Later attempts at deciphering hieroglyphs were made by Arab historians in medieval Egypt during the 9th and 10th centuries . Dhul @-@ Nun al @-@ Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya were the first historians to study this ancient script , by relating them to the contemporary Coptic language used by Coptic priests in their time . The study of hieroglyphs continued with fruitless attempts at decipherment by European scholars , notably Johannes Goropius Becanus in the 16th century , Athanasius Kircher in the 17th , and Georg Zoëga in the 18th . The discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799 provided critical missing information , gradually revealed by a succession of scholars , that eventually allowed Jean @-@ François Champollion to determine the nature of this mysterious script .
= = = Greek text = = =
The Greek text on the Rosetta Stone provided the starting point . Ancient Greek was widely known to scholars , but they were not familiar with details of its use in the Hellenistic period as a government language in Ptolemaic Egypt ; large @-@ scale discoveries of Greek papyri were a long way in the future . Thus , the earliest translations of the Greek text of the stone show the translators still struggling with the historical context and with administrative and religious jargon . Stephen Weston verbally presented an English translation of the Greek text at a Society of Antiquaries meeting in April 1802 .
Meanwhile , two of the lithographic copies made in Egypt had reached the Institut de France in Paris in 1801 . There , librarian and antiquarian Gabriel de La Porte du Theil set to work on a translation of the Greek , but he was dispatched elsewhere on Napoleon 's orders almost immediately , and he left his unfinished work in the hands of colleague Hubert @-@ Pascal Ameilhon . Ameilhon produced the first published translations of the Greek text in 1803 , in both Latin and French to ensure that they would circulate widely . At Cambridge , Richard Porson worked on the missing lower right corner of the Greek text . He produced a skillful suggested reconstruction , which was soon being circulated by the Society of Antiquaries alongside its prints of the inscription . At almost the same moment , Classical historian Christian Gottlob Heyne in Göttingen was working from one of these prints , and he made a new Latin translation of the Greek text that was more reliable than Ameilhon 's , first published in 1803 . It was reprinted by the Society of Antiquaries in a special issue of its journal Archaeologia in 1811 , alongside Weston 's previously unpublished English translation , Colonel Turner 's narrative , and other documents .
= = = Demotic text = = =
At the time of the stone 's discovery , Swedish diplomat and scholar Johan David Åkerblad was working on a little @-@ known script of which some examples had recently been found in Egypt , which came to be known as Demotic . He called it " cursive Coptic " because he was convinced that it was used to record some form of the Coptic language ( the direct descendant of Ancient Egyptian ) , although it had few similarities with the later Coptic script . French Orientalist Antoine @-@ Isaac Silvestre de Sacy had been discussing this work with Åkerblad when he received one of the early lithographic prints of the Rosetta Stone in 1801 from Jean @-@ Antoine Chaptal , French minister of the interior . He realised that the middle text was in this same script . He and Åkerblad set to work , both focusing on the middle text and assuming that the script was alphabetical . They attempted to identify the points where Greek names ought to occur within this unknown text , by comparing it with the Greek . In 1802 , Silvestre de Sacy reported to Chaptal that he had successfully identified five names ( " Alexandros " , " Alexandreia " , " Ptolemaios " , " Arsinoe " , and Ptolemy 's title " Epiphanes " ) , while Åkerblad published an alphabet of 29 letters ( more than half of which were correct ) that he had identified from the Greek names in the demotic text . They could not , however , identify the remaining characters in the Demotic text , which , as is now known , included ideographic and other symbols alongside the phonetic ones .
= = = Hieroglyphic text = = =
Silvestre de Sacy eventually gave up work on the stone , but he was to make another contribution . In 1811 , prompted by discussions with a Chinese student about Chinese script , Silvestre de Sacy considered a suggestion made by Georg Zoëga in 1797 that the foreign names in Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions might be written phonetically ; he also recalled that as long ago as 1761 , Jean @-@ Jacques Barthélemy had suggested that the characters enclosed in cartouches in hieroglyphic inscriptions were proper names . Thus , when Thomas Young , foreign secretary of the Royal Society of London , wrote to him about the stone in 1814 , Silvestre de Sacy suggested in reply that in attempting to read the hieroglyphic text , Young might look for cartouches that ought to contain Greek names and try to identify phonetic characters in them .
Young did so , with two results that together paved the way for the final decipherment . In the hieroglyphic text , he discovered the phonetic characters " p t o l m e s " ( in today 's transliteration " p t w l m y s " ) that were used to write the Greek name " Ptolemaios " . He also noticed that these characters resembled the equivalent ones in the Demotic script , and went on to note as many as 80 similarities between the hieroglyphic and demotic texts on the stone , an important discovery because the two scripts were previously thought to be entirely different from one another . This led him to deduce correctly that the demotic script was only partly phonetic , also consisting of ideographic characters imitated from hieroglyphs . Young 's new insights were prominent in the long article " Egypt " that he contributed to the Encyclopædia Britannica in 1819 . He could get no further , however .
In 1814 Young first exchanged correspondence about the stone with Jean @-@ François Champollion , a teacher at Grenoble who had produced a scholarly work on ancient Egypt . Champollion saw copies of the brief hieroglyphic and Greek inscriptions of the Philae obelisk in 1822 , on which William John Bankes had tentatively noted the names " Ptolemaios " and " Kleopatra " in both languages . From this , Champollion identified the phonetic characters k l e o p a t r a ( in today 's transliteration q l i ҆ w p ꜣ d r ꜣ.t ) . On the basis of this and the foreign names on the Rosetta Stone , he quickly constructed an alphabet of phonetic hieroglyphic characters , which appears in his " Lettre à M. Dacier " , printed from his hand @-@ drawn chart , addressed at the end of 1822 to Bon @-@ Joseph Dacier , secretary of the Paris Académie des Inscriptions et Belles @-@ Lettres and immediately published by the Académie . This " Letter " marks the real breakthrough to reading Egyptian hieroglyphs — for the alphabet chart , the main text , and also the postscript in which Champollion notes that similar phonetic characters seemed to occur in Greek names and also native Egyptian names . During 1823 he confirmed this , identifying the names of pharaohs Ramesses and Thutmose written in cartouches in far older hieroglyphic inscriptions that had been copied by Bankes at Abu Simbel and sent on to Champollion by Jean @-@ Nicolas Huyot . From this point , the stories diverge of the Rosetta Stone and the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs , as Champollion drew on many other texts to develop an Ancient Egyptian grammar and a hieroglyphic dictionary , both of which were published after his death in 1832 .
= = = Later work = = =
Work on the stone now focused on fuller understanding of the texts and their contexts by comparing the three versions with one another . In 1824 Classical scholar Antoine @-@ Jean Letronne promised to prepare a new literal translation of the Greek text for Champollion 's use . Champollion in return promised an analysis of all the points at which the three texts seemed to differ . Following Champollion 's sudden death in 1832 , his draft of this analysis could not be found , and Letronne 's work stalled . François Salvolini , Champollion 's former student and assistant , died in 1838 , and this analysis and other missing drafts were found among his papers . This discovery incidentally demonstrated that Salvolini 's own publication on the stone , published in 1837 , was plagiarism . Letronne was at last able to complete his commentary on the Greek text and his new French translation of it , which appeared in 1841 . During the early 1850s , German Egyptologists Heinrich Brugsch and Max Uhlemann produced revised Latin translations based on the demotic and hieroglyphic texts . The first English translation followed in 1858 , the work of three members of the Philomathean Society at the University of Pennsylvania .
Whether one of the three texts was the standard version , from which the other two were originally translated , is a question that has remained controversial . Letronne attempted to show in 1841 that the Greek version was the original , produced by the Egyptian government under its Ptolemaic dynasty . Among recent authors , John Ray has stated that " the hieroglyphs were the most important of the scripts on the stone : they were there for the gods to read , and the more learned of their priesthood " . Philippe Derchain and Heinz Josef Thissen have argued that all three versions were composed simultaneously , while Stephen Quirke sees in the decree " an intricate coalescence of three vital textual traditions " . Richard Parkinson points out that the hieroglyphic version strays from archaic formalism and occasionally lapses into language closer to that of the demotic register that the priests more commonly used in everyday life . The fact that the three versions cannot be matched word for word helps to explain why its decipherment has been more difficult than originally expected , especially for those original scholars who were expecting an exact bilingual key to Egyptian hieroglyphs .
= = = Rivalries = = =
Even before the Salvolini affair , disputes over precedence and plagiarism punctuated the decipherment story . Thomas Young 's work is acknowledged in Champollion 's 1822 Lettre à M. Dacier , but incompletely , according to British critics : for example , James Browne , a sub @-@ editor on the Encyclopædia Britannica ( which had published Young 's 1819 article ) , anonymously contributed a series of review articles to the Edinburgh Review in 1823 , praising Young 's work highly and alleging that the " unscrupulous " Champollion plagiarised it . These articles were translated into French by Julius Klaproth and published in book form in 1827 . Young 's own 1823 publication reasserted the contribution that he had made . The early deaths of Young ( 1829 ) and Champollion ( 1832 ) did not put an end to these disputes . The authoritative work on the stone by British Museum curator E. A. Wallis Budge ( 1904 ) gives special emphasis to Young 's contribution by contrast with Champollion 's . In the early 1970s , French visitors complained that the portrait of Champollion was smaller than one of Young on an adjacent information panel ; English visitors complained that the opposite was true . Both portraits were in fact the same size .
= = Requests for repatriation to Egypt = =
Egypt first requested the return of the Rosetta Stone in July 2003 , on the occasion of the British Museum 's 250th anniversary . Zahi Hawass , the chief of Egypt 's Supreme Council of Antiquities , asked that the stele be repatriated to Egypt , urging in comments to reporters : " If the British want to be remembered , if they want to restore their reputation , they should volunteer to return the Rosetta Stone because it is the icon of our Egyptian identity " . He repeated the proposal two years later in Paris , listing the stone as one of several key items belonging to Egypt 's cultural heritage , a list which also included : the iconic bust of Nefertiti in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin ; a statue of the Great Pyramid architect Hemiunu in the Roemer @-@ und @-@ Pelizaeus @-@ Museum in Hildesheim , Germany ; the Dendara Temple Zodiac in the Louvre in Paris ; and the bust of Ankhhaf from the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston .
During 2005 the British Museum presented to Egypt a full @-@ sized replica of the stele . This was initially displayed in the renovated Rashid National Museum , close to the site where the stone was found . By November 2005 Hawass was suggesting a three @-@ month loan of the Rosetta Stone , while reiterating the eventual goal of a permanent return . In December 2009 he proposed to drop his claim for the permanent return of the Rosetta Stone if the British Museum lent the stone to Egypt for three months , for the opening of the Grand Egyptian Museum at Giza in 2013 .
As John Ray has observed , " the day may come when the stone has spent longer in the British Museum than it ever did in Rosetta . " There is strong opposition among national museums to the repatriation of objects of international cultural significance such as the Rosetta Stone . In response to repeated Greek requests for return of the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon and similar requests to other museums around the world , in 2002 , over 30 of the world 's leading museums — including the British Museum , the Louvre , the Pergamon Museum in Berlin and the Metropolitan Museum in New York City — issued a joint statement declaring that " objects acquired in earlier times must be viewed in the light of different sensitivities and values reflective of that earlier era " and that " museums serve not just the citizens of one nation but the people of every nation " .
= = Idiomatic use = =
The term Rosetta stone has been used idiomatically to represent a crucial key in the process of decryption of encoded information , especially when a small but representative sample is recognized as the clue to understanding a larger whole . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the first figurative use of the term appeared in the 1902 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica relating to an entry on the chemical analysis of glucose . An almost literal use of the phrase appears in popular fiction within H. G. Wells ' 1933 novel The Shape of Things to Come , where the protagonist finds a manuscript written in shorthand that provides a key to understanding additional scattered material that is sketched out in both longhand and on typewriter . Perhaps its most important and prominent usage in scientific literature was Nobel laureate Theodor W. Hänsch 's reference in a 1979 Scientific American article on spectroscopy where he says that " the spectrum of the hydrogen atoms has proved to be the Rosetta stone of modern physics : once this pattern of lines had been deciphered much else could also be understood " .
Since then , the term has been widely used in other contexts . For example , fully understanding the key set of genes to the human leucocyte antigen has been described as " the Rosetta Stone of immunology " . The flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana has been called the " Rosetta Stone of flowering time " . A Gamma ray burst ( GRB ) found in conjunction with a supernova has been called a Rosetta Stone for understanding the origin of GRBs . The technique of Doppler echocardiography has been called a Rosetta Stone for clinicians trying to understand the complex process by which the left ventricle of the human heart can be filled during various forms of diastolic dysfunction .
The name has also become used in various forms of translation software . Rosetta Stone is a brand of language @-@ learning software published by Rosetta Stone Ltd . , headquartered in Arlington County , Virginia , US . " Rosetta " is the name of a " lightweight dynamic translator " that enables applications compiled for PowerPC processors to run on Apple systems using an x86 processor . " Rosetta " is an online language translation tool to help localisation of software , developed and maintained by Canonical as part of the Launchpad project . Similarly , Rosetta @ home is a distributed computing project for predicting protein structures from amino acid sequences ( or translating sequence into structure ) . The Rosetta Project brings language specialists and native speakers together to develop a meaningful survey and near @-@ permanent archive of 1 @,@ 500 languages , intended to last from AD 2000 to 12 @,@ 000 . The Rosetta spacecraft is on a ten @-@ year ( 2004 – 2014 ) mission to study the comet 67P / Churyumov – Gerasimenko , in the hope that determining its composition will reveal the origin of the Solar System .
= = = Timeline of early publications about the Rosetta Stone = = =
= Circles ( George Harrison song ) =
" Circles " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released as the final track of his 1982 album Gone Troppo . Harrison wrote the song in India in 1968 while he and the Beatles were studying Transcendental Meditation with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi . The theme of the lyrics is reincarnation . The composition reflects the cyclical aspect of human existence as , according to Hindu doctrine , the soul continues to pass from one life to the next . Although the Beatles never formally recorded it , " Circles " was among the demos the group made at Harrison 's home , Kinfauns , in May 1968 , while considering material for their double album The Beatles .
Harrison revisited " Circles " during the sessions for his 1979 album George Harrison before he finally recorded it for Gone Troppo . Over this period , Harrison had softened the spiritual message in his work and had also begun to forgo the music business for a career as a film producer with his company HandMade Films . The song was produced by Harrison , Ray Cooper and former Beatles engineer Phil McDonald , with recording taking place at Harrison 's Friar Park studio between May and August 1982 . The track features extensive use of keyboards and synthesizer , with Billy Preston , Jon Lord and Mike Moran among the contributing musicians .
A slow , meditative song , " Circles " has received a mixed response from reviewers , some of whom find it overly gloomy . In the United States , it was issued as the B @-@ side of the album 's second single , " I Really Love You " , in February 1983 . As the closing track on Gone Troppo , " Circles " was the last song heard on a new Harrison album until 1987 , when he returned with Cloud Nine .
= = Background and composition = =
" Circles " was one of several songs that George Harrison wrote in Rishikesh , India , when he and his Beatles bandmates were attending Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 's Transcendental Meditation course in the spring of 1968 . Aside from providing an opportunity to progress with meditation techniques , the two @-@ month stay marked Harrison 's return to the guitar after two years of studying the Indian sitar , partly under the tutelage of Ravi Shankar . Harrison biographer Simon Leng considers that " Circles " was composed on an organ , however , as most of Harrison 's Indian @-@ inspired melodies since 1966 had been . Leng writes of " fugue @-@ like keyboard parts " on the song and " bass figures " that partly recall the works of Johann Sebastian Bach . Author Ian Inglis considers that " Circles " " displays a direct connection with the unspoken psychedelia " of Harrison 's Beatles tracks " Blue Jay Way " and " Long , Long , Long " .
The song 's lyrical theme is reincarnation , in keeping with its composer 's absorption in Hindu philosophy – a preoccupation that had led the Beatles to the Maharishi 's teachings and would result in Harrison 's introduction to the Hare Krishna movement in December 1968 . Harrison had first taken reincarnation as his theme for " Art of Dying " , which he began writing in 1966 , and it would continue to be the focus of many of his compositions as a solo artist , notably the 1973 hit " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " . Theologian Dale Allison highlights " Circles " as the only Harrison song to use the term " reincarnate " , however , and he also notes the composer 's use of the word " soul " " in its proper metaphysical sense " .
Allison describes the lyrics as " a clear statement of reincarnation " , as well as " the most blatant example " of Harrison 's desire to pass on to a " ' higher ' and better world " at death , and so escape the cycle of rebirth in the material world . In the song 's choruses , the lines " He who knows does not speak / He who speaks does not know " quote the Chinese sage and author Lao @-@ Tse , whose work Tao Te Ching inspired Harrison 's 1968 composition " The Inner Light " . Elsewhere in the lyrics to " Circles " , Harrison contemplates the changing nature of friendship as , over the course of lifetimes , according to Inglis , " our enemies become our companions , affections turn into hatred " .
Lindsay Planer of AllMusic writes that Harrison carried out " significant lyrical embellishments " after debuting the song in 1968 . On the released recording , he concludes with a statement on how to break the circle of repetition : " When loss and gain and up and down / Become the same , then we stop going in circles . " Allison interprets this conclusion , and Harrison 's worldview generally , as espousing the need to recognise the illusory nature of the material world , saying : " All the multiplicity and diversity are in truth manifestations of the one hidden and divine reality … opposites are not opposites . To understand that up is down and that gain is loss is to be … on one 's way to escaping from the material world . "
Musically , Leng views the " chromatic melodic web " of " Circles " as appropriate for conveying the " repetition and entrapment " of reincarnation , as the soul passes through one human life to another . The song is in the key of F major , although , in Leng 's estimation , the melody " yearn [ s ] for resolution in E minor … revolving in dissonance like a lost soul awaiting its place in the reincarnation checkout line " .
= = The Beatles ' demo = =
" Circles " was one of five Harrison compositions that the Beatles demoed before recording their 1968 double album , The Beatles , also known as the White Album . The song was taped in late May 1968 at Kinfauns , Harrison 's home in Esher , using his Ampex four @-@ track recorder . Although never released officially , the demo began circulating on bootleg compilations in the early 1990s .
Harrison played organ on the track , taping two parts on the instrument . The use of keyboards contrasted with the mainly acoustic @-@ guitar backing otherwise employed on the Beatles ' Esher demos ; author and critic Richie Unterberger describes the keyboard sound as " an eerie organ that seems to have been dragged out of a dusty , disused church closet " . In his book Revolution in the Head , Ian MacDonald credits the instrument as a harmonium and writes that , rather than performing the song alone , Harrison was " shadowed by a tentative … bass @-@ line " from Paul McCartney .
As with another Harrison composition inspired by the Beatles ' time in Rishikesh – " Sour Milk Sea " – the group did not attempt to record " Circles " for the White Album . With the band 's songwriting output at an unprecedentedly high level , Harrison 's " Not Guilty " was similarly left off the album , even though the group had completed a recording of that track .
= = Recording = =
In 1978 , Harrison returned to both " Circles " and " Not Guilty " during the sessions for his sixth post @-@ Beatles solo album , George Harrison . Although " Not Guilty " appeared on that release the following year , " Circles " remained unused until 1982 , when Harrison again revisited it while working on Gone Troppo . By this point in his career , Harrison had long softened the spiritual message of his work and , since the late 1970s , he had distanced himself from the Hare Krishna movement . Allison notes that Harrison nevertheless gave an in @-@ depth interview to senior devotee Mukunda Goswami in September 1982 , during which he shared his thoughts on reincarnation , meditation and chanting .
" Circles " was recorded at Harrison 's Friar Park studio , in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames , Oxfordshire , during sessions held between 5 May and 27 August 1982 . Harrison co @-@ produced the track with Ray Cooper and former Beatles engineer Phil McDonald . The backing musicians included keyboard players Billy Preston , Jon Lord and Mike Moran , while Harrison also played synthesizer , in addition to bass and slide guitar . Leng describes the song as Harrison 's " first Hindustani blues " and , unlike the sparse 1968 recording , a track arranged with " rich instrumentation " that includes " gospel flourishes " from Preston , on piano and Hammond organ , and " Harrison 's unique guitar tones " .
Leng also comments on the seemingly unlikely pairing of Harrison and Lord , who was the keyboardist for heavy rock bands such as Deep Purple and Whitesnake . Acknowledging the close friendship between the two near @-@ neighbours , Leng cites Lord 's presence on the track as indicative of a preference for locally sourced contributors and " trusted pals " when Harrison made Gone Troppo . As another factor in the album 's creation , Harrison felt increasingly removed from contemporary musical trends and more involved with his burgeoning film company , HandMade , whose recent successes had included Terry Gilliam 's fantasy adventure Time Bandits ( 1981 ) . While viewing " Circles " as " a throwback to the early days of enlightenment in the 1960s " , Leng considers that the " ponderous , stuttering , meditative pace and bizarre , circular melodic structure " of the song evokes " the feeling of being transported to one of the parallel realities " depicted in Gilliam 's film .
= = Release = =
" Circles " was issued on 5 November 1982 as the closing track on Gone Troppo , sequenced after Harrison 's song from the Time Bandits soundtrack , " Dream Away " . By this point , " Circles " had already gained a degree of notoriety , as a title that frequently appeared on lists of the Beatles ' unreleased compositions . Writing in Mojo in 2011 , John Harris described the song as " one bit of Fabs @-@ related intrigue " on a release that otherwise received little notice , due to the artist 's refusal to promote his " contract @-@ finisher " with Warner Bros. Records , the distributor of his Dark Horse record label . Author Alan Clayson comments that the song 's " sense of once more going through the old routine " matched its " world @-@ weary lyrics " – a reflection of Harrison 's disenchantment after Warner 's had rejected part of the content of his previous album , Somewhere in England .
Gone Troppo became Harrison 's last album for five years , during which he continued to focus on film production , while occasionally contributing to film soundtracks . Among these projects , the HandMade comedy Water ( 1985 ) reunited four of the musicians who played on " Circles " , as Moran wrote part of the film score ( with Harrison ) , and Harrison , Lord , Moran and Cooper made a cameo appearance as " the Singing Rebels Band " , along with Eric Clapton and Ringo Starr . In February 1983 , " Circles " was released as the B @-@ side to the album 's second single in the United States , " I Really Love You " .
= = Reception = =
Discussing the reception to Gone Troppo in their book Eight Arms to Hold You , Chip Madinger and Mark Easter note " Circles " as the only track " reflecting weightier matters " on what was otherwise Harrison 's " frothiest " collection of songs to date , and they conclude : " Sadly , a decent album was lost in the shuffle of the rapidly changing marketplace of the early ' 80 's . " In a contemporary review for Musician magazine , Roy Trakin found that , following John Lennon 's murder two years before , Harrison 's " tortured honesty " undermined the album 's " attempt to heal those psychic wounds with calm , offhanded music " , and he added that " not even Billy Preston can rescue … the maudlin tautologies of the closing ' Circles ' . "
More impressed with Gone Troppo , Dave Thompson wrote in Goldmine in 2002 that , together with " Dream Away " , " Circles " " stand [ s ] alongside any number of Harrison 's minor classics " . In his book The Unreleased Beatles , Richie Unterberger describes the song as " a pretty neat , if droning , reflection of Harrison 's more somber spiritual sensibilities " , and he views the 1968 demo as a version that " exerts by far the greater fascination " compared with Harrison 's later recording . Unimpressed with the track , author John Winn dismisses " Circles " as " a depressing number that makes ' Blue Jay Way ' sound like a Little Richard freakout " . Ian MacDonald describes it as " a typically perceptive , if deeply gloomy , song about karma " .
Simon Leng admires " Circles " as " one of [ its ] composer 's most complex pieces " and pairs the song with " Beware of Darkness " , as " a study in Harrison 's unique harmonic sense " . In light of its appearance as the final track on Gone Troppo , Leng adds : " ' Circles ' was so personal and eccentric that it seemed to close the book on George 's recording career . It felt like he was making music only for himself . "
= = Personnel = =
According to the Gone Troppo CD credits and Simon Leng :
George Harrison – vocals , bass , synthesizer , slide guitars , backing vocals
Billy Preston – organ , piano
Mike Moran – synthesizer
Jon Lord – synthesizer
Henry Spinetti – drums
Ray Cooper – percussion
= Palladian architecture =
Palladian architecture is a European style of architecture derived from and inspired by the designs of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio ( 1508 – 1580 ) . That which is recognised as Palladian architecture today is an evolution of Palladio 's original concepts . Palladio 's work was strongly based on the symmetry , perspective and values of the formal classical temple architecture of the Ancient Greeks and Romans . From the 17th century Palladio 's interpretation of this classical architecture was adapted as the style known as Palladianism . It continued to develop until the end of the 18th century .
Palladianism became popular briefly in Britain during the mid @-@ 17th century , but its flowering was cut short by the onset of the Civil War and the imposition of austerity which followed . In the early 18th century it returned to fashion , not only in England but also , directly influenced from Britain , in Prussia . Count Francesco Algarotti may have written to Burlington from Berlin that he was recommending to Frederick the Great the adoption in Prussia of the architectural style Burlington had introduced in England but Knobelsdorff 's opera house on the Unter den Linden , based on Campbell 's Wanstead House , had been constructed from 1741 . Later in the century , when the style was falling from favour in Europe , it had a surge in popularity throughout the British colonies in North America , highlighted by examples such as Drayton Hall in South Carolina , the Redwood Library in Newport , Rhode Island , the Morris @-@ Jumel Mansion in New York City , the Hammond @-@ Harwood House in Annapolis , Maryland , and Thomas Jefferson 's Monticello and Poplar Forest in Virginia .
The style continued to be popular in Europe throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries , where it was frequently employed in the design of public and municipal buildings . From the latter half of the 19th century it was rivalled by the Gothic revival , whose champions , such as Augustus Pugin , remembering the origins of Palladianism in ancient temples , deemed it too pagan for Protestant and Anglo @-@ Catholic worship . However , as an architectural style it has continued to be popular and to evolve ; its pediments , symmetry and proportions are clearly evident in the design of many modern buildings today .
= = Palladio 's architecture = =
Buildings entirely designed by Palladio are all in Venice and the Veneto , with an especially rich grouping of palazzi in Vicenza , vaunted now in guidebooks as Palladio 's City . They include villas , and churches such as Redentore in Venice . In Palladio 's architectural treatises he followed the principles defined by the Roman architect Vitruvius and his 15th @-@ century disciple Leon Battista Alberti , who adhered to principles of classical Roman architecture based on mathematical proportions rather than the rich ornamental style also characteristic of the Renaissance .
Palladio always designed his villas with reference to their setting . If on a hill , such as Villa Capra , facades were frequently designed to be of equal value so that occupants could have fine views in all directions . Also , in such cases , porticos were built on all sides so that occupants could fully appreciate the countryside while being protected from the sun , similar to many American @-@ style porches of today . Palladio sometimes used a loggia as an alternative to the portico . This can most simply be described as a recessed portico , or an internal single storey room , with pierced walls that are open to the elements . Occasionally a loggia would be placed at second floor level over the top of a loggia below , creating what was known as a double loggia . Loggias were sometimes given significance in a facade by being surmounted by a pediment . Villa Godi has as its focal point a loggia rather than a portico , plus loggias terminating each end of the main building .
Palladio would often model his villa elevations on Roman temple facades . The temple influence , often in a cruciform design , later became a trademark of his work . Palladian villas are usually built with three floors : a rusticated basement or ground floor , containing the service and minor rooms . Above this , the piano nobile accessed through a portico reached by a flight of external steps , containing the principal reception and bedrooms , and above it is a low mezzanine floor with secondary bedrooms and accommodation . The proportions of each room within the villa were calculated on simple mathematical ratios like 3 : 4 and 4 : 5 , and the different rooms within the house were interrelated by these ratios . Earlier architects had used these formulas for balancing a single symmetrical facade ; however , Palladio 's designs related to the whole , usually square , villa .
Palladio deeply considered the dual purpose of his villas as both farmhouses and palatial weekend retreats for wealthy merchant owners . These symmetrical temple @-@ like houses often have equally symmetrical , but low , wings sweeping away from them to accommodate horses , farm animals , and agricultural stores . The wings , sometimes detached and connected to the villa by colonnades , were designed not only to be functional but also to complement and accentuate the villa . They were , however , in no way intended to be part of the main house , and it is in the design and use of these wings that Palladio 's followers in the 18th century adapted to become an integral part of the building .
= = The Palladian window = =
The Palladian , Serlian , or Venetian window features largely in Palladio 's work and is almost a trademark of his early career . It consists of a central light with semicircular arch over , carried on an impost consisting of a small entablature , under which , and enclosing two other lights , one on each side , are pilasters . In the library at Venice , Sansovino varied the design by substituting columns for the two inner pilasters . To describe its origin as being either Palladian or Venetian is not accurate ; the motif was first used by Donato Bramante and later mentioned by Sebastiano Serlio ( 1475 – 1554 ) in his seven @-@ volume architectural book Tutte l 'opere d 'architettura et prospetiva expounding the ideals of Vitruvius and Roman architecture , this arched window is flanked by two lower rectangular openings , a motif that first appeared in the triumphal arches of ancient Rome . Palladio used the motif extensively , most notably in the arcades of the Basilica Palladiana in Vicenza . It is also a feature of his entrances to both Villa Godi and Villa Forni Cerato . It is perhaps this extensive use of the motif in the Veneto that has given the window its alternative name of the Venetian window ; it is also known as a Serlian window . Whatever the name or the origin , this form of window has probably become one of the most enduring features of Palladio 's work seen in the later architectural styles evolved from Palladianism . According to James Lees @-@ Milne , its first appearance in Britain was in the remodeled wings of Burlington House , London , where the immediate source was actually in Inigo Jones 's designs for Whitehall Palace rather than drawn from Palladio himself .
A variant , in which the motif is enclosed within a relieving blind arch that unifies the motif , is not Palladian , though Burlington seems to have assumed it was so , in using a drawing in his possession showing three such features in a plain wall ( see illustration of Claydon House right ) . Modern scholarship attributes the drawing to Scamozzi . Burlington employed the motif in 1721 for an elevation of Tottenham Park in Savernake Forest for his brother @-@ in @-@ law Lord Bruce ( since remodelled ) . Kent picked it up in his designs for the Houses of Parliament , and it appears in Kent 's executed designs for the north front of Holkham Hall . The variant motif continued to be extensively used in Neoclassical architecture from the late 1760s .
= = Early Palladianism = =
In 1570 Palladio published his book , I Quattro Libri dell 'Architettura , which inspired architects across Europe .
During the 17th century , many architects studying in Italy learned of Palladio 's work . Foreign architects then returned home and adapted Palladio 's style to suit various climates , topographies and personal tastes of their clients . Isolated forms of Palladianism throughout the world were brought about in this way . However , the Palladian style did not reach the zenith of its popularity until the 18th century , primarily in England , Wales , Scotland , Ireland and later North America . In Venice itself there was an early reaction to the excesses of Baroque architecture that manifested itself as a return to Palladian principles . The earliest neo @-@ Palladians there were the exact contemporaries , both trained up as masons , Domenico Rossi ( 1657 – 1737 ) and Andrea Tirali ( 1657 – 1737 ) . Tommaso Temanza , their biographer , proved to be the movement 's most able and learned proponent ; in his hands the visual inheritance of Palladio 's example became increasingly codified in correct rules and drifted towards neoclassicism .
The most influential follower of Palladio anywhere , however , was the Englishman Inigo Jones , who travelled throughout Italy with the ' Collector ' Earl of Arundel , annotating his copy of Palladio 's treatise , in 1613 – 14 . The " Palladianism " of Jones and his contemporaries and later followers was a style largely of facades , and the mathematical formulae dictating layout were not strictly applied . A handful of great country houses in England built between 1640 and c . 1680 , such as Wilton House , are in this Palladian style . These follow the great success of Jones ' Palladian designs for the Queen 's House at Greenwich and the Banqueting House at Whitehall , the uncompleted royal palace in London of King Charles I.
However , the Palladian designs advocated by Inigo Jones were too closely associated with the court of Charles I to survive the turmoil of the civil war . Following the Stuart restoration Jones 's Palladianism was eclipsed by the baroque designs of such architects as William Talman and Sir John Vanbrugh , Nicholas Hawksmoor , and even Jones ' pupil John Webb .
= = Neo @-@ Palladian = =
= = = English Palladian architecture = = =
The baroque style , popular in continental Europe , was never truly to the English taste . It was quickly superseded when , in the first quarter of the 18th century , four books were published in Britain which highlighted the simplicity and purity of classical architecture . These were :
Vitruvius Britannicus published by Colen Campbell , 1715 ( of which supplemental volumes appeared through the century )
Palladio 's Four Books of Architecture translated by Giacomo Leoni , published from 1715 onwards .
Leone Battista Alberti 's De Re Aedificatoria , translated by Giacomo Leoni , published 1726 .
The Designs of Inigo Jones ... with Some Additional Designs , published by William Kent , 2 vols . , 1727 ( A further volume , Some Designs of Mr. Inigo Jones and Mr. William Kent was published in 1744 by the architect John Vardy , an associate of Kent . )
The most popular of these among the wealthy patrons of the day was the four @-@ volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell . Campbell was both an architect and a publisher . The book was basically a book of design containing architectural prints of British buildings , which had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio ; at first mainly those of Inigo Jones , but the later tomes contained drawings and plans by Campbell and other 18th @-@ century architects . These four books greatly contributed to Palladian architecture becoming established in 18th @-@ century Britain . Their three authors became the most fashionable and sought after architects of the era . Due to his book Vitruvius Britannicus , Colen Campbell was chosen as the architect for banker Henry Hoare I 's Stourhead house ( illustration above ) , a masterpiece that became the inspiration for dozens of similar houses across England .
At the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic " architect earl " , Richard Boyle , 3rd Earl of Burlington ; in 1729 , he and William Kent , designed Chiswick House . This House was a reinterpretation of Palladio 's Villa Capra , but purified of 16th century elements and ornament . This severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of the Palladianism . In 1734 William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of England 's finest examples of Palladian architecture with Holkham Hall in Norfolk . The main block of this house followed Palladio 's dictates quite closely , but Palladio 's low , often detached , wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance . Kent attached them to the design , banished the farm animals , and elevated the wings to almost the same importance as the house itself . These wings were often adorned with porticos and pediments , often resembling , as at the much later Kedleston Hall , small country houses in their own right . It was the development of the flanking wings that was to cause English Palladianism to evolve from being a pastiche of Palladio 's original work .
Architectural styles evolve and change to suit the requirements of each individual client . When in 1746 the Duke of Bedford decided to rebuild Woburn Abbey , he chose the Palladian style for the design , as this was now the most fashionable of the era . He selected architect Henry Flitcroft , a protege of Burlington . Flitcroft 's designs , while Palladian in nature , would not be recognised by Palladio himself . The central block is small , only three bays , the temple @-@ like portico is merely suggested , and it is closed . Two great flanking wings containing a vast suite of state rooms replace the walls or colonnades which should have connected to the farm buildings ; the farm buildings terminating the structure are elevated in height to match the central block , and given Palladian windows , to ensure they are seen as of Palladian design . This development of the style was to be repeated in countless houses , and town halls in Britain over one hundred years . Falling from favour during the Victorian era , it was revived by Sir Aston Webb for his refacing of Buckingham Palace in 1913 . Often the terminating blocks would have blind porticos and pilasters themselves , competing for attention with , or complementing the central block . This was all very far removed from the designs of Palladio two hundred years earlier .
English Palladian houses were now no longer the small but exquisite weekend retreats from which their Italian counterparts were conceived . They were no longer villas but " power houses " in Sir John Summerson 's term , the symbolic centres of power of the Whig " squirearchy " that ruled Britain . As the Palladian style swept Britain , all thoughts of mathematical proportion were swept away . Rather than square houses with supporting wings , these buildings had the length of the façade as their major consideration ; long houses often only one room deep were deliberately deceitful in giving a false impression of size .
= = = Irish Palladianism = = =
During the Palladian revival period in Ireland , even quite modest mansions were cast in a neo @-@ Palladian mould . Palladian architecture in Ireland subtly differs from that in England . While adhering as in other countries to the basic ideals of Palladio , it is often truer to them – perhaps because it was often designed by architects who had come directly from mainland Europe , and therefore were not influenced by the evolution that Palladianism was undergoing in Britain . Whatever the reason , Palladianism still had to be adapted for the wetter , colder weather .
One of the most pioneering Irish architects was Sir Edward Lovett Pearce ( 1699 – 1733 ) , who became one of the leading advocates of Palladianism in Ireland . A cousin of Sir John Vanbrugh , he was originally one of his pupils , but rejecting the baroque , he spent three years studying architecture in France and Italy , before returning home to Ireland . His most important Palladian work is the former Irish Houses of Parliament in Dublin . He was a prolific architect who also designed the south façade of Drumcondra House in 1727 and Cashel Palace in 1728 .
One of the most notable examples of Palladianism in Ireland is the Castletown House , near Dublin . Designed by the Italian architect Alessandro Galilei ( 1691 – 1737 ) , it is perhaps the only Palladian house in Ireland to have been built with Palladio 's mathematical ratios , and one of the three Irish mansions which claim to have inspired the design of the White House in Washington .
Other examples include Russborough , designed by Richard Cassels , an architect of German origin , who also designed the Palladian Rotunda Hospital in Dublin , and Florence Court , County Fermanagh . Irish Palladian Country houses often feature robust Rococo plasterwork , frequently executed by the Lafranchini brothers , an Irish speciality , which is far more flamboyant than the interiors of their contemporaries in England . So much of Dublin was built in the 18th century that it set a Georgian stamp on the city ; however arising out of bad planning and poverty , until recently Dublin was one of the few cities where fine 18th @-@ century housing could be seen in ruinous condition . Elsewhere in Ireland after 1922 , the lead was removed from the roofs of unoccupied Palladian houses for its value as scrap , with the houses often abandoned owing to excessive roof @-@ rate based taxes . Some roofless Palladian houses can still be found in the depopulated Irish countryside .
= = = North American Palladianism = = =
Palladio 's influence in North America is evident almost from the beginning of architect @-@ designed building there though the Anglo @-@ Irish philosopher , George Berkeley , may have been America 's pioneering Palladian . Acquiring a large farmhouse in Middletown , near Newport in the late 1720s , Berkeley dubbed it " Whitehall " and improved it with a Palladian doorcase derived from William Kent 's Designs of Inigo Jones ( 1727 ) , which he may have brought with him from London ; Palladio 's work was included in the library of a thousand volumes he amassed for the purpose and sent to Yale College . In 1749 Peter Harrison adopted the design of his Redwood Library in Newport , Rhode Island , more directly from Palladio 's Quattro Libri , while his Brick Market , also in Newport , of a decade later is also Palladian in conception .
The Hammond @-@ Harwood House in Annapolis , Maryland ( illustration ) is an example of Palladian architecture in the United States . It is the only existing work of colonial academic architecture that was principally designed from a plate in Andrea Palladio ’ s Quattro Libri . The house was designed by the architect William Buckland in 1773 – 74 for wealthy farmer Matthias Hammond of Anne Arundel County , Maryland . It was modeled on the design of the Villa Pisani in Montagnana , Italy in Book II , Chapter XIV of I Quattro Libri dell ’ Achitettura .
The politician and architect Thomas Jefferson ( 1743 – 1826 ) once referred to Palladio 's Quattro Libri as his bible . Jefferson acquired an intense appreciation of Palladio 's architectural concepts , and his designs for his own beloved Monticello , the James Barbour Barboursville estate , Virginia State Capitol , and the University of Virginia were based on drawings from Palladio 's book . Realizing the powerful political significance pertaining to ancient Roman buildings , Jefferson designed his civic buildings in the Palladian style . Monticello ( remodelled between 1796 and 1808 ) is quite clearly based on Palladio 's Villa Capra , however , with modifications , in a style which is described in America today as Colonial Georgian . Jefferson 's Pantheon , or Rotunda , at the University of Virginia is undeniably Palladian in concept and style .
In Virginia and Carolina , the Palladian manner is epitomised in numerous Tidewater plantation houses , such as Stratford Hall or Westover Plantation , or Drayton Hall near Charleston . These examples are all classic American colonial examples of a Palladian taste that was transmitted through engravings , for the benefit of masons — and patrons , too — who had no first @-@ hand experience of European building practice . A feature of American Palladianism was the re @-@ emergence of the great portico , which again , as in Italy , fulfilled the need of protection from the sun ; the portico in various forms and size became a dominant feature of American colonial architecture . In the north European countries the portico had become a mere symbol , often closed , or merely hinted at in the design by pilasters , and sometimes in very late examples of English Palladianism adapted to become a porte @-@ cochere ; in America , the Palladian portico regained its full glory .
One house which clearly shows this Palladian @-@ Gibbs influence is Mount Airy , in Richmond County , Virginia , built in 1758 – 62 .
At Westover the north and south entrances , made of imported Portland stone , were patterned after a plate in William Salmon 's Palladio Londinensis ( 1734 ) .
The distinctive feature of Drayton Hall , its two @-@ storey portico , was derived directly from Palladio .
The neoclassical presidential mansion , the White House in Washington , was inspired by Irish Palladianism . Both Castle Coole and Richard Cassel 's Leinster House in Dublin claim to have inspired the architect James Hoban , who designed the executive mansion , built between 1792 and 1800 . Hoban , born in Callan , County Kilkenny , in 1762 , studied architecture in Dublin , where Leinster House ( built c . 1747 ) was one of the finest buildings at the time . The White House is more neoclassical than Palladian ; particularly the South façade , which closely resembles James Wyatt 's 1790 design for Castle Coole , also in Ireland . Castle Coole is , in the words of the architectural commentator Gervase Jackson @-@ Stops , " A culmination of the Palladian traditions , yet strictly neoclassical in its chaste ornament and noble austerity . "
One of the adaptations made to Palladianism in America was that the piano nobile now tended to be placed on the ground floor , rather than above a service floor , as was the tradition in Europe . This service floor , if it existed at all , was now a discreet semi @-@ basement . This negated the need for an ornate external staircase leading to the main entrance as in the more original Palladian designs . This would also be a feature of the neoclassical style that followed Palladianism .
The only two houses in the United States — from the English colonial period ( 1607 – 1776 ) — that can be definitively attributed to designs from the Four Books of Architecture are architect William Buckland 's Hammond @-@ Harwood House ( 1774 ) in Annapolis , Maryland , and Thomas Jefferson 's first Monticello . The design source for the Hammond @-@ Harwood House is Villa Pisani at Montagnana ( Book II , Chapter XIV ) , and for the first Monticello ( 1770 ) the design source is Villa Cornaro at Piombino Dese ( Book II , Chapter XIV ) . Thomas Jefferson later covered this façade with additions so that the Hammond @-@ Harwood House remains the only pure and pristine example of direct modeling in America today .
Because of its later development , Palladian architecture in Canada is rare . One notable example is the Nova Scotia Legislature building , completed in 1819 .
The Center for Palladian Studies in America , Inc . , a non @-@ profit membership organization , was founded in 1979 to research and promote understanding of Palladio ’ s influence in the United States .
= = Legacy = =
By the 1770s , in Britain , such architects as Robert Adam and Sir William Chambers were in huge popular demand , but they were now drawing on a great variety of classical sources , including ancient Greece , so much so that their forms of architecture were eventually defined as neoclassical rather than Palladian . In Europe , the Palladian revival ended by the end of the 18th century . In North America , Palladianism lingered a little longer ; Thomas Jefferson 's floor plans and elevations owe a great deal to Palladio 's Quattro Libri . The term " Palladian " today is often misused , and tends to describe a building with any classical pretensions . There was , however , a revival of Palladian ideas amongst the colonial revivalist of the early 20th century , and the strain has been unbroken , even through the modernist period .
In the mid @-@ 20th century , the originality of the approach of the architectural historian Colin Rowe had the effect of re @-@ situating the assessment of modern architecture within history and acknowledged the Palladian architecture as an active influence . In the later 20th century , when Rowe 's influence had spread worldwide , this approach had become a key element in the process of architectural and urban design . If " the presence of the past " was evident in the work of many architects in the late 20th century , from James Stirling to Aldo Rossi , Robert Venturi , Oswald Matthias Ungers , Peter Eisenman , Michael Graves and others , this was largely due to the influence of Rowe . Colin Rowe 's unorthodox and non @-@ chronological view of history then made it possible for him to develop theoretical formulations such as his famous essay " The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa " ( 1947 ) in which he theorised that there were compositional " rules " in Palladio ’ s villas that could be demonstrated to correspond to similar " rules " in Le Corbusier ’ s villas at Poissy and Garches . This approach enabled Rowe to elaborate an astonishingly fresh and provocative trans @-@ historical assessment of both Palladio and Le Corbusier , in which the architecture of both was assessed not in chronological time , but side by side in the present moment .
= Hurricane Flossie ( 2007 ) =
Hurricane Flossie was a powerful Pacific tropical cyclone that brought squally weather and light damage to Hawaii in August 2007 . The sixth named storm , second hurricane , first and only major hurricane of the annual hurricane season , Flossie originated from a tropical wave that emerged off Africa on July 21 . After traversing the tropical Atlantic , the wave crossed Central America and entered the eastern Pacific on August 1 . There , a favorable environment allowed it to become a tropical depression and a tropical storm shortly thereafter on August 8 .
Tracking generally west @-@ southwestward , the storm entered a stage of rapid deepening on August 10 , despite forecasts of an only marginally favorable environment . On August 11 , Flossie became a major hurricane , reaching its peak intensity with winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) . With cooler sea surface temperatures and high wind shear in its path , the hurricane weakened steadily , deteriorating to a tropical depression by August 16 . The storm 's center became devoid of strong thunderstorms later that day , making Flossie no longer qualified as a tropical cyclone .
As a strong storm , Flossie prompted hurricane and tropical storm warnings for the Big Island of Hawaii . Residents were warned by emergency officials to prepare for over a foot of rainfall and wind gusts well within tropical storm force . However , impact was negligible ; the peak wind gust on the Big Island of Hawaii reached 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , and rainfall totals remained below 6 in ( 150 mm ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
The formation of Hurricane Flossie is attributed to a poorly defined tropical wave that emerged off the western coast of Africa and into the eastern Atlantic Ocean on July 21 . Tracking westward , the disturbance remained disorganized and lacked a significant amount of convection – shower and thunderstorm activity – near its center . The wave crossed Central America and entered the eastern Pacific on August 1 , where it was met with a much more favorable atmospheric environment for organization and intensification . A consolidated area of shower and thunderstorms developed near the center while the system was situated just south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec on August 2 , though no further development occurred thereafter . Two days later , an increase in deep convection was observed on conventional satellite imagery , but like the first , no further organization occurred . On August 6 , yet another burst of convection developed near the low @-@ level center , and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) contemplated classifying the disturbance at that time , but yet another wane in shower and thunderstorm activity deferred this . The disturbance tracked westward through August 8 , and following another deep burst of convection that persisted itself for an appreciable amount of time , had finally gathered enough organization to be classified as a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on August 8 . At this time , the depression was situated roughly 1 @,@ 700 mi ( 2 @,@ 700 km ) east @-@ southeast of the Big Island of Hawaii . Within an environment characterized by low vertical wind shear as a result of an anticyclone aloft and warm sea surface temperatures , Tropical Depression Six @-@ E continued its organizational trend , and was declared a tropical storm – earning the name Flossie – six hours after formation .
Located on the southwestern periphery of a subtropical ridge situated over southwestern Mexico , Flossie tracked generally west @-@ southwestward after formation while intensifying . Upper @-@ level outflow began to expand in all quadrants of the cyclone and spiral bands became prominent around the center on August 9 . An eyewall and associated mid @-@ level eye @-@ feature was observed on microwave imagery , but was obscured on conventional satellite imagery , that evening . Following a series of satellite intensity estimates and the presence of an eye on visible and infrared satellite imagery , Flossie was upgraded to a Category 1 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale at 1200 UTC on August 10 . Despite forecasts of an increasingly unfavorable environment as the cyclone moved towards the Hawaiian Islands , Flossie continued to intensify . The hurricane unexpectedly began a period of rapid deepening during the overnight hours of August 10 , and by 0600 UTC on August 11 , Flossie attained major hurricane intensity – a Category 3 hurricane – with a quickly falling barometric pressure . Early morning satellite images revealed a 15 nmi ( 28 km ) eye with cloud tops cooler than − 75 ° C ( − 103 ° F ) surrounding the feature . Further intensification ensued as the storm entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) ' s area of responsibility that morning , and Flossie was upgraded to a Category 4 hurricane by 1200 UTC . Two hours later , the cyclone attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 949 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 02 inHg ) , the strongest tropical cyclone of the 2007 Pacific hurricane season .
After peak intensity , Flossie was forecast to gradually weaken as wind shear increased . However , despite prediction of such , Flossie did not weaken at all and in fact remained a Category 4 hurricane for 36 continuous hours . In its discussion during the morning hours of August 13 , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center stated that Flossie " was not willing to give up . " By the pre @-@ dawn hours of August 14 , however , the cyclone began to feel the impacts of increasingly cool sea surface temperatures and higher southerly wind shear . While outflow in the northern semicircle of Flossie remained exceptional , outflow in the southern half of the circulation began to dissipate ; additionally , the southern flank of the eyewall began to fall apart . An aircraft reconnaissance flight into the system revealed surface winds of 122 mph ( 196 km / h ) and warming cloud tops , and Flossie was downgraded to a Category 3 hurricane . Further passes through the eyewall of the storm depicted ever @-@ decreasing surface winds and organization with Flossie , and the storm was downgraded once again , to a Category 2 hurricane , by 1200 UTC as it passed south of the Hawaiian Islands . Over 26 kn ( 30 mph ) of vertical wind shear eroded the remainder of the storm 's eyewall on August 15 ; as such , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center downgraded the cyclone to a tropical storm . Further weakening to tropical depression status occurred by 0600 UTC on August 16 as shower and thunderstorm activity over the center faded away . By 1200 UTC , a lone low @-@ level swirl remained on satellite imagery , and the storm dissipated thereafter , while located southwest of the Hawaiian Islands .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Shortly after entering the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , the organization issued a hurricane watch for the Big Island of Hawaii . Within a few days , as the hurricane tracked slightly further to the north and its wind radii expanded , a tropical storm warning was overlaid on the hurricane warning . Heavy rainfall and flooding were expected to be the primary concern ; as such , flash flood watches were issued and officials warned residents of the potential for 10 to 15 in ( 250 to 380 mm ) of rainfall . Governor Linda Lingle declared a state of emergency for the Island of Hawaii in advance of the storm , where residents were advised to stock up on necessary supplies .
The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) dispatched 20 transportation , public works and health experts to the region . Emergency shelters were opened , though were used little . The threat of the storm led to the closure of schools , including the University of Hawaii at Hilo and Hawaii Community College , forcing an estimated 26 @,@ 000 college students to remain home . Some libraries , parks , private schools , banks and other businesses were also closed . Non @-@ essential state employees were advised to remain at home , and emergency workers were mobilized to quickly assist in the aftermath of the storm . In advance of the storm , many tourists canceled reservations .
Forecast heavy rains over the southeast @-@ facing slopes of the Big Island failed to occur , as Flossie turned westward before low @-@ level southeasterly winds had a chance to produce mountain @-@ enhanced rainfall . However , north and northeast @-@ facing slopes received minimal rainfall ; 1 to 2 in ( 0 @.@ 025 to 0 @.@ 051 m ) of rain was reported in the Hamakua , South Hilo , and Puna Districts . Elsewhere , 1 to 3 in ( 25 to 76 mm ) of precipitation fell at Maui , and 2 to 4 in ( 51 to 102 mm ) fell at the Koolau Range on Oahu , although no significant winds or flooding was reported . Wave action affected the southeast @-@ facing shores , also with little impact . The most significant waves were estimated at 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in height , while sustained winds of at least 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) were reported at South Point . A large lava bench collapsed into the ocean on August 13 , which may have been related to the hurricane 's passage , or alternatively , a recent 5 @.@ 4 magnitude earthquake .
= The Last Remnant =
The Last Remnant ( ラストレムナント , Rasuto Remunanto ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square Enix for the Xbox 360 . The game had a worldwide release on November 20 , 2008 , and was also released for Microsoft Windows in March 2009 , and received an international release through digital retailer Steam in April 2009 . A PlayStation 3 version was originally announced , but was never released . The game is set in a fictional world divided into multiple city @-@ states inhabited by four different species and whose past includes conflicts over " Remnants , " magical artifacts of varying forms . The player takes the role of Rush Sykes , a young man searching for his sister that becomes entangled in a secret war . It features a unique battle system in which the player command multiple groups , or " unions " , of characters rather than individual units .
The game was directed by Hiroshi Takai and was the first game developed by Square Enix to use the Unreal Engine 3 . It was intended by Square Enix president Yoichi Wada to " become a cornerstone for [ their ] worldwide strategy " . Art direction was overseen by chief artist Kimihiko Miyamae and art producer Yusuke Naora . The game 's soundtrack was composed by Tsuyoshi Sekito with assistance by Yasuhiro Yamanaka . It was later released as a three @-@ disc album . The design and dialogue of the game were created to appeal to international players as well as Japanese players , and the motion capture for the main characters , including the lip @-@ syncing , was done with Western , English @-@ speaking actors .
The game received a weak reception by reviewers , though it was better received by Japanese reviewers than by Western ones . A common complaint , especially in the original Xbox 360 release , was of graphical problems including low framerates and " texture pop @-@ in " where higher resolution textures would suddenly replace lower ones several seconds after a scene had started . Other issues included complaints about the game 's storyline and battle system , though these were not as universal . The Last Remnant received praise for its art direction and music .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is split between a world area , a battle area , and a world map . The player controls Rush Sykes , the protagonist , and moves him around the world screen within an area , with the camera floating behind and slightly above him . Within the world screen , the player may talk to NPCs , enter buildings and other areas , or exit to the map screen . The map screen allows instant travel between different cities and areas , or between different areas within a city . The battle screen is shown only during combat , and is a three @-@ dimensional area like the world screen with a setting reminiscent of the location the player is at in the world . There are no random encounters ; instead , the player enters a battle and separate battle screen when they touch an enemy on the main world screen . The player may choose to enter a battle with multiple enemies at once by activating a " time @-@ shift " system in which time slows down and they may run up to multiple enemies before commencing the battle .
The game features a battle system labeled by director Hiroshi Takai as a " turn @-@ based , command @-@ based system using symbol encounters . " During a battle , each enemy from the world screen is represented by a group , or " union " , of enemies ranging from one to five individual units ; similarly the player 's forces are composed of multiple unions of three to five units each . The skills of the units in the player 's unions , which include both story characters and hireable units that do not appear outside of battle , vary according to different parameters . One parameter is the " morale " bar , which is affected by the events in battle and can have positive or negative effects on the battle forces . Each unit can also learn different attacks , which are divided into categories such as blade attacks and healing magic . At the beginning of each turn the player selects from a group of choices what attack types each union will perform ; the player is unable to select the individual attack of each unit . Special attacks require " action points " , which continually accrue during each battle . The player selects at the beginning of each turn which enemy union each of their unions will attack . As the enemy makes their selections at the same time , it is possible for a union to be " deadlocked " , or forced to fight a different union than the player or enemy had selected . When multiple unions are deadlocked onto the same enemy , some of the unions can flank the enemy or attack from the rear for extra damage .
In addition to battles , there are numerous quests which the player may undertake . Many of these quests take the player to an area immediately upon acceptance and return them once completed , while " guild quests " do not require acceptance and may be turned in by the player whenever the accomplishments listed in the quest are completed . Rush and the other units may equip many different weapons and items . Rush 's equipment can be upgraded to many different options , while other units request materials to upgrade their own equipment , which can be purchased at stores , acquired in battles , or found in the world area using a creature called Mr. Diggs . Mr. Diggs can be upgraded as well to find more or higher quality materials .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The game is set in a fictional world featuring a number of distinct humanoid races : the Mitras , human in appearance , the Yamas , strong fish @-@ like people , the Qsitis , small reptilians , and the Sovanis , feline people with four arms . The world itself is broken up into multiple city @-@ states , each with their own unique culture . The story of the game revolves around " Remnants " , mysterious and coveted ancient artifacts of varying shapes and sizes which possess magic powers and have been the cause of several wars throughout the game 's history . Each Remnant is " bound " to a specific person , who is the only one who can then use their power ; powerful Remnants that remain unbound for too long have the potential to cause a " collapse " and spawn monsters . As Remnants come in varying forms , all cities throughout the world have at least one that their ruler is bound to that assist to govern and bring peace to their assigned realm .
= = = Characters = = =
The protagonist is Rush Sykes , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old Mitra boy from a peaceful island . His 14 @-@ year @-@ old sister , Irina , is kidnapped at the start of the game , and finding her is Rush 's impetus for leaving the island . He meets and joins David Nassau , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Mitra ruler of the city @-@ state of Athlum , and his four generals : the 41 @-@ year @-@ old Mitra Emma Honeywell , the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Yama Blocter , the 55 @-@ year @-@ old Qsiti Pagus and the 200 @-@ year @-@ old Sovani Torgal . These characters can be joined by more than a hundred of other characters , many of whom are found through quests , while others can be hired at guilds . Every character has their own name and skillset , though the main characters have special additional skills . The main villain is the Conqueror , a Mitra who during the course of the game attacks many city @-@ states of the world with his army . He is assisted in regard , first in secret and then openly , by Wilfred Hermeien , an adult Mitra who is both the leader of the city @-@ state of Nagapur with the ruling council of all of the city @-@ states and Wagram , a powerful Mitra sorcerer .
= = = Story = = =
The game opens with Rush running through a forest , trying to find his sister Irina , who the player later learns has been kidnapped . He comes across an army led by David opposing an army of monsters and at the battle 's conclusion rushes forward as he sees Emma in the crowd . After he generates a powerful shield with his Remnant pendant , he is interrogated by David and his generals , who decide to help him find Irina . When investigating a Remnant that is about to collapse , Rush and company come across Wagram and Irina , who escape . After chasing Wagram and Irina for several missions , the group attends the Congress meeting of the leaders of the city @-@ states in Elysion , home to the Ark Remnant , which can transport users to the Sacred Lands . The city is also home to the Academy , a research institution devoted to studying Remnants and the place where Rush 's parents work . The Conqueror arrives at the Congress , binds the Ark and demands to be given a massive Remnant of the type that each city @-@ state has . After finding only Rush 's mother , the group learns that the Conqueror , with his demands rejected , has started a war and is marching his army with the support of the " God @-@ Emperor " , a 1000 @-@ year @-@ old legendary figure .
David decides to take the lead in opposing the Conqueror in hopes of earning independence for Athlum , which is currently a vassal state to the city of Celapaleis . The party succeeds in stopping the Conqueror 's army from attacking Celapaleis ,
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for Justice ( Russian : Народный комиссариат юстиции , Narodniy Komissariat Yustitsi 'i ) abbreviated as Наркомюст ( Narkomiust ) . The Ministry , at the All @-@ Union ( USSR @-@ wide ) level , was established on 6 July 1923 , after the signing of the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR , and was in turn based upon the People 's Commissariat for Justice of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) formed in 1917 . The Ministry was led by the Minister of Justice , prior to 1946 a Commissar , who was nominated by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers and confirmed by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , and was a member of the Council of Ministers .
The Ministry of Justice was responsible for courts , prisons , and probations . Further responsibilities included criminal justice policy , sentencing policy , and prevention of re @-@ offending in the USSR . The Ministry was organised into All @-@ Union and Union departments . The All @-@ Union level ministries were divided into separate organisations in the Republican , Autonomous Oblast , and provincial level . The leadership of the Ministry of Justice came from notable Soviet law organisations from around the country .
= = Duties and responsibilities = =
According to a decree from 1972 , the Ministry of Justice prepared proposals for the codification of law ; it carried out methodological management of legal work in the national economy . The Ministry directed and coordinated the work of state bodies and public organisations to promote legal knowledge and to clarify the law among the population about the judicial agencies , as well as general management of the civil registry , state , and legal profession . The Ministry was liable to the Party , the state , and the people . The Ministry 's main goal was to strengthen socialist legality and the rule of law within Soviet judicial institutions .
The Ministry was organised into one All @-@ Union ( USSR @-@ wide ) ministry and 15 Union ministries . The leadership of the ministry consisted of notable figures of the judicial authority of the Soviet Republics , the military tribunals , Bar members , notaries , and other judicial institutions . The leadership 's task was to organise and prepare proposals for the codification of legislation . The organisational leadership , and the courts , had full control over the republican , autonomous , and provincial levels of government and the party . On 1 February 1923 the All @-@ Union People 's Commissariat for Justice was dissolved , and its responsibilities , duties , and functions were given to the Procurator General . The Department of the Procuracy of the Ministry of Justice , headed by a republican Procurator General , was responsible for limiting the powers of the Procurator General . On the grounds of stopping " unnecessary centralisation " , the Ministry of Justice was dissolved both on the Union and the All @-@ Union level . The functions of the Ministry was then handed to the Supreme Court and the Legal Commission of the Council of Ministers . The Ministry was reestablished in 1970 by the Alexei Kosygin government . Extensive regulations on the Ministry were created by the Council of Ministers . The Ministry 's main task was to direct and supervise judicially organs , both at the Union and All @-@ Union level , according to a decree from 1975 .
The main task of the Ministry was to develop proposals on issues linked to the judicial system ; the election of judges , elect the judiciary , organising the judiciary , studying and summarising of the jurisprudence in coordination with the Supreme Court , and to organise work for the maintenance of judicial statistics . According to Soviet law , the Ministry could propose various measures to improve the Soviet court system . According to Article 1 of the People 's Commissariat for Justice , the commissariat 's main task was to supervise the legal activities of the Soviet central agencies and the people 's procurator .
= = Organisation = =
The Ministry of Justice was headed by a Minister who was elected by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet between seasons , and authenticated by a Supreme Soviet convocation . Deputy Ministers were elected by the Council of Ministers ; allocation of the deputies was decided by the Ministry of Justice . Each deputy usually headed his or her own department . The minister , the deputies , and other senior officials formed the leadership circle , known as the Board of the Ministry of Justice . The members of this board were approved by the Council of Ministers . The Board of the Ministry held meetings regularly to discuss legal matters nationwide . Decisions made by the board were as a rule implemented nationwide . If the board disagreed they sought the assistance of the Council of Ministers to solve the problem .
The structure and number of employees of the Ministry were approved by the Council of Ministers . Staffing of the central apparatus of the Ministry , as well as provisions of the departments and divisions , were approved by the Ministry of Justice . The seal of the Ministry of Justice was the state emblem of the USSR .
= = History = =
In 1922 Vladimir Lenin chasitised the People 's Commissariat for Justice for not dealing firmly enough with political opponents of the Bolsheviks and allowing capitalism to develop outside the framework of state capitalism outlined by the New Economic Policy . Until 1936 the People 's Commissariat for Justice existed only in the Union Republican level . Nikolai Krylenko , the first People 's Commissar of Justice , said in January 1933 that Soviet law waxed indignant about the leniency of some Soviet officials who objected to the infamous " five ears law " :
We are sometimes up against a flat refusal to apply this law rigidly . One People 's Judge told me flatly that he could never bring himself to throw someone in jail for stealing four ears . What we 're up against here is a deep prejudice , imbibed with their mother 's milk ... a mistaken belief that people should be tried in accordance not with the Party 's political guidelines but with considerations of " higher justice " .
According to Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov , Nikita Khrushchev abolished the Ministry during the height of the Khrushchev Thaw in an attempt to restore the " Leninist norms of socialist legality " which had disappeared under Joseph Stalin 's rule . Khrushchev tried to make the Soviet court more independent from central authority by enforcing the 1936 constitution on the country 's judicial branch . This would , according to Khrushchev , give the courts further independence from the central authority . The functions , duties , and responsibilities of the Ministry were reassigned to the Supreme Soviet and the Legal Commission of the Council of Ministers at all levels of Soviet society . By the 1960s it became clear that these reforms were not working as planned , and the ministry was reestablished by the Alexei Kosygin government in 1970 . The Ministry , along with the majority of other Soviet ministries , was supposed to be abolished in December 1991 on the orders of the State Soviet , this did not happen , and the Soviet Union dissolved itself before this date .
= = Commissars and ministers = =
The following persons headed the Commissariat / Ministry as commissars ( narkoms ) , ministers , and deputy ministers of the Soviet era :
= HD 28185 =
HD 28185 is a yellow dwarf star similar to our Sun located about 138 light @-@ years away from Earth in the constellation Eridanus . The designation HD 28185 refers to its entry in the Henry Draper catalogue . The star is known to possess one long @-@ period extrasolar planet .
= = Distance and visibility = =
According to measurements from the Hipparcos astrometric satellite , HD 28185 has a parallax of 23 @.@ 62 milliarcseconds , which corresponds to a distance of 42 parsecs ( 138 light @-@ years ) . Since the star is located further than 25 parsecs from Earth , it is not listed in the Gliese Catalogue of Nearby Stars . With an apparent magnitude of 7 @.@ 81 , the star is not visible with the naked eye , though it can be seen using binoculars .
= = Stellar characteristics = =
HD 28185 is similar to our Sun in terms of mass , radius , and luminosity . The star is on the main sequence and is generating energy by fusing hydrogen in its core . The spectral type of G5V implies HD 28185 is cooler than the Sun . Like the majority of extrasolar planet host stars , HD 28185 is metal @-@ rich relative to the Sun , containing around 173 % of the solar abundance of iron . The star rotates slower than the Sun , with a period of around 30 days , compared to 25 @.@ 4 days for the Sun .
Based on the star 's chromospheric activity , HD 28185 is estimated to have an age of around 2 @,@ 900 million years . On the other hand , evolutionary models give an age of around 7 @,@ 500 million years and a mass 0 @.@ 99 times that of our Sun . The higher luminosity and longer rotation period favour an older age for the star .
= = Planetary system = =
In 2001 an extrasolar planet similar in size to Jupiter designated HD 28185 b was discovered in orbit around the star with a period of 1 @.@ 04 years . Unlike many long @-@ period extrasolar planets , it has a low orbital eccentricity . The planet experiences similar insolation to Earth , which has led to speculations about the possibilities for habitable moons . In addition , numerical simulations suggest that low @-@ mass planets located in the gas giant 's Trojan points would be stable for long periods . The planet 's existence was independently confirmed by the Magellan Planet Search Program in 2008 .
The star also shows evidence of a long @-@ term radial velocity trend , which may indicate the presence of an additional outer companion .
= Dazzle camouflage =
Dazzle camouflage , also known as razzle dazzle ( USA ) or dazzle painting , was a family of ship camouflage used extensively in World War I , and to a lesser extent in World War II and afterwards . Credited to the British marine artist Norman Wilkinson , though with a rejected prior claim by the zoologist John Graham Kerr , it consisted of complex patterns of geometric shapes in contrasting colours , interrupting and intersecting each other .
Unlike other forms of camouflage , the intention of dazzle is not to conceal but to make it difficult to estimate a target 's range , speed , and heading . Norman Wilkinson explained in 1919 that he had intended dazzle more to mislead the enemy about a ship 's course and so to take up a poor firing position , than actually to cause the enemy to miss his shot when firing .
Dazzle was adopted by the Admiralty in Britain , and then by the United States Navy , with little evaluation . Each ship 's dazzle pattern was unique to avoid making classes of ships instantly recognisable to the enemy . The result was that a profusion of dazzle schemes was tried , and the evidence for their success was at best mixed . So many factors were involved that it was impossible to determine which were important , and whether any of the colour schemes were effective .
Dazzle attracted the notice of artists such as Picasso , who claimed that Cubists like himself had invented it . Edward Wadsworth , who supervised the camouflaging of over 2 @,@ 000 ships during the First World War , painted a series of canvases of dazzle ships after the war , based on his wartime work . Arthur Lismer similarly painted a series of dazzle ship canvases .
= = Intended purposes = =
At first glance , dazzle seems an unlikely form of camouflage , drawing attention to the ship rather than hiding it . The approach was developed after Allied navies were unable to develop effective means to hide ships in all weather conditions . The British zoologist John Graham Kerr proposed the application of camouflage to British warships in the First World War , outlining what he believed to be the applicable principle , disruptive camouflage , in a letter to Winston Churchill in 1914 explaining the goal was to confuse , not to conceal , by disrupting a ship 's outline . Kerr compared the effect to that created by the patterns on a series of land animals , the giraffe , zebra and jaguar .
Taking up the zebra example , Kerr proposed that the vertical lines of ships ' masts be disrupted with irregular white bands . Hiding these would make ships less conspicuous , and would " greatly increase the difficulty of accurate range finding " . However , in the same letter , Kerr also calls for countershading , the use of paint to obliterate self @-@ shading and thus to flatten out the appearance of solid , recognisable shapes . For example , he proposes to paint ships ' guns grey on top , grading to white below , so the guns would disappear against a grey background . Similarly , he advised painting shaded parts of the ship white , and brightly lit parts in grey , again with smooth grading between them , making shapes and structures invisible . Kerr was thus hoping to achieve both a measure of invisibility and a degree of confusion for the enemy using a rangefinder . Whether through this mixing of goals , or the Admiralty 's skepticism about " any theory based upon the analogy of animals " , the Admiralty claimed in July 1915 to have conducted " various trials " and decided to paint its ships in monotone grey , not adopting any of Kerr 's suggestions . It had made up its mind , and all Kerr 's subsequent letters achieved nothing .
The American artist Abbott Handerson Thayer had developed a theory of camouflage based on countershading and disruptive coloration , which he had published in the controversial 1909 book Concealing @-@ Coloration in the Animal Kingdom . Seeing the opportunity to put his theory into service , Thayer wrote to Churchill in February 1915 , proposing to camouflage submarines by countershading them like fish such as mackerel , and advocating painting ships white to make them invisible . His ideas were considered by the Admiralty , but rejected along with Kerr 's proposals as being " freak methods of painting ships ... of academic interest but not of practical advantage " . The Admiralty noted that the required camouflage would vary depending on the light , the changing colours of sea and sky , the time of day , and the angle of the sun . Thayer made repeated and desperate efforts to persuade the authorities , and in November 1915 travelled to England where he gave demonstrations of his theory around the country . He had a warm welcome from Kerr in Glasgow , and was so enthused by this show of support that he avoided meeting the War Office , who he had been intending to win over , and instead sailed home , continuing to write ineffective letters to the British and American authorities .
The marine artist and Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve officer Norman Wilkinson , agreed with Kerr that dazzle 's aim was confusion rather than concealment , but disagreed about the type of confusion to be sown in the enemy 's mind . What Wilkinson wanted to do was to make it difficult for an enemy to estimate a ship 's type , size , speed , and heading , and thereby confuse enemy ship commanders into taking mistaken or poor firing positions . An observer would find it difficult to know exactly whether the stern or the bow was in view ; and it would be correspondingly difficult to estimate whether the observed vessel was moving towards or away from the observer 's position .
Wilkinson advocated " masses of strongly contrasted colour " to confuse the enemy about a ship 's heading . Thus , while dazzle , in some lighting conditions or at close ranges , might actually increase a ship 's visibility , the conspicuous patterns would obscure the outlines of the ship 's hull ( though admittedly not the superstructure ) , disguising the ship 's correct heading and making it harder to hit .
Dazzle was created in response to an extreme need , and hosted by an organisation , the Admiralty , which had already rejected an approach supported by scientific theory : Kerr 's proposal to use " parti @-@ colouring " based on the known camouflage methods of disruptive coloration and countershading . This was dropped in favour of an admittedly non @-@ scientific appproach , led by the socially well @-@ connected Wilkinson . Kerr 's explanations of the principles were clear , logical , and based on years of study , while Wilkinson 's were simple and inspirational , based on an artist 's perception . The decision was likely because the Admiralty felt comfortable with Wilkinson , in sharp contrast to their awkward relationship with the stubborn and pedantic Kerr .
Wilkinson claimed not to have known of the zoological theories of camouflage of Kerr and Thayer , admitting only to having heard of the " old invisibility @-@ idea " from Roman times .
= = Possible mechanisms = =
In 1973 , the naval museum curator Robert F. Sumrall suggested a mechanism by which dazzle camouflage may have sown the kind of confusion that Wilkinson had intended for it . Coincidence rangefinders used for naval artillery had an optical mechanism , operated by a human to compute the range . The operator adjusted the mechanism until the two half @-@ images of the target lined up in a complete picture . Dazzle , Sumrall argued , was intended to make that hard , as clashing patterns looked abnormal even when the two halves were aligned , something that became more important when submarine periscopes included such rangefinders . Patterns sometimes also included a false bow wave to make it difficult for an enemy to estimate the ship 's speed .
The historian Sam Willis argued that since Wilkinson knew it was impossible to make a ship invisible with paint , the " extreme opposite " was the answer , using conspicuous shapes and violent colour contrasts to confuse enemy submarine commanders . Willis pointed out , using the HMT Olympic dazzle scheme as an example , that different mechanisms could have been at work . The contradictory patterns on the ship 's funnels could imply the ship was on a different heading . The curve on the hull below the front funnel could seem to be a false bow wave , creating a misleading impression of the ship 's speed . And the striped patterns at bow and stern could create confusion about which end of the ship was which .
That dazzle did indeed work along these lines is suggested by the testimony of a U @-@ boat captain :
It was not until she was within half a mile that I could make out she was one ship [ not several ] steering a course at right angles , crossing from starboard to port . The dark painted stripes on her after part made her stern appear her bow , and a broad cut of green paint amidships looks like a patch of water . The weather was bright and visibility good ; this was the best camouflage I have ever seen .
In 2011 , the scientist Nicholas E. Scott @-@ Samuel and colleagues presented evidence using moving patterns on a computer that human perception of speed is distorted by dazzle patterns . However the speeds required are much larger than were available to First World War ships : Scott @-@ Samuel notes that the targets in the experiment would correspond to a dazzle @-@ patterned Land Rover vehicle at a range of 70 metres , travelling at 90 kilometres per hour . A confusion in aiming of the observed size , 7 % , for a rocket propelled grenade travelling 70 metres in 0 @.@ 5 seconds , would be 7 % of the distance moved by the target , or 90 centimetres , perhaps enough to save life in that situation .
= = World War I = =
In 1914 , Kerr persuaded the First Lord of the Admiralty , Winston Churchill , to adopt a form of military camouflage which he called " parti @-@ colouring " . He argued both for countershading ( following the American artist Abbott Thayer ) , and for disruptive coloration , both as used by animals . A general order to the British fleet issued on 10 November 1914 advocated use of Kerr 's approach . It was applied in various ways to British warships such as HMS Implacable , where officers noted approvingly that the pattern " increased difficulty of accurate range finding " . However , following Churchill 's departure from the Admiralty , the Royal Navy reverted to plain grey paint schemes , informing Kerr in July 1915 that " various trials had been undertaken and that the range of conditions of light and surroundings rendered it necessary to modify considerably any theory based upon the analogy of [ the colours and patterns of ] animals " .
The British Army inaugurated its Camouflage Section for land use at the end of 1916 . At sea in 1917 , heavy losses of merchant ships to Germany 's unrestricted submarine warfare campaign led to new desire for camouflage . The marine painter Norman Wilkinson promoted a system of stripes and broken lines " to distort the external shape by violent colour contrasts " and confuse the enemy about the speed and dimensions of a ship . Wilkinson , then a lieutenant commander on Royal Navy patrol duty , implemented the precursor of " dazzle " beginning with the merchantman SS Industry . Wilkinson was put in charge of a camouflage unit which used the technique on large groups of merchant ships . Over 4000 British merchant ships were painted in what came to be known as " dazzle camouflage " ; dazzle was also applied to some 400 naval vessels , starting in August 1917 .
All British patterns were different , first tested on small wooden models viewed through a periscope in a studio . Most of the model designs were painted by women from London 's Royal Academy of Arts . A foreman then scaled up their designs for the real thing . Painters , however , were not alone in the project . Creative people including sculptors , artists , and set designers designed camouflage .
Wilkinson 's Dazzle camouflage was accepted by the Admiralty , even without practical visual assessment protocols for improving performance by modifying designs and colours . The dazzle camouflage strategy was adopted by other navies . This led to more scientific studies of colour options which might enhance camouflage effectiveness .
After the war , starting on 27 October 1919 , an Admiralty committee met to determine who had priority for the invention of dazzle . Kerr was asked whether he thought Wilkinson had personally benefited from anything he Kerr had written . Kerr avoided the question , implying that he had not , and said " I make no claim to have invented the principle of parti @-@ colouring , this principle was , of course , invented by nature " . He agreed also that he had not suggested anywhere in his letters that his system would " create an illusion as to the course of the vessel painted " . In October 1920 the Admiralty told Kerr that he was not seen as responsible for dazzle painting . In 1922 Wilkinson was awarded the sum of £ 2000 for the invention .
= = = Effectiveness = = =
Dazzle 's effectiveness was highly uncertain at the time of the First World War , but it was nonetheless adopted both in Britain and America . In 1918 , the Admiralty analysed shipping losses , but was unable to draw clear conclusions . Dazzle ships were attacked in 1 @.@ 47 % of sailings , compared to 1 @.@ 12 % for uncamouflaged ships , suggesting increased visibility , but as Wilkinson had argued , dazzle was not attempting to make ships hard to see . Suggestively , of the ships that were struck by torpedoes , 43 % of the dazzle ships sank , compared to 54 % of the uncamouflaged ; and similarly , 41 % of the dazzle ships were struck amidships , compared to 52 % of the uncamouflaged . These comparisons could be taken to imply that submarine commanders did have more difficulty in deciding where a ship was heading and where to aim . However , the ships painted in dazzle were larger than the uncamouflaged ships , 38 % of them being over 5000 tons compared to only 13 % of uncamouflaged ships , making comparisons unreliable .
With hindsight , too many factors ( choice of colour scheme ; size and speed of ships ; tactics used ) had been varied for it to be possible to determine which factors were significant or which schemes worked best . Thayer did carry out an experiment on dazzle camouflage , but it failed to show any reliable advantage over plain paintwork .
The American data were analysed by Harold Van Buskirk in 1919 . About 1256 ships were painted in dazzle between 1 March 1918 and the end of the war on 11 November that year . Among American merchantmen 2500 tons and over , 78 uncamouflaged ships were sunk , and only 18 camouflaged ships ; out of these 18 , 11 were sunk by torpedoes , 4 in collisions and 3 by mines . No US Navy ships ( all camouflaged ) were sunk in the period .
= = World War II = =
However effective dazzle camouflage may have been in World War I , it became less useful as rangefinders and especially aircraft became more advanced , and , by the time it was put to use again in World War II , radar further reduced its effectiveness . However , it may still have confounded enemy submarines .
In the Royal Navy , dazzle paint schemes reappeared in January 1940 . These were unofficial , and competitions were often held between ships for the best camouflage patterns . The Royal Navy 's Camouflage Department came up with a scheme devised by a young naval officer , Peter Scott , a wildlife artist , which were developed into the Western Approaches Schemes . In 1942 the Admiralty Intermediate Disruptive Pattern came into use , followed in 1944 by the Admiralty Standard Schemes .
The United States Navy implemented a camouflage painting program in World War II , and applied it to many ship classes , from patrol craft and auxiliaries to battleships and some Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers . The designs ( known as Measures , each identified with a number ) were not arbitrary , but were standardised in a process which involved a planning stage , then a review , and then fleet @-@ wide implementation . Not all United States Navy measures involved dazzle patterns ; some were simple or even totally unsophisticated , such as a false bow wave on traditional Haze Grey , or Deck Blue replacing grey over part or all of the ship ( the latter to counter the kamikaze threat ) . Dazzle measures were used until 1945 ; in February 1945 the United States Navy 's Pacific Fleet decided to repaint its ships in non @-@ dazzle measures against the kamikaze threat , while the Atlantic Fleet continued to use dazzle , ships being repainted if transferred to the Pacific .
Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine first used camouflage in the 1940 Norwegian campaign . A wide range of patterns were authorised , but most commonly black and white diagonal stripes were used . Most patterns were designed to hide ships in harbour or near the coast ; they were often painted over with plain grey when operating in the Atlantic .
= = Arts = =
The abstract patterns in dazzle camouflage inspired artists including Picasso . With characteristic hyperbole , he claimed credit for camouflage experiments , which seemed to him a quintessentially Cubist technique . In a conversation with Gertrude Stein shortly after he first saw a painted cannon trundling through the streets of Paris he remarked , " Yes it is we who made it , that is cubism " . In Britain , Edward Wadsworth , who supervised dazzle camouflage painting in the war , created a series of canvases after the war based on his dazzle work on ships . In Canada , Arthur Lismer used dazzle ships in some of his wartime compositions . In America , Burnell Poole painted canvases of United States Navy ships in dazzle camouflage at sea . The historian of camouflage Peter Forbes comments that the ships had a Modernist look , their designs succeeding as avant @-@ garde or Vorticist art .
In 2007 , the art of camouflage , including the evolution of dazzle , was featured as the theme for a show at the Imperial War Museum . In 2009 , the Fleet Library at the Rhode Island School of Design exhibited its rediscovered collection of lithographic printed plans for the camouflage of American World War I merchant ships , in an exhibition titled " Bedazzled " .
In 2014 , the Centenary Art Commission backed three dazzle camouflage installations in Britain : Carlos Cruz @-@ Diez covered the pilot ship Edmund Gardner in Liverpool 's Canning Dock with bright multi @-@ coloured dazzle artwork , as part of the city 's 2014 Liverpool Biennial art festival ; and Tobias Rehberger painted HMS President , anchored since 1922 at Blackfriars Bridge in London , to commemorate the use of dazzle , a century on . Peter Blake was commissioned to design exterior paintwork for Snowdrop , a Mersey Ferry , which he called " Everybody Razzle Dazzle " , combining his trademark motifs ( stars , targets etc . ) with First World War dazzle designs .
= = Other uses = =
Patterns reminiscent of dazzle camouflage are sometimes used to mask test cars during trials . During the 2015 Formula 1 testing period , the Red Bull RB11 car was painted in a scheme intended to confound rival teams ' ability to analyse its aerodynamics . The designer Adam Harvey has similarly proposed a form of camouflage reminiscent of dazzle for personal camouflage from face @-@ detection technology . It attempts to block detection by facial recognition technologies such as DeepFace " by creating an ' anti @-@ face ' " . It uses occlusion , covering certain facial features ; transformation , altering the shape or colour of parts of the face ; and a combination of the two . Since 2009 , the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society has used dazzle patterns on its fleet .
Some similarities can be drawn in the modern usage of " camos " ( short for camouflages ) on production @-@ intent cars that are not yet released but have to be tested on public roads . This kind of pattern prevents discerning the design or style even if photographs of the yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ released car are taken .
= 1991 – 92 Arsenal F.C. season =
The 1991 – 92 season was the 94th season of competitive football played by Arsenal . The club , managed by George Graham , entered the season as Football League First Division champions , with only one defeat in the previous campaign . In spite of scoring the most goals in the division , Arsenal ended the season in fourth position , ten points behind league champions Leeds United . The club exited the FA Cup after defeat by Fourth Division opponents Wrexham and fell at the same stage of the Football League Cup to fellow First Division club Coventry City . Arsenal represented England in the European Cup ; the club was the first to do so since the ban on English teams from playing in European club competitions . Their time in the competition was brief however as Portuguese team Benfica eliminated them in the second round .
Arsenal signed striker Ian Wright for a club record fee of £ 2 @.@ 5 million in September 1991 . Defender Pål Lydersen and midfielder Jimmy Carter later joined the club . Stuart Young moved to Hull City , whereas Michael Thomas joined Liverpool .
After undertaking a series of friendlies , Arsenal played Tottenham Hotspur in the Charity Shield and drew 0 – 0 to share the honour . Defeats by Everton and Aston Villa set the tone for the league season as the team were left with much to do ; a poor run of form during the Christmas and New Year period effectively ruled the team out of retaining the championship . Arsenal finished the season strongly however – unbeaten in 16 matches , to end the campaign in fourth place . Wright was Arsenal 's top goalscorer with 26 goals .
= = Background = =
Arsenal 's failure to retain the league championship in the 1989 – 90 season prompted manager George Graham to make changes to improve his side ; he signed goalkeeper David Seaman and Swedish winger Anders Limpar in the close season . Arsenal made a good start to the league campaign , but had two points deducted in October 1990 , after ten of their players were involved in a brawl with Manchester United players , in a match at Old Trafford . In December , captain Tony Adams was sentenced to four months ' imprisonment for drink driving . Despite these setbacks , Arsenal lost only one league match all season ( away to Chelsea ) and finished on 83 points , seven ahead of runners @-@ up Liverpool . They also reached the FA Cup semi @-@ finals , where they faced Tottenham Hotspur . Midfielder Paul Gascoigne scored from a free kick after just five minutes and Tottenham went on to win 3 – 1 , ending hopes of a second Double . Nevertheless , the impressive league form prompted Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson to comment that Arsenal had the platform to " do really well next season " , particularly in Europe .
It was the last season that Arsenal played in front of their famous North Bank terrace , which was being demolished over the summer of 1992 to make way for a new all @-@ seater stand which was scheduled for completion during 1993 , by which time Highbury was set to have an all @-@ seater capacity of just under 40 @,@ 000 . These changes were necessary due to the Taylor Report , which required all clubs in the highest two divisions of English football to have an all @-@ seater stadium by August 1994 .
= = = Transfers = = =
Striker Ian Wright moved from Crystal Palace to Arsenal a month into the season ; at £ 2 @.@ 5 million he became the club 's most expensive signing yet . Palace chairman Ron Noades revealed the club had offered the player a new deal , but " Ian was hankering for a move . He wanted to play in Europe and Arsenal was the club he wanted to join . " Arsenal paid £ 500 @,@ 000 each for midfielder Jimmy Carter and Pål Lydersen , a Norwegian defender . Graham and Lydersen were in attendance for Norway 's international match against the Soviet Union in September 1991 ; he later agreed personal terms to join Arsenal . In December 1991 , Michael Thomas left Arsenal and moved to Liverpool , the club he famously scored against to win the league title for Arsenal in 1989 .
Loan out
= = Pre @-@ season and friendlies = =
In preparation for the forthcoming season , Arsenal played a series of friendles . The tour of Sweden was a success , with three wins in the space of a week . Arsenal then travelled back to England and beat Plymouth Argyle , before hosting Celtic , Panathinaikos and Sampdoria at Highbury . Arsenal ended their pre @-@ season with a 3 – 1 victory against Watford , who staged their centenary match . Three further friendles were played in 1992 , one of which was a testimonial for Barry Fry , the manager of Barnet .
Colour key : Green
= Arsenal win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win . Arsenal score ordered first . Source :
= = FA Charity Shield = =
As league champions , Arsenal contested the 1991 FA Charity Shield against local rivals Tottenham Hotspur , who had beaten Nottingham Forest to win the 1991 FA Cup Final . Anders Limpar was absent for Arsenal , as he had sustained a knee injury while on duty for Sweden . David O 'Leary started in place of the injured Steve Bould and midfielder David Hillier was picked ahead of Michael Thomas in midfield . In spite of dominating territorial advantage , Arsenal were held to a 0 – 0 draw , meaning each team held the trophy for six months . Graham commentated that Arsenal played below their usual standard and accepted that his team needed to work on their finishing , in order to make use of their possession .
= = Football League First Division = =
A total of 22 teams competed in the First Division in the 1991 – 92 season . Each team played 42 matches ; two against every other team and one match at each club 's stadium . Three points were awarded for each win , one point per draw , and none for defeats . This was Arsenal 's final season in the Football League ; in 1992 they and 21 other clubs joined the newly formed Premier League , which became the top division of English football from the 1992 – 93 season onwards .
= = = August – October = = =
Arsenal started their defence of the league championship at home to Queens Park Rangers on 17 August 1991 . It was the visitors who had led the match right from the 15th minute , but for Arsenal midfielder Paul Merson to earn his side a point after equalising well into stoppage time . The draw according to The Independent showcased the need for reinforcements : " ... not just to improve the squad , but also to cause a buzz in the dressing room " . Arsenal were beaten 3 – 1 by Everton at Goodison Park three days after and lost to Aston Villa by the same scoreline . Graham dismissed any talk of crisis , saying " I have been in football too long to think it is going to be nice and comfortable every season " and felt the performance at Villa showed signs of improvement compared to the earlier league fixtures . A 2 – 0 win at home to Luton Town was followed by victory against Manchester City , where Alan Smith and Limpar scored a goal apiece .
September began with a trip to Elland Road to face Leeds United . Arsenal 's two @-@ goal led was overturned by the opposition , who secured a draw after Lee Chapman equalised in injury time . Had this been the winning goal , " it would have been a gross injustice for Arsenal " opined John Roberts of The Independent . Lee Dixon scored an " amazing " own goal against Coventry City on 7 September 1991 , which set Arsenal on their way to their third defeat of the season . The team responded by defeating Crystal Palace 4 – 1 ; Kevin Campbell scored his first two goals of the league season . Arsenal scored four first half goals against Sheffield United on 21 September 1991 – the game ended 5 – 2 , which moved them into seventh position – three places up from the previous weekend . By the time Campbell scored Arsenal 's fourth " ... the North Bank was entitled to sound the ironic chant , ' Boring , boring , Arsenal ' , " said reporter Jasper Rees . Wright scored three league goals for Arsenal on his league debut , away to Southampton .
Arsenal defeated Chelsea at home in the first weekend of October . The team found themselves two goals down after 20 minutes , but a converted Dixon penalty and goals from Wright and Campbell turned the score around in their favour . Arsenal came away from Old Trafford with a point against league leaders Manchester United on 19 October 1991 . After a midweek European football match , Arsenal beat Notts County by two goals , a result which moved them fourth in the table .
= = = November – February = = =
The visit of West Ham United to Highbury produced a 1 – 0 defeat for Arsenal ; the winning goal scored by Mike Small came in the 76th minute . Arsenal 's conserved performance was attributed to their upcoming European Cup match , something Graham categorically denied : " I 'm not even thinking about next Wednesday . " Arsenal drew away to Oldham Athletic and then Sheffield Wednesday , extending a winless run of five games in all competitions . The team beat Tottenham on 1 December 1991 to go fourth in the league table , 10 points behind the leaders . Arsenal 's aspiration to defend the league title suffered to Nottingham Forest ; though the team scored twice in the second half they were unable to overturn the home side 's three @-@ goal lead and collected no points . David Hillier opined that his team " should have done better in the first half – that 's when we really lost it . " Wright scored all of Arsenal 's four goals against Everton , but scored none in the team 's Boxing Day defeat by Luton Town . Graham called it Arsenal 's worst performance of the season and was critical of his players ' attitude . Although the team 's concentration and effort improved according to Peter Ball of The Times in their next game – away to Manchester City , Arsenal lost for the second consecutive league match . They ended the calendar year in seventh position , 16 points behind the leaders Manchester United .
January saw Arsenal 's title challenge falter ; the team went on a four @-@ match winless run . At home , they only merited draws to Wimbledon , Aston Villa and QPR – the latter two were scoreless . Arsenal were beaten 2 – 0 by Liverpool on 29 January 1992 ; journalist Derek Hodgson said this was in spite of playing " crisper " and more confident football . A draw against Manchester United on 1 February 1992 came before a win away to Notts County . A crowd of 22 @,@ 352 witnessed Arsenal draw once more at home , this time against Norwich City . Rockets were launched on the pitch during the match by Arsenal supporters , in protest of the club 's bond scheme . Arsenal recorded their biggest win of the season , scoring seven past Sheffield Wednesday , on 15 February 1992 . Campbell , who began the match as a substitute , came on and scored two goals ; six of Arsenal 's goals came in the second half . Arsenal ended February with a 1 – 1 draw away to Tottenham . After 30 games , the team were in sixth position , 18 points behind Manchester United in first .
= = = March – May = = =
After a fortnight of inactivity in all competitions Arsenal faced Oldham Athletic at Highbury . The team won 2 – 1 on a day where O 'Leary registered his 700th league appearance . Wright scored both of Arsenal 's goals against West Ham on 14 March 1992 , which inflicted a fifth consecutive league defeat on his opponents . Merson 's late equaliser against Leeds United the following week earnt Arsenal a point . Against Wimbledon Ray Parlour scored inside the first minute , which set Arsenal on to a 3 – 1 victory . The third win in four league matches moved Arsenal to fifth position and left journalist Ball to opine : " How the champions must be regretting earlier inconsistency . " March ended with a " highly entertaining game " so said match reporter Dennis Signy between Arsenal and Nottingham Forest at Highbury . Arsenal took the lead after five minutes when Dixon converted a penalty kick – it was awarded after Ian Woan was adjudged to have fouled Limpar in the 18 @-@ yard box . Forest equalised in the 41st minute , and made it 2 – 1 moments before the interval . They extend their lead through Roy Keane in the 71st minute , but Arsenal scored twice in the final five minutes to draw .
A 1 – 0 victory against Coventry City meant Arsenal were five points behind Sheffield Wednesday , who lay in third spot . Arsenal continued their strong finish to the season by scoring seven goals in the space of three days – three away to Norwich City and four at home to Crystal Palace . The team , without the suspended Wright for the trip to Sheffield United came away from Bramall Lane with a point . Arsenal beat Liverpool 4 – 0 on 21 April 1992 , which marked the opposition 's biggest defeat in nine years . A draw at Chelsea ended Arsenal 's chances of finishing in a UEFA Cup place . Arsenal ended the league campaign with a 5 – 1 win against Southampton at home . Wright overtook Tottenham striker Gary Lineker as the league 's top goalscorer by scoring three on the day which took his total to 29 ( 24 of those scored for Arsenal ) – one more than Lineker .
= = = Results = = =
Colour key : Green
= Arsenal win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win . Arsenal score ordered first .
= = = Classification = = =
Source :
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored ( C )
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P )
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O )
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q )
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ )
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = = = Results summary = = = =
Source :
= = = = League position = = = =
Source : Ground : A
= Away ; H =
Home . Result : D
= Draw ; L =
Loss ; W
= Win ; P =
Postponed .
= = FA Cup = =
Arsenal entered the FA Cup in the third round ( last 64 ) , in which they were drawn to face Wrexham of the Football League Fourth Division away from home . Smith 's goal had given Arsenal the lead just before half time , but Wrexham equalised through a Mickey Thomas free kick with eight minutes of the match remaining . Steve Watkin scored the winning goal two minutes after , once Adams failed to clear the ball in the penalty box . The cup exit did not prompt Graham to criticse his players ; he bluntly said : " I thought they played very well . We just didn 't finish them off . "
The result was described by BBC Sport in 2011 as " one of the greatest FA Cup giant @-@ killings of all time " .
Colour key : Green
= Arsenal win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win . Arsenal score ordered first .
= = Football League Cup = =
Arsenal entered the Football League Cup in the second round , where they were drawn against Leicester City in a two @-@ legged tie . The first match ended 1 – 1 ; Wright scored 44 minutes into his debut . Wright and Merson each scored for Arsenal in the second leg which ensured progress into the third round . It was there the team exited the competition following a 1 – 0 defeat , away to Coventry City .
Colour key : Green
= Arsenal win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win . Arsenal score ordered first .
= = European Cup = =
As league champions , Arsenal participated in the European Cup , where they were drawn to face Austria Wien in the first round . This marked the first time that England was represented in Europe 's premier competition since the Heysel disaster in 1985 . In the first leg , Arsenal were awarded a penalty after 24 minutes , which Dixon missed . Linighan opened the scoring seven minutes before the interval , when goalkeeper Iliya Valov failed to deal with a cross . Smith then scored four goals for the team in the space of 16 minutes – " The England striker responded resoundingly to Graham Taylor 's criticism of his ineffective performance against Germany a week earlier , " said The Guardian correspondent David Lacey . Andreas Ogris reduced Arsenal 's lead , before Limpar added a sixth , taking the ball on unchallenged and shooting from a narrow angle . Arsenal lost the second leg 1 – 0 at the Franz Horr Stadium on 2 October 1991 , but progressed as they won 6 – 2 on aggregate .
In spite of earning a draw against Benfica away from home the following round , first leg , Arsenal were eliminated from the tournament , in extra time at home on 6 November 1991 . Graham offered no complaints in witnessing his side going out , by saying : " Benfica played very well once we went 1 – 0 up . Their attack was superb . We could have done with more anticipation in the box . "
Colour key : Green
= Arsenal win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win . Arsenal score ordered first .
= = Squad statistics = =
Arsenal used a total of 24 players during the 1991 – 92 season and there were 16 different goalscorers . There were also two squad members who did not make a first @-@ team appearance in the campaign . Merson featured in 50 matches – the most of any Arsenal player in the campaign . Seaman started in all 42 league matches . The team scored a total of 92 goals in all competitions . The top goalscorer was Wright , with 26 goals – 24 of which were scored in the league .
Key
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute . Players with name struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Source :
= M @-@ 103 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 103 is a state trunkline highway entirely within St. Joseph County in the southwestern region of the U.S. state of Michigan . The trunkline runs between U.S. Highway 12 ( US 12 ) in Mottville and the Indiana state line along undivided highway near the St. Joseph River . With the connection to State Road 15 ( SR 15 ) , it provides access to the Indiana Toll Road . The current highway is the second to carry the number ; the first version of M @-@ 103 has been incorporated into the routing of US 131 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 103 is the continuation of SR 15 in Michigan . It starts at State Line Road which runs along the state line east from M @-@ 103 . From here north to the terminus in Mottville , M @-@ 103 parallels the St. Joseph River running through farmlands . South of town , it runs past the Mottville Township Cemetery . Between John and Water streets , M @-@ 103 intersects and ends at US 12 . The highway has not been listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads important to the country 's economy , defense and mobility .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) tracks traffic volumes along the roads it maintains . These volumes are expressed as the average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measurement of the number of vehicles on a stretch of roadway for any average day of the year . For the 2008 survey , traffic volume was 3 @,@ 604 vehicles per day , with 437 commercial vehicles in the tally . In 2009 , the numbers increased to 8 @,@ 252 vehicles total and 1287 commercial vehicles .
= = History = =
M @-@ 103 was first designated as a state trunkline in 1932 . The first version ran from SR 13 at the state line northerly to the junction with US 112 and US 131 in White Pigeon . At the time , US 131 turned westerly along US 112 before turning south to connect with SR 15 . This first version of M @-@ 103 was completed paved by 1934 . The routings of US 131 and M @-@ 103 were swapped south of US 12 ( successor to US 112 ) by 1960 . Since that time , M @-@ 103 has been routed between US 12 and SR 15 in western Mottville Township and US 131 has run due south of White Pigeon to SR 13 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Mottville Township , St. Joseph County .
= Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 =
Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 ( ファイナルファンタジーX @-@ 2 , Fainaru Fantajī Ten Tsū ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Square for the PlayStation 2 , as the direct sequel to Final Fantasy X. The game 's story follows the character Yuna from Final Fantasy X as she seeks to resolve political conflicts in the fictional world of Spira before it all leads to war .
Final Fantasy X2 set several precedents in the Final Fantasy series aside from being the first direct sequel in video game form and the second sequel in the franchise , after the anime Final Fantasy : Legend of the Crystals . It was the first game in the series to feature only three player characters , an all @-@ female main cast , and early access to most of the game 's locations . Additionally , it featured a variation of the character classes system — one of the series ' classic gameplay concepts — and is one of the few games in the series to feature multiple endings . Finally , it was the first Final Fantasy game in the series that did not have musical contributions in it from longtime composer Nobuo Uematsu .
The game was positively received by critics and was commercially successful . After nine months of being released in Japan , it sold a million copies in North America , and approximately four million copies worldwide . Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 was voted as the 32nd best game of all time by the readers of Famitsu . The English version of the game won an award for " Outstanding Achievement in Character Performance " at the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences in 2004 . The game has attained a rating of 86 % on GameRankings and an 85 % rating on Metacritic . The game was re @-@ released as a high @-@ definition port for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita in 2013 , together with Final Fantasy X , under the title Final Fantasy X / X @-@ 2 HD Remaster . It was also re @-@ released for the PlayStation 4 in May 2015 . In October 2013 , Square Enix announced Final Fantasy X and its sequel Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 have together sold over 14 million copies worldwide on PlayStation 2 .
= = Gameplay = =
Though a direct sequel to Final Fantasy X , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 does not duplicate its predecessor 's gameplay ; instead , it innovates on traditional elements . Like pre @-@ Final Fantasy X installments , characters " level up " after a certain number of battles , by gaining pre @-@ determined stat bonuses . The conditional turn @-@ based battle system in Final Fantasy X has been replaced by a faster @-@ paced variation of the Final Fantasy series ' traditional active time battle ( ATB ) system , which was originally designed by Hiroyuki Ito and first featured in Final Fantasy IV . Whenever a random enemy is encountered , the ATB system is used . Under this enhanced version of the ATB , playable characters may interrupt an enemy while they are preparing to take action , in lieu of waiting for an enemy 's turn to finish before attacking . Furthermore , it is possible for both characters and enemies to chain attacks together for greater damage .
= = = Navigation and quests = = =
Another departure from the gameplay of Final Fantasy X is in its world navigation system : players can visit almost every location in Spira from early in the game , transported via the airship Celsius . This is a deviation from the overall Final Fantasy series , where the most efficient means of transportation is typically not obtained until late in the game .
These two changes allow players to choose a less linear storyline . Unlike Final Fantasy X , in which a player 's course through the game 's world was largely straightforward , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 is almost entirely free form . The game consists of five chapters , with each location featuring one scenario per chapter . Put together , the five scenarios in one locale form a subplot of the game , called an " Episode " . Only a few scenarios per chapter are integral to the game 's central plot , and are marked on the world navigation system as " Hotspots " ( " Active Links " in the Japanese version ) . By accessing only Hotspots , a player can quickly proceed through the game 's story without participating in sidequests .
The game keeps track of the player 's completed percentage of the storyline , increased by viewing the scenarios comprising each Episode . If 100 % of the game is completed , an additional ending will be unlocked . The game features a fork in its plot , allowing the player to make a choice that changes what scenes they see and the number of percentage points they acquire afterward . It is impossible to see all of the game 's content on a single playthrough , due to this fork in the storyline , although it is possible to achieve 100 % storyline completion in a single playthrough . However , a 100 % storyline completion can only be achieved through one of the two possible storylines . When the game is completed for the first time , it unlocks a New Game Plus option that allows the player to restart the game with all of the items , Garment Grids , dresspheres and storyline completion percentage achieved previously . However , all character levels are set back to one .
The field @-@ map navigation system is largely unchanged from Final Fantasy X ; it is still dominantly three dimensional with mostly continuous locations . A few upgrades have been implemented , providing the player with extended interaction with the environment through jumping , climbing and rotating camera angles .
The game 's sidequests include minor tasks and quests , optional bosses and dungeons , and the most minigames of any Final Fantasy at the time of its release . These minigames include Gunner 's Gauntlet ( a third @-@ person / first @-@ person shooter game ) and Sphere Break ( a mathematical coin game involving addition and multiplication ) , as well as the fictional underwater sport blitzball originally featured in Final Fantasy X with a different control scheme . Director Motomu Toriyama has explained that one of the concepts at issue during development was providing a large variety of minigames , such that " if you bought Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 you wouldn 't need any other game " .
= = = Dresspheres and the Garment Grid = = =
Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 reintroduces the series ' classic character class system ( seen previously in Final Fantasy III , Final Fantasy V and Final Fantasy Tactics ) through the inclusion of dresspheres . Because the party never grows beyond three characters , switching characters during battle is unnecessary . Instead , the player can switch character classes , providing access to different abilities . The playable characters are allowed to equip one dressphere at a time , each providing different battle functions and abilities . Characters can learn new skills for each dressphere with the use of Ability Points ( AP ) . AP is obtained by defeating enemies and by the use of items and abilities for that sphere . Abilities to be learned are chosen in the main menu . During battle , AP is given to that ability until it is learned . Each character can access as many as six dresspheres at a time , depending on the specific properties of the Garment Grid they are wearing . The Garment Grid is a placard featuring a geometric shape connected by nodes . These nodes are slots that can be filled with dresspheres , allowing characters to change character classes during their turn in battle . Most Garment Grids possess Gates that when passed through grant the user a complimentary buff .
As with equipped items , Garment Grids often provide characters with a variety of enhancements and extra abilities . The game features diverse Garment Grids and dresspheres which can be discovered as the game progresses . While normal dresspheres can be used by all three playable characters , each character can acquire a dressphere that only they can use . These dresspheres can only be activated after a character has changed into all of the classes designated to her Garment Grid in a single battle . When a character activates one of these dresspheres , the other characters are replaced by two controllable support units .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
While the setting of the original Final Fantasy X was decidedly somber , in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , the main characters were fitted with a jovial Charlie 's Angels @-@ like motif . Aesthetically , the world of Spira is essentially unchanged in the two years since Final Fantasy X. Most areas are from the original return ( exceptions being the Omega Ruins and Baaj Temple ) , with few new locations . The only significant changes include the reconstruction of the village of Kilika and the clearing of the mist atop Mt . Gagazet , revealing forgotten ruins . Additionally , the Palace of St. Bevelle is now accessible throughout the game , rather than only during mandatory storyline sequences . However , even with Sin gone , fiends are no less populous than before .
Despite cosmetic changes , there are major differences in the ideology of Spira 's people . After Sin 's defeat came the arrival of an era known as " the Eternal Calm " . The priests of the Yevon religion chose to expose the truth about the order , leaving the population to decide for themselves how to live in a world without that particular religion , and without Sin . Advanced technology and the Al Bhed are now embraced by the population as a whole , and most have begun to pursue leisures such as attending musical concerts and participating in the sport of blitzball . Others have become hunters of ancient treasures , ranging from coins and machinery long buried under the sands on Bikanel Island to spheres in forgotten caves and ruins . Those who pursue the latter are known as " sphere hunters " , of which many groups have formed .
Despite the absence of Sin and the corrupt maesters of Yevon , Spira is not without conflict . Young people were especially quick to abandon Yevon and embrace machinery ( called " machina " in the game ) , eager to see Spira develop , while many of the older generation felt that cultural changes were happening too quickly . As new ideals and practices began to sweep Spira , several new political groups emerged . Most influential among them were the Youth League , led by Mevyn Nooj , and the New Yevon Party , led by a former priest named " Trema " until his disappearance , and later by Praetor Baralai . The Youth League consists mainly of young people , determined to see Spira completely abandon its past practices , while the New Yevon Party consists of members both old and young who felt that changes should be gradual , their motto being , " One thing at a time " .
Following their formation , both the Youth League and New Yevon sought High Summoner Yuna 's support in the hopes of bolstering their political presence . She chose to remain neutral , instead joining the Gullwings , the sphere hunter group to which her cousins Brother and Rikku belonged . She also began working with the excavation team of the Machine Faction , a neutral group of Al Bhed researching more advanced machina technology , and led by a young man named " Gippal " .
As time passed , tensions between the Youth League and New Yevon began to escalate towards violence . Meanwhile , Yuna sought spheres that she hoped would lead her to Tidus , her lost love who vanished during the ending of Final Fantasy X. After defeating Sin , Yuna initially retired to a quiet life on the island of Besaid , arranging appointments daily with the citizens of Spira . However , Rikku brought Yuna a video sphere discovered on Mt . Gagazet by her childhood guardian , Kimahri , now the elder of the Ronso Tribe . The sphere displayed a young man with a strong resemblance to Tidus , apparently locked inside a prison cell . Despite misgivings from Wakka — now married to his childhood friend , Lulu — Rikku convinced Yuna that she had fulfilled her duty to Spira and deserved to follow her heart . Yuna then left Besaid to join the Gullwings and hunt for more clues about the identity of the man shown in the sphere in the hope that it might be Tidus .
Whereas Final Fantasy X drew heavily on ancient Japanese culture and Asian settings , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 incorporated a number of elements from modern Japanese pop culture . An exception , however , is the Trainer dressphere , featuring the game 's main characters fighting alongside a dog , monkey and bird , the three animals befriended by the Japanese folk hero Momotarō in a traditional story . Another exception is the Samurai dressphere , which features each character fighting in traditional Japanese samurai armor .
= = = Characters = = =
The three main playable characters of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 are Yuna , Rikku , and Paine , whose team is abbreviated in @-@ game as " YRP " ( " YuRiPa " in the original Japanese version ) . Yuna and Rikku reprise their roles from Final Fantasy X , and , though their personalities are much the same as before , Square decided that their appearances would be heavily altered to give a greater impression of activity . Furthermore , it was decided that the pervading cultural changes occurring in Final Fantasy X 's world as they and others began trying to live positively would be reflected in the new clothing of these two characters . The character of Paine is a new creation designed for inclusion in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , to accommodate the game 's intended action @-@ adventure style revolving around a trio of female characters . Her personality is far more cynical and emotionally distant than that of her teammates , and she keeps her past a secret from them for much of the game .
Several other major and supporting characters from Final Fantasy X appear in the game . Additionally , other new characters are introduced in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , such as the Leblanc Syndicate , a group of sphere hunters who serve as the Gullwings ' rivals for much of the game . The game 's main antagonist is Shuyin , another new character .
= = = Story = = =
The story begins as Yuna , Rikku and Paine recover Yuna 's stolen Garment Grid from the Leblanc Syndicate in the first of several encounters in which they vie for spheres . The game is punctuated by a narration of Yuna addressing Tidus , as though she is recounting the events of the game to him as they occur . Although Yuna 's quest is to find clues that may lead her to Tidus , much of the storyline of the game follows the clash of the factions that have established themselves in the time since the coming of the Eternal Calm in Final Fantasy X , and the uncovering of hidden legacies from Spira 's ancient history . A significant portion of the game 's events are unnecessary for the completion of the main storyline , but much of the depth of the story — including characterization and background details — are featured in the optional content , which generally follows how Spira is healing in the time since the defeat of Sin .
As the game progresses , the hostilities between the Youth League and New Yevon come to a head . Meanwhile , the Gullwings discover an ancient sphere containing images of an enormous machina weapon called " Vegnagun " that was secretly buried beneath Bevelle . The weapon has enough power to threaten all of Spira , and , moreover , it is revealed that Vegnagun 's AI is unable to distinguish friend from foe once activated . The Gullwings then join forces with the Leblanc Syndicate to investigate the underground areas of the city in an attempt to destroy the machine before it can be used by either side in the upcoming conflict . However , discovering a large tunnel recently dug into the floor of the weapon 's chamber , they realize that Vegnagun has apparently moved to the Farplane , located at Spira 's core .
Disagreements between Spira 's factions are soon punctuated further after the disappearance of Baralai , Nooj , and Gippal — the leaders of New Yevon , the Youth League and the Machine Faction respectively . Returning to the underground areas of Bevelle , the Gullwings discover the missing faction leaders discussing Vegnagun and learn that the machine 's AI allows it to detect hostility and to respond by activating itself and fleeing . Additionally , it is revealed that Nooj had come to Bevelle with the intention of destroying Vegnagun previously , prompting it to flee to the Farplane .
The player then learns that Paine had once been friends with all three men , assigned to be their sphere recorder while they were candidates for the Crimson Squad , an elite group intended to be assigned leadership of Crusader chapters across Spira . Two years earlier in a cave beneath Mushroom Rock Road called " the Den of Woe , " just before the failed Operation Mi 'ihen , the squad 's final exercise was conducted . Within the cave , the various squad candidates were swarmed by pyreflies and driven to kill one another . The only survivors were Paine , Baralai , Gippal , and Nooj , who were themselves targeted by the Order of Yevon afterward when they revealed having seen images of Vegnagun while in the cave . Soon after , Nooj shot his surviving comrades and left them to die , severing the friendship the group had with one another . However , at this time , it is revealed that he was not acting of his own accord when he shot them . The feelings that drove the squad members to kill one another are revealed to have been the despair of the spirit Shuyin , who died 1000 years earlier . Before the four survivors could leave the cave , the spirit of Shuyin — requiring a host in order to interact with the world physically — had possessed Nooj , and later forced him to shoot his comrades .
Failing to control Nooj , Shuyin possesses Baralai 's body , pursuing Vegnagun to the Farplane . Nooj and Gippal follow in pursuit , asking Yuna to keep things under control on the surface . In doing so , the player must fight and defeat each of Yuna 's aeons from Final Fantasy X , their spirits now corrupted by Shuyin 's despair on the Farplane . During this mission , Yuna falls into the Farplane and meets Shuyin , who mistakes her for a woman named " Lenne " . Shuyin expresses his anger that Spira 's citizens have not yet come to understand the heartache that war can cause , and reveals that he has developed a plan to use the old ( but still operational ) Vegnagun to destroy all of Spira , ending the possibility of there ever being a war again . In so doing , he believes that he will be making the world a better place .
The player learns that 1000 years before the game , Shuyin was a famous blitzball player in the high @-@ tech metropolis of Zanarkand , and the lover of a popular songstress and summoner — Lenne . The two lived during Zanarkand 's war with the more powerful Bevelle , and during the course of the war , Zanarkand ordered all summoners to the front lines , separating the couple . Believing that Lenne would die in battle , Shuyin decided that the only way to save her was to infiltrate Bevelle , commandeer Vegnagun , and use it to destroy Zanarkand 's enemies . However , Lenne perceived Shuyin 's intentions , and — unwilling to allow him to take the lives of many others for her sake — followed him . When she caught up to Shuyin in Bevelle , he had only just begun to operate Vegnagun 's control panel . Before he could use Vegnagun , Lenne begged him to stop . Shuyin yielded , but a group of Bevelle soldiers arrived a moment later and shot the couple . Over the course of the following 1000 years , Shuyin 's despair and resentment over his failure to save Lenne grew to the point that they began acting on their own .
Now with an understanding of Shuyin 's hatred for war , Yuna manages to return to the surface , and the Gullwings organize a concert to which everyone in Spira is invited , supporters of the Youth League and New Yevon alike . Additionally , the Songstress dressphere worn by Yuna is revealed to hold Lenne 's memories , resulting in a sphere screen projecting them to everyone in attendance during the concert . Witnessing images of Shuyin and Lenne 's last moments , Spira 's citizens begin to understand the unproductive nature of their disagreements . The player then learns that it was because of Lenne 's memories that Shuyin had mistaken Yuna for Lenne .
Although the factional fighting has ceased , Shuyin has nearly carried out his plan to destroy Spira with Vegnagun . Joining forces with the Leblanc Syndicate once again , the Gullwings make their way to the Farplane and find Gippal and Nooj already battling Vegnagun . Working together , they manage to disable the giant machina before its cannon can fire at Spira . Finally confronting Shuyin , Lenne 's consciousness emerges from the Songstress dressphere and convinces him to abandon his mission and be at peace . Thanking Yuna , Lenne guides Shuyin 's spirit to peace on the Farplane .
Subsequently , the fayth once located in Bevelle appears before Yuna and thanks her as well . He then asks her if she would like to see " him " again . If the player replies with " Yes " , and a sufficient percentage of the game 's optional storyline has been completed , the fayth locates Tidus 's scattered pyreflies and sends them to Besaid , where they reform ; thus , when Yuna returns home , she is reunited with Tidus . Players who achieve 100 % completion in addition to reviving Tidus will see an additional reunion scene in Zanarkand where the pair discuss whether he is truly real or still a dream .
= = Development = =
Development of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 began in late 2001 in response to the success of Final Fantasy X , particularly fan reaction to the Eternal Calm video included in the Japanese version of Final Fantasy X International . It was released in Japan shortly before the merger between Square and Enix . The game 's eventual name , X @-@ 2 , was initially not liked by the production team , but it was eventually accepted since the story was a direct continuation of X and thus could not be the next numbered title in the series . Kazushige Nojima , the previous game 's writer , was also skeptical about the creation of a sequel . Something he was particularly averse to originally was the happy ending , which he felt was wrong for the story . The production team was one third the size of the previous installment . This was because the team was already familiar with the material and it allowed them to give a hand @-@ crafted feel to the game . In designing the game , a significant number of character models , enemies , and location designs from Final Fantasy X were reused . Character designer Tetsuya Nomura has explained that this allowed the game to be developed in one year and at half the normal scope Final Fantasy titles are normally produced . Maya and Softimage 3D were the two main programs used to create the graphics .
Producer Yoshinori Kitase and director Motomu Toriyama have explained that the objective in mind when designing Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 was to embrace the concept of change as the game 's theme and establish a more upbeat atmosphere than its predecessor . To portray the drastic change in Spira , the developers excluded summons , redesigned towns , and included vehicles . The low @-@ flying vehicles were added to allow the player quicker access and mobility to the areas that were already available in the previous title . Because of the emphasis on a more optimistic setting , the game 's dressphere system ( inspired by the magical girl subgenre of anime and manga ) was implemented , and the atmosphere of J @-@ pop introduced right from the game 's opening sequence . Additional allusions to popular culture in general were featured , such as the style of Charlie 's Angels . Though work on the opening song and motion capture began early in development , the opening sequence was actually the last portion of the game to be completed .
= = = Audio = = =
For Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu was replaced by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi of The Bouncer fame . Among the game 's more notable tracks are two vocalized songs : the J @-@ pop @-@ style " Real Emotion " and a more slowly @-@ paced ballad , " 1000 Words " . The Japanese versions of the songs are sung by Kumi Koda , a Japanese music artist who also performed motion capture for the " Real Emotion " opening full motion video and provided the voice of Lenne in the Japanese version of the game . Koda also released her own English versions of the songs on her CD single Come with Me . The English versions of the songs are sung by Jade Villalon of Sweetbox . She released extended versions of the songs she sang as bonus tracks on the Japanese release of her album , Adagio . While similar , the lyrics of Koda Kumi 's versions differ from those sung by Jade Villalon .
= = Versions and merchandise = =
As with Final Fantasy X , an expanded international version was produced for Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . This version of the game , titled Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission , introduces two new dresspheres , an additional " Last Mission " at a location called " Yadonoki Tower , " and the option to capture numerous monsters and characters including Tidus , Auron and Seymour from Final Fantasy X — as well as several supporting characters from both games — during battle . This version was never released outside Japan , although the English voices were used for the main story in the International version ( not in the Last Mission ) . Due to this change , parts of the Japanese subtitles were changed or altered to fit the voice @-@ overs . This was detailed in the official strategy book for the International version ( see below ) . In 2005 , a compilation featuring Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 was released in Japan under the title Final Fantasy X / X @-@ 2 Ultimate Box .
Several action figures , books and soundtracks were released by Square Enix . Among the books that were published were three Ultimania guidebooks , a series of artbooks / strategy guides published by Square Enix in Japan . They feature original artwork from Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , offer gameplay walkthroughs , expand upon many aspects of the game 's storyline , and feature several interviews with the game 's designers . There are three books in the series : Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Ultimania , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Ultimania Ω , and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 : International + Last Mission Ultimania . A similar three @-@ book series was produced for Final Fantasy X.
Gaming peripheral company Hori produced PlayStation 2 controllers modeled after the Tiny Bee guns Yuna uses in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . These controllers were released only in Japan . They were re @-@ released in a new silver box to coincide with the release of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 : International + Last Mission . They also released a vertical stand for the console , to be used with the first PlayStation 2 models , not the slim , holds the console in upright position . The accessory has a Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 logo that lightens up in blue color when plugged in to a powered console , no additional power supply required as the power is taken from the PS2 USB port .
On September 13 , 2011 , Square Enix announced that Final Fantasy X would be re @-@ released in high @-@ definition for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita , in celebration of the game 's 10 year anniversary . Yet rumors spread that it would also include its sequel Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 In January 2012 , production of the game had started . Producer Yoshinori Kitase will once again be involved in the production of the game , wishing to work on its quality , yet again no confirmation yet of the inclusion of the sequel . On February 18 , 2013 the first footage of the PlayStation Vita version of Final Fantasy X HD was released , showing off HD models of Tidus , Yuna , Bahamut and Yojimbo . On 19 March , it was confirmed that the PS3 version of the game would also include its sequel X @-@ 2 , and that it would also be remastered in HD and would be based on the International version . Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Last mission was announced to be also included in HD as well . The HD remastered games for the PS3 was released under the title Final Fantasy X / X @-@ 2 HD Remaster . The two games were sold separately on PlayStation Vita in Japan with Final Fantasy X International HD to include Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy X Eternal Calm and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 HD Remaster to include Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Last Mission . They were sold together with a voucher to download Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 + Last Mission for free in regions outside Japan as well as in Japan . Square Enix launched an official website for the two HD remastered titles in March 2013 . During the PlayStation China press conference that took place in Shanghai on December 11 , 2014 , Square Enix has confirmed Final Fantasy X / X @-@ 2 HD Remaster will be available for the PlayStation 4 in Spring 2015 .
= = Reception = =
Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 sold over 1 @.@ 94 million copies in Japan in 2003 as the highest @-@ selling game of the year . Within nine months of its Japanese release , it sold more than a million copies in North America ( within two months of its release there ) , and nearly four million copies worldwide . It went on to sell 2 @.@ 11 million units in Japan , 1 @.@ 85 million units in the United States , and more than 100 @,@ 000 units in the United Kingdom . International + Last Mission sold over 288 @,@ 000 copies in Japan over the course of 2004 . In October 2013 , Square Enix announced Final Fantasy X and its sequel Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 have together sold over 14 million copies worldwide on PlayStation 2 .
It was voted as the 32nd best game of all time by readers of the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu , which also gave it a 34 out of 40 . The English release of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 won the Seventh Annual Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences award in 2004 for " Outstanding Achievement in Character Performance " in recognition of the character Rikku .
Multimedia website IGN felt that the game 's shift in tone is " part of what makes [ it ] so intriguing , " labeling the storyline " a deep political drama " that " always manages to keep from taking things too seriously . " They also commented that the game " treats its history with intelligence " and " its returning characters ... just as clever " . Further positive reaction came from RPGamer , with one staff reviewer summarizing X @-@ 2 as " a light @-@ hearted fun game " that " may ... be the most enjoyable thing to come from the series in several years " , while another regarded its battle system as innovative and " very simple to navigate " .
The game 's stylistic changes from past Final Fantasy titles sparked negative comments , with some perceiving it as a change in the spirit of the franchise . Among these were the game 's status as Final Fantasy 's first direct sequel and the change from a tragic atmosphere in Final Fantasy X to a dominantly lighthearted tone in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . In their review , gaming website GameSpot commented that " Some of the missions ... come off as downright silly and a bit tacked on " . Additionally , they felt that the game 's non @-@ linear style makes it " [ lack ] the singular narrative thrust of Final Fantasy X or other typical RPGs , and the storyline can feel a little nebulous and disjointed as a result " . Moreover , GameSpot commented that " trivial minigames have been creeping into the Final Fantasy games at an alarming rate over the last few years , and in this regard , X @-@ 2 is definitely the most egregious offender in the series " . Despite these comments , they praised the battle system as a " welcome addition " , while regarding its voice @-@ overs and localizations as " outstanding " .
Another aspect of the game that has attracted criticism is the reuse of graphical designs from Final Fantasy X. One reviewer at RPGamer commented that " there is little question that the graphics in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 could rival just about any other RPG on the market ... [ but ] one does not get ... [ the impression ] that the graphics have been improved in any significant way since Final Fantasy X " , while GameSpot said " X @-@ 2 doesn 't look that much better than X did two years ago " . Electronic Gaming Monthly regarded this reuse of code as " [ tripping up ] in the one area where Final Fantasy titles usually shine " .
The game 's soundtrack was met with mixed feelings , because Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 's score was the first in the series without input from Nobuo Uematsu , composer of all previous games in the main series , and because of the change to a distinct J @-@ pop atmosphere . While IGN commented that the music provided an " appropriately fitting backdrop " and 1UP.com suggested that it " certainly is in keeping with the new flavor " , others , such as Electronic Gaming Monthly , regarded it as " too bubbly . " One staff member at RPGamer suggested that " the absence of Uematsu proves deafening , " and " the soundtrack that accompanies this nonsensical adventure manages to encapsulate the shallow nature of the game perfectly . " Moreover , some reviewers felt that the outfits worn by the main characters are too revealing and aimed at making the game more appealing to Final Fantasy 's largely male audience .
Despite the negative comments it has received , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 's critical reception has been largely positive , with IGN summarizing it as " a brilliant and addictive romp through Spira that we 're certainly glad to experience " , and GameSpot commenting that it is " every bit as poignant , endearing , and engrossing as its forebears , " with strengths that " ultimately make ... X @-@ 2 's minor flaws forgivable " . The game maintains an 86 @.@ 25 % approval rating on GameRankings and an 85 / 100 rating on Metacritic , both only slightly down from its predecessor .
= Kaunas Fortress =
Kaunas Fortress ( Lithuanian : Kauno tvirtovė , Russian : Кοвенская крепость ) is the remains of a fortress complex in Kaunas , Lithuania . It was constructed and renovated between 1882 and 1915 to protect the Russian Empire 's western borders , and was designated a " first @-@ class " fortress in 1887 . During World War I , the complex was the largest defensive structure in the entire state , occupying 65 km2 ( 25 sq mi ) .
The fortress was battle @-@ tested in 1915 when Germany attacked the Russian Empire , and withstood eleven days of assault before capture . After World War I , the fortress ' military importance declined as advances in weaponry rendered it increasingly obsolete . It was used by various civil institutions and as a garrison .
During World War II , parts of the fortress complex were used by the Nazi Germany for detention , interrogation , and execution . About 50 @,@ 000 people were executed there , including more than 30 @,@ 000 victims of the Holocaust . Some sections have since been restored ; the Ninth Fort houses a museum and memorial devoted to the victims of wartime mass executions . The complex is the most complete remaining example of a Russian Empire fortress .
= = Background = =
The city of Kaunas is located at the confluence of two rivers , the Neman and Neris , which link Lithuania 's interior and its capital , Vilnius , to the Baltic Sea . The Baltic peoples had created significant domains by the 1st century , and came into conflict with the Scandinavians and the Slavs ; the Teutonic Order began targeting Lithuanian lands at the beginning of the 13th century . Since Lithuania was heavily wooded and its lands were often impassable , its interior was most approachable along its rivers when frozen and during the short dry harvest season in late summer . In response to this vulnerability , defensive structures , including a brick castle in Kaunas , were in place at various points on the Nemunas River by the 14th century . The city was first mentioned in written sources in 1361 ; it received Magdeburg rights , regulating its autonomy and establishing trade protocols , from Vytautas the Great in 1408 . An outpost of the Hanseatic League was created there in 1441 . By the end of the 16th century Kaunas had become a major regional trade center , but plagues , fires , and wars adversely affected the country and city during the 17th and 18th centuries . Following the partitions of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth at the end of the 18th century , Lithuania was incorporated into the Russian Empire . Two major 19th century projects contributed to the city 's revival . The Augustów Canal , completed in 1832 , linked the Neman to the Black Sea , and a rail line linking Saint Petersburg , Warsaw , and Germany via Kaunas was completed in 1862 ; it was part of a limited network of western Russian railways .
Russia 's western borders needed support , and fortresses existed or were being built in Latvia , Ukraine , and Belarus . The concept of building a fortress in Lithuania was discussed without result in 1796 , but became a critical concern after the French invasion of Russia in 1812 led by Napoleon . The Grande Armée managed to cross the Nemunas near Kaunas on its drive towards Moscow without major difficulties . An increasingly unified Germany troubled the Empire during the second half of the century . A fortress in Kaunas would present an obstacle to attacks from the west , preventing further incursions towards Riga and Vilnius . In order to control the region , attackers would need to first neutralize Kaunas . Facing this possibility and evaluating the natural advantages of the city , Russian officials decided to construct a fortress there . After several delays , on July 7 , 1879 Tsar Alexander II issued an edict ordering its construction .
= = Construction = =
The first design was overseen by Generals Nikolay Obruchev , Konstantin Zverev , and Ivan Volberg . As originally planned , the fortress encompassed a huge site , consisting of seven forts and nine defensive batteries arranged in concentric loops . The plan included support buildings and infrastructures , such as barracks , new roads , and an ammunition depot . Construction began in 1882 ; about 4 @,@ 000 workers were mustered for the project . The principal structures were concentrated in Freda , Panemunė , Aleksotas , and the new section of the city . The project significantly affected the daily life of Kaunas residents , and there were plans to detach the fortress into an independent administrative unit governed by a military board ; its commandant wrote that " There is no city of Kaunas , there is only the Fortress of Kaunas . "
The first forts were built using bricks reinforced with thick ramparts of earth , which were incorporated into the surrounding relief , making them harder to breach . They were symmetrical , usually having five faces , with positions for infantry and artillery . These forts were built according to the standard Russian brick fort design of the time . Therefore , the first seven forts were very similar ; they differed only in the layout of their interiors , their integration into the surrounding relief , and in some construction details . They would also be renovated in slightly different ways . Batteries were built between adjacent forts ; these were fortifications containing various types of artillery , located along the fortress ' outer lines and usually erected on the hills . The first construction phase was completed in 1887 . The fortress was designated first @-@ class in that year , marking its importance and defensive capabilities , and Otto Klem was named its first commandant . At the same time , administrative rules were established to manage the fortress ' impact on the city and its surrounding areas ; the height of the fortress ' civil buildings was restricted .
During 1890 work began on an eighth fort , known as Linkuva ; new construction techniques were introduced , particularly reinforced concrete . The Linkuva fort became the most modern entrenchment , equipped with electricity , sewerage , and casemates for a garrison of 1 @,@ 000 personnel . At the same time , massive groundworks were laid along with additional defensive structures , effecting the complete enclosure of the city center between the Rivers Nemunas and Neris . By 1890 , seven forts had been completed , supporting roads had been constructed , and a railroad bridge over the Nemunas had been adapted for military transport . By now , expenditures on the fortress had amounted to over nine million rubles . The first bricks for a church that would serve the garrison were laid in 1891 ; it was completed in 1893 . The following year construction began on a dedicated narrow gauge railway .
The Ninth Fort , begun in 1903 , was the first of its kind in the Empire . The structure was a trapezoid , encompassing one infantry rampart , and was equipped with two armored watchtowers , electricity , and ventilation . The walls of its cannon casemates were covered with cork to reduce firing noise . The cost of this single fort was 850 @,@ 000 rubles .
The complex of forts and defensive structures was divided into four sectors . The first followed the left bank of the Nemunas to its confluence with the Jiesia River and included the three earliest forts . The second sector extended from the Jiesia to Pažaislis monastery and included two forts . The third extended from the right to the left bank of the Nemunas ; this sector also contained two forts . The fourth and last sector stretched from the right bank of the Neris to the left bank of the Nemunas , comprising two forts , including the newest – the Ninth Fort .
As new building and weapons technologies developed , the fortress was repeatedly renovated in order to maintain its military effectiveness . In 1912 an expansion and reconstruction initiative was launched . This project called for twelve new forts along with batteries , support buildings , and defensive structures . Its completion was scheduled for 1917 . The older forts were to be completely encircled by the new construction , which was meant to employ the newest military technologies . During the early realization of the plan , new defensive entrenchments were built and the old forts were strengthened with concrete . However , when action began on the Eastern Front during World War I , work on the fortress was halted . In 1915 only one fort , the Ninth , conformed with the new technological criteria , while the Tenth Fort was only partially built . The complex then covered about 65 km2 ( 25 sq mi ) and contained a 30 km ( 19 mi ) internal railway , power plant , water supply system , mill , bakery , brewery , food bank , and telegraph . Despite the fact that the fortress ' renovations and new construction had not been finished , it presented a formidable challenge to its attackers .
= = World War I = =
In 1915 , Germany and the Central Powers began an offensive against Russia and advanced towards Lithuania and Kaunas . The German army reached Kaunas Fortress in July 1915 . At that time , about 90 @,@ 000 soldiers , commanded by Vladimir Grigoriev ( Russian : Владимир Григорьев ) , manned the fortress . To attack the fortress , the Germans brought four divisions to the operation , which were placed under the command of Karl Litzmann .
To support this attack , the Germans constructed a railroad to transport their 42 @-@ centimetre ( 17 in ) Gamma @-@ Gerät howitzer . The howitzer 's shell weighed about 1 ton with a range of 14 km ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) . Several days into the siege more guns of various calibers were deployed .
The German army concentrated its attack on the First , Second and Third Forts , which were the complex 's oldest structures . The army did not surround the entire fortress , and its defense was able to regroup and resupply . On August 8 , the Germans intensified their bombardment , but the fortress garrison withstood several attempts to breach the defensive perimeter . Several days afterward , the bombardment of the fortress reached its peak ; its defenders sustained heavy casualty rates of 50 % to 75 % . On August 14 , over 1 @,@ 000 defending troops were killed , but the Germans were unable to completely overcome the fortress ' defenses . However , on the next day , Gamma @-@ Gerät shells destroyed the First Fort and the Germans transferred their attentions to the Second Fort . The fight was now within the confines of the greater fortress complex .
At the cost of many casualties , the Third Fort 's defenders delayed the advance of the Germans , but were forced to evacuate and retreat later the same day . The next day the Fourth Fort was abandoned and the Fifth Fort was conquered soon afterwards . In a chain reaction , the other forts began capitulating . Commander Grigoriev abandoned his post and escaped to Žiežmariai . When the Germans crossed the Nemunas river they captured the Sixth and Seventh Forts . The remaining two forts were captured soon afterwards . After eleven days of fighting , the fortress had been taken .
The defensive forces sustained 20 @,@ 000 casualties , and about 1 @,@ 300 weapons were captured by the Germans . Grigoriev was arrested by Russian authorities , tried , and sentenced to fifteen years in prison for failure to properly perform his duties . He also suffered the revocation of all his awards , military degrees , and honors . The Germans used materials from the fortress elsewhere during their war against Russia .
Researchers have identified factors contributing to the relatively rapid fall of the fortress . It had not been completely renovated ; its defenders were inexperienced ; the crew had been frequently rotated , and had not been able to familiarize themselves with the surrounding area and with the fortress . Although most of their experience lay in the defense of the fortress ' interior , they were dispatched to fight on open ground . When the combat moved outside the fortress , communication lines were disrupted by the German bombardment , and the fortress defense was unable to restore complete communication with the command center or with other forts . The absence of external support was a crucial factor in its fall .
= = Interwar = =
Lithuania regained its independence on February 16 , 1918 and the old fortress was placed under engineering staff supervision . Those materials that had not been taken by the Germans were used to resupply Lithuanian military needs , and for the construction of the armored train Gediminas , named after the 14th century Grand Duke of Lithuania Gediminas . In 1920 , the Kaunas Fortress Board was formed and charged with the task of administering the fortress . Due to the development of new military technologies , its reconstruction was seen as a vast and inappropriate expense . The fortress ' armament was dismantled and the trenches were filled with scrap iron .
Sections of the fortress were given to various civil institutions , while the army occupied the barracks of the former 28th Division . The Sixth and Ninth forts were used as prisons and the Central Archive was located in the Seventh Fort ; the Republic 's official radio station was based in the fortress ; a gas chamber was installed in the gunpowder depot of the First Fort and used to execute condemned prisoners . Some sections were used as housing for the poor . As the city of Kaunas expanded near the complex , its roads became public streets . The structures and layouts of the new sections were influenced by the presence of the fortress .
= = World War II = =
Adjustments to the secret protocols of the 1939 Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact assigned Lithuania to the Soviet sphere of influence , and it was occupied by the USSR in June 1940 . The fortress was then used to conduct interrogations and house political prisoners . The pact was broken when Germany invaded USSR on June 22 , 1941 . Nazi forces entered Kaunas on June 24 . The Sixth Fort became a POW camp for Red Army soldiers . Kaunas 's Jewish population numbered between 35 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 ; few would survive the Holocaust in Lithuania . The Nazis , aided by Lithuanian auxiliaries , began massacring the Jewish population . On July 6 , acting under orders of the SS , Lithuanian auxiliary police units shot nearly 3 @,@ 000 Jews at the Seventh Fort . On August 18 , in what came to be known as the " intellectuals action " , over 1 @,@ 800 Jews were shot at the Fourth Fort . On October 28 , the " Great Action " took place — the residents of the Kaunas Ghetto were summoned , and over 9 @,@ 000 men , women and children were taken to the Ninth Fort and executed . During the later course of the occupation , over 5 @,@ 000 Jewish deportees from Central Europe would be executed at this fort . About 60 escaped in December 1943 ; they had been assigned to excavate and burn the bodies of earlier victims , as part of Aktion 1005 . Thirteen of these escapees were able to document the Aktion 's attempt to hide the evidence of the mass murders .
When Germany began losing the war and the battlefront approached Lithuania , the German defense began attempts to prepare a defensive in Kaunas , including the use of the fortress . The Nemunas River was labelled " the line of catastrophe " , and Adolf Hitler called for its defense at any price . On August 1 , 1944 Kaunas was captured by the Red Army . The remaining fortress structures were used for military needs and several of the original structures were demolished or redeveloped .
The number of deaths at the fortress during World War II vary by source ; the United States Holocaust Museum gives detailed descriptions of the deaths of about 18 @,@ 500 Holocaust victims . Other sources mention 30 @,@ 000 Jewish deaths , with total number 50 @,@ 000 .
= = Post @-@ war = =
Lithuania remained a Soviet Socialist Republic until 1990 . In 1948 , the headquarters of the 7th Guards Cherkassy Airborne Division was established in the fortress ' commandant 's headquarters . The barracks were used by the 108th paratroopers regiment and the Fifth Fort served the air defense regiment . Most of the forts , however , served as depots or housed farming organizations . During the postwar expansion and development of the city , parts of the fortress were dismantled ; as part of the construction of Kaunas Polytechnic Institute the ground @-@ level entrenchments of one defensive sector were destroyed .
In 1958 , the Ninth Fort was dedicated as a museum . During 1959 , its first exhibition was opened , memorializing the crimes that had taken place there . The museum later expanded its scope to cover the fortress ' entire history . A 32 m ( 105 ft ) tall memorial to the victims was constructed there in 1984 . However , the Soviet military occupied most of the fortress until Lithuania re @-@ established its independence . After the withdrawal of Soviet forces , completed in 1993 , Lithuanian military bases were established at several forts .
As of early 2007 , only the Ninth Fort had been partly renovated . It is now devoted to the Holocaust and Lithuania 's occupations by the Nazis and the Soviets . The museum , which holds over 65 @,@ 000 artefacts , is sponsored by the Lithuanian Ministry of Culture . Since the early 2000s , it has received about 100 @,@ 000 visitors per year and hosted Holocaust education seminars and workshops . In 2005 , the international project " Baltic Culture and Tourism Route Fortresses " was launched , with support from the European Union . Its goal is the promotion of transnational scientific cooperation in monument protection , along with the creation of strategies to reconstruct and manage fortresses in the region . Kaunas Fortress is a part of this project . In 2007 , Seventh fort was sold , new owners started the restoration process , since 2009 Seventh fort is open as a fortification and military museum and is the only brick fort in Kaunas suitable for safe visiting . In the 2000s , a variety of entities owned parts of the complex : the Ministry of Culture , the Ministry of Defence , the State Property Fund , and the City of Kaunas . The site still contains unexploded ordnance , although a 1995 project removed about 1 @.@ 9 tonnes of explosives . Other restoration issues include uncovered wells , poor drainage and ventilation , erosion , possible chemical contaminants , vegetative overgrowth , and the presence of a protected bat colony . Despite the damage that it has sustained , the Kaunas Fortress complex is the most complete of the surviving Russian Empire fortresses .
= Bigipedia =
Bigipedia is a comedy sketch show broadcast on BBC Radio 4 that first aired between 23 July and 13 August 2009 . A second series of four episodes began on 12 July 2011 . The show 's storyline revolves around " Bigipedia " , a fictional website broadcast on radio and parody of Wikipedia , the online encyclopedia . The series mocks Wikipedia and other aspects of the Internet . The BBC Press Office described the show as , " a unique experiment in ' broadwebcasting ' " . The series was created by co @-@ star Nick Doody , who also co @-@ writes the show with Matt Kirshen and a wider team of writers . It is produced by Pozzitive Productions .
Critics have given Bigipedia positive reviews . The series was marketed by the BBC as " The Sunday Format for the online age " , and critics have given Bigipedia favourable comparisons with its predecessor . The quality of the writing has also been praised . However , a few critics have expressed reservations about the way the show is presented . The first series of Bigipedia was made available to purchase as a download from Audible.co.uk from 1 December 2009 . The second series was made available to purchase as a download from AudioGo from 5 December 2011 .
= = Plot = =
Bigipedia is a website broadcast on the radio . Like Wikipedia , it contains articles and discussion pages about a range of different subjects , which can be edited by anyone . Among the similarities are articles , discussion pages , disambiguation pages , featured articles , a news section and a " Did you know ? " section for new articles . The articles cover a range of fictional celebrities , bands , films , television series , products and a running gag series of articles on anthropomorphic animal characters from Uruguayan safety campaigns .
Bigipedia differs from Wikipedia in some ways . For example , Bigipedia includes puzzles and competitions , sells its own software , has a range of screensavers , and a section for children called Bigikids , which has had different names in the past which have all had to be changed for different reasons . For example , the name changed from Kidipedia " due to a misunderstanding " , Hanging at the School Gates " for reasons you may have seen in the news " and Underage Fun " due to a copyright infringement " .
Also , while Wikipedia does not have advertising , Bigipedia does and is also sponsored by a fictional wine @-@ like drink called " Chianto " which is referred to as " this horrific drink " . The Bigipedia article on Chianto says : " Over the years it has been sold as a hair remover , self @-@ defence spray , hair restorer , and to farmers as a humane way of killing chickens – by putting it into the pig 's feed and leaving the gate open . By morning not only were the chickens killed , but often plucked , too . "
The first series ended with Bigipedia attempting to take over the world , having crushed a rebellion in the Philippines and feeding nanobots into the heads of anyone listening to the programme . At the start of the second series , Bigipedia acknowledges that the original Bigipedia , dubbed Bigipedia 1 @.@ 0 suffered from " security and sentient omniscience issues " and apologises for , " the temporary cyber enslavement of 88 % of mankind and the forming of a BigiHuman hybrid hivemind centred in the Philippines " , in an incident they refer to as " The Glitch " . The site has been updated and is now known as Bigipedia 2 @.@ 0 .
The second series begins with reports of a gigantic Chianto slick in the Gulf of Mexico , a parody of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill . At the end of the series , a mix of white and red Chianto in the slick result in the creation of a Chianto " ovum " , which hatches at the bottom of the sea as a monstrous party @-@ animal being called the Chianto Leviathan , which makes its way to the Bigipedia servers in Mexico . The Leviathan attempts to gain all the world 's knowledge by accessing the system . The programme ends with Bigipedia playing " prerecorded programmes " while they attempt to stop the Leviathan .
= = Production = =
The series was originally conceived by Doody , who was working with producer David Tyler on another BBC Radio 4 comedy series , Armando Iannucci 's Charm Offensive . Doody attended a meeting where people were discussing new ideas for radio shows , and Kirshen suggested the idea , and both he and Kirshen wrote the full proposal . Radio 4 liked the idea and a pilot was made . Tyler went on to produce and direct Bigipedia .
Doody and Kirshen describe the show as " writing @-@ heavy " . Doody said in an interview with the British Comedy Guide : " Compared to most radio shows , it 's incredibly dense , material @-@ wise , and very fast @-@ moving . I think Matt and I would like some of it to be even faster , but sometimes people who 've heard the pilot say things like , " It 's almost too much . " I really like that . I like that it 's something you kind of need to hear twice to catch everything . When we got the series , I honestly didn 't know where we 'd come up with the material of the quality we were determined to keep up . "
Some of the sketches in Bigipedia are inspired directly by articles on Wikipedia . Kirshen said in the same interview : " There 's a ' Bee Whisperer ' in Episode 3 that came from clicking the " Random article " link on Wikipedia . I don 't remember what the page we got was , but about three logical leaps later we landed on that idea . "
It was revealed by Doody on his Doubling Up podcast with Rob Heeney that there was an extended edition of " The Line " sketch , which he broadcast on the show .
= = Reception = =
The reviews of Bigipedia have been mainly positive . Before the series began , Scott Matthewman in The Stage compared Bigipedia to The Sunday Format , saying : " Indeed , the comparison even makes it into the BBC 's own press notes . Will this version , which takes the mickey out of online communication , deserve the comparison ? That 's something we 'll have to wait and see . " Chris Maume in The Independent on Sunday also commented that there are references to Spinal Tap , On the Hour and Brass Eye .
Elisabeth Mahoney in The Guardian said that she liked the Chianto running gag , while Gillian Reynolds from the Daily Telegraph commented positively on Bigipedia saying it was , " the first late @-@ night comedy in ages that has made me laugh , about computers and why I 'm scared of them , about vile TV shows and meaningless commercials . Written by Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen , performed with zest by a sparkling cast . Bound to become a cult . " Reviewing the second series Elizabeth Day in The Observer described Bigipedia as , " a hilariously mad portrayal of information overload in the computer age . "
Clare Heal in the Sunday Express gave a mixed review , saying that while she found it amusing , it was too similar to the Internet saying , " The programme 's only failing was that on occasion it was a little to [ sic ] reminiscent of the real Internet , ie a virtual ocean full of morons willing to shout loudly about things even ( or perhaps especially ) if they know nothing about them . You wouldn 't want more than half an hour of Bigipedia , no matter how amusing it is . "
= = Episodes = =
= = = Series 1 = = =
= = = Series 2 = = =
= 1909 Grand Isle hurricane =
The 1909 Grand Isle hurricane was a large and deadly Category 3 hurricane that caused severe damage and killed more than 400 people throughout Cuba and the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico . Forming out of a tropical disturbance just south of Hispaniola on September 13 , 1909 , the initial depression slowly intensified as it moved west @-@ northwest towards Jamaica . Two days later , the system attained tropical storm intensity and turned northwestward towards Cuba . On September 16 , it attained the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale and further strengthened to attain winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) before making landfall in Pinar del Río Province , Cuba on September 18 . After a briefly weakening over land , the system regained strength over the Gulf of Mexico , with peak winds reaching 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) the following day . After only slightly weakening , the hurricane increased in forward motion and made landfall near Grand Isle , Louisiana on September 21 . The system quickly lost strength after moving over land , dissipating the following day over Missouri .
In the Caribbean , little impact was known to have been caused by the storm outside of Cuba where rough seas killed 29 people . In the United States , the hurricane wrought catastrophic damage across Louisiana and Mississippi . Throughout these states , 371 people are known to have been killed , making it the sixth deadliest hurricane in United States history at the time ; however , it has since been surpassed by five other cyclones . Along the Louisiana coastline , a powerful storm surge penetrated 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) inland , destroying the homes of 5 @,@ 000 people . Thousands of other homes throughout the affected region lost their roofs and telegraph communication was crippled . In terms of monetary losses , the storm wrought $ 11 million ( 1909 USD ; $ 265 million 2010 USD ) in damage throughout its path .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the Grand Isle hurricane were in a tropical disturbance over the western Atlantic Ocean in early September 1909 . Enhanced by a strong area of high pressure over the Azores and British Isles , the system was able to gradually intensify as it neared the Lesser Antilles . On September 10 , barometric pressures across several of the islands in the eastern Caribbean fell , indicating that a disturbance was moving through the region . According to the Atlantic hurricane database , maintained by the National Hurricane Center , the system developed into a tropical depression south of Hispaniola in the Caribbean on September 13 . However , meteorologist José Fernández Partagás stated that there was no evidence of a closed circulation , a key component of tropical cyclones , until September 14 . Tracking west @-@ northwestward , the depression brushed the coast of Haiti before attaining tropical storm intensity off the northwestern coast of Jamaica on September 15 .
After reaching this strength , the storm slowed and gradually took a more northwesterly course , heading towards Pinar del Río Province in western Cuba . On September 16 , the system attained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , what would now be considered a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Moving at a slow pace of 4 to 6 mph ( 6 @.@ 4 to 9 @.@ 7 km / h ) , the system gradually intensified . Late on September 18 , the center of the storm was estimated to have made landfall in Pinar del Río Province with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) ; an atmospheric pressure of 976 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 82 inHg ) was recorded during its passage . The storm 's eye passed over the town of Manta for four hours , between 3 : 00 pm and 7 : 00 pm on September 17 .
Slight weakening took place after moving over western Cuba ; however , once over the Gulf of Mexico , the storm steadily regained its strength . By September 19 , the system re @-@ attained the equivalent intensity of a Category 2 hurricane and the forward motion increased . Early that morning , the storm further intensified to attain its peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) , equivalent to a mid @-@ range Category 3 cyclone . By the afternoon of September 19 , reports from the Louisiana and Mississippi coastline indicated that the outer bands of the hurricane were producing scattered rainfall .
Early on September 21 , it was estimated that the center of the hurricane made landfall near Grand Isle , Louisiana with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . A pressure of 952 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 11 inHg ) was recorded around this time , the lowest in relation to the storm . Operational analysis of the storm indicated that it attained the equivalent intensity of a Category 4 hurricane as it made landfall . The storm 's lowest pressure was also operationally listed as 931 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 49 inHg ) . This pressure was based on operational estimates in relation to the system 's storm surge and was not directly measured . However , later research of the storm determined that its winds had not exceeded 120 mph ( 185 km / h ) . At this time , the hurricane 's radius of maximum wind was roughly 32 mi ( 51 km ) and the overall size of the storm was estimated to be 374 mi ( 602 km ) wide . Once overland , the system quickly weakened , losing hurricane status within 12 hours and later to a tropical depression over southern Missouri . The remnants of the system were last noted on September 22 as it merged with a trough over the Midwestern United States .
= = Impact = =
In western Cuba , the hurricane brought strong winds and heavy rains to several areas . A maximum of 7 @.@ 88 in ( 200 mm ) of rain fell in a 24 ‑ hour span . The strongest recorded winds reached 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Numerous buildings in western Cuba sustained extensive damage and a large portion of the orange crop was lost . Ships were pushed onshore by the hurricane 's large swells . Throughout Pinar del Río Province , damage was estimated at $ 1 million ( 1909 USD ) . Amidst rough seas produced by the hurricane , the steamship Nicholas Castina sank off the coast of Cuba , near the Isle of Pines . At least 29 people drowned in the wreck . Of the fatalities , 27 were crew members and two were passengers .
= = = United States = = =
Prior to the hurricane 's arrival in the United States , the National Weather Bureau issued several hurricane warnings . As the storm passed over western Cuba , warnings were declared for much of the Gulf Coast of Florida and all ships in the Gulf or planning to set sail were advised return and remain at port . Warnings were then issued for the northern Gulf Coast , allowing residents time to evacuate before the storm struck .
In the United States , the storm wrought extensive damage along the Gulf Coast . At least 371 people were killed by the storm ; however , this is considered a conservative estimate and the true death toll may never be known . Of the known fatalities , 353 took place in Louisiana and 18 in Mississippi . This makes the 1909 Grand Isle hurricane the eleventh deadliest hurricane in United States history . However , at the time of its occurrence , it was the sixth deadliest storm in the country . Damage throughout Louisiana and Mississippi was estimated to be at least $ 10 million ( 1909 USD ) .
= = = = Louisiana = = = =
In New Orleans , the storm caused substantial damage , with many homes destroyed and ships wrecked . Communication with the city was completely lost after most of the telegraph wires were downed . Around 3 : 00 pm on September 21 , advisories from the New Orleans Weather Bureau ceased , leading to concerns over the state of the city . Prior to the communication loss , the Weather Bureau reported that waves along the Mississippi River banks were surpassing 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) and water rise in New Orleans itself could reach unprecedented levels . Several lakes overflowed their banks as water from the Mississippi River back @-@ flowed into them , flooding nearby lowlands . The resulting floods , which inundated areas with upwards of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) of water , were similar in scale to the flooding caused by Hurricane Katrina in 2005 , nearly 100 years later . However , due to the lack of residential buildings in the area at the time , the flooding caused far less destruction than that of Katrina . A report falsely claimed that the city 's French Quarter was " swept away " . A total of 306 coal barges sank off the coast of New Orleans and Lobdell ( West Baton Rouge Parish ) , incurring over $ 1 million in losses . Nearly every sugar cane plantation between New Orleans and Baton Rouge sustained damage , resulting in at least $ 1 million in loses .
Strong winds from the hurricane lifted homes off their foundations and in some cases , the homes were blown away from where they originally stood . Many towns in Louisiana were isolated immediately after the storm as telegraph communication was lost . Along a 25 mi ( 40 km ) near where the storm made landfall , a large 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) storm surge destroyed the homes of 5 @,@ 000 people and traveled 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) inland . At least 300 of the fatalities took place in southeastern Louisiana , the hardest hit region . Many people who were boating on the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico were caught in the storm 's 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) winds and officials presumed that all who were caught in this perished . Near the Texas border , it was estimated that two @-@ thirds of the unharvested rice crop was ruined by the hurricane . In Baton Rouge alone , damage from the hurricane was estimated at $ 2 @.@ 9 million ( 1909 USD ) . Throughout Louisiana , a total of 353 people were killed by the hurricane according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . A maximum of 13 @.@ 5 in ( 340 mm ) of rain fell in the state during the passage of the hurricane .
= = = = Elsewhere = = = =
At least 18 fatalities also took place in Mississippi where many towns and cities were flooded . The cities of Natchez and Greenville were mostly destroyed by the hurricane . In Natchez , winds up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) blew roofs off homes and shut down the local power station , leaving the city in darkness . Telegraph wires were also downed , cutting communication with the surrounding area . The Biloxi Bay Bridge was swamped by large waves and it was thought that it would be destroyed by the storm at one point . Although the bridge held through the storm , one person died after being washed away while crossing it . Initial estimates stated that damage in Biloxi was between $ 40 @,@ 000 and $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1909 USD ) . Along a 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) stretch of beach in Mississippi , all of the homes and 300 ft ( 91 m ) of the electric car line were destroyed by the hurricane 's storm surge . Further north in Jackson , communication in the city was lost and the dome of the newly constructed capital building was destroyed by high winds . Two people were killed in the city after being crushed by falling walls . A maximum of 7 @.@ 02 in ( 178 mm ) of rain fell in Mississippi during the passage of the hurricane .
In areas in and around Pensacola , Florida , 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) winds caused some damage . At the local pier , a ship , named Romanoff , toppled over onto a wharf due to large waves produced by the hurricane . Two barges carrying lumber sank near the western beach of Pensacola and several others lost their cargo . Many small ships were destroyed by large swells and according to the New York Times , some of these were " ... swamped and pounded into pieces " . Further inland , the remnants of the hurricane brought light to moderate rainfall to portions of the central United States . A maximum of 3 @.@ 2 in ( 81 mm ) of rain fell in Arkansas ; 3 @.@ 35 in ( 85 mm ) in Missouri ; 2 @.@ 54 in ( 65 mm ) in Tennessee ; and 2 @.@ 29 in ( 58 mm ) in Kentucky . A 25 mi ( 40 km ) section of the Louisville and Nashville railroad and an 8 mi ( 13 km ) section of the Illinois central railroad were washed out by floods caused by the storm 's remnants .
= = Aftermath = =
Although the storm killed more than 370 people in the United States , the National Weather Bureau was credited for " invaluable warnings " prior to the hurricane 's arrival , saving many lives . Following the hurricane 's landfall on September 21 , rescue and relief efforts began taking place on September 22 near Houma , Louisiana . By September 25 , thousands of dollars worth of supplies had been sent to survivors of the storm . However , more than four days after the passage of the storm , many other areas devastated by the hurricane had yet to receive aid from either the government or United States Army . Congressman Robert F. Broussard sent a telegraph to the war department requesting aid ; however , he had not received a response by September 27 . Initially , news reports focused on the large loss of life from the storm but , once the lack of aid was noticed , their attention shifted to the hundreds of survivors who were left homeless and in dire need of basic necessities . Within days of the storm 's passage , there were fears that the storm ruined the cotton crop in southern Louisiana and would cause a spike in prices . However , in a report released on October 4 , 1909 , it was stated that the losses were much less than previously thought and as a result , there would be no change in the cotton price . According to a report in 2009 , the rice and cotton crops sustained 35 % and 20 % losses respectively in the wake of the hurricane .
In 2002 , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration added the storm surge from the hurricane to the Global Tsunami Database based on newspaper reports referring to the event as a tidal wave . However , four years later , a more detailed study of possible tsunamis in the past resulted in this event being " flagged " as suspect . After further review of the news articles indicating that the wave came after the hurricane , it was determined that there was a misinterpretation of the publishing date since the article was archived by telegraph on September 22 , 1909 , the day after the hurricane made landfall . In light of this research , the possibility of the wave being a tsunami was denied ; however , it remains in the database as a " debunked " event .
= Ontario Highway 48 =
King 's Highway 48 , also known as Highway 48 , is a provincially maintained highway in southern Ontario that extends from Major Mackenzie Drive in Markham , through Whitchurch @-@ Stouffville and East Gwillimbury , to Highway 12 south @-@ east of Beaverton . The route is generally rural and straight , passing near several communities within the Regional Municipality of York . The route is 65 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 40 @.@ 5 mi ) long . Most part of the road has a speed limit of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , except within town limits , where the speed limit is reduced to 60 km / h ( 37 mph ) or 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) .
Highway 48 was first designated in 1937 to connect Port Bolster with Highway 12 in Beaverton . It was extended south to meet with Highway 401 in the 1950s in anticipation of a planned freeway connection around the eastern shore of Lake Simcoe that ultimately became Highway 404 . In the mid @-@ 1970s , Highway 48 assumed a portion of the route of Highway 46 in Victoria Country , now the city of Kawartha Lakes , extending the route to Highway 35 in Coboconk . Between then and 1998 , the route was 128 km ( 80 mi ) . However , on January 1 , 1998 the province transferred the responsibility of maintaining the southern and northern sections to the regional governments that those sections lie within .
= = Route description = =
Highway 48 is an L shaped route , travelling north through York Region to the southern shores of Lake Simcoe before turning east towards Highway 12 . The route is 65 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 40 @.@ 5 mi ) long and travels through the municipalities of Markham , Whitchurch @-@ Stouffville , East Gwillimbury , and Brock .
Beginning at York Regional Road 25 ( Major Mackenzie Drive ) , the route progresses northward from the rural – urban fringe of the Greater Toronto Area into farmland . A future extension of Donald Cousen Parkway will bypass former Highway 48 ( Main Street ) through downtown Markham in 2018 just north of Major Mackenzie . The route travels northward for 34 km ( 21 mi ) along the 8th concession of York Region ( Yonge Street being the 1st ) to just south of Regional Road 32 ( Ravenshoe Road ) , intersecting with Elgin Mills Road , former Highway 47 ( Stouffville Road and Bloomington Road ) , York Regional Road 15 ( Aurora Road ) , York Regional Road 74 ( Vivian Road ) , York Regional Road 31 ( Davis Drive ) , York Regional Road 13 ( Mount Albert Road ) and Queensville Sideroad along the way .
North of Ravenshoe Road , the highway diverts onto the boundary between York and Durham through the community of Baldwin before jogging east at York Regional Road 79 ( Old Homestead Road ) . Just south of Sutton , the route curves east , meeting York Regional Road 9 ( High Street ) , which travels into the town . Despite that the highway is now travelling directly east , directional signs still reference the direction of this highway as north . Passing through Virginia and approximately a kilometre inland from Lake Simcoe , the highway widens to four lanes and passes through a moderately developed area , with frequent businesses lining the route . It passes south of Duclos Point Provincial Nature Reserve prior to meeting Durham Regional Road 23 ( Lake Ridge Road ) south of Port Bolster , where it crosses from the Regional Municipality of York to the Regional Municipality of Durham . The highway jogs northeastward several kilometres to align with the former Brock – Thorah township line , crossing alongside a power transmission corridor several times along this segment . The final section travels eastward to Highway 12 , south of Beaverton and west of Cannington and Woodville .
The route is mostly rural , passing around the urban areas of Stouffville and south of Sutton . However , the east – west section that lies to the south of Lake Simcoe is slightly developed and features a reduced speed limit of 60 km / h ( 37 mph ) . The remainder of the route is signed at 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Like other provincial routes in Ontario , Highway 48 is maintained by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . In 2010 , traffic surveys conducted by the ministry showed that on average , 13 @,@ 300 vehicles used the highway daily along the 6 @.@ 0 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) section between York Regional Road 25 ( Major Mackenzie Drive ) and York Regional Road 14 ( Stouffville Road ) while 5 @,@ 950 vehicles did so each day along the 5 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 6 mi ) section between Durham Regional Road 23 ( Lake Ridge Road ) and Brock Side Road 17 ( former Highway 12 ) , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively .
= = History = =
Highway 48 incorporates a significant portion of the former Scarborough and Markham Plank Road , now known as Markham Road , into its length . This section was not incorporated into the highway until 1954 , yet predates the Highway 48 designation entirely .
Markham Road began as the eighth concession east of Yonge Street in the Home County of Upper Canada , and was blazed by settlers to whom land had been granted along the right @-@ of @-@ way . The right @-@ of @-@ way extended from Lake Ontario in the south to what is today York Region Road 8A ( Baseline Road ) in Sutton , just south of Lake Simcoe , in the north . Improvements to the road and the necessary funds were authorized by an act of the Upper Canada provincial parliament on February 13 , 1833 for the section in Scarborough township between Danforth Road ( present day Painted Post Drive ) and the Eighth Concession at the border with Markham township . These improvements were supervised by residents Peter Secor , Richard Houck and Robert Armstrong . By 1847 , the section between Scarborough and Markham had become known as the Scarborough and Markham Road . On July 28 of that year , the parliament of the Province of Canada passed an act to establish the Scarborough and Markham Plank @-@ road Company , which was authorized to further improve the road surface to macadamized or planked construction between Kingston Road in Scarborough and Markham Village in the north , and further north and then east to Stouffville along the Markham @-@ Stouffville township line , a line then formed between today 's Stouffville Road and Main Street Stouffville . The company was allowed to erect gates and charge tolls to pay for the work .
On March 24 , 1937 , the 9 @.@ 6 km ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) gravel road between Beaverton and Port Bolster , known as the Port Bolster Road , was assumed by the Department of Highways ; it was paved in 1947 . On February 10 , 1954 , the highway was extended 82 km ( 51 mi ) to the future site of Highway 401 , where a cloverleaf interchange was constructed in anticipation of it developing into a freeway around the eastern side of Lake Simcoe ; Highway 404 was constructed for this purpose , but along or parallel to Woodbine Avenue instead . In 1962 , the highway was extended to Highway 46 at Bolsover via a concurrency with Highway 12 north from Beaverton . This routing would last until November 4 , 1966 , when the 10 @.@ 3 km ( 6 @.@ 4 mi ) Beaverton Bypass opened , routing Highway 12 to the east . A new road was opened connecting Highway 48 south of Port Bolster with the bypass on the same day , and both Highway 12 and Highway
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= The Elder Scrolls IV : Knights of the Nine =
The Elder Scrolls IV : Knights of the Nine is an expansion pack for the role @-@ playing video game The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion . Announced on October 17 , 2006 for release on November 21 , 2006 , the expansion was developed by Bethesda Game Studios , and published and released in North America by Bethesda Softworks ; in Europe , the game was co @-@ published with Ubisoft . The Microsoft Windows version is available either as a downloadable plug @-@ in from the company website or as part of the retail @-@ released Oblivion Downloadable Content Collection CD — a release that also includes all previously released official downloadable content available for Oblivion . The Xbox 360 version is available via Xbox Live Marketplace , and the PlayStation 3 version of Oblivion includes Knights of the Nine in its packaged release .
Knights of the Nine centers on a faction of the same name , devoted to locating and preserving a set of " Crusaders ' Relics " . Once found , these relics must be used to defeat the sorcerer @-@ king Umaril , who seeks revenge on the Nine Divines . Knights of the Nine was generally well received in the gaming press . Although it made little change to the basic mechanics of Oblivion , it was judged by reviewers to be a brief but polished addition to the game 's main plot .
= = Gameplay = =
Knights of the Nine is identical to the gameplay of Oblivion ; the basic design , maneuvers , and interfaces remain unchanged . As such , it is a fantasy @-@ based role @-@ playing adventure game . Players begin Oblivion by defining their character ; deciding on its skill set , specialization , physical features , and race . Knights of the Nine is an example of open @-@ ended @-@ style gameplay : the main quest may be delayed or completely ignored as the player explores the game world , follows side quests , interacts with NPCs , and develops a character according to their taste . Furthering the goal of open @-@ ended gameplay , Knights of the Nine , unlike Bethesda 's prior content packs for Oblivion , begins with no explicit prodding towards the newly introduced content ; players must seek out and find the game 's quest without external aid .
= = Plot = =
Knights of the Nine 's quest begins as the player approaches the Chapel of Dibella in Anvil . The Chapel was recently abused ; everyone there has been killed in a dark ritual . The player proceeds to consult a prophet near the scene of the attack , who is preaching about it . The prophet reveals to the player that the one responsible for the attacks is Umaril , an ancient revenge @-@ seeking Ayleid sorcerer @-@ king , who has escaped from his prison in Oblivion to destroy Cyrodiil . Umaril can only be defeated by the prophesized Crusader , favoured by the gods , bearing the relics of Pelinal Whitestrake , the man who originally slew Umaril , and banished his spirit to Oblivion .
The player then makes a pilgrimage ( because the character may not use any artifacts of the Nine unless they have an infamy of 0 ) , and receives a vision from Pelinal Whitestrake , who reveals the location of his tomb , which is beneath the lake surrounding the Imperial City . Inside this tomb , the player discovers the Helm of Pelinal 's armor , as well as the corpse of Sir Amiel , one of the old Knights of the Nine . His diary reveals the location of their priory , which houses the Cuirass of Pelinal . Before the player can claim it though , he / she confronts eight spirits of the old Knights of the Nine , including Amiel , who had all given into corruption and been killed . They assist the player , who soon gathers all of Pelinal Whitestrake 's relics . During each leg of the quest to retrieve the relics , the player meets a priest , knight , or pilgrim of faith , each of whom pledge to aid the player , each representing one of the original eight divines . After a final blessing from the prophet , to represent the ninth divine , Talos , the player leads the knights against Umaril 's stronghold , defeating the Ayleid King , and then pursues Umaril 's spirit , destroying him utterly . The player then wakes up in the Priory , with the knights believing him / her dead . After realizing that the powers of the gods resurrected him , the player rejoins the knights .
= = Development = =
Prior to any announcement regarding Knights of the Nine , Bethesda had pursued a somewhat novel plan to distribute downloadable content through micropayments , priced from US $ 0 @.@ 99 to US $ 2 @.@ 99 , instead of the more common practice of releasing expansion packs . The program was initially met with criticism by customers due to its alleged low value , but later releases — at a reduced price , and with more content — proved more popular . The releases , in addition to stirring controversy , raised questions regarding Bethesda 's future content release plans , and as to whether expansion pack releases were necessary at all . In August 2006 , one Bethesda employee wrote in a post to Bethesda 's The Elder Scrolls forums that the company had " no plans to make an expansion for Oblivion " . Further questions were raised by a product listing found on game retailer GameStop 's website September 11 , 2006 , listing a Knights of the White Stallion Expansion Pack for Oblivion . The game had a listed shipping date of November 21 , 2006 . The title was kept on the website only briefly — removed after gaming news site GameSpot sent Bethesda a request for comment on the product .
Knights of the Nine began its life as a supposedly " exclusive " quest for the PlayStation 3 release of The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion . Along with the confirmation of the PlayStation 3 release on October 9 , 2006 , some gaming news websites reported that the release would contain " a huge , exclusive quest " focusing on " a new faction , The Knights of the Nine " . Some reports prefixed " allegedly " onto statements that the release would be exclusive . Suggestions of exclusivity , in any case , did not last long : an October 17 , 2006 Bethesda press release announced that Knights of the Nine content was also scheduled for PC and Xbox 360 releases , eliciting commentary from Joystiq remarking on " how finicky " the word ' exclusive ' had come to be , and Kotaku remarking on how " Oblivion 's PlayStation 3 content didn 't stay exclusive for long ... or at all " . Other sites saw no incongruence in the announcement : GameSpot assumed that Knights of the Nine was simply the earlier Knights of the White Stallion by a different name , and 1UP.com had anticipated the move ever since an IGN interview with Oblivion 's executive producer Todd Howard , where Howard had described Bethesda 's general aim " to have all our content available across all platforms " ; the final announcement served only to confirm their suspicions .
The October 17 press release set November 21 , 2006 as the North American distribution date for the Xbox 360 and PC versions of Knights of the Nine . The European release for the Xbox 360 and PC was set two days later , on November 23 . The European release was co @-@ published by Bethesda and Ubisoft . On November 9 , 2006 , Bethesda clarified earlier statements regarding PC releases , declaring that , although the boxed retail PC edition of Knights of the Nine was set for release on November 21 , the PC release downloadable from the company website wouldn 't be available until December 4 . This caused some consumer complaints , for although the Xbox 360 release was available on the Xbox Live Marketplace for 800 Microsoft Points ( the equivalent of US $ 10 @.@ 00 , or GB £ 6 @.@ 80 ) , for the time being , PC owners had only the US $ 19 @.@ 99 boxed retail edition of the game . The increased price of the PC 's boxed retail release ( The Elder Scrolls IV : Knights of Nine Oblivion Downloadable Content Collection ) resulted from its inclusion of Oblivion 's other previously released downloadable content . Such content was not included in either the downloadable PC release , the Xbox Marketplace download , or the PlayStation 3 edition of Oblivion . The downloadable release was ultimately issued on December 6 at the price of US $ 9 @.@ 99 . According to IGN Entertainment 's GamerMetrics , a service based on compiled visitor activity information on IGN 's website , the pack was the fourth most anticipated release of its release week , following Tom Clancy 's Rainbow Six : Vegas , Superman Returns and College Hoops 2K7 .
= = Reception = =
Knights of the Nine was generally well received in the gaming press . Metacritic , an aggregate review site , scored the PC version of the game with an 81 out of 100 , and the Xbox 360 version of the game with an 86 out of 100 . GameSpot recommended the game for its value ; although it made few improvements over the basic Oblivion experience , Knights of the Nine provides " a good day or two 's worth of questing for a low price " . Similar comments followed from GamePro , who found that the " polish " and " affordable price " of the pack excused the fact that the pack 's content " doesn 't really change [ Oblivion 's ] gameplay " .
Eurogamer praised the game for its memorable plot and new , unique content . They concluded that if " more of the same is what you 're after , you can 't really argue with what Bethesda 's served up for its hardcore fans . " The review encouraged caution nonetheless : for if consumers were to fully accept individually priced content releases , Bethesda might just begin charging for all its quests .
= The Lucky Shot =
The Lucky Shot is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The plot is follows Jack Hunt , the son of a wealthy woman , who weds a chorus singer Nell Horsley . Jack 's mother forgives the son 's error , but rejects his wife . Then Jack is killed while on strike duty in the local militia and the Nell and her child struggle in poverty . Nell begs her mother @-@ in @-@ law for aid , but the woman is enraged and drops dead . Her property goes to the young boy who saves the finical future of the family by finding a hidden fortune with a lucky shot while playing ' Indian ' . Released on July 12 , 1910 , the film received positive attention and saw an international release . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from July 16 , 1910 . It states : " A shot that found a fortune ! Jack Hunt , the son of a wealthy woman , falls in love with Nell Horsley , who is in the chorus of a musical comedy . They are married , but when Jack 's mother is informed she declares she 'll have nothing to do with Nell , although she is willing to forgive her son . But Jack sticks to his wife , and for a time they are very happy . Then Jack , who is in the militia , is called out on strike duty , and meets his death during a fight with strikers . The widow takes the news to her mother @-@ in @-@ law , who nevertheless retains her hatred for Nell , despite the tragedy . As time passes , Mrs. Hunt becomes a miser . She disposes of all of her property , receiving in exchange money and jewels which she hides in a secret place in her room . In the meantime Nell has a hard time to get along and keep a roof over her head and that of her little boy . So desperate are her circumstances that she finally sinks her pride and appeals to her mother @-@ in @-@ law . The old woman repulses her again ; her fit of rage brings on a stroke of apoplexy and she drops dead after Nell leaves . All her property goes to little George , as the woman left no will , but search fails to locate anything except the family homestead . Nell is about to sell that , when she makes a discovery . Playing ' Indian ' with her boy , she shoots arrows aimlessly about the room . One of them hits the secret spring of the treasure vault , and the accident puts the boy and his mother beyond want for the rest of their lives . "
The synopsis is at odds with the reviewers of the film who state that the arrow which reveals the hidden cache is shot by the little boy and not the mother . The image still shows the woman with a large bow , but further details by the reviewers state that the boy used a toy bow and arrow to make the shot .
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film can be seen as having another loose aspect to labor issues . The film directly followed first Thanhouser film to address the subject : The Girl Strike Leader . The film loosely refers labor relations when Jack Hunt is killed in a riot while on strike duty and the young widow is struggles to make ends meet . Thanhouser subjects would deal with other pressing social issues in The Girls of the Ghetto , another July 1910 release . The plot of The Lucky Shot employed the deus ex machina technique to resolve the financial needs of the widow and her child . Another plot of a needy family suddenly finding a concealed fortune within their house would be reused in The Thunderbolt . The film director and the cameraman are unknown and the only credits known for the cast is that of Marie Eline as the little boy and Mrs. George W. Walters in the role of the miserly woman . Other members cast may have included the other leading players of the Thanhouser productions , Anna Rosemond , Frank H. Crane and Violet Heming .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1000 feet long , was released on July 12 , 1910 . The film minor praise from The Morning Telegraph for an interesting story and plot and another review in The Moving Picture World liked the novelty of the film 's premise . Though The New York Dramatic Mirror gives the most detailed review because it recognizes that the film is not as appealing as other Thanhouser films and recognizes that an obvious error in the production when Marie Eline picks up a seemingly weightless bag of gold . The film had a wide release in the United States with known advertisements appearing in Pennsylvania , Kansas , and Indiana . The film looks to have made its way into Canada with the Province making a series of advertisements for The Lucky Shot , but one states the film is a comedy in and another contains only a partial summary . The film saw its United Kingdom release on January 1 , 1911 .
= Pizza Delivery ( SpongeBob SquarePants ) =
" Pizza Delivery " is the first segment of the fifth episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . The episode was written by Sherm Cohen , Aaron Springer , and Peter Burns , and was directed by Sean Dempsey . Cohen also functioned as storyboard director , and Springer worked as storyboard artist . It originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on August 14 , 1999 .
In the episode , the Krusty Krab receives a call from a customer ordering a pizza , and Mr. Krabs sends SpongeBob and Squidward to deliver it . When the two employees become stranded in the middle of a desert , they get into numerous predicaments . Along the way , SpongeBob tries to show Squidward the way of the pioneers .
In pitching the show to Nickelodeon , creator Stephen Hillenburg originally wanted the idea of having the characters on a road trip , inspired by the 1989 film Powwow Highway . However , he eventually gave up the idea , and resurrected it in " Pizza Delivery " . The episode received positive reviews , with most media critics considering it one of the best SpongeBob SquarePants episodes .
= = Plot = =
At closing time , the Krusty Krab receives a call from a customer ordering a pizza , a product that they do not serve . Knowing that he could get extra money , Mr. Krabs spontaneously makes a Krabby Patty pizza and has SpongeBob and Squidward deliver it . The two go to deliver the pizza ; however , SpongeBob cannot drive and is still in boating school . When SpongeBob tries to shift the boat into reverse , he becomes nervous and goes back too far , causing the two to become stranded in a desert . With the boat out of gas , they are forced to deliver the pizza on foot .
While delivering the pizza , SpongeBob sings a song about the Krusty Krab pizza , and how it is " the best pizza for you and me . " The two gradually become tired , and Squidward gets hungry , but SpongeBob prevents him from eating the pizza . They then get whirled into a tornado , where the pizza saves their lives when SpongeBob uses it as a parachute . After escaping the tornado , the two lose sight of the road , and SpongeBob shows Squidward some " pioneer tricks " to help them find it , such as hitchhiking , eating corals , telling where civilization is by looking at what direction moss points , and even using boulders as vehicles . The eternally skeptic Squidward does not believe him , but reconsiders when they end up driving a boulder to the customer 's house .
Unfortunately , their journey does not pay off well . The customer gets angry because he did not get the drink he said he ordered , and slams the door on SpongeBob . He starts crying , but Squidward , having a change of heart , confronts the customer and slams the pizza in his face . Squidward comforts SpongeBob , assuring the customer ate the pizza , cheering him up . The two drive back to the Krusty Krab , which is comically revealed to be close nearby , much to Squidward 's dismay .
= = Production = =
" Pizza Delivery " was written by Sherm Cohen , Aaron Springer , and Peter Burns , with Sean Dempsey serving as animation director . Cohen also functioned as storyboard director , and Springer worked as storyboard artist . The episode originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on August 14 , 1999 .
Series creator Stephen Hillenburg 's original idea for the series pitch was that the writers would write a storyboard for a possible episode and pitch it to Nickelodeon . Hillenburg wanted to write an episode with SpongeBob and Squidward on a road trip , inspired by the 1989 film Powwow Highway . Derek Drymon said " It 's a road trip movie starring Gary Farmer , who is an innocent , kid @-@ like character who is traveling with a curmudgeon . " Eventually , the idea developed while they were working on it , but Hillenburg gave up the idea for the initial pitch . Instead , they used another idea for the pitch which was in the series pilot episode called " Help Wanted " . They resurrected the road trip idea during the first season and used a lot of the ideas for " Pizza Delivery " .
" Pizza Delivery " was released on the DVD compilation called SpongeBob SquarePants : Christmas on September 30 , 2003 . It was also included in SpongeBob SquarePants : The Complete 1st Season DVD released on October 28 , 2003 . On September 22 , 2009 , the episode was released on the SpongeBob SquarePants : The First 100 Episodes DVD , alongside all the episodes of seasons one through five .
= = Reception = =
" Pizza Delivery " received very positive reviews . Nancy Basile of About.com ranked the episode No. 2 on her " Best SpongeBob SquarePants Episodes " list . She said " [ It ] is the perfect episode to depict SpongeBob 's enthusiasm for all things Krusty Krab against Squidward 's apathy and cynical nature . " Basile cited her favorite scene in the episode where " After the customer slams his door in SpongeBob 's face , Squidward makes sure he swallows the pizza ' in one bite . ' " Giving the episode 5 out of 5 stars , Bill Treadway of DVD Verdict said the episode is his " personal favorite of all the episodes " , writing that " this one is loaded with enough unique twists and hilarious comedy to bear repeat viewings . "
Emily Estep of WeGotThisCovered.com ranked the episode No. 1 on her " Top 10 Episodes of SpongeBob SquarePants " list , saying " But – the pizza is for the customer , and flawless employee SpongeBob won 't let Squidward eat any of it . " She wrote " [ The episode ] has the undervalued nostalgia of being episode five of the entire series and it benefits from the aforementioned chemistry of Spongebob and Squidward . " She also praised the episode as " an in @-@ depth look at their [ SpongeBob and Squidward ] relationship , and it set the tone for just how strange the show could be . " Estep lauded the hitchhiking dances by SpongeBob , saying " These moves are amusing and charming , while Squidward 's bitterness is easy to relate to . " In 2009 , " Pizza Delivery " was chosen by viewers on Nick.com as the No. 1 episode during a television marathon called " The Ultimate SpongeBob SpongeBash " .
= From the Bottom of My Broken Heart =
" From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her debut studio album , ... Baby One More Time ( 1999 ) . It was released on December 15 , 1999 by JIVE Records as the fifth and final single from the album . After Spears recorded an unused song from Toni Braxton and sent it through Larry Rudolph to several labels , executives from JIVE Records commented that it was very rare to hear someone so young who could deliver emotional content and commercial appeal , appointing the singer to work with producer Eric Foster White . The teen pop ballad was written and produced by White , and features Spears singing about the loss of a first love and how breaking up can be hard .
" From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " received mixed to positive reviews from music critics , who noted the song as a classic hit and competent single , despite considering it unremarkable like other ballads on the album and calling it " another rejection ballad that refers to kissing but nothing else " . " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " achieved moderate success , peaking at number 37 in Australia , and 23 in New Zealand . Through imports , the song managed to peak at number 174 in the United Kingdom . In the United States , " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " reached number 14 on Billboard Hot 100 , and 17 on Pop Songs , being later certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on March 28 , 2000 , for shipping 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 physical units of the single . It was the 8th best @-@ selling physical single of the 2000s in the country .
An accompanying music video , directed by Gregory Dark , was released on December 17 , 1999 . It portrayed Spears packing her belongings as she readies herself to move away from home , and feeling upset because she knows that she is going to miss her first love . The video was the subject of controversy among the press , who panned the singer for hiring an adult filmmaker to direct her video . A Spears representative commented that they were only aware of Dark doing music videos . The singer performed " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " in a few live appearances , including at the 2000 Grammy Awards , in a medley with " ... Baby One More Time " , and in three of her concert tours .
= = Background = =
In June 1997 , Spears was in talks with manager Lou Pearlman to join female pop group Innosense . Her mother Lynne asked family friend and entertainment lawyer Larry Rudolph for his opinion and submitted a tape of Spears singing over a Whitney Houston karaoke song along with some pictures . Rudolph decided he wanted to pitch her to record labels , therefore she needed a professional demo . He sent Spears an unused song from Toni Braxton ; she rehearsed for a week and recorded her vocals in a studio with a sound engineer . Spears traveled to New York with the demo and met with executives from four labels , returning to Kentwood the same day . Three of the labels rejected her , arguing audiences wanted pop bands such as the Backstreet Boys and the Spice Girls , and " there wasn 't going to be another Madonna , another Debbie Gibson , or another Tiffany . " Two weeks later , executives from JIVE Records returned calls to Rudolph . Senior vice president of A & R Jeff Fenster stated about Spears 's audition that " It 's very rare to hear someone that age who can deliver emotional content and commercial appeal . [ ... ] For any artist , the motivation — the ' eye of the tiger ' — is extremely important . And Britney had that . " They appointed her to work with producer Eric Foster White for a month , who reportedly shaped her voice from " lower and less poppy " delivery to " distinctively , unmistakably Britney . " After hearing the recorded material , president Clive Calder ordered a full album . " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " was written by Eric Foster White , for Spears ' debut studio album , ... Baby One More Time ( 1999 ) . Spears recorded the vocals for the song in 1997 at 4MW East Studios in New Jersey and at Battery Studios in New York City , New York . Dan Petty played the guitar , while the bass guitar was done by Andy Hess . The song was later mixed by White and Chris Trevett , while background vocals were provided by Spears , Angie Simmons , Don Philip and Andrew Fromm . It was released on December 15 , 1999 as the final single from ... Baby One More Time .
= = Composition = =
" From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " was produced by Eric Foster White . Described by Spears as a " soulful " ballad , it draws influence from teen pop and lasts for five minutes and ten seconds . Chuck Taylor of Billboard noted that the singer " turn toward the sad side " on the track , with its lyrics talking about the loss of a first love and how breaking up can be hard . As the song begins , Spears declares , " ' Never look back ' , we said / How was I to know I 'd miss you so ? / Loneliness up ahead , emptyness behind / Where do I go ? " During the chorus , she realizes that she has lost her true love , stating , " From the bottom of my broken heart , even though time may find me somebody new / You were my real love , I never knew love , till there was you . " According to sheet music published at musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " is composed in the key of G major and is set in time signature of common time with a slowly tempo of 76 beats per minute .
The single 's b @-@ side , " Thinkin ' About You " , is also a teen pop influenced song . The song is composed in the key of G major and is set in time signature of common time with a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute . Spears vocal range spans over two octaves from the low note of D3 to the high note G5 Craig McDennis of The Hamilton Spectator said the lyrics of " Thinkin ' About You " , along with " Born to Make You Happy " , " verge on the sort of boy @-@ worshipping dreck that even Tiffany would have sniffedat " , while Jane Stevenson of Toronto Sun noted Spears " puts some rather grownup heartfelt soul into [ it ] " .
= = Critical response = =
" From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " received mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Amanda Murray of Sputnikmusic considered the song a competent , but unremarkable single . Kyle Anderson of MTV criticized its lyrics , deeming it as " another rejection ballad that references kissing but nothing else . " Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone called " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " a " further hit " from ... Baby One More Time , along with " Sometimes " and " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " . The song was a Track Pick from the Allmusic review by Stephen Thomas Erlewine , who praised it along with the other singles from the album , saying , " ... Baby One More Time has its share of well @-@ crafted filler , but the singles , combined with Britney 's burgeoning charisma , make this a pretty great piece of fluff " . Author David Gauntlett considered its lyrics as " slushy " , and noticed that the track was " seen as less interesting and relevant [ by the fans ] , although [ they ] clearly enjoyed [ the song ] too . " Billboard critic Chuck Taylor praised the song , and did a further review on his column :
" Eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Britney Spears , 1999 's biggest @-@ selling new artist , spreads it out like soft cream cheese on her fourth @-@ to @-@ be runaway smash single , as dreamy and freash as that first spin of " ... Baby One More Time " over a year ago . It 's her first ballad , following that No. 1 debut as well as " Sometimes " and the recented " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " , yet " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " still possesses a breezy air that is certain to continue her breakneck success on the singles charts . Eric Forster White is at the helm this time , writing and producing a song that will easily appeal to Miss Spears ' young core , with the potential to chart the more mature AC audience , too . [ ... ] Spears ' star is shining brighter than ever , and this wholesome track will only serve to illuminate it all the more . An ace . "
= = Chart performance = =
On the chart issue dated February 19 , 2000 , " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " was at number 52 on United States ' Billboard Hot 100 . The following issue , the song peaked at number 14 , after selling 78 @,@ 000 physical units of the single , and became the Greatest Gainer / Sales title of that week . The song also went from number 73 to number 3 on the Hot Singles Sales chart , before peaking at number 1 on the chart issue dated March 4 , 2000 . " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " also appeared on several Billboard component charts , peaking at number 24 on Top 40 Tracks , number 17 on Pop Songs , and number 53 on Radio Songs . On March 28 , 2000 , " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipping 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 physical units of the single in the country . By the end of 2000 , the song peaked at number 77 on Billboard Hot 100 Year @-@ End chart . " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " was the 8th best selling physical single of the 2000s , according to Nielsen SoundScan . As of June 2012 , " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " has sold 778 @,@ 000 physical singles , with 33 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the United States . It is Spears ' second best @-@ selling physical single in the country . In Australia , " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " entered the ARIA chart at number 47 , before peaking at number 37 on the following issue . The song stayed a total of five weeks on the chart . It performed better in New Zealand , where it peaked at number 23 . Through imports , " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " did manage to peak at number 174 in the United Kingdom , while in Canada , after staying for five weeks on the RPM Singles Chart , the song peaked at number 25 on the dated week of February 28 , 2000 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
JIVE Records commissioned a music video for the song to be directed by Gregory Dark . According to Dark , the label hired him with the intention of re @-@ image Spears from the naughty schoolgirl persona of " ... Baby One More Time " , and stated that they " wanted a much more story @-@ oriented video without dance , one that was serious and emotional . " He further stated that , during the filming , " I 'd joke with her so that she would loosen up and feel comfortable acting , as opposed to being Britney Spears at that moment . " The video was produced by the FM Rocks Production Company .
The music video portrays Spears is packing up her belongings , as she readies herself to move away from home , and feeling upset because she knows that she is going to miss her first love . Throughout the video , scenes of the couple 's past are also seen and Spears is sitting on a tyre swing , including one where they climb up onto a windmill , with Spears singing the song , and Spears is standing by a billboard that reads " Welcome to Cedar Springs Gardens " similar to the video " Lucky " . Before the end of the video , Spears is waiting at a bus stop while , at the same time , her first love is driving to come see her one last time . However , by the time he finally gets there , Spears had left him behind and taken the bus .
= = = Reception = = =
According to writer Linda Ruth Williams , the music video attracted attention from the press because of " the clash between Spears ' wholesome image and Dark 's unwholesome back catalogue . " A Spears representative spoke to the Sunday Sport and revealed , " as far as I 'm aware the director just does music videos . This is a video for young teenage girls and not sexy at all . " Dark responded to the negative reviews saying , " I don 't deny that I did [ adult films ] , it 's just that I also like people to know that I don 't currently and haven 't in a long time . " Billboard reporter Carla Hay also noted , " I don 't think people who buy records are too concerned about the background of the video 's director . " Lucy O 'Brien , author of She Bop II : The Definitive History of Women in Rock , Pop and Soul , noted that hiring Dark as the video director implied that Spears was not that innocent . Time journalists Briton Hadden and Henry Robinson Luce said that Spears " may be the queen of pop tartiness , but her new video , ' From the Bottom of My Broken Heart ' , is an entirely wholesome affair , " while Chris Ryan of MTV considered it " a suitably soft @-@ focus affair " . The video was also added to MTV 's 2000 Yearbook , a list with the " biggest , best , most memorable music videos of every year since the beginning of MTV . "
Alec Hanley Bemis of LA Weekly highly criticized Spears and the music video . He thought that the singer 's " lack of musical talent " had begun to affect her career , after Dark was selected as the director of the video . Bemis commented , however , that Spears ' already had " a history of questionable decisions " , and cited her Rolling Stone photoshoot done in early 1999 , which was condemned by the American Family Association , as an example . He continued to state that the plotline set the singer " on the fast track to adulthood " and questioned , " who 's in bed with Britney now ? While a TV tabloid recently reported that an old bayou beau in Louisiana has mother Spears ’ approval , fantasizing fans want to believe Britney ‘ s dallying with that braided moppet from N ’ Sync or a member of the Backstreet Boys . But the only verifiable fact we have to work with is that Spears has started running with a darker L.A. crowd . " Bemis finished his review saying that " no avant @-@ garde film techniques [ were used on it ] . But Britney 's lips glisten so ... Speaking frankly , this light in our lives hurts us , from the fire in our loins to the bottom of our broken hearts . "
= = Live performances = =
" From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " was performed for the first time on Spears first tour , ... Baby One More Time Tour . After its release as a single , Spears performed the song in a medley with " ... Baby One More Time " at the 42nd Grammy Awards . Spears was wearing a turtleneck and a full tulle skirt at the beginning of the performance , while dancers surrounded her with enormous hand fans . After singing a shortened version of the song , she then took a few moments to shuffle into a form @-@ fitting red rhinestone outfit ( with side cutouts ) and emerged onto a stage to perform " ... Baby One More Time . " Jocelyn Vena of MTV included the performance on her list of Spears ' Top 10 Best TV Performances . Spears also performed the song on her 2000s Crazy 2k Tour , where her dancers picked a boy from the audience and invited him onstage , while Spears dedicated the performance of " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " to the boy . The same year , the song was performed on Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour . Wearing glittery jeans and an orange halter top , she performed an acoustic version of the song with her guitarist Skip . Spears also performed " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " and " Born to Make You Happy " on Disney Channel in Concert in 1999 . The performances were recorded and included on Spears ' first home video release , Time Out with Britney Spears . The song was also performed in the television program Good Morning America in January 7 , 2000 along with ... Baby One More Time .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " are adapted from ... Baby One More Time 's liner notes .
Britney Spears – lead vocals
Eric Foster White – audio mixing , producer , songwriting
Chris Trevett – audio mixing
Dan Petty – guitar
Andy Hess – bass guitar , bass , guitar
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Cycling at the 2008 Summer Olympics – Men 's individual road race =
The men 's road race , a part of the cycling events at the 2008 Summer Olympics , took place on August 9 at the Urban Road Cycling Course in Beijing . It started at 11 : 00 China Standard Time ( UTC + 8 ) , and was scheduled to last until 17 : 30 later that day . The 245 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre ( 152 @.@ 5 mi ) course ran north across the heart of the Beijing metropolitan area , passing such landmarks as the Temple of Heaven , the Great Hall of the People , Tiananmen Square and the Beijing National Stadium . After rolling over relatively flat terrain for 78 @.@ 8 km ( 49 @.@ 0 mi ) north of the Beijing city center , the route entered a decisive circuit encompassing seven loops on a 23 @.@ 8 km ( 14 @.@ 8 mi ) section up and down the Badaling Pass , including ramps as steep as a 10 percent gradient .
The race was won by the Spanish rider Samuel Sánchez in 6 hours , 23 minutes , 49 seconds , after a six @-@ man breakaway group contested a sprint finish . Davide Rebellin of Italy and Fabian Cancellara of Switzerland , finishing second and third place with the same time as Sánchez , received silver and bronze medals respectively for the event . The hot and humid conditions were in sharp contrast to the heavy rain weathered in the women 's road race the following day .
The event was one of the earliest to be concluded at the 2008 Summer Olympics , taking place on the first day of competition . Concerns were raised before the Olympics about the threat of pollution in endurance sports , but no major problems were apparent in the race .
In April 2009 , it was announced that Rebellin had tested positive for Continuous erythropoietin receptor activator ( CERA , a third @-@ generation form of erythropoietin ) during the Olympics . After his B @-@ sample subsequently confirmed initial results , he returned his medal and repaid the prize money he had won from the Italian National Olympic Committee ( CONI ) while still maintaining his innocence . Cancellara and original fourth @-@ place finisher Alexandr Kolobnev were later awarded new medals corresponding to their updated finishing positions .
= = Qualification = =
Qualification for the race was restricted to five athletes per National Olympic Committee ( NOC ) , providing that these athletes qualified through the Union Cycliste Internationale ( UCI ) rankings , with the UCI ProTour considered to be superior to the UCI Continental Circuits . The number of qualification places allocated varied among the different UCI tours , which all maintain their own ranking system . Any NOC unable to fill its quota of athletes from the ProTour was permitted to enter athletes from one of the continental tours , and if that was not feasible , from the " B " World Championship . The number of places allocated to each tour were thus ( in descending order ) : 70 riders from the ProTour , 38 from the Europe tour , 15 from the America tour , nine from the Asia tour , five from the Africa tour , and three from the Oceania tour . Five entrants qualified through the " B " World Championships .
The final number of competitors was set to be 145 , but only 143 athletes started the race . Four cyclists were scratched from the race shortly before it took place . Damiano Cunego of Italy had not yet recovered from the injuries he sustained in the 2008 Tour de France , so he was replaced by Vincenzo Nibali . Portugal 's Sérgio Paulinho , the silver medalist at the 2004 event , was said to be in insufficient shape to race . After Russian Vladimir Gusev was fired by his professional team Astana for failing an internal doping check , he was replaced in this event by Denis Menchov , who later competed in the time trial . While training earlier in the week before the race , Switzerland 's Michael Albasini crashed and broke his collarbone ; there was not sufficient time to find a replacement for him .
= = Preview = =
= = = Pollution issues = = =
Prior to the opening of the Games , the International Olympic Committee was keen to play down the risk that athletes faced from pollution ; however , the organizing body considered re @-@ scheduling of endurance events ( such as the cycling road race ) if the pollution levels were too high . Athletes partaking in these events can consume 20 times the amount of oxygen as a sedentary person . A higher level of pollution in the air could adversely affect performance , damage or irritate an athlete 's lungs , or exacerbate respiratory conditions , such as asthma .
Independent sources showed that pollution levels were above the limit deemed safe by the World Health Organization on August 9 . However , the cycling event went ahead as scheduled with no objections from the athletes . Fifty @-@ three of the 143 cyclists pulled out during the race ; however , this is not unusual ( over half withdrew mid @-@ race at the 2004 Summer Olympics ) . Post @-@ race , a number of riders highlighted the punishing conditions , in particular the heat ( 26 ° C or 79 ° F ) and humidity ( 90 % ) , which were much higher than in Europe , where the majority of UCI ProTour races are held . Pollution , however , was not widely cited as a problem , though Stefan Schumacher of Germany , who had been considered an outside favorite for victory in the event , said the elements and the pollution played a role in his withdrawal .
= = = Pre @-@ race favorites = = =
Among the pre @-@ race favorites was the entire Spanish contingent of riders . It included two winners of Grand Tours in Alberto Contador and Carlos Sastre , along with highly regarded countrymen Alejandro Valverde , winner of the 2008 Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré and the reigning Spanish national road race champion , and Samuel Sánchez , who had won three stages in the 2007 Vuelta a España . They also had 2008 Tour de France points classification winner and three @-@ time world champion Óscar Freire available to work on their behalf . Valverde was seen as the strongest threat among the Spaniards . Other medal hopefuls included the defending Olympic champion Paolo Bettini of Italy , Germany 's Stefan Schumacher , and Australian Cadel Evans , twice a runner @-@ up in the Tour de France ( 2007 and 2008 ) . It was thought that members of the overall strong squads from Germany and Luxembourg could also contend for victory . The German team contained Schumacher and many veterans of Grand Tours such as Jens Voigt to work in support , while Luxembourg had the Schleck brothers Andy and Fränk , along with Kim Kirchen , all of whom had worn leader 's jerseys during the 2008 Tour de France .
= = Course = =
The Urban Road Cycling Course ( one of Beijing 's nine temporary venues ) was 102 @.@ 6 km ( 63 @.@ 8 mi ) in its entirety , and the men 's race was a distance of 245 @.@ 4 km ( 152 @.@ 5 mi ) , the longest in Olympic history . The race 's starting line was located at the Yongdingmen Gate , a remnant of Beijing 's old city wall , which is a part of the Chongwen District of northern Beijing . The course ended at the Juyong Pass in the Changping District .
The route passed through a total of eight districts : Chongwen , Xuanwu , Dongcheng , Xicheng , Chaoyang , Haidian , Changping , and Yanqing . The course 's scenery , described by The Guardian newspaper ( UK ) as " visually sumptuous " , included landmarks such as the Temple of Heaven , the Great Hall of the People , Tiananmen Square , the Yonghe Temple , and sections of the Great Wall of China , which were passed through as the course journeyed from urban Beijing into the countryside . It also passed the architecture of the 2008 Olympics , including the Beijing National Stadium and Beijing National Aquatics Center ( known colloquially as the " Bird 's Nest " and " Water Cube " ) .
The men 's race layout , which differed most significantly from the women 's in that it was over double its length , saw the riders make seven loops back @-@ and @-@ forth between the Badaling and Juyong Passes . The early sections of the race took place within central Beijing ; consequently , the gradient of this part of the race was relatively flat . At approximately the 78 @.@ 8 km ( 49 @.@ 0 mi ) point in the race the riders reached the Badaling section of the Great Wall , and began their first of seven 23 @.@ 8 km ( 14 @.@ 8 mi ) loops . The riders encountered an increase in the gradient at this point , with the Badaling Pass gaining 338 @.@ 2 metres ( 1 @,@ 110 ft ) in elevation over a distance of 12 @.@ 4 km ( 7 @.@ 7 mi ) from the start of the circuit to the highest point . From there the cyclists rode over a false flat before descending a highway towards the Juyong Pass . The final 350 m ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) of the race gave the riders a moderately steep climb to contend with , which was designed to ensure an exciting finale should several riders have been grouped together at the end of the race , as there were .
Due to security regulations put in place by the Olympic organizers , no spectators were permitted to stand roadside along the course . This decision proved to be controversial : several prominent figures in cycling , including UCI president Pat McQuaid and riders Stuart O 'Grady and Cadel Evans ( both Australia ) , spoke out against it . McQuaid and O 'Grady both felt that the absence of people along the course deprived the race of the atmosphere present at other cycling events , and said that it failed to take supporters ' wishes into consideration . Cycling Australia 's reaction to the cyclists ' complaints was to request that security restrictions be eased for the time trial to follow , but they were not .
= = Race = =
The men 's road race began at 11 : 00 local time ( UTC + 8 ) and within 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) of the start , Horacio Gallardo ( Bolivia ) and Patricio Almonacid ( Chile ) formed a two @-@ man breakaway . They held a maximum advantage of 15 minutes , but were never really seen as a threat , and in fact neither went on to finish the race . With no single team willing to force the pace , a 26 @-@ man breakaway formed at the 60 km ( 37 mi ) mark , including Carlos Sastre ( Spain ) , Kim Kirchen ( Luxembourg ) , Jens Voigt ( Germany ) , Roman Kreuziger ( Czech Republic ) and Simon Gerrans ( Australia ) . Shortly after the race reached the finish line to begin the first of seven 23 @.@ 8 km ( 14 @.@ 8 mi ) loops , Gallardo was dropped by Almonacid . The lone Chilean leader was then caught by the now 24 @-@ man chase group at the summit on the second loop , after riding solo ahead of the pack for over an hour and a half .
Under the impetus of Sastre and Kreuziger in particular , the 24 @-@ strong breakaway group built their lead to over six minutes at the half @-@ way point of the race , after four of the seven circuits . At that point , the Italian @-@ paced main field increased its speed in order to bring them back . Aleksandr Kuschynski ( Belarus ) and Ruslan Pidgornyy ( Ukraine ) went clear of the leading group afterward and gained an advantage of a minute and 40 seconds over the Sastre group and 2 minutes , 45 seconds over the main field by the start of the fifth lap over the hilly circuit . The Sastre group was absorbed by the main field at the 60 km ( 37 mi ) to go mark , leaving just Kuschynski and Pidgornyy out front . Not long after , shortly before the end of the fifth circuit , Marcus Ljungqvist ( Sweden ) , Rigoberto Urán ( Colombia ) and Johan Van Summeren ( Belgium ) attacked from the peloton and reeled in Kuschynski and Pidgornyy .
The next attack , one that would later be described as " audacious " and " brave " , came from Christian Pfannberger ( Austria ) , who went free of the main field toward the end of the sixth lap . His maximum advantage never grew to more than a minute , but he did stay away until well into the seventh and final lap , being caught with 20 km ( 12 mi ) to go . Within five minutes of fierce attacks , fewer than 20 riders were left in the front group , a group that included Cadel Evans ( Australia ) , Levi Leipheimer ( United States ) , Santiago Botero ( Colombia ) , and Jérôme Pineau ( France ) , with Valverde and Bettini left behind them . Five riders , Samuel Sánchez ( Spain ) , Michael Rogers ( Australia ) , Davide Rebellin ( Italy ) , Andy Schleck ( Luxembourg ) , and Alexandr Kolobnev ( Russia ) , came further clear from the group of now 13 due to repeated attacks from Schleck . Sánchez , Rebellin , and Schleck reached the summit of the Badaling climb , with 12 @.@ 7 km ( 7 @.@ 9 mi ) to race , 10 seconds ahead of Rogers and Kolobnev , and 26 seconds ahead of the Evans group . Bettini , Valverde and Fabian Cancellara ( Switzerland ) attacked from the main peloton and joined the Evans group at the top of the climb . The leading group 's advantage over the two @-@ man chase was 15 seconds with 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to go .
With 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) left , Cancellara attacked from the Evans group and caught up with the chasers that the group of three had left behind , Kolobnev and Rogers . The three of them successfully bridged the gap to the leaders with about 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to go , and there were six riders contesting the final sprint . Sánchez won the gold medal , Rebellin the silver , and Cancellara the bronze .
= = Doping incident = =
In April 2009 , the IOC announced that six athletes had tested positive during the 2008 Summer Olympics , without mentioning names or sports . Later , rumours emerged that the athletes included two cyclists , one of them a medal winner . The Italian National Olympic Committee ( CONI ) then confirmed that a male Italian cyclist had tested positive for Continuous erythropoietin receptor activator ( CERA ) during the men 's road race , without identifying him . The next day , on 29 April 2009 , the Committee confirmed that Davide Rebellin was an involved athlete . Rebellin 's agent sent a request for the analysis of the B sample . On 8 July 2009 , Rebellin , along with Stefan Schumacher , were confirmed as having tested positive . Schumacher was already serving a ban after testing positive in the 2008 Tour de France , but faces further punishment , and Rebellin subsequently had his medal removed by the UCI and the IOC . On 27 November , Rebellin returned his silver medal to CONI , per their and the UCI 's request . Per UCI regulations , Cancellara and Kolobnev were moved up to second and third in the official results , but did not initially receive new medals . On December 18 , 2010 , Cancellara received the same physical medal initially given to Rebellin , in a ceremony held in his hometown of Ittigen , Switzerland . The medal originally given to Cancellara will in turn be given to Kolobnev .
Rebellin had appealed at the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) against the decision to remove his silver medal , but in July 2010 , this was rejected .
There had been controversy in the months before the men 's road race when , in the aftermath of doping revelations at the Tour de France , International Olympic Committee vice @-@ president Thomas Bach had suggested that the men 's road race 's place in the Olympics should be reconsidered , and said that the credibility of the sport had been damaged ; although he clarified that there was no immediate threat . Pat McQuaid had reacted angrily to these comments , saying , " Why should they [ the majority of cyclists ] be threatened because of a few bad apples ? "
= = Final classification = =
A total of 142 riders have been qualified in the event at these Games . Most of them are not expected to finish one @-@ day races , having worked in support for their teams ( in this case , nations ) to place their riders with better climbing skills in good positions once the mountainous part of a course begins . Many of these riders also sought to conserve themselves for the time trial that was to come . Additionally , if a rider was lapped by the race leader on the Badaling circuit , he would be forced to stop .
The notation " s.t. " indicates that the rider crossed the finish line in the same group as the one receiving the time above him , and was therefore credited with the same finishing time .
Source : Official results
Notes
= Finn the Human ( Adventure Time episode ) =
" Finn the Human " is the fifth season premiere of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written and storyboarded by Tom Herpich and Jesse Moynihan , from a story by Patrick McHale , Kent Osborne , and Pendleton Ward . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on November 12 , 2012 . The episode guest stars Ron Perlman as the Lich , Kumail Nanjiani as Prismo , Ming @-@ Na as Farmworld Finn 's mother , and Cloris Leachman as Farmworld Marceline .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Finn and Jake chase The Lich through a dimensional portal where they meet Prismo , a wish granter , who tells them that the Lich wished for the extinction of all life . This leads Finn to wish that the Lich had never existed . Finn is then transported to an alternate timeline , where he is a normal human living with his family and his dog , Jake , on a farm . In the alternate reality , Finn discovers a magical ice crown , which he attempts to use to repay his family 's debt . After placing it on his head , he is magically imbued with power over ice and snow .
The story for " Finn the Human " is a continuation of the plot from the fourth season finale " The Lich " ; the plot was continued on into the following episode , " Jake the Dog " . " Finn the Human " was watched by 3 @.@ 435 million viewers and received critical acclaim , with writers from The A.V. Club and IndieWire applauding the episode for being both an excellent season premiere , as well as a creative challenge , respectively .
= = Plot = =
In the fourth season finale " The Lich " , Finn and Jake are tricked by the Lich — disguised as the hero Billy — into opening a portal to the multiverse by using the Enchiridion . After the Lich passes through , Finn and Jake give chase . They eventually reach a time room at the center of the multiverse that is inhabited by Prismo , a wish @-@ granter . They arrive just in time to see the Lich vanish after making his wish for the extinction of all life . After a short conversation with Prismo , Finn wishes that the Lich had never existed and is promptly transported into the reality created by his wish .
The scene then shifts to the art style featured in the end of " The Lich " . In this reality , Finn is a normal human living with his family and his dog , Jake , on a farm . Finn is called by his mother and told to sell his beloved mule Bartram to pay off the family 's debt to the Destiny Gang . While going to town to the sell the creature , Finn and Jake fall down an opening in the earth and discover the long @-@ dead skeleton of Simon Petrikov . An aged and decrepit Marceline — who never became a vampire — reveals herself and tells Finn that Simon gave his life stopping a mutagenic bomb from exploding by freezing it in ice . She tells them that she has been guarding Simon 's body , and the ice crown , ever since his demise so that no one is ever harmed from the crown 's power .
Finn manages to steal the crown , hoping to sell it instead of Bartram . In town , however , the Destiny Gang steal the crown as well as Bartram . Finn , furious , riles up the town , who begin to riot , as they are sick of being abused by the Destiny Gang . Finn goes to the Destiny Gang 's mansion to confront their leader , Big Destiny . Once there , Big Destiny returns the crown , noting that it is the last possession that he will ever own . Finn looks out the window and sees that the gang is burning the city . Finn races to his home , taking Marceline with him . When he arrives at his house , the gang has already set it on fire with his parents and infant sibling trapped upstairs . Finn asks Marceline if the crown is magic and she tells him it is very dangerous magic . He then puts the crown on his head , and the power begins to flow through him .
= = Production = =
" Finn the Human " was written and storyboarded by Jesse Moynihan and Tom Herpich , from a story by Patrick McHale , Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward . The entry was directed by Larry Leichliter . The episode guest stars Ron Perlman as the Lich , Kumail Nanjiani as Prismo , Ming @-@ Na Wen as Farmworld Finn 's mother , and Cloris Leachman as Farmworld Marceline . Perlman had previously appeared in the fourth season finale " The Lich " . Nanjiani and Leachman would appear in the following episode , " Jake the Dog " .
The episode features new characters , the Destiny Gang , who were designed to not " really fit in the Adventure Time world " . Moynihan , the designer of the characters , was worried that their appearance would be " a little bit jarring " , but he was not dissuaded from trying it . Furthermore , Moynihan admitted that the characters were partially inspired by the Japanese manga series Fist of the North Star . Despite being officially boarded by Moynihan and Herpich , Cole Sanchez and Rebecca Sugar — the writers and storyboarders for the following episode — helped out with various scenes . For instance , the majority of the scenes with Prismo were created by Sanchez and Herpich , whereas " Finn going insane " was the product of Sugar .
= = Reception = =
" Finn the Human " first aired on Cartoon Network on November 12 , 2012 , along with " Jake the Dog " . The episode was watched by 3 @.@ 435 million viewers , and scored a 0 @.@ 7 percent in the 18 – 49 demographic Nielsen household rating . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , which means that the episode was seen by 0 @.@ 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the airing . The episode first saw physical release as part of the 2014 Finn the Human DVD , which included 16 episodes from the series ' third , fourth , fifth , and sixth seasons .
Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the episode — along with " Jake the Dog " — an " A − " . He noted that , together , both episodes come together to make " a dense première that evokes nearly all aspects of this series . " He was appreciative of the fact that " Finn the Human " was " an action @-@ packed , mythology @-@ heavy chapter " and a " nice change of pace " . Eric Kohn of IndieWire praised the episode — along with " Jake the Dog " — for being " irreverent and narratively engaging " . He called the collective episodes " the ideal testament to animation 's glorious pliability in an commercial arena otherwise defined by restrictions . " Kohn felt that the show 's exploration of " sad subtext " — such as the series ' mysterious Mushroom War and the relationship between Marceline and the Ice King — and the characters ' abilities to " deny the bad vibes their surrounding world invites " via " cheery songs and vibrant artwork " were some of the series strongest points . Finally , he praised the exploration of the multiverse and its impact on the show , noting that it was an " interesting creative challenge " .
= Germanwings Flight 9525 =
Germanwings Flight 9525 ( 4U9525 / GWI18G ) was a scheduled international passenger flight from Barcelona – El Prat Airport in Spain to Düsseldorf Airport in Germany . The flight was operated by Germanwings , a low @-@ cost carrier owned by the German airline Lufthansa . On 24 March 2015 , the aircraft , an Airbus A320 @-@ 211 , crashed 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) north @-@ west of Nice in the French Alps after a constant descent that began one minute after the last routine contact with air traffic control and shortly after it had reached its assigned cruising altitude . All 144 passengers and six crew members were killed . It was Germanwings ' first fatal crash in the 18 @-@ year history of the company .
The crash was deliberately caused by the co @-@ pilot Andreas Lubitz , who had previously been treated for suicidal tendencies and been declared " unfit to work " by a doctor . Lubitz kept this information from his employer and reported for duty . During the flight , he locked the pilot out of the cockpit before initiating a descent that caused the aircraft to crash into a mountain .
In response to the incident and the circumstances of Lubitz 's involvement in it , aviation authorities in Australia , Canada , Germany , New Zealand , Norway , and the United Kingdom implemented new regulations that require the presence of two authorized personnel in the cockpit at all times . Three days after the incident , the European Aviation Safety Agency issued a temporary recommendation for airlines to ensure at least two crew members — including at least one pilot — are in the cockpit during the entire duration of the flight . Several airlines announced they had already adopted similar policies voluntarily .
= = Flight = =
Germanwings Flight 9525 took off from Runway 07R at Barcelona – El Prat Airport on 24 March 2015 at 10 : 01 a.m. CET ( 09 : 01 UTC ) and was due to arrive at Düsseldorf Airport by 11 : 39 CET . The flight 's scheduled departure time was 9 : 35 CET . According to the French national civil aviation inquiries bureau , the Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety ( BEA ) , the pilots confirmed instructions from French air traffic control at 10 : 30 CET . At 10 : 31 CET , after crossing the French coast near Toulon , the aircraft left its assigned cruising altitude of 38 @,@ 000 feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) and without approval began to descend rapidly . The air traffic controller declared the aircraft in distress after its descent and loss of radio contact .
The descent time from 38 @,@ 000 feet was about ten minutes ; radar observed an average descent rate of approximately 3 @,@ 400 feet per minute or 58 feet per second ( 18 m / s ) . Attempts by French air traffic control to contact the flight on the assigned radio frequency were not answered . A French military Mirage jet was scrambled from the Orange @-@ Caritat Air Base to intercept the aircraft . According to the BEA , radar contact was lost at 10 : 40 CET ; at the time the aircraft had descended to 6 @,@ 175 feet ( 1 @,@ 882 m ) . The aircraft crashed in the remote commune of Prads @-@ Haute @-@ Bléone , 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) north @-@ west of Nice .
The crash is the deadliest air disaster in France since the 1981 crash of Inex @-@ Adria Aviopromet Flight 1308 in which 180 people died , and the third @-@ deadliest in France behind Flight 1308 and Turkish Airlines Flight 981 . This was the first major crash of a civil airliner in France since the crash of Air France Flight 4590 on takeoff from Charles de Gaulle Airport in 2000 .
= = = Crash site = = =
The crash site is within the Massif des Trois @-@ Évêchés , three kilometres ( 2 mi ) east of the settlement Le Vernet and beyond the road to the Col de Mariaud , in an area known as the Ravin du Rosé . The aircraft crashed on the southern side of the Tête du Travers , a minor peak in the lower western slopes of the Tête de l 'Estrop . The site is approximately 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) west of Mount Cimet , where Air France Flight 178 crashed in 1953 .
Gendarmerie nationale and Sécurité Civile sent helicopters to locate the wreckage . The aircraft had disintegrated ; the largest piece of wreckage was " the size of a car " . A helicopter landed near the crash site ; its personnel confirmed there were no survivors . The search and rescue team reported the debris field covered two square kilometres ( 500 acres ) .
= = Aircraft = =
The aircraft that crashed was a 24 @-@ year @-@ old Airbus A320 @-@ 211 , serial number 147 , registered as D @-@ AIPX . It first flew on 29 November 1990 . It was delivered to Lufthansa on 5 February 1991 and was leased to Germanwings from 1 June 2003 until mid @-@ 2004 . The aircraft was returned to Lufthansa on 22 July 2004 and remained with that airline until 2014 , during which time it was named Mannheim . It was finally transferred to Germanwings on 31 January 2014 .
The aircraft had accumulated about 58 @,@ 300 flight hours on 46 @,@ 700 flights . The original Design Service Goal ( DSG ) of the aircraft was 60 @,@ 000 hours or 48 @,@ 000 flights . In 2012 , an optional Extended Service Goal ( ESG1 ) was approved , extending the aircraft 's service life to 120 @,@ 000 hours or 60 @,@ 000 flights , provided a required package of service and inspections was performed before the DSG was reached .
= = Crew and passengers = =
During its final flight , the aircraft was carrying 144 passengers , two pilots , and four cabin crew members from at least 18 countries — mostly Germany and Spain . The count was confused by the multiple citizenship status of some people on board .
= = = Crew = = =
The flight 's pilot in command was 34 @-@ year @-@ old Captain Patrick Sondenheimer , who had ten years of flying experience ( 6 @,@ 000 flight hours ) flying A320s for Germanwings , Lufthansa , and Condor . The co @-@ pilot was 27 @-@ year @-@ old First Officer Andreas Lubitz , who joined Germanwings in September 2013 and had 630 flight hours of experience .
= = = = Andreas Lubitz = = = =
Andreas Günter Lubitz was born on 18 December 1987 and grew up in Neuburg an der Donau , Bavaria and Montabaur in the German state of Rhineland @-@ Palatinate . He took flying lessons at Luftsportclub Westerwald , an aviation sports club in Montabaur .
Lubitz was accepted into a Lufthansa trainee programme after finishing high school . Starting in 2008 , he received pilot training at the Lufthansa Flight Training school in Bremen , Germany , and at the Lufthansa Airline Training Center in Goodyear , Arizona , United States . Lubitz took time off from his flight training for several months and informed the Flight Training Pilot School in 2009 of a previous episode of severe depression . He later completed the training and spent an eleven @-@ month waiting period working as a flight attendant for Lufthansa before gaining his commercial pilot 's licence .
= = = Passengers = = =
Among the passengers were sixteen students and two teachers from the Joseph @-@ König @-@ Gymnasium of Haltern am See , North Rhine @-@ Westphalia . They were returning home from a student exchange with the Giola Institute in Llinars del Vallès , Barcelona . Haltern 's mayor , Bodo Klimpel , described the crash as " the darkest day in the history of [ the ] town " . Bass @-@ baritone Oleg Bryjak and contralto Maria Radner , singers with Deutsche Oper am Rhein , were also on the flight .
= = Investigation = =
The French Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety ( BEA ) opened an investigation into the crash ; it was joined by its German counterpart , the Federal Bureau of Aircraft Accident Investigation ( BFU ) , and was assisted by the US Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) . Hours after the crash , the BEA sent seven investigators to the crash site ; these were accompanied by representatives from Airbus and CFM International . The cockpit voice recorder , which was damaged but still usable , was recovered by rescue workers and was examined by the investigation team . The following week , Marseille prosecutor Brice Robin announced that the flight data recorder , which was blackened by fire but still usable , had also been found . Investigators isolated 150 sets of DNA , which were compared with the DNA of the victims ' families .
= = = Cause of crash = = =
According to French and German prosecutors , the crash was deliberately caused by the co @-@ pilot . Brice Robin said co @-@ pilot Andreas Lubitz was initially courteous to Captain Sondenheimer during the first part of the flight , then became " curt " when the captain began the mid @-@ flight briefing on the planned landing . Robin said when the captain returned from a probable toilet break and tried to enter the cockpit , Lubitz had locked the door . The captain had a code to unlock the door , but the lock 's code panel can be disabled from the cockpit controls . The captain requested re @-@ entry using the intercom ; he knocked and then banged on the door , but received no response . The captain then tried to break down the door . During the descent , the co @-@ pilot did not respond to questions from air traffic control and did not transmit a distress call . Robin said contact from the Marseille air traffic control tower , the captain 's attempts to break in , and Lubitz 's steady breathing were audible on the cockpit voice recording . The screams of passengers in the last moments before impact were also heard on the recording .
After their initial analysis of the aircraft 's flight data recorder , the BEA concluded that Lubitz deliberately crashed the aircraft . He had set the autopilot to descend to 100 feet ( 30 m ) and accelerated the speed of the descending aircraft several times thereafter . The aircraft was travelling at 700 kilometres per hour ( 430 mph ) when it crashed into the mountain . The BEA preliminary report into the crash was published on 6 May 2015 , six weeks later . It confirmed the initial analysis of the aircraft 's flight data recorder and revealed that during the earlier outbound Flight 9524 from Düsseldorf to Barcelona , Lubitz had practised setting the autopilot altitude dial to 100 feet several times while the captain was out of the cockpit .
= = = Investigation of Lubitz = = =
Three days after the crash , German detectives searched Lubitz 's Montabaur properties and removed a computer and other items for testing . They did not find a suicide note nor any evidence his actions had been motivated by " a political or religious background " . During their search of Lubitz 's apartment , detectives found a letter in a waste bin indicating he had been declared unfit to work by a doctor . Germanwings stated it had not received a sick note from Lubitz for the day of the flight . News accounts said Lubitz was " hiding an illness from his employers " ; under German law , employers do not have access to employees ' medical records , and sick notes excusing a person from work do not give information about medical conditions .
The following day , authorities again searched Lubitz 's home , where they found evidence he was taking prescription drugs and suffered from a psychosomatic illness . Criminal investigators said Lubitz 's web searches on his tablet computer in the days leading up to the crash included " ways to commit suicide " and " cockpit doors and their security provisions " . Prosecutor Brice Robin said doctors had told him Lubitz should not have been flying , but " medical secrecy requirements " prevented this information from being made available to Germanwings .
In the weeks before the BEA 's preliminary report , the investigation into Lubitz found he had been treated for suicidal tendencies prior to his training as a commercial pilot and had been temporarily denied a US pilot 's license because of these treatments for depression . The final report of the BEA confirmed the preliminary report 's findings , saying the co @-@ pilot began showing symptoms of psychotic depression . For five years , Lubitz had frequently been unable to sleep because of what he believed were vision problems ; he consulted over forty doctors and feared he was going blind . Motivated by the fear that blindness would cause him to lose his pilot 's licence , he began conducting online research about methods of committing suicide before deciding to crash Flight 9525 .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Political = = =
French Minister of the Interior Bernard Cazeneuve announced that due to the " violence of the impact " there was " little hope " any survivors would be found . Prime Minister Manuel Valls dispatched Cazeneuve to the scene and set up a ministerial task force to coordinate the response to the incident .
German Foreign Minister Frank @-@ Walter Steinmeier flew over the crash site ; he described it as " a picture of horror " . German Chancellor Angela Merkel and the minister @-@ president of North Rhine @-@ Westphalia Hannelore Kraft travelled to the crash site the following day . Merkel , Valls , and Spanish Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy visited the recovery operations base at Seyne @-@ les @-@ Alpes . Bodo Klimpel , mayor of Haltern am See , reacting to the deaths of sixteen students and two teachers from the town , said that people were shocked by the crash .
= = = Commercial = = =
Lufthansa chief executive officer Carsten Spohr visited the crash location the day following the crash ; he said it was " the darkest day for Lufthansa in its 60 @-@ year history " . Several Germanwings flights were cancelled on 24 and 25 March due to the pilots ' grief at the loss of their colleagues . Germanwings retired the flight number 4U9525 , changing it to 4U9441 ; the outbound flight number was changed from 4U9524 to 4U9440 . In the days following the crash , Lufthansa at first said it saw no reason to change its procedures , then reversed its earlier statement by introducing a new policy across its airlines requiring the presence of two crew members in the cockpit at all times .
= = = Regulatory = = =
In response to the incident and the circumstances of Lubitz 's involvement in it , aviation authorities in Australia , Canada , Germany , New Zealand , Norway , and the UK implemented new regulations that require two authorized personnel to be present in the cockpit of large passenger aircraft at all times . While the United States Federal Aviation Administration , the Civil Aviation Administration of China , and some European airlines already had a similar " rule of two " requirement , the European Aviation Safety Agency recommended the introduction of similar legal changes . Other airlines announced similar changes to their policies .
The British Psychological Society issued a statement offering to provide expert support in psychological testing and monitoring of pilots . The European Federation of Psychologists ' Associations ( EFPA ) issued a statement supporting psychological testing in the selection of pilots , but also stated it could not forecast the life events and mental health problems of individual pilots , nor could it predict the unique ways pilots would cope with these . It said priority should be given to psychological help for relatives and friends of victims in the aftermath of a disaster .
In May 2015 , Lufthansa CEO Carsten Spohr proposed random checks of pilots ' psychological fitness and a loosening of the extant physician – patient confidentiality laws . Politicians began echoing the call for a loosening of the laws in exceptional cases .
= = = Compensation = = =
Germanwings ' parent company Lufthansa offered victims ' families an initial aid payment of up to € 50 @,@ 000 , separate from any legally @-@ required compensation for the disaster . Elmar Giemulla , a professor of aviation law at the Technical University of Berlin quoted by the Rheinische Post , said he expected the airline would pay € 10 – 30 million in compensation . The Montreal Convention sets a per @-@ victim cap of € 143 @,@ 000 in the event an airline is held liable , unless negligence can be proved . Insurance specialists said although co @-@ pilot Andreas Lubitz hid a serious illness from his employer and deliberately crashed the passenger aircraft , these facts would not affect the issue of compensation nor be applicable to the exclusion clause in Lufthansa 's insurance policy . Lufthansa 's insurance company set aside US $ 300 million ( € 280 million ) for financial compensation to victims ' families and for the cost of the aircraft .
German law does not allow for punitive damages or the broad discovery generally available under the law of most American jurisdictions . A U.S. plaintiffs ' law firm , Kreindler & Kreindler , signed up families of about 80 of the crash victims as clients ; and filed a lawsuit on their behalf on April 13 , 2016 in the United States District Court for the District of Arizona against the Arizona @-@ based Lufthansa Airline Training Center that Lubitz had attended for his training as a commercial pilot .
= = = Commemorative = = =
Shortly after the crash , a memorial stone in memory of the victims was erected near the crash site in Le Vernet . The following month , about 1 @,@ 400 relatives of victims , senior politicians , rescue workers , and airline employees attended a memorial service at Cologne Cathedral . The parents of Andreas Lubitz were invited to the service but did not attend .
The remains of fifteen of the sixteen school children and their two teachers arrived in their home town of Haltern for burial two months after the crash . Residents held white roses as the hearses passed the children 's school , where eighteen trees — one for each victim — had been planted as a memorial . In Düsseldorf on the same day , the remains of forty @-@ four of the seventy @-@ two German victims arrived for burial . Errors on the victims ' death certificates had caused a delay . A lawyer representing the families of thirty @-@ four victims said that burying the remains would help many relatives achieve closure .
= Clarence Ransom Edwards =
Clarence Ransom Edwards ( January 1 , 1859 – February 14 , 1931 ) was an American general , known as the first Chief of the Bureau of Insular Affairs , and commander of the 26th Division in World War I.
= = Early career = =
Edwards was born in Cleveland , Ohio , the son of local merchant William Edwards , and Lucia Ransom . He graduated last in his class from the United States Military Academy in 1883 . Upon his graduation from West Point , Edwards was appointed a second lieutenant in the 23rd Infantry . For the next several years Edwards served at various posts , including Fort Union , Fort Porter , Cleveland , Ohio ( commanding the guard at the tomb of President Garfield ) , and Fort Davis . While stationed at Fort Porter he met Bessie Rochester Porter , a member of the family that included Peter Buell Porter , for whom the fort was named , and they were married in 1889 .
He was promoted to first lieutenant on February 25 , 1891 while serving on detached service as Professor of Military Science and Tactics at St. John 's College ( now known as Fordham University ) , from which he received an honorary degree . Following another stint of detached service in the Military Information Bureau of the Adjutant General 's Office , Edwards returned to the 23rd Infantry at Fort Clark , serving as a captain in command of a company , and later as regimental quartermaster .
= = Spanish – American War , the Philippines , and after = =
At the outbreak of the Spanish – American War , Edwards moved with his regiment to New Orleans , Louisiana . In May 1898 , he was given the rank of major , U. S. Volunteers , and assigned as Adjutant General of the 4th Army Corps at Mobile , Alabama ( and , later , Tampa , Florida and Huntsville , Alabama ) under the command of Major General John J. Coppinger . The 4th Army Corps was to have been part of the invasion of Cuba , but was unable to obtain transport .
In January 1899 , Edwards was appointed Adjutant @-@ General on General H. W. Lawton 's staff , accompanying him to the Philippines . He participated in all of Lawton 's campaigns in the Philippines , including the Battle of Santa Cruz and the Battle of Zapote Bridge . Edwards received three silver citation stars for gallantry in action during these campaigns . Lawton was killed in the Battle of Paye in December 1899 , and Edwards accompanied his remains to Washington , D.C. for burial .
In 1900 , due in part to his knowledge of the conditions in the Philippines , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and named Chief of the Division of Customs and Insular Affairs in the War Department . By 1902 he was promoted to colonel and named the first chief of the new Bureau of Insular Affairs . He retained this office until 1912 , by which time he had risen to the rank of brigadier general .
Edwards was named commander of the 6th Brigade at Fort D. A. Russell , Wyoming in October 1912 . The brigade was moved to Texas City , Texas , in February 1913 in response to the Mexican Revolution . In February 1914 , Edwards became the commander of the 1st Hawaiian Brigade , at Schofield Barracks , Hawaii . He then served as commander of all U. S. forces in the Panama Canal Zone from February 1915 to April 1917 .
= = World War I = =
Upon the outbreak of World War I , Edwards was placed in charge of the Department of the Northeast , comprising all the New England states . In August 1917 , he was promoted to major general in the National Army and given the task of organizing the 26th Division . The division arrived in France in September 1917 , the first complete American division to do so . The division also became the first complete American division to go into combat at Chemin @-@ des @-@ Dames in February 1918 , where they remained for 46 days .
Going back to his days at West Point , Edwards had earned a reputation for being sharp @-@ tongued and contentious . John J. Pershing , commander of the American Expeditionary Force , particularly despised him . Edwards made another enemy in General Robert Lee Bullard during the 26th Division 's relief of the 1st Infantry Division near Toul in April 1918 . Edwards found fault with everything he saw , and accused the 1st Division of leaving behind classified documents . Bullard was enraged , but Pershing always favored the 1st Division , and reassured him , and nothing came of the incident . In July 1918 , during the Second Battle of the Marne , I Corps commander Hunter Liggett found that , although the 26th Division did not lack for heroism and fought valiantly , he could not depend on its commanders , especially Edwards , to subjugate his unit to Regular Army Divisions .
Edwards ' final demise came in October 1918 , when he reported an incident to Liggett involving information two of his soldiers had obtained from German soldiers with whom they had been fraternizing . The Germans had expressed their belief that the war would be over soon , and that they were reluctant to continue fighting . While Edwards thought he was reporting the enemy 's poor morale to Liggett , he instead gave Liggett an excuse to get rid of Edwards for his zeal in supporting the National Guard . Liggett reported the incident to Pershing , who took the opportunity to act on his personal vendetta and relieve Edwards of his command .
= = Later career = =
On Edwards ' return to the United States , he was assigned to the command of the Northeastern Department once again , with headquarters in Boston . In September 1920 , he reverted to his Regular Army rank of brigadier general , and was placed in command of the 2nd Brigade , based at Camp Taylor , Kentucky . He was promoted to major general in the Regular Army in June 1921 , and given the command of the First Corps area , headquartered in Boston , where he served until retired at on December 1 , 1922 after nearly 40 years of service . Following retirement , Edwards served as president of the grocery company his father had founded .
Edwards was a member of the Military Order of Foreign Wars ( MOFW ) and served as its Commander General from 1923 – 1926 .
His daughter Bessie died from pneumonia at Camp Meade , Maryland on October 13 , 1918 and his wife died January 25 , 1929 . Edwards died February 14 , 1931 in Boston , Massachusetts and all three are buried together at Arlington National Cemetery , Arlington , Virginia .
= = Honors and awards = =
= = = Military honors = = =
Distinguished Service Medal ( posthumous – presented in 1937 )
Spanish War Service Medal
Philippine Campaign Medal with three silver citation stars
Victory Medal
Legion of Honor ( France )
Croix de Guerre with palm ( France )
Grand Cross Order of Leopold ( Belgium )
Haller Swords ( Poland )
= = = = Distinguished Service Medal citation = = = =
Citation
The President of the United States of America , authorized by Act of Congress , July 9 , 1918 , takes pride in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal ( Posthumously ) to Major General Clarence R. Edwards , United States Army , for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States , in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. After having organized the 26th Division , General Edwards commanded it with distinction during all but 18 days of its active service at the front . The high qualities of leadership and unfailing devotion to duty displayed by him were responsible for the marked espirit and morale of his command . To his marked tactical ability and energy are largely due the brilliant successes achieved by the 26th National Guard Division during its operations against the enemy from 4 February 1918 to 11 November 1918 . General Edwards died 14 February 1931 .
= = = Other honors = = =
Edwards received honorary Doctor of Laws degrees from Syracuse University , Trinity College , Syracuse University , Middlebury College , Boston College , Norwich College , and Fordham College .
A collection of his papers is archived at the Massachusetts Historical Society in Boston , and is open for research .
A middle school in Charlestown , Massachusetts , is named in his honor .
A statue of Edwards stands on the grounds of the Connecticut state capitol .
The General Edwards Bridge carries Massachusetts Route 1A into Lynn , Massachusetts .
Edwards Parade is located on the campus of Fordham University .
Camp Edwards , a training camp for the Massachusetts National Guard located in Falmouth , Massachusetts , was named for him in 1938 .
= Jesper Fast =
Jesper Fast ( formerly Fasth ; born December 2 , 1991 ) is a Swedish professional ice hockey forward currently playing with the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Fast was drafted by the Rangers in the sixth round ( 157th overall ) of the 2010 NHL Entry Draft and joined the Rangers organization in 2013 .
A Nässjö native , Fast started his career with two seasons in the J20 SuperElit junior hockey league , leading his team in goals in his final season . He started his first extended season with the Swedish Hockey League in 2010 and spent three full seasons with the HV71 , tying for the team lead in goals in 2012 – 13 and earning the Rinkens riddare for most sportsmanlike player .
Fast made his North American professional debut with the Connecticut Whale in April 2013 , but injured his knee during the match and did not play another American Hockey League ( AHL ) game that season . He made the New York Rangers roster out of training camp two consecutive years , but spent most of 2013 – 14 with the Hartford Wolf Pack of the AHL , where he recorded 34 points in 48 games .
Fast has spent much of 2014 – 15 with the Rangers , and recorded his first NHL career goal on November 29 , 2014 , against Ray Emery of the Philadelphia Flyers . Internationally , Fast has represented Sweden in several tournaments , including the 2011 IIHF World U20 Championship .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior hockey ( 2007 – 2010 ) = = =
A native of Nässjö , Sweden , Jesper Fasth was born on December 2 , 1991 . He changed his last name to " Fast " in 2012 . Fast began his hockey career with the HV71 U18 team in Sweden 's J20 SuperElit junior hockey league . He debuted in the 2007 – 08 season , tallying 26 points ( 15 goals , 11 assists ) in 30 games . The next season , as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old , Fast played in 37 regular season games and seven playoff matches for HV71 's U20 team . He scored 17 points ( nine goals , eight assists ) and had 24 penalty minutes , including two goals , one assist and eight penalty minutes in the postseason . In 2009 – 10 , Fast recorded 49 points ( 23 goals , 26 assists ) , the highest he had scored in all three categories during his SuperElit league career . He led the team in goals and placing second in points and third in assists . He tied for fifth in the overall league for regular season points , and also had two assists in three playoff games .
Fast also made his Swedish Hockey League debut in 2009 – 10 , playing in two games with HV71 , although he failed to record a point in either match . He returned to the SuperElit league for the start of the 2010 – 11 season , scoring 10 points ( three goals , seven assists ) in six games with the HV71 U20 team , before permanently joining the Swedish Hockey League .
= = = Swedish Hockey League ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = =
At age 18 , playing in a limited role for HV71 during the 2010 – 11 season , Fast scored 16 points ( seven goals , nine assists ) in 36 games , with a + 6 plus @-@ minus , six penalty minutes and two power play goals , exceeded most observers ' expectations . Fast credited playing alongside Johan Davidsson as part of the reason for his success and growth in confidence . He was held scoreless with a -3 plus @-@ minute in three postseason games as the first @-@ place HV71 was swept from the first round of the playoffs by Allmänna Idrottsklubben ( AIK ) in an upset . In the 2011 – 12 season , Fast had three multi @-@ point games , including a career @-@ high four assists and five points against AIK on October 4 . That game started a streak of 10 points ( one goal , nine assists ) over six games , which continued to an October 20 match against Frölunda HC . However , Fast 's season was cut short after he suffered a fractured ankle during a November 29 game against Brynäs IF . He missed three months as a result , but nevertheless recorded 16 points ( five goals , 11 assists ) in 21 games for the season , matching his Swedish Hockey League career high in points and establishing new career highs in assists and plus @-@ minus ( + 9 ) . He also scored two goals and one assist in five postseason games .
In December 2011 , Fast signed a two @-@ year contract extension with HV71 , which included a 900 percent raise to 5 million krona annually . Fast had a strong start to his 2012 – 13 season , scoring six points ( four goals , two assists ) in the first 10 games . He finished the regular season with 35 points ( 18 goals , 17 assists ) in 47 games , exceeding the 32 points ( 12 goals , 10 assists ) he had scored in 57 games during his first two Swedish Hockey League seasons . Fast tied for HV71 lead in goals and ranked third on the team in points , behind Jason Krog ( 43 ) and Rhett Rakhshani ( 39 ) . Fast also had a career @-@ high + 13 plus @-@ minus . Despite ranking third in the league , HV71 was eliminated from the playoffs in five games against Linköpings HC , during which Fast recorded five points ( 1 goal , 4 assists ) , and a + 4 plus @-@ minus . He tied with Rakhshani for second on the team in postseason points and assists .
At the conclusion of the 2012 – 13 season , Fast was awarded the Rinkens riddare ( Knight of the Rink ) award , which is bestowed by the Swedish hockey journalists ' association each season to the most sportsmanlike player . He was also voted favorite HV71 player of the year by readers of the Swedish publication Jnytt .
= = = New York Rangers ( 2013 – present ) = = =
Fast was drafted by the New York Rangers in the sixth round ( 157th overall ) of the 2010 NHL Entry Draft , having obtained the sixth round pick from the Carolina Hurricanes earlier in the day in exchange for defenseman Bobby Sanguinetti . Fast was the fifth of six players the Rangers drafted in 2010 , along with Dylan McIlrath , Christian Thomas , Andrew Yogan , Jason Wilson and Randy McNaught . On May 29 , 2012 , the Rangers announced Fast had been signed to a two @-@ way , three @-@ year entry level contract , valued at $ 2 @.@ 145 million , with a $ 900 @,@ 000 annual cap hit . Since HV71 was eliminated from the 2012 – 13 playoffs earlier than expected , Fast had the opportunity to go to the New York Rangers organization sooner than originally planned . The Swedish Hockey League initially voiced objections , but eventually agreed to loan him to the Rangers .
Fast practiced with New York for the first time on April 2 , 2013 , although he did not play with the team that season . He made his North American professional debut on April 5 , 2013 , with the Connecticut Whale , the Rangers ' American Hockey League minor league affiliate , during which he scored a power play goal against Springfield Falcons goaltender Curtis McElhinney in the Whale 's 4 – 3 victory , and was the Third Star of the Game . However , he injured his knee during the match and did not play another AHL game that season .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
Fast participated in the Rangers ' training camp that preceded the 2013 – 14 season , during which he impressed New York 's head coach Alain Vigneault , and head European scout Anders Hedberg . Although it was his first North American professional training camp , Fast made the Rangers roster , partially because the team needed a right @-@ handed shot to replace the injured captain Ryan Callahan . Fast made his NHL debut on October 3 against the Phoenix Coyotes , taking one shot on goal in 10 : 13 of ice time . Fast played in eight of the Rangers ' first 10 games of the season , playing on the fourth line and recording no points and a -5 plus @-@ minus , before returning to the AHL to make room for Carl Hagelin 's return from a shoulder injury . Observers said Fast needed to adjust to the smaller North American ice surface , and did not get sufficient minutes to do so quickly enough to remain in the NHL .
Fast recorded two assists during his October 30 debut with the Rangers AHL team , now called the Hartford Wolf Pack . However , he suffered a high ankle sprain after going into the boards during a November 2 game at Springfield . He missed the next 14 games as a result , not returning until December 20 , but was given enough minutes upon his return that he was quickly able to get back into shape . Fast scored his first goal of the season on December 26 , notching the game winner on the power play against Bridgeport Sound Tigers goalie Anders Nilsson . The game was part of a four @-@ game point streak ( two goals , two assists ) that stretched from December 21 to December 29 . Fast also set a team record on January 24 for fastest goal to start a period , scoring in the first seven seconds of the game against Springfield , beating Hartford 's previous record by two seconds .
Fast had a season @-@ high five @-@ game point streak from January 24 to January 31 , recording six goals and two assists . That included his first North American professional multi @-@ goal game on January 25 , in which he scored two
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goals against the Falcons . Fast followed that the next day with a second straight two @-@ goal game , this time against the Adirondack Phantoms . Fast had another two @-@ goal game , both on the power play , against the Phantoms on March 22 , which marked the start of a run of seven points ( four goals , three assists ) in seven games up to April 6 . Fast marked a North American single @-@ game career high with three points ( 2 goals , 1 assist ) in Hartford 's 3 – 2 win over the Norfolk Admirals on April 6 , earning him First Star of the Game . Fast recorded a total of 34 points ( 17 goals , 17 assists ) in 48 games for the 2013 – 14 Hartford season , along with 30 penalty minutes and a + 14 plus @-@ minus . Despite missing time from his injury , Fast ranked seventh on the team in assists , fourth in goals , and second in plus @-@ minus with + 14 . His eight power play goals led the team and tied eighth place in the league among AHL rookies , and his six game @-@ winning goals tied for first in Hartford and fourth in the overall league . Fast was a staple on the Wolf Pack 's penalty kill unit , and played most of the season on a line with J. T. Miller and Ryan Bourque .
Fast was called up to the Rangers in April 2014 to replace Chris Kreider , who suffered a left hand injury . Playing on a line with Hagelin and Brad Richards , Fast played in New York 's last three regular season games , as well as three post @-@ season matches . He recorded his first career NHL playoff point with an assist in Game 1 of the Metropolitan Division Semifinal against the Philadelphia Flyers on April 17 . At the conclusion of the season , the Rangers coaching staff told Fast to add strength , so he worked on his upper body and leg strength during the off @-@ season , adding 10 to 15 pounds of muscle , bringing him to 20 pounds heavier than when he was drafted in 2010 .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
Fast scored three goals during the Rangers ' 2014 preseason , including a game @-@ tying goal in a September 22 loss to the New Jersey Devils , and two goals in a 6 – 3 victory over Philadelphia on September 28 . For the second consecutive year , he made the Rangers roster out of training camp , with Vigneault calling him one of the most consistent players throughout the camp . But he again struggled once the regular season began , and on October 17 was sent back to the Hartford Wolf Pack , along with J. T. Miller . Fast had nine points ( one goal , eight assists ) over the next 11 matches for Hartford , including two 2 @-@ assist games on October 24 , and November 8 , notching his sole goal in a 4 – 3 win over the Worcester Sharks on November 2 . He was recalled by the Rangers on November 10 .
Fast scored his first NHL regular season career point on November 23 with an assist on Dominic Moore 's goal against the Montreal Canadiens . He scored his first NHL goal on November 29 , three days before his 23rd birthday , against Ray Emery of the Philadelphia Flyers . Miller , his long @-@ time AHL teammate , assisted on the goal , and Fast assisted on a Miller goal that same game . Fast recorded his second goal in as many games on December 1 , scoring against Ben Bishop of the Tampa Bay Lightning . Fast has played most of the season on the fourth line , often with Moore and Tanner Glass , or with Hagelin and Kevin Hayes , and has been an occasional healthy scratch . He has seven points ( three goals , four assists ) on the season so far .
= = International play = =
In 2009 – 10 , Fast skated in ten international matches for Sweden at the U18 and U19 levels , but did not participate in the World Junior Ice Hockey Championship tournament . He scored one goal and one assist in four games for Sweden at the U20 USA National Junior Evaluation Camp in Lake Placid , New York . At age 18 , Fast represented Sweden in the 2011 IIHF World U20 Championship , where he tied the team lead with four goals in six tournament matches , also recording two assists and a + 4 plus @-@ minus . Sweden took fourth place in the tournament . In 2011 – 12 , Fast represented Sweden in the Karjala Cup portion of the European Trophy tournament in October . He scored two assists in three games , which tied the Swedish team lead in scoring , and tied eighth scoring for the overall tournament .
= = Playing style = =
Fast is considered a skilled forward with good skating ability , hockey sense , and speed , the latter of which gives him an edge in retrieving pucks along the boards . He excels on the forecheck , is a reliable defensive forward , and plays well in the offensive , defensive , and neutral zones . Alain Vigneault has praised his work ethic and dependability , and teammate Tanner Glass has noted his ability to make responsible decisions and skillful plays with the puck along the defensive zone wall . One of Fast 's drawbacks is he lacks the ideal frame for National Hockey League play , but his physical game improved after he added muscle in the 2014 offseason .
= = Personal life = =
Fast is the cousin of fellow hockey players Adam and Anton Bengtsson , who play in the Swedish Hockey League . Adam has said Fast was " supernaturally good " at hockey as a youth and he was not surprised by his future success . Fast also enjoys playing golf . Fast 's teammates have given him the nicknames " Quickie " , and " Fasty " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= Sør Arena =
Sparebanken Sør Arena ( " Savings Bank South Arena " ) is a football stadium located at Torsvika in Kristiansand , Norway . The all @-@ seater has a capacity of 14 @,@ 563 people , and serves as the home ground of Tippeligaen side IK Start . It was designed by Kjell Kosberg , and is architecturally similar to Aker Stadion . The venue has seen concerts by Elton John , Dolly Parton and A @-@ ha , among others . The name derives from a sponsorship agreement with Sparebanken Sør . UEFA refers to the stadium as Kristiansand Arena .
Construction started in 2006 , and the stadium opened on 15 April 2007 , replacing Kristiansand Stadion as Start 's home ground . The venue cost 400 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) , of which the stadium itself cost NOK 250 million , after significant cost overruns . While originally planned with artificial turf , the venue was ultimately built with a natural grass pitch . The venue and the holding company Start Stadion were taken over by Sparebanken Sør , the main creditor , in 2008 . They subsequently also took over Start Toppfotball , the company running the club . Both companies were sold to Ernst Ravnaas in 2009 . Following decreased attendance , ahead of the 2011 season the seating on the corners was sold as advertisement space and the maximum capacity has artificially been reduced to 11 @,@ 700 .
= = History = =
Traditionally , Start has played their home games at Kristiansand Stadion , a municipal multi @-@ purpose stadium . In May 2005 , the municipal council approved the plans for a new stadium for Start . At the time , the structure was estimated to cost NOK 177 million , of which NOK 120 million would be for the stadium itself , while the remaining would be for commercial properties .
The club held an architecture competition , and received six bids . On 28 September 2005 , Start Toppfotball announced that they had selected the design by Kjell Kosberg from Kosbergs Arkitektkontor , who had previously designed Aker Stadion and Briskeby Arena . The default proposal contained a spectator capacity for 9 @,@ 948 people , but the plans were scalable , allowing for increased capacity if the club so wanted . Ernst Ravnaas , co @-@ owner of the club , stated that given the recent high attendance , he wanted to build a larger stadium than the default proposal . Financing was planned with a free lot from Kristiansand Municipality , a NOK 40 million loan from the municipality , a NOK 20 million grant from Cultiva , a municipal culture fund , NOK 20 in value added tax refund , NOK 10 to 20 million in naming rights , the sale of commercial property , NOK 30 to 40 million in a bank loan , and the remaining with share capital from Start Toppfotball .
In October , the club stated that they hoped to finance a further expansion of the stadium to 14 @,@ 000 seats by selling part of the lot to a private developer , which would use it to build a 17 @-@ story building . On 23 December , Rasmussengruppen signed a contract where they bought shares worth NOK 45 million in Start Toppfotball . In addition , they paid NOK 15 million for the right to build 11 @,@ 000 square meters ( 120 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of commercial property in conjunction with the stadium , and an option to purchase the high @-@ rise lot for NOK 25 million . The high @-@ rise lot was again bought from the municipality for NOK 15 million . Combined with the free lot for the stadium , Start Toppfotball received municipal subsidies of NOK 25 million for constructing the venue .
A controversy arose regarding whether to lay natural or artificial turf . Kristofer Hæstad , one of Start 's star players , stated that he would not continue to play for the club if artificial turf was laid . The contract with the municipality stated that the stadium would have to be built with artificial turf . In March , Start decided that they would instead lay natural grass , and if necessary pay the municipality for the cost of building another artificial turf venue . The name of the venue was announced on 21 October , after the club had signed a ten @-@ year naming rights agreement with Sparebanken Sør worth NOK 35 million . The rights to sell the naming rights were first transferred from the stadium owner to the company Rettighetskompaniet AS , which subsequently sold these to Sparebanken Sør .
Construction of the stadium was subject to significant cost overruns . These were mostly caused by the increased size of both spectator and commercial area , increased standard to VIP facilities , a general increase in construction costs , and the deadline to finish the venue in time for the league to start . Total investments exceeded NOK 400 million , of which 250 million was paid for by Start . This resulted in the stadium company having a debt of NOK 173 million , in addition to NOK 60 million in share equity . In November 2007 , Start sold 2 @,@ 500 square meters ( 27 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of commercial space at the stadium for NOK 25 million to finance part of the cost overrun .
The opening of the stadium took place on 15 April 2007 , in the season 's first league game , against Viking . The game attracted 14 @,@ 448 spectators , a record attendance and the only time the venue has been sold out . After the opening , the pitch was the worst in the league , and by May the grass within the penalty areas and along the one side had been replaced . By 2010 , the pitch quality had improved and was regarded as " world class " by the Start players . The cost of preparing the pitch , including snow removal , ahead of the season is about NOK 500 @,@ 000 . Ahead of the 2008 season , the 1 @,@ 400 club seats had to be replaced for a cost of NOK 1 @.@ 5 million , because the wood in the chairs were rotting . The reason was that the chairs were designed for in @-@ door use , and the necessary precautions to protect them when not in use had not been taken .
The stadium had a book value of NOK 230 million , way over the real value , causing Start Toppfotball to have to write down the investment . To finance this , Sparebanken Sør , the main creditor , bought Start Stadion from Start Toppfotball for NOK 2 @,@ 600 on 23 December 2008 . At the same time , the club signed a 40 @-@ year agreement to lease the stadium from Sparebanken Sør for NOK 12 million per year . On 7 March 2009 , the bank also bought the remaining shares of Start Toppfotball , becoming the sole owner of both the club and the stadium . Sparebanken Sør offered to sell Sparebanken Sør Arena to the municipality for NOK 100 million , but the municipality rejected this on 29 May . The bank subsequently sold Start Stadion and Start Toppfotball to Ravnaas on 25 June for NOK 1 each . Start Stadion had at the time a debt of NOK 34 million to Start Toppfotball , NOK 60 million to Sparebanken Sør and NOK 40 million to Kristiansand Municipality . Sparebanken Sør lost NOK 80 million in their transactions with Start and Sparebanken Sør Arena .
Following a fall in game attendance in 2009 and 2010 , Start decided ahead of the 2011 season to reduce the stadium 's capacity . Advertisement banners were sold to cover the corners , thus reducing the capacity to 11 @,@ 700 tickets . The club stated that the intention was to move spectators closer together to increase the atmosphere , and at the same time making it easier to sell out the stadium . In February 2012 , Kristiansand District Court sentenced Start to pay NOK 6 @.@ 4 million in value added tax on the naming rights . The club stated that they believed the naming rights were exempt . After the 2011 season , Start was again relegated to the First Division . In an attempt to better the club 's financial situation , Start agreed to lay artificial turf on Sparebanken Sør Arena , in exchange for NOK 250 @,@ 000 in municipal funding to use the stadium for recreational sports . Removal of the natural pitch started on 28 May 2012 .
Start won the 2012 Norwegian First Division and were promoted to the top league for their 2013 season . Start Stadion had been involved in a legal suit with the Norwegian Tax Administration over whether value added tax was to be paid for the stadium 's naming rights . The company lost the case both in Agder Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court , resulting in the company having to pay NOK 9 million in taxes . As the company did not have such values , it was forced to filed for bankruptcy on 23 May 2013 . At the time the company had a debt of NOK 107 million . At the time the municipality has commenced negotiations with Sparebanken Sør to purchase the stadium . Football economist Tor Geir Kvinen stated that Sparebanken Sør had by then spent NOK 200 million on subsidizing Start and that in reality the municipality and bank were funding the repeated deficits in the club . The municipality announced a plan in October 2013 , whereby they would purchase the bank 's NOK 54 million loan for NOK 44 million and receive all the shares in the stadium company . The bank would then buy the naming rights for ten more years for NOK 10 million and yet unsold commercial property . The municipality would then be owed NOK 64 million by the stadium company , up from NOK 46 million .
= = Facilities = =
The stadium has a capacity for 14 @,@ 563 spectators , of which 1 @,@ 400 are club seating . However , the seating is artificially reduced to 11 @,@ 700 . Built into the stadium is 22 @,@ 000 square meters ( 240 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of commercial property . The venue has many architectural similarities with Aker Stadion , home of Molde FK , which was also designed by Kosberg . During winter , the pitch is converted to a bandy field , when it is covered with a layer of ice up to 10 centimeters ( 4 in ) thick .
= = Events = =
The Norway national under @-@ 21 football team won 2 – 0 over Estonia at Sparebanken Sør Arena on 20 November 2007 . The stadium hosted a UEFA Women 's Euro 2009 qualifying match on 3 May 2008 , in which Norway beat Israel 7 – 0 . The final in the 2011 – 13 International Challenge Trophy was held at the stadium on 14 August 2013 , in which the Norway national under @-@ 23 football team lost 0 – 1 in extra time against Turkey A2 .
Concerts held at the stadium have included Elton John in 2007 , which attracted a crowd of 19 @,@ 000 , Dolly Parton in 2008 and A @-@ ha in 2010 . A 2008 tour with artists from Norske Talenter and Idol attracted only 800 people , including free entrants . From 2011 , the finals in PlussbankCup , a junior football tournament held in Kristiansand , are hosted at Sparebanken Sør Arena .
The following list shows the average , maximum and minimum attendance for Start 's home games in the Premier League . It also gives the rank among the average attendance for the Premier League teams . Years in the First Division are indicated with a dagger ( † ) .
= Ernest Emerson =
Ernest R. Emerson ( born March 7 , 1955 ) is an American custom knifemaker , martial artist , and edged @-@ weapons expert . Originally an engineer and machinist in the aerospace industry , Emerson became a knifemaker by producing knives for a martial arts class and making art knives early in his knifemaking career . In the 1980s he became better known for his combat knives and popularizing a style of knife known as the Tactical @-@ folder .
In order to secure military contracts , Emerson eventually founded Emerson Knives , Inc a production company to mass @-@ produce his designs in 1996 . Emerson 's knives have been displayed as museum pieces , designed for use by Navy SEALs and used by NASA in outer space .
Emerson 's knives have been featured in films and novels , due to their association with military units . This has furthered their popularity with collectors .
Emerson is an accomplished martial artist who has developed a combatives system , Emerson Combat Systems , which has been taught to police officers , military units , and civilians .
= = Background = =
Ernest Emerson was born on March 7 , 1955 in northern Wisconsin . While attending high school he displayed athletic ability as a wrestler and baseball player , being drafted by the St. Louis Cardinals to play professional baseball at the age of 17 in the Midwest League .
Emerson began his training in martial arts at the age of 16 with the Korean version of Judo known as Yudo , traveling from Wisconsin to Minnesota twice a week to attend school . He continued his study of the martial arts while attending the University of Wisconsin – La Crosse where he earned a brown belt in Kyokushinkai Karate and a black belt in Shotokan Karate while competing on the university 's karate team . After graduating with degrees in physical education and world history , Emerson moved to Southern California for the sole purpose of continuing his martial arts training at the Filipino Kali Academy . There he studied Jun Fan Gung Fu , Jeet Kune Do , and Eskrima under the tutelage of Dan Inosanto and Richard Bustillo ( both protégés of the late Bruce Lee ) . Emerson subsequently trained in Gracie Jiu Jitsu for three years at the original Gracie Academy in Torrance , California , under the founders of the Gracie Jiu Jitsu system , Rorion and Royce Gracie . Eventually , Emerson became an instructor in his own right and combined the principles of all these systems . It was in Southern California where he met his wife , Mary , who at the time was one of the world 's top female practitioners of Jujutsu . During this time , Emerson worked as a technician , a machine operator , and eventually a design engineer for Hughes Aircraft in El Segundo .
= = Early knifemaking = =
Although Emerson credits his grandfather 's gift of a Barlow knife to him at the age of eight years with starting his interest in knives , it was not until later in life that he turned to making them . The summer of 1978 found Emerson in need of a balisong knife for his study of a Filipino martial art and , unable to afford one on his salary , Emerson decided he would attempt to make his own instead . He milled and drilled the handles from aluminum stock ; the knife 's blade was a simple steel blank that he hand cut with a hacksaw , shaped with files , and heat treated at his dining room table with a butane torch .
When he started classes with this " homemade " knife , his instructors and fellow students were impressed with his handiwork and asked him to make knives for them . Emerson did so and sold these early butterfly knives for just the cost of materials , but he soon raised the price to $ 50 each , as demand for his knives increased . Emerson went on to make fixed @-@ blade knives on a part @-@ time basis , but upon seeing a Michael Walker handmade folding knife at a gun show , he was so impressed by the quality and design that he decided he was going to make folding pocketknives from that point on . Emerson contacted Walker and obtained his permission to use the Walker Linerlock mechanism on his own knives . According to a 1990 article by Paul Basch , Emerson said of Walker , " Here was a guy who put everything I was looking for into a knife . It was then I decided to start making knives seriously and locking liners in particular " .
= = Pre @-@ tactical models = =
Emerson 's early folding knives were of the linerlock variety , ground by the stock removal method , and utilized rare materials from the aerospace industry , including titanium , carbon fiber , micarta , and meteorite . He incorporated exotic materials common to knifemakers of the time , including mother @-@ of @-@ pearl , abalone shell , paua shell , staghorn , and rare hardwoods . Writer Paul Basch reported in 1990 that Emerson refused to use the parts of any animal or plant which was an endangered species , noting Emerson as being an environmentally conscious knifemaker . The steel used in these blades was typically graded ATS @-@ 34 , AEB @-@ L , or 440C , and the blades were either highly polished or hand @-@ rubbed . Emerson made knives with Damascus steel blades . Among custom knife collectors and purveyors today , these knives are known as the " Pre @-@ Tac " ( Pre @-@ Tactical ) models . They can be identified by their bright anodized titanium bolsters and liners and the predominant use of clip point blades . The knives were noted for their close tolerances and precise locking mechanisms . Emerson credits the following knifemakers for helping him along during his early years as a knifemaker : Michael Walker , Clint Breshears , Bob Engnath , and Jim Ferguson .
Emerson 's first logo or stamp on these knives was " Emerson Knives " surrounding the outline of a Bowie knife ; accordingly this is referred to as the rare " Bowie Logo " , appearing on only a very small number of knives . When a knife collector asked Emerson if he made Bowie knives , Emerson informed him that he did not . The collector then advised him to change his logo or he might confuse the knife @-@ buying public , as they would ask for Bowie knives instead of linerlock folders . Emerson agreed with this assessment , dropping the knife outline and the word " knives " from his stamp , using just his name in a half @-@ circle on the blade as a logo . This marking is known among collectors as the " Half @-@ Moon Logo " and would appear again as a transitional mark between the Viper and Specwar lines of knives .
These early knives sold for between $ 800 and $ 2 @,@ 000 each ; that , combined with his appearances at knife shows and write @-@ ups in knife magazines , helped Emerson gain status and credibility as a custom knifemaker . Once established as a serious and reputable maker , Emerson was soon able to concentrate on making the knives he wanted to make — knives designed for use as opposed to show , specifically folding @-@ knives designed for combat .
= = Viper Knives = =
As a direct result of watching his fellow martial artists train with a fixed @-@ blade fighting knife in class , yet carry some type of a folding knife when they left the training area , Emerson decided there was a need for a sturdy folding knife designed primarily for combat . Although Emerson had always maintained that the knives he made were built as fighting knives first and foremost , in October 1985 he stripped down five of these designs to simpler materials . He continued his use of linen or canvas micarta because of its high tensile strength and superior gripping surface when wet ; he decided on black or dark grey for the color instead of the brighter colors used previously . He retained the titanium for the liners and bolsters but chose to bead @-@ blast them a flat grey matte color as opposed to the colorful anodizing which used to appear on his knives . The reasons for using titanium were its exceptional strength @-@ to @-@ weight ratio and corrosion resistance .
Emerson ground the blades of these knives from ATS @-@ 34 steel with a Rockwell hardness of 57 – 59 and made them thicker toward the tip , creating a stronger @-@ tipped blade than he had made previously . He bead @-@ blasted the blades as he did the liners and bolsters instead of rubbing or polishing them , giving them a matte finish as opposed to the mirror @-@ polished finish common on his earlier knives and other knives at the time . Emerson designed each one of these knives for a specific purpose . The slender Viper 1 and smaller Viper 2 were designed for use as a police officer 's backup weapon . The Viper 5 was designed to be used by naval boat crews , as the handle was contoured with a rear brake so as to not slip from the user 's hand when wet and the Viper 3 was designed as a pure fighting knife with its 4 @-@ inch blade .
Emerson 's goal for this Viper line was to produce a working knife which would be more resistant to the elements and more durable than the " art knives " for which he had become known . These knives were created to satisfy the demand for a practical field @-@ grade combat knife which could be carried discreetly and accessed quickly . He sold these five models under the name " Viper Knives " and changed the logo on the blades to read the same . Emerson makes these models on a custom basis under the names MV1 – 5 , " MV " standing for " Model Viper " .
= = Specwar Knives = =
In 1986 individual Navy SEALs from a West Coast team had been using personally purchased custom fixed @-@ blade knives made by Southern California knifemaker Phill Hartsfield . Hartsfield 's knives were hard ground from differentially heat @-@ treated A2 tool steel and are known for their distinctive chisel @-@ ground blades . More accurately , they are zero ground ; that is , the edge has no secondary bevel , minimizing drag when used for cutting purposes . Emerson had long been impressed by the cutting ability of the chisel @-@ ground edge and had asked Hartsfield 's permission to incorporate it into his own folding knives , which Hartsfield granted . When the SEALs asked Hartsfield to make them a folding knife , he informed them that he did not make folding knives and referred them to Emerson .
According to the SEALs ' requirements , the knife had to be corrosion resistant , designed for easy cleaning in the field , durable enough to be used on a daily basis as a tool , and capable as a weapon should the need arise . Emerson 's folding chisel @-@ ground " tantō " became the sixth model in his Viper series and , while a handful of prototypes were referred to as " Viper 6 " , the model was soon named the " CQC @-@ 6 " ( CQC refers to close @-@ quarters combat ) and was chosen by the SEALs for use . Ownership of a CQC @-@ 6 soon became something of a status symbol among members of various elite military units , including Navy SEALs , Army Special Forces , German GSG 9 , and British SAS . Because of this connection to the Special Warfare community , Emerson changed the name of his custom knife line to " Specwar Knives " , and in 1990 this new designation began appearing in the logo on his blades .
Other models followed in the Specwar line bearing the CQC Series moniker , including the CQC @-@ 7 which is another chisel @-@ ground tantō @-@ bladed folder similar to the CQC @-@ 6 but with a saber @-@ type handle shape . The CQC @-@ 8 ( " Banana Knife " ) was a folder inspired by Bob Taylor 's Warrior knife and William F. Moran 's ST @-@ 23 is used by British SAS troops . The knife has the distinction of being the first folding knife that was designed to be ergonomically correct in both forward and reverse grip . Its users refer to it as " the finest fighting knife ever developed " . The CQC @-@ 9 ( " Eagle Knife " ) is a reverse @-@ curved hawkbill blade developed as a backup weapon for an American law enforcement agency ; it has an opening hole in the blade licensed from knife manufacturer Spyderco . Although Emerson has standard models for these custom knives which progress in order to CQC16 , each one is made individually by hand .
= = Popularizing the tactical knife = =
While not the first knifemaker to build what is known as a tactical folding knife , Emerson was one of several makers who popularized the concept of the handmade tactical folder in the 1980s . Emerson 's knives began appearing in the Rogue Warrior series of novels written by the founder of the US Navy 's SEAL Team Six , Richard Marcinko , at this time which helped fuel interest among collectors .
This surge in interest for Emerson 's knives soon became overwhelming . Although he had been making knives full @-@ time since 1994 , Emerson was still manufacturing these knives in his home garage workshop three years later . As Emerson watched his customers ' wait time expand from two years to seven , he realized that the demand for his handmade blades was far outpacing his ability to produce them . The first method to bridge this gap between supply and demand would be through factory collaborations with established cutlery companies .
Emerson 's first collaboration with a knife manufacturer was with Timberline Knives in 1993 for his SPECWAR model . According to Stephen Dick , the editor of Tactical Knives , this collaboration was a result of " the Navy deciding that only commercial designs would be considered due to failure of a previous custom knifemaker to deliver enough models to satisfy the need " . This model featured a one @-@ side chisel @-@ ground tantō blade almost 1 / 4 inch ( 6 @.@ 35 mm ) thick . Its handle was made from fiberglass @-@ reinforced nylon molded around a near @-@ full tang . Vaughn Neeley of Timberline designed the sheath . The knife was originally a custom piece designed for Naval Special Warfare Group One , and this factory version was soon entered in the trials for the Navy SEALs knife in 1995 . Although it was not chosen by the Navy , Stephen Dick reported that a number of members of SEAL Team One privately purchased the knife and were disappointed it was not made the official blade . The Emerson @-@ Neeley SPECWAR knife won Blade Magazine 's 1995 American Made Knife of the Year Award at the magazine 's Blade Show in Atlanta , Georgia , and that same year and was displayed as an exhibit at the Metropolitan Museum of Modern Art in New York City from May 24 to August 15 , 1995 .
In 1994 the president of Benchmade Knives , Les DeAsis , approached Emerson to manufacture the CQC @-@ 6 on a larger scale as a factory production model . Preferring to keep the CQC @-@ 6 as a custom @-@ only knife , Emerson instead licensed a similar design of his , the CQC @-@ 7 .
The Benchmade factory version was sold under the model name BM970 or BM975 depending on blade length . Other designations followed which denoted blade finish , manual or automatic opening , or partially serrated blade . The knife retained the profile of Emerson 's custom piece in addition to the ATS @-@ 34 steel and the titanium liners . However , on Benchmade 's offering the titanium bolsters and micarta scales were replaced with G10 fiberglass scales , the slotted screws were replaced by Torx head screws , and the pocket clip was repositioned so that the knife could be carried in the pocket in a tip @-@ down position .
Despite these changes the knife was true to Emerson 's original design , and even though it did not have the craftsmanship of a handmade piece of cutlery it satisfied customers with their own version of Emerson 's work at a lower price point and without the five @-@ year wait .
= = Emerson Knives , Inc . = =
" First folding tanto with liner lock and G @-@ 10 " -Emerson . In February 1996 , Emerson and his wife , Mary , founded Emerson Knives , Inc . ( abbreviated as EKI ) in Torrance , California to manufacture knives on a larger scale than he was then capable of . This new company would be a distinct entity from his Specwar custom knives , although several custom designs would make their way into the production lineup . Four years after starting this venture , Emerson sold an entire year 's worth of production in four hours at the SHOT ( Shooting Hunting and Outdoor Trade ) Show in January 2000 .
Emerson continued to collaborate with other companies on knife @-@ related projects as his own company grew . In some cases these collaborators had become his competition , such as Gerber Knives . In 2002 Emerson collaborated with Gerber Knives to create both companies ' first automatic opening knife , the Gerber @-@ Emerson Alliance . In that same year , Emerson collaborated with SureFire Flashlights by making an exclusive CQC @-@ 8 ( Banana Knife ) numbered and marked with the SureFire logo and sold with an identically numbered Emerson @-@ marked Centurion C2 CombatLight . In 2005 Emerson collaborated with Andy Prisco , the CEO of the American Tomahawk Company , to produce the CQC @-@ T Tomahawk . This tomahawk features a curved head machined from 4140 steel with a rear spike and a lightweight fiberglass handle . Although not made by Emerson , the tomahawk was designed by him . In 2007 , Emerson announced a collaboration with custom knifemaker and knife thrower Bobby Branton . The collaboration piece is a fixed @-@ blade knife designed primarily for knife throwing dubbed the BETT : Branton @-@ Emerson Tactical Thrower . " CQC @-@ 6 is the most collectible knife in the world " -Emerson
One of Emerson 's earliest production models , the Commander ( winner of Blade Magazine 's Overall Knife of the Year Award for 1999 ) , is a large recurve folding knife based on a special custom design , the ES1 @-@ M , that he had made for a West Coast Navy SEAL Team . The Commander has a hook on the spine of the blade ( originally designed as a blade catcher ) which , when snagged on the edge of the pocket or sheath , causes the knife blade to open as it is drawn . Due to its visual aesthetic , Emerson called this innovation the " Wave " and secured a patent for it in 1998 . Since another knife and tool company , Leatherman , had trademarked the name " Wave , " in March 1999 Emerson changed its name to the " wave @-@ shaped opening feature " . Emerson 's Wave made its way onto most of the knives in both the production and custom lines , with the exception of the Viper models . It is a required feature on all knives that Emerson supplies to military units , search and rescue units , and law enforcement agencies .
After a disastrous helicopter crash in 1999 resulting in the deaths of six Marines and one sailor , the US Navy performed an assessment of their equipment and decided among other things that they needed a new search and rescue knife . The KA @-@ BAR knives issued to the SBUs ( Special Boat Units ) had catastrophically failed to cut the Marines free from their webbing .
The Navy went to Emerson , who designed and fabricated a working prototype within 24 hours . They found that it met their needs , and the model was dubbed the " SARK " ( Search and Rescue Knife ) . The SARK is a folding knife with a wharncliffe @-@ style blade and a blunt tip designed so a rescuer could cut trapped victims free without stabbing them . The knife features Emerson 's Wave . Seeing another need in the police community , Emerson replaced the blunt end of the SARK with a pointed end and named it the " P @-@ SARK " , or Police Search And Rescue Knife . In 2005 , the Navy changed the requirements on the SARK to incorporate a guthook on the back of the blade for use as a line @-@ cutter . Emerson made the change on this model which is only available to the US Navy and the model designation is the NSAR ( Navy Search And Rescue ) Knife .
In 1999 , NASA contracted Emerson to build a knife for use on Space Shuttle missions and the International Space Station . Rather than design a new model from scratch , NASA chose an existing model which already met their specifications , with one additional design requirement . The model is a folding version of the Specwar knife that Emerson had designed for Timberline with the addition of a guthook cut into the tantō point of the blade with which astronauts could open their freeze dried food packages . The knife is not available for purchase outside of NASA .
On July 1 , 2000 , Emerson announced his semi @-@ retirement from custom knifemaking in order to concentrate on this new production company and to fill the thousands of outstanding orders for his custom work . He still makes custom knives available for sale at knife shows , but takes no orders for new custom work . Since 1995 the only way to get a new custom knife from Emerson himself is through a lottery held at knife shows where he is present . Depending on the size of the show , as many as several hundred potential buyers write their names on individual pieces of paper at his booth , and at a predetermined time a name is drawn . The winner gets a chance to buy one of the custom knives brought to the show .
In 2007 , Emerson branched out in a new direction , announcing he would manufacture twelve custom electric guitars per year . His first guitar debuted at Blade Magazine 's Blade Show in Atlanta in June 2007 . In 2008 , Emerson opened a clothing company called " Emerson Brand Apparel " specializing in MMA and casual clothing . In 2009 at the annual NRA Convention , Emerson announced a collaboration with custom pistol manufacturer Les Baer to produce a custom M1911 pistol built to Emerson 's specifications with a semi @-@ custom ( handground blade ) folding knife named the " CQC @-@ 45 " ( out of sequence from the CQC series as the number relates to the caliber of the pistol ) . In late 2009 , Emerson announced a collaboration with Spike 's Tactical to produce an M @-@ 4 Carbine based upon his specifications for training , chambered in .22 long rifle and in 5 @.@ 56 NATO ; with a matching folding knife designated the " CQC @-@ 22 " ( out of sequence from the CQC series as the number relates to the caliber of the rifle ) .
In September 2010 , Emerson announced a collaboration with Pro @-@ Tech Knives to produce an automatic opening version of the CQC @-@ 7 . In November 2010 , Emerson 's Roadhouse Knife won Knives Illustrated 's American Made Knife of 2010 – 2011 Award at the Spirit of Steel Show in Knoxville , TN . According to Emerson , the knife will be used as a prop on the Sons of Anarchy Television Show .
In January 2011 , at the SHOT ( Shooting , Hunting , Outdoor Trade ) Show in Las Vegas , NV , Emerson debuted a new knife model designed in collaboration with Kelly McCann known as the Canis .
= = Emerson 's knives in the media = =
Emerson 's knives have appeared onscreen in films and television shows . In Night of the Running Man , Scott Glenn 's character carried a mother @-@ of @-@ pearl handled , one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind Emerson CQC6 . Emerson Ravens , neck knives , and the Commander knife were used as props in the short @-@ lived UPN television series Soldier of Fortune , Inc . A Commander knife was used by the character of Zak in the 1998 movie Placebo Effect ; Emerson Knives is thanked in the film credits for the knife .
Ridley Scott 's 2001 film Black Hawk Down portrayed soldiers carrying Emerson folding knives in the hangar scene , and in Tears of the Sun the Kandahar model appeared on Bruce Willis ' character 's web gear , and other actors were seen with Emerson Police Utility Knives . Emerson Karambits , La Griffes , and Police Utility Knives are often used as weapons or rescue tools on the television show Burn Notice . Frank Castle used an Emerson Karambit to kill an opponent in one of the final scenes in The Punisher . Transporter 2 briefly showed an Emerson fixed @-@ blade Kandahar knife in the trunk of Jason Statham 's car along with other weapons as props . An Emerson La Griffe was featured in the 2007 film : Doomsday .
In the Russian movie 12 a remake of the classic Twelve Angry Men , an " Emerson CQC @-@ 7 " is revealed as the potential weapon used by a Chechen teen in the murder of his Russian foster @-@ parents . However , the knife shown in the movie is not a CQC @-@ 7 or even an Emerson made knife .
Emerson 's knives are mentioned in mystery , spy , military , action , and adventure novels . At least seven of Richard Marcinko 's Rogue Warrior novels ( Red Cell , Green Team , Task Force Blue , Detachment Bravo , SEAL Force Alpha , Violence of Action and Holy Terror ) prominently make mention of Emerson 's knives ( CQC @-@ 6 or CQC @-@ 7 ) as a regularly carried piece of equipment . The protagonist , Marcinko , uses an Emerson CQC @-@ 6 or CQC @-@ 7 on various occasions . On page 175 of Task Force Blue , Marcinko remarks that his CQC @-@ 6 was a " personal gift from Ernie Emerson , himself " .
New York Times bestselling author David Morrell 's novel The Protector not only has the main character , a former Delta Force operator named Cavanaugh , using an Emerson CQC @-@ 7 knife , but the cover art itself is a photographic illustration of a blood @-@ stained Emerson CQC @-@ 7 . Cavanaugh uses the knife in combat as well as in many rigorous cutting chores . The author claims Emerson is " the best manufacturer of tactical knives " as well as a " top level blade instructor for elite military and law @-@ enforcement units " . In an interview with British E @-@ Zine Shots : The Crime and Mystery Ezine , Morrell indicated that he injured his collarbone during an Emerson knife @-@ fighting course while performing research for the novel . Morrell went on to include Emerson 's knives in his books Creepers and The Spy Who Came for Christmas .
Three of Marcus Wynne 's novels ( Warrior in the Shadows , No Other Option , Brothers in Arms ) feature use of Emerson 's knives by the main characters . The CQC @-@ 7 , Commander , and La Griffe are favored by the main characters and are used as defensive weapons throughout the books . The characters of S.M. Gunn 's novels based on Naval Special Warfare , Navy SEALs , and submarines routinely carry Emerson 's knives . One of the main characters carries an Emerson custom MV @-@ 1 Viper knife in the book SEALs SubStrike . Barry Eisler 's fictional hired killer John Rain 's former U.S. Marine Sniper friend " Dox " uses an Emerson Comrade CQC @-@ 12 , a folding knife based on the AK @-@ 47 bayonet , in The Last Assassin , referring to it as a " helluva knife " that could cut through a car door if he needed it to .
Retired Navy SEAL and SEAL Team 6 Plankowner Dennis Chalker routinely puts Emerson 's knives ( CQC @-@ 7s and Commanders ) into the hands of the heroes of his Home Team novels based on the exploits of former Naval Special Warfare Operators . Emerson 's CQC @-@ 7 has made its way into the Clive Cussler novel , Plague Ship .
Emerson has appeared on the cable television show Auction Hunters as an expert in edged weapons including an Exposition knife and a Samurai sword .
= = Emerson Combat Systems = =
Emerson has developed a combatives system drawn upon his experience known as Emerson Combat Systems , which has been taught to hundreds of law enforcement agencies , members of the U.S. military , and civilians .
According to Emerson , the techniques are based upon the physical and instinctual laws that govern the survival instincts and physical function of a human being . This system is characterized by training as realistically as possible ( not training in workout gear for example ) and using flowing , dynamic concepts ( for example , integrated fighting and weapon transition with a strong emphasis placed on overall physical fitness . Emerson maintains he does not teach a " martial art " encumbered by ritual or sporting aspects but a combatives system where the goal is more than simple self @-@ defense .
Emerson has been consulted as a technical advisor to television and movie productions including National Geographic , specifically the program Fight Science , due in part to his position as the hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat instructor for Harry Humphries ' Global Studies Group Incorporated , a company that teaches police and military tactics to law enforcement agencies and film production crews .
As an author , Emerson has written over 30 articles on hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , knife fighting , history , and knifemaking for publications including Human Events , Blade Magazine , American Cop Magazine , Martial Arts Experts , Journal of Modern Combatives , Inside Kung @-@ Fu , Black Belt Magazine , Police Magazine , and American Handgunner .
In 2014 , Emerson was inducted into the Black Belt Magazine Hall of Fame as " Self @-@ Defense Instructor of the Year " .
= = = Cited in article = = =
= = = Additional references = = =
= = Gallery = =
= Meteorological history of Hurricane Patricia =
Hurricane Patricia was the most intense tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere and the second @-@ most intense worldwide in terms of barometric pressure . It also featured the highest one @-@ minute maximum sustained winds ever recorded in a tropical cyclone . Originating from a sprawling disturbance near the Gulf of Tehuantepec in mid @-@ October 2015 , Patricia was first classified a tropical depression on October 20 . Initial development was slow , with only modest strengthening within the first day of its classification . The system later became a tropical storm and was named Patricia , the twenty @-@ fourth named storm of the annual hurricane season . Exceptionally favorable environmental conditions fueled explosive intensification on October 22 . A well @-@ defined eye developed within an intense central dense overcast and Patricia grew from a tropical storm to a Category 5 hurricane in just 24 hours — a near @-@ record pace . The magnitude of intensification was poorly forecast and both forecast models and meteorologists suffered from record @-@ high prediction errors .
On October 23 , two Hurricane Hunter missions both revealed the storm to have acquired maximum sustained winds of 205 mph ( 335 km / h ) and a pressure of 879 mbar ( hPa ; 25 @.@ 96 inHg ) . Since the peak intensity was assessed to have occurred between the missions , the National Hurricane Center ultimately estimated Patricia to have acquired winds of 215 mph ( 345 km / h ) and pressure of 872 mbar ( hPa ; 25 @.@ 75 inHg ) . This ranked it just below Typhoon Tip of 1979 as the most intense tropical cyclone on record . Patricia 's exceptional intensity prompted the retirement of its name in April 2016 . Late on October 23 , Patricia made landfall in a significantly weakened state near Cuixmala , Jalisco . Despite weakening greatly , it was the strongest landfalling hurricane on record along the Pacific coast of Mexico with winds estimated at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . Interaction with the mountainous terrain of Mexico induced dramatic weakening , faster than the storm had intensified . Within 24 hours of moving ashore , Patricia degraded into a tropical depression and dissipated soon thereafter late on October 24 .
= = Origins = =
On October 11 , 2015 , an area of disturbed weather traversed Central America and emerged over the eastern Pacific Ocean . The disturbance moved slowly over the next few days , and coalesced into a Central American gyre — a broad monsoonal circulation . A tropical wave crossed the Caribbean Sea and eventually reached Central America on October 15 ; the two systems merged the following day near the Gulf of Tehuantepec . A concurrent Tehuantepec gap wind event on the western side of the gyre , complimented by anticyclonic flow behind a cold front , enhanced vorticity and spurred the formation of an elongated area of low pressure on October 17 . The broad system spanned several hundred miles from the Yucatán Peninsula into the eastern Pacific . A large , disorganized area of convection — showers and thunderstorms — accompanied the system , increasing in coverage substantially throughout the day . A strong pulse in the Madden – Julian oscillation — a propagating climate pattern associated with increased tropical cyclogenesis — may have aided in creating favorable conditions for further development .
Moving south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec on October 18 , the system consolidated and developed a small , defined circulation . Associated convection became more concentrated around its center . Another gap wind event soon impacted the system , temporarily delaying development of the disturbance into a tropical depression . The low soon relocated to the northeast , aligning itself east of the gap wind event which aided in development . A small , well @-@ defined circulation formed by early on October 20 within a broader cyclonic circulation . With increasing deep convection , the system is estimated to have become a tropical depression , assigned the identifier Twenty @-@ E , by 06 : 00 UTC . Upon its designation , the depression was situated roughly 205 mi ( 335 km ) south @-@ southeast of Salina Cruz , Mexico .
= = Rapid intensification = =
Located south of a mid @-@ level ridge and the continuing gap wind event , the nascent depression moved slowly west @-@ southwest on October 20 . Initial environmental conditions were modestly favorable , allowing for steady intensification . The depression achieved tropical storm status by 00 : 00 UTC on October 21 ; the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) assigned it the name Patricia accordingly . Throughout much of October 21 , Patricia moved through a region of drier , more stable air and over relatively cool sea surface temperatures . Both of these factors served to delay intensification of the cyclone . The system unraveled substantially , with banding features dissipating and the low @-@ level circulation becoming poorly defined . Once clear of the hindering factors , convection blossomed over Patricia late on October 21 and a central dense overcast formed over the center . Simultaneously , the storm accelerated west @-@ northwest .
Exceptionally favorable atmospheric conditions , consisting of little wind shear , anomalously high sea surface temperatures of 87 to 88 ° F ( 30 @.@ 5 to 31 ° C ) , and high moisture levels yielded an environment highly conducive to rapid intensification . Consequently , Patricia commenced explosive intensification late on October 21 . Patricia reached hurricane strength shortly after 00 : 00 UTC on October 22 , featuring prominent outflow , well @-@ defined banding features , and a developing eye . Upon becoming a hurricane , Patricia was located 230 mi ( 370 km ) south of Acapulco , Mexico . In the following 12 hours , a well @-@ defined 12 mi ( 19 km ) wide eye formed within a ring of intense convection — with cloud tops of − 80 to − 90 ° C ( − 112 to − 130 ° F ) — forming " an almost perfectly symmetric [ central dense overcast ] " . Data from NOAA Hurricane Hunters investigating the cyclone indicated Patricia to have reached Category 4 status on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale by 18 : 00 UTC ; maximum sustained winds were estimated at 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) alongside a barometric pressure of 957 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) at this time .
= = = Forecast errors = = =
The rapid intensification of Patricia was well @-@ anticipated but poorly forecast . Meteorologists at the NHC indicated the possibility of such in the system 's first advisory as a tropical depression . They noted the only inhibiting factor would be how quickly the storm could organize an inner core . Just before the onset of rapid intensification , the agency was unable to utilize the Statistical Hurricane Intensity Prediction Scheme rapid intensification guidance due to technical errors . This likely contributed to even greater errors in the agency 's forecast . Initial forecasts were consistently conservative with intensity and dramatic strengthening was not explicitly shown until rapid intensification was already underway .
At 03 : 00 UTC on October 22 , the NHC forecast Patricia to achieve major hurricane status in 36 hours ; less than 15 hours later , the system exceeded their forecast peak . Strengthening into a Category 5 hurricane was not forecast at all until Patricia had already reached such intensity , although in the intermediate advisory immediately before Patricia 's upgrade to Category 5 , the NHC noted that " Patricia could become a category 5 hurricane overnight " . This trend continued throughout the rapid intensification period , resulting in some of the largest errors on record through 48 hours ; they were the worst @-@ ever for the Eastern Pacific since the NHC took over operations for the basin in 1988 . All forecast models saw enormous errors , most of which performed worse than the official NHC forecasts . No model accurately prognosticated the magnitude nor rate of the intensification . The EMXI — an output from the European Centre for Medium @-@ Range Weather Forecasts — saw the largest average error with 98 @.@ 5 mph ( 158 @.@ 5 km / h ) at 48 hours .
= = Peak strength = =
During the overnight hours of October 22 – 23 , Patricia turned northwest and decelerated slightly as it reached the western edge of the mid @-@ level ridge . Rapid development continued into October 23 , with the hurricane reaching Category 5 status by 00 : 00 UTC , with winds estimated at 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) . Convection cooled even further , with cloud tops colder than − 130 ° F ( − 90 ° C ) surrounding an 8 mi ( 13 km ) wide eye by 03 : 00 UTC . In a 24 @-@ hour span , Patricia 's winds increased by 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and its central pressure fell by 95 mbar ( hPa ; 2 @.@ 81 inHg ) . Around 06 : 00 UTC , an Air Force Reserve reconnaissance aircraft measured flight @-@ level winds of 221 mph ( 356 km / h ) and the aircraft 's stepped frequency microwave radiometer ( SFMR ) observed surface winds of 210 mph ( 340 km / h ) . Furthermore , the final dropsonde observation from that mission at about 06 : 45 UTC indicated a central pressure of 879 mbar ( hPa ; 25 @.@ 96 inHg ) . Rapid development continued after the aircraft left the hurricane , as the three pressure readings during the mission indicated that the pressure fell at a rate 7 mbar ( hPa ; 0 @.@ 21 inHg ) per hour . Their findings also revealed an extraordinarily tight pressure gradient of 24 mbar ( hPa ; 0 @.@ 71 inHg ) per nautical mile , among the steepest gradients on record .
Based on continued improvement of the hurricane 's satellite appearance and the aforementioned pressure drop during the early morning reconnaissance mission , Patricia is assessed to have achieved its peak intensity around 12 : 00 UTC on October 23 ; the storm was situated about 150 mi ( 240 km ) southwest of Manzanillo , Mexico . Maximum winds are estimated at 215 mph ( 345 km / h ) alongside a pressure of 872 mbar ( hPa ; 25 @.@ 75 inHg ) , making Patricia the second @-@ most intense tropical cyclone ever observed . It is possible that Patricia exceeded the all @-@ time record of 870 mbar ( hPa ; 25 @.@ 69 inHg ) set by Typhoon Tip in 1979 given the rate of deepening observed during the early morning mission ; due to a lack of direct observation at the time of Patricia 's peak , no concrete determination of such can be made . The violent , compact core of Patricia was roughly 25 mi ( 40 km ) wide with the radius of maximum winds extending only 7 mi ( 11 km ) .
Little change in strength took place for the next six hours ; a shortwave trough crossing the Baja California Peninsula turned Patricia to the northeast and induced acceleration . Another reconnaissance mission around 18 : 00 UTC recorded a central pressure of 879 mbar ( hPa ; 25 @.@ 96 inHg ) . The aircraft was battered by severe turbulence ( the result of updrafts and downdrafts ) and the crew experienced maximum g @-@ forces of + 3 @.@ 0 and -1.5 .
= = Landfall and dissipation = =
Late on October 23 , radar imagery depicted the formation of a secondary outer eyewall , indicative of an eyewall replacement cycle . By 20 : 30 UTC , the final pass by reconnaissance , the hurricane 's flight @-@ level winds fell by 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and its central pressure rose at 8 mbar ( hPa ; 0 @.@ 24 inHg ) per hour . Coinciding with the eyewall replacement cycle was an increase in southwesterly wind shear , a factor that further accelerated Patricia 's degradation . The hurricane 's eye soon became cloud @-@ filled and rapid weakening ensued at an unprecedented pace .
At 23 : 00 UTC , the cyclone made landfall at Cuixmala in the municipality of La Huerta , Jalisco — about 55 mi ( 85 km ) west @-@ northwest of Manzanillo — with winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and an estimated pressure of 932 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 49 inHg ) . This made Patricia the strongest hurricane to strike Mexico 's Pacific coast , exceeding an unnamed storm in 1959 and Madeline in 1976 ( the latter of which has not been reanalyzed ) . An automated station in Cuixmala measured a pressure of 934 @.@ 2 mbar ( hpa ; 27 @.@ 54 inHg ) . Storm chasers in Emiliano Zapata , just inside the eye of Patricia , measured a pressure of 937 @.@ 8 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 70 inHg ) . Their observations also indicated a pressure gradient of 11 mbar ( hPa ; 0 @.@ 32 inHg ) per nautical mile . Operationally , Patricia was thought to have made landfall as a Category 5 hurricane with winds of 165 mph ( 270 km / h ) and a pressure of 920 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 17 inHg ) .
Patricia 's winds at landfall are relatively uncertain , and the 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) value is based upon the Knaff @-@ Zehr @-@ Courtney pressure @-@ wind relationship and an extrapolation of a 54 mbar ( hPa ; 1 @.@ 59 inHg ) filling using the Dvorak Technique . An additional equation stemming from work by Willoughby ( 1993 ) yielded a landfall intensity of 147 mph ( 237 km / h ) . A NOAA automated weather station at the Chamela @-@ Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve , at an elevation of 280 ft ( 85 m ) , recorded sustained winds of 185 mph ( 298 km / h ) and a maximum gust of 211 mph ( 340 km / h ) . Further raw data from this station indicated unrealistically high sustained winds of 266 mph ( 428 km / h ) and a maximum gust of 1 @,@ 138 mph ( 1 @,@ 831 km / h ) . Based on the station 's distance from Patricia 's eye , outside the radius of maximum winds , the observations from this station are considered unreliable . The highest reliably measured winds of 98 mph ( 158 km / h ) occurred in Pista between 22 : 30 and 23 : 00 UTC on October 23 before the anemometer failed .
Even faster weakening ensued through October 24 as the hurricane traversed the Sierra Madre mountains ; its eye disappeared from satellite imagery within hours of moving ashore . The system weakened below hurricane strength by 03 : 00 UTC as it passed west of Guadalajara . Patricia accelerated inland between a trough over Northwestern Mexico and the ridge over the Gulf of Mexico . Convection dramatically decreased in organization and the low- and mid- to upper @-@ level circulation centers of the cyclone soon decoupled . The system degraded into a tropical depression by 12 : 00 UTC as little organized convection remained , and the storm dissipated shortly thereafter over central Mexico . Unimpeded by the mountains of Mexico , the mid- to upper @-@ level circulation of Patricia , accompanied by considerable moisture , continued northeast and interacted with a cold front over the western Gulf of Mexico . The new system produced flooding rains across large areas of Arkansas , Louisiana , Mississippi , and Texas .
= = Records = =
With maximum sustained winds of 215 mph ( 345 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 872 mbar ( hPa ; 25 @.@ 75 inHg ) , Hurricane Patricia is the second @-@ most intense tropical cyclone ever observed , just shy of Typhoon Tip in 1979 which had a minimum pressure of 870 mbar ( hPa ; 25 @.@ 69 inHg ) . It is also the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere . It exceeded the previous sustained wind record of 190 mph ( 305 km / h ) set by Hurricane Allen in 1980 and the pressure record of 882 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 05 inHg ) set by Hurricane Wilma in 2005 , both in the Atlantic basin . In the Eastern Pacific basin , north of the equator and east of the International Dateline , the previous basin record @-@ holder was Hurricane Linda in 1997 with winds of 185 mph ( 295 km / h ) and a pressure of 902 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 64 inHg ) . Reconnaissance also found a pressure gradient of 24 mbar ( hPa ; 0 @.@ 71 inHg ) per nautical mile early on October 23 , among the steepest gradients ever observed in a tropical cyclone .
On a global scale , Patricia 's one @-@ minute maximum sustained winds rank as the highest ever reliably observed or estimated globally in a tropical cyclone , surpassing Typhoon Haiyan of 2013 , although the intensity of Haiyan was only estimated via satellite imagery ( T8.0 , the highest rating on the Dvorak scale ) . Since no aircraft reconnaissance was available during Haiyan , the record is uncertain and comparing the intensities of the two storms is problematic . According to the World Meteorological Organization , Typhoon Nancy of 1961 produced the highest sustained winds on record at 215 mph ( 345 km / h ) ; however , it is widely accepted that Western Pacific reconnaissance during the 1940s to 1960s overestimated cyclone intensity and Nancy 's record is considered questionable . The most powerful wind gust produced by a tropical cyclone , as well as the highest non @-@ tornadic winds ever recorded , is still retained by Cyclone Olivia in 1996 : 253 mph ( 407 km / h ) was observed on Barrow Island , Western Australia .
The magnitude of Patricia 's rapid intensification is among the fastest ever observed . In a 24 @-@ hour period , 06 : 00 – 06 : 00 UTC October 22 – 23 , its maximum sustained winds increased from 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) to 205 mph ( 335 km / h ) . This represents a record increase of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . During the same period , Patricia 's central pressure fell by 95 mbar ( hPa ; 2 @.@ 81 inHg ) . This fell just short of the world @-@ record intensification set by Typhoon Forrest in 1983 , which featured a pressure drop of 100 mbar ( hPa ; 2 @.@ 95 inHg ) in just under 24 hours . With a pressure of 932 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 52 inHg ) , Patricia is the strongest landfalling Pacific hurricane on record . The previous record was 941 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 73 inHg ) set by Hurricane Odile in 2014 . Similarly , the hurricane featured the fastest weakening while still over water in NHC 's area of responsibility , with a pressure rise of 54 mbar ( hPa ; 1 @.@ 59 inHg ) in the five hours before it made landfall . Furthermore , a dropsonde observed a 700 mbar height temperature of 32 @.@ 2 ° C ( 90 @.@ 0 ° F ) in the eye of Patricia . This is the warmest temperature ever observed in a tropical cyclone 's eye worldwide .
= The Story of Marie and Julien =
The Story of Marie and Julien ( French : Histoire de Marie et Julien ) is a 2003 French drama film directed by Nouvelle Vague film maker Jacques Rivette . The film slowly develops from a drama about blackmail into a dark , yet tender , supernatural love story between Marie and Julien , played by Emmanuelle Béart and Jerzy Radziwiłowicz . Anne Brochet plays the blackmailed Madame X. Béart had previously worked with Rivette in La Belle Noiseuse , as had Radziwiłowicz in Secret défense . The cinematographer was William Lubtchansky .
The film was originally going to be made in 1975 as part of a series of four films , but shooting was abandoned after two days , only to be revisited by Rivette 27 years later . It premièred at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2003 and had a cinema release in France , Belgium and the UK . It was shown in competition at the San Sebastian International Film Festival and was nominated for the Prix Louis @-@ Delluc . Some critics found the film over long , slow , and pretentious , while others said it was moving , intelligent , and among Rivette 's best work . The film 's subject led to comparisons to Vertigo , The Sixth Sense , and The Others .
= = Plot = =
Julien ( Radziwilowicz ) is a middle @-@ aged clockmaker who lives alone with his cat in a large house in the Paris suburbs . Julien is blackmailing ' Madame X ' ( Brochet ) who is importing fake antique Chinese silks , and may have murdered her sister . By chance , he meets Marie ( Béart ) , a beautiful young woman he last saw a year ago , and they begin a passionate relationship . Though elusive , Marie agrees to move in with him ; she acts strangely at times and appears absent . A mystery connects Marie to Madame X 's dead sister and in uncovering Marie 's secret Julien risks losing her . The film is separated into four parts , named to reflect the narrative perspective .
Julien : Julien dreams of Marie , whom he met just over a year before at a party , and with whom he would have begun a relationship but for them both having partners . He immediately runs into her on the street as she is running for her bus and he is off to meet Madame X. They agree to meet again , but Marie fails to appear and he returns home to find Madame X waiting for him against their agreement , so he raises his price tenfold . Madame X returns the next day to try to bargain , and asks for a letter back that he does not have . Marie invites him to her place for dinner , where Julien tells her his girlfriend ran away with another man and Marie says her boyfriend Simon died six months ago . They have sex , but in the morning Marie has checked out of her apartment . Julien returns home to find that his house has been ransacked . He tries to find her by ringing her old boss , then tracks her down when an unknown woman calls to tell him the hotel Marie is staying at . Julien visits her there , and Marie agrees to move in with him .
Julien et Marie : Marie makes herself at home , trying on the clothes of Julien 's old girlfriend , exploring the house , and watching him at work . Their lovemaking is passionate , but Marie 's behaviour is unusual . She is sometimes cold or trance @-@ like , at one point reciting words in an unidentified language , and she is physically detached and unaware of the time — Julien corrects her " bonjour " to " bonsoir " . She is jealous of his ex , compulsively decorates and rearranges a room in his attic , feels compelled to act out her dreams , and does not bleed when scratched — something she keeps from Julien . She sees a girl in her dreams who shows her a " forbidden sign " with her hands . Marie helps Julien in his blackmailing , and after meeting Madame X , who only knows of Marie as " l 'autre personne " , Marie is handed a letter by someone who says she is Madame X 's sister ( Bettina Kee ) ; she is the girl Marie dreamed of before .
Marie et Julien : The letter is from Madame X 's sister Adrienne to Madame X. Julien meets Madame X again , and she tells him her sister killed herself by drowning six months before . He cannot understand who gave Marie the letter , but she insists that her sister left the letter to frame her and although dead she is " reliving " ( a revenant ) — and Marie is also . Adrienne — who though dead still appears and speaks to her — has told Madame X that Marie is " like me " . He thinks she is mad . Julien becomes frustrated at Marie spending so much time alone in the attic . When she finally shows him the room , she says she does not know what it is for . She leaves before Julien wakes and checks into another hotel . He rings Marie 's old boss who suggests talking to Marie 's friend Delphine ; Delphine says that Marie 's relationship with Simon drove Marie mad and ended their friendship .
Marie : Julien visits Marie and Simon 's old apartment , where the letting agent shows him a room that Julien chillingly recognises — it is identical to the room Marie has prepared . This is where Marie hanged herself , trying to frame Simon in revenge after a terrible row . Julien returns home and Marie silently leads him to the attic where she has prepared a noose , feeling she has to hang herself again . Julien carries her downstairs , and they make love again . She leaves to meet Adrienne , who says that she knows that Marie no longer wants to die . They agree they do not know the rules of their situation . Returning , Marie interrupts Julien about to hang himself in a desperate attempt to join her . He runs to the kitchen and tries to slit his wrist ; Marie stops him and her wrist and his palm are cut . Marie warns him that he will lose all memory of her , but he says that all he wants is for her to be there . Marie slowly covers her face with her hands — " the forbidden sign " — and Julien becomes oblivious to her and unaware of why he is bleeding . Madame X arrives for her letter and he hands it over , confused by her enquiries about " l 'autre personne " . Madame X burns the letter , freeing Adrienne . Marie cries while watching Julien sleep , and as her tears land on her wrist her cut bleeds . Julien wakes and asks who she is ; she replies that she is " the one he loved " . He doubts it as she 's " not his type " , but she says with a smile to give her a little time .
= = Cast = =
Emmanuelle Béart as Marie Delambre .
Jerzy Radziwiłowicz as Julien Müller .
Anne Brochet as Madame X.
Bettina Kee as Adrienne , the sister of Madame X.
Olivier Cruveiller as Vincent Lehmann , L 'éditeur , Marie 's old boss .
Mathias Jung as Le concierge , the desk clerk at Marie 's apartment .
Nicole Garcia as L 'amie , Marie 's friend .
= = Themes and analysis = =
Like Rivette 's earlier film La Belle Noiseuse , the main themes are romantic longing , impermanence , and identity , but this film adds the themes of mortality , chance , and destiny , and motifs are repeated from Rivette 's Celine and Julie Go Boating . The name of Julien 's cat , Nevermore , evokes Poe 's The Raven and its similar themes of death and longing . Julien 's work as a clockmaker , literally trying to repair time , is an obvious metaphor , and the film is also timeless , giving no indication of when it is set . The blackmail sub @-@ plot is a device to help tell the central love story between Marie and Julien and to explain Marie 's situation ; Julien is an unlikely blackmailer and Madame X 's benevolence towards him is surprising . The plot features dream logic impinging on reality : Senses of Cinema highlighted the role of " outlandish chance " and Film Comment noted the feeling that the characters are inventing or re @-@ enacting the narrative . Marie may be aware that she is part of a narrative , but she still lacks control over her fate . Michael Atkinson believed that Rivette was working in the " border world between narrative meaning and cinematic artifice " .
The emotional distance of the characters and the intellectual and artificial @-@ seeming , quasi @-@ theatrical dialogue is deliberate , depicting their simultaneous connection and isolation . The chasm between Marie and Julien , due to his corporeality and her ghostly nature , is emphasised in the contrast between his physical activity and her status as an onlooker . Rivette says he wanted the lovers to appear ill @-@ suited and for the viewer to question the relationship ; they love each other passionately yet they are essentially strangers . Béart believes that Marie was more alive than Julien , and that he literally wakes up to her existence only at the very end of the film .
Finally revealed to be a ghost story inspired by nineteenth @-@ century French fantasy literature , the film uses the conventions of the genre — that people who die in emotional distress or with an unfinished task may become ghosts — and openly details these conventions . Marie and Adrienne 's ' lives ' as revenants are reduced to a single purpose , each with only the memory of her suicide and her last emotions remaining . Julien , like the audience , is eventually confronted with Marie 's nightmare of repetition . Elements of the horror genre are used , not to scare but to explore memory and loss . To stay with Marie , Julien first has to forget about her , and at the end they have the promise of a new beginning . Marie becomes a living person again rather than an object of fantasy . Marie 's tears and blood are a miracle overcoming her death , and may reflect a fantasy of turning back the menopause . The credits are accompanied by an upbeat jazz song performed by Blossom Dearie , Our Day Will Come , that represents love as a pledge , the only music used in the film .
There is an aesthetic focus on Béart 's body , Julien telling Marie that " I love your neck , your arms , your shoulders , your mouth , your stomach , your eyes -- I love everything . " The focus is more than erotic as it symbolises Marie 's fight for corporeality . The film includes Rivette 's first ever sex scenes , one of them arranged by Béart . The five candid and emotionally charged sex scenes focus on their upper bodies and faces , and on their erotic monologues that employ elements of fairy tale , horror , and sadomasochism .
Béart is given an ethereal quality by Lubtchansky 's cinematography and lighting , and she subtly portrays Marie 's detachment and vulnerability . In the latter part of the film Béart is dressed in grey and looks tired and wan , showing Marie 's ageing and angst . Béart says she made deliberate use of silence in playing the part . Radziwiłowicz 's performance allows the viewer to sympathise with Julien despite the character 's initial dislikeable nature . Brochet as Madame X has a cool ease and grace .
= = Production = =
= = = Original shoot = = =
Rivette originally began to make Marie et Julien , as it was then titled , in 1975 with producer Stéphane Tchalgadjieff as part of a series of four films he first called Les filles du feu and later Scènes de la Vie Parallele . Rivette said in 2003 that the film was based on the true story of a woman who committed suicide . He first shot Duelle ( fr : Duelle ) in March – April and Noroît ( fr : Noroît ) in May , although the latter was not released , and the fourth film , a musical comedy meant to star Anna Karina and Jean Marais , was never shot . Filming began on Marie et Julien that August , with Albert Finney and Leslie Caron in the lead roles and Brigitte Rouan as Madame X , but after two days Rivette gave up filming due to nervous exhaustion . He later used the names of the lovers , Marie and Julien , in his 1981 film Le Pont du Nord .
= = = Revisiting the screenplay = = =
After Rivette had later success with La Belle Noiseuse and Va Savoir in the 1990s , he revisited his older unproduced screenplays . With Hélène Frappat , he published in book form three of his " phantom films " including Marie et Julien in 2002 . He decided to film Marie et Julien ; a script had never been written and the footage had been lost , but cryptic notes by his assistant Claire Denis that had been kept by Lubtchansky ( who had also been cinematographer in 1975 ) were enough to work from . The original screenplay included a speaking " polyglot cat " , characters whose names change , a " suicide room " similar to The Seventh Victim , " Madame X " , and an unknown " forbidden gesture " that the notes stated : " Do not forget " .
= = = Filming = = =
Rivette worked with scriptwriters Pascal Bonitzer and Christine Laurent using an automatic writing approach that involved writing the script day by day ; the actors and filmmakers did not know the direction of the story in advance of each day 's filming . Eurimages provided € 420 @,@ 000 of funding in July 2002 , and the film was shot that autumn and winter . Rivette immediately thought of Béart , who starred in La Belle Noiseuse , to play the carnal Marie . Béart has said that " Of all the films I 've made , this was the one which most disturbed people very close to me . They said : ' It 's almost as though the Emmanuelle we know was up there on the screen . ' . " Béart 's image in the media at the time was characterised by the near hysteria seen when she appeared naked on the cover of Elle in May 2003 after filming ended .
= = = Direction = = =
The film illustrates Rivette 's view that films involve game @-@ playing , day @-@ dreaming and paranoid fantasy . He leaves aside the usual devices of the horror genre — no music , shock sound effects , special effects , or gore — evoking feelings and scenes verbally rather than showing them , but he does employ Hitchcockian " MacGuffins " such as chance encounters , " clues , " and the blackmail plot @-@ line . The use of dream @-@ like sequences at the start and end of the film was influenced by Rivette 's 1985 film Hurlevent , an adaptation of Wuthering Heights . Some of the dialogue that was in the original notes was read as though quoting .
Glenn Kenny notes that the " calm precision " of the mise en scène in the opening dream sequence " put [ him ] under such a powerful spell " that it lasted the whole film . Throughout the film , everyday sounds are amplified by a lack of music , and the film uses sweeping long shots , and several incidental scenes of Julien working , talking with his cat , and of the characters sleeping . Slant Magazine commented that the cat is the film 's most interesting character , and Philippa Hawker of The Age notes that " this has one of the best sequences involving a cat on film . " The camera follows the cat and films it looking directly at the camera , giving a sense of artistic freedom and spontaneity .
The cinematography shows Rivette 's interest in visual texture . The colours are natural , except in certain scenes like the initial dream sequence that are filmed in vivid colours . The lighting when Marie is arranging the attic room changes from shadow to warm light when she places an oil lamp on a stool to indicate that she has placed it correctly , introducing a supernatural element that contrasts with the realism of the rest of the film .
= = Reception = =
Critics ' responses were mixed : some found the film evocative and powerful , whereas others saw it as slow and frustrating . Guy Austin writing in Scope noted that " bodily reactions are not part of critical reactions to [ the film ] . In both press and online , the head governs the body in reactions to Rivette . " Rivette had said before the release that " This I know in advance – whether it is good or not , some people will love it and others will hate it . "
It was nominated for the 2003 Prix Louis @-@ Delluc . Senses of Cinema suggested that it is Rivette 's most important work since his 1974 film Celine and Julie Go Boating and saw it as " a film about filmmaking " , including it in their favourite films of 2004 . DVD Verdict concluded that " it is not only intelligent , but willing to assume the same of its audience " . Glenn Kenny rated it as his favourite film of the decade , and film curator Miriam Bale writing in Slant Magazine included it in her ten most enduring films of the decade . Film Comment was equally taken with the film , stating that " what 's most remarkable about the film is how moving it is finally , how much is at stake after all--nothing Rivette has done before prepares you for the emotional undertow that exerts itself in The Story of Marie and Julien 's final scenes . " LA Weekly described the film as " elegant and unsettling " ; The Age called it " quietly mysterious and haunting " and " heartrending " .
Peter Bradshaw was disappointed , arguing that " All the story 's power is allowed to leak away by the deliberative heaviness with which Rivette pads through his 150 @-@ minute narrative , with its exasperating lack of dramatic emphasis . " Philip French noted similarities to Hitchcock 's Vertigo and Jean Cocteau 's Orphée , but called it " surprisingly flat and unmagical " . The New York Times also found it " dry and overdetermined , " and Time Out complained that it " never supplies the frissons expected of a ghost story or the emotional draw of a good love story . " Film 4 compared it to The Sixth Sense and The Others , but said that " its glacially slow pace will frustrate all but the most patient " . ( Rivette said when promoting the film that " I like The Sixth Sense because the final twist doesn 't challenge everything that went before it . You can see it again , which I did , and it 's a second film that 's just as logical as the first one . But the end of The Others made the rest of it meaningless . " ) " An intellectual exercise in metaphysical romance - Ghost for art @-@ house audiences " was Empire 's wry take . The Digital Fix argued that Rivette 's direction resulted in a product that " if never exactly dull and certainly the work of a master , is ultimately an empty film that has nothing to offer but its own cleverness " . Keith Uhlich of Slant Magazine found it was " a lesser Rivette offering — a watchable , ultimately unfulfilling ghost story " .
= = Distribution = =
The film was ignored by both Cannes and Venice , then premièred at the Toronto International Film Festival on 10 September 2003 . It was shown in competition at the San Sebastian International Film Festival later that month , as well as at the 2004 Melbourne International Film Festival and the 2004 International Film Festival Rotterdam , among others . The film opened in France and Belgium on 12 November 2003 ; that night 239 people watched the film in Paris . The cinema release was on 26 August 2004 in Germany , and on 8 October 2004 in the UK , but there was no US cinema release .
The DVD was released on a two @-@ disc set by Arte Video in France on 18 May 2004 , and features the theatrical trailer , actor filmographies , a 40 @-@ minute interview with Rivette , covering the film 's origin , mythology , narrative viewpoints and relations to his other films , and a 15 @-@ minute interview with Béart , covering working under Rivette 's direction and how the experience of acting in the film compared to her earlier role in La Belle Noiseuse . The US and UK distributions , respectively released on 12 July 2005 by Koch Lorber Films and 28 February 2005 by Artificial Eye , come with optional English subtitles and the special features on a single disc . The Arte Video release additionally features commentary by Lubtchansky over a cut @-@ down ( 41 : 45 minute ) version of the film , and an analysis of the film by Hélène Frappat ( 21 : 28 minutes ) . The film was also released with Un Coeur en Hiver and Nathalie ... in " The Emmanuel Beart Collection " by Koch Lorber in 2007 .
= I Love Lisa =
" I Love Lisa " is the fifteenth episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 11 , 1993 . In the episode , Lisa gives Ralph Wiggum a Valentine 's Day card when she sees that he has not received any . Ralph reads too much into Lisa 's gesture and , much to Lisa 's dismay , relentlessly pursues her with affection . Lisa snaps at Ralph and angrily tells him they are not together and that she never liked him . Heartbroken , Ralph channels his feelings into his performance as George Washington in the school 's President 's Day pageant . After a thunderous applause from the audience , he is able to accept Lisa as just a friend .
Frank Mula wrote the episode , and Wes Archer served as director . Michael Carrington guest @-@ starred as Rex . Al Jean , show runner of the episode , came up with the idea for the story when he remembered that he had received a valentine from a girl in third grade that read " I Choo @-@ Choo @-@ Choose You " . The episode was well received by critics ; Entertainment Weekly placed the episode twelfth on their top 25 The Simpsons episodes list . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 9 and was the highest rated show on the Fox network the week it aired . The staff received an angry letter from a Vietnam veteran because of a flashback scene depicting the fatal shooting of a Vietnam soldier .
= = Plot = =
On Valentine 's Day in Springfield , Lisa 's class at the Springfield Elementary School construct paper mailboxes for the Valentine cards they are about to receive . When Ralph does not get any cards and breaks down in tears , Lisa hastily gives him a card out of sympathy . Ralph immediately cheers up , and develops a romantic interest in her . Ralph begins to annoy Lisa at every turn . Lisa tries to escape the situation by telling Ralph she is not ready to be romantic , but Ralph uses his position as Chief Wiggum 's son to get her tickets to Krusty the Clown 's upcoming 29th Anniversary Special , as well as a leading part for himself in a President 's Day pageant in which Lisa also stars . Ralph receives the role of George Washington opposite Lisa as Martha Washington .
With Homer having convinced Lisa that nothing can go wrong at Krusty 's show , Lisa and Ralph go together . On live air , Krusty begins interviewing audience members , and Ralph takes the opportunity to declare that Lisa is the love of his life and that he intends to marry her . Angry , Lisa snaps , stating that she had never liked him and that the only reason she gave him a Valentine was because nobody else would . Later at home , Bart takes the moment to replay that scene to Lisa in which Ralph is humiliated and deeply hurt . Lisa soon feels guilty and regrets her actions in hurting Ralph 's feelings .
On the night of the Presidents ' Day pageant , Lisa tries to apologize to Ralph , but he ignores her to focus on his role . Ralph proves to be a remarkably effective and eloquent actor , gaining the approval of the audience . Lisa approaches Ralph after the performance and apologizes for her actions . He accepts and she gives him a new card with a picture of a bee on it , reading " Let 's Bee Friends " . Ralph laughs at the pun and happily accepts the offer of friendship .
= = Production = =
This was the first episode Frank Mula wrote for The Simpsons . Mula had previously worked with Simpsons executive producer Sam Simon at another Gracie Films show . This was the first season four episode that Wes Archer directed . Jeff Martin and Mula wrote the music for the President 's Day pageant . Michael Carrington guest @-@ stars in the episode as Rex , the boy who auditions for the role of George Washington but is beaten by Ralph .
The story of " I Love Lisa " originated from a personal episode of Al Jean 's life ; when Jean was in third grade , he received a valentine from a girl that read " I Choo @-@ Choo @-@ Choose You " . Years later , Jean wondered if the girl had really liked him . He told writing partner Mike Reiss about it and they thought it could be an idea for an episode where Lisa could give such a valentine to Ralph Wiggum , who would then take it too far . At that time , Ralph and Chief Wiggum were not established as being related . Jean thought it would be funny if Ralph was Wiggum 's son , considering both characters are " fat and dumb " . A technique the staff used to come up with stories and ideas was to think " what holiday haven 't we done on The Simpsons , or done lately ? " . As they had done several Halloween and Christmas episodes before , the staff liked the idea of doing a Valentine 's Day episode .
= = Cultural references = =
The songs " Monster Mash " ( by Bobby " Boris " Pickett ) and " Break On Through ( To the Other Side ) " ( by The Doors ) are featured in the episode . The orchestral version of Tony Bennett 's " Stranger in Paradise " can be heard in an Itchy and Scratchy cartoon . Homer 's conscience , which tells him that stealing is wrong , speaks with the voice of the fictional character Droopy . During the re @-@ enactment of the Abraham Lincoln assassination at the school pageant , Bart says " Hasta la vista , Abie " in reference to the film Terminator 2 : Judgment Day . The scene of Chief Wiggum sitting behind Krusty at an adult movie theater and Krusty thinking he is about to be arrested is a reference to Paul Reubens ' arrest for masturbating at a pornographic movie theater in Sarasota , Florida .
One of the clips from Krusty 's early TV shows features Robert Frost reading the first lines of his poem Stopping By Woods On A Snowy Evening .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " I Love Lisa " finished eighteenth in the ratings for the week of February 6 to February 12 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 9 . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . Since airing , it has received many positive reviews from fans and television critics . Entertainment Weekly 's Dalton Ross said the episode was both touching and humorous . He added that in the scene where Bart runs a videotape in slow motion to show Lisa how " you can actually pin @-@ point the second when [ Ralph Wiggum 's ] heart rips in half " , the audience does not really know " whether you 're shedding tears of laughter , empathy , or both — you just know that it 's damn good any way you slice it . " The Arizona Republic 's Bill Goodykoontz named the episode one of his five favorites and highlighted Ralph 's line " and my doctor said I wouldn 't have so many nosebleeds if I kept my finger out of there " as one of the best lines in the history of the show . In a review of The Simpsons season four , Lyndsey Shinoda of Video Store cited " Brother from the Same Planet " and " I Love Lisa " among her " personal favorites " from the season .
Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , said their favorite scenes from the episode include Principal Skinner 's flashback to Valentine 's Day in Vietnam , the scene in which Chief Wiggum chases a duck to get his badge back , and the one where Bart and Milhouse play John Wilkes Booth and Abraham Lincoln at the school pageant . They added that those scenes were " just the icing on the cake of the main plot . " In 2003 , Entertainment Weekly placed the episode twelfth on their top 25 The Simpsons episodes list , and in 2008 placed the episode second on their top " 25 New Classic Holiday TV Episodes " list .
= = = Controversy = = =
When Principal Skinner tells the children at school that Valentine 's Day is not a joke ( due to Bart fabricating candy hearts with mean insults ) , he has a flashback in which he is sitting in a PBR somewhere in Da Nang in 1969 . On an oil drum next to him is a manila envelope and a photograph of Colonel Kurtz . Skinner sees Johnny , one of his army friends , holding a Valentine card and asks him , " Sending your chick a Valentine ? " , to which Johnny replies " Yep " , right before he is shot to death . Cutting back to the present , Skinner repeatedly calls out Johnny 's name in anguish , to which a perplexed Bart states " Cool ! I broke his brain . " After the episode aired , a Vietnam veteran sent in a letter to the show that read , " I was watching the Valentine 's Day episode of your cartoon and I saw the horrifying Vietnam flashback . Do you really think this was funny , this horrible experience ? " The staff ignored the letter and , as Wes Archer pointed out , the scene was " an obvious " reference to Apocalypse Now even featuring characters that resembled Chef ( Frederic Forrest ) and Mr. Clean ( Laurence Fishburne ) . In contrast , Mark Groening — the brother of Matt Groening and himself a Vietnam veteran — " loved " the sequence as well as the episode .
= Giant Dipper =
The Giant Dipper is a historic wooden roller coaster located at the Santa Cruz Beach Boardwalk , an amusement park in Santa Cruz , California . It took 47 days to build at a cost of $ 50 @,@ 000 . It opened on May 17 , 1924 , and replaced the Thompson 's Scenic Railway . With a height of 70 feet ( 21 m ) and a speed of 55 miles per hour ( 89 km / h ) , it is one of the most popular wooden roller coasters in the world . As of 2012 , over 60 million people have ridden the Giant Dipper since its opening . The ride has received several awards such as being named a National Historic Landmark , a Golden Age Coaster award , and a Coaster Landmark award ; it has been ranked annually in Mitch Hawker 's Best Wooden roller coaster poll .
= = History = =
The Thompson 's Scenic Railway was built on the site of Giant Dipper in 1908 as the longest roller coaster in the United States . In October 1923 , manager R.L. Cardiff and Walter Loof began negotiations to build a new ride to replace the Scenic Railway . The price was set at $ 50 @,@ 000 , $ 15 @,@ 000 more than the Scenic Railway . In January 1924 , the permit to build the Giant Dipper was granted to Arthur Loof . He wanted to create a ride that had " the thrill of a plunge down a mine shaft , a balloon ascent , a parachute jump , airplane acrobatics , a cyclone , a toboggan ride , and a ship in a storm . " The Scenic Railway began to be demolished in January 1924 to make room for the Giant Dipper . It took 5 months to demolish the Scenic Railway and construct the Giant Dipper . The actual construction of the Giant Dipper took 47 days . The ride opened to the public for the first time on May 17 , 1924 . The ride had a few incidents over the years in which three people have died .
In 1974 , the ride received a new coat of paint with Victorian @-@ style architecture around the station . In the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake , the Giant Dipper was almost completely untouched . The ride was closed for about a month to be inspected . The park held a benefit for victims of the earthquake . In 2002 , the ride celebrated its 50 millionth rider . Ten years after the 50 millionth rider , the park celebrated the Giant Dipper 's 60 millionth rider on July 27 , 2012 . The park gave out trivia coasters leading up to the event . The 24 riders that were on the train when it hit 60 million riders received a hoodie among other prizes .
The Giant Dipper was built by Arthur Looff and designed by Frederick Church . It required 327 @,@ 000 feet ( 100 @,@ 000 m ) of lumber , 743 @,@ 000 nails , and 24 @,@ 000 bolts to construct . The lumber was provided by Homer T. Maynard Lumber , and the 70 horsepower motor , which is still used today , was provided by Santa Cruz Electric . The concrete was done by T.F. Costello , and the steel work was done by Berger and Carter .
= = = Fatalities = = =
The first death on Giant Dipper occurred four months after it debuted , on September 21 . A 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy fell from the ride while standing up near the end of the ride . The emergency brake was applied , but the boy fell head first onto the track and was crushed by the roller coaster train . Other fatalities also occurred in 1940 and 1970 . Several modifications have been made to the trains as a result .
= = Ride experience = =
After departing from the station , the train immediately enters a tunnel . After going through some drops and turns in the tunnel , the train emerges at the base of the lift hill . Once climbing 70 feet ( 21 m ) to the top , the train drops 65 feet ( 20 m ) , reaching a top speed of 55 miles per hour ( 89 km / h ) . The train then rises up into a banked turn to the left . Riders then go through two hills next to the lift hill followed by a turnaround that is positioned over the tunnel at the beginning of the ride . The train then travels over three small hills situated next to the lift hill followed by another turnaround . Riders then go through three more small hills and enter the final brake run .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Trains = = =
The Giant Dipper currently operates with two trains with six cars per train . Riders are arranged two across in two rows for a total of 24 riders per train . The trains were built by Dana Morgan from D.H. Morgan Manufacturing . When the Giant Dipper opened , it ran with three trains , each with ten cars . Over time , the trains have been redesigned several times with changes to the restraint system . However , they are almost unchanged since they opened . The trains have changed colors several times since the ride opened .
= = = Track = = =
The wooden track is approximately 2 @,@ 640 feet ( 800 m ) in length , and the height of the lift is approximately 70 feet ( 21 m ) . The track is colored red with white supports . When built in 1924 , 327 @,@ 000 feet ( 100 @,@ 000 m ) of lumber was used . The track is inspected every two hours .
= = Legacy = =
In the early 1970s , the Giant Dipper became the last " classic roller coaster " between Vancouver , British Columbia and San Diego , California . It is only one of three Church rides to still operate . The other two are Dragon Coaster at Playland Park and Giant Dipper at Belmont Park . It is one of the only roller coasters that are still operating from what ACE calls the " golden age of roller coasters . " Other than being the oldest roller coaster in California , the ride is also one of the oldest roller coasters in the world .
= = Reception = =
Since the Giant Dipper was one of the first roller coasters in existence when it opened , many people were concerned about the safety of the ride . Loof , as well as a local newspaper , insisted it was " virtually impossible " for the cars to leave the track because of the makeup of the trains and track . Although several incidents happened on the ride , none were related to the integrity of the track or trains . Many people call the Giant Dipper the icon and crown jewel of Santa Cruz Beach Boardwalk as well as one of the nation 's most exciting roller coasters . It is considered to be the signature ride of the park .
The Giant Dipper is referred to in the song " Big Dipper " , from the 1996 album The Golden Age by David Lowery 's band Cracker . The ride also appeared in many television commercials and movies , including The Lost Boys , Sudden Impact , The Sting II , and Dangerous Minds .
= = = Awards = = =
On February 27 , 1987 , the United States National Park Service recognized the Giant Dipper as a National Historic Landmark along with the Looff Carousel .
It was awarded the American Coaster Enthusiasts Golden Age Coaster award in June 1994 . The 1920s is often considered the " golden age of roller coaster construction " so the award recognizes the roller coasters that still remain today . It is only one of two roller coasters to receive this designation , the other being the Giant Dipper at Belmont Park . Giant Dipper was also awarded the ACE Coaster Landmark award on May 5 , 2007 at the 100th anniversary of Santa Cruz Beach Boardwalk . It won the award for its innovative track design , unusual curved station and for being one of the ten oldest operating coasters in the world and one of only three remaining examples of Frederick Church 's work .
= = = Rankings = = =
= Iraq War in Anbar Province =
The Iraq War in Anbar Province , also known as the Al Anbar campaign , consisted of fighting between the United States military , together with Iraqi Government forces , and Sunni insurgents in the western Iraqi province of Al Anbar . The Iraq War lasted from 2003 to 2011 , but the majority of the fighting and counterinsurgency campaign in Anbar took place between April 2004 and September 2007 . Although the fighting initially featured heavy urban warfare primarily between insurgents and U.S. Marines , insurgents in later years focused on ambushing the American and Iraqi security forces with improvised explosive devices ( IEDs ) . Almost 9 @,@ 000 Iraqis and 1 @,@ 335 Americans were killed in the campaign , many in the Sunni Triangle around the cities of Fallujah and Ramadi .
Al Anbar , the only Sunni @-@ dominated province in Iraq , saw little fighting in the initial invasion . Following the fall of Baghdad it was occupied by the U.S. Army 's 82nd Airborne Division . Violence began on 28 April 2003 when 17 Iraqis were killed in Fallujah by U.S. soldiers during an anti @-@ American demonstration . In early 2004 the U.S. Army relinquished command of the province to the Marines . By April 2004 the province was in full @-@ scale revolt . Savage fighting occurred in both Fallujah and Ramadi by the end of 2004 , including the Second Battle of Fallujah . Violence escalated throughout 2005 and 2006 as the two sides struggled to secure the Western Euphrates River Valley . During this time , Al Qaeda in Iraq ( AQI ) became the province 's main Sunni insurgent group and turned the provincial capital of Ramadi into its stronghold . The Marine Corps issued an intelligence report in late 2006 declaring that the province would be lost without a significant additional commitment of troops .
In August 2006 , several tribes located near Ramadi and led by Sheikh Abdul Sattar Abu Risha revolted against AQI . The tribes formed the Anbar Awakening and helped turn the tide against the insurgents . American and Iraqi tribal forces regained control of Ramadi in early 2007 , as well as other cities such as Hīt , Haditha , and Rutbah . In June 2007 the U.S. turned its attention to eastern Anbar Province and secured the cities of Fallujah and Al @-@ Karmah .
The fighting was mostly over by September 2007 , although US forces maintained a stabilizing and advisory role through December 2011 . Celebrating the victory , President George W. Bush flew to Anbar in September 2007 to congratulate Sheikh Sattar and other leading tribal figures . AQI assassinated Sattar days later . In September 2008 , political control was transferred to Iraq . Military control was transferred in June 2009 , following the withdrawal of American combat forces from the cities . The Marines were replaced by the US Army in January 2010 . The Army withdrew its combat units by August 2010 , leaving only advisory and support units . The last American forces left the province on 7 December 2011 .
= = Background = =
Al Anbar is Iraq 's largest and westernmost province . It comprises 32 percent of the country 's total land mass , nearly 53 @,@ 208 square miles ( 137 @,@ 810 km2 ) , almost exactly the size of North Carolina in the United States and slightly larger than Greece . Geographically , it is isolated from most of Iraq , but is easy to access from Saudi Arabia , Jordan , and Syria . The Euphrates River , Lake Habbaniyah , and the artificially created Lake Qadisiyah are its most significant geographical features . Outside of the Euphrates area the terrain is overwhelmingly desert , comprising the eastern part of the Syrian Desert . Temperatures range from highs of 115 ° F ( 46 ° C ) in July and August to below 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) from November to March . The province lacks significant natural resources and many inhabitants benefited from the Ba 'athist government 's patronage system , funded by oil revenues from elsewhere in the country .
The Coalition Provisional Authority ( CPA ) estimated that about 1 @.@ 2 million Iraqis lived in Anbar in 2003 , more than two @-@ thirds of them in Fallujah and Ramadi . With a population 95 percent Sunni , many from the Dulaimi Tribe , Anbar is Iraq 's only province without a significant Shia or Kurdish population . 95 percent of the population lives within 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the Euphrates . At the time of the invasion , Fallujah was known as a religious enclave hostile towards outsiders , while Ramadi , the provincial capital , was more secular . Outside the cities , the ancient tribal system run by Sheikhs held considerable influence .
Conditions in Anbar particularly favored an insurgency . The province was overwhelmingly Sunni , the minority religious group that lost its power and influence in post @-@ Saddam Hussein Iraq . Hussein was also very popular in the province than anywhere else in the country . Many did not fight during the invasion ( allowing them to claim that they had not been defeated ) and " still wanted to slug it out " , according to journalist Tom Ricks . Military service was compulsory in Saddam 's Iraq and the Amiriyah area contained a sizeable portion of Iraq 's arms industry . Immediately after Saddam fell , insurgents and others looted many of the 96 known munitions sites , as well as local armories and weapons stockpiles . These weapons were used to arm the insurgents in Anbar and elsewhere . While only a small minority of Sunnis were initially insurgents , many either supported or tolerated them . Sympathetic Ba 'athists and former Saddam officials in Syrian exile provided money , sanctuary , and foreign fighters to insurgent groups . Future al @-@ Qaeda in Iraq leader Abu Musab al @-@ Zarqawi spent part of 2002 in central Iraq , including Anbar Province , preparing for resistance . Within several months of the invasion the province had become a sanctuary for anti @-@ occupation fighters .
= = 2003 = =
= = = Invasion = = =
Anbar experienced relatively little fighting during the initial invasion of Iraq , as the main US offensive was directed through the Shia areas of southeastern Iraq , from Kuwait to Baghdad . An infantry division had been earmarked in 2002 to secure Anbar during the invasion . However , the Pentagon decided to treat the province with an " economy of force " in early 2003 . The first Coalition forces to enter Al Anbar were American and Australian special forces , who seized vital targets such as Al Asad Airbase and Haditha Dam and prevented the launch of Scud missiles at Israel . While there was generally little combat , the most significant engagement occurred when elements of the American 3rd Battalion 75th Ranger Regiment seized Haditha Dam on 31 March 2003 . Surrounded by a larger Iraqi force , the Rangers held the dam until relieved after eight days . During the siege , they destroyed twenty @-@ nine Iraqi tanks and killed an estimated 300 to 400 Iraqi soldiers . Four Rangers were awarded the Silver Star for the action . In addition , four other Rangers were killed when their checkpoint near Haditha was attacked by a suicide bomber .
At the end of the invasion , the pro @-@ Saddam forces in Anbar – the Ba 'ath Party , the Republican Guard , the Fedayeen Saddam , and the Iraqi Intelligence Service – remained intact . Saddam hid in Ramadi and Hīt in early April . Other pro @-@ Saddam forces were able to relocate from Anbar to Syria with money and weapons , where they set up headquarters . The nucleus of the insurgency in its first few months was formed from the pro @-@ Saddam forces in Anbar and Syria . In contrast to the looting throughout Baghdad and other parts of the country , Ba 'athist headquarters and homes of high @-@ ranking Sunni leaders were relatively untouched . The head of Iraqi ground forces in the province , General Mohammed Jarawi , formally surrendered to elements of the 3rd Infantry Division at Ramadi on 15 April 2003 .
= = = Insurgency begins = = =
Shortly after the Fall of Baghdad , the US Army turned Anbar Province over to a single regiment , the 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment ( ACR ) . With only several thousand soldiers , that force had little hope of effectively controlling Anbar .
The immediate catalyst for violent activity in the Fallujah area came after what many Iraqis and foreign journalists dubbed a " massacre " in Fallujah . On the evening of 28 April 2003 , Saddam Hussein 's birthday , a crowd of about one hundred men , women , and children staged anti @-@ American protests outside US military outposts in Fallujah . The Iraqis claimed they were unarmed , while the Army said that some individuals were carrying and firing AK @-@ 47s . The soldiers manning one of the outposts fired on the crowd , killing at least twelve and wounding dozens more . The Army never apologized for the killings or paid compensation . In the weeks afterwards , the town 's pro @-@ US mayor urged the Americans to leave .
On 16 May 2003 , the CPA issued Order Number 1 , which abolished the Ba 'ath Party and began a process of " de @-@ Ba 'athification " , and on 23 May 2003 issued Order Number 2 , which disbanded the Iraqi Army and other security services . Both orders further antagonized the Sunnis of Anbar . Many Sunnis took great pride in the Iraqi Army and viewed its disbanding as an act of contempt towards the Iraqi people . The dissolution also put hundreds of thousands of Anbaris out of work as many were members of the Army or the party . Three days after CPA Order No. 2 , Major Matthew Schram became the first American killed since the invasion in Anbar Province when his convoy came under rocket @-@ propelled grenade ( RPG ) attack on 26 May near Haditha .
= = = June – October 2003 = = =
What we have done over the last six months in Al Anbar has been a recipe for instability .
Following the disbanding of the Iraqi Army , insurgent activity increased , especially in Fallujah . Initially , armed resistance groups could be characterized as either Sunni nationalists who wanted to bring back the Ba 'ath Party with Saddam Hussein , or anti @-@ Saddam fighters . The first major leader of the insurgency in Anbar was Khamis Sirhan al @-@ Muhammad , the Ba 'ath party regional chairman for the Karbala Governorate , who was originally No. 54 on the US list of most @-@ wanted Iraqis . According to the US military , Khamis received his funding and orders directly from Saddam , then still a fugitive .
In June , American forces conducted Operation Desert Scorpion , a mostly unsuccessful attempt to root out the burgeoning insurgency . An isolated success occurred near Rawah , where American soldiers cornered and killed more than 70 fighters on 12 June and captured a large weapons cache .
In general , American forces had difficulty distinguishing between Iraqi civilians and insurgents , and the civilian casualties incurred during the sweep increased support for the insurgency . On 5 July , a bomb killed seven at a graduation ceremony for the first American @-@ trained police cadets in Ramadi . On 16 July , Mohammed Nayil Jurayfi , the pro @-@ government mayor of Haditha , and his youngest son were assassinated .
As the violence escalated , the US responded with what many Iraqis called the " senseless use of firepower " and " midnight raids on innocent men " . Human Rights Watch accused the Army of a pattern of " over @-@ aggressive tactics , indiscriminate shooting in residential areas and a quick reliance on lethal force " , as well as using " disproportionate force " . For example , if Iraqi insurgents set off a land mine , the US would respond by dropping bombs on those houses with arms caches ; when insurgents fired a mortar round at American positions near Fallujah , the Americans responded with heavy artillery . American forces near Al Qaim conducted " hard knocks " on local residents , kicking in doors and manhandling individuals , only to discover they were innocent . In an incident on 11 September , soldiers manning a checkpoint near Fallujah shot multiple rounds at both an Iraqi police truck and a nearby hospital , killing seven . Soldiers also beat and abused Iraqi detainees . There was a constant rotation of units through the province , which led to confusion among the American troops : Fallujah had five different battalions rotate through in five months . Summing up the initial American approach to Al Anbar , Keith Mines , the CPA diplomat in Anbar Province , wrote :
What we have done over the last six months in Al Anbar has been a recipe for instability . Through aggressive de @-@ Ba 'athification , the demobilization of the army , and the closing of factories the coalition has left tens of thousands of individuals outside the political and economic life of this country .
On October 31 , during Operation Abalone teams from A Squadron of the British SAS supported by Delta force assaulted insurgent held compounds / dwellings in the fringes of Ramadi , killing an estimated dozen insurgents and capturing four , the operation turned up evidence of foreign fighters ; finding actual proof of an internationalist jihadist movement . One SAS operator was killed in the operation . The SAS also operated covertly in Ramadi and Fallujah in October and November 2003 and other more remote parts of Al Anbar Province as part of Operation Paradoxical which was aimed at hunting down threats to the coalition .
= = = November – December 2003 = = =
During the insurgency 's Ramadan Offensive , a military Chinook transport helicopter carrying 32 soldiers was shot down with an SA @-@ 7 missile near Fallujah on 2 November . Thirteen were killed and the rest wounded . Following the shootdown , Fallujah was quiet for a few months . On 5 November , Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld announced that the Marines would return to Iraq early the next year and would take over Anbar Province . As the Marines prepared to move in , there was a growing consensus that the 82nd had lost control of the area , although the only real problem was Fallujah . Some Marine commanders , like Major General James Mattis and Lieutenant Colonel Carl Mundy , criticized the Army 's tactics as " hard @-@ nosed " and " humiliating the Sunni population " , promising that the Marines would act differently . Late that November , Operators from A Squadron SAS launched a heliborne assault on a remote farm in Al Anbar province , after they came under fire from insurgents inside , air support was called in and hit the farm , after it was cleared ; seven dead insurgents were found whom American intelligence believed were foreign fighters . Riots in Fallujah and Ramadi followed the December capture of Saddam Hussein . The capture of Saddam created significant problems in Anbar : instead of weakening the insurgency , many Anbaris were outraged over what they saw as the degrading treatment of Saddam . Saddam 's removal allowed the insurgency to recruit fighters who had previously opposed the Americans but had remained passive out of hatred for Saddam . As Saddam loyalists were killed or captured , leadership positions went to AQI @-@ affiliated hardliners such as Abdullah Abu Azzam al @-@ Iraqi , who was directly responsible for murdering government officials in 2004 . While the Ba 'ath Party continued to play a major role in the insurgency , the balance of power had shifted to various religious leaders who were advocating a jihad against American forces .
= = 2004 = =
= = = January – March 2004 = = =
At the beginning of 2004 , General Ricardo Sanchez , head of Multinational Force Iraq ( MNF – I ) , claimed that the US had " made significant progress in Anbar Province . " However , CPA funds for the province were inadequate . A brigade commander in Fallujah was allocated only $ 200 @,@ 000 a month , when he estimated that it would cost at least $ 25 million to restart the city 's factories , which employed tens of thousands of workers . By February , insurgent attacks were rapidly increasing . On 12 February , United States Central Command ( CENTCOM ) commander General John P. Abizaid and Major General Chuck Swannack , the 82nd Airborne 's commanding officer , were attacked while driving through Fallujah . On 14 February , in an incident dubbed the " Valentine 's Day Massacre " , insurgents overran a police station in downtown Fallujah , killing 23 to 25 policemen and freeing 75 prisoners . The next day , the Americans fired Fallujah 's police chief for refusing to wear his uniform and arrested the mayor . In March , Keith Mines wrote , " there is not a single properly trained and equipped Iraqi security officer in the entire Al Anbar province . " He added that security was entirely dependent on American soldiers , yet those same soldiers inflamed Sunni nationalists . That same month General Swannack gave a briefing on Anbar where he talked about improved security , declared the insurgency there was all but finished , and concluded " the future for Al Anbar in Iraq remains very bright . "
The 82nd Airborne handed control of Anbar Province over to the I Marine Expeditionary Force ( I MEF ) , also known as Multi @-@ National Forces West ( MNF @-@ W ) , on 24 March . Nearly two @-@ thirds of the Marines , including their commanders James T. Conway and James Mattis , had participated in the invasion in 2003 . Conway planned on gradually reestablishing control over Anbar Province using a methodical counterinsurgency program , showing respect for the population and training the Iraqi Army and police using military transition teams ( based on the Combined Action Program used by the Marines during the Vietnam War ) . During the transition of authority between the MEF and the 82nd Airborne it became obvious that western Iraq was going to be more problematic for the Marines than southern Iraq had been .
On 15 March , 3rd Battalion 7th Marines operating near Al Qaim got into a firefight with Syrian border guards . On 24 March , several Marines and paratroopers were wounded in Fallujah when insurgents attacked the ceremony for transfer of authority .
Just one week after the MEF had taken over Anbar , insurgents in Fallujah ambushed a convoy carrying four American mercenaries from Blackwater USA on 31 March , killing all of them . An angry mob then set the mercenaries ' bodies ablaze and dragged their corpses through the streets before hanging them over a bridge crossing the Euphrates . The American media compared the attack on the mercenaries to the 1993 Battle of Mogadishu , where images of American soldiers being dragged through the streets of Somalia prompted the United States to withdraw its troops .
That same day five soldiers were killed in nearby Habbaniyah when their M113 armored personnel carrier was hit by a mine . According to General Conway , it was the largest mine that had been used in Anbar to date ; only a tailgate and a boot were recovered .
= = = First Battle of Fallujah = = =
Al Jazeera kicked our ass .
In response to the killings , General Sanchez ordered the Marines to attack
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bed and by 16 December the US had begun to reopen the city and allow residents to return .
The battle was later described by the US military as " the heaviest urban combat Marines have been involved in since the battle of Hue City in Vietnam . " The official Marine Corps history recorded that 78 Marines , sailors , and soldiers died and another 651 were wounded retaking Fallujah ( 394 were able to return to duty ) . One @-@ third of the dead and wounded came from a single battalion , 3rd Battalion 1st Marines . Eight Marines were awarded the Navy Cross , the US military 's second @-@ highest award for valor , three of them posthumously . Sergeant Rafael Peralta was also unsuccessfully nominated for the Medal of Honor .
Officials estimated they had killed between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 600 insurgents and detained another 1 @,@ 000 out of an estimated 1 @,@ 500 to 3 @,@ 000 insurgents who were believed to be in the city . Aircraft dropped 318 precision bombs , launched 391 rockets and missiles , and fired 93 @,@ 000 machine gun or cannon rounds on the city , while artillery units fired 5 @,@ 685 rounds of 155 mm shells . The Red Cross estimated that 250 @,@ 000 out of 300 @,@ 000 residents had left the city during the fighting . A Baghdad Red Cross official unofficially estimated that up to 800 civilians were killed .
The Battle of Fallujah was not a defeat — but we cannot afford many more victories like it .
The Second Battle of Fallujah was unique in the Anbar campaign , in that it was the only time the US military and the insurgents waged a division @-@ level conventional engagement . During the rest of the Anbar campaign , the insurgents never stood and fought in numbers that large . The official Marine Corps history claimed that the battle was not decisive , because most of the insurgent leadership and non @-@ local insurgents had fled beforehand . Summing up the Marine Corps view , the United States Naval Institute 's official magazine Proceedings said , " The Battle of Fallujah was not a defeat — but we cannot afford many more victories like it . "
= = 2005 = =
= = = January – April 2005 = = =
Following the Second Battle of Fallujah , the Marines faced three main tasks : providing humanitarian assistance to the hundreds of thousands of refugees returning to the city , retaking the numerous towns and cities they had abandoned along the Euphrates in the run @-@ up to the battle , and providing security for the Iraqi parliamentary elections scheduled for 30 January . According to top Marine officials , the elections were designed to help enfranchise the Iraqi government by including Iraqi citizens in its formation . Only 3 @,@ 775 voters ( 2 percent of the eligible population ) cast ballots in Anbar Province due to a Sunni boycott . The simultaneous elections for the provincial council were won by the Iraqi Islamic Party , which suffered from a perceived lack of legitimacy but nevertheless would dominate the Anbar legislature until 2009 .
During the run @-@ up to the elections , a CH @-@ 53E helicopter crashed near Al @-@ Rutbah on 26 January , killing all 31 Marines and sailors , most of whom were members of 1st Battalion 3rd Marines and who had survived the Second Battle of Fallujah . This was the single deadliest incident for US troops in the Iraq War . On 20 February , the Marines launched Operation River Blitz , their first major offensive of the year , centered in the western Euphrates River Valley against the cities of Ramadi , Hīt , and Baghdadi . Different units adopted different strategies . In Fallujah , the Marines surrounded the city with berms , banned all vehicles , and required residents to carry identification cards . In Ramadi , the 2nd BCT of the 28th Infantry Division focused on controlling the main roads and protecting the governor and government center . In western Anbar , the 2nd Marine Regiment conducted search and destroy missions , described as " cordon and search " , where they repeatedly pushed into enemy @-@ controlled towns and then withdrew . On 2 April , a group of up to 60 AQI fighters launched a major attack , described as " one of the most sophisticated " seen to date , on the Abu Ghraib prison . The insurgents used a barrage of mortars , coupled with a suicide car bomb , in an unsuccessful attempt to breach the prison , wounding 44 US troops and 13 detainees .
= = = Improvised Explosive Devices = = =
By late February , a new threat emerged — the improvised explosive device ( IED ) . In 2005 , 158 Marines and soldiers were killed by IEDs or suicide bombers , more than half ( 58 percent ) of that year 's combat deaths in Anbar . These numbers reflected a nationwide trend . While IEDs had been used since the beginning of the insurgency , the early models had been crudely designed , using " dynamite or gunpowder mixed with nails and buried beside a road " . By mid @-@ 2005 the insurgents had refined their technique , triggering them by remote control , stringing artillery shells or missiles together , using solid foundations to magnify the explosion , and burying them under roadways to inflict maximum damage . The US responded with a series of progressively more @-@ sophisticated electronic jamming devices and other electronic warfare programs which eventually consolidated into the Joint Improvised Explosive Device Defeat Organization .
Unless there are people melting inside of Humvees , then it 's not a real problem .
On 17 February , Brigadier General Dennis Hejlik filed an urgent request with the Marine Corps for 1 @,@ 200 Mine Resistant Ambush Protected ( MRAP ) vehicles , specifically designed to withstand IED attacks , for use in Anbar Province . In his request , General Hejlik added , " The [ Marines ] cannot continue to lose ... serious and grave casualties to IED [ s ] . " The Marine Corps did not formally act on the request for 21 months . Hejlik later claimed that he was referring to IEDs which " tore into the sides of vehicles " , and that the Marine Corps had determined that simply adding more armored Humvees would provide adequate protection . Whistleblower Franz Gayl disagreed , and wrote a report for Congress claiming that the request was shelved because the Marine Corps wanted to use the funds to develop the Joint Light Tactical Vehicle , a replacement for the Humvee not scheduled to become operational until 2012 . Some Army personnel complained that the Marines took an almost casual attitude towards IEDs . One Army officer in Ramadi complained that , after warning about the large number of IEDs on a particular route , he was told , " Unless there are people melting inside of Humvees , then it 's not a real problem . "
= = = Western Euphrates River Valley = = =
By the spring of 2005 , both the US and Iraqi governments concluded that the biggest problem facing Iraq was AQI 's car bombings in Baghdad . But while the Iraqis wanted to concentrate on Baghdad 's suburban belts where the vehicles were being assembled , MNF – I commander General George Casey concluded the real problem was pro @-@ insurgent foreign fighters coming across the Syrian border . He ordered the Marines to launch a campaign that summer to secure the Western Euphrates River Valley ( WERV ) .
On 7 May a platoon from 3rd Battalion 25th Marines near Haditha was nearly overrun by insurgents , but ultimately rescued by one of its non @-@ commissioned officers who was later awarded the Navy Cross . The next day the 2nd Marine Regiment began clearing insurgent havens in the WERV . The first major attack was Operation Matador , against the town of Ubaydi , which CENTCOM claimed was an insurgent staging area . Both 3rd Battalion 25th Marines and 3rd Battalion 2nd Marines participated in the attack . In most cases the insurgents vanished , leaving behind booby traps and mines . At least nine Marines were killed and 40 wounded in the operation , but the insurgents apparently returned to the town afterwards .
AQI was interested in the WERV too . Zarqawi had reclaimed his base in western Anbar , declared Al Qaim as his capital , and was also operating in Hit and the Haditha Triad . On 8 May , the insurgent group Jamaat Ansar al @-@ Sunna ambushed and killed a dozen mercenaries near Hīt . Two days later , Anbar Governor Raja Nawaf Farhan al @-@ Mahalawi was kidnapped and killed by insurgents near Rawah . He was replaced by Maamoon Sami Rasheed al @-@ Alwani .
MEF then began a series of operations in July , under the aegis of Operation Sayeed ; in addition to clearing AQI from the WERV , Sayeed was also an attempt to set the conditions for the Anbaris to participate in the December constitutional referendum . They carried out countless operations , with names like New Market , Sword , Hunter , Zoba , Spear , River Gate , and Iron Fist , ultimately culminating in November 's Operation Steel Curtain . In August , the 3rd Battalion 25th Marines conducted Operation Quick Strike , a cordon and search operation in the Haditha Triad . Twenty Marines were killed in two days : six snipers were ambushed and killed by Jamaat Ansar al @-@ Sunna on 1 August , and fourteen Marines were killed on 3 August when their Amphibious Assault Vehicle was hit by a mine outside of Haditha .
By October , more Americans had been killed in Anbar than anywhere else in Iraq and senior Marines had switched from talk about victory to simply " containing the violence and smuggling at a level that Iraqi forces can someday handle . "
= = = October – December 2005 = = =
On 5 November , the 2nd Marine Regiment launched Operation Steel Curtain against the border town of Husaybah . The Marines reported that ten Marines and 139 insurgents died in the offensive . Medical workers in Husaybah claimed that 97 civilians were killed . On 1 December , ten Marines from 2nd Battalion 7th Marines were killed by a massive IED while on a foot patrol in Fallujah .
On 15 October , the people of Anbar went to the polls to decide whether or not to ratify the new constitution . While the turnout ( 259 @,@ 919 voters or 32 % of eligible voters ) was significantly higher than in the January elections , the results were similar : about 97 % of the voters rejected the constitution . On 15 December , there was a follow @-@ up election for the Iraqi parliament . Turn @-@ out was even greater : 585 @,@ 429 voters , or 86 % of eligible voters .
AQI launched a series of attacks in Jordan in late 2005 that were partially based out of Anbar . The group had already unsuccessfully attacked the Trebil checkpoint along the Jordanian border with Anbar Province in December 2004 . In August , two US warships in Aqaba , the USS Kearsarge and the USS Ashland , were attacked with rockets ; the cell which carried out the attacks then fled into Iraq . On 9 November , three Iraqis from Anbar carried out suicide bombings in Amman , killing 60 . A fourth bomber , also from Anbar , was caught .
= = 2006 = =
= = = Haditha killings = = =
In May 2006 , the Marine Corps was rocked by allegations that a squad from 3rd Battalion 1st Marines had gone " on a rampage " the previous November , killing 24 unarmed Iraqi men , women and children in Haditha . The incident had occurred on 19 November 2005 , following a mine attack on a convoy that killed Lance Corporal Miguel Terrazas . A squad of Marines led by Staff Sergeant Frank Wuterich had been riding in the convoy and immediately assumed control of the scene . Following the mine attack , the Marines stopped a white Opel sedan carrying five Iraqi men and shot them after they tried to run away , before the platoon commander arrived and took charge . The Marines say they were then fired upon from a nearby house , and Wuterich 's men were ordered " to take the house " . Both Iraqi and Marine eyewitnesses later agreed that Wutterich 's squad cleared the house ( and several nearby ones ) by throwing in grenades , then entering the houses and shooting the occupants . They differed over whether the killings had been permitted under the rules of engagement . The Marines claimed that the houses had been " declared hostile " and that training dictated " that all individuals in a hostile house are to be shot . " Iraqis claimed the Marines had deliberately targeted civilians . In addition to the five Iraqi men killed by the sedan , nineteen other men , women , and children were killed by Wutterich 's squad as they cleared the houses .
Internal investigations were started in February by the Multi @-@ National Force – Iraq , the Naval Criminal Investigative Service ( which examined the actual killings ) , and Major General Eldon Bargewell ( who examined the Marines ' response to the killings ) . A news article that alleged a massacre had occurred was published in March . Haditha became a national story in mid @-@ May due to comments made by anti @-@ war Congressman and former Marine John P. Murtha . Murtha incorrectly claimed the number of civilians killed was much higher than reported and that the Marines had " killed innocent civilians in cold blood . " Murtha 's broader point about troop misbehavior was reinforced by news of another killing where a squad of Marines executed an Iraqi man and then planted an AK @-@ 47 near his body in Hamdania , near Abu Ghraib , as well as the controversial Internet video Hadji Girl , showing a Marine joking about killing members of an Iraqi family .
The military 's internal investigation was concluded in June . Though Bargewell found no evidence of a cover @-@ up , his report seriously criticized the Marine Corps for what he described as " inattention and negligence " as well as " an unwillingness , bordering on denial " by officers , especially senior officers , to investigate civilian deaths . MEF commander General Stephen Johnson later said that civilian deaths occurred " all the time " , and did not find the high number of deaths to be particularly unusual . He referred to the deaths as " the cost of doing business on that particular engagement . " On 21 December 2006 , the US military charged eight Marines in connection with the Haditha incident . Four of the eight , including Wuterich , were accused of unpremeditated murder . On 3 October 2007 , the preliminary hearing investigating officer recommended that charges of murder be dropped and that Wuterich be tried for negligent homicide instead . Six defendants subsequently had their cases dropped and one was found not guilty . In 2012 , Wuterich pleaded guilty to negligent dereliction of duty in exchange for all other charges against him being dropped . At least three officers , including battalion commander Lieutenant Colonel Jeffrey Chessani , were officially reprimanded for failing to properly report and investigate the killings .
= = = Second Battle of Ramadi = = =
In June 2006 , Colonel Sean MacFarland and the 1st Brigade Combat Team ( BCT ) of the 1st Armored Division were sent to Ramadi . Colonel MacFarland was told to " Fix Ramadi , but don 't do a Fallujah . " Many Iraqis assumed the 1st BCT was preparing for exactly that type of operation , with over 77 M1 Abrams tanks and 84 Bradley Fighting Vehicles , but Colonel MacFarland had another plan . Prior to Ramadi , the 1st BCT had been stationed in the northern city of Tal Afar , where Colonel H. R. McMaster in 2005 had pioneered a new type of operation : " Clear , Hold , Build " . Under McMaster 's approach , his commanders saturated an area with soldiers until it had been cleared of insurgents , then held it until Iraqi security forces were gradually built to a level where they could assume control . As in other offensive operations , many insurgents fled the city in anticipation of a big battle . The 1st BCT moved into some of Ramadi 's most dangerous neighborhoods and , beginning in July , built four of what would eventually become eighteen Combat Outposts . The soldiers brought the territory under control and inflicted many casualties on the insurgents in the process . On 24 July , AQI launched a counterattack , launching 24 assaults , each with about 100 fighters , on American positions . Despite the reported presence of AQI leader Abu Ayyub al @-@ Masri , the insurgents failed in all of their attacks and lost about 30 men . Several senior American officers , including General David Petraeus , later compared the fighting to the Battle of Stalingrad . Despite the success , Multi @-@ National Force – Iraq continued to view Ramadi as a secondary front to the ongoing civil war in Baghdad and considered moving two of Colonel MacFarland 's battalions to Baghdad . Colonel MacFarland even publicly described his operations as " trying to take the heat off Baghdad . "
= = = Awakening movement = = =
As the 1st Brigade pushed into Ramadi , it began aggressively courting the local tribes for police recruits . This was critical because , according to Colonel MacFarland , " without their help , we would not be able to recruit enough police to take back the entire city . " After the Americans promised the tribal leaders in Ramadi that their men would not be sent outside of the city , the tribes began sending men into the police force . The number of Iraqis joining the police went from 30 a month before June 2006 to 300 a month by July . AQI tried to blunt police recruitment by attacking one of the new Ramadi police stations with a car bomb on 21 August , killing three Iraqi police . They simultaneously assassinated the Sunni sheikh of the Abu Ali Jassim tribe , who had encouraged many of his tribesmen to join the Iraqi Police . The AQI fighters hid the body instead of leaving it for the tribe , violating Islam 's funeral rites and angering the tribe . This was one of the catalysts for what became a tribal revolt against AQI . According to David Kilcullen , who would later serve as Senior Counterinsurgency Adviser to General Petraeus , the revolt began after AQI killed a sheikh over his refusal to give his daughters to them in marriage .
During this time , one of Colonel MacFarland 's subordinates , Lieutenant Colonel Tony Deane , had kept contact with a low @-@ level sheikh from the Abu Risha tribe , Abdul Sattar Abu Risha . In 2004 and 2005 , Sattar 's father and three of his brothers had been killed by AQI , but he had refused exile . In early September , Sattar told Deane that his tribe and several others were planning to ally with the United States and throw out the Baghdad @-@ based government . Dean informed Colonel MacFarland , who pledged to support Sattar as long as Sattar continued to back the Government of Iraq . On 9 September , Sattar and former Anbar Governor Fasal al Gaood , along with 50 other sheikhs , announced the formation of the Anbar Awakening movement . Shortly after the meeting , Colonel MacFarland began hearing reports that off @-@ duty Iraqi police operating as the military wing of the Awakening had formed a shadowy vigilante organization called " Thuwar al @-@ Anbar " . Thuwar al @-@ Anbar conducted terror attacks against known AQI operatives , while Colonel MacFarland and his soldiers turned a blind eye .
Colonel MacFarland asked his tribal adviser , Captain Travis Patriquin , to prepare a brief for the Iraqi government and the MEF 's staff and journalists , all of whom remained skeptical about arming Sunni tribes who might someday fight the Shi 'a @-@ led government . Patriquin 's brief , called " How to Win in Al Anbar " , used stick figures and simple language to convey the message that recruiting tribal militias into the police force was a more effective strategy than using the US military . Ricks referred to the briefing as " perhaps the most informal one given by the US military in Iraq and the most important one . " It later became a viral phenomenon on the Internet and is still used as a training aid .
Following the formation of the Awakening movement , violence in Ramadi continued to increase . On September 29 , 2006 an insurgent threw a grenade onto a rooftop where a group of Navy SEALs were positioned . One of them , Master @-@ at @-@ Arms Second Class Michael A. Monsoor , quickly smothered the grenade with his body and was killed . He was later awarded the Medal of Honor . On October 18 , AQI 's umbrella organization , the Mujahideen Shura Council , formally declared Ramadi as a part of the Islamic State of Iraq .
= = = Operation Al Majid = = =
Even as the Awakening progressed , Anbar continued to be viewed as a lost cause . In mid @-@ August , Colonel Peter Devlin , chief of intelligence for the Marine Corps in Iraq , had given a particularly blunt briefing on the Anbar situation to General Peter Pace , Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . Devlin told Pace that the US could not militarily defeat AQI in Anbar Province , as " AQI has become an integral part of the social fabric of western Iraq . " He added that AQI had " eliminated , subsumed , marginalized , or co @-@ opted " all other Sunni insurgents , tribes , or government institutions in the province . Devlin believed that the only way to reestablish control over the province was to deploy an additional division to Anbar , coupled with billions of dollars of aid , or by creating a " sizeable and legally approved paramilitary force " . He concluded that all the Marines had accomplished was preventing things from being " far worse " . In early September , Colonel Devlin 's report was leaked to the Washington Post . MEF commander Major General Richard Zilmer responded to press queries about the statement that Anbar Province was lost . Zilmer said that he agreed with the assessment , but added that his mission was only to train Iraqi security forces . He added that if he were asked to achieve a wider objective he would need more forces , but that sending more Americans to Anbar would not pacify the province — that the only path to victory was for the Sunnis to accept the Government of Iraq .
Some of the first offensive operations outside of Ramadi also began in late 2006 , with the construction of 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ) high dirt berms around several Iraqi cities in western Anbar : Haditha , Haqlaniyah , Barwanah , Rutbah , and Anah . The berming was part of Operation Al Majid , an American @-@ led operation to clear and hold more than 30 @,@ 000 square miles ( 78 @,@ 000 km2 ) in western Anbar . Prior to Al Majid , a previous battalion commander had observed that his unit lacked the manpower to control both the main roads and towns of the Haditha Triad , that the Iraqi Army was as blind as they were , and that the insurgents were killing anyone who spoke to Coalition forces . The 2nd Battalion 3rd Marines had lost over 23 Marines in just two months trying to hold the area . In addition to the berms and the help of a local strongman known as Colonel Faruq , the Marines set up checkpoints in key locations to regulate entry and exit . By early January , attacks in the Triad had dropped from 10 – 13 per day to one every few days .
The Iraq Study Group Report , released on 6 December , acknowledged that the Awakening movement had " started to take action " , but concluded that " Sunni Arabs have not made the strategic decision to abandon violent insurgency in favor of the political process " and that the overall situation in Anbar was " deteriorating " . On the same day , Captain Patriquin was killed by a roadside bomb in Ramadi along with Major Megan McClung , the first female Marine officer to die in Iraq . Following the execution of Saddam Hussein , Saddam 's family considered interring him in Ramadi because of the improved security situation . On 30 December , an unknown number of loyalists near Ramadi staged a march carrying pictures of Saddam Hussein and waving Iraqi flags .
= = 2007 = =
= = = Surge = = =
In his State of the Union Address on 23 January 2007 , President Bush announced plans to deploy more than 20 @,@ 000 additional soldiers and Marines to Iraq in what became known as the Surge . Four thousand were specifically earmarked for Anbar , which Bush acknowledged had become both an AQI haven and a center of resistance against AQI . Instead of deploying new units , the Marine Corps chose to extend the deployments of several units already in Anbar : 1st Battalion 6th Marines , 3rd Battalion 4th Marines , and the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit ( MEU ) . The 15th MEU would later be replaced by the 13th MEU as the last surge unit .
AQI had its own offensives planned for 2007 . In the first two months of 2007 , it shot down eight helicopters throughout Iraq , including two in Anbar . One was brought down by a sophisticated SA @-@ 14 or SA @-@ 16 shoulder @-@ fired missile on 7 February , near Karmah , killing five Marines and two sailors . AQI also began a series of chlorine bombings near Ramadi and Fallujah . The first attack was on 21 October 2006 , when a car bomb carrying twelve 120 mm mortar shells and two 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) chlorine tanks was detonated in Ramadi . The AQI campaign intensified in January 2007 . For five months , AQI carried out a series of suicide bombings in Anbar using conventional vehicle @-@ borne explosive devices mixed with chlorine gas . The attacks in general were poorly executed , burning the chemical agent rather than dispersing it .
AQI also continued its assassination campaign . On 19 February , AQI tried to kill Sheikh Sattar in his compound with a pair of suicide car bombs that missed the sheikh , but killed eleven . Several days later the Habbaniyah mosque of an imam who had spoken out against AQI was hit by a suicide bomber during Friday prayers , with 39 killed and 62 wounded . In June , a group of Anbar sheiks meeting in Baghdad 's Mansour Hotel was attacked by a suicide bomber , with 13 killed , including Fasal al Gaood , and 27 wounded . On 30 June , a group of 70 AQI fighters planned to carry out a major attack on Ramadi targeting tribal leaders and police in the city , including Sheikh Sattar . Instead they stumbled into a squad from the 1st Battalion , 77th Armor Regiment near Donkey Island , and fought an all @-@ night engagement that resulted in thirteen Americans dead or wounded and half the AQI fighters killed .
= = = MRAPs = = =
As the campaign in Al Anbar entered its fourth year the Marine Corps scored a major victory when it adopted a vehicle originally designed in the 1970s to withstand mine attacks : the Mine Resistant Ambush Protected ( MRAP ) vehicle . As early as 2004 , the Marine Corps recognized that it needed a replacement for its armored Humvees . The few Cougar MRAP initially deployed yielded impressive results . In 2004 , the Marines reported that no troops had died in over 300 mine attacks on Cougars . In April 2007 , General Conway estimated that the widespread use of the MRAP could reduce mine casualties in Anbar by as much as 80 percent . Now Commandant of the Marine Corps , he requested an additional 3 @,@ 000 MRAPs for Anbar and told the Joint Chiefs of Staff that he wanted to require every Marine traveling outside bases to ride in one . In April , the Deputy Commander for MEF said that in the 300 attacks on MRAPs in Anbar since January 2006 , no Marines had been killed . On 8 May 2007 , Secretary of Defense Robert Gates stated that the acquisition of MRAPs was the Department of Defense 's highest priority and earmarked 1 @.@ 1 billion US dollars for them . The Marine Corps purchased and fielded large numbers of MRAPs throughout 2007 . That October , General Conway described the MRAP as the " gold standard " of force protection . Deaths from mine attacks plummeted and in June 2008 , USA Today reported that roadside bomb attacks and fatalities in Iraq had dropped almost 90 percent , partially due to MRAPs .
= = = Operation Alljah = = =
In June the Marine Corps launched Operation Alljah to secure Fallujah , Karma , Zaidon , and the Tharthar regions of eastern Anbar . These regions fell under the umbrella of Operation Phantom Thunder , an overall offensive throughout Iraq using US and Iraqi divisions on multiple fronts in an attempt to clear the areas surrounding Baghdad . In late 2006 , the 1st Battalion 25th Marines had turned Fallujah over to the Iraqi Army and Police , who preferred to stay in defensive checkpoints and not patrol the city . Colonel Richard Simcock , whose 6th Marine Regiment would retake the city , later admitted that the Marines had pulled out too soon . In June , he sent the 2nd Battalion 6th Marines into Fallujah , dividing it up into ten precincts and sending Marines and Iraqi Police into each precinct in a duplication of 1st Battalion 6th Marines ' operations in Ramadi .
In May , General Gaskin began planning to retake the city of Karmah , which sat astride a main supply route between Fallujah and Baghdad and was an important insurgent stronghold . Unlike other locales , Karmah had no definable perimeter , making it easy for outsiders to access , as when insurgents fled to Karmah after being pushed out of Baghdad . Gaskin sent one of his aides to Jordan to meet with Sheikh Mishan , head of Karmah 's largest tribe , the Jumayli . Sheikh Mishan fled to Jordan in 2005 after receiving threats from AQI . Gaskin 's aide was able to persuade the sheikh to return in June , partnered with 2nd Battalion 5th Marines . By October , insurgent attacks had dropped to almost zero .
In May , the 13th MEU moved into Tharthar , a 970 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 500 km2 ) area that was AQI 's last Anbar refuge . Their goal was to cut off insurgent travel between Anbar and Salahuddin Provinces into Baghdad and to uncover weapons caches . Resistance was light and many insurgents fled . The insurgents laid over 400 mines to slow the Marines down . In one operation , Marines found 18 tons of homemade explosives and 48 @,@ 000 pounds ( 22 @,@ 000 kg ) of ammonium nitrate fertilizer . They uncovered several mass graves , containing a total of over 100 victims left behind by AQI . Tharthar was cleared by August . Operation Alljah was one of the last significant Anbar offensives . By late October , weeks passed without casualties .
= = = America declares victory = = =
When you stand on the ground here in Anbar ... you can see what the future of Iraq can look like .
President Bush flew to Al Asad Airbase in western Anbar Province on 3 September , to showcase what he referred to as a " military success " and " what the future of Iraq can look like " . While there , he met with top US and Iraqi leadership and held a " war council " . Frederick Kagan , one of the " intellectual architects " of the Surge , referred to the visit as the " Gettysburg " of the Iraq War and observed that Bush thought Anbar was " safe enough for the war cabinet of the United States of America to meet there with the senior leadership of the government of Iraq to discuss strategy . "
A week after Bush 's visit , on 10 September , General David Petraeus , the Commanding General of Multi @-@ National Force – Iraq , and United States Ambassador to Iraq Ryan Crocker gave their Report to Congress on the Situation in Iraq . General Petraeus specifically singled out Anbar Province as a major improvement , referring to the tribal uprisings there as " the most significant development of the past 8 months " . He mentioned the dramatic improvements in security , stating that enemy attacks had decreased from a high of 1 @,@ 350 in October 2006 to approximately 200 in August 2007 . Ambassador Crocker referred to Anbar Province in his Congressional testimony . He was careful to credit the victory to AQI " overplay [ ing ] its hand " and to the tribal uprising being directed primarily against the " excesses " of AQI . He also referred to the Government of Iraq recruiting " 21 @,@ 000 Anbaris [ in ] police roles " , a carefully chosen phrase as many of them were tribal militia . The two referred to Anbar Province a total of 24 times in their testimony .
Three days later , on 13 September , Sheikh Sattar and three other men were killed by a bomb planted near his house in Ramadi . AQI claimed responsibility for the attack and twenty people were arrested in connection with the killing , including the Sheikh 's own head of security . About 1 @,@ 500 mourners attended Sheikh Sattar 's funeral , including senior Iraqi and American officials . The leadership of the Anbar Salvation Council then passed to Sheikh Sattar 's brother Sheikh Ahmed Abu Risha . In December , al @-@ Qaeda deputy leader Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri released an interview where he denied that the tribes of Anbar Province were supporting the Americans , praising them as " noble and honorable " and referring to the Awakening as " scum " .
= = 2008 – 2011 = =
= = = Transition = = =
Beginning in February 2008 , US forces began returning political and military control of Anbar Province to Iraqis . On 14 February , 1st Battalion 7th Marines withdrew from Hīt . Two days later , American and Iraqi forces conducted a joint heliborne operation meant to show off the Iraqi security forces . More significantly , in late March , both Iraqi Army divisions in Anbar Province , the 1st and 7th Divisions , were sent south to participate in the Battle of Basra . Their participation helped win the battle for the government forces and showcased the major improvements to the Iraqi Army . On 26 March 2008 , B Squadron of the British SAS as part of Task Force Knight were called upon to hit a terrorist bomb makers house in the early hours , after trying to call him out and receiving no response they stormed the house , they received a hail of fire and four men were wounded and a terrorist from another building joined in the firefight . With Helicopter support , they pressed on and the SAS chased their targets into another house who used civilians as hostages who were then accidentally killed beside the terrorists , One SAS operator was killed .
Earlier in January , AQI leader Ayyub al @-@ Masri ordered his fighters in Anbar to " get away from the massive indiscriminate killings " and " refocus attacks on American troops , Sunnis cooperating closely with U.S. forces , and Iraq 's infrastructure . " AQI also ordered its fighters to avoid targeting Sunni tribesman , and even offered amnesty towards Awakening tribal leaders . On 19 April , al @-@ Masri called for a month @-@ long offensive against US and Iraqi forces . In Anbar Province , that offensive may have begun four days earlier on 15 April , when 18 people ( including five Iraqi police ) were killed in two suicide bombings near Ramadi . On 22 April , a suicide bomber drove his vehicle into an entry @-@ control point in Ramadi manned by over 50 Marines and Iraqi police . Two Marines engaged the driver who detonated his bomb early , killing the guards and wounding 26 Iraqis . Both Marines were posthumously awarded the Navy Cross . On May 8 , a group of insurgents crossed the Syrian border near Al Qaim and killed 11 Iraqi policemen and military officers . That same day , four Marines were killed in a roadside blast in Lahib , a farming village just east of Karmah . On 16 May , a suicide car bomber attacked a Fallujah police station , killing four and wounding nine .
In June , it was announced that Anbar Province would be the tenth province to transfer to Provincial Iraqi Control , the first such Sunni region . This handover was delayed by bad weather and a suicide bombing on 26 June in Karmah at a meeting between Sunni Sheikhs and US Marines which killed more than 23 people , including three Marines . In July , presidential candidate Barack Obama visited Ramadi and met with Governor Rasheed , Sheikh Abu Rish , and 30 other sheikhs and senior military personnel . In the meeting , Obama promised that " the United States will not abandon Iraq " ( his opponent , John McCain , had visited Haditha in March 2008 ) . On 26 August , Iraqi leaders signed the Command and Control Memorandum of Understanding in a ceremony at the Anbar Governance Center , a step towards taking full control and responsibility for security from Coalition forces . Less than a week later , on 1 September , the transition became official .
= = = Drawdown = = =
The last major military action in Anbar Province occurred on 26 October 2008 , when a group of Army Special Forces conducted a raid into Syria to kill Abu Ghadiya , the leader of a network of foreign fighters who were traveling through Syria . Anbar continued to play a large role in the Iraqi insurgency . That same month AQI announced the formation of the Islamic State of Iraq ( ISI ) , an umbrella group led by Abu Omar al @-@ Baghdadi , a cleric from Anbar . After both Al @-@ Baghdadi and Al @-@ Masri were killed in Tikrit in April 2010 , the US believed the new leader of AQI / ISI was Abu Dua al @-@ Badri , a former Emir of Rawa who was married to a woman from Fallujah .
In late 2008 , US forces began accelerating their move out of cities across Iraq , turning over the task of maintaining security to Iraqi forces . The Marines pulled out of both Fallujah and Haditha Dam in November and December . Lance Corporal Brandon Lara from 3rd Battalion 4th Marines was the last American service member killed in Anbar , on 19 July 2009 . In early August , a unit of Marines operating in Anbar located and recovered the body of Navy Captain Scott Speicher , who had been missing in action since the 1991 Gulf War . By 6 October 2009 , the last two Marine Regiments had left , ending the American combat presence . Experts and many Iraqis were worried that AQI might resurface and attempt mass @-@ casualty attacks to destabilize the country . There was a spike in the number of suicide attacks , and AQI rebounded in strength through November 2009 and appeared to be launching a concerted effort to cripple the government .
There were a number of car bombings in Ramadi , Haditha and Al Qaim following the US withdrawal from Iraqi cities on 30 June . Throughout the last months of the year , additional attacks , mainly assassinations , occurred around Fallujah and Abu Ghraib . In October , twin bombings killed 26 people and wounded 65 at a reconciliation meeting in Ramadi . In December , a coordinated double suicide bombing outside Ramadi 's government compound killed 25 people and severely wounded Governor Qasim Al @-@ Fahdawi , who lost an arm .
Violence continued through the last months of 2011 . In September , a bus carrying Shia pilgrims from neighboring Karbala Governorate was stopped outside of Ramadi and 22 were executed , prompting threats from Karbala to annex parts of southern Anbar Province , including the city of Nukhayb . In November , the provincial council in Anbar announced that it was considering whether to form a semi @-@ autonomous region with other provinces in the Sunni areas of Iraq .
As the Americans withdrew , many Iraqis and Americans questioned the ability of the Iraqi security forces , especially the police , to protect the province . Others expressed skepticism over whether Iran would dominate Iraq and whether the Iraqi government would be able to provide security . One angry Iraqi described the American legacy as " total destruction ... you just came in , destroyed , and left . " Discussing the American withdrawal , a journalist in Fallujah predicted that the Government of Iraq would continue to have trouble with Anbar Province , saying , " Anbar was where instability began in Iraq . It was where stability returned . And it is where instability could start again . "
= = = Withdrawal = = =
The United States military in Anbar Province had a series of reorganizations in late 2009 and early 2010 . The last non @-@ American foreign forces left Iraq on 31 July 2009 and Multi @-@ National Forces West became United States Force – West . On 23 January 2010 , the Marines formally left both Anbar Province and Iraq , transferring American military commitments over to the United States Army 's 1st Armored Division . The Army promptly merged United States Division West with United States Division – Baghdad , creating United States Division – Center to advise Iraqi forces in both Anbar and Baghdad . In December 2010 , the 25th Infantry Division assumed responsibility for Anbar Province . On 7 December , the United States transferred its last base in Anbar Province , Al Asad , to the Iraqi Government . One week later , hundreds of Fallujah residents celebrated the pullout by burning American flags in the city .
= = Human rights abuses = =
Both sides committed human rights abuses in Anbar Province , often involving civilians caught in the middle of the conflict . By late 2005 , abuses had gotten so common that one American officer nonchalantly referred to " discovering ... 20 bodies here , 20 bodies there " and the head of MNF @-@ W referred to them as " a cost of doing business . " During Operation Steel Curtain , insurgents forced their way into peoples ' houses and held them hostage while engaging in gun battles with American forces , who often destroyed the homes . One Sunni Iraqi family described how in 2006 they fled the sectarian violence in Baghdad to Hīt . During their yearlong stay in Hīt , they watched AQI fighters kidnap a man for talking back to them ; the fighters later dumped the man 's body on his doorstep . The family also watched an American patrol hit a mine in front of their house , and worried that the Americans would conduct reprisal killings on the family . An Iraqi sheikh spoke about how he was accidentally shot and arrested by the Americans and thrown in Abu Ghraib prison where he was tortured . After his release he was targeted by insurgents in Fallujah who thought he was an American spy .
= = = By the Coalition = = =
For the American forces , abuses were typically either a disproportionate use of firepower or servicemen committing extrajudicial killings ( such as in Haditha ) . Many accusations of human rights violations against the United States were connected with the First and Second Battles of Fallujah . Following the assault , the United States military admitted it had employed white phosphorus artillery rounds , the use of which is not permitted in civilian areas under the United Nations Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons . Several Marines , all of them from the 3rd Battalion 1st Marines , were later charged ( but not convicted ) with executing Iraqi prisoners . Some British advisers also complained that the Marines had little regard for civilian casualties and had used munitions containing depleted uranium that caused birth defects for years after the battle .
American forces also killed civilians through aerial bombing . Between 2003 and 2007 , 1700 Iraqis on all sides were killed by aerial attack in Anbar Province . On 19 May 2004 , 42 civilians were killed near Al Qaim when American planes mistakenly bombed a wedding party . In November 2004 , 59 civilians were killed when the US bombed Fallujah 's Central Health Center . In November 2006 , an American airstrike in Ramadi killed 30 civilians . Some accusations , such as the alleged bombing of a Fallujah mosque in April 2004 that killed 40 , were later proven to be exaggerated or false .
An unknown number of Iraqis in Anbar were also killed through Escalation of Force ( EOF ) incidents , where American troops were allowed to fire at suspicious @-@ looking Iraqi vehicles and persons under their rules of engagement . These incidents typically occurred at both coalition checkpoints and near coalition convoys on the road . One civil affairs officer recounted two separate incidents in Ramadi where families in cars were fired on for not stopping at checkpoints : in one incident the husband was killed ; in another , the wife died and a boy was critically wounded .
Other violations involved detainee abuse . An August 2003 memo on detainee interrogations prompted one soldier with the 3rd ACR in Anbar to reply that " the gloves need to come off . " In November 2003 , former Iraqi general Abed Hamed Mowhoush died at a detention facility near Al Qaim after US Army interrogators stuffed him inside a sleeping bag and beat him to death . In 2005 , several members of the 82nd Airborne described how in 2003 they beat and abused prisoners at Camp Mercury , a forward operating base near Fallujah . Iraqi security forces also committed abuses . In 2007 , a Marine commander near Tharthar uncovered several instances of Iraqi soldiers raping civilians and Iraqi police torturing prisoners .
Finally , while not an abuse , there was a perception among some Iraqis that Americans did not care about them . A leading cleric in Anbar later complained that :
If an American patrol was on the highway , and they saw a dead person , they would just leave him there . And this really started to create hatred toward the American GIs , because they couldn 't care less what happened to Iraqis . If they were killed right in front of them , they did not get involved ... When the terrorists attacked the national mosque in 2005 ... American forces were 200 yards away ... and did not interfere .
= = = By insurgents = = =
The various insurgent groups regularly executed and tortured suspected Iraqi collaborators and captured Westerners , as well as Iraqis they considered insufficiently religious . One Iraqi Christian told Human Rights Watch how he was stopped by insurgents in Anbar and ordered to convert to Islam or face death . Another Iraqi Shia related how insurgents from other Arab countries had expelled many Kurds and Shi 'ia from cities and executed others . After the Second Battle of Fallujah , American forces uncovered Al Qaeda torture and execution chambers , which had been used on Iraqis suspected of working with Westerners or the Iraqi government . Some of the chambers still contained victims . Some executions , like those of Nicholas Berg and Kim Sun @-@ il , had been videotaped by their perpetrators . Some Fallujah residents stated that during the battle , Al Qaeda had shot anyone trying to leave .
In Haditha , after the Marines were withdrawn in order to fight in Fallujah , insurgents " rounded up dozens of local police officers and publicly executed them in a soccer stadium . " When the Marines were withdrawn a second time later in 2004 there were similar massacres of local police . They enforced strict Islamic laws , such as breaking the fingers of smokers , whipping those who drank alcohol , and banning shops from selling images of women . An Iraqi woman from Ramadi said Al Qaeda banned women from driving or walking alone by themselves . AQI also abused local women , which antagonized some of the local tribes . Women , pretending to be seamstresses , were drafted to reconnoiter houses and report on the presence of Iraqi police in hiding . If they could not find the police , they would settle for killing their close relatives . They also murdered countless Iraqis : doctors , mullahs , college graduates , even women and children — anyone they thought might be connected to the Americans . In 2007 , American Marines found several mass graves near Lake Tharthar containing a total of over 100 victims .
= = = Reactions = = =
According to Sheikh Ahmed Abu Risha , many Iraqis became disaffected with AQI but were hesitant to take up arms against them out of fear . Sheikh Ahmed said that the biggest complaint about AQI was that they were unable to create a degree of normalcy , and that " people [ who ] are wearing masks ... cannot build the country " . Other sheikhs specifically said that the large number of killings and kidnappings by AQI prompted the tribal revolt . AQI leader Ayyub al @-@ Masri practically admitted as much in 2008 when he ordered fighters in Anbar to avoid harming Sunnis who were not working closely with coalition forces and " not interfere in social issues " . However , David Kilcullen argued that the abuses themselves may have been less of an issue than AQI disrupting the tribes ' smuggling businesses , the belief that AQI was linked to Iran , and their general " high @-@ handed " behavior . He added that , whatever the spark , there was already a perception that AQI " had it coming " .
In the United States , incidents like detainee abuse and the Haditha killings became front @-@ page news , but many Iraqi deaths by American or Iraqi security forces went unreported . While the U.S. military claimed that " the vast majority " of Iraqi deaths were caused by other Iraqis , incidents like Fallujah and Haditha caused many Iraqis to become embittered towards the Americans . This later led to Iraqi outrage in 2011 , when the U.S. unsuccessfully tried to negotiate a long @-@ term presence in Iraq that would give immunity to American military personnel . Iraqis were further angered by what they perceived as a " travesty of justice " over the lack of convictions of American military personnel . Writing in the aftermath of the Haditha killings , retired U.S. Army Colonel Andrew Bacevich said :
Who bears responsibility for these Iraqi deaths ? The young soldiers pulling the triggers ? The commanders who establish rules of engagement that privilege " force protection " over any obligation to protect innocent life ? The intellectually bankrupt policymakers who sent U.S. forces into Iraq in the first place and now see no choice but to press on ? The culture that , to put it mildly , has sought neither to understand nor to empathize with people in the Arab or Islamic worlds ?
= = = Books = = =
= = = Film / television = = =
= Alcoholic beverages in Oregon =
The U.S. state of Oregon has an extensive history of laws regulating the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages , dating back to 1844 . It has been an alcoholic beverage control state , with the Oregon Liquor Control Commission holding a monopoly over the sale of all distilled beverages , since Prohibition . Today , there are thriving industries producing beer , wine , and liquor in the state . Alcohol may be purchased between 7 a.m. and 2 : 30 a.m. As of 2007 , consumption of spirits is on the rise , while beer consumption is holding steady . Also , 11 % of beer sold in Oregon was brewed in @-@ state , the highest figure in the United States .
Oregon wine production began in the mid @-@ 19th century , before it was a state . By 1919 , the industry had collapsed due to prohibition , and after prohibition ended fruit wines dominated the industry . The modern era of Oregon wine began in 1961 , and the industry cemented its reputation in 1975 by winning a French award . In 2007 , wine making was a $ 207 @.@ 8 million business . Beer production began in 1852 with Henry Saxer 's liberty brewing in Portland . In 1862 Henry Weinhard 's bought the Liberty brewery . The company is now a part of the Miller Brewing Company , but it helped Portland to become the microbrewing capital of the world . Portland hosts North America 's largest beerfest , and Oregon has produced a number of national and international award winning beers .
In 1844 , the Oregon territories voted to prohibit alcoholic beverages . This was repealed in 1845 , but prohibition was reinstated in a 1915 , four years before the national alcohol prohibition . When national prohibition was repealed in 1933 , the Oregon Liquor Control Commission ( OLCC ) was created . Unlike states that allow liquor sales in grocery stores , liquor in Oregon is sold only in OLCC run liquor stores and establishments that have liquor licenses , and the OLCC has strict guidelines and training to ensure that all licensed venues understand how to safely sell and serve alcoholic beverages . Alcohol and alcoholism are also studied by the state at the Portland Alcohol Research Center .
= = Consumption = =
Alcohol laws in Oregon permit the sale of beer , wine , and liquor , for on- or off @-@ premises consumption , between 7 a.m. and 2 : 30 a.m. In 2004 , Oregonians consumed 5 @,@ 103 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 19 @,@ 320 @,@ 000 L ) of distilled spirits , 11 @,@ 132 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 42 @,@ 140 @,@ 000 L ) of wine , and 80 @,@ 415 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 304 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 L ) of beer , ranking it 27th , 19th , and 27th respectively of US states . Oregon had an estimated population of 3 @,@ 594 @,@ 586 in 2004 , ranking it 27th among US states .
In 2007 , sales of spirits increased 9 % over the previous year . Whiskey and vodka were the top sellers , while tequila had the largest percentage increase . Oregonian 's top buy was Jack Daniel 's , with 412 @,@ 000 bottles sold . This was during a national spirits trend where manufacturers introduced new products and advertising aimed at young drinkers . Again in 2007 , Oregon 's 2 @.@ 6 million adults on average drank 32 gallons of beer each , versus 4 gallons of wine and 2 gallons of spirits , but sales of beer hadn 't increased like sales of spirits . The Oregon Department of Human Services reported that while drinking among 8th – 11th graders has fallen nationally , it has increased in Oregon . The number of DUI offenses dropped between 2002 and 2005 , from 25 @,@ 342 to 23 @,@ 455 .
= = = Beer consumption = = =
The following table lists the amount of beer consumed in Oregon for the years 1997 – 2004 as reported in the 2005 Beer Handbook . The scale is in 1,000s of cases of beer . A case of beer is 24 12 @-@ ounce beers , for a total of 2 @.@ 25 gallons per case .
= = Production = =
= = = Wine = = =
Wine grapes were planted in Oregon in the Willamette Valley starting in 1847 . A census in 1860 revealed that Oregon 's wine production was 2 @,@ 600 gallons . In the 1880s and 1890s , German immigrants began planting wine grapes in Southern Oregon . In the 1880s , Ernest Reuter garnered a reputation for his Klevner wines , grown in the Willamette Valley , west of Forest Grove . By 1919 , the Oregon wine industry had collapsed due to the temperance movement and resulting prohibition . Fruit wines dominated Oregon 's wine industry post @-@ prohibition , and by 1938 there were 28 bonded wineries , producing wines based on berries , Concord grapes , and other American hybrids .
Oregon 's modern wine industry dates to 1961 when Hillcrest Vineyard in Roseburg began planting Riesling and small amounts of other grapes . In 1965 , Oregon pinot noir was established when The Eyrie Vineyards planted grapes near Corvallis . Oregon 's wine reputation was made in 1979 when a French magazine ranked The Eyrie 's 1975 Pinot noir third among 330 wines of the world . By 2007 , Oregon wineries were producing 1 @.@ 7 million cases of wine for a total of $ 207 @.@ 8 million in sales .
There are several official American Viticultural Areas entirely within the state , including the Willamette Valley , Southern Oregon , Umpqua Valley , and Rogue Valley AVAs . Parts of the Columbia Gorge , Walla Walla Valley , and Snake River Valley AVAs lie within Oregon . Pinot noir and Pinot gris are the top two grapes grown .
= = = Beer = = =
In 1862 , German immigrant Henry Weinhard founded a brewery in Portland . By the early 1880s it had become the Northwest 's largest brewery . Weinhard once attempted to pump free beer through Portland 's Skidmore Fountain . He died in 1904 , but the company continued to do well , making it through prohibition by brewing soft drinks and merging with Arnold Blitz , a local competitor . Blitz @-@ Weinhard was sold to the Pabst Brewing Company in 1979 , and then again to the Miller Brewing Company in 1999 . The company helped prepare Oregon beer drinkers for the arrival of microbrewing .
Portland , Oregon is considered to be the nation 's microbrew capital . A microbrewery is defined as one that produces less than 15 @,@ 000 barrels a year . Portland hosts the Oregon Brewers Festival , North America 's largest beer festival . The microbrewery industry began in 1979 when President Jimmy Carter legalized home brewing . In 2006 , 14 beers from eight Oregon breweries won medals at the Great American Beer Festival , out of 2 @,@ 800 entries . Also in 2006 , Oregon won 11 times at the World Beer Cup , in a field of 2 @,@ 200 beers . In 2007 , 11 % of beer sold in Oregon was brewed in @-@ state , the highest figure in the United States . According to the Oregon Hop Commission , in 2007 , Oregon was also the second largest U.S. hops producer , after Washington .
= = = Spirits = = =
As of 2008 , Oregon contains 12 of the nation 's 142 craft distilleries , up from six in 2006 . In 2007 , a law was approved allowing tasting rooms and direct sales to the public . Jim Dodge , purchasing manager for the OLCC , believes that the distilleries are an outgrowth of the microbrew industry , instead of the wine industry , as well as a societal change . Dodge explained that " there 's been a recent shift from beer , and to some degree wine , to distilled spirits as the alcohol of choice . "
In 2008 , the U.S. Food and Drug Administration determined that absinthe was legal , though it had been understood to be illegal for about 80 years . Portland distillery Integrity Spirits responded by releasing the second American @-@ made absinthe , which was in high demand immediately upon its release .
= = Legislative history = =
Oregon has been regulating alcohol through its laws for over 150 years . In 1844 , the Oregon Territory voted to prohibit alcoholic beverages . This is often referred to as the first prohibition in the United States . The law was repealed in 1845 . From 1845 to 1915 , various local laws governing alcohol were passed . In 1915 , Oregonians voted to ban all alcohol , preceding national alcohol prohibition by four years .
In 1933 , national prohibition ended with a repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution . Oregon 's governor , Julius Meier , appointed Dr. William S. Knox to study the situation . Knox recommended adopting the Canadian system of sales of alcohol by the state . The reasoning was that this would provide revenue and lower alcohol abuse .
The Oregon Legislative Assembly held a special session and the OLCC was created days after the repeal of national prohibition . Eighteen states in total chose to regulate alcohol . Oregon Revised Statutes Chapters 471 , 472 , 473 and 474 were the commission 's enabling statutes . OAR Chapter 845 governed its administrative rules . The OLCC 's mission is " to effectively regulate the sale , distribution , and responsible use of alcoholic beverages in order to protect Oregon 's public health , safety and community livability . "
In 1939 , the advertising of hard liquor on billboards and in newspapers was voluntarily discontinued . Also , in 1939 , a " club bill " was passed by the Legislative Assembly . The bill gave regulatory power to the OLCC over hotels , restaurants and private clubs where liquor was served . Lobbyists then succeeded in having the bill referred to the voters in 1940 . Voters passed the bill in 1940 .
In 1944 , the " Burke Bill " became law : wines with more than 14 % alcohol could only be sold by Commission stores and agencies . Also in the 1940s , a " service bars " license was established . This restricted liquor licenses to establishments serving food . In 1949 , the Legislative Assembly approved a method where establishments that sold liquor could ask for proof of age from patrons they thought were under the age of 21 . Measure 15 — passed in 1952 — amended the Constitution ( Article I , section 39 ) to regulate the sale of liquor by the individual glass .
Five more types of licenses were created in the 1950s , dealing with liquor @-@ by @-@ the @-@ drink operations , industry agents , salesmen , out @-@ of @-@ state manufacturers of malt beverages , and conventions , group meetings , etc . In 1960 , establishments were required to have food sales equal to 25 % of their total sales . In the 1970s , the OLCC began enforcing the Oregon Bottle Bill and wines of up to 20 % alcohol became allowed with certain licenses . In the 1980s , the number of OLCC commissioners was changed from three to five , to reflect the number of congressional districts . The 1990s saw a flurry of laws passed governing the OLCC 's oversight of the newly numerous Oregon wineries and microbreweries . House Bill 4028 – passed in 2002 – allowed liquor stores to operate on Sunday ; they had previously been restricted to six days a week .
This sort of licensing is very important for maintaining safe production and sales of alcoholic beverages in Oregon . Under Oregon law , specifically ORS 471 @.@ 565 , bars and restaurants can be held legally responsible for any damages to property or injuries incurred when an intoxicated person is served alcohol and causes a car crash .
= = = Ballot measures relating to alcohol = = =
The following ballot measures changed state policy on alcohol :
Measure 3 ( 1904 ) , a " local option " law , passed .
Measure 17 ( 1914 ) , Prohibition Constitutional Amendment : passed 57 @.@ 7 %
Measure 9 ( 1916 ) , Prohibition Amendment Forbidding Importation of Intoxicating Liquors for Beverage Purposes : passed with 51 @.@ 2 % .
Measure 7 ( 1932 ) , Bill to Repeal State Prohibition Law of Oregon : passed 59 @.@ 8 %
Measure 7 ( 1944 ) , Burke Bill ; Only State Selling Liquor over 14 Hundredths Alcohol : passed 55 @.@ 95 %
Measure 15 ( 1952 ) , Constitutional Amendment Authorizing Alcoholic Liquor Sale by Individual Glass : passed 56 @.@ 4 %
The following alcohol @-@ related ballot measures have failed :
Measure 3 ( 1906 ) , Amendment to local option law giving anti @-@ prohibitionists and prohibitionists equal privileges : failed with 43 @.@ 9 % support .
Measure 22 ( 1910 ) , Prohibiting Liquor Traffic : failed 41 @.@ 6 % .
Measure 23 ( 1910 ) , Prohibiting the Sale of Liquors and Regulating Shipments of Same , and Providing for Search for Liquor : failed 40 @.@ 2 % .
Measure 8 ( 1916 ) , Permitting Manufacture and Regulating Sale 4 Percent Malt Liquors : failed with 38 % support .
Measure 11 ( 1938 ) , Bill Regulating Sale of Alcoholic Liquor for Beverage Purposes : failed 34 @.@ 7 %
Measure 6 ( 1940 ) , Bill to Further Regulate Sale and Use of Alcoholic Liquor : failed 40 @.@ 2 %
Measure 9 ( 1950 ) , Making Sale of Promotively Advertised Alcoholic Beverage Unlawful : failed 23 @.@ 1 %
Measure 5 ( 1988 ) , Finances Intercollegiate Athletic Fund by Increasing Malt Beverage , Cigarette Taxes
= = Research = =
The Portland Alcohol Research Center is a NIH @-@ established effort funded by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism . About 20 scientists and 60 people , mostly at OHSU , are investigating science organized around ten components :
Dependency using mice .
Molecular genetics responses affecting alcohol withdrawal and preference .
Quantitative trait locus which relates gene expression to genotypes .
Genetic analysis of gene expression .
Characterization of ethanol response on chromosome 11 .
Massive search strategy for ethanol @-@ related genes .
Genetic models of variation in impulsivity and alcoholism .
Genetics of alcohol @-@ associated traits in monkeys .
A dedicated section ( Pilot projects ) launches 2 to 4 projects annually .
Educational outreach with three aims : K @-@ 12 schools , scientific education , and publication .
Additional themes and focuses include :
Genetic contributions to alcohol sensitivity
Permit is needed to make Alcohol .
Behavioral predispositions to the drug , such as impulse effects and dependency .
The center has trained medical students in alcohol @-@ related issues for more than 30 years and has published more than 380 papers and articles since 1996 .
= NATO =
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO / ˈneɪtoʊ / ; French : Organisation du Traité de l 'Atlantique Nord ; OTAN ) , also called the North Atlantic Alliance , is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949 . The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party . NATO 's headquarters are located in Haren , Brussels , Belgium , where the Supreme Allied Commander also resides . Belgium is one of the 28 member states across North America and Europe , the newest of which , Albania and Croatia , joined in April 2009 . An additional 22 countries participate in NATO 's Partnership for Peace program , with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes . The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70 percent of the global total . Members ' defence spending is supposed to amount to 2 percent of GDP .
NATO was little more than a political association until the Korean War galvanized the organization 's member states , and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two US supreme commanders . The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact , which formed in 1955 . Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed , along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion — doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of France from NATO 's military structure in 1966 for 30 years . After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 , the organization was drawn into the breakup of Yugoslavia , and conducted its first military interventions in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995 and later Yugoslavia in 1999 . Politically , the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries , several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004 .
Article 5 of the North Atlantic treaty , requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack , was invoked for the first and only time after the September 11 attacks , after which troops were deployed to Afghanistan under the NATO @-@ led ISAF . The organization has operated a range of additional roles since then , including sending trainers to Iraq , assisting in counter @-@ piracy operations and in 2011 enforcing a no @-@ fly zone over Libya in accordance with U.N. Security Council Resolution 1973 . The less potent Article 4 , which merely invokes consultation among NATO members , has been invoked five times : by Turkey in 2003 over the Iraq War ; twice in 2012 by Turkey over the Syrian Civil War , after the downing of an unarmed Turkish F @-@ 4 reconnaissance jet , and after a mortar was fired at Turkey from Syria ; in 2014 by Poland , following the Russian intervention in Crimea ; and again by Turkey in 2015 after threats by the Islamic State to its territorial integrity .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
The Treaty of Brussels , signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium , the Netherlands , Luxembourg , France , and the United Kingdom , is considered the precursor to the NATO agreement . The treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Union 's Defence Organization in September 1948 . However , participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the military power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism , so talks for a new military alliance began almost immediately resulting in the North Atlantic Treaty , which was signed in Washington , D.C. on 4 April 1949 . It included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States , Canada , Portugal , Italy , Norway , Denmark and Iceland . The first NATO Secretary General , Lord Ismay , stated in 1949 that the organization 's goal was " to keep the Russians out , the Americans in , and the Germans down . " Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous , and some Icelanders participated in a pro @-@ neutrality , anti @-@ membership riot in March 1949 . The creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans @-@ Atlantic cooperation .
The members agreed that an armed attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all . Consequently , they agreed that , if an armed attack occurred , each of them , in exercise of the right of individual or collective self @-@ defence , would assist the member being attacked , taking such action as it deemed necessary , including the use of armed force , to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area . The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor . Although obliged to respond , they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so . This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels , which clearly states that the response will be military in nature . It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily . The treaty was later clarified to include both the member 's territory and their " vessels , forces or aircraft " above the Tropic of Cancer , including some Overseas departments of France .
The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology , procedures , and technology , which in many cases meant European countries adopting US practices . The roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements ( STANAG ) codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved . Hence , the 7 @.@ 62 × 51mm NATO rifle cartridge was introduced in the 1950s as a standard firearm cartridge among many NATO countries . Fabrique Nationale de Herstal 's FAL , which used 7 @.@ 62 NATO cartridge , was adopted by 75 countries , including many outside of NATO . Also , aircraft marshalling signals were standardized , so that any NATO aircraft could land at any NATO base . Other standards such as the NATO phonetic alphabet have made their way beyond NATO into civilian use .
= = = Cold War = = =
The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 was crucial for NATO as it raised the apparent threat of all Communist countries working together , and forced the alliance to develop concrete military plans . Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe ( SHAPE ) was formed to direct forces in Europe , and began work under Supreme Allied Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower in January 1951 . In September 1950 , the NATO Military Committee called for an ambitious buildup of conventional forces to meet the Soviets , subsequently reaffirming this position at the February 1952 meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Lisbon . The Lisbon conference , seeking to provide the forces necessary for NATO 's Long @-@ Term Defence Plan , called for an expansion to ninety @-@ six divisions . However this requirement was dropped the following year to roughly thirty @-@ five divisions with heavier use to be made of nuclear weapons . At this time , NATO could call on about fifteen ready divisions in Central Europe , and another ten in Italy and Scandinavia . Also at Lisbon , the post of Secretary General of NATO as the organization 's chief civilian was created , and Lord Ismay was eventually appointed to the post .
In September 1952 , the first major NATO maritime exercises began ; Exercise Mainbrace brought together 200 ships and over 50 @,@ 000 personnel to practice the defence of Denmark and Norway . Other major exercises that followed included Exercise Grand Slam and Exercise Longstep , naval and amphibious exercises in the Mediterranean Sea , Italic Weld , a combined air @-@ naval @-@ ground exercise in northern Italy , Grand Repulse , involving the British Army on the Rhine ( BAOR ) , the Netherlands Corps and Allied Air Forces Central Europe ( AAFCE ) , Monte Carlo , a simulated atomic air @-@ ground exercise involving the Central Army Group , and Weldfast , a combined amphibious landing exercise in the Mediterranean Sea involving American , British , Greek , Italian and Turkish naval forces .
Greece and Turkey also joined the alliance in 1952 , forcing a series of controversial negotiations , in which the United States and Britain were the primary disputants , over how to bring the two countries into the military command structure . While this overt military preparation was going on , covert stay @-@ behind arrangements initially made by the Western European Union to continue resistance after a successful Soviet invasion , including Operation Gladio , were transferred to NATO control . Ultimately unofficial bonds began to grow between NATO 's armed forces , such as the NATO Tiger Association and competitions such as the Canadian Army Trophy for tank gunnery .
In 1954 , the Soviet Union suggested that it should join NATO to preserve peace in Europe . The NATO countries , fearing that the Soviet Union 's motive was to weaken the alliance , ultimately rejected this proposal .
On 17 December 1954 , the North Atlantic Council approved MC 48 , a key document in the evolution of NATO nuclear thought . MC 48 emphasized that NATO would have to use atomic weapons from the outset of a war with the Soviet Union whether or not the Soviets chose to use them first . This gave SACEUR the same prerogatives for automatic use of nuclear weapons as existed for the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the US Strategic Air Command .
The incorporation of West Germany into the organization on 9 May 1955 was described as " a decisive turning point in the history of our continent " by Halvard Lange , Foreign Affairs Minister of Norway at the time . A major reason for Germany 's entry into the alliance was that without German manpower , it would have been impossible to field enough conventional forces to resist a Soviet invasion . One of its immediate results was the creation of the Warsaw Pact , which was signed on 14 May 1955 by the Soviet Union , Hungary , Czechoslovakia , Poland , Bulgaria , Romania , Albania , and East Germany , as a formal response to this event , thereby delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War .
Three major exercises were held concurrently in the northern autumn of 1957 . Operation Counter Punch , Operation Strikeback , and Operation Deep Water were the most ambitious military undertaking for the alliance to date , involving more than 250 @,@ 000 men , 300 ships , and 1 @,@ 500 aircraft operating from Norway to Turkey .
= = = French withdrawal = = =
NATO 's unity was breached early in its history with a crisis occurring during Charles de Gaulle 's presidency of France . De Gaulle protested against the USA 's strong role in the organization and what he perceived as a special relationship between it and the United Kingdom . In a memorandum sent to President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Prime Minister Harold Macmillan on 17 September 1958 , he argued for the creation of a tripartite directorate that would put France on an equal footing with the US and the UK .
Considering the response to be unsatisfactory , de Gaulle began constructing an independent defence force for his country . He wanted to give France , in the event of an East German incursion into West Germany , the option of coming to a separate peace with the Eastern bloc instead of being drawn into a larger NATO – Warsaw Pact war . In February 1959 , France withdrew its Mediterranean Fleet from NATO command , and later banned the stationing of foreign nuclear weapons on French soil . This caused the United States to transfer two hundred military aircraft out of France and return control of the air force bases that had operated in France since 1950 to the French by 1967 .
Though France showed solidarity with the rest of NATO during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 , de Gaulle continued his pursuit of an independent defence by removing France 's Atlantic and Channel fleets from NATO command . In 1966 , all French armed forces were removed from NATO 's integrated military command , and all non @-@ French NATO troops were asked to leave France . US Secretary of State Dean Rusk was later quoted as asking de Gaulle whether his order included " the bodies of American soldiers in France 's cemeteries ? " This withdrawal forced the relocation of SHAPE from Rocquencourt , near Paris , to Casteau , north of Mons , Belgium , by 16 October 1967 . France remained a member of the alliance , and committed to the defence of Europe from possible Warsaw Pact attack with its own forces stationed in the Federal Republic of Germany throughout the Cold War . A series of secret accords between US and French officials , the Lemnitzer – Ailleret Agreements , detailed how French forces would dovetail back into NATO 's command structure should East @-@ West hostilities break out .
= = = Détente and escalation = = =
During most of the Cold War , NATO 's watch against the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact did not actually lead to direct military action . On 1 July 1968 , the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty opened for signature : NATO argued that its nuclear sharing arrangements did not breach the treaty as US forces controlled the weapons until a decision was made to go to war , at which point the treaty would no longer be controlling . Few states knew of the NATO nuclear sharing arrangements at that time , and they were not challenged . In May 1978 , NATO countries officially defined two complementary aims of the Alliance , to maintain security and pursue détente . This was supposed to mean matching defences at the level rendered
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necessary by the Warsaw Pact 's offensive capabilities without spurring a further arms race .
On 12 December 1979 , in light of a build @-@ up of Warsaw Pact nuclear capabilities in Europe , ministers approved the deployment of US GLCM cruise missiles and Pershing II theatre nuclear weapons in Europe . The new warheads were also meant to strengthen the western negotiating position regarding nuclear disarmament . This policy was called the Dual Track policy . Similarly , in 1983 – 84 , responding to the stationing of Warsaw Pact SS @-@ 20 medium @-@ range missiles in Europe , NATO deployed modern Pershing II missiles tasked to hit military targets such as tank formations in the event of war . This action led to peace movement protests throughout Western Europe , and support for the deployment wavered as many doubted whether the push for deployment could be sustained .
The membership of the organization at this time remained largely static . In 1974 , as a consequence of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus , Greece withdrew its forces from NATO 's military command structure but , with Turkish cooperation , were readmitted in 1980 . The Falklands War between the United Kingdom and Argentina did not result in NATO involvement because article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty specifies that collective self @-@ defence is only applicable to attacks on member state territories north of the Tropic of Cancer . On 30 May 1982 , NATO gained a new member when , following a referendum , the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance . At the peak of the Cold War , 16 member nations maintained an approximate strength of 5 @,@ 252 @,@ 800 active military , including as many as 435 @,@ 000 forward deployed US forces , under a command structure that reached a peak of 78 headquarters , organized into four echelons .
= = = After the Cold War = = =
The Revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact in 1991 removed the de facto main adversary of NATO and caused a strategic re @-@ evaluation of NATO 's purpose , nature , tasks , and their focus on the continent of Europe . This shift started with the 1990 signing in Paris of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe between NATO and the Soviet Union , which mandated specific military reductions across the continent that continued after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 . At that time , European countries accounted for 34 percent of NATO 's military spending ; by 2012 , this had fallen to 21 percent . NATO also began a gradual expansion to include newly autonomous Central and Eastern European nations , and extended its activities into political and humanitarian situations that had not formerly been NATO concerns .
The first post @-@ Cold War expansion of NATO came with German reunification on 3 October 1990 , when the former East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance . This had been agreed in the Two Plus Four Treaty earlier in the year . To secure Soviet approval of a united Germany remaining in NATO , it was agreed that foreign troops and nuclear weapons would not be stationed in the east , and there are diverging views on whether negotiators gave commitments regarding further NATO expansion east . Jack Matlock , American ambassador to the Soviet Union during its final years , said that the West gave a " clear commitment " not to expand , and declassified documents indicate that Soviet negotiators were given the impression that NATO membership was off the table for countries such as Czechoslovakia , Hungary , or Poland . In 1996 , Gorbachev wrote in his Memoirs , that " during the negotiations on the unification of Germany they gave assurances that NATO would not extend its zone of operation to the east , " and repeated this view in an interview in 2008 . According to Robert Zoellick , a State Department official involved in the Two Plus Four negotiating process , this appears to be a misperception , and no formal commitment regarding enlargement was made .
As part of post @-@ Cold War restructuring , NATO 's military structure was cut back and reorganized , with new forces such as the Headquarters Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps established . The changes brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union on the military balance in Europe were recognized in the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty , which was signed in 1999 . The policies of French President Nicolas Sarkozy resulted in a major reform of France 's military position , culminating with the return to full membership on 4 April 2009 , which also included France rejoining the NATO Military Command Structure , while maintaining an independent nuclear deterrent .
= = = Enlargement and reform = = =
Between 1994 and 1997 , wider forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbors were set up , like the Partnership for Peace , the Mediterranean Dialogue initiative and the Euro @-@ Atlantic Partnership Council . In 1998 , the NATO @-@ Russia Permanent Joint Council was established . On 8 July 1997 , three former communist countries , Hungary , the Czech Republic , and Poland , were invited to join NATO , which each did in 1999 . Membership went on expanding with the accession of seven more Central and Eastern European countries to NATO : Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania , Slovenia , Slovakia , Bulgaria , and Romania . They were first invited to start talks of membership during the 2002 Prague summit , and joined NATO on 29 March 2004 , shortly before the 2004 Istanbul summit . In Istanbul , NATO launched the Istanbul Cooperation Initiative with four Persian Gulf nations .
New NATO structures were also formed while old ones were abolished . In 1997 , NATO reached agreement on a significant downsizing of its command structure from 65 headquarters to just 20 . The NATO Response Force ( NRF ) was launched at the 2002 Prague summit on 21 November , the first summit in a former Comecon country . On 19 June 2003 , a further restructuring of the NATO military commands began as the Headquarters of the Supreme Allied Commander , Atlantic were abolished and a new command , Allied Command Transformation ( ACT ) , was established in Norfolk , Virginia , United States , and the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe ( SHAPE ) became the Headquarters of Allied Command Operations ( ACO ) . ACT is responsible for driving transformation ( future capabilities ) in NATO , whilst ACO is responsible for current operations . In March 2004 , NATO 's Baltic Air Policing began , which supported the sovereignty of Latvia , Lithuania and Estonia by providing jet fighters to react to any unwanted aerial intrusions . Eight multinational jet fighters are based in Lithuania , the number of which was increased from four in 2014 .
The 2006 Riga summit was held in Riga , Latvia , and highlighted the issue of energy security . It was the first NATO summit to be held in a country that had been part of the Soviet Union . At the April 2008 summit in Bucharest , Romania , NATO agreed to the accession of Croatia and Albania and both countries joined NATO in April 2009 . Ukraine and Georgia were also told that they could eventually become members . The issue of Georgian and Ukrainian membership in NATO prompted harsh criticism from Russia , as did NATO plans for a missile defence system . Studies for this system began in 2002 , with negotiations centered on anti @-@ ballistic missiles being stationed in Poland and the Czech Republic . Though NATO leaders gave assurances that the system was not targeting Russia , both presidents Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev criticized it as a threat .
In 2009 , US President Barack Obama proposed using the ship @-@ based Aegis Combat System , though this plan still includes stations being built in Turkey , Spain , Portugal , Romania , and Poland . NATO will also maintain the " status quo " in its nuclear deterrent in Europe by upgrading the targeting capabilities of the " tactical " B61 nuclear bombs stationed there and deploying them on the stealthier Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II . Following the 2014 Crimean crisis , NATO committed to forming a new " spearhead " force of 5 @,@ 000 troops at bases in Estonia , Lithuania , Latvia , Poland , Romania , and Bulgaria . On June 15 , 2016 , NATO officially recognized Cyberwarfare as an operational domain of war , just like land , sea and aerial warfare . This means that any cyber attack on NATO members can trigger Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty .
= = Military operations = =
= = = Early operations = = =
No military operations were conducted by NATO during the Cold War . Following the end of the Cold War , the first operations , Anchor Guard in 1990 and Ace Guard in 1991 , were prompted by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait . Airborne Early Warning aircraft were sent to provide coverage of South Eastern Turkey , and later a quick @-@ reaction force was deployed to the area .
= = = Bosnia and Herzegovina intervention = = =
The Bosnian War began in 1992 , as a result of the Breakup of Yugoslavia . The deteriorating situation led to United Nations Security Council Resolution 816 on 9 October 1992 , ordering a no @-@ fly zone over central Bosnia and Herzegovina , which NATO began enforcing on 12 April 1993 with Operation Deny Flight . From June 1993 until October 1996 , Operation Sharp Guard added maritime enforcement of the arms embargo and economic sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . On 28 February 1994 , NATO took its first wartime action by shooting down four Bosnian Serb aircraft violating the no @-@ fly zone .
On 10 and 11 April 1994 , during the Bosnian War , the United Nations Protection Force called in air strikes to protect the Goražde safe area , resulting in the bombing of a Bosnian Serb military command outpost near Goražde by two US F @-@ 16 jets acting under NATO direction . This resulted in the taking of 150 U.N. personnel hostage on 14 April . On 16 April a British Sea Harrier was shot down over Goražde by Serb forces . A two @-@ week NATO bombing campaign , Operation Deliberate Force , began in August 1995 against the Army of the Republika Srpska , after the Srebrenica massacre .
NATO air strikes that year helped bring the Yugoslav wars to an end , resulting in the Dayton Agreement in November 1995 . As part of this agreement , NATO deployed a UN @-@ mandated peacekeeping force , under Operation Joint Endeavor , named IFOR . Almost 60 @,@ 000 NATO troops were joined by forces from non @-@ NATO nations in this peacekeeping mission . This transitioned into the smaller SFOR , which started with 32 @,@ 000 troops initially and ran from December 1996 until December 2004 , when operations were then passed onto European Union Force Althea . Following the lead of its member nations , NATO began to award a service medal , the NATO Medal , for these operations .
= = = Kosovo intervention = = =
In an effort to stop Slobodan Milošević 's Serbian @-@ led crackdown on KLA separatists and Albanian civilians in Kosovo , the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1199 on 23 September 1998 to demand a ceasefire . Negotiations under US Special Envoy Richard Holbrooke broke down on 23 March 1999 , and he handed the matter to NATO , which started a 78 @-@ day bombing campaign on 24 March 1999 . Operation Allied Force targeted the military capabilities of what was then the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . During the crisis , NATO also deployed one of its international reaction forces , the ACE Mobile Force ( Land ) , to Albania as the Albania Force ( AFOR ) , to deliver humanitarian aid to refugees from Kosovo .
Though the campaign was criticized for high civilian casualties , including bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade , Milošević finally accepted the terms of an international peace plan on 3 June 1999 , ending the Kosovo War . On 11 June , Milošević further accepted UN resolution 1244 , under the mandate of which NATO then helped establish the KFOR peacekeeping force . Nearly one million refugees had fled Kosovo , and part of KFOR 's mandate was to protect the humanitarian missions , in addition to deterring violence . In August – September 2001 , the alliance also mounted Operation Essential Harvest , a mission disarming ethnic Albanian militias in the Republic of Macedonia . As of 1 December 2013 , 4 @,@ 882 KFOR soldiers , representing 31 countries , continue to operate in the area .
The US , the UK , and most other NATO countries opposed efforts to require the U.N. Security Council to approve NATO military strikes , such as the action against Serbia in 1999 , while France and some others claimed that the alliance needed UN approval . The US / UK side claimed that this would undermine the authority of the alliance , and they noted that Russia and China would have exercised their Security Council vetoes to block the strike on Yugoslavia , and could do the same in future conflicts where NATO intervention was required , thus nullifying the entire potency and purpose of the organization . Recognizing the post @-@ Cold War military environment , NATO adopted the Alliance Strategic Concept during its Washington summit in April 1999 that emphasized conflict prevention and crisis management .
= = = Afghanistan War = = =
The September 11th attacks in the United States caused NATO to invoke Article 5 of the NATO Charter for the first time in the organization 's history . The Article says that an attack on any member shall be considered to be an attack on all . The invocation was confirmed on 4 October 2001 when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty . The eight official actions taken by NATO in response to the attacks included Operation Eagle Assist and Operation Active Endeavour , a naval operation in the Mediterranean Sea which is designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction , as well as enhancing the security of shipping in general which began on 4 October 2001 .
The alliance showed unity : on 16 April 2003 , NATO agreed to take command of the International Security Assistance Force ( ISAF ) , which includes troops from 42 countries . The decision came at the request of Germany and the Netherlands , the two nations leading ISAF at the time of the agreement , and all nineteen NATO ambassadors approved it unanimously . The handover of control to NATO took place on 11 August , and marked the first time in NATO 's history that it took charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area .
ISAF was initially charged with securing Kabul and surrounding areas from the Taliban , al Qaeda and factional warlords , so as to allow for the establishment of the Afghan Transitional Administration headed by Hamid Karzai . In October 2003 , the UN Security Council authorized the expansion of the ISAF mission throughout Afghanistan , and ISAF subsequently expanded the mission in four main stages over the whole of the country .
On 31 July 2006 , the ISAF additionally took over military operations in the south of Afghanistan from a US @-@ led anti @-@ terrorism coalition . Due to the intensity of the fighting in the south , in 2011 France allowed a squadron of Mirage 2000 fighter / attack aircraft to be moved into the area , to Kandahar , in order to reinforce the alliance 's efforts . During its 2012 Chicago Summit , NATO endorsed a plan to end the Afghanistan war and to remove the NATO @-@ led ISAF Forces by the end of December 2014 . ISAF was disestablished in December 2014 and replaced by the follow @-@ on training Resolute Support Mission .
= = = Iraq training mission = = =
In August 2004 , during the Iraq War , NATO formed the NATO Training Mission – Iraq , a training mission to assist the Iraqi security forces in conjunction with the US led MNF @-@ I. The NATO Training Mission @-@ Iraq ( NTM @-@ I ) was established at the request of the Iraqi Interim Government under the provisions of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546 . The aim of NTM @-@ I was to assist in the development of Iraqi security forces training structures and institutions so that Iraq can build an effective and sustainable capability that addresses the needs of the nation . NTM @-@ I was not a combat mission but is a distinct mission , under the political control of NATO 's North Atlantic Council . Its operational emphasis was on training and mentoring . The activities of the mission were coordinated with Iraqi authorities and the US @-@ led Deputy Commanding General Advising and Training , who was also dual @-@ hatted as the Commander of NTM @-@ I. The mission officially concluded on 17 December 2011 .
= = = Gulf of Aden anti @-@ piracy = = =
Beginning on 17 August 2009 , NATO deployed warships in an operation to protect maritime traffic in the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean from Somali pirates , and help strengthen the navies and coast guards of regional states . The operation was approved by the North Atlantic Council and involves warships primarily from the United States though vessels from many other nations are also included . Operation Ocean Shield focuses on protecting the ships of Operation Allied Provider which are distributing aid as part of the World Food Programme mission in Somalia . Russia , China and South Korea have sent warships to participate in the activities as well .
= = = Libya intervention = = =
During the Libyan Civil War , violence between protestors and the Libyan government under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi escalated , and on 17 March 2011 led to the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 , which called for a ceasefire , and authorized military action to protect civilians . A coalition that included several NATO members began enforcing a no @-@ fly zone over Libya shortly afterwards . On 20 March 2011 , NATO states agreed on enforcing an arms embargo against Libya with Operation Unified Protector using ships from NATO Standing Maritime Group 1 and Standing Mine Countermeasures Group 1 , and additional ships and submarines from NATO members . They would " monitor , report and , if needed , interdict vessels suspected of carrying illegal arms or mercenaries " .
On 24 March , NATO agreed to take control of the no @-@ fly zone from the initial coalition , while command of targeting ground units remained with the coalition 's forces . NATO began officially enforcing the UN resolution on 27 March 2011 with assistance from Qatar and the United Arab Emirates . By June , reports of divisions within the alliance surfaced as only eight of the 28 member nations were participating in combat operations , resulting in a confrontation between US Defense Secretary Robert Gates and countries such as Poland , Spain , the Netherlands , Turkey , and Germany to contribute more , the latter believing the organization has overstepped its mandate in the conflict . In his final policy speech in Brussels on 10 June , Gates further criticized allied countries in suggesting their actions could cause the demise of NATO . The German foreign ministry pointed to " a considerable [ German ] contribution to NATO and NATO @-@ led operations " and to the fact that this engagement was highly valued by President Obama .
While the mission was extended into September , Norway that day announced it would begin scaling down contributions and complete withdrawal by 1 August . Earlier that week it was reported Danish air fighters were running out of bombs . The following week , the head of the Royal Navy said the country 's operations in the conflict were not sustainable . By the end of the mission in October 2011 , after the death of Colonel Gaddafi , NATO planes had flown about 9 @,@ 500 strike sorties against pro @-@ Gaddafi targets . A report from the organization Human Rights Watch in May 2012 identified at least 72 civilians killed in the campaign . Following a coup d 'état attempt in October 2013 , Libyan Prime Minister Ali Zeidan requested technical advice and trainers from NATO to assist with ongoing security issues .
= = Participating countries = =
= = = Members = = =
NATO has twenty @-@ eight members , mainly in Europe and North America . Some of these countries also have territory on multiple continents , which can be covered only as far south as the Tropic of Cancer in the Atlantic Ocean , which defines NATO 's " area of responsibility " under Article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty . During the original treaty negotiations , the United States insisted that colonies like the Belgian Congo be excluded from the treaty . French Algeria was however covered until their independence on 3 July 1962 . Twelve of these twenty @-@ eight are original members who joined in 1949 , while the other sixteen joined in one of seven enlargement rounds . Few members spend more than two percent of their gross domestic product on defence , with the United States accounting for three quarters of NATO defense spending .
From the mid @-@ 1960s to the mid @-@ 1990s , France pursued a military strategy of independence from NATO under a policy dubbed " Gaullo @-@ Mitterrandism " . Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated the return of France to the integrated military command and the Defence Planning Committee in 2009 , the latter being disbanded the following year . France remains the only NATO member outside the Nuclear Planning Group and unlike the United States and the United Kingdom , will not commit its nuclear @-@ armed submarines to the alliance .
= = = Enlargement = = =
New membership in the alliance has been largely from Central and Eastern Europe , including former members of the Warsaw Pact . Accession to the alliance is governed with individual Membership Action Plans , and requires approval by each current member . NATO currently has three candidate countries that are in the process of joining the alliance : Bosnia and Herzegovina , Montenegro , and the Republic of Macedonia . On 2 December 2015 , NATO Foreign Ministers decided to invite Montenegro to start accession talks to become the 29th member of the Alliance . In NATO official statements , the Republic of Macedonia is always referred to as the " former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia , " with a footnote stating that " Turkey recognizes the Republic of Macedonia under its constitutional name . " Though Macedonia completed its requirements for membership at the same time as Croatia and Albania , NATO 's most recent members , its accession was blocked by Greece pending a resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute . In order to support each other in the process , new and potential members in the region formed the Adriatic Charter in 2003 . Georgia was also named as an aspiring member , and was promised " future membership " during the 2008 summit in Bucharest , though in 2014 , US President Barack Obama said the country was not " currently on a path " to membership .
Russia continues to oppose further expansion , seeing it as inconsistent with understandings between Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and European and American negotiators that allowed for a peaceful German reunification . NATO 's expansion efforts are often seen by Moscow leaders as a continuation of a Cold War attempt to surround and isolate Russia , though they have also been criticised in the West . Ukraine 's relationship with NATO and Europe has been politically divisive , and contributed to " Euromaidan " protests that saw the ousting of pro @-@ Russian President Viktor Yanukovych in 2014 . In March 2014 , Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk reiterated the government 's stance that Ukraine is not seeking NATO membership . Ukraine 's president subsequently signed a bill dropping his nation 's nonaligned status in order to pursue NATO membership , but signaled that it would hold a referendum before seeking to join . Ukraine is one of eight countries in Eastern Europe with an Individual Partnership Action Plan . IPAPs began in 2002 , and are open to countries that have the political will and ability to deepen their relationship with NATO .
= = = Partnerships = = =
The Partnership for Peace ( PfP ) programme was established in 1994 and is based on individual bilateral relations between each partner country and NATO : each country may choose the extent of its participation . Members include all current and former members of the Commonwealth of Independent States . The Euro @-@ Atlantic Partnership Council ( EAPC ) was first established on 29 May 1997 , and is a forum for regular coordination , consultation and dialogue between all fifty participants . The PfP programme is considered the operational wing of the Euro @-@ Atlantic Partnership . Other third countries also have been contacted for participation in some activities of the PfP framework such as Afghanistan .
The European Union ( EU ) signed a comprehensive package of arrangements with NATO under the Berlin Plus agreement on 16 December 2002 . With this agreement the EU was given the possibility to use NATO assets in case it wanted to act independently in an international crisis , on the condition that NATO itself did not want to act — the so @-@ called " right of first refusal . " It provides a " double framework " for the EU countries that are also linked with the PfP programme . Additionally , NATO cooperates and discusses their activities with numerous other non @-@ NATO members . The Mediterranean Dialogue was established in 1994 to coordinate in a similar way with Israel and countries in North Africa . The Istanbul Cooperation Initiative was announced in 2004 as a dialog forum for the Middle East along the same lines as the Mediterranean Dialogue . The four participants are also linked through the Gulf Cooperation Council .
Political dialogue with Japan began in 1990 , and since then , the Alliance has gradually increased its contact with countries that do not form part of any of these cooperation initiatives . In 1998 , NATO established a set of general guidelines that do not allow for a formal institutionalization of relations , but reflect the Allies ' desire to increase cooperation . Following extensive debate , the term " Contact Countries " was agreed by the Allies in 2000 . By 2012 , the Alliance had broadened this group , which meets to discuss issues such as counter @-@ piracy and technology exchange , under the names " partners across the globe " or " global partners . " Australia and New Zealand , both contact countries , are also members of the AUSCANNZUKUS strategic alliance , and similar regional or bilateral agreements between contact countries and NATO members also aid cooperation . In June 2013 , Colombia and NATO signed an Agreement on the Security of Information to explore future cooperation and consultation in areas of common interest ; Colombia became the first and only Latin American country to cooperate with NATO .
= = Structures = =
The main headquarters of NATO is located on Boulevard Léopold III / Leopold III @-@ laan , B @-@ 1110 Brussels , which is in Haren , part of the City of Brussels municipality . A new € 750 million headquarters building is , as of 2014 , under construction across from the current complex , and is due for completion by 2016 . Problems in the current building stem from its hurried construction in 1967 , when NATO was forced to move its headquarters from Porte Dauphine in Paris , France following the French withdrawal .
The staff at the Headquarters is composed of national delegations of member countries and includes civilian and military liaison offices and officers or diplomatic missions and diplomats of partner countries , as well as the International Staff and International Military Staff filled from serving members of the armed forces of member states . Non @-@ governmental citizens ' groups have also grown up in support of NATO , broadly under the banner of the Atlantic Council / Atlantic Treaty Association movement .
= = = NATO Council = = =
Like any alliance , NATO is ultimately governed by its 28 @-@ member states . However , the North Atlantic Treaty and other agreements outline how decisions are to be made within NATO . Each of the 28 members sends a delegation or mission to NATO 's headquarters in Brussels , Belgium . The senior permanent member of each delegation is known as the Permanent Representative and is generally a senior civil servant or an experienced ambassador ( and holding that diplomatic rank ) . Several countries have diplomatic missions to NATO through embassies in Belgium .
Together , the Permanent Members form the North Atlantic Council ( NAC ) , a body which meets together at least once a week and has effective governance authority and powers of decision in NATO . From time to time the Council also meets at higher level meetings involving foreign ministers , defence ministers or heads of state or government ( HOSG ) and it is at these meetings that major decisions regarding NATO 's policies are generally taken . However , it is worth noting that the Council has the same authority and powers of decision @-@ making , and its decisions have the same status and validity , at whatever level it meets . France , Germany , Italy , the United Kingdom and the United States are together referred to as the Quint , which is an informal discussion group within NATO . NATO summits also form a further venue for decisions on complex issues , such as enlargement .
The meetings of the North Atlantic Council are chaired by the Secretary General of NATO and , when decisions have to be made , action is agreed upon on the basis of unanimity and common accord . There is no voting or decision by majority . Each nation represented at the Council table or on any of its subordinate committees retains complete sovereignty and responsibility for its own decisions .
= = = NATO Parliamentary Assembly = = =
The body that sets broad strategic goals for NATO is the NATO Parliamentary Assembly ( NATO @-@ PA ) which meets at the Annual Session , and one other during the year , and is the organ that directly interacts with the parliamentary structures of the national governments of the member states which appoint Permanent Members , or ambassadors to NATO . The NATO Parliamentary Assembly is made up of legislators from the member countries of the North Atlantic Alliance as well as thirteen associate members . Karl A. Lamers , German Deputy Chairman of the Defence Committee of the Bundestag and a member of the Christian Democratic Union , became president of the assembly in 2010 . It is however officially a different structure from NATO , and has as aim to join together deputies of NATO countries in order to discuss security policies on the NATO Council .
The Assembly is the political integration body of NATO that generates political policy agenda setting for the NATO Council via reports of its five committees :
Committee on the Civil Dimension of Security
Defence and Security Committee
Economics and Security Committee
Political Committee
Science and Technology Committee
These reports provide impetus and direction as agreed upon by the national governments of the member states through their own national political processes and influencers to the NATO administrative and executive organizational entities .
= = = Military structures = = =
NATO 's military operations are directed by the Chairman of the NATO Military Committee , and split into two Strategic Commands commanded by a senior US officer and ( currently ) a senior French officer assisted by a staff drawn from across NATO . The Strategic Commanders are responsible to the Military Committee for the overall direction and conduct of all Alliance military matters within their areas of command .
Each country 's delegation includes a Military Representative , a senior officer from each country 's armed forces , supported by the International Military Staff . Together the Military Representatives form the Military Committee , a body responsible for recommending to NATO 's political authorities those measures considered necessary for the common defence of the NATO area . Its principal role is to provide direction and advice on military policy and strategy . It provides guidance on military matters to the NATO Strategic Commanders , whose representatives attend its meetings , and is responsible for the overall conduct of the military affairs of the Alliance under the authority of the Council . The Chairman of the NATO Military Committee is Petr Pavel of the Czech Republic , since 2015 . Like the Council , from time to time the Military Committee also meets at a higher level , namely at the level of Chiefs of Defence , the most senior military officer in each nation 's armed forces . Until 2008 the Military Committee excluded France , due to that country 's 1966 decision to remove itself from NATO 's integrated military structure , which it rejoined in 1995 . Until France rejoined NATO , it was not represented on the Defence Planning Committee , and this led to conflicts between it and NATO members . Such was the case in the lead up to Operation Iraqi Freedom . The operational work of the Committee is supported by the International Military Staff .
The NATO Command Structure evolved throughout the Cold War and its aftermath . An integrated military structure for NATO was first established in 1950 as it became clear that NATO would need to enhance its defences for the longer term against a potential Soviet attack . In April 1951 , Allied Command Europe and its headquarters ( SHAPE ) were established ; later , four subordinate headquarters were added in Northern and Central Europe , the Southern Region , and the Mediterranean .
From the 1950s to 2003 , the Strategic Commanders were the Supreme Allied Commander Europe ( SACEUR ) and the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic ( SACLANT ) . The current arrangement is to separate responsibility between Allied Command Transformation ( ACT ) , responsible for transformation and training of NATO forces , and Allied Command Operations ( ACO ) , responsible for NATO operations worldwide . Starting in late 2003 NATO has restructured how it commands and deploys its troops by creating several NATO Rapid Deployable Corps , including Eurocorps , I. German / Dutch Corps , Multinational Corps Northeast , and NATO Rapid Deployable Italian Corps among others , as well as naval High Readiness Forces ( HRFs ) , which all report to Allied Command Operations .
In early 2015 , in the wake of the War in Donbass , meetings of NATO ministers decided that Multinational Corps Northeast would be augmented so as to develop greater capabilities , to , if thought necessary , prepare to defend the Baltic States , and that a new Multi @-@ National Division Southeast would be established in Romania . Six NATO Force Integration Units would also be established to coordinate preparations for defence of new Eastern members of NATO .
= Lazare Ponticelli =
Lazare Ponticelli ( born Lazzaro Ponticelli , 24 December 1897 , later mistranscribed as 7 December – 12 March 2008 ) , Knight of Vittorio Veneto , was at 110 , the last surviving officially recognized veteran of the First World War from France and the last poilu of its trenches to die .
Born in Italy , he travelled on his own to France at the age of eight . Aged 16 , he lied about his age in order to join the French Army at the start of the war in 1914 , before being transferred against his will to the Italian Army the following year . After the war , he and his brothers founded the piping and metal work company Ponticelli Frères ( Ponticelli Brothers ) , which produced supplies for the Second World War effort and as of 2009 was still in business .
Ponticelli was the oldest living man of Italian birth and the oldest man living in France at the time of his death . Every Armistice Day until 2007 he attended ceremonies honoring deceased veterans . In his later years , he criticized war , and stored his awards from the First World War in a shoe box . While he felt unworthy of the state funeral the French government offered him , he eventually accepted one . However , he asked that the procession emphasise the common soldiers who died on the battlefield . French president Nicolas Sarkozy honored his wish and dedicated a plaque to them at the procession .
= = Early life = =
Born as Lazzaro Ponticelli in Groppo Ducale , a frazione ( civil parish ) in Bettola , Piacenza , Emilia @-@ Romagna , in northern Italy , he was raised in the mountain hamlet of I Cordani , one of seven children born to Jean and Philomène Ponticelli . His father sold livestock on the fairgrounds and occasionally worked as a carpenter and cobbler .
His mother cultivated the family 's small plot of land and , like many women of the area , commuted three times a year to the Po Valley to work in its rice fields . Despite the Ponticelli family 's hard work , they were impoverished and the children often went to bed on an empty stomach . When Lazare was two years of age , his mother moved to France to earn a better living . After the unexpected deaths of Jean Ponticelli and his eldest son , Pierre , the rest of the family moved to Paris , leaving Lazare in the care of neighbors .
At age six , Ponticelli started several jobs , including making clogs . By 1906 , aged eight years old , he had saved enough money to buy a railway ticket to Paris , which he considered " paradise . " To travel to the capital of France , he walked 21 miles ( 34 km ) to the nearest train station at Piacenza . He could not speak French , but found work as a chimney sweep in Nogent @-@ sur @-@ Marne and later as a paper boy in Paris . He obtained a work permit at age 13 .
= = World War I = =
In August 1914 , aged 16 , shortly after the outbreak of World War I , Ponticelli was assigned to the 4th Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment of the French Foreign Legion . He had lied about his age to enlist . He rediscovered his older brother , Céleste Ponticelli , who had joined the same regiment . According to Ponticelli , France had done much for him , and serving was his way of showing his gratitude . He served at Soissons in Picardy , northeast France , and at Douaumont , near Verdun . Ponticelli worked at digging burial pits and trenches . In keeping a promise to Céleste to always assist others , he rescued a German and a French soldier who were wounded in the arm and leg , respectively .
Ponticelli was not a French citizen and in May 1915 , when Italy entered the war , he was conscripted into the Italian Army . Although he attempted to remain with his French regiment , he eventually enlisted in the 3rd Alpini Regiment , after being escorted to Turin by two gendarmes . Ponticelli saw service against the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army at Mount Piccolo on the Austria – Italy border . At his new post as a machine gunner , Ponticelli was seriously wounded by a shell during an assault on an Austrian mountain position . He was returned to his post after rest and recuperation in Naples . In an undated interview , he described being injured : " Blood was running into my eyes ... I continued firing despite my wound . "
Once , his regiment ceased fighting the Austrians for three weeks . The armies , who mostly spoke each other 's tongue , swapped loaves of bread for tobacco and photographed each other . In 1918 Ponticelli was gassed in an Austrian attack that killed hundreds of his fellow soldiers . Reflecting on war , he said : " You shoot at men who are fathers . War is completely stupid . " In one of his last interviews , Ponticelli stated he was amazed at his own survival .
= = Ponticelli Frères = =
After being demobilized in 1920 , Ponticelli founded a metal work company with Céleste and Bonfils , his youngest brother , which they called " Ponticelli Frères " ( " Ponticelli Brothers " ) . Located in the 13th arrondissement of Paris , it became profitable and well known in its field . It was incorporated as a private limited company in 1932 , when its primary work was with industrial chimneys .
During the Second World War , Ponticelli , who became a French citizen in 1939 , was too old for combat but supported the war effort by supplying soldiers with his products . He moved his factory into an unoccupied zone when Germany invaded and occupied France . After Vichy France was taken over by the Germans , he returned northwards and began working with the Resistance . In the aftermath of World War II , he added a piping department to his company . He continued managing the company until his retirement in 1960 . At the time of his death it was reported that the company had 4 @,@ 000 employees and its annual revenue ( 2005 ) was € 300 million . The company now operates in several countries outside France , such as Angola .
= = Later life = =
Until his death , Ponticelli lived with his daughter in the Paris suburb of Le Kremlin @-@ Bicêtre , and every 11 November until 2007 he attended Armistice Day ceremonies . An honored citizen of his adopted town , Ponticelli voted in the 2007 presidential and legislative elections . He officially became a supercentenarian on 24 December 2007 , celebrating his official 110th birthday at the National History of Immigration Museum . He kept his war medals in a shoebox .
When originally offered a state funeral by then French President Jacques Chirac , Ponticelli asserted that he did not want one , although the death of the penultimate recognized soldier , [ b ] Louis de Cazenave , on 20 January 2008 caused him to reconsider . He eventually accepted a small ceremony " in the name of all those who died , men and women , " during World War I.
= = Death = =
Ponticelli died at 12 : 45 pm ( 11 : 45 GMT ) at his home in Le Kremlin @-@ Bicêtre on 12 March 2008 , aged 110 . At the time of his death , Ponticelli was the oldest living man of Italian birth and the oldest man living in France . Nicolas Sarkozy , the French president , released a statement and said there would be a day of national remembrance for the war dead of France . Ponticelli was survived by at least one child , his then @-@ 78 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Janine Desbaucheron .
His state funeral was held on 17 March 2008 . The mass was held at Saint @-@ Louis Cathedral in Les Invalides and was attended by government ministers , soldiers and members of Ponticelli 's family . French academic Max Gallo delivered the eulogy . At the mass , French collégien Guillaume Kaleff read a poem written by his class in Ponticelli 's honor .
Flags were ordered to be flown at half mast while Sarkozy unveiled a plaque dedicated to the veterans of World War I. Legionnaires of the 3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment , heir to the Marching Regiment of the French Foreign Legion , the same regiment that Ponticelli fought in , carried his coffin at the funeral . After the procession , he was buried in his family 's plot at the Ivry @-@ sur @-@ Seine cemetery , located in the Val @-@ de @-@ Marne .
= = Legacy = =
On 11 November 2008 , during the first Armistice Day since his death , Rue de Verdun in Le Kremlin @-@ Bicêtre was renamed Rue de Verdun @-@ Lazare @-@ Ponticelli .
= DNA ( Little Mix song ) =
" DNA " is a song recorded by British girl group Little Mix for their 2012 debut album of the same name . Released as the album 's second single , the song was solicited to contemporary radio stations in the United Kingdom on 1 October 2012 . Syco digitally released the single in Ireland and the United Kingdom on 9 November 2012 . It was written by TMS , Iain James and Little Mix , while the production was handled by TMS . " DNA " is an electronic pop ballad , which incorporates R & B and techno pop musical styles . Lyrically , the song contains multiple references to scientific vocabulary and is based on themes of love and obsession .
" DNA " garnered positive reviews from music critics , who praised the group 's powerful vocals and the song 's darker sound . The song received comparisons to Katy Perry 's song " E.T. " ( 2011 ) , which was an inspirational factor in its development . " DNA " was commercially successful , debuting and peaking at number three the UK Singles Chart with sales of 72 @,@ 044 copies , becoming the group 's third consecutive top three hit there . It also reached the top ten in Ireland , Hungary and Scotland , and was certified gold in Australia where it peaked at number 48 .
The accompanying music video was directed by Sarah Chatfield and was released on 19 October 2012 . Filmed in comic book movie style , it portrays Little Mix as female assassins who stalk and then kidnap men who they are obsessed with . Critics noted the similarities from the video with that of comic series Sin City and fictional character Catwoman , and gave it positive reviews for it . Little Mix have performed " DNA " on television shows Loose Women and The X Factor . They also performed the song as a continuation of the music video 's storyline on their DNA Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Background = =
In January 2012 , Little Mix begun recording songs for their debut album . The group worked with production team TMS , and Iain James on a number of songs at The Music Shed in London , England , four of which were chosen for the album . One of these four songs was " DNA , " which subsequently became the title of the album . The song originated from the group 's personal experiences in romantic situations . The group wanted to create a song about their own experiences so that they could improve the quality of their live performances . Edwards said : " We perform better when the lyrics mean something to us when we sing them . " " DNA " was developed to manifest a completely different side to Little Mix . When creating the song , Little Mix took into consideration which of their performances during their time on The X Factor was the most popular . Their performance of Katy Perry 's " E.T. " was the week during The X Factor where the group received the most votes . The group 's version of " E.T. " was perceived as " quite dark " by Jade Thirlwall , in turn , Thirlwall said that the group wanted " DNA " to showcase a darker side of the group . Thirlwall told Sarah Dean of The Huffington Post that the song was also inspired to show how the group has grown in maturity .
Little Mix co @-@ wrote " DNA " with TMS and Iain James . TMS developed the song 's guitar riff , drum beats and synths . It received additional vocal engineering from Daniel Aslet and Ben Collier . Serban Ghenea mixed the track at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach , USA , and Tom Coyne was responsible for the song 's mastering . " DNA " was based on the emotions a girl develops when she first meets and dates a boy . In an interview with Emily Laurence of Seventeen , Perrie Edwards explained : " When a girl first gets with a boy , that kind of romance makes you feel really giddy and happy . That 's what ' DNA ' is about . " The group wrote " DNA " as a unique love song by coming up with scientific ideas that would match with love . It was also written as a song about obsession . Speaking to Tim Jonze of The Guardian , Leigh @-@ Anne Pinnock mentioned : " It 's not just a love song , it 's about being obsessed with someone to the extreme . And sometimes when things go bad you do go like that , you stalk them on Facebook ... "
= = Release = =
On 31 August 2012 , Jesy Nelson told Jenn Selby of Glamour that Little Mix 's third single will be completely different from their previous two , and that it will show a different side to the group that has never been seen before . Leigh @-@ Anne Pinnock went on to reveal to Selby that the song will serve as the album 's second single , in turn resulting in the group 's debut single " Cannonball " not featuring on the album altogether . Pinnock added that the second single was a pending choice between two songs at that time , and that the group were leaning towards the " darker " and " different " track . Speaking to Selby , Pinnock reasoned the group 's choice : " It 's just a chance for us to show that we can be really serious and really show off our vocals well . This one 's really about the vocals . " On 11 September 2012 , details of the song and its title were revealed when music industry insiders were played a preview of " DNA " during the Sony Music Entertainment Conference Day . Following the conference , Chart Show TV described the song as an " electro ballad " on Twitter . Before promptly deleting the tweet , they added that the song is " very cool " and has " big vocals " . On 27 September 2012 , In : Demand announced that " DNA " will be sent to radio in the United Kingdom on 1 October 2012 . The song then leaked onto the internet on 28 September 2012 , two days before its radio premiere .
" DNA " was set to be released digitally in the United Kingdom on 12 November 2012 , but it was brought forward to a date of 9 November instead . A digital EP of " DNA " was released by Syco Music on 9 November 2012 in Ireland and the United Kingdom only . The EP features remixed versions of the song by Kat Krazy and Eyes . Both remixes received a positive response from music critics . " DNA " marks the first single by the group not to have a CD single release .
= = Composition = =
" DNA " is a mid @-@ tempo electronic and pop ballad , which incorporates influences of R & B and techno pop and runs for three minutes and 56 seconds . It contains an instrumentation consisted of a guitar riff , skittering and thumping drum beats , and spooky synthesisers accompanied with Little Mix 's vocal performance . According to music website Popjustice , the song features " a squeaky door effect " and " Cheiron @-@ style slamming smashy noises . " Vicky Newman of the Shields Gazette said that the track has an urban edge to it . The song begins with a tinkling music box before Perrie Edwards starts singing the line " Does he love you when you least expect it , " in a low register . After the second chorus , the song almost stops completely before a half @-@ rapped , half @-@ spoken middle eight , followed by a choral breakdown . The choral breakdown , described as " Gothic " by many critics , gives way to brief rave klaxon instrumentation . Viewed as a dark song by Little Mix and music critics alike , " DNA " sees the group depart from their fun and upbeat sound on previous single , " Wings " . It has been heavily compared to Katy Perry 's " E.T. " , which was an influential factor in the song 's development .
According to the digital sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , Little Mix 's vocal range in the song span from the note of Eb3 to Cb5 . Written in the key of E ♭ minor , the track is set in common time at a moderate tempo of 70 beats per minute . Lyrically , " DNA " uses scientific vocabulary to portray themes of love and obsession . Fiona Shepherd of The Scotsman wrote that the song lionises a strong man . 4Music 's Trent Maynard said that it paints a moody picture of love and deep seated biological compatibility . The chorus includes the lyrics , " It 's in his DNA , D @-@ D @-@ D @-@ DNA / It 's in his DNA / And he just takes my breath away , b @-@ b @-@ b @-@ breath away / I feel it every day / And that 's what makes a man , not hard to understand / Perfect in every way , I see it in @-@ his @-@ face / Nothing more to say , it 's in his D @-@ D @-@ D @-@ D @-@ DNA " . Leigh @-@ Anne Pinnock does the song 's half @-@ spoken half @-@ rapped middle eight in a spooky tone , mentioning , " It 's all about his kiss , contaminates my lips , our energy connects , it 's simple genetics , I 'm the X to his Y " . Music website , Popjustice , likened the song to British girl group , the Spice Girls , writing , " ' DNA ' is the ' Say You 'll Be There ' to the ' Wannabe ' of ' Wings ' " .
= = Critical reception = =
Jon Hornbuckle of So So Gay described " DNA " as " an addictive slice of dark pop , with the chorus breakdown remaining not only a highlight on this track , but of the entire album . " The song was well received by Vicky Newman from Shields Gazette , who felt that it demonstrates the group 's " stunning " harmonies and allows their voices to " shine " . Newman also wrote that the song 's urban edge manifests Little Mix 's growth and development . Gigwise 's Andrew Trendell praised the track 's production , writing , " The skittering beats and little quirks of [ ... ] ' DNA ' make it instantly memorable . " Adrian Thrills of the Daily Mail complimented the song 's choral middle @-@ eight , deeming it " an inventive sonic flourish " . " DNA " was described as " pop perfection " by Lewis Corner of Digital Spy , who highlighted the song 's " spooky synths , pumping heartbeats and gothic choir finale " . John Earls from British newspaper , Daily Star , positively reviewed the single , calling it " a winning formula , " in addition to awarding it a nine out of ten rating . Earls went on to mention that the song is " A regal anthem that 'll have all of Girls Aloud wondering how they didn 't release it first , the Little Mixers are sounding huge at last . " . " DNA " was deemed " amazing " by Clemmie Moodie of the Daily Mirror . Eve Barlow for NME likened the song to Katy Perry 's " E.T. " and described it as " a banger " . According to Hackford Jones of music website , Pressparty , " DNA " is " a storming slice of future @-@ pop " and " a vibrant and commanding modern @-@ day pop anthem that has the Little Mix personality stamped all the way through it . " Amy Gravelle of Entertainment Wise felt that the song represents the group 's " feisty charm " . Gravelle also described the track as " an infectiously catchy pop belter that proves the girls have what it takes to keep up with the best of their rivals . " Ciara Moore from The College View said that " DNA " won Little Mix a legion of teenage fans . Fiona Shepherd of The Scotsman called the song " bludgeoning , booming techno pop " . 4Music 's Trent Maynard said that " DNA " is a " much darker turn for the cheery foursome , but just as catchy and polished as their previous single . " The song was described as " an absolute gem " by Lizzie Cox of Sugar . Rick Fulton of the Daily Record positively reviewed the song , awarding it three out of five stars . Fulton deemed the song as " feisty electro fun " and " a bit harder than ' Wings ' " . He also added , " it seems Little Mix have big aspirations to be around for a lot longer than most of [ The X Factor ] ' s winners . " Nicky Diaz of The Miami Hurricane said that " DNA " shows the group 's edgier side . Diaz went on to praise the track 's harmonies and lyrics , writing , " The stand @-@ out harmonies on this song are incredible and the lyrics are catchy " . Matt Collar of AllMusic called the track " a truly catchy , infectious cut " .
One Direction 's Zayn Malik called the track a " big tune " . BBC Online 's Al Fox said that " DNA " was Little Mix 's best single to @-@ date . Michael Cragg from The Guardian listed the song as the third best song of 2012 . Music website Popjustice ranked " DNA " as the second best single of 2012 in their ' Top 45 Singles of 2012 , ' writing , " This is piece of pop art so exquisite and so important to this generation and all generations to come that it should be stored in the V & A " .
= = Chart performance = =
" DNA " debuted and peaked at number eight on the Irish Singles Chart for the week ending 15 November 2012 , becoming Little Mix 's third consecutive top ten hit in Ireland . After descending the chart for 12 weeks , the song dropped off on 14 March 2013 . It then re @-@ entered the chart at number 93 on 28 March 2013 , before dropping off two weeks later . It spent a total of 14 weeks on the chart . In the United Kingdom , " DNA " was a contender for number one when it was revealed that the single was at number two in the midweek chart , 3 @,@ 000 copies behind Bruno Mars ' " Locked Out of Heaven " . By the end of the week " DNA " entered the UK Singles Chart at number three on 24 November 2012 with sales of 72 @,@ 044 copies , behind " Locked Out of Heaven " at number two ( 75 @,@ 880 copies ) and One Direction 's " Little Things " at number one ( 85 @,@ 308 copies ) . It became Little Mix 's third consecutive top three hit in the country and went on to spend a total of nine weeks on the chart , and end the year as the 115th best @-@ selling single in the UK . In an interview with Robert Copsey of Digital Spy , Jade Thirlwall explained her disappointment in the single not becoming the group 's third number one :
Yeah , we were kind of disappointed [ ' DNA ' never got to number one ] because it sold really well . I think it was just the timing because One Direction at the same time shot straight to number one with ' Little Things ' . It 's always hard to compete with the 1D lads . And we 're chuffed to bits for them ; we 've always been supportive of them .
" DNA " debuted at number three on the Scottish Singles Chart on 24 November 2012 , giving the group their third consecutive top three hit there . On 30 December 2012 , " DNA " debuted and peaked at number 48 on the Australian Singles Chart . The song was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association , denoting sales of 35 @,@ 000 copies . On the Slovakian Airplay Chart , " DNA " debuted at number 48 for the chart 's 48th week of 2012 . After weeks of fluctuating , the song achieved its peak of number 46 during the 2nd week of 2013 . " DNA " spent a total of seven weeks on the chart . In France , it debuted and peaked on the French Singles Chart at number 177 on 4 May 2013 . On 13 May 2013 , " DNA " debuted and peaked at number ten on the Hungarian Singles Chart , becoming the group 's second most successful single in Hungary to @-@ date .
By the end of March 2013 , the single has sold over 200 @,@ 000 copies just in the UK alone .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
On 12 September 2012 , it was revealed that Little Mix were filming the music video for " DNA " . A lyric video for " DNA " was posted on Little Mix 's Vevo on 1 October 2012 . The song 's music video was directed by Sarah Chatfield , shot against a green screen for special effects . Prior to the official music video 's release , Little Mix begun a countdown to the video 's premiere by posting teasers of the video on their Vevo account . In an interview with Linds Foley of Sugar on 8 October 2012 , Little Mix promised that the music video for " DNA " will show their fans a completely different side to the group . On 15 October 2012 , the group confirmed that the video will premiere online on 19 October . Little Mix told Capital London on 18 October 2012 that they loved getting to play dark characters in the video . Speaking to the radio station , Jesy Nelson mentioned how fun and exciting the filming of the music video was . Nelson pointed out that the reasoning behind their excitement was because of how the video for " DNA " was completely different from the video for their previous single " Wings " . During the interview , Leigh @-@ Anne Pinnock explained that each member of the group plays a character in the music video , and admitted she enjoyed getting to act more in the video . Pinnock said , " I loved being able to play [ ... ] this obsessed weird person that 's just crazy over this guy . " When filming the music video , Little Mix made use of the song 's themes of love and obsession , depicting it to greater extremes .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video sees Little Mix adopting a new heavier look including leather outfits , bullet chains and gothic makeup , and explores themes of jealousy and obsession . It features the group hunting down men who have wronged them . Filmed in comic book movie style , Little Mix play female assassins who stalk and then kidnap men they are obsessed with . In one scene , Perrie Edwards is angrily driving a car while next to a male passenger who is bound and gagged . Edwards sports glossy red lipstick and a biker jacket , keeping her eyes on the road and paying no mind to the camera as wind blows through her hair . Jade Thirlwall is seen stalking a man outside his bedroom window . Standing outside the window ledge , Thirlwall spies on a man who captured her heart . Thirlwall wears metallic silver and black striped highwaisted trousers , with a white shirt , black bow tie and braces . Jesy Nelson 's scene is similar to that of Edwards . Nelson races to her destination in a vintage convertible with a lace visor covering her eyes as police sirens flash behind her . In another scene , Leigh @-@ Anne Pinnock masterminds the story 's plots in a secret room with a wall of evidence the group has compiled , of which includes maps and clippings . Pinnock has her hair slicked back in a long quiffed jet black ponytail , and wears an outfit that resembles that of fictional character Catwoman . The name ' Ryan ' is scrabbled across the wall , and Pinnock bangs her fist against the wall .
The group come together for a dance routine on a rooftop with a backdrop of dark grey skies and strikes of lightning . All four group members are also seen pacing through a dark city wearing figure hugging outfits . The video draws to a close when the man who the group have built an unhealthy fixation to is seen tied to a chair as the group walks towards him , before the words ' To Be Continued ' appear on the screen . In an interview with Owen Myers of Popjustice , Jesy Nelson said the music video will be continued on their 2013 DNA Tour .
= = = Reception = = =
Capital London called the video " edgy " . A writer for Cool FM said that the music video is " amazing " and that it does not disappoint . Lizzie Cox of Sugar complimented the video 's storyline and the group 's leather outfits . Cox went on to call the music video " brilliant " and likened its atmosphere to that of comic series Sin City . Fehintola Betiku and Emily Sheridan for the Daily Mail described the video as " sultry " and added : " Little Mix are worlds apart from the four @-@ piece who won The X Factor last year in this monochrome four minute clip . " A writer for The Huffington Post complimented the group 's highly stylised look and mean and moody attitude . Clemmie Moore of the Daily Mirror complimented the group 's appearance in the video , saying that they are " looking hot . " Gordon Smart of The Sun described the group 's look in the music video as " fierce " and " glamourous " . Natalie Wall from Cosmopolitan labelled the music video " deliciously dark " and likened the group 's look in the video to that from their " E.T. " performance on The X Factor in 2011 . Promo News ' David Knight positively reviewed the video : " Sarah Chatfield makes an impressive return to British pop , by channeling a little bit of Sin City in her sassy and visually bold video for Little Mix 's ' DNA ' : Sarah turns the X Factor @-@ honed girls from glamourous pop stars into equally glamourous stalkers in a noirish story of obsession . " Knight added , " The ' DNA ' video is beautifully shot by Will Bex , with stark contrasts , dramatic camera angles and heavy skies pushing the film noir @-@ meets @-@ comic book look " . Lewis Corner from Digital Spy ranked the video eighth in his list of the ten best music videos from 2012 , deeming it " one of the most diva @-@ worthy videos from a girl group in years " .
= = Live performances = =
The song was performed along with " Wings " at the 2012 BBC Radio 1 Teen Awards . On 24 October 2012 , the group performed an acoustic version of the song during an online interview for SBTV on Ustream . The performance received praise by the band 's fans on Twitter . Irish radio station Spin South West complimented the performance , " Little Mix are killing it [ ... ] , not many pop stars could do this ! " Alicia Adejobi of Entertainment Wise praised the version , writing , " Little Mix are not just an ordinary girl band , they can sing live , perform an acapella and even beat @-@ box . " Little Mix performed the single live on the ninth season of The X Factor on 11 November 2012 . The group performed the song backed by a troupe of dancers and wore matching black trousers , gold and blue tops with military jackets with ammunition belts . Little Mix 's mentor during their time on The X Factor , Tulisa Contostavlos , praised the performance : " You 're professional , you 're all on point and confident now . " Spin South West said that the performance manifested why Little Mix won the competition in 2011 . Emily Sheridan of the Daily Mail positively reviewed the performance as well , writing , " The group have come a long way since [ The X Factor ] . " The group performed " DNA " on 13 November 2012 for BBC 's Live Lounge . On 23 November 2012 , Little Mix performed an acoustic version of the song on ITV show Loose Women . In December 2012 , the song was performed by the group at the Jingle Bell Ball and a Radio City 96 @.@ 7 gig without Perrie Edwards who was suffering from tonsillitis at the time . During the Radio City performance , the group wore 1990s @-@ inspired stonewashed denim outfits . Lucy Buckland of the Daily Mail positively reviewed the performance , " [ Little Mix wowed ] crowds with ' DNA ' and their ability to carry off so much jean action in 2012 . " Buckland went on to praise their look during the performance , describing it as " glam . " She also commended , " the girls seem to be doing a good job without [ Edwards ] . "
During the group 's 2013 DNA Tour , " DNA " is performed as the last song in the setlist before the encore . The phrase " Everyone has a dark side " appears in the backdrop as an into to the perforMance . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner praised the group 's performance of the song at the Hammersmith Apollo , writing , " Striking choreography , tight harmonies and sinister @-@ sweet expressions reinforced their image as the fiercely polished pop vixens they have transformed into since The X Factor . " A journalist for the Express & Star , reviewing the tour date at the Civic Hall in Wolverhampton , said that the crowd was in riotous voice during the group 's " powerful " performance of the song . Malcolm Jack of The Guardian who attended the tour 's date in Glasgow deemed " DNA " the best performance of the setlist . At the date in Ipswich , Wayne Savage of the Ipswich Star said the group sounded great during the performance of the song .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and mixing
Recorded at The Music Shed , London , England ; mixed at MixStar Studios , Virginia Beach , Virginia .
Personnel
Songwriting – Thomas Barnes , Peter Kelleher , Ben Kohn , Iain James , Perrie Edwards , Jesy Nelson , Leigh @-@ Anne Pinnock , Jade Thirlwall
Production – TMS
Additional vocal engineering – Daniel Aslet , Ben Collier
Drums – Thomas Barnes
Guitar – Ben Kohn
Synths – Peter Kelleher
Mixing – Serban Ghenea
Mastering – Tom Coyne
Credits adapted from the liner notes of DNA , Sony Music Entertainment , UK .
= = Track listing = =
Digital EP
" DNA " – 3 : 56
" DNA " ( Kat Krazy Club Mix ) – 5 : 33
" DNA " ( Eyes Remix ) – 4 : 43
" DNA " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 57
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Fort Bayard ( Washington , D.C. ) =
Fort Bayard was an earthwork fort constructed in 1861 northwest of Tenleytown in the District of Columbia as part of the defenses of Washington , D.C. during the American Civil War . It never faced major opposition during the conflict and was decommissioned following the surrender of Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia . Named after Brigadier General George Dashiell Bayard , who was killed at the Battle of Fredericksburg , the site of the fort is in Boundary Park , located at the intersection of River Road and Western Avenue NW in Washington , D.C. and is maintained by the U.S. National Park Service . No trace of the fort remains , though a marker commemorating its existence has been constructed by the Park Service .
= = Pre @-@ war use = =
Prior to the outbreak of the Civil War , the District of Columbia was a predominantly rural area . Though the city of Washington is today synonymous with the District of Columbia , in 1861 , Washington occupied only a portion of the District . The remaining portions of the District were considered part of Washington County , and it was in this region that most of the forts defending Washington , including Fort Bayard , were constructed . Washington County was characterized as " the rural part of the district ... occupied by farms of various sizes and the grand estates of the well @-@ to @-@ do . "
The site of Fort Bayard itself was owned by Philip J. Buckey , a farmer who made his home in the Fourth Ward of Washington County . During the construction process , he valued the land at approximately $ 5 @,@ 000 , and continued to live in a farmhouse near the fort with his wife , four children , and two servants throughout the course of the war . In exchange for the use of his land for the site of Fort Bayard , Buckey received $ 50 @.@ 00 per year in rent from the War Department .
Also nearby was the Shoemaker family , which owned substantial tracts of land in both the District and in Maryland . Three forts or portions of forts were built on their property : Fort Simmons , Fort Mansfield , and Battery Bailey . Despite the loss of much of their land , the Shoemaker family continued to operate a local general store and sold various sundry items to the garrison at Fort Bayard .
= = Planning and construction = =
Following the secession of Virginia and that state joining the Confederacy , Federal troops marched from Washington into the Arlington region of northern Virginia . The move was intended to forestall any attempt by Virginia militia or Confederate States Army to seize the capital city of the United States . Over the next seven weeks , forts were constructed along the banks of the Potomac River and at the approaches to each of the three major bridges ( Chain Bridge , Long Bridge , and Aqueduct Bridge ) connecting Virginia to Washington and Georgetown .
While the Potomac River forts were being built , planning and surveying was ordered for an enormous new ring of forts to protect the city . Unlike the fortifications under construction , the new forts would defend the city in all directions , not just the most direct route through Arlington . In mid @-@ July , this work was interrupted by the First Battle of Bull Run . As the Army of Northeastern Virginia marched south to Manassas , the soldiers previously assigned to construction duties marched instead to battle . In the days that followed the Union defeat at Bull Run , panicked efforts were made to defend Washington from what was perceived as an imminent Confederate attack . The makeshift trenches and earthworks that resulted were largely confined to Arlington and the direct approaches to Washington .
On July 26 , 1861 , five days after the battle , Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan was named commander of the military district of Washington and the subsequently renamed Army of the Potomac . Upon arriving in Washington , McClellan was appalled by the condition of the city 's defenses . " In no quarter were the dispositions for defense such as to offer a vigorous resistance to a respectable body of the enemy , either in the position and numbers of the troops or the number and character of the defensive works ... not a single defensive work had been commenced on the Maryland side . There was nothing to prevent the enemy shelling the city from heights within easy range , which could be occupied by a hostile column almost without resistance . "
To remedy the situation , one of McClellan 's first orders upon taking command was to greatly expand the defenses of Washington . At all points of the compass , forts and entrenchments would be constructed in sufficient strength to slow an attack and buy time for reinforcements to arrive and bolster the city 's defenses . Brigadier General John G. Barnard , was named chief engineer of the Department of Washington , and would supervise the construction and maintenance of the forts before being named chief engineer of the armies in the field by Ulysses S. Grant in 1864 .
Prior to the outbreak of war , the Great Falls Turnpike , also known as River Road , was an important traffic artery for trade entering the District of Columbia from western Maryland and beyond . It connected the village of Tenleytown with the city of Washington , and roughly paralleled the Potomac River before turning northward . Due to its strategic position along the river , which formed the border between the Confederate state of Virginia and the Union state of Maryland , it had great military value and was a likely route for an attacking army , as would be proved three years after the outbreak of war during the Battle of Fort Stevens .
To prevent a Confederate force from advancing on Washington along the Potomac , several forts were constructed on hills near the river . To guard River Road , which was the most direct route into the city , U.S. Army engineers built a small , round fort at the point where River Road crossed into the district of Columbia . With a perimeter of only 123 yards and mounting only six guns , it was located forward of Fort Reno , the largest fort protecting the Tenleytown area . Details of the actual construction process are scarce , though a letter from a member of the Ninth New York Heavy Artillery regiment to the Democratic Press newspaper indicates that the fort was at least partially built with labor from that regiment .
In April 1863 , the fort was named in honor of the recently deceased Brigadier General George Dashiell Bayard , who had been killed on December 13 , 1862 , at the Battle of Fredericksburg . At the time of its dedication , the fort was roughly complete . Round in shape and surrounded by trenches and abati , the fort 's guns faced north , overlooking River Road . A service road crossed the trenches in the southern half of the fort , connecting with River Road behind the fort . Rifle pits extended northeast to Fort Reno and southwest to Fort Simmons . A small battery of guns , named Battery Bayard , was an outwork of the fort and covered a blind spot in the ravine to the northwest of the fort .
= = Wartime use = =
In accordance to a plan laid out in an October 1861 report by General John G. Barnard , " rear line " forts were to receive one man per yard of fort perimeter when fully garrisoned . Front @-@ line forts were to receive two men per yard , when needed . However , most forts were not kept fully garrisoned at all times . Due to its location north of the Potomac River , Fort Bayard was considered a rear @-@ line fort . If the fort needed to be fully garrisoned due to an impending attack , the difference in the actual garrison and the plan would be made good from Washington 's 25 @,@ 000 @-@ man reserve force . As General Barnard would say in a December 24 , 1862 report , " It is seldom necessary to keep these infantry supports attached to the works . "
However , this plan only applied to men manning the walls of the fort , not the artillerymen who would be serving the fort 's guns . To man the guns of Fort Greble and those of Washington 's other forts , Barnard designated three crews for each gun . These crews would be permanently located at the fort , unlike the men assigned to the walls of the fort .
This plan was affected by the needs of the war . As the fighting dragged on and casualties mounted , the various commanders of the Army of the Potomac repeatedly raided the Washington garrison for trained artillerymen and infantry replacements . By 1864 , Washington had been stripped to a total less than half that of Barnard 's 1861 recommendation .
A May 1864 report by General Albion P. Howe , inspector of artillery for the Union Army , found Fort Bayard 's garrison to consist of only a single company from the Seventh New York Heavy Artillery regiment . One hundred and thirty @-@ seven men of various ranks manned two 12 @-@ pound field howitzers and four 20 @-@ pound Parrott rifles . In addition , Howe found the fort 's single magazine to be " dry and in good order , " and the ammunition supply as " full and servicible . " As to the garrison of the fort , Howe was less complimentary . After examining the garrison company 's drill in artillery and infantry tactics , he reported the artillery drill as " ordinary ; needs improving , " the infantry drill as " very indifferent ; needs much improving , " and discipline at the fort overall was " indifferent . "
Artillerymen and infantry from New Hampshire , Pennsylvania , Ohio , and New York were stationed at the fort at various times during the war . Following General Howe 's unfavorable review of the Seventh New York , the garrison was replaced by a company of men from the 163rd Ohio Infantry .
= = = Battle of Fort Stevens = = =
During the course of the war , Fort Bayard came under attack only once . During the Battle of Fort Stevens in July 1864 , Confederate general Jubal Early launched a 25 @,@ 000 @-@ man raid into Maryland with the hope of drawing off some of General Ulysses S. Grant 's troops , who were pressing hard against the Army of Northern Virginia in the Siege of Petersburg . The raid hoped to attack Washington , thereby distracting Grant and potentially allowing the Confederate forces time to rest and regroup . On the morning of July 11 , Confederate cavalry and infantry under the command of Brigadier General John McCausland advanced towards Washington with the goal of capturing Fort Reno , which defended the village of Tenleytown . Though they drove back the skirmish line in front of Fort Bayard , the Confederate cavalry were met with a heavy barrage of cannon fire from Bayard and its supporting forts . Discouraged by the resistance , McCausland 's brigade moved to join up with the rest of Early 's force , which was grouping for an assault on Fort Stevens .
Throughout the day , additional reinforcements arrived at the fort , but no further Confederate attack took place . During the remainder of the war , Fort Bayard did not fire a shot in anger .
= = Postwar use = =
After the surrender of Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia on April 9 , 1865 , the primary reason for manned defenses protecting Washington ceased to exist . Initial recommendations by Col. Barton S. Alexander , chief engineer of the Washington defenses , were to divide the defenses into three classes : those that should be kept active ( first @-@ class ) , those that should be mothballed and kept in a reserve state ( second @-@ class ) , and those that should be abandoned entirely ( third @-@ class ) . Owing to its position north of the Potomac River and to the small size of the fort , Fort Bayard fell into the third @-@ class category , and was abandoned a few months after the end of the war .
= = = Fort Bayard Park = = =
The abandoned fort remained in a constantly deteriorating condition until 1919 , when the Commissioners of the District of Columbia pushed Congress to pass a bill that would consolidate the sites of the aging forts into a " Fort Circle " system of parks that would ring the growing city of Washington . As envisioned by the Commissioners , the Fort Circle would be a green ring of parks outside the city , owned by the government , and connected by a " Fort Drive " road in order to allow Washington 's citizens to easily escape the confines of the capital . However , the bill allowing for the purchase of the former forts , which had been turned back over to private ownership after the war , failed to pass both the House of Representatives and Senate .
Despite that failure , in 1925 a similar bill passed both the House and Senate , which allowed for the creation of the National Capital Parks Commission ( NCPC ) to oversee the construction of a Fort Circle of parks similar to that proposed in 1919 . The duty of purchasing land and constructing the fort parks changed hands several times throughout the 1920s and 1930s , eventually culminating with the Department of the Interior and the National Park Service taking control of the project in the 1940s . By the time the site of Fort Bayard was purchased in 1926 , the remains of the fort had been demolished and homes were being built on the site .
Budget cuts and the interruption of World War II repeatedly postponed the Fort Circle Park plan , but it was the growth of the city of Washington itself that eventually killed the plan . By 1963 , when President John F. Kennedy began pushing Congress to finally build the Fort Circle Drive , many in Washington and the National Park Service were openly questioning whether the plan had outgrown its usefulness . After all , by this time , Washington had grown past the ring of forts that had protected it a century earlier , and city surface roads already connected the parks , albeit not in as linear a route as envisioned . The plan to link Fort Bayard Park with other fort parks via a grand drive was quietly dropped in the years that followed .
Today , the park is bordered by Western Avenue , River Road , and Fessenden , 46th and 47th Streets , NW in Washington , D.C. It contains one softball field and one soccer field , and is maintained year @-@ round by the U.S. National Park Service . In 1999 , neighborhood residents established Friends of Fort Bayard Park , Inc . , a non @-@ profit 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) corporation with the goal of assisting the National Park Service in maintaining Fort Bayard Park . To this end , the organization hosts an annual cleanup of the park , and holds fundraisers in order to build improvements at the park .
= Crane and Company Old Stone Mill Rag Room =
The Crane and Company Old Stone Mill Rag Room is one of the oldest surviving buildings ( built in 1844 ) of Crane & Co . , one of the oldest papermaking businesses in Berkshire County , Massachusetts . It is located in southwestern Dalton , on a site where paper has been manufactured since the early 19th century . The building , originally used for processing rags , has housed the Crane Museum of Papermaking since 1930 , and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1983 .
Zenas Crane began making paper in Dalton in 1801 , taking full ownership of an established operation at the Rag Room site in 1822 . In the mid @-@ 1840s his sons constructed the Old Stone Mill , of which the Rag Room is the only surviving portion . The Rag Room is where Crane 's grandson Winthrop Murray Crane learned the business ; through his efforts Crane secured a monopoly contract to provide paper for the nation 's currency , which it still holds today .
The Rag Room is a gray fieldstone building with a slate roof . Its interior is a large open space that houses exhibits and artifacts of the company 's history . It is open to the public at no charge .
= = History = =
Zenas Crane ( 1777 – 1845 ) was educated in the processes of paper manufacturing in a mill owned by his brother Stephen in Newton Lower Falls , Massachusetts . After a stint at another paper mill in Worcester , Crane traveled west into Berkshire County in 1799 , looking for potential papermaking sites . He found a highly desirable site in Dalton , but the owner , a local farmer , was unwilling to part with it . Crane instead established his business on a nearby parcel in 1801 . Other papermakers followed over the next ten years , notably Henry Wiswell and David Carson , who acquired the more desirable site and established what became known as the Red Mill . Through a series of partnership and purchase transactions , Crane eventually acquired control of the Red Mill , taking full ownership in 1822 .
In 1842 Zenas Crane retired , leaving control of the Red Mill to his sons Zenas Marshall Crane and James Brewer Crane . They founded Crane & Co . , and set about expanding the business , beginning construction of what became known as the Stone Mill . The Rag Room was part of this construction effort , and was built in 1844 . In 1869 the Stone Mill was damaged by fire ; while it was being repaired in 1870 the Red Mill was destroyed by fire . The Stone Mill was then expanded , and also became known as the Pioneer Mill . The Stone Mill was used by the firm until the 1890s , when most of it was demolished , leaving only the Rag Room .
In 1930 the company adapted the Rag Room for use as the company museum , a role it has filled since . Following plans developed by architect Charles S. Keefe , the company reinforced the building 's foundation with steel and concrete , filling in a number of its windows with stonework . The interior was significantly reworked , with new structural woodwork and flooring . Upon completion the interior was said to resemble that of the Old Ship Church in Hingham , Massachusetts . In 1967 the company retained the Olmsted Brothers firm to design landscaping of the area , although their work has since been compromised to some extent by later development on the property . The site was declared a National Historic Landmark and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 . In 2005 it became part of the listed Cranesville Historic District , which includes , among other properties , the 1816 home of Zenas Crane .
The Rag Room was where Zenas Marshall Crane 's son , Winthrop Murray Crane ( 1853 – 1920 ) , began his career in the papermaking business . In 1878 he was responsible for acquiring Crane & Co . ' s exclusive government contract to manufacture the paper used in the currency of the United States . In addition to running Crane & Co. during the late 19th century , Murray Crane served as Governor of Massachusetts and United States Senator , and played an influential role in Republican Party politics .
= = Description = =
The Rag Room is a single @-@ room single @-@ story gray fieldstone building . It is three window bays wide and seven long , featuring stepped gable ends and a slate roof . It originally stood at the southwest part of the Stone Mill complex ,
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5 ( exit 194 on the interstate ) . US @-@ 412 continues straight through the interchange , forming the Cimarron Turnpike , while US @-@ 64 follows I @-@ 35 southbound . US @-@ 64 splits away from the interstate in Perry at exit 186 , heading due east , deeper into Perry . In downtown Perry , about 2 1 ⁄ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 8 km ) east of I @-@ 35 , US @-@ 64 has a brief concurrency with US @-@ 77 . US @-@ 64 continues east out of Perry . West of Morrison , the highway crosses US @-@ 177 . US @-@ 64 then passes through Morrison . East of town , US @-@ 64 has an interchange with the Cimarron Turnpike , still carrying US @-@ 412 , at turnpike exit 22 . US @-@ 64 continues northeast to Lela , where it serves as the northern terminus of SH @-@ 108 , which runs along the Noble – Pawnee county line . US @-@ 64 continues east into Pawnee County .
About seven miles ( 11 km ) into Pawnee County , US @-@ 64 enters the county seat , Pawnee . Here , the route begins a concurrency with SH @-@ 18 . The two highways head southeast out of town together for just over two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before SH @-@ 18 splits off to the south toward Lone Chimney . US @-@ 64 continues alone to the east for about 12 3 ⁄ 4 miles ( 20 @.@ 5 km ) before beginning another concurrency , this time with SH @-@ 99 , on the outskirts of Cleveland . The two highways leave Cleveland , proceeding east through unincorporated territory , before re @-@ entering the city . Here , the two highways head in separate directions , with SH @-@ 99 heading north and US @-@ 64 heading southeast . This portion of the highway runs parallel to Keystone Lake , a reservoir formed by the impounded Arkansas River . US @-@ 64 intersects with SH @-@ 48 at the latter 's northern terminus before merging with US @-@ 412 in a partial interchange ( the missing movements are provided via SH @-@ 48 ) . This interchange is also the Cimarron Turnpike 's eastern endpoint .
= = = Tulsa area = = =
US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 412 continue east from the eastern terminus of the Cimarron Turnpike in southeastern Pawnee as a freeway known as the Keystone Expressway . This highway continues eastward along a peninsula into Lake Keystone . Here , the highway serves as the southern limit of Westport and Mule Barn , which remains an incorporated town despite having a population of zero . The freeway turns southeast , briefly entering Westport before crossing Lake Keystone into Osage County . US @-@ 64 and US @-@ 412 run through Osage County for just under 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) , cutting across a corner of the county before entering Tulsa County .
Upon entering Tulsa County , US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 412 serve as the northern terminus of SH @-@ 151 . The freeway passes through an outlying parcel of Sand Springs , running parallel to the Arkansas River , before emerging into unincorporated territory . Proceeding east , the freeways re @-@ enter Sand Springs , passing through an interchange with SH @-@ 97 just south of downtown . SH @-@ 51 joins the Keystone Expressway at this interchange . The freeway then enters Tulsa ( estimated population 394 @,@ 098 as of 2012 ) , the second @-@ largest city in Oklahoma . The Keystone Expressway continues to an interchange at the northwest corner of the Inner Dispersal Loop ( IDL ) , a ring of freeways encircling downtown Tulsa . At this interchange , US @-@ 64 meets I @-@ 244 and the L.L. Tisdale Parkway . US @-@ 412 follows I @-@ 244 east , while US @-@ 64 and SH @-@ 51 turn south along I @-@ 244 westbound . The three highways then run along the western side of the IDL . At the southwest corner of the loop lies an interchange serving as the western terminus of unsigned I @-@ 444 . US @-@ 64 and SH @-@ 51 split away from I @-@ 244 at this interchange to join I @-@ 444 and US @-@ 75 . I @-@ 444 , US @-@ 64 , US @-@ 75 , and SH @-@ 51 head east along the south leg of the IDL . At the southeast corner of the IDL , the highways part ways ; I @-@ 444 and US @-@ 75 turn north along the east side of the IDL , while US @-@ 64 and SH @-@ 51 split off to the east .
US @-@ 64 and SH @-@ 51 proceed southeast from downtown along another freeway , the Broken Arrow Expressway . Between Lewis Avenue and Sheridan Road , a rail line runs down the median of the highway . After the freeway splits away from the railroad alignment , it comes to an interchange with I @-@ 44 / SH @-@ 66 . From here , the Broken Arrow Expressway heads southeast to an interchange with the Mingo Valley Expressway , which carries US @-@ 169 . Here , US @-@ 64 splits away to follow the southbound Mingo Valley Expressway , while SH @-@ 51 continues southeast on the Broken Arrow Expressway . US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 169 follow a due south course to an interchange with the Creek Turnpike . The freeway merges with a free section of the turnpike , heading west . At an interchange with Memorial Drive , US @-@ 64 turns south , splitting away from the freeway . US @-@ 169 ends at this point , and tolls resume on the Creek Turnpike to the west of the interchange .
From here , US @-@ 64 proceeds south on Memorial Drive into Bixby . In Bixby , the highway crosses the Arkansas River for the second time . Further south , it serves as the eastern terminus of SH @-@ 67 . On the southern outskirts of Bixby , it turns east , passing through unincorporated Leonard before exiting Tulsa County .
= = = Eastern Oklahoma = = =
Southeast of Leonard , US @-@ 64 cuts across extreme southwestern Wagoner County , passing through Stone Bluff , before entering Muskogee County . Approximately 2 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) south of the county line , the highway serves the town of Haskell , where it begins a concurrency with SH @-@ 72 and junctions with SH @-@ 104 at its western terminus . US @-@ 64 and SH @-@ 72 head south from Haskell , passing through unincorporated Jamesville and coming to a junction south of the settlement . Here , SH @-@ 72 splits away from US @-@ 64 , continuing a southbound course straight through the junction to join westbound US @-@ 62 . The western leg of this junction leads to westbound SH @-@ 16 . US @-@ 64 turns to the east , joined by eastbound US @-@ 62 and SH @-@ 16 . The three routes serve as the southern terminus of SH @-@ 162 , a spur route to Taft . The road forms a gentle S @-@ curve as it comes into the city of Muskogee , the county seat . Here , the routes split ways at an intersection with US @-@ 69 ; US @-@ 62 ad SH @-@ 16 turn north along US @-@ 69 , while US @-@ 64 follows southbound US @-@ 69 . US @-@ 62 BUS / US @-@ 64 BUS continue east from the intersection . US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 69 continue south to an intersection with Peak Boulevard , where US @-@ 64 heads east on its own . US @-@ 62 follows Peak Boulevard for about 1 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 0 km ) , exiting at an interchange with US @-@ 64 Business ; mainline US @-@ 64 continues south past the terminus of US @-@ 64 Business , while SH @-@ 165 continues east on Peak Boulevard . US @-@ 64 proceeds south for just under sixteen miles ( 26 km ) to Warner , where it forms the eastern terminus of US @-@ 266 and the northern terminus of SH @-@ 2 . US @-@ 64 turns back to the east here , running parallel to I @-@ 40 between Warner and Webbers Falls , where it has an interchange with the Muskogee Turnpike . East of the turnpike interchange , US @-@ 64 begins a concurrency with SH @-@ 100 . The two highways pass northwest of downtown Webbers Falls before crossing the Arkansas River , which forms the boundary of Muskogee County , a third time .
The final county US @-@ 64 passes through on its trek through Oklahoma is Sequoyah County , where much of its path loosely follows that of I @-@ 40 . SH @-@ 100 splits away from US @-@ 64 at an intersection about 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) east of the Muskogee – Sequoyah county line , in Gore . At this same intersection , US @-@ 64 is joined by SH @-@ 10 , which follows it out of Gore before splitting off southeast of town . US @-@ 64 continues alone to the town of Vian , where it intersects SH @-@ 82 . East of Vian , US @-@ 64 serves the county seat , Sallisaw , where it overlaps US @-@ 59 . On the southeast side of the city , it comes to an interchange with I @-@ 40 ( exit 311 from the Interstate ) . US @-@ 64 heast southeast from Sallisaw , turning back to the east at the eastern terminus of SH @-@ 141 . It crosses under I @-@ 40 just east of here , although there are no ramps between the two roads . US @-@ 64 then enters Muldrow . Here , the highway intersects SH @-@ 64B . US @-@ 64 then continues into Roland , where another interchange with I @-@ 40 ( exit 325 ) is located . The highway then turns southeast , passing north of Moffett , with two interchanges serving SH @-@ 64D , which heads north to Dora , Arkansas , and Grand Boulevard , which heads south into Moffett . US @-@ 64 then crosses the Arkansas River a fourth time , the final crossing in Oklahoma ; the river 's east bank is the Oklahoma – Arkansas state line .
= = History = =
US @-@ 64 was one of the original United States Numbered Highways designated at the highway system 's creation on November 11 , 1926 . It stretched from the New Mexico state line in the Oklahoma panhandle east to the Arkansas state line near Fort Smith . The original route included two sharp , right @-@ angle turns near the city of Freedom . On February 19 , 1934 , the Oklahoma Highway Commission approved the re @-@ routing of US @-@ 64 onto a roadway a bit further west to eliminate these turns . On November 9 , 1937 , the highway was re @-@ routed through the city of Tulsa , as well . Later , in 1943 just south of the city of Muskogee , US @-@ 64 and SH @-@ 2 , which was then concurrent with US @-@ 64 , were relocated slightly to the west to allow for the new Davis Field air base to be constructed at the place the highways had run before relocation .
On July 7 , 1947 , another modification to the route was made , moving its western terminus from the northern portion of the panhandle to a new roadway in the southern section . The next significant change to the highway took place on April 4 , 1960 , when it was realigned to the north between the cities of Gore and Vian . Two years later , on April 4 , 1962 , US @-@ 64 was relocated to the north west of Tulsa , near Sand Springs . On November 4 , 1963 , a bypass was added through the city of Enid . It was designated as US @-@ 64 Bypass and ran on Willow Avenue and 30th Street . A couple of months later , on February 3 , 1964 , US @-@ 64 was moved onto a freeway through the southeastern portion of Tulsa . Later , on December 1 of the same year , similar reroutings through Tulsa and Broken Arrow were approved by the Oklahoma Department of Highways .
The routing of US @-@ 64 was modified further on July 6 , 1965 , through the city of Enid . The routing of US @-@ 64 Bypass , which was designated two years earlier , was replaced by that of US @-@ 64 itself , and what used to be US @-@ 64 became part of a new business loop ( US @-@ 64 Bus . ) through the city . The Oklahoma Department of Highways approved a rerouting of the designation onto a freeway south of Muskogee on October 3 , 1966 , and a relocation slightly to the north between Jamesville and Muskogee on July 10 , 1967 . However , neither of these modifications was completed until around 1969 . Then , on June 1 , 1970 , US @-@ 64 was relocated across the Arkansas River between Webber Falls and Gore . Between then and 1972 , US @-@ 64 was realigned between Enid and Perry , with the old highway becoming SH @-@ 164 .
By 1974 , the majority of the freeway that US @-@ 64 was to occupy in Tulsa was complete , and it was relocated onto the completed portion of the freeway . Only the portion in the downtown section of the city was yet to be completed . The remainder of the freeway , the concurrency with Interstate 444 , was not completed until about 1983 . The next and final major modification to the designation of US @-@ 64 took place when it was moved from its route through eastern Tulsa onto the newly constructed Creek Turnpike over the first half of 1992 . The route has undergone only minor changes since then .
The section of US @-@ 64 between Webbers Falls and Gore was pressed into service as a detour for I @-@ 40 traffic after the collapse of its bridge over the Arkansas River on May 26 , 2002 . The detour significantly impacted the town of Gore . Local firefighters directed traffic there 24 hours a day , with daytime temperatures approaching 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . Businesses in Gore reported loss of revenue due to the traffic ; one gas station reported a 30 % decline in revenue while traffic was detoured through town . Delays of thirty to fifty minutes on the 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) detour were typical , although trains passing through Gore could lengthen wait times by 15 minutes .
= = Spurs = =
Near the east end of its route through Oklahoma , US @-@ 64 currently connects to two short highways , bearing the number " 64 " with a letter suffix , branching off from the interstate to connect the highway to other roads . Both of these highways lie entirely within Sequoyah County and connect US @-@ 64 to I @-@ 40 .
In the past , US @-@ 64 also connected to a short spur highway in Perry .
= = = SH @-@ 64A = = =
State Highway 64A began at I @-@ 35 exit 186 and extended east into Perry for approximately two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . SH @-@ 64A first appeared on the official state highway map in 1965 , though it was not labeled as SH @-@ 64A until the 1966 edition .
When US @-@ 64 was realigned around 1971 , US @-@ 64 was realigned to follow SH @-@ 64A through Perry . The SH @-@ 64A designation was retired at this time .
= = = SH @-@ 64B = = =
State Highway 64B begins at I @-@ 40 exit 321 in Muldrow and heads north along Main Street , connecting with US @-@ 64 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) north of the interstate . From here , the highway continues north along Main Street through downtown Muldrow . After passing through downtown , SH @-@ 64B leaves the city limits and proceeds north to unincorporated Long . North of Long , it comes to its northern terminus at SH @-@ 101 . SH @-@ 64B 's total length is 11 @.@ 39 miles ( 18 @.@ 33 km ) .
SH @-@ 64B first appeared on the 1959 state highway map as a gravel highway . By 1962 , the southern half of the highway had been paved . The remainder of the highway was paved by the following year .
= = = SH @-@ 64C = = =
State Highway 64C was a short state highway in Sequoyah County that existed briefly in the early 1970s . SH @-@ 64C began at SH @-@ 64B north of Muldrow . From here , it proceeded southeast in a stairstep fashion , using a mix of gravel and paved roads , to Roland . From Roland , it continued south , crossing I @-@ 40 and coming to its eastern terminus at US @-@ 64 . Its length was nine miles ( 14 km ) .
SH @-@ 64C first appeared on the 1974 state highway map . By the following year , the portion of highway between downtown Roland and US @-@ 64 had been removed from the state highway system , bringing its length down to eight miles ( 13 km ) . It had been removed from the state highway system in its entirety by 1976 .
= = = SH @-@ 64D = = =
State Highway 64D is a highway beginning at US @-@ 64 in Moffett , running parallel to the Oklahoma – Arkansas state line to its northern terminus at I @-@ 40 exit 330 just west of Dora , Arkansas . SH @-@ 64D is 3 @.@ 65 miles ( 5 @.@ 87 km ) long .
SH @-@ 64D first appeared on the 1974 state map . At that time , the highway had a gravel road surface . By the next year , it had been paved in its entirety .
= = Junction list = =
= Jackalope =
The jackalope is a mythical animal of North American folklore ( a fearsome critter ) described as a jackrabbit with antelope horns . The word " jackalope " is a portmanteau of " jackrabbit " and " antelope " , although the jackrabbit is not a rabbit , and the American antelope is not an antelope . Also , many jackalope taxidermy mounts , including the original , are actually made with deer antlers .
In the 1930s , Douglas Herrick and his brother , hunters with taxidermy skills , popularized the American jackalope by grafting deer antlers onto a jackrabbit carcass and selling the combination to a local hotel in Douglas , Wyoming . Thereafter , they made and sold many similar jackalopes to a retail outlet in South Dakota , and another taxidermist continues to manufacture the horned rabbits in the 21st century . Stuffed and mounted , jackalopes are found in many bars and other places in the United States ; stores catering to tourists sell jackalope postcards and other paraphernalia , and commercial entities in America and elsewhere have used the word " jackalope " or a jackalope logo as part of their marketing strategies . The jackalope has appeared in published stories , poems , television shows , video games , and a low @-@ budget mockumentary film . The Wyoming Legislature has considered bills to make the jackalope the state 's official mythological creature .
The underlying legend of the jackalope , upon which the Wyoming taxidermists were building , may be related to similar stories in other cultures and other historical times . Researchers suggest that at least some of the tales of horned hares were inspired by sightings of rabbits infected with the Shope papilloma virus . It causes horn- and antler @-@ like tumors to grow in various places on a rabbit 's head and body .
Folklorists see the jackalope as one of a group of fabled creatures common to American culture since Colonial days . These appear in tall tales about hodags , giant turtles , Bigfoot , and many other mysterious beasts and in novels like Moby Dick . The tales lend themselves to comic hoaxing by entrepreneurs who seek attention for their products , their persons , or their towns .
= = Name = =
Jackalope is a portmanteau word that combines two words , jackrabbit and antelope .
Jackrabbits are actually hares rather than rabbits though both are mammals in the order Lagomorpha . Wyoming is home to three species of hares , all in the genus Lepus . These are the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit , the white @-@ tailed jackrabbit , and the snowshoe hare .
The antelope is actually a pronghorn ( Antilocapra americana ) rather than an antelope , although one of its colloquial names in North America is " antelope " . Some of the largest herds of wild pronghorns , which are found only in western North America , are in Wyoming . The adults grow to about 3 feet ( 1 m ) tall , weigh up to 150 pounds ( 68 kg ) , and can run at sustained speeds approaching 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) .
= = Origins = =
Stories or descriptions of animal hybrids have appeared in many cultures worldwide . A 13th @-@ century Persian work depicts a rabbit with a single horn , like a unicorn . In Europe , the horned rabbit appeared in Medieval and Renaissance folklore in Bavaria ( the wolpertinger ) and elsewhere . Natural history texts such as Historiae Naturalis de Quadrupetibus Libri ( The History Book of Natural Quadrangles ) by Joannes Jonstonus ( John Jonston ) in the 17th century and illustrations such as Animalia Qvadrvpedia et Reptilia ( Terra ) : Plate XLVII by Joris Hoefnagel ( 1522 – 1600 ) in the 16th century included the horned hare . These early scientific texts described and illustrated the hybrids as though they were real creatures , but by the end of the 18th century scientists generally rejected the idea of horned hares as a biological species .
References to horned rabbits may originate in sightings of rabbits affected by the Shope papilloma virus , named for Richard E. Shope , M.D. , who described it in a scientific journal in 1933 . Shope initially examined wild cottontail rabbits that had been shot by hunters in Iowa and later examined wild rabbits from Kansas . They had " numerous horn @-@ like protuberances on the skin over various parts of their bodies . The animals were referred to popularly as ' horned ' or ' warty ' rabbits . " Legends about horned rabbits also occur in Asia and Africa as well as Europe , and researchers suspect the changes induced by the virus might underlie at least some of those tales .
In Central America , mythological references to a horned rabbit creature can be found in Huichol legends . The Huichol oral tradition has passed down tales of a horned rabbit and of the deer getting horns from the rabbit . The rabbit and deer were paired , though not combined as a hybrid , as day signs in the calendar of the Mesoamerican period of the Aztecs , as twins , brothers , even the sun and moon .
= = = Douglas variant = = =
The New York Times attributes the American jackalope 's origin to a 1932 hunting outing involving Douglas Herrick ( 1920 – 2003 ) of Douglas , Wyoming . Herrick and his brother had studied taxidermy by mail order as teenagers , and when the brothers returned from a hunting trip for jackrabbits , Herrick tossed a carcass into the taxidermy store , where it came to rest beside a pair of deer antlers . The accidental combination of animal forms sparked Herrick 's idea for a jackalope . The first jackalope the brothers put together was sold for $ 10 to Roy Ball , who displayed it in Douglas ' La Bonte Hotel . The mounted head was stolen in 1977 . The jackalope became a popular local attraction in Douglas , where the Chamber of Commerce issues Jackalope Hunting Licenses to tourists . The tags are good for hunting during official jackalope season , which occurs for only one day : June 31 ( a nonexistent date as June has 30 days ) , from midnight to 2 a.m. The hunter must have an IQ greater than 50 but not over 72 . Thousands of " licenses " have been issued . In Herrick 's home town of Douglas , there is an 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) statue of a jackalope , and the town hosts an annual Jackalope Days Celebration in early June .
Building on the Herrick 's success , Frank English of Rapid City , South Dakota has made and sold many thousands of jackalopes since retiring from the Air Force in 1981 . He is the only supplier of the altered animal heads to Cabela 's , a major outdoor @-@ theme retail company . His standard jackalopes and " world @-@ record " jackalopes sell for about $ 150 .
In Man and Beast in American Comic Legend , folklorist Richard Dorson recounts the Douglas variant but also an alternative that will " surely infuriate the residents of Douglas ... " . According to Dorson , in Mythical Creatures of the North Country ( 1969 ) , historian Walker D. Wyman acknowledged the existence of what he called the Alkali Area Jackalope of the western United States . However , he expressed doubt that it predated the Jack @-@ pine Jackalope of Minnesota and Wisconsin , " a mythological throwback that defies even the most competent biologists of the region . " Wyman claimed there were three known specimens of this primary jackalope — in Augusta in west @-@ central Wisconsin ; Cornucopia , along the south shore of Lake Superior ; and in a north shore museum and lumber camp — all " presumably shot by careless hunters during the deer season . "
In a 1978 revision and expansion of his book , which includes material on the rubberado porcupine , the snoligoster , the three @-@ tailed bavalorus , the squonk , and many other creatures , Wyman devotes four pages to the jackalope . In a turnabout from his earlier claims of a North Country origin for the antlered hare , he says , " The center of its vast range seems to be Wyoming . " Evidence of wide dispersal of Lepus antilocapra wyomingensis from its original range , he claims , are labels such as " Tioga , Pennsylvania , " and " Hongkong " stamped on mounted jackalope heads in barrooms across the United States .
= = Tall tales = =
The jackalope is subject to many outlandish and largely tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek claims embedded in tall tales about its habits . Jackalopes are said to be so dangerous that hunters are advised to wear stovepipes on their legs to keep from being gored . Stores in Douglas sell jackalope milk , but The New York Times questions its authenticity on grounds that milking a jackalope is known to be fraught with risk . One of the ways to catch a jackalope is to entice it with whiskey , the jackalope 's beverage of choice .
The jackalope can imitate the human voice , according to legend . During the days of the Old West , when cowboys gathered by the campfires singing at night , jackalopes could be heard mimicking their voices or singing along , usually as a tenor . It is said that jackalopes , the rare Lepus antilocapra , only breed during lightning flashes and that their antlers make the act difficult despite the hare 's reputation for fertility .
= = Official recognition = =
In 2005 , the legislature of Wyoming considered a bill to make the jackalope the state 's official mythological creature . It passed the House by a 45 – 12 margin , but the session ended before the Senate could take up the bill , which died . In 2013 , following the death of the bill 's sponsor , Dave Edwards , the state legislature reintroduced the bill . It again passed the House but died in the rules committee of the Senate . In 2015 , three state representatives put forth the jackalope proposal again , this time as House Bill 66 , and again it passed the House but died in a Senate committee . One of the co @-@ sponsors , Dan Zwonitzer , said , " I ’ ll keep bringing it back until it passes . "
In 2014 , the Wyoming Lottery adopted a jackalope logo for its lottery tickets and marketing materials . Lottery officials chose the fictitious animal , which they named YoLo , over the bucking horse and other state symbols .
= = In popular culture = =
Since Herrick and his brother began selling manipulated taxidermy heads in the 1930s , such trophies — as well as jackalope postcards and related gift @-@ shop items — can be found in many places beyond Douglas . The student magazine of the Santa Fe University of Art and Design in New Mexico is called The Jackalope . On the other side of the world , The Hop Factory craft beer cafe in Newcastle , Australia , uses a leaping jackalope as its logo . In 1986 , James Abdnor , a senator from South Dakota , gave U.S. President Ronald Reagan a stuffed jackalope ( rabbit head with antlers ) during a presidential campaign stop in Rapid City .
Many books , including a large number written for children , feature the jackalope . A search for " jackalope " in the WorldCat listings of early 2015 produced 225 hits , including 57 for books . Among them is Juan and the Jackalope : A Children 's Book in Verse by Rudolfo Anaya . The WorldCat summary of Anaya 's book says : " Competing for the hand of the lovely Rosita and her rhubarb pie , Juan rides a Jackalope in a race against Pecos Bill . " A short story , " Jackalope Wives " by Ursula Vernon , has been nominated for a 2014 Nebula Award .
Musicians have used the jackalope in various ways . R. Carlos Nakai , a Native American flute player , formerly belonged to a group called Jackalope . In the late 1980s , it performed what Nakai called " synthacousticpunkarachiNavajazz " , which combined " improvisation , visual art , storytelling , dance and dramatic theatrical effects . " Nakai said he wanted people to dream as they listened to the music . Jakalope is a Canadian alternative pop / rock group formed in 2003 by Dave " Rave " Ogilvie . The band Miike Snow uses the jackalope as its logo . Band member Andrew Wyatt said during an interview in 2012 that the logo was meant to signify experiment and adventure . Of the 225 Worldcat hits resulting from a search for " jackalope " , 95 were related to music .
Jackalopes have appeared in movies and on television . A jackalope named " Jack Ching Bada Bing " was a recurring character in a series of sketches on the television show America 's Funniest People . The show 's host , Dave Coulier , voiced the rascally hybrid . In 2003 , Pixar featured a jackalope in the short animation Boundin ' . The jackalope gave helpful advice to a lamb who was feeling sad after being shorn .
Jackalopes have appeared in video games . In Red Dead Redemption , the player is able to hunt and skin jackalopes . In Redneck Rampage , jackalopes , including one the size of a bus , are enemies . Jackalopes are part of the action in Guild Wars 2 .
A low @-@ budget jackalope mockumentary , Stagbunny , aired in Casper and Douglas in 2006 . The movie included interviews with the owner of a Douglas sporting goods store who claimed to harbor a live jackalope on his premises and with a paleontologist who explained the natural history of the jackalope and its place in the fossil record .
Beginning in 1997 , the Central Hockey League included a team called the Odessa Jackalopes . The team joined the South Division of the North American Hockey League before the 2011 – 12 season . An Odessa sports writer expressed concern about the team 's name , which he found insufficiently intimidating and which sounded like " something you might eat for breakfast . "
Jackalope Brewing Company , the first commercial brewery in Tennessee run by women , opened in Nashville in 2011 . Its four craft beers are Thunder Ann , Rompo , Bearwalker , and Leghorn .
= = Scholarly interpretations = =
Folklorist John A. Gutowski sees in the Douglas jackalope an example of an American tall tale publicized by a local community that seeks wider recognition . Through a combination of hoax and media activity , the town or other community draws attention to itself for social or economic reasons . A common adjunct to this activity involves the creation of an annual festival to perpetuate the town 's association with the local legend .
Gutowski finds evidence of what he calls the " protofestival " pattern throughout the United States . In addition to the jackalope , his examples include the sea serpent of Nantucket , which in 1937 led to " stories of armadas hunting the monster , and footprint discoveries by local businessmen " , accompanied by wide publicity . In similar fashion , Newport , Arkansas , publicized its White River Monster , and Algiers , Louisiana , claimed to be home to a flying Devil Man . Ware , Massachusetts , drew media attention to its local reputation for alligator sightings . Perry , New York , held Silver Lake Sea Serpent Festivals based on a local hoax . The Hodag Festival in Rhinelander , Wisconsin , celebrates " discovery " of a prehistoric creature in a nearby pit . Willow Creek , California , hosts an annual Bigfoot Festival . Since 1950 , Churubusco , Indiana , has celebrated Turtle Days , based on a story , part real and part invented , about the hunt for the Beast of Busco , a 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) snapping turtle said to be living in a nearby lake .
Common to these tales , Gutowski says , is the recurring motif of the quest for the mythical animal , often a monster . The same motif , he notes , appears in American novels such as Moby Dick and Old Man and the Sea and in monster movies such as King Kong and Jaws and in world literature such as Beowulf . The monster motif also appears in tales of contemporary places outside the United States , such as Scotland , with its Loch Ness Monster . What is not global , Gutowski says , is the embrace of local monster tales by American communities that put them to use through " public relations hoaxes , boisterous boosterism , and [ a ] carnival atmosphere ... " .
Folklorist Richard M. Dorson also cites the " booster impulse , mingled with entrepreneurial hoaxing " as the way that Douglas with its jackalope , Churubusco with its giant turtle , and other towns with their own local legends rise above anonymity . He traces the impulse and the methods to the promotional literature of colonial times that depicted North America as an earthly paradise . Much later , in the 19th century , settlers transferred that optimistic vision to the American West , where it culminated in " boosterism " . Although other capitalist countries advertise their products , Dorson says , " ... the intensity of the American ethos in advertising , huckstering , attention @-@ getting , media @-@ manipulating to sell a product , a personality , a town is beyond compare . "
= Rocket Science ( film ) =
Rocket Science is a 2007 American comedy @-@ drama film written and directed by Jeffrey Blitz , and starring Reece Thompson , Anna Kendrick , Nicholas D 'Agosto , Vincent Piazza , and Aaron Yoo . It tells the story of Hal Hefner , a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old stutterer who decides to join his school 's debate team when he develops a crush on its star member , and addresses the themes of coming of age , sexuality , and finding one 's voice .
Blitz conceived a rough storyline for the film while making Spellbound , a documentary about 1999 's Scripps National Spelling Bee , but an HBO Films executive persuaded him to write the film based on his own adolescence when he told her about his experiences as a stutterer . The film 's producers visited several cities in the United States and Canada ; Thompson was cast based on a tape which his agent had sent and a follow @-@ up audition after the first actor cast in the lead was forced to pull out . The film was shot over 30 days in Baltimore , Maryland and Trenton , New Jersey .
Rocket Science premiered on January 19 , 2007 at the Sundance Film Festival and was theatrically released on August 10 . It was not a financial success , earning only US $ 756 @,@ 000 from its $ 4 @.@ 5 million budget , though it was well @-@ received by critics . Reviewers praised Thompson and Kendrick 's performances and the film 's parallels to real life ; others believed that the film was deliberately quirky and forgettable . It was nominated for Sundance 's Dramatic Grand Jury Prize and three Independent Spirit Awards . Though it failed to win any of the Grand Jury Prizes at Sundance , Blitz won its Dramatic Directing Award .
= = Plot = =
Hal Hefner is a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old student of Plainsboro , New Jersey with a pronounced stutter . His older brother Earl is an obsessive @-@ compulsive kleptomaniac , his father Doyle has recently walked out on the family after a heated argument , and his mother Juliet has begun to date the father of his school friend , Heston .
Hal is riding the school bus home one day when he is approached by Ginny Ryerson , the articulate , competitive star of the debate team . She urges him to join her and replace her former partner , Ben Wekselbaum , who has dropped out of high school after falling silent mid @-@ speech and losing the New Jersey State High School Policy Debate Championship . Though Hal initially declines , he finds himself besotted with Ginny and agrees to be her partner . Hal and Ginny begin to study for the upcoming tournament and form arguments on either side of whether the federal government should support the teaching of sexual abstinence in public schools . When Hal finds himself unable to talk during a practice debate , he runs out of the room and hides in the janitorial closet , where Ginny joins him . Hal kisses her hopefully , and they make out , but she subsequently falls out of contact with him . Ginny 's parents assure him that she is confident with the work they have already completed and that she will meet him on the day of the debate .
On the day of the tournament , Coach Lumbly tells the debate team that Ginny has transferred to Townsend Prep for the remainder of her senior year and that Hal will be paired with Heston for the day . Struggling with his speech and his stutter , Hal calls his therapist , who suggests that he sing his speech or talk with a foreign accent . Hal and Heston finish the day without much success , while Ginny wins a trophy for First Place as an Individual Speaker , which inexplicably goes missing . Coach Lumbly asks Hal to leave the team , telling him that Ginny had never planned to debate as his partner and had only recruited him as a cruel joke to damage the school 's chances of winning . He breaks into Earl 's bedroom and takes a bottle of stolen tequila , then rides with Heston to his friend Lewis 's house , who lives across the street from Ginny . A drunken Hal drags Lewis 's mother 's cello across the street and throws it through Ginny 's window just as she is arriving home with her new teammate , Ram .
Later in the year , Hal 's mother breaks up with Heston 's father , and Hal decides to seek out Ginny and return her trophy , which he stole . She rejects his apology , and he travels to Trenton — the " Big City " — to find Ben , Ginny 's former debate partner . Hal convinces Ben to debate with him , and they register as a home @-@ schooled team in the upcoming Policy Debate Championships . In order to overcome his stutter , Ben helps Hal to write his entire speech to the tune of " The Battle Hymn of the Republic " . During the tournament , Hal is interrupted in the middle of his song @-@ speech by Coach Lumbly and a Debate Official who disqualify Hal and Ben on the grounds that neither of them is home @-@ schooled . Ben is satisfied with their efforts , but Hal finds Ginny before leaving . He insists that one day will be his day , while she tells him that it was not easy for her to betray him as he walks off as he insults her with " the finger " . He spends the evening at a nearby beach , and when his father picks him up , Hal tries to tell him that life and love " shouldn 't be rocket science " , although he is unable to say the phrase " rocket science " due to his stutter .
= = Cast = =
Reece Thompson plays Hal Hefner , a shy fifteen @-@ year @-@ old student at Plainsboro High School , New Jersey with a pronounced stutter . Beginning in late 2004 , Rocket Science 's producers traveled to several American and Canadian cities looking for an actor to play the lead role of Hal . At one point , Carter Jenkins was set to play Hal , but NBC blocked this as he was contracted for further episodes of Surface . HBO Films told the producers after six months of searching for a Hal that it would abandon the project if a lead actor was not found in two weeks , at which point a desperate Jeffrey Blitz watched all of the unsolicited audition tapes that he had been sent and " knew immediately we had a promising candidate " when he saw Thompson 's tape . Although a casting call was originally posted for a teenage boy aged 13 – 18 who had a stutter and could also act , Thompson had previously been taught how to stutter . However Blitz wanted Hal to stutter in a different style , knowing he was going to block up on a particular word and looking for ways to work round it . Before filming , Thompson was taught this specific style by a speech pathologist .
Anna Kendrick plays Ginny Ryerson , the ambitious and competitive star of the Plainsboro High School debate team . Anna Kendrick was one of the first cast members to sign on to the film . Blitz recalls writing " Anna Kendrick is Ginny Ryerson " after her audition and , after auditioning many other girls , she was cast . To prepare for her role , Kendrick learned the typical debating strategy of " spreading " , a rapid @-@ fire delivery used in order to present as much evidence and information as possible within a time limit . Kendrick and Nicholas D 'Agosto studied with a college debate coach and also viewed a live high school debate . Ginny 's comment " I upped your game , little man " was inserted into the script by Blitz from a journal which he asked Kendrick to write in character .
Nicholas D 'Agosto plays Ben Wekselbaum , Ginny 's former debate partner who dropped out of high school to work at a dry cleaners after falling silent midspeech and losing the championship trophy . " Nick takes his work very seriously — it 's an approach that 's very much like Ben , in my mind , " said Blitz of D 'Agosto , calling his performance " just right " . D 'Agosto joked about his being cast as a high school student , having been cast as a student previously in Election , which was released eight years before Rocket Science , in 1999 . Like Kendrick , D 'Agosto had to learn a number of debating techniques to prepare for his role .
Vincent Piazza plays Earl Hefner , Hal 's obsessive @-@ compulsive , kleptomaniacal older brother . Vincent Piazza was studying at the New York acting school where Rocket Science casting sessions were being held ; he decided to audition and was one of the first actors to be cast . When he first auditioned , he spoke with a lisp , said Blitz : " I eventually decided to do away with the lisp — one major speech impediment per family is plenty — but kept many of the rest of the choices Vince brought to Earl . " Blitz cited Piazza 's portrayal of Earl as an example of " the strong choices that actors make in interpreting their character " .
Aaron Yoo plays Heston , Hal and Earl 's bi @-@ curious school friend who ends up joining Hal in the debate team . " Aaron made Heston almost an alien among the kids of New Jersey . He 's never quite connected to the scene but he 's always aware of it , " said Blitz about Yoo 's performance as Heston . He says Yoo was cast because of the " dramatic decisions " he brought to Heston 's portrayal " from the start " .
Josh Kay plays Lewis Garrles , an eleven @-@ year @-@ old boy whom Hal befriends while loitering in the street outside Ginny 's house . Blitz was pleased with Kay 's original audition : " When Josh Kay came in to audition in New York , it was instantly obvious that he was perfect : smart , deadpan and with a natural ability to either nail the timing of the lines himself or mimic my reading to him . "
Denis O 'Hare plays Doyle Hefner , Hal 's father who walks out on the family abruptly , following an argument with his wife about suitcases . Denis O 'Hare originally auditioned in 2005 for an alternate role , and , describing O 'Hare as a " must @-@ have " , Blitz had him re @-@ audition at a different session in the role of Doyle . Because of scheduling conflicts , O 'Hare was only available for filming on two days of production : the first day and the last , filming one of the first scenes of the film and also the final scene .
Maury Ginsberg plays Mr. Lewinsky , Hal 's vain speech therapist who offers no successful advice . The character was based on Blitz 's own experiences as a youth with many well @-@ meaning but mostly ineffective therapists when he sought treatments to his stutter .
Jonah Hill plays the Junior Philosopher , a teenager Hal meets in the library while studying for the policy debate with Ginny . Hill had initially auditioned for another role in the film , but was unavailable as he was shooting another film at the same time . Blitz was keen to have him appear , though , and so wrote him a small role as the Junior Philosopher , appearing in only two scenes .
Dan Cashman voices the narrator . Blitz chose to use an third @-@ person narrative narrator to juxtapose Hal , a character with no voice , with a character who is " nothing but a disembodied voice , a purely articulate voice " , showing " the gulf between who Hal is and who he wishes to be " .
Blitz and the film 's producers considered having celebrity cameos in Hal 's parents ' roles , though he decided that cameos would draw away from the film as the celebrities would not be " onscreen long enough for them to become someone other than the celebrity " . In between shooting the film and its release , Hill became a well @-@ known celebrity with the films Knocked Up and Superbad ; Blitz describes being " bummed about that " because of his reluctance to feature celebrities .
= = Themes = =
Film critic Justin Chang , writing for Variety , summarized the film as " eloquent about love , self @-@ realization and adolescent angst " . The main theme addressed in Rocket Science is Hal 's coming of age , which is portrayed both by his understanding of love and finding his voice . The film takes its title from Hal 's closing quote that understanding life and love " shouldn 't be rocket science " .
Blitz described Hal as " lost in the mystery of love " and he " loved the idea that a kid who is lost when he 's confronted by love and sex would be saddled with the name Hal Hefner " , an homage to Playboy founder Hugh Hefner . Throughout the film , Hal is seen to be surrounded by sex and relationships — titlecards for the seasons of the year are placed over images of kissing students ; Hal listens to his mother having intercourse with her new boyfriend ; his friend Lewis shows Hal images from the Kama Sutra ; while Lewis 's parents attempt to mend their relationship through music therapy — but the adults in the film were written to be similarly confused and frustrated with love . " In a world where all the children are trying so hard to be like adults " , according to Stylus ' Yannick LeJacq , " the adults are all sullenly try [ ing ] to reenact their childhood , taking every chance to ignore their children and savor the meaningless void of leisure time . "
Blitz believed that Hal 's stuttering was a metaphor for his lack of mastery of life and love : " He can 't control this thing that ought to be so simple ... And so much of his life is like that . " Journalist Mark Baumer highlighted the juxtaposition of Hal with the fast @-@ talking debaters , who are at opposite ends of the spectrum with their speech but are both struggling with communication and expression . Blitz said that " Even when [ the children ] can speak incredibly fast and are packing their sentences with tons of SAT words , they still don 't know exactly what they 're talking about . There is still a question about whether their content of what they 're talking about matches up with what they 're feeling or trying to express . Whether it 's the kid who 's talking a million miles an hour , but saying nothing or the kid who isn 't able to get out any word at all they 're both at the mercy of not knowing how to express what 's inside them . "
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
After the success of his 2002 documentary Spellbound , Jeffrey Blitz was encouraged by his agents to write fiction because of the larger revenue brought in by fiction films . Blitz began to piece together a story that had come to him while he had been filming Spellbound : " I kept thinking , what if we met a kid that was just an amazing lover of words ? What if we met a kid that was lured into the spelling bee because he was in love with a girl ? " He had compiled a mental list of characters who he expected to encounter while making Spellbound , several of whom eventually became Rocket Science characters . Despite claiming to be " allergic " to autobiographical films , he was persuaded by HBO executive Maud Nadler to write a screenplay based on his own adolescence when he told her that , as a teenager , he joined his school 's debate team to try and overcome his stutter . He says that he is uninterested in teen films , so " the only way I was going to do a teen movie is if I felt like I could try to be more honest about what the actual experience of being a teenager is like . " He was aware of the clichés in teen films , so " tried to undo them without wrecking them " . Blitz wrote the script " off and on " over a year in between stints of commercial directing . He cites directors Hal Ashby and Billy Wilder as his greatest influences with their absurdist comedies , though critics have suggested influence from Gary Larson , Alexander Payne , Mike Nichols and Wes Anderson — the latter despite Blitz specifically saying , " I did not want a Wes Andersen [ sic ] snowglobe artificial world . "
While many parts of Rocket Science are completely fictitious , a number of the story 's details are lifted directly from Blitz 's own experiences . In several scenes of the film , Hal is trying to ask for a slice of pizza but cannot say the word " pizza " ; this is drawn from Blitz 's experience of trying to order a hamburger from hotel room service without being able to say the word " hamburger " . Hal 's first debate scene is based on Blitz 's first debate , where , for a full eight minutes , he could only make the sound " agh " , and the scene in which Hal throws a cello through a window was inspired by Blitz 's own destruction of a flute . While Blitz grew up in Ridgewood , New Jersey , he chose to set the narrative in Plainsboro , New Jersey — a place he has never visited — because it was closer to Trenton , rather than New York City . He found it humorous that the characters referred to Trenton as the " Big City " and that Plainsboro seemed to orbit around a dead city , Trenton , in comparison to New York .
= = = Design = = =
Blitz hired Belgian Jo Willems as the cinematographer , having collaborated previously on commercials . Blitz admired Willems ' " European sensibility about shooting " and wanted to use his aesthetic to " tell a story that was equal parts deadpan and suggestive of the ' real ' world " . In creating a " look " for the film , he said that he relied upon " almost opposite impulses " — to tell the story intimately but also carry the comedy . Through the film , he used lighting and art direction that felt real , while framing the shots to come across as deadpan . Production designer Rick Butler chose bland , simple furniture and commonplace houses and cars to give the film a sense of timelessness and familiarity . The color palette in both production and costume design was drab and ordinary to give a deadpan undertone . Blitz was most inspired by the cinematography and production design of Hal Ashby 's films : " I watched his films again and again ... He has a masterful blending of absurd comedy and naturalism . "
= = = Filming = = =
The night before filming began , Blitz took Thompson , Piazza and Yoo to dinner , insisting that they stay in character . Thompson , as Hal , was unable to tell the waitress what he wanted to order ; Piazza , as Earl , obsessive @-@ compulsively asked the waitress for a fresh straw each time she passed ; and Yoo , as Heston , could not decide what to order and had the waitress explain the menu repeatedly . The purpose of the evening , according to Blitz , was for the actors to " be comfortable around each other inhabiting their roles without self @-@ consciousness " , as each of their roles required them to act in potentially embarrassing ways .
Principal photography began in Baltimore , Maryland on the week beginning July 18 , 2005 , the project receiving a tax rebate as part of Baltimore 's Employer Wage Rebate Program for filmmakers . The film was shot on a 30 @-@ day schedule with an overall budget of $ 4 @.@ 5 million . Blitz chose to film in Maryland , as its child labour laws are much less restrictive than those of New Jersey , where the film is set . This was important because Reece Thompson , who was sixteen years old at the time , appears in almost every scene . While Baltimore stood in for Plainsboro , New Jersey , scenes set in Trenton , New Jersey were filmed on location , including shots of the Lower Trenton Bridge over the Delaware River . The final scenes of the film took place on a boardwalk at the Jersey Shore with the shoot concluding at 5 am . While filming , Blitz sometimes used hand gestures from the director 's chair instead of yelling " cut " because of his stutter .
= = Score and soundtrack = =
Jeffrey Blitz wanted the film 's music to be " sweet and a touch melancholy and just a step out of rhythm " , demonstrating Hal 's sense of himself in the world , and to express his teenage angst while " maintain [ ing ] an underlying sweetness " . While writing the Rocket Science script , Blitz had been listening to indie rock band Clem Snide 's music and suggested the use of their music on the soundtrack to the HBO executive producers . He contacted Clem Snide 's lead singer Eef Barzelay to use some of the band 's songs , but Barzelay says " it just made more sense for me to write original instrumental music " , and composed the incidental score himself . When choosing instruments , he tried to create sounds that would match Hal 's awkwardness . " I had this little ukulele that I never played ... And Jeffrey [ Blitz ] had gotten a little bee in his bonnet about the accordion ... and then at one point I started using a kazoo . " One of his original songs , " I Love the Unknown " , was chosen from the 1999 album Your Favorite Music .
Blitz also chose to use the Violent Femmes ' songs " Blister in the Sun " , " Kiss Off " , and a cover version of " Add It Up " . The Violent Femmes ' songs were chosen for the film by Blitz before filming had begun as he believed that they expressed " the rage of love gone wrong better than any band out there " , and they allowed their songs to be used in the film after reading the script . Blitz thought that the Violent Femmes suggested " both [ Hal 's ] anger and the humor all around it " .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Rating = = =
When reviewed by the Motion Picture Association of America , Rocket Science was rated R for strong sexual language , brief sex , brief nudity , some violence and a scene depicting teen drinking . Jeffrey Blitz described the decision as " mind @-@ boggling " and " ludicrous " ; he claimed that the images of Kama Sutra seen briefly in the film were " antique Indian paintings " and that the teenagers ' discussion of blow jobs was harmless as they had clearly never engaged in fellatio themselves . He criticized the MPAA for its PG @-@ 13 rating of Live Free or Die Hard ( also released in 2007 ) , which involves " a girl getting groped at the beginning , all sorts of cursing , gigantic body count , just completely fucking crazy . " Other questionable elements were altered during production , including a more graphical male beefcake calendar shown to Hal by Heston .
= = = Theatrical release = = =
The world premiere of Rocket Science was held on January 19 , 2007 at the Sundance Film Festival . The film was subsequently screened at the European Film Market , U.S. Comedy Arts Festival , AFI Dallas International Film Festival , Philadelphia Film Festival , Atlanta Film Festival , Maryland Film Festival , San Francisco International Film Festival , Cannes Film Festival , Maui Film Festival , Provincetown International Film Festival , Nantucket Film Festival , and Edinburgh International Film Festival before its theatrical release on August 10 , 2007 .
Rocket Science had a limited theatrical release in the United States , initially playing only in selected theaters in New York City and Los Angeles . In its debut week beginning August 10 , it was the week 's second highest @-@ grossing independent film after 2 Days in Paris , earning US $ 58 @,@ 536 across six screens with a per @-@ screen average of $ 9 @,@ 756 . The following week , the film expanded to 40 screens but fell to a per @-@ screen average of $ 2 @,@ 930 . In its third week , it earned a per @-@ screen average of $ 1 @,@ 998 from 59 different theaters , placing 22nd on the list of highest @-@ grossing independent films with a cumulative total of $ 389 @,@ 261 . Rocket Science ended its theatrical run with a total domestic gross of US $ 714 @,@ 943 and a foreign gross of $ 40 @,@ 831 , a worldwide total of $ 755 @,@ 774 . It placed 258th for the highest @-@ grossing films of 2007 and 104th for the year 's R @-@ rated films .
= = = Home media = = =
Rocket Science was released on DVD on January 29 , 2008 in Region 1 and February 4 , 2008 in Region 2 . The single @-@ disc volume includes two additional featurettes : " The Making of Rocket Science " and a music video for " I Love the Unknown " performed by Eef Barzelay , featuring various clips from the film .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 83 % of 101 collected reviews for Rocket Science were positive , with an average score of 6 @.@ 9 / 10 . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 73 based on 28 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Chicago Sun @-@ Times critic Roger Ebert gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , praising Thompson and Kendrick 's performances and the film 's honesty and plausibility . He suspected that " a lot of high school students will recognize elements of real life in the movie . " Bruce Feld of Film Journal International agreed , calling the film a " dead @-@ on revelation of what high school is really like " . Variety magazine 's Justin Chang thought that Blitz displayed a " terrific ability to embrace people 's idiosyncrasies , real or fictitious " and called the cast a " strong ensemble " , commending Thompson , Kendrick and D 'Agosto in particular . The San Francisco Chronicle 's Peter Hartlaub thought that the script " never fails to present an unexpected scenario – usually accompanied by a moment or two of hilarity " , but felt that Hal 's ultimate failure was anticlimactic and " frustrating for moviegoers who prefer tidy endings " . Stephen Holden , however , writing for The New York Times , believed that the final scenes were a " [ sure ] sign of the movie 's integrity " . TV Guide 's Ken Fox similarly admired the more " real " ending , and wrote that the film was " sharp , observant ... [ and ] wonderfully dry " . Desson Thomson of The Washington Post praised Blitz for straying from common stereotypes and " opt [ ing ] for deeper , darker and wittier developments " .
Other reviews were less positive . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly graded Rocket Science as a C , calling the film " one of those terminally annoying , depressive @-@ yet @-@ coy Sundance faves in which the tale of a mopey teen misfit unfolds behind a hard candy shell of irony " . David Cornelius of DVD Talk criticized the film 's phoniness and deliberate quirkiness . He was impressed by Thompson 's portrayal of Hal , " bursting with authenticity " , but wrote that the supporting characters " never have the chance to ring true " in a cast " overflowing with unnecessary hokey colorfulness " . Online film critic for ReelViews James Berardinelli called the film " moderately uplifting but not especially memorable " and claimed that " the problem with Rocket Science is that the character at the center of the drama isn 't very energetic or , truth be told , interesting . " The Chicago Tribune 's Michael Phillips , who gave the film 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , felt that it " doesn 't quite work " and " the spark goes out of the writing " when Hal seeks out Ben in Trenton .
= = = Accolades = = =
Rocket Science was nominated for three Independent Spirit Awards , in the categories of " Best First Feature " , " Best First Screenplay " ( Jeffrey Blitz ) and " Best Supporting Female " ( Anna Kendrick ) , but failed to win any . At the Sundance Film Festival , Blitz won the Dramatic Directing Award and the film was nominated for the Dramatic Grand Jury Prize . The film 's DVD trailer was also nominated at the Golden Trailer Awards for the " Best In @-@ Theater Advertising " and " Best Music " .
= U.S. Route 13 in Delaware =
U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) is a U.S. highway running from Fayetteville , North Carolina north to Morrisville , Pennsylvania . In the U.S. state of Delaware , the route runs for 103 @.@ 33 mi ( 166 @.@ 29 km ) . It traverses the entire length of the state from the Maryland state line in Delmar , Sussex County to the Pennsylvania state line in Claymont , New Castle County . US 13 connects many important cities and towns in Delaware , including Seaford , Dover , and Wilmington . The entire length of US 13 in Delaware is a multilane divided highway with the exceptions of the segment through Wilmington and parts of Philadelphia Pike in Claymont . Between the Maryland border and Dover , US 13 serves as one of the main north @-@ south routes across the Delmarva Peninsula . From Dover north to the Wilmington area , the route is followed by the limited @-@ access Delaware Route 1 ( DE 1 ) toll road , which crosses the route several times and has multiple interchanges with it . US 13 bypasses downtown Wilmington to the east before it heads northeast of the city parallel to Interstate 495 ( I @-@ 495 ) and the Delaware River to Claymont .
The portion of US 13 between Delmar and Dover was constructed as a state highway during the 1920s . Between Dover and Wilmington , the route was built as part of the cross @-@ state DuPont Highway , which was completed in 1923 and improved transportation between northern and southern Delaware . North of Wilmington , what would become US 13 was originally built as the Philadelphia Pike in the 1820s and improved to a state highway by 1920 . US 13 was designated through Delaware when the U.S. Highway System was created in 1926 . The route was widened into a divided highway between Dover and Wilmington in the 1930s and between Delmar and Dover in the 1950s . US 13 was routed to bypass Dover in the 1950s . In 1970 , US 13 was moved to its current alignment between Wilmington and Claymont on a bypass built in the 1930s . The portion of US 13 between Dover and Wilmington saw heavy traffic heading to the Delaware Beaches in the summer , which led to the construction of a freeway " Relief Route " . This freeway was built as DE 1 , which was completed in 2003 . The construction of DE 1 necessitated the realignment of US 13 in two places .
= = Route description = =
= = = Sussex County = = =
US 13 enters Delaware from Maryland in the town of Delmar in Sussex County . At the state line , the route intersects DE / MD 54 , which follows the state line for several miles . US 13 continues north from the DE / MD 54 intersection on four @-@ lane divided Sussex Highway , passing businesses . The route heads to the east of US 13 Dragway and Delaware International Speedway before leaving Delmar and running through wooded areas with some farm fields and development . The road crosses DE 30 and continues through a mix of farmland and woodland before it reaches Laurel . Here , US 13 heads past a few businesses and comes to an intersection with DE 24 . Following this , the route crosses Broad Creek to the east of Records Pond and curves northwest . The road passes farm fields before it intersects the western terminus of US 9 . Past this intersection , US 13 leaves Laurel and runs through farms and woods with occasional development . The route heads north again and comes to an intersection with DE 20 to the east of Blades , at which point DE 20 turns north for a concurrency with US 13 . The road crosses the Nanticoke River and heads into Seaford , where it passes businesses prior to heading across Williams Pond . Past this , DE 20 splits from US 13 by heading to the west , while US 13 continues north through commercial areas .
US 13 leaves Seaford and continues into rural areas with some development along the road . Near Hearns Pond , the highway passes to the east of a residential development as Bridgeville Highway intersects the road . The road continues near housing subdivisions and businesses before it comes to the DE 18 intersection near Cannon . US 13 heads north past more farmland before it comes to an intersection south of Bridgeville where DE 404 heads to the southeast and US 13 Bus. and DE 404 Bus. head northwest into Bridgeville . At this point , US 13 becomes concurrent with DE 404 and the two routes pass through rural areas with some development to the east of Bridgeville . North of town , US 13 Bus. rejoins the road at an intersection only accessible from the southbound direction . A short distance later , DE 404 splits from US 13 by heading to the west . From here , the highway runs through a mix of farms and woods with some homes and businesses along the road . Upon reaching Greenwood , the travel lanes of US 13 split to include businesses in the median . In Greenwood , the route crosses DE 16 / DE 36 . Upon departing Greenwood , the median narrows and the road heads back into rural areas .
= = = Kent County = = =
US 13 continues north into Kent County , where the name of the road changes to Dupont Highway . The road runs through a mix of woodland and farmland with some homes , passing to the east of the small town of Farmington . To the south of Harrington , the route intersects DE 14 Truck and becomes concurrent with that route . The road head into Harrington and runs through commercial areas , passing to the east of the Delaware State Fairgrounds , which is where the Delaware State Fair is held and the Harrington Raceway & Casino is located . US 13 / DE 14 Truck crosses Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line , with the median widening to include businesses in it . US 13 intersects DE 14 , where the truck route ends , and continues near more commercial establishments before the median narrows again . The route leaves Harrington and traverses more farmland before crossing the Murderkill River in a wooded area to the west of Killens Pond State Park . US 13 passes more farms before it reaches Felton , where it intersects DE 12 and runs near homes and businesses . After heading out of Felton , the highway passes through rural areas of development before coming to Canterbury . Here , US 13 intersects DE 15 and forms a short concurrency with that route before it splits to the northwest along US 13 Alt . The road traverses woodland before it comes to a junction with DE 10 Alt. to the east of Woodside .
Following this , US 13 heads through a mix of farms and woods before suburban residential and commercial development increases as the highway approaches Camden . The route comes to an intersection with DE 10 in the eastern part of town . The road passes near homes and businesses before US 13 Alt. rejoins the route in the northern part of Camden . US 13 heads into Rodney Village , where another US 13 Alt. splits off to the northwest . US 13 enters Dover at the Webbs Lane intersection and comes to an at @-@ grade intersection with the western terminus of the limited @-@ access Puncheon Run Connector , which heads east to provide access to and from the northbound direction of the DE 1 toll road . Past this , the route runs northeast through business areas with some nearby homes , crossing South State Street . The road curves north and passes over the St. Jones River , heading past more commercial areas . US 13 intersects Martin Luther King , Jr . Boulevard , which heads west to State Capitol Complex , a short distance before four @-@ lane divided Bay Road merges into the northbound direction of US 13 . Past Bay Road , US 13 widens to six lanes and heads northwest , crossing DE 8 . The road curves north and then northwest again as it is lined with several businesses . North of Silver Lake , US 13 intersects the northern terminus of US 13 Alt. along with Leipsic Road east of the Delaware Agricultural Museum and Village . The highway runs between Dover International Speedway and Dover Downs to the northeast and Delaware State University to the southwest . The route passes to the southwest of Dover Mall and heads past more businesses before coming to an intersection with Scarborough Road , which heads northeast to an interchange with DE 1 and southwest to DE 15 in the western part of Dover .
Past Scarborough Road , the road narrows back to four lanes and passes northeast of the Delaware Technical Community College Terry Campus . At the Denneys Road intersection , US 13 leaves Dover and continues past residential and commercial development . To the east of Cheswold , the route crosses DE 42 at Bishops Corner . Following this , the highway heads through a mix of residential development and farmland , curving north at Garrisons Lake along the Leipsic River . US 13 passes more development and rural areas as it continues north and enters Smyrna . Here , the name changes to Dupont Boulevard and it runs past businesses as it reaches a ramp to the DE 1 toll road to the east . The road bends to the northwest as it passes to the east of as residential neighborhood and intersects Smyrna @-@ Leipsic Road . The route crosses Mill Creek to the east of Lake Como and heads through commercial areas in the eastern part of Smyrna . US 13 intersects DE 6 , at which point that route turns north for a concurrency . In the northern part of town , DE 6 splits from US 13 by heading west along DE 300 .
= = = New Castle County = = =
US 13 crosses the Duck Creek into New Castle County , where it heads through rural residential and commercial development and leaves Smyrna . The name changes to Dupont Parkway and the road passes the Smyrna Rest Area before it comes to an interchange with DE 1 , at which point the freeway crosses US 13 . The highway continues northwest through wooded areas with some farm fields and homes . US 13 passes a northbound weigh station before it heads under the DE 1 freeway . The route curves north and comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of DE 71 , which heads northwest to Townsend . A short distance past this intersection , the road passes under DE 1 again . The highway continues through woodland and development before it runs immediately to the east of DE 1 and passes near residential subdivisions . DE 1 curves northwest away from US 13 , and US 13 crosses the Appoquinimink River and heads into residential areas .
The route enters Odessa , where the median widens and the road curves to the northeast . In Odessa , US 13 is known as 5th Street northbound and 6th Street southbound in addition to Dupont Parkway . Through the town , the route passes homes with a few businesses , crossing DE 299 . Upon leaving Odessa , the median narrows again and US 13 continues into rural areas along Dupont Parkway , passing under DE 1 . The road curves north and crosses Drawyer Creek a short distance to the west of DE 1 . The highway runs through a mix of farmland and residential subdivisions before it comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of DE 896 in Boyds Corner , where Pole Bridge Road heads east to an interchange with DE 1 . Following this , US 13 passes under DE 1 again and runs through more farmland a short distance to the east of the Biddles Corner toll plaza on DE 1 . As the highway approaches St. Georges , a partial interchange provides access to and from the northbound direction of DE 1 .
US 13 heads across the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal on the St. Georges Bridge , which is two lanes wide with bike lanes . Past the bridge , the name changes to Dupont Highway and the route becomes four lanes again as it runs through rural areas with some development before reaching an intersection with DE 72 and the southern terminus of DE 7 in the community of Wrangle Hill near Delaware City . Here , US 13 turns west to join DE 72 on four @-@ lane divided Wrangle Hill Road while DE 7 continues north along Dupont Highway . A short distance later , the road comes to an interchange with DE 1 , at which point US 13 splits from DE 72 and heads north along DE 1 on a six @-@ lane freeway . The freeway runs through farmland and passes over Norfolk Southern 's Reybold Running Track and DE 7 to the west of the Delaware City Refinery . US 13 and DE 1 continue concurrent on the freeway to Tybouts Corner , where DE 1 splits at an interchange to continue along the freeway and US 13 reverts to a four @-@ lane divided surface road called Dupont Highway . Within the DE 1 interchange , US 13 has an at @-@ grade intersection with the northern terminus of DE 71 . A short distance later , the highway intersects Hamburg Road , where DE 9 Truck joins US 13 . The road heads northeast through farmland with some businesses , passing to the east of the historic home Buena Vista , before continuing into suburban residential and commercial development . US 13 passes under Norfolk Southern 's New Castle Secondary railroad line before US 40 merges into the northbound direction in State Road .
At this point , US 13 and US 40 continues northeast as an eight @-@ lane highway . The road runs through commercial areas , coming to an intersection with DE 273 in Hares Corner . Past this intersection , US 13 / US 40 passes between Wilmington Airport to the northwest and businesses to the southeast , reaching a cloverleaf interchange with the southern terminus of US 202 and DE 141 at the end of the airport property . Following this , the two routes narrow to six lanes , passing to the northwest of Wilmington University and heading through more commercial areas in Wilmington Manor before reaching an interchange with I @-@ 295 ( Delaware Turnpike ) , where US 40 splits from US 13 by heading east along I @-@ 295 towards the Delaware Memorial Bridge . This interchange also provides access from US 13 to I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 495 via I @-@ 295 . Past the I @-@ 295 / US 40 interchange , the highway heads through more commercial areas in Minquadale . US 13 reaches an interchange with I @-@ 495 , with access to and from the northbound lanes of I @-@ 495 and from the southbound lanes of I @-@ 495 . Immediately after this interchange , US 13 Bus. splits from US 13 to head into downtown Wilmington .
From here , US 13 enters Wilmington and heads northeast along four @-@ lane undivided South Heald Street . The road curves north into industrial areas and reaches a southbound ramp providing access to DE 9 a short distance to the east . After this , the road passes over Norfolk Southern 's Shellpot Branch railroad line on a bridge and intersects DE 9 . Here , US 13 becomes concurrent with DE 9 and splits into a one @-@ way pair following New Castle Avenue northbound and South Heald Street southbound , each carrying two lanes of traffic . The one @-@ way streets traverse areas of urban rowhomes and businesses and merge on four @-@ lane undivided South Heald Street . Along this stretch , US 13 / DE 9 intersect the northern terminus of DE 9A . Following this , the road becomes East 4th Street and heads north @-@ northwest across the Christina River on a drawbridge . US 13 / DE 9 curves northwest and passes under Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line , at which point northbound US 13 splits from the road by heading northeast on North Church Street . A block later , the concurrency between DE 9 and southbound US 13 ends at the point where southbound US 13 joins the road from North Spruce Street . US 13 continues along this one @-@ way pair , carrying two lanes in each direction , through the eastern part of the city as it passes more urban development , heading to the west of Old Swedes Church on North Church Street . At East 11th Street , US 13 becomes two @-@ way again and heads northeast over the Brandywine Creek on four @-@ lane undivided Northeast Boulevard . Past the bridge , the route continues through urban residential and business areas as a four @-@ lane divided highway .
US 13 leaves the city limits of Wilmington and heads east through commercial areas , with the median turning into a center left @-@ turn lane . The name changes to Governor Printz Boulevard and the route heads into Edgemoor . Here , it widens back into a divided highway and passes between a shopping center to the north and Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor to the south before intersecting DE 3 , which provides access to I @-@ 495 . Immediately after , US 13 has a ramp to northbound I @-@ 495 and a ramp from southbound I @-@ 495 . From this point , the route heads between suburban residential areas along with a few businesses to the northwest and I @-@ 495 to the southeast , with the Northeast Corridor and the Delaware River on the other side of I @-@ 495 . US 13 passes through Holly Oak before it reaches Claymont . Here , the route turns northwest away from I @-@ 495 and the Delaware River , passing homes before it intersects the northern terminus of US 13 Bus . Here , US 13 turns northeast onto four @-@ lane undivided Philadelphia Pike and runs through commercial areas , passing to the northwest of Archmere Academy . The route has an interchange with I @-@ 495 , at which point it becomes a divided highway , before becoming undivided again as it enters industrial areas . The road passes under an abandoned railroad line in this area . US 13 becomes a divided highway and reaches the eastern terminus of DE 92 south of the Robinson House . Past this , the road runs under the Northeast Corridor and becomes undivided as it heads into Sunoco 's Marcus Hook Industrial Complex . Here , US 13 continues into Pennsylvania , where it heads through more of the industrial complex in the borough of Marcus Hook .
Portions of US 13 in Delaware are designated as part of the Delaware Byways system . The section between DE 20 and Swain Road north of Seaford is part of the Nanticoke Heritage Byway . The segments between US 13 Alt. in Dover and Commerce Street in Smyrna , DE 9 ( New Castle Avenue ) and A Street in Wilmington , and Swedes Landing Road and DE 9 ( 4th Street ) are part of the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Byway . US 13 in Delaware has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 77 @,@ 774 vehicles at the US 202 / DE 141 interchange to a low of 3 @,@ 753 vehicles at the US 13 Bus. intersection in Claymont . US 13 in Delaware is a part of the National Highway System between the Maryland border in Delmar and the Puncheon Run Connector in Dover , from DE 1 in Wrangle Hill to I @-@ 495 in Minquadale , and between DE 92 and the Pennsylvania border in Claymont . US 13 in Delaware is designated a Blue Star Memorial Highway honoring those who have served in the United States Armed Forces ; Blue Star Memorial Highway markers are located at the Smyrna Rest
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Area and in Seaford .
= = Rest area = =
The Smyrna Rest Area is a rest area located along US 13 north of Smyrna , south of an interchange with DE 1 . The rest area has restrooms , vending machines , a payphone , a visitor center , meeting room , picnic area , and a pavilion . Also located at the Smyrna Rest Area is the Delaware Highway Memorial Garden , which consists of a path with bricks bearing the names of people who died along roads in Delaware . The path serves as an alternative to roadside memorials , which are illegal in Delaware for safety reasons . The site of the Smyrna Rest Area was originally established as a picnic area in 1937 and was expanded over the years . The current rest area building opened on November 18 , 1991 .
= = History = =
= = = Predecessor roads = = =
Before the numbering of the U.S. Highway System , there were many roads that ran north @-@ south across Delaware along the rough alignment of the present route . In the 18th century , the King 's Highway ran between Dover and Wilmington ; south of Dover it continued southeast toward Lewes . By the later part of that century , a post road ran from Horn Town , Virginia north across the Delmarva Peninsula . The road ran between Dover and Wilmington , where it continued northeast to the Pennsylvania border and headed toward Philadelphia . In 1813 , the Wilmington and Philadelphia Turnpike Company was chartered to build a turnpike running from the Brandywine Bridge in Wilmington northeast to the Pennsylvania border , where the roadway would continue to Philadelphia . A 3 @.@ 75 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 04 km ) long portion of the road near Wilmington was finished in 1816 with the remainder completed in 1823 . With the Federal Aid Road Act of 1916 , the Philadelphia Pike was to be improved by the state . The Philadelphia Pike was upgraded to a state highway by 1920 .
= = = Construction of state highways = = =
The portion of US 13 between Dover and Wilmington was built as part of the DuPont Highway . The DuPont Highway was proposed in 1908 by Thomas Coleman DuPont as a modern road that was to run from Selbyville north to Wilmington as part of a philanthropic measure . This roadway was planned to improve travel and bring economic development to Kent and Sussex counties . The DuPont Highway was to be modeled after the great boulevards of Europe and was to have a 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) wide right @-@ of @-@ way consisting of a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) wide roadway for automobiles flanked by dual trolley lines , 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide roadways for heavy vehicles , 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide unpaved roadways for horses , and sidewalks . Utilities were to be buried underground below the horse roadways . The highway was also to include agricultural experimental stations and monuments for future surveying . Trolley revenues would help pay for the construction of the roadway . After portions of the DuPont Highway were built , these portions were planned to be turned over to the state at no charge .
In 1911 , the Coleman DuPont Road , Inc. was established and construction on the highway began . By 1912 , construction was interrupted by litigation challenging both the constitutionality of the law establishing the road building corporation and the need for DuPont to acquire such a large right @-@ of @-@ way . DuPont would narrow the proposed right @-@ of @-@ way to 100 feet ( 30 m ) in order to compromise with opponents of the highway in addition to offering landowers whose properties were affected by the highway five times the assessed value of the land five years after the highway was completed . The DuPont Highway would end up being built on a 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) alignment with a 32 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) wide roadway . The length of the DuPont Highway between Selbyville and Wilmington was completed in 1923 , with one of the final portions to be completed at the Drawyers Creek north of Odessa . A ceremony marking the completion of the highway was held in Dover on July 2 , 1924 . The completion of the DuPont Highway improved transportation between northern and southern Delaware and would lead to the expansion of state highways in Delaware .
Work also took place on constructing a state highway running from the Maryland border in Delmar north to Dover . By 1920 , most of the highway in Sussex County had been completed with the exceptions of a portion north of Laurel and a portion north of Bridgeville . In Kent County , the state highway was completed between the Sussex County border and Farmington . The portion between Farmington and Woodside was under contract by 1920 while the portion between Woodside and Dover was under proposal . By 1924 , the entire length of the state highway between Delmar and Dover was completed . A bascule bridge over the Nanticoke River in Seaford was completed in March 1925 . In 1925 , recommendations were made to improve the South Market Street Causeway over the Christina River in Wilmington , which included a new bridge over the river . Construction on the drawbridge began in May 1926 . In 1927 , the new drawbridge , the four @-@ lane South Market Street Bridge , opened over the Christina River on South Market Street in Wilmington , replacing a previous drawbridge that was only two lanes wide .
With the proposal of the U.S. Highway System in 1925 , US 13 was planned as one of three routes to pass through Delaware , running from the Maryland border in Delmar via Dover and Wilmington to the Pennsylvania border in Claymont . US 13 was designated on November 11 , 1926 . US 13 followed the state highway between the Maryland border in Delmar and Dover , the DuPont Highway between Dover and Wilmington , Market Street through Wilmington , and the Philadelphia Pike between Wilmington and the Pennsylvania border in Claymont . Between the Maryland border and US 40 ( now DE 273 ) in Hares Corner , US 13 was part of the Ocean Highway , an Atlantic coastal highway stretching from Jacksonville , Florida to New Brunswick , New Jersey that served as the quickest route between the New York City area and Florida before the introduction of the Interstate Highway System . US 13 is one of only four U.S. Routes that form the highway and Delaware was one of the states that participated in the highway 's formation .
= = = Widening and improvements = = =
The portion of the DuPont Highway between Dover and Wilmington saw increased traffic from connecting interstate roads and summer travelers , prompting the Delaware State Highway Department to consider widening the highway in 1925 . A year later , the department suggested the Philadelphia Pike be widened along with the DuPont Highway between State Road and Wilmington . This proposal included widening the bridge over a Pennsylvania Railroad line ( now abandoned ) in Farnhurst that was built in 1902 . US 13 was widened to four lanes between State Road and Wilmington and between Shellpot Park and Bellevue Quarry along the Philadelphia Pike in 1927 . The same year , the department recommended expanding the road between St. Georges and State Road into a divided highway . In 1928 , the widening of Philadelphia Pike was completed . In 1929 , the portion of the highway between St. Georges and State Road was widened into a divided highway . The department recommended widening the part of US 13 between Delmar and Dover in 1930 as it was one of the main routes across the Delmarva Peninsula . In addition , plans began to widen the route into a divided highway between Drawyers Creek north of Odessa and St. Georges . The divided highway portion of US 13 between Drawyers Creek and St. Georges was completed in September 1931 . Also , work on widening the route to a divided highway between Fieldsboro and Drawyers Creek and from State Road to Wilmington began . The same year , recommendations began to extend the divided highway portion of US 13 south to Dover .
In 1932 , the portion of US 13 between Felton and Dover was widened . In addition , the divided highway between Reynolds ' Corner and Drawyers Creek was completed in September and work began on widening US 13 into a divided highway between Smyrna and Reynolds ' Corner . The completion of the divided highway between State Road and Wilmington was slated for summer 1933 . This widening project included widening the bridge over the Pennsylvania Railroad in Farnhurst . In 1933 , the divided highway portion of US 13 was extended south to Smyrna while the portion between Dover and Smyrna was under contract . The same year , the remainder of US 13 south of Dover was widened . The divided highway portion between Dover and Smyrna was finished on September 22 , 1934 , marking the completion of widening US 13 between Dover and Wilmington into a divided highway . At the time , US 13 between Dover and Wilmington was the best superhighway and the longest stretch of divided highway in the world .
In 1937 , the narrow crossing of Silver Lake along State Street in Dover was replaced with a new , wider bridge . On July 18 , 1938 , the grade crossing with the Reading Railroad ( now abandoned ) and the Pennsylvania Railroad ( now Norfolk Southern 's Shellpot Branch ) on South Market Street in Wilmington was eliminated with the opening of a bridge over the railroad tracks . On January 10 , 1939 , the S.S. Waukegan struck and destroyed the bridge carrying US 13 over the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal in St. Georges , killing the bridge tender . The destruction of the bridge led to detours for US 13 along smaller roads . Plans were made to construct a high @-@ level crossing of the canal . Work on acquiring the right @-@ of @-@ way for the new bridge took place in 1940 . Construction of the bridge took place in 1941 . The replacement steel truss St. Georges Bridge over the canal opened on January 31 , 1942 . This bridge was the first four @-@ lane crossing of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal .
In 1950 , recommendations were made by the chief engineer of the DSHD to widen US 13 into a divided highway between Delmar and Dover . The divided highway was completed from Hearne 's Mill north to just south of Greenwood in 1952 . The highway bypassed Bridgeville to the east , rerouting US 13 off Main Street in that town . In 1953 , the divided highway portion of US 13 was built around Seaford . The divided highway was completed between the Maryland border in Delmar and Hearne 's Mill and from Harrington to Dover in 1954 . The new alignment of US 13 between Delmar and Hearne 's Mill was built further to the east , with the former two @-@ lane alignment running through Delmar , Laurel , Blades , and Seaford becoming US 13 Alt . The bypassed two @-@ lane alignment between Canterbury and Camden was also designated as US 13 Alt . In 1956 , work was underway in widening US 13 into a divided highway between south of Greenwood and Harrington . The widening of this portion of US 13 was finished in 1957 , completing widening US 13 to a divided highway between Delmar and Wilmington . By 1957 , the former alignment of US 13 in Bridgeville along Main Street was designated US 13 Alt . ( now US 13 Bus . ) while US 13 Alt. between Delmar and Hearne 's Mill was decommissioned .
The alignment of US 13 in Wilmington has been shifted multiple times to improve traffic flow . By 1932 , US 13 was split into the one @-@ way pair of French Street northbound and Market Street southbound in the downtown area . Both directions of the route was shifted to use French Street by 1936 . In 1952 , a new bridge over the Christina River , the Walnut Street Bridge , was proposed to link Walnut Street in the downtown area with the Dupont Parkway section of US 13 south of the city . Under this plan , the Walnut Street Bridge would be used for northbound traffic while the South Market Street Bridge would be used for southbound traffic . By this time , US 13 was routed on a one @-@ way pair in the downtown area , using Walnut Street northbound and French Street southbound . A year later , the Walnut Street Bridge project was under contract . Construction on the project began in 1955 . Construction of the Walnut Street Extension , which included the drawbridge , approach roads , and a new bridge under the Pennsylvania Railroad ( now Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor ) , was completed in 1957 . As a result , US 13 was split into the one @-@ way pair of South Walnut Street northbound and South Market Street southbound between the south end of the city and downtown .
Construction on an interchange with the Delaware Memorial Bridge approach at Farnhurst began on July 12 , 1950 . On August 16 , 1951 , the Delaware Memorial Bridge opened to traffic . US 40 was rerouted to use the new Delaware Memorial Bridge to cross the Delaware River , being realigned to follow US 13 north from Hares Corner and Farnhurst . Upgrades to the Farnhurst interchange were finished in July 1961 that provided a connection to the Delaware Turnpike that opened on November 14 , 1963 . In 1954 , there were plans to replace the intersection with DE 41 / DE 141 in Basin Corner with a modified cloverleaf interchange in an effort to reduce traffic congestion . Construction on the interchange began in September of that year . The interchange between US 13 / US 40 and DE 41 / DE 141 was completed in 1956 . Plans were made to widen the Philadelphia Pike to a four @-@ lane road between Bellevue Road and Claymont in 1954 . The widening project was completed in 1956 .
In 1961 , the concrete bridge carrying southbound US 13 over the Drawyers Creek north of Odessa was closed due to deterioration from the tidal waters of the creek , with plans for a new bridge made . Two years later , the southbound lanes were moved to the new bridge over the creek , following a straighter alignment .
= = = Bypasses of Dover and Wilmington = = =
Plans were made in 1918 for a bypass to the east of downtown Wilmington for through traffic , avoiding Market Street . The bypass would utilize Heald Street , Church and Spruce streets , and would construct Northeast Boulevard heading northeast from the Eleventh Street Bridge . In 1934 , the state highway department began work on this bypass . Among them was the improvement of Church and Spruce streets by widening and paving them . In addition , the Northeast Boulevard was built , running from the Eleventh Street Bridge over the Brandywine Creek northeast to Edgemoor Road in Edgemoor . Construction began this year on an extension of the road northeast to Holly Oak . The following year , the Northeast Boulevard was completed between Edgemoor and Holly Oak . The construction of the Northeast Boulevard led to increased residential and industrial development along the route . In the later part of 1936 , construction began on the portion of the Wilmington bypass along Heald Street along with Northeast Boulevard ( renamed Governor Printz Boulevard ) between Holly Oak and Claymont . Both of these projects were finished in fall 1937 and completed a bypass of the portion of US 13 through Wilmington . This bypass route was designated as US 13 Alt. in 1939 . In 1939 , construction was authorized to widen Governor Printz Boulevard into a divided highway . The widening of the road to a divided highway was completed in 1940 . In 1942 , a bridge was completed on Heald Street that eliminated the grade crossing with a Pennsylvania Railroad line . US 13 Alt. was widened to four lanes between 11th Street and 30th Street in Wilmington in 1956 . In 1970 , US 13 was rerouted to bypass downtown Wilmington on the US 13 Alt. alignment while US 13 Bus. was designated onto the former US 13 alignment from the southern border of Wilmington to Claymont .
In 1935 , the portion of present @-@ day US 13 between Bay Road and State Street was built as part of a realigned US 113 . In 1950 , a contract was awarded to build a bypass of Dover , with construction soon following . The divided highway bypass for US 13 to the east of downtown Dover was completed in April 1952 , rerouting US 13 off Governors Avenue and State Street through Dover . This bypass route would run concurrent with US 113 between Bay Road and State Street . The former alignment of the route through Dover along Governors Avenue and State Street was designated US 13 Alt. by 1959 . The US 113 concurrency was removed from US 13 in 1966 ; this was approved by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) in 1974 along with the rerouting of US 113 Alt. to follow the route between South State Street and US 113 . US 113 Alt. was removed from US 13 in 2004 as part of the truncation of US 113 from Dover to Milford .
= = = Relief Route = = =
Between 1958 and 1971 , studies were conducted for a bypass of the segment of US 13 through Dover along with a connector between Dover and Frederica . The proposed routing began at US 113 and DE 12 north of Frederica and continued northwest to Woodside , where it was planned to cross US 13 . From here , the bypass was to run to the west of Dover and head north to its terminus at US 13 north of Cheswold . As part of planning of the Dover Bypass , an archaeological survey had to be conducted along part of the proposed route between 1972 and 1975 . By 1976 , construction of the Dover Bypass was postponed indefinitely . From 1971 to 1978 , a north @-@ south extension of the Delaware Turnpike between Wilmington and Dover was studied . In 1983 , studies began for a " Relief Route " of US 13 between Dover and Wilmington . The new highway was proposed in order to relieve US 13 of traffic heading to the Delaware Beaches in the summer . Prior to the beginning of construction , an archaeological survey was conducted along the proposed route of the freeway in 1986 . The same year , plans were unveiled for the route , which would begin at US 113 south of Dover and head north to US 13 in Tybouts Corner . The Relief Route would cross US 13 several times , passing to the east of Dover and Smyrna and to the west of Odessa . The US 13 Relief Route would be designated DE 1 in 1988 , keeping US 13 on its original alignment . DE 1 was extended north from Milford to Tybouts Corner in 1988 , following US 13 between Dover and Tybouts Corner .
As part of building DE 1 , the Puncheon Run Connector was proposed to provide a connection between DE 1 and US 13 in the southern part of Dover . The original plan for the connector in 1987 called for upgrading US 13 into a freeway between Woodside and Dover , with interchanges at DE 10 in Camden and Webbs Lane in Dover . In 1992 , plans for the freeway upgrade to US 13 between Woodside and Dover were dropped . On December 21 , 1993 , DE 1 was completed between US 113 at Dover Air Force Base and US 13 north of Smyrna , with DE 1 rerouted off US 13 between Dover and Smyrna .
In December 1995 , the section of DE 1 between US 13 in St. Georges and US 13 in Tybouts Corner opened , which included the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Bridge . Following the completion of this segment , DE 1 was rerouted off the surface alignment of US 13 that crossed the St. Georges Bridge . Subsequently , US 13 was rerouted to follow the new DE 1 between the DE 72 interchange and Tybouts Corner . Construction of the new DE 1 had severed US 13 south of Tybouts Corner , with part of the former alignment north of the DE 7 intersection becoming a two @-@ lane road while the section south of there became an extended DE 7 to the intersection with US 13 and DE 72 . In building DE 1 across the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal , there were initially plans to demolish the aging St. Georges Bridge that carried US 13 over the canal . The plan drew concerns from residents in St. Georges who feared the community would be split in half . The St. Georges Bridge was instead kept and was refurbished . A southbound exit and northbound entrance at US 13 south of the Cheaspeake and Delaware Canal Bridge along DE 1 was built as required by federal legislation that gave the state $ 115 million toward construction of the new canal bridge .
The segment of DE 1 between US 13 south of Odessa and US 13 in St. Georges opened in November 1999 . DE 1 was subsequently rerouted off US 13 between those two points . The construction of the final segment of DE 1 between Smyrna and Odessa resulted in a portion of US 13 south of Odessa being shifted further east as DE 1 would be built on top of the road . A service road would serve properties on the southbound side of US 13 . In October 2001 , northbound US 13 was realigned to the new alignment south of Odessa in order to build DE 1 in that area . In May 2002 , US 13 was shifted to a new southbound alignment south of Odessa , with the former portion of the route in that area becoming a service road known as Harris Road . The final section of DE 1 between Smyrna and Odessa opened on May 21 , 2003 . As a result , DE 1 was moved off US 13 between Smyrna and Odessa .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Work cited = =
= Saratoga campaign =
The Saratoga Campaign in 1777 was an attempt by the British high command for North America to gain military control of the strategically important Hudson River valley during the American Revolutionary War . It ended in the surrender of the British army , which historian Edmund Morgan argues , " was a great turning point of the war , because it won for Americans the foreign assistance which was the last element needed for victory .
The primary thrust of the campaign was planned and initiated by General John Burgoyne . Commanding a main force of some 8 @,@ 000 men , he moved south in June from Quebec , boated up Lake Champlain to middle New York , then marched over the divide and down the Hudson Valley to Saratoga . He initially skirmished there with the Patriot defenders with mixed results . Then , after losses in the Battles of Saratoga in September and October , his deteriorating position and ever increasing size of the American army forced him to surrender his forces to the American General Horatio Gates on October 17 .
The elaborate plans drawn up in London all failed . Colonel Barry St. Leger was assigned to move on Albany , New York east through the Mohawk River valley , but was forced to retreat during the siege of Fort Stanwix after losing his Indian allies . The major expedition from the south never materialized due to miscommunication with London when General William Howe sent his army to take Philadelphia rather than sending it up the Hudson River to coordinate with Burgoyne . A last @-@ minute effort to reinforce Burgoyne from New York City was made in early October , but it was too little , too late .
The American victory was an enormous morale boost to the fledgling nation . More important , it convinced France to enter the war in alliance with the United States , openly providing money , soldiers , and munitions , as well fighting a naval war worldwide against Britain .
= = British strategy = =
Toward the end of 1776 it was apparent to many in England that pacification of New England was very difficult due to the high concentration of Patriots ; and so London decided to isolate New England and concentrate on the central and southern regions where Loyalists supposedly could be rallied .
In December 1776 General John Burgoyne met with Lord Germain , the British Secretary of State for the Colonies and the government official responsible for managing the war , to set strategy for 1777 . There were two main armies in North America to work with : General Guy Carleton 's army in Quebec and General William Howe 's army , which had driven George Washington 's army from New York City in the New York campaign .
= = = Howe 's plan to attack Philadelphia = = =
On November 30 , 1776 , Howe — the British commander @-@ in @-@ chief in North America — wrote to Germain , outlining an ambitious plan for the 1777 campaign . Howe said that if Germain sent him substantial reinforcements , he could launch multiple offensives , including sending 10 @,@ 000 men up the Hudson River to take Albany , New York . Then , in the autumn , Howe could move south and capture the U.S. capital of Philadelphia . Howe soon changed his mind after writing this letter : the reinforcements might not arrive , and the retreat of the Continental Army over the winter of 1776 – 77 made Philadelphia an increasingly vulnerable target . Therefore , Howe decided that he would make the capture Philadelphia the primary object of the 1777 campaign . Howe sent Germain this revised plan , which Germain received on February 23 , 1777 .
= = = Burgoyne 's plan to capture Albany = = =
Burgoyne , seeking to command a major force , proposed to isolate New England by an invasion from Quebec into New York . This had already been attempted by General Carleton in 1776 , although he had stopped short of a full @-@ scale invasion due to the lateness of the season . Carleton was heavily criticized in London for not taking advantage of the American retreat from Quebec , and he was also intensely disliked by Germain . This , combined with rival Henry Clinton 's failed attempt to capture Charleston , South Carolina , placed Burgoyne in a good position to get command of the 1777 northern campaign .
Burgoyne presented a written plan to Lord Germain on February 28 , 1777 ; Germain approved it and gave Burgoyne command of the main expedition .
Burgoyne 's invasion plan from Quebec had two components : he would lead the main force of about 8 @,@ 000 men south from Montreal along Lake Champlain and the Hudson River Valley while a second column of about 2 @,@ 000 men ( which Barry St. Leger was chosen to lead ) , would move from Lake Ontario east down the Mohawk River valley in a strategic diversion . Both expeditions would converge upon Albany , where they would link up with troops from Howe 's army marching up the Hudson . Control of the Lake Champlain @-@ Lake George @-@ Hudson River route from Canada to New York City would cut off New England from the rest of the American colonies .
The last part of Burgoyne 's proposal , the advance by Howe up the Hudson from New York City , proved to be the most controversial part of the campaign . Germain approved Burgoyne 's plan after having received Howe 's letter detailing his proposed offensive against Philadelphia . Whether Germain told Burgoyne , who was still in London at that time , about Howe 's revised plans is unclear : while some sources claim he did , others state that Burgoyne was not notified of the changes until the campaign was well underway . Historian Robert Ketchum believes that Burgoyne would probably have been aware of the problems that lay ahead had he been notified of the Philadelphia plan .
Whether Germain , Howe , and Burgoyne had the same expectations about the degree to which Howe was supposed to support the invasion from Quebec is also unclear . What is clear is that Germain either left his generals with too much latitude , or without a clearly defined overall strategy . In March 1777 Germain had approved of Howe 's Philadelphia expedition and did not include any express orders for Howe to go to Albany . Yet Germain also sent Howe a copy of his instructions to Carleton which plainly stated that the northern army was to make a junction with Howe 's army at Albany . In a letter from Germain to Howe dated May 18 , 1777 he made clear that the Philadelphia expedition should " be executed in time for you to co @-@ operate with the army ordered to proceed from Canada and put itself under your command . " This last letter , however , was not received by Howe until after he had departed New York for the Chesapeake . To attack Philadelphia Howe could either have moved overland through New Jersey or by sea via the Delaware Bay , both options would have kept him a position to aid Burgoyne if necessary . The final route he took , through the Chesapeake Bay , was immensely time @-@ consuming and left him wholly unable to assist Burgoyne as Germain had envisioned . The decision was so difficult to understand that Howe 's more hostile critics accused him of deliberate treachery .
Burgoyne returned to Quebec on May 6 , 1777 , bearing a letter from Lord Germain which introduced the plan but lacked some details . This produced another of the conflicts of command that plagued the British throughout the war . Lieutenant General Burgoyne technically outranked Major General Carleton , but Carleton was still the governor of Quebec . Germain 's instructions to Burgoyne and Carleton had specifically limited Carleton 's role to operations in Quebec . This slight against Carleton , combined with Carleton 's failure to get command of the expedition , led to his resignation later in 1777 , and to his refusal to supply troops from the Quebec regiments to garrison the forts at Crown Point and Ticonderoga after they were captured .
= = American strategy = =
George Washington , whose army was encamped at Morristown , New Jersey , and the American military command did not have a good picture of British plans for 1777 . The principal question on the minds of Washington and his generals Horatio Gates and Philip Schuyler — who both were at turns responsible for the Continental Army 's Northern Department and its defense of the Hudson River — was of the movements of Howe 's army in New York . They had no significant knowledge of what was being planned for the British forces in Quebec , in spite of Burgoyne 's complaints that everyone in Montreal knew what he was planning . The three generals disagreed on what Burgoyne 's most likely movement was , and Congress also rendered the opinion that Burgoyne 's army was likely to move to New York by sea .
Partly as a result of this indecision , and the fact that it would be isolated from its supply lines if Howe moved north , the garrisons at Fort Ticonderoga and elsewhere in the Mohawk and Hudson valleys were not significantly increased . Schuyler took the measure in April 1777 of sending a large regiment under Colonel Peter Gansevoort to rehabilitate Fort Stanwix in the upper Mohawk valley as a step in defending against British movements in that area . Washington also ordered four regiments to be held at Peekskill , New York that could be directed either to the north or the south in response to British movements .
American troops were allocated throughout New York theater in June 1777 . About 1 @,@ 500 troops ( including those of Colonel Gansevoort ) were in outposts along the Mohawk River , about 3 @,@ 000 troops were in the Hudson River highlands under the command of General Israel Putnam , and Schuyler commanded about 4 @,@ 000 troops ( inclusive of local militia and the troops at Ticonderoga under St. Clair ) .
= = International interest = =
Ever since the Seven Years ' War , France 's foreign ministers , beginning with Choiseul , had followed the general idea that the independence of Britain 's North American colonies would be good for France and bad for Britain , and furthermore that French attempts to recover parts of New France would be detrimental to that cause . When war broke out in 1775 , the Comte de Vergennes , then the Foreign Minister , outlined a series of proposals that led to secret French and also Spanish support of Congress , and some preparations for the possibility of war , including expansion of their navies . Vergennes did not think open participation in the war was diplomatically or politically feasible until Washington 's army demonstrated its strength and ability to gain military victories without significant assistance .
To further the aim of French participation in the war , Vergennes closely monitored news from North America and London , and worked to remove impediments to Spanish participation in the war . Vergennes went so far as to propose war to King Louis XVI in August 1776 , but news of Howe 's capture of New York City scuttled that plan .
= = Campaign begins = =
Most of Burgoyne 's army had arrived in Quebec in the spring of 1776 , and participated in the routing of Continental Army troops from the province . In addition to British regulars , the troops in Quebec included several regiments from the German principalities of Hesse @-@ Hanau ( from whose name the common reference of Hessian comes ) and Brunswick under the command of Baron Friedrich Adolph Riedesel . Of these regular forces , 200 British regulars and 300 to 400 Germans were assigned to St. Leger 's Mohawk valley expedition , and about 3 @,@ 500 men remained in Quebec to protect the province . The remaining forces were assigned to Burgoyne for the campaign to Albany . The regular forces were supposed to be augmented by as many as 2 @,@ 000 militia raised in Quebec ; by June , Carleton had managed to raise only three small companies . Burgoyne had also expected as many as 1 @,@ 000 Indians to support the expedition . About 500 joined between Montreal and Crown Point .
Burgoyne 's army was beset by transport difficulties before it left Quebec , something that apparently neither Burgoyne nor Carleton anticipated . As the expedition expected to travel mainly over water , there were few wagons , horses , and other draft animals available to move the large amount of equipment and supplies on the land portions of the route . Only in early June did Carleton issue orders to procure carts sufficient to move the army . Consequently , the carts were poorly constructed of green wood , and the teams were driven by civilians who were at a higher risk of desertion .
On June 13 , 1777 , Burgoyne and Carleton reviewed the assembled forces at St. John 's on the Richelieu River , just north of Lake Champlain , and Burgoyne was ceremonially given command . In addition to five sailing ships built the previous year , a sixth had been built and three had been captured after the Battle of Valcour Island . These provided some transport as well as military cover for the large fleet of transport boats that moved the army south on the lake .
The army that Burgoyne launched the next day had about 7 @,@ 000 regulars and over 130 artillery pieces ranging from light mortars to 24 pound ( 11 kg ) pieces . His regulars were organized into an advance force under Brigadier General Simon Fraser , and two divisions . Major General William Phillips led the 3 @,@ 900 British regulars on the right , while Baron Riedesel 's 3 @,@ 100 Brunswickers and Hanauers held the left . His regular troops started out in good condition but some , notably some of the German dragoons , were poorly equipped for wilderness fighting .
Colonel St. Leger 's expedition was also assembled by mid @-@ June . His force , a mixed company of British regulars , Loyalists , Hessians , and rangers from the Indian department , numbering about 750 men left Lachine , near Montreal , on June 23 .
= = Ticonderoga falls = =
Burgoyne 's army traveled up the lake and occupied the undefended Fort Crown Point by June 30 . The screening activities of Burgoyne 's Indian support were highly effective at keeping the Americans from learning the details of his movements . General Arthur St. Clair , who had been left in command of Fort Ticonderoga and its surrounding defenses with a garrison of about 3 @,@ 000 regulars and militia , had no idea on July 1 of the full strength of Burgoyne 's army , large elements of which were then just 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away . St. Clair had been ordered by General Schuyler to hold out as long as possible , and had planned two avenues of retreat .
Open skirmishing began on the outer defense works of Ticonderoga on July 2 . By July 4 , most of the American garrison was either at Fort Ticonderoga or nearby Mount Independence , the extensive fortifications on the Vermont side of the lake . Unknown to the Americans , their withdrawal from an outer defensive position cleared a way for the British to place artillery on the hilltop known then as Sugar Loaf ( now Mount Defiance ) , whose heights commanded the fort . St. Clair withdrew the night after spotting British cannon on Sugar Loaf on July 5 , and Burgoyne 's men occupied the main fortification and the positions on Mount Independence on July 6 . The uncontested surrender of the supposedly impregnable fort caused a public and political uproar . Although a later investigation cleared both Schuyler and St. Clair of any wrongdoing in the withdrawal , it caused the Continental Congress to replace Schuyler with General Horatio Gates as commander of the Northern Department of the Continental Army in August .
Burgoyne sent forces out from his main body to pursue the retreating army , which St. Clair had sent south via two different routes . The British caught up with elements of the retreating Americans at least three times . General Fraser and elements of Baron Riedesel 's troops faced determined resistance in Battle of Hubbardton on July 7 , and a skirmish that same day between the vanguard of the main army met Pierse Long 's retreating companies in a skirmish at Skenesboro . These were followed by another standoff in the Battle of Fort Anne on July 8 , in which a forward company of the British army was nearly decimated . These actions cost the Americans about 50 % more casualties than those incurred by the British , and they demonstrated to the British officers present that the Americans were capable of putting up stiff resistance . Burgoyne 's army was reduced by about 1 @,@ 500 men as a result of the Ticonderoga actions . He left 400 men to garrison the magazine at Crown Point and another 900 to defend Ticonderoga , and the battles that followed resulted in about 200 casualties .
The bulk of St. Clair 's army retreated through the New Hampshire Grants ( present @-@ day Vermont ) . St. Clair issued appeals to the states for militia support , and also arranged to have as much of the area 's livestock and supplies delivered to Fort Edward on the Hudson River , where the American armies would regroup . St. Clair reached Fort Edward on July 12 after five days of grueling marches . Some of the remnants that had been scattered at Hubbardton rejoined the army , but Seth Warner and the remains of his regiment were stationed at Manchester in the Grants .
= = Reaction and delay = =
Burgoyne settled into the house of Loyalist Philip Skene at Skenesboro while the pieces of his army regrouped and he considered his next steps . He penned letters describing the British victory , intended for public consumption . When this news reached the capitals of Europe , King George was happy , and the Comte de Vergennes was not , as the news effectively scuttled an early proposal for French entry into the war . British diplomats increased pressure on the French and Spanish , demanding that they close their ports to American shipping . While this demand was refused , it markedly increased the tensions between the powers . The news was also harshly received by Congress and the American public , including slanders that St. Clair and Schuyler had been bribed .
On July 10 Burgoyne issued orders for the next series of movements . Most of the army was to take the rough road from Skenesboro to Fort Edward via Fort Anne , while the heavy artillery was to be transported down Lake George to Fort Edward . Riedesel 's troops were sent back up the road toward Castleton , primarily as a diversion intended to suggest that he might be aiming for the Connecticut River . Burgoyne 's decision to move the army overland via Fort Anne was a curious one , for it contradicted his own earlier commentaries on planning the expedition , in which he presciently observed that defenders could easily block the route . His decision appears to have been motivated by two factors ; the first being the perception that moving the army over water via Lake George would require a retrograde movement that could be perceived as a retreat , and the second being the influence of Philip Skene , whose property would benefit by the improved road Burgoyne would have to build .
General Schuyler , at Albany when he received word of Ticonderoga 's fall , immediately rode to Fort Edward , where there was a garrison of about 700 regulars and 1 @,@ 400 militia . He decided to make Burgoyne 's passage as difficult as possible , using the axe as a weapon ; as it was much easier to fell large trees in the enemy 's path than to remove them after they were down , this brought Burgoyne 's advance to a crawl , tiring his troops and forcing them to use up supplies . On July 11 Burgoyne wrote to Lord Germain , complaining that the Americans were systematically felling trees , destroying bridges , and damming streams along the road to Fort Edward . Schuyler also employed scorched earth tactics to deny the British access to local provisions . In spite of Burgoyne 's lack of movement , his scouts were active ; some of Schuyler 's work crews were attacked .
Schuyler 's tactics required Burgoyne to build a road through the wilderness for his guns and troops , a task that took about two weeks . They moved out of Skenesboro on July 24 , and reached Fort Edward on July 29 , finding that Schuyler had already abandoned it , in a retreat that ended at Stillwater , New York . Before he left Skenesboro , Burgoyne was joined by about 500 Indians ( mostly Ottawas , but also Fox , Mississauga , Chippewa , and Ojibwe , as well as members of the Iroquois ) from the Great Lakes region under the leadership of St. Luc de la Corne and Charles Michel de Langlade .
= = St. Leger 's expedition = =
Lieutenant Colonel St. Leger sailed up the St. Lawrence and crossed Lake Ontario to arrive at Oswego without incident . He had about 300 regulars , supported by 650 Canadian and Loyalist militia , and they were joined by 1 @,@ 000 Indians led by John Butler and the Iroquois war chiefs Joseph Brant , Sayenqueraghta and Cornplanter . Leaving Oswego on July 25 , they marched to Fort Stanwix on the Mohawk River , and began besieging it on August 2 . About 800 members of the Tryon County militia and their Indian allies marched to relieve the siege , but some of St. Leger 's British and Indians ambushed them on August 6 at the bloody Battle of Oriskany . While the Americans held the field of battle , they retreated because of the heavy casualties they suffered , including the mortal wounding of their leader , General Nicholas Herkimer . Warriors from Iroquois nations fought on both sides of the battle , marking the beginning of a civil war within the Six Nations . During the Oriskany action , the besieged Americans staged a sortie from Fort Stanwix and raided the nearly empty Indian camp . Combined with the significant Indian casualties at Oriskany , this was a significant blow to Indian morale .
On August 10 , Benedict Arnold left Stillwater , New York for Fort Stanwix with 800 men of the Continental Army from Schuyler 's Northern Department . He expected to recruit members of the Tryon County militia when he arrived at Fort Dayton on August 21 . Arnold could only raise about 100 militia , as most of the militia men that had been at Oriskany were not interested in joining , so he instead resorted to subterfuge . He staged the escape of a Loyalist captive , who convinced St. Leger that Arnold was coming with a much larger force than he actually had . On this news , Joseph Brant and the rest of St. Leger 's Indians withdrew . They took most of his remaining supplies with them , and St. Leger was forced to raise the siege and head back through Oswego to Quebec . Arnold sent a detachment a short way after them , and turned the rest of his force east to rejoin the American forces at Saratoga . St. Leger 's remaining men eventually arrived at Fort Ticonderoga on September 27 . Their arrival was too late to effectively support Burgoyne , whose army was already being hemmed in by the growing American forces around him .
= = Mounting difficulties = =
The advance of Burgoyne 's army to Fort Edward was , as with the approach to Ticonderoga , preceded by a wave of Indians , which chased away the small contingent of troops left there by Schuyler . These allies became impatient and began indiscriminate raids on frontier families and settlements , which had the effect of increasing rather than reducing local support to the American rebels . In particular , the death at Indian hands of the attractive young Loyalist settler Jane McCrea was widely publicized and served as a catalyst for rebel support , as Burgoyne 's decision to not punish the perpetrators was seen as unwillingness or inability to keep the Indians under control .
Even though the bulk of his army made the trip from Skenesboro to Fort Edward in just five days , the army 's lack of adequate transport served to delay the army again , as the supply train , hampered by a lack of draft animals and carts and wagons that were capable of dealing with the rough tracks through the wilderness , took time to follow .
On August 3 , messengers from General Howe finally succeeded in making their way through the American lines to Burgoyne 's camp at Fort Edward . ( Numerous attempts by the British generals to communicate were frustrated by the capture and hanging of their messengers by the Americans . ) The messengers did not bring good news . On July 17 Howe wrote that he was preparing to depart by sea with his army to capture Philadelphia , and that General Clinton , responsible for New York City 's defense , would " act as occurrences may direct " . Burgoyne refused to divulge the contents of this dispatch to his staff .
Realizing that he now had a serious supply problem , Burgoyne decided to act on a suggestion that Baron Riedesel had made to him in July . Riedesel , whose forces Burgoyne had stationed at Castleton for a time while he was at Skenesboro , had observed that the area was rich in draft animals and horses , which might be seized for the army 's benefit ( including the mounting of Riedesel 's currently unmounted dragoons ) . Pursuing this idea , Burgoyne sent Colonel Friedrich Baum 's regiment toward western Massachusetts and the New Hampshire Grants on August 9 , along with some Brunswick dragoons . Most of Baum 's detachment never returned from the August 16 Battle of Bennington , and the reinforcements he had sent after them came back after they were ravaged in the same battle , which deprived Burgoyne of nearly 1 @,@ 000 men and the much @-@ needed supplies . What Burgoyne had been unaware of was that St. Clair 's calls for militia support following the withdrawal from Ticonderoga had been answered , and General John Stark had placed 2 @,@ 000 men at Bennington . Stark 's force enveloped Baum 's at Bennington , killing him and capturing much of his detachment .
The death of Jane McCrea and the Battle of Bennington , besides acting as rallying cries for the Americans , had another important effect . Burgoyne blamed his Indian and Canadian allies for McCrea 's death , and , even after the Indians had lost 80 of their number at Bennington , Burgoyne showed them no gratitude . As a result , Langlade , La Corne , and most of the Indians left the British camp , leaving Burgoyne with fewer than 100 Indian scouts . Burgoyne was left with no protection in the woods against the American rangers . Burgoyne would later blame La Corne for deserting him , while La Corne countered that Burgoyne never respected the Indians . In the British Parliament , Lord Germain sided with La Corne .
= = American change of fortune = =
While the tactic of delay worked well in the field , the result in the Continental Congress was a different matter . General Horatio Gates was in Philadelphia when Congress discussed its shock at the fall of Ticonderoga , and Gates was more than willing to help assign the blame to reluctant generals . Some in the Congress had already been impatient with General George Washington , wanting a large , direct confrontation that might eliminate occupation forces but which Washington feared would probably lose the war . John Adams , the head of the War Committee , praised Gates and remarked that " we shall never hold a post until we shoot a general . " Over the objections of the New York delegation , Congress sent Gates to take command of the Northern Department on August 10 . It also ordered states from Pennsylvania to Massachusetts to call out their militias . On August 19 , Gates arrived at Albany to take charge . He was cold and arrogant in manner , and pointedly excluded Schuyler from his first war council . Schuyler left for Philadelphia shortly after , depriving Gates of his intimate knowledge of the area .
Throughout the month of August , and continuing into September , militia companies arrived at the Continental Army camps on the Hudson . These were augmented by troops Washington ordered north from the Hudson Highlands as part of General Arnold 's operation to relieve Stanwix . Those troops arrived at the end of August and included the crack sharpshooters of Daniel Morgan 's rifle corps , which he sent north from his own army . News of the American successes at Bennington and Fort Stanwix , combined with outrage over the death of Jane McCrea , rallied support , swelling Gates ' army to over 6 @,@ 000 rank and file . This number did not include Stark 's small army at Bennington , which was reduced in size by disease and the departure of some of its companies , but was also augmented by several hundred troops raised by General Benjamin Lincoln , who was assigned to make attacks against Burgoyne 's supply and communications .
= = Saratoga = =
The " Battle of Saratoga " is often depicted as a single event , but it was actually a month @-@ long series of maneuvers punctuated by two battles . At the beginning of September 1777 , Burgoyne 's army , now just over 7 @,@ 000 strong , was located on the east bank of the Hudson . He had learned of St. Leger 's failure at Stanwix on August 28 , and even earlier that Howe would not be giving him substantial support from New York City . Faced with the need to reach defensible winter quarters , which would require either retreat back to Ticonderoga or advance to Albany , he decided on the latter . Subsequent to this decision , he made two further crucial decisions . He decided to deliberately cut communications to the north , so that he would not need to maintain a chain of heavily fortified outposts between his position and Ticonderoga , and he decided to cross the Hudson River while he was in a relatively strong position . He therefore ordered Riedesel , whose forces were in the rear , to abandon outposts from Skenesboro south , and ordered the army to cross the river just north of Saratoga , which it did between September 13 and 15 . Moving cautiously , since the departure of his Indian support had deprived him of reliable scouting , Burgoyne advanced to the south . On September 18 the vanguard of his army had reached a position just north of Saratoga , about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from the American defensive line , and skirmishes occurred between the leading elements of the armies .
When Gates took over Schuyler 's army , much of it was located near the mouth of the Mohawk River , south of Stillwater . On September 8 he ordered the army , then about 10 @,@ 000 men ( of whom about 8 @,@ 500 were effective combat troops ) , to Stillwater with the idea of setting up defenses there . The Polish engineer Tadeusz Kościuszko found the area inadequate for proper defensive works , so a new location was found about three miles further north ( and about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Saratoga ) . At this location Kosciusko laid out defensive lines stretching from the river to the bluffs called Bemis Heights .
The right side of these defenses was nominally given to General Lincoln , but as he was leading troops intended for a diversion against Ticonderoga , Gates assumed command of that portion of the line himself . Gates put General Arnold , with whom he had previously had a good relationship , in command of the army 's left , the western defenses on Bemis Heights . The relationship between the two soured when Arnold chose to staff his command with friends of Schuyler , whom Gates hated . Combined with the prickly natures of both Gates and Arnold , this eventually brought internal power squabbles to a boil .
= = = Freeman 's Farm = = =
Both Generals Burgoyne and Arnold recognized the importance of the American left flank . Burgoyne recognized that the American position could be flanked , and divided his forces , sending a large detachment to the west on September 19 . Arnold , also recognizing that a British attack on the left was likely , asked Gates for permission to move his forces out to Freeman 's Farm to anticipate that maneuver . Gates refused to carry out a general movement , since he wanted to wait behind his defenses for the expected frontal attack ; but he did permit Arnold to send Daniel Morgan 's riflemen and some light infantry out for a reconnaissance in force . These forces precipitated the Battle of Freeman 's Farm when they made contact with Burgoyne 's right flank . In the ensuing battle , the British gained control of Freeman 's Farm , but at the cost of 600 casualties , ten percent of their forces .
After the battle the feud between Gates and Arnold erupted . Not only did Gates not mention Arnold at all in the official account of the battle he sent to Congress , but he also transferred Morgan 's company ( which had been technically independent but operated under Arnold 's command in the battle ) to his direct command . Arnold and Gates had a noisy argument in Gates ' quarters , in which Gates said that General Lincoln would be replacing him . Following the argument Arnold drafted a letter to Gates outlining his grievances and requesting a transfer to Washington 's command . Gates gave Arnold a pass to leave , and continued to inflict petty indignities on Arnold . A commonly referenced reason why Arnold chose to remain is that a petition signed by all of the line officers except Gates and Lincoln convinced him to stay . While proposals for such a document were considered , there is no contemporary evidence of one actually being drafted and signed .
Burgoyne considered renewing the attack the next day , but called it off when Fraser noted that many men were fatigued from the previous day 's exertions . He therefore dug his army in , and waited for news that he would receive some assistance from the south , as a letter he received from General Clinton in New York on September 21 suggested that a movement up the Hudson would draw off some of Gates ' army . Although he was aware of the persistent desertions that were reducing the size of his army and that the army was running short of food and other critical supplies , he did not know that the American army was also daily growing in size , or that Gates had intelligence on how dire the situation was in his camp .
= = = Attack on Ticonderoga = = =
Unknown to either side at Saratoga until after the battle , General Lincoln and Colonel John Brown had staged an attack against the British position at Fort Ticonderoga . Lincoln had collected 2 @,@ 000 men at Bennington by early September . After marching north to Pawlet , they received word that the guard at Ticonderoga might be susceptible to surprise . Lincoln sent three detachments of 500 men each to " annoy , divide , and distract the enemy . " One went to Skenesboro , which was found to be abandoned by the British . The second went to capture Mount Independence on the east side of Lake Champlain , while the third , led by John Brown , made the approach to Ticonderoga .
On the morning of September 18 , Brown surprised the British defenders at the southern end of the portage trail connecting Lake George to Lake Champlain . Rapidly moving up the trail his men continued to surprise British defenders and capture artillery pieces until they reached the height of land just before Ticonderoga , where they occupied the " old French lines " ( so named because it was there that a French defense improbably held against a much larger British army in the 1758 Battle of Carillon ) . On the way he released 100 prisoners ( thus increasing the size of his force ) and captured nearly 300 . His demand for the fort 's surrender was refused , and for the next four days Brown 's men and the fort exchanged cannon fire , to little effect . Since he had insufficient manpower to actually assault the fort , Brown then withdrew to Lake George , where he made an unsuccessful attempt to capture a storage depot on an island in the lake .
General Gates wrote to Lincoln on the day of Freeman 's Farm , ordering his force back to Saratoga and that " not one moment should be lost " . Lincoln reached Bemis Heights on September 22 , but the last of his troops did not arrive until the 29th .
= = = Sir Henry Clinton attempts a diversion = = =
General Howe , when he left New York for Philadelphia , had put General Sir Henry Clinton in charge of New York 's defense , with instructions to assist Burgoyne if opportunities arose . Clinton wrote to Burgoyne on September 12 that he would " make a push at [ Fort ] Montgomery in about ten days " if " you think 2000 men can assist you effectually . " When Burgoyne received the letter he immediately replied , appealing to Clinton for instruction on whether he should attempt to advance or retreat , based on the likelihood of Clinton 's arrival at Albany for support . Burgoyne indicated that if he did not receive a response by October 12 he would be forced to retreat .
On October 3 , Clinton sailed up the Hudson River with 3 @,@ 000 men , and on October 6 , one day after receiving Burgoyne 's appeal , captured the highland forts named Clinton and Montgomery . Burgoyne never received Clinton 's dispatches following this victory , as all three messengers were captured . Clinton followed up the victory by dismantling the chain across the Hudson , and sent a raiding force up the river that reached as far north as Livingston Manor on October 16 before turning back . Word of Clinton 's movements only reached Gates after the battle of Bemis Heights .
= = = Bemis Heights = = =
In addition to the Lincoln 's 2 @,@ 000 men , militia units poured into the American camp , swelling the American army to over 15 @,@ 000 men . Burgoyne , who had put his army on short rations on October 3 , called a council the next day . The decision of this meeting was to launch a reconnaissance in force of about 1 @,@ 700 men toward the American left flank . Burgoyne and Fraser led this detachment out early on the afternoon of October 7 . Their movements were spotted , and Gates wanted to order only Daniel Morgan 's men out in opposition . Arnold said that this was clearly insufficient , and that a large force had to be sent . Gates , put off one last time by Arnold 's tone , dismissed him , saying , " You have no business here . " However , Gates did accede to similar advice given by Lincoln . In addition to sending Morgan 's company around the British right , he also sent Enoch Poor 's brigade against Burgoyne 's left . When Poor 's men made contact , the Battle of Bemis Heights was underway .
The initial American attack was highly effective , and Burgoyne attempted to order a withdrawal , but his aide was shot down before the order could be broadcast . In intense fighting , the flanks of Burgoyne 's force were exposed , while the Brunswickers at the center held against Learned 's determined attack . General Fraser was mortally wounded in this phase of the battle . While frequently claimed to be the work of Timothy Murphy , one of Morgan 's men , the story appears to be a 19th @-@ century fabrication . After Fraser 's fall and the arrival of additional American troops , Burgoyne ordered what was left of the force to retreat behind their entrenched lines .
General Arnold , frustrated by the sound of fighting he was not involved in , rode off from the American headquarters to join the fray . Arnold , who some claimed was in a drunken fury , took the battle to the British position . The right side of the British line consisted of two earthen redoubts that had been erected on Freeman 's Farm , and were manned by Brunswickers under Heinrich Breymann and light infantry under Lord Balcarres . Arnold first rallied troops to attack Balcarres ' redoubt , without success . He then boldly rode through the gap between the two redoubts , a space guarded by a small company of Canadian irregulars . Learned 's men followed , and made an assault on the open rear of Breymann 's redoubt . Arnold 's horse was shot out from under him , pinning him and breaking his leg . Breymann was killed in the fierce action , and his position was taken . However , night was falling , and the battle came to an end . The battle was a bloodbath for Burgoyne 's troops : nearly 900 men were killed , wounded , or captured , compared to about 150 for the Americans .
= = Surrender = =
Simon Fraser died of his wounds early the next day , but it was not until nearly sunset that he was buried . Burgoyne then ordered the army , whose entrenchments had been subjected to persistent harassment by the Americans , to retreat . ( One consequence of the skirmishing was that General Lincoln was also wounded . Combined with Arnold 's wounds , this deprived Gates of his top two field commanders . )
It took the army nearly two days to reach Saratoga , in which heavy rain and American probes against the column slowed the army 's pace . Burgoyne was aided by logistical problems in the American camp , where the army 's ability to move forward was hampered by delays in bringing forward and issuing rations . However , Gates did order detachments to take positions on the east side of the Hudson to oppose any attempted crossings . By the morning of October 13 Burgoyne 's army was completely surrounded , so his council voted to open negotiations . Terms were agreed on October 16 that Burgoyne insisted on calling a " convention " rather than a capitulation .
Baroness Riedesel , wife of the commander of the German troops , vividly describes in her journal the confusion and besetting starvation of the retreating British army . Her account of the tribulation and death of officers and men , and of the terrified women who had taken shelter in the cellar of what later became known as the Marshall House dramatizes the desperation of the besieged army .
On October 17 , following a ceremony in which Burgoyne gave his sword to Gates , only to have it returned , Burgoyne 's army ( approaching 6 @,@ 000 strong ) marched out to surrender their arms while the American musicians played " Yankee Doodle " .
= = Aftermath = =
British troops withdrew from Ticonderoga and Crown Point in November , and Lake Champlain was free of British troops by early December . American troops , on the other hand , still had work to do . Alerted to General Clinton 's raids on the Hudson , most of the army marched south toward Albany on October 18 , while other detachments accompanied the " Convention Army " east . Burgoyne and Riedesel became guests of General Schuyler , who had come north from Albany to witness the surrender . Burgoyne was allowed to return to England on parole in May 1778 , where he spent the next two years defending his actions in Parliament and the press . He was eventually exchanged for more than 1 @,@ 000 American prisoners .
In response to Burgoyne 's surrender , Congress declared December 18 , 1777 as a national day " for solemn Thanksgiving and praise " in recognition of the military success at Saratoga ; it was the nation 's first official observance of a holiday with that name .
= = = Convention Army = = =
Under the terms of the convention Burgoyne 's army was to march to Boston , where British ships would transport it back to England , on condition that its members not participate in the conflict until they were formally exchanged . Congress demanded that Burgoyne provide a list of troops in the army so that the terms of the agreement concerning future combat could be enforced . When he refused , Congress decided not to honor the terms of the convention , and the army remained in captivity . The army was kept for some time in sparse camps throughout New England . Although individual officers were exchanged , much of the " Convention Army " was eventually marched south to Virginia , where it remained prisoner for several years . Throughout its captivity , a large number of men ( more than 1 @,@ 300 in the first year alone ) escaped and effectively deserted , settling in the United States .
= = Consequences = =
On December 4 , 1777 , word reached Benjamin Franklin at Versailles that Philadelphia had fallen and that Burgoyne had surrendered . Two days later , King Louis XVI assented to negotiations for an alliance . The treaty was signed on February 6 , 1778 , and France declared war on Britain one month later , with hostilities beginning with naval skirmishes off Ushant in June . Spain did not enter into the war until 1779 , when it entered the war as an ally of France pursuant to the secret Treaty of Aranjuez . Vergennes ' diplomatic moves following the French entry into the war also had material impact on the later entry of the Dutch Republic into the war , and declarations of neutrality on the part of other important geopolitical players like Russia .
The British government of Lord North came under sharp criticism when the news of Burgoyne 's surrender reached London . Of Lord Germain it was said that " the secretary is incapable of conducting a war " , and Horace Walpole opined ( incorrectly , as it turned out ) that " we are ... very near the end of the American war . " Lord North issued a proposal for peace terms in Parliament that did not include independence ; when these were finally delivered to Congress by the Carlisle Peace Commission they were rejected .
= = Remembrances = =
Most of the battlefields of the campaign have been preserved in some way , usually as state or national parks , but also as historic sites under state or federal control . Some monuments erected to mark the battles are listed as National Historic Landmarks and some are separately listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Many of the battles are regularly reenacted , and the Battle of Bennington ( although it was actually fought in present @-@ day Walloomsac , New York ) is marked in the state of Vermont by Bennington Battle Day .
The commemorations of Benedict Arnold 's contributions to the American success of the campaign are particularly noteworthy . The obelisk at Saratoga National Historical Park has , on three of its four sides , alcoves bearing statues of three generals instrumental in the success at Saratoga : Gates , Schuyler , and Morgan . The fourth alcove , representing Arnold , is empty . The park also contains the Boot Monument which , though again without identifying Arnold by name , clearly honors his contribution in the second Saratoga battle .
= Laplace – Runge – Lenz vector =
In classical mechanics , the Laplace – Runge – Lenz vector ( or simply the LRL vector ) is a vector used chiefly to describe the shape and orientation of the orbit of one astronomical body around another , such as a planet revolving around a star . For two bodies interacting by Newtonian gravity , the LRL vector is a constant of motion , meaning that it is the same no matter where it is calculated on the orbit ; equivalently , the LRL vector is said to be conserved . More generally , the LRL vector is conserved in all problems in which two bodies interact by a central force that varies as the inverse square of the distance between them ; such problems are called Kepler problems .
The hydrogen atom is a Kepler problem , since it comprises two charged particles interacting by Coulomb 's law of electrostatics , another inverse square central force . The LRL vector was essential in the first quantum mechanical derivation of the spectrum of the hydrogen atom , before the development of the Schrödinger equation . However , this approach is rarely used today .
In classical and quantum mechanics , conserved quantities generally correspond to a symmetry of the system . The conservation of the LRL vector corresponds to an unusual symmetry ; the Kepler problem is mathematically equivalent to a particle moving freely on the surface of a four @-@ dimensional ( hyper- ) sphere , so that the whole problem is symmetric under certain rotations of the four @-@ dimensional space . This higher symmetry results from two properties of the Kepler problem : the velocity vector always moves in a perfect circle and , for a given total energy , all such velocity circles intersect each other in the same two points .
The Laplace – Runge – Lenz vector is named after Pierre @-@ Simon de Laplace , Carl Runge and Wilhelm Lenz . It is also known as the Laplace vector , the Runge – Lenz vector and the Lenz vector . Ironically , none of those scientists discovered it . The LRL vector has been re @-@ discovered several times and is also equivalent to the dimensionless eccentricity vector of celestial mechanics . Various generalizations of the LRL vector have been defined , which incorporate the effects of special relativity , electromagnetic fields and even different types of central forces .
= = Context = =
A single particle moving under any conservative central force has at least four constants of motion , the total energy E and the three Cartesian components of the angular momentum vector L with respect to the origin . The particle 's orbit is confined to a plane defined by the particle 's initial momentum p ( or , equivalently , its velocity v ) and the vector r between the particle and the center of force ( see Figure 1 , below ) .
As defined below ( see Mathematical definition ) , the Laplace – Runge – Lenz vector ( LRL vector ) A always lies in the plane of motion for any central force . However , A is constant only for an inverse @-@ square central force . For most central forces , however , this vector A is not constant , but changes in both length and direction ; if the central force is approximately an inverse @-@ square law , the vector A is approximately constant in length , but slowly rotates its direction . A generalized conserved LRL vector <formula> can be defined for all central forces , but this generalized vector is a complicated function of position , and usually not expressible in closed form .
The plane of motion is perpendicular to the angular momentum vector L , which is constant ; this may be expressed mathematically by the vector dot product equation r · L
= 0 ; likewise , since A lies in that plane , A · L =
0 .
The LRL vector differs from other conserved quantities in the following property . Whereas for typical conserved quantities , there is a corresponding cyclic coordinate in the three @-@ dimensional Lagrangian of the system , there does not exist such a coordinate for the LRL vector . Thus , the conservation of the LRL vector must be derived directly , e.g. , by the method of Poisson brackets , as described below . Conserved quantities of this kind are called " dynamic " , in contrast to the usual " geometric " conservation laws , e.g. , that of the angular momentum .
= = History of rediscovery = =
The LRL vector A is a constant of motion of the important Kepler problem , and is useful in describing astronomical orbits , such as the motion of the planets . Nevertheless , it has never been well known among physicists , possibly because it is less intuitive than momentum and angular momentum . Consequently , it has been rediscovered independently several times over the last three centuries .
Jakob Hermann was the first to show that A is conserved for a special case of the inverse @-@ square central force , and worked out its connection to the eccentricity of the orbital ellipse . Hermann 's work was generalized to its modern form by Johann Bernoulli in 1710 . At the end of the century , Pierre @-@ Simon de Laplace rediscovered the conservation of A , deriving it analytically , rather than geometrically . In the middle of the nineteenth century , William Rowan Hamilton derived the equivalent eccentricity vector defined below , using it to show that the momentum vector p moves on a circle for motion under an inverse @-@ square central force ( Figure 3 ) .
At the beginning of the twentieth century , Josiah Willard Gibbs derived the same vector by vector analysis . Gibbs ' derivation was used as an example by Carle Runge in a popular German textbook on vectors , which was referenced by Wilhelm Lenz in his paper on the ( old ) quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom . In 1926 , the vector was used by Wolfgang Pauli to derive the spectrum of hydrogen using modern quantum mechanics , but not the Schrödinger equation ; after Pauli 's publication , it became known mainly as the Runge – Lenz vector .
= = Mathematical definition = =
For a single particle acted on by an inverse @-@ square central force described by the equation
<formula>
the LRL vector A is defined mathematically by the formula
where
m is the mass of the point particle moving under the central force ,
p is its momentum vector ,
L = r × p is its angular momentum vector ,
k is a parameter that describes the strength of the central force ,
r is the position vector of the particle ( Figure 1 ) , and
<formula> is the corresponding unit vector , i.e. , <formula> where r is the magnitude of r .
Since the assumed force is conservative , the total energy E is a constant of motion ,
<formula>
Furthermore , the assumed force is a central force , and thus the angular momentum vector L is also conserved and defines the plane in which the particle travels . The LRL vector A is perpendicular to the angular momentum vector L because both p × L and r are perpendicular to L. It follows that A lies in the plane of the orbit .
This definition of the LRL vector A pertains to a single point particle of mass m moving under the action of a fixed force . However , the same definition may be extended to two @-@ body problems such as Kepler 's problem , by taking m as the reduced mass of the two bodies and r as the vector between the two bodies .
A variety of alternative formulations for the same constant of motion may also be used . The most common is to scale by mk to define the eccentricity vector
<formula>
= = Derivation of the Kepler orbits = =
The shape and orientation of the Kepler problem orbits can be determined from the LRL vector as follows . Taking the dot product of A with the position vector r gives the equation
<formula>
where θ is the angle between r and A ( Figure 2 ) . Permuting the scalar triple product
<formula>
and rearranging yields the defining formula for a conic section , provided that A is a constant , which is the case for the inverse square force law ,
of eccentricity e ,
<formula>
and latus rectum
<formula>
The major semiaxis a of the conic section may be defined using the latus rectum and the eccentricity
<formula>
where the minus sign pertains to ellipses and the plus sign to hyperbolae .
Taking the dot product of A with itself yields an equation involving the energy E ,
<formula>
which may be rewritten in terms of the eccentricity ,
<formula>
Thus , if the energy E is negative ( bound orbits ) , the eccentricity is less than one and the orbit is an ellipse . Conversely , if the energy is positive ( unbound orbits , also called " scattered orbits " ) , the eccentricity is greater than one and the orbit is a hyperbola . Finally , if the energy is exactly zero , the eccentricity is one and the orbit is a parabola . In all cases , the direction of A lies along the symmetry axis of the conic section and points from the center of force toward the periapsis , the point of closest approach .
= = Circular momentum hodographs = =
The conservation of the LRL vector A and angular momentum vector L is useful in showing that the momentum vector p moves on a circle under an inverse @-@ square central force .
Taking the dot product of
<formula>
with itself yields
<formula>
Further choosing L along the z @-@ axis , and the major semiaxis as the x @-@ axis , yields the locus equation for p ,
.
In other words , the momentum vector p is confined to a circle of radius mk / L = L / ℓ centered on ( 0 , A / L ) . The eccentricity e corresponds to the cosine of the angle η shown in Figure 3 .
In the degenerate limit of circular orbits , and thus vanishing A , the circle centers at the origin ( 0 @,@ 0 ) . For brevity , it is also useful to introduce the variable <formula> .
This circular hodograph is useful in illustrating the symmetry of the Kepler problem .
= = Constants of motion and superintegrability = =
The seven scalar quantities E , A and L ( being vectors , the latter two contribute three conserved quantities each ) are related by two equations , A · L
= 0 and A2 =
m2k2 + 2 mEL2 , giving five independent constants of motion . ( Since the magnitude of A , hence the eccentricity e of the orbit , can be determined from the total angular momentum L and the energy E , only the direction of A is conserved independently ; moreover , since A must be perpendicular to L , it contributes only one additional conserved quantity . )
This is consistent with the six initial conditions ( the particle 's initial position and velocity vectors , each with three components ) that specify the orbit of the particle , since the initial time is not determined by a constant of motion . The resulting 1 @-@ dimensional orbit in 6 @-@ dimensional phase space is thus completely specified .
A mechanical system with d degrees of freedom can have at most 2d − 1 constants of motion , since there are 2d initial conditions and the initial time cannot be determined by a constant of motion . A system with more than d constants of motion is called superintegrable and a system with 2d − 1 constants is called maximally superintegrable . Since the solution of the Hamilton – Jacobi equation in one coordinate system can yield only d constants of motion , superintegrable systems must be separable in more than one coordinate system . The Kepler problem is maximally superintegrable , since it has three degrees of freedom ( d = 3 ) and five independent constant of motion ; its Hamilton – Jacobi equation is separable in both spherical coordinates and parabolic coordinates , as described below .
Maximally superintegrable systems follow closed , one @-@ dimensional orbits in phase space , since the orbit is the intersection of the phase @-@ space isosurfaces of their constants of motion . Consequently , the orbits are perpendicular to all gradients of all these independent isosurfaces , five in this specific problem , and hence are determined by the generalized cross products of all of these gradients . As a result , all superintegrable systems are automatically describable by Nambu mechanics , alternatively , and equivalently , to Hamiltonian mechanics .
Maximally superintegrable systems can be quantized using commutation relations , as illustrated below . Nevertheless , equivalently , they are also quantized in the Nambu framework , such as this classical Kepler problem into the quantum hydrogen atom .
= = Evolution under perturbed potentials = =
The Laplace – Runge – Lenz vector A is conserved only for a perfect inverse @-@ square central force . In most practical problems such as planetary motion , however , the interaction potential energy between two bodies is not exactly an inverse square law , but may include an additional central force , a so @-@ called perturbation described by a potential energy h ( r ) . In such cases , the LRL vector rotates slowly in the plane of the orbit , corresponding to a slow apsidal precession of the orbit .
By assumption , the perturbing potential h ( r ) is a conservative central force , which implies that the total energy E and angular momentum vector L are conserved . Thus , the motion still lies in a plane perpendicular to L and the magnitude A is conserved , from the equation A2
= m2k2 + 2mEL2 . The perturbation potential h ( r ) may be any sort of function , but should be significantly weaker than the main inverse @-@ square force between the two bodies .
The rate at which the LRL vector rotates provides information about the perturbing potential h ( r ) . Using canonical perturbation theory and action @-@ angle coordinates , it is straightforward to show that A rotates at a rate of ,
<formula>
where T is the orbital period , and the identity L dt =
m r2 dθ was used to convert the time integral into an angular integral ( Figure 5 ) . The expression in angular brackets , 〈 h ( r ) 〉 , represents the perturbing potential , but averaged over one full period ; that is , averaged over one full passage of the body around its orbit . Mathematically , this time average corresponds to the following quantity in curly braces . This averaging helps to suppress fluctuations in the rate of rotation .
This approach was used to help verify Einstein 's theory of general relativity , which adds a small effective inverse @-@ cubic perturbation to the normal Newtonian gravitational potential ,
<formula>
Inserting this function into the integral and using the equation
<formula>
to express r in terms of θ , the precession rate of the periapsis caused by this non @-@ Newtonian perturbation is calculated to be
<formula>
which closely matches the observed anomalous precession of Mercury and binary pulsars . This agreement with experiment is strong evidence for general relativity .
= = Poisson brackets = =
The algebraic structure of the problem is , as explained in later sections , SO ( 4 ) / ℤ2 ~ SO ( 3 ) × SO ( 3 ) . The three components Li of the angular momentum vector L have the Poisson brackets
<formula>
where i = 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 3 and ϵijs is the fully antisymmetric tensor , i.e. , the Levi @-@ Civita symbol ; the summation index s is used here to avoid confusion with the force parameter k defined above . The Poisson brackets will be extended to quantum mechanical commutation relations in the next section and Lie brackets in a following section .
As noted below , a scaled Laplace – Runge – Lenz vector D may be defined with the same units as angular momentum by dividing A by <formula> . The Poisson brackets of D with the angular momentum vector L can then be written in a similar form
<formula>
The Poisson brackets of D with itself depend on the sign of E , i.e. , on whether the total energy E is negative ( producing closed , elliptical orbits under an inverse @-@ square central force ) or positive ( producing open , hyperbolic orbits under an inverse @-@ square central force ) . For negative energies – i.e. , for bound systems – the Poisson brackets are
<formula>
whereas , for positive energy , the Poisson brackets have the opposite sign ,
<formula>
The Casimir invariants for negative energies are
<formula>
<formula>
and have vanishing Poisson brackets with all components of D and L ,
<formula>
C2 is trivially zero , since the two vectors are always perpendicular .
However , the other invariant , C1 , is non @-@ trivial and depends only on m , k and E. Upon canonical quantization , this invariant allows the energy levels of hydrogen @-@ like atoms to be derived using only quantum mechanical canonical commutation relations , instead of the conventional solution of the Schrödinger equation .
= = Quantum mechanics of the hydrogen atom = =
Poisson brackets provide a simple guide for quantizing most classical systems : the commutation relation of two quantum mechanical operators is specified by the Poisson bracket of the corresponding classical variables , multiplied by iħ .
By carrying out this quantization and calculating the eigenvalues of the C1 Casimir operator for the Kepler problem , Wolfgang Pauli was able to derive the energy levels of hydrogen @-@ like atoms ( Figure 6 ) and , thus , their atomic emission spectrum . This elegant 1926 derivation was obtained before the development of the Schrödinger equation .
A subtlety of the quantum mechanical operator for the LRL vector A is that the momentum and angular momentum operators do not commute ; hence , the quantum operator cross product of p and L must be defined carefully . Typically , the operators for the Cartesian components As are defined using a symmetrized ( Hermitian ) product ,
<formula>
from which the corresponding additional ladder operators for L can be defined ,
<formula>
<formula>
These further connect different eigenstates of L2 , so different spin multiplets , among themselves .
A normalized first Casimir invariant operator , quantum analog of the above , can likewise be defined ,
<formula>
where H − 1 is the inverse of the Hamiltonian energy operator , and I is the identity operator .
Applying these ladder operators to the eigenstates | ℓmn 〉 of the total angular momentum , azimuthal angular momentum and energy operators , the eigenvalues of the first Casimir operator , C1 , are seen to be quantized , n2 − 1 . Importantly , by dint of the vanishing of C2 , they are independent of the ℓ and m quantum numbers , making the energy levels degenerate .
Hence , the energy levels are given by
<formula>
which coincides with the Rydberg formula for hydrogen @-@ like atoms ( Figure 6 ) . The additional symmetry operators A have connected the different ℓ multiplets among themselves , for a given energy ( and C1 ) , dictating n2 states at each level . In effect , they have enlarged the angular momentum group SO ( 3 ) to SO ( 4 ) / ℤ2 ~ SO ( 3 ) × SO ( 3 ) .
= = Conservation and symmetry = =
The conservation of the LRL vector corresponds to a subtle symmetry of the system . In classical mechanics , symmetries are continuous operations that map one orbit onto another without changing the energy of the system ; in quantum mechanics , symmetries are continuous operations that " mix " electronic orbitals of the same energy , i.e. , degenerate energy levels . A conserved quantity is usually associated with such symmetries . For example , every central force is symmetric under the rotation group SO ( 3 ) , leading to the conservation of angular momentum L. Classically , an overall rotation of the system does not affect the energy of an orbit ; quantum mechanically , rotations mix the spherical harmonics of the same quantum number l without changing the energy .
The symmetry for the inverse @-@ square central force is higher and more subtle . The peculiar symmetry of the Kepler problem results in the conservation of both the angular momentum vector L and the LRL vector A ( as defined above ) and , quantum mechanically , ensures that the energy levels of hydrogen do not depend on the angular momentum quantum numbers l and m . The symmetry is more subtle , however , because the symmetry operation must take place in a higher @-@ dimensional space ; such symmetries are often called " hidden symmetries " .
Classically , the higher symmetry of the Kepler problem allows for continuous alterations of the orbits that preserve energy but not angular momentum ; expressed another way , orbits of the same energy but different angular momentum ( eccentricity ) can be transformed continuously into one another . Quantum mechanically , this corresponds to mixing orbitals that differ in the l and m quantum numbers , such as the s ( l
= 0 ) and p ( l =
1 ) atomic orbitals . Such mixing cannot be done with ordinary three @-@ dimensional translations or rotations , but is equivalent to a rotation in a higher dimension .
For negative energies – i.e. , for bound systems – the higher symmetry group is SO ( 4 ) , which preserves the length of four @-@ dimensional vectors
<formula>
In 1935 , Vladimir Fock showed that the quantum mechanical bound Kepler problem is equivalent to the problem of a free particle confined to a three @-@ dimensional unit sphere in four @-@ dimensional space . Specifically , Fock showed that the Schrödinger wavefunction in the momentum space for the Kepler problem was the stereographic projection of the spherical harmonics on the sphere . Rotation of the sphere and reprojection results in a continuous mapping of the elliptical orbits without changing the energy ; quantum mechanically , this corresponds to a mixing of all orbitals of the same energy quantum number n . Valentine Bargmann noted subsequently that the Poisson brackets for the angular momentum vector L and the scaled LRL vector D formed the Lie algebra for SO ( 4 ) . Simply put , the six quantities D and L correspond to the six conserved angular momenta in four dimensions , associated with the six possible simple rotations in that space ( there are six ways of choosing two axes from four ) . This conclusion does not imply that our universe is a three @-@ dimensional sphere ; it merely means that this particular physics problem ( the two @-@ body problem for inverse @-@ square central forces ) is mathematically equivalent to a free particle on a three @-@ dimensional sphere .
For positive energies – i.e. , for unbound , " scattered " systems – the higher symmetry group is SO ( 3 @,@ 1 ) , which preserves the Minkowski length of 4 @-@ vectors
<formula>
Both the negative- and positive @-@ energy cases were considered by Fock and Bargmann and have been reviewed encyclopedically by Bander and Itzykson .
The orbits of central @-@ force systems – and those of the Kepler problem in particular – are also symmetric under reflection . Therefore , the SO ( 3 ) , SO ( 4 ) and SO ( 3 @,@ 1 ) groups cited above are not the full symmetry groups of their orbits ; the full groups are O ( 3 ) , O ( 4 ) and O ( 3 @,@ 1 ) , respectively . Nevertheless , only the connected subgroups , SO ( 3 ) , SO ( 4 ) and SO ( 3 @,@ 1 ) , are needed to demonstrate the conservation of the angular momentum and LRL vectors ; the reflection symmetry is irrelevant for conservation , which may be derived from the Lie algebra of the group .
= = Rotational symmetry in four dimensions = =
The connection between the Kepler problem and four @-@ dimensional rotational symmetry SO ( 4 ) can be readily visualized . Let the four @-@ dimensional Cartesian coordinates be denoted ( w , x , y , z ) where ( x , y , z ) represent the Cartesian coordinates of the normal position vector r . The three @-@ dimensional momentum vector p is associated with a four @-@ dimensional vector <formula> on a three @-@ dimensional unit sphere
<formula>
where <formula> is the unit vector along the new w @-@ axis . The transformation mapping p to η can be uniquely inverted ; for example , the x @-@ component of the momentum equals
<formula>
and similarly for py and pz . In other words , the three @-@ dimensional vector p is a stereographic projection of the four @-@ dimensional <formula> vector , scaled by p0 ( Figure 8 ) .
Without loss of generality , we may eliminate the normal rotational symmetry by choosing the Cartesian coordinates such that the z @-@ axis is aligned with the angular momentum vector L and the momentum hodographs are aligned as they are in Figure 7 , with the centers of the circles on the y @-@ axis . Since the motion is planar , and p and L are perpendicular , pz
= ηz =
0 and attention may be restricted to the three @-@ dimensional vector <formula>
= ( ηw , ηx , ηy ) . The family of Apollonian circles of momentum hodographs ( Figure 7 ) correspond to a family of great circles on the three @-@ dimensional <formula> sphere , all of which intersect the ηx @-@ axis at the two foci ηx =
± 1 , corresponding to the momentum hodograph foci at px = ± p0 . These great circles are related by a simple rotation about the ηx @-@ axis ( Figure 8 ) . This rotational symmetry transforms all the orbits of the same energy into one another ; however , such a rotation is orthogonal to the usual three @-@ dimensional rotations , since it transforms the fourth dimension ηw . This higher symmetry is characteristic of the Kepler problem and corresponds to the conservation of the LRL vector .
An elegant action @-@ angle variables solution for the Kepler problem can be obtained by eliminating the redundant four @-@ dimensional coordinates <formula> in favor of elliptic cylindrical coordinates ( χ , ψ , φ )
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
where sn , cn and dn are Jacobi 's elliptic functions .
= = Generalizations to other potentials and relativity = =
The Laplace – Runge – Lenz vector can also be generalized to identify conserved quantities that apply to other situations .
In the presence of a uniform electric field E , the generalized Laplace – Runge – Lenz vector <formula> is
<formula>
where q is the charge of the orbiting particle . Although <formula> is not conserved , it gives rise to a conserved quantity , namely <formula> .
Further generalizing the Laplace – Runge – Lenz vector to other potentials and special relativity , the most general form can be written as
<formula>
where u
= 1 / r ( cf . Bertrand 's theorem ) and ξ =
cos θ , with the angle θ defined by
<formula>
and γ is the Lorentz factor . As before , we may obtain a conserved binormal vector B by taking the cross product with the conserved angular momentum vector
<formula>
These two vectors may likewise be combined into a conserved dyadic tensor W ,
<formula>
In illustration , the LRL vector for a non @-@ relativistic , isotropic harmonic oscillator can be calculated . Since the force is central ,
<formula>
the angular momentum vector is conserved and the motion lies in a plane .
The conserved dyadic tensor can be written in a simple form
<formula>
although it should be noted that p and r are not necessarily perpendicular .
The corresponding Runge – Lenz vector is more complicated ,
<formula>
where
<formula>
is the natural oscillation frequency and
<formula>
= = Proofs that the Laplace – Runge – Lenz vector is conserved in Kepler problems = =
The following are arguments showing that the LRL vector is conserved under central forces that obey an inverse @-@ square law .
= = = Direct proof of conservation = = =
A central force <formula> acting on the particle is
<formula>
for some function <formula> of the radius <formula> . Since the angular momentum <formula> is conserved under central forces , <formula> and
<formula>
where the momentum <formula> and where the triple cross product has been simplified using Lagrange 's formula
<formula>
The identity
<formula>
yields the equation
<formula>
For the special case of an inverse @-@ square central force <formula> , this equals
<formula>
Therefore , A is conserved for inverse @-@ square central forces
<formula>
A shorter proof is obtained by using the relation of angular momentum to angular velocity , <formula> , which holds for a particle traveling in a plane perpendicular to <formula> . Specifying to inverse @-@ square central forces , the time derivative of <formula> is
<formula>
where the last equality holds because a unit vector can only change by rotation , and <formula> is the orbital velocity of the rotating vector . Thus , A is seen to be a difference of two vectors with equal time derivatives .
As described below , this LRL vector A is a special case of a general conserved vector <formula> that can be defined for all central forces . However , since most central forces do not produce closed orbits ( see Bertrand 's theorem ) , the analogous vector <formula> rarely has a simple definition and is generally a multivalued function of the angle θ between r and <formula> .
= = = Hamilton – Jacobi equation in parabolic coordinates = = =
The constancy of the LRL vector can also be derived from the Hamilton – Jacobi equation in parabolic coordinates ( ξ , η ) , which are defined by the equations
<formula>
<formula>
where r represents the radius in the plane of the orbit
<formula>
The inversion of these coordinates is
<formula>
<formula>
Separation of the Hamilton – Jacobi equation in these coordinates yields the two equivalent equations
<formula>
<formula>
where Γ is a constant of motion . Subtraction and re @-@ expression in terms of the Cartesian momenta px and py shows that Γ is equivalent to the LRL vector
<formula>
= = = Noether 's theorem = = =
The connection between the rotational symmetry described above and the conservation of the LRL vector can be made quantitative by way of Noether 's theorem . This theorem , which is used for finding constants of motion , states that any infinitesimal variation of the generalized coordinates of a physical system
<formula>
that causes the Lagrangian to vary to first order by a total time derivative
<formula>
corresponds to a conserved quantity Γ
<formula>
In particular , the conserved LRL vector component As corresponds to the variation in the coordinates
<formula>
where i equals 1 , 2 and 3 , with xi and pi being the ith components of the position and momentum vectors r and p , respectively ; as usual , δis represents the Kronecker delta . The resulting first @-@ order change in the Lagrangian is
<formula>
Substitution into the general formula for the conserved quantity Γ yields the conserved component As of the LRL vector ,
<formula>
= = = Lie transformation = = =
The Noether theorem derivation of the conservation of the LRL vector A is elegant , but has one drawback : the coordinate variation δxi involves not only the position r , but also the momentum p or , equivalently , the velocity v. This drawback may be eliminated by instead deriving the conservation of A using an approach pioneered by Sophus Lie . Specifically , one may define a Lie transformation in which the coordinates r and the time t are scaled by different powers of a parameter λ ( Figure 9 ) ,
<formula>
This transformation changes the total angular momentum L and energy E ,
<formula>
but preserves their product EL2 . Therefore , the eccentricity e and the magnitude A are preserved , as may be seen from the equation for A2
<formula>
The direction of A is preserved as well , since the semiaxes are not altered by a global scaling . This transformation also preserves Kepler 's third law , namely , that the semiaxis a and the period T form a constant T2 / a3 .
= = Alternative scalings , symbols and formulations = =
Unlike the momentum and angular momentum vectors p and L , there is no universally accepted definition of the Laplace – Runge – Lenz vector ; several different scaling factors and symbols are used in the scientific literature . The most common definition is given above , but another common alternative is to divide by the constant mk to obtain a dimensionless conserved eccentricity vector
<formula>
where v is the velocity vector . This scaled vector e has the same direction as A and its magnitude equals the eccentricity of the orbit . Other scaled versions are also possible , e.g. , by dividing A by m alone
<formula>
or by p0
<formula>
which has the same units as the angular momentum vector L. In rare cases , the sign of the LRL vector may be reversed , i.e. , scaled by − 1 . Other common symbols for the LRL vector include a , R , F , J and V. However , the choice of scaling and symbol for the LRL vector do not affect its conservation .
An alternative conserved vector is the binormal vector B studied by William Rowan Hamilton
<formula>
which is conserved and points along the minor semiaxis of the ellipse ; the LRL vector A
= B × L is the cross product of B and L ( Figure 4 ) .
The vector B is denoted as " binormal " since it is perpendicular to both A and L. Similar to the LRL vector itself , the binormal vector can be defined with different scalings and symbols .
The two conserved vectors , A and B can be combined to form a conserved dyadic tensor W ,
<formula>
where α and β are arbitrary scaling constants and <formula> represents the tensor product ( which is not related to the vector cross product , despite their similar symbol ) . Written in explicit components , this equation reads
<formula>
Being perpendicular to each another , the vectors A and B can be viewed as the principal axes of the conserved tensor W , i.e. , its scaled eigenvectors . W is perpendicular to L
<formula>
since A and B are both perpendicular to L as well , L ⋅ A =
L ⋅ B = 0 . For clarification , this equation reads , in explicit components ,
<formula>
= Doll ( manga ) =
Doll ( Japanese : ドｰル , Hepburn : Dōru ) is a science fiction josei ( targeted towards women ) manga by Mitsukazu Mihara . Appearing as a serial in the Japanese manga magazine Feel Young from 1998 to 2002 , the thirty @-@ three chapters of Doll were collected into six bound volumes by Shodensha and published from August 2000 to August 2002 . Taking place in the future , the plot focuses on relationships between people and the eponymous androids ; the series has an overarching plot that follows an illegal reprogrammer of Dolls and his revenge against the corporation which creates them . One of the characters , the corporation that manufactors the Dolls , and the concept of the Dolls appeared earlier in Mihara 's short manga " The Sunflower Quality Of An Integrated Circuit " ( 集積回路のヒマワリ ) ( 1995 ) , later collected in IC in a Sunflower ( 1997 ) .
In 2003 , Tokyopop licensed the series for an English @-@ language translations in North America and the United Kingdom , publishing the series from August 2004 to October 2005 . The series has received several positive reviews from English @-@ language critics , and the first volume placed in ICv2 's list of the top 100 best @-@ selling graphic novels for July 2004 . In 2011 , Tokyopop 's North American branch stopped publication and returned its manga licenses .
= = Plot = =
Set in the future , Doll centers around relationships between humans and the eponymous androids — created by Kaoru and Motohiko Kirishima and manufactured by SG Corporation . During the development of the " Sterol @-@ 2 " Doll , Kaoru 's mental condition begins to deteriorate ; after attempting to retain a copy of her mind and memories in a prototype of a Doll , Motohiko realizes his mistake of trying to replace his wife . Retiring from the corporation to care for her , he leaves behind eight other prototypes , which are seen throughout the series : a nameless male Doll , who was the constant companion for a woman and cremated with her by her greedy stepson ; Chocolat , a maid who was discovered in a trash heap by an elderly farming community ; Honey , a secretary loyal to the SG Corporation president ; Cherry , the maid to an award @-@ winning , bulimic writer ; Vanilla , a maid to an elderly man and his unfaithful , younger wife ; the sexaroid Veronica , one of two Dolls built for sexual intercourse , and her unnamed partner ; and S , who hunts down illegally reprogrammed Dolls for SG Corporation .
Doll also focuses on Ichiro , a reprogrammer of Dolls who was abused by his stepmother and stepsiblings . Chosen to become the next president of SG Corporation , he was castrated by his beloved Doll on the orders of his jealous relatives . His Doll , the only one who had shown him kindness , was then destroyed . No longer the successor , Ichiro studied all the aspects of the Doll business . At eighteen years old , he left and began to reprogram Dolls illegally , seeking revenge on SG Corporation . Years later , Ichiro finds the unnamed sexaroid , after Veronica is destroyed by a sadistic owner . Ichiro reprograms the sexaroid to mimic human emotions , and the sexaroid becomes Ichiro 's companion .
They eventually find and purchase Vanilla , who acts as if she suffers from psychological trauma . While on a date with the sexaroid , Vanilla recovers her memories of having been ordered to bury her master 's corpse by her mistress . Meanwhile , Ichiro is captured by agents of the SG Corporation . Learning of this , the sexaroid leaves to rescue him , against the wishes of another reprogrammer , Psycho Candy . Captured , tagged for destruction , and reunited with Ichiro , the sexaroid finds himself ordered by Ichiro to switch places with him and escape . Ichiro then gives the sexaroid a name , Itsuki . With Itsuki 's tag for destruction , Ichiro is killed at the moment his father finally recognizes him . Doll concludes with SG Corporation 's scandal and subsequent bankruptcy , as Motohiko and his wife are content with knowing that they left Dolls in the world , while Vanilla and Itsuki live together in a house purchased by Ichiro .
= = Development = =
The character Vanilla , the concept of the Dolls , and SG Corporation first appeared in manga artist Mitsukazu Mihara 's earlier short manga " The Sunflower Quality Of An Integrated Circuit " ( 集積回路のヒマワリ ) ( 1995 ) , later collected in IC in a Sunflower ( 1997 ) . Doll began as " the simple notion of humans vs. robots " . Although she often uses Lolita fashion — a clothing style influenced by the Rococo style and the Victorian and Edwardian eras — in her character designs as a way to convey the duality of her characters , she felt that the fashion failed to give the manga depth . She then centered the plots on the psychological aspects . As Mihara has expressed an interest in exploring the impact of the childhood environment on a person , especially his or her relationships with parents , the stories in Doll involve the eponymous androids and family life . Each short story contains an independent theme ; " A Maid Servant " , for example , takes its inspiration from a book about aging fears , and " miseducation " serves as the theme for a story about cram school , inspired by a book about the inadequacy of solely teaching theories .
The overarching plot of Doll started with the second volume ; she envisioned a prodigy burdened by " parental pressure " and a Doll to heal the psychological pain . She explained that while her flaws may appear in the human characters , her " hopes for perfection " may appear in the Dolls . The Dolls , however , never developed consciousness , with the remodeled Dolls only capable of mimicking human emotion — in contrast to the typical progression of other stories in the genre . Mihara never considered making the androids capable of emotion , wishing for the narrative to center on the human characters .
= = Release = =
Written and illustrated by Mitsukazu Mihara , the thirty @-@ three chapters of Doll appeared as a serial in the Japanese josei ( targeted towards women ) manga magazine Feel Young , from 1998 to 2002 . The chapters were collected into six bound volumes by Shodensha and published from August 10 , 2000 , to August 8 , 2002 .
In 2003 , Tokyopop licensed Doll for an English @-@ language translation in North America and the United Kingdom . The series was published from August 10 , 2004 , to October 11 , 2005 ; the first volume was also published as a limited @-@ edition hardcover on May 11 , 2004 . Tokyopop 's North American branch stopped publishing on May 31 , 2011 , with its manga licenses returned . Doll has also been translated into German by Tokyopop Germany .
= = = Volume list = = =
= = Reception = =
The first volume of Doll debuted at the 73rd spot on ICv2 's list of the top 100 best @-@ selling graphic novels for July 2004 with an estimated 1 @,@ 394 copies sold .
Doll has received several positive reviews from English @-@ language critics . About.com 's Deb Aoki placed it on her list of recommended horror manga . According to Aoki , Mihara 's stories proved to be haunting , despite not following the traditional model of gory horror stories . While finding Mihara 's art well @-@ done , yet " not especially memorable " , Patrick King of Animefringe wrote that Mihara 's focus on the social effects of the Dolls and their environments greatly contributed to the appeal of the series . Sequential Tart 's Sheena McNeil wrote that Doll examines the relationships between androids and people on " a much more serious and realistic level " than Clamp 's Chobits . In follow @-@ up reviews , she wrote that the series conveyed " a sense of reality that is unsettling and the stories are harsh reads — being violent and / or tragic . " According to her , Doll simultaneously examines the meaning of humanity and modern @-@ day fears surrounding the possibility of such androids . She also wrote that Mihara 's " jaw @-@ dropping beautiful " artwork contrasted well with the characters ' misery . Jason Thompson , in Manga : The Complete Guide , wrote that childbirth and family served as the manga 's themes . According to him , Mihara 's character designs and artwork complemented the stories nicely . Conversely , Anime News Network 's Liann Cooper reviewed the hardcover edition of Doll with mixed feelings : according to her , the stories mostly lacked entertainment value , and had artwork that failed to catch the reader 's eye , but she praised the presentation . She concluded that the hardcover edition would only appeal to " avid collectors " .
= Edith Rogers ( Alberta politician ) =
Edith Blanche Rogers ( née Edith Blanche Cox ) ( September 20 , 1894 – July 17 , 1985 ) was a Canadian politician who served as a member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta from 1935 until 1940 . Born in Nova Scotia , she came west to Alberta to accept a job as a teacher . She later moved to Calgary where she encountered evangelist William Aberhart and became a convert to his social credit economic theories . After advocating these theories across the province , she was elected in the 1935 provincial election as a candidate of Aberhart 's newly formed Social Credit League .
Left out of cabinet despite her loyalty to Aberhart , she sided with the insurgents during the 1937 Social Credit backbenchers ' revolt , rejoining Aberhart 's followers once a settlement was reached . She was defeated in the 1940 election . After her defeat , she abandoned Social Credit for the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation , moved to Edmonton , and served for fifteen years as a school trustee . Edith Rogers died in 1985 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Eastville , Nova Scotia to Samuel G. and Mahala ( née Graham ) Cox , Rogers was raised on a farm and attended Eastville High School and Normal School . She worked as a teacher in Nova Scotia until 1913 , when she visited her aunt , Margaret Redmond , in Edgerton , Alberta . While there , she accepted an offer to teach at Bloomington School . She attended Camrose Normal School in 1914 , after which she taught in Edgerton and near Tofield until 1918 . Disillusioned with teaching in rural schoolhouses , she took a business course and began work as a bank teller for the Merchants Bank of Canada , which later merged with the Bank of Montreal , in Edgerton ; this was an unusual career choice for a woman at the time . In 1922 she moved to Tofield , where she continued to work as a teller . The next year she moved to Killam , where she married William Rogers , the local high school principal , October 12 , 1923 .
In 1929 , the couple moved to Calgary , where they became friends with William Aberhart and his family . Rogers ' first foray into politics took place during the 1930 federal election , when she assisted with R. B. Bennett 's successful Calgary West campaign . Governments ' inability to end or alleviate the effects of the Great Depression soon disillusioned her with conventional politics . Upon hearing that Aberhart was beginning to incorporate politics and economics into his weekly gospel radio addresses , she began to listen and soon became a convert to his version of social credit .
= = Early involvement in social credit = =
In 1932 Rogers convinced Aberhart to hold public meetings on social credit in Calgary ; she subsequently organized neighbourhood study groups on the theory . In 1933 the Central Council of Social Credit in Calgary , which coordinated the city 's sixty social credit study groups , named her women 's organizer , in which capacity she held mass meetings designed to recruit women to social credit . In 1934 she embarked on a sixteen @-@ month speaking tour of Alberta . At the same time , she organized social credit study groups around the province , including seventy @-@ two in Edmonton . She concluded her tour by organizing a mass meeting there in the spring of 1935 , where Aberhart spoke before 9 @,@ 000 people .
When fissures appeared between Aberhart and people who supported the more orthodox version of social credit proposed by C. H. Douglas , the movement 's British founder , Rogers remained steadfastedly loyal to Aberhart . In the assessment of T. C. Byrne , her loyalty to Aberhart was second only to that of Ernest Manning , Aberhart 's young protégé .
When Aberhart decided to run Social Credit candidates in the 1935 provincial election , he adopted an unusual system of candidate nomination : each constituency would nominate three or four candidates , with a committee headed by Aberhart deciding which one would actually run . Six different constituencies nominated Rogers as one of their candidates , and Aberhart decided that she should run in Ponoka . Her opponent from the governing United Farmers of Alberta ( UFA ) was former Premier John Edward Brownlee , who had resigned the previous year in the wake of a sex scandal in which he was sued for the seduction of a young woman . Brownlee biographer Franklin Foster speculates that the selection of a female candidate to run against the so @-@ called " sober faced seducer " was a deliberate strategic decision by Aberhart , and noted further that " aside from Aberhart himself , [ Social Credit ] could not have fielded a stronger candidate " in Ponoka .
= = Member of the Legislative Assembly = =
Rogers won the riding with 2 @,@ 295 votes , more than 1 @,@ 400 ahead of Brownlee . In fact , the UFA lost every seat it contested , and Social Credit candidates won 56 of Alberta 's 63 seats . Aberhart became premier . He did not appoint Rogers ( or any other woman ) to his cabinet , and Athabasca University historian Alvin Finkel has suggested that her gender cost her such an appointment . Female cabinet ministers were not unprecedented in Alberta ( Irene Parlby was a cabinet minister throughout the UFA 's time in office ) and Finkel argues , given that Rogers was " recognized as sharp , articulate , and hard @-@ working " , that she could reasonably have expected a cabinet portfolio .
Despite her loyalty to Aberhart , Rogers became frustrated with his delay in implementing the social credit economic reforms he had promised . During the 1937 Social Credit backbenchers ' revolt she sided with the insurgents who threatened to bring down the government unless it took concrete steps to implement social credit . Once the insurgents reached a settlement with Aberhart , she returned to her former position of loyalty , and sought re @-@ election as a Social Crediter in the 1940 election . Prior to this election , Social Credit 's opponents , including Liberals , Conservatives , and those elements of the UFA that had not moved to Social Credit , formed the People 's League , which ran nominally independent candidates . One of these candidates , Percy McKelvey , led Rogers by 13 votes on the first count . The Cooperative Commonwealth Federation ( CCF ) ' s C. A. Johnson was in a distant third . When Johnson 's votes were redistributed , in accordance with Alberta 's electoral laws at the time , McKelvey 's margin increased to nearly two hundred votes , and he was declared the victor .
= = Later life = =
After her defeat , Rogers and her husband moved to Edmonton . She disapproved of the Social Credit government 's move to the right under new premier Ernest Manning , and joined the socialist CCF . Finkel considers this surprising , in light of her long @-@ time devotion to the ideals of social credit , the role the CCF played in her 1940 election defeat , and his assessment that she " seemed more interested in monetary reform than in the general social critique put forward by the CCF . " She served as a member of the CCF 's Edmonton membership and organization committee .
Rogers was elected to the board of Edmonton Public Schools in the 1959 Edmonton election as a candidate of the left @-@ leaning Civic Reform Association ( CRA ) . She was re @-@ elected in 1961 , 1963 , 1964 , 1966 , 1968 , and 1971 . When the CRA dissolved in advance of the 1961 election , she joined the newly formed Quality Education Council ; when that too dissolved , she ran as an independent in the 1971 election . She did not seek re @-@ election in the 1974 election . The next year , Edith Rogers Junior High School in Edmonton was named in her honour .
William Rogers died November 7 , 1968 . Edith Rogers died July 17 , 1985 .
= = Electoral record = =
= No. 5 Airfield Construction Squadron RAAF =
No. 5 Airfield Construction Squadron ( 5ACS ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) construction squadron . The unit was first formed in July 1942 and served in the New Guinea Campaign and Borneo Campaign during World War II . The squadron was one of only a few RAAF airfield construction units to be retained at the end of the war , and formed part of Australia 's contribution to the occupation of Japan from 1945 until it was disbanded in June 1949 . 5ACS was re @-@ raised in August 1951 and worked on several RAAF airfields in Australia . In addition , it also provided small detachments of engineers to support RAAF deployments to South Vietnam and Thailand during the Vietnam War . The squadron was the RAAF 's only airfield construction unit from 1961 onward , and was disbanded in December 1974 .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
On 7 July 1942 , 250 men of No. 1 Mobile Works Squadron were detached from the unit while it was stationed at Ascot Vale , Victoria and organised into a new squadron intended to serve in New Guinea . This unit was designated No. 1 Mobile Works Squadron ( Special Works Force ) , and arrived at Port Moresby on 7 August after a difficult voyage during which the ship carrying it from Australia it ran aground twice . The squadron began work constructing Wards Airfield on 14 August , and the first of the airfield 's runways was ready for use three weeks later . The airfield 's completion was delayed until January 1943 due to shortages of personnel and equipment , however . No. 1 Mobile Works Squadron ( Special Works Force ) was redesignated No. 5 Mobile Works Squadron ( 5MWS ) on 16 November . In order to support Allied offensives in New Guinea 5MWS moved to Goodenough Island between late February and March 1943 where it constructed Vivigani Airfield . This facility initially comprised a 1 @,@ 524 @-@ metre ( 5 @,@ 000 ft ) fighter runway and 1 @,@ 829 @-@ metre ( 6 @,@ 001 ft ) bomber runway as well as headquarters , maintenance and logistics facilities . During March and April a detachment from the squadron also assisted No. 6 Mobile Works Squadron at Milne Bay . 5MWS departed Goodenough Island on 21 November for a period of rest and reconstitution in Australia .
In early 1944 5MWS became part of a force of RAAF and United States Army aviation engineer units which were selected to build airfields at Aitape in New Guinea from which air support would be provided to Allied operations around Hollandia after US Army forces landed there on 22 April . 5MWS departed Melbourne on 15 February , and eventually joined up with the main body of the airfield engineer force at Lae on 1 April where it received training in infantry tactics . The Landing at Aitape took place on 22 April , and 5MWS came ashore the next day . The airfield at Aitape was ready to be used from 25 April and was later expanded by the aviation engineers . On 6 July 5MWS landed on Noemfoor Island where it again formed part of an aviation engineer force tasked with repairing and expanding the island 's airfields . Allied forces had first landed on the island on 2 July , and it was still not secure when construction work began . As a result , 5MWS personnel were required to man perimeter defences , during which they captured 12 Japanese personnel . While at Noemfoor 5MWS was redesignated No. 5 Airfield Construction Squadron ( 5ACS ) on 18 July . As at 25 November , No. 4 Airfield Construction Squadron and 5ACS were the main units of No. 62 Wing . This wing formed part of the Australian First Tactical Air Force , which was the RAAF 's main mobile force .
In January 1945 4ACS and 5ACS moved to Biak island where they worked on improving facilities used by the US Army and United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) . In mid @-@ May 1945 4ACS and 5ACS traveled together to Morotai . They remained on this island until June when they departed as part of the Australian @-@ led Battle of North Borneo . The two squadrons landed at Labuan on 11 June and worked on repairing and maintaining the island 's airfield until the end of the war on 15 August .
= = = Occupation of Japan = = =
While most of the RAAF 's airfield construction squadrons were disbanded at the end of the war , on 17 November 1945 5ACS was informed that it would form part of Australia 's contribution to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) in Japan . For this deployment it was assigned to No. 81 Wing . 5ACS ' advance party arrived in Japan in late 1945 and the rest of the squadron arrived at Iwakuni to the east of Hiroshima on 22 February 1946 . At this time the unit was under strength as only 14 officers and 189 airmen had volunteered for occupation duties , though a further 173 personnel arrived in March and April .
5ACS provided engineering support to BCOF for the next three years . Its initial priorities were to repair the airfields at Bofu , Iwakuni and Miho . By mid @-@ 1946 5ACS was engaged in work on these airfields , building small forward airstrips for army reconnaissance aircraft and maintaining another four airfields in BCOF 's area of responsibility . These tasks were of great importance to the BCOF , and Australian aviation historian Alan Stephens has written that " No. 5 ACS 's achievements were probably the most significant of any Australian unit — land , sea or air " during the occupation of Japan . Japanese labourers and tradesmen were employed on all of 5ACS ' projects , with the squadron 's personnel undertaking specialist roles . The size of BCOF was reduced in 1948 and the Australian Government decided to reduce the RAAF force in Japan to a single flying squadron . Accordingly , 5ACS ' remaining responsibilities were gradually transferred to the works officer of No. 77 Squadron and the squadron was disbanded at Iwakuni on 30 June 1949 .
= = = Cold War = = =
5ACS was reformed on 8 August 1951 at Bankstown , New South Wales to fill the RAAF 's need for engineering units and provide a nucleus for the potential formation of other airfield construction squadrons . It initially worked on projects in Sydney before moving to RAAF Base Williamtown in 1952 where it undertook a major upgrade of that base which lasted until 1955 . During this period , the squadron also worked on other RAAF facilities in New South Wales . Between March and November 1952 a detachment of 30 men from 5ACS was deployed to the Montebello Islands off the coast of Western Australia to support the British nuclear weapons test in the area , Operation Hurricane . Another detachment from the squadron assisted with the construction of range facilities at the Woomera Test Range in South Australia between 1952 and 1955 . Most of 5ACS moved to Darwin in 1955 to build a 13 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 000 m ) -long runway and supporting facilities at RAAF Base Darwin , though a detachment remained at Williamtown until June 1963 and two other detachments were formed to undertake engineering tasks in the Sydney region and rebuild the runway at RAAF Base Amberley . The expansion of RAAF Base Darwin was completed in 1964 . Following the disbandment of No. 2 Airfield Construction Squadron on 28 April 1961 , 5ACS was left as the RAAF 's only construction unit and took on some of 2ACS ' personnel and equipment . For a short period the remnants of 2ACS was designated Detachment C of 5ACS while it completed works on RAAF Base East Sale ; this sub @-@ unit was disbanded in September 1961 .
Once RAAF Base Darwin was completed 5ACS headed south to develop RAAF Base Tindal near Katherine in the Northern Territory . The squadron 's advance party arrived at Tindal in October 1963 and work began on the base in late 1964 . The 2 @,@ 743 @-@ metre ( 8 @,@ 999 ft ) runway was opened in March 1967 and the base was ready to support RAAF units in early 1968 . Work on expanding Tindal continued during 1968 and 1969 . During this period detachments of 5ACS also worked on projects at Darwin and Amberley , and 5ACS ' headquarters moved to Amberley on 14 September 1969 .
Detachments from 5ACS formed part of Australia 's contribution to the Vietnam War . Following the deployment of No. 79 Squadron to Ubon Air Force Base in Thailand in June 1962 , a party of 5ACS personnel was also sent to Ubon to plan and oversee the construction of facilities for the squadron . Work on these facilities was undertaken by 100 Thai civilians who had built over 50 huts and other support infrastructure for No. 79 Squadron by the time the project concluded at the end of 1962 . RAAF units began to be deployed to South Vietnam in 1964 , and in May 1966 Detachment A of 5ACS was formed at Vũng Tàu to improve the airfield there so it could support the UH @-@ 1 Iroquois @-@ equipped No. 9 Squadron . The 19 members of this detachment returned to Australia on 8 October 1966 . Detachment B of 5ACS was subsequently deployed to South Vietnam in January 1967 to build facilities for eight No. 2 Squadron Canberra bombers at Phan Rang Air Base . This task was completed in April , and in June Detachment B moved to Vũng Tàu to complete the construction of facilities there . Work on Vũng Tàu Airport was finished on 20 January 1968 and the detachment was disbanded on 17 February 1968 .
5ACS ' last major project was the development of RAAF Base Learmonth in Western Australia . Initial works began on this project in March 1970 when Detachment E of 5ACS was formed there , and the main body of the squadron arrived on 1 February 1971 . 5ACS ' task was to extend the existing runway at the site and build facilities to support RAAF combat aircraft in the case of a war with Indonesia . These works were undertaken in difficult climatic conditions and the living conditions provided for the airmen and their families were inadequate . Nonetheless , the runway and extensive support facilities were officially opened on 15 December 1972 , though further work needed to be completed at this time . In August 1973 it was announced that 5ACS was going to be disbanded . The squadron 's strength declined during 1974 as personnel left the RAAF or moved to other units , and it was disbanded at Learmonth on 15 December 1974 . 5ACS was the last of the RAAF 's airfield construction units , and since its disbandment civilian contractors have been used to build and maintain air bases . A memorial plaque commemorating 5ACS was unveiled at the RAAF Memorial Grove outside of Canberra on 21 March 2014 .
= 2008 UEFA Champions League Final =
The 2008 UEFA Champions League Final was a football match that took place on Wednesday , 21 May 2008 , at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow , Russia , to determine the winner of the 2007 – 08 UEFA Champions League . It was contested by Manchester United and Chelsea , making it an all @-@ English club final for the first time in the history of the competition . This was only the third time that two clubs from the same country had contested the final ; the others being the 2000 and 2003 finals . It was the first European Cup final played in Russia , and hence the easternmost final in the tournament 's history . It also marked the 100th anniversary of Manchester United 's first league triumph , the 50th anniversary of the Munich air disaster , and the 40th anniversary of United 's first European Cup triumph in 1968 . It was Manchester United 's third European Cup final after 1968 and 1999 , while it was Chelsea 's first .
Manchester United won the match 6 – 5 on penalties , after a 1 – 1 draw following extra time . Cristiano Ronaldo opened the scoring for Manchester United in the 26th minute with a header from a cross by Wes Brown , but Frank Lampard equalised shortly before half @-@ time . The second half and most of extra time passed without incident until Chelsea 's Didier Drogba was sent off for slapping Nemanja Vidić four minutes from the end . In the penalty shoot @-@ out , Ronaldo missed Manchester United 's third kick , giving John Terry the chance to win the game for Chelsea , only for him to slip and hit the post . Edwin van der Sar then saved Nicolas Anelka 's effort from Chelsea 's seventh kick to give Manchester United their third European Cup title .
More than 67 @,@ 000 people watched the game in the stadium , along with more than 17 @.@ 5 million television viewers in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland . In addition to prize money received from earlier in the competition , Manchester United received € 7 million for winning the final , while Chelsea received € 4 million . As winners , Manchester United went on to play in the 2008 UEFA Super Cup , losing 2 – 1 to 2007 – 08 UEFA Cup winners Zenit Saint Petersburg , and the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup , which they won after beating 2008 Copa Libertadores winners LDU Quito 1 – 0 in the final .
= = Background = =
Manchester United and Chelsea had played each other 150 times prior to the Champions League final , with 18 meetings in domestic cup competitions ( including the FA Community Shield ) . Due to various historical restrictions regarding the number of teams from the same country entering European competitions , they had never met in Europe before . Manchester United held the upper hand in the teams ' 150 previous meetings , winning 65 times to Chelsea 's 41 , with 44 draws . Their cup record was equally good , winning 10 of the 18 cup meetings , with the remaining eight ties split equally between draws and Chelsea wins . However , honours were even in cup finals , with Manchester United having won the 1994 FA Cup Final 4 – 0 , while Chelsea won the 2007 FA Cup Final 1 – 0 , the last cup game between the two sides . Manchester United responded to defeat in the 2007 FA Cup Final by beating Chelsea in the 2007 FA Community Shield the following August , winning 3 – 0 on penalties after a 1 – 1 draw in normal time . They went on to claim their 17th league title at the end of the 2007 – 08 Premier League season , finishing two points ahead of Chelsea . In the two sides ' league meetings that season , United won 2 – 0 at Old Trafford in Avram Grant 's first game in charge of Chelsea on 23 September 2007 , while Chelsea won 2 – 1 at Stamford Bridge in the return game on 26 April 2008 .
Because of the aforementioned entry restrictions , Manchester United had only met English opposition in Europe twice before , while Chelsea had far more experience against English opposition , having played 12 matches against compatriot clubs , winning five , drawing five and losing just two . There had been two previous Champions League finals between teams from the same country : in 2000 , when Real Madrid beat fellow Spanish side Valencia 3 – 0 at the Stade de France ; and in 2003 , when Italian sides Milan and Juventus played out a 0 – 0 draw before Milan won 3 – 2 on penalties .
Both sides had a connection to the early history of European football ; Chelsea were invited to take part in the inaugural European Cup in 1955 – 56 as champions of England , only to be denied entry by The Football League , allowing Manchester United to become the first English entrants in the competition the following season . In February 1958 , eight Manchester United players were killed in the Munich air disaster , when the aeroplane carrying their team back from a match in Belgrade crashed while attempting to take off from a refuelling stop in Munich . Manager Matt Busby was seriously injured in the crash and almost died as a result , but he rebuilt the team , and in May 1968 , Manchester United became the first English winners of the European Cup , beating Benfica 4 – 1 in the 1968 European Cup Final . Chelsea won their first European trophy three years later , when they beat Real Madrid 2 – 1 in the 1971 European Cup Winners ' Cup Final replay after a 1 – 1 draw in the first match . Both Chelsea and Manchester United won that same competition during the 1990s – first Manchester United beat Barcelona 2 – 1 in the 1991 final ( followed by victory over Red Star Belgrade in the 1991 Super Cup ) , and then Chelsea beat VfB Stuttgart in the 1998 final ( followed by victory over Real Madrid in the 1998 Super Cup , their most recent European success ) . Manchester United then won their second European Cup the following year , beating Bayern Munich in the 1999 Champions League final .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Manchester United = = =
Manchester United were drawn in Group F along with Roma , Sporting and Dynamo Kyiv . United won their first five group games ; they first travelled to Lisbon , where Cristiano Ronaldo 's header secured a 1 – 0 win against his old club , Sporting . Next was another 1 – 0 win at home to Roma , followed by back @-@ to @-@ back four @-@ goal victories over Dynamo Kyiv ( 4 – 2 in Ukraine and 4 – 0 at Old Trafford ) . United secured top spot in the group with a 2 – 1 win at home to Sporting in their fifth game . They travelled to Roma for the final group game , in which both teams were already guaranteed to progress ; it finished as a 1 – 1 draw , with Gerard Piqué scoring his first goal for the club before Mancini 's equaliser . United finished with 16 points , the most of all the group winners .
In the first knockout round , United were drawn against Lyon , against whom they drew the away leg 1 – 1 , thanks to a late equaliser from Carlos Tevez . The Red Devils then won the second leg 1 – 0 – Ronaldo scoring the only goal – to ensure a 2 – 1 aggregate win and a place in the quarter @-@ finals , where they were again drawn against Roma .
The quarter @-@ final matches represented the fifth and sixth times these two clubs had met in Europe in just over 12 months ; they had met at the same stage of the previous season 's competition and then again in the group stage this season . United went to Rome and secured a 2 – 0 win with a first @-@ half header from Ronaldo and a second @-@ half goal tapped in by Wayne Rooney . United went on to secure the tie in the second leg with a 1 – 0 win , their record 11th consecutive home Champions League win .
The semi @-@ final pitted United against Barcelona ; the teams had not met since the group stage of the 1998 – 99 tournament , the last time United won it . The teams also had identical records going into the semi @-@ final , each having won eight and drawn two of their 10 games , scoring 18 goals and conceding just five . The first leg at the Camp Nou saw United spend most of the game defending , while Barcelona tried to pass the ball around them . United were awarded a penalty in the first minute , but Ronaldo sent the ball wide , hitting the stanchion behind the goal . That was as close as either team got to a goal in the first leg and it ended 0 – 0 . The second leg at Old Trafford was a game of higher tempo , which United won 1 – 0 thanks to a goal from Paul Scholes after 14 minutes . This result increased United 's consecutive home win record in the Champions League to 12 and ensured that they reached the final unbeaten .
In reaching the final , United won nine and drew three of their 12 matches , dwarfing their record of four wins and six draws in the 10 games they took to reach the final in 1999 ( when there was no first knockout round and teams advanced from the group stage directly into the quarter @-@ finals ) . United scored 19 goals en route to the final , Ronaldo scoring seven of them , more than any other player .
= = = Chelsea = = =
In the group stage , Chelsea were drawn into Group B , along with Schalke 04 of Germany , Rosenborg of Norway and Spanish club Valencia . Chelsea 's first match in the group was against Rosenborg at Stamford Bridge , where they were held to a 1 – 1 draw . Two days later , manager José Mourinho left Chelsea by mutual consent , and was replaced by their director of football , former Israeli national team coach Avram Grant . Chelsea 's second match was against Valencia , whom they beat 2 – 1 , leaving Chelsea with four points from their two matches . Chelsea 's next two matches were against Schalke 04 . The first match was played at Stamford Bridge , with Chelsea winning 2 – 0 , while the return match in Gelsenkirchen ended in a 0 – 0 draw . Chelsea 's final two matches in their group resulted in a 4 – 0 victory away to Rosenborg and a 0 – 0 draw at home to Valencia . Chelsea progressed as group winners with 12 points out of six games .
Chelsea faced Greek side Olympiacos in the first knockout round . The first leg in Athens ended in a 0 – 0 draw , but a 3 – 0 win in the second leg , with goals from Michael Ballack , Frank Lampard and Salomon Kalou , saw Chelsea through to the quarter @-@ finals . There , they were drawn against Fenerbahçe of Turkey . The first leg was held at the Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium in Istanbul , and ended in a 2 – 1 defeat , as Deivid made up for an early own goal by scoring the winner nine minutes from time after Colin Kazim @-@ Richards ' equaliser . Chelsea won the second leg at Stamford Bridge 2 – 0 , with goals from Ballack and Lampard , to claim a 3 – 2 aggregate victory over the Turkish side .
Chelsea faced fellow English club Liverpool in the semi @-@ finals . This was the fourth year in succession that these teams had met in the Champions League , following semi @-@ final meetings in 2004 – 05 and 2006 – 07 , and two group stage matches in 2005 – 06 . The first leg at Anfield was a 1 – 1 draw , in which Chelsea got a 95th @-@ minute equaliser through a John Arne Riise own goal after Dirk Kuyt had put Liverpool 1 – 0 up just before half @-@ time . Chelsea won the second leg 3 – 2 after extra time , with two goals from Didier Drogba and one from Lampard sending the Blues through to the first Champions League final in their history .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
= = = Venue = = =
The Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow was selected as the venue for the match at a meeting of the UEFA Executive Committee in Ljubljana , Slovenia , on 4 October 2006 . The committee – who decided the venue for the 2009 final and the 2008 and 2009 UEFA Cup Finals at the same meeting – based their decision on a number of factors , including stadium capacity , safety and security facilities , and accessibility . The other venues in contention were the Estadio Olímpico in Sevilla , the Olympiastadion in Berlin , Wembley Stadium in London , and the Stadio Olimpico in Rome , which was chosen to host the 2009 final .
The European Cup final had never before been played in Russia , making this match the easternmost final in the tournament 's history ; however , the Luzhniki Stadium had previously played host to the 1999 UEFA Cup Final , in which Italian club Parma beat French side Marseille 3 – 0 . Because of the difference in time zones , the match kicked off at 22 : 45 Moscow Time , making it the first Champions League final to start on one day and finish in the next .
Originally known as the Grand Arena of the Central Lenin Stadium ,
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the ground opened in 1956 as a new national stadium for the Soviet Union national football team . In 1973 , it served as the principal venue for the seventh Summer Universiade , before going on to perform the same function at the 1980 Summer Olympics . By this point , the stadium 's capacity was 103 @,@ 000 ; however , renovations in the mid @-@ 1990s reduced the capacity to just under 85 @,@ 000 . The stadium was given five @-@ star status by UEFA in 1998 , before hosting the UEFA Cup final the following year . To help the stadium cope with the cold Russian winters , the grass pitch was replaced by an artificial FieldTurf surface in 2002 . Although UEFA allowed matches in earlier rounds to be played on the synthetic surface , they mandated that the final should be played on natural grass . Turf was shipped in from Slovakia especially for the final at a cost of £ 160 @,@ 000 , and laid on top of the existing playing surface , resulting in the pitch being 35 cm ( 14 in ) higher than normal . There were originally concerns over the players ' safety on the new field , which had to be relaid twice after patches died in transit .
As part of the marketing for the match , a unique design concept has been developed for each Champions League final since 1997 , inspired by the cultural and historical heritage of the host city . The 2008 final 's design was announced on 31 October 2007 in a ceremony at the Luzhniki Stadium , attended by the ambassador for the final , former Russian goalkeeper Rinat Dasayev . The design was based on a colour scheme of deep red and gold , inspired by the predominant colours of Red Square , the Kremlin and the gold domes of Moscow 's cathedrals , and featured images of the Moscow skyline , as well as the UEFA Champions League logo and trophy rendered in a Russian artistic style , with text in a font similar to Cyrillic script .
As has taken place for every Champions League final since 1997 , a ceremonial handover of the UEFA Champions League trophy was held in the host city ; the 2008 ceremony was at the GUM Centre in Moscow 's Red Square on 3 April 2008 . On behalf of 2007 champions Milan , their technical operations director and former player Leonardo , and club director Umberto Gandini presented the trophy back to UEFA president Michel Platini , who passed it on to the Mayor of Moscow , Yury Luzhkov , for it to be displayed in five cities around the country – Kazan , Yekaterinburg , Krasnodar , Saint Petersburg and Samara – before returning to Moscow ahead of the final . Also in attendance at the ceremony were final ambassador Rinat Dasayev and Russian Football Union president Vitaly Mutko .
= = = Ticketing and supporters = = =
Although the Luzhniki Stadium had a usual capacity of almost 85 @,@ 000 spectators , that was reduced to 69 @,@ 500 for the final . Of those tickets , approximately 21 @,@ 000 were reserved for each finalist club , with a further 10 @,@ 500 available for purchase by the general public via the UEFA website . Recipients of those tickets were determined by a random ballot following an online application process that ran from 28 February to 19 March 2008 . Tickets were available in three categories , priced at € 80 , € 140 and € 200 depending on their location in the stadium . UEFA received around 125 @,@ 000 applications for tickets from the general public over the course of the three @-@ week application process .
The clubs were able to distribute their tickets however they wished ; Manchester United chose to make their allocation available to all Executive Seat Holders and any Season Ticket Holders who had successfully applied for a ticket to at least one of the club 's five away Champions League matches between the group stage and the quarter @-@ finals , while Chelsea opened up applications to all club members and season ticket holders .
Manchester United chief executive David Gill expressed disappointment that his club had only been allocated 21 @,@ 000 tickets for their supporters , claiming that they could have potentially sold up to 100 @,@ 000 . While Manchester United managed to sell out their entire allocation , UEFA director of communications William Gaillard indicated that Chelsea still had " up to a couple of thousand " tickets unsold the day before the game , despite claims by Chelsea 's chief operations officer , Ron Gourlay , to the contrary .
One of the major concerns for English fans attending the final was the acquisition of visas for entry into Russia . However , after a period of negotiations between representatives of Russia , the United Kingdom , UEFA and the two clubs , it was agreed that fans with tickets for the match would not require a visa , provided they were also able to produce a passport with at least six months before expiry and a completed immigration card on entry into Russia . The visa @-@ free period was initially supposed to run for 72 hours between 19 May and 23 May , but this was later extended to an eight @-@ day period lasting from 17 May to 25 May . Because of the difficulty and expense of acquiring a ticket and visa , fans who had not already got tickets were advised against travelling to Moscow by UEFA 's William Gaillard , who also warned fans about Russia 's strict laws regarding the consumption of alcohol .
Although the two clubs claimed to have sold most of the 42 @,@ 000 tickets allocated to them , only about 25 @,@ 000 fans were said to have travelled to Moscow from the United Kingdom , with about 110 charter flights arriving ahead of the game . According to the head of the Russian national tourist office , Mikhail Ignatiev , many fans were put off by the cost of travel and accommodation . Additionally , most of Moscow 's hotels were full on the night of the game . As some fans looked to offload tickets to the match , The Moscow Times reported that the black @-@ market price dropped from a high of € 2 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 600 ) to around € 500 ( £ 400 ) , while Russian TV channel Sport @-@ 1 was reporting prices as low as £ 300 for tickets belonging to fans who had failed to make the trip to Moscow . Among the celebrities who did not travel were Chelsea supporter and chairman of the London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games ( LOCOG ) Sebastian Coe , who had to attend meetings ahead of the 2012 Summer Olympics , and Manchester United fan and Simply Red lead singer Mick Hucknall , who was due to perform at the BMW PGA Championship at Wentworth .
= = = Match ball = = =
The match ball for the final was the Adidas Finale Moscow , the eighth in the Adidas Finale range . The ball 's design was based around the " starball " pattern , inspired by the UEFA Champions League logo ; the stars are dark red with gold detailing , tying in with the overall design concept for the final . Technically , the ball is based on the Adidas Europass , which was used at UEFA Euro 2008 later that summer ; it has the same 14 @-@ panel configuration as the Adidas Teamgeist , but with the proprietary surface texture developed for the Europass . The ball was unveiled at a ceremony in Moscow 's Manezhnaya Square , attended by UEFA General Secretary David Taylor , former Germany player and coach Franz Beckenbauer , final ambassador Rinat Dasayev and Russian Football Union president Vitaly Mutko .
= = = Officials = = =
The referee for the final was 40 @-@ year @-@ old Slovakian referee Ľuboš Micheľ , the first Slovak to take charge of a European Cup final . His team was completed by fellow Slovak assistant referees Roman Slysko and Martin Balko and fourth official Vladimír Hriňák . Having presided over the 2003 UEFA Cup Final , Micheľ was the second man to referee the finals of both the Champions League and UEFA Cup since the latter changed to a single @-@ legged affair in 1998 ; the other was Pierluigi Collina . Micheľ began refereeing in 1987 at the age of 19 , and took charge of his first top @-@ flight game in 1993 . That same year , he was promoted to the FIFA list of international referees , and in November 1993 , he refereed his first international match – a UEFA Under @-@ 21 Championship qualifying match between San Marino and England .
Micheľ 's first UEFA Champions League matches came in the 1998 – 99 season , including Manchester United 's 5 – 0 win over Brøndby in the group stage . Up to the 2008 final , he refereed 55 Champions League matches ( including qualifying ) , notably the second leg of the semi @-@ final between Chelsea and Liverpool in 2005 , in which Liverpool 's Luis García scored a controversial goal , which Micheľ chose to allow . He was also selected to referee at the 2000 Summer Olympics , the 2002 and 2006 FIFA World Cups , and the European Championships in 2004 and 2008 .
= = Match = =
= = = Team selection = = =
Sir Alex Ferguson guaranteed a place in the starting line @-@ up for Paul Scholes , after the midfielder had missed the 1999 final through suspension . Ferguson made one change from the team that had beaten Wigan Athletic to secure the league title 10 days earlier , with Owen Hargreaves starting on the right side of midfield in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation in place of Park Ji @-@ sung ; Cristiano Ronaldo started on the left wing , where he was pitted against makeshift Chelsea right @-@ back Michael Essien . This went against the prediction of The Guardian 's David Pleat , who thought a duel between Ronaldo and Ashley Cole would be key to the final . Ferguson hoped his substitutes might have a big impact on the match , just as Teddy Sheringham and Ole Gunnar Solskjær did in 1999 , when the pair came off the bench to help Manchester United come from behind and beat Bayern Munich . A week before the game , Ryan Giggs was philosophical about his chances of making the starting line @-@ up ; he was eventually named as one of seven allowed substitutes .
The day before the match , Avram Grant predicted that the game would throw up few tactical surprises due to the two teams ' knowledge of each other from the domestic league . Nevertheless , he decided to start with Florent Malouda on the left @-@ wing instead of Salomon Kalou , and also chose to deploy Michael Essien at right @-@ back ahead of Paulo Ferreira and Juliano Belletti , rather than in his preferred midfield position . The rest of Chelsea 's team was fairly predictable , with key players John Terry ( dislocated elbow ) and Didier Drogba ( knee ) recovering from injuries suffered against Bolton Wanderers on the last day of the league season 10 days earlier to start the game . Ashley Cole also started despite hurting his right ankle in training the day before the game under a heavy challenge from Claude Makélélé . His replacement would have likely been Wayne Bridge , but he recovered sufficiently that Bridge was not even included in the matchday squad as cover .
= = = Match summary = = =
= = = = First half = = = =
After a fairly cagey first 21 minutes , the first major incident of the game occurred when Paul Scholes and Claude Makélélé clashed in mid @-@ air , resulting in both players being booked and Scholes having to leave the field for treatment to a bloody nose . The first goal of the game came five minutes later , when an interchange of passes between Scholes and Wes Brown after a throw @-@ in on the right flank gave Brown time to pick out a cross for Cristiano Ronaldo , who directed his header past Petr Čech . Chelsea almost equalised in the 33rd minute when Frank Lampard 's cross was headed back into the goal area by Didier Drogba . United 's Rio Ferdinand , under pressure from Michael Ballack , was forced to head the ball towards his own goal and Edwin van der Sar pulled off a one @-@ handed save to deny Chelsea a goal . United spent the rest of the first half pressing for a second goal , and had two good opportunities to extend their lead , but were denied by a double @-@ save from Čech . Wayne Rooney delivered a long ball into the path of Ronaldo and the United goalscorer placed his cross on the head of the diving Carlos Tevez , only for Čech to deny him . Chelsea 's failure to clear the loose ball gave Michael Carrick the chance to extend his side 's lead , but Čech was again equal to the task with another save .
Chelsea survived the pressure , as Tevez failed to connect with a low cross from Rooney , and equalised in the final minute of the first half . The goal followed from a long @-@ range shot by Michael Essien , which deflected first off Nemanja Vidić and then Ferdinand . The ball 's change in direction caused Van der Sar to lose his footing , leaving Lampard , who had made a run from deep , with a simple finish . In celebration , Lampard looked up and pointed to the sky with both hands in memory of his mother , Pat , who had died a month earlier . At the end of the first half , Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson confronted match referee Ľuboš Micheľ , " jabbing out an angry finger and spitting out a few choice words " .
= = = = Second half = = = =
Lampard 's equaliser at the end of the first half led to a transformed Chelsea in the second , and they kept United on the back foot for long periods . Nevertheless , the Red Devils managed to contain most of Chelsea 's attacks . Chelsea had a few opportunities to take the lead , with Essien breaking free of United 's defence in the 54th minute , only for his left @-@ footed shot to curl well over the goal . Chelsea 's closest opportunity to take the lead came in the 77th minute when a Drogba shot struck the post from 25 yards ( 23 m ) out . The Ivorian striker came very close to turning Joe Cole 's low cross home for the winner four minutes from time , but fired wide . Ryan Giggs was then introduced in place of Scholes , making a record 759th appearance for Manchester United .
= = = = Extra time = = = =
The game moved into extra time , and both teams had chances to score a vital second goal ; first , Lampard hit the underside of the bar with a left @-@ footed shot after the ball was played in to him with a disguised pass from Ballack , then Giggs stabbed the ball left @-@ footed towards goal instead of sweeping it with his weaker right foot , only to see it headed off the line by Terry . Late in the second half of extra time , the ball was put out of play so players could be treated for cramp . In returning the ball to Chelsea , Carlos Tevez put it out for another throw @-@ in deep in Chelsea 's half then signalled to his team @-@ mates to put pressure on the restart . John Terry and Michael Ballack reacted angrily to this and were joined by several of their team @-@ mates , while Manchester United 's players rushed in to protect Tevez . Ultimately , most of the 22 players were involved in the fracas . Amid the melée , assistant referee Martin Balko saw Drogba slap Nemanja Vidić and reported the incident to referee Ľuboš Micheľ . After showing a yellow card to Ballack , Micheľ showed a red card to Drogba for violent conduct , making him only the second player in history to be sent off in a European Cup final after Arsenal goalkeeper Jens Lehmann in 2006 .
= = = = Penalty shoot @-@ out = = = =
As the match went to penalties , Rio Ferdinand won the coin toss for Manchester United , and opted for his side to go first in the shoot @-@ out , which would be taken at the end housing the Manchester United fans . Tevez stepped up first and sent Čech the wrong way . Ballack was next up , shooting powerfully past Van der Sar . Carrick buried his spot @-@ kick , as did Juliano Belletti with his first touch of the game , having come on for Makélélé at the end of extra time . The first miss of the shoot @-@ out came from Ronaldo , who characteristically stuttered in his run @-@ up in an attempt to put Čech off , but the goalkeeper dived to his right to save .
Lampard then put Chelsea 3 – 2 ahead , but Hargreaves levelled things up with a shot into the top corner . Ashley Cole was the next up , and Van der Sar got a strong hand to the ball but could not keep it out . Nani then knew he had to score to keep United in it , and he did , leaving it up to John Terry to win the cup for Chelsea ; however , Terry lost his footing when planting his standing foot by the ball , and , even though Van der Sar was sent the wrong way , Terry 's mis @-@ hit effort struck the outside of the right post and went wide .
Anderson scored the first penalty in sudden death . Kalou then sent Van der Sar the wrong way to make it 5 – 5 . Giggs was next up and he was also successful . Van der Sar then pulled off the crucial save for United ; he pointed to his left to indicate to Nicolas Anelka that he thought he would kick to that side , as had the six players who had kicked before him , only to correctly dive to his right to deny Anelka , whose kick was at a good height to be saved , securing European football 's top prize for United for the third time in their history .
= = = Match details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
UEFA Full Time Report
UEFA Full Time Statistics
= = Post @-@ match = =
Having missed what could have been Chelsea 's winning penalty , John Terry had to be consoled by his manager , Avram Grant . The Manchester United players formed a guard of honour for Chelsea , lining up in two opposite rows at the foot of the steps up to the presentation party and applauding as the Chelsea team – led by chief executive Peter Kenyon – walked through . As Didier Drogba had been sent off during the game , he was not allowed to collect his medal himself and it was given to Grant ; when he returned to pitch level , Grant tossed his own medal into the crowd . After Chelsea 's team received their medals , Munich air disaster survivor Bobby Charlton , who had captained United to the European Cup title in 1968 , led his team up to collect their medals in his capacity as a club director . UEFA President Michel Platini presented both Kenyon and Charlton with commemorative plaques and medals , but Charlton declined to accept his medal ; he later donated it to the club museum . When all the players had received their medals , Platini presented Manchester United with the trophy , which Rio Ferdinand – as team captain for the match – and Ryan Giggs – standing in for club captain Gary Neville – lifted together .
United manager Sir Alex Ferguson said his side deserved to win the game despite Chelsea performing better in the second half , and acknowledged the historical significance of the win , which came 40 years after the club 's first European Cup title and 50 years after the Munich air disaster . He also said it was the first penalty shoot @-@ out he had ever won as a manager : " I won the Charity Shield that way , but that doesn 't really count . The European Cup ? The FA Cup ? The Scottish cups ? Never . I 've lost three with Aberdeen and three with United , so seventh time lucky — magnificent . " Ferguson later apologised to Park Ji @-@ sung for not including him in the matchday squad . Cristiano Ronaldo expressed his relief at his side 's shoot @-@ out victory , saying , " In my opinion I played well in the game , scored a goal , and then missed the penalty . It would have been the worst day of my life . We deserved to win as we played better in the whole game . It means everything to me , we have won both trophies , it is the best day in my life . " He then attempted to quash further speculation about his future and a potential transfer to Real Madrid , saying , " I am going to stay . "
Ricardo Carvalho , Frank Lampard and Avram Grant all refused to point the finger of blame at John Terry , but assistant manager Henk ten Cate admitted that Terry was not originally due to take one of the first five penalties ( if Drogba had not been sent off , he would have taken the fifth penalty ) . Chelsea offered Terry counselling as a result of his devastation following the miss of his penalty , and subsequently , the loss of the final . Terry was later accused of spitting at Manchester United striker Carlos Tevez , but a UEFA report into the video evidence cleared him of any wrongdoing . Terry also wrote an open letter , published on Chelsea 's official website , apologising for missing the penalty and costing Chelsea the trophy . Nicolas Anelka , who took the decisive kick , revealed he did not actually want to take a penalty , citing lack of warm @-@ up time .
Following the loss , Avram Grant 's future as manager was thrown into doubt , with owner Roman Abramovich ( who attended the final ) , chief executive Peter Kenyon , director Eugene Tenenbaum and chairman Bruce Buck reportedly already seeking a replacement for Grant the day after the game . Buck was unimpressed with Chelsea 's second @-@ place league finish and being runners @-@ up in the Champions League , saying " we have very high expectations at Chelsea and a couple of second place finishes is just not good enough for us " . Grant was officially sacked three days after the match . Buck also confirmed plans to trim the Chelsea squad by selling at least three players , and said that discussions were due to take place regarding Didier Drogba 's future with the club , after the striker reportedly expressed a desire to leave earlier in the season .
In Moscow , around 6 @,@ 000 police were on duty to prevent a repeat of the 2008 UEFA Cup Final riots a week earlier , but police reported that none of the 40 @,@ 000 visiting fans were arrested , due in part to public safety measures such as a ban on public drinking and no large screens being set up for members of the public to watch the game outdoors . In London , violence escalated outside Fulham Broadway tube station , near Chelsea 's Stamford Bridge ground ; police arrested 12 people on public order offences , while one man was arrested for grievous bodily harm , drink driving and dangerous driving , after he hit a 31 @-@ year @-@ old while attempting to drive down Fulham Broadway . Five police were also believed to have been injured in the incident .
Manchester United had originally intended to hold a parade through the streets of Manchester to celebrate their Double triumph on their return from Moscow on 22 May . However , following the violence that occurred at the UEFA Cup final , Greater Manchester Police determined that any victory parade could only take place later in the summer . The public parade was ultimately cancelled , but fans were given the opportunity to photograph the players with the Premier League and Champions League trophies before the kick @-@ off of Manchester United 's home friendly against Juventus on 6 August 2008 .
= = Media = =
= = = Broadcasters = = =
The match was shown simultaneously in the United Kingdom by free @-@ to @-@ air channel ITV 1 and subscription channel Sky Sports 1 , who in 2005 won the rights to broadcast UEFA Champions League matches for three seasons from 2006 – 07 to 2008 – 09 . Sky acted as the host broadcaster for UEFA , providing pictures to all other networks covering the final with around 30 cameras and 100 crew members . The ITV broadcast was led by Steve Rider , with Clive Tyldesley commentating , David Pleat as an analyst , and Andy Townsend and Mark Hughes as in @-@ studio pundits . Sky 's team consisted of presenter Richard Keys , joined in the studio by Graeme Souness and Jamie Redknapp , and Ruud Gullit via phone , with commentary from Martin Tyler and analysis from Andy Gray .
ITV 's viewing figures peaked at 14 @.@ 6 million in the five minutes from 22 : 30 , during the penalty shoot @-@ out . During the match ( from 19 : 45 to 22 : 35 ) , the number of viewers averaged at 11 @.@ 1 million ( 46 % of the total audience ) , while the average over the entire broadcast from 19 : 00 to 23 : 15 was 9 @.@ 6 million ( 43 % of the total ) . Meanwhile , Sky Sports ' peak was 2 million viewers in a five @-@ minute period near the end of extra time ; their average for the match was 1 @.@ 8 million , and 1 @.@ 3 million for the full broadcast . In Ireland , RTÉ Two 's coverage of the match reached a one @-@ minute peak of 998 @,@ 000 ( 62 % share ) , with an average over their four @-@ hour broadcast of 653 @,@ 000 ( 44 % share ) . In the United States , viewership was split between the English language channel ESPN2 and Spanish language channel ESPN Deportes ; viewership on ESPN2 averaged at 1 @.@ 097 million , while ESPN Deportes received an average of 213 @,@ 000 viewers , totalling 1 @.@ 31 million . It was the first time a UEFA match on ESPN had been watched by more than 1 million viewers .
= = = Advertising = = =
Based on an expected audience of up to 13 million , ITV raised the prices of their 30 @-@ second advertising slots during the final from between £ 100 @,@ 000 and £ 150 @,@ 000 to as much as £ 250 @,@ 000 . It was estimated that ITV would stand to make £ 9 million in advertising revenue during the final , rising to £ 10 million if it went to extra time and penalties ; this compared with amounts of £ 2 – 3 million normally received for its Wednesday night schedule and £ 3 – 4 million for a Champions League final with no British teams involved . Among the confirmed advertisers on ITV were Ford , Cadbury , Nike , Heineken , Audi and BlackBerry . Sky 's advertising prices were not reported , but among their scheduled advertisers were Audi , Ford , Nike , Samsung and Pepsi .
= = Rewards = =
In addition to the € 5 @.@ 4 million participation bonus , € 5 @.@ 7 million won from the group stage and € 7 @.@ 7 million from the three rounds prior to the final , Manchester United also received € 7 million for winning the final . Chelsea also received € 5 @.@ 4 million for participation and € 7 @.@ 7 million for the first three knockout rounds , but received only € 5 @.@ 1 million from the group stage , having drawn two more games and won two fewer than Manchester United . Chelsea also received € 4 million for finishing as runners @-@ up .
In addition to the € 23 @.@ 4 million and € 19 @.@ 8 million earned respectively by the two clubs as prize money , Manchester United and Chelsea received money from the UEFA market pool share . The market pool share had a total value of € 277 million , shared between the 32 clubs that qualified for the group stage . The pool was split in proportion to each national association 's strength in the television market , with the Premier League clubs receiving around € 60 million in total from the pool . The money was then split between the four teams who qualified for the Champions League from the 2006 – 07 FA Premier League based on their position in the league and the number of matches played in the 2007 – 08 Champions League . This meant that Manchester United , having won the 2006 – 07 Premier League , received around € 19 @.@ 5 million , and Chelsea , as runners @-@ up , received around € 16 @.@ 5 million .
As winners of the Champions League , Manchester United earned places in the 2008 UEFA Super Cup against 2008 UEFA Cup Final winners Zenit Saint Petersburg and the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup in Japan . The Super Cup was played at Stade Louis II in Monaco in August 2008 , with Zenit winning 2 – 1 . As UEFA 's representative at the Club World Cup , Manchester United entered the competition in the semi @-@ finals , where they beat 2008 AFC Champions League winners Gamba Osaka 5 – 3 , before beating 2008 Copa Libertadores winners LDU Quito 1 – 0 in the final .
= John Clarke ( Baptist minister ) =
John Clarke ( October 1609 – 20 April 1676 ) was a physician , Baptist minister , co @-@ founder of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations , author of its influential charter , and a leading advocate of religious freedom in the Americas .
Born in Westhorpe , Suffolk , England , Clarke received an extensive education , including a master 's degree in England , followed by medical training in Leiden , Holland . He arrived in Boston in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1637 during the Antinomian Controversy , and decided to go to Rhode Island with many exiles from the conflict . As an original founder of Newport , Rhode Island , he established the second Baptist Church in America there . Because Baptists were considered heretics , and banned from Massachusetts , Clarke wanted to make inroads there , and spent time in the Boston jail after making a mission trip to the town of Lynn . Following his poor treatment in prison , he went to England where he published a book on the persecutions of the Baptists in Massachusetts , and on his theological beliefs . Since the fledgling Rhode Island colony needed an agent in England , Clarke remained there for over a decade , handling the colony 's interests .
All of the other New England colonies were hostile to Rhode Island , and both Massachusetts and Connecticut had made incursions into Rhode Island territory . After the restoration of the monarchy in England in 1660 , it was imperative that Rhode Island receive a royal charter to protect its territorial integrity . It was Clarke 's role to obtain such a document , and he saw this as an opportunity to include religious freedoms never seen before in any constitutional charter . After writing ten petitions and letters to King Charles II , and negotiating for months with Connecticut over territorial boundaries , Clarke drafted the Rhode Island Royal Charter and presented it to the king ; it was approved with the king 's seal on 8 July 1663 . This charter , granting unprecedented freedom and religious liberty to Rhode Islanders , remained in effect for 180 years , making it the longest @-@ lasting constitutional charter in history .
Following his success at procuring a charter , Clarke returned to Rhode Island where he became very active in civil affairs , and continued to pastor his church in Newport until his death in 1676 . He left an extensive will , setting up the first educational trust in America . He was an avid proponent of soul @-@ liberty that was included in the Rhode Island charter , and later in the United States Constitution .
= = Early life = =
John Clarke was born at Westhorpe in the county of Suffolk , England and baptized there on 8 October 1609 , the son of Thomas Clarke and Rose Kerrich ( or Kerridge ) . He was one of seven children , six of whom left England and settled in New England . Other than the parish records of his baptism , and those of his siblings , no definitive record has been found concerning his life in England .
That Clarke was highly educated is apparent from the fact that he arrived in New England at the age of 28 qualified as both a physician and a Baptist minister . A book that he wrote and published in 1652 , his masterful authorship of the Rhode Island Royal Charter of 1663 , and his will mentioning his Hebrew and Greek books and a Concordance and Lexicon that he wrote himself all point to many years of study .
The difficulty with tracing Clarke 's existence in England stems largely from his very common name . Rhode Island historical authority G. Andrews Moriarty wrote that Clarke was probably the one of his name who attended St Catharine 's College , Cambridge , but he may also have received a bachelor 's degree from Brasenose College , Oxford in 1628 , and a masters from there in 1632 . Another clue to his education comes from a catalog of students from Leiden University in Holland , one of Europe 's primary medical schools at the time . The school 's ledger of graduates includes , in Latin , " Johannes Clarcq , Anglus , 17 July 1635 @-@ 273 " ( translated as John Clark , England , date as given ) . That Clarke earned a master 's degree is apparent from the concordance that he wrote , where the authorship is given as " John Clarke , Master of Arts " .
= = Antinomian Controversy = =
Clarke arrived in Boston in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in November 1637 . When he arrived , the colony was in the midst of a major theological and political crisis , usually referred to as the Antinomian Controversy . Members of the Boston Church could sense a difference in the preaching between the church 's original pastor , John Wilson , and that of their second pastor , John Cotton . Anne Hutchinson , a theologically astute midwife who had the ear of many of the colony 's women , became outspoken during gatherings , or conventicles , held at her house . She strongly supported Cotton 's " covenant of grace " ideas , and condemned the " covenant of works " theology of Wilson and most of the other ministers in the colony .
The Reverend John Wheelwright had arrived in the colony in May 1636 , aligning himself with the free grace advocates who adhered to Cotton 's doctrines , which included most of the members of the Boston Church . The controversy became much more political when , in the same month , the young aristocrat , Henry Vane , was elected as the governor of the colony . Vane was a free grace advocate and a strong supporter of Hutchinson , but also had his own unorthodox ideas about theology that were considered radical . By late 1636 the theological schism had become great enough that the General Court called for a day of fasting to help ease the colony 's difficulties . Wheelwright had been invited as a guest preacher to the Boston church on the fast @-@ day in January 1637 , and though his sermon was encouraging to his free grace allies , it was considered inflammatory by most of the colony 's ministers .
When the General Court met in March 1637 , Wheelwright was called upon to answer for his sermon . In a close vote , he was judged guilty of " contempt & sedition " for having increased bitterness within the colony . The vote did not pass without a fight , however , and Wheelwright 's friends protested formally . Most members of the Boston church , favoring Wheelwright in the conflict , drafted a petition justifying Wheelwright 's sermon , and 60 people signed this remonstrance protesting the conviction .
Henry Vane returned to England that summer , and at the November 1637 court , Wheelwright , who would admit no wrongdoing , was banished from the colony and ordered to be gone within 14 days . Then Anne Hutchinson faced trial for " traducing " ( slandering ) the ministers , and was sentenced to banishment following a church trial the following March . The authorities feared an insurrection , and within a week of her sentencing the constables were sent from door to door throughout the colony 's towns to disarm those who signed the Wheelwright petition . Within ten days of being served , these individuals were ordered to deliver " all such guns , pistols , swords , powder , shot , & match as they shall be owners of , or have in their custody , upon paine of ten pound [ s ] for every default " . A great number of those who signed the petition , faced with losing their protection and in some cases livelihood , recanted under the pressure , and " acknowledged their error " in signing the petition . Those who refused to recant suffered hardships and many decided to leave the colony . While there was a man named John Clarke who signed the Wheelwright petition , it was not the subject John Clarke , who had arrived in Boston after the petition had circulated . Clarke wrote of the circumstances of his arrival in his 1652 book , Ill Newes from New England .
= = Rhode Island = =
Several of those affected by the events of the Antinomian Controversy went north with John Wheelwright in November 1637 to found the town of Exeter in what would become New Hampshire . A larger group , uncertain where to go , contacted Roger Williams , who suggested they purchase land from the natives along the Narraganset Bay , near his settlement in Providence . John Clarke apparently did both , based on what he wrote in his book : " By reason of the suffocating heat of the summer before [ 1637 ] , I went to the North to be somewhat cooler , but the winter following [ 1637 @-@ 8 ] proved so cold , that we were forced in the spring to make towards the South . "
On 7 March 1638 , just as Anne Hutchinson 's church trial was getting underway , a group of men , including John Clarke , gathered at the Boston home of William Coddington and drafted a compact for a new government . It is probable that Clarke wrote the document , based on its religious sentiment . Altogether , 23 individuals signed the instrument which was intended to form a " Bodie Politick " based on Christian principles , and Coddington was chosen as the leader of the group . Roger Williams suggested two places that the exiles could settle : Sowams ( later Barrington , Rhode Island ) , and Aquidneck Island , both locations being on or in the Narraganset Bay . Williams was uncertain about English claims to these lands , so Clarke led a delegation of three men to Plymouth where he was informed that Sowams was not only in use , but was considered so desirable that they called it the garden of the entire colony . However , the island was not claimed by the colony , and this suited Clarke whose desire for the exiles was to " get clear of all , and be ourselves " .
Aquidneck Island was in the territory of the Narragansett people , and Williams let it be known that it was not money that would make the island available ; it was instead the love these people had for both Williams and Henry Vane . However , Williams suggested that the exiles give the natives a gratuity in the form of tools , coats and wampum . On 24 March 1638 Williams drew up the deed granting Aquidneck Island to the settlers . The deed was signed " at Narragansett " ( likely Providence ) by the sachems Canonicus and Miantonomi , with Williams and Randall Holden being the witnesses . The names of many of the exiles were included on the deed ; Coddington 's name appeared first because he was responsible for the gratuity .
Clarke joined William and Anne Hutchinson and many others in building the new settlement of Pocasset on Aquidneck Island . Within a year of the founding of this settlement , however , there was dissension among the leaders , and Clarke joined Coddington , with several other inhabitants , in moving to the south end of the island , establishing the town of Newport . The Hutchinsons remained in Pocasset , soon renamed Portsmouth , and William Hutchinson became its new ruling magistrate or judge . On 2 January 1639 Clarke and three others were appointed to survey the new lands that would become Newport , and on 5 June they were appointed to proportion the land among the inhabitants .
In 1640 the two towns of Portsmouth and Newport united , and the title of the ruling magistrate was changed from Judge to Governor , with Coddington elected to that position . Roger Williams wanted royal recognition for these settlements , and protection against encroachments from their often hostile neighbors of Massachusetts , Plymouth , and Connecticut . In 1643 he went to England to obtain a patent bringing all four towns ( Newport , Portsmouth , Providence , and Warwick ) under one government , and being successful , the document was brought from England and read to representatives of the four towns in 1644 . Coddington was opposed to the Williams patent , because his island towns had grown and prospered much more than the mainland towns of Providence and Warwick . He managed to keep the two island towns from joining with Providence and Warwick until 1647 when representatives of the four towns ultimately met and adopted the patent . Well before this unification , on 13 March 1644 , the name of the island was changed from Aquidneck Island to Rhode Island , and subsequently the name of the colony became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations .
Clarke had some legal training , and Baptist historian Albert Henry Newman argued that Clarke was the principal author of the first complete code of laws that was enacted by the fledgling colony in 1647 . Rhode Island historian and Lieutenant Governor Samuel G. Arnold extolled the virtues of this code , calling it broad in scope , vigorous , original , and bold . In his 1859 history of Rhode Island , Arnold wrote that the legal code of 1647 presented a model of legislation which had not , to that time , been surpassed .
= = Founding of the Newport church = =
In 1638 , Roger Williams established a Baptist church in Providence , now known as the First Baptist Church in America . The next Baptist congregation was created by John Clarke on Aquidneck Island , and likely had its beginnings when Clarke arrived on the island in 1638 . Massachusetts Governor John Winthrop wrote that from 1640 to 1641 there were " professed Anabaptists " on the island . Thomas Lechford , a Boston lawyer , wrote that there was a church on the island in 1640 , of which Clarke was the elder or pastor , but he understood that the church had been dissolved . Nevertheless , Clarke conducted public worship in Newport from the time of his arrival up until 1644 , when a church at Newport was founded . A much later pastor of the Newport church , the Reverend John Callender , stated in his 1738 " Century Sermon " that " It is said that in 1644 , Mr. John Clarke and some others formed a church on the scheme and principles of the Baptists . "
A long @-@ standing contention has existed as to whether Roger Williams or John Clarke established the first Baptist church in America . Though Williams preceded Clarke in becoming a baptized minister , he also vacillated in his convictions , leaving his church altogether . It wasn 't until the last half of the seventeenth century that his Providence church had any form of visible ministry . The only organized and functioning Baptist ministry in all of New England by 1650 was the Newport church under the leadership of Clarke and his elders . The church remains active in its ministry as a Particular ( or Calvinist ) Baptist Church , and carries the name of United Baptist Church , John Clarke Memorial in honor of its founder .
The religious beliefs held in the early Newport church were little different than those of the Puritans , other than the fact that the Baptists rejected infant baptism , insisting that a person not be baptized until they understood its spiritual significance . Like the Puritans , the Baptists rejected inspirational preaching of the Holy Spirit , as found later among the Quakers , and accepted predestination . Nevertheless , the Puritans labelled the Baptists , and most other nonorthodox sects , as Anabaptists , though incorrectly . Because the Puritans considered a second baptism as being a form of rebellion , they associated the Baptists with the dreaded sect of Anabaptists that rioted in Münster , Germany in the 1530s . In practice , Clarke 's church had no similarity to the early Anabaptists , and instead was similar to churches of the General Baptists in England . It offered preaching from multiple sources , allowed an open discussion of doctrine , did not ordain pastors , and did not follow a rigid creed .
An associate of Clarke in the early Newport church was Robert Lenthal , a Puritan turned Baptist , who arrived in New England in 1637 , and is considered the first public school teacher in America . Lenthal had been called as the minister in Weymouth , Massachusetts , but he opposed infant baptism , so was too unorthodox for the Bay colony . Shortly after Clarke and Coddington left Pocasset to found Newport , Lenthal arrived there to act as minister or co @-@ teacher . He was very helpful to Clarke and the Newport settlement , but returned to England after just a few years . However , when Clarke later went to England , he was re @-@ associated with Lenthal and with a minister named Hanserd Knollys , both of whom had become Particular Baptists in London . Another important member of the early Newport church was Mark Lucar , who became an elder with whom Clarke shared pastoral duties . Lucar had become a Baptist while in England , and arrived in Newport sometime between 1641 and 1644 . He believed in total immersion for baptisms , and Clarke subsequently embraced this practice within the Newport church .
= = Baptist activism = =
= = = Visit to Seekonk = = =
In 1649 Clarke went to Seekonk ( then in Plymouth Colony but later in Rehoboth , Massachusetts ) to help organize a Baptist church there . Roger Williams confirmed this in a letter to Governor Winthrop when he wrote , " At Seekonk , a great many have lately concurred with Mr. John Clarke , and our Providence men , about the point of a new baptism and the manner by dipping ; and Mr. John Clarke hath been there lately , and Mr. Lucar , and hath dipped them . I believe their practice comes nearer to the first practice of our great Founder , Christ Jesus , than other practices of religion do . " Several members of the Seekonk church had quarreled with their minister , Samuel Newman , and broke off from the main church largely over the issue of infant baptism . Hearing of this division , Clarke and Lucar went to welcome the dissidents , and baptize them by immersion . One of the Seekonk men was Obadiah Holmes , with a disposition opposite to Clarke 's , and considered a " pugnacious man [ and ] a hot @-@ tempered fault @-@ finder " by Clarke biographer Sydney James .
When the Massachusetts clergymen and magistrates learned of the Seekonk baptisms , they were furious . In their eyes , these baptisms invalidated the earlier baptisms given to these parishioners as children , and thus invalidated the ministers who performed them . The Massachusetts magistrates then wrote to their counterparts in Plymouth accusing them of doing nothing about the practices . Pressured to act , the Seekonk church excommunicated Holmes , and following court action against him , he was compelled to move to Newport in 1650 or 1651 , with a few other dissidents . He subsequently became an elder of the Newport church .
= = = Imprisonment = = =
In July 1651 , William Witter , a blind and elderly man with Baptist sentiments , was living in Lynn , Massachusetts , but wanted to connect with his Baptist faith . Since he was too infirm to travel to Newport , Clarke , accompanied by Obadiah Holmes and John Crandall , visited him at his home . Following the uproar earlier in Plymouth , it is highly likely that the men 's mission was intended to provoke confrontation . The party arrived on 19 July , a Saturday evening , and held a religious service the next day . Those present included family and visitors and " four or five strangers that came in unexpected " . During the service two constables appeared with a warrant signed by local magistrate Robert Bridge , calling for the arrest of Clarke and his two associates . Though no baptisms had been performed , the wording of the warrant suggested that this was the reason for the men 's arrest . Following their arrest , the men were forced to attend a Puritan religious service . Because this was done against their will , they refused to remove their hats in church ; at the end of the service Clarke stood and explained to the congregation why they refused to remove their hats . The men were detained that evening , then brought before the local magistrates the following day .
After being arraigned , the men were free to return to Witter 's before being taken to Boston . While there , Clarke conducted a service and Holmes baptized three people . On 22 July , the prisoners were taken to Boston and held until their trial on 31 July . On the morning of the trial they were brought before Governor John Endicott for questioning , and were accused of being Anabaptists . Clarke replied that he was neither an Anabaptist , nor a Pedobaptist ( one favoring infant baptism ) , nor a Catabaptist ( one opposing infant baptism ) . The governor said that the three men " deserved death , and he would not have such trash brought into his jurisdiction . "
During the trial , the court was represented by Governor Endicott , Deputy Governor Thomas Dudley , and magistrates Richard Bellingham , William Hibbins , and Increase Nowell . The Reverend John Cotton weighed in with denunciation for the prisoners , and the Reverend John Wilson struck Holmes while he was supposedly in the protection of the court . Charges made against the men were ( 1 ) holding an unauthorized religious meeting , ( 2 ) disrupting an authorized meeting ( wearing their hats ) , ( 3 ) administering sacraments illegally , ( 4 ) maintaining that the Massachusetts churches were not true churches , and ( 5 ) maintaining that infant baptism was false baptism . The men were sentenced without any accuser or witness speaking out against them . The outcome of the trial was that Holmes was fined £ 30 , Clarke was fined £ 20 , and Crandall £ 5 . Holmes had been given the heaviest fine because of his excommunication in Seekonk , and for administering the baptisms in Lynn . When Clarke protested their heavy fines , Governor Endicott replied that Clarke " was worthy to be hanged . " In court Endicott told Clarke that his beliefs would not stand up to those of the Puritan ministers . Being insulted by this , Clarke wrote a letter to the court from prison the following day , accepting the implied challenge to have a debate with the Puritan ministers on religious beliefs and practices . In this letter he wrote that " [ I ] do desire you would appoint the time when , and the person with whom " the points could be publicly disputed . The challenge was initially accepted , but without his knowledge , Clarke 's fine was paid by some friends , and he was released from jail . After departing the area , Clarke was then accused by the Puritan elders of defaulting on the challenge . Clarke nevertheless made two more attempts to debate the Puritan clergy , but the case was dropped by the court . Though the debate never took place , Clarke had drafted four points of discussion that detailed his beliefs and position .
Friends raised the money to pay the fines for Clarke and Crandall , but without their consent and contrary to their wishes . As soon as Holmes discovered what was happening , he was able to forbid the payment of his fine , as a matter of conscience , though friends attempted to pay for him as well . As a result , on 5 September 1651 Holmes was taken to the town 's whipping post , and given 30 lashes with a three @-@ corded whip . While Holmes told the magistrates , " You have struck me as with roses " , and he claimed to have felt no pain during the incident , for many days afterwards he could only sleep by resting on his knees and elbows . Much later , Rhode Island 's Governor Joseph Jenckes wrote , " Those who have seen the scars on Mr. Holmes ' back ( which the old man was wont to call the marks of the Lord Jesus ) , have expressed a wonder that he should live . "
= = = Aftermath = = =
Following the men 's arrest and ill treatment , Sir Richard Saltonstall wrote from England to Reverends Cotton and Wilson of the Boston church , rebuking them by writing , " These rigid wayes have lay 'd you very lowe in the hearts of the saynts . " Shortly after the incident , Roger Williams wrote a letter to Governor Endicott , making an earnest plea for toleration in matters of conscience and religion , but the request was unheeded . However , Williams did not let the matter rest , and used Clarke and Holmes as the subjects of his book The Bloody Tenent Yet More Bloody ( 1652 ) . In the copy of this book that Williams gave to Clarke , he penned the following note in the front , " For his honoured and beloved Mr. John Clarke , an eminent witnes of Christ Jesus ag 'st ye bloodie Doctrine of persecution , & c . "
One positive outcome of the ordeal endured by these men was the conversion and baptism of some of the witnesses . One such witness was Henry Dunster , the first president of Harvard College . Dunster 's conversion in faith resulted in his removal as president in 1654 , but helped inspire the creation of the First Baptist Church of Boston . Some scholars have argued that Clarke 's mission trip was planned to provoke the Massachusetts officials in order to support the cause of Rhode Island in England . Shortly after Clarke arrived in England , he published a book and used it as leverage in obtaining a charter for the Rhode Island colony .
= = Time in England = =
William Coddington was unhappy with the colonial patent that Roger Williams had obtained in 1643 , and was resistant to the consolidated government of the four Rhode Island towns that ultimately came about in 1647 as a result of the patent . He wanted colonial independence for the two island towns of Newport and Portsmouth , and decided to go to England to present his case to the Colonial Commissioners in London . On 3 April 1651 , the Council of State of England gave Coddington the commission of a separate government for the island of Aquidneck and for the smaller neighboring island of Conanicut ( later Jamestown , Rhode Island ) , with him as governor for life .
= = = Repeal of Coddington Commission = = =
Criticism of Coddington arose as soon as he returned to Rhode Island with his commission . In September 1651 , William Arnold summed up the feelings of many of the Providence settlers when he wrote , " Whereas Mr. Coddington have gotten a charter of Road Iland and Conimacuke Iland [ Conanicut Island ] to himself , he have thereby broken the force of their charter that went under the name of Providence , because he have gotten away the greater part of that colonie . " Clarke voiced his opposition to Coddington 's rule of the island , and on 15 October 1651 he was commissioned as the island 's agent to England . The following month he and William Dyer were sent to England to get the Coddington commission revoked . Simultaneously , the mainland towns of Providence and Warwick sent Roger Williams on a similar errand , and the three men sailed for England in November 1651 , just a few months after Clarke had been released from prison . Because of recent hostilities between the English and the Dutch , the men did not meet with the Council of State on New England until April 1652 . In October 1652 , with the help of Henry Vane , Coddington 's commission for the island government was revoked . William Dyer was the messenger who returned to Rhode Island the following February , bringing the news of the return of the colony to the Williams Patent of 1643 , but Clarke remained in England with his wife .
= = = Ill Newes from New England = = =
Very soon after arriving in England , Clarke published a book entitled Ill Newes from New England : or a Narrative of New England 's Persecution ... ( 1652 ) . The book begins with a letter to the English Parliament and Council of State , conveying an earnest plea for liberty of conscience and religious toleration . This is followed by another letter , addressed to the Puritan leaders in Massachusetts . The largest part of the book is primarily devoted to Clarke 's beliefs on conducting a church , and why he thought the Massachusetts churches were proceeding in the wrong direction . Even though less than half of the book concerns the persecution that Clarke and his companions experienced at the hands of the Massachusetts authorities , he nevertheless hoped to use the incident as leverage in gaining religious freedoms for the Rhode Island colony . He wrote " it is not the will of the Lord that any one should have dominion over another man 's conscience .... [ Conscience ] is such a sparkling beam from the Father of lights and spirits that it cannot be lorded over , commanded , or forced , either by men , devils , or angels . "
The book ultimately had the desired effect . The Massachusetts authorities became so alarmed over the contents of Ill Newes , that they had a rebuttal written by Thomas Cobbet , the minister of the Lynn church . This work , titled The Civil Magistrates Power in Matters of Religion Modestly Debated ( 1653 ) , defended the use of force to maintain the " correct " church in the Massachusetts colony . While this response was well written , it did more to confirm the persecutions of Clarke 's party than to defend the Massachusetts position . Ultimately , the book helped Rhode Island secure significant religious liberties , prompting one Baptist historian to describe Clarke as " the Baptist drum major for freedom in seventeenth century America . "
= = = Rhode Island agent = = =
Though Clarke was officially Rhode Island 's agent in England , he received little , if any , compensation for this work . However , he remained active in his religious commitment , and joined a Particular Baptist church under the pastorship of William Kiffin . One of his means of support was preaching at this church , which he called his " cheefe place for proffitt and preference " , possibly because this arrangement offered him room and board . Other ways that Clarke was able to find support was by offering legal services and practicing medicine in London .
Most of Clarke 's time in England was during the Interregnum when there was no monarch . King Charles I had been executed in 1649 , and his successor , Charles II , did not assume the throne until 1660 . During the intervening period , rule of the country was largely under Parliament or Oliver Cromwell as the Lord Protector . Cromwell wrote a letter to Rhode Island in 1655 , mostly concerning difficulties with France , but he also confirmed the continued validity of Rhode Island 's 1643 patent . While Clarke 's primary purpose in England was to secure a strengthened charter for the Rhode Island colony , one ensuring religious liberties , the relative chaos of England at the time did not offer an opportunity for doing so . Nevertheless , Clarke did assist the colony in 1656 by sending four barrels of powder and eight barrels of shot and bullets , and in 1657 he handled a letter from the colony requesting assistance with legal proceedings against William Harris .
With little diplomatic work to do , Clarke remained religiously active , and likely became a Fifth Monarchist ; he was also likely the John Clarke who signed a manifesto in London about the imminent return of Christ . He may have been the John Clarke who signed a document in 1657 asking Cromwell to avoid assuming the title of king , and was likely the one of his name arrested in 1658 for opposing Cromwell 's rule .
An important acquaintance of Clarke 's in London was Richard Baily , who provided Clarke with legal expertise , helped him draft petitions to the king , and may have even helped him write Rhode Island 's charter . When Clarke eventually returned to Newport , Baily sailed with him , later providing additional legal counsel , and writing Clarke 's extensive will . Upon Clarke 's death , Baily was the recipient of his books , concordance , and lexicon .
= = = Negotiating a charter = = =
In 1660 , Charles II ascended to the throne of England , and within two years the Act of Uniformity was passed , requiring unified religious observances centered on the Anglican Church . The new king harbored prejudices against the Presbyterians , Independents , and Baptists , increasing Clarke 's difficulty in crafting a charter that included religious freedoms . Clarke 's commission as the agent for Rhode Island was renewed on 18 October 1660 , and from 1661 to 1662 he filed at least ten petitions or letters addressed to the king . Being deferential and begging the king 's indulgence , Clarke offered him complete loyalty on behalf of the Rhode Island colony . He then requested of the king his sympathy and support to guarantee freedom of conscience in the pursuit of religious worship .
In a petition received by the crown on 5 February 1661 , Clarke penned a particularly eloquent proposal , with certain words emboldened within the document . Clarke 's earnest request was " ... TO HOLD FORTH A LIVELY EXPERIMENT THAT A MOST FLOURISHING CIVILL STATE MAY STAND ... AND BEST BE MAINTAYNED ... WITH A FULL LIBERTIE IN RELIGIOUS CONCERNMENTS " . These words , which became emblematic of Rhode Island 's struggle for religious freedom , were soon included in the charter itself , and then much later chiseled on the frieze of the Rhode Island State House . One of the later petitions dealt heavily with the boundary issues between the Rhode Island and Connecticut colonies . After forwarding so many sincere petitions covering the issues of the utmost importance to Rhode Island , Clarke had to wait nearly a year for any action on them .
An unforeseen emergency occurred in the spring of 1662 when the governor of the Connecticut Colony , John Winthrop , Jr . , was given an audience with the king ahead of Clarke , and got a new charter approved for his colony . While Winthrop was on good terms with many Rhode Islanders , he also had a stake in the Atherton Company , which undermined the sovereignty of Rhode Island by buying large tracts of land of the natives west of the Narraganset Bay , where Rhode Island claimed the territory . Clarke regarded Winthrop 's conduct as treacherous , and the Connecticut governor did his utmost to keep Rhode Island in the dark about his intentions by sailing to England from New Amsterdam instead of the usual route from Boston . Furthermore , Winthrop avoided Clarke while in England , and was able to get his charter approved in May 1662 .
Recognizing conflict between Connecticut and Rhode Island , the Earl of Clarendon , representing the king , summoned Winthrop and Clarke in July 1662 to settle the boundary dispute between the two colonies . Both colonies claimed the territory between the Pawcatuck River to the west and the Narragansett Bay to the east . Following months of negotiations involving lawyers and arbitrators on both sides , the boundary line between the two colonies was set as the Pawcatuck River , favoring Rhode Island in the dispute . Those who had settled on Atherton Company lands were allowed to choose whether to be governed by Connecticut or Rhode Island . Once the agreement was reached , Winthrop returned to New England while Clarke made his final push for Rhode Island 's charter .
Following all the furor over the land boundaries , none of the other provisions of the proposed charter aroused any debate . Many of the provisions of Rhode Island 's charter were like those in Connecticut 's , except Connecticut wanted a government similar to that of Massachusetts , while Rhode Island wanted the same self @-@ government of the freemen that had been granted earlier in the 1643 patent . However , the Rhode Island charter went much further in its guarantees of religious freedom .
= = Rhode Island 's Royal Charter = =
Once the boundary issue between Rhode Island and Connecticut was resolved , the long @-@ awaited charter , drafted by Clarke , was given the king 's seal on 8 July 1663 . The document was remarkable in that it not only offered corporate powers beyond what most English bureaucrats thought prudent , but offered a degree of religious freedom without precedent . The provisions of this charter were so far @-@ reaching that not only would Rhode Island proceed as an autonomous entity , but the document would remain in effect for 180 years .
In this charter , colonial boundaries were outlined , provisions for a military and for prosecuting war were effected , fishing privileges were secured , and a means of appeal to England was detailed . The charter guaranteed the rights of Rhode Island residents to travel freely within the other colonies , which rights had been curtailed due to religious reasons in the past . The new charter also forbade the other New England colonies from making war against the Indians within Rhode Island , without its permission , and also directed that disputes with other colonies would be appealed to the crown . It also outlined provisions for colonial representation , specifying a colonial governor , deputy governor , and ten assistants ( called magistrates because of their judicial role ) . In addition , the number of deputies allotted to each town was specified .
Of paramount importance to Clarke was the charter 's explicit guarantee of religious freedom . It excused Rhode Islanders from conformity with the Anglican Church " because some of the people ... cannot , in their private Opinions , conform to the publique exercise of religion ... " It also took some of the language from the Declaration of Breda :
" that no person within the said colony , at any time hereafter shall be any wise molested [ harassed ] , punished , disquieted , or called in question , for any differences in opinion in matters of religion , and do not actually disturb the civil peace of our said colony ; but that all and every person and persons may , from time to time , and at all times hereafter , freely and fully have and enjoy his and their own judgments and consciences , in matters of religious concernments , throughout the tract of land hereafter mentioned , they behaving themselves peaceable and quietly ... "
Once he had the cherished document in hand , it was imperative for Clarke to get it sent to Rhode Island . However , he had received very little remuneration for his diplomatic efforts and did not have the funds to immediately sail back to New England . He therefore entrusted the charter to Captain George Baxter , who carried it to Rhode Island . On 24 November 1663 Rhode Island 's General Court of Commissioners convened at Newport for the last time under the parliamentary patent of 1643 . The inhabitants and legislators had gathered to receive the result of Clarke 's decade @-@ long labors . The magnitude and solemnity of the occasion was captured in the colonial records :
At a very great meeting and assembly of the freemen of the colony of Providence Plantation , at Newport , in Rhode Island , in New England , November the 24th , 1663 . The abovesayed Assembly being legally called and orderly mett for the sollome reception of his Majestyes gratious letter pattent unto them sent , and having in order thereto chosen the President , Benedict Arnold , Moderator of the Assembly , [ it was ] Voted : That the box in which the King 's gratious letters were enclosed be opened , and the letters with the broad seale thereto affixed be taken forth and read by Captayne George Baxter in the audience and view of all the people ; which was accordingly done , and the sayd letters with his Majesty 's Royall Stampe , and the broad seal , with much becoming gravity held up on hygh , and presented to the perfect view of the people , and then returned into the box and locked up by the Governor , in order to the safe keeping of it .
The following day it was voted that words of humble thanks be delivered to the King and also to the Earl of Clarendon , and that a £ 100 gratuity be given to Clarke . The charter stood the test of time , and it wasn 't until 1843 , 180 years after its creation , that the charter was finally replaced , and only for the one reason that the apportionment of representatives for the several towns " could no longer be rendered as just in operation and could only be remedied by alteration of the organic law . " When the document was ultimately retired , it was the longest surviving constitutional charter in the world . It was so far @-@ reaching that even the American Revolutionary War did not change its position , since both the revolution and the charter rested on the same foundation — the inherent right of self @-@ government .
= = Later life = =
With the royal charter ready to travel to New England , Clarke had to begin gathering funds to get himself back as well . Only a week after the king put his seal on the charter , Clarke made an indenture with Richard Deane of London , mortgaging his Newport properties to raise money . Even this didn 't ensure his immediate departure from England , and it wasn 't until the following spring that he was able to make the voyage back to Rhode Island . He and his wife sailed aboard The Sisters of London , carrying their belongings and a shipment of armaments for the colony .
Despite the magnanimous provisions of Rhode Island 's charter , it did not definitively settle the land disputes with Connecticut , which would continue for more than half a century . Nor did it settle the issue with the Atherton Company , occupying two large tracts of land within Rhode Island 's " Narragansett country " . Fortuitous for the Rhode Island colony , however , was the arrival in 1664 of a group of royal commissioners . Samuel Gorton had told the crown that in 1644 the Narragansett people had submitted themselves to England 's king . Once the newly arrived commissioners verified this , they declared all of the Narragansett territory ( what is now Washington County and a part of Kent County , Rhode Island , including the Atherton tracts ) , to be Kings Province . One of the commissioners was Samuel Maverick , a good friend of Rhode Island 's recent governor William Brenton , who abhorred the Atherton Company . Clarke was one of three men allowed to present Rhode Island 's views on the land disputes , and the commissioners ultimately took a strong stance in favor of Rhode Island . Eventually , the Atherton Company lost its Narragansett property , and the Kings Province became a part of the Rhode Island colony .
= = = Civil roles = = =
Following his great usefulness in England , Clarke became further involved in the affairs of the Rhode Island colony upon his return . He served for six years , from 1664 to 1671 , as a Deputy from Newport in the General Assembly , and then served as the Deputy Governor under Governor Benedict Arnold for two of the three years between 1669 and 1672 . With his legal background , he was appointed in October 1666 to make a digest of Rhode Island laws . In June 1670 and again in March 1672 he was chosen as an agent to go back to England on behalf of the colony . His selection in 1672 was to make an appeal to the king because of incursions that the Connecticut Colony was making into the territory of Rhode Island , but the plan to send him was abandoned .
From 1675 to 1676 , Rhode Island became embroiled in King Philip 's War , considered " the most disastrous conflict to ever devastate New England , " and leaving the mainland towns of the colony in ruins . This confrontation between many indigenous people and the English settlers was named for Metacomet , sachem of the Wampanoags , who had been given the English name of King Philip . Though Rhode Island was much more at peace with the Indians than the other colonies , because of geography , it took the brunt of damage from the conflict , and the settlements of Warwick and Pawtuxet were totally destroyed , with much of Providence ruined as well . Because of the very high esteem Clarke held within the colony , he was one of 16 colonial leaders whose counsel was sought in a 4 April 1676 General Assembly resolution . Two weeks later , while the war was still raging , Clarke was dead .
= = = Church divisions = = =
While Clarke became very active in the affairs of the colony upon his return from England , he also resumed his leadership role in the Newport church . One major schism occurred in the church while he was in England , and another several years after his return . The first of these concerned the " laying on of hands " . This practice was considered to be one of Christ 's six principles as advocated in the biblical verse Hebrews 6 : 2 , and the ritual was welcomed in the Newport Baptist Church . However , some members of the church wanted the practice to be mandatory , while others did not want additional restrictions placed on the parishioners . This disagreement prompted William Vaughan to break away from the church in 1656 and form his own " Six Principle " Baptist Church in Newport , sometimes called the Second Baptist Church of Newport .
The second major division in the church occurred over the day of worship , when Sabbatarians within the congregation wanted to worship on Saturday . The practice was largely tolerated , with some parishioners attending one service , some attending another , and some attending both . The elder Obadiah Holmes , however , was hostile to the practice , and was rebuked by Clarke in 1667 over his harshness towards the Sabbatarians . Holmes subsequently withdrew from preaching at the Newport church , but resumed his pastoral duties there in 1671 . When he continued to be critical of the Sabbatarians , they finally left to form their own church in December 1671 . Additional dissension occurred in the church , centered on the family of Giles Slocum . When Slocum 's wife , Joan , denied that Christ was alive , she was excommunicated in 1673 . Following this , her husband , their children , and their children 's spouses all left the church , and became Quakers .
= = Death and legacy = =
With the help of Richard Baily , Clarke drafted his will on 20 April 1676 , then died in Newport the same day . He was buried in his family plot in Newport , as directed in his will , beside his two wives , Elizabeth and Jane , who predeceased him .
In his will he set up a trust to be used " for the relief of the poor or bringing up of children unto learning from time to time forever . " Still in use , this trust is generally considered to be the oldest educational trust fund in the United States . Ironically , the trust undermined some of the principles that Clarke cherished , particularly the separation between church and state . While the trust was used to support ministries of the church , it enmeshed the town counsel and the church in many legal entanglements . Eventually the trust was used to pay , at least in part , the salary of a paid minister — something that Clarke thought to be highly inappropriate .
Clarke believed that secular government should peacefully coexist with religion , and he became a seminal figure in applying the separation of church and state . Historian Thomas Bicknell , one of Clarke 's most ardent supporters , wrote that at the time of the Puritan settlement of New England that " nowhere on the face of the earth and among civilized men , did civil and soul @-@ liberty exist . Its first clear , full , deliberate , organized and permanent establishment in the world can now be distinctly traced to the Colony of Rhode Island , on the island of Aquidneck , in the Narragansett Bay , under the leadership and inspiration of Dr. John Clarke , the true Founder " . Historian Louis Asher wrote , " It hardly seems arguable that Dr. Clarke was the first one to bring democracy to the New World by means of Rhode Island . " Bicknell also asserted that Clarke was the " recognized founder and father of the Aquidneck Plantations , the author of the Compact of Portsmouth and leading spirit in the organization and administration of the island towns . Historian Edward Peterson wrote that Clarke was a man " whose moral character has never been surpassed , and his piety never been questioned . " Asher made this final assessment of Clarke : " As a man , Clarke lived for others . Like many men of the past , he was selfless and uncomplaining . Despite his sectarian religious views , he gave more for his fellow man than he received . "
The First Baptist Church of Newport , a grammar school , and a merchant Liberty ship , the SS John Clarke , are named for Clarke . The science building at the University of Rhode Island was dedicated in his honor in 1963 . A plaque on the wall of the Newport Historical Society reads :
Erected by the Newport Medical Society
December , 1885
To
John Clarke , Physician
1609 @-@ 1676
Founder of Newport
And of the Civil Polity of Rhode Island
= = Ancestry and family = =
John Clarke was the fifth of seven known children born to Thomas and Rose Clarke , all born or baptized at Westhorpe , Suffolk , England . Margaret was the oldest child , born about 1601 , and next was Carew , baptized 17 February 1602 / 3 , followed by Thomas , baptized 31 March 1605 . Mary was next , baptized 26 July 1607 , then the subject John was baptized 8 October 1609 , William was born next , and the youngest , Joseph , was baptized on 16 December 1618 . Margaret married Nicholas Wyeth and lived in Cambridge , Massachusetts . Mary married John Peckham , and came to Newport , Rhode Island with her husband and four brothers , Carew , Thomas , John , and Joseph .
John Clarke was married three times , his first wife being Elizabeth Harris , the daughter of John Harris who was lord of the manor of Westlingworth in Bedfordshire . This was the wife who was with him while he was an agent in England , and she died in Newport a few years before Clarke . Following her death he was married on 1 February 1671 to Jane , the widow of Nicholas Fletcher , but she died the following year on 19 April 1672 . Clarke had a daughter with Jane , born 14 February 1672 and dying on 18 May 1673 .
Clarke 's third wife was Sarah , the widow of Nicholas Davis , with whom Clarke had had a long association . Davis , like Clarke , had been an early settler of Aquidneck Island in 1639 , but became a merchant and moved to Hyannis in the Plymouth Colony . Davis had many business dealings in Massachusetts , but when he became a Quaker , he was imprisoned and banished from there in 1659 , and later lived in Newport . He transported Quaker founder George Fox from Long Island to Newport in 1672 , during Fox 's visit to the American colonies . Soon thereafter Davis drowned , and within a year and a half his widow married Clarke . Sarah survived Clarke , and died sometime about 1692 . She had children who were remembered in her husband 's will .
Other than the daughter with his second wife , Clarke had no known children , and left no descendants .
= Tim Bozon =
Timothé " Tim " Phillipe Bozon ( born March 24 , 1994 ) is an American @-@ born French ice hockey left winger . He is currently with the St. John 's IceCaps of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) as a prospect for the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League .
Bozon was born in St. Louis , Missouri , where his father , Philippe Bozon , played hockey for the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , but was raised in France , where his father is from . Bozon then moved to Switzerland to further his career , before moving again to Canada after the Kamloops Blazers selected him in the 2011 CHL Import Draft . At the 2012 NHL Entry Draft , Bozon was selected 64th overall by the Canadiens . During his third season with the Blazers Bozon was traded to the Kootenay Ice . Internationally Bozon has played for the French national junior team in several tournaments and joined the French national senior team in the 2013 IIHF World Championships . Bozon contracted Neisseria meningitis in early 2014 , threatening his life , though he ultimately recovered .
= = Playing career = =
Bozon grew up in Germany and Switzerland while his father played hockey in those countries , and began to play hockey in Mannheim , Germany while his father was a member of Adler Mannheim of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga . When Philippe moved to Switzerland , Bozon followed , and was a player for the junior clubs of Genève @-@ Servette HC , the Kloten Flyers and HC Lugano . At age 15 Bozon decided he wanted to follow the path of Nino Niederreiter , a fellow Swiss junior player who had just moved to North America at age 17 and joined a team in the Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) to further his career . Bozon wanted to eventually play in the National Hockey League and realized there were more scouts following teams in the CHL , which oversees three major junior hockey leagues in Canada and the United States . He had preferred to play for a team in the Ontario Hockey League , but was instead selected by the Kamloops Blazers of the Western Hockey League , twenty @-@ seventh overall at the 2011 CHL Import Draft . He joined the Blazers for the 2011 – 12 season and played 71 games for them , recording 36 goals and 35 assists for 71 points . His goal total was the most among all WHL rookies , his points second among rookies and third overall on the Blazers . Bozon was recognised for his efforts by being named the WHL 's Western Conference nominee for the Jim Piggott Memorial Trophy as WHL rookie @-@ of @-@ the @-@ year . He also was a co @-@ recipient of the Blazers rookie @-@ of @-@ the @-@ year award , sharing it with goaltender Cole Cheveldave .
Midway through the season Bozon was ranked 39th overall amongst North American @-@ based skaters for the 2012 NHL Entry Draft by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau . When the final rankings for the draft were released at the conclusion of the season , Bozon was listed 42nd overall for North American skaters . At the draft he was selected in the third round , 64th overall , by the Montreal Canadiens . Bozon was excited to be selected by the Canadiens , who are the only NHL team based in a French @-@ speaking city .
Bozon recorded 36 goals and 91 points in 69 games during the 2012 – 13 season , finishing second on the Blazers in scoring and tied for eighth overall in the WHL . In the playoffs Bozon scored six points in eight games ; a fractured wrist kept him out of most of the Blazers ' playoff games .
On May 30 , 2013 , Bozon signed a three @-@ year entry level contract with the Canadiens . He was returned by the Canadiens to the Blazers for a third year with the team prior to the start of the 2013 – 14 season . After starting the season with the Blazers , where he was fifth in team scoring with seven points in thirteen games , Bozon was traded to the Kootenay Ice on October 22 , 2013 . The Blazers , who also sent defenceman Landon Cross , received Colin Shirley , Matt Thomas , and three draft picks in return .
Bozon 's season was ended prematurely due to a diagnosis of Neisseria meningitis on March 1 , 2014 ; at that point he had recorded 62 points in 50 games for Kooteney . His illness caused him to lose 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) ; he had difficulty speaking and had to re @-@ learn how to walk . As he recovered , he resumed skating in June 2014 and by September , he attended the Canadiens ' rookie camp . Bozon participated in the Canadiens main training camp , and later played three exhibition games with their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate Hamilton Bulldogs ; however it was decided that in consideration of the time missed due to his illness , it would be best for Bozon 's development for him to play a final major junior season , and he was assigned to Kootenay for the 2014 – 15 season , where he appeared in 57 games and finished fourth on the team in scoring with 63 points . After the conclusion of the WHL season Bozon was assigned to the Bulldogs and made his professional debut , appearing in one game for the team . For the 2015 – 16 season he was assigned to the St. John 's IceCaps , as the Canadiens relocated the Bulldogs to St. John 's , Newfoundland .
= = International play = =
Born in the United States and raised in Switzerland by French parents , Bozon possesses American and French citizenship . However he chose to play internationally for the French national team , as both his father and grandfather did . As Bozon said regarding his choice , " All of my family are French , and my grandfather and father played for France ’ s national team . It ’ s why I play too . " At the 2011 IIHF World U18 Division I Championship , he helped France to a third @-@ place finish , the first time the French under @-@ 18 team had ever won a medal in an IIHF tournament . His six points in five games were tied for eleventh overall in tournament scoring and tied for the lead on the French team . Bozon declined to participate in the 2012 World Junior Division IB Championships because he wanted to stay in North America and help the Blazers .
Bozon made his debut for the French national senior team at the 2013 IIHF World Championship . His first game came against Slovakia and he recorded an assist . He played in five of France 's seven games during the tournament and finished with the one assist .
= = Personal life = =
Bozon was born in St. Louis , Missouri because his father , Philippe Bozon , was playing hockey with the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League . Philippe was the first French @-@ born and -raised player in the NHL , and spent parts of four seasons with the Blues from 1991 until 1994 . Philippe returned to Europe in 1994 and played for teams in France , Germany and Switzerland . He participated in four Olympics for France and became a coach after his playing career ended ; in recognition of his international play , he was inducted into the IIHF Hall of Fame in 2008 .
Bozon was raised in Lugano , Switzerland , along with his older sister Allison ( born 1992 ) and younger brother Kevin ( born 1995 ) . His mother , Hélène Barbier , was an alpine skier . Bozon 's grandfather , Alain Bozon , also played hockey , and captained the French national team in the 1960s and was inducted into the French Ice Hockey Hall of Fame in 2012 . Aside from English , Bozon speaks French , Italian and German .
On March 1 , 2014 , the day after a game against the Saskatoon Blades , Bozon was admitted to Royal University Hospital in Saskatoon , Saskatchewan , where he was diagnosed with Neisseria meningitis . He spent four weeks in hospital , some of it in a medically induced coma , before being released on March 28 , 2014 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= Wanita dan Satria =
Wanita dan Satria ( [ waˈnita ˈdan satˈria ] ; Indonesian for The Woman and the Hero ) is a 1941 film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) directed by Rd Ariffien and produced by Ang Hock Liem for Union Films that is probably lost . Starring Djoewariah , Ratna Djoewita , Hidajat , Z. Algadrie , and Moesa , it follows a womaniser named Soedrajat who abuses his status to gain women 's trust before ultimately getting his comeuppance . Reviews were mostly positive , with one praising the film 's depiction of women 's issues in a Muslim society .
= = Plot = =
Soedrajat abuses his high social status in order to womanise and becomes his rich uncle 's heir despite the latter having a son , the kindly and noble Soelarsa . The uncle is disappointed with Soelarsa and considers Soedrajat the better man . Being considered high class , he is unwilling to associate with people of the lower classes . Ultimately Soedrajat falls for a beautiful young woman , Koestijah . Meanwhile , Soelarsa saves Koestijah 's life while driving a truck through her village ; the two fall in love at first sight . By manipulating Koestijah 's father , Soedrajat arranges for her to marry him .
At the wedding , however , the terrible truth about Soedrajat is revealed . One of his former conquests , Tarmini , stands up and tells the crowd , including Soelarsa , of the bridegroom 's true nature . In a rage , Soedrajat takes a revolver and shoots Tarmini . With her dying breath , Tarmini makes one last confession . Her father then takes revenge on Soedrajat .
= = Production = =
Wanita dan Satria was produced by Ang Hock Liem for Union Films . It was directed by Rd Ariffien , a former theatre leader and nationalist journalist who had made his directorial debut the preceding year with Harta Berdarah . The story was written by Saeroen , a former journalist with several screenwriting credits for Union .
The black @-@ and @-@ white film starred Djoewariah , Ratna Djoewita , Hidajat , Z. Algadrie , and Moesa . Moesa was the most experienced of these : he had entered the industry in 1938 with Fatima , a production by Tan 's Film , and had been with Union since 1940 . Djoewariah had been on Union 's payroll since Bajar dengan Djiwa in 1940 , while Ratna Djoewita and Hidajat had not appeared in any films before 1941 .
= = Release and reception = =
Wanita dan Satria was released in 1941 , reaching Bandung by August and Surabaya by September . The film was open to all ages . A novelisation was published later in 1941 by the Yogyakarta @-@ based Kolff @-@ Buning . As part of the growing movement to attract Indonesian intellectuals , the marketing staff emphasised the respectable ( non @-@ theatrical ) background of the actors ; the intelligentsia had little respect for traditional theatre and its players .
A review in the Surabaya @-@ based Soerabaijasch Handelsblad wrote that the film " gives a clear picture of the precarious position of Indonesian women and motivates the desire for a firmer outline of her rights in the Moslem society . " Another review in the same newspaper wrote that the film " is captivating from start to finish " , one which " the film audience in Surabaya should certainly not miss " .
= = Legacy = =
After Wanita dan Satria , Union produced a further two films ; none of these were by Rd . Ariffien , who had left the company . Saeroen likewise left soon after , joining Star Film . Djoewariah continued to act until the 1950s , when she migrated to theatre after receiving a series of increasingly minor roles . Neither Ratna Djoewita nor Hidajat appeared in any films after 1941 .
The film is likely lost ; the American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Startling Stories =
Startling Stories was an American pulp science fiction magazine , published from 1939 to 1955 by publisher Ned Pines ' Standard Magazines . It was initially edited by Mort Weisinger , who was also the editor of Thrilling Wonder Stories , Standard 's other science fiction title . Startling ran a lead novel in every issue ; the first was The Black Flame by Stanley G. Weinbaum . When Standard Magazines acquired Thrilling Wonder in 1936 , it also gained the rights to stories published in that magazine 's predecessor , Wonder Stories , and selections from this early material were reprinted in Startling as " Hall of Fame " stories . Under Weisinger the magazine focused on younger readers and , when Weisinger was replaced by Oscar J. Friend in 1941 , the magazine became even more juvenile in focus , with clichéd cover art and letters answered by a " Sergeant Saturn " . Friend was replaced by Sam Merwin , Jr. in 1945 , and Merwin was able to improve the quality of the fiction substantially , publishing Arthur C. Clarke 's Against the Fall of Night , and several other well @-@ received stories .
Much of Startling 's cover art was painted by Earle K. Bergey , who became strongly associated with the magazine , painting almost every cover between 1940 and 1952 . He was known for equipping his heroines with brass bras and implausible costumes , and the public image of science fiction in his day was partly created by his work for Startling and other magazines . Merwin left in 1951 , and Samuel Mines took over ; the standard remained fairly high but competition from new and better @-@ paying markets such as Galaxy Science Fiction and The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction impaired Mines ' ability to acquire quality material . In mid @-@ 1952 , Standard attempted to change Startling 's image by adopting a more sober title typeface and reducing the sensationalism of the covers , but by 1955 the pulp magazine market was collapsing . Startling absorbed its two companion magazines , Thrilling Wonder and Fantastic Story Magazine , in early 1955 , but by the end of that year it too ceased publication .
Ron Hanna of Wild Cat Books revived Startling Stories in 2007 .
= = Publication history = =
Although science fiction had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . By the end of the 1930s the field was booming . Standard Magazines , a pulp publishing company owned by Ned Pines , acquired its first science fiction magazine , Thrilling Wonder Stories , from Gernsback in 1936 . Mort Weisinger , the editor of Thrilling Wonder , printed an editorial in February 1938 asking readers for suggestions for a companion magazine . Response was positive , and the new magazine , titled Startling Stories , was duly launched , with a first issue ( pulp @-@ sized , rather than bedsheet @-@ sized , as many readers had requested ) , dated January 1939 .
Startling was launched on a bimonthly schedule , alternating months with Thrilling Wonder Stories , though in 1940 Thrilling moved to a monthly schedule that lasted for over a year . The first editor was Mort Weisinger , who had been an active fan in the early 1930s and had joined Standard Magazines in 1935 , editing Thrilling Wonder from 1936 . Weisinger left in 1941 to take a new post as editor of Superman , and was replaced by Oscar J. Friend , who was an established writer of pulp fiction , though his experience was in western fiction rather than sf . During Friend 's tenure Startling slipped from bimonthly to quarterly publication . Friend lasted for a little over two years , and was replaced by Sam Merwin , Jr . , as of the Winter 1945 issue .
Merwin succeeded in making Startling popular and successful , and the bimonthly schedule was resumed in 1947 . At the start of 1952 Startling switched to a monthly schedule ; this was unusual in that Startling was notionally junior to Thrilling Wonder , its sister magazine , which remained bimonthly . Merwin left shortly before this switch , in order to spend more time on his own writing . He was replaced by Samuel Mines , who had worked with Standard 's Western magazines , though he was a science fiction aficionado .
Street & Smith , one of the longest established and most respected publishers , shut down all of their pulp magazines in the summer of 1949 . The pulps were dying , partially as a result of the success of paperbacks . Standard continued with Startling and Thrilling , but the end came only a few years later . In 1954 , Fredric Wertham published Seduction of the Innocent , a book in which he asserted that comics were inciting children to violence . A subsequent Senate subcommittee hearing led to a backlash against comics , and the publishers dropped titles in response . The financial impact spread to pulp magazines , since often a publisher would publish both . A 1955 strike by American News Corporation , the main distributor in the U.S. , meant that magazines remained in warehouses and never made it to the newsstands ; the unsold copies represented a significant financial blow and contributed to publishers ' decisions to cancel magazines . Startling was one of the casualties . The schedule had already returned from monthly to bimonthly in 1953 , and it became a quarterly in early 1954 . Thrilling Wonder published its last issue in early 1955 , and was then merged with Startling , as was Fantastic Story Magazine , another companion publication , but the combined magazine only lasted three more issues . Mines left the magazine at the end of 1954 ; he was succeeded for two issues by Theron Raines , who was followed by Herbert D. Kastle for the last two . The final issue was dated Fall 1955 .
= = Contents and reception = =
= = = War years = = =
From the beginning , every issue of Startling contained a complete novel , along with one or two short stories ; long stories did not appear since the publisher 's policy was to avoid serials . When Standard Magazines had bought Wonder Stories in 1936 , they had also acquired rights to reprint the stories that had appeared in it and in its predecessor magazines , Air Wonder Stories and Science Wonder Stories , and so Startling also included a " Hall of Fame " reprint from one of these magazines in every issue . The first lead novel was The Black Flame , a revised version of " Dawn of Flame " , a story by Stanley Weinbaum that had previously appeared only in an edition limited to 250 copies . There was also a tribute to Weinbaum , written by Otto Binder ; Weinbaum had died in 1935 and was well regarded , so even though the story was not one of his best , it was excellent publicity for the magazine . Otto and his brother , Earl , also contributed a story , " Science Island " , under their joint pseudonym Eando Binder . The " Hall of Fame " reprint was D.D. Sharp 's " The Eternal Man " , from 1929 . Other features included a pictorial article on Albert Einstein , and a set of biographical sketches of scientists , titled " Thrills in Science " . The letter column was called " The Ether Vibrates " , and there was a regular fanzine review column , providing contact information so that readers could obtain the fanzines directly . Initially the stories for the " Hall of Fame " were chosen by the editor , but soon Weisinger recruited well @-@ known science fiction fans to make the choices .
Startling was popular , and soon " became one of the core science fiction magazines " , according to science fiction historian Mike Ashley . The target audience was younger readers , and the lead novels were often space operas by well @-@ known pulp writers such as Edmond Hamilton and Manly Wade Wellman . In addition to space opera , some more fantastical fiction began to appear , contributed by writers such as Henry Kuttner . These early science fantasy stories were popular with the readers , and contrasted with the hard science fiction that John W. Campbell was pioneering at Astounding .
Weisinger set out to please the younger readers , and when Friend became editor in 1941 , he went further in this direction , giving the magazine a strongly juvenile flavor . For example , Friend introduced " Sergeant Saturn " , a character ( originally from Thrilling Wonder Stories ) who answered readers ' letters and appeared in other features in the magazine . Many subscribers found the approach irritating .
The interior artwork was initially done by Hans Wessolowski ( more usually known as " Wesso " ) , Mark Marchioni and Alex Schomburg , and occasionally Virgil Finlay . The initial cover art was mostly painted by Howard Brown , but when Earle K. Bergey began to paint covers for Startling in 1940 , soon after its launch , Bergey quickly became identified with the magazine ; between 1940 and 1952 ( the year of Bergey 's death ) he painted the great majority of covers . Bergey 's covers were visually striking : in the words of science fiction editor and critic Malcolm Edwards , they typically featured " a rugged hero , a desperate heroine ( in either a metallic bikini or a dangerous state of déshabillé ) and a hideous alien menace " . The brass bra motif came to be associated with Bergey , and his covers did much to create the image of science fiction as it was perceived by the general public .
= = = Merwin and after = = =
When Merwin became editor in 1945 he brought changes , but artist Earle K. Bergey retained the creative freedom he had come to expect given his relationship with Standard . Some argue that Bergey 's covers became more realistic , and Merwin managed to improve the interiors of Startling to the point of being a serious rival to Astounding , acknowledged leader of the field . Critics ' opinions vary on the relative quality of the magazines of this era ; Malcolm Edwards regards Startling as second only to Astounding , but Ashley considers Thrilling Wonder to be Astounding 's closest challenger in the late 1940s . Merwin 's discoveries included Jack Vance , whose first story , " The World Thinker " , appeared in the Summer 1945 issue . He also regularly published work by Henry Kuttner and C.L. Moore , who wrote both under Kuttner 's name and as " Keith Hammond " : in a four @-@ year period from 1946 to 1949 the writing team of Kuttner and Moore had seven novels published in Startling , mostly science fantasy , a subgenre not common at that time . Notable novels that appeared in the late 1940s include Fredric Brown 's What Mad Universe and Charles L. Harness 's Flight Into Yesterday , later published in book form as The Paradox Men . Arthur C. Clarke 's novel The City and the Stars first saw print in Startling in abbreviated form , in the November 1948 issue , under the title Against the Fall of Night .
One novel that did not appear in Startling was Isaac Asimov 's Pebble in the Sky , which Merwin had commissioned from Asimov in the early summer of 1947 . After the unusual step of allowing the editor to twice read the work @-@ in @-@ progress and receiving nothing but approval , Asimov delivered a completed draft in September . This time , Merwin asked for revisions : Leo Margulies , Merwin 's boss , had decided that Startling needed to focus more on action and adventure in the style of Amazing , and less on cerebral stories in the style of Astounding . Asimov , " for the first and only time of [ his ] life ... openly lost [ his ] temper with an editor " , stalked out of the room with his manuscript and never submitted anything to Merwin again , though he later expressed a softening of feeling and admitted Merwin had been within his rights .
Another title in the Standard Magazines stable was Captain Future , which had been launched a year after Startling , and featured the adventures of the superhero after whom the magazine was named . When it folded with its Spring 1944 issue , the series of novels was continued for some time in the pages of Startling ; over the next six years ten more " Captain Future " novels appeared , with the last one , Birthplace of Creation , printed in the May 1951 issue .
Merwin 's successor , Mines , also published some excellent work , though increased competition in the early 1950s from Galaxy and The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction did lead to some dilution of quality , and Startling 's rates — one to two cents per word — could not compete with the leading magazines . However , Startling 's editorial policy was more eclectic : it did not limit itself to one kind of story , but printed everything from melodramatic space opera to sociological sf , and Mines had a reputation as having " the most catholic tastes and the fewest inhibitions " of any of the science fiction magazine editors . In late 1952 , Mines published Philip José Farmer 's " The Lovers " , a taboo @-@ breaking story about aliens who can only reproduce by mating with humans . Illustrated with an eye @-@ popping cover by Bergey , Farmer 's ground @-@ breaking story integrated sex into the plot without being prurient , and was widely praised . Farmer , partly as a consequence , went on to win a Hugo Award as " Most Promising New Writer " . New authors first published by Mines include Frank Herbert , who debuted with " Looking for Something ? " in April 1952 , and Robert F. Young , whose first story , " The Black Deep Thou Wingest " , appeared in June 1953 . The artwork was also high quality ; Virgil Finlay 's interior illustrations were " unparalleled " , according to science fiction historian Robert Ewald . Other well @-@ known artists who contributed interior work included Alex Schomburg and Kelly Freas .
Startling 's instantly recognizable title logo was redolent of the magazine 's pulp roots , and in early 1952 Mines decided to replace it with a more staid typeface . The covers became more sober , with spaceships replacing the women in brass bras . With the Spring 1955 issue , at the start of its final year , Startling dropped its long @-@ standing policy of printing a novel in every issue , but only three issues later it ceased publication .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The editorial succession at Startling was as follows :
Mort Weisinger : January 1939 – May 1941 .
Oscar J. Friend : July 1941 – Fall 1944 .
Sam Merwin , Jr . : Winter 1945 – September 1951 .
Samuel Mines : November 1951 – Fall 1954 .
Theron Raines : Winter 1955 – Spring 1955 .
Herbert D. Kastle : Summer 1955 – Fall 1955 .
Startling was a pulp @-@ sized magazine for all of its 99 issues . It initially was 132 pages , and was priced at 15 cents . The page count was reduced to 116 pages with the Summer 1944 issue and then increased to 148 pages with the March 1948 issue , at which time the price went up to 20 cents . The price increased again , to 25 cents , in November 1948 , and the page count increased again to 180 pages . This higher page count did not last ; it was reduced to 164 in March 1949 and then again to 148 pages in July 1951 . The October 1953 issue saw the page count drop again , to 132 , and a year later the Fall 1954 issue cut the page count to 116 . The magazine remained at 116 pages and a price of 25 cents for the rest of its existence .
The original bimonthly schedule continued until the March 1943 issue , which was followed by June 1943 and then Fall 1943 . This inaugurated a quarterly schedule that ran until Fall 1946 , except that an additional issue , dated March , was inserted between the Winter 1946 and Spring 1946 issues . The next issue , January 1947 , began another bimonthly sequence , which ran without interruption until November 1951 . With the following issue , January 1952 , Startling switched to a monthly schedule , which lasted until the June 1953 issue which was followed by August and October 1953 and then January 1954 . The next issue was Spring 1954 , and the magazine stayed on a quarterly schedule from then until the last issue , Fall 1955 .
There was a British reprint edition from Pembertons between 1949 and 1954 . These were heavily cut , with sometimes only one or two stories and usually only 64 pages , though the October and December 1952 issues both had 80 pages . It was published irregularly ; initially once or twice a year , and then more or less bimonthly beginning in mid @-@ 1952 . The issues were numbered from 1 to 18 . Three different Canadian reprint editions also appeared for a total of 21 or 22 issues ( sources differ on the correct number ) . Six quarterly issues appeared from Summer 1945 through Fall 1946 from Publication Enterprises , Ltd . ; then another three bimonthly issues appeared , from May to September 1948 , from Pines Publications . Finally 12 more bimonthly issues appeared from March 1949 to January 1951 , from Better Publications of Canada . All these issues were almost identical to the American versions , although they are half an inch taller . A Mexican magazine , Enigmas , ran for 16 issues from August 1955 to May 1958 ; it included many reprints , primarily from Startling and from Fantastic Story Magazine .
= = = Derivative anthologies = = =
Two anthologies of stories from Startling have been published . In 1949 Merlin Press brought out From Off This World , edited by Leo Margulies and Oscar Friend , which included stories that had appeared in the " Hall of Fame " reprint section of the magazine . Then in 1954 Samuel Mines edited The Best from Startling Stories , published by Henry Holt ; despite the title , the stories were reprinted from both Startling and its sister magazine , Thrilling Wonder Stories . The anthology was reprinted twice in the UK under different titles ; as Startling Stories in 1954 , published by Cassell , and then in 1956 as a Science Fiction Book Club edition titled Moment in Time . P. Schuyler Miller praised it as " an excellent collection by anyone 's standards . "
= Nazario Moreno González =
Nazario Moreno González ( 8 March 1970 – 9 March 2014 ) , commonly referred to by his alias El Chayo ( " Nazario " or " The Rosary " ) and / or El Más Loco ( " The Craziest One " ) , was a Mexican drug lord who headed La Familia Michoacana before heading the Knights Templar Cartel , a drug cartel headquartered in the state of Michoacán . He was one of Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lords .
Very few details are known of Moreno González 's early life , but the authorities believe that religion played a major role in his upbringing . Although born in Michoacán , Moreno González moved to the United States as a teenager , but fled back into Mexico about a decade later to avoid prosecution on drug trafficking charges . In 2004 , the drug boss Carlos Rosales Mendoza was captured , and Moreno González , alongside José de Jesús Méndez Vargas , took control of La Familia Michoacana . Unlike other traditional drug trafficking organizations in Mexico , his organization also operated like a religious cult , where its own members were given " bibles " with sayings and conduct guidelines . Moreno González reportedly carried out several philanthropic deeds to help the marginalized in Michoacán . Such deeds helped him craft
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an image of protector , saint , and Christ @-@ like messianic figure among the poor , and gave La Familia Michoacana a level of influence among some natives .
The Mexican government reported that Moreno González was killed during a two @-@ day gunfight with the Mexican federal police in his home state in December 2010 . After the shootout , however , no body was recovered . Rumors thus persisted that Moreno González was still alive and leading the Knights Templar Cartel , the split @-@ off group of La Familia Michoacana . Four years later , on 9 March 2014 , his survival was confirmed . Mexican authorities located him again , this time in the town of Tumbiscatío , Michoacán , and attempted to apprehend him . A gunfight ensued resulting in Moreno González 's death . Subsequent forensic examination confirmed his identity .
= = Criminal career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Moreno González was born in the ranchería of Guanajuatillo in Apatzingán , Michoacán , Mexico at around 5 : 00 a.m. on 8 March 1970 . There are few details of Moreno González 's upbringing , but religion may have played an important role in his early life . His parents had 13 children ( including Moreno González ) . His father Manuel Moreno was reportedly an alcoholic and had several mistresses , and one day he left his family when Moreno González was still very young , forcing his mother to singlehandedly raise the whole family . With their father gone , Moreno González and his siblings lived under the strict discipline of their mother . According to his autobiography , Moreno González had a love @-@ hate relationship with his mother ; as a child , he was beaten by his mother for being troublesome and getting into fights . In one occasion , he recalled that his mother once forced him to make his way back to his house by walking on his knees while keeping his arms stretched like a cross throughout the whole day for stealing an animal . Such treatments helped him develop resentment as to partially explain his violent behavior as an adult , he argued . He admitted , however , that he often got into fist fights with other kids from Guanajuatillo and the surrounding rancherías . Moreno González recalled that he would not always win and that he once got into 10 fights in a single day . His violent reputation as a child helped him earn the nickname El Más Loco ( " The Craziest One " ) — which he held onto for the rest of his life — among his siblings and other kids from the area where he grew up .
He never attended school and was illiterate for some years of his early life . He learned to read and write reportedly out of curiosity after reading and hearing comic books and stories of Kalimán and Porfirio Cadena , El Ojo del Vidrio on the local radio station . In his autobiography , Moreno González said that as a child he believed he had the superhuman ability of speaking telepathically with animals like Kalimán did in the comics . He said he wanted to be a hero like the comic characters . As a child , he was accustomed to seeing gunmen near his home , and played las guerritas ( " war games " ) for fun . While playing the game , he often pretended to be dead , only to say later on that he had been wounded in the game but that he had managed to survive . At the age of twelve , he moved to Apatzingán and made a living by selling matches , peeling onions , working at a melon field , and throwing out the trash from several booths at a marketplace . As a teenager in the late 1980s , Moreno González migrated illegally to the United States , settling in California , where he eventually began selling marijuana . After some years , he moved to Texas and in 1994 was arrested for drug trafficking charges in McAllen . Nearly a decade later in 2003 , the U.S. government charged him with conspiracy to distribute five tons of narcotics and issued an arrest warrant . Moreno González then fled back to Mexico .
= = = Organized crime = = =
Although raised Catholic , Moreno González became a Jehovah 's Witness during his time in the United States . In Apatzingán , Moreno González preached to the poor and always carried a bible with him . With time , he won the loyalty of several locals , and many started to see him as a " messiah " for preaching religious principles and forming La Familia Michoacana , a drug cartel that posed as a vigilante group . When Carlos Rosales Mendoza was arrested in 2004 , Moreno González ascended to the apex of La Familia Michoacana , a drug trafficking organization based in western Mexico , along with José de Jesús Méndez Vargas . In 2006 , La Familia Michoacana broke relations with the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas , and Moreno González heralded the organization 's independence when several of his gunmen tossed five human heads on a discothèque dance floor in Uruapan . Near the severed heads lay a message that read , " La Familia doesn 't kill for money , doesn 't kill women , doesn 't kill innocents . Only those who deserve to die will die . "
In 2009 , the Mexican government published a list of its 37 most @-@ wanted drug lords and offered a $ 2 @.@ 2 million reward for information that led to Moreno González 's capture . His three partners – José de Jesús Méndez Vargas , Servando Gómez Martínez and Dionisio Loya Plancarte – were also on the list . In 2010 , he was sanctioned under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act ( sometimes referred to simply as the " Kingpin Act " ) by the United States Department of the Treasury for his involvement in drug trafficking . The act prohibited U.S. citizens and companies from doing business with Moreno González , and virtually froze all his assets in the U.S.
Los Zetas eventually broke off from the Gulf Cartel in 2010 , after serving in the armed wing of the organization for more than a decade . But in opposition to Los Zetas , Moreno González 's cartel rejoined with the Gulf Cartel and allied with the Sinaloa Cartel to fight them off . Since then , La Familia Michoacana became one of the fastest @-@ growing cartels involved in Mexico 's drug war . It stood out for its promotion of " family values " and religious agenda , unlike traditional cartels . Although deeply involved in the methamphetamine business , Moreno González 's cartel diversified its criminal agenda by controlling numerous " counterfeiting , extortion , kidnapping , armed robbery , prostitution and car dealership " rings in Michoacán and its neighboring states . By mid @-@ 2009 , La Familia had managed to establish a foothold in about 20 to 30 urban areas across the United States .
Moreno González required his men to carry a " spiritual manual " that he wrote himself , " [ containing ] pseudo @-@ Christian aphorisms for self @-@ improvement . " In his " bible , " Moreno González prohibited his men from consuming alcoholic beverages or other drugs , and stated that he would severely punish those who mistreated women . His writings encouraged the corporal punishment of thieves by beating them and making them walk naked with billboards in the city streets . He prohibited members of his cartel from consuming or selling methamphetamines in Michoacán , arguing that the drug was only to be smuggled into the U.S. for American consumers . Moreno González justified drug trafficking by stating that La Familia Michoacana allegedly regulated the drug trade to prevent exploitation of the people . The book , sometimes known as " The Sayings of the Craziest One " , also talks about humility , service , wisdom , brotherhood , courage , and God . His second book , titled " They Call Me The Craziest One " , is 13 chapters long and talks about his life , idealism , the origins of La Familia Michoacana , their battle against Los Zetas , and his rationale behind joining organized crime . The text reads like a diary and justifies his criminal activities under the rationale that just like others in Michoacán , the limited opportunities and his poor financial situation pushed him to get involved in the drug trade . In addition to that , Moreno González blamed the government for the existence of criminals .
As leader of La Familia Michoacana , Moreno González was in charge of forging alliances with other cartels . Reportedly , Moreno González met with several other high @-@ ranking drug lords , including Fernando Sánchez Arellano of the Tijuana Cartel ; Juan José Esparragoza Moreno of the Sinaloa Cartel ; and Ezequiel Cárdenas Guillén of the Gulf Cartel . In these agreements , the cartels allowed La Familia Michoacana to move drugs freely in their territories in exchange for their support in fighting off rival gangs like Los Zetas . In 2008 , Moreno González agreed to send armed men to help Joaquín Guzmán Loera and Ismael Zambada García fight off rival cartels , a favor which granted him access to the drug corridors in Sinaloa and Sonora . In addition , his friendship with the Gulf Cartel leader Jorge Eduardo Costilla Sánchez allowed him access to the northeastern state of Tamaulipas .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
During his tenure as leader of La Familia Michoacana , Moreno González reportedly gave loans to farmers , funded schools and churches , financed drainage projects , and carried out several aid campaigns to help out the disadvantaged in the state of Michoacán . This , along with the manpower of the organization , allowed him get the support of several rural sectors in the state , where many served as informants and collaborators for the cartel . His wife was also known for organizing several self @-@ help seminars in Apatzingán . The support of La Familia Michoacana is rooted in family connections and local communities in Michoacán , and in the supposed exploitation of its citizens by the government .
= = Alleged 2010 death = =
On 9 December 2010 , the Mexican federal police surrounded the village of El Alcalde in Apatzingán , Michoacán with more than 2 @,@ 000 officers . Reportedly , Moreno González was at a local festival handing out Christmas presents to the villagers when he was tracked down by the authorities .
As the police troops drove into town , gunmen of La Familia Michoacana blocked the entrances with more than 40 burning trucks and cars . La Familia gunmen also surrounded the state capital of Morelia in an attempt to prevent the police from receiving reinforcements . The shootout lasted about two days , and at least 11 deaths were confirmed . During the gun battle , the gunmen managed to carry out the bodies of their fallen comrades up the hills . The government reported at the time that Moreno González had been killed , but that the cartel took his body away . This triggered rumors that he was alive and leading his cartel . However , the Mexican government denied such claims . Elías Álvarez , the commander of the 2010 police operation , said González 's grave was in the mountains . 2014 reports from the Mexican government stated that Moreno González was possibly injured ( but not killed ) during the shootout . For four years , the drug lord took advantage of the government 's mistake to fall off the authorities 's radar and continue to command the cartel behind the scenes .
= = = Background and aftermath = = =
The alleged death of Moreno González was considered one of the most significant government victories since the start of the drug war in 2006 . La Familia Michoacana was the focus of the government because their stronghold , Michoacán state , is just about four hours away from the country 's capital , Mexico City . In addition , Michoacán is the homestate of former President Felipe Calderón , who made it a top priority to pacify it .
A few days after the shootout , several people carried out a peace march in Apatzingán expressing their support for the cartel with banners that read " Nazario will always live in our hearts , " among others . Others protested against the presence of the federal forces in the state , and argued that the federal government — not the cartels — were responsible for increasing the violence in the country . Through several banners hung on bridges throughout the state of Michoacán , La Familia Michoacana publicly announced that they were open to the possibility of creating a " truce " ( ceasefire ) with the Mexican government throughout December 2010 and January 2011 to prove that they were not the source of the violence . The Mexican authorities " summarily rejected " the agreement .
After Moreno Gonzalez was reported dead , José de Jesús Méndez Vargas took the lead of La Familia Michoacana . The other cartel leader , Servando Gómez Martínez ( alias " La Tuta " ) , fought Méndez Vargas for control of the group and eventually formed the Knights Templar Cartel , a drug cartel and pseudo @-@ religious splinter group . The cartel was headed by Moreno González , followed by Gómez Martínez , Dionisio Loya Plancarte ( alias " El Tío " ) , and Enrique Plancarte Solís ( alias " Kike Plancarte " ) , in that order . However , given that the Mexican government believed that Moreno González had been killed in 2010 , Gómez Martínez was regarded as the first @-@ in @-@ command . Since its creation , the Knights Templar Cartel became a greater security concern for the Mexican government ; it began to extort lime farmers , cutters , and packers , as well as people who worked in the avocado business in Michoacán . The cartel also stole minerals from the state 's reserves to later ship them to China and sell them in the black market . Killings , extortions , kidnappings , and arson attacks against Michoacán residents and local businesses increased . In response to the cartel 's activities , autodefensa ( vigilante / self @-@ defense ) groups began to emerge in Michoacán in 2011 , and gained significant momentum in February 2013 when they began to push the cartel outside of the Tierra Caliente region . President Enrique Peña Nieto sent in more federal troops to Michoacán on January 2014 initially with the intent to disarm the informal groups . However , that plan was quickly abandoned following some resistance , and the government decided to sign an agreement that month with the autodefensas to combat insecurity together .
= = = Allegations of having survived the attempted police capture = = =
Given that Moreno González 's body was never recovered from the December 2010 shootout where officials said he was killed , there were rumors that he was alive and secretly leading the Knights Templar Cartel , the split @-@ off group of La Familia Michoacana . On June 2011 , members of La Familia Michoacana set up several public banners throughout the state of Guerrero with written messages directed to the former President Calderón and his security spokesman Alejandro Poiré . The banners proclaimed that Moreno González was in fact alive and leading the Knights Templar Cartel , and that the government was allegedly covering him up . The rumors were immediately denied by the Mexican government , which stood firm that the drug lord was killed by federal forces on December 9 , 2010 . Rumors sparked again in October 2011 following the arrest of Mario Buenrostro Quiroz , a drug trafficker who headed a Mexico City @-@ based gang known as Los Aboytes . In a videotaped police confession , he told authorities that Moreno González was still alive and heading the cartel . Intelligence agency InSight Crime said the rumors were probably part of a campaign of the Knights Templar Cartel to win prestige from La Familia Michoacana by saying that their leader is in fact alive and still supporting the group . On 27 October 2012 , the Mexican Army raided a safe house in Apatzingán where they believed the drug lord Enrique Plancarte Solís was hiding . Though the raid was ultimately unsuccessful because Plancarte Solís managed to avoid capture by sending several gunmen from his inner circle to battle off the soldiers , the authorities discovered several documents written for Moreno González . The Army gave the documents to the intelligence agency SIEDO for further investigation .
Many Michoacán natives believed that Moreno González was alive ; he was widely believed to have made a public appearance in Morelia in 2012 after his son was killed in a motorcycle accident . According to an unnamed official , his sister went to the morgue to reclaim the body of his son before the autopsy . When the coroner refused to give her the body , Moreno González paid him a visit and convinced him to give up the body . In fears of reprisals , local media outlets self @-@ censored and did not report on the death of his son . Those who wrecked his son were reportedly kidnapped by Moreno González men and killed . In addition , one militia leader from the town of Coalcomán reported seeing him dressed as Saint Francis of Assisi , baptizing people , and leading his henchmen . There was no concrete evidence of Moreno González being alive . However , since no autopsy was performed , there was no evidence of him being dead either . In January 2014 , Gregorio López , a priest of Apatzingán , reported that that Moreno González ordered a self @-@ imposed curfew in the city and threatened to burn down businesses that did not comply with the order . That week Michoacán had a series of violent episodes after the state 's autodefensa ( vigilante ) groups — which emerged in February 2013 to fight the Knights Templar Cartel — attempted to move into several municipalities to fight the cartel . The priest said in an interview that there were rumors that the drug lord met with " La Tuta " for lunch in La Cucha , a ranch outside of Apatzingán . In an interview with Noticias MVS in February 2014 , the former self @-@ defense group leader José Manuel Mireles Valverde stated that Moreno González celebrated Christmas Day ( 25 December 2013 ) with the cartel leader Enrique Plancarte Solís and his daughter and banda singer Melissa at the drug lord 's house . Mireles claimed in March 2014 that the self @-@ defense groups nearly captured Moreno González at a ranch close to Tumbiscatío , Michoacán , but that he managed to escape 20 minutes before their arrival .
Rumors surrounding these allegations were around since Moreno González was declared dead by the Mexican government in 2010 . The mysticism and spiritual teachings of the drug lord have played an important role in the Knights Templar Cartel 's propaganda and recruitment in Michoacán . By spreading such rumors , the cartel hoped to gain a level of consensus from the public in their fight against the self @-@ defense militias and state forces in the state .
= = Veneration = =
After Moreno González 's reported death in 2010 , Michoacán natives reportedly began to worship him as a saint , " drawing attention to the links between narco @-@ culture and religion . " In the region of Apatzingán , people created altars with statues and photos in honor of him . The figurines are often dressed in tunics similar to the Knights Templar , and had prayers calling him Saint Nazario . Reforma newspaper reported that Moreno González had his own prayer : " Oh Lord Almighty , free me from all sins , give me protection through Saint Nazario . " These altars are found in the village of Holanda , on the hill of El Cerrito de la Cruz , and in Apatzingán . Villagers have noted that they had been forced to venerate the criminal under threat of armed force by the gang members .
Throughout his criminal career , Moreno González promoted La Familia Michoacana as an organization that existed to protect the people in Michoacán , where he carried out several campaigns that implemented curfews , punished drinkers , and attacked Los Zetas , whom he claimed had corroded the morality of the state and community . The prayers that are now dedicated to Moreno González now refer to him as the " Representative of God , " the " Protector of the poorest , " and as the " Knight of the towns . " Such behavior proves that La Familia Michoacana 's religious campaign influenced the local area .
The area where the altars are located is reportedly patrolled by Los 12 apóstoles ( ' 12 apostles ' ) , the security body that allegedly protected Moreno González .
= = Death = =
At around 7 : 00 a.m. on 9 March 2014 , the Mexican Army and Navy pinpointed Moreno González 's whereabouts in Tumbiscatío , Michoacán . When they tried to apprehend him , the drug lord opened fire at the security forces before being killed in the fire exchange . Mexico 's Procuraduría General de la República ( PGR ) officially confirmed his identity through DNA examinations and fingerprint identification . The results were consistent with law enforcement files . While investigators conducted the autopsy at a hospital in Apatzingán , more than 150 law enforcement officers from the Army , Navy , Federal Police , and the PGR cordoned the area to prevent organized crime members from attempting to steal his body . Post @-@ mortem reports indicated that Moreno González died of two gunshot wounds on his thorax . On 12 March 2014 , his corpse was transferred to Morelia under tight security for further testing . At the time of his death , the drug lord was wanted by the Mexican government for charges relating to drug trafficking , organized crime , kidnapping , murder , and theft .
On the evening of 14 March 2014 , his corpse was handed over to his sister and two nephews in Morelia by state authorities . As they left the forensic installations , they covered their faces in front of cameras and did not specify if they had plans to carry out a funeral for Moreno González . His family and friends , however , held a funeral for him at the Santa Cruz funeral home in Altozano , Morelia . They did not comment where the corpse was to be taken , but unconfirmed reports suggested that there were plans to cremate him and scatter his ashes at a village in the Tierra Caliente region in Michoacán .
= = Personal life and family = =
Moreno González enjoyed watching the Godfather Trilogy and the drama film Braveheart .
He went by several nicknames , including but not limited to El Chayo ( hypocorism for " Nazario " or " Rosario " , the Spanish word for Rosary ) , Víctor Nazario Castrejón Peña , El Dulce ( " The Candy " ) , El Doctor ( " The Doctor " ) , and El Más Loco ( " The Craziest One " ) , In 2014 , the Mexican government discovered that the drug lord also held the alias Emiliano Morelos Guevara in reference to revolutionary figures Emiliano Zapata , José María Morelos , and Che Guevara .
His father was reportedly Manuel Moreno , who died on July 2013 , according to intelligence reports from Mexican federal agents . The drug lord was the uncle or cousin of Uriel Chávez Mendoza , the municipal president ( equivalent of mayor ) of Apatzingán . He was arrested by Mexican authorities on 15 April 2014 for his alleged ties to organized crime . The city councilman Isidro Villanueva Moreno may also be his cousin too . His half brother and cousin of Plancarte Solís , Antonio Magaña Pantoja , was arrested by Mexican authorities in Apatzingán on 9 February 2014 . His half brother Heliodoro Moreno Anguiano ( alias " El Yoyo " ) was arrested by Mexican authorities in Apatzingán , Michoacán on 18 February 2014 . His nephew Faustino Andrade González was arrested by the Mexican Federal Police in Apatzingán with four other suspected criminals on 5 June 2014 .
= = Published works = =
Pensamientos Del Más Loco ( The Sayings of the Craziest One )
Me Dicen : El Más Loco ( They Call Me The Craziest One ) ( 2010 )
= John McMahon ( wrestler ) =
John McMahon ( 1841 – 1912 ) was an American professional wrestler who specialized in collar @-@ and @-@ elbow wrestling . He competed from 1861 to 1891 , traveling throughout the United States and Canada to face the top wrestlers of the day . He competed in several styles of wrestling , and his biggest rivalry was with Colonel J.H. McLaughlin . Toward the end of his career , he performed in wrestling matches for traveling circuses .
= = Career = =
Born in Vermont in 1841 , McMahon began his professional wrestling career in Port Henry , New York in June 1861 . He won the match , which began an undefeated streak that lasted until 1878 . Although he favored the collar @-@ and @-@ elbow wrestling practiced in Ireland , the country of his ancestry , he also competed in matches that involved catch wrestling and Greco @-@ Roman wrestling . McMahon served in the Union army during the American Civil War , during which he gained notoriety as a wrestler .
On July 22 , 1873 , McMahon defeated Thomas Copeland to become recognized as the champion of the United States and Canada . The following month , he also defeated Albert Ellis , who was billed as the champion of England . Because McMahon outweighed his opponent by 60 pounds , the match was contested under Cornwall and Devon rules , which required both men to wear short jackets . His rivalry with Ellis continued , and the pair faced each other twice more . One bout was declared a draw because of a disputed call by the referee . McMahon won the third and final match between the two . McMahon also traveled to the Western United States in search of competitors . In 1877 , he defeated Harry Thurston in a match held in a lumberyard in California . He was also sent to Virginia City , Nevada to help a gambler who had lost a large sum of money to " Dakota Bill " Tompkins . Without revealing his identity , McMahon arranged a match with Tompkins , a local championship wrestler . McMahon 's friends bet money on McMahon , who defeated Tompkins in a best @-@ of @-@ five match .
McMahon wrestled James Farwell in January 1878 ; Falwell won a controversial victory to retain his status as champion of the Pacific Coast . After McMahon 's main rival , Colonel J.H. McLaughlin , retired , McMahon ceased to compete as well . The two had never faced each other , but there was a dispute as to who would win if such a match took place . McMahon returned to Virginia City to open a saloon . In October of that year , McLaughlin offered a bet that nobody would be able to defeat Robert Wright , one of his trainees . McMahon accepted the bet , defeated Wright , and arranged a match against McLaughlin . He defeated McLaughlin in a best @-@ of @-@ three match on November 23 , 1878 . A rematch took place , which McLaughlin won . The third and final contest between the two took place in March 1879 and ended in a draw . On May 12 of that year , McMahon defeated Australian " Professor " William Miller in a best @-@ of @-@ three match before a crowd of over 2000 spectators in Gilmore 's Garden in New York .
In August 1879 , McMahon faced his second cousin once removed , James Owens , in the St. James Opera House on Broadway in New York City . McMahon lost the first fall but won the next two to claim victory in the match . They faced each other again on July 16 , 1880 for the collar @-@ and @-@ elbow world championship . After a match lasting over three hours , McMahon emerged victorious to win the title .
In the mid @-@ 1880s , McMahon traveled internationally to compete and won titles in Australia and Argentina . In 1884 , he defeated John Tedford in England to win the world collar @-@ and @-@ elbow wrestling championship .
In his later career , McMahon faced such wrestlers as Sorakichi Matsuda , Captain James C. Daly and Gus Lambert . He also faced William Muldoon , now a member of the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame . One match between the two , which took place on March 22 , 1881 , featured a best @-@ of @-@ three @-@ falls rule , in which the wrestlers competed in Muldoon 's favored Greco @-@ Roman style , followed by the collar @-@ and @-@ elbow style preferred by McMahon . Each competitor won the fall in his preferred style , which led to a catch @-@ as @-@ catch @-@ can match to determine the winner . The match did not take place , however , as the men were unable to agree to the outfits that would be worn during the match ; as a result , the contest was declared a draw . One of McMahon 's final series of matches was against Henry Moses Dufur . Their first match was declared a draw after neither competitor was able to throw the other within six hours . Although the wrestlers were willing to continue , the lease on the hall had expired and the match was ended at 2 : 45 in the morning . McMahon lost the second contest , but he defeated Dufur for the world collar @-@ and @-@ elbow championship in their final encounter .
McMahon also wrestled in traveling circuses . He was part of Adam Forepaugh 's Circus , and he competed for P. T. Barnum 's circus for over two years . With the latter group , he wrestled over 300 pre @-@ arranged matches against Ed Decker . He also continued in regular competition outside the circus ; in his final match , he defeated Jim Cowley on March 2 , 1891 . McMahon died in 1912 .
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Collar @-@ and @-@ Elbow Championship ( 2 times )
= Valor por Tamaulipas =
Valor por Tamaulipas ( " Courage for Tamaulipas " ) is a Facebook page that covered security updates in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas . It was founded by an anonymous user on 1 January 2012 , and its goal is to share information with other social media users on the drug @-@ related violence and risk situations all across the state . With over 515 @,@ 000 likes on Facebook , Valor por Tamaulipas routinely posted messages and photos of crime scenes on its page . In a country where many journalists have been assassinated for writing about drug trafficking and organized crime , the page survives under anonymity , but it has not been immune to threats .
In early 2013 , a Mexican drug trafficking organization issued fliers offering a reward of $ 600 @,@ 000 pesos ( US $ 46 @,@ 000 ) for anyone that could give out information to locate the administrator of Valor por Tamaulipas or any of his family members . The administrator , however , openly defied the criminal organization 's threat through Facebook . His wife and children reportedly fled to the United States after the threats for security reasons , but the citizen journalist stated on the Facebook page that he had decided to stay in Mexico and continue updating at Valor por Tamaulipas . In December 2014 , however , the administrator announced his retirement from social media .
= = History = =
The Facebook page Valor por Tamaulipas ( " Courage for Tamaulipas " ) was created by an anonymous user on 1 January 2012 after getting his inspiration from other websites that anonymously reported the drug violence in Mexico . The page regularly posts messages and photos of crime scenes ; its goal is to report on drug @-@ related violence and situations of risk in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas . It frequently posts messages and photos of the criminal activities in the state , including but not limited to law enforcement in action , photos of alleged criminals , vehicles of reported extortionists , abandoned vehicles left on the roadside , roadblocks , arsons , oil theft activities , drug traffickers on the job , and the like . Given the high levels of drug @-@ related activities in northern Mexico and in Tamaulipas , many Facebook users also check Valor por Tamaulipas to verify if there is a shootout in their area , to know in what part of a highway a carjacking took place , or to see if someone is reported missing . The information found at Valor por Tamaulipas is shared by Internet users themselves ; the administrator , on the other hand , was active almost all hours during the day and throughout the whole week . Most of the Mexican mainstream media outlets play down the violence because they fear reprisals from the country 's criminal organizations . Given the censorship , Valor por Tamaulipas was a popular outlet for crime watchdogs concerned with the violence in Tamaulipas . According to crime journalist James Barger from InSight Crime , the information in Valor por Tamaulipas is " spotty , sometimes unreliable , but often the only source of what [ is ] happening " . Several Internet users in Mexico , the United States , and in other countries around the world have shown their support for Valor por Tamaulipas ' work and have followed their reports on Facebook and / or Twitter .
The page had over 210 @,@ 000 likes on Facebook in April 2013 ; on Twitter , Valor por Tamaulipas had approximately 24 @,@ 400 followers .
= = = Background = = =
The state of Tamaulipas is home to two transnational criminal organizations – the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas – who fight for control of the smuggling routes along the Texan border . This border area is a major route for human trafficking , arms smuggling , and for the international narcotics trade . The Gulf Cartel , according to the United States Department of State , started in the 1930s as a bootlegging gang and later transformed into a full @-@ fledged drug trafficking organization in the 1980s . Los Zetas , on the other hand , were formed in the late 1990s and early 2000s by former soldiers of the Mexican Army who were hired by the imprisoned Osiel Cárdenas Guillén to become the Gulf Cartel 's new muscle . In an apparent power struggle , however , Los Zetas and the Gulf Cartel broke relations in early 2010 and went to war in the state of Tamaulipas and its bordering states , prompting daily shootouts , kidnappings , and mass slayings .
Mexico is among the most dangerous countries on the planet in which to practice journalism , particularly on the topics of organized crime and drug trafficking . Since 2000 , nearly 100 journalists have been kidnapped or killed throughout the country ; many of the killings , however , remain unsolved and unpunished . The high levels of violence and attacks on the press have forced many local media outlets to downplay their coverage . As a result , many people have turned to social media outlets like Valor por Tamaulipas to see hourly updates on the security atmosphere in their areas . But social media reporting carries its own risks too ; in September 2011 , journalist and blogger María Elizabeth Macías Castro was decapitated by Los Zetas for posting their organized crime activities in her personal blog . That same month , two alleged Twitter users were killed and hanged on a bridge in Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas for denouncing on Twitter .
In January 2013 , Tamaulipas state had a homicide rate of 36 per every 100 @,@ 000 people ; kidnappings and extortion were also widespread .
= = Organized crime threats = =
On June 2012 , the Gulf Cartel allegedly created a Facebook page called Anti Valor por Tamaulipas ( " Anti @-@ Courage for Tamaulipas " ) , which intended to counter the goals of the page . It stated that the information spread by Valor por Tamaulipas " [ was ] not a benefit to the community . " In early 2013 , Anti Valor por Tamaulipas had approximately 11 @,@ 244 likes on Facebook .
Through several fliers issued in Ciudad Victoria , Tamaulipas , a drug trafficking organization offered a $ 600 @,@ 000 peso ( roughly US $ 46 @,@ 000 ) reward to anyone that could give them information on the whereabouts of the administrator of Valor por Tamaulipas , or to identify any of his family members , whether they are his parents , brothers and sisters , children or wife . The flier included the phone number ( 834 ) -104 @-@ 7370 , which has the area code of Tamaulipas . The administrator responded by saying that " [ he was ] not playing at being a hero , [ and was ] doing what [ he had ] to do as a citizen . " He also thanked the visitors who contributed to the page and gave him support throughout the project , and asked the Mexican Armed Forces to continue their fight against organized crime . The administrator said , too , that he would continue to his crime reporting at Valor por Tamaulipas even if that might cost him his life . On its page the administrator stated that after hearing about the threat , his wife and children left to the United States for security reasons . He also asked his visitors to refrain from using their personal Facebook or Twitter accounts when uploading information to the page since that could put them at risk . He believes that the Mexican criminal organization known as Los Zetas or state officials working for them are probably responsible for this threat .
On 20 February 2013 , a video was released on the web depicting a supposed collaborator of Valor por Tamaulipas , kneeling down and with his hands in his pockets . Beside him was a masked , camouflaged man with a firearm . The supposed collaborator said calmly , " Please refrain from publishing any information – if not , this is the price you will pay . " After the kneeling man warned Internet users against collaborating with Valor por Tamaulipas , the gunman pulled the trigger and shot him in the head , apparently killing the man . The administrator of Valor por Tamaulipas responded by posting a message on Facebook and saying that he will not take a stance on the authenticity of the video , but stated that he does not recognize the man . Notinfomex blog website reported that the Gulf Cartel was behind the video , but the information and authenticity have not been officially confirmed .
In April 2013 , Proceso magazine received information from supposed informants from the Office of the General Prosecutor in Tamaulipas who indicated that the state governor Egidio Torre Cantú wanted to close the page by discrediting it with false reports . The governor , the report said , was concerned that Valor por Tamaulipas " had become a news reference that showed Mexico and the world that it was organized crime , not him , who controlled the state . "
On 22 May 2013 , Valor por Tamaulipas released a video sent to the page by an alleged organized crime group . In the video , a man and a woman are interrogated by alleged drug traffickers and ask the administrator to close the page and reveal his true identity . The couple was presented as supposed family members of the administrator ; however , the he later indicated that they were not his family , and that the criminal organization had either confused them or simply targeted a random family to pressure to administrator to close the page . Valor por Tamaulipas responded by sending a message to the authorities in Tamaulipas and blamed them for the death of a person who died of a cardiac arrest after the couple was kidnapped ; the administrator also accused the Tamaulipas authorities of protecting Los Zetas drug cartel .
= = Closure and renewal = =
Early in the morning of 1 April 2013 , the Facebook and Twitter accounts of Valor por Tamaulipas were shut down unexpectedly and without any explanation . A new page with the same name was created by other administrators , who said that they did not know what had happened to the original administrator but that they wanted to continue his work nonetheless . This raised concerns about who was actually working behind the scenes to keep the page running . Another page run by other users and with a similar name , Responsabilidad por Tamaulipas ( " Responsibility for Tamaulipas " ) , posted on their page that Valor por Tamaulipas had only closed temporarily in order to improve the page and protect the administrator . They advised online users to ignore websites that posed as the original page .
About a week later , the original page of Valor por Tamaulipas reopened , but the administrator issued a communiqué in which he indicated that the page was going to close permanently after 8 days . On Facebook the administrator explained that he could not continue collaborating at Valor por Tamaulipas because of his inability to properly manage the page . " In my case , organized crime won , but it has defeated me and not society ; it has defeated me and my family , but it has not defeated that thousands of contributors who trusted this page and reported despite their fears " , the administrator said . He also talked about his experience and the lessons he learned as head of the page , and then thanked those who supported and trusted him for over a year . The administrator concluded by asking his followers to forgive him .
In the eight days following the announcement , the page operated as it normally did . After reconsidering several times , the administrator decided to keep maintaining the page , and thanked the media and his followers for supporting him . He concluded by saying , " I am not sure if keeping this page will benefit the people of goodwill ... only God will know if I was irresponsible or stubborn in doing so ... On another note , I confess that it has been an honor and pleasure to continue collaborating and working as a team with all of you . Thank you , people of goodwill from Tamaulipas . I owe it all to you . "
= = Block , reopen , and further threats = =
On 9 June 2014 , the Facebook page was blocked for a month for uploading gun @-@ related posts , which is considered a violation of Facebook 's policies . In order to continue his reporting , the admin posted on his Twitter and Google accounts .
On 15 October 2014 , the former co @-@ admin of the sister page Responsabilidad for Tamaulipas , María del Rosario Fuentes Rubio ( also known by her Twitter account @ Miut3 and Felina ) , was kidnapped , tortured , and killed by alleged organized crime members . She had a strong follower @-@ base on Twitter and was known for posting about risk situations , shootouts , and information about criminal groups from Tamaulipas . Her captors allegedly posted several tweets on her profile , prompting shocking reactions on social media . The first tweet revealed her identity and profession as a doctor , and ended by saying that her " life had come to an end " . Two minutes later , another tweet asked others to not make the mistakes she did ( of posting about organized crime ) . The third tweet warned Valor por Tamaulipas and two other Twitter users , @ Bandolera7 and @ civilarmado _ mx , of posting about risk situations . The fourth and final tweet said the following : " Close your accounts , don 't risk your families the way I did , I ask you all for forgiveness , " and included two photos of her . One of them showed her alive , and the second one showed her corpse splattered in blood . Twitter later deactivated the account but the photos had already leaked across social media .
Valor por Tamaulipas confirmed her death on its Facebook page and lamented the incident . The admin stated that @ Miut3 was a collaborator at Valor por Tamaulipas and former admin at Responsabilidad por Tamaulipas . It was unknown if her murder was linked to her activities on social media or to her profession as a doctor ; one version suggested that she was kidnapped by organized crime after a son of an alleged drug lord died of medical complications , and that her captors discovered her identity when they took her phone and decided to threaten the rest of the online community . Valor por Tamaulipas does not believe this version , however . The admin said he had reasons to believe that @ Miut3 was targeted for her online activities . Valor por Tamaulipas stated that @ Miut3 was threatened by Twitter user @ garzalaura142 a week before she was killed ; the admin indicated that the threats used similar wordings and that that was " no coincidence " .
= = Admin 's retirement and new management = =
On 29 November 2014 , the admin of the page announced his retirement on Facebook . He stated that he was leaving the page for personal reasons , but that Valor por Tamaulipas would continue under new management . That person , he said , had some relationship with law enforcement . The admin believes that this would be of benefit for the cyber community because it would allow for citizen reports to reach law enforcement directly . The admin also announced that the pages Responsabilidad , Fortaleza , and Valor por la Huasteca would go under new management too . The new management would be composed of people who he deemed trustworthy given their long history of support or because they had suffered a loss as a result of the violence . In a closing statement , he bid farewell by thanking God for bringing happiness to his personal and professional life . In the comment section of the Facebook post , many people thanked the admin for his support . Some of them , however , expressed their concerned with the new administration given his / her relationship with the government .
= = Sister page and similar projects = =
Valor por Tamaulipas has a sister page called Esperanza por Tamaulipas ( " Hope for Tamaulipas " ) , which uploads pictures of people who have been kidnapped or are reported as disappeared in the state . The page has a list of more than 120 people who have disappeared between 2010 and 2012 . Other projects like Valor por Michoacán SDR ( " Courage for Michoacán – Risk Situations " ) , which reported about the drug @-@ related violence and role of the self @-@ defense groups in Michoacán since 2013 , have many followers and likes on Twitter ( @ ValorMichoacan ) and Facebook ( / ValorPorMichoacan ) .
= = Acronyms used in page = =
Valor por Tamaulipas uses several acronyms in posts on Facebook and Twitter :
= Italian battleship Regina Margherita =
Regina Margherita was the lead ship of her class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Italian Regia Marina between 1898 and 1904 . She had one sister ship , Benedetto Brin . Regina Margherita saw action in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 1912 . By the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , the battleship had been reduced to a training ship . She struck two naval mines on the night of 11 – 12 December 1916 while steaming off Valona . She sank with heavy loss of life : 675 men were killed , and only 270 survived .
= = Design = =
Regina Margherita was 138 @.@ 65 meters ( 454 @.@ 9 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 23 @.@ 84 m ( 78 @.@ 2 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 81 m ( 28 @.@ 9 ft ) . She displaced 14 @,@ 093 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 870 long tons ; 15 @,@ 535 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by twenty @-@ eight coal @-@ fired Niclausse boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 20 @.@ 3 knots ( 37 @.@ 6 km / h ; 23 @.@ 4 mph ) and a range of approximately 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Regina Margherita had a crew of 812 officers and enlisted men .
As built , the ship was armed with four 12 in ( 300 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns placed in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The ship was also equipped with four 8 in ( 200 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in casemates in the superstructure , and twelve 6 in ( 150 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns , also in casemates in the side of the hull . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of twenty 3 in ( 76 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns . The ship also carried a pair of 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns , two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and two 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) Maxim guns . Regina Margherita was also equipped with four 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes placed in the hull below the waterline . Regina Margherita was protected with Harvey steel manufactured in Terni . The main belt was 6 in ( 150 mm ) thick , and the deck was 3 @.@ 1 in ( 79 mm ) thick . The conning tower and the casemate guns were also protected by 6 in of armor plating . The main battery guns had stronger armor protection , at 8 in ( 200 mm ) thick .
= = Service = =
Regina Margherita laid down at the La Spezia shipyard on 20 November 1898 . She was launched on 30 May 1901 in the presence of King Victor Emmanuel , and completed three years later ; she was commissioned into the Italian fleet on 14 April 1904 . Work progressed slowly on the ship in large part due to non @-@ delivery of material , particularly the heavy armor . In July , the ship conducted her speed trials in the Gulf of Genoa . Following her completion , she was assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron . The ships in the squadron were typically only on active duty for seven months of the year for training ; the rest of the year they were placed in reserve . In 1907 , the Mediterranean Squadron consisted of Regina Margherita , her sister Benedetto Brin , and three of the Regina Elena @-@ class battleships . The ships participated in the annual maneuvers in late September and early October as the flagship of Vice Admiral Alfonso di Brocchetti .
On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War Regina Mergherita was assigned to the 1st Division of the 2nd Squadron , along with her sister and the two Ammiraglio di Saint Bon @-@ class battleships . She joined the squadron on 5 October , a week after the war started . On 13 April 1912 , Regina Margherita and the rest of the Squadron sailed from Tobruk to the Aegean Sea to rendezvous with the 1st Squadron . The two squadrons met off Stampalia on 17 April . The next day , the fleet steamed into the northern Aegean and cut several Turkish submarine cables . Most of the ships of the Italian fleet then bombarded the fortresses protecting the Dardanelles in an unsuccessful attempt to lure out the Turkish fleet . While they were doing this , Regina Margherita , Benedetto Brin , and two torpedo boats were detached to cut additional cables between Rhodes and Marmaris . On 18 May , Regina Margherita bombarded Marmaris . While debarking troops on the island of Scarpanto in the Aegean , the ship 's anchor chain accidentally slipped loose and killed the ship 's executive officer , Captain Proli ; five other men were injured in the accident . In July , Regina Margherita and the rest of the Division had withdrawn to Italy to replace worn @-@ out gun barrels , along with other repairs . In 1912 , the ship had four 3 @-@ inch guns added , increasing her battery from 20 to 24 pieces .
Italy declared neutrality after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . The primary naval opponent for the duration of the war was the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ; the Naval Chief of Staff , Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , planned a distant blockade with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats conducted raids . The heavy ships of the Italian fleet would be preserved for a potential major battle in the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet should emerge from its bases . By this time , Regina Margherita was long @-@ since obsolescent , and was reduced to a training ship in the 3rd Division , along with her sister ship . On the night of 11 – 12 December 1916 , while sailing from the port of Valona in heavy sea conditions , she struck two mines laid by the German submarine SM UC @-@ 14 and blew up . There were 270 survivors and 675 men perished . The ship 's loss was not announced until January 1917 . Lieutenant General Oreste Bandini , the commander of the Italian Albania Expeditionary Corps , was on the ship and was among those who were killed in the sinking .
= Edge of Darkness =
Edge of Darkness is a British television drama serial , produced by BBC Television in association with Lionheart Television International and originally broadcast in six fifty @-@ five @-@ minute episodes in late 1985 . A mixture of crime drama and political thriller , it revolves around the efforts of policeman Ronald Craven ( played by Bob Peck ) to unravel the truth behind the murder of his daughter Emma ( played by Joanne Whalley ) . Craven 's investigations soon lead him into a murky world of government and corporate cover @-@ ups and nuclear espionage , pitting him against dark forces that threaten the future of life on Earth .
Writer Troy Kennedy Martin was greatly influenced by the political climate of the time , dominated by the Thatcher government , and the aura of secrecy surrounding the nuclear industry – and by the implications of the Gaia hypothesis of environmentalist James Lovelock ; these combined to his crafting a thriller that mingled real world concerns with mythic and mystical elements . Kennedy Martin 's original ending was more fantastic than that eventually used in the finished serial : he had proposed that Craven would turn into a tree but this was vetoed by members of the cast and crew .
First broadcast on BBC2 , Edge of Darkness was met with such widespread critical acclaim that within days it had earned a repeat on BBC1 . Winner of several prestigious awards , it remains highly regarded to this day , often cited as one of the best and most influential pieces of British television drama ever made . The series ' director , Martin Campbell , filmed a remake , released in January 2010 , starring Mel Gibson and set in the United States .
= = Plot = =
= = = One : Compassionate Leave = = =
Yorkshire police officer Ronald Craven ( Bob Peck ) is returning home with his daughter Emma ( Joanne Whalley ) having picked her up from a meeting of an environmental organisation at her university campus . On the doorstep of their home Emma is shot dead . The police concentrate their effort on the theory that her murder was a botched attempt on Craven 's life by a criminal he had been responsible for convicting . However , as Craven goes through Emma 's belongings , he discovers a geiger counter and a gun . He also learns that Emma 's body and her possessions are radioactive . Travelling to London to assist with the inquiry , he is contacted by Pendleton ( Charles Kay ) , a polished official “ attached to the Prime Minister 's office ” , who informs him that Emma was known to them as a terrorist and that it was she , not Craven , who was the gunman 's target .
= = = Two : Into The Shadows = = =
As he continues his investigations , Craven is visited by Emma 's ghost . The fingerprints on the getaway car used by Emma 's killer match that of Lowe , a man Craven arrested ten years previously . Meanwhile , Pendleton takes Craven to meet his colleague , Harcourt ( Ian McNeice ) , who informs him that Emma was a member of a subversive anti @-@ nuclear group called GAIA . A team of six GAIA members , led by Emma , had broken into a low level radioactive waste facility at Northmoor ; all are now either dead or missing . After Craven makes a televised appeal for information about Emma 's killer , he is contacted by CIA agent Darius Jedburgh ( Joe Don Baker ) , an associate of Harcourt and Pendleton . Jedburgh shows Craven the CIA 's file on Emma 's activities : GAIA had become suspicious of Northmoor when a nearby reservoir had become contaminated with radioactive material , an occurrence that had also alerted the CIA , leading them to believe Northmoor was illegally storing plutonium . Jedburgh is played as a hard @-@ bitten professional with a wry sense of humour and a passion for ballroom dancing . Along with Harcourt and Pendleton , he is keen to find the source and purpose of the plutonium .
= = = Three : Burden Of Proof = = =
The police close in on their suspect , Lowe ( Roy Heather ) , who is severely injured in a fall while trying to escape . Dying , he tells Craven he was working with McCroon , a terrorist Craven had had convicted in Northern Ireland . Emma 's boyfriend , Terry Shields ( Tim McInnerny ) , tells Craven that she was investigating a hot cell in Northmoor ; he is later killed . Craven meets Harcourt and Pendleton at the House of Commons where an inquiry is taking place into the sale of International Irradiated Fuels ( IIF ) – Northmoor 's owners – to the Fusion Corporation of Kansas , owned by Jerry Grogan ( Kenneth Nelson ) . Pendleton tells Craven that he believes Grogan was behind Emma 's death . Returning to Yorkshire for Emma 's funeral , Craven is refused permission to seek a warrant to enter Northmoor . Returning home , he is observed by McCroon ( Sean Caffrey ) .
= = = Four : Breakthrough = = =
McCroon breaks into Craven 's house intent on killing him . Craven demands McCroon tell him who he is working for but McCroon is shot by a police marksman before he can say anything . Through a contact of Mac ( Struan Roger ) , a colleague from his time in Northern Ireland , Craven gains access to a terminal connected to the MI5 computer . He checks the MI5 records for GAIA , Northmoor and Emma and learns that McCroon was acting on the orders of Northmoor Security . He also obtains a three @-@ dimensional map of Northmoor from the computer . Craven contacts Jedburgh and asks him to accompany him inside Northmoor .
= = = Five : Northmoor = = =
Craven and Jedburgh penetrate Northmoor and discover the hot cell which has been sealed off following an explosion - a consequence of GAIA 's attempted break @-@ in . Jedburgh , under orders from the CIA , enters the hot cell and steals the plutonium . At the House of Commons inquiry , IIF chief executive Robert Bennett ( Hugh Fraser ) is forced to admit the presence of plutonium at Northmoor and the deaths of the GAIA team .
= = = Six : Fusion = = =
Craven and Jedburgh escape Northmoor but both are dying from radiation poisoning . Jedburgh makes for the Gleneagles Hotel in Scotland , which is hosting a NATO conference on directed energy weapons . Also present at the conference is Grogan who announces that the British government has approved the purchase of IIF and speaks with cold passion of harnessing the power of the atom to conquer the galaxy . The audience of military and civilian officials applauds but Jedburgh in U.S. uniform takes the dais to denounce nuclear proliferation and a vainglorious crusade amongst the stars . He finishes by bringing together two bars of plutonium he has removed from Northmoor , causing a criticality accident and irradiating himself and the nearby Grogan .
Emma 's ghost appears to Craven and tells him of a time when black flowers grew , warming the Earth and preventing life from becoming extinct . She tells him that the black flowers have returned and will melt the polar icecaps , destroying mankind so that life can continue . Craven goes to dissuade Jedburgh from the next step in his plan , which is to cause a nuclear explosion in Scotland with the rest of the plutonium . He succeeds , though the secret service follow him and kill Jedburgh . Craven , like Jedburgh and Grogan fatally exposed to radiation , wanders into the mountains to die , calling Emma 's name . On the mountains , as Emma predicted , the black flowers are growing , foreshadowing the planet 's war against humanity .
= = Principal credits = =
= = = Cast = = =
Ronald Craven was played by Bob Peck , an actor who was well known in theatre but , at the time he was cast as Craven , had appeared in only minor roles on television . In creating the role of Craven , Peck drew upon his experience gained from the two years he played the title role in Macbeth for the Royal Shakespeare Company . Notable roles after Edge of Darkness included On the Black Hill ( 1987 ) , Slipstream ( 1989 ) , Natural Lies ( 1992 ) and Jurassic Park ( 1993 ) . He died in 1999 .
Joanne Whalley , who played Emma Craven , began acting during childhood , appearing in the long @-@ running soap opera Coronation Street ( 1960 – present ) in 1976 at the age of 10 . She had also appeared in supporting roles in several series including Juliet Bravo ( 1980 – 1985 ) , Bergerac ( 1981 – 1991 ) and Reilly , Ace of Spies ( 1983 ) . Following Edge of Darkness , Whalley was cast in the equally well regarded BBC television serial The Singing Detective ( 1986 ) , written by Dennis Potter . Moving to Hollywood , she appeared in such films as Willow ( 1988 ) , Scandal ( 1989 ) and Shattered ( 1991 ) as well as television mini @-@ series such as Scarlett ( 1994 ) and Jackie Bouvier Kennedy Onassis ( 2000 ) . During her eight @-@ year marriage to the actor Val Kilmer , between 1988 and 1996 , she was often credited as Joanne Whalley @-@ Kilmer .
Cast as Darius Jedburgh was Joe Don Baker , who had been acting since the 1960s and was known for his roles in Westerns such as Gunsmoke ( 1955 – 1975 ) and as the lead in the detective series Eischied ( 1979 – 1980 ) . He also starred as Sherriff Buford Pusser in the original 1972 film Walking Tall . The script of Edge of Darkness so impressed him that he agreed to take the part at lower than his usual fee . He was later cast , by Edge of Darkness director Martin Campbell , as CIA agent Jack Wade in the James Bond film GoldenEye ( 1995 ) , a role he reprised in Tomorrow Never Dies ( 1997 ) .
Charles Kay , who played Pendleton , was a well established character actor who had appeared in Fall of Eagles ( 1974 ) , I , Claudius ( 1976 ) and The Devil 's Crown ( 1978 ) . He has since acted in many television productions such as Fortunes of War ( 1989 ) , The Darling Buds of May ( 1991 – 1993 ) , Jonathan Creek ( 1997 – 2004 ) and Midsomer Murders ( 1997 – present ) .
Edge of Darkness was an early role for Ian McNeice , who played Harcourt . He went on to act in a wide variety of film and television parts including The Englishman Who Went Up a Hill But Came Down a Mountain ( 1995 ) , Ace Ventura : When Nature Calls ( 1995 ) and Frank Herbert 's Dune ( 2000 ) , as well as regular roles in Doc Martin ( 2004 – present ) , Rome ( 2005 – 2007 ) and regular appearances as Winston Churchill in the BBC 's revived Doctor Who .
Several other faces familiar to British viewers appeared during the course of the episodes , including John Woodvine ( as Craven 's superior DCS Ross ) , Tim McInnerny ( as Emma 's boyfriend Terry Shields ) , Hugh Fraser ( as IIF chief executive Robert Bennett ) , Zoë Wanamaker ( as intelligence agent Clementine ) and Blake 's 7 cast members David Jackson ( as Colonel Lawson ) and Brian Croucher ( as Northmoor security chief Connors ) . Playing themselves were television reporters Sue Cook and Kenneth Kendall , weatherman Bill Giles and Labour MP Michael Meacher . Long @-@ standing BBC visual effects designer Mat Irvine , who contributed visual effects to the series , received a brief cameo as a police diver in " Breakthrough " . Frank L. Ridley played as the Automatic Weapons Cop .
= = = Crew = = =
Writer Troy Kennedy Martin was the creator of the long @-@ running BBC police drama Z @-@ Cars ( 1962 – 1978 ) . He also wrote the screenplay for the films The Italian Job ( 1969 ) and Kelly 's Heroes ( 1970 ) and scripts for television series such as Colditz ( 1972 – 1974 ) , The Sweeney ( 1975 – 1978 ) ( which was created by his brother Ian Kennedy Martin ) and Reilly , Ace of Spies ( 1983 ) . Following Edge of Darkness , he wrote the screenplays for the films Red Heat ( with Walter Hill ) ( 1988 ) and Bravo Two Zero ( 1999 ) . He died in September 2009 .
Director Martin Campbell had developed a reputation for handling action thrillers with credits including The Professionals ( 1977 – 1983 ) , Minder ( 1979 – 1994 ) and Shoestring ( 1979 – 1980 ) . A few years after Edge of Darkness , Campbell moved into feature films , directing the James Bond films GoldenEye ( 1995 ) and Casino Royale ( 2006 ) as well as The Mask of Zorro ( 1998 ) , Vertical Limit ( 2000 ) and The Legend of Zorro ( 2005 ) .
Producer Michael Wearing had worked on Play for Today for which he had produced Alan Bleasdale 's The Black Stuff ( 1978 ) and which he and Bleasdale subsequently spun off into the highly acclaimed Boys from the Blackstuff ( 1982 ) . He also produced the conspiracy thriller Bird of Prey ( 1982 ) . Following Edge of Darkness he continued to be one of British television 's most high profile and successful producers , appointed Head of Serials at the BBC between 1989 and 1998 where he was responsible for such programmes as Pride and Prejudice ( 1995 ) , Our Friends in the North ( 1996 ) and Dennis Potter 's final two plays Karaoke ( 1996 ) and Cold Lazarus ( 1996 ) .
Walt Patterson , who acted as series adviser , was a leading commentator on nuclear affairs , best known for his book Nuclear Power ( Penguin , 1976 – 1986 ) . Following Edge of Darkness , he acted as specialist adviser to the British House of Commons Select Committee on Environment for their 1986 study , Radioactive Waste . He continues to contribute to the policy debate about energy and environmental issues . Advice on the policing aspects of the serial was provided by the West Yorkshire Police and former Scotland Yard detective Jack Slipper , famous for his pursuit of the train robber Ronnie Biggs .
= = = Music = = =
The musical score was provided by Eric Clapton and Michael Kamen . Clapton was approached to provide the score by producer Michael Wearing . Shortly afterwards , when Michael Kamen brought Clapton to a screening of Brazil ( 1985 ) , which he , Kamen , had scored , Eric suggested a collaboration between the two on Edge of Darkness . Kamen became one of Hollywood 's most successful film composers , writing the scores for many blockbuster films including the Lethal Weapon series ( 1987 – 1998 ) ( with Eric Clapton ) , the first three Die Hard films ( 1988 , 1990 , 1995 ) , Robin Hood : Prince of Thieves ( 1991 ) and X @-@ Men ( 2000 ) . He died in 2003 .
Aside from the Clapton / Kamen soundtrack , Willie Nelson 's " The Time of the Preacher " , New Model Army 's " Christian Militia " , and Tom Waits ' " 16 Shells From A Thirty @-@ Ought @-@ Six " are featured in the series . " Christian Militia " is on the record player when Terry 's body is found . Craven listens to " The Time of the Preacher " when he is in Emma 's room in the first episode . It later emerges Jedburgh is familiar with the song and both he and Craven sing it on two occasions , the lyrics being significant .
The Australian Broadcasting Corporation used the music to illustrate stories on the Chernobyl disaster the following year . Eric Clapton and Michael Kamen performed the movie 's main theme with the National Philharmonic Orchestra during the 24 Nights period in 1990 and 1991 .
= = Background = =
= = = Origins = = =
“ I am writing this story about a detective who turns into a tree ” was what writer Troy Kennedy Martin told his colleagues when asked what he was working on during the early nineteen @-@ eighties . Kennedy Martin had become frustrated that “ at the BBC there was no political dimension to their drama whatsoever ” but had chosen to write a political story anyway , not really believing it would ever get made . The election of Margaret Thatcher as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Ronald Reagan as President of the United States had brought about a major shift in the global political landscape and Kennedy Martin was motivated to write out of concern arising from such issues as the Greenham Common protests , the Falklands War , unrest among the miners and , arising out of the escalation of the Cold War , the fear that “ born @-@ again Christians and Cold War warriors appeared to be running the United States ” .
By 1983 , Kennedy Martin had written the first draft of what would eventually become Edge of Darkness – at this stage it was called Magnox ( a reference to the Magnox type of nuclear reactor ) and was about trade union problems in the nuclear industry . The script was given to BBC Head of Drama Series & Serials , Jonathan Powell , who encouraged Kennedy Martin to continue its development . The script would go though many changes and revisions before reaching its final form .
A particular influence was the speech made by President Ronald Reagan on 23 March 1983 announcing the Strategic Defense Initiative ( SDI ) which , using ground @-@ based and space @-@ based systems , proposed protecting the United States from attack by nuclear missiles . One of the supporters of SDI was one @-@ time US presidential candidate Lyndon LaRouche , on whom Kennedy Martin based the character of Jerry Grogan , owner of the Fusion Corporation of Kansas . Kennedy Martin was also influenced by the culture of secrecy surrounding the UK 's policy regarding nuclear power in light of the inquiry into the construction of the Sizewell B nuclear power station and the concerns about the safety record of the Sellafield nuclear reprocessing plant ; this led him to conceive International Irradiated Fuels and its chief executive Robert Bennett .
The other major influence was the Gaia hypothesis , that the Earth is a single living system that self @-@ regulates to maintain the optimum conditions for life , formulated by climate scientist James Lovelock and popularised in his 1979 book Gaia : A new look at life on Earth . Kennedy Martin used the name GAIA for the environmental organisation Emma Craven was involved in and drew the notion for the black flowers seen at the serial 's conclusion from a passage in Lovelock 's book that describes a dark marsh grass that grew on the surface of the Earth trapping heat during a time when the planet was too cold to sustain life .
Although Kennedy Martin 's notion for the serial was influenced by real political events , he had for a long time railed against naturalism in television drama – most notably in a 1964 article for the theatre magazine Encore , titled “ Nats Go Home . First Statement of a New Drama for Television ” , in which he sought “ to free the camera from photographing dialogue , to free the structure from natural time and to exploit the total and absolute objectivity of the television camera ” . Edge of Darkness producer Michael Wearing has noted that “ there is a mystical dimension to Troy 's imagination . His instincts are visual and non @-@ naturalistic ” . Kennedy Martin , therefore , crafted a serial that on the one hand placed its events squarely within the real , present day world but on the other also placed itself within the realm of the mystical and the mythic . Realism and authenticity was provided by the appearances of real life television presenter Sue Cook and Labour MP Michael Meacher . There was also use of contemporary stock footage , such as Robin Day 's interview with Margaret Thatcher and references to real persons like Michael Heseltine and places such as Sellafield , alongside the references to fictitious characters and places contained in the plot . The mystical dimension is provided by Emma 's ghost while the mythic is provided by Craven himself and by Jedburgh and Grogan . Kennedy Martin , influenced by John Darragh 's The Real Camelot ( Thames and Hudson , 1981 ) which examined the pagan origins of the Arthurian legend , saw Craven as a modern @-@ day Green Man who would confront the threats to the Earth on behalf of Gaia . Jedburgh was conceived by Kennedy Martin as a Knight of the Marches , one of the Teutonic Knights who defended the borders of Eastern Europe , opposed to Grogan , who Kennedy Martin saw as a descendant of the Knights Templar who , according to legend , had guarded a special wisdom in the Temple of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem . These aspects would reach their apotheosis in the serial 's conclusion in which Kennedy Martin envisaged that Craven , having found the plutonium stolen by Jedburgh , would be shot by a sniper and would be transformed into a tree .
= = = Production = = =
By 1983 , Jonathan Powell was keen to put the serial into production and offered the scripts to producer Michael Wearing who was immediately impressed by the scenes in the first episode , “ Compassionate Leave ” , depicting Craven 's reaction to Emma 's death , describing them as “ the most sustained evocation of individual grief in bereavement that I can remember ” . The budget was set at £ 2 million , of which £ 400 @,@ 000 came from an American co @-@ producer , Lionheart Television International . Director Martin Campbell came on board shortly afterwards and soon clashed with Troy Kennedy Martin , demanding rewrites , in particular to the notion that Craven had known about Emma 's involvement with GAIA right from the start ; this was removed at Campbell 's behest . Further clashes over the script occurred between Kennedy Martin and star Bob Peck over the conclusion in which his character would turn into a tree ; Peck recalled that “ it didn 't seem to be working in script terms , it seemed as though we wouldn 't be able to make it work for the audience ” , a view echoed by Michael Wearing who felt that it was “ likely not to come off as an effect ” . Kennedy Martin capitulated , introducing instead the concept of the black flowers seen in the finished production . However , some elements of Kennedy Martin 's original vision persist in the final script : for example , in episode three , “ Burden of Proof ” , the ghost of Emma urges Craven , as he undergoes a breakdown , to be strong , like a tree .
Shooting on Edge of Darkness began on 9 July 1984 and ran for five months until 5 December 1984 . Location filming took place in London ( including the Barbican Arts Centre , BBC Television Centre and the Hilton International Kensington ) , Yorkshire ( including the headquarters of the West Yorkshire Police in Bradford , the Middleton Railway , the headquarters of Systime Computers ( now the O2 building ) in Leeds where Craven hacks into the MI5 computer and at Westwood Cottage , Ilkley for Craven 's home ) , Scotland ( including the Gleneagles Hotel , where Jedburgh addresses the NATO conference and also where President Reagan 's Reykjavík policy was formulated ) and Wales ( including Clogau Gold Mine and Manod , Blaenau Ffestiniog doubling as Northmoor with the hot cell a set constructed at a factory in Penygroes ) . Throughout the entire shoot , the production continued to be known as Magnox ; the title Dark Forces was briefly considered before the serial was renamed Edge of Darkness in April 1985 . As the shoot progressed it became apparent to the cast and crew that they had a potential hit on their hands ; Bob Peck recalled , “ I think we knew when we were making it that it was a good piece of work ” while Kennedy Martin told reporters “ I haven 't had this feeling about something for 20 years . It 's wonderful , after all this time , to get something that actually works ” .
= = Broadcast and critical reception = =
Edge of Darkness was promoted on the cover of the listings magazine Radio Times and was broadcast on Monday nights on BBC2 at 9 : 30pm , beginning 4 November 1985 . The serial averaged an audience of 4 million viewers over its run . The critical response was generally positive with most commentators concentrating their praise on Peck 's performance as Craven and the scale of the programme 's political themes . “ A good television thriller is very hard to find but Edge of Darkness promises to be one of the best ” , wrote Celia Brayfield in The Times , “ The central character is played by Bob Peck , who has the gift of looking tragic and intelligent simultaneously . [ ... ] There was humour to lift the gloom and superb characterisation to flesh out the stock situation ” . Ruth Baumgarten , in The Listener , praised the serial as “ a grandiosely ambitious and compelling piece of fiction ” . Speaking on the BBC 's review programme Did You See ... ? , the writer Sarah Dunant said , “ this is a very classy piece of television drama , on all levels , I think on the plot level , I think on the level of emotion and I think stylistically [ ... ] it looks absolutely wonderful , it 's shot like a feature film ” . Not so impressed was Byron Rogers , television critic of The Sunday Times , who initially hailed the series as one that “ stayed in the mind and will stay there long [ ... ] because of its portrayal of human grief ” but later felt he was “ beginning to find Edge of Darkness slightly irritating ” and decried the final episode as “ an insult to its considerable following ” .
Aware of the critical buzz surrounding the show , BBC1 Controller , Michael Grade , quickly announced that the series would be repeated on BBC1 , stating , “ I think it will reach a wider audience and it deserves it ” , and so Edge of Darkness was duly shown , in double episodes , over three consecutive nights between 19 December and 21 December 1985 , the fastest time between original broadcast and repeat in the BBC 's history . These repeats were accompanied by a disclaimer that the GAIA organisation depicted in the programme was not connected with the Gaia publishing company supported by Prince Philip . It was a move that paid off – Edge of Darkness doubled its audience on BBC1 to 8 million viewers .
= = Cultural significance = =
Edge of Darkness tapped into a cultural zeitgeist of concern about nuclear power and nuclear warfare in the early to mid nineteen @-@ eighties . In 1980 , current affairs programme Panorama broadcast “ If The Bomb Drops ” , a documentary that examined how well prepared Britain was for a nuclear attack ; in 1983 , The Day After an American TV movie about a nuclear war aired , as well as seeing the release of the feature film WarGames , showing the ' no winner ' outcome of nuclear war ; in 1984 , the BBC broadcast On the Eighth Day , a documentary about the effects of a nuclear winter and Threads , a drama about a nuclear attack on Sheffield while 1985 saw the first screening of Peter Watkins ' nuclear war television film The War Game , banned on television since 1965 . Edge of Darkness also rode on a wave of preoccupation with the secretive nature of the State in both fact ( e.g. This Week ’ s “ Death on the Rock ” ( 1988 ) about the deaths of three Provisional IRA members in Gibraltar and Secret Society ( 1987 ) about undisclosed matters of public interest which led to the sacking of BBC Director General Alasdair Milne ) and fiction ( e.g. the films Defence of the Realm ( 1985 ) and The Whistle Blower ( 1987 ) and the television serials A Very British Coup ( 1988 ) and Traffik ( 1989 ) ) .
Edge of Darkness continues to be well regarded to this day . When it was repeated on BBC2 in 1992 , Sean Day @-@ Lewis wrote in The Daily Telegraph , “ Edge of Darkness is a masterpiece . It is one of those very rare television creations so rich in form and content that the spectator wishes there was some way of prolonging it indefinitely ” . Andrew Lavender , writing in British Television Drama in the 1980s , has said that Edge of Darkness “ captured the spirit of its age but went far beyond the drama of its time . [ ... ] It pushed against expectations attaching to the thriller form , often transcending the limits of the genre ” . Fred Inglis , in his analysis of the serial in Formations : 20th Century Media Studies , takes it “ as one of the most remarkable works of art made for British television ” . According to Lez Cooke , in British Television Drama : A History , “ In a reactionary climate , when the possibilities for the production of ' social issue ' drama were limited , Edge of Darkness proved that , by adapting to changed circumstances and adopting a serialised thriller format , it was still possible to produce ambitious and progressive television drama in Britain in the mid @-@ 1980s ” , a view echoed by Sean Cubit in EcoMedia who notes that “ the series neatly echoed the chill that descended on radical politics in the Thatcher years in the United Kingdom ” . The television historian Andrew Pixley has described the series as “ possibly the finest BBC drama ever made ” and “ one of the few television programmes where every element can be said to have worked to complete effect ” ; John Hartley , in Tele @-@ ology : Studies in Television , called it " the best police drama series ever made for television " and said that " its method of investigative drama can unravel some of the complexities of public life more truthfully than investigative journalism " .
Edge of Darkness was placed fifteenth ( fourth position out of the dramas featured on the list ) on the British Film Institute 's list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes in 2000 , the BFI describing it as “ a gripping , innovative six @-@ part drama which fully deserves its cult status and many awards . ” . Radio Times television editor Alison Graham , in 2003 , listed it as one of the forty greatest television programmes ever made . It was one of only seven dramas listed in Broadcast magazine 's list of the fifty most influential television programmes , published in July 2004 . In March 2007 , Edge of Darkness was placed third in Channel 4 's list of the Greatest TV Dramas . Also on Channel 4 , Darius Jedburgh was listed eighty @-@ fourth in their list of the One Hundred Greatest TV Characters in 2001 .
= = Awards = =
Edge of Darkness received eleven nominations and won six awards at the 1986 BAFTA Awards :
Won : Best Drama Series / Serial ( Martin Campbell & Michael Wearing )
Won : Best Actor ( Bob Peck ) .
Nominated : Best Actor ( Joe Don Baker ) .
Nominated : Best Actress ( Joanne Whalley ) .
Won : Best Original Television Music ( Eric Clapton & Michael Kamen ) .
Won : Best Film Cameraman ( Andrew Dunn ) .
Won : Best Film Editor ( Ardan Fisher , Dan Rae ) .
Won : Best Film Sound ( Dickie Bird , Rob James , Christopher Swanton , Tony Quinn ) .
Nominated : Best Makeup ( Daphne Croker ) .
Nominated : Best Graphics ( Andy Coward , Linda Sherwood @-@ Page ) .
Nominated : Best Design ( Graeme Thompson ) .
At the 1986 Broadcasting Press Guild television critics ' awards , Edge of Darkness won two awards :
Won : Best Actor ( Bob Peck ) ( joint winner with Ben Kingsley for Silas Marner ) .
Nominated : Best Actor ( Joe Don Baker ) .
Won : Best Drama Series .
= = Hollywood adaptation = =
In 2010 , a Hollywood remake of the show was released in cinemas . It was released on 28 January in the UK , 29 January in the US and 4 February in Australia . Mel Gibson plays Detective Craven . The film is directed by Martin Campbell , who also directed the original .
= = Other media = =
Edge of Darkness was released on VHS videotape by the BBC in 1987 . There was also a release from CBS / Fox Video in North America at the same time . The soundtrack was also released as an album entitled Edge of Darkness .
Troy Kennedy Martin 's original script for episode one and the final scripts for episodes two to six of the serial were published by Faber and Faber in 1990 ; the script book also included an introduction by Kennedy Martin and two appendices – the first giving background to the story and the main characters and the second giving comments on the script by experts on nuclear power and police procedures .
The serial was re @-@ issued on VHS in 1998 by Revelation Films who also issued the serial on DVD in 1999 . In 2003 , BBC Worldwide re @-@ issued Edge of Darkness on DVD ( encoded for both regions 2 and 4 ) with several extra features including Magnox : The Secrets of Edge of Darkness , a specially made “ making @-@ of ” documentary ; an isolated soundtrack of Eric Clapton and Michael Kamen 's score ; a Bob Peck interview from BBC Breakfast Time ; a contemporary report on the programme 's BAFTA wins and coverage of the programme 's wins at the Broadcasting Press Guild awards . A Region 1 DVD set was released on 3 November 2009 .
= Beat of My Drum =
" Beat of My Drum " is a song by British recording artist Nicola Roberts . It was released on 2 June 2011 , by Polydor Records , as the lead single from Roberts ' debut solo album , Cinderella 's Eyes ( 2011 ) . The song was simultaneously released with the on air on sale method , receiving no prior promotion . " Beat of My Drum " was written by Roberts , Dimitri Tikovoi , Maya von Doll and Diplo , and was initially produced by Roberts and Tikovoi . Written to feel British and fun , Roberts intended " Beat of My Drum " to be a song which people could sing and dance .
" Beat of My Drum " is a dance @-@ pop song which incorporates elements of indie pop , and has been compared to the work of artists including M.I.A. and Major Lazer . Lyrically , the song discusses Roberts ' time in the girl band she was a part of , Girls Aloud ; while part of the group , she felt undervalued in comparison to other members . " Beat of My Drum " garnered universal acclaim from music critics , with some describing it as more original than solo releases by other members of Girls Aloud ; it was also compared to the work of artists such as Kelis and Robyn . Commercially , " Beat of My Drum " failed to make a large impact .
In the United Kingdom , it charted at number 27 , and number 26 in Scotland . In Ireland , the song peaked at number 37 . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Wendy Morgan . It displayed Roberts performing in a hall with dancers . Roberts performed the song for the first time at the 2011 T4 on the Beach , as well as various other chat shows .
= = Background and development = =
Before embarking her solo career , Roberts was one fifth of British girl band Girls Aloud . Roberts claimed that she found the experience of going solo troubling . She revealed that she struggled to cope with life in the public eye and the constant media attention . In particular , she received negative attention concerning her image . The experience led her to start to develop her debut album , which , lyrically , reflected the difficult times she experienced in Girls Aloud . On " Beat of My Drum " , Roberts describes herself as a " baby in the corner " . Roberts helped to write all of the tracks on Cinderella 's Eyes , with the lyrics telling stories of things that happened in her life . " Beat of My Drum " was co @-@ written with Maya von Doll , Diplo and Dimitri Tikovoi . She stated that she had always wanted " Beat of My Drum " to be something different from the music that other pop singers were presenting in the charts . Roberts stated that " Beat of My Drum " is " a song everyone can sing and dance to " . Roberts stated that she felt the song had a " fun concept " with a British influence .
The song was originally recorded by Roberts and Tikovoi . However , the pair struggled to finish its production , with Roberts describing the process as something that " just wouldn 't work " . The incompletion of the song led to stress and illness for Roberts , and she decided to contact producer Diplo to work on the record . Discussing her choice in an interview for The Guardian , Roberts said that she only had one chance to get him to work with her and asked for his assistance . After Diplo reassured the singer that he would help , Roberts revealed that the situation was no longer in her hands and that she would wait for him to contact her with some progress . Despite her worries , she felt that " he just got it straight away " . Communications were strict between the pair , but when Roberts received Diplo 's finished production , she was too nervous to listen to it immediately . Instead , she burnt the track to a CD , and drove to a deserted field with her younger brother and sister , where she played the song loudly . After positive responses from her siblings , Roberts declared Diplo a " genius " .
= = Composition = =
" Beat of My Drum " is a dance @-@ pop track with themes of indie pop , and has been compared to the work of M.I.A. and Daphne & Celeste . The verses , choruses and bridge are all distinctively different ; the chorus consists of chants , the verses are spoken @-@ sung ( half spoken. half sung ) , and the bridge are dancehall themed . The bridge gathered comparisons to the music of Major Lazer , which it samples . The vocals are performed against sirens . Music journalist James Montgomery observed how the song " mashes together every notable pop moment from recent history " , pointing out the dancehall rhythms , drum breaks and " electro @-@ vocal tics " .
= = Release = =
" Beat of My Drum " was released with the on air on sale method on 3 June 2011 . Universal Music , the record company which owns Polydor , were releasing all singles under this format at the time of " Beat of My Drum " ' s release . The reason for this was to try and reduce the level of illegal downloading of music , a system that Roberts was not used to . As part of promoting singles in Girls Aloud , she was used to releasing a song after approximately six weeks of promotion , which included radio interviews , televised performances and print work . As a result , Roberts stated that that the new system was " very scary " as she was not used to releasing a song with comparatively little publicity , and worried about how her " Beat of My Drum " and subsequent singles would chart .
= = Critical reception = =
" Beat of My Drum " was acclaimed by music critics . Robert Copsey for Digital Spy gave the song five out of five stars , saying that " Once named the least desirable member of Girls Aloud , the transformation of Nicola Roberts from pasty and awkward backing singer into glowing , haute couture pop songstress has been a magnificent spectacle . " Jeff Benjamin of Billboard called Roberts ' effort the most " intriguing " out of all the Girls Aloud solo efforts . He said that Roberts had potential for success in the United States , comparing the song to the work of such artists as M.I.A. , Robyn and Kelis . He asked readers to imagine that " a young M.I.A. – mixed with Robyn and band Yelle – went on a shopping spree to Urban Outfitters , started chanting " L ! O ! V ! E ! " and turned it all into a true summer anthem . " A writer from Popjustice noted that " Beat of My Drum " " hardly happened by accident " but that " it feels really carefree and spontaneous " , explaining " what we mean by that is that you can tell a lot of care and attention has gone into it " .
Dean Piper for the Daily Mirror called the song " fantastic " claiming that Roberts " means business with her debut solo material " , and saying he could not " get enough of the single " , calling it " classic pop , fresh and fantastic . " Michael Cragg for The Guardian compared the chanting chorus to that of Justice vs. Simian 's track , " We Are Your Friends " . He called it both " ridiculously cool and a bit naff " . In response to the general acclaim from critics , Roberts wished that the track would be well received amongst her peers , saying " I haven 't seen one bad review from the single or album samplers – it seems too good to be true . The response from critics has been amazing . It 's like being at school and being told ‘ well done ’ by the teachers but I want my classmates to like it too . I want the people at home to get something from the record . Then I 'll be doubly happy . "
After the leak of the Madonna track " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " in November 2011 critics such as David Kreps of Yahoo ! and fans alike noted similarities to the track and Roberts own " Beat of My Drum " The comparisons arose after the " cheerleader @-@ style " chorus is heard on the Madonna track as she chants the lyrics " L @-@ U @-@ V Madonna " whilst Roberts track features the lyrics " L.O.V.E / Dance to the beat of my drum / Dance to the beat of my drum . " A writer for the Daily Mirror commented on the comparison calling " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " " a poor variation on Nicola Roberts ’ Beat Of My Drum " and negatively commenting on the misspelling of " love " , which Madonna stylised as " l @-@ u @-@ v " .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the end of 2011 , " Beat of My Drum " was voted number 25 on MTV 's 25 Best Songs of 2011 . James Montgomery wrote that the song was a " supremely saccharine single from erstwhile Girls Aloud member mashes together every notable pop moment in recent history , yet somehow manages to be better that the sum of its parts . That 's thanks mostly to the supercharged , sing @-@ a @-@ long chorus , where the whole thing comes together in a head @-@ spinning rush . She should go solo more often . " The song was also listed on Billboard magazine 's Best Songs of 2011 list at number 14 . " Beat of My Drum " was listed as The Guardian 's 14th best song .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
The music video for " Beat of My Drum " directed by Wendy Morgan , who Roberts described as " focused and passionate " . The singer continued to say that because of this , she felt comfortable with her immediately . The music video and production was featured on the Through Nicola 's Eyes webisodes , in which Roberts stated that she found the production of the music video very stressful . Talking about the experience in an interview with MTV News , Roberts stated that " I 'm nervous and I 'm dreading the night before ... I know I 'm going to be like losing half a stone in weight overnight , so I 'm going to have to get myself into the zone . " Roberts attributed her stress on the set of the video to her time with Girls Aloud , as she had always recorded music videos with four other members ; this was the first time she had performed on her own . This meant that critical responses would only be aimed only at her . During the video shoot , Roberts further discussed the anxiety of a solo career claiming pressure from Morgan was making her feel uncomfortable . During the production , Roberts feared that feeling uncomfortable whilst shooting could have an overall negative effect on the video , explaining " You 've got to be strong and be professional and get through it , obviously enjoy it , but if you feel uncomfortable , you can 't look uncomfortable otherwise it 's not going to work " .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The video opens with two men street dancing in a white hall , with speakers and chairs scattered around . Shots of an audience lead to Roberts walking to a microphone positioned on a stage before she starts lip @-@ synching , wearing a 1970s style outfit . After knocking over the microphone stand , Roberts performs a routine with three female back @-@ up dancers in front of multiple speakers . During the chorus , she dances with the same three dancers , whilst shots of men watching them are shown . Roberts then leads the three women through the hall before they perform a dance section in the bridge of the track . Three men marching in a small white room are shown , leading to a shot of Roberts marching alongside a marching band of drummers . She is then shown in a multi @-@ coloured sweater @-@ dress , stood atop a speaker and surrounded by dancers . Final shots show Roberts producing shapes of letters L , O , V , and E with cheerleaders . The video ends with Roberts casually interacting with her dancers .
A writer from MTV Buzzworthy stated they were " sold " on the concept ; The Daily Mail 's Jessica Satherley also responded well , noting that Roberts ' " adventurous dance moves certainly give her Girls Aloud pal Cheryl Cole a run for her money . " Daily Mail also reported that Perez Hilton liked the video ; in a Twitter comment , he said " I am dancing to the beat of my drum ! ! ! Just heard the song in full and I am LIVING for [ Roberts ' ] new single ! Vid looks HOT too ! ! " .
= = Live performances = =
Roberts performed " Beat of My Drum " for the first time at the 2011 T4 on the Beach in the United Kingdom . After her performance , the singer was asked how she felt it went , saying she had " forgotten what a crowd like that feels and looks like . I try not to get nervous – I don 't like to think about things too much beforehand , otherwise I worry too much . I like to deal with the situation when it happens . " A beatboxer from Norfolk , Tom Povey , was picked to perform with her on stage after he was seen performing in a London pub . Povey , who performs with the stage name Intensi T , said it was the highlight of his career . Roberts also performed the song on British chat @-@ shows Daybreak and Paul O 'Grady Live .
= = Formats and track @-@ listings = =
= = Chart performance = =
In the United Kingdom , " Beat of My Drum " debuted at number 27 on the UK Singles Chart , on 18 June 2011 . The following week , the single fell outside of the top 40 to number 64 , and fell to number 88 in its third week . However , the song rose to number 76 in its fourth week , and again to number 50 in its fifth . In Ireland , the song debuted and peaked at number 37 on the Irish Singles Chart on 9 June 2011 , whilst in Scotland the song debuted at number 26 on the issue date of 18 June 2011 .
= = = Charts = = =
= = Release history = =
= Stadium of Light =
The Stadium of Light is an all @-@ seater football stadium in Sunderland , England and home to Sunderland A.F.C .. With space for 49 @,@ 000 spectators , the Stadium of Light has the sixth @-@ largest capacity of any English football stadium and the fifth @-@ largest Premier League stadium . The stadium primarily hosts Sunderland A.F.C. home matches . According to Sir Bob Murray then chairman of Sunderland F.C. the name Stadium of Light " was chosen for two main reasons ; namely as an ever @-@ lasting tribute to the region ’ s mine @-@ workers and proud industrial heritage and in the expectation that the stadium would be a guiding light in the future . The name is very much a symbolic link to the thousands of miners and Sunderland supporters that emerged from the darkness and into the light every day when they returned to the surface after working in the mine . " A Davy lamp monument stands at the entrance to reflect the coal mining industry that brought prosperity to the town .
As well as hosting Sunderland games , the stadium has hosted three matches for the England national football team , as well as one England under @-@ 20 football team match . With an original capacity of 42 @,@ 000 , it was expanded in 2002 to seat 49 @,@ 000 , and its simple design is expected to allow for redevelopments up to an eventual capacity of 66 @,@ 000 . The attendance record at the Stadium of Light is 48 @,@ 353 set on 13 April 2002 , when Sunderland played Liverpool with the visitors running out 1 – 0 winners . Along with hosting football matches , the stadium has played host to performers such as Beyoncé , Rihanna , Oasis , Take That , Kings of Leon and Coldplay . The ground also holds conference and banqueting suites , the Black Cats Bar , and a club shop selling Sunderland merchandise .
= = Planning and construction = =
Following the release of the Taylor Report in January 1990 , Sunderland was obliged to make plans to turn their Roker Park home into an all @-@ seater stadium . Roker Park was a ground that mainly consisted of standing terraces , and if converted into all @-@ seater it would have held far fewer spectators than before . Enclosed by residential streets on all sides , expansion was practically impossible . So , by 1991 , Sunderland chairman Bob Murray began investigating the possibility of relocation to a new stadium .
The front @-@ runner that emerged was a proposed stadium located on an area of land adjacent to the Nissan car plant . The 49 @,@ 000 all @-@ seater ground was labelled " the Wembley of the North " – a capacity that not even Manchester United 's Old Trafford exceeded until 1996 . The plans did not come to fruition . Shortly after the plans were announced in 1992 , Nissan launched an official objection , ultimately forcing Sunderland to abandon the idea . In 1995 , Sunderland put forward a plan to build a stadium on the former site of Wearmouth Colliery , which had closed in December 1993 . The area , on the north bank of the River Wear in the Sheepfolds district of Sunderland , was only a few hundred yards from Roker Park , and close to the centre of the city .
In 1993 , Sunderland 's planned new stadium was on the shortlist for Euro 96 venues , as England had been named as hosts of the competition in May 1992 . However , it soon become clear that a new stadium in Sunderland would not be ready in time for the tournament .
On 13 November 1995 , the Sunderland chairman Bob Murray announced that the Tyne and Wear Development Corporation had approved plans for Sunderland to build a 34 @,@ 000 @-@ seater stadium on the site .
Ballast Wiltshier plc , a contracting company that had built the Amsterdam Arena , was contracted to build the stadium at an initial cost of £ 15 million . In June 1996 , as the planned capacity rose to more than 40 @,@ 000 , construction work began . The capacity was revised again in early 1997 , and the stadium was completed on time , with a capacity of 42 @,@ 000 . The stadium 's design allows possible expansion of a further tier ; completed expansion of the whole upper tier would produce a capacity of 63 @,@ 000 , although it is known that the stadium can expand to a maximum capacity of 84 @,@ 000 , this would never be exercised as the demand for space is at a minimum . During construction , the stadium had not adopted an official name , and had been known colloquially as the " Wearside Stadium " and " New Roker Park " . The name was eventually revealed as the Stadium of Light , a reference to a miner 's lamp ( the stadium is built on the site of the old Wearmouth Colliery , and many Sunderland fans have worked in the region 's mines ) . To emphasise the fact , a Davy lamp is located in front of the stadium 's ticket office , adjacent to the stadium . The stadium was opened on 30 July 1997 by Prince Andrew , Duke of York , with bands such as U2 , Status Quo , Upside Down and Kavana playing . To celebrate the opening of the stadium , Sunderland played a friendly against Ajax , which was drawn 0 – 0 .
The North Stand was extended in 2000 to bring the capacity to 49 @,@ 000 , costing the club a further £ 7 million , making the final cost of the stadium £ 23 million . On 18 July 2006 , a statue of 1973 FA Cup Final winning manager Bob Stokoe was unveiled . At the end of season Football League awards , the Stadium of Light was named the Best Away Ground , with other contenders including Crewe Alexandra 's Alexandra Stadium and Plymouth Argyle 's Home Park . Sunderland celebrated the tenth anniversary of the stadium with a pre @-@ season friendly against Juventus on 6 August 2007 ; the game was drawn 1 – 1 .
In November 2011 , the club announced that the away supporters ' section would be moved from the South Stand to the North Stand Upper from the beginning of the 2012 – 13 season . As a result , minor modifications to the ground will be necessary .
In December 2014 construction work began on a new 141 room Hilton Garden Inn hotel outside of the ground . It is due to open in spring 2016 .
A proposed 6 @,@ 000 capacity fanzone outside the South East Corner of the stadium is currently in the planning stage .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The stadium is in the shape of a square bowl , and is separated into the West Stand , North Stand , East Stand ( formerly the Vaux Stand , the Carling Stand , and Fosters Stand respectively ) , and the South Stand ( also known as the Metro FM Stand ) . The West Stand includes the Premier Concourse which is the name of the upper tier , and a number of executive boxes . The North Stand also includes an upper tier , called the Strongbow Upper , which contained the exterior seating for the Black Cats Bar . When the away fans were relocated , the Black Cats Bar seating was relocated at the rear of the lower tier .
The pitch is several metres below the level of the ground outside the stadium . The pitch uses a lighting system from Stadium Grow Lighting to ensure the grass can grow at any time of year . The device controls various aspects of the pitch , including exposure to light , temperature , water , and air , to make the grass able to grow in any conditions . Away fans were seated in the west half of the South Stand when the ground opened in 1997 , but in 2012 , Ellis Short decided to move away fans to the Upper Tier of the North Stand The East Stand has the Sunderland emblem on the seats , while the North Stand has the slogan " Ha 'way The Lads " . The stadium also has a Davy lamp monument , and a statue of Bob Stokoe . The perimeter walls of the stadium incorporate a " Wall of Fame " feature , where names can be engraved into the bricks of the walls . The interior of the stadium holds a banqueting suite , which can seat from 460 to 600 people . The stadium also contains several conferencing suites , that can be hired for events .
= = International matches = =
As well as holding Sunderland games , the stadium has also hosted England matches . The stadium was one of several venues used as temporary home grounds for the England team while the redevelopment of Wembley Stadium took place . It hosted its first England game in 1999 , when they played Belgium in a friendly match , which England won 2 – 1 . It played host to its first competitive England match on 2 April 2003 , when they played Turkey in a Euro 2004 qualifying match , which England won 2 – 0 . The Stadium of Light also held an England under 20 match against Italy on 27 November 2002 , Italy beat England 5 – 3 . On 10 June 2003 it hosted England ’ s under @-@ 21 ’ s 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualification Group 7 match against Slovakia ’ s under @-@ 21 ’ s . The hosts beat the visitors 2 – 0 through Peter Doležaj ’ s fortieth minute own goal and Phil Jagielka ’ s eighty third minute goal with 11 @,@ 223 in attendance .
On 4 March 2016 it was announced that the Stadium of Light would host England for a friendly against Australia on 27 May 2016 as part of their preparations for Euro 2016 . The match finished in a 2 @-@ 1 victory for the hosts , with goals from Marcus Rashford ( on his international debut ) , Wayne Rooney and an own goal from Eric Dier .
= = = Matches = = =
= = Other uses = =
= = = Concerts = = =
In October 2008 it was announced that the stadium would hold a concert on 10 June 2009 , featuring Oasis , with Kasabian , The Enemy and Reverend and the Makers as support acts , with the stadium housing roughly 60 @,@ 000 fans . On 5 and 6 June 2009 Take That started their nationwide ' Circus ' tour at the Stadium of Light . Pink performed a sell out show at the stadium on 11 June 2010 , with support from VV Brown , Butch Walker and City & Colour .
Take That returned to the stadium along with Robbie Williams on 27 May 2011 , supported by Pet Shop Boys . On this occasion Take That began their Progress Live tour in Sunderland , making the Stadium of Light the first venue to hear Take That perform as a five since 1995 . Originally only two dates were announced , however due to huge demand from fans two further dates were added at the Stadium of Light . Kings of Leon played at the stadium on 17 June 2011 as part of their nationwide tour across Britain . During the summer of 2012 , Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band , Coldplay and the Red Hot Chili Peppers performed at the stadium . On 30 October 2012 , it was announced that Bon Jovi would play at the stadium during the summer of 2013 .
On 20 June 2013 Rihanna performed a sold out show at the stadium as part of the European leg of her Diamonds World Tour . Rihanna was scheduled to return to the stadium during her Anti World Tour , but the concert was cancelled .
On 28 June 2016 Beyoncé performed to a sold out show at the stadium as part of her The Formation World Tour .
= = = Sunderland University = = =
The Stadium of Light currently hosts the annual graduation ceremony for the students of the University of Sunderland . The stadium won the RSVP magazine 's Most creative use of a sporting venue award in 2007 for its usage as the university 's graduation site .
= = Records = =
The highest recorded league attendance at the Stadium of Light is 48 @,@ 353 set on 13 April 2002 for the Sunderland vs Liverpool game . The Stadium Attendance for non @-@ football games is around 60 @,@ 000 when Take That performed at Sunderland in 2009 . The lowest league attendance at the stadium was 22 @,@ 167 against Wigan Athletic on 2 December 2003 . The lowest ever attendance at the Stadium of Light was 11 @,@ 450 against Chester City in the League Cup 1st Round on 24 August 2004 . Sunderland won the match 3 – 0 . Sunderland 's largest margin of victory at the stadium was a 7 – 0 win over Oxford United during the 1998 – 99 promotion season .
The highest seasonal average at the stadium since it was opened was 46 @,@ 790 in the 2000 – 01 season while Sunderland were playing in the Premier League . The lowest average attendance at the Stadium of Light was 27 @,@ 119 in the 2003 – 04 season in Division One . The highest total seasonal attendance was recorded during the 1998 – 99 season when the aggregate was 890 @,@ 660 in a season where Sunderland were First Division champions , and League Cup semi @-@ finalists . The lowest seasonal aggregate at the Stadium of Light was 623 @,@ 741 in the 2003 – 04 season , the same season that the club were FA Cup and play off semi @-@ finalists .
= = Transport = =
Sunderland station , which is connected to London King 's Cross by services run by the Open Access operator Grand Central Railway , is located nearby to the stadium . The St Peter 's and Stadium of Light Metro stations were built as part of the Sunderland extension , both are quite near the stadium , though ironically St. Peter 's is a closer station to the ground than the Stadium of Light station . The Metro was extended into Sunderland in 2002 . A park and ride system is available on match days to allow spectators to park away from the stadium , and a new footbridge proposal has been put forward to link the stadium to the south bank of the river as part of the stadium park regeneration project .
= Outrageous Betrayal =
Outrageous Betrayal : The Dark Journey of Werner Erhard from est to Exile is a non @-@ fiction book written by freelance journalist Steven Pressman and first published in 1993 by St. Martin 's Press . The book gives an account of Werner H. Erhard 's early life as Jack Rosenberg , his exploration of various forms of self @-@ improvement techniques , and his foundation of Erhard Seminars Training " est " and later of Werner Erhard and Associates and of the Est successor course , " The Forum " . Pressman details the rapid financial success Erhard had with these companies , as well as controversies relating to litigation involving former participants in his courses . The work concludes by going over the impact of a March 3 , 1991 60 Minutes broadcast on CBS where members of Erhard 's family made allegations against him , and Erhard 's decision to leave the United States .
Representatives of Werner Erhard and of Landmark Education , the successor company to The Forum , regarded the book as being " defamatory " . There are no references or citations provided in the book .
= = Author = =
Pressman worked as a journalist after graduating from college in 1977 . He worked as a journalist for Orange City News , the Los Angeles Daily Journal , California Lawyer magazine , and Congressional Quarterly 's Weekly Report . During his time performing research for and writing Outrageous Betrayal , Pressman published articles for the Legal Times newspaper and wrote articles and served as a senior editor for California Republic . In 1993 , Pressman worked as a San Francisco @-@ based legal journalist for California Lawyer .
= = Research = =
In the " Acknowledgments " section of Outrageous Betrayal , Pressman wrote that he relied upon both named and unnamed sources for information in the book , in addition to " previously published accounts , court transcripts , depositions , and other documents in which various individuals have recounted earlier conversations " . In an article on fair use for Columbia Journalism Review , Pressman noted that he " gathered reams of written materials -- some of it private and confidential -- that were helpful in drawing a comprehensive portrait of my subject " . In the Daily Journal , Pressman wrote that legal counsel for the book 's publisher insisted on numerous changes to the book " in order to reduce , if not eliminate , the possibility of a successful suit for copyright infringement " .
By 1993 , Pressman and St. Martin 's Press had received approximately two dozen letters from Erhard 's attorney Walter Maksym , though Erhard 's representatives had yet to see the book itself . Maksym told the San Francisco Daily Journal in March 1993 that he wanted to " fact check the book " , because he believed that " this is a first @-@ time unknown author who apparently has interviewed only people who have negative things to say " , and stated " We have cautioned the publisher that they are responsible for the accuracy of the book . " Charlie Spicer , a senior editor at St. Martin 's Press , described the actions of Erhard 's representatives with regard to the book as " a desperate campaign by someone with something to hide " . The author himself made specific reference to his legal support , mentioning " the potential legal rapids that confront authors writing these days about controversial subjects " .
= = Contents = =
In Outrageous Betrayal , Steven Pressman gives a chronological account of Erhard 's life and businesses , from high @-@ school years through his formation of companies that delivered awareness training and the later controversies surrounding his business and family life . The book goes into detail regarding his early life as Jack Rosenberg and his name @-@ change to Werner Erhard , his move to California , and the initial inspirations behind the training that would become " est " . Pressman writes that Erhard took inspiration from the self @-@ help course Mind Dynamics , cybernetics , from the books Think and Grow Rich by Napoleon Hill , and Psycho @-@ Cybernetics by Maxwell Maltz , and from Scientology and the writings of L. Ron Hubbard . He also notes how an attorney skilled in tax law helped Erhard in forming his first awareness @-@ training company , Erhard Seminars Training .
Pressman notes how Erhard and his businesses became successful within two years of foundation , and writes that his awareness @-@ training programs trained over half a million people in his courses and brought in tens of millions of dollars in revenue . The book then describes controversies relating to both Erhard 's businesses and his reported treatment of his family . Pressman also describes the successor company to Est , Werner Erhard and Associates , and Erhard 's decision to sell the " technology " of his course The Forum to his employees and to leave the United States . The book 's epilogue includes a firsthand account of a Landmark Forum seminar led by the former Est @-@ trainer Laurel Scheaf in 1992 .
= = Reception = =
St. Martin 's Press first published Outrageous Betrayal in 1993 , and Random House published a second edition of the text in 1995 .
An analysis in Kirkus Reviews , noting the choice of title by the author , asserted that Pressman : " makes no pretense to objectivity here . " Kirkus Reviews criticized the book , saying " What the author dramatically fails to provide by bearing down on the negative ( to the extent that nearly all his informants denounce est and its founder ) is any real understanding of est 's teachings--and of why they appealed so deeply to so many . " Paul S. Boyer , professor of history at the University of Wisconsin – Madison , reviewed the book in The Washington Post . Boyer wrote that the book " nicely recounts the bizarre tale " of Werner Erhard , saying " Pressman tells his fascinating story well . " However he also commented that the book gives " only the sketchiest historical context " of est and its roots in societal experiences .
A review by Mary Carroll published in the American Library Association 's Booklist noted that the controversy surrounding Erhard was not new , but she wrote that " Pressman pulls the details together effectively . " Carroll went on to comment : " Outrageous Betrayal is a disturbing but fascinating object lesson in the power of charisma divorced from conscience . " Frances Halpern of the Los Angeles Times called the book a " damning biography " .
In 1995 , Outrageous Betrayal was cited in a report on the United States Department of Transportation by the United States House of Representatives Committee on Appropriations in a case unrelated to Erhard or Est . This was in reference to a Congressional investigation of Gregory May and controversial trainings given by his company Gregory May Associates ( GMA ) to the Federal Aviation Administration . The testimony given stated that , according to Outrageous Betrayal , a member of GMA 's board had been influenced by Erhard Seminars Training and the Church of Scientology .
Dan Wakefield , in his review of the book in " Tricycle : the Buddhist Review , " questioned Pressman 's primarily critical description of Erhard 's character . Wakefield suggested that one of the reasons the press or " media " paints a negative view is because " nobody in the media bothers to speak to the people who value in his programs . " Wakefield refers to a study done by opinion analyst Daniel Yankelovich in which " seven out of ten participants in The Forum found it to be ' one of their life 's most rewarding experiences , ' while 94 percent felt the program had ' practical ' and ' enduring ' value . " While Pressman describes the est training as " a mish @-@ mash of self @-@ help theories , common @-@ sense psychology , and dime @-@ store ideas of motivation , " Wakefield , who had experienced the est training personally states , " If I was " conned " by that " mish @-@ mash " when I did est in 1984 , I 'm grateful I was conned into losing the addiction to alcohol that had plagued me for a quarter of a century . "
= Texas Park Road 2 =
Park Road 2 ( PR 2 ) is a 1 @.@ 110 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 786 km ) road that connects Caddo Lake State Park to Farm to Market Road 2198 ( FM 2198 ) . Park Road 2 is located in Harrison County , in the northeastern region of the U.S. state of Texas . The Civilian Conservation Corps constructed the road in the 1930s , and the road was designated in 1939 . Most major roads inside the park carry the PR 2 designation .
= = Route description = =
PR 2 begins at its southern terminus , an intersection with FM 2198 , as an undivided , two @-@ lane , paved road . The highway proceeds north into Caddo Lake State Park , passing around the park headquarters building , and continuing towards cabin sites . The road proceeds north , past the cabins , and splits into a large loop . The route passes Saw Mill Pond , and a small parking lot for the pond , before continuing down a steep slope back to the beginning of the loop . The PR 2 designation also includes three small roads that serve the main park campgrounds .
= = History = =
In 1927 , a small area of land near Caddo Lake was donated to create a public park . In 1929 and later in 1931 Caddo Lake itself and some of the surrounding areas were designated by the state of Texas to become state parkland . Between 1933 and 1937 , the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) rebuilt the park and created many of the park 's structures . The National Park Service designated landspace designers Joe W. Westbrook and Fred R. Carpentar , as well as others , to design the park 's road system . On September 26 , 1939 , approximately 2 @.@ 0 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of the roads inside the park were designated as PR 2 . On August 15 , 1968 , a short road traveling from a boat @-@ launch ramp to the park boundary was removed from PR 2 , shortening the route by approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in the Caddo Lake State Park , Harrison County .
= Italian battleship Benedetto Brin =
Benedetto Brin was a Regina Margherita @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Italian Regia Marina between 1899 and 1905 . The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns and was capable of a top speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Benedetto Brin saw combat in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 1912 , including the bombardment of Tripoli in October 1911 . She was destroyed by an internal explosion during World War I in September 1915 , which killed over 450 of the ship 's crew .
= = Design = =
Benedetto Brin was 138 @.@ 65 meters ( 455 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 23 @.@ 84 m ( 78 ft ) and a draft of 9 m ( 30 ft ) . She displaced 14 @,@ 737 metric tons ( 14 @,@ 504 long tons ; 16 @,@ 245 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by twenty @-@ eight coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) and a range of approximately 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Benedetto Brin had a crew of 812 officers and enlisted men .
As built , the ship was armed with four 12 in ( 305 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns placed in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The ship was also equipped with four 8 in ( 203 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in casemates in the superstructure , and twelve 6 in ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns , also in casemates in the side of the hull . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of twenty 3 in ( 76 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns . The ship also carried a pair of 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns , two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and two 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) Maxim guns . Benedetto Brin was also equipped with four 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes placed in the hull below the waterline . The ship was protected with Harvey steel manufactured in Terni . The main belt was 6 in ( 152 mm ) thick , and the deck was 3 @.@ 1 in ( 79 mm ) thick . The conning tower and the casemate guns were also protected by 6 in of armor plating . The main battery guns had stronger armor protection , at 8 in ( 203 mm ) thick .
= = Service = =
The ship was built by the Castellammare di Stabia shipyard . Her keel was laid down on 30 January 1899 , and the completed hull was launched on 7 November 1901 in the presence of the King and Queen of Italy , government officials , and the whole Italian Mediterranean squadron . Fitting out work lasted for the next four years , and she was completed on 1 September 1905 . It took so long primarily because of non @-@ delivery of material , particularly the heavy armor . After she entered active service , the ship was assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron . The Squadron was usually only activated for seven months of the year in peacetime , which was occupied with training maneuvers , and the rest of the year the ships were placed in reserve . In 1907 , the Mediterranean Squadron consisted of Benedetto Brin , her sister Regina Margherita , and three of the Regina Elena @-@ class battleships . The ships participated in the annual maneuvers in late September and early October , under the command of Vice Admiral Alfonso di Brocchetti . Benedetto Brin remained in the active duty squadron through 1910 , by which time the fourth Regina Elena @-@ class ship was completed , bringing the total number of front @-@ line battleships to six .
= = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = =
On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War Benedetto Brin was assigned to the 1st Division of the 2nd Squadron , along with her sister and the two Ammiraglio di Saint Bon @-@ class battleships . Benedetto Brin served as the squadron flagship of Vice Admiral Farvelli . In early October , she arrived off Tripoli to relieve Roma on blockade duty outside the port . On 3 – 4 October , she participated in the bombardment of the fortifications protecting Tripoli . The Italian fleet used their medium @-@ caliber guns to preserve their ammunition for the heavy guns . Turkish counter @-@ battery fire was completely ineffective .
On 13 April 1912 , Benedetto Brin and the rest of the Squadron sailed from Tobruk to the Aegean Sea to rendezvous with the 1st Squadron . The two squadrons met off Stampalia on 17 April . The next day , the fleet steamed into the northern Aegean and cut several Turkish submarine telegraph cables . Most of the ships of the Italian fleet then bombarded the fortresses protecting the Dardanelles in an unsuccessful attempt to lure out the Turkish fleet . While they were doing this , Regina Margherita , Benedetto Brin , and two torpedo boats were detached to cut additional cables between Rhodes and Marmaris . In July , Benedetto Brin and the rest of the Division had withdrawn to Italy to replace worn @-@ out gun barrels , along with other repairs . Also in 1912 , the ship had four 3 @-@ inch guns added , increasing her battery from 20 to 24 pieces .
= = = World War I = = =
Italy declared neutrality after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but by April 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers which it did in May . The primary naval opponent for the duration of the war was the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ; the Naval Chief of Staff , Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , planned a distant blockade with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats conducted raids . The heavy ships of the Italian fleet would be preserved for a potential major battle in the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet should emerge from its bases . As a result , the ship 's career during the war was limited . In addition to the cautious Italian strategy , Benedetto Brin — long @-@ since obsolescent — was reduced to a training ship in the 3rd Division , along with her sister ship . On 27 September 1915 , Benedetto Brin was destroyed in a huge explosion in the harbor of Brindisi , the result of Austro @-@ Hungarian sabotage . A total of 8 officers and 379 ratings survived but 454 members of the crew , including Rear @-@ Admiral Rubin de Cervin died . Two of the ship 's 12 @-@ inch guns were salvaged from the wreck and were reused as coastal guns protecting Venice .
= Aboriginal title in the Marshall Court =
The Marshall Court ( 1801 – 1835 ) issued some of the earliest and most influential opinions by the Supreme Court of the United States on the status of aboriginal title in the United States , several of them written by Chief Justice John Marshall himself . However , without exception , the remarks of the Court on aboriginal title during this period are dicta . Only one indigenous litigant ever appeared before the Marshall Court , and there , Marshall dismissed the case for lack of original jurisdiction .
Fletcher v. Peck ( 1810 ) and Johnson v. M 'Intosh ( 1823 ) , the first and the most detailed explorations of the subject by Marshall , respectively , both arose out of collusive lawsuits , where land speculators presented an artificial case and controversy in order to elicit the desired precedent . In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ( 1831 ) and Worcester v. Georgia ( 1832 ) , the dicta of Marshall and the dissenting justices embraced a far broader view of aboriginal title .
Johnson involved a pre @-@ Revolutionary private conveyances from 1773 and 1775 ; Mitchell
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rather than the Contract Clause . More substantively , Johnson 's opinion advocated the older view ( from the state courts and colonial custom ) that Indians held fee simple to their land , and that state land grants constituted a future executory interest .
Later history
In the oral arguments for Meigs v. M 'Clung 's Lessee ( 1815 ) , Marshall asked a litigant about the validity of state grants before the extinguishment of aboriginal title ; before the lawyer could finish responding that the question did not arise , Justice Joseph Story interrupted : " That question has been decided in the case of Fletcher v. Peck . " Two years later , riding the Massachusetts Circuit , Story cited Fletcher for the proposition that states owned Indian land in fee simple before extinguishment . Justice Bushrod Washington , riding in Pennsylvania gave the same as a jury instruction . Litigants in the Supreme Court and state high courts cited Fletcher to similar effect .
= = = Fairfax 's Devisee v. Hunter 's Lessee ( 1813 ) = = =
Fairfax 's Devisee v. Hunter 's Lessee ( 1813 ) considered the rights of British aliens , holding title from a Royal grant , defending against an ejectment action pursuant to a Virginia statute . The Court ( with Justices Marshall and Todd absent ) held that the treaty between the United States and Great British , ratified subsequent to the ejectment judgement in the lower court but prior to the Virginia Supreme Court decision , should have prevented the ejectment .
= = = Preston v. Browder ( 1816 ) = = =
Preston v. Browder ( 1816 ) upheld North Carolina 's nonintercourse act ; both the statute and the conduct in question dated to the post @-@ Revolution , pre @-@ Articles of Confederation period . There , a plaintiff had acquired land in the western territory of North Carolina ( part of Tennessee at the time of suit ) in 1778 in violation of a 1777 North Carolina statute . The circuit court for the district of East Tennessee denied the plaintiff ejectment against another non @-@ Indian , and the Supreme Court affirmed the ruling . Justice Thomas Todd , writing for a unanimous court , said the follow about aboriginal title :
North Carolina , at the time of passing this act , . . . had , but a short time before , shaken off her colonial government , and assumed a sovereign independent . . . . [ D ] uring the colonial system , . . . the citizens were restrained and prohibited from extending their settlements to the westward , so as to encroach on lands set apart for the Indian tribes . . . . [ By treaty , ] a boundary between the state and the said Indians was established . [ The North Carolina nonintercourse act of November 1777 restriction the acquisition of lands ] ‘ which have accrued , or shall accrue , to this state , by treaty or conquest . ’ . . . . It is not to be presumed , that the legislature intended , so shortly after making the treaty , to violate it , by permitting entries to be made west of the line fixed by the treaty . . . . [ T ] he legislative intention , to prohibit and restrict entries from being made on lands reserved for Indian tribes , may be discerned . [ Amendments to the act passed after the acquisition in question ] expressly forbid [ ] the entering or surveying any lands within the Indian hunting grounds , recognises the western boundary as fixed by the above @-@ mentioned treaty , and declares void all entries and surveys which have been , or shall thereafter be made within the Indian boundary .
= = = Danforth 's Lessee v. Thomas ( 1816 ) = = =
Danforth 's Lessee v. Thomas ( 1816 ) was a companion case to Preston v. Browder , involving a similar dispute ; this time , the relevant North Carolina statute was passed in 1783 , during the Articles of Confederation period . The Cherokee 's aboriginal title to the lands in question had been extinguished by the Treaty of Holston ( 1791 ) , and the plaintiff seeking ejectment had acquired a state land grant from North Carolina that same year ; the defendant held a state land grant from Tennessee issued in 1809 . The plaintiff 's land grant had been excluded from evidence , and the jury had thus returned a verdict for the defendant . The Justice Todd , again writing for a unanimous court , affirmed . The court was able to decide the case without reaching the question of aboriginal title :
Whether the legislature had the power , or intended to give the Indians a right of property in the soil , or merely the use and enjoyment of it , need not be inquired into , nor decided , by this court ; for it is perfectly clear , that the [ 1983 act ] prohibits all persons from making entries or surveys for any lands within the bounds set apart for the Cherokee Indians , and declares all such entries and grants thereupon , if any should be made , utterly void . [ The defendant argues ] that the mere extinguishment of the Indian title did not subject the land to appropriation , until an act of the legislature authorized or permitted it . Whatever doubts this court might entertain on this subject , were they now construing these laws upon the first impression , that doubt would be removed [ by North Carolina case law ] .
= = = Johnson v. M 'Intosh ( 1823 ) = = =
Johnson v. M 'Intosh ( 1823 ) , thirteen years after Fletcher , was the Supreme Court 's " first detailed discussion of the subject " of indigenous title , today " remembered as the origin of the right of occupancy . " Johnson remains " perhaps the best known of the Court 's judgments on aboriginal title . "
The primary effect of the Johnson decision was to remove the cloud of title , or the title to property , over the large number of state land grants on land which the indigenous title had not yet been taken away . Many quotes from Johnson have reverberated in legal quotations and law review titles for 200 years , including : " Conquest gives title which the Courts of the conquer cannot deny , whatever the private and speculative opinions of individuals may be , respecting the original justice of the claim . "
Because the pre @-@ Revolutionary transactions had taken place after the Royal Proclamation of 1763 , Marshall could have decided the case simply by reliance on the proclamation ; instead , he based his ruling on custom , looking equally to the law of nations of all colonial powers , not just the British .
Building upon the brief afterthought in the Fletcher decision , the Johnson decision added to the idea that indigenous nations did not hold fee simple , or unconditional ownership of their lands with the right to control or transfer them as they chose . Justice Johnson , still on the court , did not dissent again . The influence of the Johnson became grew during the " golden age of American legal treatises " that followed ; the case figured prominently in , inter alia , James Kent 's Commentaries on American Law ( c . 1820 ) and Joseph Story 's Commentaries on the Constitution ( 1833 ) .
= = = Danforth v. Wear ( 1824 ) = = =
Danforth v. Wear ( 1824 ) , like Preston v. Browder and Danforth 's Lessee v. Thomas , involved conflicting land grants issued by North Carolina and Tennessee . The plaintiff 's North Carolina land grant included both " a tract of country over which the Indian title had been extinguished " and " a large body of land , over which the Indian title existed at the time of the survey , but has since been extinguished . " Once again , the trial court had deemed the plaintiff 's grant void and excluded it from evidence ; the Court observed that such a ruling " could only be sustained upon the ground that it was wholly void , or wholly inadmissible in that cause . For if the grant was good but for an acre of the land claimed in the action , the Court could not have withheld it from the jury . "
Justice William Johnson delivered the opinion of the unanimous court . The Court cited Preston and Danforth 's Lessee for the proposition that " the inviolability of the Indian territory is fully recognised . " However , the Court reversed the judgment below and held that the grant should have been admissible in relation to the land over which aboriginal title had been extinguished at the time of the survey .
= = = Harcourt v. Gaillard ( 1827 ) = = =
In Harcourt v. Gaillard ( 1827 ) , a case involving British land grants , the Court distinguished between conquest and change of sovereignty . As to conquest , the Court noted : " War is a suit prosecuted by the sword ; and where the question to be decided is one of original claim to territory , grants of soil made flagrante bello by the party that fails , can only derive validity from treaty stipulations . It is not necessary here to consider the rights of the conqueror in case of actual conquest ; since the views previously presented put the acquisition of such rights out of this case . " Yet , the Court continued to recognize the principle that " a change of sovereignty produces no change in individual property , yet it imputes to them only a modified validity . " The relevant statute provided that British land grants that were not accompanied by possession must be filed with a commission , and the Harcourt grant was not .
= = = Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ( 1831 ) = = =
Background
Fletcher and Johnson had established one principle that Native Americans soon hoped to be able to enforce : that a state government could not extinguish aboriginal title . William Wirt , former U.S. attorney general , tried three times in three years to get a case regarding Cherokee removal to the Supreme Court . In December 1830 , Marshall granted a writ of error to a criminal case regarding a murder committed by a Cherokee , George Tassel , against another tribe member on Cherokee land , but Georgia executed him and mooted the case before Marshall could hear oral arguments .
Marshall 's majority
In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia , Wirt filed directly in the Supreme Court seeking to invoke the Court 's original jurisdiction to void the 1820s Georgia statutes declared unconstitutional , contrary to treaties between the U.S. and the Cherokees , or contrary to the Nonintercourse Act of 1802 . Marshall decided that the Cherokee were a " domestic dependent nation , " not a foreign state , and thus dismissed the case for lack of jurisdiction .
Thompson and Story 's dissent
Justices Smith Thompson and Joseph Story dissented on the jurisdictional question , and thus reached the merits , siding with the Cherokee . According to Richard Peters , the court reporter , this dissent was written with the explicit encouragement and assistance of Marshall . Moreover , Marshall " encourage [ d ] Peters to publish a separate report " that included the dissents , oral arguments , treaties , and the opinion of James Kent for the Cherokees .
Thompson , with whom Story concurred , noted that although the U.S. had promised in a compact with Georgia to extinguish the aboriginal title , it had not done so yet , and thus : " [ T ] he state has not even a reversionary interest in the soil . . . . [ U ] ntil this is done , the state can have no claim to the lands . " If the U.S. never extinguished the title , Thompson opined , Georgia could not force the U.S. to specifically perform the compact . Thompson would have enjoined the Georgia laws because : " The complaint is not of a mere private trespass , admitting of compensation in damages ; but of injuries which go to the total destruction of the whole right of the complainants . "
= = = Worcester v. Georgia ( 1832 ) = = =
Worcester v. Georgia ( 1832 ) was the third case by Wirt , appealing the conviction of Samuel Worcester for illegally residing on Cherokee lands without a license from the state . Although the holding of the opinion reached only the question of criminal jurisdiction , its dicta was far more pro @-@ Indian than Fletcher or Johnson :
The extravagant and absurd idea , that the feeble settlements made on the sea coast , or the companies under whom they were made , acquired legitimate power by them to govern the people , or occupy the lands from sea to sea , did not enter the mind of any man . They were well understood to convey the title which , according to the common law of European sovereigns respecting America , they might rightfully convey , and no more . This was the exclusive right of purchasing such lands as the natives were willing to sell . The crown could not be understood to grant what the crown did not affect to claim , nor was it so understood .
Of course , the " extravagant and absurd " idea was one " that Marshall himself had played an important role in propagating nine years earlier in Johnson v. M 'Intosh . " Worcester eventually resulted in the freeing of Samuel Worcester , but the decision did not invalidate any state or federal law , or impose any lingering obligation on the state or federal government . Three years later , the U.S. government signed the Treaty of New Echota ( 1835 ) with a " group of dissent Cherokees " and forced them on what became known as the " trail of tears . "
= = = United States v. Percheman ( 1833 ) = = =
United States v. Percheman ( 1833 ) involved a Spanish land grant in Florida ( and a non @-@ indigenous plaintiff ) . Marshall , for a unanimous Court , reaffirmed the principle that ( at least as far as European property owners — who gained U.S. citizenship — were concerned ) the transfer of sovereignty — in Florida , from Spain to the United States — did not disturb private property rights . Marshall wrote :
[ I ] t is very unusual , even in cases of conquest , for the conqueror to do more than to displace the sovereign and assume dominion over the country . The modern usage of nations , which has become law , would be violated ; that sense of justice and of right which is acknowledged and felt by the whole civilized world would be outraged , if private property should be generally confiscated , and private rights annulled . The people change their allegiance ; their relation to their ancient sovereign is dissolved ; but their relations to each other , and their rights of property , remain undisturbed . If this be the modern rule , even in cases of conquest , who can doubt its application to the case of an amicable cession of territory ? Had Florida changed its sovereign by an act containing no stipulation respecting the property of individuals , the right of property in all those who became subjects or citizens of the new government would have been unaffected by the change ; it would have remained the same as under the ancient sovereign . . . . A cession of territory is never understood to be a cession of the property belonging to its inhabitants . The king cedes that only which belonged to him ; lands he had previously granted , were not his to cede . Neither party could so understand the cession ; neither party could consider itself as attempting a wrong to individuals , condemned by the practice of the whole civilized world . The cession of a territory , by its name , from one sovereign to another , conveying the compound idea of surrendering at the same time the lands and the people who inhabit them , would be necessarily understood to pass the sovereignty only , and not to interfere with private property .
Marshall interpreted the provision of the Florida land act requiring Spanish grants to be filed within one year narrowly . Marshall stated : “ It is impossible to suppose , that Congress intended to forfeit real titles , not exhibited to their commissioners within so short a period . ” He interpreted this provision to mean only that the commissioners could not grant title after one year , not that the property rights held by virtue of the Spanish grants were void .
= = = Mitchel v. United States ( 1835 ) = = =
Mitchel v. United States ( 1835 ) , authored by Justice Henry Baldwin , was the last Marshall Court opinion on aboriginal title . At issue was 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 00 acres of land in Florida alienated to the Spanish crown in 1804 and 1806 , and then granted to private parties . Baldwin , for a unanimous court , upheld those transactions . Noting that the Royal Proclamation of 1763 applied while Florida was under British rule from 1763 to 1783 , Baldwin held that Spanish law ( which he perceived to be materially the same as British law in this respect ) governed the extinguishment of aboriginal title when the territory reverted to Spanish rule from 1783 to 1821 .
= = International legacy = =
According to Canadian lawyer John Hurley , the Marshall Court 's decisions regarding aboriginal title " established the fundamental principles of aboriginal rights by which courts of many jurisdictions have guided themselves ever since . " According to Hurley :
Delivered over a period of thirty @-@ five years , the judgements bear witness to the evolution of the Marshall Court 's thinking on aboriginal rights , culminating in an appraisal of them as full rights of beneficial ownership of the land and internal self @-@ government . In order to understand the Marshall Court 's assessment of aboriginal rights , it is essential to appreciate the progression in its treatment of the topic . Failure to do so , by placing excessive weight on the earlier and neglecting the later of these decisions , has sometimes led to distortions of the Marshall Court 's views on aboriginal rights .
= = = Canada = = =
According to Hurley , " [ t ] he Marshall Court 's judgments on aboriginal rights are of particular importance for Canada " because , as emphasized by decisions of the Supreme Court of Canada , " they were founded upon a policy towards indigenous peoples and their lands applied consistently by the imperial British government throughout its North American dominions . " Hurley argues :
Given the repeated reliance upon the Marshall Court 's decisions by Canadian courts in adjudicating aboriginal claims , the authority of those decisions in Canada must now be accepted as certain . They have been so often applied by the Canadian courts that they may now be considered as virtually incorporated into Canadian common law .
Hurley concludes :
Elegant in language and persuasive in logic , the five classic judgments [ Fletcher v. Peck , Johnson v. M 'Intosh , Cherokee Nation v. Georgia , Worcester v. Georgia , and Mitchel v. United States ] of the Marshall Court on aboriginal rights remain as compelling today was when they were written . They provide simple and workable principles for the definition and reconciliation of respective Indian and Canadian state rights of territory and government . These principles flow from the Court 's consideration of the law of nations and British colonial policy regarding relations with the aboriginal peoples of North America . They are not specific to the constitutional context of the United States of America , but apply equally within Canada .
= Jeffrey Hammonds =
Jeffrey Bryan Hammonds ( born March 5 , 1971 in Plainfield , New Jersey ) is an American former professional baseball player . Hammonds was an outfielder and played for the Baltimore Orioles ( 1993 – 1998 ) , Cincinnati Reds ( 1998 – 1999 ) , Colorado Rockies ( 2000 ) , Milwaukee Brewers ( 2001 – 2003 ) , San Francisco Giants ( 2003 – 2004 ) and the Washington Nationals ( 2005 ) in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Before playing professionally , Hammonds played for Scotch Plains @-@ Fanwood High School in Scotch Plains , New Jersey and Stanford University .
At Stanford , Hammonds was named an All @-@ American . The Orioles selected Hammonds with the fourth overall selection of the 1992 MLB Draft . Though he was seen as one of the best prospects in baseball , injuries limited his performance with Baltimore . After he was traded to Cincinnati and then to Colorado , he emerged with the Rockies in 2000 , and was selected to appear at the 2000 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game . He signed a three @-@ year , $ 21 @.@ 75 million contract with the Milwaukee Brewers that off @-@ season , but continued to struggle with injuries . He had a resurgence with the Giants in 2003 , after he was released by the Brewers , but struggled with the Giants in 2004 and Nationals in 2005 before retiring .
= = Amateur career = =
Hammonds was born in Scotch Plains , New Jersey , He attended Scotch Plains @-@ Fanwood High School , where he played for the school 's baseball team . After high school , Hammonds was a ninth @-@ round draft pick of the Toronto Blue Jays in the 1989 Major League Baseball Draft , though he did not sign . He reported that he never considered going professional at that point , as his parents insisted he attend college , and that Hammonds ' brother , who had signed with the Pittsburgh Pirates out of high school , suffered a career @-@ ending injury while playing in minor league baseball .
Hammonds had scholarship offers to attend Duke University , the University of Notre Dame , and Stanford University and play college baseball . He chose to attend Stanford University , where he played for the Stanford Cardinal baseball team that competed in the Pacific @-@ 10 Conference ( Pac @-@ 10 ) in the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's ( NCAA ) Division I. At Stanford , Hammonds broke the Pac @-@ 10 single season stolen base record as a freshman , stealing 102 bases in 174 career games . Hammonds was awarded NCAA Freshman of the Year and voted All @-@ College World Series in 1990 and was also named an All @-@ American in that year .
During the 1992 season , Hammonds batted .380 with 33 stolen bases in 47 games , and was again named an All @-@ American . He again led the Cardinal to the 1992 College World Series .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Draft = = =
Before the 1992 Major League Baseball Draft , Hammonds indicated that he would sign if offered a $ 1 @.@ 8 million signing bonus , which caused Hammonds to fall to the fourth overall selection , where the Baltimore Orioles selected Hammonds with their first @-@ round draft pick . Frank Robinson , then the Orioles ' assistant general manager ( GM ) , met Hammonds at that year 's College World Series while scouting , and advised Orioles GM Doug Melvin to pick Hammonds . The Orioles , regarded as frugal , held a hard line with Hammonds in negotiations , refusing to give a signing bonus as large as $ 1 million .
Hammonds did not play professionally in 1992 as he competed for the United States national baseball team in the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona . He faced a two @-@ month road trip across sixteen states by bus , more travel combined with training than employed by any professional team . Hammonds struggled with the national team initially , but agreed to sign with the Orioles in July 1992 , receiving a $ 975 @,@ 000 signing bonus , the largest of any player chosen in that draft . Upon signing , his hitting improved .
= = = Top prospect : Baltimore Orioles ( 1992 – 1996 ) = = =
Without having played a single professional game , Baseball America rated Hammonds as the 19th best prospect in baseball . He made his professional debut in 1993 with the Bowie Baysox of the Class @-@ AA Eastern League , where he batted .283 , at which point he was promoted to the Rochester Red Wings of the Class @-@ AAA International League , where he batted .311 . Hammonds received a promotion to the Orioles on June 25 , becoming the first player chosen in the 1992 MLB draft to reach the majors , where his debut was greeted with fanfare and high expectations . He batted .305 in 105 at @-@ bats with the Orioles that season , however he suffered a pinched nerve in May , and a neck injury in August . The Orioles ended his season prematurely to allow Hammonds to recover .
Thought of as a potential candidate for the American League Rookie of the Year Award , at this point Baseball America rated Hammonds the third best prospect in all of baseball . Hammonds suffered a knee injury during the 1994 season but opted to continue playing despite being told he needed reconstructive knee surgery , with his subsequent performances limited as a result . When the Orioles needed to reduce their roster from 28 players to 25 in May 1995 , Hammonds , who started the season batting 4 @-@ for @-@ 19 , was optioned back to Bowie .
After struggling with the Orioles early in the 1996 season , batting .237 in 56 games , he was demoted back to Rochester in June . The Orioles included Hammonds in numerous trade proposals that summer , but eventually held on to him . During his spell with Rochester Hammonds became more selective in his approach at the plate , and was recalled to the Orioles . Hammonds injured his knee in August and though he returned to the Orioles in September , they left him off their postseason roster , as they asserted that they felt Hammonds was rusty . Hammonds believed that the snub meant he should be traded , but stopped short of demanding a trade .
= = = Searching for success : Baltimore Orioles and Cincinnati Reds ( 1997 – 1999 ) = = =
Formerly considered a top prospect in the Orioles organization , Hammonds returned to them in 1997 with his role in the organization unclear . In past spring trainings Hammonds had always practiced with the starters ; in 1997 , the Orioles alternated him between the starters , who practiced in the stadium , and the minor leaguers and non @-@ roster players , who practiced in fields behind the stadium near an airport runway . New GM Pat Gillick didn 't deny that the Orioles could trade him if Hammonds didn 't maximize his talent , though he called a potential trade a " last resort " . Despite this Hammonds had a successful season , playing in 118 games that season , receiving 397 at @-@ bats . He scored 71 runs , had 105 hits , including 19 doubles , three triples , and 21 home runs , and recorded 55 RBI .
By 1998 , Hammonds and the Orioles were hoping he would achieve more consistency . With the threat of facing a salary arbitration hearing , the Orioles approached him with the idea of working out an agreement on a multi @-@ year contract extension . Hammonds agreed , and signed a three @-@ year , $ 7 million contract before the 1998 season . Hammonds felt that this was a strong commitment from the Orioles hierarchy , including Gillick , after which manager Ray Miller believed that this would allow Hammonds to focus on improving his skills . However , Hammonds suffered a back injury that returned him to the disabled list that year .
When Hammonds recovered , the Orioles traded him to the Cincinnati Reds for Willie Greene in August 1998 . Hammonds served as a backup outfielder for the Reds , though he batted .279 with 17 home runs and 41 RBIs in 123 games during the 1999 season . He had a three home run game on May 20 . After the season , the Reds traded Hammonds with Stan Belinda to the Colorado Rockies for Dante Bichette and $ 1 @.@ 9 million to make up for the differences in salaries , as the Reds believed the slugging Bichette could aid them in replacing Greg Vaughn .
= = = All @-@ Star season and multiyear contract : Colorado Rockies , Milwaukee Brewers ( 2000 – 2003 ) = = =
In 2000 with the Colorado Rockies , Hammonds batted .335 with 20 home runs , 106 RBI , 14 stolen bases , in only 454 at bats . For his performance , he earned a spot on the 2000 National League All @-@ Star team roster . He trailed only teammate Todd Helton in batting average for the majority of the season , eventually finishing with the fourth @-@ highest batting average in the league , behind Helton , Moisés Alou , and Vladimir Guerrero .
After the season , the Rockies declined to offer Hammonds salary arbitration , making him a free agent . Due to concerns about Hammonds ' injury history , including 40 games missed due to injury in the 2000 season , the Rockies chose not to meet Hammonds ' financial demands . Before the 2001 season , the Milwaukee Brewers signed Hammonds to a three @-@ year , $ 21 @.@ 75 million contract , the largest contract the organization had approved to that date . However , injuries prevented Hammonds from approaching the All @-@ Star form he had shown with the Rockies . He suffered a shoulder injury in 2001 which required surgery and this limited him to 49 games played for the season . He returned with a hot start in the 2002 season , batting .324 as of June 5 , but he had a recurrence of the shoulder injury later in the season that returned him to the disabled list yet again . Hammonds then began the 2003 season on the disabled list , this time with a high ankle sprain .
= = = Struggles , resurgence , and injuries : San Francisco Giants and Washington Nationals ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = =
The Brewers released Hammonds on June 4 , 2003 after he struggled in ten games , batting .158 . He signed with the San Francisco Giants at the end of June . They initially assigned him to the Class @-@ AAA Fresno Grizzlies of the Pacific Coast League , before promoting him on July 30 . He batted .277 with three home runs and 10 RBIs in 36 games during the second half of the 2003 season , and was selected for the Giants ' postseason roster over Marvin Benard and Eric Young where he batted 2 @-@ for @-@ 4 in Game 4 of the 2003 National League Division Series . Granted free agency at the end of the season , he re @-@ signed with the Giants for the 2004 season for $ 1 million , as the replacement for Jose Cruz , Jr . , who had left after becoming a free agent . However , Hammonds was unable to sustain his improved performance and the Giants released Hammonds that June , after he batted .211 with three home runs and six RBIs .
Hammonds then signed with the Washington Nationals organization on a minor league contract . He started the 2005 season with the New Orleans Zephyrs of the PCL , but was recalled to the Nationals on May 3 . He batted .219 with one RBI in thirteen games for the Nationals , before returning to the disabled list with an injured hamstring on May 22 . While rehabilitating the injury , Hammonds decided to retire rather than return to the minor leagues .
Though Hammonds had great natural talent , his injuries limited his career . Hammonds announced his retirement on June 10 , 2005 . In his thirteen @-@ year career in MLB , he batted .272 , 110 home runs , 824 hits , and 423 RBIs .
= = Personal = =
Hammonds lives in Weston , Florida with his three children . He is currently a scout for the San Diego Padres . He has interest in digital media , aiding baseball prospects , and working for the Major League Baseball Players Association . On February 6 , 2014 , Hammonds was hired by the players ' union as special assistant for player program development .
Hammonds ' older brother , Reginald , played minor league baseball for the Pittsburgh Pirates ' organization , reaching Class @-@ AAA before suffering a career @-@ ending injury . He enrolled at Northwestern University , graduated , became a stockbroker and aided Hammonds in his 1992 contract negotiations .
= Suillus luteus =
Suillus luteus is a bolete fungus , and the type species of the genus Suillus . A common fungus native to Eurasia , from the British Isles to Korea , it has been introduced widely elsewhere , including North and South America , southern Africa , Australia and New Zealand . Commonly referred to as slippery jack or sticky bun in English @-@ speaking countries , its names refer to the brown cap , which is characteristically slimy in wet conditions . The fungus , initially described as Boletus luteus by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 , is now classified in a different family as well as genus . Suillus luteus is edible , though not as highly regarded as other bolete mushrooms , and is commonly prepared and eaten in soups , stews or fried dishes . The slime coating , however , may cause indigestion if not removed before eating .
The fungus grows in coniferous forests in its native range , and pine plantations in countries where it has become naturalized . It forms symbiotic ectomycorrhizal associations with living trees by enveloping the tree 's underground roots with sheaths of fungal tissue . The fungus produces spore @-@ bearing fruit bodies , often in large numbers , above ground in summer and autumn . The fruit body cap often has a distinctive conical shape before flattening with age , reaching up to 13 cm ( 5 in ) in diameter . Like other boletes , it has tubes extending downward from the underside of the cap , rather than gills ; spores escape at maturity through the tube openings , or pores . The pore surface is yellow , and covered by a membranous partial veil when young . The pale stipe , or stem , measures up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) tall and 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick and bears small dots near the top . Unlike most other boletes , it bears a distinctive membranous ring that is tinged brown to violet on the underside .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The slippery jack was one of the many species first described in 1753 by the " father of taxonomy " Carl Linnaeus , who , in the second volume of his Species Plantarum , gave it the name Boletus luteus . The specific epithet is the Latin adjective lūtěus , meaning " yellow " . The fungus was reclassified as ( and became the type species of ) the genus Suillus by French naturalist Henri François Anne de Roussel in 1796 . Suillus is an ancient term for fungi , and is derived from swine . In addition to the British Mycological Society approved name " slippery jack " , other common names for this bolete include " pine boletus " and " sticky bun " — the latter referring to its resemblance to the identically named dessert .
German naturalist August Batsch described Boletus volvatus ( the specific epithet derived from the Latin volva , meaning " sheath " , " covering " or " womb " ) alongside B. luteus in his 1783 work Elenchus Fungorum . Batsch placed both of these species , along with B. bovinus and the now obsolete names Boletus mutabilis and B. canus , in a grouping of similar boletes he called " subordo Suilli " . Boletus volvatus is now considered a synonym of Suillus luteus . Several authors have placed the slippery jack in other genera : Finnish mycologist Petter Karsten classified it as Cricunopus luteus in 1881 — the genus Cricinopus defined by yellow adnate tubes ; Lucien Quélet classified it as Viscipellis luteus in 1886 , and Ixocomus luteus in 1888 ; and Paul Christoph Hennings placed it in the section Cricinopus of the genus Boletopsis in 1900 .
In works published before 1987 , the slippery jack was written fully as Suillus luteus ( L. : Fr . ) Gray , as the description by Linnaeus had been name sanctioned in 1821 by the " father of mycology " , Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries . The starting date for all the mycota had been set by general agreement as 1 January 1821 , the date of Fries 's work . Furthermore , as Roussel 's description of Suillus predated this as well , the authority for the genus was assigned to British botanist Samuel Frederick Gray in the first volume of his 1821 work A Natural Arrangement of British Plants . The 1987 edition of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi , and names can now be considered valid as far back as 1 May 1753 , the date of publication of Linnaeus 's work . In 1986 , a collection of fruit bodies from Sweden was designated as the neotype of Suillus luteus .
In their 1964 monograph on North American Suillus species , Alexander H. Smith and Harry Delbert Thiers classified S. luteus in the series Suilli of the section Suillus in genus Suillus . This group is characterized by the presence of either a ring on the stipe , a partial veil adhering to the cap margin , or a " false veil " not attached to the stipe but initially covering the tube cavity . Species closely related to Suillus luteus include S. pseudobrevipes ( a sister species ) , S. brevipes and S. weaverae ( formerly Fuscoboletinus weaverae ) . A genetic study of nucleotide DNA reinforced the species ' monophyly and low genetic divergence , with material of S. luteus from the United Kingdom , Austria , Germany and North America forming a clade , in contrast with some other species , such as S. granulatus , which were shown to be polyphyletic .
Chemical analysis of pigments and chromogens showed that Suillus was more closely related to Gomphidius and Rhizopogon than to other boletes , and hence Suillus luteus and its allies were transferred from the Boletaceae to the newly circumscribed family Suillaceae in 1997 . Molecular studies have reinforced how distantly related these fungi are from Boletus edulis and its allies .
= = Description = =
The cap is chestnut , rusty , olive brown , or dark brown in color and generally 4 – 10 cm ( rarely to 13 cm ) in diameter at maturity . The cap has a distinctive conical shape , later flattening out . It is slimy to the touch , bare , smooth , and glossy even when dry , and the cuticle is easily peeled off . The tiny , circular pores of the tubes are initially yellow but turn olive to dark yellow with maturity . Like the skin of the cap , they can be readily peeled away from the flesh .
Tubes comprising the hymenophore on the underside of the cap are 3 – 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 3 in ) deep , with an attachment to the stipe ranging from adnate to somewhat decurrent . The pores are tiny , numbering 3 per mm in young specimens and 1 – 2 per mm in maturity . The stipe is 5 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) tall and 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) wide . It is pale yellow and more or less cylindrical but may bear a swollen base . A membranous partial veil initially links the stipe with the edge of the cap . When it ruptures , it forms a membranous , hanging ring . The top side of the ring is whitish , while the underside is characteristically dark brown to violet . This species is one of the few members of the genus Suillus that have such a ring . Above the ring , the stipe features glandular dots — minute clumps of pigmented cells . Below the ring , the stipe is dingy white , sometimes streaked with brownish slime . In humid conditions , the ring has a gelatinous texture . The white flesh of the entire fungus does not discolour when damaged , and is soft — particularly in mature specimens . It has a " pleasant " taste and lacks any distinctive odour .
The spore print is ochre or clay coloured , the elongated elliptical spores measuring 7 – 10 by 3 – 3 @.@ 5 μm . Basidia ( spore @-@ producing cells ) are four spored , with dimensions of 14 – 18 by 4 – 5 μm . Cystidia are present on both the tube faces ( pleurocystidia ) and edges ( cheilocystidia ) , either scattered or , more rarely , as bundles . They measure 20 – 35 by 5 – 7 μm and have a narrow club shape . Clamp connections are not present in the hyphae of S. luteus .
= = = Similar species = = =
Good field characteristics for Suillus luteus include the slimy brown cap , glandular dots on the upper stipe , and prominent purplish ring . A frequent lookalike is Suillus granulatus , which is another common , widely distributed and edible species occurring in the same habitat . Suillus granulatus is yellow fleshed and exudes latex droplets when young , but most conspicuously bears neither a partial veil nor a ring . Other than that , Suillus luteus is unlikely to be confused with other mushrooms , especially if its preferred habitat under pine trees and the whitish partial veil are considered . In Europe , the related Suillus grevillei is found under larch and has a yellow cap , while immature fruit bodies of Gomphidius glutinosus may look comparable from above but have gills rather than pores underneath . In North America , Suillus borealis and S. pseudobrevipes also have partials veils , but lack the distinctive ring of S. luteus . S. cothurnatus forms a band @-@ like ring on the stipe that tends to be brownish rather than purplish .
In some specimens of S. luteus , the partial veil separates from the stipe ( rather than the cap margin ) , leaving cottony patches of veil hanging from the cap margin . In this state , fruit bodies can be confused with those of S. albidipes . Unlike S. luteus , however , S. albidipes does not have glandular dots on its stipe .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Suillus luteus can be found all over the Northern Hemisphere . Native to Eurasia , it is widespread across the British Isles . To the east it has been recorded from Pakistan , where it was found along canals in Dashkin in the district of Astore , and as far east as South Korea . It has also been widely introduced elsewhere by way of pine plantations around the globe . It is very commonly found in Monterey pine ( Pinus radiata ) plantations , despite the tree being native to California and hence not in the fungus ' native range . In North America it is found in the northeast , the Pacific Northwest and the southwestern United States . According to Ernst Both , it was Charles Horton Peck who first suggested in 1887 that the fungus was introduced to New York State on Pinus sylvestris . DNA studies show that the North American populations differ little genetically from European populations , supporting the idea that the fungus arrived to North America relatively recently as a result of human activity . Suillus luteus is found in coastal and mountainous pine forests and exhibits a tolerance of the northern latitudes . Southern Hemisphere locales where the slippery jack grow with plantation pines include South America , Africa , Australia , and New Zealand . In southwestern Australia , the bolete is limited to areas of greater than 1000 mm ( 40 in ) annual rainfall . It has been recorded as far north as the Darling Downs and southern Queensland , and occasionally in Tasmania . The fungus fruits in spring , summer and fairly prolifically in autumn , following periods of wet weather . Mushrooms can appear in large troops or fairy rings .
In Ecuador , Pinus radiata plantations were planted extensively around Cotopaxi National Park , and Suillus luteus boletes appear in abundance year @-@ round . A 1985 field study estimated production to be 3000 – 6000 mushrooms per hectare — up to 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) ( dry weight ) of mushrooms hectare per year . This continuous production contrasts with the bolete 's seasonal appearance elsewhere . The fungus is not found in adjacent areas of native vegetation . The fruiting is so bountiful that the harvest of slippery jacks has become the main reason that pine plantations are established or maintained in parts of Ecuador . In southern Brazil , it has been recorded in plantations of slash pine ( P. elliottii ) in the municipalities of Pelotas , Nova Petrópolis and Canela in Rio Grande do Sul , and Colombo in Paraná . It is particularly common in plantations in Patagonia . Suillus luteus is the commonest bolete encountered in the Falkland Islands , where it is found in windbreaks and gardens .
In South Africa , Suillus luteus has been occasionally recorded under pines in Bloemfontein , Johannesburg and Royal Natal National Park .
= = Ecology = =
Suillus luteus is a pioneer species that typically establishes itself in the early stages of forest succession . The fungus forms mycorrhizal associations with various species of pine , including Scots pine ( P. sylvestris ) , black pine ( P. nigra ) , and Macedonian pine ( P. peuce ) in Europe , and red pine ( P. resinosa ) and white pine ( P. strobus ) in North America . An in vitro experiment demonstrated that the species could form an ectomycorrhizal association with Aleppo pine ( P. halepensis ) , a key species used in reforestation in the Mediterranean . A study of the ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with a lodgepole pine ( P. contorta ) invasion front near Coyhaique , Chile , showed that many invasive trees were supported by S. luteus as the sole mycorrhizal partner .
The ectomycorrhizae formed between the fungus and host plant can be influenced by soil microorganisms present in the mycorrhizosphere . For example , soil bacteria from the genera Paenibacillus and Burkholderia alter the branching structure of the root , whereas Bacillus species increase root growth and mycorrhizal colonization . The fungus does not require a specific soil but seems to prefer acidic and nutrient @-@ deficient soil . Suillus luteus produces hydroxamic acid @-@ based siderophores , which are compounds that can chelate iron and extract it from the soil in nutrient @-@ poor conditions . Ignacio Chapela and colleagues analysed the carbon uptake of S. luteus in Ecuador , concluding pine plantations accompanied by S. luteus deplete carbon stored in the soil and raising concerns that these might not be a remedy for rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere .
The fungus has been shown to provide a protective effect against heavy metal toxicity when associated with the host Pinus sylvestris , preventing copper accumulation in the needles , and protecting seedlings against cadmium toxicity . Owing to its frequent rate of sexual reproduction and the resulting extensive gene flow within populations , the fungus can rapidly evolve a trait to tolerate otherwise toxic levels of heavy metals in the environment . The genetic basis of this adaptation — intriguing to researchers investigating the bioremediation potential of metal @-@ adapted plants and their fungal associates — are contained in the genome sequence of S. luteus , published in 2015 .
Suillus luteus fruit bodies are sometimes infested with larvae , though not nearly as often as S. granulatus or B. edulis . Damage from maggots is much more common in warmer months , and rare late in the season with cooler weather . In a Finnish study , researchers found that 70 – 95 % of fruit bodies collected from typical forest habitats were infested with larvae ; the most common species were the flies Mycetophila fungorum , Pegomya deprimata , and Pegohylemyia silvatica . In contrast , other studies have shown that fruit bodies collected from pine plantations are relatively free of larvae . The fungus produces microscopic crystals of oxalic acid at the surface of its hyphae , a feature that is thought to help deter grazing by the springtail species Folsomia candida .
= = Edibility = =
Suillus luteus is an edible mushroom . Although some authors regard it as one of low quality , and generally inferior to co @-@ occurring species such as Boletus pinophilus , the species is considered a delicacy in Slavic cultures ( known as maslyata in Russian or maślaki in Polish , deriving from words meaning " buttery " ) . It was highly regarded in Calabria , even more than Boletus edulis , until the 1940s when increased interest in the latter species eclipsed the former . Mushrooms conforming to Suillus luteus are exported from Chile to Italy , and , since the 1970s , the United States . As of 2002 , harvesters in Chile were paid on average US $ 0 @.@ 5 per kilogram of fruit bodies . In Burundi , Suillus luteus mushrooms are sold to Europeans as cepes in Bujumbura but not generally eaten by the Barundi . Based on samples collected from Chile , the boletes contain ( as a percentage of dry weight ) 20 % protein , 57 % carbohydrates , 6 % fat , and 6 % ash . Pinus radiata plantations in southeastern Australia have become tourist attractions as people flock to them in autumn to pick slippery jacks and saffron milk @-@ caps ( Lactarius deliciosus ) ; Belanglo State Forest in particular has attracted large numbers of Polish foragers .
Slippery jacks do not keep for long after picking , nor are they suitable for drying , as their water content is too high . They are suited for frying , or cooking in stews and soups , either alone or with other mushroom species . Puréeing the mushroom is not recommended , however : " We once made the mistake of running it through a blender to make a soup . The result was a substance recommending itself for use when hanging wallpaper . " S. luteus and other Suillus species may cause allergic reactions in some people or digestive problems that appear to result from consuming the slimy skin . The fungus is better cooked before eating , and some authors recommend discarding the glutinous cuticle and tubes before cooking . Moreover , the skin can spoil other fungi with which slippery jacks are collected .
Inexpensive powdered S. luteus fruit bodies are sometimes added to the more expensive B. edulis mushroom soup powder , a fraudulent practice that is difficult to detect with microscopy because the tissues are no longer intact . This adulteration can be determined chemically , however , by testing for increased levels of the sugar alcohols arabitol and mannitol . The practice can also be determined with a DNA @-@ based method that is sensitive enough to detect the addition of 1 – 2 % of S. luteus to B. edulis powder .
= No. 90 Wing RAAF =
No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing that operated during the early years of the Malayan Emergency . Its purpose was to serve as an umbrella organisation for the RAAF units deployed in the conflict , No. 1 ( Bomber ) Squadron , flying Avro Lincolns , and No. 38 ( Transport ) Squadron , flying Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . The wing was established in July 1950 and headquartered at Changi , on the east coast of Singapore . No. 1 Squadron operated from Tengah , in Singapore 's west . No. 38 Squadron was based at Changi and , from April 1951 to February 1952 , at Kuala Lumpur in central Malaya . The Lincolns generally conducted area bombing missions , as well as precision strikes , to harass communist insurgents . The Dakotas were tasked with airlifting cargo , VIPs , troops and casualties , as well as courier flights and supply drops . Following No. 38 Squadron 's departure in December 1952 , No. 90 Wing was disbanded , leaving No. 1 Squadron to carry on as the sole RAAF unit in the Malayan air campaign until its withdrawal to Australia in July 1958 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and formation = = =
In April 1950 , the British government requested Australia 's assistance to combat communist insurgents during the Malayan Emergency . In response , the Australian Defence Committee determined that it was possible to commit a squadron of eight Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakota transports and a flight of four to six Avro Lincoln heavy bombers . The Federal government formally announced the decision to send the Dakotas soon afterwards ; in late June , it confirmed the allocation of six Lincolns . No. 1 ( Bomber ) Squadron , operating the Lincolns , would be detached from the control of No. 82 Wing at RAAF Station Amberley , Queensland , and be based at Tengah airfield in the west of Singapore . No. 38 ( Transport ) Squadron , operating Dakotas , would be detached from No. 86 Wing at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , and be based at Changi , in Singapore 's east . The transport commitment was rendered possible by the recent return of ten Australian Dakota crews from service during the Berlin Airlift .
It was agreed that RAAF operations during the Emergency would be directed by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) through Air Headquarters Malaya ( later No. 224 Group RAF ) . The British also wanted the Australian squadrons attached to an RAF wing . However , the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal George Jones , was mindful of repeating the experience of World War II , when RAAF units and personnel based in Britain had been absorbed by the RAF , rather than operating as a national group led by high @-@ ranking Australian officers . He therefore decided that Nos. 1 and 38 Squadrons should be formed into a " composite " organisation ( one made up of disparate elements such as bomber , fighter , or reconnaissance units ) and administered by an overarching RAAF headquarters , and put this requirement to the British Air Ministry . The Air Ministry agreed , and No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing was duly established at Richmond on 10 July 1950 , under the command of Group Captain Paddy Heffernan .
= = = Operations = = =
No. 38 Squadron 's Dakotas began arriving at Changi on 19 June 1950 , and No. 1 Squadron 's Lincolns at Tengah on 16 July . No. 90 Wing staff departed Richmond by air and established the headquarters at Changi on 22 July . The Dakotas had flown their first mission the previous day ; the Lincolns undertook their initial operations on 26 July . Nos. 1 and 38 Squadrons were responsible for their own routine maintenance ; aircraft rotated back to Australia for major work . The RAF provided base support facilities , including messing and accommodation .
The Lincolns generally conducted area bombing missions , as well as strikes against pinpoint targets . They operated singly and in formations , sometimes in concert with RAF bombers . Not having to contend with anti @-@ aircraft fire , the Lincolns flew mainly by day . After completing a bomb run , they would make another pass over the target to strafe with machine guns and 20 mm cannon . The Lincolns were considered well suited to the campaign , owing to their range and ability to fly at low speeds to search for targets , as well as their firepower and heavy bomb load . No. 1 Squadron also flew night missions — the only Commonwealth air force unit authorised to do so — of up to six hours duration , dropping one bomb every half hour or so . To reduce the risk of collateral damage , all air strikes had to be approved by the Joint Operation Centre , located at Kuala Lumpur in central Malaya and staffed by military , police and civilian personnel . Although the original purpose of the bombing campaign was to kill as many insurgents as possible , the impracticality of achieving this in operations over dense jungle resulted in a shift towards harassing and demoralising the communists , driving them out of their bases and into areas held by Commonwealth ground troops .
The Dakotas were tasked with airlifting cargo , VIPs , troops and casualties , as well as courier flights , supply drops to friendly forces and aerial despatch of propaganda leaflets . On other missions they acted as pathfinders for No. 1 Squadron , dropping smoke canisters on suspected communist hideouts that the Lincolns following above and behind would attempt to bomb . Airlifting and supplying troops was a key part of the strategy to defeat the insurgency , by ensuring that security forces could maintain a semi @-@ permanent presence in the jungle . No. 38 Squadron 's operations ranged throughout Malaya and into Borneo , the Philippines , Japan and Korea . Transport requirements in the Korean War led to a reduction in No. 90 Wing 's strength when four of the Dakotas were transferred to Iwakuni , Japan , headquarters of No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing , in November 1950 . The same month , Group Captain Frank Headlam was appointed to take over command of No. 90 Wing from Heffernan . Headlam co @-@ piloted a Dakota on a supply drop on 20 December ; he was slightly injured and the aircraft badly damaged following a crash @-@ landing at Kampong Aur in Pahang as a result of engine failure .
No. 1 Squadron 's complement was increased from six to eight aircraft after the British Air Ministry requested in February 1951 that Australia augment its bomber force to partly offset the imminent withdrawal of the RAF 's Lincolns to Bomber Command in Europe . In April , No. 38 Squadron 's four Dakotas relocated to Kuala Lumpur , where they undertook supply drops in cooperation with No. 41 Squadron RNZAF . One of No. 1 Squadron 's Lincolns was written off after overshooting the runway at Tengah on 30 November . Wing Commander ( later Group Captain ) Redmond Green was appointed the new commanding officer of No. 90 Wing the following month , replacing Headlam . On 4 April 1952 , Green participated in a Lincoln sortie in place of an injured pilot . The first aircraft he took off in had to turn back owing to engine failure . The second completed the mission but was found to have lost brake power as it was returning to Tengah , and there was a danger of the aircraft overrunning the landing strip and sustaining heavy damage ; the crew was able to slow the Lincoln on the runway by trailing a parachute from the rear turret upon touching down .
= = = Disbandment = = =
No. 38 Squadron relocated from Kuala Lumpur to its former base at Changi in February 1952 . As the year progressed , RAAF transport priorities altered owing to the increasing demands of the Korean War , and the Malayan commitment was no longer considered sustainable . Having airlifted more than 17 @,@ 000 passengers and almost 1 @,@ 900 tonnes of cargo , dropped some 750 tonnes of supplies and evacuated over 300 injured troops , No. 38 Squadron departed for Australia on 8 December and rejoined No. 86 Wing at Richmond three days later . Following this withdrawal , No. 90 Wing was disbanded at Changi , and No. 1 Squadron became the only Australian flying unit in Malaya . It continued the bombing campaign against the communists until it was withdrawn to Australia in July 1958 , having flown almost 4 @,@ 000 sorties in its eight years of operation and dropped over 14 @,@ 000 tonnes of bombs — 85 per cent of the total delivered by Commonwealth forces during the Emergency . No. 1 Squadron was relieved by No. 2 Squadron , operating English Electric Canberra jet bombers out of Butterworth in north @-@ west Malaya .
= = Commanding officers = =
No. 90 Wing was commanded by the following officers :
= Believe in the Stars =
" Believe in the Stars " is the second episode of the third season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 38th overall episode of the series . It was written by executive producer Robert Carlock and directed by series producer Don Scardino . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on November 6 , 2008 . Guest stars in this episode include Remy Auberjonois , Todd Buonopane , Raven Goodwin , and Oprah Winfrey .
The episode 's plot concerns a feud between Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) and Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) over royalties from Tracy 's pornographic video game Gorgasm : The Legend of Dong Slayer . Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) attempts to settle the fight with the help of Oprah Winfrey , whom she meets on a return flight from Chicago . Meanwhile , NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) is stung by the revelation that most events from the 2008 Summer Olympics were staged to boost America 's image and NBC 's ratings . Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) attempts to break Kenneth of his moral absolutism .
" Believe in the Stars " received generally positive reception from television critics , with Neal Justin of the Star Tribune concluding it was " the most brilliant episode in the series ' history " . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 8 @.@ 0 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 9 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
The episode starts with Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) announcing to her boss , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , that she needs to go to Chicago for jury duty because she is still registered to vote there . Jack gives Liz a powerful sedative for the trip . Later , NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) walks in on a meeting between Jack and the American silver medalist in tetherball , Tyler Brody ( Remy Auberjonois ) . Tyler is angry at Jack for not selecting him as the gold medalist , and is threatening to go public with the revelation that there was no Olympic tetherball competition during the 2008 Summer Olympics , as it was staged to boost NBC 's ratings . To keep him quiet , Jack tells him that he can " be the voice of Knight Rider " in a film adaptation , which Tyler considers . Afterwards , Kenneth tells Jack that he " lost two heroes today " , as he looked up to both Jack and Tyler . As a result , Jack wants to be in Kenneth 's good side , but wants to break his moral absolutism , after Kenneth did not hesitate to attempt to kill himself when he believed the air in a stalled elevator was about to run out . Jack finally succeeds when he supplies Kenneth with a big screen television , but no cable hookup . Kenneth steals cable and later confesses to Jack , asking if SpongeBob SquarePants " is supposed to be terrifying " .
Meanwhile , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) demands compensation for her voice work in Tracy Jordan 's ( Tracy Morgan ) pornographic video game , Gorgasm : The Legend of Dong Slayer . The argument escalates and Liz orders them to stop their bickering . After Liz leaves for Chicago , Jenna and Tracy decide to conduct a social experiment to see whether Tracy can survive better as a white woman than Jenna can as a black man , after arguing respectively that black men and white women have it harder in society . Later , while on her flight , Liz takes Jack 's sedative . Liz realizes that the woman sitting next to her is Oprah Winfrey . When Liz arrives back at the 30 Rock studios , Tracy is dressed in female drag with his body covered in white makeup and soon after , Jenna enters in blackface and male drag . Jack worries that the situation has gone out of control , but Liz assures him that Oprah , who is coming to the studios , will be able to make them come to terms . As it turns out , her inflight conversation with Oprah was a hallucination . The person who Liz thought was Oprah is actually a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl named Pam ( Raven Goodwin ) . Even so , Pam engages Tracy and Jenna in a heart @-@ to @-@ heart , and manages to settle their differences .
= = Production = =
" Believe in the Stars " was written by executive producer Robert Carlock and directed by series producer Don Scardino . This episode was Carlock 's ninth writing credit , and was Scardino 's fifteenth directed episode . " Believe in the Stars " originally aired in the United States on November 6 , 2008 on NBC as the second episode of the show 's third season and the 38th overall episode of the series .
In September 2008 , it was announced that television host Oprah Winfrey would guest star on the show . She filmed her appearance on September 13 , 2008 . When Winfrey interviewed series creator Tina Fey on her show in November , Fey revealed that they shot their scene together on a Saturday , a day that the show normally does not film on . Actress Raven Goodwin played Pam , a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl that , while hallucinating , Liz Lemon believed was Oprah . Actor Remy Auberjonois played Olympic medalist Tyler Brody in this episode . This was actor Todd Buonopane 's debut as the character Jeffrey Weinerslav , an NBC Human Resource mediator . In " Believe in the Stars " , Jeffrey tries to mediate the disagreement that Jenna and Tracy are having over the video game . Buonopane later guest starred in the episodes " Cutbacks " and " Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " .
Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode in 2006 where Tracy Jordan is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , and dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four recent Halloweens , and in this episode while trying to get out of jury duty in Chicago . Star Wars is also referenced when Tracy takes on the identity of the character Chewbacca . Fey , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . She said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . She attributed most of the references to Carlock , whom she described as " the resident expert " .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen ratings system , " Believe in the Stars " was watched by 8 @.@ 0 million households in its original American broadcast . It earned a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 9 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was a decrease from the season premiere episode , " Do @-@ Over " , which was watched by 8 @.@ 7 million American viewers . Nonetheless , this episode was the eighth highest @-@ rated show on the NBC network during the week of November 3 – 9 , 2008 . Since airing , " Believe in the Stars " has received positive reception from television critics .
IGN contributor Robert Canning praised the episode , saying that it was " an absolutely perfect episode with not a moment wasted [ and ] equally hilarious were the storylines between Jack and Kenneth , and Tracy and Jenna . The episode had everything that makes 30 Rock great . " Canning opined that Liz 's admissions to Oprah Winfrey were " painfully funny " , and that Tracy " was on fire " following his actions in this episode . In conclusion , Canning gave it a 10 out of 10 rating . Jeremy Medina of Paste was complimentary towards the episode , reporting that it had " madcap humor tirelessly delivered one joke after another at a lightning fast speed , adding up to one of the funniest episodes in the series . " Medina enjoyed the social experiment between Jenna and Tracy , noting that it was " hilarious " . TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich commented that the episode was " Rock @-@ solid " , while Neal Justin of the Star Tribune believed it was " the most brilliant episode in the series ' history " . Television columnist Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that " Believe in the Stars " belonged to Tina Fey " who has grown by leaps and bounds as an actress over the past few years . The Princess Leia voice , her drunken panic on the plane [ ... ] and the religious fervor at the knowledge that Oprah would be coming to the studio were all hilarious , and played with the sort of confidence I don 't know that she would have had at the start of the series . "
The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin said that the Jenna and Tracy subplot was not the most inspired idea , but admitted it introduced one of his " favorite gags in 30 Rock history " regarding two make @-@ up artists giving Tracy a monster claw to use as a white hand when they ran out of white powder . Rabin called it a " brilliant gag . " He was less enthusiastic with Winfrey in the episode , noting that her appearance " was treated as such a seismic cultural event that tonight 's episode couldn 't help but feel like a letdown . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad wrote that " the least effective plot " in this episode was Jenna and Tracy 's .
= Raid on Dunkirk ( 1800 ) =
The Raid on Dunkirk of 7 July 1800 was an attack by a British Royal Navy force on the well @-@ defended French anchorage of Dunkirk in the English Channel during the French Revolutionary Wars . French naval forces had been blockaded in their harbours during the conflict , and often the only method of attacking them was through fireships or " cutting @-@ out " expeditions , in which boats would carry boarding parties into the harbour at night , seize ships at anchor and bring them out . The attack on Dunkirk was a combination of both of these types of operation , aimed at a powerful French frigate squadron at anchor in Dunkirk harbour . The assault made use of a variety of experimental weaponry , some of which was tested in combat for the first time with mixed success .
Although assault by the heavily armed sloop HMS Dart proved successful , the fireships achieved little and various other British craft involved in the operation had little effect on the eventual outcome . The French response was disorganised and ineffectual , losing one frigate captured . Three others were almost destroyed , only escaping by cutting their anchor cables and fleeing into the coastal shoals where they ran aground . Although all three frigates were refloated and returned to service , the operation had cost the French heavy casualties . The British force suffered minimal losses , although the exact totals are uncertain . Many of the British officers involved were highly praised and rewarded with promotions and prize money .
= = Background = =
By the late French Revolutionary Wars ( 1793 – 1802 ) , a string of victories at sea ensured that the Royal Navy was dominant . The French Navy in particular had suffered heavy losses , and in Northern European waters had been forced back into its own harbours by British blockade squadrons . Although large ports were watched by fleets of ships of the line , small ports had their own blockade squadrons too , including the shallow French ports on the English Channel . These harbours could not accommodate ships of the line but were well situated for frigates that attacked shipping in British waters whenever they could escape the blockade . One such port was Dunkirk in French Flanders , which contained a squadron of four French frigates : the 44 @-@ gun Poursuivante under Commodore Jean @-@ Joseph Castagnier , the 40 @-@ gun Carmagnole and the 36 @-@ gun Désirée and Incorruptible . Dunkirk was well defended , with gun batteries and gunboats overlooking the harbour . In addition , the port was surrounded by complicated coastal shoals into which the frigates could retreat if attacked .
The port was closely watched , it was determined that an attack by a squadron of smaller vessels on the frigates stood a chance of success and a number of ships were instructed to gather off the coast . Captain Henry Inman of the frigate HMS Andromeda , had overall command ; the force included HMS Nemesis under Captain Thomas Baker and 15 smaller vessels . The small craft included four fireships , small brigs designed to operate as minor warships until such time as they were deemed expendable in an attack on an anchored target , and the sloop HMS Dart under Commander Patrick Campbell . Dart was a highly unusual ship : her size meant that she was unrated even though her armament included 30 32 @-@ pounder carronades . The carronades were mounted to a new design that minimised recoil and made them faster and easier to load .
The squadron had assembled by 17 June 1800 , but for ten days the winds and tides prevented the operation . The French prepared for any attack by anchoring their frigates in a line running across the harbour from east to west , supported by gunboats that patrolled the harbour . The western @-@ most ships were positioned so that they could make their escape into the channels of the Braak Sands if they came under concerted attack . Inman knew that his largest ships , Andromeda and Nemesis , would prove liabilities in the narrow harbour . Both remained offshore , their crews dispersed into the smaller ships that would lead the attack , including the fireships HMS Wasp , HMS Falcon , HMS Comet and HMS Rosario , the brigs HMS Biter and HMS Boxer , and the hired ships Kent , Ann and Vigilant ( on which Inman sailed ) . The entire squadron was led by Dart , under Campbell , whose target was the eastern end of the French line , the frigate Désirée .
= = Battle = =
Inman 's squadron entered Dunkirk harbour on the late evening of 7 July 1800 , Dart slowly leading the way and the rest of the squadron sailing in a line behind the heavily armed sloop . Inman had crewed the hired ships Vigilant and Nile with men impressed from smugglers ships , and these men acted as guides for the British force . At midnight the shapes of the French frigates appeared from the darkness ahead and Dart gradually passed down their line , until a hail from one of the frigates demanded to know where Dart had come from . A French @-@ speaking officer replied " De Bordeaux " ( " from Bordeaux " ) and was then asked what the little ships behind Dart were , to which the officer replied " Je ne sais pas " ( " I do not know " ) . Apparently satisfied with this reply , there were no more questions from the frigate and Dart continued its passage until it came alongside the last French frigate but one . Lookouts on this ship recognised the shape of the strange vessel that had appeared out of the night and immediately opened fire , to which Dart swiftly responded . Campbell knew that his heavy carronades were devastating at close range , and had ordered them to be double @-@ shotted , meaning that each carronade carried twice the ordinary number of missiles . The effect was immediate , with heavy casualties and severe damage inflicted on the French vessel . The fast loading abilities of the carronades allowed the sloop 's 15 guns to keep up a steady fire as Dart swept on to the last ship in line , Désirée .
Using an anchor to steady his ship , Campbell placed Dart alongside the French frigate , with his bows between the French ship 's masts . This allowed a boarding party led by Lieutenant James M 'Dermeit to leap aboard Désirée and drive the French off the frigate 's deck in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . M 'Dermeit was wounded in the fighting , and called across for reinforcements as the French regrouped in the stern of the ship . Campbell used his anchors to swing Dart alongside the French frigate and a second boarding party under Lieutenant William Isaac Pearce charged aboard , routing the French reinforcements that were emerging from below decks . With the upper deck secure , Pearce severed the anchor cables , steered Désirée out of the harbour and over the sandbars that were rapidly being exposed by the receding tide . With his target captured , Campbell turned Dart towards the second British attack , against the head of the French line .
As Dart and Désirée fought at the southern end of the line , the British fireships attacked the van . The fireships had been stripped of all useful materials and been converted into their original role . Small crews of volunteers set alight to the vessels and all four bore down on the three northern French ships with supporting fire coming from Dart and the brigs . The smaller vessels , accompanied by a number of ship 's boats from the British frigates outside the harbour , attended the fireships and removed their crews once they were alight . Although all four fireships were well @-@ handled , the French were prepared for the tactic and the squadron severed its anchor cables and sailed into the channels around the Braak Sands . This manoeuvre took them past Biter and Boxer and also exposed them to continued fire from Dart , but , despite the damage , all three made the safety of the channel , into which the British could not follow without fear of grounding . One of the French ships did become stuck at low tide , but out of the range of the British ships and it suffered no serious damage . The fireships drifted aimlessly before exploding uselessly , succeeding only in wounding two British sailors whose boat was too close to Comet . While the frigates and fireships fought , a host of small French gunboats emerged from Dunkirk and were met by the hired ships , armed as brigs . In a sharp engagement the hired ships lost four wounded but successfully held back the gunboats during the battle .
= = Aftermath = =
With his principal targets out of reach , Inman called off the attack during the early morning and withdrew his ships . He had lost one man killed and 17 wounded , all but six of the latter coming from Dart ( some sources only record the men wounded on Dart in the total ) . French casualties were far more severe , with more than 100 men killed or wounded , mostly on Désirée , which had taken the brunt of Dart 's attack . Recognising that he had no room for prisoners and that many of the French wounded required urgent treatment , Inman ordered the wounded men to be sent back to Dunkirk , although it appears this amnesty was subsequently extended to all the prisoners . By midday on 8 July 1800 the British squadron had returned to its position off the coast while Désirée was sent to Britain , later commissioned in the Royal Navy as HMS Desiree under the command of Captain Inman . Prize money was paid for the captured frigate , but head money , an award made for enemy servicemen killed , wounded or captured , was not paid , probably due to the return of the prisoners . For their services , Commander Campell and Lieutenant M 'Dermeit were promoted , the former transferring from Dart into the much smaller sixth rate HMS Aridane . The French ships returned from the Braak Sand during the morning and repairs were conducted in Dunkirk . In 1847 the Admiralty awarded the Naval General Service Medal with clasp " Capture of the Desiree " to all surviving claimants from the action .
= La Masia =
La Masia de Can Planes , usually shortened to La Masia , ( Catalan pronunciation : [ ɫə məˈzi.ə ] , English : " The Farmhouse " ) , is the name of FC Barcelona 's football training facilities , originally located near the Camp Nou in the Les Corts district of Barcelona , and is often used to generically describe the Barcelona youth academy . The youth academy of Barcelona holds more than 300 young players , and has been praised since 2002 as one of the best in the world , being a significant factor in FC Barcelona 's European success as well as the Spanish national team 's success at the 2010 FIFA World Cup , and the 2008 and 2012 European Championships .
In 2010 , La Masia achieved a record breaking honour becoming the first youth academy to have trained all three finalists for the Ballon d 'Or in a single year , with Andrés Iniesta , Lionel Messi and Xavi .
The original building itself was an ancient country residence ( In Catalan : masia ) built in 1702 , and once Camp Nou was inaugurated in 1957 , the building was remodelled and extended for use as the club 's social headquarters . With the gradual expansion of the club , the building became too small for headquarters , and on 20 October 1979 , La Masia was converted into a dormitory for young players from outside of Barcelona . On 30 June 2011 , the Masia building ceased housing the young sportsmen who are trained to become a part of the club ’ s professional teams . In a simple ceremony , the doors were closed and the Ciutat Esportiva Joan Gamper took over the function of the residential center for the youngsters .
= = History = =
La Masia de Can Planes was an old Catalan farmhouse , built in 1702 . In 1979 , it was first used by the club to house its young footballers who originated from outside of Barcelona . The idea for the youth academy was proposed to Núñez by Johan Cruyff , and Oriol Tort was put in charge of the facility .
In 2011 , it was announced that Barcelona would be moving all its football training activities to La Ciutat Esportiva Joan Gamper .
La Masia received more publicity after Barcelona B 's success with homegrown players ; Rory Smith reported in The Daily Telegraph that La Masia " has replaced the fabled Ajax Academy as football 's foremost production line " . The recent fame and success of La Masia as a talent school was ascribed by Ian Hawkey of The Times to the class of 1987 , which featured prominent members such as Cesc Fàbregas , Lionel Messi , Gerard Piqué and Pedro . In 2000 , Louis van Gaal , coach of Barcelona 's first team , was widely ridiculed by the city sports media for his dream to win the Champions League with 11 home @-@ grown players . The first team won the trophy in 2009 with eight home @-@ grown players .
From 1979 to 2009 , 440 youngsters have left their homes and families to stay at the academy . About half of them were from Catalonia , and the rest came from other regions of the Kingdom of Spain and beyond , including 15 from Cameroon , 7 from Brazil , 5 from Senegal and 3 from Argentina . Of those 440 , 40 made it into Barcelona 's first team .
= = Organization = =
La Masia houses about 60 players : 10 in the farmhouse , and the rest in rooms of the adjacent stadium ; the rest of the youth players must provide for their own accommodation . The academy is one of the most expensive in Europe , operating at a cost of £ 5 million a year . The main cost is the dormitory , La Masia itself . The minimum age for the youth program is six years ; each year , more than 1 @,@ 000 boys from the ages of six to eight try out for admittance . The best 200 are selected . The club also actively seeks for prospective students ; it employs a system in which 15 scouts are deployed in Catalonia , 15 in the rest of Spain and 10 scattered throughout the world . To alleviate the expenses of this scouting , the club has an agreement with 15 local clubs for them to train players who are not ready for entry into the youth academy . In return , FC Barcelona gives money , coaching and technical advice to these clubs for their services . While expanding its operations abroad , the club established five schools in Mexico and one in Egypt ; successful applicants to these schools become full @-@ time students , receiving academic education and football training .
When Guardiola re @-@ organised the reserve side , he set up a three @-@ staged program to formalise the advancement from Juvenil to Barcelona B and finally to the first team . The first stage of a youth player 's career involves a rotation scheme with Barcelona B. The second stage involves making the player aware of his importance to the team and the expectation that the player will improve cohesion and performance within the reserve side . In the last stage , he is designated a " key " player of the B team and might be called to the first team . One of the players in the third phase is made captain , regardless of the experience of older players .
The teams at Barcelona play from August to May ; mild weather at La baks allows players to train outdoors throughout the year . The youth teams train after school ; Barcelona B plays as a professional team , training in the morning and evening . All of the trainers at FC Barcelona are former professional footballers .
Barcelona B , the club 's main youth team , and the 12 other youth teams contained 24 coaches and more than 300 players . There are 56 other employees , including doctors , psychologists , nutritionists , cooks and physiologists . In the 2009 – 10 season , the B team qualified for the Segunda División again . Barcelona B play in a 4 – 3 – 3 formation , which is the same formation employed by the first team .
= = Philosophy = =
" The player who has passed through La Masia has something different to the rest , it 's a plus that only comes from having competed in a Barcelona shirt from the time you were a child . "
Former technical director , Pep Segura , attributes the club 's success to its " philosophy of play " : " It is about creating one philosophy , one mentality , from the bottom of the club to the top " . The philosophy consists of the application of total football mixed with traditional Spanish one @-@ touch play ( tiqui @-@ taka ) . The total football approach was derived from the Netherlands football team through Cruyff . The total football approach requires the players to move in a fluid formation , where players can interchange positions quickly . In the youth academy , there is a large focus on technical ability , which is seen as a pre @-@ requisite for inter @-@ changes . An often @-@ quoted reason for Barcelona 's success is the continuity and commitment with which Barcelona follow the current philosophy of pass and move . Guardiola was the prototype of the pivotal midfielder ; current midfielders Xavi and Iniesta are its custodians .
Another aspect of La Masia is its marked Catalan national character — local talent in the service of a club with a strong , defining sense of the cultural make @-@ up of Catalonia .
= = Impact = =
In 2009 , Messi became the first player from La Masia to be awarded with the Ballon d 'Or prize for the best footballer in Europe , and the FIFA World Player award , for the best footballer in the world .
On 11 July 2010 , Spain won the World Cup final with eight players from Barcelona ; seven were from La Masia , and six of them were in the starting line @-@ up : Gerard Piqué , Carles Puyol , Andrés Iniesta , Xavi , Sergio Busquets , and Pedro . This set a record for the most players to be provided by a club side for a team in a World Cup final . Joachim Löw , coach of Germany , said after his side 's defeat by Spain that the opposition had a distinct Barcelona style : " You can see it in every pass , how Spain plays is how Barcelona plays . They can hardly be beaten . They are extremely confident and very calm in the way they circulate the ball . "
= = Alumni = =
Below is a sortable list of La Masia alumni who have played in more than 200 professional top @-@ tier league games . Only league appearances ( first and second division ) and goals are included .
FC Barcelona includes games of FC Barcelona B in second division .
= November 2008 Carolinas tornado outbreak =
The November 2008 Carolinas tornado outbreak was a brief but deadly tornado outbreak which began shortly after midnight ( local time ) , while many people were sleeping . Most of the eight tornadoes that touched down were produced by two supercell thunderstorms over North Carolina . At 12 : 25 a.m. EST , the National Weather Service issued a tornado watch for most of eastern North Carolina as the risk of tornadoes increased . Not long after , the first tornado of the outbreak , an EF2 , touched down in South Carolina . Almost an hour later , the second tornado touched down in Robeson County , North Carolina . Three other minor tornadoes , two EF0 and an EF1 , touched down over the next two hours . Around 3 : 10 a.m. EST , the first of two killer tornadoes touched down near Kenly , North Carolina . The EF2 tornado destroyed a few homes and damaged several others . Roughly 20 minutes later , an EF3 tornado touched down in Wilson County . This tornado killed one person and injured a few others after destroying several homes . Total damages from the outbreak amounted to $ 2 @.@ 5 million , about half of which was a result of the EF3 tornado .
= = Synopsis = =
On November 14 , the National Weather Service issued a slight risk of severe weather for the early hours of November 15 for the Carolinas and northern Gulf coast . Although conditions were not favorable for a large @-@ scale severe weather event , the possibility of small clusters of thunderstorms existed . Strong wind shear was forecast to persist , which would allow small bow @-@ echo line of thunderstorms which could produce damaging winds . The result of a weak disturbance which passed through the area of slight risk lowered the chances of tornadic thunderstorms developing . At 12 : 25 a.m. EST , the Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) issued a Tornado watch for most of eastern North Carolina . A broken line of thunderstorms had already developed and the risk of tornadoes greatly increased , with the chances of an EF2 or stronger touching down reaching 20 % . The first tornado touched down shortly after in South Carolina . Over the following several hours , two supercell thunderstorms spawned seven more tornadoes throughout North Carolina . The final tornado dissipated around 4 : 36 a.m. EST , just 3 hours and 46 minutes after the outbreak started . The tornado watch remained in effect until before being cancelled at 8 : 00 a.m. EST .
= = Confirmed tornadoes = =
The first tornado of the outbreak touched down around 12 : 50 a.m. EST about 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Carolina Mills , South Carolina in Dillon County . Large pine trees were snapped and a mobile home was rolled about 20 yards ( 18 @.@ 2 m ) before being completely destroyed . A truck was also flipped outside a church parking lot before the tornado lifted . However , several minutes later it touched down again , destroying the roof and severely damaging the walls of a brick home . After traveling for about one third of a mile , the tornado destroyed the roof of another brick home . The tornado was estimated to have become a strong EF2 tornado with winds between 120 and 135 mph ( 193 and 217 km / h ) as it hit a third brick home , nearly destroying it . In all , the tornado damaged 25 structures and destroyed seven others . Three cars were also damaged and another three were destroyed along the tornado 's 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) path . No injures were reported as a result of the tornado and damages amounted to $ 325 @,@ 000 .
Around 1 : 35 a.m. EST , a weak tornado touched down near several mobile homes about 2 mi (
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line for much of the 1920s and 1930s . Growing up amid that lack of affluence gave young George a lifelong sympathy for underpaid workers and struggling farmers . He was influenced by the currents of populism and agrarian unrest and by the " practical divinity " teachings of cleric John Wesley that sought to fight poverty , injustice , and ignorance .
McGovern attended Mitchell High School , where he was a solid but unspectacular member of the track team . A turning point came when his tenth @-@ grade English teacher recommended him to the debate team , where he became quite active . His high @-@ school debate coach , a history teacher who capitalized on McGovern 's interest in that subject , proved to be a great influence in his life , and McGovern spent many hours honing his meticulous , if colorless , forensic style . McGovern and his debating partner won events in his area and gained renown in a state where debating was passionately followed by the general public . Debate changed McGovern 's life , giving him a chance to explore ideas to their logical end , broadening his perspective , and instilling a sense of personal and social confidence . He graduated in 1940 in the top ten percent of his class .
McGovern enrolled at small Dakota Wesleyan University in Mitchell and became a star student there . He supplemented a forensic scholarship by working a variety of odd jobs . With World War II underway overseas and feeling insecure about his own courage , McGovern took flying lessons in an Aeronca aircraft and received a pilot 's license through the government 's Civilian Pilot Training Program . McGovern recalled : " Frankly , I was scared to death on that first solo flight . But when I walked away from it , I had an enormous feeling of satisfaction that I had taken the thing off the ground and landed it without tearing the wings off . " In late 1940 or early 1941 , McGovern had a brief affair with an acquaintance that resulted in her giving birth to a daughter during 1941 , although this did not become public knowledge during his lifetime . In April 1941 , McGovern began dating fellow student Eleanor Stegeberg , who had grown up in Woonsocket , South Dakota . They had first encountered each other during a high school debate in which Eleanor and her twin sister Ila defeated McGovern and his partner .
McGovern was listening to a radio broadcast of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra for a sophomore @-@ year music appreciation class when he heard the news of the December 7 , 1941 , attack on Pearl Harbor . In January 1942 he drove with nine other students to Omaha , Nebraska , and volunteered to join the United States Army Air Forces . The military accepted him , but they did not yet have enough airfields , aircraft , or instructors to start training all the volunteers , so McGovern stayed at Dakota Wesleyan . George and Eleanor became engaged , but initially decided not to marry until the war was over . During his sophomore year , McGovern won the statewide intercollegiate South Dakota Peace Oratory Contest with a speech called " My Brother 's Keeper " , which was later selected by the National Council of Churches as one of the nation 's twelve best orations of 1942 . Smart , handsome , and well @-@ liked , McGovern was elected president of his sophomore class and voted " Glamour Boy " during his junior year . In February 1943 , during his junior year , he and a partner won a regional debate tournament at North Dakota State University that featured competitors from thirty @-@ two schools across a dozen states ; upon his return to campus , he discovered that the Army had finally called him up .
= = Military service = =
Soon thereafter McGovern was sworn in as a private at Fort Snelling in Minnesota . He spent a month at Jefferson Barracks Military Post in Missouri and then five months at Southern Illinois Normal University in Carbondale , Illinois , for ground school training ; McGovern later maintained that both the academic work and physical training were the toughest he ever experienced . He spent two months at a base in San Antonio , Texas , and then went to Hatbox Field in Muskogee , Oklahoma , for basic flying school , training in a single @-@ engined PT ‑ 19 . McGovern married Eleanor Stegeberg on October 31 , 1943 during a three @-@ day leave ( lonely and in love , the couple had decided to not wait any longer ) ; his father presided over the ceremony at the small Methodist church in Woonsocket . After three months in Muskogee , McGovern went to Coffeyville Army Airfield in Kansas for a further three months of training on the BT ‑ 13 . Around April 1944 , McGovern went on to advanced flying school at Pampa Army Airfield in Texas for twin @-@ engine training on the AT ‑ 17 and AT ‑ 9 . Throughout , Air Cadet McGovern showed skill as a pilot , with his exceptionally good depth perception aiding him . Eleanor McGovern followed him to these different duty stations , and was present when he received his wings and was commissioned a Second Lieutenant .
McGovern was assigned to Liberal Army Airfield in Kansas and its transition school to learn to fly the B ‑ 24 Liberator , an assignment he was pleased with . McGovern recalled later : " Learning how to fly the B ‑ 24 was the toughest part of the training . It was a difficult airplane to fly , physically , because in the early part of the war , they didn 't have hydraulic controls . If you can imagine driving a Mack truck without any power steering or power brakes , that 's about what it was like at the controls . It was the biggest bomber we had at the time . " Eleanor was constantly afraid of her husband 's suffering an accident while training , which claimed a huge toll of airmen during the entire war . This schooling was followed by a stint at Lincoln Army Airfield in Nebraska , where McGovern met his B @-@ 24 crew . Traveling around the country and mixing with people from different backgrounds proved to be a broadening experience for McGovern and others of his generation . The USAAF sped up training times for McGovern and others due to the heavy losses that bombing missions were suffering over Europe . Despite , and partly because of , the risk that McGovern might not come back from combat , the McGoverns decided to have a child , and Eleanor became pregnant . In June 1944 , McGovern 's crew received final training at Mountain Home Army Air Field in Idaho . They then shipped out via Camp Patrick Henry in Virginia , where McGovern found history books with which to fill downtime , especially during the trip overseas on a slow troopship .
In September 1944 , McGovern joined the 741st Squadron of the 455th Bombardment Group of the Fifteenth Air Force , stationed at San Giovanni Airfield near Cerignola in the Apulia region of Italy . There he and his crew found a starving , disease @-@ ridden local population wracked by the ill fortunes of war and far worse off than anything they had seen back home during the Depression . Those sights would form part of his later motivation to fight hunger . Starting on November 11 , 1944 , McGovern flew 35 missions over enemy territory from San Giovanni , the first five as co @-@ pilot for an experienced crew and the rest as pilot for his own plane , known as the Dakota Queen after his wife Eleanor . His targets were in Austria ; Czechoslovakia ; Germany ; Hungary ; Poland ; and northern , German @-@ controlled Italy , and were often either oil refinery complexes or rail marshalling yards , all as part of the U.S. strategic bombing campaign in Europe . The eight- or nine @-@ hour missions were grueling tests of endurance for pilots and crew , and while German fighter aircraft were a diminished threat by this time as compared to earlier in the war , his missions often faced heavy anti @-@ aircraft artillery fire that filled the sky with flak bursts .
On McGovern 's December 15 mission over Linz , his second as pilot , a piece of shrapnel from flak came through the windshield and missed fatally wounding him by only a few inches . The following day on a mission to Brüx , he nearly collided with another bomber during close @-@ formation flying in complete cloud cover . The following day , he was recommended for a medal after surviving a blown wheel on the always @-@ dangerous B @-@ 24 take @-@ off , completing a mission over Germany , and then landing without further damage to the plane . On a December 20 mission against the Škoda Works at Pilsen , Czechoslovakia , McGovern 's plane had one engine out and another in flames after being hit by flak . Unable to return to Italy , McGovern flew to a British airfield on Vis , a small island in the Adriatic Sea off the Yugoslav coast that was controlled by Josip Broz Tito 's Partisans . The short field , normally used by small fighter planes , was so unforgiving to four @-@ engined aircraft that many of the bomber crews who tried to make emergency landings there perished . But McGovern successfully landed , saving his crew , a feat for which he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross .
In January 1945 , McGovern used R & R time to see every sight that he could in Rome , and to participate in an audience with the Pope . Bad weather prevented many missions from being carried out during the winter , and during such downtime McGovern spent much time reading and discussing how the war had come about . He resolved that if he survived it , he would become a history professor . In February , McGovern was promoted to First Lieutenant . On March 14 , McGovern had an incident over Austria in which he accidentally bombed a family farmhouse when a jammed bomb improvidentally released above the structure and destroyed it , an event which haunted McGovern . ( Four decades later , after a McGovern public appearance in that country , the owner of the farm approached the media to let the Senator know that he was the victim of that incident but that no one had been hurt and the farmer felt that it had been worth the price if that event helped achieve the defeat of Nazi Germany in some small way . McGovern was greatly relieved . ) On returning to base from the flight , McGovern was told his first child Ann had been born four days earlier . April 25 saw McGovern 's 35th mission , which marked fulfillment of the Fifteenth Air Force 's requirement for a combat tour , against heavily defended Linz . The sky turned black and red with flak – McGovern later said " Hell can 't be any worse than that " – and the Dakota Queen was hit multiple times , resulting in 110 holes in its fuselage and wings and an inoperative hydraulic system . McGovern 's waist gunner was injured , and his flight engineer was so unnerved by his experience that he would subsequently be hospitalized with battle fatigue , but McGovern managed to bring back the plane safely with the assistance of an improvised landing technique .
In May and June 1945 , following the end of the European war , McGovern flew food relief flights to northern Italy , then flew back to the United States with his crew . McGovern was discharged from the Army Air Forces in July 1945 , with the rank of First Lieutenant . He was also awarded the Air Medal with three oak leaf clusters , one instance of which was for the safe landing on his final mission .
= = Later education and early career = =
Upon coming home , McGovern returned to Dakota Wesleyan University , aided by the G.I. Bill , and graduated from there in June 1946 with a B.A. degree magna cum laude . For a while he suffered from nightmares about flying through flak barrages or his plane being on fire . He continued with debate , again winning the state Peace Oratory Contest with a speech entitled " From Cave to Cave " that presented a Christian @-@ influenced Wilsonian outlook . The couple 's second daughter , Susan , was born in March 1946 .
McGovern switched from Wesleyan Methodism to less fundamentalist regular Methodism . Influenced by Walter Rauschenbusch and the Social Gospel movement , McGovern began divinity studies at Garrett Theological Seminary in Evanston , Illinois , near Chicago . He preached as a Methodist student supply minister at Diamond Lake Church in Mundelein , Illinois , during 1946 and 1947 , but became dissatisfied by the minutiae of his pastoral duties . In late 1947 , McGovern left the ministry and enrolled in graduate studies at Northwestern University in Evanston , where he also worked as a teaching assistant . The relatively small history program there was among the best in the country and McGovern took courses given by noted academics Ray Allen Billington , Richard W. Leopold , and L. S. Stavrianos . He received an M.A. in history in 1949 .
McGovern then returned to his alma mater , Dakota Wesleyan , and became a professor of history and political science . With the assistance of a Hearst fellowship for 1949 – 1950 , he continued pursuing graduate studies during summers and other free time . The couple 's third daughter , Teresa , was born in June 1949 . Eleanor McGovern began to suffer from bouts of depression , but continued to assume the large share of household and child @-@ rearing duties . McGovern earned a PhD in history from Northwestern University in 1953 . His 450 @-@ page dissertation , The Colorado Coal Strike , 1913 – 1914 , was a sympathetic account of the miners ' revolt against Rockefeller interests in the Colorado Coalfield War . His thesis advisor , noted historian Arthur S. Link , later said he had not seen a better student than McGovern in 26 years of teaching . McGovern was influenced not only by Link and the " Consensus School " of American historians but also by the previous generation of " progressive " historians . Most of his future analyses of world events would be informed by his training as a historian , as well as his personal experiences during the Great Depression and World War II . Meanwhile , McGovern had become a popular if politically outspoken teacher at Dakota Wesleyan , with students dedicating the college yearbook to him in 1952 .
Nominally a Republican growing up , McGovern began to admire Democratic President Franklin Delano Roosevelt during World War II , even though he supported Roosevelt 's opponent Thomas Dewey in the 1944 presidential election . At Northwestern , his exposure to the work of China scholars John King Fairbank and Owen Lattimore had convinced him that unrest in Southeast Asia was homegrown and that U.S. foreign policy towards Asia was counterproductive . Discouraged by the onset of the Cold War , and never thinking well of incumbent President Harry S. Truman , in the 1948 presidential election McGovern was attracted to the campaign of former Vice President and Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace . He wrote columns supporting Wallace in the Mitchell Daily Republic and attended the Wallace Progressive Party 's first national convention as a delegate . There he became disturbed by aspects of the convention atmosphere , decades later referring to " a certain rigidity and fanaticism on the part of a few of the strategists . " But he remained a public supporter of Wallace afterward , although , because Wallace was kept off the ballot in Illinois where McGovern was now registered , McGovern did not vote in the general election .
By 1952 , McGovern was coming to think of himself as a Democrat . He was captivated by a radio broadcast of Governor Adlai Stevenson 's speech accepting the presidential nomination at the 1952 Democratic National Convention . He immediately dedicated himself to Stevenson 's campaign , publishing seven articles in the Mitchell Daily Republic newspaper outlining the historical issues that separated the Democratic Party from the Republicans . The McGoverns named their only son Steven , born immediately after the convention , after his new hero . Although Stevenson lost the election , McGovern remained active in politics , believing that " the engine of progress in our time in America is the Democratic Party " . In early 1953 , McGovern left a tenure @-@ track position at the university to become executive secretary of the South Dakota Democratic Party , the state chair having recruited him after reading his articles . Democrats in the state were at a low , holding no statewide offices and only 2 of the 110 seats in the state legislature . Friends and political figures had counseled McGovern against making the move , but despite his mild , unassuming manner , McGovern had an ambitious nature and was intent upon starting a political career of his own .
McGovern spent the following years rebuilding and revitalizing the party , building up a large list of voter contacts via frequent travel around the state . Democrats showed improvement in the 1954 elections , winning 25 seats in the state legislature . From 1954 to 1956 he also was on a political organization advisory group for the Democratic National Committee . The McGoverns ' fifth and final child , Mary , was born in 1955 .
= = U.S. House of Representatives = =
In 1956 , McGovern sought elective office himself , and ran for the House of Representatives from South Dakota 's 1st congressional district , which consisted of the counties east of the Missouri River . He faced four @-@ term incumbent Republican Party Representative Harold O. Lovre . Aided by the voter lists he had earlier accumulated , McGovern ran a low @-@ budget campaign , spending $ 12 @,@ 000 while borrowing $ 5 @,@ 000 . His quiet personality appealed to voters he met , while Lovre suffered from a general unhappiness over Eisenhower administration farm policy . When polls showed McGovern gaining , Lovre 's campaign implied that McGovern 's support for admitting the People 's Republic of China to the United Nations and his past support for Henry Wallace meant that McGovern was a Communist appeaser or sympathizer . In his closing speech , McGovern responded : " I have always despised communism and every other ruthless tyranny over the mind and spirit of man . " McGovern staged an upset victory , gaining 116 @,@ 516 votes to his opponent 's 105 @,@ 835 , and became the first Democrat elected to Congress from South Dakota in 22 years . The McGoverns established a home in Chevy Chase , Maryland .
Entering the 85th United States Congress , McGovern became a member of the House Committee on Education and Labor . As a representative , McGovern was attentive to his district . He became a staunch supporter of higher commodity prices , farm price supports , grain storage programs , and beef import controls , believing that such stored commodities programs guarded against drought and similar emergencies . He favored rural development , federal aid to small business and to education , and medical coverage for the aged under Social Security . In 1957 , he traveled and studied conditions in the Middle East under a fellowship from the American Christian Palestine Committee . McGovern first allied with the Kennedy family by supporting a House version of Senator John F. Kennedy 's eventually unsuccessful labor reform bill .
In his 1958 reelection campaign , McGovern faced a strong challenge from South Dakota 's two @-@ term Republican Governor and World War II Medal of Honor recipient Joe Foss , who was initially considered the favorite to win . But McGovern ran an effective campaign that showcased his political strengths of having firm beliefs and the ability to articulate them in debates and on the stump . He prevailed with a slightly larger margin than two years before .
In the 86th United States Congress , McGovern was assigned to the House Committee on Agriculture . The longtime chair of the committee , Harold D. Cooley , would subsequently say , " I cannot recall a single member of Congress who has fought more vigorously or intelligently for American farmers than Congressman McGovern . " He helped pass a new food @-@ stamp law . He was one of nine representatives from Congress to the NATO Parliamentary Assembly conferences of 1958 and 1959 . Along with Senator Hubert H. Humphrey , McGovern strongly advocated a reconstruction of Public Law 480 ( an agricultural surplus act which had come into being under Eisenhower ) with a greater emphasis on feeding the hungry around the world , the establishment of an executive office to run operations , and the goal of promoting peace and stability around the world . During his time in the House , McGovern was regarded as a liberal overall , and voted in accordance with the rated positions of Americans for Democratic Action ( ADA ) 34 times and against 3 times . Two of the themes of his House career , improvements for rural America and the war on hunger , would be defining ones of his legislative career and public life .
In 1960 , McGovern decided to run for the U.S. Senate and challenge the Republican incumbent Karl Mundt , a formidable figure in South Dakota politics whom McGovern loathed as an old @-@ style McCarthyite . The race centered mostly around rural issues , but John F. Kennedy 's Catholicism was a drawback at the top of the ticket in the mostly Protestant state . McGovern made careless charges during the campaign , and the press turned against him ; he would say eleven years later , " It was my worst campaign . I hated [ Mundt ] so much I lost my sense of balance . " McGovern was defeated in the November 1960 election , gaining 145 @,@ 217 votes to Mundt 's 160 @,@ 579 , but the margin was one @-@ third of Kennedy 's loss to Vice President Richard M. Nixon in the state 's presidential contest .
= = Food for Peace director = =
Having relinquished his House seat to run for the Senate , McGovern was available for a position in the new Kennedy administration . McGovern was picked to become a Special Assistant to the President and first director of Kennedy 's high @-@ priority Food for Peace program , which realized what McGovern had been advocating in the House . McGovern assumed the post on January 21 , 1961 .
As director , McGovern urged the greater use of food to enable foreign economic development , saying , " We should thank God that we have a food abundance and use the over @-@ supply among the under @-@ privileged at home and abroad . " He found space for the program in the Executive Office Building rather than be subservient to either the State Department or Department of Agriculture . McGovern worked with deputy director James W. Symington and Kennedy advisor Arthur M. Schlesinger , Jr. in visiting South America to discuss surplus grain distribution , and attended meetings of the United Nations ' Food and Agriculture Organization . In June 1961 , McGovern became seriously ill with hepatitis , contracted from an infected White House dispensary needle used to give him inoculations for his South American trip ; he was hospitalized and unable to come to his office for two months .
By the close of 1961 , the Food for Peace program was operating in a dozen countries , and 10 million more people had been fed with American surplus than the year before . In February 1962 , McGovern visited India and oversaw a greatly expanded school lunch program thanks to Food for Peace ; subsequently one in five Indian schoolchildren would be fed from it , and by mid @-@ 1962 , 35 million children around the world . During an audience in Rome , Pope John XXIII warmly praised McGovern 's work , and the distribution program was also popular among South Dakota 's wheat farmers . In addition , McGovern was instrumental in the creation of the United Nations @-@ run World Food Programme in December 1961 ; it started distributing food to stricken regions of the world the following year and would go on to become the largest humanitarian agency fighting hunger worldwide .
Administration was never McGovern 's strength , however , and he was restless for another try at the Senate . With the approval of President Kennedy , McGovern resigned his post on July 18 , 1962 . Kennedy said that under McGovern , the program had " become a vital force in the world " , improving living conditions and economies of allies and creating " a powerful barrier to the spread of Communism " . Columnist Drew Pearson wrote that it was one of the " most spectacular achievements of the young Kennedy administration , " while Schlesinger would later write that Food for Peace had been " the greatest unseen weapon of Kennedy 's third @-@ world policy " .
= = U.S. Senator = =
= = = 1962 election and early years as a senator = = =
In April 1962 , McGovern announced he would run for election to South Dakota 's other Senate seat , intending to face incumbent Republican Francis H. Case . Case died in June , however , and McGovern instead faced an appointed senator , former Lieutenant Governor Joseph H. Bottum . Much of the campaign revolved around policies of the Kennedy administration and its New Frontier ; Bottum accused the Kennedy family of trying to buy the Senate seat . McGovern appealed to those worried about the outflux of young people from the state , and had the strong support of the Farmers Union . Polls showed Bottum slightly ahead throughout the race and McGovern was hampered by a recurrence of his hepatitis problem in the final weeks of the campaign ( during this hospitalization , McGovern read Theodore H. White 's classic The Making of the President , 1960 and for the first time began thinking about running for the office someday ) . Eleanor McGovern campaigned for her ailing husband and may have preserved his chance of winning . The November 1962 election result was very close and required a recount , but McGovern 's 127 @,@ 458 votes prevailed by a margin of 597 , making him the first Democratic senator from the state in 26 years and only the third since statehood in 1889 .
When he joined the Senate in January 1963 for the 88th Congress , McGovern was seated on the Senate Agriculture and Forestry Committee and Senate Interior and Insular Affairs Committee . On the Agriculture Committee , McGovern supported high farm prices , full parity , and controls on beef importation , as well as the administration 's Feed Grains Acreage Diversion Program . McGovern had a fractious relationship with Secretary of Agriculture Orville Freeman , who was less sympathetic to farmers ; McGovern 's 1966 resolution to informally scold Freeman made the senator popular back in his home state . Fellow new senator Edward M. Kennedy saw McGovern as a serious voice on farm policy and often sought McGovern 's guidance on agriculture @-@ related votes . McGovern was largely inactive on the Interior Committee until 1967 , when he was given the chair of the Subcommittee on Indian Affairs . However , Interior Committee chair Henry M. Jackson , who did not get along with McGovern personally or politically , refused to allow McGovern his own staff , greatly limiting his effectiveness . McGovern regretted not accomplishing more for South Dakota 's 30 @,@ 000 Sioux Indians , although after a McGovern @-@ introduced resolution on Indian self @-@ determination passed in 1969 , the Oglala Sioux named McGovern " Great White Eagle " .
In his first speech on the Senate floor in March 1963 , McGovern praised Kennedy 's Alliance for Progress initiative , but spoke out against U.S. policy towards Cuba , saying that it suffered from " our Castro fixation " . In August 1963 , McGovern advocated reducing the $ 53 billion defense budget by $ 5 billion ; influenced by advisor Seymour Melman , he held a special antipathy towards the doctrine of nuclear " overkill " . McGovern would try to reduce defense appropriations or limit military expenditures in almost every year during the 1960s . He also voted against many weapons programs , especially missile and anti @-@ missile systems , and also opposed military assistance to foreign nations . In 1964 McGovern published his first book , War Against Want : America 's Food for Peace Program . In it he argued for expanding his old program , and a Senate measure he introduced was eventually passed , adding $ 700 million to the effort 's funding .
Preferring to focus on broad policy matters and speeches , McGovern was not a master of Senate legislative tactics , and developed a reputation among some other senators for " not doing his homework " . Described as " a very private , unchummy guy " , he was not a member of the Senate " club " nor did he want to be , turning down in 1969 a chance to join the powerful Senate Rules Committee . Relatively few pieces of legislation bore his name , and his legislative accomplishments were generally viewed as modest , although he would try to influence the contents of others ' bills . In terms of ideology , McGovern fit squarely within modern American liberalism ; through 1967 he had voted in accordance with the rated positions of the ADA 92 percent of the time , and when lacking specific knowledge on a particular matter , he would ask his staff , " What are the liberals doing ? "
= = = Opposition to Vietnam War = = =
In a speech on the Senate floor in September 1963 , McGovern became the first member to challenge the growing U.S. military involvement in Vietnam . Bothered by the Buddhist crisis and other recent developments , and with concerns influenced by Vietnam historian Bernard Fall , McGovern said :
However , the speech was little noticed , and McGovern backed away from saying anything publicly for over a year afterward , partly because of the November 1963 assassination of President Kennedy and partly to not appear strident . Though more skeptical about it than most senators , McGovern voted in favor of the August 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution , which turned out to be an essentially unbounded authorization for President Lyndon B. Johnson to escalate U.S. involvement in the war . McGovern thought the commander @-@ in @-@ chief should be given limited authority to retaliate against an attack ; subsequently he said his instinct had been to vote no , but that he had voted yes based on Senator J. William Fulbright 's urging to stand behind Johnson politically . Indeed , the day after the resolution vote , McGovern spoke concerning his fears that the vote would lead to greater involvement in the war ; Wayne Morse , one of only two senators to oppose the resolution , sardonically noted that this fell into the category of " very interesting , but very belated " . This would become the vote that McGovern most bitterly regretted .
In January 1965 , McGovern made his first major address on Vietnam , saying that " We are not winning in South Vietnam ... I am very much opposed to the policy , now gaining support in Washington , of extending the war to the north . " McGovern instead proposed a five @-@ point plan advocating a negotiated settlement involving a federated Vietnam with local autonomy and a UN presence to guarantee security and fair treatment . The speech gave McGovern national visibility as one of the " doves " in the debate over Vietnam . However , McGovern made moderate @-@ to @-@ hawkish statements at times too , flatly rejecting unconditional withdrawal of U.S. forces and criticizing anti @-@ war draft @-@ card burnings as " immature , impractical , and illegal " . He eschewed personal criticism of Johnson . In November 1965 , McGovern traveled to South Vietnam for three weeks . The human carnage he saw in hospital wards deeply upset him , and he became increasingly outspoken about the war upon his return , more convinced than ever that Vietnam was a political , not military , problem . Now he was ready , as he later said , " not merely to dissent , but to crusade " against the war .
McGovern voted in favor of Vietnam military appropriations in 1966 through 1968 , not wanting to deprive U.S. forces of necessary equipment . Nevertheless , his anti @-@ war rhetoric increased throughout 1967 . Over the years , Johnson had invited McGovern and other Senate doves to the White House for attempts to explain the rationale for his actions in Vietnam ; McGovern came away from the final such visit , in August 1967 , shaken by the sight of a president " tortured and confused ... by the mess he has gotten into in Vietnam . "
= = = 1968 presidential and Senate campaigns = = =
In August 1967 , activist Allard K. Lowenstein founded the Dump Johnson movement , and soon it was seeking a Democratic Party figure to make a primaries campaign challenge against Johnson in the 1968 presidential election . The group 's first choice was Senator Robert Kennedy , who declined , as did another , and by late September 1967 they approached McGovern . After much deliberation McGovern declined , largely because he feared such a run would significantly damage his own chances for reelection to his Senate seat in 1968 . A month later the anti @-@ Johnson forces were able to convince Senator Eugene McCarthy to run , who was one of the few " dove " senators not up for reelection that year .
In the 1968 Democratic primary campaign , McCarthy staged a strong showing . Robert Kennedy entered the race , President Johnson withdrew and Vice President Hubert Humphrey ran instead . While McGovern privately favored Kennedy , McCarthy and Humphrey were both from the neighboring state of Minnesota and publicly McGovern remained neutral . McGovern hosted all three as they campaigned for the June 4 South Dakota Democratic primary , which resulted in a strong win by Kennedy to go along with his win in the crucial California primary that night . McGovern spoke with Kennedy by phone minutes before Kennedy was assassinated in Los Angeles . The death of Bobby Kennedy left McGovern the most emotionally distraught he had ever been to that point in his life .
Within days , some of Kennedy 's aides were urging McGovern to run in his place ; their antipathy towards McCarthy and ideological opposition to Humphrey made them unwilling to support either candidate . McGovern delayed making a decision , making sure that Bobby 's brother Ted Kennedy did not want to enter , and with his staff still concerned about the senator 's own reelection prospects . Indeed , McGovern 's voting had changed during 1968 , with his ADA rating falling to 43 as he sought more middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road stances . In late July , McGovern 's decision became more complicated when his daughter Teresa was arrested in Rapid City on marijuana possession charges . She had led a troubled life since her teenage years , developing problems with alcohol and depression and suffering the consequences of a relationship with an unstable neighborhood boy . Based on a recently enacted strict state drugs law , Terry now faced a minimum five @-@ year prison sentence if found guilty . McGovern was also convinced that the socially conservative voters of South Dakota would reject him due to his daughter 's arrest . Charges against her were subsequently dropped due to a technically invalid search warrant .
McGovern formally announced his candidacy on August 10 , 1968 , in Washington , two weeks in advance of the 1968 Democratic National Convention , committing himself to " the goals for which Robert Kennedy gave his life " . Asked why he was a better choice than McCarthy , he said , " Well – Gene really doesn 't want to be President , and I do . " At the convention in Chicago , Humphrey was the near @-@ certain choice while McGovern became the initial rallying point for around 300 leaderless Kennedy delegates . The chaotic circumstances of the convention found McGovern denouncing the Chicago police tactics against demonstrators as " police brutality " . Given the internal politics of the party , it was difficult for McGovern to gain in delegate strength , and black protest candidate Channing E. Phillips drew off some of his support . In the actual roll call , McGovern came in third with 146 ½ delegates , far behind Humphrey 's 1760 ¼ and McCarthy 's 601 .
McGovern endorsed Humphrey at the convention , to the dismay of some anti @-@ war figures who considered it a betrayal . Humphrey went on to lose the general election to Richard Nixon . McGovern returned to his Senate reelection race , facing Republican former Governor Archie M. Gubbrud . While South Dakota voters sympathized with McGovern over his daughter 's arrest , he initially suffered a substantial drop in popularity over the events in Chicago . However , McGovern conducted an energetic campaign that focused on his service to the state , while Gubbrud ran a lackluster effort . In November , McGovern won 57 percent of the vote in what he would consider the easiest and most decisive victory of his career .
= = = Middle Senate years and continued opposition to the Vietnam War = = =
During the 1968 Democratic Convention , a motion had been passed to establish a commission to reform the Democratic Party nomination process . In 1969 , McGovern was named chair of the Commission on Party Structure and Delegate Selection , also known as the McGovern – Fraser Commission ; due to the influence of former McCarthy and Kennedy supporters on the staff , the commission significantly reduced the role of party officials and insiders in the nomination process , increased the role of caucuses and primaries , and mandated quotas for proportional black , female , and youth delegate representation . A somewhat unintended consequence of the commission 's reforms was a massive increase in the number of presidential primaries ; this became true for the Republican Party as well . The U.S. presidential nominating process has been different ever since , with scholars and politicians debating whether all the changes are for the better .
In the wake of several high @-@ profile reports about hunger and malnutrition in the United States , the Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs had been created in July 1968 , with McGovern as its chair . Seeking to dramatize the problem , in March 1969 McGovern took the committee to Immokalee , Florida , the base for 20 @,@ 000 migrant farm workers . They saw graphic examples of hunger and malnutrition firsthand , but also encountered resistance and complaints about bad publicity from local and state officials . McGovern battled the Nixon administration and Southerners in Congress during much of the next year over an expanded Food Stamp Program ; he had to compromise on a number of points , but legislation signed in 1970 established the principles of free food stamps and a nationwide standard for eligibility .
McGovern generally lacked both interest and expertise in economics , but was outspoken in reaction to Nixon 's imposition of wage and price controls in 1971 . McGovern declared : " This administration , which pledged to slow inflation and reduce unemployment , has instead given us the highest rate of inflation and the highest rate of unemployment in a decade . " 60 Minutes included him in a 1971 report about liberal politicians and journalists who advocated integrated schooling while avoiding it for their children .
But most of all , McGovern was known for his continued opposition to the Vietnam War . In March 1969 , he became the first senator to explicitly criticize the new president 's policy there , an action that was seen as a breach of customary protocol by other Senate doves . The diversion during these years of much of Food for Peace 's aid to South Vietnam , instead of other badly stricken countries around the world , greatly upset him . By the end of 1969 , McGovern was calling for an immediate cease @-@ fire and a total withdrawal of all American troops within a year . In October 1969 , McGovern was a featured speaker before 100 @,@ 000 demonstrators in Boston at the Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam , and in November he spoke before 350 @,@ 000 at Moratorium / Mobilization 's anti @-@ war march to the Washington Monument . Afterward , he decided that radicalized peace demonstrations were counterproductive and criticized anti @-@ war figures such as Rennie Davis , Tom Hayden , Huey Newton , Abbie Hoffman , and Jerry Rubin as " reckless " and " irresponsible " .
Instead , McGovern focused on legislative means to bring the war to an end . The McGovern – Hatfield Amendment to the annual military procurement bill , co @-@ sponsored by Republican Mark Hatfield of Oregon , required via funding cutoff a complete withdrawal of all American forces from Indochina by the end of 1970 . It underwent months of public discussion and alterations to make it acceptable to more senators , including pushing the deadline out to the end of 1971 . In May 1970 , McGovern obtained a second mortgage on his Washington home in order to fund a half @-@ hour televised panel discussion on the amendment on NBC . The broadcast brought in over $ 500 @,@ 000 in donations that furthered work on passage , and eventually the amendment gained the support of the majority of the public in polls . The effort was denounced by opposition groups organized by White House aide Charles Colson , which called McGovern and Hatfield " apostles of retreat and defeat " and " salesmen of surrender " and maintained that only the president could conduct foreign policy . The amendment was defeated in September 1970 by a 55 – 39 vote , just short of what McGovern had hoped would constitute at least a moral victory . During the floor debate McGovern criticized his colleagues opposing the measure :
The Senate reacted in startled , stunned silence , and some faces showed anger and fury ; when one member told McGovern he had been personally offended by the speech , McGovern said , " That 's what I meant to do . " McGovern believed Vietnam an immoral war that was destroying much of what was pure , hopeful , and different about America 's character as a nation .
The defeat of the amendment left McGovern embittered and somewhat more radicalized . He accused Vice President of South Vietnam Nguyen Cao Ky of running a heroin trafficking operation that was addicting American soldiers . In a retort to the powerful Senate Armed Services Committee chair John Stennis ' suggestion that U.S. troops might have to return to Cambodia , McGovern declared , " I 'm tired of old men dreaming up wars for young men to fight . If he wants to use American ground troops in Cambodia , let him lead the charge himself . " He denounced Nixon 's policy of Vietnamization as " subsidiz [ ing ] the continued killing of the people of Indochina by technology and mercenaries " . In a Playboy interview , he said that Ho Chi Minh was the North Vietnamese George Washington .
McGovern – Hatfield was put up for a vote again in 1971 , with somewhat weaker provisions designed to gain more support . In polls , a large majority of the public now favored its intent , and McGovern took his name off a final form of it , as some senators were just objecting to him . Nevertheless , in June 1971 , it failed to pass again , gaining only a few more votes than the year before . McGovern was now certain that the only way the war would come to a quick end was if there was a new president .
= = = 1972 presidential campaign = = =
McGovern announced his candidacy on January 18 , 1971 , during a televised speech from the studios of KELO @-@ TV in Sioux Falls , South Dakota . At the time of his announcement , McGovern ranked fifth among Democrats in a presidential preference Gallup Poll . The earliest such entry since Andrew Jackson was designed to give him time to overcome the large lead of the front @-@ runner , Maine Senator Edmund Muskie . Nevertheless , by January 1972 , McGovern had only 3 percent national support among Democrats in the Gallup Poll and had not attracted significant press coverage . McGovern 's campaign manager , Gary Hart , decided on a guerrilla @-@ like insurgency strategy of battling Muskie in only selected primaries , not everywhere , so as to focus the campaign 's organizational strength and resources .
Muskie fell victim to inferior organizing , an over @-@ reliance on party endorsements , and Nixon 's " dirty tricks " operatives , and in the March 7 , 1972 , New Hampshire primary , did worse than expected with McGovern coming in a close second . As Muskie 's campaign funding and support dried up , Hubert Humphrey , who had rejoined the Senate , became McGovern 's primary rival for the nomination , with Alabama governor George Wallace also in the mix after dominating the March 14 primary in Florida . McGovern won a key breakthrough victory over Humphrey and Wallace on April 4 in Wisconsin , where he added blue @-@ collar economic populism to his appeal . He followed that by dominating the April 25 primary in Massachusetts . At that point , McGovern had become the front runner . A late decision to enter the May 2 Ohio primary , considered a Humphrey stronghold , paid dividends when McGovern managed a very close second there amid charges of election fraud by pro @-@ Humphrey forces . The other two leading candidates for the nomination also won primaries , but Wallace 's campaign effectively ended when he was seriously wounded in a May assassination attempt , and McGovern 's operation was effective in garnering delegates in caucus states . The climactic contest took place in California , with Humphrey attacking McGovern in several televised debates ; in the June 6 vote , McGovern defeated him by five percentage points and claimed all the delegates due to the state 's winner @-@ take @-@ all rules . He then appeared to clinch the nomination with delegates won in the New York primary on June 20 . However , Humphrey 's attacks on McGovern as being too radical began a downward slide in the latter 's poll standing against Nixon . McGovern became tagged with the label " amnesty , abortion and acid " , supposedly reflecting his positions .
During his primary victories , McGovern used an approach that stressed grassroots @-@ level organization while bypassing conventional campaign techniques and traditional party power centers . He capitalized on support from anti @-@ war activists and reform liberals ; thousands of students engaged in door @-@ to @-@ door campaigning for him . He benefited by the eight primaries he won being those the press focused on the most ; he showed electoral weakness in the South and industrial Midwest , and actually received fewer primary votes overall than Humphrey and had only a modest edge over Wallace .
McGovern ran on a platform that advocated withdrawal from the Vietnam War in exchange for the return of American prisoners of war and amnesty for draft evaders who had left the country . McGovern 's platform also included an across @-@ the @-@ board , 37 @-@ percent reduction in defense spending over three years . He proposed a " demogrant " program that would give a $ 1 @,@ 000 payment to every citizen in America . Based around existing ideas such as the negative income tax and intended to replace the welfare bureaucracy and complicated maze of existing public @-@ assistance programs , it nonetheless garnered considerable derision as a poorly thought @-@ out " liberal giveaway " and was dropped from the platform in August .
An " Anybody But McGovern " coalition , led by southern Democrats and organized labor , formed in the weeks following the final primaries . McGovern 's nomination did not become assured until the first night of the 1972 Democratic National Convention in Miami Beach , Florida , where , following intricate parliamentary maneuverings led by campaign staffer Rick Stearns , a Humphrey credentials challenge regarding the California winner @-@ take @-@ all rules was defeated . Divisive arguments over the party platform then followed ; what resulted was arguably the most liberal one of any major U.S. party . On July 12 , 1972 , McGovern officially won the Democratic nomination . In doing so and in taking over the party 's processes and platform , McGovern produced what The New York Times termed " a stunning sweep " . The convention distractions led to a hurried process to pick a vice presidential running mate . Turned down by his first choice , Ted Kennedy , as well as by several others , McGovern selected – with virtually no vetting – Missouri Senator Thomas Eagleton . On the final night of the convention , procedural arguments over matters such as a new party charter , and a prolonged vice presidential nomination process that descended into farce , delayed the nominee 's acceptance speech . As a result , McGovern delivered his speech , " Come home America ! " , at three o 'clock in the morning , reducing his television audience from about 70 million people to about 15 million .
Just over two weeks after the convention , it was revealed that Eagleton had been hospitalized and received electroshock therapy for " nervous exhaustion " and " depression " several times during the early to mid @-@ 1960s ( years later , Eagleton 's diagnosis was refined to bipolar II disorder ) . McGovern initially supported Eagleton , in part because he saw parallels with his daughter Terry 's battles with mental illness , and on the following day , July 26 , stated publicly , " I am 1 @,@ 000 percent for Tom Eagleton and have no intention of dropping him from the ticket . " Though many people still supported Eagleton 's candidacy , an increasing number of influential politicians and newspapers questioned his ability to handle the office of vice president and , potentially , president or questioned the McGovern campaign 's ability to survive the distraction . The resulting negative attention – combined with McGovern 's consultation with preeminent psychiatrists , including Karl Menninger , as well as doctors who had treated Eagleton – prompted McGovern to accept , and announce on August 1 , Eagleton 's offer to withdraw from the ticket . It remains the only time major party vice @-@ presidential nominee has been forced off the ticket . Five prominent Democrats then publicly turned down McGovern 's offer of the vice presidential slot : in sequence , Kennedy again , Abraham Ribicoff , Humphrey , Reubin Askew , and Muskie ( Larry O 'Brien was also approached but no offer made ) . Finally , he named United States Ambassador to France Sargent Shriver , a brother @-@ in @-@ law of John F. Kennedy . McGovern 's 1 @,@ 000 percent statement and subsequent reneging made him look both indecisive and an opportunist , and has since been considered one of the worst gaffes in presidential campaign history . McGovern himself would long view the Eagleton affair as having been " catastrophic " for his campaign .
The general election campaign did not go well for McGovern . Nixon did little campaigning ; he was buoyed by the success of his visit to China and arms @-@ control @-@ signing summit meeting in the Soviet Union earlier that year and , shortly before the election , Henry Kissinger 's somewhat premature statement that " peace is at hand " in Vietnam . Top Republican figures attacked McGovern for being weak on defense issues and " encouraging the enemy " ; Nixon asserted that McGovern was for " peace at any price " in Vietnam , rather than the " peace with honor " that Nixon said he would bring about . McGovern chose to not emphasize his own war record during the campaign . The McGovern Commission changes to the convention rules marginalized the influence of establishment Democratic Party figures , and McGovern struggled to get endorsements from figures such as former President Johnson and Chicago mayor Richard J. Daley . The AFL – CIO remained neutral , after having always endorsed the Democratic presidential candidate in the past . Some southern Democrats , led by former Texas governor John Connally , switched their support to the incumbent President Nixon through a campaign effort called " Democrats for Nixon " . Nixon outspent McGovern by more than two @-@ to @-@ one .
Nixon directly requested that his aides use government records to try to dig up dirt on McGovern and his top contributors . McGovern was publicly attacked by Nixon surrogates and was the target of various operations of the Nixon " dirty tricks " campaign . The infamous Watergate break @-@ in of the Democratic National Committee headquarters in June 1972 was an alternate target after bugging McGovern 's headquarters was explored . The full dimensions of the subsequent Watergate scandal did not emerge during the election , however ; the vast majority of the press focused on McGovern 's difficulties and other news , rather than the break @-@ in or who was behind it , and a majority of voters were unaware of Watergate . In the end , Nixon 's covert operations had little effect in either direction on the election outcome .
By the final week of the campaign , McGovern knew he was going to lose . While he was appearing in Battle Creek , Michigan , on November 2 , a Nixon admirer heckled him . McGovern told the heckler , " I 've got a secret for you , " then said softly into his ear , " Kiss my ass . " The incident was overheard and reported in the press , and became part of the tale of the campaign .
In the general election on November 7 , 1972 , the McGovern – Shriver ticket suffered a 61 @-@ percent to 37 @-@ percent defeat to Nixon – at the time , the second biggest landslide in American history , with an Electoral College total of 520 to 17 . McGovern 's two electoral vote victories came in Massachusetts and Washington , D.C. ; McGovern failed to win his home state of South Dakota ( which had gone Democratic in only three of the previous eighteen presidential elections ) .
= = = Remaining Senate years = = =
After this loss , McGovern remained in the Senate . He was scarred by the enormous defeat , and his wife Eleanor took it even worse ; during the winter of 1972 – 1973 , the couple seriously considered moving to England . His allies were replaced in positions of power within the Democratic Party leadership , and the McGoverns did not get publicly introduced at party affairs they attended . On January 20 , 1973 , a few hours after Richard Nixon was re @-@ inaugurated , McGovern gave a speech at the Oxford Union that talked about the abuses of Nixon 's presidency ; it brought criticism , including from some Democrats , for being ill @-@ mannered . In order to get past the " bitterness and self @-@ pity " he felt , McGovern forced himself to deal with the defeat humorously before audiences ; starting at the March 1973 Gridiron Dinner , he frequently related his campaign misadventures in a self @-@ deprecating fashion , such as saying , " For many years , I wanted to run for the Presidency in the worst possible way – and last year I sure did . " Nevertheless , emotions surrounding the loss would remain with McGovern for decades , as it did with some other defeated presidential nominees . Nixon resigned in August 1974 due to the Watergate scandal . McGovern said President Gerald R. Ford 's subsequent September 1974 pardon of Nixon was difficult to understand given that Nixon 's subordinates were going to prison .
McGovern displayed the political resiliency he had shown in the past . In the 1974 U.S. Senate elections , McGovern faced possible political peril due to having neglected the state during his long presidential campaign , and by May 1973 , he had already begun campaigning for reelection . An Air Force pilot and Medal of Honor recipient , Leo K. Thorsness , had just been repatriated after six years as a prisoner of war in North Vietnam ; he publicly accused McGovern of having given aid and comfort to the enemy and of having prolonged his time as a POW . McGovern replied that if there had been no war , there would have been no POWs , and that everything he had done had been towards the goal of ending the war sooner . Thorsness became the Republican nominee against McGovern , but despite the two men 's different roles in it , the war did not become a significant issue . Instead , the campaign was dominated by farm policy differences and economic concerns over the 1973 – 75 recession . Thorsness charged McGovern with being a " part @-@ time senator " more concerned with national office and with spending over $ 2 million on his re ‑ election bid , while McGovern labelled Thorsness a carpetbagger due to his having grown up in Minnesota . In a year in which Democrats were advantaged by the aftereffects of the Watergate scandal , McGovern won re @-@ election in November 1974 with 53 percent of the vote .
Following the victory , McGovern harbored thoughts of running in the 1976 presidential election , but given the magnitude of his presidential defeat , the Democratic Party wanted nothing to do with him then or later . Unfamiliar and uncomfortable with Democratic nominee Jimmy Carter , McGovern secretly voted for Ford instead . McGovern 's view on intervention in Southeast Asia took a turn in 1978 in reaction to the ongoing Cambodian genocide . Noting that it affected a percentage of the population which made " Hitler 's operation look tame " , he advocated an international military intervention in Cambodia to put the Khmer Rouge regime out of power .
McGovern 's Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs expanded its scope to include national nutrition policy . In 1977 it issued a new set of nutritional guidelines for Americans that sought to combat leading killer health conditions . Titled Dietary Goals for the United States , but also known as the " McGovern Report " , it suggested that Americans eat less fat , less cholesterol , less refined and processed sugars , and more complex carbohydrates and fiber . While many public health officials had said all of this for some time , the committee 's issuance of the guidelines gave it higher public profile . The recommendations proved controversial with the cattle , dairy , egg , and sugar industries , including from McGovern 's home state . The McGovern committee guidelines led to reorganization of some federal executive functions and became the predecessor to the more detailed Dietary Guidelines for Americans later issued twice a decade by the Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion .
In the 1980 Senate election in South Dakota , McGovern was one of several liberal Democratic senators targeted for defeat by the National Conservative Political Action Committee ( NCPAC ) , which put out a year 's worth of negative portrayals of McGovern . It and other pro @-@ life groups especially focused on McGovern 's support for pro @-@ choice abortion laws . McGovern faced a Democratic primary challenge for the first time , from a pro @-@ life candidate . McGovern 's Republican opponent was James Abdnor , a four @-@ term incumbent congressman who held identical positions to McGovern 's on farm issues , was solidly conservative on national issues , and was well liked within the state . Abdnor 's campaign focused on both McGovern 's liberal voting record and what it said was McGovern 's lack of involvement in South Dakota affairs . McGovern made an issue of NCPAC 's outside involvement , and that group eventually withdrew from the campaign after Abdnor denounced a letter it had sent out . Far behind in the polls earlier , McGovern outspent Abdnor 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 and repeatedly criticized Abdnor 's refusal to debate him , thereby drawing attention to a slight speech defect Abdnor had . Showing the comeback pattern of some of his past races in the state , McGovern closed the gap for a while . However , in November 1980 McGovern was solidly defeated for re @-@ election , getting only 39 percent of the vote to Abdnor 's 58 percent . McGovern became one of many Democratic casualties of that year 's Republican sweep , which became known as the " Reagan Revolution " .
= = Post @-@ Senate life and 1984 presidential campaign = =
McGovern did not mourn leaving the Senate . Although being rejected by his own state stung , intellectually he could accept that South Dakotans wanted a more conservative representative ; he and Eleanor felt out of touch with the country and in some ways liberated by the loss . Nevertheless , he refused to believe that American liberalism was dead in the time of Reagan ; remaining active in politics , in January 1981 he founded the political organization Americans for Common Sense . The group sought to rally liberals , encourage liberal thinking , and combat the Moral Majority and other new Christian right forces . In 1982 , he turned the group into a political action committee , which raised $ 1 @.@ 2 million for liberal candidates in the 1982 U.S. Congressional elections . McGovern shut the committee down when he decided to run for president again .
McGovern also began teaching and lecturing at a number of universities in the U.S. and Europe , accepting one @-@ year contracts or less . From 1981 to 1982 , McGovern replaced historian Stephen Ambrose as a professor at the University of New Orleans . McGovern also began making frequent speeches , earning several hundred thousand dollars a year .
McGovern attempted another presidential run in the 1984 Democratic primaries . Friends and political admirers of McGovern initially feared the effort would prove an embarrassment , and McGovern knew himself that his chances of winning were remote , but he felt compelled to try to influence the intraparty debate in a liberal direction . Freed from the practical concerns of trying to win , McGovern outlined a ten @-@ point program of sweeping domestic and foreign policy changes ; because he was not seen as a threat , fellow competitors did not attack his positions , and media commentators praised him as the " conscience " of the Democratic Party .
While having name recognition , McGovern had little funding or staff , although he did garner critical funding from some celebrities and statesmen . He won a surprise third @-@ place showing in the Iowa caucuses amidst a crowded field of candidates , but finished fifth in the New Hampshire primary . He announced he would drop out unless he finished first or second in the Massachusetts primary , and when he came in third behind his former campaign manager Gary Hart and former Vice President Walter Mondale , he made good on his promise . He later endorsed Mondale , the eventual Democratic nominee . McGovern hosted Saturday Night Live on April 14 , 1984 .
McGovern addressed the party 's platform committee , and his name was placed in nomination at the 1984 Democratic National Convention , where he delivered a speech that strongly criticized President Reagan and praised Democratic unity . He received the votes of four delegates . He went on to actively support the Mondale @-@ Geraldine Ferraro ticket , whose eventual landslide defeat bore some similarities to his own in 1972 .
During the 1980s , McGovern was a fellow at the Institute for Policy Studies , a think tank in Washington , D.C.
McGovern had made several real estate investments in the D.C. area and became interested in hotel operations . In 1988 , using the money he had earned from his speeches , the McGoverns bought , renovated , and began running a 150 @-@ room inn in Stratford , Connecticut , with the goal of providing a hotel , restaurant and public conference facility . It went into bankruptcy in 1990 and closed the following year . In 1992 , McGovern 's published reflections on the experience appeared in Wall Street Journal and the Nation 's Restaurant News . He attributed part of the failure to the early 1990s recession , but also part to the cost of dealing with federal , state and local regulations that were passed with good intentions but made life difficult for small businesses , and to the cost of dealing with frivolous lawsuits . McGovern wrote , " I ... wish that during the years I was in public office I had had this firsthand experience about the difficulties business people face every day . That knowledge would have made me a better U.S. senator and a more understanding presidential contender . "
After briefly exploring another presidential run in the 1992 contest , McGovern instead became president of the Middle East Policy Council ( a non @-@ profit organization that seeks to educate American citizens and policy makers about the political , economic and security issues impacting U.S. national interests in the Middle East ) in July 1991 ; he had previously served on its board since 1986 . He held this position until 1997 , when he was replaced by Charles W. Freeman , Jr .
On the night of December 12 – 13 , 1994 , McGovern 's daughter Teresa fell into a snowbank in Madison , Wisconsin , while heavily intoxicated and died of hypothermia . Heavy press attention followed , and McGovern revealed his daughter had battled her alcoholism for years and had been in and out of many treatment programs while having had one extended period of sobriety . He authored an account of her life , Terry : My Daughter 's Life @-@ and @-@ Death Struggle with Alcoholism ; published in 1996 , it presented a harrowing , unsparing view of the depths to which she had descended , the torment that he and the rest of his family had experienced in trying unsuccessfully to help her , and his ongoing thoughts and guilt about whether the demands of his political career and the time he had spent away from the family had made things worse for her . The book was a modest best @-@ seller , and with the proceeds , he founded the Teresa McGovern Center in Madison to help others suffering from the combination of alcoholism and mental health problems . He would later say that Terry 's death was by far the most painful event in his life : " You never get over it , I 'm sure of that . You get so you can live with it , that 's all . "
= = Ambassador to food agencies and other later activities = =
In April 1998 , McGovern returned to public service when he began a three @-@ year stint as United States Ambassador to the United Nations Agencies for Food and Agriculture , serving in Rome , Italy , after having been named to the post by President Bill Clinton . In an effort to meet the UN 's goal of reducing the number of hungry people in the world by half by 2015 , he formulated detailed plans , urging delivery of more surplus food to foreign school @-@ lunch programs and the establishment of specific targets such as had been done in old American programs . He began working again with fellow former Senator Bob Dole to convince the Senate to support this effort , as well as expanded school lunch , food stamps , and nutritional help for pregnant women and poor children in the U.S.
The George McGovern – Robert Dole International Food for Education and Nutrition Program that was created in 2000 , and funded largely through the Congress , would go on to provide more than 22 million meals to children in 41 countries over the next eight years . It was also credited with improving school attendance , especially among girls , who were more likely to be allowed to go to school if a meal was being provided . In August 2000 , President Clinton presented McGovern with the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the nation 's highest civilian honor , in recognition of McGovern 's service in the effort to eradicate world hunger . McGovern 's book The Third Freedom : Ending Hunger In Our Time was published in January 2001 ; with its title making reference to Roosevelt 's Four Freedoms speech , it proposed a plan whereby chronic world hunger could be eliminated within thirty years . In January 2001 , McGovern was asked to stay on at the UN post for a while by the incoming George W. Bush administration and then concluded his stint in September 2001 .
In October 2001 , McGovern was appointed as the first UN Global Ambassador on World Hunger by the World Food Programme , the agency he had helped found forty years earlier . He was still active in this Goodwill Ambassador position as of 2011 and remained in it until his death . McGovern was an honorary life member of the board of Friends of the World Food Program . McGovern also served as a Senior Policy Advisor at Olsson Frank Weeda , a food and drug regulatory counseling law and lobbying firm in Washington , D.C. , where he specialized on issues of food , nutrition , and agriculture .
McGovern 's wartime story was at the center of Ambrose 's 2001 best @-@ selling profile of the men who flew B ‑ 24s over Germany in World War II , The Wild Blue . It was the first time much of the public became familiar with that part of his life ; throughout his political career , McGovern had rarely mentioned his war service or the medals he had won .
McGovern continued to lecture and make public appearances , sometimes appearing with Dole on college campuses . McGovern and Dole contributed essays to the 2005 volume Ending Hunger Now : A Challenge to Persons of Faith . From around 2003 to 2005 , McGovern owned a bookstore in his summer home of Stevensville in Montana 's Bitterroot Valley , until deciding to sell it due to lack of sufficient market . In 2003 , the McGoverns became part @-@ time residents of Marco Island , Florida ; by then , Eleanor was struggling with heart disease .
In October 2006 , the $ 8 @.@ 5 million George and Eleanor McGovern Library and Center for Leadership and Public Service was dedicated at Dakota Wesleyan University . The couple had helped raise the funds for it . It seeks to prepare the college 's best students for future careers in public service through classes , seminars , research , and internships , and also to raise the visibility of the university . The dignitaries in attendance were led by former President Clinton . McGovern 's wife Eleanor was too ill to attend the ceremony , and she died of heart disease on January 25 , 2007 , at their home in Mitchell . Later in 2007 , several events were held at Dakota Wesleyan and in Washington , D.C. , to celebrate McGovern 's 85th birthday and the 35th anniversary of his nomination for president . Hundreds of former staff , volunteers , supporters and friends attended , along with public officials .
McGovern still sought to have his voice heard in the American political scene . He became an outspoken opponent of the Iraq War , likening U.S. involvement in that country to that of the failed Vietnam effort , and in 2006 co @-@ wrote the book Out of Iraq : A Practical Plan for Withdrawal Now . In January 2008 , McGovern wrote an op @-@ ed in the Washington Post calling for the impeachment of President George W. Bush and Vice @-@ President Dick Cheney , saying they had violated the U.S. Constitution , transgressed national and international law , and repeatedly lied to the American people . The subtitle of the article read " Nixon Was Bad . These Guys Are Worse . " In the tumultuous 2008 Democratic Party presidential nomination campaign , he first endorsed U.S. Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton and then later switched to Senator Barack Obama after concluding Clinton could no longer win .
On October 16 , 2008 , McGovern and Dole were made World Food Prize laureates for their efforts to curb hunger in the world and in particular for their joint program for school feeding and enhanced school attendance .
= = Final years and death = =
By 2009 , McGovern had moved to St. Augustine Beach , Florida . McGovern 's seventh book ( as author , co @-@ author , or contributing editor ) issued in the first decade of the 2000s , Abraham Lincoln , was published by Times Books and released at the close of 2008 . Throughout 2009 , McGovern embarked on a book tour , including a prominent visit to the Nixon Presidential Library and Museum .
He was treated for exhaustion during 2011 and then was hospitalized after a serious fall in December 2011 on his way to participate in a live C @-@ SPAN program about his 1972 presidential campaign . By January 2012 , he was promoting his latest book , What It Means to Be a Democrat . He was hospitalized again in April 2012 due to fainting spells . McGovern 's 90th birthday was celebrated on July 19 , 2012 , with a Washington event hosted by World Food Program USA and attended by many liberal Democratic politicians , along with ( as the Washington Post termed it ) " one respectful conservative " , South Dakota 's Republican Senator John Thune . On July 27 , 2012 , McGovern 's son Steven died at age 60 . McGovern 's daughter Ann said , " Steve had a long struggle with alcoholism . We will all miss him deeply , but are grateful that he is now at peace . " In August 2012 , McGovern moved back to Sioux Falls , South Dakota , to be nearer to his family . His final public appearance was on October 6 , 2012 , when he introduced his recorded narration for Aaron Copland 's " Lincoln Portrait " with the South Dakota Symphony Orchestra .
On October 15 , 2012 , McGovern 's family announced he had entered Dougherty Hospice House , a Sioux Falls hospice ; his daughter Ann said , " He 's coming to the end of his life " . On the morning of October 21 , 2012 , McGovern died at the age of 90 at the Sioux Falls hospice , surrounded by family and lifelong friends . The family released this statement , " We are blessed to know that our father lived a long , successful and productive life advocating for the hungry , being a progressive voice for millions and fighting for peace . He continued giving speeches , writing and advising all the way up to and past his 90th birthday , which he celebrated this summer . " In addition to his three remaining children , he was survived by ten grandchildren and eight great @-@ grandchildren . President Obama paid tribute to him as " a champion for peace " and a " statesman of great conscience and conviction " . At a memorial service in Sioux Falls , Vice President Joe Biden eulogized McGovern , addressing McGovern 's World War II service and his opposition to the Vietnam War in saying to his family , " Your father was a genuine hero . ... Had your father not been in the Senate , so much more blood , so much more treasure would have been wasted . " His funeral was held in the Washington Pavilion of Arts and Science in Sioux Falls with his ashes to be buried alongside his wife and daughter Terry at Rock Creek Cemetery in Washington .
On July 26 , 2015 , the Argus Leader , the daily newspaper in Sioux Falls , South Dakota , published an article detailing the extensive files on McGovern compiled through the years by the Federal Bureau of Investigation , including letters and notations from FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover , revealing that Hoover had a direct interest in the FBI monitoring of McGovern . The newspaper also published the complete FBI file on McGovern , obtained through a Freedom of Information Act request filed shortly after McGovern 's death .
= = Legacy = =
Due to his resounding loss to Nixon in the 1972 election and the causes behind it , " McGovernism " became a label that a generation of Democratic politicians tried to avoid . In 1992 , nationally syndicated Chicago Tribune columnist Bob Greene wrote , " Once again politicians – mostly Republicans , but some Democrats , too – are using his name as a synonym for presidential campaigns that are laughable and out of touch with the American people . " Conservatives used McGovern 's name as a ready synonym for what they saw as liberal failures . Indeed , according to Daniel McCarthy of The American Conservative , the Republican Party began to act after 1972 as if " every Democratic leader , no matter how Southern , how pro @-@ war , how middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road , is really a McGovernite . Indeed , for nearly 40 years the conservative movement has defined itself in opposition to the Democratic standard @-@ bearer of 1972 . Anti @-@ McGovernism has come to play for the Right the unifying role that anticommunism once played , much to the detriment of older principles such as limited government , fiscal continence , and prudence in foreign policy . " The association with dovishness and weakness on defense has been especially prevalent , although McGovern publicly stated in 1972 that he was not a pacifist and that use of force was sometimes necessary , such as in World War II . McGovern later said in 2001 that his political image had been exaggerated : " I am a liberal and always have been – just not the wild @-@ eyed character the Republicans made me out to be . " He continued to feel that he was marginalized with his views miscast . He saw himself as a son of the prairie , in 2005 reciting his traditional upbringing and family values , culminating with " I 'm what a normal , healthy , ideal American should be like , " and in 2006 said , " How the hell do you get elected in South Dakota for twenty years if you 're a wild @-@ eyed radical ? "
In later decades the former senator remained a symbol , or standard @-@ bearer , of the political left , particularly in relation to the turbulent 1960s and early 1970s when the country was torn by U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War and the corruption and abuse of power of the Nixon administration . Throughout his career , McGovern 's positions reflected his own experiences as well as a personal synthesis of the traditions of American liberalism and progressivism . Southern Methodist University historian Thomas J. Knock wrote in 2003 that " [ McGovern 's ] career was extraordinary and historic ... primarily because of his impress as searching and prophetic critic " and that " few political careers offer an alternative understanding of the American Century as compelling and instructive as McGovern 's . "
As chair of the McGovern – Fraser Commission in 1969 – 1970 , McGovern instituted major changes in Democratic party rules that continue to this day and , to a large degree , were ultimately adopted by the Republican Party as well , with large institutional changes taking place in both . Among those was the centralization of decisions about the nominating process at the national party level , rather than with the states . His 1972 campaign fundamentally altered how presidential primary campaigns were waged . Within the Democratic Party , power shifted from the New Deal coalition to younger , more affluent , issue @-@ oriented activists ; the women 's movement and gay rights movement found a place ; skepticism about military buildups and foreign interventions took hold ; and the 1960s " New Politics " found its culmination in McGovern 's nomination . In turn , the overwhelming defeat of McGovern in the general election led to the liberal wing of the party 's being stigmatized for decades to come and a turn in the party towards centrist directions . McGovern himself recognized the mixed results of his 1972 candidacy , saying , " We made a serious effort to open the doors of the Democratic Party – and as soon as we did , half the Democrats walked out . " SUNY Albany political scientist Bruce Miroff wrote in 2007 that the McGovern campaign was the last time in presidential politics that liberals had " their chance to speak of their goals with enthusiasm and their dreams with fire ... Yet almost at the instant that the insurgents successfully stormed the heights of American politics , they found themselves on the brink of one of the worst free falls on record . "
Staffers who worked on McGovern 's 1972 campaign later became influential within the Democratic Party . Campaign manager Gary Hart staged his own presidential runs in 1984 and 1988 . Future president Bill Clinton , with assistance from his future wife and politician Hillary Rodham , had managed the McGovern campaign 's operations in Texas . Hart both embraced and moved away from aspects of his past affiliation with McGovern , while Clinton , and the Democratic Leadership Council movement of which he was a part , explicitly rejected McGovern 's ideology . But there was still a legacy in terms of staffing , as the Clinton White House would be full of former " McGovernites " .
McGovern 's post @-@ political career generally enhanced his reputation ; Tom Brokaw , who referred to McGovern as part of the " Greatest Generation " , wrote in 1998 that " He remains one of the country 's most decent and thoughtful public servants . " McGovern 's legacy also includes his commitment to combating hunger both in the United States and around the globe . He said , " After I 'm gone , I want people to say about me : He did the best he could to end hunger in this country and the world . " In the view of Knock , McGovern in all his activities arguably accomplished more for people in need than most presidents or secretaries of state in U.S. history . Responding to the Serenity Prayer 's desire to " grant me the serenity to accept the things I cannot change " , McGovern said simply that he rejected that notion : " I keep trying to change them . "
= = Writings = =
= Robert Peake the Elder =
Robert Peake the Elder ( c . 1551 – 1619 ) was an English painter active in the later part of Elizabeth I 's reign and for most of the reign of James I. In 1604 , he was appointed picture maker to the heir to the throne , Prince Henry ; and in 1607 , serjeant @-@ painter to King James I – a post he shared with John De Critz . Peake is often called " the elder " , to distinguish him from his son , the painter and print seller William Peake ( c . 1580 – 1639 ) and from his grandson , Sir Robert Peake ( c . 1605 – 67 ) , who followed his father into the family print @-@ selling business .
Peake was the only English @-@ born painter of a group of four artists whose workshops were closely connected . The others were De Critz , Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger , and the miniature painter Isaac Oliver . Between 1590 and about 1625 , they specialised in brilliantly coloured , full @-@ length " costume pieces " that are unique to England at this time . It is not always possible to attribute authorship between Peake , De Critz , Gheeraerts and their assistants with certainty .
= = Career = =
= = = Early life and work = = =
Peake was born to a Lincolnshire family in about 1551 . He began his training on 30 April 1565 under Laurence Woodham , who lived at the sign of " The Key " in Goldsmith ’ s Row , Westcheap . He was apprenticed , three years after the miniaturist Nicholas Hilliard , to the Goldsmiths ’ Company in London . He became a freeman of the company on 20 May 1576 . His son William later followed in his father 's footsteps as a freeman of the Goldsmiths ' Company and a portrait painter . Peake ’ s training would have been similar to that of John de Critz and Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger , who may have been pupils of the Flemish artist Lucas de Heere .
Peake is first heard of professionally in 1576 in the pay of the Office of the Revels , the department that oversaw court festivities for Elizabeth I. When Peake began practising as a portrait painter is uncertain . According to art historian Roy Strong , he was " well established " in London by the late 1580s , with a " fashionable clientele " . Payments made to him for portraits are recorded in the Rutland accounts at Belvoir in the 1590s . A signed portrait from 1593 , known as the " Military Commander " , shows Peake ’ s early style . Other portraits have been grouped with it on the basis of similar lettering . Its three @-@ quarter @-@ length portrait format is typical of the time .
= = = Painter to Prince Henry = = =
In 1607 , after the death of Leonard Fryer , Peake was appointed serjeant @-@ painter to King James I , sharing the office with John De Critz , who had held the post since 1603 . The role entailed the painting of original portraits and their reproduction as new versions , to be given as gifts or sent to foreign courts , as well as the copying and restoring of portraits by other painters in the royal collection .
In addition to copying and restoring portraits , the serjeant @-@ painters also undertook decorative tasks , such as the painting of banners and stage scenery . Parchment rolls of the Office of the Works record that De Critz oversaw the decorating of royal houses and palaces . Since Peake ’ s work is not recorded there , it seems as if De Critz took responsibility for the more decorative tasks , while Peake continued his work as a royal portrait painter . However , Peake and Paul Isackson painted the cabins , carvings , and armorials on the ship the Prince Royal in 1611 .
In 1610 , Peake was described as " painter to Prince Henry " , the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old prince who was gathering around him a significant cultural salon . Peake commissioned a translation of Books I @-@ V of Sebastiano Serlio ’ s Architettura , which he dedicated to the prince in 1611 . Scholars have deduced from payments made to Peake that his position as painter to Prince Henry led to his appointment as serjeant @-@ painter to the king . The payments were listed by the Prince 's household officer Sir David Murray as disbursements from the Privy Purse to " Mr Peck " . On 14 October 1608 , Peake was paid £ 7 for " pictures made by His Highness ’ command " ; and on 14 July 1609 , he was paid £ 3 " for a picture of His Highness which was given in exchange for the King ’ s picture " . At about the same time , Isaac Oliver was paid £ 5.10s.0d. for each of three miniatures of the prince . Murray ’ s accounts reveal , however , that the prince was paying more for tennis balls than for any picture .
Peake is also listed in Sir David Murray 's accounts for the period between 1 October 1610 and 6 November 1612 , drawn up to the day on which Henry , Prince of Wales , died , possibly of typhoid fever , at the age of eighteen : " To Mr Peake for pictures and frames £ 12 ; two great pictures of the Prince in arms at length sent beyond the seas £ 50 ; and to him for washing , scouring and dressing of pictures and making of frames £ 20.4s.0d " . Peake is listed in the accounts for Henry ’ s funeral under " Artificers and officers of the Works " as " Mr Peake the elder painter " . For the occasion , he was allotted seven yards of mourning cloth , plus four for a servant . Also listed is " Mr Peake the younger painter " , meaning Robert 's son William , who was allotted four yards of mourning cloth .
After the prince 's death , Peake moved on to the household of Henry 's brother , Charles , Duke of York , the future Charles I of England . The accounts for 1616 , which call Peake the prince ’ s painter , record that he was paid £ 35 for " three several pictures of his Highness " . On 10 July 1613 , he was paid £ 13.6s.8d. by the vice @-@ chancellor of the University of Cambridge , " in full satisfaction for Prince Charles his picture " , for a full @-@ length portrait which is still in the Cambridge University Library .
= = = Death = = =
Peake died in 1619 , probably in mid @-@ October . Until relatively recently , it was believed that Peake died later . Erna Auerbach , Tudor Artists , London , 1954 , p . 148 , put his death at around 1625 , for example . The catalogue for The Age of Charles I exhibition at the Tate Gallery in 1972 , p . 89 , suggested Peake was active as late as 1635 . His will was made on 10 October 1619 and proved on the 16th . The date of his burial is unknown because the Great Fire of London later destroyed the registers of his parish church , St Sepulchre @-@ without @-@ Newgate . This was a time of several deaths in the artistic community . Nicholas Hilliard had died in January ; Queen Anne , who had done so much to patronise the arts , in March ; and the painter William Larkin , Peake ’ s neighbour , in April or May . Though James I reigned until 1625 , art historian Roy Strong considers that the year 1619 " can satisfactorily be accepted as the terminal date of Jacobean painting " .
= = Paintings = =
It is difficult to attribute and date portraits of this period because painters rarely signed their work , and their workshops produced portraits en masse , often sharing standard portrait patterns . Some paintings , however , have been attributed to Peake on the basis of the method of inscribing the year and the sitter 's age on his documented portrait of a " military commander " ( 1592 ) , which reads : " M.BY.RO. | PEAKE " ( " made by Robert Peake " ) . Art historian Ellis Waterhouse , however , suspected that the letterer may have worked for more than one studio .
= = = Procession Picture = = =
The painting known as Queen Elizabeth going in procession to Blackfriars in 1601 , or simply The Procession Picture ( see illustration ) , is now often accepted as the work of Peake . The attribution was made by Roy Strong , who called it " one of the great visual mysteries of the Elizabethan age " . It is an example of the convention , prevalent in the later part of her reign , of painting Elizabeth as an icon , portraying her as much younger and more triumphant than she was . As Strong puts it , " [ t ] his is Gloriana in her sunset glory , the mistress of the set piece , of the calculated spectacular presentation of herself to her adoring subjects " . George Vertue , the eighteenth @-@ century antiquarian , called the painting " not well nor ill done " .
Strong reveals that the procession was connected to the marriage of Henry Somerset , Lord Herbert , and Lady Anne Russell , one of the queen ’ s six maids of honour , on 16 June 1600 . He identifies many of the individuals portrayed in the procession and shows that instead of a litter , as was previously assumed , Queen Elizabeth is sitting on a wheeled cart or chariot . Strong also suggests that the landscape and castles in the background are not intended to be realistic . In accordance with Elizabethan stylistic conventions , they are emblematic , here representing the Welsh properties of Edward Somerset , Earl of Worcester , to which his son Lord Herbert was the heir . The earl may have commissioned the picture to celebrate his appointment as Master of the Queen ’ s Horse in 1601 .
Peake clearly did not paint the queen , or indeed the courtiers , from life but from the " types " or standard portraits used by the workshops of the day . Portraits of the queen were subject to restrictions , and from about 1594 there seems to have been an official policy that she always be depicted as youthful . In 1594 , the Privy council ordered that unseemly portraits of the queen be found and destroyed , since they caused Elizabeth " great offence " . The famous Ditchley portrait ( c . 1592 ) , by Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger , was used as a type , sometimes called the " Mask of Youth " face @-@ pattern , for the remainder of the reign . It is clear that Gheeraerts ' portrait provided the pattern for the queen ’ s image in the procession picture . Other figures also show signs of being traced from patterns , leading to infelicities of perspective and proportion .
= = = Full @-@ length portraits = = =
At the beginning of the 1590s , the full @-@ length portrait came into vogue and artistic patrons among the nobles began to add galleries of such paintings to their homes as a form of cultural ostentation . Peake was one of those who met the demand . He was also among the earliest English painters to explore the full @-@ length individual or group portrait with active figures placed in a natural landscape , a style of painting that became fashionable in England . As principal painter to Prince Henry , Peake seems to have been charged with showing his patron as a dashing young warrior .
In 1603 , he painted a double portrait , now in the Metropolitan Museum , New York , of the prince and his boyhood friend John Harington , son of Lord Harington of Exton ( see above ) . The double portrait is set outdoors , a style introduced by Gheeraerts in the 1590s , and Peake 's combination of figures with animals and landscape also foreshadows the genre of the sporting picture . The country location and recreational subject lend the painting an air of informality . The action is natural to the setting , a fenced deer @-@ park with a castle and town in the distance . Harington holds a wounded stag by the antlers as Henry draws his sword to deliver the coup de grâce . The prince wears at his belt a jewel of St George slaying the dragon , an allusion to his role as defender of the realm . His sword is an attribute of kingship , and the young noble kneels in his service . The stag is a fallow deer , a non @-@ native species kept at that time in royal parks for hunting . A variant of this painting in the Royal Collection , painted c . 1605 , features Robert Devereux , 3rd Earl of Essex , in the place of John Harington and displays the Devereux arms .
In the same year , Peake also painted his first portrait of James I 's only surviving daughter , Elizabeth . This work , like the double portrait , for which it might be a companion piece , appears to have been painted for the Harington family , who acted as Elizabeth 's guardians from 1603 to 1608 . In the background of Elizabeth 's portrait is a hunting scene echoing that of the double portrait , and two ladies sit on an artificial mound of a type fashionable in garden design at the time .
Peake again painted Henry outdoors in about 1610 . In this portrait , now at the Royal Palace of Turin , the prince looks hardly older than in the 1603 double portrait ; but his left foot rests on a shield bearing the three @-@ feathers device of the Prince of Wales , a title he did not hold until 1610 . Henry is portrayed as a young man of action , about to draw a jewel @-@ encrusted sword from its scabbard . The portrait was almost certainly sent to Savoy in connection with a marriage proposed in January 1611 between Henry and the Infanta Maria , daughter of Charles Emmanuel I , Duke of Savoy .
James I 's daughter Elizabeth was also a valuable marriage pawn . She too was offered to Savoy , as a bride for the Prince of Piedmont , the heir of Charles Emanuel . The exchange of portraits as part of royal marriage proposals was the practice of the day and provided regular work for the royal painters and their workshops . Prince Henry commissioned portraits from Peake to send them to the various foreign courts with which marriage negotiations were underway . The prince ’ s accounts show , for example , that the two portraits Peake painted of him in arms in 1611 – 12 were " sent beyond the seas " .
A surviving portrait from this time shows the prince in armour , mounted on a white horse and pulling the winged figure of Father Time by the forelock . Art historian John Sheeran suggests this is a classical allusion that signifies opportunity . The old man carries Henry 's lance and plumed helmet ; and scholar Chris Caple points out that his pose is similar to that of Albrecht Dürer 's figure of death in Knight , Death and the Devil ( 1513 ) . He also observes that the old man was painted later than other components of the painting , since the bricks of the wall show through his wings . When the painting was restored in 1985 , the wall and the figure of time were revealed to modern eyes for the first time , having been painted over at some point in the seventeenth century by other hands than Peake 's . The painting has also been cut down , the only original canvas edge being that on the left .
= = = Lady Elizabeth Pope = = =
Peake 's portrait of Lady Elizabeth Pope may have been commissioned by her husband , Sir William Pope , to commemorate their marriage in 1615 . Lady Elizabeth is portrayed with her hair loose , a symbol of bridal virginity . She wears a draped mantle — embroidered with seed pearls in a pattern of ostrich plumes — and a matching turban . The mantle knotted on one shoulder was worn in Jacobean court masques , as the costume designs of Inigo Jones indicate . The painting ’ s near @-@ nudity , however , makes the depiction of an actual masque costume unlikely . Loose hair and the classical draped mantle also figure in contemporary personifications of abstract concepts in masques and paintings . Yale art historian Ellen Chirelstein argues that Peake is portraying Lady Elizabeth as a personification of America , since her father , Sir Thomas Watson , was a major shareholder in the Virginia Company .
= = = Assessment = = =
In 1598 , Francis Meres , in his Palladis Tamia , included Peake on a list of the best English artists . In 1612 , Henry Peacham wrote in The Gentleman 's Exercise that his " good friend Mr Peake " , along with Marcus Gheeraerts , was outstanding " for oil colours " . Ellis Waterhouse suggested that the genre of elaborate costume pieces was as much a decorative as a plastic art . He notes that these works , the " enamelled brilliance " of which has become apparent through cleaning , are unique in European art and deserve respect . They were produced chiefly by the workshops of Peake , Gheeraerts the Younger , and De Critz . Sheeran detects the influence of Hilliard ’ s brightly patterned and coloured miniatures in Peake ’ s work and places Peake firmly in the " iconic tradition of late Elizabethan painting " . He employed techniques from European Mannerism and followed the artificial and decorative style characteristic of Elizabethan painting . By the time he was appointed serjeant @-@ painter in 1607 , his compelling and semi @-@ naive style was somewhat old fashioned compared with De Critz and other contemporaries . However , Peake 's portraits of Prince Henry are the first to show his subject in ‘ action ’ poses .
Sheeran believes that Peake 's creativity waned into conservatism , his talent " dampened by mass production " . He describes Peake 's Cambridge portrait , Prince Charles , as Duke of York as poorly drawn , with a lifeless pose , in a stereotyped composition that " confirms the artist 's reliance on a much repeated formula in his later years " . Art historian and curator Karen Hearn , on the other hand , praises the work as " magnificent " and draws attention to the naturalistically rendered note pinned to the curtain . Peake painted the portrait to mark Charles ’ s visit to Cambridge on 3 and 4 March 1613 , during which he was awarded an M.A. — four months after the death of his brother . Depicting Prince Charles wearing the Garter and Lesser George , Peake here reverts to a more formal , traditional style of portraiture . The note pinned to a curtain of cloth of gold , painted in trompe @-@ l 'œil fashion , commemorates Charles ’ s visit in Latin . X @-@ rays of the portrait reveal that Peake painted it over another portrait . Pentimenti , or signs of alteration , can be detected : for example , Charles ’ s right hand originally rested on his waist .
= = Gallery = =
= 2 / 17th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 2 / 17th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . Raised in April 1940 in New South Wales , it formed part of the 20th Brigade , and was eventually allocated to the 9th Division . After completing basic training in Australia , the unit was deployed to the Middle East . In early 1941 , it took part in the fighting at Tobruk , defending the port until relieved . A period of garrison duties followed in Syria and Lebanon before the battalion took part in the First and Second Battles of El Alamein in mid @-@ 1942 . As the focus of the Australian Army 's operations shifted to the Pacific theatre to fight the Japanese , the 2 / 17th Battalion returned to Australia early in 1943 .
In 1943 – 44 , the battalion fought in New Guinea , conducting an amphibious landing as part of operations to capture Lae in early September at the end of the Salamaua – Lae campaign , before participating in the follow @-@ up landing on the Huon Peninsula as Japanese forces withdrew inland from Lae . In early 1944 , the battalion was withdrawn to Australia for rest and reorganisation and a long period of inactivity followed before it returned to combat . Its final campaign came late in the war when it was committed to the fighting in Borneo in June 1945 , landing on Brunei . Following the end of the war , the battalion was disbanded in early 1946 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
Formed for service during the World War II , the 2 / 17th Battalion was raised on 26 April 1940 from Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) volunteers at Ingleburn , New South Wales . With an authorised strength of around 900 personnel , like other Australian infantry battalions of the time , the 2 / 17th was formed around a nucleus of four rifle companies – designated ' A ' through to ' D ' – each consisting of three platoons ; these were supported by a battalion headquarters and a headquarters company with six specialist platoons : signals , pioneer , anti @-@ aircraft , transport , administrative and mortars .
Upon formation , the battalion was placed under the command of Lieutenant Colonel John Crawford , who had previously served in the Militia and commanded the Sydney University Regiment and the 4th Battalion . The colours initially chosen for the battalion 's Unit Colour Patch ( UCP ) were the same as those of the 17th Battalion , a unit which had served during World War I before being raised as a Militia formation in 1921 . These colours were black over green , in a diamond shape , although a border of gray was added to the UCP to distinguish the battalion from its Militia counterpart ; this was later changed , though , following the unit 's involvement in the fighting at Tobruk , when it adopted a ' T ' -shaped UCP .
After completing individual training at Ingleburn , the battalion moved on foot to Bathurst to complete collective training . Following this , the 2 / 17th embarked for the Middle East from Sydney on 20 October 1940 , on board the Queen Mary . Moving in convoy the Queen Mary briefly stopped in Fremantle , before continuing to Bombay in early November where the battalion was disembarked . Following a few days in camp ashore they were transferred to the Rohna for the next leg of the voyage . The convoy continued , sailing via the African coast into the Gulf of Aden and then through the Suez Canal , before finally berthing at El Kantara in Egypt . The battalion was assigned to the 20th Brigade , along with the 2 / 13th and 2 / 15th Battalions , which were initially allocated to the 7th Division ; however , following its arrival in the Middle East in November 1940 , the battalion was transferred along with the rest of the brigade to the 9th Division .
= = = Middle East = = =
Arriving in the Middle East in late November , the battalion undertook further training near Gaza in Palestine , before moving to Port Said in mid @-@ December to relieve the garrison there . Returning to Palestine in early January they conducted a number of exercises until late February . In March 1941 the battalions of the 9th Division were sent into the desert to relieve the 6th Division that was deploying to Greece ; as part of this the 2 / 17th garrisoned Mersa Brega , near Tripoli . Shortly after this , the Germans landed forces in Africa to reinforce the Italians and the British forces in Libya were forced to retreat from Benghazi to the strategically important port town of Tobruk . The 2 / 17th fell back as part of the general retreat and subsequently took part in the defence of Tobruk , remaining there for almost seven months during which time the battalion 's personnel alternated between conducting patrols in no man 's land , raiding , occupying the main defensive position and working in the rear areas . On the night of 13 / 14 April 1941 , a party of about 30 Germans broke into the Australian position and set up eight machine @-@ guns , a couple of mortars and two field guns . Seeing this , the nearest platoon commander , Lieutenant Austin Mackell , launched a counterattack with a small party of men consisting of one corporal and five soldiers . Covered by fire from a position on their flank , the small party was able to successfully attack the position , and as a result , Corporal John Edmondson , who single @-@ handedly accounted for a number of Germans despite being mortally wounded , was later posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross , the nation 's highest military decoration . It was the first such award to a member of the 2nd AIF . The battalion 's losses during the fighting around Tobruk , including the withdrawal prior to the siege , consisted of 32 dead from all causes , 127 wounded and 14 captured .
Following their relief from Tobruk by units of the British 70th Division , the 2 / 17th Battalion was evacuated by the sea to Alexandria , and then moved to Palestine , arriving there in mid @-@ October , establishing a camp at Julis . Shortly afterwards , a company was detached from the battalion to undertake guard duties in Broumane , in Syria , and in January 1942 the rest of the battalion followed . There , they were tasked with undertaking garrison duties as part of the occupation force that had been established there after the Syria – Lebanon campaign , to defend against a possible German attack on the Allied flank through the Caucasus . Relieving the 2 / 12th Battalion , the battalion established itself around Afrine , north of Aleppo ; in March , after the 2nd New Zealand Division arrived , the battalion moved to Latakia .
Later , in July , as Axis forces launched an offensive in the Western Desert that threatened Egypt , during the First Battle of El Alamein the units of the 9th Division were moved back to North Africa to help stem the advance . The 2 / 17th Battalion subsequently carried out a blocking operation and then occupied a position around Tel el Eisa , from where it conducted patrols and observed German movements . In September , the 2 / 17th was relieved by the 2 / 15th Battalion , and went into reserve around Shammama to prepare for further operations . The battalion was subsequently tasked with active patrolling in the area , and clashed with German parties on a number of occasions , while its positions were also heavily shelled on a number of occasions which resulted in a few casualties . Meanwhile , several exercises and other training was undertaken prior to the upcoming offensive . During this time it had an effective strength of 30 officers and 731 other ranks .
In late October and early November 1942 , the battalion took part in the Second Battle of El Alamein as the British Commonwealth forces went on the offensive . Engaged on the right of the Allied line around the coast , at dawn on 24 October , the Australians left their assembly area and advanced westward astride the coast road towards Tel el Eisa , and then cut inland towards the " Kidney Ridge " , with the 2 / 17th on the right of the brigade during the initial advance , attacking with three companies forward . As the battle continued , they endured heavy counterattacks as the Germans sought to regain control of the strategically important coast road . Once these had been repelled , the focus of the fighting shifted away from the Australians as British forces were able to launch a break out , which subsequently forced the Germans to withdraw . The 9th Division was subsequently withdrawn to Gaza . During the battle , the 2 / 17th was heavily committed , losing 62 men killed in action or died of wounds , 203 wounded and four captured .
= = = Pacific = = =
In early 1943 , along with the rest of the 9th Division , the battalion was brought back to Australia in order to take part in fighting against the Japanese in the Pacific . This was the final stage in the withdrawal of the 2nd AIF divisions from the Middle East , as the Australian Army 's focus had shifted to operations in the Pacific theatre against the Japanese . As part of this process the 6th and 7th Divisions had been brought back to Australia earlier the previous year . Embarking upon the transport Aquitania on 27 January 1943 , the battalion sailed as part of a large convoy established as part of Operation Pamphlet ; this convoy included the transports Ile de France , Nieuw Amsterdam , and the armed merchant cruiser Queen of Bermuda , and was escorted by HMS Devonshire and several destroyers . The voyage lasted a month , with the troops arriving in Sydney on 27 February .
Converted to the jungle divisional establishment on their return to Australia , the battalions of the 9th Division were reorganised to prepare them for the rigours of jungle warfare . This saw their establishment drop to around 800 men , and the loss of much of their vehicles and heavy equipment . Following training on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland , the battalion was deployed to New Guinea where it took part in the Salamaua – Lae and Huon Peninsula campaigns in 1943 – 44 . During this time , after concentrating at Milne Bay in August 1943 , the 2 / 17th was involved in the first amphibious landing conducted by Australian soldiers since the landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915 , when it took part in the landing at Lae as part of Operation Postern on 4 September 1943 . Lae fell more quickly than the Allied planners expected , and as a result , a quick follow @-@ up operation was planned to secure the Huon Peninsula . On 22 September , the battalion landed at Scarlet Beach and , tasked with securing the beachhead and the flank , proceeded to move inland towards Sattelberg as part of efforts to capture Finschhafen . Finding their way blocked , the battalion later took part in significant actions around Jivevaneng and Kumawa , and then , after Sattelberg finally fell , the drive towards Sio . The battalion 's casualties during this time amounted to 53 killed in action , 10 died of wounds , five died from accident , and 160 wounded in action .
In March 1944 , the battalion returned to Australia for rest and re @-@ organisation , sailing on the transport Clip Fontain . Although the Australian Army had been heavily committed to combat operations in the Pacific in the early years of the war against Japan , by 1944 the United States military had assumed primary responsibility for combat operations in the Pacific and this had resulted in uncertainty about the role of the Australian Army in future operations . As a result , a long period of training followed , and there was a significant turn over of personnel within the 9th Division as many men were discharged due to medical reasons or transferred to other units and young replacements were brought in . After concentrating at Ravenshoe in May 1944 , the battalion was rebuilt , focusing on individual training and then collective training up to battalion level . After this , in September 1944 , the battalion moved to Trinity Beach , close to Cairns , where amphibious training was conducted . Further training continued throughout October and November 1944 . At the end of the year , the tempo dropped off and the battalion 's personnel were occupied with sporting activities prior to leave in February and March 1945 . Finally , in early May 1945 , the battalion moved to Townsville where it boarded the transport David C. Shanks , bound for Morotai Island .
On Morotai , the 2 / 17th concentrated along with the rest of the 9th Division , which had been allocated to take part in operations to recapture Borneo as part of Operation Oboe . The battalion 's part in this plan saw them land on Brunei on 10 June 1945 as part of Operation Oboe Six . Coming ashore near Brooketon , the battalion took part in capturing the capital before dispatching companies to secure individual objectives in the outlying areas as the Australians advanced along the coast towards the oilfields at Seria . In mid @-@ July , ' D ' Company carried out a patrol along the Baram River on board HMAS Tiger Snake . On 13 August , following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , the order to cease offensive action was received from 20th Brigade headquarters and two days later the war came to an end with Japan 's capitulation . Despite this , it was not until 10 September that the Japanese on Borneo formally surrendered , and the bulk of the battalion remained deployed until the end of the month . During this time they were involved in ensuring all Japanese forces in the area received the surrender instructions and complied with them , and with collecting and escorting surrendered Japanese soldiers and former Indian prisoners of war , with the battalion 's last operation being completed in early October . The battalion 's final campaign cost 24 men killed or wounded .
= = = Disbandment = = =
Following the end of hostilities the demobilisation process began , and personnel began to be repatriated to Australia to return to civilian life or were transferred to units of the 34th Brigade for further service during the occupation of Japan . On 29 October , the battalion was declared " redundant " and was transferred to Labuan having been withdrawn from the Seria area ; personnel were subsequently occupied with various sporting competitions and education programs intended to help them transition into civilian life upon their return to Australia . This return was eagerly awaited , but the Australian troops remained for several months until British and Indian troops arrived to relieve the 9th Division of its occupation duties . In mid @-@ December what remained of the 2 / 17th embarked upon the Pachaug Victory for the return to Australia . Arriving in Brisbane , from there the battalion 's personnel moved to Sydney and went on Christmas leave . On 8 February 1946 , while at Ingleburn , the 2 / 17th Battalion was disbanded .
During the course of the war , a total of 2 @,@ 903 personnel served in the battalion , of whom 177 were killed in action or died of wounds , three died on active service , 542 were wounded in action and 18 were taken prisoner . Members of the 2 / 17th received the following decorations : one Victoria Cross , four Distinguished Service Orders and one bar , one British Empire Medal , 11 Military Crosses , three Distinguished Conduct Medals , 11 Military Medals and 46 Mentions in Despatches . In addition , three members of the battalion were appointed Officers of the Order of the British Empire , and one was appointed as a Member of the Order of the British Empire . In 1997 , a memorial to the 2 / 17th Battalion was built at Jivevaneng .
= = Battle honours = =
For their service during World War II , the 2 / 17th Battalion received the following battle honours :
North Africa 1941 – 42 , Defence of Tobruk , El Adem Road , El Alamein , Alam el Halfa , South @-@ West Pacific 1943 – 45 , Lae – Nadzab , Finschhafen , Scarlet Beach , Defence of Scarlet Beach , Jivenaneng – Kumawa , Liberation of Australian New Guinea , Sio , Borneo , Brunei .
In 1961 , these battle honours were entrusted to the 17th / 18th Battalion ( North Shore Regiment ) , which had been formed in 1948 , when Australia 's part @-@ time military force was re @-@ raised under the guise of the Citizens Military Force . Through a series of re @-@ organisations , these battle honours were passed to the 2nd / 17th Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment , an Australian Army Reserve infantry battalion that is currently based in central New South Wales .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers served as commanding officer of the 2 / 17th Battalion :
Lieutenant Colonel John Crawford ( 26 April 1940 – 14 January 1942 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Maurice Fergusson ( 15 January 1942 – 6 March 1942 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Noel Simpson ( 7 March 1942 – 27 February 1944 ) ; and
Lieutenant Colonel John Broadbent ( 28 February 1944 – 8 February 1946 ) .
= Final Resolution ( 2006 ) =
Final Resolution ( 2006 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion that took place on January 15 , 2006 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the second event under the Final Resolution name and first event of the 2006 TNA PPV schedule . Nine professional wrestling matches and two pre @-@ show matches were featured on the event 's card , two of which were for championships .
The main event was a tag team match pitting the team of Christian Cage and Sting against the team of Jeff Jarrett and Monty Brown . The team of Cage and Sting won the encounter . The TNA X Division Championship was defended by Samoa Joe against Christopher Daniels at the event , which Joe won to retain the title . America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) defeated Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) to retain the NWA World Tag Team Championship at the show . On the undercard , Sean Waltman fought Raven in a No Disqualification match with the stipulation that if Raven lost , he would be fired from TNA . Waltman won the encounter , causing Raven to be fired from TNA in the storyline .
Final Resolution is remembered for the TNA debut of Sting , which was ranked as the 2nd greatest moment in the company 's history due to it marking Sting 's return to national television after five years . Bob Kapur of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the show a 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 , lower than the ratings given to the 2005 and 2007 installments .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) announced in early October 2005 that their January PPV would once again be called Final Resolution , until they pulled this release from their website . TNA later reinstated this piece of information with the official date of the show being January 15 , 2006 at the TNA Impact Zone in Orlando , Florida . TNA created a section of their website to promote the event . A promotional poster for the show was released prior by TNA featuring Christopher Daniels and Samoa Joe . A thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show was scheduled to take place prior to the telecast featuring two wrestling matches .
= = = Storylines = = =
Final Resolution featured nine professional wrestling matches and two pre @-@ show matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event at Final Resolution was a Tag Team match pitting the team of Christian Cage and Sting against the team of Jeff Jarrett and Monty Brown . The background to this match began at TNA 's Genesis PPV event on November 13 , 2005 where Cage made his debut proclaiming he wanted to win the NWA World Heavyweight Championship held by Jarrett . TNA advertised a major announcement to take place at their previous PPV event Turning Point on December 11 , 2005 . The announcement was the acquisition of Sting as a newly signed wrestler to the TNA roster . Cage then went on to defeat Brown at Turning Point to become number @-@ one contender to the title . This match was announced on the December 31 , 2005 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! .
The TNA X Division Championship was defended at Final Resolution by then @-@ champion Samoa Joe against the challenger Christopher Daniels . This rivalry started at TNA 's Sacrifice PPV event on August 14 when Joe won the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament to become number @-@ one contender to the TNA X Division Championship held by Daniels . Joe went on to compete against A.J. Styles and Daniels in a Three Way match at TNA 's Unbreakable PPV event on September 11 , which Styles won to become the new champion . At Genesis , Joe and Daniels competed in a Four @-@ on @-@ Four Tag Team Elimination X match , which Joe and Daniels ' team won . After the bout , Joe attacked and injured Daniels , thus sidelining him in the storyline . Joe then went on to defeat Styles at Turning Point to become the new TNA X Division Champion . After their match , Joe attacked Styles and attempted to injure Styles in a manner similar to the way he injured Daniels . At this time Daniels returned from injury to save Styles from the attack . TNA promoted this match for Final Resolution on the January 7 , 2006 episode of Impact ! .
The NWA World Tag Team Championship was defended by then @-@ champions America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ; AMW ) against Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) at the event . The storyline behind this match began on the October 8 , 2005 episode of Impact ! where AMW and Jeff Jarrett assaulted Team 3D to the point they were left covered in blood . Afterwards , Team 3D were not seen due to a scripted injury , with Jarrett , AMW , and Team Canada ( A @-@ 1 , Bobby Roode , Eric Young , Petey Williams , and Coach Scott D 'Amore ) hosting a segment where they buried Team 3D 's careers on the October 15 , 2005 episode of Impact ! . Team 3D made their return from injury at TNA 's Bound for Glory PPV event on October 23 , 2005 attacking Jarrett and AMW . At Genesis , Team 3D teamed with Rhino to defeat AMW and Jarrett in a Six Man Tag Team match . At Turning Point , Team 3D defeated AMW in a Tag Team Elimination Tables match . TNA advertised Team 3D versus AMW for the tag team championship to take place at the event .
Raven and NWA Championship Committee member Larry Zybysko were involved in a rivalry heading into Final Resolution . At Bound for Glory , Raven requested an NWA World Heavyweight Championship match but was denied by Zybysko . This led to Raven assaulting him before being ejected from the arena by security in the storyline . At Genesis , Zybysko offered Raven the chance to be released from his contract , as this was what Zybysko wanted in the storyline . Raven declined the offer and tried to attack Zybysko once again . Instead , Zybysko forced Raven to face P.J. Polaco in a match , which Raven won . This led to Turning Point where Raven once again declined an offer to be released . Zybysko then revealed Chris K as Raven 's opponent for the night ; Raven was victorious in the encounter . On the December 17 , 2005 episode of Impact ! , Zybysko announced that at Final Resolution Raven would have another opponent and if he won the bout then he gained a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship match .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ Show = = =
Prior to the airing of Final Resolution , TNA held a thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show . During the broadcast , Team Canada ( A @-@ 1 , Eric Young , and Petey Williams ) faced the team of Jay Lethal , Kenny King , and Lance Hoyt in a Six Man Tag Team match that lasted 5 minutes and 54 seconds . Williams pinned Lethal after forcing Lethal head @-@ first into the mat with his signature Canadian Destroyer maneuver . Another contest was held , with The Latin American Exchange ( Homicide and Konnan ) defeating The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) in 3 minutes and 50 seconds . Homicide pinned Stevens after Konnan hit Stevens with a slapjack .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Final Resolution featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast . Jeremy Borash and David Penzer were the ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson participated as referees for the encounters . Shane Douglas handled the interview duties during the show . Besides employees who appeared in a wrestling role , Coach D 'Amore , Gail Kim , Simon Diamond , Traci , Shannon Moore , Larry Zybysko , and James Mitchell all appeared on camera , either in backstage or in ringside segments .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The opening bout was a Six Man Tag Team match pitting the team of Alex Shelley , Austin Aries , and Roderick Strong against the team of Chris Sabin , Matt Bentley , and Sonjay Dutt . Traci accompanied Bentley to the ring . Shelley won the match for his team by using a small package pin on Bentley at 10 minutes and 32 seconds .
The James Gang ( Kip James and B.G. James ) fought The Diamonds in the Rough ( David Young and Elix Skipper ) next . Simon Diamond accompanied The Diamonds in the Rough to the ring . The duration of this contest was 7 minutes and 47 seconds . Kip pinned Skipper after a Missouri Boat Ride .
The third encounter was between A.J. Styles and Hiroshi Tanahashi , which lasted 11 minutes and 3 seconds . During the bout , Shannon Moore interfered trying to hit Styles with Styles ' Mr. TNA plague . Styles dodged the assault , causing Tanahashi to take the blow . Styles followed up by slamming Tanahashi face @-@ first into the mat with his signature Styles Clash maneuver and pinned him to win the bout .
Following the third match , Larry Zybysko revealed that Raven 's opponent for the night was Sean Waltman . The two then fought in a No Disqualification match with the stipulation that if Raven won he gained a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship match , but if he lost he would be fired from TNA . During the bout , the referee was knocked out with Zbyszko taking over his duties . Waltman won the contest after forcing Raven face @-@ first off of a ladder through a table with his signature X @-@ Factor maneuver . Zbyszko counted the pin despite Raven 's foot on the bottom rope at 10 minutes . As a result of his loss , Raven was fired from TNA in the storyline .
The following contest pitted Bobby Roode , who was accompanied by Coach D 'Amore , against Ron Killings . The duration of the match was 9 minutes and 53 seconds . Konnan interfered in the bout distracting Killings , which allowed Roode to sneak up behind Killings and hit him in the back of the head with Roode 's signature Northern Lariat maneuver .
The sixth encounter was between Abyss and Rhino , which lasted 9 minutes and 18 seconds . James Mitchell accompanied Abyss to the ring . Mitchell interfered in the contest by distracting the referee , allowing Abyss to bash Rhino with a steel chain . Abyss was the victor in the bout after slamming Rhino back @-@ first onto a steel chair with his signature Black Hole Slam maneuver .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The NWA World Tag Team Championship was defended by America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ; AMW ) against Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) next . Gail Kim accompanied AMW to the ring . Mid @-@ way through the bout , Team 3D performed their signature Whassup ? maneuver on Storm . Kim interfered in the bout , distracting the referee . Around this time , Devon retrieved a table from under the ring which both teams used as a weapon , however the referee did not disqualify anyone for the usage . AMW earned a near @-@ fall after a bearhug and a lariat combination on Ray . Team 3D followed with their own near @-@ fall on Harris , after they performed their signature Deadly Device maneuver on Storm . After this , Kim interfered trying to blow powder into Ray 's eyes , only for Ray to stop her and blow it back into her and the referee 's eyes . With the referee blinded , Team 3D performed their signature 3D maneuver on Harris and the referee counted the pin . Team Canada then attacked 3D , knocking out Ray in the process with a hockey stick . They placed Harris on top of Ray and left the ring . After the referee regained his vision , he declared AMW the victors at 12 minutes and 41 seconds .
Samoa Joe defended the TNA X Division Championship against Christopher Daniels in the eighth match of the show . Mid @-@ way through the contest , Joe avoided a moonsault by Daniels by casually walking away , a trademark action of his persona . Daniels earned a near @-@ fall after forcing Joe against the mat with a modified Death Valley Driver from the top of a padded turnbuckle . Joe followed up with his own near @-@ fall by slamming Daniels back @-@ first against the mat from the turnbuckle with a powerbomb . Daniels then performed his signature Best Moonsault Ever maneuver , gaining another near @-@ fall . Their fight spilled to the ringside area where Joe positioned Daniels ' head against the guardrail and kicked it against the rail . This move resulted in Daniels bleeding from the forehead , which Joe targeted for the rest of the bout . At this time , A.J. Styles came down to the ringside area . Joe performed his signature Muscle Buster maneuver and followed up by attempting to place Daniels in his trademarked Coquina Clutch submission maneuver , which Daniels fought off . Joe then dropped Daniels from the top of a turnbuckle onto a chair and continued to target Daniels ' bleeding forehead . With Daniels unconscious in the storyline , A.J. Styles threw in the towel for Daniels to stop the match at 15 minutes and 30 seconds , resulting in Joe being declared the victor .
The main event was a tag team match pitting the team of Christian Cage and Sting against the team of Jeff Jarrett and Monty Brown . The duration of the encounter was 15 minutes and 35 seconds . Jarrett was accompanied by Gail Kim . Cage and Brown started the match before they both quickly tagged in their partners . Kim interfered by distracting the referee , allowing Jarrett to hit Cage in the groin and throw him to the ringside mat . Kim then assaulted Cage in the ringside area . After several minutes of Jarrett and Brown having the advantage over a beaten Cage , Sting was tagged into the match and placed Jarrett in his signature Scorpion Deathlock submission maneuver . Jarrett submitted to the maneuver , but the referee was unconscious . Team Canada then interfered in the bout , attacking Cage and Sting . Jarrett bashed Sting in the face with the NWA World Heavyweight Championship belt and covered for a near @-@ fall once the referee regained consciousness . Afterwards , Sting forced Jarrett 's head into the ring mat with his trademark Scorpion Death Drop maneuver and covered for the pinfall victory .
= = Reception = =
A total of 900 people attended Final Resolution . Canadian Online Explorer writer Bob Kapur rated the entire event a 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 , which was lower than the rating given to the 2005 installment . It was also lower than the 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 the 2007 event was given by Chris Sokol . The Final Resolution ranking was lower than Turning Point 's rating , which received a 7 out of 10 from Kapur . TNA 's next PPV event , Against All Odds , on February 12 , 2006 was also ranked higher than Final Resolution ; it received a rating of 7 out of 10 from Jason Clevett . Compared to rival World Wrestling Entertainment 's ( WWE ) Royal Rumble PPV event which took place the same month , Final Resolution was ranked lower as Royal Rumble was given a 7 out of 10 by Dale Plummer and Nick Tylwalk .
The highest rating given by Kapur to an individual match went to the TNA X Division Championship bout , with an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The opening Six Man Tag Team match , the No Disqualification match , Bobby Roode versus
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illes . Late on August 20 , the storm moved across Martinique into the Caribbean Sea , during which its low @-@ level circulation became disorganized .
As Tropical Storm Dorothy moved further into the Caribbean Sea , it began a gradual weakening trend initiated by a persistent tropical upper tropospheric trough , as well as the presence of strong wind shear and a lack of inflow . Hurricane Hunter flights late on August 21 and early on August 22 failed to locate a closed low @-@ level circulation , and as a result the storm was downgraded to a tropical depression . After another flight into the system could not detect a circulation , the NHC discontinued advisories on Dorothy to the south of Hispaniola late on August 22 . Around the same time , thunderstorms increased in association with the cyclone , and forecasters remarked the potential for re @-@ intensification over the western Caribbean Sea . However , the storm became more disorganized , and on August 23 Dorothy degenerated into a tropical wave .
= = Preparations and impact = =
After the first tropical cyclone advisory was issued on Tropical Storm Dorothy , a hurricane watch and storm warning were issued for the Leeward Islands from Dominica northward . As its westward track became more apparent , the watches and warnings were extended southward to include Martinique and Saint Lucia . On Martinique , authorities released a statement that warned the public for the potential for strong winds , heavy rainfall , and rough waves . Also on the island , officials converted schools and government buildings into shelters for people in low @-@ lying areas . As a result of the storm , the Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport in Le Lamentin was closed .
The storm dropped heavy rainfall while crossing the Lesser Antilles . In Martinique , the highest 24 ‑ hour total was 26 @.@ 8 inches ( 680 mm ) in Fourniols , which was twice the average rainfall for August . Additionally , the capital city of Fort @-@ de @-@ France reported 13 @.@ 4 in ( 341 mm ) . There , the rainfall broke all records for durations up to 24 hours ; about 1 inch ( 26 mm ) fell in 5 minutes , and in one hour a station reported 6 @.@ 02 inches ( 153 mm ) . The rainfall caused flooding and mudslides , as well as rivers exceeding their banks ; several bridges collapsed during the storm , and many homes were washed away . During the passage of the storm , sustained winds on the island reached 67 mph ( 108 km / h ) , with gusts reaching 99 mph ( 160 km / h ) in the Caravelle peninsula . Throughout the country , the storm destroyed 186 homes and left 700 people homeless . The passage of Dorothy left heavy crop damage on the island , totaling 32 million francs ( 1970 FRF , $ 5 @.@ 8 million 1970 USD ) ; a total of 3 @.@ 75 mi ² ( 9 @.@ 72 km ² ) of banana crop was destroyed , and 2 @.@ 16 mi ² ( 5 @.@ 6 km ² ) of sugar cane was destroyed . Damage on the island totaled 190 million francs ( 1970 FRF , $ 34 million 1970 USD ) .
Tropical Storm Dorothy caused several deaths on Martinique , although the exact death toll is unknown . The National Hurricane Center reported 50 deaths , although the post event report provided by the French meteorological agency reported 44 people dead or missing . Most of the deaths were in Saint @-@ Joseph , where 20 people drowned in the Riviere l 'Or . Floodwater rescues had been made difficult due to washed out roads and poor communications after the storm . In addition to the deaths , several people were injured . After the passage of the storm , Martinique was temporarily left isolated , when communications were downed with other nearby islands . The French Red Cross distributed 500 blankets and one ton of condensed milk ; the agency also sought international assistance .
Elsewhere in the Lesser Antilles , the storm caused flooding and mudslides in Dominica . There , the storm caused one death , when flooding heavy rainfall washed out a bridge . Also , all of the capital city of Roseau lost power and water service due to the storm . In neighboring Guadeloupe , the storm left much of the banana crop destroyed . Later , after it entered the Caribbean Sea , small craft warnings were issued for the Leeward Islands , the Virgin Islands , and Puerto Rico . In its review of the storm , the National Hurricane Center did not mention any damage in the Greater Antilles .
= Last Exile =
Last Exile ( ラストエグザイル , Rasuto Eguzairu ) is a Japanese animated television series created by Gonzo . It featured a production team led by director Koichi Chigira , character designer Range Murata , and production designer Mahiro Maeda . The three had previously worked together in Blue Submarine No. 6 , one of the first CG anime series . Last Exile aired on TV Tokyo between April 7 , 2003 and September 29 , 2003 . A sequel series , Last Exile -Fam , The Silver Wing- ( ラストエグザイル ～ 銀翼のファム ～ , Rasuto Eguzairu Gin 'yoku no Famu ) , aired between October 15 , 2011 and March 23 , 2012 . A film adaptation of the series , Last Exile -Fam , The Silver Wing- : Over the Wishes , will be released on February 6 , 2016 .
The story is set on the fictional world of Prester , where its inhabitants use aerial vehicles known as vanships as a means of transportation . On this world which is divided in eternal conflict between the nations of Anatoray and Disith , sky couriers Claus Valca and Lavie Head must deliver a girl who holds the key to uniting the two factions . Although Prester itself is not a representation of Earth , it features technology reminiscent of nineteenth @-@ century Europe at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution . Many of its designs were also inspired by Germany 's technological advances during the interwar period .
Last Exile was well received in North America , and the series was licensed for the English language by Geneon Entertainment ( then Pioneer Entertainment ) in June 2003 , two months after the first episode aired in Japan . Funimation Entertainment began licensing the series after Geneon ceased production of its titles , later licensing the sequel series . It was also licensed for English releases in the United Kingdom by originally ADV Films until its closure in 2009 and is now licensed by Manga Entertainment , and in Australia by Madman Entertainment . Other published media included two soundtracks , two manga adaptions and artbooks .
= = Setting = =
Last Exile is set on the fictional world of Prester . Prester 's two nations of Anatoray and Disith are separated by a turbulent region of the sky known as the Grand Stream and are engaged in eternal conflict according to the code of chivalric warfare . A superior faction known as the Guild enforces these rules . It also provides the two nations with technology but , unknown to them , has dishonorable intentions , to preserve the status quo and enforce its dominance of both sides . Although the story is set in the future , the technology employed differs from that in a typical space opera . Instead , the show 's retro @-@ futuristic dieselpunk setting resembles nineteenth @-@ century Europe at the height of the Industrial Revolution . Inhabitants of Prester operate aerial vehicles known as vanships in the world 's Golden Age of Aviation ; it should be noted that although the technology is primitive , the aerial vehicles use a form of antigravity ( developed by the Guild ) and lighter @-@ than @-@ air methods of flight rather than the use of wings .
Various scenes in the series also show existing tension between the upper and lower classes . Anatoray 's nobility and military officers generally believe that commoners do not understand their codes of chivalry . On the other hand , the lower class also despise the aristocracy for their monopoly on resources . This tension extends to the accessibility of clean water , which varies in price according to purity grades . In the larger story , the advanced Guild society is portrayed as degenerate and lazy , while the people of Anatoray and Disith are creative and industrious .
The series introduces viewers to a wide range of naval and military vocabulary . More primitive navigational methods such as dead reckoning and instruments such as the sextant are also used in the series .
= = Plot = =
= = = Last Exile = = =
The story revolves around fifteen @-@ year @-@ old pilot Claus Valca and navigator Lavie Head , who fly their vanship as sky couriers in the nation of Anatoray . Although they usually take up missions of relatively low difficulty , they are one day asked to complete the mission of a dying courier . The mission , rated seven stars out of ten , is to deliver a young girl named Alvis Hamilton to the mysterious battleship Silvana . Despite their fears , Claus and Lavie deliver Alvis to the battleship but decide to remain aboard to keep her safe .
Claus and Lavie are initially treated as intruders but eventually befriend the crew of the Silvana . They learn that the Guild intends to capture Alvis for reasons unknown to them . In the first battle between the Silvana and Guild forces , Guild member Dio Eraclea takes an interest in Claus 's flying skills and his signature move , the Immelmann turn . Wanting to learn more about Claus , Dio willingly allows himself to be captured . He reveals to the Silvana 's captain , Alex Row , the existence of one of four Mysteria which act as a key to something known as Exile .
When the Silvana 's executive officer , Sophia Forrester , is revealed to be the Emperor 's daughter and heir , she returns to Anatoray at the request of the prime minister . Sophia assumes the throne after the Emperor is killed during a surprise attack at the capital by the Disith nation and pleads for an alliance with Disith in order to capture Exile and end the Guild 's control . Sophia reveals to Claus that Alvis is linked to the Mysteria , but as preparations for the assault are made , Alvis is captured by the Guild .
Delphine Eraclea , the Maestro of the Guild , reveals that Exile is a colony ship used by those who first settled their world , and she intends to use Alvis and the Mysteria to take control of it . However , Claus and Alvis escape the Guild stronghold and are reunited with Lavie when the alliance fleet attacks . As the fleet follows Exile past the Grand Stream and enters Disith , it is able to destroy Delphine 's forces . After Claus and Alvis recite the four Mysteria , Exile reveals itself as a starship that will carry people back to their old home world .
= = = Last Exile : Travelers from the Hourglass = = =
A manga set right after the events of Last Exile and before Fam , The Silver Wing , Travelers from the Hourglass continues the story of Claus , Lavie , Alvis , and the others who left Prester and settled on Earth , their ancestors ' home world . As they get used to their new home , Al is pursued by the Earth Guild .
= = = Last Exile : Fam , The Silver Wing = = =
Taking place 4 years after the events of Last Exile , Last Exile : Fam , The Silver Wing is set on Earth , the original home world of the colonists of Prester . The new story focuses on Fam Fan Fan and Giselle Collette , two vespa vanship pilots who work as Sky Pirates , capturing and selling battleships for a living .
Fam and Giselle get into an adventure when they and the Sky Pirates rescue Liliana il Grazioso Merlo Turan and her younger sister , Millia Il Velch Cutrettola Turan , Princesses of the Turan Kingdom , from the clutches of the mighty Ades Federation . The Federation , led by Empress Sārā Augusta and Premier Luscinia Hāfez , is on an all out war against nations who descended from immigrants who came back to Earth by Exile ships . As Ades was the only nation to stay on Earth when it was in a state of chaos and ruin , Luscinia believes that the Exile immigrants have no right to return to Earth since their ancestors abandoned Earth when it was in chaos only to return when Earth was viable to live on again and force the original inhabitants of Earth off their lands to form their own nations . To return these lands to their original inhabitants , Luscinia leads the Ades Federation to conquer the immigrant nations and destroy their armies , with Turan being one of them .
After Luscinia kidnaps Liliana , who has the ability to control an Exile , Luscinia summons an Exile to destroy Iglasia , the capital of Turan , killing its soldiers and the King of Turan , leading to the surrender of Turan to Ades . With everything she cared for lost , Millia is given refuge by the Sky Pirates , where Fam promises to help Millia regain her kingdom .
= = Production = =
Last Exile was created by Gonzo in celebration of the company 's 10th anniversary . It featured a production team led by director Koichi Chigira , character designer Range Murata , and production designer Mahiro Maeda . The three had previously worked together to create Blue Submarine No. 6 , one of the first CG anime series .
= = = Art design = = =
Conceptual designs were created by Range Murata , who was given complete freedom to create the setting . He began drawing detailed sketches of machines and everyday objects from a daily newspaper . His research was given no constraints with the exception of production deadlines . Gonzo initially intended for Last Exile to be shown in a space setting , but producers did not want the characters to wear sterile space suits . Instead , the final product was described by Jonathan Mays as an " ugly " world of " rusting bolts , lots of blues and grays . " Murata believed the design took " the course the story had laid out " . His character conceptualization included a great amount of time spent on costume design . Wanting to portray each character 's personality more fully , he " tried to draw in the kind of material that would have been used in creating their clothes and try to represent the stitches connecting the fabric . " In contrast to crewmembers of the battleship Silvana who wear modern and utilitarian uniforms , other characters wear traditionally aristocratic attire . High amount of attention was given to character animation . Animators especially experienced difficulties with Alex Row 's hair and flowing cape .
Production of Last Exile relied heavily on 3D computer animation . Of the 350 shots used in the first episode , more than 200 included computer @-@ generated animation . In comparison , Gonzo 's previous work Vandread used an average of 40 to 50 computer @-@ generated shots per episode . Animation was also supplemented with Victorian era flourishes . In order to combine hand @-@ drawn animation with computer @-@ generated ones , the production team used a technique for non @-@ photorealistic rendering , which could not be used for Blue Submarine No. 6 because of a stylistic conflict . At the 2003 Anime Expo , Maeda , who also worked with Studio Ghibli 's production of Castle in the Sky , commented that " [ Last Exile ] is very advanced in how it will incorporate the two mediums " .
= = = Historical references = = =
Real @-@ world historical designs were also adapted for the fictional world . Flying battleships of the Anatoray and Disith nations included components of Japanese dreadnoughts in commission at the turn of the twentieth century . Uniform designs for Anatoray 's musketeers were based on Napoleon Bonaparte 's army and American Civil War soldiers . On the other hand , Soviet Red Army fur coats provided the basis for Disith uniforms . Another inspiration for creators came from a silent film of the airship Hindenburg , which depicted the aircraft 's UFO @-@ like silver @-@ plated design in contrast to the traditional buildings below . This imagery was reproduced in the series .
Producers selected a specific historical time frame to serve as a point of reference .
We had this image of Germany at the beginning of the twentieth century . We thought that Germany of the interwar period had very interesting characteristics . People think of something of dark and negative because of the rise of the Nazism . But so much of things appeared at that time , like a rapid growth of the cities and richness . Industrial technology , chemistry , scientific discoveries , much of inventions also in the design . Bauhaus appears there , for example . [ ... ] I think that all that Germany produced at that time was extreme and unique .
Several characters were also named after historical figures . The name of Claus Valca 's father was derived from Hamilcar Barca , the leading commander of Carthaginian forces during the First Punic War and father of the talented tactician Hannibal . An Anatoray general was named after Vitellius , who led the Roman Empire for several months during the Year of the Four Emperors .
= = Media = =
= = = Anime = = =
Last Exile premiered in Japan on April 7 , 2003 , and aired on TV Tokyo until the airing of its final episode on September 29 . A total of 13 DVD compilations were released by Victor Entertainment between July 23 , 2003 , and July 21 , 2004 . A complete seven @-@ disc boxed set was released on November 21 , 2004 . The deluxe edition of this set included a model of Tatiana 's and Alister 's red vanship , a short story on the fictional Battle of Otranto , unpublished articles on the series , and illustrations by character designer Range Murata .
After receiving a respectable amount of attention in the United States , Pioneer Entertainment ( later Geneon Entertainment ) licensed the series in June 2003 , two months after the first episode aired in Japan , and the first compilation DVD was released on November 18 . TechTV premiered the series in English language during its Anime Unleashed programming block on March 8 , 2004 . The first thirteen episodes aired nightly until March 14 , and remaining episodes premiered on December 6 after channel was merged into G4techTV , with new episodes airing each weeknight until the series concluded on December 22 . All 26 episodes were also aired in a marathon broadcast on Christmas Day . AZN Television and G4techTV Canada also broadcast the series in 2007 . After Geneon ceased distribution of its licensed titles in North America , rights to the series were transferred to Funimation Entertainment , and a four @-@ disc boxed set was released on May 5 , 2009 , and again on June 14 , 2011 , under the " Anime Classics " line .
ADV Films originally owned the license for the series ' English release in the United Kingdom until its parent company 's shutdown in 2009 and has now been re @-@ licensed by Manga Entertainment , while distribution rights in Australia and New Zealand are owned by Madman Entertainment . Last Exile is also licensed for regional language release in France , Germany , Sweden , Russia , and Taiwan . It has been hosted at the streaming media website Crunchyroll .
On February 1 , 2011 , Gonzo revealed that a new Last Exile anime was planned titled Last Exile -Fam , The Silver Wing- , described as " a new series of Last Exile [ with ] new story , [ main ] characters , and mechanical designs . " Koichi Chigira and Hitomi Kuroishi returned to direct and score the anime , respectively . The series aired in Japan between October 15 , 2011 and March 23 , 2012 and was also simulcasted on the same day in Asia by Animax Asia , making it the fifth anime to be simulcasted the same time as its Japanese premiere on the channel , after Tears to Tiara , Fullmetal Alchemist : Brotherhood , Inuyasha : The Final Act , and Maid Sama ! . Funimation Entertainment licensed the series for streaming and home video release and simulcast the series as it aired . A film adaptation of the series , titled Last Exile -Fam , The Silver Wing- : Over the Wishes , will be released in theaters on February 6 , 2016 . The film will recompile the events of the television series with newly animated shots of footage .
= = = Soundtracks = = =
Two pieces of theme music were used for the series . " Cloud Age Symphony " , performed by Shuntaro Okino , was used as the opening theme for all 26 episodes . It was released by Victor Entertainment as a maxi single on May 21 , 2003 , and remained on the Oricon music charts for six weeks , where it peaked at 52nd position . Hitomi Kuroishi 's " Over The Sky " was used as the ending theme .
Music trio Dolce Triade , which includes Kuroishi , produced two CD soundtracks for the series . Last Exile O.S.T. was released by Victor Entertainment on June 21 , 2003 , and remained on the Oricon music charts for seven weeks , where it peaked at 52nd position . It includes both theme songs and 17 additional instrumental tracks . The second soundtrack , Last Exile O.S.T. 2 was released on September 3 , 2003 , and remained on the Oricon music charts for five weeks , where it peaked at 55th position . It includes an alternate version of the ending theme song and 19 additional instrumental tracks . Geneon Entertainment licensed both soundtracks for release in North America . The first soundtrack was released on February 17 , 2004 , and the second was released on April 13 . However , both soundtracks are out of print in North America after Geneon ceased production of its licensed titles in 2007 .
= = = Art book = = =
A 136 @-@ page art book titled Last Exile Aerial Log was published in February 2005 but has since been discontinued . It was published in Japanese and was never translated for English @-@ language release . The book contains detailed character sketches and descriptions as well as technical manuals for aircraft that appeared in the series . It also includes exclusive interviews with members of the production staff .
= = = Manga = = =
Currently there are two manga . The first is a manga adaptation of Last Exile : Fam , The Silver Wing written by Gonzo and illustrated by Robo Miyamoto and is serialized in Young Ace magazine and published by Kadokawa Shoten . The second , titled Last Exile – Travelers from the Hourglass ( ラストエグザイル – 砂時計の旅人 , Rasuto Eguzairu – Sunadokei no Ryojin ) , tells what happened to the Claus and his friends after the events of Last Exile and before the events of Last Exile : Fam , The Silver Wing . The manga is written by Gonzo and illustrated by Minoru Murao , one of the original animators of the Last Exile anime . Last Exile – Travelers from the Hourglass is serialized in Newtype Ace and published by Kadokawa .
= = = Live @-@ action film = = =
On February 11 , 2005 , a report on Anime News Network mentioned a possible live @-@ action Last Exile film . It was based on a blog post by Patrick Macias , writer for Animerica and author of several books on Japanese pop culture and anime , which noted that while he was attending the Tokyo International Anime Fair , a Gonzo employee suggested that an unnamed New Line Cinema producer was interested in adapting the series for a live @-@ action production . On July 8 , 2009 , a concept art image was leaked on the Internet but was removed at the request of filmmakers . However , as of 2013 , there has been no new news about the Live @-@ action film , suggesting it has been canceled .
= = Reception = =
After receiving a respectable amount of attention in the United States , the series was licensed to Pioneer Entertainment ( later Geneon Entertainment ) in June 2003 , only two months after the first episode aired in Japan . When Geneon 's compilation DVDs were released , reviewers such as IGN praised them despite the use of Dolby Digital 2 @.@ 0 audio mix over a 5 @.@ 1 mix . " The separation is masterfully taken care of with voices , music , and sound effects leveled off very cleanly for both the Japanese and English audio tracks . " In an interview with director Koichi Chigira given in July 2004 , he was surprised to find that the series had reached a great level of popularity among fans in the United States .
Last Exile has been likened to Hayao Miyazaki 's classic work Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and the early steampunk novel trilogy A Nomad of the Time Streams . It received numerous praises for its artwork and production , placing it as one of Gonzo 's best work . By integrating music and sounds of a European theme , the soundtrack contributed to the series ' unique flavor . Anime News Network rated the series as " a must @-@ have for all anime fans . " However , the complex storyline tested viewers ' patience because " mysteries pile upon one another before the answers start spilling forth in the second half [ of the series ] . " Despite this complaint , Last Exile 's action sequences and cliffhangers compelled viewers to wait and see these mysteries resolved .
TechTV vice president Laura Civiello stated that Last Exile " had more universal appeal than other types of anime shown on the network , which often contained lots of references recognizable only by hard @-@ core fans . " When the series premiered on the network , The New York Times recommended it for younger viewers as well with the headline " An Anime Marathon , and It 's Not Just for Adults . " The network moved its Anime Unleashed programming block into prime time to take advantage of the quality of the series , eventually launching it into a top ten position on the Nielsen VideoScan anime survey in the middle of 2004 . Sony Pictures Entertainment selected Last Exile , Blood + , Gankutsuou : The Count of Monte Cristo , and R.O.D the TV as part its promotional campaign throughout 2007 and 2008 targeting audiences ages 15 – 35 . It streamed the four series throughout Europe , Latin America , and other parts of Asia on Animax and Animax Asia through various 3G mobile phone services .
= Switzerland in the Roman era =
The territory of modern Switzerland was a part of the Roman Republic and Empire for a period of about six centuries , beginning with the step @-@ by @-@ step conquest of the area by Roman armies from the 2nd century BC and ending with the decline of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD .
The mostly Celtic tribes of the area were subjugated by successive Roman campaigns aimed at control of the strategic routes from Italy across the Alps to the Rhine and into Gaul , most importantly by Julius Caesar 's defeat of the largest tribal group , the Helvetii , in 58 BC . Under the Pax Romana , the area was smoothly integrated into the prospering Empire , and its population assimilated into the wider Gallo @-@ Roman culture by the 2nd century AD , as the Romans enlisted the native aristocracy to engage in local government , built a network of roads connecting their newly established colonial cities and divided up the area among the Roman provinces .
Roman civilization began to retreat from Swiss territory when it became a border region again after the Crisis of the Third Century . Roman control of most of Switzerland ceased in 401 AD , after which the area began to be occupied by Germanic peoples .
= = Switzerland prior to the Roman conquest = =
The Swiss plateau , within the natural borders of the Alps to the South and East , Lake Geneva and the Rhône to the west and the Rhine to the north , was recognized as a contiguous territory by Julius Caesar .
This area had been dominated by the La Tène culture since the 5th century BC , settled by a mostly Celtic population ( Gauls ) , of which the Helvetii were the most numerous , but which also included the Rauraci in north @-@ west Switzerland centered on Basel , and the Allobroges around Geneva . South of the Swiss plateau were the Nantuates , Seduni and Veragri in the Valais , the Lepontii in the Ticino , while the Raetians controlled the Grisons as well as large areas around it .
= = The Roman conquest = =
= = = Early contact = = =
The first part of what is now Switzerland to fall to Rome was the southern Ticino , annexed after the Roman victory over the Insubres in 222 BC . The territory of the Allobroges around Geneva came under Roman sway by 121 BC and was incorporated into the province of Gallia Narbonensis prior to the Gallic Wars ( 58 – 51 BC ) .
In around 110 BC , two Helvetic tribes under Divico – the Tigurini and the Tougeni , sometimes identified with the Teutons – joined the wandering Germanic Cimbri on a march to the West . In the course of the Cimbrian War they defeated a Roman force under Lucius Cassius Longinus at the Battle of Burdigala in 107 BC , but after the Roman victory over the Teutons at Aquae Sextiae in 102 BC , the Tigurini returned to settle in the Swiss Plateau .
= = = Defeat of the Helvetii = = =
In 61 BC , the Helvetii , led by Orgetorix , decided to leave their lands and move to the West , burning their settlements behind them – twelve oppida , according to Caesar , and some 400 villages . They were decisively beaten by Caesar in the Battle of Bibracte in 58 BC . After their surrender , Caesar sent the Helvetii home , according them the status of foederati or Roman allies , but not yet ( as has previously been believed ) fully subjugating them to Roman sovereignty .
Caesar 's policy aimed at controlling the territory west of the Jura and Rhine , as well as at blocking the potential incursion routes from the East along the Jura . The Raetians , described as savage warriors by Strabo , continued to launch incursions into the Swiss Plateau and also had to be contained . To that end , Caesar charged the Helvetii and the Rauraci with defending their territory and established two colonies of veterans – one , the Colonia Julia Equestris ( now Nyon ) on the shores of Lake Geneva and the other through Lucius Munatius Plancus in northwestern Switzerland , preceding the larger Augusta Raurica founded by Augustus in around 6 AD .
= = = Conquest of the Alps = = =
Caesar 's attempt to open the Great St Bernard Pass for Roman traffic failed in 57 BC due to strong opposition by the local Veragri . Concerted and successful efforts to gain control over the Alpine region were undertaken by his successor , Augustus , as the rapid development of Lugdunum ( Lyon ) made the establishment of a safe and direct route from Gaul to Italy a priority .
In 25 BC , an army under Aulus Terentius Varro Murena wiped out the Salassi in the Aosta Valley . At some time between 25 and 7 BC – either following the Aosta campaign or , more likely , in the course of the conquest of Raetia in 15 BC – a campaign also subjugated the Celtic tribes of the Valais and opened the Great St Bernard Pass .
That conquest was a consequence of the Augustan imperative of securing the Imperial borders . To effectively control the Alps as the shield of northern Italy , Rome needed to control both flanks of the mountain range . Thus it had to extend its power to the Rhine and Danube , thereby also opening a direct route to Germania and all of Central Europe . The last obstacle in this path were the Raetians . After a first expedition against them by Publius Silius Nerva in 16 BC , a more thorough campaign by Drusus and the later emperor Tiberius brought Raetia – and thereby all of Switzerland – firmly under Roman control .
The tropaeum alpium , built by Augustus in 7 BC to celebrate his conquest of the Alps , lists among the defeated peoples the tribes of Raetia and of the Valais , but not the Helvetii . It appears that they were absorbed peacefully into the Empire during the first century AD , except for their part in the conflicts of the Year of the Four Emperors , AD 69 .
= = Roman Switzerland = =
The history of Switzerland under Roman rule was , from the Augustan period up until 260 AD , a time of exceptional peace and prosperity . The Pax Romana was made possible by the protection of well @-@ defended and distant Imperial borders and a peaceful and smooth Romanization of the local population . The Romans urbanized the territory with numerous settlements and built a network of high @-@ quality Roman roads connecting them , allowing for the integration of Helvetia into the imperial economy .
= = = Roman settlements = = =
While the Roman presence was always strong in the Alps , where the crucial North @-@ South connection had to be kept open , the Swiss plateau was not really Romanized until decades after the conquest . The principal Roman settlements in Switzerland were the cities of Iulia Equestris ( Nyon ) , Aventicum ( Avenches ) , Augusta Raurica ( Augst ) and Vindonissa ( Windisch ) . Evidence has also been found of almost twenty Roman villages ( vici ) established in the 1st to 3rd century AD , as well as hundreds of villas of varying sizes built in the western and central part of the Swiss Plateau . The known vici include :
in the Romandie : Eburodunum ( Yverdon @-@ les @-@ Bains ) , Genava ( Geneva ) , Lousonna ( Lausanne ) , Minnodurum ( Moudon ) , Urba ( Orbe ) , Uromagus ( Oron ) , Viviscus ( Vevey ) ;
in the Valais : Acaunum or Agaunum ( St. Maurice ) , Forum Claudii Vallensium ( Martigny ) , Pennelocus , Sedunum ( Sitten ) , Tarnaiae ( Massongex ) ;
in central and northern Switzerland : Aquae Helveticae ( Baden ) , Ad Fines ( Pfyn ) , Bern , Arialbinnum ( Basel ) , Cambiodunum ( Irgenhausen ) , Dietikon , Iuliomagus ( Schleitheim ) , Centum Prata ( Kempraten ) , Lenzburg , Lunnern , Olten , Petinesca ( Peterlingen ) , Pierre Pertuis , Salodurum or Solodurum ( Solothurn ) , Tasgetium or Tasgaetium ( Eschenz ) , Tenedo ( Zurzach ) , Turicum ( Zürich ) , Vitudurum or Vitodurum ( Winterthur ) ;
in Raetia : Ad Rhenum ( Rheineck ) , Arbor Felix ( Arbon ) , Bilitio ( Bellinzona ) , Curia ( Chur ) , Magia ( Maienfeld ) , Lapidaria , Tinnetie or Tinnetio ( Tinizong @-@ Rona ) .
The colonies of Nyon and Augusta Raurica at first had little cultural influence beyond their immediate surroundings . After Roman military defeats in Germania in 12 – 9 BC and 6 – 9 AD , the frontier was moved back to the Rhine and guarded by eight legions , of which one , originally Legio XIII Gemina , was based in the permanent camp of Vindonissa ( Windisch ) .
Aventicum ( Avenches ) was likely the capital of the Helvetii since its founding at the beginning of the 1st century . In the 40s , it benefited from the traffic brought over the St Bernard pass over a street expanded by Claudius , and in 71 it acquired the status of a Roman colony and of an allied city . This is believed to have been a favor of Vespasian for the city in which he had lived for a time , or a measure to better control the Helvetii after the events of 69 by implanting a colony of veterans in their midst .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
The Alps were first administered by a legatus pro praetore in Augusta Vindelicorum ( Augsburg ) , then by the procurator of the new province of Raetia . The Valais was split from Raetia by Claudius in AD 43 and merged with the province of Alpes Graiae to form a new province , Alpes Graiae et Poeninae .
As for the Swiss plateau , its western and central part up to Ad Fines ( Pfyn ) was administratively part of the province of Belgica and for military purposes part of Germania Superior . Its eastern part belonged to Raetia .
This division , established by Augustus in 22 BC , was accompanied by a redistribution of tribal settlement areas . It remained essentially unchanged until Diocletian 's reforms in the third century , when parts of Switzerland each belonged to the provinces of Sequania , Vienna , Raetia Prima , Liguria and Alpes Graiae et Poeninae .
= = = Government = = =
The colonies of Nyon , Aventicum and Augusta Raurica were governed under republican constitutions similar to that of Rome . Most governmental powers were exercised by a pair of magistrates , the duoviri , elected annually first by all citizens older than 25 , and in later times by the city council or ordo decurionum . The 100 members of this council , which corresponded to the Roman Senate , were selected by the duomviri among former officials or priests according to their wealth , and held office for life .
Augusta Raurica and Aventicum were also the civitates , or capitals , of the non @-@ Roman tribes of the Rauraci and Helvetii , respectively . In that capacity , the magistrates of Aventicum , as duoviri coloniae Helvetiorum , also governed the entire Helvetic population , which had the legal status of incolae ( inhabitants ) invested with the Latin Right . The rights of the Roman coloni , or colonists , were represented by a special authority , the curatores colonorum Aventicensum ( " Heads of the colonists of Aventicum " ) . Moreover , the Roman citizens of the entire territory established the cives Romani conventus Helvetici ( " Association of Roman citizens in Helvetia " ) .
The civitas ( tribal community ) of the Helvetii was similar to that of the Celtic tribes of the Valais , which were merged into a single civitas Vallensis probably around 40 AD , and given Forum Claudii Vallensium ( Martigny ) as their capital . Parts of the modern Ticino belonged to the colony of Comum ( Como ) , founded in the 1st century AD . On the local level , the basic administrative units were the vici , replacing the Helvetic pagi , or tribes , which were dissolved at the time of colonization . These villages enjoyed a certain autonomy and were governed by popularly elected magistrates ( magistri or curatores ) .
While the governmental system in the central and western part of Switzerland , as described above , is well documented , nothing of substance is known about the political and administrative system in eastern Raetia . However , records of the time show that a great number of local nobles held political and religious offices in Raetia , indicating that the Romans successfully co @-@ opted the local elite .
= = = Culture and society = = =
Testaments of Roman culture such as baths , floor heating and imported goods ( pottery , glass , religious icons and artworks ) have been found in even the poorest Roman era dwellings , indicating that Romanization was effective at all levels of society . Roman public baths were found in all villages , temples with integrated theaters – showing animal or gladiatorial combat – in most .
While the superimposition of Roman culture on the local population appears to have been unproblematic and thorough , the Celtic traditions did not disappear entirely , resulting in a fusion of Roman and local culture that characterized all aspects of society . Latin , the language of government and instruction , only gradually replaced the local Celtic dialects in everyday use . Local artworks and religious icons of the period exhibit influences of ornamental Celtic art , classical Greco @-@ Roman art and even Oriental styles from the far reaches of the Empire . An important incentive for the local people to Romanize was the perspective of obtaining the various degrees of Roman citizenship and the rights conferred thereby , including the right to vote , to hold public office and to render military service .
The hundreds of villae found in Switzerland , some very luxurious , attest to the existence of a wealthy and cultured upper class of landowners . Many villae belonged not to Roman immigrants , but to members of the Celtic aristocracy who continued to hold their lands and their rank after the Roman conquest . Of the lower classes , much less is known , although there are inscriptions attesting to the existence of guilds ( collegia ) of boat skippers , doctors , teachers and traders , as well as to the existence of a trade in slaves .
= = = Religion = = =
= = = = Polytheism = = = =
In the course of Romanization , the Celtic polytheism of the local tribes was merged – syncretized – with the Roman religion . The Celtic deities came to be worshiped under the names of their Roman counterparts . Thus Lugus was replaced by Mercury , Belenus by Apollo , Taranis by Jupiter and so forth , in a practice called interpretatio romana by Caesar , who pioneered it . Roman gods also acquired the names of local gods as epithets ; thus Mars was venerated as Mars Caturix , Mercury as Mercurius Cissonius and Jupiter as Jupiter Poeninus after the god of the Pennine Alps .
As oriental religions grew more popular in the later Empire – unlike the traditional Roman cults , they promised rewards in the afterlife – they also percolated into Gaul . Artifacts related to the cults of gods such as Isis , Osiris , Serapis , Kybele , Serapios , Dionysos or Mithras have been found at the site of every Roman settlement in Switzerland .
The great significance of religion in the culture of Roman Switzerland is illustrated by the imposing size and central location of the Roman temples in the cities , as well as by the great number of religious artifacts found by archaeologists . As everywhere in the Empire , the Imperial cult was practiced in Switzerland ; it had a particularly prominent temple in the center of the forum of Nyon .
= = = = Christianity = = = =
The first clear testaments to Christian communities in Switzerland date after 313 , when the religion was officially tolerated with the Edict of Milan . It is however certain that , as in Gaul , the Christian faith had already had adherents for some time prior to 313 .
The first bishop in Switzerland was either Justinianus , bishop of the Rauricans , in 340 ( his historicity is not certain ) or Theodorus , bishop of Octodurus , in 381 or earlier . The first Christian religious buildings date to the 4th century ; they are found in Geneva , Chur and Saint @-@ Maurice , known for the legend of the Theban Legion .
= = Decline of Roman civilization in Switzerland = =
= = = The catastrophe of 260 = = =
The order and prosperity that the Pax Romana had brought to Switzerland ended , as elsewhere in the Empire , with the Crisis of the Third Century . In 260 , when the Gallic Empire briefly seceded from Rome , the emperor Gallienus withdrew the legions from the Rhine to fight the usurper Ingenuus , allowing the warlike Alemanni to enter the Swiss plateau . There , cities , villages and most villae were raided or sacked by marauding bands . The numerous caches of coins recovered from the period between 250 and 280 attest to the severity of the crisis . Only the Valais , shielded by mountains , escaped these predations .
= = = Borderlands = = =
As the Empire 's frontiers receded to the Rhine , Switzerland once again became a border area . Its defenses were strengthened , especially under Diocletian and Constantine , who rebuilt the roads and built castles ( castra ) alongside . Numerous fortifications were built along the Rhine border and further south , providing for a defense in depth . The border fortifications were completed by Valentinian I in 371 , who established a chain of watchtowers along the Rhine from Lake Constance to Basel , with each tower no more than 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away from the next one .
But even these efforts could not restore peace and order in Switzerland , and numerous settlements were abandoned as their inhabitants fled to more defensible places or to the South . Urban culture faded away as the cities of Nyon and Augusta Raurica were permanently abandoned during the 4th century , the stones of their ruins serving to fortify Geneva and Basel . Aventicum never recovered from its pillages : Ammianus Marcellinus noted in around 360 that " the city was once very illustrious , as its half @-@ ruined buildings attest . "
= = = Transition to the Middle Ages = = =
The Roman era of Switzerland is traditionally held to have ended in 401 AD , when Stilicho withdrew all troops from the Rhine and the Danube . However , it has been argued that the withdrawal was only temporary and partial , and that Roman control of these rivers was reestablished in 411 – 413 with the assistance of tribes moving south from Germania .
In any case , the fifth century saw the apparently non @-@ violent takeover of western Switzerland by the Burgundians ( placed there by Flavius Aetius in 443 as a shield against the invading Huns ) and of Northern and Central Switzerland by the Alamanni , a move not opposed by either absent or weakened Roman forces . These settlements established the most important cultural and linguistic division in modern Switzerland : the Burgundian areas eventually became the French @-@ speaking Romandie , while the people in the larger Eastern half – called la suisse alémanique in French – still speak variants of Alemannic German .
Raetia maintained its Roman traditions longer than the rest of Switzerland , but most of it was eventually assimilated as well , leaving only a small territory where a Vulgar Latin dialect , Romansh , is spoken to this day . The assassination of Aetius in 454 and the subsequent retreat of Roman forces to the south of the Alps marked the definitive end of Roman power in Switzerland , and the beginning of the transition to the Middle Ages .
= Kaumodaki =
Kaumodaki is the gada ( mace ) of the Hindu god Vishnu . Vishnu is often depicted holding the Kaumodaki in one of his four hands ; the other attributes are the chakra , the conch and the lotus . The gada is also found in iconography of some of Vishnu 's avatars .
The name " Kaumodaki " first appears in the Hindu epic Mahabharata , where it is associated with Vishnu 's avatar Krishna . The gada is depicted in images of Vishnu since c . 200 BCE . While initially unadorned , the size and shape of Kaumodaki vary in depictions . More elaborate design features like flutes and segments were added in depictions of Vishnu 's gada .
Though the weapon may be depicted as an inanimate gada , Kaumodaki sometimes appears personified as a woman known as Gadadevi or Gadanari in sculptures of Vishnu . In depictions that use this version , Vishnu rests one of his hands on her head , while she herself holds the gada , is seen emerging from it or has the gada carved on her head / crown .
The gada , regarded one of the oldest and strongest weapons , is a symbol of Vishnu 's powers . Various texts discuss the symbolism of Kaumodaki in Vishnu 's iconography .
= = Etymology = =
The etymology of " Kaumodaki " is unclear . According to a popular etymology , Kaumodaki derives its name from the Sanskrit word kumuda , the blue water @-@ lily or the blue lotus ( Nymphaea nouchali ) . Another theory suggests that the mace may derive its name from the epithet of Vishnu , Kumodaka or vice versa . The literal synonym of Kaumodaki , kaumudi is interpreted as " joy on the earth " . Based on the Vishnu Purana , Alain Daniélou translates Kaumodaki as " stupefier of the mind " .
= = Iconography = =
Vishnu is usually depicted as four @-@ armed with the four attributes in his hands : the shankha ( conch ) , the Sudarshana chakra , the padma ( lotus ) and the Kaumodaki gada . A popular epithet of Vishnu is Shankha @-@ chakra @-@ gada @-@ pani , " he who holds in his hands shankha , chakra and gada " . Generally , the gada is held in the lower ( natural ) left hand of Vishnu in contemporary images . The gada sometimes also appears in the depictions of Vishnu 's avatars Matsya , Kurma , Varaha and Narasimha .
The gada appears as an attribute in the oldest known sculpture of Vishnu ( from Malhar , Madhya Pradesh ) , dated to c . 200 BCE . One of the earliest images of Vishnu date to the Kushan period ( 30 – 375 CE ) found around Mathura , the gada does not appear in a stylised design as in later depictions , but the mace is a simple " round top @-@ heavy rod " held in his upper ( back ) right hand and lifted above the shoulders . In another Kushan sculpture , the gada is depicted as a long rod which is almost the height of Vishnu and is held in his upper right hand . It is depicted similar to a long pestle ( musala ) . A similar image found in Jhusi as well as early images from Western India depict Vishnu resting his upper right hand on the mace or holding the mace in this hand . Gupta images continue the trend of having upper ( back ) right hand resting on or holding the gada . The gada started being depicted in other arms . Twenty @-@ four configurations of Vishnu images are noted , where the order of the four attributes is changed .
While the hand holding the gada changed , the design of the weapon transformed too . In late medieval art , especially Pala ( 8th – 12th century CE ) , the size of the handle of the gada is reduced to a flute , while the top takes a highly decorated round form . In Uttar Pradesh , the handle is tapered and expands at the top ; sphere on the top also depicted with flutes . The Chalukyan gada is thick and " barrel " -shaped , while the Pallava gada is depicted thick throughout . The Cholas carve Kaumodaki thinner , but is ridged and segmented .
The Vishnudharmottara Purana describes the iconography of Vishnu . While the lotus and shankha are held in the upper hands , the lower hands rest on two dwarf figures : the personified gada and chakra . The gada personified as a slim @-@ waisted woman , holds a chamara ( chowry ) in her hands and is adored with ornaments , with Vishnu 's right hand resting on her head ; chakra stands as a man on Vishnu 's left . The personified weapons known as Ayudhapurusha emerge in Gupta era ( 320 – 550 CE ) sculptures . The personified Kaumodaki is also known as Gada @-@ devi ( the suffix devi means goddess ) or Gada @-@ nari ( " gada @-@ woman " ) . Since the Sanskrit word gada is feminine , gada is regarded as a woman . A Gupta Vishnu in Udayagiri Caves depicts Vishnu accompanied by Gadadevi and the personified chakra . Gadadevi often appears in Vishnu images from Kashmir , including Vishnu 's four @-@ headed form Vaikuntha Chaturmurti . She holds a chamara and looks in adoration towards her master , whose hand rests on her head . She wears a crown or has an elaborate hairstyle . Apart from a lower garment , she might wear a blouse or have a bare torso . She is depicted emerging from the gada .
Gadadevi may be depicted as a dwarf or as a normal human as in the Sheshashayi Vishnu panel of the Gupta Deogarh temple . She is depicted holding the gada . The motif of Kaumodaki holding the gada is mostly found in Uttar Pradesh and Bengal art . In another variation , Kaumodaki stands besides Vishnu with folded hands ( in anjali mudra posture ) with the gada depicted on the head as part of the crown or the weapon mark on her forehead , as in Chola era bronzes of the gada .
= = Development and symbolism = =
The mace or club is one of the oldest weapons known to man . The popularity of the weapons with Vishnu worshippers may have led to its depiction with the deity . The gada – a symbol of strength – was a common weapon for hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and was regarded as the strongest of weapons . Vishnu 's attributes originate from his avatars , Rama and Krishna , the heroes of the ancient Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata ( existing in the 5th to 4th century BCE ) respectively . Both the epics narrate various characters – gods , men and demons alike – using the gada .
In the philosophical meaning expounded by the Vishnu @-@ worshipping Vaishnava sect , Kaumodaki symbolizes " the intellect , the power of knowledge and the power of time " . While explaining the symbolism of four attributes in Vishnu 's hands , the Gopala Tapani Upanishad says that the gada – which represents primordial knowledge – is held in the lower left hand , which denotes " individual existence " . The Vishnu Purana calls the gada the power of knowledge . Kaumodaki is said to " intoxicate " the mind .
According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana , Kaumodaki represents Vishnu 's wife Lakshmi , the goddess of wealth and beauty . The Krishna Upanishad equates the gada to the goddess Kali , " the power of time " . The text further says that like the invincible Time , the mace is the destroyer of all opponents .
Another interpretation suggests that the Kaumodaki symbolizes the life @-@ force ( prana ) from which all " physical and mental powers " arise . Vishnu 's gada also stands for discipline , complemented by his lotus , that denotes praise . While the lotus and shankha in his hands are water symbols representing life and love , the gada and the chakra are fire symbols denoting pain and destruction and command adherence to the rules of society and nature . The Varaha Purana says the gada is to teach a lesson to irreligious rulers . Vishnu is also said to clear illusion by his gada .
= = Legends = =
In the Mahabharata , Kaumodaki is described to sound like the lightning and was capable of slaying many daityas ( demons ) . It is granted to Vishnu @-@ Krishna by Varuna , the god of the seas . The Pandava princes were given the Khandava Forest to build their kingdom . The fire @-@ god Agni wanted to " eat " the forest to cure his indigestion . But Lord Indra opposed and created heavy rain as his friend Takshaka was living in that forest . He asked the Pandava Arjuna and his friend Krishna to aid him , as he feared the king of the gods and protector of the forest , Indra , will interfere . Arjuna and Krishna agreed and were given celestial weapons by Varuna . Krishna was given the Sudarshana chakra and Kaumodaki gada , while Arjuna got the bow Gandiva and various divine arrows . The duo defeat Indra and Agni burns down the forest , pacing way for the establishment of the Pandava capital Indraprastha .
The Mahabharata describes Vishnu holding a gada and a chakra , possibly indicating two @-@ armed images of Vishnu . The Mahabharata also records at the time of the chakra @-@ musala war , Krishna 's Kaumodaki along with other weapons appear in human form from the heavens to watch the battle . The Harivamsa , an appendix to the Mahabharata describes four of Vishnu 's weapons fall from the heavens to aid Krishna and his brother Balarama in his battle against Jarasandha . Balarama uses the plough and the club called Saunanda ; while Krishna battles with Kaumodaki and the bow Sharanga .
The Duta @-@ Vakya ( " envoy 's message " ) of the Sanskrit playwright Bhasa ( c . 2nd century BCE – 2nd century CE ) describes an episode from the Mahabharata when Krishna depicts his Vishvarupa ( all pervading " Universal form " ) in the Hastinapur court and summons his weapons , who appear as humans , including the Kaumodaki . The Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa mentions about dwarf @-@ like ayudhapurushas including Vishnu 's mace .
= Joan Crawford =
Joan Crawford ( born Lucille Fay LeSueur ; March 23 , c . 1904 – May 10 , 1977 ) was an American film and television actress who started as a dancer and stage chorine . In 1999 , the American Film Institute ranked Crawford tenth on their list of the greatest female stars of Classic Hollywood Cinema .
Beginning her career as a dancer in travelling theatrical companies before debuting as a chorus girl on Broadway , Crawford signed a motion picture contract with Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer in 1925 . In the 1930s , Crawford 's fame rivaled , and later outlasted , MGM colleagues Norma Shearer and Greta Garbo . Crawford often played hard @-@ working young women who find romance and success . These stories were well received by Depression @-@ era audiences and were popular with women . Crawford became one of Hollywood 's most prominent movie stars and one of the highest paid women in the United States , but her films began losing money , and , by the end of the 1930s , she was labelled " Box Office Poison " . But her career gradually improved in the early 1940s , and she made a major comeback in 1945 by starring in Mildred Pierce , for which she won the Academy Award for Best Actress . She would go on to receive Best Actress nominations for Possessed ( 1947 ) and Sudden Fear ( 1952 ) .
In 1955 , she became involved with the Pepsi @-@ Cola Company through her marriage to company Chairman Alfred Steele . After his death in 1959 , Crawford was elected to fill his vacancy on the board of directors but was forcibly retired in 1973 . She continued acting in film and television regularly through the 1960s , when her performances became fewer ; after the release of the British horror film Trog in 1970 , Crawford retired from the screen . Following a public appearance in 1974 , after which unflattering photographs were published , Crawford withdrew from public life and became increasingly reclusive until her death in 1977 .
Crawford married four times . Her first three marriages ended in divorce ; the last ended with the death of husband Alfred Steele . She adopted five children , one of whom was reclaimed by his birth mother . Crawford 's relationships with her two older children , Christina and Christopher , were acrimonious . Crawford disinherited the two , and , after Crawford 's death , Christina wrote a " tell @-@ all " memoir titled , Mommie Dearest .
= = Early life = =
Crawford was born Lucille Fay LeSueur in San Antonio , Texas , on March 23 ; the year is disputed , with 1904 , 1905 , and 1906 the most likely estimates , all cited in varying sources , the third child of Thomas E. LeSueur ( died January 1 , 1938 ) , a laundry laborer , and Anna Bell Johnson ( died August 15 , 1958 ) , neither of whose years of birth can be conclusively established . Anna Bell Johnson was of English , French Huguenot , Swedish , and Irish ancestry . Her elder siblings were Daisy LeSueur ( ƒ 1902 ) and Hal LeSueur .
Thomas LeSueur abandoned the family a few months before Crawford 's birth but reappeared in Abilene , Texas , in 1930 as a reportedly 62 @-@ year @-@ old construction laborer . However , after his death on January 1 , 1938 , his age was given as 71 . Crawford 's mother subsequently married Henry J. Cassin ( died October 25 , 1922 ) . This marriage is listed in census records as Crawford 's mother 's first marriage , calling into question whether Thomas LeSueur and Anna Bell Johnson were ever legally wed .
The family lived in Lawton , Oklahoma , where Cassin , a minor impresario , ran the Ramsey Opera House . Despite his own relatively minor status as an impresario , Cassin managed to get such diverse and noted performers as Anna Pavlova and Eva Tanguay during his career . Young Lucille was reportedly unaware that Cassin , whom she called " Daddy " , was not her biological father until her brother Hal told her . Lucille preferred the nickname " Billie " as a child and she loved watching vaudeville acts perform on the stage of her stepfather 's theatre . The instability of her family life affected her education and her schooling never formally progressed beyond elementary school .
Her ambition was to be a dancer . However , one day , in an attempt to escape piano lessons to play with friends , she leaped from the front porch of her home and cut her foot deeply on a broken milk bottle . She had three operations and was unable to attend elementary school for 18 months . She eventually fully recovered and returned to dancing .
Cassin was accused of embezzlement and although acquitted in court , was blacklisted in Lawton , and the family moved to Kansas City , Missouri , around 1916 . Cassin was first listed in the City Directory in 1917 , living at 403 East Ninth Street . A Catholic , Cassin placed Crawford at St. Agnes Academy in Kansas City . After her mother and stepfather broke up , she stayed on at St. Agnes as a work student , where she spent far more time working , primarily cooking and cleaning , than studying .
Later , she went to Rockingham Academy , also as a work student . While attending Rockingham she began dating and had her first serious relationship , with a trumpet player named Ray Sterling , who reportedly inspired her to begin challenging herself academically .
In 1922 , she registered at Stephens College in Columbia , Missouri , giving her year of birth as 1906 . She attended Stephens for only a few months before withdrawing after she realized she was not prepared for college .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Under the name Lucille LeSueur , Crawford began dancing in the choruses of traveling revues and was spotted dancing in Detroit by producer Jacob J. Shubert . Shubert put her in the chorus line for his 1924 show , Innocent Eyes , at the Winter Garden Theatre on Broadway in New York City . While appearing in Innocent Eyes Crawford met a saxophone player named James Welton . The two were allegedly married in 1924 and lived together for several months , although this supposed marriage was never mentioned in later life by Crawford .
Crawford wanted additional work and approached Loews Theaters publicist Nils Granlund . Granlund secured a position for her with producer Harry Richmond 's act and arranged for her to do a screen test which he sent to producer Harry Rapf in Hollywood . ( Stories have persisted that Crawford further supplemented her income by appearing in one or more stag , or soft @-@ core pornographic , films , although this has been disputed . )
Rapf notified Granlund on December 24 , 1924 that Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( or MGM for short ) had offered Crawford a contract at $ 75 a week . Granlund immediately wired LeSueur – who had returned to her mother 's home in Kansas City – with the news ; she borrowed $ 400 for travel expenses . She departed Kansas City on December 26 and arrived in Culver City , California on January 1 , 1925 .
Credited as Lucille LeSueur , her first film was Lady of the Night in 1925 , as the body double for MGM 's most @-@ popular female star , Norma Shearer . She also appeared in The Circle and Pretty Ladies ( both 1925 ) , starring comedian ZaSu Pitts . This was soon followed by equally small and unbilled roles in two other 1925 successes , The Only Thing and The Merry Widow .
MGM publicity head Pete Smith recognized her ability to become a major star , but felt her name sounded fake ; he told studio head Louis B. Mayer that her last name — LeSueur — reminded him of a sewer . Smith organized a contest called " Name the Star " in Movie Weekly to allow readers to select her new stage name . The initial choice was " Joan Arden " but , after another actress was found to have prior claim to that name , the alternate surname " Crawford " became the choice . Crawford later said that she wanted her first name to be pronounced " Jo @-@ Anne " , and that she hated the name Crawford because it sounded like " craw fish " , but also admitted she " liked the security " that went with the name .
= = = Self @-@ promotion and early successes = = =
Growing increasingly frustrated over the size and quality of the parts she was given , Crawford embarked on a campaign of self @-@ promotion . As MGM screenwriter Frederica Sagor Maas recalled , " No one decided to make Joan Crawford a star . Joan Crawford became a star because Joan Crawford decided to become a star . " She began attending dances in the afternoons and evenings at hotels around Hollywood , where she often won dance competitions with her performances of the Charleston and the Black Bottom .
Her strategy worked , and MGM cast her in the film where she first made an impression on audiences , Edmund Goulding 's Sally , Irene and Mary ( 1925 ) . From the beginning of her career , Crawford considered Norma Shearer — the studio 's most @-@ popular actress — her professional nemesis . Since Shearer was married to MGM Head of Production Irving Thalberg , she had the first choice of scripts and had more control than other stars in what films she would and would not make . Crawford was quoted to have said , " How can I compete with Norma ? She sleeps with the boss ! "
In 1926 , Crawford was named one of the WAMPAS Baby Stars along with Mary Astor , Dolores del Río , Janet Gaynor , and Fay Wray among others . That same year , she starred in Paris , co @-@ starring Charles Ray . Within a few years , she became the romantic female lead to many of MGM 's top male stars , including Ramón Novarro , John Gilbert , William Haines , and Tim McCoy .
Crawford appeared in The Unknown ( 1927 ) , starring Lon Chaney , Sr. who played a carnival knife thrower with no arms . Crawford played his skimpily @-@ clad young carnival assistant whom he hopes to marry . She stated that she learned more about acting from watching Chaney work than from anyone else in her career . " It was then , " she said , " I became aware for the first time of the difference between standing in front of a camera , and acting . " Also in 1927 , she appeared alongside her close friend , William Haines , in Spring Fever , which was the first of three movies the duo made together .
In 1928 , Crawford starred opposite Ramón Novarro in Across to Singapore , but it was her role as Diana Medford in Our Dancing Daughters ( 1928 ) that catapulted her to stardom . The role established her as a symbol of modern 1920s @-@ style femininity which rivaled Clara Bow , the original It girl , then Hollywood 's foremost flapper . A stream of hits followed Our Dancing Daughters , including two more flapper @-@ themed movies , in which Crawford embodied for her legion of fans ( many of whom were women ) an idealized vision of the free @-@ spirited , all @-@ American girl .
F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote of Crawford :
Joan Crawford is doubtless the best example of the flapper , the girl you see in smart night clubs , gowned to the apex of sophistication , toying iced glasses with a remote , faintly bitter expression , dancing deliciously , laughing a great deal , with wide , hurt eyes . Young things with a talent for living .
On June 3 , 1929 , Crawford married Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. at Saint Malachy 's Roman Catholic Church ( known as " The Actors ' Chapel " due to its proximity to Broadway theatres ) in Manhattan , although neither was Catholic . Fairbanks was the son of Douglas Fairbanks and the stepson of Mary Pickford , who were considered Hollywood royalty . Fairbanks Sr. and Pickford were opposed to the marriage and did not invite the couple to their home , Pickfair , for eight months after the marriage .
The relationship between Crawford and Fairbanks , Sr. eventually warmed ; she called him " Uncle Doug " and he called her " Billie " , her old childhood nickname . Following that first invitation , Crawford and Fairbanks , Jr. became more frequent guests , which was hard on Crawford . While the Fairbanks men played golf together , Crawford was left either with Pickford or alone .
To rid herself of her Southwestern accent , Crawford tirelessly practiced diction and elocution . She said :
If I were to speak lines , it would be a good idea , I thought , to read aloud to myself , listen carefully to my voice quality and enunciation , and try to learn in that manner . I would lock myself in my room and read newspapers , magazines and books aloud . At my elbow I kept a dictionary . When I came to a word I did not know how to pronounce , I looked it up and repeated it correctly fifteen times .
= = = Transition to sound and continued success = = =
After the release of The Jazz Singer in 1927 — the first major Hollywood movie with synchronized sound — sound films , or talkies as they became nicknamed , were all the rage . The transition from silent to sound panicked many — if not all — involved with the film industry ; many silent film stars found themselves unemployable because of their undesirable voices and hard @-@ to @-@ understand accents or simply because of their refusal to make the transition to talkies . Many studios and stars avoided making the transition as long as possible , especially MGM , which was the last studio to switch over to sound . The Hollywood Revue of 1929 ( 1929 ) was one of the studio 's first all @-@ sound films , and their first attempt to showcase their stars ' ability to make the transition from silent to sound . Crawford was among the dozen or more MGM stars included in the movie ; she sang the song " Got a Feeling for You " during the film 's first act .
Crawford made a successful transition to talkies . Her first starring role in an all @-@ sound feature @-@ length film was in Untamed in 1929 , co @-@ starring Robert Montgomery . Despite the success of the film at the box office , it received mixed reviews from critics , who noted that while Crawford seemed nervous at making the transition to sound , also noted that she had become one of the most popular actresses in the world .
Montana Moon ( 1930 ) , an uneasy mix of Western clichés and music , teamed her with John Mack Brown and Ricardo Cortez . Although the film had problems with censors , it was a major success at the time of its release . Our Blushing Brides ( 1930 ) , co @-@ starring Robert Montgomery and Anita Page , was the final installment in the so @-@ called Our Dancing Daughters franchise . It was a greater success – both critically and financially – than her previous talkies , and became one of her personal favorites .
Her next movie , Paid ( 1930 ) , paired her with Robert Armstrong and was another success . During the early sound era , MGM began to place Crawford in more sophisticated roles , rather than continuing to promote her flapper @-@ inspired persona of the silent era .
In 1931 , MGM cast Crawford in five films . Three of them teamed her opposite the studio 's biggest male star and King of Hollywood , Clark Gable . Dance , Fools , Dance , released in February 1931 , was the first pairing of Crawford and Gable . Their second movie together , Laughing Sinners , released in May 1931 , was directed by Harry Beaumont and also co @-@ starred Neil Hamilton . Possessed , their third film together , released in October , was directed by Clarence Brown .
These films were immensely popular with audiences , and were generally well received by critics , stapling Crawford 's position as one of MGM 's top female stars of the decade , along with Norma Shearer , Greta Garbo , and Jean Harlow . Her only other notable film of 1931 , This Modern Age , was released in August , and despite unfavorable reviews , was a moderate success .
MGM next cast her in the film Grand Hotel , directed by Edmund Goulding . As the studio 's first all @-@ star production , Crawford co @-@ starred opposite Greta Garbo , John and Lionel Barrymore , and Wallace Beery among others . Receiving third billing , she played the middle @-@ class stenographer to Beery 's controlling general director . Crawford later admitted to being nervous during the filming of the movie because she was working with " very big stars " , and that she was disappointed that she had no scenes with the " divine Garbo " . Grand Hotel was released in April 1932 to critical and commercial success . It was the highest @-@ grossing movie of the year , and won the Academy Award for Best Picture .
Crawford achieved continued success in Letty Lynton ( 1932 ) . Soon after this movie 's release , a plagiarism suit forced MGM to withdraw it . For many years it was never shown on television nor made available on home video and is therefore considered the " lost " Crawford film . The gown with large ruffled sleeves , designed by Adrian , which Crawford wore in the movie , became a popular style that same year , and was even copied by Macy 's .
On a loan out to United Artists , she played prostitute Sadie Thompson in Rain ( 1932 ) , a film version of John Colton 's 1923 play . Actress Jeanne Eagels played the role on stage and Gloria Swanson had originated the part on screen in the 1928 film version . Crawford 's performance was panned and the film was not a success .
Despite the failure of Rain , in 1932 the publishing of the first " Top Ten Money Making Stars Poll " placed Crawford third in popularity at the box office , behind only Marie Dressler and Janet Gaynor . She remained on the list for the next several years , last appearing on it in 1936 .
In May 1933 , Crawford divorced Fairbanks . Crawford cited " grievous mental cruelty " , claiming Fairbanks had " a jealous and suspicious attitude " toward her friends and that they had " loud arguments about the most trivial subjects " lasting " far into the night " .
Following her divorce , she was again teamed with Clark Gable , along with Franchot Tone and Fred Astaire , in the hit Dancing Lady ( 1933 ) , in which she received top billing . She next played the title role in Sadie McKee ( 1934 ) opposite Tone and Gene Raymond . She was paired with Gable for the fifth time in Chained ( 1934 ) and for the sixth time in Forsaking All Others ( 1934 ) . Crawford 's films of this era were some of the most @-@ popular and highest @-@ grossing films of the mid @-@ 1930s .
In 1935 , Crawford married Tone , a stage actor from New York who planned to use his film earnings to finance his theatre group . The couple built a small theatre at Crawford 's Brentwood home and put on productions of classic plays for select groups of friends . Tone and Crawford had first appeared together in Today We Live ( 1933 ) but Crawford was hesitant about entering into another romance so soon after her split from Fairbanks .
Before and during their marriage , Crawford worked to promote Tone 's Hollywood career , but Tone was ultimately not interested in being a movie star and Crawford eventually wearied of the effort . After Tone reportedly began drinking and becoming physically abusive , she filed for divorce , which was granted in 1939 . Crawford and Tone much later rekindled their friendship and Tone even proposed in 1964 that they remarry . When he died in 1968 , Crawford arranged for him to be cremated and his ashes scattered at Muskoka Lakes , Canada .
Crawford continued her reign as a popular movie actress well into the mid @-@ 1930s . No More Ladies ( 1935 ) co @-@ starred Robert Montgomery and then @-@ husband Franchot Tone , and was a success . Crawford had long pleaded with MGM 's head Louis B. Mayer to cast her in more dramatic roles , and although he was reluctant , he cast her in the sophisticated comedy @-@ drama I Live My Life ( 1935 ) , directed by W.S. Van Dyke . It was well received by critics and made a larger profit than the studio had expected .
She next starred in The Gorgeous Hussy ( 1936 ) , opposite Robert Taylor and Lionel Barrymore as well as Tone , a critical and box office success , become one of Crawford 's biggest hits of the decade . Love on the Run ( 1936 ) , a romantic comedy directed by W.S. Van Dyke , was her seventh film co @-@ starring Clark Gable . It was , at the time of its release , called " a lot of happy nonsense " by critics , but a financial success nonetheless .
= = = Box Office Poison = = =
Even though Crawford remained a respected MGM actress and her films still earned profits , her popularity declined in the late 1930s . In 1937 , Crawford was proclaimed the first " Queen of the Movies " by Life magazine . She unexpectedly slipped from seventh to sixteenth place at the box office that year , and her public popularity also began to wane . Richard Boleslawski 's comedy @-@ drama The Last of Mrs. Cheyney ( 1937 ) teamed her opposite William Powell in their sole screen pairing . The film was also Crawford 's last box @-@ office success before the onset of her " Box @-@ Office Poison " period .
She co @-@ starred opposite Franchot Tone for the seventh and final time in The Bride Wore Red ( 1937 ) . The film was generally unfavorably reviewed by the majority of critics , with one critic calling it the " same ole rags @-@ to @-@ riches story " Crawford had been making for years . It also ran a financial loss , becoming one of MGM 's biggest failures of the year . Mannequin did , as the New York Times stated , " restore Crawford to her throne as queen of the working girls " . Most other reviews were positive , and the film managed to generate a minor profit , but it did not resurrect Crawford 's popularity .
On May 3 , 1938 , Crawford — along with Greta Garbo , Norma Shearer , Luise Rainer , and John Barrymore , Katharine Hepburn , Fred Astaire , Dolores del Río and others — was dubbed " Box Office Poison " in an open letter in the Independent Film Journal . The list was submitted by Harry Brandt , president of the Independent Theatre Owners Association of America . Brandt stated that while these stars had " unquestioned " dramatic abilities , their high salaries did not reflect in their ticket sales , thus hurting the movie exhibitors involved . Her follow @-@ up movie , The Shining Hour ( 1938 ) , co @-@ starring Margaret Sullavan and Melvyn Douglas , was well received by critics , but a box office flop .
She made a comeback in 1939 with her role as home @-@ wrecker Crystal Allen in The Women opposite her professional nemesis , Norma Shearer . A year later , she played against type , playing the unglamorous role of Julie in Strange Cargo ( 1940 ) , her eighth and final film with Clark Gable . She later starred as a facially disfigured blackmailer in A Woman 's Face ( 1941 ) , a remake of the Swedish film En kvinnas ansikte which had starred Ingrid Bergman in the lead role three years earlier . While the film was only a moderate box office success , her performance was hailed by many critics .
Crawford adopted her first child , a daughter , in 1940 . Because she was single , California law prevented her from adopting within the state so she arranged the adoption through an agency in Las Vegas . The child was temporarily called Joan until Crawford changed her name to Christina . She married actor Phillip Terry on July 21 , 1942 after a six @-@ month courtship .
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Together the couple adopted a son whom they named Christopher , but his birth mother reclaimed the child . The couple adopted another boy , whom they named Phillip Terry , Jr . After the marriage ended in 1946 , Crawford changed the child 's name to Christopher Crawford .
After eighteen years , Crawford 's contract with MGM was terminated by mutual consent on June 29 , 1943 . In lieu of the last film remaining under her contract , MGM bought her out for $ 100 @,@ 000 . During World War II she was a member of American Women 's Voluntary Services .
= = = Move to Warner Brothers = = =
For $ 500 @,@ 000 , Crawford signed with Warner Brothers for a three movie deal and was placed on the payroll on July 1 , 1943 . Her first film for the studio was Hollywood Canteen ( 1944 ) , an all @-@ star morale @-@ booster film that teamed her with several other top movie stars at the time . Crawford said one of the main reasons she signed with Warner Brothers was because she wanted to play the character " Mattie " in a proposed 1944 film version of Edith Wharton 's novel Ethan Frome ( 1911 ) .
She wanted to play the title role in Mildred Pierce ( 1945 ) , but Bette Davis was the studio 's first choice . However , Davis turned the role down . Director Michael Curtiz did not want Crawford to play the part , and he instead lobbied for the casting of Barbara Stanwyck . Warners went against Curtiz , however , and cast Crawford in the film . Throughout the entire production of the movie , Curtiz criticized Crawford . He has been quoted as having told Jack Warner , " She comes over here with her high @-@ hat airs and her goddamn shoulder pads ... why should I waste my time directing a has @-@ been ? " Curtiz demanded Crawford prove her suitability by taking a screen test . After the test , Curtiz agreed to Crawford 's casting . Mildred Pierce was a resounding critical and commercial success . It epitomized the lush visual style and the hard @-@ boiled film noir sensibility that defined Warner Bros. movies of the late forties , earning Crawford the Academy Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role .
The success of Mildred Pierce revived Crawford 's movie career . For several years , she starred in what were called " a series of first @-@ rate melodramas " . Her next film was Humoresque ( 1946 ) , co @-@ starring John Garfield , a romantic drama about a love affair between an older woman and a younger man . She starred alongside Van Heflin in Possessed ( 1947 ) , for which she received a second Academy Award nomination , although she did not win . In Daisy Kenyon ( 1947 ) , she appeared opposite Dana Andrews and Henry Fonda , and in Flamingo Road ( 1949 ) she played a carnival dancer opposite Zachary Scott and David Brian . She made a cameo appearance in It 's a Great Feeling ( 1949 ) , poking fun at her own screen image . In 1950 , she starred in the film noir , The Damned Don 't Cry ! , and starred in Harriet Craig .
After the completion of This Woman Is Dangerous ( 1952 ) , a film Crawford called her " worst " , she asked to be released from her Warner Brothers contract . By this time she felt Warners was losing interest in her and she decided it was time to move on . Later that same year , she received her third and final Academy Award nomination for Sudden Fear for RKO Radio Pictures . In 1953 , she appeared in her final film for MGM , Torch Song . The movie received favorable reviews and moderate success at the box office .
Crawford adopted two more children in 1947 , identical twins whom she named Cindy and Cathy .
= = = Radio and television = = =
Crawford worked in the radio series The Screen Guild Theater on January 8 , 1939 ; Good News ; Baby , broadcast March 2 , 1940 on Arch Oboler 's Lights Out ; The Word on Everyman 's Theater ( 1941 ) ; Chained on the Lux Radio Theater and Norman Corwin 's Document A / 777 ( 1948 ) . She appeared in episodes of anthology television series in the 1950s and , in 1959 , made a pilot for her series , The Joan Crawford Show .
= = = Al Steele and Pepsi Cola Company = = =
Crawford married her fourth and final husband , Alfred Steele , at the Flamingo Hotel in Las Vegas on May 10 , 1955 . Crawford and Steele met at a party in 1950 when Steele was an executive at PepsiCo . They renewed their acquaintance at a New Year 's Eve party in 1954 . Steele by that time had become President of Pepsi Cola . Alfred Steele would later be named Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer of Pepsi Cola . She traveled extensively on behalf of Pepsi following the marriage . She estimated that she traveled over 100 @,@ 000 miles for the company .
Steele died of a heart attack in April 1959 . Crawford was initially advised that her services were no longer required . After she told the story to Louella Parsons , Pepsi reversed its position and Crawford was elected to fill the vacant seat on the board of directors .
Crawford received the sixth annual " Pally Award " , which was in the shape of a bronze Pepsi bottle . It was awarded to the employee making the most significant contribution to company sales . In 1973 , Crawford was forced to retire from the company at the behest of company executive Don Kendall , whom Crawford had referred to for years as " Fang " .
= = = Later career = = =
After her Academy Award nominated performance in 1952 's Sudden Fear , Crawford continued to work steadily throughout the rest of the decade . In 1954 , she starred in Johnny Guitar , a camp western film , co @-@ starring Sterling Hayden and Mercedes McCambridge . She also starred in Female on the Beach ( 1955 ) with Jeff Chandler , and in Queen Bee ( 1955 ) alongside John Ireland . The following year , she starred opposite a young Cliff Robertson in Autumn Leaves ( 1956 ) and filmed a leading role in The Story of Esther Costello ( 1957 ) , co @-@ starring Rossano Brazzi . Crawford , who had been left near @-@ penniless following Alfred Steele 's death accepted a small role in The Best of Everything ( 1959 ) . Although she was not the star of the film , she received positive reviews . Crawford would later name the role as being one of her personal favorites . However , by the early 1960s , Crawford 's status in motion pictures had declined considerably .
Crawford starred as Blanche Hudson , an old , wheelchair @-@ bound former A @-@ list movie star in conflict with her psychotic sister , in the highly successful psychological thriller What Ever Happened to Baby Jane ? ( 1962 ) . Despite the actresses ' earlier tensions , Crawford reportedly suggested Bette Davis for the role of Jane . The two stars maintained publicly that there was no feud between them . The director , Robert Aldrich , explained that Davis and Crawford were each aware of how important the film was to their respective careers and commented , " It 's proper to say that they really detested each other , but they behaved absolutely perfectly . "
After filming was completed , their public comments against each other propelled their animosity into a lifelong feud . The film was a huge success , recouping its costs within 11 days of its nationwide release , and temporarily revived Crawford 's career . Davis was nominated for an Academy Award for her performance as Jane Hudson . Crawford secretly contacted each of the other Oscar nominees in the category ( Katharine Hepburn , Lee Remick Geraldine Page and Anne Bancroft , all East Coast @-@ based actresses ) , to let them know that if they could not attend the ceremony , she would be happy to accept the Oscar on their behalf ; all agreed . Both Davis and Crawford were backstage when the absent Anne Bancroft was announced as the winner , and Crawford accepted the award on her behalf . Davis claimed for the rest of her life that Crawford had campaigned against her , a charge Crawford denied .
That same year , Crawford starred as Lucy Harbin in William Castle 's horror mystery Strait @-@ Jacket ( 1964 ) . Robert Aldrich cast Crawford and Davis in Hush ... Hush , Sweet Charlotte ( 1964 ) . After a purported campaign of harassment by Davis on location in Louisiana , Crawford returned to Hollywood and entered a hospital . After a prolonged absence , during which Crawford was accused of feigning illness , Aldrich was forced to replace her with Olivia de Havilland . Crawford claimed to be devastated , saying " I heard the news of my replacement over the radio , lying in my hospital bed ... I cried for 9 hours . " Crawford nursed grudges against Davis and Aldrich for the rest of her life , saying of Aldrich , " He is a man who loves evil , horrendous , vile things " , to which Aldrich replied , " If the shoe fits , wear it , and I am very fond of Miss Crawford . "
In 1965 she played Amy Nelson in I Saw What You Did ( 1965 ) , another William Castle vehicle . She starred as Monica Rivers in Herman Cohen 's horror thriller film Berserk ! ( 1967 ) . After the film 's release , Crawford guest @-@ starred as herself on The Lucy Show . The episode , " Lucy and the Lost Star " , first aired on February 26 , 1968 . Crawford struggled during rehearsals and drank heavily on @-@ set , leading series star Lucille Ball to suggest replacing her with Gloria Swanson . However , Crawford was letter @-@ perfect the day of the show , which included dancing the Charleston , and received two standing ovations from the studio audience .
In October 1968 , Crawford 's 29 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Christina ( who was then acting in New York on the CBS soap opera The Secret Storm ) , needed immediate medical attention for a ruptured ovarian tumor . Despite the fact that Christina 's character was a 28 @-@ year @-@ old and Crawford was in her sixties , Crawford offered to play her role until Christina was well enough to return , to which producer Gloria Monty readily agreed . Although Crawford did well in rehearsal , she lost her composure while taping and the director and producer were left to struggle to piece together the necessary footage .
Crawford 's appearance in the 1969 television film Night Gallery ( which served as pilot to the series that followed ) , marked one of Steven Spielberg 's earliest directing jobs . She made a cameo appearance as herself in the first episode of the situation comedy The Tim Conway Show , which aired on January 30 , 1970 . She starred on the big screen one final time , playing Dr. Brockton in Herman Cohen 's science fiction horror film Trog ( 1970 ) , rounding out a career spanning 45 years and more than eighty motion pictures . Crawford made three more television appearances , as Stephanie White in a 1970 episode ( " The Nightmare " ) of The Virginian and as Joan Fairchild ( her final performance ) in a 1972 episode ( " Dear Joan : We 're Going to Scare You to Death " ) of The Sixth Sense .
= = Final years = =
In 1970 , Crawford was presented with the Cecil B. DeMille Award by John Wayne at the Golden Globes , which was telecast from the Coconut Grove at The Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles . She also spoke at Stephens College , which she had attended for four months in 1922 .
Crawford published her autobiography , A Portrait of Joan , co @-@ written with Jane Kesner Ardmore , in 1962 through Doubleday . Crawford 's next book , My Way of Life , was published in 1971 by Simon & Schuster . Those expecting a racy tell @-@ all were disappointed , although Crawford 's meticulous ways were revealed in her advice on grooming , wardrobe , exercise , and even food storage . Upon her death there was found in her apartment photographs of John F. Kennedy , for whom she had reportedly voted in the 1960 presidential election .
In September 1973 , Crawford moved from apartment 22 @-@ G to a smaller apartment next door ( 22 @-@ H ) at the Imperial House . Her last public appearance was September 23 , 1974 , at a party honoring her old friend Rosalind Russell at New York 's Rainbow Room . Russell was suffering from breast cancer and arthritis at the time . When Crawford saw the unflattering photos that appeared in the papers the next day , she said , " If that 's how I look , then they won 't see me anymore . " Crawford cancelled all public appearances , began declining interviews and left her apartment less and less . Dental @-@ related issues , including surgery which left her needing round @-@ the @-@ clock nursing care , plagued her from 1972 until mid @-@ 1975 . While on antibiotics for this problem in October 1974 , her drinking caused her to pass out , slip and strike her face . The incident scared her enough to give up drinking , although she insisted it was because of her return to Christian Science . The incident is recorded in a series of letters sent to her insurance company held in the stack files on the 3rd floor of the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts ; it is also documented by Carl Johnnes in his biography of the actress , Joan Crawford : The Last Years .
= = Death and legacy = =
On May 8 , 1977 , Crawford gave away her beloved Shih Tzu , " Princess Lotus Blossom , " being too weak to care for it . She died two days later at her New York apartment from a heart attack . A funeral was held at Campbell Funeral Home , New York , on May 13 , 1977 . In her will , which was signed October 28 , 1976 , Crawford bequeathed to her two youngest children , Cindy and Cathy , $ 77 @,@ 500 each from her $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 estate . She explicitly disinherited the two eldest , Christina and Christopher , writing , " It is my intention to make no provision herein for my son , Christopher , or my daughter , Christina , for reasons which are well known to them . " She also bequeathed nothing to her niece , Joan Lowe ( 1933 @-@ 1999 ; born Joan Crawford LeSueur , the only child of her estranged brother , Hal ) . Crawford left money to her favorite charities : the U.S.O. of New York , the Motion Picture Home , the American Cancer Society , the Muscular Dystrophy Association , the American Heart Association , and the Wiltwyck School for Boys .
A memorial service was held for Crawford at All Souls ' Unitarian Church on Lexington Avenue in New York on May 16 , 1977 , and was attended by , among others , her old Hollywood friend Myrna Loy . Another memorial service , organized by George Cukor , was held on June 24 in the Samuel Goldwyn Theater at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in Beverly Hills . Crawford was cremated and her ashes were placed in a crypt with her fourth and final husband , Alfred Steele , in Ferncliff Cemetery , Hartsdale , New York .
Joan Crawford 's handprints and footprints are immortalized in the forecourt of Grauman 's Chinese Theater on Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood . She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1750 Vine Street . Playboy listed Crawford as # 84 of the " 100 Sexiest Women of the 20th century " . Crawford was also voted the tenth greatest female star of the classic American cinema by the American Film Institute .
= = Mommie Dearest = =
In November 1978 , Christina Crawford published Mommie Dearest , which contained allegations that her late adoptive mother was emotionally and physically abusive to Christina and her brother Christopher because she only cared for her career instead of being a mother . Many of Crawford 's friends and co @-@ workers , including Van Johnson , Ann Blyth , Marlene Dietrich , Myrna Loy , Katharine Hepburn , Cesar Romero , Gary Gray , Betty Barker ( Joan 's secretary for nearly fifty years ) , Douglas Fairbanks Jr . ( Crawford 's first husband ) , and Crawford 's two other younger daughters — Cathy and Cindy — denounced the book , categorically denying any abuse . But others , including Betty Hutton , Helen Hayes , James MacArthur ( Hayes ' son ) , June Allyson , Liz Smith , Rex Reed , and Vincent Sherman stated they had witnessed some form of abusive behavior . Crawford 's secretary , Jeri Binder Smith , confirmed Christina 's account . Mommie Dearest became a bestseller and was made into the 1981 biography film Mommie Dearest , starring Faye Dunaway as Crawford .
= = Filmography = =
= = Radio appearances = =
= = Autobiographies = =
— ( 1962 ) . A Portrait of Joan : The Autobiography of Joan Crawford . Doubleday . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 258 @-@ 17238 @-@ 1 .
— ( 1971 ) . My Way of Life . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 78568 @-@ 0 .
= SMS Greif =
SMS Greif was an aviso built by the Imperial German Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) , the only ship of her class . She was built at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel ; her keel was laid in 1885 , she was launched in July 1886 , and she was commissioned in July 1887 . Unlike the other avisos built by Germany , Greif was equipped only with a gun armament . Greif served with the fleet from 1887 until 1911 , though she was not a particularly successful design and so saw little active service , having spent most of her time in reserve . In 1912 , she was reduced to a training ship for engine @-@ room personnel . In 1917 , she was hulked for minelayers in Kiel . She was ultimately sold for scrapping in 1921 in Hamburg .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
Greif was 99 @.@ 5 meters ( 326 ft ) long at the waterline and 102 @.@ 6 m ( 337 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 9 @.@ 75 m ( 32 @.@ 0 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 22 m ( 13 @.@ 8 ft ) forward and 4 @.@ 34 m ( 14 @.@ 2 ft ) aft . The ship was designed to displace 2 @,@ 050 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 020 long tons ; 2 @,@ 260 short tons ) , and at combat loading , she displaced 2 @,@ 266 t ( 2 @,@ 230 long tons ; 2 @,@ 498 short tons ) . Her hull was constructed with transverse steel frames and it contained twelve watertight compartments .
Greif was a mediocre sea boat and was moderately handy . She pitched slightly but rolled significantly more . Her transverse metacentric height was .48 m ( 1 ft 7 in ) . The ship had a crew of seven officers and 163 enlisted men , though the latter later increased to 178 . Greif carried several smaller boats , including one picket boat , two cutters , one yawl , and one dinghy .
= = = Machinery = = =
Greif 's propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 2 @-@ cylinder double expansion engines built by AG Germania , which drove a pair of four @-@ bladed screws that were 4 m ( 13 ft ) wide in diameter . Steam for the engines was provided by six cylindrical , double @-@ ended , coal @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers split in three boiler rooms . In 1906 , she was reequipped with eight new cylindrical boilers in two boiler rooms , which slightly improved her performance . She was equipped with a pair of generators for electrical power ; they had a combined output of 20 kilowatts ( 27 hp ) at 67 volts . Steering was controlled with a single rudder .
The ship 's propulsion system was rated at 5 @,@ 400 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 000 kW ) for a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . On trials , Greif reached 5 @,@ 431 ihp ( 4 @,@ 050 kW ) and 18 @.@ 2 kn ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) . With the new boilers , her engines could reach 5 @,@ 795 ihp ( 4 @,@ 321 kW ) and 19 @.@ 1 kn ( 35 @.@ 4 km / h ; 22 @.@ 0 mph ) on speed trials . She could carry up to 350 t ( 340 long tons ; 390 short tons ) of coal , which provided a range of approximately 2 @,@ 180 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 040 km ; 2 @,@ 510 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . After her refit , she could carry 436 t ( 429 long tons ; 481 short tons ) of coal , which increased her range to 3 @,@ 960 nmi ( 7 @,@ 330 km ; 4 @,@ 560 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Unlike the other avisos built by the German navy , which carried torpedo tubes as their primary armament , Greif was armed only with guns . As built , the ship was armed with two 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) K L / 35 guns placed in pivot mounts . The ship was also equipped with ten machine guns . In 1906 , the ship was rearmed with eight 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 34 guns in single mounts and six machine guns . Later in her career , two of the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns and two machine guns were removed . Greif carried no armor protection .
= = Service history = =
The ship was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel in 1885 and launched on 29 July 1886 . Fitting @-@ out work followed her launch , and was completed by 9 July 1887 , when she was commissioned into the German fleet . Following her commissioning , Greif served with the active duty fleet , though she saw little service , as she was an unsuccessful design . In 1897 , Greif was assigned to the II Division of the Maneuver Squadron for the annual summer training exercises in August and September . After the conclusion of the maneuvers , the II Division returned to its home port in Kiel for the winter . In early 1898 , Gefion returned to service in the II Division .
In August and September 1900 , Greif was assigned to the Maneuver Squadron during the annual summer training exercises . During the maneuvers , she served in the cruiser screen for the hostile squadron , along with the old frigate Carola . On 21 June 1911 , Greif was reduced to a special purpose ship for experimentation , and she was hulked on 25 October 1915 . She was thereafter used as a training ship for engine room personnel . In 1917 , she was converted into a hulk for minelayers and based in Heikendorf outside Kiel . She served in this capacity for the last year of World War I. In 1921 , she was sold for scrapping and broken up in Hamburg .
= What Maisie Knew ( film ) =
What Maisie Knew is a 2012 American drama film written by Carroll Cartwright and Nancy Doyne and directed by Scott McGehee and David Siegel . It stars Julianne Moore , Alexander Skarsgård , Onata Aprile , Joanna Vanderham and Steve Coogan , and is a modern adaptation of Henry James ' 1897 novel What Maisie Knew . The film finds six @-@ year @-@ old Maisie in the middle of a custody battle between her neglectful parents and their new partners .
Cartwright and Doyne wrote the film 's script in 1995 but the project languished in development hell until McGehee and Siegel were hired as directors . It was filmed in New York over seven weeks in 2011 with music scored by DeVotchKa 's Nick Urata . The film premiered at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival , and was theatrically released on May 3 , 2013 , by Millennium Entertainment . It earned $ 2 @.@ 7 million at the global box office and received positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Six @-@ year @-@ old Maisie ( Onata Aprile ) lives in a New York apartment with her parents , Susanna ( Julianne Moore ) , a singer in a rock band , and Beale ( Steve Coogan ) , an international art dealer . Susanna and Beale argue with each other viciously and constantly , often ignoring Maisie and leaving her in the care of their nanny , Margo ( Joanna Vanderham ) . Maisie does not always understand her parents ' actions , such as when Susanna hires a locksmith to change the lock on the apartment 's front door to keep Beale out . When they decide to separate , both parents are granted joint custody of Maisie .
After the separation , Margo moves into Beale 's apartment and they get married soon afterwards . In response to the marriage , Susanna impulsively marries Lincoln ( Alexander Skarsgård ) , a bartender whom she barely knows . Maisie bonds with Lincoln , but Susanna quickly grows resentful of how much Maisie has warmed to him .
Although both Susanna and Beale think they deserve full custody , their desire to keep Maisie is primarily to spite the other , and they are quick to pawn her off on the other parent when looking after her becomes inconvenient . Maisie 's time is split between staying with each of her parents , but her primary caregivers become Lincoln and Margo as Susanna leaves on a tour and Beale disappears on business trips . With his relationship with Margo disintegrating , Beale eventually decides to move to the UK .
With Beale and Susanna gone , Margo , Lincoln and Maisie begin to spend time together . While Susanna is supposedly on tour , the three run into her in New York . After an angry confrontation in which Susanna accuses Lincoln and Margo of stealing Maisie from her , Lincoln declares their relationship over , telling Susanna that she does not deserve Maisie .
When Susanna suddenly leaves the city , Maisie once again ends up in Margo 's care . Margo takes her to stay in her cousin 's beach house . She invites Lincoln to visit , much to Maisie 's delight , and Lincoln and Margo kiss . One night , Susanna stops by the beach house unannounced in her tour bus to pick Maisie up , but Maisie chooses to stay with Margo and Lincoln instead . After shouting at her , Susanna realizes that Maisie is scared of her and that it is in Maisie 's best interests to stay behind .
= = Cast = =
Julianne Moore as Susanna
Alexander Skarsgård as Lincoln
Onata Aprile as Maisie
Joanna Vanderham as Margo
Steve Coogan as Beale
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
What Maisie Knew was written by Carroll Cartwright and Nancy Doyne in 1995 , based on the 1897 novel What Maisie Knew by Henry James . At the time , Cartwright was involved in a legal dispute over the custody of his daughter . Director Scott McGehee later said that Cartwright had used James ' novel " as a lens " through which to write about his own divorce and raising his daughter . According to Cartwright , he and Doyne struggled to find producers , financiers and directors interested in making the film because of the challenges of working with a young child at its center . Producer Charles Weinstock was involved in the project for a number of years and was eventually responsible for obtaining financing from Red Crown Productions and hiring McGehee and David Siegel as directors . McGehee and Siegel were initially apprehensive about the script but decided to read it after hearing from their agent that actress Julianne Moore was interested in playing one of the roles ; they accepted the directing job after talking to Moore about the story . Although McGehee and Siegel were reluctant to make a film about divorce , they liked that the script focused on Maisie 's perspective , noting that it was unusual for a film aimed at adults to have a story told from the perspective of a child .
= = = Casting = = =
Casting for the role of Maisie took eight weeks . Casting director Avy Kaufman suggested about 100 young girls to McGehee and Siegel while the directors independently visited New York elementary schools to hold auditions . Six @-@ year @-@ old Onata Aprile auditioned relatively late , and was cast three weeks before production started . She met with two of her adult co @-@ stars , Julianne Moore and Alexander Skarsgård , for a brief rehearsal period before filming began . Moore , who had read the film 's script before directors McGehee and Siegel , was anxious about having to sing as part of her role . She prepared by meeting with music producer Peter Nashel , singer Elaine Caswell , and Alison Mosshart , the lead singer of The Kills , whose songs Moore performed in the film .
Steve Coogan was the directors ' first choice to play Beale , although the film 's producers wanted to cast another English actor . McGehee and Siegel felt Coogan was suited to the role because " no matter what awful things he does and says , somehow there 's something sympathetic about him " . Joanna Vanderham , the last actor to be cast in the film , secured her role two weeks before production started after talking with McGehee , Siegel and Kaufman on Skype from Glasgow .
= = = Filming = = =
What Maisie Knew was filmed in New York for 35 days over seven weeks in the summer of 2011 . It was shot on 35 mm film using an Arri camera . Filming took place in mainly Lower Manhattan , and scenes at the beach house were shot on Long Island . One scene featuring Maisie and Lincoln taking a day trip together was shot on the High Line . A scene in which Susanna performs at a concert was filmed at Webster Hall using a pre @-@ recorded vocal track , a backing band and a small audience . According to McGehee and Siegel , a significant challenge during filming was the limited time with which they were able to work with Aprile each day due to her early bedtime . While shooting one of the film 's final scenes wherein Susanna arrives at the beach house at night to pick up Maisie , Aprile fell asleep and could not be woken up ; the shoot had to be postponed until two weeks later .
= = = Music = = =
The film 's score was composed by Nick Urata of the musical group DeVotchKa . It was inspired by rock music , to which McGehee and Siegel thought Maisie would have been exposed with a musician mother . McGehee described Urata 's score as " us [ ing ] rock language but in a more childlike way " .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
What Maisie Knew premiered at the 2012 Toronto Film Festival on September 7 , 2012 . Millennium Films purchased the film 's U.S. distribution rights soon after its premiere . The film was released in the United States on May 3 , 2013 . Opening in a single theater in New York , it earned $ 21 @,@ 480 on its opening weekend and $ 31 @,@ 152 by the end of its first week . It expanded to three theaters in its second week of release , was playing in 27 theaters by its fourth week , and reached its widest release of 122 theaters in its sixth week . It was in release for a total of thirteen weeks and grossed $ 1 @,@ 066 @,@ 471 in that time . In the United Kingdom , the film was released by Curzon Film World in cinemas and through video on demand ( VOD ) services on August 23 , 2013 , with £ 150 @,@ 000 pledged by the British Film Institute towards the film 's £ 244 @,@ 000 marketing budget . It earned £ 330 @,@ 186 in box office revenue from four weeks of release and £ 65 @,@ 832 from VOD rentals in the first six weeks it was available . In other territories , the film performed best in Australia ( grossing US $ 334 @,@ 651 ) , Spain ( $ 196 @,@ 668 ) , New Zealand ( $ 140 @,@ 696 ) and Brazil ( $ 100 @,@ 453 ) . It earned a total of $ 1 @,@ 644 @,@ 908 outside of the U.S. for a total worldwide gross of $ 2 @,@ 711 @,@ 379 .
= = = Critical response = = =
What Maisie Knew received generally positive reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film holds a rating of 87 % , based on 101 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 7 / 10 . The site 's consensus states : " It 's undeniably difficult to watch at times , but What Maisie Knew ultimately rises on the strength of its solidly sourced script , powerful performances , and empathetic direction . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 74 out of 100 , based on reviews from 32 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
In a review for Variety magazine , Justin Chang summarized What Maisie Knew as a " beautifully observed drama " and wrote that , although the plot was consistently dark , it contained " enough sensitivity and emotional variation to make the experience cumulatively heartrending " . New York magazine 's David Edelstein praised the subtleties in the writing and performances of the adult characters and opined that the cinematography was " as open and graceful as any [ he had ] seen all year " . A. O. Scott of The New York Times described the film as a " brilliant , haunting adaptation " of Henry James ' novel , praising Aprile 's performance as Maisie in particular . The Los Angeles Times critic Betsy Sharkey also commended Aprile , Moore and Coogan 's acting and felt that the " beautifully rendered film " was able to achieve emotional resonance without becoming melodramatic . The Boston Globe 's Ty Burr , who awarded the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , opined that its success was largely attributable to Aprile 's performance . John DeFore of The Hollywood Reporter noted the film 's " uniformly strong performances " and praised McGehee and Siegel for maintaining a sense of plausibility in spite of the melodramatic plot . For the New York Observer , Rex Reed wrote of the film 's " warmth , intelligence and grace " and concluded his review : " poignant and exemplary , this is one of the best films of 2013 " .
The New York Post 's Kyle Smith likened What Maisie Knew to a public service announcement about parenting and divorce and felt that the presentation of the story from Maisie 's perspective was a " gimmick " ( although it is true to James 's novel ) . Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly found the film unoriginal , " pointless and inert " and awarded it a C grade . Slant Magazine 's Chris Cabin felt that the characters were one @-@ dimensional and stereotypical , and described the film as " an abhorrent slice of tasteless familial drama " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Home media = = =
What Maisie Knew was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on August 13 , 2013 . The Blu @-@ ray edition includes an audio commentary with the directors and a selection of deleted scenes .
= Hurricane Celeste ( 1972 ) =
Hurricane Celeste of August 1972 was the first known tropical cyclone to strike Johnston Atoll as a hurricane . Forming from a disturbance in the East Pacific on August 6 , the storm began a general westward movement it would take throughout most of its life . The storm intensified steadily , becoming a Category 1 hurricane on August 10 . It kept steady at this intensity until it reached the Central Pacific . Upon entering the Central Pacific , intensification began anew , and by August 14 , the hurricane reached a peak intensity of 135 mph ( 217 km / h ) . After maintaining this intensity for twelve hours , the hurricane began to weaken while passing south of Hawaii . The weakening phase was similar to its intensification in that the storm lost intensity slowly . Celeste then made a turn to the northwest and dropped below hurricane intensity on August 21 . The storm then entered an area of vertical wind shear , causing it to dissipate soon after .
Celeste was responsible for damage to shipping and for causing high waves to hit Hawai 'i . The biggest impact from the hurricane , however , was on Johnston Atoll . There , the hurricane caused damage to a meteorology station on the island as well as damaging several military installations , including those related to Program 437 , an anti @-@ satellite weapons system . Additionally , there was a threat of contamination on the island from stored Agent Orange and other herbicides brought from Vietnam by the Defense Department for eventual destruction at sea by the Dutch @-@ owned incinerator ship MT Vulcanus . An inspection of the island following the hurricane indicated that there was no contamination , but the 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 gallons of herbicides sat in steel barrels on salt beaches for nearly 5 years . Overall , damage from the hurricane totalled $ 3 @.@ 5 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
The precursor to Celeste was a tropical disturbance that had stalled roughly 520 miles ( 840 km ) south of La Paz , Mexico on August 4 , though the disturbance was tracked starting two days before . The disturbance slowly intensified into a tropical storm on August 6 and was given the name Celeste . The next day , a ship called the Star Track reported winds of 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) and an atmospheric pressure of 1 @,@ 006 millibars ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) at a point 105 miles ( 169 km ) south of the center of the storm . At this point , the storm began a general westward motion it would continue on for most of its life due to high @-@ pressure areas north of its track . While traversing the East Pacific , the storm kept a consistent intensity until late on August 9 , when it started intensifying again , becoming a hurricane the next day . On August 12 , the hurricane passed 140 ° W longitude and entered the Central Pacific just as it reached Category 2 strength .
Upon entering the Central Pacific , the hurricane began intensifying at a steady rate . On August 14 , it peaked as a minimum Category 4 hurricane , an intensity it would keep for twelve hours . Afterwards , the hurricane began a slow weakening trend , despite reaching its lowest pressure – 940 millibars ( 28 inHg ) – after its wind speeds decreased . On August 16 , the hurricane made a turn to the west @-@ northwest , which brought it on a path towards Johnston Atoll . The hurricane passed 30 miles ( 48 km ) to the northeast of Johnston on August 19 , subjecting the atoll to nearly six hours of hurricane @-@ force winds . After passing the atoll , Celeste turned to the northwest and eventually weakened to a tropical storm on August 21 . Shortly after weakening to a tropical storm , it entered an area of higher vertical wind shear which ultimately led to its dissipation by August 22 .
The best track intensity of Celeste largely varies between the HURDAT and the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) . The best track on HURDAT lists Celeste as strengthening in intensity from tropical storm to its Category 4 peak and then weakening to dissipation in a straightforward manner , skipping Category 3 intensity while strengthening . The CPHC track , however , varies in that it shows a weakening to Category 1 shortly after entering the basin , followed by reintensification into a Category 3 . Another difference is that the CPHC shows Celeste as having reached Category 3 a second time on August 18 after prior weakening , during which it reached its peak intensity . Finally , the CPHC best track gives a peak intensity of Category 3 rather than Category 4 .
= = Impact = =
During its initial intensification in the East Pacific , Celeste was responsible for damaging a ship in the area . The ship , the barquentine Regina Maris ( schooner ) with 58 people aboard was impacted by high winds and rough seas , resulting in damage that led to the ship taking on 2000 gallons of water an hour . A Hurricane Hunter aircraft en route to the hurricane found the ship after receiving news that it was in the area and helped guide a rescue aircraft to the vessel before resuming its reconnaissance flight . The Vishva Tirth an Indian freighter , was the first vessel to arrive and it towed the Regina Maris to Los Angeles which took about 10 days . The Vishva Tirth took aboard most of the passengers from the Regina Maris . The Captain , Paul Maskell , along with the crew stayed on board the Regina Maris . The US Coast Guard Cutter Mellon arrived the day after the Vishva Tirth took the Regina Maris under tow and escorted both vessels for a few days . The Regina Maris was towed the entire way to Los Angeles by the Vishva Tirth . The towing was affected by Celeste and later by Hurricane Diana . While stranded , two people were treated for injuries on board the vessel . Another rescue attempt was affected when a homemade yacht called the Little Ark was briefly threatened by the hurricane . Prior to Celeste , it had rescued the crew of the ship Pipedream II , which had been damaged 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) off the coast of California . However , the Coast Guard reported that the yacht would have little trouble in avoiding the hurricane . While passing south of Hawaii , the hurricane affected the Puna , Kau , and South Kona Coasts of the Big Island with waves measuring 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high . In addition , the threat of swells caused high surf warnings to be posted for the entire Hawaiian chain .
The worst impact was on Johnston Island , which had never experienced a hurricane prior to Celeste . The year before , 13 @,@ 000 tons of nerve gas and mustard gas had been transferred to the atoll from Okinawa . After a hurricane watch was posted , the idea of evacuation was considered and a decision was to be reached the day before the storm was to arrive . However , the threat of the stored gas being dispersed led to the island being evacuated as a precaution . The need of evacuation was increased by the hurricane gaining speed towards the island . After the decision , the arsenal on the island was secured and most of the personnel on the island were evacuated to Honolulu . Initially , ten people , including the base commander , volunteered to stay behind in shelters in order to clear the runway using bulldozers after the hurricane passed . However , the ten volunteers were evacuated after the risk was found to be too great . During the hurricane , the island was hit by high winds and 45 feet ( 14 m ) waves for six hours , although fears that the island would be inundated never materialized . A total rainfall of 6 @.@ 21 inches ( 158 mm ) was measured , but this is likely lower than the actual total since the instrument measuring the rainfall was partially clogged by a piece of coral . After the storm had passed , a flight had reported that damage looked minor . A decontamination team then arrived at the island to inspect whether any gas had escaped and whether the runway was usable . The unit later reported that the island was all clear . The north and northwest sides of structures on the island were reported to be hit by a combination of sand and coral . Roofs were blown off and the weather station on the island had lost one third of its roof and ceiling tiles , but the interior and instruments remained intact . None of the vehicles and heavy equipment on the island were reported to have been moved by the storm . An inspection by UNIVAC indicated that several computers on the island incurred rust , corrosion and , in one case , fungal growth . The biggest impact was to Program 437 , a defense project that used anti @-@ satellite weapons , with facilities and guidance computers destroyed . The system was repaired but Program 437 was terminated shortly afterwards on 6 March 1975 . During Hurricane Keli in 1984 , a figure of $ 3 @.@ 5 million in damage was reported as having been caused by Celeste .
= = = Records = = =
In addition to being the first hurricane to strike Johnston , Celeste set many other records while active , most of them related to its impact on Johnston . The evacuations marked the first time that a major U.S. base was left unmanned , although the base was still under surveillance . Following the storm , the weather station on the island measured a wind speed of 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) , the highest recorded in 13 years of measurements , besting the previous record of 49 mph ( 79 km / h ) recorded on two occasions . However , the gust recorder at the station remained inactive during the storm . The station also recorded a record low pressure of 983 millibars ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) . The previous lowest was 1 @,@ 003 millibars ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) at an unknown time .
= Azazel ( Supernatural ) =
Azazel is a fictional character on The CW Television Network 's drama and horror television series Supernatural . He serves as the primary antagonist during the first two seasons . A demon , he feeds his blood to infants so that they will grow up to develop demonic abilities . His goal of using one such child to release Lucifer is not revealed until much later in the series . Azazel is referred to by nicknames such as " The Demon " , " The Yellow @-@ Eyed Demon " , or " Yellow Eyes " throughout the first two seasons , his true name not being revealed until the third season . Due to the character 's demonic nature of taking different hosts , Azazel has been portrayed by numerous actors , but all have maintained his sadistic sense of humor and Jack Nicholson @-@ like mannerisms . Critics and fans alike have met him with nearly universal praise .
= = Plot = =
The tyrannical leader of an army of demons , Azazel first appears in the pilot episode of the series , but plot devices such as flashbacks and time travel detail his background in later seasons . His earliest chronological depiction occurs in the fourth season finale , " Lucifer Rising " . Having spent years searching , Azazel ( Rob LaBelle ) finally located the doorway to Lucifer 's prison in 1972 . The fallen angel tasked him with freeing the demon Lilith from Hell — she is needed to break the 66 seals holding Lucifer captive — and to find him a " special child " . By the following year , Azazel began making demonic pacts with young individuals ; in exchange for a wish , he would be allowed to enter their homes ten years later . Azazel ( Christopher B. MacCabe ) eventually comes across Mary Campbell , the future mother of series protagonists Sam and Dean Winchester . After taking possession of her father ( Mitch Pileggi ) , he kills her mother and stabs himself to kill his host . Mary 's fiance , John Winchester , is the demon 's next victim . Azazel makes his usual offer , giving her the chance to resurrect John , and she reluctantly agrees .
In 1983 , Mary discovers Azazel standing over baby Sam 's crib ; he had been feeding his blood to the infant . Upon being interrupted , the demon pins her to the ceiling , slashes her stomach and causes her to burst into flames . Mary 's death inspires John to dedicate his life to hunting down Azazel , at the same time training Sam and Dean to hunt supernatural creatures . As revealed in the fifth season finale , " Swan Song " , Azazel sent demons to possess important people in Sam 's life , secretly manipulating him as he grew up . However , Sam eventually leaves the life of hunting to attend college . Azazel orders the assassination of Sam 's girlfriend Jessica Moore , whose death prompts Sam to return to hunting .
Because demons cannot be killed by conventional means , the Winchesters track down the Colt — a mystic gun capable of killing anything — in " Dead Man 's Blood " . In the following episode , " Salvation " , they trace the omens caused by the demon 's presence to Salvation , Iowa . Like he has done with Sam and countless others , Azazel plans to visit a six @-@ month @-@ old and feed her his blood so she will later develop demonic abilities . Although Sam interrupts the demon 's plans and saves the family , Azazel escapes . Meanwhile , the demonic Meg Masters and her " brother " Tom kidnap John , and then set their sights on Sam and Dean . The brothers exorcise Meg in the season finale " Devil 's Trap " , and her host discloses John 's location . Sam and Dean rescue him and kill Tom . After being taken to a secluded location , however , John is revealed to be possessed . An angry Azazel ( Jeffrey Dean Morgan ) chastises them for killing Meg and Tom — he deems them his " children " — and begins to torture the brothers . John temporarily retakes control , giving Sam the opportunity to grab the Colt . Unable to kill his father , Sam shoots John in the leg , and the demon flees from his host . As the Winchesters make their escape , a demonically @-@ possessed truck driver crashes into their car . Dean is left dying in a coma , forcing John to sell his soul and the Colt to Azazel ( Fredric Lehne ) to save him . The demon possesses a reaper ( Lindsey McKeon ) to save Dean from death and fulfill his part of the deal .
Azazel 's last appearance chronologically is in the second season finale " All Hell Breaks Loose " , where he kidnaps Sam and the other young adults that he had infected . He visits Sam in a dream , and reveals that his " special children " must fight to the death to determine who will lead his army . Although Sam is the demon 's favorite , the super @-@ strong Jake Talley becomes the winner . As Dean sells his soul to another demon in exchange for Sam 's resurrection , Azazel gives Jake the Colt and coerces him to travel to a cemetery in the middle of a giant devil 's trap . Though Sam and Dean , along with other hunters , attempt to stop him , Jake uses the Colt as a key to unlock a mausoleum there . This action briefly opens a gateway to Hell , releasing Lilith and hundreds of other demons . With the devil 's trap around the cemetery now broken , Azazel confronts the Winchesters and easily overpowers them . However , John 's soul also escapes through the Gate , and distracts Azazel long enough for Dean to shoot him dead with the Colt .
= = Characterization = =
Deeming Azazel to be " an angry soul " , actor Fredric Lehne believed that the character having been " denied Heaven and everything else that 's good in the universe " has " [ translated ] into anger and vengeance " . A demon with a sense of humor , Azazel takes pleasure in seeing people suffer . " The more pain — mostly psychological pain — he causes , the happier he is , " Lehne explained . " He gets off on the power of turning people to his will . " This quality suggests to the actor why the demon favored Sam as the potential leader of his army . Being the " most ripe for picking " because he had the " sweetest " heart , Sam was " most desirable for corrupting " of all the children ; Lehne described Azazel 's thought process as , " If I could turn him , then I had truly won . " The character 's ultimate motivation , however , is to free Lucifer from his imprisonment in Hell . On this , Supernatural co @-@ executive producer Ben Edlund mentioned his view of Azazel as one of " a little cult of demonic true believers " that encompasses many of the important demon characters in the series .
= = Development = =
For Azazel 's first full appearance on the series in " Devil 's Trap " , the writers initially could not decide which Winchester — Sam , Dean , or John — to have the demon possess . However , actor Jeffrey Dean Morgan 's busy schedule made them realize that having John kidnapped and possessed , and therefore absent from much of the episode , would be the only practical choice . Noting that the first season focuses on Sam and Dean trying to find both their father and Azazel , series creator Eric Kripke noted that from a storytelling perspective " it had to be " that " they 'd find both of them at the same time ... in the same body " . Though the writers modeled Azazel 's personality after Al Pacino 's demonic sense of humor in the film The Devil 's Advocate , they gave Morgan free rein over the character 's mannerisms . Only directed to " be different from John " , Morgan changed his voice and mimicked Jack Nicholson 's " freaky " speech pattern from The Shining .
Morgan 's " Nicholson @-@ esque quality " continues with actor Fredric Lehne . Though uncertain of why he was specifically sought out — Lehne chalks it up to his previous working experience with executive producers Kim Manners and Robert Singer — the role was offered to him without an audition . The actor avoided copying Morgan 's portrayal , but noted that the writing " lends itself to doing it in a certain way " . Since Azazel changes human hosts periodically , Lehne 's initial appearance in the second season premiere , " In My Time of Dying " , was intended to be a one @-@ time deal . Thoroughly impressed , however , the show runners kept him for the season finale . Despite the character 's death , Lehne returned to the role in the sixth season premiere as a hallucination .
A dream sequence in " All Hell Breaks Loose " hints at Mary Winchester 's connection to Azazel . Although the writers intended to address this in the third season , it was pushed back to the fourth season episode " In the Beginning " due to the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . Kripke asked Mitch Pileggi to enact this revelation — the two had previously worked together on the series Tarzan — and the actor accepted because Kim Manners and much of the Supernatural crew had also worked on The X @-@ Files . While Pileggi emulated Lehne 's performance , he also tried to " put his own spin on it " .
Morgan , Lehne , and actress Lindsey McKeon wore hard , colored contact lenses during their portrayals of Azazel . The lenses eventually became painful , and would greatly obscure their vision . The production crew placed sandbags on the floor to help Morgan and Lehne locate their marks , and a grip held Lehne 's hand as he walked around a campfire in " All Hell Breaks Loose " . McKeon 's brief scene in " In My Time of Dying " — she touches actor Jensen Ackles ' forehead — took nine takes to film because she kept missing . Although Pileggi was fitted for the lenses , production ultimately added the effect digitally at " appropriate moments " .
= = Reception = =
Azazel has been met with universal praise from critics and fans alike , with the latter voting him as the best villain of the series in a poll conducted by BuddyTV . " [ You ] have to realize that without [ Azazel ] there would be no reason for the boys to hunt in the first place , " viewers wrote , also calling him the " oldest arch nemesis " and a " classic supernatural badass " . The results of the poll revealed that Azazel had won with 75 % of the votes , with the second @-@ highest percentage of votes for another character ( Alastair ) being only 9 % .
Both Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune and Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune felt that Morgan gave " his best and most believable performance of the season " in " Devil 's Trap " , with the latter adding , " He was really on fire in that scene , and it brought a whole new intensity to his performance . " Diana Steenbergen of IGN found him " menacing , with his low voice and the cruel words ... trying to tear them apart emotionally before tearing Dean apart literally " , and enjoyed the sadistic and " vicious humor " that makes the character " more sinister " . However , she believed that Azazel having a family was an unnecessary parallel with the Winchesters that " doesn 't quite make sense " . After viewing the episode , Brian Tallerico of UGO gave his opinion that the series should follow Buffy the Vampire Slayer 's format of having a different recurring villain each season . " If the firestarting demon is the Big Bad for the first two seasons , that 's fine , " he commented , " but don 't drag it out longer than that . Fans will get bored . And there 's nothing scarier than that .
Tina Charles of TV Guide was happy to see the " appropriately creepy " Lehne return to the role in " All Hell Breaks Loose " . " The second he popped in at ghost town central , " she wrote , " the scare factor went up . " Likewise , Tom Burns of UGO deemed all of Lehne 's scenes " damn near riveting " , while Brett Love of TV Squad described him as " a perfect evil menace " . Diana Steenbergen of IGN deemed Lehne 's performance " charismatic and quietly sadistic without being overdone " . Despite this praise , she was happy to see the character die because " it frees the show from bogging down by having the Winchesters chasing after the same villain endlessly " and " opens up the opportunity to explore new plots " .
Pileggi 's casting in " In the Beginning " was " a cool move " for Charles , who found his performance " scary " . Similarly , Steenbergen called Pileggi " a force to be reckoned " who " has a chance to be both funny and disturbing " . According to publicists of Warner Bros. , the fans " were very happy with what [ they ] did " in the episode .
= Arthropod =
An arthropod ( from Greek arthro- , joint + podos , foot ) is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton ( external skeleton ) , a segmented body , and jointed appendages ( paired appendages ) . Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda , which includes the insects , arachnids , myriapods , and crustaceans . Arthropods are characterized by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chitin , often mineralised with calcium carbonate . The arthropod body plan consists of segments , each with a pair of appendages . The rigid cuticle inhibits growth , so arthropods replace it periodically by moulting . Their versatility has enabled them to become the most species @-@ rich members of all ecological guilds in most environments . They have over a million described species , making up more than 80 % of all described living animal species , some of which , unlike most animals , are very successful in dry environments .
Arthropods range in size from the microscopic crustacean Stygotantulus up to the Japanese spider crab . Arthropods ' primary internal cavity is a hemocoel , which accommodates their internal organs , and through which their haemolymph - analogue of blood - circulates ; they have open circulatory systems . Like their exteriors , the internal organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments . Their nervous system is " ladder @-@ like " , with paired ventral nerve cords running through all segments and forming paired ganglia in each segment . Their heads are formed by fusion of varying numbers of segments , and their brains are formed by fusion of the ganglia of these segments and encircle the esophagus . The respiratory and excretory systems of arthropods vary , depending as much on their environment as on the subphylum to which they belong .
Their vision relies on various combinations of compound eyes and pigment @-@ pit ocelli : in most species the ocelli can only detect the direction from which light is coming , and the compound eyes are the main source of information , but the main eyes of spiders are ocelli that can form images and , in a few cases , can swivel to track prey . Arthropods also have a wide range of chemical and mechanical sensors , mostly based on modifications of the many setae ( bristles ) that project through their cuticles . Arthropods ' methods of reproduction and development are diverse ; all terrestrial species use internal fertilization , but this is often by indirect transfer of the sperm via an appendage or the ground , rather than by direct injection . Aquatic species use either internal or external fertilization . Almost all arthropods lay eggs , but scorpions give birth to live young after the eggs have hatched inside the mother . Arthropod hatchlings vary from miniature adults to grubs and caterpillars that lack jointed limbs and eventually undergo a total metamorphosis to produce the adult form . The level of maternal care for hatchlings varies from nonexistent to the prolonged care provided by scorpions .
The evolutionary ancestry of arthropods dates back to the Cambrian period . The group is generally regarded as monophyletic , and many analyses support the placement of arthropods with cycloneuralians ( or their constituent clades ) in a superphylum Ecdysozoa . Overall however , the basal relationships of Metazoa are not yet well resolved . Likewise , the relationships between various arthropod groups are still actively debated .
Arthropods contribute to the human food supply both directly as food , and more importantly as pollinators of crops . Some specific species are known to spread severe disease to humans , livestock , and crops .
= = Etymology = =
The word arthropod comes from the Greek ἄρθρον árthron , " joint " , and πούς pous ( gen. podos ) , i.e. " foot " or " leg " , which together mean " jointed leg " .
= = Description = =
Arthropods are invertebrates with segmented bodies and jointed limbs . The exoskeleton or cuticles consists of chitin , a polymer of glucosamine . The cuticle of crustaceans are also biomineralized with calcium carbonate .
= = = Diversity = = =
Estimates of the number of arthropod species vary between 1 @,@ 170 @,@ 000 and 5 to 10 million and account for over 80 % of all known living animal species . The number of species remains difficult to determine . This is due to the census modeling assumptions projected onto other regions in order to scale up from counts at specific locations applied to the whole world . A study in 1992 estimated that there were 500 @,@ 000 species of animals and plants in Costa Rica alone , of which 365 @,@ 000 were arthropods .
They are important members of marine , freshwater , land and air ecosystems , and are one of only two major animal groups that have adapted to life in dry environments ; the other is amniotes , whose living members are reptiles , birds and mammals . One arthropod sub @-@ group , insects , is the most species @-@ rich member of all ecological guilds in land and fresh @-@ water environments . The lightest insects weigh less than 25 micrograms ( millionths of a gram ) , while the heaviest weigh over 70 grams ( 2 @.@ 5 oz ) . Some living crustaceans are much larger ; for example , the legs of the Japanese spider crab may span up to 4 metres ( 13 ft ) , with the heaviest of all living arthropods being the American lobster , topping out at over 20 kg ( 44 lbs ) .
= = = Segmentation = = =
The embryos of all arthropods are segmented , built from a series of repeated modules . The last common ancestor of living arthropods probably consisted of a series of undifferentiated segments , each with a pair of appendages that functioned as limbs . However , all known living and fossil arthropods have grouped segments into tagmata in which segments and their limbs are specialized in various ways ; The three @-@ part appearance of many insect bodies and the two @-@ part appearance of spiders is a result of this grouping ; in fact there are no external signs of segmentation in mites . Arthropods also have two body elements that are not part of this serially repeated pattern of segments , an acron at the front , ahead of the mouth , and a telson at the rear , behind the anus . The eyes are mounted on the acron .
The original structure of arthropod appendages was probably biramous , with the upper branch acting as a gill while the lower branch was used for walking . In some segments of all known arthropods the appendages have been modified , for example to form gills , mouth @-@ parts , antennae for collecting information , or claws for grasping ; arthropods are " like Swiss Army knives , each equipped with a unique set of specialized tools . " In many arthropods , appendages have vanished from some regions of the body , and it is particularly common for abdominal appendages to have disappeared or be highly modified .
The most conspicuous specialization of segments is in the head . The four major groups of arthropods – Chelicerata ( includes spiders and scorpions ) , Crustacea ( shrimps , lobsters , crabs , etc . ) , Tracheata ( arthropods that breathe via channels into their bodies ; includes insects and myriapods ) , and the extinct trilobites – have heads formed of various combinations of segments , with appendages that are missing or specialized in different ways . In addition some extinct arthropods , such as Marrella , belong to none of these groups , as their heads are formed by their own particular combinations of segments and specialized appendages . Working out the evolutionary stages by which all these different combinations could have appeared is so difficult that it has long been known as " the arthropod head problem " . In 1960 R. E. Snodgrass even hoped it would not be solved , as trying to work out solutions was so much fun .
= = = Exoskeleton = = =
Arthropod exoskeletons are made of cuticle , a non @-@ cellular material secreted by the epidermis . Their cuticles vary in the details of their structure , but generally consist of three main layers : the epicuticle , a thin outer waxy coat that moisture @-@ proofs the other layers and gives them some protection ; the exocuticle , which consists of chitin and chemically hardened proteins ; and the endocuticle , which consists of chitin and unhardened proteins . The exocuticle and endocuticle together are known as the procuticle . Each body segment and limb section is encased in hardened cuticle . The joints between body segments and between limb sections are covered by flexible cuticle .
The exoskeletons of most aquatic crustaceans are biomineralized with calcium carbonate extracted from the water . Some terrestrial crustaceans have developed means of storing the mineral , since on land they cannot rely on a steady supply of dissolved calcium carbonate . Biomineralization generally affects the exocuticle and the outer part of the endocuticle . Two recent hypotheses about the evolution of biomineralization in arthropods and other groups of animals propose that it provides tougher defensive armor , and that it allows animals to grow larger and stronger by providing more rigid skeletons ; and in either case a mineral @-@ organic composite exoskeleton is cheaper to build than an all @-@ organic one of comparable strength .
The cuticle may have setae ( bristles ) growing from special cells in the epidermis . Setae are as varied in form and function as appendages . For example , they are often used as sensors to detect air or water currents , or contact with objects ; aquatic arthropods use feather @-@ like setae to increase the surface area of swimming appendages and to filter food particles out of water ; aquatic insects , which are air @-@ breathers , use thick felt @-@ like coats of setae to trap air , extending the time they can spend under water ; heavy , rigid setae serve as defensive spines .
Although all arthropods use muscles attached to the inside of the exoskeleton to flex their limbs , some still use hydraulic pressure to extend them , a system inherited from their pre @-@ arthropod ancestors ; for example , all spiders extend their legs hydraulically and can generate pressures up to eight times their resting level .
= = = Moulting = = =
The exoskeleton cannot stretch and thus restricts growth . Arthropods therefore replace their exoskeletons by moulting , or shedding the old exoskeleton after growing a new one that is not yet hardened . Moulting cycles run nearly continuously until an arthropod reaches full size .
In the initial phase of moulting , the animal stops feeding and its epidermis releases moulting fluid , a mixture of enzymes that digests the endocuticle and thus detaches the old cuticle . This phase begins when the epidermis has secreted a new epicuticle to protect it from the enzymes , and the epidermis secretes the new exocuticle while the old cuticle is detaching . When this stage is complete , the animal makes its body swell by taking in a large quantity of water or air , and this makes the old cuticle split along predefined weaknesses where the old exocuticle was thinnest . It commonly takes several minutes for the animal to struggle out of the old cuticle . At this point the new one is wrinkled and so soft that the animal cannot support itself and finds it very difficult to move , and the new endocuticle has not yet formed . The animal continues to pump itself up to stretch the new cuticle as much as possible , then hardens the new exocuticle and eliminates the excess air or water . By the end of this phase the new endocuticle has formed . Many arthropods then eat the discarded cuticle to reclaim its materials .
Because arthropods are unprotected and nearly immobilized until the new cuticle has hardened , they are in danger both of being trapped in the old cuticle and of being attacked by predators . Moulting may be responsible for 80 to 90 % of all arthropod deaths .
= = = Internal organs = = =
Arthropod bodies are also segmented internally , and the nervous , muscular , circulatory , and excretory systems have repeated components . Arthropods come from a lineage of animals that have a coelom , a membrane @-@ lined cavity between the gut and the body wall that accommodates the internal organs . The strong , segmented limbs of arthropods eliminate the need for one of the coelom 's main ancestral functions , as a hydrostatic skeleton , which muscles compress in order to change the animal 's shape and thus enable it to move . Hence the coelom of the arthropod is reduced to small areas around the reproductive and excretory systems . Its place is largely taken by a hemocoel , a cavity that runs most of the length of the body and through which blood flows .
Arthropods have open circulatory systems , although most have a few short , open @-@ ended arteries . In chelicerates and crustaceans , the blood carries oxygen to the tissues , while hexapods use a separate system of tracheae . Many crustaceans , but few chelicerates and tracheates , use respiratory pigments to assist oxygen transport . The most common respiratory pigment in arthropods is copper @-@ based hemocyanin ; this is used by many crustaceans and a few centipedes . A few crustaceans and insects use iron @-@ based hemoglobin , the respiratory pigment used by vertebrates . As with other invertebrates the respiratory pigments of those arthropods that have them are generally dissolved in the blood and rarely enclosed in corpuscles as they are in vertebrates .
The heart is typically a muscular tube that runs just under the back and for most of the length of the hemocoel . It contracts in ripples that run from rear to front , pushing blood forwards . Sections not being squeezed by the heart muscle are expanded either by elastic ligaments or by small muscles , in either case connecting the heart to the body wall . Along the heart run a series of paired ostia , non @-@ return valves that allow blood to enter the heart but prevent it from leaving before it reaches the front .
Arthropods have a wide variety of respiratory systems . Small species often do not have any , since their high ratio of surface area to volume enables simple diffusion through the body surface to supply enough oxygen . Crustacea usually have gills that are modified appendages . Many arachnids have book lungs . Tracheae , systems of branching tunnels that run from the openings in the body walls , deliver oxygen directly to individual cells in many insects , myriapods and arachnids .
Living arthropods have paired main nerve cords running along their bodies below the gut , and in each segment the cords form a pair of ganglia from which sensory and motor nerves run to other parts of the segment . Although the pairs of ganglia in each segment often appear physically fused , they are connected by commissures ( relatively large bundles of nerves ) , which give arthropod nervous systems a characteristic " ladder @-@ like " appearance . The brain is in the head , encircling and mainly above the esophagus . It consists of the fused ganglia of the acron and one or two of the foremost segments that form the head – a total of three pairs of ganglia in most arthropods , but only two in chelicerates , which do not have antennae or the ganglion connected to them . The ganglia of other head segments are often close to the brain and function as part of it . In insects these other head ganglia combine into a pair of subesophageal ganglia , under and behind the esophagus . Spiders take this process a step further , as all the segmental ganglia are incorporated into the subesophageal ganglia , which occupy most of the space in the cephalothorax ( front " super @-@ segment " ) .
There are two different types of arthropod excretory systems . In aquatic arthropods , the end @-@ product of biochemical reactions that metabolise nitrogen is ammonia , which is so toxic that it needs to be diluted as much as possible with water . The ammonia is then eliminated via any permeable membrane , mainly through the gills . All crustaceans use this system , and its high consumption of water may be responsible for the relative lack of success of crustaceans as land animals . Various groups of terrestrial arthropods have independently developed a different system : the end @-@ product of nitrogen metabolism is uric acid , which can be excreted as dry material ; the Malpighian tubule system filters the uric acid and other nitrogenous waste out of the blood in the hemocoel , and dumps these materials into the hindgut , from which they are expelled as feces . Most aquatic arthropods and some terrestrial ones also have organs called nephridia ( " little kidneys " ) , which extract other wastes for excretion as urine .
= = = Senses = = =
= = = = Optical = = = =
The stiff cuticles of arthropods would block out information about the outside world , except that they are penetrated by many sensors or connections from sensors to the nervous system . In fact , arthropods have modified their cuticles into elaborate arrays of sensors . Various touch sensors , mostly setae , respond to different levels of force , from strong contact to very weak air currents . Chemical sensors provide equivalents of taste and smell , often by means of setae . Pressure sensors often take the form of membranes that function as eardrums , but are connected directly to nerves rather than to auditory ossicles . The antennae of most hexapods include sensor packages that monitor humidity , moisture and temperature .
Most arthropods have sophisticated visual systems that include one or more usually both of compound eyes and pigment @-@ cup ocelli ( " little eyes " ) . In most cases ocelli are only capable of detecting the direction from which light is coming , using the shadow cast by the walls of the cup . However , the main eyes of spiders are pigment @-@ cup ocelli that are capable of forming images , and those of jumping spiders can rotate to track prey .
Compound eyes consist of fifteen to several thousand independent ommatidia , columns that are usually hexagonal in cross section . Each ommatidium is an independent sensor , with its own light @-@ sensitive cells and often with its own lens and cornea . Compound eyes have a wide field of view , and can detect fast movement and , in some cases , the polarization of light . On the other hand , the relatively large size of ommatidia makes the images rather coarse , and compound eyes are shorter @-@ sighted than those of birds and mammals – although this is not a severe disadvantage , as objects and events within 20 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) are most important to most arthropods . Several arthropods have color vision , and that of some insects has been studied in detail ; for example , the ommatidia of bees contain receptors for both green and ultra @-@ violet .
Most arthropods lack balance and acceleration sensors , and rely on their eyes to tell them which way is up . The self @-@ righting behavior of cockroaches is triggered when pressure sensors on the underside of the feet report no pressure . However , many malacostracan crustaceans have statocysts , which provide the same sort of information as the balance and motion sensors of the vertebrate inner ear .
The proprioceptors of arthropods , sensors that report the force exerted by muscles and the degree of bending in the body and joints , are well understood . However , little is known about what other internal sensors arthropods may have .
= = = = Olfaction = = = =
= = Reproduction and development = =
A few arthropods , such as barnacles , are hermaphroditic , that is , each can have the organs of both sexes . However , individuals of most species remain of one sex their entire lives . A few species of insects and crustaceans can reproduce by parthenogenesis , for example , without mating , especially if conditions favor a " population explosion " . However , most arthropods rely on sexual reproduction , and parthenogenetic species often revert to sexual reproduction when conditions become less favorable . Aquatic arthropods may breed by external fertilization , as for example frogs also do , or by internal fertilization , where the ova remain in the female 's body and the sperm must somehow be inserted . All known terrestrial arthropods use internal fertilization . Opiliones ( harvestmen ) , millipedes , and some crustaceans use modified appendages such as gonopods or penises to transfer the sperm directly to the female . However , most male terrestrial arthropods produce spermatophores , waterproof packets of sperm , which the females take into their bodies . A few such species rely on females to find spermatophores that have already been deposited on the ground , but in most cases males only deposit spermatophores when complex courtship rituals look likely to be successful .
Most arthropods lay eggs , but scorpions are viviparous : they produce live young after the eggs have hatched inside the mother , and are noted for prolonged maternal care . Newly born arthropods have diverse forms , and insects alone cover the range of extremes . Some hatch as apparently miniature adults ( direct development ) , and in some cases , such as silverfish , the hatchlings do not feed and may be helpless until after their first moult . Many insects hatch as grubs or caterpillars , which do not have segmented limbs or hardened cuticles , and metamorphose into adult forms by entering an inactive phase in which the larval tissues are broken down and re @-@ used to build the adult body . Dragonfly larvae have the typical cuticles and jointed limbs of arthropods but are flightless water @-@ breathers with extendable jaws . Crustaceans commonly hatch as tiny nauplius larvae that have only three segments and pairs of appendages .
= = Evolution = =
= = = Last common ancestor = = =
The last common ancestor of all arthropods is reconstructed as a modular organism with each module covered by its own sclerite ( armor plate ) and bearing a pair of biramous limbs . Whether the ancestral limb was uniramous or biramous is far from a settled debate , though . This Ur @-@ arthropod had a ventral mouth , pre @-@ oral antennae and dorsal eyes at the front of the body . It was a non @-@ discriminatory sediment feeder , processing whatever sediment came its way for food .
= = = Fossil record = = =
It has been proposed that the Ediacaran animals Parvancorina and Spriggina , from around 555 million years ago , were arthropods . Small arthropods with bivalve @-@ like shells have been found in Early Cambrian fossil beds dating 541 to 539 million years ago in China . The earliest Cambrian trilobite fossils are about 530 million years old , but the class was already quite diverse and worldwide , suggesting that they had been around for quite some time . Re @-@ examination in the 1970s of the Burgess Shale fossils from about 505 million years ago identified many arthropods , some of which could not be assigned to any of the well @-@ known groups , and thus intensified the debate about the Cambrian explosion . A fossil of Marrella from the Burgess Shale has provided the earliest clear evidence of moulting .
The earliest fossil crustaceans date from about 513 million years ago in the Cambrian , and fossil shrimp from about 500 million years ago apparently formed a tight @-@ knit procession across the seabed . Crustacean fossils are common from the Ordovician period onwards . They have remained almost entirely aquatic , possibly because they never developed excretory systems that conserve water .
Arthropods provide the earliest identifiable fossils of land animals , from about 419 million years ago in the Late Silurian , and terrestrial tracks from about 450 million years ago appear to have been made by arthropods . Arthropods were well pre @-@ adapted to colonize land , because their existing jointed exoskeletons provided protection against desiccation , support against gravity and a means of locomotion that was not dependent on water . Around the same time the aquatic , scorpion @-@ like eurypterids became the largest ever arthropods , some as long as 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) .
The oldest known arachnid is the trigonotarbid Palaeotarbus jerami , from about 420 million years ago in the Silurian period . Attercopus fimbriunguis , from 386 million years ago in the Devonian period , bears the earliest known silk @-@ producing spigots , but its lack of spinnerets means it was not one of the true spiders , which first appear in the Late Carboniferous over 299 million years ago . The Jurassic and Cretaceous periods provide a large number of fossil spiders , including representatives of many modern families . Fossils of aquatic scorpions with gills appear in the Silurian and Devonian periods , and the earliest fossil of an air @-@ breathing scorpion with book lungs dates from the Early Carboniferous period .
The oldest definitive insect fossil is the Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti , dated at 396 to 407 million years ago , but its mandibles are of a type found only in winged insects , which suggests that the earliest insects appeared in the Silurian period . The Mazon Creek lagerstätten from the Late Carboniferous , about 300 million years ago , include about 200 species , some gigantic by modern standards , and indicate that insects had occupied their main modern ecological niches as herbivores , detritivores and insectivores . Social termites and ants first appear in the Early Cretaceous , and advanced social bees have been found in Late Cretaceous rocks but did not become abundant until the Middle Cenozoic .
= = = Evolutionary family tree = = =
From 1952 to 1977 , zoologist Sidnie Manton and others argued that arthropods are polyphyletic , in other words , that they do not share a common ancestor that was itself an arthropod . Instead , they proposed that three separate groups of " arthropods " evolved separately from common worm @-@ like ancestors : the chelicerates , including spiders and scorpions ; the crustaceans ; and the uniramia , consisting of onychophorans , myriapods and hexapods . These arguments usually bypassed trilobites , as the evolutionary relationships of this class were unclear . Proponents of polyphyly argued the following : that the similarities between these groups are the results of convergent evolution , as natural consequences of having rigid , segmented exoskeletons ; that the three groups use different chemical means of hardening the cuticle ; that there were significant differences in the construction of their compound eyes ; that it is hard to see how such different configurations of segments and appendages in the head could have evolved from the same ancestor ; and that crustaceans have biramous limbs with separate gill and leg branches , while the other two groups have uniramous limbs in which the single branch serves as a leg .
Further analysis and discoveries in the 1990s reversed this view , and led to acceptance that arthropods are monophyletic , in other words they do share a common ancestor that was itself an arthropod . For example , Graham Budd 's analyses of Kerygmachela in 1993 and of Opabinia in 1996 convinced him that these animals were similar to onychophorans and to various Early Cambrian " lobopods " , and he presented an " evolutionary family tree " that showed these as " aunts " and " cousins " of all arthropods . These changes made the scope of the term " arthropod " unclear , and Claus Nielsen proposed that the wider group should be labelled " Panarthropoda " ( " all the arthropods " ) while the animals with jointed limbs and hardened cuticles should be called " Euarthropoda " ( " true arthropods " ) .
A contrary view was presented in 2003 , when Jan Bergström and Xian @-@ Guang Hou argued that , if arthropods were a " sister @-@ group " to any of the anomalocarids , they must have lost and then re @-@ evolved features that were well @-@ developed in the anomalocarids . The earliest known arthropods ate mud in order to extract food particles from it , and possessed variable numbers of segments with unspecialized appendages that functioned as both gills and legs . Anomalocarids were , by the standards of the time , huge and sophisticated predators with specialized mouths and grasping appendages , fixed numbers of segments some of which were specialized , tail fins , and gills that were very different from those of arthropods . This reasoning implies that Parapeytoia , which has legs and a backward @-@ pointing mouth like that of the earliest arthropods , is a more credible closest relative of arthropods than is Anomalocaris . In 2006 , they suggested that arthropods were more closely related to lobopods and tardigrades than to anomalocarids .
Higher up the " family tree " , the Annelida have traditionally been considered the closest relatives of the Panarthropoda , since both groups have segmented bodies , and the combination of these groups was labelled Articulata . There had been competing proposals that arthropods were closely related to other groups such as nematodes , priapulids and tardigrades , but these remained minority views because it was difficult to specify in detail the relationships between these groups .
In the 1990s , molecular phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences produced a coherent scheme showing arthropods as members of a superphylum labelled Ecdysozoa ( " animals that moult " ) , which contained nematodes , priapulids and tardigrades but excluded annelids . This was backed up by studies of the anatomy and development of these animals , which showed that many of the features that supported the Articulata hypothesis showed significant differences between annelids and the earliest Panarthropods in their details , and some were hardly present at all in arthropods . This hypothesis groups annelids with molluscs and brachiopods in another superphylum , Lophotrochozoa .
If the Ecdysozoa hypothesis is correct , then segmentation of arthropods and annelids either has evolved convergently or has been inherited from a much older ancestor and subsequently lost in several other lineages , such as the non @-@ arthropod members of the Ecdysozoa .
= = Classification = =
Arthropods are typically classified into five subphyla , of which one is extinct :
Trilobites are a group of formerly numerous marine animals that disappeared in the Permian – Triassic extinction event , though they were in decline prior to this killing blow , having been reduced to one order in the Late Devonian extinction .
Chelicerates include horseshoe crabs , spiders , mites , scorpions and related organisms . They are characterised by the presence of chelicerae , appendages just above / in front of the mouth . Chelicerae appear in scorpions and horseshoe crabs as tiny claws that they use in feeding , but those of spiders have developed as fangs that inject venom .
Myriapods comprise millipedes , centipedes , and their relatives and have many body segments , each bearing one or two pairs of legs . They are sometimes grouped with the hexapods .
Crustaceans are primarily aquatic ( a notable exception being woodlice ) and are characterised by having biramous appendages . They include lobsters , crabs , barnacles , crayfish , shrimp and many others .
Hexapods comprise insects and three small orders of insect @-@ like animals with six thoracic legs . They are sometimes grouped with the myriapods , in a group called Uniramia , though genetic evidence tends to support a closer relationship between hexapods and crustaceans .
Aside from these major groups , there are also a number of fossil forms , mostly from the Early Cambrian , which are difficult to place , either from lack of obvious affinity to any of the main groups or from clear affinity to several of them . Marrella was the first one to be recognized as significantly different from the well @-@ known groups .
The phylogeny of the major extant arthropod groups has been an area of considerable interest and dispute . Recent studies strongly suggest that Crustacea , as traditionally defined , is paraphyletic , with Hexapoda having evolved from within it , so that Crustacea and Hexapoda form a clade , Pancrustacea . The position of Myriapoda , Chelicerata and Pancrustacea remains unclear as of April 2012 . In some studies , Myriapoda is grouped with Chelicerata ( forming Myriochelata ) ; in other studies , Myriapoda is grouped with Pancrustacea ( forming Mandibulata ) , or Myriapoda may be sister to Chelicerata plus Pancrustacea .
The placement of the extinct trilobites is also a frequent subject of dispute . One of the newer hypotheses is that the chelicerae have originated from the same pair of appendages that evolved into antennae in the ancestors of Mandibulata , which would place trilobites , which had antennae , closer to Mandibulata than Chelicerata .
Since the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature recognises no priority above the rank of family , many of the higher @-@ level groups can be referred to by a variety of different names .
= = Interaction with humans = =
Crustaceans such as crabs , lobsters , crayfish , shrimp and prawns have long been part of human cuisine , and are now raised commercially . Insects and their grubs are at least as nutritious as meat , and are eaten both raw and cooked in many cultures , excluding most European , Hindu and Islamic cultures . Cooked tarantulas are considered a delicacy in Cambodia , and by the Piaroa Indians of southern Venezuela , after the highly irritant hairs – the spider 's main defense system – are removed . Humans also unintentionally eat arthropods in other foods , and food safety regulations lay down acceptable contamination levels for different kinds of food material . The intentional cultivation of arthropods and other small animals for human food , referred to as minilivestock , is now emerging in animal husbandry as an ecologically sound concept . Commercial butterfly breeding provides Lepidoptera stock to butterfly conservatories , educational exhibits , schools , research facilities and cultural events .
However , the greatest contribution of arthropods to human food supply is by pollination : a 2008 study examined the 100 crops that FAO lists as grown for food , and estimated pollination 's economic value as € 153 billion , or 9 @.@ 5 % of the value of world agricultural production used for human food in 2005 . Besides pollinating , bees produce honey , which is the basis of a rapidly growing industry and international trade .
The red dye cochineal , produced from a Central American species of insect , was economically important to the Aztecs and Mayans , and while the region was under Spanish control , becoming Mexico 's second most @-@ lucrative export ; and it is now regaining some of the ground it lost to synthetic competitors . The blood of horseshoe crabs contains a clotting agent Limulus Amebocyte Lysate which is now used to test that antibiotics and kidney machines are free of dangerous bacteria , and to detect spinal meningitis and some cancers . Forensic entomology uses evidence provided by arthropods to establish the time and sometimes the place of death of a human , and in some cases the cause . Recently insects have also gained attention as potential sources of drugs and other medicinal substances .
The relative simplicity of the arthropods ' body plan , allowing them to move on a variety of surfaces both on land and in water , have made them useful as models for robotics . The redundancy provided by segments allows arthropods and biomimetic robots to move normally even with damaged or lost appendages .
Although arthropods are the most numerous phylum on Earth , and thousands of arthropod species are venomous , they inflict relatively few serious bites and stings on humans . Far more serious are the effects on humans of diseases carried by blood @-@ sucking insects . Other blood @-@ sucking insects infect livestock with diseases that kill many animals and greatly reduce the usefulness of others . Ticks can cause tick paralysis and several parasite @-@ borne diseases in humans . A few of the closely related mites also infest humans , causing intense itching , and others cause allergic diseases , including hay fever , asthma and eczema .
Many species of arthropods , principally insects but also mites , are agricultural and forest pests . The mite Varroa destructor has become the largest single problem faced by beekeepers worldwide . Efforts to control arthropod pests by large @-@ scale use of pesticides have caused long @-@ term effects on human health and on biodiversity . Increasing arthropod resistance to pesticides has led to the development of integrated pest management using a wide range of measures including biological control . Predatory mites may be useful in controlling some mite pests .
= Western University of Health Sciences =
Western University of Health Sciences ( WesternU ) is a private , non @-@ profit , graduate school for the health professions , with a main campus located on 22 acres ( 8 @.@ 9 ha ) in downtown Pomona , California , and an additional medical school campus on 50 acres in Lebanon , Oregon . WesternU offers degrees in osteopathic medicine , dental medicine , optometry , podiatric medicine , nursing , physician assistant studies , physical therapy , pharmacy , biomedical sciences , and veterinary medicine . With an enrollment of 3 @,@ 862 students ( 2014 – 15 ) , WesternU is one of the largest graduate schools for the health professions in California , offering 21 academic programs in nine colleges . The university also operates two patient care centers , and has a pet wellness center on its Pomona campus . The WesternU Pomona campus is also home to the The Center for Oral Health ( a non @-@ profit organization focusing on promoting oral health ) , the Southern California Museum of Medical History , and the Harris Family Center for Disability and Health Policy .
Founded in 1977 , the first program at WesternU was its medical school , the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific ( COMP ) . Since that time , several additional programs have opened . When the College of Veterinary Medicine opened in 2003 , it was the first veterinary school to open in the United States in 20 years . In 2007 , WesternU became the first university in the nation to appoint a female as dean of a veterinary medical school . In 2009 , three new colleges opened : dental medicine , optometry , and podiatric medicine . In 2011 , the university opened an additional campus in Lebanon , Oregon known as the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific - Northwest ( COMP @-@ Northwest ) . In 2015 , the university 's founding president , Dr. Philip Pumerantz , retired . He was the longest serving founding president of any university in the United States , and the longest serving current university president in the country .
All of the programs at WesternU have professional accreditation , and the university is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges . The medical school ( COMP ) is also accredited by the American Osteopathic Association 's Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation .
= = History = =
The school originally opened in 1977 as the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific ( COMP ) , offering the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree ( D.O. ) . COMP was the first osteopathic medical school in California to open after the California College of Osteopathic Physicians and Surgeons became an M.D. granting school , eventually becoming the University of California , Irvine School of Medicine . By 1977 , COMP was the only osteopathic medical school west of the Rocky Mountains , and it remained the only one in California until 1997 , when Touro University California opened in Vallejo . The inaugural class at COMP consisted of 36 students .
In 1986 , the college began offering a second degree , the Master of Science in Health Professions Education . Four years later , the physician assistant program opened , which developed into a masters level program in 2000 . In 1992 , the physical therapy program opened . The Western Association of Schools and Colleges granted the school accreditation in March 1996 , and later that same year , the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific was restructured into a university and given the name " Western University of Health Sciences . " The same year , the first classes in the College of Pharmacy began .
After difficulties with accreditation through the American Veterinary Medical Association 's Council on Education , the College of Veterinary Medicine opened in 1998 . It was the first veterinary medical school to open in the United States since 1983 , and at the time , no member on the Council on Education had ever been involved in accrediting a new veterinary medical school . Classes began in 2003 , and the college earned full accreditation in 2010 . The college was the first veterinary medical school in the United States to appoint a female to the position of dean . In 2008 , the university opened the Banfield Pet Hospital to the public . In 2014 , WesternU assumed sole operation and management of the pet hospital .
In 2009 , three new colleges opened at WesternU : podiatric medicine , optometry , and dental medicine . The following year , in 2010 , the Patient Care Center opened , offering medical , dental , optometric , podiatric and pharmacy services to the community . In 2011 , Western University of Health Sciences opened a new medical school campus in Lebanon , Oregon called the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific Northwest . The university plans to eventually open additional colleges at the Lebanon campus .
In 2015 , the founding president of WesternU retired after serving 38 years as president . At the time , he was the longest serving founding president in the US , and 2nd longest serving current university president in the country . In 2016 , Dr. Daniel R. Wilson became president of the university .
The Chronicle of Higher Education named WesternU as a great college to work for every year from 2012 through 2015 . In 2014 , U.S. News & World Report ranked WesternU 18th among all US medical schools for the percentage of COMP graduates going into primary care residents . The same year ( 2014 ) , WesternU received the tenth most applications of any medical school in the United States . The university is the fourth @-@ largest employer in Pomona , with more than 1 @,@ 000 employees , and has greatly contributed to the economic development of downtown , bringing millions of dollars to the area .
= = Academics and accreditation = =
Through its nine colleges , WesternU offers 21 academic programs , each on a semester schedule . Each program at WesternU is post @-@ baccalaureate , focuses on a health sciences profession , and is professionally accredited . The university is regionally accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges . Doctoral degrees include the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine , Doctor of Dental Medicine , Doctor of Optometry , Doctor of Veterinary Medicine , Doctor of Pharmacy , Doctor of Nursing Practice , Doctor of Physical Therapy , and Doctor of Podiatric Medicine .
Several Master of Science ( MS ) programs are also offered and include the following : Pharmaceutical Sciences , Health Sciences , Physician Assistant Studies , Nursing , Biomedical Sciences , and Medical Sciences . A Master of Science in Health Professions Education is offered to provide educational skills to health professionals interested in teaching . Two distance education programs are offered : the Doctor of Nursing Practice ( DNP ) and Master of Science Nursing ( MSN ) . All other programs are traditional on @-@ campus programs .
= = = Interprofessional education = = =
WesternU operates an Interprofessional Education ( IPE ) program , involving all nine of its colleges . Planning for the program began in 2007 and the first phase was implemented later that year . The program 's goals are to improve understanding of other health professions and to provide and promote a team approach to patient @-@ centered care and health care management , leading to improved patient care . While a debate exists on the effectiveness of interprofessional education in encouraging collaborative practice , interprofessional education is becoming a more common component of medical school curriculum in the United States , and many groups , including the World Health Organization , view it as a means of reducing medical errors and improving the health care system .
As a part of the interprofessional education program , students meet in small groups with a faculty facilitator and discuss the non @-@ clinical aspects of complex cases , such as interprofessional knowledge and awareness , financial or ethical challenges and communication barriers . In the 2010 – 11 academic year , the IPE program involved 850 students and 150 faculty members from the 9 colleges at the university . The development of clinical IPE rotations with grand rounds and journal clubs is being explored .
= = = Research = = =
WesternU conducts research on several subjects in the basic and clinical sciences . The three primary research areas include : neurobiology , molecular / metabolic diseases , and infectious disease / immunology . Specific neurobiology subjects include : Alzheimer 's disease , central nervous system diseases , genetic disorders , environmental pathologies , and stem cell therapy . Specific molecular and metabolic disease subjects include : cancer , cardiovascular disease , diabetes , and obesity . Research on infections and immunology includes tuberculosis , Mad cow disease , avian flu , and Methicillin @-@ resistant Staphylococcus aureus . Research is funded by the National Institute of Health , the OneSight Foundation , The Potts Foundation , American Cancer Society , American Heart Association , the American Lung Association , and the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine .
= = Patient care and education = =
Western University of Health Sciences has two patient care centers , one in Rancho Cucamonga , California , and the other on its main campus in Pomona , California . WesternU opened its first patient care center , a family practice clinic , in 1984 . The Pomona Patient Care Center opened in May 2010 , and serves more than 10 @,@ 000 patients per year . The Patient Care Center includes a Medical Center , Foot & Ankle Center , Eye Care Center , Dental Center and Pharmacy . The center is also home to the Western Diabetes Institute , an accredited diabetes education center . The institute is a patient @-@ centered practice unit designed to provide efficient , high quality care to diabetic patients . The Rancho Cucamonga Patient Care Center opened in 2008 and provides family medicine , internal medicine , and foot and ankle care . WesternU is a member of the Association of Academic Health Centers .
In 1998 , the university established the Harris Family Center for Disability and Health Policy . The Center advocates for the health needs of individuals with disabilities and provides consultation and training to organizations , companies , and hospitals to help them meet the needs of disabled individuals .
The Pumerantz Library provides a diabetes education program to the community in a partnership with the Pomona Public Library . The project aims to help Spanish @-@ speaking members of the community access reliable information about diabetes .
= = Campus = =
= = = Pomona campus = = =
The main campus of WesternU is located in downtown Pomona , California , with an official address of 309 East 2nd Street . The Pomona campus consists of 19 major buildings on 22 acres ( 8 @.@ 9 ha ) , and it has been the main campus since WesternU was founded in 1977 . Upon the school 's founding , a portion of the campus was extensively renovated from an outdoor shopping mall . Since that time , several buildings have been acquired and built , including a patient care center , a pet hospital , classrooms , and research facilities . There are two parks located on the urban campus .
The northeastern corner of campus contains the Health Education Center and Patient Care Center . Both buildings opened in 2010 , along with a parking structure , as a part of a $ 100 million expansion project at WesternU . The Health Education Center is a 180 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot teaching and research facility that houses the medical , dentistry , podiatry and optometry schools . The fourth floor of the Health Education Center is dedicated to research . The concrete parking structure has seven levels and contains 600 parking spaces .
Directly west of the Health Education Center is the pet hospital on campus , the WesternU Pet Wellness Center . The facility was established in 2008 as the Banfield Pet Hospital and transitioned to solely WesternU operation in 2014 . The center provides primary care services such as vaccinations , spaying and neutering , microchiping , surgery , dental exams and cleanings , as well as flea , tick and heartworm control . The center includes a surgical suite , an x @-@ ray room , a half dozen exam rooms and isolation facilities .
A mixed @-@ use building is located south of the pet hospital . The building , called The Daumier , is a 173 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot mixed @-@ use building with student housing located at 3rd and Linden Street . The building was completed in June 2014 , at an estimated cost of $ 45 million . The building is located on 3 @.@ 6 acres and provides housing for WesternU students , as well as a fitness center , community pool , media room , and office space for the university . The Daumier was designed to LEED silver specifications . The building was named the Daumier after the 19th century French artist Honoré Daumier .
The central portion of campus contains Ethan Allan Park , the Health Professions Center ( HPC ) , the Veterinary Medicine Center , and the Health Sciences Center . Ethan Allen Park is located directly west of the Pet Wellness Center . In 2006 , the park was named in honor of Dr. Ethan Allen , founding chairman of the school 's Board of Trustees . The other park on campus is Centennial Park , a Pomona city park on the west end of campus . Directly south of Ethan Allan Park , the Health Professions Center houses the College of Pharmacy and contains several classrooms , research facilities , and a student commons area . The building was built in 1962 and was previously the Pomona Buffum 's department store . The university acquired the building in 1992 , after first receiving the option to buy . The Center for Oral Health , a non @-@ profit organization focusing on promoting oral health , is based in the Health Professions Center . In late 2012 , the Center for Oral Health moved its headquarters from the bay area of California to the WesternU campus and established an affiliation with the university . The Health Sciences Center is located directly west of the Health Professions Center . The HSC is a two @-@ story , 72 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot building that contains the anatomy laboratory , an osteopathic manipulative medicine laboratory , and classroom space . The physical therapy program is based in this building , as well as the tutoring program . The Health Sciences Center was formerly a Nash Department Store . The university began using the building in 1990 , and then purchased it in 1993 .
The western portion of campus contains the Rodney P. Weinberg Center , which is home to the university 's research center , the Pumerantz Library , and the Anderson Tower , formerly known as the Chase Bank building . The Weinberg Center contains 8 @,@ 550 square feet dedicated to research purposes . The Weinberg Center building was originally a JCPenney . The Pumerantz Library , a 35 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot building , is located on the west edge of campus ( 3rd Street ) . The library opened at this location in August 2001 , after the university acquired the building in 1998 . The building was originally constructed in 1929 , and previously housed a switching station for the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph company . In 2015 , the Southern California Medical Museum opened at a new location on the WesternU campus .
On the western edge of campus , located on Garey avenue and Second Street , is the Anderson Tower , a seven @-@ story , 70 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot building . It was built in 1963 , and WesternU purchased the building from JP Morgan Chase in September 2013 . The same month , WesternU reached an agreement with a power company , Washington Gas , to build 2 @,@ 688 solar panels on three campus buildings . The solar panels were completed in February 2014 , and will produce more than 1 @,@ 100 megawatt hours of energy each year .
= = = Oregon branch campus = = =
WesternU also operates a second branch campus on 50 acres in the town of Lebanon . The official address of the Oregon campus is 200 Mullins Drive . The sole program offered at the Oregon campus is osteopathic medicine ( DO ) , although the university plans to establish additional programs at that campus .
The Oregon campus is across the street from Samaritan Health Services ' Lebanon Community Hospital , Groundbreaking for the medical school campus began in June 2009 , and it opened for classes in August 2011 . The new 55 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 5 @,@ 100 m2 ) building cost about $ 15 million , and is the main component of a 50 @-@ acre medical campus .
= = = Campus safety = = =
Each year , WesternU publishes a safety report , cataloguing any crimes that occur on campus . In 2014 on the Pomona campus , there were three cases of burglary , 7 cases of larceny , one motor vehicle theft , and no cases of aggravated assault or robbery . In 2014 , no crimes were reported on the Oregon campus .
= = Students = =
A total of 3 @,@ 862 students are in attendance at WesternU for the 2014 – 15 academic year . The average student age is 28 years . About 62 percent of WesternU students are female ; 38 percent are male . About 36 % are White / Non @-@ Hispanic , 33 % Asian / Pacific Islander , 11 % Hispanic , 11 % identify as two or more ethnicities , 3 % African @-@ American , and the remaining students are of unknown ethnicity ( 6 % ) .
Students at WesternU participate in a number of clubs on campus and an active student government association . There are several professional fraternities on campus , including Sigma Sigma Phi , Kappa Psi , Beta Sigma Kappa , Delta Sigma Delta , and Phi Lambda Sigma .
There is a theater troupe on campus , which hosts regular performance events . Students from the medical school ( COMP ) originally formed the theater group in 1985 . The students named their troupe " Sanus , " which is the Latin word for " sanity . " The students said they used the opportunity to act and perform plays as means of relieving stress . The theater troupe remains active , and students from other colleges also participate .
Other officially recognized student organizations on campus include the following :
= = People = =
= = = Faculty = = =
WesternU employs 313 full @-@ time faculty and 38 part @-@ time faculty . Some notable faculty members include :
Clinton E. Adams , DO , MPA , FACHE , a former Rear Admiral in the US Navy .
Brion Benninger , MD , MSc editor of ' Gray 's Anatomy 40th edition ' and ' Netter 's Atlas of Human Anatomy.'
Lawrence B. Harkless , DPM , founding member of the ADA Council on the Diabetic Foot ; sometimes described as the " father of diabetic foot care . "
Joseph Gambone , DO , MPH , author of Essentials of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Gambone Peak on Antarctica was named in his honor in 1970 .
Lee Rogers , DPM , professor of podiat
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ry and prior democratic nominee for US Congress in California 's 25th district in 2012 .
Matt J. Wedel , PhD , paleontologist and professor of anatomy , authored papers naming Aquilops ( 2014 ) , Brontomerus ( 2011 ) , and Sauroposeidon ( 2000 ) .
= = = Alumni = = =
As of 2015 , a total of 12 @,@ 435 graduates completed study at WesternU . At the completion of the 2014 @-@ 15 academic year , 1 @,@ 124 students graduated from WesternU . Some notable alumni include :
Jon W. Fong , DO class of 1984 , medical advisor to the former hit television show ER .
Susan Melvin , DO class of 1984 , is a professor of medicine ( UCI and WesternU ) and Chief Medical Officer at Long Beach Memorial Hospital .
Stan Flemming , DO class of 1985 , a former Washington State Republican Legislator , University Place councilman , and retired United States Army Reserve general .
William W. Henning , DO class of 1986 , the Chief Medical Officer for Inland Empire Health Plan .
Cynthia Stotts , DO class of 1988 , the first female and the first DO physician in the 158 @-@ year history of LA County / USC Medical Center to be elected Chief of Medical Staff .
James Lally , DO class of 1991 , the President and Chief Medical Officer of Chino Valley Medical Center . Also the team physician for the US Olympic Shooting Team .
Lee Burnett , DO class of 1997 , a U.S. Army Lieutenant Colonel , is also the founder and executive director of Student Doctor Network .
Lindsey VanDyke , DO class of 2013 , author of Bow Ties , Butterflies and Band @-@ Aids .
= Mr. Monk and the Actor =
" Mr. Monk and the Actor " is the first episode of the fifth season of the American comedy @-@ drama detective television series Monk , and the show 's 62nd episode overall . The series follows Adrian Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) , a private detective with obsessive – compulsive disorder and multiple phobias , and his assistant Natalie Teeger ( Traylor Howard ) . In this episode , Monk has to link two different cases while an actor hired to play him in a film emotionally disturbs him .
Written by Hy Conrad and Joe Toplyn , and directed by Randall Zisk , " Mr. Monk and the Actor " guest starred Stanley Tucci . The staff envisioned the episode after imagining the possibility of Monk becoming a famous detective . When the episode first aired in the United States on the USA Network on July 7 , 2006 , it was watched by over 5 @.@ 1 million viewers . Critics gave it positive reception , praising specially Tucci 's performance . It also led Tucci to win an Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
While a man , Jack Leverett ( Greg Grunberg ) , is cheating on his wife with a woman named Michelle Cullman ( Susan Ward ) , he finds a hidden camera and , fighting for the camera , kills her . The following day , Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) announces to his therapist , Dr. Charles Kroger ( Stanley Kamel ) , he will go on his first vacation since the murder of his wife , Trudy . Later , Monk goes to the crime scene to investigate and is informed by Captain Stottlemeyer ( Ted Levine ) and Lieutenant Disher ( Jason Gray @-@ Stanford ) that a film about him will be produced . As method actor David Ruskin ( Stanley Tucci ) — set to play Monk in the film — is there to observe his mannerism , Monk tries to impress him .
The next day , Ruskin follows Monk again as he investigates a case at a pawnshop in which its owner was shot during a robbery . Monk is intrigued as to why the burglar entered through the wall and only stole a small amount of money and a wristwatch . After discussing if Ruskin 's presence can harm Monk , Natalie ( Traylor Howard ) and Monk find the crime 's weapon . Monk finds the same glitter he found on Cullman 's hair in the gun and argues the thief stole the watch to replace his one , deducing that the same person committed both crimes .
Later , Stottlemeyer and Disher watch the film 's shooting and Natalie 's prediction is right : Ruskin has impersonated Monk to the point that he is unable to complete the sequence because he is hassled by the setting 's disorder . He leaves the studio , goes to Monk 's house to know what are his reasons to do his job , and explores Monk 's files on Trudy 's murder , grieving Monk . An afflicted Monk goes to Natalie 's house , where he solves the case when he sees torn paper by Julie to prevent Natalie from reading it . The pawnshop is adjacent to a restaurant , where clients are drawn on the wall . On the crime 's night , Leverett and Cullman were sketched and Leverett tried to destroy the evidence .
Meanwhile , Ruskin is at the Trudy 's murder scene when a guard , believing Ruskin to be Monk , informs him Leverett is the killer . When Stottlemeyer and Disher arrive at Leverett 's car dealership to arrest him , Ruskin has already arrived and is keeping him as a hostage . Monk enters the dealership and stops Ruskin but is emotionally shaken when Ruskin says he could have saved Trudy . At the end , he talks with Dr. Kroger and cancels his trip .
= = Production = =
" Mr. Monk and the Actor " was co @-@ written by Hy Conrad and Joe Toplyn , and was directed by Randall Zisk . The concept for the episode first emerged while the staff was working on fourth season episode " Mr. Monk and the Astronaut " , and they wondered if Monk would become famous . The first idea was to use the same set and actors from " Mr. Monk and the Astronaut " to create an episode in which a made @-@ for @-@ TV film is recorded about that case . It was not done but writers still wanted to create an episode focusing on a TV film , which eventually became " Mr. Monk and the Actor " . On its original script , it exceeded the runtime by about six minutes so a scene involving a child mistaking a gun for a toy was cut . It would be the murder weapon , and even though a six @-@ year @-@ old actor was hired for the scene it was not filmed .
Shalhoub and Tucci had been friends since they met each other at the Yale Repertory Theater in 1989 when they acted on John Guare 's play Moon Over Miami . In 1996 , they co @-@ starred the film Big Night , which Conrad said was the main reason Tucci " always our first choice for the actor role . " Tucci said it was a " funny thing " since the role of Monk was offered to him after Big Night but he declined it . Shalhoub affirmed he had requested Tucci to appear on Monk for a long time before this episode but Tucci always rejected because of schedule reasons . Another guest star for the episode , Peter Weller was on set to direct " Mr. Monk , Private Eye " and volunteered for the role of the actor who plays Stottlemeyer .
= = Reception = =
" Mr. Monk and the Actor " was first available via video on demand service on June 30 , 2006 , and its television premiere through USA Network was on July 7 , 2006 at 9 pm EST . According to an USA 's press release , the episode was viewed by an estimated number of 5 @.@ 3 million viewers , while Nielsen Media Research indicated a viewership of 5 @.@ 1 million and a 3 @.@ 89 rating . Gary Levin of USA Today called it a " shy " if compared to season four premiere 's figure of 6 @.@ 4 million . USA , however , said it was the most watched scripted hour in basic cable ever from its time slot .
The episode was well @-@ received ; IGN 's Colin Moriarty gave it a score of 9 out 10 , it was deemed " excellent " by John White of The Digital Fix , and it was elected by The Futon Critic 's Brian Ford Sullivan the 49th best television episode of the year . Kevin McDonough , a critic for the United Feature Syndicate , called it " a great episode " and compared it to a Seinfeld episode with a similar premise . Diane Werts wrote for Newsday , " Which one 's nuttier ? It 's a toss @-@ up , and a fascinating one with the terrific Tucci as Shalhoub 's emotional tango partner . "
Several critics praised Tucci 's performance and his interactions with Shalhoub . A reviewer for Times Colonist commented " Watching Shalhoub pretend to be Monk pretending to be a suave , sophisticated sleuth is a delight in its own right . Watching Tucci take Monk 's nervous tics to ridiculous extremes is even more of a delight , especially when its appears that Monk 's nervous disorder may be catching . " In contrast to other reviewers , Adam Finley of AOL TV elected the best moment of the episode Disher 's reaction to the fact his role is played by a woman who dates Stottlemeyer .
Moriarty , Matt Crowley of The A.V. Club and Variety 's Paula Hendrickson used it as example of how Monk can fit comedy scenes during dramatic ones . Ann Zivotsky , a writer for the North County Times , commented , " Watching Tucci and Shalhoub play this for laughs would have been enough for some shows , but the Monk writers take the opportunity to let the movie actor share with Monk the insights he 's learned about the detective , which may help , or hurt , Monk . " Finley and David Kronke of Los Angeles Daily News also highlighted the line " [ Ruskin ] wanted to play a character that wasn 't so depressing and dark . He 's in England doing Hamlet . "
Criticism to the episode was done by Finley who said , " So much of this show is dependent on Monk 's subtle mannerisms , but he exaggerates them to an absurd degree as he tries to impress the actor who 's playing him . " Similarly , Werts said " Shalhoub pushes a tad too far with the compulsions . " Robert Bianco of USA Today was also critical of its " excessive quirks and overall credibility @-@ busting silliness . " Although praised Shalhoub – Tucci dynamic , Rich Heldenfels of Akron Beacon Journal criticized it as " the actor @-@ imitating @-@ life thing has been done before on TV and in the movies , and the gag well is pretty dry . "
At the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards , Tucci won the award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for his role on this episode .
= Fritz the Cat =
Fritz the Cat is a comic strip created by Robert Crumb . Set in a " supercity " of anthropomorphic animals , the strip focuses on Fritz , a feline con artist who frequently goes on wild adventures that sometimes involve sexual escapades . Crumb began drawing this character in homemade comic books when he was a child . Fritz became one of his most famous characters , thanks largely to the motion picture adaptation by Ralph Bakshi .
The strip appeared in Help ! and Cavalier magazines . It subsequently gained prominence in publications associated with the underground comix scene between 1965 and 1972 . Fritz the Cat comic compilations elevated the strip into one of the most iconic features of the underground scene .
The strip received further attention when it was adapted into a 1972 animated film with the same name . The directorial debut of animator Bakshi , it became a worldwide success . It was the first animated feature film to receive an X rating in the United States and the most successful independent animated feature to date .
Crumb ended the strip in 1972 due to disagreements with the filmmakers . He published a story in which Fritz was murdered by an ex @-@ girlfriend . A second animated film , The Nine Lives of Fritz the Cat , was produced in 1974 without the involvement of either Bakshi or Crumb .
= = Overview = =
Fritz the Cat was created in 1959 by Robert Crumb in a homemade comic book story called " Cat Life " , based on the experiences of Fred , the family cat . The character 's next appearance was in a 1960 story entitled " Robin Hood " . By this point , the cat had become anthropomorphic and had been renamed Fritz , a name derived from a minor unrelated character who appeared briefly in " Cat Life " . Fritz appeared in the early 1960s Animal Town strips drawn by Charles and Robert Crumb . Sometimes Fritz was accompanied by Fuzzy the Bunny , who served as an alter ego for Charles , his creator .
Fritz the Cat is set in a " modern ' supercity ' of millions of animals . " Stories begin simply and become increasingly chaotic and complex as the narrative responds to uncontrollable forces . The look of Fritz the Cat comics was characterized by the use of the Rapidograph technical pen and a simple drawing style Robert Crumb used to facilitate his story telling . Crumb states that much of the comic books he enjoyed as a child were funny animal comics , particularly those of Carl Barks . Crumb was later influenced by Walt Kelly 's daily anthropomorphic funny animal comic strip Pogo ; Crumb did not copy Kelly 's comics directly , but states that he imitated his drawing style closely ; Crumb admired Kelly 's storytelling style , which " seemed [ to be ] plotless and casually done . The characters talked to each other and nothing much happened . Just a lot of foolishness takes place " . Robert Crumb stated of his anthropomorphic work :
I can express something [ with animals ] that is different from what I put into my work about humans ... I can put more nonsense , more satire and fantasy into the animals ... they 're also easier to do than people ... With people I try more for realism , which is probably why I 'm generally better with animals .
In 1964 , when he was not working at American Greetings , Crumb drew many Fritz the Cat strips for his own amusement . Some of these strips would later be published in Help ! and Cavalier magazines and in the underground comix . Fritz also appears briefly in Crumb 's graphic novel Big Yum Yum Book : The Story of Oggie and the Beanstalk , drawn in 1964 , but not published until 1975 . Several characters from the anthropomorphic universe of Fritz the Cat appeared in another Crumb comic strip , The Silly Pigeons , drawn in 1965 and intended for Help ! In 1970 , Crumb redrew an early Fuzzy the Bunny story written by Charles Crumb in 1952 ; it was published in Zap Comix # 5 .
= = Characters = =
Marty Pahls , Crumb 's childhood friend , describes Fritz as " a poseur " , whose posturing was taken seriously by everyone around him . Fritz is self @-@ centered and hedonistic , lacking both morals and ethics . Thomas Albright describes Fritz as " a kind of updated Felix with overtones of Charlie Chaplin , Candide , and Don Quixote . " Fritz had a " glib , smooth and self @-@ assured " personality , characteristics Crumb felt he was lacking in . According to Pahls , " To a great extent , Fritz was his wish @-@ fulfillment ... [ the character allowed Robert to ] do great deeds , have wild adventures , and undergo a variety of sex experiences , which he himself felt he couldn 't . Fritz was bold , poised , had a way with the ladies — all attributes which Robert coveted , but felt he lacked . "
Crumb denied any personal attachment to the character , stating , " I just got into drawing him ... He was fun to draw . " As Crumb 's personal life changed , Fritz would too . According to Pahls , " For years , [ Crumb ] had few friends and no sex life ; he was forced to spend many hours at school or on the job , and when he came home he ' escaped ' by drawing home @-@ made comics . When he suddenly found a group of friends that would accept him for himself , as he did in Cleveland in 1964 , the ' compensation ' factor went out of his drawing , and this was pretty much the end of Fritz 's impetus . "
An early untitled 10 @-@ page story , drawn in 1964 and released in 1969 as part of R. Crumb 's Comics and Stories , depicts Fritz as a beatnik caricature who has an incestuous tryst with his sister . In " Fred , the Teen @-@ Age Girl Pigeon , " Fritz is portrayed as a pop music star . The strips " Fritz the Cat " and " Fritz Bugs Out " portray him as a hip poet and college dropout in the hippie scene . " Fritz Bugs Out " uses anthropomorphic characters to comment on race relations , with crows representing African Americans . Fritz is portrayed as a self @-@ conscious hypocrite , obsessed with his racism and associated guilt , while crows are portrayed as " hip innocents " . " Fritz the Cat , Secret Agent for the C.I.A. , " inspired by the popularity of the James Bond series , portrays Fritz as a member of the Central Intelligence Agency . " Fritz the No @-@ Good " depicts Fritz becoming involved with terrorist revolutionaries ; he also abuses and rapes one of the group member 's girlfriends .
Fritz has an on @-@ again / off @-@ again relationship with a female fox named Winston , they break up at the beginning of " Fritz Bugs Out " . Later in the story , she attempts to convince him not to " bug out " , but eventually agrees to go on a road trip with him . When her car runs out of gas in the desert , Fritz abandons her . Winston is also a character featured in the 1972 film , as is this storyline — Fritz 's Volkswagen Beetle dodging big rig trucks on the highway in the middle of the night and later running out of gas in the middle of nowhere . She reappears in " Fritz the Cat Doubts His Masculinity " and in " Fritz the No @-@ Good " , where the two reunite after Fritz is thrown out of his wife 's apartment . Fuzzy the Bunny , who appeared in the early Animal Town strips , reappears as a college student in " Fritz Bugs Out " and as a revolutionary in " Fritz the No @-@ Good " .
= = Publication history = =
Help ! , a magazine published by former Mad editor Harvey Kurtzman , published two stories featuring Fritz , including the character 's first public appearance in January 1965 , " Fritz Comes on Strong " . In this debut story , Fritz brings a young female cat home and strips all her clothes off before getting on top of her to pick fleas off of her . Preceding the publication of the story , Kurtzman sent Crumb a letter which read , " Dear R. Crumb , we think the little pussycat drawings you sent us were just great . Question is , how do we print them without going to jail ? "
Although Kurtzman agreed to publish the story , he requested that Crumb alter the final two panels ; the published version depicted Fritz standing next to her . Crumb later recalled that the original ending " wasn 't that dirty ... only slightly risque by today 's standards " . In May 1965 , Help ! published a second Fritz story , " Fred , the Teen @-@ Age Girl Pigeon " . In this episode Fritz is a guitar @-@ playing pop idol and he brings Fred , a female pigeon groupie , to his hotel room and proceeds to eat her . John Canaday 's New York magazine review of Head Comix describes this punch line as " outrageous brilliance [ that ] is rivaled only by Evelyn Waugh 's last lines in The Loved One . "
" Fritz Bugs Out " was serialized in Cavalier from February to October 1968 . In the summer of 1968 , Fritz the Cat strips appeared in the Viking Press compilation titled Head Comix , which focused exclusively on Crumb 's material . In 1969 , Ballantine Books paid Crumb a $ 5 @,@ 000 advance for the publication rights to a compilation of three stories featuring Fritz . Crumb used the money to purchase a three @-@ acre lot . Crumb abandoned the character that year , but previously unpublished stories appeared in Promethean No. 3 & 4 in 1971 and Artistic in 1973 . " Fritz the Cat ' Superstar ' " was the last new story released ; it was published in The People 's Comics in 1972 .
In 1978 , Bélier Press published The Complete Fritz the Cat , which brought together all the published stories featuring Fritz , as well as previously unpublished drawings and unfinished comics . At the artist 's request , a 10 @-@ page story drawn in 1964 and previously published in R. Crumb 's Comics and Stories in 1969 was excluded from this collection . In April 1993 , Fantagraphics Books published The Life & Death of Fritz the Cat , compiling nine major strips , including the 1964 story previously excluded from The Complete Fritz the Cat . Fritz the Cat strips also appear in The Complete Crumb Comics series . An unpublished page featuring Fritz that had been intended for Help ! , as well as comics featuring other characters related to the anthropomorphic universe of Fritz the Cat , appeared in The R. Crumb Coffee Table Art Book in 1998 .
= = Cultural impact = =
Following the publication of the compilations Head Comix and R. Crumb 's Fritz the Cat , Crumb received increased attention and Fritz the Cat became one of the most familiar features on the underground comix scene and Crumb 's most famous creation . These stories served as the basis for a pair of film adaptations produced by Steve Krantz , Fritz the Cat 1972 , directed by Ralph Bakshi , and The Nine Lives of Fritz the Cat 1974 , directed by Robert Taylor . According to Dez Skinn , author of Comix : The Underground Revolution , the strip served as an inspiration for Omaha the Cat Dancer . In Graphic Novels : A Bibliographic Guide to Book @-@ Length Comics , D. Aviva Rothschild criticized the stories printed in the collection The Life & Death of Fritz the Cat as being misogynist , racist , and violent . He felt that , " They also tend to ramble , as if Crumb were making them up as he went along . " Rothschild concluded that , " Even though Fritz the Cat is a classic , there are better , more coherent Crumb books around . " The 1972 film adaptation of Fritz the Cat was ranked 51st on the Online Film Critics Society 's list of the top 100 greatest animated films of all time and 56th on Channel 4 's list of the 100 Greatest Cartoons .
= = = Animated adaptations = = =
In 1969 , New York animator Ralph Bakshi came across a copy of R. Crumb 's Fritz the Cat and suggested to producer Steve Krantz that it would work as a film . After meeting with Bakshi , Crumb loaned him one of his sketchbooks as a reference , but was unsure of the film 's production and refused to sign the contract . Bakshi and Crumb were unable to reach an agreement after two weeks of negotiations but Krantz secured the film rights from Crumb 's wife , Dana , who had a power of attorney . Crumb received $ 50 @,@ 000 , distributed over the course of production and ten percent of Krantz 's proceeds .
Fritz the Cat was the first animated feature film to receive an X rating from the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) . The film 's distributor capitalized on the rating in the film 's advertising material , which touted the film as being " X rated and animated ! " Released on 12 April 1972 , it opened simultaneously in Hollywood and Washington , D.C. The film went on to become a worldwide hit , grossing over $ 100 million ( USD ) and was the most successful independent animated feature ever . The film is credited with extending Crumb 's reputation beyond the underground comix scene . Crumb disliked how the film presented the sexual content and politics , denouncing Fritz 's dialogue in the final sequences of the film , which includes a quote from The Beatles song " The End " , as " red @-@ neck and fascistic " . Following the film 's release , The People 's Comics published the story " Fritz the Cat ' Superstar ' " , in which Crumb satirized Bakshi and Krantz . Crumb portrayed Fritz in a script conference for a fictional sequel Fritz Goes to India . The strip ends with a neurotic ex @-@ girlfriend killing Fritz . She stabs him in the back of the head with an ice pick due to Fritz 's overt sexism .
After the film 's release , the American humor magazine The National Lampoon ran a story written by mordant humorist Michael O 'Donoghue and drawn in a parody of Crumb 's style called " Fritz the Star in ' Kitty Glitter ' " portraying the Fritz character as a jaded and complacent Hollywood star going through all the motions of celebrities of the day , going on talk shows and mouthing vaguely liberal platitudes before cynically guiding the conversation over to promotion of whatever his next movie would be . The strip ends with a nightmarish full @-@ page vista of " Crumbland " where all of Crumb 's countercultural icons have been turned into commercial commodities . In 1974 , Krantz produced the sequel The Nine Lives of Fritz the Cat , without any participation from Bakshi or Crumb .
= 1978 Gillette Cup Final =
The 1978 Gillette Cup Final was a cricket match between Somerset County Cricket Club and Sussex County Cricket Club played on 2 September 1978 at Lord 's in London . It was the sixteenth final of the Gillette Cup , which had been the first domestic tournament to pit first @-@ class cricket sides against each other in a knock @-@ out competition . This was Sussex 's sixth appearance in the final , which they had previously won twice , while Somerset had lost in their only previous final .
Both teams entered the competition in the first round ; Somerset faced first @-@ class opposition in each of the four rounds prior to the final . In their semi @-@ final match against Essex , Somerset only progressed as they had lost fewer wickets in a tied match . Sussex played against minor counties in each of the first two rounds , but only beat Staffordshire by two runs to advance from the second round , before more straightforward victories against first @-@ class opposition in the later stages . Somerset batted first , but with the exception of Ian Botham , the batsmen struggled to score runs fluently . They scored 207 runs for 7 wickets , of which Botham scored 80 and Viv Richards 44 . Sussex began their run @-@ chase well , with a first @-@ wicket partnership of 93 , before losing four wickets in quick succession . A second partnership , between Paul Parker and Paul Phillipson led Sussex to victory by five wickets , chasing down Somerset 's total with more than six overs to spare . Parker was named as the man of the match for his score of 62 not out .
= = Background = =
The Gillette Cup was first contested in 1963 , as the first English domestic knock @-@ out competition between first @-@ class sides . Sussex had appeared in the Gillette Cup Final on five previous instances ; they won the tournament in each of the first two years ( 1963 and 1964 ) , and were runners @-@ up in 1968 , 1970 and 1973 . In contrast , Somerset had only reached the final of the competition once previously , losing to Kent in 1967 . Somerset were one of only two first @-@ class counties in 1978 to have never won a domestic competition . Tony Greig , who had been the Sussex captain from 1973 to 1977 , was released from his contract midway through the 1978 season .
= = Route to the final = =
Somerset entered the tournament in the first round , in which they beat Warwickshire by six wickets , aided primarily by a score of 139 not out by Viv Richards , who was later named man of the match . In their second round match against Glamorgan , Somerset scored 330 for 4 , the highest total in that year 's competition . Peter Denning scored 145 runs , while Joel Garner bowled six overs and conceded just five runs . Garner 's bowling was once again miserly in the quarter @-@ final against Kent ; he conceded five runs in nine overs , though Colin Dredge was named as the man of the match for his four wickets , which helped Somerset to a five @-@ wicket victory . In the semi @-@ final , Somerset batted first , and helped by another century from Richards , scored 287 for 6 . In their response , Essex kept up with the required run rate , and needed three runs to win from the final ball of the match . The batsmen managed two runs , but Neil Smith was run out attempting the third run , and as a result the scores were tied . Somerset advanced to the final , as they had lost fewer wickets ; six to ten .
Sussex also took part in the first round , facing Suffolk , one of the minor cricket counties who did not play first @-@ class cricket . Suffolk were bowled out for 101 runs , a total which Sussex chased down with 161 deliveries remaining . Another minor county , Staffordshire , were Sussex 's second round opponents , but the margin of victory was far narrower . Sussex batted first and scored 221 for 6 , in which Paul Parker scored his second half @-@ century of the competition . In their response , Staffordshire fell three runs short , finishing with 219 for 9 ; each of Imran Khan and Geoff Arnold collecting four wickets . In the quarter @-@ final , Sussex faced Yorkshire . The match began on 2 August , but after 52 overs of Yorkshire 's innings no further play was possible , even though the match had two reserve days . On 4 August , the match was abandoned , and replaced with a match in which each side would bat for 10 innings . In that match , Sussex batted first and scored 68 for 6 , and then restricted Yorkshire to 59 for 8 . Imran Khan and Arnold bowled through the entire ten overs , taking three wickets each . A more facile victory provided Sussex with their place in the final ; facing Lancashire , Sussex scored 277 for 8 , helped by another half @-@ century from Parker , and 75 runs from Javed Miandad , and then bowled their opponents out for 141 runs .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
In his preview of the final , John Woodcock , the cricket correspondent for The Times rated Somerset as the favourites . He cited the talent of Richards as their primary asset , but asserted that they were " not a one man side " . He noted that Sussex also relied upon their overseas players , Javed Miandad and Imran Khan , but that they would need to be backed up by Sussex 's other players for them to have a chance of victory . The match was played at Lord 's in London , as had every previous final of the competition , and play began at 10 : 30 , with a lunch break scheduled for 12 : 45 to 13 : 25 , and a 15 @-@ minute tea interval after 25 overs of the second innings .
The Sussex captain , Arnold Long , won the toss and chose to bowl first , hoping that morning dew might give his bowlers an advantage . Brian Rose scored 14 runs from the first over , bowled by Imran , who later took Somerset 's first wicket , bowling Denning before the batsman had scored a run . That brought Richards to the crease , and Long immediately changed both of his bowlers , replacing the quick bowling of the openers with the slower deliveries of Giles Cheatle and John Spencer . Cheatle dismissed Rose in his first over , caught down the leg side by the wicket @-@ keeper , Long after scoring 44 runs . Peter Roebuck also got out to Cheatle , scoring nine runs before being caught by Mendis . Botham joined Richards in the middle , and immediately scored a four with a straight drive , followed by two hooks for sixes . Cheatle and Spencer each bowled their entire allocation of 12 overs without a break , and were followed by the introduction of another slow bowler , John Barclay . Although Richards finished as the competition 's leading run @-@ scorer , Woodcock said that he struggled to score fluently , particularly against the spin bowling of Barclay and Cheatle . In the Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack 's summary of the season , Jack Alridge praised Long 's captaincy in the final , highlighting the use of slower bowling against Richards and Ian Botham as being particularly commendable . Vic Marks , who also played in the match for Somerset , suggested that Botham was the only Somerset batsman to play with freedom , and said that the rest of the team were nervous and intimidated by the prospect of winning Somerset 's first trophy . Richards scored 44 runs , and Botham 80 , including three sixes , but none of the rest of the middle- or lower @-@ order batsmen made a significant score and Somerset finished their innings on 207 for 7 . Along with Barclay , Spencer bowled particularly economically for Sussex .
Sussex began their run @-@ chase well ; Barclay and Gehan Mendis scored 93 runs together , surviving a spell of attacking fast bowling from Garner and Dredge early on . Mendis had broken his thumb shortly before the final , and in the third over , it was fractured again , but he continued to bat . When Somerset did make a breakthrough , after 24 overs , they collected four wickets for the addition of seventeen runs . Mendis was the first man out , caught by Marks off the bowling of Graham Burgess , followed by Barclay who was caught hooking a delivery from Botham . Miandad was dismissed without scoring , and shortly thereafter , Imran was caught and bowled by Botham for three . Rose then chose to replace his bowlers , and against the less incisive bowling of Keith Jennings and Burgess , Parker and Paul Phillipson were able to establish a 97 @-@ run partnership , which brought Sussex to within five runs of their winning target , before Phillipson was by caught by the wicket @-@ keeper , Derek Taylor off the bowling of Dredge . Woodcock thought that Botham in particular bowled too short against Phillipson , who he suggested would have been susceptible to a yorker . In Wisden , Eric Hill opined that Botham 's short @-@ pitched bowling , which was a feature of his play late in the season , was due to him being overused by England and Somerset through the year . Parker scored the winning runs to secure a five @-@ wicket victory for Sussex with 41 deliveries remaining .
= = = Scorecard = = =
Umpires :
Dickie Bird and Barrie Meyer
= = Post @-@ match = =
Parker was selected as the man of the match by Ken Barrington . Somerset , who had started the weekend with the potential of winning both the Gillette Cup and the John Player League , returned to their home ground in Taunton needing to avoid defeat against Essex to guarantee winning the latter competition . They lost by two runs , prompting Alan Gibson of The Times to write " So we are saying , as we have said at the end of so many seasons , ' well tried Somerset ' , and no more than that . " Somerset returned to the final in 1979 , when they beat Northamptonshire to win their first trophy . Sussex did not reach the final again until 1986 , though they won the 1982 John Player League in the interim .
= The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket =
The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket ( 1838 ) is the only complete novel written by American writer Edgar Allan Poe . The work relates the tale of the young Arthur Gordon Pym , who stows away aboard a whaling ship called the Grampus . Various adventures and misadventures befall Pym , including shipwreck , mutiny , and cannibalism , before he is saved by the crew of the Jane Guy . Aboard this vessel , Pym and a sailor named Dirk Peters continue their adventures further south . Docking on land , they encounter hostile black @-@ skinned natives before escaping back to the ocean . The novel ends abruptly as Pym and Peters continue toward the South Pole .
The story starts out as a fairly conventional adventure at sea , but it becomes increasingly strange and hard to classify . Poe , who intended to present a realistic story , was inspired by several real @-@ life accounts of sea voyages , and drew heavily from Jeremiah N. Reynolds and referenced the Hollow Earth theory . He also drew from his own experiences at sea . Analyses of the novel often focus on the potential autobiographical elements as well as hints of racism and the symbolism in the final lines of the work .
Difficulty in finding literary success early in his short story @-@ writing career inspired Poe to pursue writing a longer work . A few serialized installments of The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket were first published in the Southern Literary Messenger , though never completed . The full novel was published in July 1838 in two volumes . Some critics responded negatively to the work for being too gruesome and for cribbing heavily from other works , while others praised its exciting adventures . Poe himself later called it " a very silly book " . Nevertheless , The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket became an influential work , notably for Herman Melville and Jules Verne .
= = Plot summary = =
The book comprises a preface , 25 chapters , and an afterword , with a total of around 72 @,@ 000 words .
= = = On board the Ariel ( Chapter I ) = = =
Arthur Gordon Pym was born on the island of Nantucket , famous for its fishing harbor and whaling . His best friend , Augustus Barnard , is the son of the captain of a whaling ship . One night , the two boys become drunk and decide , on Augustus 's whim , to take advantage of the breeze and sail out on Pym 's sailboat , the Ariel . The breeze , however , turns out to be the beginnings of a violent storm . The situation gets critical when Augustus passes out drunk , and the inexperienced Pym must take control of the dinghy . The Ariel is overtaken by the Penguin , a returning whaling ship . Against the captain 's wishes , the crew of the Penguin turns back to search for and rescue both Augustus and Pym . After they are safely back on land , they decide to keep this episode a secret from their parents .
= = = On board the Grampus ( Chapters II – XIII ) = = =
His first ocean misadventure does not dissuade Pym from sailing again ; rather , his imagination is ignited by the experience . His interest is further fueled by the tales of a sailor 's life that Augustus tells him . Pym decides to follow Augustus as a stowaway aboard the Grampus , a whaling vessel commanded by Augustus 's father that is bound for the southern seas . Augustus helps Pym by preparing a hideout in the hold for him and smuggling Tiger , Pym 's faithful dog , on board . Augustus promises to provide Pym with water and food until the ship is too far from shore to return , at which time Pym wants to reveal himself .
Due to the stuffy atmosphere and vapors in the dark and cramped hold , Pym becomes increasingly comatose and delirious over the days . He can 't communicate with Augustus , and the promised supplies fail to arrive , so Pym runs out of water . In the course of his ordeal , he discovers a letter written in blood attached to his dog Tiger , warning Pym to remain hidden , as his life depends on it .
Augustus finally sets Pym free , explaining the mysterious message , as well as his delay in retrieving his friend : a mutiny had erupted on the whaling ship . Part of the crew was slaughtered by the mutineers , while another group , including Augustus 's father , were set adrift in a small boat . Augustus survived because he had befriended one of the mutineers , Dirk Peters , who now regrets his part in the uprising .
Peters , Pym , and Augustus hatch a plan to seize control of the ship : Pym , whose presence is unknown to the mutineers , will wait for a storm and then dress in the clothes of a recently dead sailor , masquerading as a ghost . In the confusion sure to break out among the superstitious sailors , Peters and Augustus , helped by Tiger , will take over the ship again . Everything goes according to plan , and soon the three men are masters of the Grampus : all the mutineers are killed or thrown overboard except one , Richard Parker , whom they spare to help them run the vessel .
The storm increases in force , breaking the mast , tearing the sails and flooding the hold . All four manage to survive by lashing themselves to the hull . As the storm abates , they find themselves safe for the moment , but without provisions . Over the following days , the men face death by starvation and thirst .
They sight an erratically moving Dutch ship with a grinning red @-@ capped seaman on deck , nodding in apparent greeting as they approach . Initially delighted with the prospect of deliverance , they quickly become horrified as they are overcome with an awful stench . They soon realize that the apparently cheerful sailor is , in fact , a corpse propped up in the ship 's rigging , his " grin " a result of his partially decomposed skull moving as a seagull feeds upon it . As the ship passes , it becomes clear that all its occupants are rotting corpses .
As time passes , with no sign of land or other ships , Parker suggests that one of them should be killed as food for the others . They draw straws , following the Custom of the Sea and Parker is sacrificed . This gives the others a reprieve , but Augustus soon dies from wounds received when they reclaimed the Grampus , and several more storms batter the already badly damaged ship . Pym and Peters float on the upturned hull and are close to death when they are rescued by the Jane Guy , a ship out of Liverpool .
= = = On board the Jane Guy ( Chapters XIV – XX ) = = =
On the Jane Guy , Pym and Peters become part of the crew and join the ship on its expedition to hunt sea calves and seals for fur , and to explore the southern oceans . Pym studies the islands around the Cape of Good Hope , becoming interested in the social structures of penguins , albatrosses , and other sea birds . Upon his urging , the captain agrees to sail further south towards the unexplored Antarctic regions .
The ship crosses an ice barrier and arrives in open sea , close to the South Pole , albeit with a mild climate . Here the Jane Guy comes upon a mysterious island called Tsalal , inhabited by a tribe of black , apparently friendly natives led by a chief named Too @-@ Wit . The color white is alien to the island 's inhabitants and unnerves them , because nothing that color exists there . Even the natives ' teeth are black . The island is also home to many undiscovered species of flora and fauna . Even its water is different from water elsewhere , being strangely thick and exhibiting multicolored veins .
The natives ' relationship with the sailors is initially cordial , so Too @-@ Wit and the captain begin trading . Their friendliness , however , turns out to be a ruse and on the eve of the ship 's proposed departure , the natives ambush the crew in a narrow gorge . Everyone except Pym and Peters is slaughtered , and the Jane Guy is overrun and burned by the malevolent tribe .
= = = Tsalal and further south ( Chapters XXI – XXV ) = = =
Pym and Peters hide in the mountains surrounding the site of the ambush . They discover a labyrinth of passages in the hills with strange marks on the walls , and disagree about whether these are the result of artificial or natural causes . Facing a shortage of food , they make a desperate run and steal a pirogue from the natives , narrowly escaping from the island and taking one of its inhabitants prisoner .
The small boat drifts further south on a current of increasingly warm water , which has become milky white in color . After several days they encounter a rain of ashes and then observe a huge cataract of fog or mist , which splits open to accommodate their entrance upon approach . The native dies as a huge shrouded white figure appears before them .
Here the novel ends abruptly . A short post @-@ script , ostensibly written by the book 's editors , compares the shapes of the labyrinth and the wall marks noted by Pym to Arabian and Egyptian letters and hieroglyphs with meanings of " Shaded " , " White " , and " Region to the South " .
= = Analysis = =
The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket has defied a universally accepted interpretation . Scholar Scott Peeples wrote that it is " at once a mock nonfictional exploration narrative , adventure saga , bildungsroman , hoax , largely plagiarized travelogue , and spiritual allegory " and " one of the most elusive major texts of American literature . " Biographer James M. Hutchisson writes that the plot both " soars to new heights of fictional ingenuity and descends to new lows of silliness and absurdity " .
One reason for the confusion comes from many continuity errors throughout the novel . For example , Pym notes that breaking a bottle while trapped in the hold saved his life because the sound alerted Augustus to his presence while searching . However , Pym notes that Augustus did not tell him this until " many years elapsed " , even though Augustus is dead eight chapters later . Nevertheless , much of the novel is carefully plotted . Novelist John Barth notes , for example , that the midway point of the novel occurs when Pym reaches the equator , the midway point of the globe .
Scholar Shawn Rosenheim believes that the use of hieroglyphs in the novel served as a precursor to Poe 's interest in cryptography . The pictographs themselves were likely inspired by The Kentuckies in New @-@ York ( 1834 ) by William Alexander Caruthers , where similar writing is the work of a black slave . Unlike the previous sea @-@ voyage tales that Poe had written , such as " MS. Found in a Bottle " , Pym is undertaking this trip on purpose . It has been suggested that the journey is about establishing a national American identity as well as discovering a personal identity .
Poe also presents the effects of alcohol in the novel . The opening episode , for example , shows that intoxicated people can sometimes seem entirely sober and then , suddenly , the effects of alcohol show through . Such a depiction is a small version of a larger focus in the novel on contradictions between chaos and order . Even nature seems unnatural . Water , for example , is very different at the end of the novel , appearing either colorful or " unnaturally clear . " The sun by the end shines " with a sickly yellow lustre emitting no decisive light " before seemingly being extinguished .
= = = Autobiographical elements = = =
Elements of the novel are often read as autobiographical . The novel begins with Arthur Gordon Pym , a name similar to Edgar Allan Poe , departing from Edgartown , Massachusetts on Martha 's Vineyard . Interpreted this way , the protagonist is actually sailing away from himself , or his ego . The middle name of " Gordon " , in replacing Poe 's connection to the Allan family , was turned into a reference to George Gordon Byron , a poet whom Poe deeply admired . The scene where Pym disguises himself from his grandfather while noting that he intends to inherit wealth from him also indicates a desire for Poe to free himself from family obligation and , specifically , scorning the patrimony of his foster @-@ father John Allan .
Dates are also relevant to this autobiographical reading . According to the text , Pym arrives at the island of Tsalal on January 19 — Poe 's birthday . Scholars , including Burton R. Pollin and Richard Wilbur , suggest that the character of Augustus was based on Poe 's childhood friend Ebenezer Burling or on Poe 's brother William Henry Leonard Poe , who served in South America and elsewhere as a sailor aboard the USS Macedonian . In the novel , the date of Augustus 's death corresponds to that of the death of Poe 's brother . The first chapter features Pym 's sloop named the Ariel , the name of a character once played by Poe 's mother Eliza Poe , and also the name of Percy Bysshe Shelley 's boat , on which he died , originally named Don Juan in honor of Lord Byron .
= = = Race = = =
One thread of critical analysis of this tale focuses on the possibly racist implications of Poe 's plot and imagery . One such plot element is the black cook who leads the mutiny on the Grampus and is its most bloodthirsty participant . Dirk Peters , a hybrid of white and Native American ancestry , is described as having a ferocious appearance , with long , protruding teeth , bowed legs , and a bald head like " the head of most negroes . " The brilliant whiteness of the final figure in the novel contrasts with the dark @-@ skinned savages and such a contrast may call to mind the escalating racial tensions over the question of slavery in the United States as Poe was writing the novel .
Additionally , the novel drew from prevalent assumptions during the time that dark @-@ skinned people were somehow inherently inferior . One critic of the use of race in The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket is Toni Morrison . In " Playing in the Dark : Whiteness and the Literary Imagination , " Morrison discusses how the Africanist presence in the novel is used as an " Other " against which the author defines " white , " " free , " and " individual " . In her explorations of the depiction of African characters in white American literature , Morrison writes that " no early American writer is more important to the concept of American Africanism than Poe " because of the focus on the symbolism of black and white in Poe 's novel . This possible racial symbolism is explored further in Mat Johnson 's satirical fantasy Pym ( 2011 ) .
= = = Ending = = =
The novel ends abruptly with the sudden appearance of a bizarre enshrouded figure having skin hued " of the perfect whiteness of the snow . " Many readers were left unsatisfied by this ending because , as Poe relative and scholar Harry Lee Poe wrote , " it didn 't match the kind of clear ending they expected from a novel . " Poe may have purposely left the ending subject to speculation . Some scholars have suggested that the ending serves as a symbolic conclusion to Pym 's spiritual journey and others suggest that Pym has actually died in this scene , as though his tale is somehow being told posthumously . Alternatively , Pym may die in the retelling of the story at precisely the same point he should have died during the actual adventure . Like other characters in works by Poe , Pym seems to submit willingly to this fate , whatever it is . Kenneth Silverman notes that the figure radiates ambivalence and it is not clear if it is a symbol of destruction or of protection .
The chasms that open throughout the sea in the final moments of the book derive from the Hollow Earth theory . The area closest to the Pole is also , surprisingly , warm rather than cold , as Symmes believed . Symmes also believed there were civilizations inside this Hollow Earth and the enshrouded figure who appears at the end may indicate one such civilization near the Pole .
= = Composition and publication history = =
Poe had intended to collect a number of his early short stories into a volume titled Tales of the Folio Club in the 1830s . The collection would be unified as a series of tales presented by members of a literary club designed as burlesques of contemporary literary criticism . Poe had previously printed several of these stories in the Philadelphia Saturday Courier and the Baltimore Saturday Visiter .
An editor , James Kirke Paulding , tried to assist him in publishing this collection . However , Paulding reported back to Poe that the publishers at Harper & Brothers declined the collection , saying that readers were looking for simple , long works like novels . They suggested , " if he will lower himself a little to the ordinary comprehension of the generality of readers , and prepare ... a single work ... they will make such arrangements with him as will be liberal and satisfactory . " They suggested " if other engagements permit ... undertake a Tale in a couple volumes , for that is the magical number . " The response from Harper & Brothers inspired Poe to begin a long work and began writing The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket . Poe arranged with his boss at the Southern Literary Messenger to publish his novel in several serialized installments at a pay rate of $ 3 per page .
However , Poe retired from his role at the Messenger on January 3 , 1837 , as the installments were being published ; some scholars suggest he was fired and this led him to abandoning the novel . His split with the Messenger began a " blank period " where he did not publish much and suffered from unemployment , poverty , and no success in his literary pursuits . Poe soon realized writing a book @-@ length narrative was a necessary career decision , partly because he had no steady job and the economy was suffering from the Panic of 1837 . He also set part of the story as a quest to Antarctica to capitalize the public 's sudden interest in that topic .
After his marriage to Virginia Clemm , Poe spent the following winter and spring completing his manuscript for this novel in New York . He earned a small amount of money by taking in a boarder named William Gowans . During his fifteen months in New York , amidst the harsh economic climate , Poe published only two tales , " Von Jung , the Mystific " and " Siope . A Fable " . Harper & Brothers announced Poe 's novel would be published in May 1837 , but the Panic forced them to delay .
The novel was finally published in book form under the title The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket in July 1838 , although it did not include Poe 's name and was instead presented as an account by Pym himself . Poe excused the earlier serialized version by noting that the Messenger had mistakenly adapted it " under the garb of fiction " . As Harper & Brothers recommended , it was printed in two volumes . Its full subtitle was :
Comprising the Details of Mutiny and Atrocious Butchery on Board the American Brig Grampus , on Her Way to the South Seas , in the Month of June , 1827 . With an Account of the Recapture of the Vessel by the Survivers ; Their Shipwreck and Subsequent Horrible Sufferings from Famine ; Their Deliverance by Means of the British Schooner Jane Guy ; the Brief Cruise of this Latter Vessel in the Atlantic Ocean ; Her Capture , and the Massacre of Her Crew Among a Group of Islands in the Eighty @-@ Fourth Parallel of Southern Latitude ; Together with the Incredible Adventures and Discoveries Still Farther South to Which That Distressing Calamity Gave Rise .
The first overseas publication of The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket appeared only a few months later when it was printed in London without Poe 's permission , although the final paragraph was omitted . This early publication of the novel initiated British interest in Poe .
= = Literary significance and reception = =
Contemporary reviews for The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket were generally unfavorable . Fifteen months after its publication , it was reviewed by Lewis Gaylord Clark , a fellow author who carried on a substantial feud with Poe . His review printed in The Knickerbocker said the book was " told in a loose and slip @-@ shod style , seldom chequered by any of the more common graces of composition . " Clark went on , " This work is one of much interest , with all its defects , not the least of which is that it is too liberally stuffed with ' horrid circumstances of blood and battle . ' "
Many reviewers commented on the excess of violent scenes . In addition to noting the novel 's gruesome details , a review in Burton 's Gentleman 's Magazine ( possibly William Evans Burton himself ) criticized its borrowed descriptions of geography and errors in nautical information . The reviewer considered it a literary hoax and called it an " impudent attempt at humbugging the public " and regretted " Mr. Poe 's name in connexion with such a mass of ignorance and effrontery " . Poe later wrote to Burton that he agreed with the review , saying it " was essentially correct " and the novel was " a very silly book " .
Other reviews condemned the attempt at presenting a true story . A reviewer for the Metropolitan Magazine noted that , though the story was good as fiction , " when palmed upon the public as a true thing , it cannot appear in any other light than that of a bungling business — an impudent attempt at imposing on the credulity of the ignorant . " Nevertheless , some readers believed portions of Poe 's novel were true , especially in England , and justified the absurdity of the book with an assumption that author Pym was exaggerating the truth . Publisher George Putnam later noted that " whole columns of these new ' discoveries , ' including the hieroglyphics ( sic ) found on the rocks , were copied by many of the English country papers as sober historical truth . "
In contrast , the renowned 20th century Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges , who admitted Poe as a strong influence , praised the novel as " Poe 's greatest work " . H. G. Wells noted that " Pym tells what a very intelligent mind could imagine about the south polar region a century ago " . Even so , most scholars did not engage in much serious discussion or analysis of the novel until the 1950s , though many in France recognized the work much earlier .
The financial and critical failure of The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket was a turning point in Poe 's career . For one , he was driven to literary duties that would make him money , notably his controversial role as editor of The Conchologist 's First Book in April 1839 . He also wrote a short series called " Literary Small Talk " for a new Baltimore @-@ based magazine called American Museum of Science , Literature and the Arts .
In need of work , Poe accepted a job at the low salary of $ 10 per week as assistant editor for Burton 's Gentleman 's Magazine , despite their negative review of his novel . He also returned to his focus on short stories rather than longer works of prose ; Poe 's next published book after this , his only completed novel , was the collection Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque in 1840 .
= = Influence and legacy = =
= = = 19th century = = =
Scholars , including Patrick F. Quinn and John J. McAleer , have noted parallels between Herman Melville 's Moby @-@ Dick and The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket and other Poe works . Quinn noted that there were enough similarities that Melville must have studied Poe 's novel and , if not , it would be " one of the most extraordinary accidents in literature " . McAleer noted that Poe 's short story " The Fall of the House of Usher " inspired " Ahab 's flawed character " in Moby @-@ Dick . Scholar Jack Scherting also noted similarities between Moby @-@ Dick and Poe 's " MS. Found in a Bottle " .
The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket became one of Poe 's most @-@ translated works ; by 1978 , scholars had counted over 300 editions , adaptations , and translations . This novel has proven to be particularly influential in France . French poet and author Charles Baudelaire translated the novel in 1857 as Les Aventures d 'Arthur Gordon Pym . Baudelaire was also inspired by Poe 's novel in his own poetry . " Voyage to Cythera " rewrites part of Poe 's scene where birds eat human flesh .
French author Jules Verne greatly admired Poe and wrote a study , Edgar Poe et ses œuvres , in 1864 . Poe 's story " Three Sundays in a Week " may have inspired Verne 's novel Around the World in Eighty Days ( 1873 ) . In 1897 , Verne published a sequel to The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket called An Antarctic Mystery . Like Poe 's novel , Verne attempted to present an imaginative work of fiction as a believable story by including accurate factual details . The two @-@ volume novel explores the adventures of the Halbrane as its crew searches for answers to what became of Pym . Translations of this text are sometimes titled The Sphinx of Ice or The Mystery of Arthur Gordon Pym .
An informal sequel to The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket is the 1899 novel A Strange Discovery by Charles Romeyn Dake where the narrator , Doctor Bainbridge , recounts the story his patient Dirk Peters told him of his journey with Gordon Pym in Antarctica , including a discussion of Poe 's poem " The Raven " .
= = = 20th century = = =
Prince Amerigo in Henry James 's novel The Golden Bowl ( 1904 ) remembered The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket : " He remembered to have read as a boy a wonderful tale by Allan Poe ... which was a thing to show , by the way , what imagination Americans could have : the story of the shipwrecked Gordon Pym , who ... found ... a thickness of white air ... of the color of milk or of snow . "
Poe 's novel was also an influence on H. P. Lovecraft , whose 1936 novel At the Mountains of Madness follows similar thematic direction and borrows the cry tekeli @-@ li from the novel . Chaosium 's role @-@ playing adventure Beyond the Mountains of Madness ( 1999 ) , a sequel to Lovecraft 's novel , includes a " missing ending " of Poe 's novel , in which Pym encounters some of Lovecraft 's creatures at their Antarctic city .
Rene Magritte 's 1937 painting Not to be Reproduced depicts a copy of Poe 's book in the lower right of the work .
Another French sequel was La Conquête de l 'Eternel ( 1947 ) by Dominique André .
Georges Perec 's 1969 novel A Void , notable for not containing a single letter e , contains an e @-@ less rewriting of Poe 's " The Raven " that is attributed to Arthur Gordon Pym in order to avoid using the two es found in Poe 's name .
On May 5 , 1974 author and journalist Arthur Koestler published a letter from reader Nigel Parker in The Sunday Times of a striking coincidence between a scene in Poe 's novel and an actual event that happened decades later : In 1884 , the yacht Mignonette sank , with four men cast adrift . They drew lots to decide which of them should be sacrificed as food for the other three , just as in Poe 's novel . The loser was a sailor named Richard Parker , coincidentally the same name as Poe 's fictional character . Parker 's shipmates , Tom Dudley and Edwin Stephens , were later tried for murder in a precedent @-@ setting common law trial , the renowned R v Dudley and Stephens .
In Paul Theroux 's travelogue The Old Patagonian Express ( 1979 ) , Theroux reads parts of The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket to Jorge Luis Borges . Theroux describes it in this book as being the " most terrifying " story he had ever read .
In Paul Auster 's City of Glass ( 1985 ) , the lead character Quinn has a revelation that makes him think of the discovery of the strange hieroglyphs at the end of Poe 's novel .
In a 1988 Young All @-@ Stars comic book written by Roy and Dann Thomas , Arthur Gordon Pym is a 19th @-@ century explorer who discovered the lost Arctic civilization of the alien Dyzan . Pym goes on to become Jules Verne 's Captain Nemo , eventually sinking the RMS Titanic . This story also uses elements of Edward Bulwer @-@ Lytton 's 1871 novel Vril .
= = = 21st century = = =
Yann Martel named a character in his Man Booker Prize @-@ winning novel Life of Pi ( 2001 ) after Poe 's fictional character , Richard Parker . Mat Johnson 's 2011 novel Pym is a satirical fantasy exploring racial politics in the United States , drawing its inspiration from The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket , as well as being modeled very closely on the original .
Funeral Doom band Ahab based their 2012 album The Giant on The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket .
= Frémont Emancipation =
The Frémont Emancipation was part of a military proclamation issued by Major General John C. Frémont ( 1813 – 1890 ) on August 30 , 1861 in St. Louis , Missouri during the early months of the American Civil War . The proclamation placed the state of Missouri under martial law and decreed that all property of those bearing arms in rebellion would be confiscated , including slaves , and that confiscated slaves would subsequently be declared free . It also imposed capital punishment for those in rebellion against the federal government .
Frémont , a career army officer , frontiersman and politician , was in command of the military Department of the West from July 1861 to October 1861 . Although Frémont claimed his proclamation was intended only as a means of deterring secessionists in Missouri , his policy had national repercussions , potentially setting a highly controversial precedent that the Civil War would be a war of liberation .
For President Abraham Lincoln the proclamation created a difficult situation , as he tried to balance the agendas of Radical Republicans who favored abolition and slave @-@ holding Unionists in the American border states whose support was essential in keeping the states of Missouri , Kentucky and Maryland in the Union .
Nationwide reaction to the proclamation was mixed . Abolitionists enthusiastically supported the measure while conservatives demanded Frémont 's removal . Seeking to reverse Frémont 's actions and maintain political balance , Lincoln eventually ordered Frémont to rescind the edict on September 11 , 1861 . Lincoln then sent various government officials to Missouri to build a case for Frémont 's removal founded on Frémont 's alleged incompetence rather than his abolitionist views . On these grounds , Lincoln sent an order on October 22 , 1861 , removing Frémont from command of the Department of the West . Although Lincoln opposed Frémont 's method of emancipation , the episode had a significant impact on Lincoln , shaping his opinions on the appropriate steps towards emancipation and eventually leading , sixteen months later , to Lincoln 's own Emancipation Proclamation .
= = Background = =
= = = Frémont = = =
Born in Savannah , Georgia in 1813 , John Charles Frémont would become one of the nation 's leading antislavery politicians in the 1850s . Frémont was granted a second lieutenant 's commission in the U.S. army 's Bureau of Topographical Engineers in 1838 , primarily through the support of Secretary of War Joel Poinsett . As a young army officer , Frémont took part in several exploratory expeditions of the American West in the 1840s . For his success in mapping a route across the Rocky Mountains to then Mexican California via the Oregon Trail , Frémont earned the nickname , " the Pathfinder " and attained the status of a national hero . During the Mexican @-@ American War ( 1846 – 1848 ) , Major Frémont took command of the Californian revolt of American settlers against Mexico and was appointed military governor of California in 1847 . Frémont 's independent actions ran at cross @-@ purposes with the senior U.S. army officer in California during the Mexican War — Stephen Watts Kearny . Frémont was arrested , brought to Washington , D.C. for a court @-@ martial and resigned from the army in 1848 . Returning to the Pacific coast , Frémont became one of the first senators from California when it was granted statehood in 1850 . In 1856 , Frémont became the first Presidential candidate of the new Republican Party which established a platform advocating the limitation of slavery to those states in which it already existed . Frémont won 33 percent of the popular vote , but lost to Democratic Party candidate James Buchanan .
At the onset of the Civil War in April 1861 , Frémont sought to resume his service in the Regular Army and was commissioned major general , becoming the third highest ranking general in the U.S. army ( according to date of appointment ) , just behind Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan . Frémont was placed in command of the Department of the West which included all states and territories between the Mississippi River and the Rockies as well as the state of Illinois and the western part of Kentucky . The department was headquartered in St. Louis , Missouri . Frémont arrived there and assumed command on July 25 , 1861 . His chief task was to establish control within the state of Missouri .
= = = Missouri = = =
At the commencement of the Civil War , Missouri was a deeply divided state . Missouri had chosen to remain in the Union , and initially maintained a policy of neutrality towards both the Union and the Confederacy . However , Missouri was also a state in which slavery was still legal , a factor which generated sympathy for the Confederacy and secession . The governor of Missouri at the start of the war , Claiborne Jackson , was in favor of secession and attempted to use the Missouri State Militia to resist the build @-@ up of Union forces in his state .
Before Frémont , two generals had previously served as head of the Department of the West during the first four months of the war . Brigadier General William S. Harney had taken a diplomatic approach in Missouri , attempting to respect Missouri 's neutrality through the Price @-@ Harney Truce , negotiated with Sterling Price , commander of the Missouri State Militia . The truce was unacceptable to many Unionists and particularly to President Lincoln , as continued neutrality in Missouri would result in the state 's refusal to supply men for the Union army . Harney was removed on May 30 and replaced with the hard @-@ line Radical Republican Brig. Gen. Nathaniel Lyon . Earlier , while still a subordinate of Harney 's , Lyon had raised tensions in Missouri to a fever @-@ pitch by acting independently and capturing a portion of the Missouri State Militia during the Camp Jackson Affair on May 10 , 1861 . Although the maneuver eliminated a threat to the St. Louis Arsenal , it also caused a riot in St. Louis . As commander of the Department of the West , Lyon met with Gov. Jackson and informed him that , " rather than concede to the State of Missouri for one single instant the right to dictate to my government in any matter ... I would see you ... and every man and woman and child in the State dead and buried . " After this , open warfare commenced between pro @-@ Confederate militia and Union forces in Missouri . Gov. Jackson fled St. Louis , and the Missouri State Militia was re @-@ organized to become the Missouri State Guard — a pro @-@ secession force under the command of Sterling Price and Governor @-@ in @-@ Exile Jackson .
By the time Frémont took command in St. Louis on July 25 , 1861 , Union forces under Lyon had fought in several engagements against the Missouri State Guard . On August 10 , a combined force of Missouri State Guard , Confederate States Army , and Arkansas Militia , consisting of about 11 @,@ 000 troops , closed in on Lyon 's Union force numbering approximately 5 @,@ 000 near Springfield , Missouri . During the ensuing Battle of Wilson 's Creek , Lyon was killed and the federal force routed . Pro @-@ secession sentiment surged throughout Missouri following the Battle of Wilson 's Creek . Estimates by Union army officials placed the number of armed secessionists in Missouri at roughly 60 @,@ 000 . Alarmed by the increasing turbulence , Frémont declared martial law in the state of Missouri on August 30 , 1861 .
= = Proclamation and reaction = =
Just before dawn on August 30 , Frémont finished penning his proclamation of martial law and read it to his wife and a trusted advisor , Edward Davis of Philadelphia . Davis warned that officials in Washington would never stand for such a sweeping edict . Frémont responded that he had been given full power to put down secession in Missouri and that , as a war measure , the proclamation was entirely warranted .
The most controversial passage of the proclamation , and the one with the greatest political consequences , was the following :
All persons who shall be taken with arms in their hands within these lines shall be tried by court @-@ martial , and , if found guilty , will be shot . The property , real and personal , of all persons in the State of Missouri who shall take up arms against the United States , and who shall be directly proven to have taken active part with their enemies in the field , is declared to be confiscated to the public use ; and their slaves , if any they have , are hereby declared free .
The two extreme measures described within this passage threatened to alienate Unionists in each of the border states . Drawing a line from Cape Girardeau , Missouri to Leavenworth , Kansas , Frémont declared capital punishment would be administered to any secessionists bearing arms north of that line . Further , the proclamation freed the slaves of any secessionists who took up arms against the government . Frémont issued his proclamation without consulting any authority in Missouri or Washington .
The proclamation freed very few slaves . First , and most prominently , two slaves belonging to an aide of the former Gov. Jackson , Frank Lewis and Hiram Reed , were given their manumission papers . This act received significant coverage by the St. Louis press . Frémont then issued papers to 21 other slaves . However , the greatest significance of the proclamation came in the form of political ramifications . The proclamation set a political precedent , over which there was tremendous disagreement , that the Civil War was a war against slavery . This threatened to tip the delicate political balance in border states . Missouri , Kentucky , and Maryland all might have been pushed towards secession if such a precedent had been backed by the federal government at the beginning of the war .
Unionists in Missouri were divided in their reaction . Radical Republicans , who favored abolition , were overjoyed . This included much of the St. Louis press . Frémont surrounded himself with men of this faction , and several Radical Republican politicians had come to St. Louis with him as aides and advisors . These included Illinois Congressman Owen Lovejoy ( brother of the antislavery journalist Elijah Lovejoy who had been murdered in 1837 by an anti @-@ abolitionist mob ) , Ohio Congressman John A. Gurley and Indiana Congressman John P.C. Shanks . All ardent abolitionists , these men encouraged and influenced Frémont 's proclamation . More moderate Unionists were troubled by Frémont 's proclamation and pro @-@ slavery conservatives were outraged . Most important , among the moderates in Missouri alienated by Frémont 's proclamation was the new governor of Missouri , Hamilton Rowan Gamble , whose authority Frémont had now superseded by declaring martial law . Feeling that Frémont had greatly overstepped his authority , Gamble began to work for Frémont 's removal . In neighboring Kentucky , there was widespread outrage . Although the proclamation pertained only to the state of Missouri , Kentuckians feared that a similar edict might be applied by Frémont to their state . Most slaves in Kentucky belonged to Unionists and threatening to free them could have pushed the state into the Confederacy .
= = Lincoln 's reaction and Frémont 's removal = =
President Lincoln learned of Frémont 's proclamation by reading it in the newspaper . Disturbed by Frémont 's actions , Lincoln felt that emancipation was " not within the range of military law or necessity " and that such powers rested only with the elected federal government . Lincoln also recognized the monumental political problem that such an edict posed to his efforts to keep the border states in the Union . He was particularly worried about reports he heard of the furor in Kentucky over the edict , writing , " I think to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game . " According to Lincoln in a letter to a supporter of Frémont , a unit of Kentucky militia fighting for the Union , upon hearing of Frémont 's proclamation , threw down their weapons and disbanded . Lincoln determined the proclamation could not be allowed to remain in force . However , to override the edict or to directly order Frémont to strike out or modify the paragraph had its own political dangers — such an act would outrage abolitionists throughout the North . Sensitive to the political pitfalls on all sides , Lincoln wrote to Frémont , " Allow me to therefore ask , that you will , as of your own motion , modify that paragraph ... "
Frémont wrote a reply to Lincoln 's request on September 8 , 1861 and sent it to Washington in the hands of his wife , Jessie Benton Frémont , who met with the President in the White House on September 10 . In the letter , Frémont stated that he knew the situation in Missouri better than the President and that he would not rescind the proclamation unless directly ordered . Angered , Lincoln wrote Frémont the next day , directly ordering him to modify the emancipation clause to conform with existing federal law — that only slaves themselves acting in armed rebellion could be confiscated and freed .
Lincoln could not allow Frémont 's insubordination to go unpunished . However , his dilemma again lay in politics . Removal of Frémont over the emancipation issue would infuriate radicals in Congress . Lincoln determined that if Frémont were to be removed , it would have to be for matters unrelated to the proclamation . He therefore sent Postmaster General Montgomery Blair and Quartermaster General Montgomery Meigs to Missouri to evaluate Frémont 's management of his department . On his return , Blair reported that a tremendous state of disorganization existed in Missouri and Frémont " seemed stupified ... and is doing absolutely nothing . " When Adjutant General Lorenzo Thomas made his own inspection and reported to Lincoln that Frémont was , " wholly incompetent , " Lincoln decided to leak Thomas 's report to the press . Amidst the resulting public outrage against Frémont , Lincoln sent an order on October 22 , 1861 , removing him from command of the Department of the West .
= = Aftermath = =
For Frémont , the personal repercussions of his proclamation were disastrous . His removal from command of the Western Department did irreparable damage to his reputation . Giving Frémont a second chance , Lincoln approved his appointment to command the strategically important Mountain Department , overseeing the mountainous region surrounding the Virginia and Kentucky border . Frémont 's forces were badly defeated , however , in the Battle of Cross Keys in Virginia on June 8 , 1862 . He eventually resigned from frustration at being passed over when Lincoln appointed Maj. Gen. John Pope to command of the Army of Virginia , and spent the rest of the war awaiting a new appointment which never came .
For Lincoln , the immediate effects of Frémont 's removal resulted in the furor the president had anticipated from northern abolitionists . Massachusetts Governor John Albion Andrew , a Radical Republican and abolitionist , wrote that Lincoln 's actions had a " chilling influence " on the antislavery movement . The outrage was only a short @-@ term effect , however , and soon subsided .
The most significant long @-@ term consequence of the Frémont Emancipation was the effect it had on Lincoln 's perceptions of emancipation and , specifically , how it should be accomplished . As historian Allen Guelzo describes , Lincoln became determined , after Frémont 's failed proclamation , that emancipation could not be a matter of martial law or some other temporary measure that would later be challenged in courts . To ensure its permanence , Lincoln felt , emancipation would have to be put into effect by the federal government in a manner that was incontrovertibly constitutional . Equally important , the timing of emancipation would need to be orchestrated carefully , so as not to interfere with the war effort . Although in 1861 , Lincoln had not yet espoused the idea of immediate emancipation and still hoped to work with state governments to accomplish gradual and perhaps even a compensated emancipation , the Frémont incident solidified Lincoln 's belief that emancipation was the President 's responsibility and could not be accomplished by scattered decrees from Union generals . This realization was one of several factors that led to Lincoln 's own Emancipation Proclamation in September 1862 .
= Democracy ( Judge Dredd storyline ) =
Democracy in the fictional future city of Mega @-@ City One has been a significant recurring theme in the Judge Dredd comic strip in 2000 AD . In particular , a number of stories published since 1986 have addressed the issue of the Judges ' dictatorial system of government , and efforts by the citizens to re @-@ establish democracy . Besides being a notable story arc in itself , the " Democracy " stories also had wider repercussions which led directly to the events depicted in the story " Necropolis " .
The stories include " America " , which is regularly voted by fans in polls as the best Dredd story ever written , and is Dredd creator John Wagner 's favourite Judge Dredd story . Editor David Bishop called it " the best Judge Dredd story ever written . " The first Democracy story , " Letter From a Democrat " , is co @-@ writer Alan Grant 's favourite Dredd story .
All of the stories in the " Democracy " arc were written by Wagner or under his direction .
= = Backstory = =
The Judge Dredd comic strip is mostly set in Mega @-@ City One in the 22nd century , on the east coast of the former United States . When President Robert L. Booth started the Third World War in 2070 ( see Atomic Wars ) , the Judges – until then no more than a police force with extraordinary powers – deposed Booth , overthrew the Constitution and seized control of all institutions of government . Disillusioned with the elected politicians who had caused so much destruction to their country , much of the American public supported this move at the time . For the next four decades America was a dictatorship . ( Mega @-@ City One and the other American mega @-@ cities became sovereign city @-@ states early during this period , and the US ceased to exist . ) Although the Judges were initially popular , the citizens soon grew to resent their new leaders as much as they had the old , until activists began calling for a return to democratic government .
Although the events of 2070 were established early in the Judge Dredd strip ( in 1978 ) , the issue of the Justice Department 's position in society was largely ignored for the first nine years of the strip 's history . The only other references to the political relationship between the Judges and the citizens were the occasional brief appearances of the elected mayor of Mega @-@ City One , who was shown to be subordinate to the unelected head of state : the chief judge . However , in 1986 and 1987 co @-@ writers John Wagner and Alan Grant finally addressed this topic seriously in two stories set in 2108 and 2109 . As Wagner later explained :
Grant recalls a more random genesis :
= = Early stories = =
= = = " Letter From a Democrat " : The martyrdom of Hester Hyman = = =
A seven @-@ page story in 2000 AD # 460 called " Letter From a Democrat " ( 1986 ) was the first story to show readers what life under the oppressive rule of the Judges actually meant . David Bishop has since described it as " a crucial story − the politicising of Dredd . " It was notable not only for that , but also for marking the beginning of a darker , more mature tone in the strip generally , and a tendency to show the character of Dredd in a harsher light than before . Although light @-@ hearted and humorous stories still continued unabated , " Letter " was followed by several other stories in a similar vein , more and more illustrating Dredd 's role as the agent of a fascist system . Only three weeks earlier the writers had introduced a new character , Judge Silver , as the new chief judge , who proved to be more hardline and right @-@ wing than his predecessor ( and who played a very significant role in the Democracy- and Necropolis @-@ related stories which were to follow ) .
The story was told in the form of a letter from a wife and mother to her husband . The writer , Hester Hyman , had written the letter to explain why she had decided to sacrifice her life for the cause of democracy . While the text of the letter was shown in captions , the pictures first illustrated events described in the early part of the letter , and then showed the circumstances of her death at the hands of a squad of judges led by Judge Dredd .
The letter begins by describing how Hester and her family ( who in the story represent all citizens ) live in fear of the Judges , and have virtually no say over their lives . Even on a family picnic in the park they are threatened and intimidated by a judge when their young son accidentally throws a ball at him . Finally deciding that enough is enough , Hester reveals that she has decided to join a terrorist group and take over a television studio at gunpoint to announce their manifesto for reform to the whole city .
Surrounded by judges , the group refuses to surrender , reasoning that they will only be remembered if they are killed . Dredd duly obliges them .
The story ends with Dredd 's stern warning : " Democracy 's not for the people . "
The story is also ( less ) notable for the first appearance of the recurring comedy character Bishop Desmond Snodgrass in a cameo role .
= = = The Democratic March = = =
According to series artist John Higgins : " Letter From A Democrat actually moistened my eyes and , maybe because of that , John and Alan wrote Revolution for me to draw . For me this story is fully effective political satire . "
Revolution , published a year later , told of how Hester Hyman 's sacrifice had inspired millions to demonstrate for democracy . Political campaign groups , including Hester 's husband Gort Hyman , organised a massive protest march through the streets which would end at the Grand Hall of Justice . Chief Judge Silver did not want to ban the " Democratic March " outright , as such overt action would only play into the Democrats ' hands . Instead he ordered Dredd to undermine the March by covert action . When Dredd asked if his orders included breaking the law , Silver replied : " on this one you write the law . " This moment was itself a turning point in the history of the strip , as a fundamental feature of Dredd 's character had always been his utmost regard for , and obedience to , the law . His subsequent actions within the strip can be explained if Silver is regarded as invoking the fictional Security of the City Act , which had been mentioned in earlier stories and which allows judges to act outside the law if necessary to protect national security . Nevertheless , later stories would depict Dredd 's profound regret for the actions he took to thwart the March , and his disillusionment with the Judge System would have very significant consequences for the strip .
Dredd used various " dirty tricks " to undermine the March . He blackmailed the organisers by fabricating evidence against them and threatening to leak it to the press . He told Gort Hyman that if he did not withdraw he would conscript his children into the Academy of Law to be trained as cadet judges ( the Academy does not require parental consent ) . He arrested an elderly leader on a trumped @-@ up charge and made him stand all night without sleep or food , before releasing him minutes before the March was due to start , so that he would collapse from exhaustion along the way , undermining morale . Dredd ordered Weather Control to produce rain to reduce attendance . By the time the March started , numbers were well below the expected turnout . Undercover judges planted as agitators in the crowd first undermined morale by defeatist talk , and then incited violence by throwing things at uniformed judges , giving Dredd the excuse he needed to send in riot squads to break up the March and make arrests . The organisers were sentenced to significant terms of incarceration . Yet publicly , the Judges appeared to have the moral high ground .
= = Connection to " Necropolis " = =
= = = Departure of Alan Grant = = =
Although no more Democracy stories were published for another three years , Judge Dredd continued to be portrayed more and more as an uncompromising fascist , to a large extent due to the influence of co @-@ writer Alan Grant , who felt that " any attempt to soften Dredd destroys the character . " However , John Wagner preferred a more human approach to Dredd 's character , and their creative differences finally came to a head in the 26 @-@ part story " Oz " ( which was not a Democracy story ) . Grant later explained :
Grant stopped writing Dredd stories when " Oz " ended in 1988 ( in 2000 AD # 570 ) .
Now the strip 's sole writer , Wagner was free to return to the Democracy theme , this time with a more sympathetic depiction of Dredd 's character in which Dredd began to have misgivings about his role in suppressing the Democratic March . Dredd 's qualms would become the catalyst to take the whole Judge Dredd strip in a new direction .
Wagner used the Democracy theme to add depth to a separate story arc that he had already begun to develop in two sequels to " Oz " , which had introduced the character Judge Kraken . Tying together the hitherto unrelated Democracy and Kraken storylines in " Tale of the Dead Man " ( 1990 ) , Wagner laid the foundations for another 26 @-@ part epic , " Necropolis " , which in turn would reciprocate by changing the direction of the Democracy stories .
Interviewed in 2005 , Grant observed : " I rather think that stories like " Dead Man " ... could never have been written by the two of us together . "
= = = " A Letter to Judge Dredd " = = =
" A Letter to Judge Dredd " ( 1990 ) was a six @-@ page story written in the same style as " Letter From a Democrat " , which had begun the Democracy story arc four years earlier . Set in 2112 , the story was written from the perspective of a schoolboy writing a letter to Dredd as part of a school project about the Judge System . Despite his youthful naivety , the boy identified a multitude of problems with the dysfunctional system that Dredd stands for . Dredd was no doubt already aware of these problems to some extent , but the letter succinctly and starkly listed them at a time when Dredd was already growing disillusioned with the system due to his feelings of guilt in respect of the dubious and underhand methods he had used to subdue the Democratic March in 2109 . The boy also described a neighbour who had been struck on the head by a judge on the March , receiving permanent brain damage as a result , which caused him to have violent mood swings and hallucinations . On the way to post his letter , the boy was murdered by the neighbour during one of his violent episodes . Attending the crime scene , Dredd read the letter and felt indirectly responsible for the boy 's death .
" A Letter to Judge Dredd " was a significant story in its own right , as it brought Dredd 's doubts about his role to a head . But its main significance is as the prologue to the seven @-@ part story which immediately followed , " Tale of the Dead Man . "
= = = " Tale of the Dead Man " = = =
Kraken was a clone who shared Dredd 's DNA . He had been created by rogue judge Morton Judd as part of a clone army to overthrow the judges and conquer Mega @-@ City One ( though not to restore democracy ) . Of the survivors , Kraken alone was spared and was rehabilitated at the Academy of Law , with a view to having him one day replace Dredd when Dredd finally retired or died . Having graduated from the Academy , Kraken was due to take his Final Assessment , the test which cadets take to prove they are fit to become a full judge . Dredd was assigned as Kraken 's examiner .
In the course of the assessment ( which takes the form of the cadet performing the role of a street judge with full powers ) , Kraken killed a group of Democracy terrorists who had taken hostages . Shortly afterwards Judge Morphy , Dredd 's best friend and mentor ( who had supervised Dredd on his own Final Assessment ) , was killed on a routine vehicle stop . Furious , Dredd almost murdered one of the perpetrators , pulling back at the last moment when Kraken urged him to control himself . Despite Kraken 's impeccable performance , Dredd 's unappealable decision was to fail him , believing that " a leopard can 't change its spots . Not this one , anyway . " At the moment of announcing his verdict , Dredd tendered his resignation and requested permission to take the Long Walk , leaving the city forever .
During his preparations to leave the city , Dredd released every prisoner still in custody from the Democratic March .
= = = " Necropolis " = = =
Dredd 's resignation was a significant event in the build @-@ up to " Necropolis " ( besides being inherently momentous in its own right ) . Chief Judge Silver ordered a news blackout on Dredd 's resignation and then faked Kraken 's execution after reimposing sentence of death for Kraken 's crimes in the service of Judd . Reviving Kraken in secret , Silver overturned Dredd 's verdict on him and made him a full judge , but on the condition that he impersonated Dredd , so that nobody would know that Dredd had left . Silver believed that Dredd had become such a symbol of law and order to the citizens that news of his departure would provoke a crimewave .
Consequently , when the Sisters of Death arrived in Mega @-@ City One , they found Kraken there instead of Dredd . Finding Kraken to be vulnerable to manipulation by their psychic powers , as he was still torn by latent subconscious loyalty to his late master Judd , they were able to use him as their agent to free Judge Death from captivity and begin their conquest of the city . Had Dredd not resigned , they might not have found their task so easy . Dredd eventually returned to the city and defeated them .
As a result of the Necropolis disaster , Dredd realised that running away from his problems was no answer to them , and he rejoined the force . This time he confronted his doubts about the Judge System head on .
= = = Democracy Referendum = = =
Dredd persuaded new chief judge McGruder to permit the citizens to vote in a referendum on whether democratic government should be restored , or the existing Judge System should be retained . McGruder agreed because the Judges had lost much of their credibility in failing to protect the citizens from the Dark Judges during Necropolis : since the Judges ' argument in favour of their dictatorial rule rested largely on their allegedly unique ability to protect the city and preserve order ( which the last elected government had conspicuously failed to do ) , the Democrats ' calls for reform were consequently more compelling than ever . The Democracy Referendum was scheduled for 2113 , and was not popular among the rank @-@ and @-@ file judges , or even the senior ranks , since almost everybody predicted that the unpopular Judges would lose the vote by a landslide . So much did the Referendum depend on Dredd 's personal support that Judge Grice and other judges even tried to assassinate him to prevent the vote from going ahead .
Dredd himself had few doubts of the outcome . In an interview he pointed out that although there was room for reform , the basic idea of the Judge System was still for the best : " better the devil you know " , as the interviewer summarised it . Dredd 's ultimate argument was that the people had to decide whether , while being mugged , they would rather rely on him or on their elected representative .
In spite of Grice 's efforts the vote was held as planned , and to the surprise of everyone except Dredd , the Democrats actually lost . Democratic government had not existed for over forty years , and most citizens could not remember it . Most did not even bother to vote at all , and of those who did , the majority decided to retain the status quo . A two @-@ million @-@ strong mass of democrats marched on the Grand Hall , believing this to be a fix , but Dredd was able to both convince Blondel Dupre that the result was accurate and break her will in front of the others , pressuring her to state in public " you are the law . " Discredited and disheartened , mainstream support for democracy faded away .
= = After the Referendum = =
The Democracy storyline is generally regarded as having concluded with the Referendum story , which was published in 1991 . However , although the main Democracy campaign had indeed ended , repercussions continued in the strip for years afterwards . This took three forms .
First , various circumstances originating in " Necropolis " eventually led to the resignation of Chief Judge McGruder , whose rule had been marked by an unprecedented concentration of political power in her own hands . Responding to concerns about the way Mega @-@ City One was governed , new chief judge Volt instituted constitutional reforms in 2117 designed to restore a limited measure of democracy to Mega @-@ City politics . The Justice Department still retained supreme overall control , but some say over decisions at the municipal level was delegated to a new elected mayor and City Council .
Secondly , a trilogy published in 2001 – 2003 featured an assassin known as the " Chief Judge 's Man " , who murdered leading democracy activists , allegedly on the orders of Chief Judge Hershey .
Thirdly , although mainstream public support for popular sovereignty had dissipated , there were still diehard extremist groups who were willing to fight for the abolition of the Judge System . The most notorious of these was terrorist group Total War .
= = = Total War = = =
Total War first appeared in the 1990 story " America " ( before the Referendum story ) . Their methods involved assassinating judges in the street and other violent tactics . They attempted to blow up the Statue of Liberty , to draw attention to the fact that the concept of liberty had already been destroyed by the Judges . They failed to do so in that story , but succeeded later ( which was referred to in " America II " ) .
Total War has not been used often in the strip , but made a reappearance in two stories in 2004 , including a 12 @-@ part story of the same name , set in 2126 . In " Total War " the terrorists tried to blackmail the Judges into relinquishing power by detonating nuclear bombs in random locations around the city at regular intervals . Three bombs exploded , killing millions , before Dredd stopped them . The attempt was counter @-@ productive , since the public was appalled at the enormous loss of life which was supposedly caused for their benefit , and any remaining mainstream support for democracy dwindled still further . Also , once Total War 's leaders were apprehended , Dredd was able to identify its members by working from the top down , by arresting group leaders , then cell leaders , and finally foot soldiers . Any hope of restoring democratic government was most likely obliterated , but Total War would return in subsequent strips , first in the mutants storyline and then in Day of Chaos .
Dredd 's crackdown on the terrorist group was used as an opportunity in the 2005 story " Caught in the Act " , to satirise real @-@ life anti @-@ terrorist policies in Britain and America , such as incarceration without trial and withholding evidence from prisoners .
= = Reviews = =
" Tale of the Dead Man " has been reviewed as " A piece of super @-@ lean storytelling from Wagner ... This story has everything . Action , emotion , pathos , humour . Great characterisation ... And it contains my all @-@ time favourite action scene as Kraken takes out a gang of terrorists [ while ] unarmed and handcuffed ! How cool is that ? "
The Referendum was depicted in " Twilight 's Last Gleaming " ( 1991 ) , written by Garth Ennis . One reviewer credited this story with having " a brilliant understanding of society , " while another described it as " One of the darkest and most political of all Judge Dredd stories ... This is a chilling reminder of how we can easily lose our rights if we don ’ t stand up for them . "
Political cartoonist and writer Martin Rowson wrote :
Maybe we should see it as a dark satire on the failures of democracy , not as an ironic celebration of the triumphs of fascism ... [ T ] he greatest enemy of democracy is not fascism , but apathy . In the referendum , the Judges won with 68 % of all votes cast . But there was a turnout of only 35 % . In other words , the Judges won with the backing of only 23 @.@ 8 % of the possible electorate . And that is just 2 % less than the percentage of the American population which first elected Ronald Reagan in 1980 .
" Revolution " , the story featuring the Democratic March , was reviewed as follows :
[ T ] he most eye @-@ opening story was " Revolution " ... This is probably the first time Dredd was ever portrayed unambiguously as the bad guy ... It had repercussions in the strip for years to come , but for me it was comparing the incidents of this strip with the events in Tiananmen Square two years later which made me realise this was rather too close to reality for comfort .
= = = Main stories = = =
" Letter From a Democrat " ( written by John Wagner and Alan Grant , with art by John Higgins , in 2000 AD # 460 , 1986 )
Death of Hester Hyman .
" Revolution " ( written by John Wagner and Alan Grant , with art by John Higgins , in 2000 AD # 531 – 533 , 1987 )
The Democratic March .
" Politics " ( Written by Alan Grant , with art by Jeff Anderson , in 2000 AD # 656 , 1989 )
Not described above . A democracy activist is kidnapped .
" A Letter to Judge Dredd " ( written by John Wagner , with art by Will Simpson , in 2000 AD # 661 , 1990 )
Prologue to " Tale of the Dead Man . "
" Tale of the Dead Man " ( written by John Wagner , with art by Will Simpson and Jeff Anderson , in 2000 AD # 662 – 668 , 1990 )
Story sets scene for " Necropolis " ( in # 674 – 699 ) .
See also The Dead Man ( Judge Dredd spin @-@ off in # 650 – 662 ) .
" Nightmares " ( written by John Wagner , with art by Steve Dillon , in 2000 AD # 702 – 706 , 1990 )
Dredd makes the case for the Referendum on the future of the Judge System .
" The Devil You Know " ( written by John Wagner , with art by Jeff Anderson , in 2000 AD # 750 – 753 , 1991 )
Judges try to kill Dredd to prevent the Referendum .
" Twilight 's Last Gleaming " ( written by Garth Ennis , with art by John Burns , in 2000 AD # 754 – 756 , 1991 )
Referendum takes place and result announced .
= = = Later stories = = =
" The Decision " ( written by John Wagner , with art by Andrew Currie , in 2000 AD # 957 , 1995 )
Chief judge announces limited political reforms .
" Sleaze " ( written by John Wagner , with art by John Burns , in Judge Dredd Megazine vol . 3 # 40 , 1998 )
Not described above , but features the city council and mayor .
" Origins " ( written by John Wagner , with art by Carlos Ezquerra , in 2000 AD # 1505 – 1519 and 1529 – 1535 , 2006 – 07 )
Not described above , but tells in flashbacks how the Judges ended democracy in America in 2070 .
= = = = Chief Judge 's Man stories = = = =
All written by John Wagner .
" Chief Judge ’ s Man " ( with art by Will Simpson , in 2000 AD # 1244 – 1247 , 2001 )
" On The Chief Judge ’ s Service " ( with art by Colin MacNeil , in 2000 AD # 1263 – 1266 , 2001 )
" Revenge Of The Chief Judge ’ s Man " ( with art by John Burns , in 2000 AD # 1342 – 1349 , 2003 )
= = = = Total War stories = = = =
All written by John Wagner .
" America " ( with art by Colin MacNeil , in Judge Dredd Megazine vol . 1 # 1 – 7 , 1990 – 1991 )
" America : Fading Of The Light " ( with art by Colin MacNeil , in Judge Dredd Megazine vol . 3 # 20 – 25 , 1996 )
" Terror " ( with art by Colin MacNeil , in 2000 AD # 1392 – 1399 , 2004 )
" Total War " ( with art by Henry Flint , in 2000 AD # 1408 – 1419 , 2004 )
" Caught in the Act " ( with art by Phil Winslade and Len O ’ Grady , in 2000 AD # 1450 – 1451 , 2005 )
" America III : Cadet " ( with art by Colin MacNeil , in Judge Dredd Megazine # 250 – 252 , 2006 )
" Hot Night in 95 " ( with art by Staz Johnson , in Judge Dredd Megazine # 307 – 308 and 310 , 2011 )
" Terror Rising " ( with art by Colin MacNeil , in Judge Dredd Megazine # 365 – 367 , 2015 )
= United States v. Drayton =
United States v. Drayton , 536 U.S. 194 ( 2002 ) , was a case in which the United States Supreme Court clarified the applicability of Fourth Amendment protections to searches and seizures that occur on buses , as well as the function of consent during searches by law enforcement . During a scheduled stop in Tallahassee , Florida , police officers boarded a Greyhound bus as part of a drug interdiction effort and interviewed passengers . After talking to two of the passengers and asking if they could " check [ their ] person " , officers discovered the two passengers had taped several packages of cocaine to their legs . At trial , the passengers argued that officers violated their Fourth Amendment rights against unreasonable searches and seizures because the police engaged in coercive behavior and never informed them that their participation in the drug interdiction efforts was voluntary .
Writing for a majority of the Court , Justice Anthony Kennedy held officers need not personally advise passengers of their right to refuse consent to a search on a bus . Furthermore , Justice Kennedy ruled that the search was not unreasonable because passengers were free to leave the bus and the individuals who were searched provided voluntary consent . Although some commentators have praised the Court 's ruling for encouraging citizens " to stand up for their rights " , others have criticized it for failing to reflect the realities of " real @-@ life confrontations occurring on the street " between citizens and law enforcement .
= = Background = =
= = = Fourth Amendment guidelines for arrests and temporary detentions = = =
The Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution applies to both arrests and temporary detentions of criminal suspects , both of which have been defined by the Supreme Court of the United States as " seizures " of a person . Before conducting an arrest , an officer must demonstrate probable cause that a suspect has engaged in criminal activity . However , police officers may also conduct temporary detentions when officers have reasonable , articulable suspicion that " criminal activity may be afoot " . These temporary detentions are also known as Terry stops , which take their name from the Supreme Court 's ruling in Terry v. Ohio . The level of suspicion that is required to conduct a temporary detention is lower than is necessary for probable cause and is “ considerably less than proof of wrongdoing by a preponderance of the evidence ” ; however officers cannot rely upon a mere " hunch " .
= = = The Fourth Amendment Consent to Search Doctrine = = =
Although the Fourth Amendment generally prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures , the Supreme Court of the United States has clarified that searches and seizures are not unreasonable when citizens consent to them . Scholars have traced the origins of the Consent to Search Doctrine as far back as the 1920s , but it was not until the 1970s that the Court clarified that searches are reasonable if , under a " totality of the circumstances " , the search is " voluntary " . Courts generally look to whether officers believed , at the time of the search , the individual being searched provided voluntary consent . Officers may also rely on the consent of someone who reasonably appears to have authority to consent to a police search , even if that person actually has no such authority . However , if officers obtain consent after engaging in an unconstitutional seizure , the consent is considered " tainted " and evidence obtained from such a search cannot be admitted during a subsequent criminal prosecution .
In Schneckloth v. Bustamonte , the United States Supreme Court established a framework for determining whether a suspect 's consent is voluntary . The Court noted that historically , when " determining whether a defendant 's will was overborne in a particular case , the Court has assessed the totality of all the surrounding circumstances — both the characteristics of the accused and the details of the interrogation " . Consequently , the Court held that voluntariness should be determined " from the totality of all the circumstances " . The Court also clarified that judges should examine the " possibly vulnerable subjective state of the person who consents " to determine whether a suspect was coerced into consenting , and " account must be taken of subtly coercive police questions " . However , the Court also held that suspects may still give valid consent even if they do not know that that they can refuse to consent to the search .
= = = Fourth Amendment searches and seizures on buses = = =
The United States Supreme Court first clarified the applicability of the Fourth Amendment to searches and seizures on buses in the 1991 case Florida v. Bostick , where the Court held that police officers may approach bus passengers on a random basis and ask questions and request their consent to searches , " provided a reasonable person would understand that he or she is free to refuse " . The Court rejected the argument that police questioning on board a bus constitutes a per se seizure under the Fourth Amendment , and instead held that courts should use a " totality of the circumstances " test to determine whether a passenger would have felt " free to decline the officers ' requests or otherwise terminate the encounter " , or whether a passenger was free " to ignore the police presence and go about his business " . Additionally , the Court ruled that even if law enforcement officers have no basis for suspecting individuals are engaged in criminal activity , officers may still approach passengers , ask them questions , request identification , and request consent to search luggage , so long as officers do not coerce passengers to cooperate with their efforts .
= = Arrest and trial of Christopher Drayton and Clifton Brown , Jr . = =
On February 4 , 1999 , Christopher Drayton and Clifton Brown , Jr. were traveling on a Greyhound bus bound for Detroit , Michigan . When the bus made a planned stop in Tallahassee , Florida , passengers were told to get off the bus so it could be cleaned and refueled . After the passengers re @-@ boarded , the driver allowed Officers Blackburn , Hoover , and Lang of the Tallahassee Police Department to enter the bus " as part of a routine drug and weapons interdiction
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effort " . Although the officers displayed visible badges , they carried concealed weapons and were not in uniform . Upon entering the bus , Officer Hoover knelt on the driver 's seat , Officer Blackburn stood at the back of the bus , and Officer Land walked along the aisle of the bus to talk to passengers . He asked passengers which luggage was theirs and where they were going . None of the officers blocked the aisle or otherwise obstructed the exit , and passengers were free to leave while the officers conducted their investigation . However , the officers did not inform passengers of their right to refuse to cooperate with the investigation .
Drayton and Brown sat next to each other on the bus , Drayton by the aisle and Brown by the window . When Officer Lang arrived at their row , he identified himself as a police investigator and showed his badge . In a voice " just loud enough " to hear , he said he was a police officer " conducting bus interdiction [ sic ] , attempting to deter drugs and illegal weapons being transported on the bus " . When Lang asked Drayton and Brown if they had any luggage on the bus , they both pointed to the same green bag on the overhead luggage rack . Lang asked , " [ d ] o you mind if I check it ? " , and Brown replied , " [ g ] o ahead " . The officers inspected the bag and discovered no contraband inside .
Officer Lang observed that Drayton and Brown were wearing " heavy jackets and baggy pants " , despite warm weather that day . Lang suspected Brown and Drayton might have been using their baggy clothing to conceal weapons or drugs , so he asked Brown , " [ d ] o you mind if I check your person ? " Brown responded , " [ s ] ure " , leaned up in his seat , removed a cellular phone from his pocket , and opened his jacket . Lang patted down the outside of his clothing and felt small packages " similar to drug packages detected on other occasions " . Officer Lang then arrested Brown , handcuffed him , and Officer Hoover walked him off the bus . Lang then asked Drayton , " [ m ] ind if I check you ? " , to which Drayton responded " by lifting his hands about eight inches from his legs " . Lang detected similar objects during a pat down of Drayton 's legs , placed him under arrest , and escorted him off the bus . A further search determined that Brown had duct @-@ taped three bundles containing 483 grams of cocaine between several layers of boxer shorts , and Drayton had duct @-@ taped two bundles between several layers of boxer shorts containing 295 grams of cocaine .
= = = Trial in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Florida = = =
Drayton and Brown were charged with conspiring to distribute cocaine and possession with the intent to distribute cocaine , in violation of 21 U.S.C. § § 841 ( a ) ( 1 ) and 846 . At trial , Drayton and Brown filed a motion to suppress the cocaine on the grounds that their consent to the search of their clothing was invalid . The United States District Court for the Northern District of Florida denied their motion , finding that " the police conduct was not coercive and respondents ' consent to the search was voluntary " . The District Court found that officers did not block the exit of the bus , and it was " obvious " that Drayton and Brown were free to leave the bus . Consequently , the District Court concluded that the encounter was " cooperative " , and there was " nothing coercive " or " confrontational " about the encounter .
= = = Appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit = = =
The United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit reversed the decision of the District Court , holding that the cocaine should have been suppressed and that Drayton and Brown 's convictions should be reversed . The Eleventh Circuit stated that its holding was compelled by circuit precedent , which held that bus passengers do not feel free to decline police officers ' requests to search without " some positive indication that consent could have been refused " . Applying circuit precedent to the facts of the case , the Eleventh Circuit concluded that Drayton and Brown were not aware that they could have refused the search , and the evidence discovered through the pat down must be excluded at trial . The Eleventh Circuit emphasized that officers gave no reassurances that passengers were free to leave , and the fact that an officer stood next to the exit " might make a reasonable person feel less free to leave the bus " . On January 4 , 2002 , the Supreme Court of the United States granted certiorari to review the decision of the Eleventh Circuit .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Writing for a majority of the Court , Justice Anthony Kennedy held that Drayton and Brown were not seized and their consent to the search was voluntary . He explained that " [ l ] aw enforcement officers do not violate the Fourth Amendment 's prohibition of unreasonable seizures merely by approaching individuals on the street or in other public places and putting questions to them if they are willing to listen " . Additionally , Justice Kennedy emphasized that " [ i ] f a reasonable person would feel free to terminate the encounter , then he or she has not been seized " . Citing the Court 's analytic framework established in Florida v. Bostic , Justice Kennedy concluded that a reasonable person would have felt free to " leav [ e ] the bus or otherwise terminat [ e ] the encounter " . Justice Kennedy noted that the officers did not brandish weapons , they did not make " intimidating movements " , they left the aisle clear , and they " spoke to passengers one by one and in a polite , quiet voice " . He noted that " [ i ] t is beyond question that had this encounter occurred on the street , it would be constitutional " , and the fact that the encounter occurred on a bus does not make it illegal .
Justice Kennedy rejected Drayton 's argument that that officers coerced passengers by showing their badges , noting that the sight of police officers should be a " cause for assurance , not discomfort " . Likewise , he rejected the argument that placing an officer near the door of the bus constituted a seizure , because the officer " did nothing to intimidate passengers " and " left the aisle clear " . Justice Kennedy also held that the nature of the encounter did not change after Brown was arrested , because " [ t ] he arrest of one person does not mean that everyone around him has been seized by police " . Rather , witnessing Brown 's arrest " should have put Drayton on notice of the consequences of continuing the encounter by answering the officers ' questions " .
Furthermore , Justice Kennedy held the searches were not unreasonable because both Drayton and Brown voluntarily consented to the suspicionless search . He noted that police officers need not inform citizens of their right to refuse when conducting a search and that the Court has traditionally applied a " totality of the circumstances " test when determining whether a search is " unreasonable " . Because officers requested consent to search Drayton and Brown , Justice Kennedy concluded the search was consensual and voluntary . Justice Kennedy also mentioned in dicta that , absent consent , officers likely had reasonable suspicion to conduct a Terry stop . Consequently , Justice Kennedy ordered the case to be remanded to Eleventh Circuit for reconsideration in light of the Supreme Court 's decision .
= = = Dissenting opinion of Justice Souter = = =
Justice David Souter wrote a dissenting opinion in which he argued that the cocaine should have been suppressed because Drayton and Brown would not have felt free to leave the bus and they likely were not aware that they could have refused consent to the search . He noted that " [ t ] he commonplace precautions of air travel have not , thus far , been justified for ground transportation " and that " no such conditions have been placed on passengers getting on trains or buses " . Additionally , Justice Souter argued that police officers " exercise power free from immediate check , and when the attention of several officers is brought to bear on one civilian the imbalance of immediate power is unmistakable " . He argued that this imbalance of power may rise to a " threatening " level , which " may overbear a normal person 's ability to act freely , even in the absence of explicit commands or the formalities of detention " .
After analyzing the encounter between Drayton , Brown , and the police , Justice Souter concluded that the interdiction " was not a consensual exercise " . He argued that the manner in which the police conducted the interdiction created an " atmosphere of obligatory participation " . He concluded that Drayton and Brown were " pinned @-@ in by the officers " , and that " it was reasonable to suppose no passenger would tend to his own business until the officers were ready to let him " . Consequently , Justice Souter concluded that officers engaged in " threatening " behavior that constituted an unreasonable , non @-@ consentual search and seizure .
= = Subsequent developments = =
On remand , the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit issued a per curiam opinion affirming Drayton and Brown 's convictions . Five years after issuing its opinion in Drayton , the Supreme Court of the United States offered further clarification of the meaning of " coercion " in Brendlin v. California . Writing for a unanimous Court , Justice Souter cited Bostick and Drayton to hold that coercion should be judged according to the experiences of a " reasonable person " in the situation . He wrote , " when a person has no desire to leave for reasons unrelated to the police presence , the coercive effect of the encounter can be measured better by asking whether a reasonable person would feel free to decline the officers ’ requests or otherwise terminate the encounter " .
= = = Interpretation by Circuit Courts of Appeals = = =
Some Circuit Courts have applied the Court 's ruling in Drayton to hold that citizens are not coerced when police officers approach individuals on the street and ask them questions . The District of Columbia Circuit , for example , wrote that " while the passengers in Drayton were questioned while inside a bus with an officer positioned near the exit ... the street encounter [ posed ] no physical impediment to [ the suspect ] ’ s freedom to walk away " . However , the Seventh Circuit has held that according to the Supreme Court 's ruling in Drayton , a suspect was unlawfully detained when police approached him in a dark alley and asked him questions . The Seventh Circuit described the encounter as " coercive " and distinguished it from the events that transpired in Drayton because " [ a ] lleys are distinguishable from the sorts of open , populated spaces in which police questioning is typically deemed consensual " . The court noted that " ' a reasonable person may feel ... more secure in his or her decision not to cooperate with police on a bus than in other circumstances ' because ' many fellow passengers are present [ on a bus ] to witness officers ’ conduct ' " .
= = Analysis and commentary = =
In the years following the Court 's ruling in Drayton , scholars have offered a range of opinions about the case 's impact and significance . Some analysts have suggested that Drayton reflects a concern among members of the Court for " ensuring that individuals retain the power to stand up for their rights " . However , other scholars , such as Tracey Maclin , argue that Justice Kennedy improperly assumed that citizens will always feel free to refuse consent , and that many citizens cooperate with the police because of " fear of police reprisal if they don 't " . Criminal law scholar Janice Nadler commented that Justice Kennedy 's conclusions were products of " intuitive reflections on [ his and the other Justices ' ] own experience and about the imagined experience of other citizens " . Additionally , Ric Simmons criticized the Court 's ruling for failing to reflect the realities of " real @-@ life confrontations occurring on the street " between citizens and law enforcement . Other scholars , such as Thomas W. Hughes and Joshua Fitch , argued that the Court 's decision in Drayton would impact the balance between individual liberties and heightened national security interests in the wake of the September 11 attacks .
Jeremy R. Jehangiri criticized the Court 's ruling for failing to account for psychological pressures inherent in the " perceived legitimacy of the [ police 's ] authority " . Jehangiri argued that police should be required to inform citizens that consent is voluntary , and that this kind of " prophylactic warning would serve as a natural corollary to a Miranda warning mandated by the Fifth Amendment " . Likewise , Marissa Reich also argued that passengers feel significant " psychological pressures " to cooperate with police searches on buses , and police should therefore warn passengers that consent is voluntary . Joshua Fitch also criticized the Court for ignoring the impact of " racial disparagement " with respect to an individual 's ability to walk away from encounters with police . He argued that " [ g ] iven the historical treatment of black males by members of law enforcement , it is entirely possible that Drayton and Brown feared refusing the officers ' requests because they feared violent consequences " . Fitch also argued that police should provide warnings similar to Miranda warnings that " inform citizens of their right to refuse consent " , and that decisions like Drayton " consistently [ endorse ] rules that require citizens to fend for themselves when it comes to constitutional rights " .
= = = Departure from Bustamonte 's subjective framework = = =
Scholars have observed that Justice Kennedy 's majority opinion " embraced Bustamonte 's premise that when police request consent to search , the request itself carries the implication that an alternative of refusal exists " . Other scholars , such as Ric Simmons , have noted that Drayton reflects " the Court at the midpoint of this evolution , moving from a subjective binary test that focuses on whether or not the subject acted voluntarily , to a more nuanced objective test that focuses on the amount of compulsion used by the law enforcement officer " . Additionally , Matthew Phillips wrote that Drayton " illustrates the metamorphosis of the totality @-@ of @-@ the @-@ circumstances test into a purely objective test " because Justice Kennedy 's opinion " did not explicitly consider any subjective factors " with respect to whether Drayton and Brown felt they could deny consent when questioned by the police . Phillips suggested that the decision to abandon subjective factors could lead to " bizarre results " in cases , like this , where " circumstances of the search indicate at least some level of coercion " .
= New Jersey Route 48 =
Route 48 is an east – west state highway in Salem County in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It is a 4 @.@ 26 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 86 km ) route running from U.S. Route 130 ( US 130 ) and County Route 675 ( CR 675 ) in Penns Grove to US 40 in Carneys Point Township . It is known as East Main Street from US 130 to DuPont Road , and as the Harding Highway from DuPont Road to its terminus at US 40 . Route 48 is signed east – west , although it travels more northwest @-@ southeast throughout its route . It is a two @-@ lane , undivided road through its entire length that intersects with Interstate 295 ( I @-@ 295 ) and CR 551 .
The road was originally created as Route 18S , running from Penns Grove to Atlantic City , in 1923 , before becoming Route 48 in 1927 . In Penns Grove , the route ended at a ferry which crossed the Delaware River to Wilmington , Delaware , connecting with Delaware Route 48 ( DE 48 ) until the ferry service was terminated in 1951 , when the Delaware Memorial Bridge opened . US 40 was also designated to run along the entire length of the route between Penns Grove and Atlantic City . On two occasions , US 40 has been relocated off portions of Route 48 : once following a realignment to a ferry between New Castle , Delaware and Pennsville and again after the Delaware Memorial Bridge and New Jersey Turnpike opened in 1951 . Route 48 was designated onto its current alignment in 1953 , eliminating the concurrency it shared with US 40 from Carneys Point Township to Atlantic City .
= = Route description = =
Route 48 begins at a traffic light with US 130 and CR 675 in Penns Grove , heading to the southeast on Main Street , a two @-@ lane , undivided road . CR 675 continues west on Main Street past US 130 . The road passes through residential areas , intersecting with local roads before entering Carneys Point Township . In Carneys Point Township , Route 48 crosses Dupont Road , becoming Harding Highway , and passes by Penns Grove High School , located on the south side of the road . The road enters a more rural setting and intersects CR 601 at a signalized intersection . Shortly after CR 601 , the road comes to an interchange with I @-@ 295 . Route 48 continues southeast through a mix of woodland and farmland , intersecting CR 551 at a traffic light . Just past the CR 551 intersection , the road intersects CR 628 , passing by Laytons Lake before crossing over the New Jersey Turnpike . Route 48 continues southeast for about another mile , crossing Stumpy Road before ending at an intersection with US 40 .
= = History = =
The route was designated as Route 18S in 1923 , running from Penns Grove southeast to Atlantic City along what was known as the Harding Highway . US 40 was designated along the length of Route 18S , running east from a ferry dock in Penns Grove where the route crossed the Delaware River to Wilmington , Delaware to continue its journey west . The entire routing of Route 18S was designated Route 48 in the 1927 renumbering of New Jersey state highways , running concurrent with US 40 its entire length . Until the Delaware Memorial Bridge opened in 1951 , a ferry connected Route 48 to DE 48 in Wilmington . US 40 had used this ferry , but was eventually moved to a ferry that ran from New Castle , Delaware to Pennsville , with US 40 being rerouted to follow present @-@ day Route 49 , various local roads , and CR 551 to reach Route 48 and continue east along with that route . Following the completion of both the Delaware Memorial Bridge and the New Jersey Turnpike in 1951 , US 40 was routed off more of Route 48 onto a new alignment , joining the route at its current eastern terminus . In the 1953 renumbering of New Jersey state highways , Route 48 was designated onto its current alignment from US 130 to US 40 , with the rest of the route dropped in favor of the US 40 designation . The old alignment of Route 48 to the ferry terminal is now CR 675 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Salem County .
= Allen Craig =
Allen Thomas Craig ( born July 18 , 1984 ) is an American professional baseball first baseman and outfielder in the Boston Red Sox organization . He has played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the St. Louis Cardinals and Boston Red Sox . The Cardinals drafted him from the University of California , Berkeley , in 2006 , and he made his Major League debut with the Cardinals in 2010 . Besides the outfield and first base , he has appeared at every position except pitcher , catcher and shortstop .
Each season in the minor leagues from 2007 – 09 , Craig finished with a batting average of over .300 with at least 20 home runs . A .306 career hitter in MLB through 2013 , he increased his production with runners in scoring position ( RISP ) . In 2012 , he posted a .400 batting average with RISP . The next season , he raised that figure to .454 , the third @-@ highest average of all time .
Craig has appeared in two World Series and in both made history . In the 2011 World Series , he tied a record by collecting three hits that drove in the game @-@ winning run . In 2013 , he became the first player to score a game @-@ winning run on an obstruction call .
= = Early life and amateur career = =
Allen Craig was born in Mission Viejo , California , to Ron and Kim Craig and raised in Temecula , California . He has one younger sister named Kendal . His parents had moved to the Temecula Valley in the 1970s so that Mr. Craig could secure employment with the Rancho California Water District . In addition to relocating from Mission Viejo in Orange County to Temecula in Riverside County after Craig 's birth , the family shifted residences multiple times before finally settling in Temecula .
Craig 's father was an early volunteer to help build the baseball fields that became the Ronald Reagan Sports Complex near Temecula Valley High School in Temecula , California . As soon as he was able to swing a baseball bat , his parents entered him into the national Tee Ball division of Little League Baseball where his father coached and his mother served on the board of directors . While participating on the 14 @-@ and @-@ under USA Baseball team , he played games in Venezuela .
At Chaparral High School , Temecula , California , Craig was a two @-@ sport standout thlete in baseball and basketball . As a senior in 2002 , Craig was recognized in both sports . He earned first team all @-@ league and all @-@ valley honors in basketball while setting a school record with 94 three @-@ pointers . In baseball , he was named All @-@ Valley Baseball Player of the Year . At the Riverside All @-@ Star Game , he earned the Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) accolade . His .585 batting average and eight home runs helped energize Chaparral to the Southwest League title . That summer , Craig played for the USA Junior National team , batting .485 with 11 runs scored in their effort to earn a bronze medal at the International Baseball Federation ( IBAF ) World Junior Championship in Sherbrooke , Quebec .
After high school , Craig attended the University of California , Berkeley , and was a four @-@ year starter for the California Golden Bears baseball team at all four infield positions . Primarily playing shortstop as a freshman , he posted a .353 batting average with runners in scoring position ( RISP ) . He earned Pac @-@ 10 Player of the Week honors for February 4 – 10 , 2003 , after his 7 @-@ for @-@ 17 ( .412 ) effort with two doubles , a grand slam and five runs batted in ( RBI ) at San Francisco and versus Loyola Marymount . Applying more time at first base in his sophomore season , Craig batted .285 , led the team with 29 bases on balls ( BB ) and aggregated 19 multi @-@ hit games . He was an honorable mention for the Pac @-@ 10 all @-@ academic team . The next year , Craig started primarily in left field , batted .308 overall , and batted .338 with RISP . Against Washington State , March 22 – 24 , 2005 , he put together a 7 – 13 series ( .538 ) . One month later , on April 22 , Craig collected three hits in three at @-@ bats and two days later went 4 – 4 ; both games were against USC . Craig was an honorable mention for the All @-@ Pac Ten baseball team and again for the academic team . His career batting numbers at UC Berkeley included a .308 batting average , 27 home runs and 108 RBI .
During his off @-@ season playing time at UC Berkeley , Craig played two campaigns for the Alexandria Beetles ( Minnesota ) of the Northwoods League ( NWL ) , a collegiate summer baseball league . Craig spent most games at shortstop but also contributed in the outfield , at third base , and first base . His first season was in 2003 , after his freshman season at UC . He batted just .229 in 15 games in which his playing time was cut short by injury . He returned in 2005 after his junior season and put together a landmark NWL season that included a 21 @-@ game hitting streak . In 49 games , Craig hit .362 with 12 home runs , 17 doubles and 40 RBI . Craig was named first @-@ team shortstop for Baseball America 's 2005 College Summer All @-@ America team .
= = Draft and minor leagues = =
The Cardinals drafted Craig as a shortstop in the eighth round of the 2006 draft ( 256th overall ) and signed him for $ 15 @,@ 000 . However , he played just three games at shortstop with the State College Spikes in 2006 before spending the most games playing third base . As a hitter , Craig showed power at all levels of the Cardinal farm system , hitting 76 home runs in a three and one @-@ half season span between 2006 and 2010 that comprised the bulk of his minor league playing time .
In the Florida State League in 2006 , he posted an adjusted on @-@ base plus slugging at 26 % above league average . His 21 home runs in an environment of primarily humid air and large ballparks brought notice as one of the top minor league hitters . Baseball America ranked him as the Cardinals ' number @-@ 15 prospect following the season . Each season from 2007 through 2009 , Craig progressed from the high @-@ A level to AAA and participated between 119 and 129 games while hitting at least .304 with 22 home runs and 80 RBI .
Although for a time Craig appeared to play adequately at third base , his throwing motion raised questions whether he could play there in the Major Leagues as he was promoted through the minor leagues . With David Freese one step further up the Cardinals depth chart and having the better @-@ regarded glove , Craig was shifted more to the outfield in 2009 . He further increased his versatility by playing first base . Despite the defensive transitions , his hitting remained steady as he posted a .921 on @-@ base plus slugging percentage with the AAA Memphis Redbirds . His consistent hitting and increased positional coverage prompted Craig to be named Cardinals system Player of the Year . The club added him to their 40 @-@ man roster that November .
After making his Major League debut in April , 2010 , Craig spent significant time on the Cardinals roster . In addition , he amassed 83 games at Memphis , batting .320 with 14 home runs , 81 RBI and a .549 slugging percentage . The next two seasons , he made 19 more appearances at Memphis , Springfield and Palm Beach , accumulating 20 hits in 69 at @-@ bats with four home runs and 14 RBI .
= = St. Louis Cardinals = =
= = = 2010 – 11 = = =
Allen Craig made the Cardinals big @-@ league club out of spring training in 2010 and appeared in his first MLB game on April 8 . He started in right field and went 0 – 4 at the plate against the Cincinnati Reds . Craig hit his first home run on July 19 off the Philadelphia Phillies ' Kyle Kendrick . His second home run came on August 22 in the Cardinals ' 9 – 0 drubbing of the San Francisco Giants ' Barry Zito . One month later , he hit his third home run in a 7 – 1 defeat of the Chicago Cubs on September 24 in support of Adam Wainwright 's bid for his first 20 @-@ win season . In 44 total games in 2010 , Craig saw 124 plate appearances ( PA ) , batted .246 , hit seven doubles and four home runs with 18 RBI .
By 2011 , it became apparent that Craig was able to hit major league pitching as well he had in the minor leagues . However , the situation was less than ideal for him to realize regular playing time . Lance Berkman , Matt Holliday , and Albert Pujols each already occupied corner positions first base , left field and right field – positions Craig was best suited to play . To get his bat in the lineup more , manager Tony La Russa began playing him at second base near the end of May .
In June , after batting .336 with 23 RBI in 107 at @-@ bats , he suffered a small knee cap fracture against the Houston Astros by running into the wall tracking a fly ball in right field . The team placed him on the disabled list ( DL ) with an expected intermission of about six weeks . The healing of the fracture stagnated throughout the season , however , and swelling persisted around the knee , slowing Craig 's rehabilitation . Nevertheless , he regularly strengthened the muscles around his patella and was cleared to play after passing a battery of medical tests . He also spent extra time warming up his knee before each game . After his return , Craig hit .290 in 35 games . He ended the regular season with a .315 batting average , 15 doubles , 11 home runs , 40 RBI , and a .555 slugging percentage in 75 games and 219 PA .
The Cardinals made the playoffs that year . Craig struggled in his first ten games covering 21 plate appearances against the Philadelphia Phillies in the National League Division Series ( NLDS ) and the Milwaukee Brewers in the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) , collecting just three hits in 17 at @-@ bats . However , he delivered the go @-@ ahead pinch @-@ hit single in Game 6 to send the Cardinals to the World Series .
In the World Series , Craig debuted in Game 1 by hitting a two @-@ out , go @-@ ahead pinch @-@ hit single off Texas Rangers ' pitcher Alexi Ogando 's fastball . The next night , La Russa again summoned Craig to pinch hit against Ogando . This time , he lined a 96 miles per hour ( 154 km / h ) fastball to right field to break a scoreless tie . On that single , he joined Dusty Rhodes , Del Unser and Hal McRae as the only players to collect pinch @-@ hit RBI in three consecutive postseason at bats . He also joined Duke Snider and Amos Otis as the only hitters with the go @-@ ahead hit in the sixth inning or later in consecutive World Series games . Further , Craig became the first player with two go @-@ ahead RBIs as a pinch @-@ hitter in World Series play . After hitting the go @-@ ahead home run in Game 7 , he caught the last out of the Series , helping to secure the Cardinals ' eleventh World Series championship . That home run tied a World Series record Kiki Cuyler and Hank Greenberg shared with three game @-@ winning RBI . For the series , Craig appeared in all seven games , collected five hits in 19 at @-@ bats ( .263 batting average ) , three home runs and five RBI for a .737 slugging percentage . His totals in the 2011 postseason included .622 slugging percentage and 1 @.@ 013 on @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) . However , with his knee cap still not fully healed , Craig elected to have surgery to repair the fracture the following November .
= = = 2012 = = =
Despite his strong 2011 performance and World Series exploits , new manager Mike Matheny assigned Craig the role of utility player in the outset of 2012 , with the likes of veterans Carlos Beltrán , Berkman , and Holliday already stationed at first base and in the outfield corners . Further , Craig spent all of April on the disabled list ( DL ) recovering from knee surgery . However , when he returned to play May 1 , the Cardinals designated outfielder Erik Komatsu for assignment to make room , and Craig found a windfall of playing time with Berkman now on the DL . After hitting five home runs in a seven @-@ game stretch , injury quickly struck again when he pulled a hamstring in a game against the San Francisco Giants on May 18 and landed back on the 15 @-@ day DL . To that point , Craig made a convincing argument for forcing his way into the starting lineup with a combination of top prospect Matt Adams ' slumping and hitting .373 with a .424 on @-@ base percentage and .765 slugging percentage in thirteen games .
Craig was back in action on June 1 , and three days later , his tiebreaking two @-@ run home run against the Mets allowed the Cardinals to end a five @-@ game losing streak with a 5 – 4 win . In a stretch from June 9 – 21 , he encountered a rare slump as he batted just .175 with one home run in 11 games . However , Craig discovered that pitchers were throwing him more sliders . Over the next nine games through July 3 , he solved his opponents ' strategy , batting .364 with five HR and 15 RBI . His season total to that date included appearing in just 40 of the Cardinals ' 80 first games , taking 152 at @-@ bats . Nonetheless , he tied Holliday ( 296 at @-@ bats ) , catcher Yadier Molina ( 265 ) , and third baseman David Freese ( 276 ) with 13 HRs . He also carried a .322 batting average with 43 RBI . The RBI total ranked third in the NL since May 1 , even with the second DL stay .
Through September 16 , he showed that he was adept at hitting with runners in scoring position with a .355 batting average in his 197 career at @-@ bats . Craig fabricated consistency throughout the season , finishing with a .307 average , 22 HR and 92 RBI in 119 games . He ranked tenth in the NL in batting , seventh in slugging percentage ( .522 ) and placed 19th in the Most Valuable Player award ( MVP ) balloting . He also led all major leaguers with a .400 batting average with runners in scoring position ( RISP ) . Despite two DL trips , Craig played 30 games in the outfield and led the team in starts at first base with 86 , while Berkman appeared in just 32 total games .
= = = 2013 = = =
With Berkman 's departure via free agency , Craig became the Cardinals ' primary first baseman . On March 8 , the club announced they had reached an agreement with him on a five @-@ year contract with a team option for a sixth season . The $ 31 million deal bought out his three future arbitration @-@ eligible years and first year of free agency . Craig would earn $ 13 million in the 2018 season if the Cardinals exercised their option .
In July , National League manager Bruce Bochy selected Craig to his first All @-@ Star Game at Citi Field in Queens , New York City , as a reserve first baseman . His first @-@ half performance included batting .333 with 10 home runs and 74 RBI . Both his RBI and hit totals ( 116 ) placed second in the NL . He became the fifth alumnus of the California Golden Bears to be named to an MLB All @-@ Star team .
With his team facing a 5 – 4 deficit , Craig belted the game @-@ winning grand slam against the division rival Reds on August 26 . The final outcome was 8 – 6 . It was his first career grand slam , boosting his totals to seven hits in ten bases @-@ loaded at @-@ bats to go with 20 RBI to that point in the season ( 14 for 31 , .452 batting average for his career ) . He was also batting .452 with runners in scoring position – again leading the Major Leagues – and it was the third @-@ highest of all time for a single season , after George Brett ( .469 , 1980 ) and Tony Gwynn ( .459 , 1997 ) .
A Lisfranc injury on September 4 on an infield hit against the Reds prevented him from appearing in a game for the rest of the regular season . At the time , he was third in the NL in RBI with 97 . He eventually finished eighth . Despite being shut down early , he led Cardinals in this category . St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch sportswriter Bernie Miklasz dubbed Craig " The Clutchmaster " , " The RBI Machine " and " an RBI Monster . " He also finished eighth in batting average ( .315 ) . His final batting average with RISP – .454 – remained the Major @-@ League high and third @-@ highest all @-@ time . That figure surpassed Brian Jordan 's average of .422 in 1996 ( 62 of 147 ) as the team record . In spite of his success hitting with RISP , Baseball @-@ Reference.com rated his Wins Above Replacement ( WAR ) at 2 @.@ 2 and Fangraphs at 2 @.@ 6 .
Craig 's chances of returning to play before the end of the season depended on how far the Cardinals could extend their season in the playoffs . They qualified for the postseason by finishing with the best regular season record ( 97 – 65 ) in the National League . They kept winning through the playoffs , defeating the Pittsburgh Pirates in the NLDS and the Los Angeles Dodgers in the NLCS . Ready as a hitter in time for the World Series against the Boston Red Sox , Matheny at first excluded him from defense as the injury was not fully healed . Therefore , he served as the designated hitter ( DH ) at Fenway Park in Boston and a pinch hitter at Busch Stadium in St. Louis , a National League park where the DH is not normally played .
In Game 3 , Craig was part of an unusual , game @-@ ending , play . With the scored tied 4 – 4 in the bottom of the ninth , Cardinals center fielder Jon Jay hit a ground ball off pitcher Koji Uehara toward second baseman Dustin Pedroia , who threw the ball home to catcher Jarrod Saltalamacchia to easily tag Yadier Molina out attempting to score . Saltalamacchia then threw the ball to Will Middlebrooks as Craig rounded third , but it sailed wide into left field for an error , and , at the same time , Middlebrooks tripped while reaching for the ball . Daniel Nava recovered the ball and threw it back to home plate long before Craig would have successfully scored . Due to being tripped , umpire Jim Joyce awarded Craig home plate when he called an obstruction on Middlebrooks , giving the Cardinals a 5 – 4 walk @-@ off victory . This is the first known such walk @-@ off victory in World Series history . However , the Cardinals lost the series to the Red Sox in six games . Craig batted 16 times and collected six hits for a .375 batting average . After the season , he finished 21st in the MVP balloting , but likely would have finished much higher had he not missed nearly a month of the season due to injury .
= = = 2014 = = =
With another free agent departure in Beltrán , Craig again shifted positions in 2014 , replacing him in right field . It also cleared the way for Matt Adams to assume first base . Craig started the season slowly , batting just .220 with a .644 OPS in April . He batted .291 and raised his OPS to .781 in May .
= = Boston Red Sox = =
On July 31 , 2014 , Craig was traded along with Joe Kelly to the Red Sox in exchange for John Lackey and prospect Corey Littrell . On May 9 , 2015 , the Red Sox optioned Craig to the Pawtucket Red Sox of the Class AAA International League ; since Craig had yet to accrue five years of service time , the Red Sox could option him to the minor leagues without his consent . On May 18 , they outrighted him to the minors , removing him from the 40 man roster . He was re @-@ added to the major league roster on September 1 .
= = Skills profile = =
While still in the minor leagues , Craig showed in little time that he could hit at all levels but he had no natural position . In spite of the challenge to categorize his defensive abilities , his versatility and athleticism has allowed him to play at all positions in the major leagues except pitcher , shortstop , and catcher . After an experiment at second base early in his Major League career , first base and the corners in the outfield emerged as the positions for which he was best suited . He played shortstop in amateur ball and third base in the minor leagues , but he was not well @-@ suited to play either position in the major leagues , due to the speed of the game . He posted a fielding percentage of just .927 in 246 minor league games at third base , considered a very low percentage .
According to former Cardinals player development executive Jeff Luhnow and Memphis Redbirds manager Ron Warner , Craig 's arm , range and footwork proved problematic for third base . He improved his footwork well enough for the Texas League , but they still considered it insufficient for the major leagues because his movement to his left was inhibited , restricting his ability to start double plays . Further , with an inefficient , semi @-@ sidearm throwing motion that he could not resolve , Craig relied on his innate strength to compensate for time lost .
= = Awards and honors = =
Bold : led National League
† : led all Major Leagues
= = Personal life = =
Allen Craig holds a degree in Social Welfare from the University of California @-@ Berkeley . When growing up , his favorite baseball player was Ken Griffey , Jr . He was also a fan of Cal Ripken , Jr . Craig attended high school with Brandon Snider , the grandson of Duke Snider , with whom he tied the World Series consecutive pinch hit mark . His sister , Kendal Craig , also graduated from Chaparral High School in Temecula and played softball . She attended California State University San Marcos in San Marcos , California .
On November 12 , 2011 , Craig married his long @-@ time girlfriend , Marie LaMarca , who also is a graduate of Chaparral High School . The couple reside in their mutual hometown of Temecula , along with their daughter Eden and pet tortoise , Torty . Torty , whom he has had since a hatchling , gained notoriety and a cult following through a vicarious Twitter account and has since served as an informal mascot for the Cardinals . Craig 's favorite movies are Major League and Major League II . He still enjoys playing basketball and has also played golf since his father introduced him to the sport as a small child .
In May , 2014 , Craig partnered with fellow Cardinals outfielder Jon Jay for the Jay @-@ Craig Celebrity Bowl and the Flamingo Bowl in downtown St. Louis . The proceeds benefited Great Circle , a nonprofit organization that provides behavioral health services autism , educational challenges , emotional health , in @-@ home crisis intervention , foster care and adoption , adventure therapy and psychological trauma recovery .
= De Stem des Bloeds =
De Stem des Bloeds ( The Voice of Blood ) , also known as Njai Siti , is a 1930 film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) . It was directed by Ph. Carli and starred Annie Krohn , Sylvain Boekebinder , Vally Lank , and Jan Kruyt . The film follows a man and his mistress who reunite after their son and step @-@ daughter unwittingly fall in love . The black @-@ and @-@ white film , which may now be lost , was tinted different colours for certain scenes . It was released in early 1930 to commercial success , although critical opinion was mixed .
= = Plot = =
Van Kempen is a supervisor at a tea plantation named Ciranu in West Java . He keeps a mistress , or njai , named Siti . Together they have two children , Adolf and Annie . One day , van Kempen returns to the Netherlands , leaving Siti and their young mixed @-@ race children behind . In the Netherlands he marries a young widow and takes her daughter , Ervine , as his step @-@ daughter . Siti , meanwhile , lives with her uncle in a hut in the forest and prays fervently for van Kempen 's return , even asking for help from the local shaman ( dukun ) .
Fifteen years later , after his wife dies , van Kempen and Ervine return to the Indies . He has been hired as a supervisor at another plantation , not far from his old place of work . He searches for Siti and the couple 's children , but none of his old coworkers know where they are . Unbeknownst to van Kempen , his children have been raised as natives and wear the traditional clothes , although they have also received a Western education . Adolf has become a hunter , while Annie stays at home with their mother . Frederick , the new manager at Ciranu , has meanwhile fallen for Ervine and tries unsuccessfully to woo her .
Some time afterwards , as Ervine is wandering through the woods she stumbles upon a deer and , startled , faints . Adolf comes across her and brings her back to the plantation , where van Kempen recognises him and takes him on as a supervisor . Frederick , however , is jealous of Adolf and Ervine 's relationship and entices the workers at van Kempen 's plantation to go on strike until Adolf is fired . Although heartbroken , van Kempen must fire his son .
Adolf goes to Lampung , in Sumatra , to hunt elephants . Meanwhile , Frederick has begun wooing Annie , who rejects him as Ervine did before . When Adolf returns and hears of the supervisor 's actions , he fights Frederick and knocks him out . Ervine , meanwhile , has heard that her lover has returned and goes to the hut in the woods , nearly fainting after being caught in a downpour . Adolf sends a letter to van Kempen telling him where to find Ervine . The family are reunited .
= = Production = =
De Stem des Bloeds was directed by Ph. " Flip " Carli , a man of mixed Indonesian @-@ European descent who had previously made several documentaries . He targeted the film at Dutch audiences , which may account for the focus on native customs and farming ; such coverage was unusual for contemporary works of fiction , although documentaries had handled the subject before . His production house , which handled the film , was the Bandung @-@ based Kinowerk Carli ; some contemporary reviews erroneously gave the house 's name as Cosmos Film .
Production began in late 1929 or early 1930 , with scenes shot in West Java and Sumatra . De Stem Des Bloed starred Annie Krohn , Carli 's mixed @-@ race wife , as Annie as well as Sylvain Boekebinder ( van Kempen ) , Vally Lank , and Jan Kruyt . The story was advertised as being adapted from the novel of the same name .
Like all contemporary films produced in the Indies , De Stem des Bloeds had low production values . The film was silent and in black @-@ and @-@ white ; the final production consisted of 3 @,@ 652 meters of film . The intertitles were in Dutch , which the Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran notes that most viewers – those who were native or ethnic Chinese – were unable to read . In order to provide a semblance of colour , Carli tinted certain scenes entirely in one shade during post @-@ production ; for instance , a scene where farmers were gathering rice was tinted violet .
= = Release and reception = =
De Stem des Bloeds was released in 1930 , seeing its Batavia ( now Jakarta ) premiere on 22 March of that year . By July it was being screened in Surabaya , East Java . It was reported to be a success , with native audiences filling the theatres in Batavia and Surabaya .
The film received mixed critical reception . An anonymous review in the Batavia @-@ based Doenia Film praised the film 's picture ( especially its colour ) and both Krohn and Boekebinder 's acting . A review in the Surabaya @-@ based De Indiesche Courant likewise praised the film , stating that it " fascinates from beginning to end " and showed that even in the Indies a " grand " film could be made . However , the review criticised the censorship bureau 's failure to catch scenes of Frederick drinking alcohol , which the reviewer found " dangerous to the prestige [ of Dutchmen ] " considering the large native audiences . Kwee Tek Hoay , writing in Panorama , criticised the film extensively , writing that it seemed meant exclusively for Dutch audiences in the Netherlands , as those living in the Indies would be able to see it did not reflect reality and was in places illogical . He found the colouring one extension of this lack of logic , writing that a violet tinge indicated that the farmers were harvesting rice at sunset – something that never happened .
= = Legacy = =
Carli went on to make two more films starring Krohn . The first , Sarinah ( 1931 ) , was a romance set on the south coast of Java which had Krohn in the titular role . The second , Karina 's Zelfopoffering ( Karina 's Sacrifice ) , followed the following year ; this film saw Krohn play a mixed @-@ raced woman living at the palace in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta . Karina 's Zelfopoffering was a commercial failure and Carli left the Indies not long afterwards , moving to the Netherlands . He lived there until his death in 1972 .
Writing in 2009 , Biran suggests that De Stem des Bloeds was clearly written from an Indo point of view because of the positive roles of Indo children . He finds the film sympathetic to native culture , including the faithful njai . He notes with interest that , although in real life mixed @-@ race children were faced with a sense of disgust , in De Stem des Bloeds an Indo man is heroic enough to rescue a pure Dutch woman and fight with a Dutchman .
The film is likely lost . The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= Cyclone Filao =
Cyclone Filao was a moderately intense tropical cyclone that caused widespread flooding in Mozambique in 1988 . First classified as a tropical depression north of Madagascar , the system moved southwest , crossing the northern part of the nation before entering the Mozambique Channel on February 27 , where it began to deepen . Later that day , the depression was upgraded into a moderate tropical storm . Two days later , Filao attained severe tropical storm intensity as it began to stall . On March 1 , the storm reached cyclone intensity just before turning west . Later that day , Filao attained peak intensity , with winds of 135 km / h ( 85 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 954 mbar ( hPa ) ; 28 @.@ 17 inHg . Within 24 hours , however , the system moved ashore near Quelimane in Central Mozambique , and several hours later , Filao dissipated inland .
Cyclone Filao killed 100 people in Mozambique , primarily in rural areas . Damage was heaviest in Quelimane , where wind gusts reached 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) and rainfall totaled 104 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) . There , 57 people were killed and 7 @,@ 375 were left homeless . Elsewhere , the Pungwe River and Limpopo River experienced severe flooding , with the former sustaining its worst flood of the decade . Power and telephone services were also knocked out while a road that connected Mozambique to Zimbabwe was destroyed . In all , 5 @,@ 500 ha ( 14 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops were destroyed . Damage totaled to $ 10 million , including $ 1 @.@ 5 million in property damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
On February 23 , Météo @-@ France 's office on the island of Réunion ( MFR ) started monitoring a tropical depression to the northeast of Madagascar . At this time , the depression developed a closed circulation , which received a rating of T1.5 on the Dvorak Scale , a tool used to estimate a system 's intensity . Shortly thereafter , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) first classified the system , designating it as 14S . Following a slight increase in organization , the depression moved southwest and quickly crossed the tip of northern Madagascar . After weakening over land , the depression reentered the Mozambique channel near Analalava on February 25 . Based on a 3 @.@ 0 Dvorak classification , MFR upgraded the storm into a moderate tropical storm on February 27 ; the JTWC would follow suit later that day .
After reaching the 40th meridian , Filao turned south , which weakened a ridge . The ridge near the system began to re @-@ strengthen , causing Filao to move erratically , first west , and then northwest . The new position of the ridge provided highly favorable conditions aloft , resulting in a period of rapid deepening . By February 29 , MFR upgraded the storm into a severe tropical storm , while the JTWC estimated that Filao attained hurricane @-@ force . Early on March 1 , data from MFR indicated that Filao reached its peak intensity of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) and its minimum pressure of 954 mbar ( hPa ) ; 28 @.@ 17 inHg , in agreement with T4.5 and T5.0 from the Dvorak Technique . Subsequently , the JTWC reported that Cyclone Filao had attained winds equivalent to Category 2 intensity on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale , with winds of 155 km / h ( 96 mph ) . Despite a decrease in satellite intensity estimates , Filao held on to this intensity until 1800 UTC , when the storm made landfall near Quelimane in Mozambique . Cyclone Filao quickly weakened over land ; both agencies suggest that the storm dissipated on March 2 over the Zambeze Valley and embedded into the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Due to the weak nature of the storm while crossing Madagascar , damage was minor . After crossing Juan de Nova Island as a tropical depression on February 27 , winds of 54 km / h ( 34 mph ) and gusts of 87 kilometres per hour ( 54 mph ) were reported , along with a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 002 @.@ 3 millibars ( 29 @.@ 60 inHg ) at 0250 UTC .
Although the cyclone affected a sparsely populated region of Mozambique , Filao brought heavy rains . Peak storm totals included 103 @.@ 9 mm ( 4 @.@ 09 in ) in Quelimane and 51 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 03 in ) in Beira , both far greater than their March average . Winds of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) and gusts of 67 mph ( 108 km / h ) were measured . Furthermore , a minimum pressure of 993 @.@ 9 mbar ( 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) was reported in Quelimane at 2300 UTC on March 1 .
The Zambezia Province , where Quelimane is located , sustained the worst damage from the cyclone . Throughout Quelimane , 57 fatalities were reported and 800 homes were damaged . Eleven people were wounded , 7 @,@ 375 persons were rendered homeless , 2 @,@ 240 buildings were damaged , of which 359 were completely destroyed . Throughout the city , power was knocked out and telephone service was cut .
In the Inhassunge Province , 400 ha ( 990 acres ) of rice were lost and thousands of coconut trees were downed by the storm . Throughout the district , some schools were damaged while 800 homes were destroyed . Within the province of Sofala , 14 @,@ 395 ha ( 35 @,@ 570 acres ) of harvest were destroyed , 28 @,@ 174 people were rendered homeless , and 1 @,@ 389 buildings were destroyed . Elsewhere , many rivers along the southern and central part of the nation were flooded ; consequently ; 5 @,@ 500 ha ( 14 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops were destroyed . The Pungwe River experienced its worst flood of the 1980s , but the worst flooding took place along the Limpopo River . Near the Pungwe River , a road that connected Mozambique to Zimbabwe was destroyed . Many nearby homes and fields were destroyed , forcing numerous families to seek shelter . Throughout the nation of Mozambique , large portions of the maize , potatoes , tomatoes , cucumber , and pumpkin crops were washed away due to flooding .
Overall , the storm brought considerable damage to the nation ; it was also the first storm to affect the nation since Tropical Storm Domoina in 1984 . Damage totaled to $ 10 million ( 1988 USD ) . Property damage alone totaled to $ 1 @.@ 5 million , just under $ 1 million of which came from buildings . Moreover , insured losses from the storm totaled $ 1 million . Even though the death toll was initially believed to be 57 ; by March 14 , this number had increased to the final death toll of 100 after additional information was received from remote areas of the country . About 90 @,@ 000 people were directly affected by the system .
= Hampden Park =
Hampden Park ( often referred to as Hampden ) is a football stadium in the Mount Florida area of Glasgow , Scotland . The 51 @,@ 866 @-@ capacity venue serves as the national stadium of football in Scotland . It is the normal home venue of the Scotland national football team and amateur Scottish league club Queen 's Park F.C. and regularly hosts the latter stages of the Scottish Cup and Scottish League Cup competitions . It is also used for music concerts and other sporting events , such as when it was reconfigured as a athletics stadium for the 2014 Commonwealth Games .
There were two 19th century stadia called Hampden Park , built on different sites . A stadium on the present site was first opened on 31 October 1903 . Hampden was the biggest stadium in the world when it was opened , with a capacity in excess of 100 @,@ 000 . This was increased further between 1927 and 1937 , reaching a peak of 150 @,@ 000 . The record attendance of 149 @,@ 415 , for a Scotland v England match in 1937 , is the European record for an international football match . Tighter safety regulations meant that the capacity was reduced to 81 @,@ 000 in 1977 . The stadium has been fully renovated since then , with the most recent work being completed in 1999 .
The stadium houses the offices of the Scottish Football Association ( SFA ) and Scottish Professional Football League ( SPFL ) . Hampden has hosted prestigious sporting events , including three Champions League finals , two Cup Winners ' Cup finals and a UEFA Cup final . Hampden is a UEFA category four stadium and it is served by the nearby Mount Florida and King 's Park railway stations .
= = History = =
= = = Three Hampdens = = =
Queen 's Park , the oldest club in Scottish football , have played at a venue called Hampden Park since October 1873 . The first Hampden Park was overlooked by a nearby terrace named after Englishman John Hampden , who fought for the roundheads in the English Civil War . Queen 's Park played at the first Hampden Park for 10 years beginning with a Scottish Cup tie on 25 October 1873 . The ground hosted the first Scottish Cup Final , in 1874 , and a Scotland v England match in 1878 .
The club moved to the second Hampden Park , 150 yards from the original , because the Cathcart District Railway planned a new line through the site of the ground 's western terrace . A lawn bowling club at the junction of Queen 's Drive and Cathcart Road marks the site of the first Hampden . The second Hampden Park opened in October 1884 . It became a regular home to the Scottish Cup Final , but Celtic Park shared some of the big matches including the Scotland v England fixture in 1894 .
In the late 1890s , Queen 's Park requested more land for development of the second Hampden Park . This was refused by the landlords , which led to the club seeking a new site . Henry Erskine Gordon agreed to sell 12 acres of land off Somerville Drive to Queen 's Park in November 1899 . James Miller designed twin grandstands along the south side of the ground with a pavilion wedged in between . The natural slopes were shaped to form banks of terracing , designed by Archibald Leitch . Construction of the new ground took over three years to complete ; during construction , a disaster occurred at Ibrox in which part of the wooden terraces collapsed . In response , the terraces at Hampden were firmly set in the earthwork and innovative techniques were used to control spectators .
Third Lanark A.C. took over the second Hampden Park in 1903 and renamed it Cathkin Park . The club rebuilt the ground from scratch due to a failure to agree a fee for the whole stadium . Third Lanark went out of business in 1967 and Cathkin Park is now a public park with much of the original terracing still evident .
Hampden Park was the biggest stadium in the world from its opening in 1903 until it was surpassed by the Maracanã in 1950 . Along with Celtic Park and Ibrox , the city of Glasgow possessed the three largest football stadia in the world at the time Hampden opened . In the stadium 's first match , on 31 October 1903 , Queen 's Park defeated Celtic 1 – 0 in the Scottish league . The first Scottish Cup Final played at the ground was an Old Firm match in 1904 , attracting a record Scottish crowd of 64 @,@ 672 . The first Scotland v England match at the ground was played in April 1906 with 102 @,@ 741 people in attendance , which established Hampden as the primary home of the Scotland team .
= = = Record attendances = = =
Attendances continued to increase during the remainder of the 1900s , as 121 @,@ 452 saw the 1908 Scotland v England match . The two Old Firm matches played for the 1909 Scottish Cup Final attracted a total of 131 @,@ 000 . After the second match there was a riot because there was confusion over what would happen next when the second match also ended in a draw . The fans believed that the replay would be played to a conclusion and demanded that a period of extra time be played . The Scottish Cup trophy was withheld as Hampden was not in a fit condition to host a second replay . In response to the riot , the Scottish Football Association decided not to use Hampden as the Scottish Cup Final venue until after the First World War .
Queen 's Park conducted extensive ground improvements after the 1909 riot . A new world record of 127 @,@ 307 were in attendance to see Scotland play England in 1912 . A fire in 1914 destroyed the pavilion , which was replaced by a four @-@ storey structure with a press box on the roof . The Scottish Cup Final returned to Hampden in 1920 , when a large crowd of 95 @,@ 000 saw Kilmarnock win the cup against Albion Rovers . Record crowds attended the 1925 Scottish Cup Final , a 5 – 0 win for Celtic against Rangers , and the 1927 Scotland v England match , England 's first win in the stadium . Hampden became the sole venue of the Scottish Cup Final after 1925 except in the 1990s when it was being renovated . Queen 's Park purchased more land in 1923 to bring the total to 33 acres . 25 @,@ 000 places were added to the terraces and rigid crush barriers were installed in 1927 .
World record crowds attended Scotland matches against England in 1931 and 1933 . In 1933 , Austria , who had beaten Scotland 5 – 0 in Vienna in 1931 , became the first foreign national side to visit Hampden Park . Further ground improvements increased the official capacity of the ground to 183 @,@ 388 in 1937 , but the SFA were only allowed to issue 150 @,@ 000 tickets for games . The 1937 Scotland v England match had an official attendance of 149 @,@ 415 , but at least 20 @,@ 000 more people entered the ground without tickets . A week later the 1937 Scottish Cup Final between Celtic and Aberdeen drew an official crowd of 147 @,@ 365 , with 20 @,@ 000 more people locked outside .
= = = Wartime = = =
During the Second World War , matches at heavily @-@ attended grounds were initially prohibited due to the fear of aerial bombing by the Luftwaffe . Scottish national league and cup competitions were suspended for the duration of the war , but regional league and cup competitions were established in their place . Attendance was initially restricted to 50 percent of capacity ; therefore , when 75 @,@ 000 attended a wartime cup final in May 1940 , it was the maximum permitted . The Parashots , a forerunner of the Home Guard , set up a command post at Lesser Hampden in 1940 . A government official presented an order demanding that both the Hampden and Lesser Hampden pitches be ploughed and used to plant vegetables , but the Queen 's Park committee chose to ignore the order and the government did not pursue it . Wartime internationals were played at Hampden , and 91 @,@ 000 saw Scotland beat England 5 – 4 on 18 April 1942 .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
After the Second World War ended in 1945 , Hampden started to host Scotland matches more frequently . Before then , Hampden had only hosted 15 matches against England and one match each against Austria and Czechoslovakia . During the post @-@ war attendance boom , Hampden was the only stadium big enough to host the crowds who wanted to see the team . Matches that would have ordinarily attracted a crowd of 40 @,@ 000 were being attended by nearly 100 @,@ 000 . The Hampden fixture list was also expanded by the new Scottish League Cup competition . In 1947 , Rangers defeated Aberdeen in the first League Cup Final .
A fire on 25 December 1945 destroyed the stadium press box and damaged offices . The press box was replaced with a plainer two @-@ storey structure that overhung the pitch . The capacity of the ground was cut to 135 @,@ 000 following the Burnden Park disaster in Bolton .
The re @-@ entry of the Home Nations into FIFA in 1947 was marked by a match between a Great Britain and a Rest of Europe select on 10 May 1947 . Great Britain won 6 – 1 and 130 @,@ 000 people attended . Unusually , a league match between Third Lanark and Hibernian was played immediately afterwards at Hampden because Cathkin Park was undergoing repair work . The first FIFA World Cup qualification match played at Hampden was a 2 – 0 win for Scotland against Wales on 9 November 1949 ; this match was also part of the 1950 British Home Championship . The win appeared to guarantee Scotland qualification for the 1950 FIFA World Cup because the top two finishers in the Championship were offered places in the tournament , but the SFA decreed that they would only send a team if they were British champions . Scotland only needed a draw against England at Hampden to meet that condition but lost 1 – 0 .
The Coronation Cup , a competition to mark the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II , was held in Glasgow during May 1953 . Four major clubs from each of Scotland and England were invited , with the Old Firm clubs playing their matches at Hampden . Celtic and Hibernian progressed to the final , and a crowd of 117 @,@ 060 saw Celtic win 2 – 0 .
Scotland hosted the Magical Magyars of Hungary in December 1954 in front of 113 @,@ 506 fans . The Scots put up a good fight against one of the most outstanding teams in the world at the time , but eventually lost 4 – 2 . Scotland qualified for the 1958 FIFA World Cup by defeating Spain , including Luis Suarez , Ladislao Kubala and Alfredo Di Stéfano , at Hampden .
= = = 1960s and 1970s = = =
Hampden hosted the 1960 European Cup Final ; Real Madrid defeated 7 – 3 Eintracht Frankfurt with 130 @,@ 000 people in attendance . Floodlights were installed at Hampden in 1961 and were inaugurated with a friendly match between Eintracht Frankfurt and Rangers . The ground then also hosted the 1962 and 1966 finals of the European Cup Winners ' Cup . The attendances for each of these finals was less than 50 @,@ 000 , and the SFA did not offer to host another European final until the 1976 European Cup Final , in which Bayern Munich defeated St Etienne . Until 1987 , Hampden used square goalposts . St Etienne believed that two of their efforts which hit the square crossbar and rebounded into play would have resulted in goals if it had been round .
After Celtic won the 1967 European Cup Final , the home leg of their Intercontinental Cup tie against Racing Club was held at Hampden . Celtic won 1 – 0 at Hampden , but lost the tie after a play @-@ off in Montevideo . In 1970 , Celtic played in the semi @-@ finals of the European Cup against English league champions , Leeds United . Celtic chose to move their home leg of the tie from their Celtic Park home to Hampden , which had a far greater capacity . A crowd of 136 @,@ 505 , a record for any match in UEFA competition , saw Celtic win 2 – 1 ( 3 – 1 on aggregate ) to advance to the 1970 European Cup Final . Celtic also played European Cup ties against Ajax and Rosenborg at Hampden during the 1970s .
A fire was deliberately started in the south stand in October 1968 , destroying offices , 1 @,@ 400 seats and one of the team dressing rooms . The fire caused the 1968 – 69 Scottish League Cup Final to be postponed until April . By 1970 Hampden was starting to age as a stadium . Wembley had been revamped for the 1966 World Cup , while other major stadia were being constructed for tournaments . Public safety was emphasized after the Ibrox disaster of January 1971 , when 66 spectators were crushed to death . A benefit match was played at Hampden , while the Safety of Sports Grounds Act 1975 compelled stadium authorities to obtain licences from local officials , impose crowd segregation and restrict attendances . Pittodrie and Ibrox were converted into all @-@ seater stadiums , while Hampden 's capacity was reduced to 81 @,@ 000 .
Scotland secured qualification for the 1974 FIFA World Cup at Hampden , with a 2 – 1 victory over Czechoslovakia . Kenny Dalglish scored the winning goal against England in 1976 by nutmegging Ray Clemence . In 1977 , Scotland again won against Czechoslovakia to move towards qualification for the 1978 FIFA World Cup . Scotland played a friendly match against world champions Argentina in 1979 ; the talented , 18 @-@ year @-@ old Diego Maradona scored a goal in a 3 – 1 win for the visitors .
= = = Redevelopment = = =
During the late 1970s , it became apparent that the facilities at Hampden were in need of renewal . As an amateur club , Queen 's Park could not possibly fund the works , while Glasgow District Council withdrew funding and the UK Government decided not to fund it either . Queen 's Park considered selling Hampden , but a public appeal and minor repair work kept Hampden open during the 1980s . The riot after the 1980 Scottish Cup Final prompted reforms , as alcohol was banned from football stadia in Scotland .
The first phase of the redevelopment involved the demolition of the North Stand , the concreting of all terraces and the building a block of turnstiles around the upper section of the East Terrace . This work , begun in October 1981 and completed in 1986 , reduced the capacity to 74 @,@ 370 and cost £ 3 million . A second phase had been planned to begin in 1988 , but the release of the Taylor Report caused the plans to be redrawn and the proposed costs escalated to £ 25 million . Scotland hosted the 1989 FIFA Under @-@ 16 World Cup , with the Scots contesting the final against Saudi Arabia at Hampden .
After the cancellation of the annual Scotland v England fixture in 1989 , questions were raised as to whether Scottish football required a separate national stadium . Rangers proposed Ibrox as an alternative venue , while Murrayfield was about to be redeveloped without public funding . None of these arguments impressed the National Stadium committee , which consisted of the SFA , Scottish Football League and Queen 's Park . The West Terrace was converted to seating in 1991 for only £ 700 @,@ 000 , but this left two terraces and therefore disqualified Hampden from hosting FIFA World Cup qualification matches .
The UK Government eventually provided a grant of £ 3 @.@ 5 million in 1992 , which allowed work to begin on a £ 12 million project to convert Hampden into an all @-@ seater stadium . The last match played in front of the sloping terraces was the 1992 Scottish League Cup Final . Within a year , the east and west ends of the ground had been replaced and the partially rebuilt Hampden was re @-@ opened for a friendly match between Scotland and Netherlands on 23 March 1994 . It was then also used for the later stages of the 1993 – 94 Scottish Cup competition . As the capacity of the old South Stand had been limited to 4 @,@ 500 , the total capacity of Hampden had been reduced to approximately 37 @,@ 000 . With Celtic Park also undergoing extensive redevelopment to become all @-@ seater , Celtic spent the 1994 – 95 season groundsharing at Hampden , at a cost of £ 500 @,@ 000 rent .
The final stage of the renovation began in November 1997 , costing £ 59 million . There was a cost overrun and a fraud squad investigated alleged financial irregularities . Queen 's Park retained ownership of the ground but the renovation was funded by the National Lottery . The South Stand was replaced and the stadium was re @-@ opened for the 1999 Scottish Cup Final . The ground now has a capacity of 51 @,@ 866 .
Real Madrid were again victorious when Hampden Park hosted the 2002 UEFA Champions League Final , defeating Bayer Leverkusen , with Zinedine Zidane scoring the winning goal with a left @-@ foot volley . Hampden has since hosted the 2007 UEFA Cup Final and was one of the venues for football at the 2012 Summer Olympics . One of the 2012 Olympics matches was delayed after the North Korean team protested against the flag of South Korea being used to represent their players . Later in 2012 , a Scotland women 's national football team game was played at Hampden for the first time , when it hosted the first leg of a European Championship qualifying playoff against Spain .
Hampden was temporarily converted into an athletics stadium for the 2014 Commonwealth Games . It hosted its last international game before the conversion work on 15 November 2013 and Queen 's Park are playing their home games at the Excelsior Stadium in Airdrie . Due to the works being carried out at the Olympic Stadium , the 2014 London Grand Prix was by hosted by Hampden . The conversion works involved the removal of eight rows of seating , which reduced the capacity to 44 @,@ 000 . Hampden was converted back into a football stadium after the Commonwealth Games .
In September 2014 , Hampden was one of 13 venues chosen to host matches in the UEFA Euro 2020 tournament .
= = Hampden Roar = =
The football match crowd at Hampden were renowned for creating the Hampden Roar and trying to terrify opposing teams . The stadium 's capacity exceeded 100 @,@ 000 from the early 1900s until the 1980s and the Roar could be heard whenever Scotland scored an important goal . After the renovation of the stadium and the reduced capacities , the roar has become more muted .
The Hampden Roar was first noticed in a game against England in 1929 . Scotland , who had played the second half with ten players due to an injury to Alex Jackson , equalised in the final minute with a goal from Alec Cheyne direct from a corner kick . The roar that followed the goal was so loud that Jackson , who was a mile away in the Glasgow Victoria Infirmary , could tell that Scotland had scored .
The phrase Hampden Roar is also used as rhyming slang . People from Glasgow may ask , " What 's the Hampden ? " , by which they mean " What is the score ? " or " How are you ? " .
= = Structure and facilities = =
Hampden is an all @-@ seated bowl stadium , although the ground is split into four geographic sections , officially known as the North , East , South and West Stands . Due to the dominance of the Old Firm within Scottish football and their regular qualification for cup matches played at Hampden , the East and West stands are commonly known as the Celtic and Rangers ends . The East Stand has 12 @,@ 800 seats on a single tier of 53 rows . The two end stands are up to 140 metres away from the pitch , due to Hampden retaining its bowl shape after it was redeveloped . This distance is almost as great as if Hampden included an athletics track , although the distance between the pitch and the two side stands is more comparable to a normal football stadium .
The South Stand is the main stand of the stadium , as it holds the technical areas , dressing rooms , indoor warm @-@ up area , executive boxes , lounges and media facilities . It has been sponsored by BT Scotland since 1998 . The South Stand is also the only part of the stadium split into two tiers , although there is also a small gallery above the North Stand that has 290 seats and access to lounges . The North Stand accommodates 9 @,@ 100 spectators in 46 rows . The total capacity of the stadium is 51 @,@ 866 . The capacity was temporarily reduced to 44 @,@ 000 for the 2014 Commonwealth Games , as the running track raised the field level by 1 @.@ 9 metres .
The redeveloped Hampden has held the top status with the various UEFA stadium categories , holding category four status . The Scottish Football Museum , which opened in 2001 , is located within Hampden . Part of the museum is the Scottish Football Hall of Fame . A distinctive feature of the old Hampden , the press box which sat on the roof of the old South Stand , is also exhibited at the museum . The offices of the Scottish Football Association , Scottish Premier League and Scottish Football League are all located within Hampden .
Lesser Hampden is a football stadium located immediately beside the western end of Hampden Park . The ground was constructed in the early 1920s after additional ground was purchased to expand the main stadium . Queen 's Park proposed in 1990 to sell off Lesser Hampden to fund redevelopment works on the main stadium , but this was rejected by planners . It is used by Queen 's Park for training , reserve team matches and youth football . Lesser Hampden was refurbished for use as a warm @-@ up area during the 2014 Commonwealth Games .
= = Other uses = =
= = = Sports other than football = = =
Hampden Park has held four full rugby union international matches . The first was in 1906 , when the Scottish Rugby Union chose to play their match against the touring South Africans at Hampden because no rugby ground could satisfy the demand to see the visitors . A crowd of over 30 @,@ 000 saw Scotland win 6 – 0 . The redeveloped Hampden served as one of the 1999 Rugby World Cup venues , over 90 years later . Scotland played Romania in a friendly match before the tournament and South Africa played Uruguay in a tournament pool match . The only rugby union international played at Hampden since then was in November 2004 , between Scotland and Australia .
Hampden hosted the Scottish Amateur Athletics Association championships during the 1920s and 1930s , with the original Meadowbank Stadium used as an alternative venue . Eric Liddell won the 110 , 220 and 440 yard dashes in the 1924 championship . His last competition in Britain was the 1925 championship , when he won the 220 yards race for a record fifth time . Hampden was temporarily converted to stage the athletics events for the 2014 Commonwealth Games . It was also used for the closing ceremony .
Suzanne Lenglen , the French professional tennis player , played an exhibition match against Vivian Dewhurst at Hampden in 1927 . A crowd of 10 @,@ 000 saw that match and another between male players Howard Kinsey and Karel Koželuh .
During the Second World War , American armed forces based in Scotland played games of softball , baseball and American football at Hampden . American football returned to Hampden in 1998 , when the NFL Europe team Scottish Claymores shared home games between Hampden and Murrayfield . World Bowl XI was held at Hampden in 2003 , but after the 2004 season the Claymores folded and were replaced by the Hamburg Sea Devils .
Hampden was the home of the Glasgow Tigers speedway team from 1969 until 1972 . Poor crowds , escalating costs and the refusal of the city council to allow music to be played at events contributed to the team moving to Cliftonhill , in Coatbridge .
The redeveloped Hampden was the venue for a boxing card headlined by former world champion Mike Tyson in June 2000 . Tyson knocked down Lou Savarese after just 12 seconds of the fight , which the referee stopped after 38 seconds . The fight ended in farce as the referee , who had been attempting to separate the two fighters , was also knocked down by Tyson . The disappointed crowd booed Tyson out of the ring , while former fighters Jim Watt and Barry McGuigan criticised his actions . After the fight , Tyson claimed that he wanted to eat the children of world champion Lennox Lewis , which also drew criticism .
= = = Uses other than sport = = =
Genesis and Paul Young performed in the first concert at Hampden , in 1987 . The Rolling Stones played there in 1990 , during their Urban Jungle Tour . Since the redevelopment of Hampden was completed in 1999 , many acts have performed there , including The Rolling Stones , Rod Stewart , Tina Turner , Bon Jovi , Eagles , U2 , Oasis , George Michael , the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Neil Diamond , Take That , AC / DC , Bruce Springsteen , Coldplay , Pink and Paul McCartney . The damage caused to the Hampden pitch by a U2 concert in August 2009 forced a Queen 's Park league match to be postponed . Rihanna is set to perform at the stadium as a part of her Anti World Tour on June 27 , 2016 . On July 7 , 2016 Beyoncé will perform at Hampden Park as part of her Formation World Tour .
The 50th anniversary Conventicle of the Boys ' Brigade , which had been founded in Glasgow by William Alexander Smith , was staged at Hampden in 1933 . 130 @,@ 000 people were inside the ground , while another 100 @,@ 000 stood outside singing Psalms .
American evangelical Christian missionary Billy Graham had an " All Scotland Crusade " during the spring of 1955 . The major outdoor event of the tour was at Hampden , where a crowd of 100 @,@ 000 heard him speak .
= = Records = =
The highest attendance recorded at Hampden for a football match was 149 @,@ 415 , for the 1937 British Home Championship tie between Scotland and England . This is still a European record for an international match . The 1937 Scottish Cup Final between Celtic and Aberdeen drew an official crowd of 147 @,@ 365 , a world record for a club match , with 20 @,@ 000 more people locked outside . Hampden set world attendance records that year that were only surpassed by the Maracanã , and it still holds all the major European records . The European Cup match between Celtic and Leeds United in 1970 was attended by 136 @,@ 505 , which is a UEFA competition record .
Since the redevelopment of Hampden was completed in 1999 , the capacity for sporting events is now limited to 52 @,@ 063 . Attendances for concerts can be higher than this as people are allowed onto the pitch area . In 2009 , more people attended concerts at Hampden than football matches . Hampden regularly has crowds of below 1 @,@ 000 for Queen 's Park matches in the lower divisions of the Scottish football league system . Queen 's Park have not played in the top division of Scottish football since 1958 .
= = Transport = =
The nearest railway stations are Mount Florida and King 's Park . Both stations are served by trains from Glasgow Central on the Cathcart Circle Lines . First Glasgow operate several bus routes in the area surrounding Hampden . There is a stadium car park immediately behind the south stand , but for major events this is only available to permit holders . Public car parking is provided by City Parking Glasgow on the Queens Park recreational ground and the Toryglen playing fields .
= Air raids on Japan =
Allied forces conducted many air raids on Japan during World War II , causing extensive destruction to the country 's cities and killing between 241 @,@ 000 and 900 @,@ 000 people . During the first years of the Pacific War , sparked by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , these attacks were limited to the Doolittle Raid in April 1942 and small @-@ scale raids on military positions in the Kuril Islands from mid @-@ 1943 . Strategic bombing raids began in June 1944 and continued until the end of the war in August 1945 . Allied naval and land @-@ based tactical air units also attacked Japan during 1945 .
The United States military air campaign waged against Japan began in earnest in mid @-@ 1944 and intensified during the war 's last months . While plans for attacks on Japan had been prepared prior to the Pacific War , these could not begin until the long @-@ range B @-@ 29 Superfortress bomber was ready for combat . From June 1944 until January 1945 , B @-@ 29s stationed in India staged through bases in China to make a series of raids on Japan , but this effort proved unsuccessful . The strategic bombing campaign was greatly expanded from November 1944 when bases in the Mariana Islands became available as a result of the Mariana Islands Campaign . These attacks initially attempted to target industrial facilities , but from March 1945 were generally directed against urban areas as much of the manufacturing process was carried out in small workshops and private homes . Aircraft flying from Allied aircraft carriers and the Ryukyu Islands also frequently struck targets in Japan during 1945 in preparation for the planned invasion of Japan scheduled for October 1945 . During early August 1945 , the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were struck and mostly destroyed by atomic bombs .
Japan 's military and civil defenses were unable to stop the Allied attacks . The number of fighter aircraft and anti @-@ aircraft guns assigned to defensive duties in the home islands was inadequate , and most of these aircraft and guns had difficulty reaching the high altitudes at which B @-@ 29s often operated . Fuel shortages , inadequate pilot training , and a lack of coordination between units also constrained the effectiveness of the fighter force . Despite the vulnerability of Japanese cities to firebombing attacks , the firefighting services lacked training and equipment , and few air raid shelters were constructed for civilians . As a result , the B @-@ 29s were able to inflict severe damage on urban areas while suffering few losses .
The Allied bombing campaign was one of the main factors which influenced the Japanese government 's decision to surrender in mid @-@ August 1945 . However , there has been a long @-@ running debate over the morality of the attacks on Japanese cities , and the use of atomic weapons is particularly controversial . The most commonly cited estimate of Japanese casualties from the raids is 333 @,@ 000 killed and 473 @,@ 000 wounded . There are a number of other estimates of total fatalities , however , which range from 241 @,@ 000 to 900 @,@ 000 . In addition to the loss of mostly civilian life , the raids caused extensive damage to Japan 's cities and contributed to a large decline in industrial production .
= = Background = =
= = = United States plans = = =
The United States Army Air Corps ( which was subsumed by the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) in February 1942 ) began developing contingency plans for an air campaign against Japan during 1940 . During that year the naval attaché to the Embassy of the United States in Tokyo reported that Japan 's civil defenses were weak , and proposals were made for American aircrew to volunteer for service with Chinese forces in the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . The first American Volunteer Group ( the " Flying Tigers " ) began operations as part of the Chinese Air Force in late 1941 using P @-@ 40 Warhawk fighter aircraft . A second American Volunteer Group was also formed in late 1941 to attack Japan from bases in China using Hudson and A @-@ 20 Havoc medium bombers . The attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 led to open hostilities between the US and Japan and ended the need for covert operations , however , and this unit did not become active . The small number of Second Air Volunteer Group personnel who were dispatched from the United States in November 1941 were diverted to Australia upon the outbreak of war .
Japanese successes during the opening months of the Pacific War nullified pre @-@ war US plans for attacks against the Japanese homeland and a series of attempts to start a small @-@ scale campaign from bases in China were unsuccessful . Before the outbreak of war , the USAAF had planned to bomb Japan from Wake Island , Guam , the Philippines and coastal areas in China . However , these areas were rapidly captured by Japanese forces , and the USAAF heavy bomber force in the Philippines was largely destroyed when Clark Air Base was attacked on 8 December 1941 . The USAAF subsequently attempted to send 13 heavy bombers to China in March and April 1942 to attack the Japanese home islands . These aircraft reached India , but remained there as the Japanese conquest of Burma caused logistics problems and Chinese Nationalist leader Chiang Kai @-@ shek was reluctant to allow them to operate from territory under his control . A further 13 B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers were dispatched from the United States to operate from China in May 1942 as the HALPRO force , but were re @-@ tasked to support Allied operations in the Mediterranean . In July 1942 , the commander of the American Volunteer Group , Colonel Claire Lee Chennault , sought a force of 100 P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt fighters and 30 B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers , which he believed would be sufficient to " destroy " the Japanese aircraft industry . Three months later Chennault told United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt that a force of 105 modern fighters and 40 bombers ( including 12 heavy bombers ) would be able to " accomplish the downfall of Japan " within six to twelve months . The USAAF 's headquarters did not regard these claims as credible , and Chennault 's requests for reinforcements were not granted .
= = = Pre @-@ war Japanese defenses = = =
The Japanese government 's pre @-@ war plans to protect the country from air attack focused on neutralizing enemy air bases . Before the war it was believed that Soviet aircraft based in the Russian Far East posed the greatest threat . The Japanese military planned to destroy the air bases within range of the home islands if Japan and the Soviet Union ever went to war . When the Pacific War began , the Japanese government believed that the best way to prevent American air raids was to capture and hold the areas in China and the Pacific from which such attacks could be launched . It was expected that the Allies would not be able to re @-@ capture these bases . However , the Japanese anticipated that the Allies might still make small @-@ scale attacks against the home islands using naval aircraft flying from aircraft carriers . The government chose not to develop strong defenses to meet the threat of air attack as the country 's industrial resources were unable to maintain offensive air forces in China and the Pacific as well as a defensive force in the home islands .
Few air units or anti @-@ aircraft batteries were stationed in the home islands during the early months of the Pacific War . The General Defense Command ( GDC ) had been formed in July 1941 to oversee the defense of the home islands , but all combat units in this area were assigned to the four regional military districts ( the Northern , Eastern , Central and Western districts ) which reported directly to the Ministry of War . As a result , the GDC 's functions were limited to coordinating communications between the Imperial General Headquarters — Japan 's highest military decision @-@ making body — and the military districts . In early 1942 , forces allocated to the defense of Japan comprised 100 Imperial Japanese Army Air Force ( IJAAF ) and 200 Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) fighter aircraft , many of which were obsolete , as well as 500 Army @-@ manned and 200 IJN anti @-@ aircraft guns . Most of the IJAAF and IJN formations in the home islands were training units which had only a limited ability to counter Allied attacks . The Army also operated a network of military and civilian observation posts to provide warning of air attack and was in the process of building radar stations . Command and control of the air defenses was fragmented , and the IJAAF and IJN did not coordinate their activities or communicate with each other . As a result , the forces were unable to react to a sudden air attack .
Japanese cities were highly vulnerable to damage from firebombing due to their design and the weak state of the country 's civil defense organization . Urban areas were typically congested , and most buildings were constructed from highly flammable materials such as paper and wood . In addition , industrial and military facilities in urban areas were normally surrounded by densely populated residential buildings . Despite this vulnerability , few cities had full @-@ time professional firefighters and most relied on volunteers . Such firefighting forces that did exist lacked modern equipment and used outdated tactics . Air raid drills had been held in Tokyo and Osaka since 1928 , however , and from 1937 local governments were required to provide civilians with manuals that explained how to respond to air attacks . Few air @-@ raid shelters and other air defense facilities for civilians and industry were constructed prior to the Pacific War .
= = Early raids = =
= = = Chinese raid = = =
The Republic of China Air Force ( ROCAF ) conducted a single attack on the Japanese home islands during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . On 19 May 1938 two ROCAF aircraft dropped propaganda leaflets on Nagasaki , Fukuoka , Kurume , Saga , and other locations in Kyushu . These leaflets did not have any effect on Japanese civilians , but demonstrated that China could potentially conduct small scale air attacks on the area . The Japanese military later wrongly assessed that the ROCAF had aircraft capable of mounting attacks at a range of 1 @,@ 300 miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) from their bases , and took precautions against potential raids on western Japan when Chinese forces launched an offensive during 1939 .
= = = Doolittle Raid = = =
USAAF aircraft bombed Japan for the first time in mid @-@ April 1942 . In an operation conducted primarily to raise morale in the United States and to avenge the attack on Pearl Harbor , 16 B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers were carried from San Francisco to within range of Japan on the aircraft carrier USS Hornet . These aircraft were launched on 18 April , and individually bombed targets in Tokyo , Yokohama , Yokosuka , Nagoya and Kobe . The Japanese air defense units were taken by surprise , and all the B @-@ 25s escaped without serious damage . The aircraft then continued to China and the Soviet Union , though several crashed in Japanese @-@ held territory after running out of fuel . Japanese casualties were 50 killed and over 400 wounded . About 200 houses were also destroyed .
Although the Doolittle Raid caused little damage , it had important ramifications . The attack raised morale in the United States and its commander , Lieutenant Colonel James H. Doolittle , was seen as a hero . The weak state of the country 's air defenses greatly embarrassed the Japanese military leadership , and four fighter groups were transferred from the Pacific to defend the home islands . In an attempt to prevent further naval raids , the IJN launched an offensive in the Pacific Ocean which ended in defeat during the Battle of Midway . The Japanese Army also conducted the Zhejiang @-@ Jiangxi Campaign to capture the airfields in central China at which the Doolittle Raiders had intended to land . This offensive achieved its objectives and resulted in the deaths of 250 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers and civilians ; many of these civilian deaths were due to war crimes . The destruction of the airfields and heavy casualties badly damaged China 's war effort . The IJA also began developing fire balloons capable of carrying incendiary and anti @-@ personnel bombs from Japan to the continental United States .
= = = Bombing of the Kuril Islands = = =
Following the Doolittle Raid , the next air attacks on Japan were made against the Kuril Islands in mid @-@ 1943 . The liberation of Alaska 's Attu Island in May 1943 during the Aleutian Islands Campaign provided the USAAF with bases within range of the Kurils . As part of the preparations for the liberation of Kiska Island in the Aleutians , the Eleventh Air Force conducted a series of raids against the Kurils to suppress the Japanese air units stationed there . The first of these attacks was made against southern Shumshu and northern Paramushiru by eight B @-@ 25s on 10 July . The Kurils were attacked again on 18 July by six B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers , and the unopposed liberation of Kiska ( Operation Cottage ) took place on 15 August .
The Eleventh Air Force and US Navy units continued to make small @-@ scale raids on the Kuril Islands until the closing months of the war . The USAAF attacks were broken off for five months following a raid on 11 September 1943 when nine of the 20 B @-@ 24s and B @-@ 25s dispatched were lost , but raids by US Navy PBY Catalinas continued . In response to the American attacks , the IJN established the North @-@ East Area Fleet in August 1943 , and in November that year Japanese fighter strength in the Kurils and Hokkaidō peaked at 260 aircraft . The Eleventh Air Force resumed its offensive in February 1944 after it had been reinforced with two squadrons of P @-@ 38 Lightning escort fighters , and it continued to attack targets in the Kurils until June 1945 . While these raids caused little damage , they caused the Japanese to divert large numbers of soldiers to defend their northern islands against a potential United States invasion .
= = Operation Matterhorn = =
= = = Preparations = = =
In late 1943 , the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff approved a proposal to begin the strategic air campaign against the Japanese home islands and East Asia by basing B @-@ 29 Superfortress heavy bombers in India and establishing forward airfields in China . This strategy , designated Operation Matterhorn , involved the construction of large airstrips near Chengdu in inland China which would be used to refuel B @-@ 29s traveling from bases in Bengal en route to targets in Japan . Chennault , by now the commander of the Fourteenth Air Force in China , advocated building the B @-@ 29 bases near Kweilin , closer to Japan , but this area was judged too vulnerable to counterattack . However , the decision to build airstrips at Chengdu meant that Kyūshū was the only part of the home island chain within the B @-@ 29 's 1 @,@ 600 @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) combat radius . Construction of the airfields began in January 1944 , and the project involved around 300 @,@ 000 conscripted Chinese labourers and 75 @,@ 000 contracted workers .
XX Bomber Command was assigned responsibility for Operation Matterhorn , and its ground crew began to leave the United States for India during December 1943 . The Twentieth Air Force was formed in April 1944 to oversee all B @-@ 29 operations . In an unprecedented move , the commander of the USAAF , General Henry H. Arnold , took personal command of this unit and ran it from the Pentagon in Washington , D.C. The 58th Bombardment Wing was XX Bomber Command 's main combat unit , and its movement from Kansas to India took place between April and mid @-@ May 1944 .
The Japanese military began transferring fighter aircraft to the home islands from China and the Pacific in early 1944 in anticipation of B @-@ 29 raids . Japanese intelligence detected the construction of B @-@ 29 bases in India and China , and the military began to develop plans to counter air raids originating from China . The three IJAAF air brigades stationed in Honshū and Kyūshū were expanded to air divisions between March and June ( these were designated the 10th , 11th and 12th Air Divisions ) . By late June the air defense units in the home islands were assigned 260 fighters , and could draw on approximately 500 additional aircraft during emergencies . Additional anti @-@ aircraft gun batteries and searchlight units were also established to protect major cities and military bases . The GDC 's authority was strengthened when the army units in the Eastern , Central and Western military districts were placed under its command in May . The IJN defensive fighter units stationed at Kure , Sasebo and Yokosuka were also assigned to the GDC in July , but cooperation between the GDC 's Army units and the much smaller number of naval units was poor . Despite these improvements , Japan 's air defenses remained inadequate as few aircraft and anti @-@ aircraft guns could effectively engage B @-@ 29s at their cruising altitude of 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) and the number of radar stations capable of providing early warning of raids was insufficient .
The Japanese government also sought to improve the country 's civil defenses in response to the Doolittle Raid and the threat of further attacks . The national government placed the burden of constructing civilian air @-@ raid shelters on the prefectural governments . However , few shelters were built due to shortages of concrete and steel . In October 1943 the Home Ministry directed households in the major cities to build their own shelters , though these were normally only trenches . A small number of sophisticated shelters were constructed for air defense headquarters and to protect key telephone facilities . However , less than two percent of civilians had access to bombproof air @-@ raid shelters , though tunnels and natural caves were also used to protect civilians from B @-@ 29 raids . Following the outbreak of war , the Home Ministry expanded the number of firefighters , though these generally remained volunteers who lacked adequate training and equipment . Civilians were also trained to fight fires and encouraged to swear an " air defense oath " to respond to attacks from incendiary or high explosive bombs .
From autumn 1943 the Japanese government took further steps to prepare the country 's major cities for air attacks . An air defense general headquarters was established in November and a program of demolishing large numbers of buildings in major cities to create firebreaks began the next month . By the end of the war 614 @,@ 000 housing units had been destroyed to clear firebreaks ; these accounted for a fifth of all housing losses in Japan during the war and displaced 3 @.@ 5 million people . The government also encouraged old people , children and women in cities that were believed likely to be attacked to move to the countryside from December 1943 , and a program of evacuating entire classes of schoolchildren was implemented . By August 1944 , 330 @,@ 000 schoolchildren had been evacuated in school groups and another 459 @,@ 000 had moved to the countryside with their family . Little was done to disperse industrial facilities to make them less vulnerable to attack , however , as this was logistically difficult .
= = = Attacks from China = = =
XX Bomber Command began flying missions against Japan in mid @-@ June 1944 . The first raid took place on the night of 15 / 16 June when 75 B @-@ 29s were dispatched to attack the Imperial Iron and Steel Works at Yawata in northern Kyūshū . This attack caused little damage and cost seven B @-@ 29s , but received enthusiastic media coverage in the United States and indicated to Japanese civilians that the war was not going well . The Japanese military began expanding the fighter force in the home islands after the attack on Yawata , and by October 375 aircraft were assigned to the three air defense air divisions . These divisions remained at about this strength until March 1945 . Arnold relieved XX Bomber Command 's commander , Brigadier General Kenneth Wolfe , shortly after the raid on Yawata when he was unable to make follow @-@ up attacks on Japan due to insufficient fuel stockpiles at the bases in China . Wolfe 's replacement was Major General Curtis LeMay , a veteran of Eighth Air Force bombing attacks against Germany .
Subsequent B @-@ 29 raids staging through China generally did not meet their objectives . The second raid took place on 7 July when 17 B @-@ 29s attacked Sasebo , Ōmura and Tobata , causing little damage , and on the night of 10 / 11 August 24 Superfortresses attacked Nagasaki . Another unsuccessful raid was conducted against Yawata on 20 August in which the B @-@ 29 force was intercepted by over 100 fighters . Twelve of the sixty @-@ one Superfortresses that reached the target area were shot down , including one which was destroyed in a suicide ramming attack . Japanese government propaganda claimed that 100 bombers had been downed during this attack , and one of the crashed B @-@ 29s was placed on display in Tokyo . XX Bomber Command 's performance improved after LeMay instituted a training program and improved the organization of the B @-@ 29 maintenance units during August and September . A raid against Ōmura on 25 October destroyed the city 's small aircraft factory , though a follow @-@ up raid on 11 November ended in failure . The city was attacked again by 61 B @-@ 29s on 21 November and by 17 bombers on 19 December . XX Bomber Command made its ninth and final raid on Japan on 6 January 1945 when 28 B @-@ 29s once again struck Ōmura . During the same period the command conducted a number of attacks on targets in Manchuria , China and Formosa from its bases in China , as well as striking targets in Southeast Asia from India . The command flew its final mission from India , a raid on Singapore , on 29 March ; its constituent units were then transferred to the Mariana Islands .
Overall , Operation Matterhorn was not successful . The nine raids conducted against Japan via bases in China succeeded only in destroying Ōmura 's aircraft factory . XX Bomber Command lost 125 B @-@ 29s during all of its operations from bases in India and China , though only 22 or 29 were destroyed by Japanese forces ; the majority of the losses were due to flying accidents . The attacks had a limited impact on Japanese civilian morale but forced the Japanese military to reinforce the home islands ' air defenses at the expense of other areas . These results did not justify the large allocation of Allied resources to the operation , however . Moreover , the diversion of some supply aircraft flown between India and China to support XX Bomber Command 's efforts may have prevented the Fourteenth Air Force from undertaking more effective operations against Japanese positions and shipping . The official history of the USAAF judged that the difficulty of transporting adequate supplies to India and China was the most important factor behind the failure of Operation Matterhorn , though technical problems with the B @-@ 29s and the inexperience of their crews also hindered the campaign . The adverse weather conditions common over Japan also limited the effectiveness of the Superfortresses , as crews that managed to reach their target were often unable to bomb accurately due to high winds or cloud cover .
= = Initial attacks from the Mariana Islands = =
United States Marine Corps and Army forces captured the Japanese @-@ held islands of Guam , Saipan and Tinian in the Mariana Islands between June and August 1944 . USAAF and US Navy engineers subsequently constructed six airfields on the islands to accommodate hundreds of B @-@ 29s . These bases were more capable of supporting an intensive air campaign against Japan than those in China as they could be easily supplied by sea and were 1 @,@ 500 miles ( 2 @,@ 400 km ) south of Tokyo , which allowed B @-@ 29s to strike most areas in the home islands and return without refueling . Japanese aircraft made several attacks on the airfield at Saipan while it was under construction .
The Twentieth Air Force 's XXI Bomber Command began arriving in the Mariana Islands during October 1944 . The Command was led by Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell , who had also participated in Eighth Air Force operations against Germany . XXI Bomber Command B @-@ 29s flew six practice missions against targets in the Central Pacific during October and November in preparation for their first attack on Japan . On 1 November , an F @-@ 13 photo reconnaissance variant of the B @-@ 29 from the 3d Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron overflew Tokyo ; this was the first American aircraft to fly over the city since the Doolittle Raid . Further F @-@ 13 sorties were conducted during early November to gather intelligence on aircraft factories and port facilities in the Tokyo – Yokosuka area . The F @-@ 13s were generally able to evade the heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire they attracted and the large numbers of Japanese fighters that were scrambled to intercept them as they flew at both high speed and high altitude .
XXI Bomber Command 's initial attacks against Japan were focused on the country 's aircraft industry . The first attack , codenamed Operation San Antonio I , was made against the Musashino aircraft plant in the outskirts of Tokyo on 24 November 1944 . Only 24 of the 111 B @-@ 29s dispatched attacked the primary target , and the others bombed port facilities as well as industrial and urban areas . The Americans were intercepted by 125 Japanese fighters but only one B @-@ 29 was shot down . This attack caused some damage to the aircraft plant and further reduced Japanese civilians ' confidence in the country 's air defenses . In response , the IJAAF and IJN stepped up their air attacks on B @-@ 29 bases in the Mariana Islands from 27 November ; these raids continued until January 1945 and resulted in the destruction of 11 Superfortresses and damage to another 43 for the loss of probably 37 Japanese aircraft . The IJA also began launching fire balloons against the United States during November . This campaign caused little damage and was abandoned in March 1945 . By this time 9 @,@ 000 balloons had been dispatched but only 285 were reported to have reached the contiguous United States .
The next American raids on Japan were not successful . XXI Bomber Command attacked Tokyo three times between 27 November and 3 December ; two of these raids were made against the Musashino aircraft plant while the other targeted an industrial area using M @-@ 69 incendiary cluster bombs , specifically developed to damage Japanese urban areas . The aircraft plant attacked on 27 November and 3 December was only lightly damaged as high winds and clouds prevented accurate bombing . The incendiary raid conducted on the night of 29 / 30 November by 29 Superfortresses burnt out one tenth of a square mile , and was also judged to be unsuccessful by the Twentieth Air Force 's headquarters .
Four of XXI Bomber Command 's next five raids were made against targets in Nagoya . The first two of these attacks on 13 and 18 December used precision bombing tactics , and damaged the city 's aircraft plants . The third raid was a daylight incendiary attack which was conducted after the Twentieth Air Force directed that 100 B @-@ 29s armed with M @-@ 69 bombs be dispatched against Nagoya to test the effectiveness of these weapons on a Japanese city . Hansell protested this order , as he believed that precision attacks were starting to produce results and moving to area bombardment would be counterproductive , but agreed to the operation after he was assured that it did not represent a general shift in tactics . Despite the change in armament , the 22 December raid was planned as a precision attack on an aircraft factory using only 78 bombers , and bad weather meant that little damage was caused . XXI Bomber Command raided the Musashino aircraft plant in Tokyo again on 27 December , but did not damage the facility . On 3 January 1945 , 97 B @-@ 29s were dispatched to conduct an area bombing raid on Nagoya . This attack started several fires , but these were quickly brought under control .
Arnold was disappointed with what XXI Bomber Command had achieved , and wanted the Command to produce results quickly . In addition , Hansell 's preference for precision bombing was no longer in accordance with the views of the Twentieth Air Force headquarters , which wanted a greater emphasis on area attacks . In late December 1944 Arnold decided to relieve Hansell of his command . Seeing LeMay 's success in improving XX Bomber Command 's performance , Arnold thought LeMay could solve the problems at XXI Bomber Command , and replaced Hansell with him . Hansell was informed of Arnold 's decision on 6 January , but remained in his position until mid @-@ January . During this period , XXI Bomber Command conducted unsuccessful precision bombing attacks on the Musashino aircraft plant in Tokyo and a Mitsubishi Aircraft Works factory in Nagoya on 9 and 14 January respectively . The last attack planned by Hansell was more successful , however : a force of 77 B @-@ 29s crippled a Kawasaki Aircraft Industries factory near Akashi on 19 January . During XXI Bomber Command 's first three months of operations , it lost an average of 4 @.@ 1 % of aircraft dispatched in each raid .
In late January 1945 the Imperial General Headquarters belatedly adopted a civil defense plan to counter the American air raids . This plan assigned responsibility for fighting fires to community councils and neighborhood groups as the professional firefighting units were short @-@ handed . Civilians were to observe a blackout from 10 : 00 pm . Japanese positions in the Bonin Islands were normally able to provide an hour 's warning of American raids and air raid sirens were sounded in cities threatened by attack .
The first attacks conducted under LeMay 's leadership achieved mixed results . XXI Bomber Command flew six major missions between 23 January and 19 February with little success , though an incendiary raid against Kobe on 4 February caused significant damage to the city and its main factories . Moreover , while improved maintenance procedures implemented by LeMay reduced the number of B @-@ 29s that had to return to base during raids due to technical problems , the Command suffered a loss rate of 5 @.@ 1 % in these operations . From 19 February to 3 March , XXI Bomber Command conducted a series of precision bombing raids on aircraft factories that sought to tie down Japanese air units so they could not participate in the Battle of Iwo Jima . However , these attacks were frustrated by high winds and cloud cover and little damage was inflicted . A firebombing raid conducted against Tokyo by 172 B @-@ 29s on 25 February was considered successful as it burnt or damaged approximately one square mile of the city 's urban area . This attack was a large @-@ scale test of the effectiveness of firebombing .
Several factors explain the poor results of XXI Bomber Command 's precision bombing campaign . The most important of these was the weather ; the American raiders frequently encountered cloudy conditions and high winds over Japan which made accurate bombing extremely difficult . Moreover , the bomber forces often had to pass through severe weather fronts between the Mariana Islands and Japan , which broke up formations and caused navigation problems . XXI Bomber Command 's effectiveness was also limited by poor B @-@ 29 maintenance practices and over @-@ crowding at its airfields – these factors reduced the number of aircraft which were available for operations and complicated the process of launching and recovering the bombers . By March 1945 the USAAF 's commanders were highly concerned about the failure of the campaigns mounted from China and the Mariana Islands , and believed that the results to date made it difficult to justify the high costs of the B @-@ 29 program and also threatened their goal of demonstrating the effectiveness of independent air power .
= = Firebombing attacks = =
= = = LeMay changes tactics = = =
USAAF planners began assessing the feasibility of a firebombing campaign against Japanese cities in 1943 . Japan 's main industrial facilities were vulnerable to such attacks as they were concentrated in several large cities and a high proportion of production took place in homes and small factories in urban areas . The planners estimated that incendiary bomb attacks on Japan 's six largest cities could cause physical damage to almost 40 percent of industrial facilities and result in the loss of 7 @.@ 6 million man @-@ months of labor . It was also estimated that these attacks would kill over 500 @,@ 000 people , render about 7 @.@ 75 million homeless and force almost 3 @.@ 5 million to be evacuated . The USAAF tested the effectiveness of incendiary bombs on Japanese @-@ style buildings at Eglin Field and the " Japanese village " at Dugway Proving Ground . The American military also attempted to develop " bat bombs " , using incendiary bombs attached to bats dropped by aircraft to attack Japanese cities , but this project was abandoned in 1944 .
In light of the poor results of the precision bombing campaign and the success of the 25 February raid on Tokyo , LeMay decided to begin firebombing attacks on Japan 's main cities during early March . This was in line with Arnold 's targeting directive for XXI Bomber Command , which specified that urban areas were to be accorded the second @-@ highest priority for attacks after aircraft factories . The directive also stated that firebombing raids should be conducted once M @-@ 69 bombs had been tested in combat and the number of B @-@ 29s available was sufficient to launch an intensive campaign . LeMay did not seek Arnold 's specific approval before launching his firebombing campaign , however , to protect the USAAF commander from criticism if the attacks were unsuccessful . The Twentieth Air Force 's Chief of Staff , Brigadier General Lauris Norstad , was aware of the change in tactics though and provided support . The decision to use firebombing tactics represented a move away from the USAAF 's previous focus on precision bombing , and was believed by senior officials in the military and US Government to be justified by the need to rapidly bring the war to an end .
To maximize the effectiveness of the firebombing attacks , LeMay ordered the B @-@ 29s to fly at the low altitude of 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) and bomb by night ; this represented a significant change from the Command 's standard tactics , which focused on high @-@ altitude daylight bombing . As Japan 's night fighter force was weak and the anti @-@ aircraft batteries were less effective at night , LeMay also had most of the B @-@ 29s ' defensive guns removed ; by reducing the weight of the aircraft in this way they were able to carry more bombs . These changes were not popular with XXI Bomber Command 's aircrew , as they believed that it was safer to fly heavily armed aircraft at high altitude .
= = = March firebombing campaign = = =
The first firebombing attack in this campaign — codenamed Operation Meetinghouse — was carried out against Tokyo on the night of 9 / 10 March , and proved to be the single most destructive air raid of the war . XXI Bomber Command mounted a maximum effort , and on the afternoon of 9 March 346 B @-@ 29s left the Marianas bound for Tokyo . They began to arrive over the city at 2 : 00 am Guam time on 10 March , and 279 bombers dropped 1 @,@ 665 tons of bombs . The raid caused a massive conflagration that overwhelmed Tokyo 's civil defenses and destroyed 16 square miles ( 41 km2 ) of buildings , representing seven percent of the city 's urban area . The Tokyo police force and fire department estimated that 83 @,@ 793 people were killed during the air raid , another 40 @,@ 918 were injured and just over a million lost their homes ; postwar estimates of deaths in this attack have ranged from 80 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 . Damage to Tokyo 's war production was also substantial . Japanese opposition to this attack was relatively weak ; 14 B @-@ 29s were destroyed as a result of combat or mechanical faults and a further 42 damaged by anti @-@ aircraft fire . Following the attack on Tokyo , the Japanese government ordered the evacuation of all schoolchildren in the third to sixth grades from the main cities , and 87 percent of them had departed to the countryside by early April .
XXI Bomber Command followed up the firebombing of Tokyo with similar raids against other major cities . On 11 March , 310 B @-@ 29s were dispatched against Nagoya . The bombing was spread over a greater area than had been the case at Tokyo , and the attack caused less damage . Nevertheless , 2 @.@ 05 square miles ( 5 @.@ 3 km2 ) of buildings were burnt out and no B @-@ 29s were lost to the Japanese defenses . On the night of 13 / 14 March , 274 Superfortresses attacked Osaka and destroyed 8 @.@ 1 square miles ( 21 km2 ) of the city for the loss of two aircraft . Kobe was the next target in the firebombing campaign , and was attacked by 331 B @-@ 29s on the night of 16 / 17 March . The resulting firestorm destroyed 7 square miles ( 18 km2 ) of the city ( equivalent to half its area ) , killed 8 @,@ 000 people and rendered 650 @,@ 000 homeless . Three B @-@ 29s were lost . Nagoya was attacked again on the night of 18 / 19 March , and the B @-@ 29s destroyed 2 @.@ 95 square miles ( 7 @.@ 6 km2 ) of buildings . Only one Superfortress was shot down during this attack , and all members of its crew were rescued after the aircraft ditched into the sea . This raid marked the end of the first firebombing campaign as XXI Bomber Command had exhausted its supplies of incendiary bombs . The Command 's next major operation was an unsuccessful night precision attack on the Mitsubishi aircraft engine factory conducted on the night of 23 / 24 March ; during this operation five of the 251 aircraft dispatched were shot down . B @-@ 29s also began to drop propaganda leaflets over Japan during March . These leaflets called on Japanese civilians to overthrow their government or face destruction .
The USAAF assessed that the firebombing campaign had been highly successful , and noted that American losses during these attacks were much lower than those incurred during day precision raids . Accordingly , the Joint Target Group ( JTG ) , which was the Washington , D.C.-based organisation responsible for developing strategies for the air campaign against Japan , developed plans for a two @-@ stage campaign against 22 Japanese cities . The JTG also recommended that precision bombing attacks on particularly important industrial facilities continue in parallel to the area raids , however . While this campaign was intended to form part of preparations for the Allied invasion of Japan , LeMay and some members of Arnold 's staff believed that it alone would be sufficient to force the country 's surrender .
The Japanese government was concerned about the results of the March firebombing attacks as the raids had demonstrated that the Japanese military was unable to protect the nation 's airspace . As well as the extensive physical damage in the targeted cities , the attacks also caused increased absenteeism as civilians were afraid to leave their homes to work in factories which might be bombed . Japanese air defenses were reinforced in response to the firebombing raids , but remained inadequate ; 450 fighters were assigned to defensive duties in April .
= = = Destruction of Japan 's main cities = = =
The start of the major firebombing campaign was delayed as XXI Bomber Command was used to attack airfields in southern Japan from late March to mid @-@ May in support of the invasion of Okinawa , an island just south of the home islands . Prior to the landings on 1 April , the Command bombed airfields in Kyushu at Ōita and Tachiarai as well as an aircraft plant at Ōmura on 27 March , and struck Ōita and Tachiarai again on the 31st of the month . No B @-@ 29s were lost in these raids . From 6 April the Japanese conducted large @-@ scale kamikaze air raids on the Allied invasion fleet , during which suicide aircraft damaged or sank many warships and transports . As part of the Allied response to these attacks , XXI Bomber Command conducted major raids on airfields in Kyushu on 8 and 16 April , though the first of these attacks was diverted to strike residential areas in Kagoshima after the airfields were found to be covered by clouds . From 17 April until 11 May , when the B @-@ 29s were released for other duties , about three quarters of XXI Bomber Command 's effort was devoted to attacking airfields and other targets in direct support of the Battle of Okinawa ; this included 2 @,@ 104 sorties flown against 17 airfields . These raids cost the Command 24 B @-@ 29s destroyed and 233 damaged and failed to completely suppress kamikaze attacks from the targeted airfields .
A few attacks on Japanese cities were conducted during the Battle of Okinawa . On 1 April , a night precision bombing raid was flown against the Nakajima engine factory in Tokyo by 121 B @-@ 29s and three similar attacks were conducted against engine factories in Shizuoka , Koizumi and Tachikawa on the night of 3 April . These raids were unsuccessful as XXI Bomber Command lacked the specialized equipment needed to strike targets accurately at night , and LeMay decided not to conduct similar operations . Small forces of B @-@ 29s also struck Tokyo and nearby Kawasaki on 4 April . Two successful large @-@ scale precision bombing raids were flown against aircraft factories in Tokyo and Nagoya on 7 April ; the raid on Tokyo was the first to be escorted by Iwo Jima @-@ based P @-@ 51 Mustang very @-@ long @-@ range fighters from the VII Fighter Command , and the Americans claimed to have shot down 101 Japanese aircraft for the loss of two P @-@ 51s and seven B @-@ 29s . Over 250 B @-@ 29s struck three different aircraft factories on 12 April ; during this operation the 73rd Bombardment Wing inflicted heavy damage on the Musashino aircraft plant and fought off 185 Japanese fighters without loss . LeMay resumed night firebombing raids on 13 April when 327 B @-@ 29s attacked the arsenal district of Tokyo and destroyed 11 @.@ 4 square miles ( 30 km2 ) of the city , including several armaments factories . On 15 April , 303 Superfortresses attacked the Tokyo region and destroyed 6 square miles ( 16 km2 ) of Tokyo , 3 @.@ 6 square miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km2 ) of Kawasaki and 1 @.@ 5 square miles ( 3 @.@ 9 km2 ) of Yokohama for the loss of 12 bombers . On 24 April the Tachikawa aircraft engine factory at Yamato near Tokyo was destroyed by 131 B @-@ 29s . An attack on the aircraft arsenal at Tachikawa six days later was aborted due to cloud cover ; some of the heavy bombers attacked the city of Hamamatsu instead . Another precision raid was made against the Hiro Naval Aircraft Factory at Kure on 5 May when 148 B @-@ 29s inflicted heavy damage on the facility . Five days later B @-@ 29s successfully attacked oil storage facilities at Iwakuni , Ōshima and Toyama . On 11 May a small force of B @-@ 29s destroyed an airframe factory at Konan . XXI Bomber Command reached its full strength in April when the 58th and 315th Bombardment Wings arrived in the Marianas ; at this time the command comprised five wings equipped with a total of 1 @,@ 002 B @-@ 29s and was the most powerful air unit in the world .
After being released from supporting the Okinawa campaign , XXI Bomber Command conducted an intensive firebombing campaign against Japan 's main cities from mid @-@ May . A force of 472 B @-@ 29s struck Nagoya by day on 13 May and destroyed 3 @.@ 15 square miles ( 8 @.@ 2 km2 ) of the city . The Japanese mounted a strong defense that downed two Superfortresses and damaged another 64 ; another eight B @-@ 29s were lost to other causes . The Americans claimed 18 Japanese fighter " kills " as well as another 30 " probables " and 16 damaged . Nagoya was attacked again by 457 B @-@ 29s on the night of 16 May , and the resulting fires destroyed 3 @.@ 82 square miles ( 9 @.@ 9 km2 ) of the city . Japanese defenses were much weaker by night , and the three bombers lost in this attack crashed due to mechanical problems . The two raids on Nagoya killed 3 @,@ 866 Japanese and rendered another 472 @,@ 701 homeless . On 19 May , 318 B @-@ 29s conducted an unsuccessful precision bombing raid on the Tachikawa Aircraft Company . XXI Bomber Command made further large @-@ scale firebombing attacks against Tokyo on the nights of 23 and 25 May . In the first of these raids 520 B @-@ 29s destroyed 5 @.@ 3 square miles ( 14 km2 ) of southern Tokyo with 17 aircraft lost and 69 damaged . The second attack involved 502 B @-@ 29s and destroyed 16 @.@ 8 square miles ( 44 km2 ) of the city 's central area , including the headquarters of several key government ministries and much of the Tokyo Imperial Palace ; the bomber crews had been briefed to not target the palace as the US Government did not want to risk killing Emperor Hirohito . The Japanese defenses were relatively successful on this occasion , and 26 Superfortresses were shot down and another 100 damaged . By the end of these raids just over half ( 50 @.@ 8 percent ) of Tokyo had been destroyed and the city was removed from XXI Bomber Command 's target list . The Command 's last major raid of May was a daylight incendiary attack on Yokohama on 29 May conducted by 517 B @-@ 29s escorted by 101 P @-@ 51s . This force was intercepted by 150 A6M Zero fighters , sparking an intense air battle in which five B @-@ 29s were shot down and another 175 damaged . In return , the P @-@ 51 pilots claimed 26 " kills " and 23 " probables " for the loss of three fighters . The 454 B @-@ 29s that reached Yokohama struck the city 's main business district and destroyed 6 @.@ 9 square miles ( 18 km2 ) of buildings ; over 1000 Japanese were killed . Overall , the attacks in May destroyed 94 square miles ( 240 km2 ) of buildings , which was equivalent to one seventh of Japan 's total urban area . The Minister of Home Affairs , Iwao Yamazaki , concluded after these raids that Japan 's civil defense arrangements were " considered to be futile " .
The firebombing campaign against major cities ended in June . On the first day of the month 521 B @-@ 29s escorted by 148 P @-@ 51s were dispatched in a daylight raid against Osaka . While en route to the city the Mustangs flew through thick clouds , and 27 of the fighters were destroyed in collisions . Nevertheless , 458 heavy bombers and 27 P @-@ 51s reached the city and the bombardment killed 3 @,@ 960 Japanese and destroyed 3 @.@ 15 square miles ( 8 @.@ 2 km2
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August 1945 began with further large @-@ scale raids against Japanese cities . On the 1st of the month , 836 B @-@ 29s staged the largest single raid of World War II , dropping 6 @,@ 145 tons of bombs and mines . The cities of Hachiōji , Mito , Nagaoka and Toyama were the main targets of this operation ; all four suffered extensive damage and 99 @.@ 5 percent of buildings in Toyama were destroyed . The cities of Imabari , Maebashi , Nishinomiya and Saga were attacked on 5 August . These raids had also been preceded by propaganda leaflets and radio broadcasts from Saipan warning that the cities would be attacked .
From late June the 315th Bombardment Wing conducted a series of night precision bombing attacks against the Japanese oil industry , independently of the precision day and night incendiary raids . The wing 's B @-@ 29s were fitted with the advanced AN / APQ @-@ 7 radar that allowed targets to be accurately located at night . Arriving in the Marianas in April 1945 , the 315th underwent a period of operational training before flying its first attack against the Utsube Oil Refinery at Yokkaichi on the night of 26 June . The 30 bombers ( out of 38 dispatched ) that struck the refinery destroyed or damaged 30 percent of the facility . The unit 's next attack was against a refinery at Kudamatsu three nights later , and on the night of 2 July it struck another refinery at Minoshima . On the night of 6 / 7 July the 315th Bombardment Wing destroyed the Maruzen oil refinery near Osaka , and three nights later it completed the destruction of the Utsube refinery . The wing had conducted 15 operations against Japanese oil facilities by the end of the war . During these attacks it destroyed six of the nine targets attacked for the loss of four B @-@ 29s . However , as Japan had almost no crude oil to refine due to the Allied naval blockade of the home islands these raids had little impact on the country 's war effort .
During mid @-@ July the USAAF strategic bomber forces in the Pacific were reorganized . On 16 July , XXI Bomber Command was re @-@ designated the Twentieth Air Force and LeMay appointed its commander . Two days later the United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific ( USASTAF ) was established at Guam under the command of General Carl Spaatz . USASTAF 's role was to command the Twentieth Air Force as well as the Eighth Air Force , which at the time was moving from Europe to Okinawa . The Eighth Air Force was led by James Doolittle ( who had been promoted to general ) and was being reequipped with B @-@ 29s . The Commonwealth Tiger Force , which was to include Australian , British , Canadian and New Zealand heavy bomber squadrons and attack Japan from Okinawa , was also to come under the command of USASTAF when it arrived in the region during late 1945 .
= = Aerial mine laying = =
From mid @-@ 1944 , the US Navy pressed for B @-@ 29s to be used to lay naval mines in Japan 's home waters to strengthen the blockade of the country . Arnold and his staff were unenthusiastic about these proposals , however , as they believed that such missions would divert too many Superfortresses away from precision bombing attacks . In response to repeated requests from the Navy , Arnold decided in November 1944 to begin mine @-@ laying operations once sufficient aircraft were available . In January 1945 , LeMay selected the 313th Bombardment Wing to be the Twentieth Air Force 's specialist mine @-@ laying unit , and the Navy provided assistance with its training and logistics . LeMay designated the aerial mining campaign Operation Starvation . As the United States had only occasionally used mines up to this time , the Japanese military had placed relatively little emphasis on keeping its minesweeping force up to date . As a result , the IJN was unprepared for the large @-@ scale USAAF offensive .
The 313th Bombardment Wing conducted its first mine @-@ laying operation on the night of 27 / 28 March when it mined the Shimonoseki Strait to prevent Japanese warships from using this route to attack the US landing force off Okinawa . Mine @-@ laying operations were disrupted in April as the wing was assigned to support operations in Okinawa and participate in conventional bombing raids . Its rate of effort increased in May , when it conducted missions against harbors and other choke points around Honshu and Kyushu . The air @-@ dropped minefields greatly disrupted Japanese coastal shipping .
LeMay increased the number of mine @-@ laying sorties in June , and the 505th Bombardment Group joined the 313th Bombardment Wing on occasion . In response to this offensive , the Japanese greatly expanded their mine @-@ sweeping force by 349 ships and 20 @,@ 000 men and deployed additional anti @-@ aircraft guns around the Shimonoseki Strait . They had little success in permanently clearing minefields or downing the B @-@ 29s , however . Many of Japan 's major harbors , including those of Tokyo , Yokohama and Nagoya , became permanently closed to shipping . During the last weeks of the war , B @-@ 29s continued to drop large numbers of mines off Japan and the campaign was expanded into Korean waters . The 313th Bombardment Wing lost only 16 B @-@ 29s during mine @-@ laying operations . Overall , mines dropped by Superfortresses off the home islands sank 293 ships , which represented 9 @.@ 3 percent of all Japanese merchant shipping destroyed during the Pacific War and 60 percent of losses between April and August 1945 . Following the war , the USSBS assessed that the Twentieth Air Force should have placed a greater emphasis on attacking Japanese shipping given the effectiveness of these attacks .
= = Naval air attacks = =
The US Navy conducted its first attacks against the Japanese home islands in mid @-@ February 1945 . This operation was undertaken primarily to destroy Japanese aircraft that could attack the US Navy and Marine Corps forces involved with the landing on Iwo Jima on 19 February , and was conducted by Task Force 58 ( TF 58 ) . This task force was the US Navy 's main striking force in the Pacific , and comprised 11 fleet carriers , five light aircraft carriers and a powerful force of escorts . TF 58 approached Japan undetected , and attacked airfields and aircraft factories in the Tokyo region on 16 and 17 February . The American naval aviators claimed 341 " kills " against Japanese aircraft and the destruction of a further 160 on the ground for the loss of 60 aircraft in combat and 28 in accidents . Several ships were also attacked and sunk in Tokyo Bay . The actual Japanese aircraft losses in this operation are uncertain , however ; the Imperial General Headquarters admitted losing 78 aircraft in dogfights and did not provide a figure for those destroyed on the ground . TF 58 's ships were not attacked during this period in Japanese waters , and on 18 February sailed south to provide direct support to the landings on Iwo Jima . The Task Force attempted a second raid against the Tokyo area on 25 February , but this operation was frustrated by bad weather . The American ships sailed south , and attacked Okinawa from 1 March .
TF 58 renewed its attacks on Japan in mid @-@ March when it made a series of raids that sought to destroy Japanese aircraft within range of Okinawa prior to the landing there . On 18 March , carrier aircraft struck Japanese airfields and other military facilities on Kyushu . The next day they attacked Japanese warships at Kure and Kobe , damaging the battleship Yamato and aircraft carrier Amagi . The Japanese fought back against these raids with kamikaze and conventional attacks , and inflicted light damage on three carriers on 18 March and severely damaged USS Franklin the next day . On 20 March , TF 58 sailed south but continued fighter sweeps over Kyushu to suppress Japanese aircraft . During the attacks on 18 and 19 March , the American naval aviators claimed to have destroyed 223 Japanese aircraft in the air and 250 on the ground , while the Japanese placed their losses as 161 of the 191 aircraft they committed in the air and an unspecified number on the ground . From 23 March , TF 58 conducted strikes against Okinawa , though its aircraft made further sweeps of Kyushu on 28 and 29 March . Following the landing on 1 April , TF 58 provided air defense for the naval force off Okinawa and regularly conducted patrols over Kyushu . In an attempt to stem the large @-@ scale Japanese air attacks against the Allied ships , part of TF 58 struck at kamikaze aircraft bases on Kyushu and Shikoku on 12 and 13 May . On 27 May , Admiral William Halsey assumed command of the Fifth Fleet ( redesignated the Third Fleet ) from Admiral Raymond A. Spruance . TF 58 , renumbered TF 38 , continued operations off Okinawa in late May and June , and on 2 and 3 June one of its task groups attacked airfields on Kyushu . Another attack was made against these airfields on 8 June ; two days later , TF 38 left Japanese waters for a period of recuperation at Leyte in the Philippines .
On 1 July , TF 38 sailed from Leyte to strike at the Japanese home islands . At this time the Task Force comprised nine fleet carriers , six light carriers and their escorts . Halsey sought to coordinate his fleet 's attacks during the last months of the war with those of the USAAF 's land @-@ based aircraft , but the two forces often operated separately . On 10 July TF 38 's aircraft conducted raids on airfields in the Tokyo region , destroying several aircraft on the ground . No Japanese fighters were encountered in the air , however , as they were being kept in reserve for a planned large @-@ scale suicide attack on the Allied fleet . Following this raid TF 38 steamed north , and began a major attack on Hokkaido and northern Honshu on 14 July . These strikes continued the next day , and sank eight of the 12 railway car ferries which carried coal from Hokkaido to Honshu and damaged the remaining four . Many other ships were also destroyed in this area , including 70 out of the 272 small sailing ships which carried coal between the islands . Once again no Japanese aircraft opposed this attack , though 25 were destroyed on the ground . The loss of the railway car ferries reduced the amount of coal shipped from Hokkaido to Honshu by 80 percent , which greatly hindered production in Honshu 's factories . This operation has been described as the single most effective strategic air attack of the Pacific War . TF 38 's battleships and cruisers also began a series of bombardments of industrial targets on 14 July which continued until almost the end of the war .
Following the attacks on Hokkaido and northern Honshu TF 38 sailed south and was reinforced by the main body of the British Pacific Fleet , which was designated Task Force 37 and included another four fleet carriers . Strikes on the Tokyo area on 17 July were disrupted by bad weather , but the next day aircraft from the fleet attacked Yokosuka naval base where they damaged the battleship Nagato and sank four other warships . On 24 , 25 and 28 July the Allied fleet attacked Kure and the Inland Sea and sank an aircraft carrier and three battleships , as well as two heavy cruisers , a light cruiser and several other warships . A force of 79 USAAF Liberators flying from Okinawa participated in this attack on 28 July . Allied casualties in this operation were heavy , however , as 126 aircraft were shot down . On 29 and 30 July the carrier aircraft struck at Maizuru , sinking three small warships and 12 merchant vessels , before the fleet sailed east to avoid a typhoon and replenish its supplies . Its next attacks against Japan took place on 9 and 10 August , and were directed at a buildup of Japanese aircraft in northern Honshu which Allied intelligence believed were to be used to conduct a commando raid against the B @-@ 29 bases in the Marianas . The naval aviators claimed to have destroyed 251 aircraft in their attacks on 9 August and damaged a further 141 . On 13 August , TF 38 's aircraft attacked the Tokyo region again and claimed to have destroyed 254 Japanese aircraft on the ground and 18 in the air . Another raid was launched against Tokyo on the morning of 15 August , and the 103 aircraft of its first wave attacked their targets . The second wave aborted its attack when word was received that Japan had agreed to surrender . Several Japanese aircraft were shot down while attempting to attack TF 38 later that day , however .
= = Raids from Iwo Jima and Okinawa = =
USAAF P @-@ 51 Mustang fighters of the VII Fighter Command stationed at Iwo Jima from March 1945 were initially used mainly to escort B @-@ 29s . They also conducted a series of independent ground attack missions against targets in the home islands . The first of these operations took place on 16 April , when 57 P @-@ 51s strafed Kanoya Air Field in Kyushu . In operations conducted between 26 April and 22 June the American fighter pilots claimed the destruction of 64 Japanese aircraft and damage to another 180 on the ground , as well as a further ten shot down in flight ; these claims were lower than the American planners had expected , however , and the raids were considered unsuccessful . USAAF losses were 11 P @-@ 51s to enemy action and seven to other causes .
Due to the lack of Japanese air opposition to the American bomber raids , VII Fighter Command was solely tasked with ground attack missions from July . These raids were frequently made against airfields to destroy aircraft being held in reserve to attack the expected Allied invasion fleet . While the P @-@ 51 pilots only occasionally encountered Japanese fighters in the air , the airfields were protected by anti @-@ aircraft batteries and barrage balloons . By the end of the war , VII Fighter Command had conducted 51 ground attack raids , of which 41 were considered successful . The fighter pilots claimed to have destroyed or damaged 1 @,@ 062 aircraft and 254 ships along with large numbers of buildings and railway rolling stock . American losses were 91 pilots killed and 157 Mustangs destroyed .
From May 1945 aircraft of the USAAF 's Fifth Air Force and Seventh Air Force , which were grouped under the Far East Air Force ( FEAF ) , also attacked targets in Kyushu and western Honshu from bases in Okinawa and other locations in the Ryukyu Islands . These raids formed part of the preparation for the invasion of Japan . From 17 May , P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt fighters flying from the Ryukyus made frequent day and night patrols over Kyushu to disrupt the Japanese air units there . On 21 June an additional fighter group joined this effort , and the campaign was reinforced by bombers and another fighter group from 1 July . While these American operations were initially fiercely contested , from early July onwards they encountered little opposition as the Japanese aircraft were withdrawn so that they could be preserved for later operations . Between 1 and 13 July , the Americans flew 286 medium and heavy bomber sorties over Kyushu without loss . As the fighters met few Japanese aircraft , they were mainly used to attack transportation infrastructure and targets of opportunity ; these included at least two strafing attacks on groups of civilians .
Attacks on airfields and transportation infrastructure in southern Japan continued until the end of the war . By this time the Fifth Air Force 's bombers had flown 138 sorties against airfields in Kyushu and the Seventh Air Force had conducted a further 784 . Road and railway bridges were attacked by both fighters and bombers , and the city of Kagoshima was frequently bombed . Seventh Air Force B @-@ 24 Liberators also bombed the railway terminals in the port of Nagasaki on 31 July and 1 August . While these raids were focused on tactical targets , the Okinawa @-@ based aircraft made several strategic attacks against industrial facilities ; these included an unsuccessful raid on a coal liquefaction plant at Ōmuta on 7 August . Bombers of the Fifth and Seventh Air Forces also made firebombing attacks against Tarumizu on 5 August , Kumamoto on 10 August and Kurume the next day . The FEAF staged its last attacks against Japan on 12 August ; aircraft were dispatched on 14 August but recalled while en route to their targets . Overall , the two air forces flew 6 @,@ 435 sorties against targets in Kyushu during July and August for the loss of 43 aircraft to Japanese anti @-@ aircraft guns and fighters .
= = Japanese military response = =
= = = Air defenses = = =
Japan 's air defenses were unable to stop the Allied air attacks . Owing to the short range of the country 's land @-@ based radar , and Allied attacks on IJN picket ships , the defenders typically had only about an hour to respond to incoming B @-@ 29s once they had been detected . Japanese signals intelligence units could provide longer warning times of incoming raids by eavesdropping on the bombers ' radio communications , but were unable to predict the target of the attack . As a result , fighter units did not have enough time to scramble and reach the bombers ' cruising altitude before they arrived over their target , and most raids were intercepted by only small numbers of aircraft . Moreover , the American bombers were capable of flying faster at high altitude than many Japanese fighters . Even when the fighters managed to close within gun range , the well @-@ built B @-@ 29s were often able to sustain large amounts of damage . Due to the difficulty of intercepting and downing B @-@ 29s , the Japanese fighter pilots increasingly perceived their efforts as being futile . From August 1944 Japanese aircraft occasionally conducted suicide ramming attacks on B @-@ 29s , and several specialized kamikaze fighter units were established in October ; by the end of the war , ramming tactics had destroyed nine B @-@ 29s and damaged another 13 for the loss of 21 fighters .
Air combat was most intense in late 1944 and early 1945 . Following the first B @-@ 29 raids on Tokyo , the number of IJN aircraft assigned to air defense duties was greatly increased and all 12 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns were allocated to protect the capital . Fighters stationed to defend Japan 's main industrial areas frequently intercepted American air raids between 24 November 1944 and 25 February 1945 , and inflicted significant losses for a period . The number of fighters available declined from late January , however . Poor coordination between the IJAAF and IJN also continued to hamper Japan 's defensive efforts throughout this period . The Americans suffered few losses from Japanese fighters during the night raids which were conducted from March 1945 until the end of the war .
Resistance to the air raids decreased sharply from April 1945 . On 15 April the IJAAF and IJN air defense units were belatedly placed under a single command when the Air General Army was formed under the command of General Masakazu Kawabe , but by this time the fighter force 's effectiveness had been greatly reduced due to high rates of casualties in training accidents and combat . Due to the poor standard of the remaining pilots and the deployment of P @-@ 51 Mustangs to escort B @-@ 29s , the Japanese leadership decided in April to withdraw their remaining fighters from combat . These aircraft were placed in reserve to counterattack the Allied invasion . As a result , few of the subsequent Allied raids were intercepted . The effectiveness of Japanese anti @-@ aircraft batteries also decreased during 1945 as the collapse of the national economy led to severe shortages of ammunition . Moreover , as the anti @-@ aircraft guns were mainly stationed near major industrial areas , many of the raids on small cities were almost unopposed . Imperial General Headquarters decided to resume attacks on Allied bombers from late June , but by this time there were too few fighters available for this change of tactics to have any effect . The number of fighters assigned to the Air General Army peaked at just over 500 during June and July , but most frontline units had relatively few serviceable aircraft . During the last weeks of the war Superfortresses were able to operate with near impunity owing to the weakness of the Japanese air defenses ; LeMay later claimed that during this period " it was safer to fly a combat mission over Japan than it was to fly a B @-@ 29 training mission back in the United States " .
Overall , Japanese fighters shot down 74 B @-@ 29s , anti @-@ aircraft guns accounted for a further 54 , and 19 were downed by a combination of anti @-@ aircraft guns and fighters . IJAAF and IJN losses during the defense of Japan were 1 @,@ 450 aircraft in combat and another 2 @,@ 750 to other causes .
= = = Treatment of prisoners of war = = =
Many of the Allied airmen who were captured after being shot down over Japan were mistreated . On 8 September 1944 , the Cabinet of Japan directed that indiscriminate bombing constituted a war crime despite the fact there was no international treaty or instrument protecting a civilian population specifically from attack by aircraft at the time . As a result , captured Allied airmen were subject to trial and possible execution although the rules of war stipulates that only soldiers who engaged in combat or carry out acts of sabotage or espionage wearing enemy uniforms or civilian clothes behind enemy lines can be punished . The frequency of such executions differed between military districts , however . While no airmen were executed in the Tōbu district ( eastern Musashi ) , which included Tokyo , those captured in the Tōkai , Chūbu and Seibu ( western Musashi ) districts were sometimes killed after a brief trial or summarily executed by the Kempeitai ( " Military Police Corps " ) . For instance , 33 American airmen were killed by IJA personnel at Fukuoka , including 15 who were beheaded shortly after the Japanese Government 's intention to surrender was announced on 15 August . Mobs of civilians also killed several Allied airmen before the Japanese military arrived to take the men into custody . In addition to these killings , most captured B @-@ 29 crewmen were brutally interrogated by the Kempeitai .
Of the approximately 545 Allied airmen who were captured in the Japanese home islands ( excluding the Kuril and Bonin Islands ) , 132 were executed and 29 were killed by civilians . Another 94 airmen died from other causes while in Japanese custody , including 52 who were killed when they were deliberately left in a prison in Tokyo during the 25 / 26 May raid on the city . Between six and eight US airmen shot down on 5 May were subjected to vivisection at the Kyushu Imperial University ; Professor Fukujirō Ishiyama and other doctors conducted four such sessions throughout May and early June . The Western Military Command assisted in arranging these operations . Many of the Japanese personnel responsible for the deaths of Allied airmen were prosecuted in the Yokohama War Crimes Trials following the war . Several of those found guilty were executed and the remainder were imprisoned .
= = Atomic bombings and final attacks = =
Beginning in 1942 the United States , with assistance from Britain and other Allied countries , devoted considerable resources to developing nuclear weapons through the Manhattan Project . In December 1944 the USAAF 's 509th Composite Group was formed under the command of Colonel Paul Tibbets to deliver these weapons once they were complete ; it deployed to Tinian during May and June 1945 . The " Trinity " test of the first nuclear bomb was successfully conducted on 16 July . Four days later the 509th Composite Group 's modified " Silverplate " B @-@ 29s began flying practice raids against Japanese cities , each armed with a single high @-@ explosive " pumpkin " bomb ; further practice missions took place on 24 , 26 and 29 July . Japanese fighters did not attempt to intercept these aircraft , and their bombing altitude of 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) was beyond the range of most anti @-@ aircraft guns . Meanwhile , on 24 July President Harry S. Truman approved the use of atomic bombs against Japan , and the next day Spaatz received written orders to this effect . These orders specified that the first attack should be made after 3 August , and named Hiroshima , Kokura , Niigata and Nagasaki as targets . Kyoto , Japan 's former imperial capital , had been included in an earlier version of the target list but Nagasaki was substituted on the direction of US Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson owing to Kyoto 's cultural value ; the city had also been excluded from the urban firebombing raids on the same grounds . On 26 July the United States , Britain and China issued the Potsdam Declaration , which demanded Japan 's surrender after warning that the country would be devastated if the war continued . The Japanese government rejected the Allied demands on 28 July .
Hiroshima was attacked on 6 August . At 8 : 15 am local time the B @-@ 29 Enola Gay , piloted by Tibbets , dropped the " Little Boy " atomic bomb over the center of the city . The resulting explosion killed tens of thousands of people and destroyed about 4 @.@ 7 square miles ( 12 km2 ) of buildings . The six American aircraft involved in this attack returned safely to the Marianas . Postwar estimates of casualties from the attack on Hiroshima range from 66 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 fatalities and 69 @,@ 000 to 151 @,@ 000 injured . Tens of thousands more subsequently died as a result of radiation and other injuries from the attack ; it has been estimated that 140 @,@ 000 people had died as a result of the atomic bomb by the end of 1945 . Estimates of the total number of fatalities range as high as 230 @,@ 000 . Of the survivors of the bombing , 171 @,@ 000 were rendered homeless .
Following the attack , a statement from President Truman was broadcast to announce that the United States had used an atomic bomb against Hiroshima and that further air attacks would be conducted on Japan 's industrial facilities and transportation network . The statement included a threat that if Japan did not surrender under the terms specified in the Potsdam Declaration it would be subjected to " a rain of ruin from the air , the like of which has never been seen on earth " . Two days later , daylight incendiary raids were conducted against the cities of Yawata and Fukuyama ; these attacks destroyed 21 percent of Yawata 's urban area and over 73 percent of Fukuyama . Japanese aircraft intercepted the force dispatched against Yawata and shot down a B @-@ 29 and five of the escorting P @-@ 47s for the loss of approximately 12 fighters .
The second atomic bomb attack was made on 9 August . On this day , the B @-@ 29 Bockscar was dispatched to attack Kokura with the " Fat Man " bomb . The city was found to be covered in smoke and haze , however ; as a result , the plane 's pilot , Major Charles Sweeney , decided to attack the secondary target of Nagasaki instead . The bomb was dropped at 10 : 58 am local time , and the resulting 20 kiloton explosion destroyed 1 @.@ 45 square miles ( 3 @.@ 8 km2 ) of buildings in the Urakami district . Official Japanese figures issued in the late 1990s state the total number of people killed as a result of this attack exceeded 100 @,@ 000 . The attack also crippled the city 's industrial production ; steel production was set back by one year , electrical power was severely reduced for two months and arms production was greatly reduced . All the American aircraft involved in the operation returned safely . The Soviet invasion of Manchuria also began on 9 August , and the Red Army advanced rapidly . On this day , B @-@ 29s dropped three million leaflets on Japanese cities warning that atomic bombs would be used to destroy all the country 's military resources unless the Emperor ended the war . At this time a third atomic bomb was expected to be ready by the end of August . Eight bombs were scheduled to have been completed by November , and General George Marshall , the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , was advocating that they be reserved for use against tactical targets in support of the planned invasion rather than be dropped on cities .
The Japanese government began negotiations with the Allies about the terms of surrender on 10 August . During this period B @-@ 29 attacks on Japan were limited to a raid by the 315th Bombardment Wing against an oil target on the night of 9 / 10 August and a daytime precision bombing attack on a factory in Tokyo on 10 August . The next day , President Truman ordered a halt to the bombing due to the possibility that it would be interpreted as a sign that the peace negotiations had failed . On 11 August , Spaatz issued a new targeting directive for any renewed attacks that reduced the emphasis on bombing cities in favor of intensified attacks on transport infrastructure . On 13 August , B @-@ 29s dropped copies of the Japanese government 's conditional offer to surrender over Japanese cities . Negotiations appeared to be stalled , and on 14 August Spaatz received orders to resume the bombing campaign . Arnold requested the largest attack possible , and hoped that USASTAF could dispatch 1 @,@ 000 aircraft against the Tokyo region and other locations in Japan . In fact , 828 B @-@ 29s escorted by 186 fighters ( for a total of 1 @,@ 014 aircraft ) were dispatched ; during the day precision raids were made against targets at Iwakuni , Osaka and Tokoyama and at night the cities of Kumagaya and Isesaki were firebombed . While the Eighth Air Force units at Okinawa had not yet conducted any missions against Japan , General Doolittle decided not to contribute aircraft to this operation as he did not want to risk the lives of the men under his command when the war was effectively over . These were the last attacks conducted against Japan by heavy bombers , as at noon on 15 August Hirohito made a radio broadcast announcing his country 's intention to surrender .
= = After the war = =
Limited air operations continued over Japan in the weeks following the Japanese government 's decision to surrender . On 17 and 18 August , B @-@ 32 Dominators flying reconnaissance missions from Okinawa were attacked by IJN fighters near Tokyo . From 17 August the Twentieth Air Force was made responsible for supplying Allied prisoner of war camps in Japan , Korea and China until the prisoners were evacuated . Supply drops began 10 days later , and continued until 20 September . During this period the B @-@ 29s flew almost 1 @,@ 000 sorties and delivered close to 4 @,@ 500 tons of supplies . Eight aircraft crashed during these missions and another was damaged by a Soviet fighter over Korea . The 3d Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron , which had operated over Japan throughout the bombing campaign , also continued its photo reconnaissance and mapping flights over the home islands during this period . While Spaatz ordered that B @-@ 29s and fighters fly continuous show of force patrols of the Tokyo area from 19 August until the formal surrender ceremony took place , these operations were initially frustrated by bad weather and logistics problems . The first patrols were not flown until 30 August , when they were made in conjunction with the landing of General Douglas MacArthur and the US Army 's 11th Airborne Division at Atsugi airfield . A similar operation was conducted the next day , and on 2 September 462 B @-@ 29s and many naval aircraft overflew the Allied fleet in Tokyo Bay following the surrender ceremony on board USS Missouri .
Allied air units participated in the occupation of Japan after the war . Advance parties of the FEAF began to arrive at Atsugi airfield on 30 August , and units of the Fifth Air Force were established across the home islands during September and October . Besides transporting occupation troops , the Fifth Air Force conducted armed patrols over Japan and Korea as well and also made many photo reconnaissance and mapping sorties . Royal Australian Air Force , British Royal Air Force , Indian Air Force , Royal New Zealand Air Force , US Navy and United States Marine Corps air units were also deployed to Japan for occupation duties . There was no Japanese resistance to the Allied occupation , and the number of air units stationed in the country was gradually reduced from late 1945 .
Japan 's bomb @-@ damaged cities were rebuilt after the war . War damage and the need to rehouse soldiers and civilians returning from overseas resulted in a shortage of 4 @.@ 2 million units of housing which , combined with food shortages , led to many civilians being forced to live in harsh conditions . In September 1945 the Japanese government offered to provide material for 300 @,@ 000 small temporary houses to evacuees , but the emphasis of its policies in this year and 1946 was to stop people returning to the damaged cities . The reconstruction of 115 cities began in 1946 , and this work was conducted in line with guidelines developed by the Japanese government . The Allied occupation authorities were not involved in the urban rebuilding effort , but allowed this work to go ahead despite criticizing it as inappropriate to Japan 's status as a defeated country . Requisitions of land and buildings for use by the occupation force and a requirement that the Japanese government prioritize the construction of housing for the Allied troops interfered with reconstruction , however . In many cities rebuilding was accompanied by a process of land readjustment which sought to improve the urban layout , though the success of both such readjustment and rebuilding programs varied between locations . Overall , most of the new buildings constructed were of poor quality , and it was not until well after the war that major urban improvement projects were undertaken .
= = Assessments = =
= = = Results = = =
The air attacks on Japan caused hundreds of thousands of casualties , though estimates of the number who were killed and wounded vary considerably . The strategic attacks by the Twentieth Air Force caused most of the casualties and damage . The figures most frequently cited in the literature on the campaign are sourced from the USSBS report The Effects of Bombing on Health and Medical Services in Japan which estimated that 333 @,@ 000 Japanese were killed and 473 @,@ 000 wounded . Included in this figure were an estimated 120 @,@ 000 dead and 160 @,@ 000 injured in the two atomic bomb attacks . Another USSBS report , The Effects of Strategic Bombing on Japanese Morale , included a much higher estimate of 900 @,@ 000 killed and 1 @.@ 3 million injured which was reached by a Japanese research team using a statistical sampling methodology . While this figure is also occasionally cited , the USSBS ' investigators regarded the work of their statistical teams as unsatisfactory , and the researchers were unable to calculate the error rate of this estimate . The postwar Japanese government calculated in 1949 that 323 @,@ 495 people had been killed by air attacks in the home islands . The destruction of buildings housing government records during air raids contributed to the uncertainty about the number of casualties . The Twentieth Air Force lost 414 B @-@ 29s during attacks on Japan . Over 2 @,@ 600 American bomber crew members were killed , including POWs who died in captivity , and a further 433 were wounded .
The following table provides examples of the estimated number of Japanese casualties from air attack in different sources :
Much of Japan 's industrial capacity was also destroyed by Allied bombing . Over 600 major industrial facilities were destroyed or badly damaged , contributing to a large decline in production . Absenteeism caused by the air attacks further reduced output . It is not possible to determine the exact damage bombing caused to Japan 's economy , however , as the Allied naval blockade also contributed to general breakdown which occurred from late 1944 . Statistics compiled by the USSBS show a correlation between the number of B @-@ 29 sorties directed at different industries and the amount by which their production declined , but air attacks were not the only reason for these differences . In addition to the heavy bomber attacks , the operations by Allied aircraft carriers tightened the blockade by disrupting Japanese coastal shipping ; the naval aircraft were unable to carry enough bombs to seriously damage Japanese industrial plants , however . Compounding the effects of the air attacks , Japan 's rice crop of 1945 failed . The resulting shortage of rice caused widespread malnutrition , and mass starvation would have occurred had the war continued . In financial terms , the Allied air campaign and attacks on merchant ships destroyed between one third and a quarter of Japan 's wealth .
The attacks also caused extensive damage to Japan 's urban areas . Approximately 40 percent of the urban area of the 66 cities subjected to area attacks were destroyed . This included the loss of about 2 @.@ 5 million housing units , which rendered 8 @.@ 5 million people homeless . The urban area attacks reduced the morale of the Japanese population , and postwar surveys conducted by the USSBS found that air attacks were the most important factor in convincing the Japanese that the war had been lost . During the final months of the war the raids also contributed to the deterioration of the Japanese social fabric . However , civilian morale did not collapse due to the bombing , and post @-@ war investigations found that most Japanese had remained willing to continue the war if necessary .
Allied air raids significantly influenced the Japanese government 's decision to surrender . While the USSBS did not state that any single factor caused the surrender , during interrogations most Japanese wartime leaders nominated the prolonged air attacks on the home islands as the single most important factor which influenced their decision to end the war . In particular , Prime Minister Kantarō Suzuki stated that the combination of the conventional B @-@ 29 raids , Potsdam Declaration and atomic bombings gave the Government the opportunity to begin negotiations with the Allies . Emperor Hirohito cited damage from the attacks , inadequate preparations to resist invasion and the Soviet offensive as his justifications for authorizing the surrender . To achieve this , the American Twentieth Strategic Air Force , in concert with its Allies , dropped 160 @,@ 800 tons of bombs on the Japanese home islands . Of this total , 147 @,@ 000 tons of bombs were dropped by the B @-@ 29 bomber force . Around 90 percent of the American tonnage fell in the last five months of the war . The financial cost of the campaign to the United States was $ 4 billion ; this expenditure was much lower than the $ 30 billion spent on bomber operations in Europe , and a small proportion of the $ 330 billion the US Government spent on the war .
= = = Morality = = =
There has been debate over the morality of the air campaign against Japan since World War II . During the war the American public approved of the bombing of Germany and Japan , and the few people who criticized the raids were seen as unrealistic or even traitors . Some United States government and military personnel believed that the bombing campaign was morally ambiguous , however , but rarely voiced their views publicly .
The moral concerns over the attacks have focused on the large number of civilian casualties and property damage they caused . For this and other reasons , British philosopher A. C. Grayling has concluded that the Allied area bombing campaigns against both Japan and Germany constituted moral crimes . Mark Selden described the summer 1945 peak of the bombing campaign as " still perhaps unrivaled in the magnitude of human slaughter " and stated that the factors contributing to its intensity were a combination of " technological breakthroughs , American nationalism , and the erosion of moral and political scruples about killing of civilians , perhaps intensified by the racism that crystallized in the Pacific theater " . Edwin P. Hoyt wrote in 1987 that Japanese people commonly regard the Allied bombing of civilians as the worst atrocity of the war . It has also been suggested that anti @-@ Japanese sentiment was a factor motivating the USAAF 's emphasis on firebombing during the campaign against Japan while most of its raids on Germany used precision bombing tactics . However , historian Richard B. Frank argues that this difference was attributable to the evolution in views towards bombing over the course of the war , the limited intelligence on the structure of the Japanese economy available to the Allies and the much greater vulnerability of Japanese cities to incendiary bombs .
The moral defense of the attacks on Japanese cities rests on an argument that they saved lives by shortening the war . The USSBS concluded that the effects of strategic bombing and blockade would have forced Japan to surrender by the end of 1945 even if atomic bombs had not been used and the Soviet Union had remained neutral . Historian E. Bartlett Kerr supported this assessment , and argued that the firebombing of Japan 's major cities was the key factor motivating Hirohito 's decision to end the war . American historian Barrett Tillman has also written that area attacks were unavoidable because , owing to the limitations of their bombsight and the high winds common over Japan , the B @-@ 29s were incapable of bombing individual targets without also causing widespread damage to surrounding areas .
The atomic bomb attacks have been the subject of long @-@ running controversy . Shortly after the attacks an opinion poll found that about 85 percent of Americans supported the use of atomic weapons , and the wartime generation believed that they had saved millions of lives . Criticisms over the decision to use the bombs have increased over time , however . Arguments made against the attacks include that Japan would have eventually surrendered and that the attacks were made to either intimidate the Soviet Union or justify the Manhattan Project . In 1994 , an opinion poll found that 55 percent of Americans supported the decision to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki . When registering the only dissenting opinion of the judges involved in the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in 1947 , Justice Radhabinod Pal argued that Japan 's leadership had not conspired to commit atrocities and stated that the decision to conduct the atomic bomb attacks was the clearest example of a direct order to conduct " indiscriminate murder " during the Pacific War . Since then , Japanese academics , such as Yuki Tanaka and Tsuyoshi Hasegawa , have argued that use of the bombs was immoral and constituted a war crime . In contrast , President Truman and , more recently , historians such as Paul Fussell have argued that the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were justified as they induced the Japanese surrender .
On two occasions Japanese citizens have sued their government for damages from the bombings , arguing that the government is culpable for having waged a " reckless war " that provoked the bombings and for requiring civilians to remain in the targeted areas . In December 2009 the Tokyo District Court dismissed one of the suits , stating that it was not possible to identify individuals who deserve compensation as almost all Japanese suffered as a result of the war . The court also ruled that any compensation should be allocated through the legislative , rather than judicial , process . In December 2011 , the Osaka District Court handed down a similar ruling , adding that the government did not violate its constitution in its treatment of bombing victims . This judgement stated that there had not been " unreasonable disparity " in how civilians , soldiers , and atomic bomb survivors were treated , and that the government had showed " no gross deviation from its discretionary right in not legislating for redress measures " .
= No Line on the Horizon =
No Line on the Horizon is the twelfth studio album by Irish rock band U2 . It was produced by Brian Eno , Daniel Lanois , and Steve Lillywhite , and was released on 27 February 2009 . It was the band 's first record since How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb ( 2004 ) , marking the longest gap between studio albums of their career to that point . The band originally intended to release the songs as two EPs , but later combined the material into a single record . Photographer Anton Corbijn shot a companion film , Linear , which was released alongside the album and included with several special editions .
U2 began work on the album in 2006 with record producer Rick Rubin but shelved most of the material from those sessions . In May 2007 , the group began new sessions with Eno and Lanois in Fez , Morocco . Intending to write " future hymns " — songs that would be played forever — the group spent two weeks recording in a riad and involved the producers in the songwriting process . Having grown tired of writing in the first @-@ person , lead singer Bono wrote his lyrics from the perspective of different characters . Recording continued at several studios in the United States , United Kingdom , and Ireland through December 2008 . The group had intended to release No Line on the Horizon in November , but after composing 50 to 60 songs , they delayed the release to continue writing .
Prior to the album 's release , U2 indicated that Eno 's and Lanois ' involvement , as well as the band 's time in Fez , had resulted in a more experimental record than their previous two albums . The band compared the shift in style to that seen between The Joshua Tree ( 1987 ) and Achtung Baby ( 1991 ) . Upon its release , No Line on the Horizon received generally favourable reviews , although many critics noted that it was not as experimental as previously suggested . The album debuted at number one in 30 countries but did not sell as well as anticipated ; the band expressed disappointment over the relatively low sales , compared to previous albums , of five million copies . By contrast , the supporting U2 360 ° Tour from 2009 to 2011 , was the highest @-@ grossing concert tour in history , with ticket sales over $ 736 million .
= = Recording and production = =
= = = Aborted sessions with Rick Rubin = = =
In 2006 , U2 started work on the follow @-@ up to How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb ( 2004 ) , collaborating with producer Rick Rubin in southern France and at Abbey Road Studios in London . Later that year , the band released two songs from these sessions on the compilation album U218 Singles : a cover of the Skids ' " The Saints Are Coming " with Green Day , and " Window in the Skies " . In January 2007 , lead singer Bono said U2 intended to take their next album in a different musical direction from their previous few releases . He said , " We 're gonna continue to be a band , but maybe the rock will have to go ; maybe the rock has to get a lot harder . But whatever it is , it 's not gonna stay where it is . "
Rubin encouraged a " back to basics " approach and wanted the group to bring finished songs to the studio . This approach conflicted with U2 's " free @-@ form " recording style , by which they improvised material in the studio . They ultimately decided to end recording with Rubin ; though the material from these sessions was shelved , the band expressed interest in revisiting it in the future . They subsequently employed Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois as principal producers and co @-@ writers . Steve Lillywhite was also brought in to produce a few tracks .
= = = Sessions with Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois = = =
U2 began work with Eno and Lanois in May 2007 . Bono had accepted an invitation to the World Sacred Music Festival in Fez , Morocco , and he invited his bandmates , as well as Eno and Lanois , to attend . They rented the riad of the hotel Riad El Yacout and turned it into a makeshift recording studio , intending to create " future hymns " — songs that would be played forever .
The group spent two weeks in Fez , occasionally recording with an oud player and local percussionists . Recording during the festival exposed the group to Hindu and Jewish music , Sufi singing and Joujouka drums . The exotic influences inspired them to pursue a more experimental sound . Bassist Adam Clayton said the music they heard in Fez " had a primitivism ... but there was an other @-@ worldly feel , there was that connection with that Arabic scale . " Eno insisted that drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. use an electronic drum kit . The band described many of the tracks conceived in these sessions as unsuitable for radio airplay or for playing live . The open @-@ air riad allowed the group to hear birdsong , as captured in the introduction to " Unknown Caller " . The songs " Moment of Surrender " , " White as Snow " , " No Line on the Horizon " and " Unknown Caller " were written at this time ; each track was recorded in one take . In total , the band recorded approximately 10 songs during the two weeks . After leaving Fez , the band recorded in Hanover Quay Studios in Dublin , Platinum Sound Recording Studios in New York City , and Olympic Studios in London .
In pre @-@ release interviews , U2 compared the extent of their expected shift in musical style to that of Achtung Baby . The band scaled back these experimental pursuits , however ; Mullen , Jr. noted , " at a certain stage , reality hits , and you go , ' What are we gonna do with this stuff ? ' Are we going to release this sort of meandering experimentation , or are we gonna knock some songs out of this ? " Bono shared this opinion , stating , " We went so far out on the Sufi singing and the sort of ecstatic @-@ music front , that we had to ground it and find a counterpoint . " Eno commented that many of " the more contemplative and sonically adventurous songs " had been dropped , attributing the lack of African @-@ inspired music to its sounding " synthetic " and unconvincing when paired with other songs .
Clayton filmed the band 's progress during the album 's production ; these videos were added to the subscribers ' section of U2.com. On 16 August 2008 , an eavesdropping fan recorded several songs playing from Bono 's beach house in Èze , France . These " beach clips " were uploaded to YouTube , but removed at Universal Music 's request . In November 2008 , U2 guitarist The Edge confirmed the album 's working title as No Line on the Horizon and noted that the band had to move quickly to complete mixing to meet the new February release date . In an interview with Q , the group revealed that rapper will.i.am had worked with them on the track " I 'll Go Crazy If I Don 't Go Crazy Tonight " .
In December 2008 , U2 recorded at Olympic Studios in London , putting the finishing touches to the album and making several changes to its content . The group had planned to release the material as two extended plays , titled Daylight and Darkness , but during these sessions decided to compile the best songs onto one album . The band struggled to complete " Stand Up Comedy " , a song they had been working on since the Fez sessions 16 months previously . The song had been through multiple iterations and titles , including " For Your Love " and " Stand Up " . U2 cut " Winter " , a song Eno had urged them to complete , and " Every Breaking Wave " , which they cut to reduce the album 's running time . " Winter " appears in the accompanying Anton Corbijn film Linear and the 2009 war film Brothers . Both songs had been mentioned in pre @-@ release album reviews .
The band changed many of the tracks ' names during recording , retitling " French Disco " to " Magnificent " and " Crazy Tonight " to " I 'll Go Crazy If I Don 't Go Crazy Tonight " . " Chromium Chords " became " Tripoli " , and finally " Fez – Being Born " . The band considered " Fez – Being Born " and " Get on your Boots " as album openers , but ultimately decided on " No Line on the Horizon " . At the end of the sessions , the band chose to include " White as Snow " , a quiet song about a dying soldier in Afghanistan , to balance out the earlier , rockier tunes . With the exception of this track , U2 had tried to keep the theme of war out of the album . In early December 2008 , Clayton stated , " this is definitely the last week of recording . But then again , last week was definitely the last week of recording , and the week before that . " The final sessions ended later that month . No Line on the Horizon is dedicated to Rob Partridge , who signed the band 's first record deal in 1979 and died of cancer in late 2008 .
= = = Linear = = =
Linear , a film directed by Anton Corbijn , is included with the digipak , magazine , box , and deluxe iTunes editions of the album . The idea for the film originated from a U2 video shoot in June 2007 , during which Corbijn asked the band to remain still while he filmed them to create a " photograph on film " ; the band did not move but the objects around them did . Impressed , the band believed that the online album listening experience could be enhanced with moving imagery . In May 2008 , they commissioned Corbijn to create the film . Corbijn has claimed that Linear is not a music video but " a new way to listen to a record " and " a new way to use film to connect to music " .
The film is based on a story by Corbijn and Bono , and includes several of the characters Bono created for the album . The plot focuses on a Parisian motorcycle officer , played by Saïd Taghmaoui ; the character has become disillusioned with his life and the conflict between immigrants and the police in the city , causing him to leave to see his girlfriend in Tripoli . The song order in the film is representative of No Line on the Horizon 's as it was in May 2008 .
= = = Follow @-@ up album = = =
In February 2009 , Bono stated that by the end of the year , U2 would release an album consisting of unused material from the No Line on the Horizon sessions . Bono labelled it " a more meditative album on the theme of pilgrimage " . Provisionally titled Songs of Ascent , it would be a sister release to No Line on the Horizon , similar to Zooropa 's relationship to Achtung Baby . In June 2009 , Bono said that although nine tracks had been completed , the album would only be released if its quality surpassed that of No Line on the Horizon . A December 2009 report stated that U2 had been working in the studio with the goal of a mid @-@ 2010 release . The band revealed that the first single was intended to be " Every Breaking Wave " .
Over time , the album continued to be delayed . In April 2010 , U2 's manager Paul McGuinness confirmed that the album would not be finished by June , but indicated that a release " before the end of the year [ was ] increasingly likely . " In October 2010 , Bono stated that their new album would be produced by Danger Mouse , and that 12 songs had been completed . He also noted that U2 were working on a potential album of club music in the spirit of " U2 's remixes in the 1990s " . Around the same time , McGuinness said the album was slated for an early 2011 release . In February 2011 , he said that the album was almost complete and had a tentative release date of May 2011 , although he noted that Songs of Ascent was no longer the likely title . After numerous delays , U2 digitally released their thirteenth album , Songs of Innocence , on 9 September 2014 in a surprise release . The band appeared the same day at an Apple Inc. product launch event to announce the album and reveal it was being released to all iTunes customers at no cost .
In October 2014 , Bono said that Songs of Ascent " will come " and that the group views it as the third release in a possible trilogy of albums .
= = Composition = =
During the Hanover Quay sessions in 2008 , Bono indicated that he had become " tired of [ writing in ] the first @-@ person " , leading him to write songs from the perspective of different characters . He invented " a traffic cop , a junkie [ and ] a soldier serving in Afghanistan . " Although each character tells a personal story , the underlying theme of the album is peripheral vision , events taking place in the wider world , " just at the edges " . Bono described it as " central to the understanding of this album " . Nevertheless , as the characters narrate there is an intentional " shutting out " of the wider world , so that the focus remains on their " personal epiphanies " . The narrative the group originally planned for the album was broken up in the sessions ' final weeks with their changes to the track listing . Bono revealed that numbers were significant in many of the songs , and that the album was split into thirds ; he described the first section as " a whole world unto itself , and you get to a very ecstatic place " , and the second as " a load of singles " . The final third is composed of songs that are " unusual territory " for the band .
" No Line on the Horizon " stemmed from Mullen 's experiments with different drum beats ; Eno sampled and manipulated the patterns , and the rest of the band began to play over the beats . The lyrical idea of a place " where the sea meets the sky and you can 't tell the difference between the two " and the vocal delivery were both present from the start . Bono noted that the theme behind the song was infinity , and that the track was inherently optimistic . " Magnificent " is an up @-@ tempo song that begins with a synthesizer line by Eno . The band wanted a track that felt euphoric , and the melody , created from a series of chord changes during a jam , was worked on continuously by Bono . The setting in the lyrics was described by Lanois as " New York in the 50s " , written from the perspective of " a Charlie Parker kind of figure " . The song has been described as " echo [ ing ] The Unforgettable Fire 's opening track ' A Sort of Homecoming ' in its atmospheric sweep " .
The drug addict character appears in the songs " Moment of Surrender " and " Unknown Caller " . " Moment of Surrender " , improvised and recorded by U2 , Eno , and Lanois in a single take , demonstrates gospel influences . Eno and Lanois said the song is the closest to the group 's original concept for an album of future hymns . Eno noted , " Apart from some editing and the addition of the short cello piece that introduces it , the song appears on the album exactly as it was the first and only time we played it . " In the song , the addict is having a crisis of faith . In " Unknown Caller " , the character is suicidal and , while using his phone to buy drugs , begins receiving cryptic text messages with technology @-@ inspired directions . The track was developed early in the Fez sessions . The guitar solo at the song 's conclusion was taken from the backing track .
Eno developed " I 'll Go Crazy If I Don 't Go Crazy Tonight " during the Fez sessions , under the working title " Diorama " . U2 reworked it with Steve Lillywhite during a break from recording with Eno and Lanois . Some of the lyrics were influenced by Barack Obama 's presidential campaign , while others referenced Bono . Album reviews described the song as a joyous pop rock composition . " Get on Your Boots " stemmed from a guitar riff The Edge created and recorded at his home . At 150 beats per minute , the song is one of the fastest the band have recorded . Rolling Stone called it a " blazing , fuzzed @-@ out rocker that picks up where ' Vertigo ' left off . " Thematically , the song is about Bono taking his family on vacation to France and witnessing warplanes flying overhead at the start of the Iraq War . The chant " let me in the sound " was developed late in the recording sessions and became a motif throughout parts of the album .
" Stand Up Comedy " went through numerous iterations ; at one point , Lanois noted , " that song was about six different songs " . In its original concept , the track featured mandolins playing in a Middle Eastern beat . The riff was altered and a chorus of " for your love " was introduced . This version was discarded as the band came up with a new riff and lyrics , only retaining the " for your love " vocal . U2 liked the result at the end of the sessions , but felt that the song would appear too " crafted " ; they instead chose an older mix for inclusion on the album . Several of the song 's lyrics , including the line , " Be careful of small men with big ideas " , relate to Bono 's self @-@ mockery . The guitar sound from the experimental " Fez " portion of " Fez – Being Born " was developed while the band recorded " The Saints Are Coming " during the Rick Rubin sessions . Lanois edited the part , adding a beat developed by Eno , before playing it for the group . The sounds of a Moroccan marketplace were also added . The faster section of the song , " Being Born " , was altered into the same key as " Fez " and Lanois placed the two sections together , creating the one song . The " let me in the sound " chant from " Get on Your Boots " is included at the beginning of the track .
" White as Snow " focuses on the soldier character 's last thoughts as he dies from the wounds suffered from an improvised explosive device . The song is based on the traditional hymn " Veni , veni , Emmanuel " ; the idea to base the song on a public domain melody was suggested to Lanois by Newfoundland musician Lori Anna Reid . " Breathe " is set on 16 June , an intentional reference to James Joyce 's novel Ulysses . U2 worked on an earlier version of the song for a long time before they scrapped it and re @-@ recorded it with Lillywhite . Two sets of lyrics were also present ; one about Nelson Mandela , and the other " more surreal and personal " . The band decided to use the latter . " Cedars of Lebanon " , written from the perspective of a journalist covering a war overseas , was created in a similar manner to " Fez – Being Born " . The song 's melody was based on a sample of " Against the Sky " , a track Eno and Lanois had collaborated on with Harold Budd for the 1984 album The Pearl ; the group noted that the ambience of the song was " like a direct throwback to the early 80s " . The final verse is a condemnation of the Iraq War .
= = Release = =
At the music industry trade fair Midem in 2008 , Paul McGuinness said No Line on the Horizon would be ready for release in October 2008 . Lanois corroborated that in June 2008 , stating the album should be ready in 3 – 4 weeks . He said , " We 're just finishing the vocals . Bono 's in great form , singing fantastic . " On 3 September 2008 , U2.com posted an article in which Bono revealed that the new album would be out " in early 2009 " , also noting that " around 50 – 60 songs " had been recorded in the sessions . It was later confirmed the album would be released on 27 February 2009 in Ireland , 2 March in the UK , and 3 March in North America . The gap between How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb and No Line on the Horizon 's release was the longest of the band 's career to that point .
Universal Music Group took extreme measures to prevent the album from leaking , offering pre @-@ release listening sessions for critics instead of sending out review copies . However , Universal Music Australia 's online music store , getmusic.com.au , accidentally released the album for digital sale on 18 February 2009 , almost two weeks before the scheduled release date . The complete album appeared on the website for a short time before it was removed , and the accidental sale led to the album 's being leaked and shared across the Internet . U2 reacted to the leak with some positivity . The Edge stated , " The one good thing about that is a lot of our fans have already given us their thumbs up . Even though it was fans getting it for free . "
= = = Cover art = = =
The cover art for No Line on the Horizon is a photograph of Lake Constance , taken by Japanese photographer Hiroshi Sugimoto ; titled Boden Sea , it is one of 200 pictures in his Seascapes collection . The image was the inspiration for Bono 's lyrics on the track " No Line on the Horizon " . Sugimoto and U2 struck a deal in which the band could use the photograph as the cover art and Sugimoto could use " No Line on the Horizon " in his future projects ; Sugimoto 's only stipulation was that no text could be placed on top of the image . Original releases had an equals sign superimposed in the middle of the album cover , but later releases featured only the image . AMP Visual , who designed the equals sign , stated that it represents " a form of title for the album , from the universal language of mathematics , " taking inspiration from the album 's theme of " universal balance and contrast , of night and day . " Continuing the mathematical theme that the equals sign established , the packaging of the digipak special edition features a " little hidden code " in the form of a piece of the Fibonacci sequence .
Boden Sea had previously been used by Richard Chartier and Taylor Deupree for their 2006 album Specification.Fifteen. The album covers are similar , though No Line on the Horizon has a white border around the image , and Specification.Fifteen has a box at the top of the cover with the names of the artists and the album . Deupree called U2 's cover " nearly an exact rip @-@ off " and stated that for the band to obtain the rights to the image it was " simply a phone call and a check . " Sugimoto refuted both of these claims , calling the use of the same photograph a coincidence and stating that no money was involved in the deal with U2 .
= = = Formats = = =
No Line on the Horizon was released in five physical formats , three of which — the digipak , magazine , and box formats — were limited editions . The standard jewel case release contained a 24 @-@ page booklet . The LP vinyl release was pressed on two black discs and contained a 16 @-@ page booklet . The digipak release had a 36 @-@ page booklet and a poster , which was also included in the box release . A 60 @-@ page magazine was included in the magazine release . Linear was a downloadable feature in the digipak and magazine formats , and was a bonus DVD in the box release , which also contained a 64 @-@ page hardcover book .
The album was made available for pre @-@ order on the iTunes Store on 19 January 2009 , the day " Get on Your Boots " premiered on radio. iTunes album pre @-@ orders contained bonus tracks unavailable with any other version . Digital versions were available from Amazon.com in MP3 format , and from U2.com in MP3 and FLAC formats .
= = Promotion and singles = =
To promote No Line on the Horizon , U2 performed " Get on Your Boots " at the 51st Grammy Awards , the 2009 BRIT Awards , and the 2009 Echo Awards , although the album was not eligible for awards at any of the ceremonies . The band later appeared on French television and radio on 23 February 2009 , and on 26 February they taped a segment for Friday Night with Jonathan Ross , which was aired the next day . On 27 February , U2 made an appearance on a Live Lounge session for BBC Radio 1 , followed by a mini @-@ concert on the roof of Broadcasting House . On the week of 2 March 2009 , U2 appeared on CBS @-@ TV 's Late Show with David Letterman for five consecutive nights , the first time a musical guest had performed for an entire week on the show . The group performed " Breathe " , " Magnificent " , " I 'll Go Crazy If I Don 't Go Crazy Tonight " , " Beautiful Day " , and " Get on Your Boots " . On 3 March , Michael Bloomberg , Mayor of New York City , added a street sign reading " U2 Way " at 53rd Street in Manhattan , for the week that U2 performed on the Late Show . U2 also performed at Fordham University on 6 March 2009 for an appearance on ABC @-@ TV 's Good Morning America . From 9 to 11 March , the band participated in " U2 3 Nights Live " , a series of radio interviews and performances that were broadcast across North America and streamed live on U2.com.
From 11 to 17 February 2009 , U2.com hosted a promotion where 4 @,@ 000 fans could win a 7 @-@ inch single collector 's edition box set that contained all four of the singles released from No Line on the Horizon . An alternate version of the title track , " No Line on the Horizon 2 " , debuted on RTÉ 2XM on 12 February 2009 ; it was later used as the B @-@ side for the first single , " Get on Your Boots " . The full album began streaming on the group 's MySpace page on 20 February 2009 , and on U2.com a few days later .
Four singles were planned from the album , although only three were released . The first single , " Get on Your Boots " , was released as a digital download on 19 January 2009 , and in a physical format on 16 February 2009 . The iTunes store held the exclusive digital download rights to the single for the first 24 hours . The second single , " Magnificent " , was released on 4 May 2009 . The third single , " I 'll Go Crazy If I Don 't Go Crazy Tonight " , was released on 7 September 2009 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
No Line on the Horizon received generally favourable reviews . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 72 , based on 30 reviews . David Fricke of Rolling Stone gave it a five @-@ star score and called it " [ U2 's ] best , in its textural exploration and tenacious melodic grip , since 1991 's Achtung Baby . " In his review for Blender , Rob Sheffield stated " The days are gone when U2 were trying to keep it simple — at this point , the lads have realized that over @-@ the @-@ top romantic grandiosity is the style that suits them , so they come on like the cosmic guitar supplicants they were born to be . " Uncut magazine 's Andrew Mueller commented , " It 's U2 's least immediate album — but there 's something about it that suggests it may be one of their most enduring . " Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly graded it an " A − " and called the album " an eclectic and electrifying winner , one that speaks to the zeitgeist the way only U2 can and dare to do . " BBC Music reviewer Chris Jones said , " There 's plenty to rejoice about here " while noting that the " symbiotic relationship with Brian Eno ( and Daniel Lanois ) seems to have reached the point of imperceptibility . " NME contributor Ben Patashnik called the album " a grand , sweeping , brave record that , while not quite the reinvention they pegged it as , suggests they 've got the chops to retain their relevance well into their fourth decade as a band . "
In a less enthusiastic review , Time Out Sydney felt that the album is unfortunately Brian Eno 's new album rather than U2 's : " for all that 's new , there 's no way that you 'll mistake it for another band . " Pitchfork Media reviewer Ryan Dombal gave a score of 4 @.@ 2 out of 10 , stating , " the album 's ballyhooed experimentation is either terribly misguided or hidden underneath a wash of shameless U2 @-@ isms . " Kaj Roth of Melodic magazine described it as " more electronic and less rock " and stating that part of the album " reminds just too much of their early 90 's records " . Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun gave a rating of three and a half stars , comparing it to the 1990s albums Zooropa , Pop , and Original Soundtracks 1 while stating " This is no blockbuster ... It 's the least immediate U2 album in years , but one that diehard fans will enjoy living with " . Madeleine Chong of MTV Asia wrote that , " Although U2 should be lauded for their efforts at constant reinvention and pushing the envelope in the rock genre , [ No Line on the Horizon ] possesses neither the iconic qualities of The Joshua Tree or the radical yet relevant magnetism of Achtung Baby . " Toronto Star music critic Ben Rayner called the songs boring , adding that the ambience introduced by Eno and Lanois was " often all these vague , hook @-@ deficient songs have going for them . " Rob Harvilla of The Village Voice gave the album a mixed review and wrote that its songs " will remind you of other , much better songs , but in a way that only makes you want to go and listen to those other songs instead . " Time magazine also gave it an unfavourable review , calling the effort " unsatisfied " and " mostly restless , tentative and confused . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
No Line on the Horizon opened with strong sales , debuting at number one in thirty countries , including Australia , Belgium , Canada , France , Ireland , Japan , the Netherlands , Portugal , the United Kingdom , and the United States . Within one week of release , the album was certified platinum in Brazil , a record for the country . In the United States , it was U2 's seventh number @-@ one album ; first @-@ week sales exceeded 484 @,@ 000 , the band 's second @-@ highest figures after How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb . In the United Kingdom , the album became U2 's tenth number @-@ one album , making them the fifth @-@ most @-@ successful act on the UK Albums Chart . By June 2009 , over five million copies had been sold worldwide . Globally it was the seventh @-@ highest @-@ selling album of 2009 .
Sales of the album stalled midway through 2009 . By October , just over one million copies had been sold in the US , the group 's lowest in more than a decade . Through March 2014 , the album 's lifetime sales in the country totaled 1 @.@ 1 million copies . In the UK , the record sold less than a third of How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb 's figures , and a quarter of All That You Can 't Leave Behind 's . Global sales of No Line on the Horizon remained at five million copies through September 2010 . The album did not generate a hit single ; ABC noted that sales of How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb had been propelled by the track " Vertigo " which , although not a chart success , had become well @-@ known to the public from its use in iPod commercials .
= = = Accolades = = =
No Line on the Horizon was nominated in the Best Rock Album category at the 52nd Grammy Awards in 2010 . The song " I 'll Go Crazy If I Don 't Go Crazy Tonight " was nominated for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals and Best Rock Song . The cut song " Winter " was nominated for Best Original Song at the 67th Golden Globe Awards for its role in the film Brothers . Rolling Stone ranked No Line on the Horizon the best album of the year and the 36th @-@ best album of the decade , and " Moment of Surrender " as the best song of the year and the 36th @-@ best song of the decade . The Irish Independent placed it fourth on their list of the year 's top Irish albums , while Time listed the song " No Line on the Horizon " as the third @-@ best of 2009 .
= = U2 360 ° Tour = =
Following the release of No Line on the Horizon , U2 staged a worldwide stadium tour , titled the U2 360 ° Tour . Beginning on 30 June 2009 in Barcelona , the tour visited Europe , North America , Oceania , Africa and South America from 2009 to 2011 and comprised 110 shows . The concerts featured a 360 @-@ degree stage that the audience surrounded . To accommodate this , a large four @-@ legged structure nicknamed " The Claw " was built above the stage . At 50 meters ( 165 feet ) tall , it was the largest stage ever constructed and twice the size of the previous largest set , which was used on The Rolling Stones ' A Bigger Bang Tour . The idea for the stage had been proposed to the group by the set designer Willie Williams at the end of the Vertigo Tour in 2006 . The design was intended to overcome the staid traditional appearance of outdoor concerts where the stage was dominated by speaker stacks on either side . Despite grossing over US $ 311 million from 44 shows over its first two legs , the tour was barely breaking even , with production costs of approximately US $ 750 @,@ 000 per day . In 2010 , U2 's scheduled headline appearance at the Glastonbury Festival 2010 and their North American leg were postponed until the following year after Bono suffered a serious back injury . By its conclusion in July 2011 , U2 360 ° had set records for the highest @-@ grossing concert tour with $ 736 million in ticket sales , and for the highest @-@ attended tour with over 7 @.@ 2 million tickets sold .
During the first leg of the tour in Europe , the band typically played songs from No Line on the Horizon early in the set . " Breathe " , " No Line on the Horizon " , " Get on Your Boots " and " Magnificent " were played as the opening quartet , while " Unknown Caller " and a remixed arrangement of " I 'll Go Crazy If I Don 't Go Crazy Tonight " appeared close to the halfway point . " Moment of Surrender " closed every show . U2 made minor changes to the setlists for the second leg of the tour . " No Line on the Horizon " was performed later in the concerts , while " Unknown Caller " was dropped for several weeks before being revived towards the end of the leg . The band did not play " Stand Up Comedy " , " Fez – Being Born " , " White as Snow " , or " Cedars of Lebanon " at any point in 2009 . The 25 October 2009 concert at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena , California , U2 's penultimate concert of 2009 , was filmed and streamed live over YouTube . The shoot used 27 high definition cameras ; the concert was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray as U2 360 ° at the Rose Bowl on 3 June 2010 .
= = Legacy = =
Eight months after No Line on the Horizon 's release , Bono said he was disappointed with the album 's sales . Regarding the lack of commercial appeal , Bono said , " We weren 't really in that mindset . We felt that the ' album ' is almost an extinct species , and we [ tried to ] create a mood and feeling , and a beginning , middle and an end . And I suppose we 've made a work that is a bit challenging for people who have grown up on a diet of pop stars . " Clayton agreed that the album 's commercial reception must be " challenged " but said , " the more interesting challenge is , ' What is rock ' n ' roll in this changing world ? ' Because , to some extent , the concept of the music fan — the concept of the person who buys music and listens to music for the pleasure of music itself — is an outdated idea . " The Edge predicted that , despite its lack of a big hit , No Line on the Horizon would grow on listeners over time . He noted that the reaction to the songs in the live setting made U2 believe that the material was connecting with the fans , adding , " There 's a lot of records that make great first impressions . There might be one song that gets to be big on the radio , but they 're not albums that people ... play a lot . This is one that I gather from talking to people . ... Four months later , they 're saying , ' I 'm really getting into the album now . ' " McGuinness believed that the conditions of the music market were more responsible for the low sales than any decline in U2 's popularity .
Lillywhite believed that the African influences had not translated well onto the album , remarking : " It 's a pity because the whole idea of Morocco as a big idea was great . When the big idea for U2 is good , that is when they succeed the most , but I don 't think the spirit of what they set out to achieve was translated . Something happened that meant it did not come across on the record . " The Edge concurred , admitting that the group erred by " starting out experimental and then trying to bring it into something that was more accessible " . He added , " I think probably we should have said , ' It 's an experimental work . That 's what it is . ' " Mullen refers to the album as " No Craic on the Horizon " and said , " It was pretty fucking miserable . It turns out that we 're not as good as we thought we were and things got in the way . "
= = Track listing = =
• ( add . ) Additional production
Notes
" Cedars of Lebanon " features a sample from " Against The Sky " by Harold Budd and Brian Eno from the album The Pearl ( 1984 ) .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= USS Kentucky ( BB @-@ 66 ) =
USS Kentucky ( BB @-@ 66 ) was an uncompleted battleship originally intended to be the sixth and final member of the Iowa class constructed for the United States Navy . At the time of her construction she was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the U.S. state of Kentucky . Hull BB @-@ 66 was originally to be the second ship of the Montana class . However , the U.S. Navy 's experiences in World War II led it to conclude that it required more fast battleships to escort the new Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers that were being built . As a result , Kentucky was reordered as an Iowa @-@ class battleship midway through the war . Like her sister ship Illinois , Kentucky was still under construction at the end of hostilities and was caught up in the post @-@ war draw @-@ down of the armed services . Her construction was suspended twice , during which times she served as a spare parts cache of sorts . In the 1950s , there were several proposals to complete the ship as a guided missile battleship . These were abandoned primarily due to cost concerns , and Kentucky ultimately was sold for scrap in 1958 .
= = Background = =
Kentucky was conceived in 1935 , when the United States Navy initiated design studies for the creation of an extended South Dakota class that was not restricted by the Second London Naval Treaty . This resulting in one of the " fast battleship " designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair .
The passage of the Second Vinson Act in 1938 had cleared the way for construction of the four South Dakota @-@ class battleships and the first two Iowa @-@ class fast battleships ( those with the hull numbers BB @-@ 61 and BB @-@ 62 ) . The latter four battleships of the class , those designated with the hull numbers BB @-@ 63 , BB @-@ 64 , BB @-@ 65 , and BB @-@ 66 ( Missouri , Wisconsin , Illinois , and Kentucky , respectively ) were not cleared for construction until 12 July 1940 , . While BB @-@ 63 and BB @-@ 64 were originally planned as the final ships in the Iowa @-@ class to serve as fast escorts for the Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers , BB @-@ 65 and BB @-@ 66 were intended to be the first ships of the Montana class which was larger and slower while mounting twelve 16 in ( 410 mm ) Mark 7 guns . However , the passage of an emergency war building program on 19 July 1940 resulting in Illinois and Kentucky being re @-@ ordered as the fifth and sixth ships , respectively , of the Iowa class in order to save time on construction , so the first ship of the Montana @-@ class would be reassigned as BB @-@ 67 . The orders for BB @-@ 65 and BB @-@ 66 were placed on 9 September 1940 , and the ships were laid down on 6 December 1942 , and 7 March 1942 , respectively .
By 1942 the United States Navy shifted its building focus from battleships to aircraft carriers after the successes of carrier combat in both the Battle of the Coral Sea , and to a greater extent , the Battle of Midway . As a result , the construction of the US fleet of Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers had been given the highest priority for completion in the US shipyards by the US Navy . The Essex @-@ class carriers were proving vital to the war effort by enabling the Allies to gain and maintain air supremacy in the Pacific War , and were rapidly becoming the principal striking arm of the United States Navy in the ongoing effort to defeat the Empire of Japan . Accordingly , the United States accepted shortcomings in the armor their Iowa @-@ class battleships in favor of additional speed , which could steam at a comparable speed with the Essex @-@ class and provide the carriers with the maximum amount of anti @-@ aircraft protection . As a result , construction of the Montana @-@ class was canceled before their keels could be laid .
= = Construction = =
Kentucky 's main battery would have consisted of nine 16 in ( 406 mm ) / 50 cal Mark 7 guns , which could hurl 2 @,@ 700 lb ( 1 @,@ 200 kg ) armor @-@ piercing shells some 20 mi ( 32 km ) . Her secondary battery would have consisted of 20 5 in ( 127 mm ) / 38 cal guns arranged in 10 gun turrets , which could fire at targets up to 10 mi ( 16 km ) away . With the advent of air power and the mandate to gain and maintain air superiority came a need to protect the growing fleet of Allied aircraft carriers . To this end , Kentucky was to be fitted with an array of Oerlikon 20 mm and Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns to defend allied carriers from enemy airstrikes .
Because the Iowa @-@ class torpedo defense was virtually the same as the preceding South Dakota @-@ class battleships it was proposed that Kentucky 's hull be redesigned to provide a greater degree of torpedo protection for the battleship . Under the original construction schematics for the class each side of the ship was protected below the waterline by two tanks mounted outside the belt armor , and separated by a bulkhead . These tanks were initially planned to be empty , but in practice were filled with water or fuel oil . The armored belt tapered to a thickness of 4 inches ( 100 mm ) below the waterline . Behind the armored belt there was a void , and then another bulkhead . The outer hull was intended to detonate a torpedo , with the outer two compartments absorbing the shock and with any splinters or debris being stopped by the armored belt and the empty compartment behind it . In 1939 the Navy discovered that this system was considerably less effective than earlier torpedo defense systems , and as such the intended construction format for Kentucky would have addressed this problem by providing a 20 % improvement to the torpedo defense of the battleship while simultaneously reducing flooding in the event of a torpedo strike . Despite providing additional torpedo defense for Kentucky the records are unclear on the matter of whether or not the idea was actually adopted .
Kentucky 's construction was plagued by suspensions . Her keel was laid down at the Norfolk Navy Yard , Portsmouth , Virginia , on 7 March 1942 . However , work
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on the ship was suspended in June that year , and Kentucky 's bottom structure was launched to make room for LST construction on 10 June . While her construction was suspended , the Bureau of Ships considered an aircraft carrier conversion proposal for Kentucky and Illinois in the aftermath of the Battles of Coral Sea and Midway . As proposed , the converted Kentucky would have had an 864 @-@ foot ( 263 m ) long by 108 @-@ foot ( 33 m ) wide flight deck , with armament identical to the carriers of the Essex class : four twin 5 @-@ inch gun mounts and four more 5 @-@ inch guns in single mounts , along with six 40 mm quadruple mounts . The idea was abandoned after the Bureau of Ships decided that the converted ships would carry fewer aircraft than the Essex class , that more Essex @-@ class carriers could be built in the same amount of time , and that the conversion project would be significantly more expensive than new Essexes . Instead , Kentucky and Illinois were to be completed as battleships , but their construction was given very low priority . Work on the ship resumed on 6 December 1944 , when the keel structure was returned to the slipway . Work on the battleship proceeded at a slow pace , and her completion was projected for the third quarter of 1946 . In December 1945 it was recommended that Kentucky be completed as an anti @-@ aircraft battleship , and work on the ship was suspended in August 1946 while this was considered . Construction resumed again on 17 August 1948 without any decision having been made on her final design . Work on Kentucky continued until 20 January 1950 , when it was decided to halt work on the ship . Following this , she was floated out of her drydock to clear a space for repairs to sister ship Missouri , which had run aground en route from Hampton Roads .
= = Guided missile battleship = =
As early as 1946 , missile conversion projects for Kentucky and the incomplete large cruiser USS Hawaii were discussed . In the early 1950s , the advances in guided missile technology led to a proposal to create a large warship armed with both guns and missiles . To this end , the incomplete Kentucky was chosen for conversion from an all gun ship into a " guided missile battleship " . This proposal would have been relatively conservative , and would have involved the installation of a pair of twin arm launchers for the RIM @-@ 2 Terrier surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) on the aft deckhouse , with a pair of antennas for the associated AN / APG @-@ 55 pulse doppler interception radar installed forward of these , and the AN / SPS @-@ 2B air search radar on a short mast . Since the battleship was already approximately 73 % complete ( construction had been halted at the main deck ) , installation of the missile system and associated electronics would have involved only adding the necessary equipment without any need to rebuild the ship to accommodate the system . Some guided missile concepts included one or two launchers for eight Regulus II or SSM @-@ N @-@ 2 Triton nuclear cruise missiles . The guided missile battleship project was authorized in 1954 , and Kentucky was renumbered from BB @-@ 66 to BBG @-@ 1 , with the conversion due to be complete in 1956 . However , the project was soon cancelled , with the conversion ideas transferred to a smaller platform that led to the Boston @-@ class guided missile cruiser .
Another conversion project in early 1956 called for the installation of two Polaris ballistic missile launchers with a capacity for sixteen weapons . She would also be equipped with four RIM @-@ 8 Talos SAM launchers with eighty missiles per launcher and twelve RIM @-@ 24 Tartar SAM launchers with 504 missiles . A July 1956 estimate projected completing the ship by July 1961 , but the cost of the conversion ultimately forced the Navy to abandon the project .
= = Fate = =
Kentucky was never completed , instead serving as a parts hulk while in the mothball fleet at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard from about 1950 to 1958 . Hurricane Hazel hit the area on 15 October 1954 ; the storm caused Kentucky to break free from her moorings and run aground in the Delaware River . In 1956 , Kentucky 's bow was removed and used in the repair of Wisconsin , which had been damaged in a collision with the destroyer USS Eaton on 6 May 1956 . Congressman William Huston Natcher attempted to block the sale of the ship by objecting to the bill in August 1957 . Nevertheless , Kentucky was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 9 June 1958 and her incomplete hulk was sold for scrapping to Boston Metals Company of Baltimore , Maryland , on 31 October . Boston Metals Company paid $ 1 @,@ 176 @,@ 666 for the vessel , and towed her to their shipyard in Baltimore in February 1959 .
When the first two of the Sacramento @-@ class fast combat support ships , Sacramento and Camden , were laid down in 1961 and 1964 , the builders used Kentucky 's four turbine sets to power the ships . This would later prove to be a beneficial decision : when the Navy switched from 600 psi ( 4 @.@ 1 MPa ) boilers to 1 @,@ 200 psi ( 8 @.@ 3 MPa ) boilers , sailors who had served aboard Sacramento and Camden were posted to operate the older boilers aboard New Jersey during her combat tour in the Vietnam War and aboard all four of the Iowas when they were recalled and modernized in the 1980s as part of the 600 @-@ ship Navy plan . A pair of 150 @-@ pound ( 68 kg ) mahogany doors were donated by the state of Kentucky while the ship was still under construction ; they were used in an officer 's club in New York City before eventually being returned to the Kentucky Historical Society in early January 1994 .
= Tuck School of Business =
The Amos Tuck School of Business Administration is the graduate business school of Dartmouth College in Hanover , New Hampshire , United States . Founded in 1900 , Tuck is the oldest graduate school of business in the world , and was the first institution to offer master 's degrees in business administration . It is one of six Ivy League business schools .
Tuck grants only one degree , the Master of Business Administration , alongside shorter programs for executives and recent college graduates , as well as opportunities for dual degrees with other institutions .
= = History = =
At the turn of the 20th century , Dartmouth College president William Jewett Tucker decided to explore the possibility of establishing a school of business to educate the growing number of Dartmouth alumni entering the commercial world . Turning to his former roommate from his undergraduate years at Dartmouth , Tucker enlisted the support of Edward Tuck , who had since become a wealthy banker and philanthropist . Tuck donated $ 300 @,@ 000 in the form of preferred stock shares in a Minnesota railroad company as the capital to found the school . It was named the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance , after Edward Tuck 's father and Dartmouth alumnus Amos Tuck .
The new school 's tuition fee cost $ 100 for the few students who enrolled in the first year ; graduates of the two @-@ year program received a Master of Commercial Science degree ( MCS ) . The curriculum involved both traditional liberal arts fields as well as economic and finance education . Undergraduate professors taught most of the first @-@ year courses , while outside guest instructors and businesspeople educated students in their second years . As the nation 's first graduate school of business , the Tuck School 's emphasis on a broad education in general management was adopted by many other emerging business schools , and was dubbed the " Tuck Pattern " .
In the late 1920s , Dartmouth president Ernest Martin Hopkins sought to unify the Tuck School by establishing a central campus , uniting the school 's academic and residential facilities . Edward Tuck , then an aged man living in France , donated an additional $ 570 @,@ 000 for the effort . Using primarily his funds , four new buildings were constructed in 1929 on the west side of campus .
In 1942 , the school 's name changed to the Amos Tuck School of Business Administration , and in 1953 , the degree program changed to the modern Master of Business Administration ( MBA ) . Until the late 1950s and early 1960s , the Tuck School catered primarily to Dartmouth students , accepting undergraduates during their third year . Under Dean Karl Hill , Tuck shifted its focus to soliciting a national student body . The resulting expansion in the late 1960s saw additional growth of the campus with the construction of a new dormitory and the Murdough Center , which contains the Feldberg Business and Engineering Library . Under Deans Richard West ( 1976 – 1983 ) and Colin Blaydon ( 1983 – 1990 ) , the school 's curriculum and faculty expanded extensively , and applications increased by one @-@ third . Since the late 1980s , Tuck has continued to expand in student body and faculty size , and has seen the establishment of two new campus buildings as well as several research centers and nondegree business programs .
= = Campus = =
The Tuck School is located on the campus of Dartmouth College , which is situated in the rural , Upper Valley New England town of Hanover , New Hampshire . The campus of the Tuck School sits in a complex on the west side of Dartmouth 's campus , near the Connecticut River . Shortly after being founded in 1900 , Tuck was housed in a single building across from the Green at the center of the campus ; in 1930 , the institution moved into Stell , Chase , Tuck , and Woodbury Halls in its present location along the Tuck Mall . Today , these original structures serve as four of Tuck 's six academic and administrative buildings .
Tuck emphasizes its residential character , describing residential life as " a foundation of the Tuck culture " and crediting it as " a reason that Tuck alumni are among the most loyal of all the business school [ sic ] in the world . " Tuck 's isolated location has been described as an " image problem " for attracting successful applicants and faculty to its rural campus , although some students cite the insular location as a positive trait for fostering intimacy and friendship .
Currently , Tuck has five residential facilities : Buchanan Hall ( constructed 1968 ) and Whittemore Hall ( constructed 2000 ) Pineau @-@ Valencienne Hall , Achtmeyer Hall and Raether Hall ( 2008 ) . Further , a new complex called the Tuck Living and Learning Complex that will house 85 additional students as well as classrooms and study space is currently under construction . At a total cost of $ 27 @.@ 2 million , the Tuck LLC is expected to be ready for occupancy in December 2008 . The Tuck School shares the Murdough Center ( containing the Feldberg Business and Engineering Library ) the with the adjacent Thayer School of Engineering . The Tuck campus is serviced by Byrne Hall , a dining facility operated by Dartmouth Dining Services .
= = Academics = =
The Tuck School offers only a single degree : the two @-@ year , full @-@ time Master of Business Administration ( MBA ) . Students may specialize within the MBA in fields such as finance or marketing , but a specialization is not required for graduation . First @-@ year MBA students at Tuck undertake a 32 @-@ week core curriculum in general management and a specialized First Year Project . During their second year , students take 12 elective courses and design their own focused field of study .
The school stresses a collaborative and teamwork @-@ based approach to learning , which it touts as one of its assets for " building the interpersonal skills required for business leadership . " However , this emphasis on cooperative group learning has been criticized as too " touchy @-@ feely " for students entering the competitive business world , and the emphasis on consensus @-@ building as detrimental to students ' ability to make quick , independent decisions . The school 's academic programs have also been criticized for not offering their students a broader international perspective , though the school has sought to remedy this by offering globally @-@ oriented courses , programs , and research .
Students seeking other degrees can engage in one of seven dual @-@ degree or joint @-@ degree programs offered in conjunction with other academic institutions . Dual degrees include an MBA / Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy from The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University , an MBA / Master of Public Affairs from the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University , an MBA / Master of Studies in Environmental Law from the Vermont Law School , and an MBA / Master of Arts from the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies at Johns Hopkins University . Joint degrees include a Doctor of Medicine / MBA from the Dartmouth Medical School , a Master of Public Health / MBA from the Dartmouth 's Center for the Evaluative Clinical Sciences , and a Master of Engineering Management / MBA from Dartmouth 's Thayer School of Engineering . The school also offers a variety of second @-@ year exchange programs at other institutions such as the Handelshochschule Leipzig in Germany , the HEC School of Management in Paris , IESE Business School in Barcelona , and the London Business School .
In addition to the MBA program , the school also offers an array of executive education and other non @-@ degree programs , such as the Tuck Business Bridge Program for current and recent university undergraduates , and the Leadership Education and Development ( LEAD ) program for high school students .
= = = Organization and research = = =
Like the undergraduate portion of Dartmouth College , the Tuck School operates on a quarter system . As part of the larger institution , the Tuck School is ultimately administered by Dartmouth 's President and Board of Trustees . The school is directly managed by a Dean ( currently Paul Danos ) who is advised by a Board of Overseers that was established in 1951 .
Since the Tuck School offers only one degree , it does not contain formal academic departments as do other institutions . Instead , faculty are generally grouped in one or more of seven " academic areas " : accounting , finance and economics , marketing , operations management and management science , strategy and management , international business , and management communication . Tuck is also home to five research centers which organize research in different fields of business administration . The centers are meant to promote faculty research , establish liaisons between the Tuck School and the corporate world , and sponsor programs for Tuck as a whole ; MBA students are occasionally invited to participate as fellows and research associates . The five research centers are the William F. Achtmeyer Center for Global Leadership , the Center for Corporate Governance , the Center for International Business , the Center for Private Equity and Entrepreneurship , and the Glassmeyer / McNamee Center for Digital Strategies .
= = = Admissions and rankings = = =
In 2007 , the Tuck School was ranked first among MBA programs nationally by The Wall Street Journal and Forbes , fourth internationally by The Economist Intelligence Unit , seventh by U.S. News & World Report , ninth by the Financial Times , and eleventh ( in 2006 ) by BusinessWeek . Tuck claims that it places first when these six rankings are averaged .
Applicants to the Tuck School are evaluated based on undergraduate academic performance , Graduate Management Admission Test ( GMAT ) standardized test scores , essays , recommendations , written applications , and interviews , if applicable . 2 @,@ 276 applicants applied for approximately 240 slots in the class of 2009 , for an acceptance rate of 20 % . The average GMAT score of applicants was 710 , and the average undergraduate grade point average ( GPA ) of American applicants was 3 @.@ 4 .
= = People = =
= = = Student profile = = =
Tuck students , known as " Tuckies " , typically number about 480 students , with international students making up about 30 % of the student body . The school has relatively low percentages of women ( 32 % ) and minorities ( 15 % ) , which has been criticized as a weakness by students who desire more diversity in the school . Tuck has tried to address these shortcomings by offering additional scholarships to minority applicants and by promoting such programs as the annual Tuck Diversity Conference and participation in the Forté Foundation for women in business .
Like many other business schools , Tuck encourages its students to have post @-@ undergraduate work experience before applying to the MBA program . The average incoming student has five years of full @-@ time work experience , and the average student age is 28 , ranging from 25 to 32 years .
= = = Alumni = = =
Tuck claims the highest percentage of alumni donors of any business school in the world . It is the only business school in BusinessWeek 's study of American business schools to have at least 50 % of its alumni contribute to their alma mater 's annual funds , with 66 % making donations . The most popular career industries for graduates are management consulting ( 40 % ) and finance / accounting ( 37 % ) , with graduates ' annual base salaries averaging $ 100 @,@ 000 .
Alumni of Tuck 's MBA program who are prominent in business include entrepreneur Jim Butterworth , former Bristol @-@ Myers Squibb CEO Peter R. Dolan ' 80 , Digital Angel CEO Kevin McGrath ' 77 , and current Mattel CEO Christopher A. Sinclair ' 73 . In education , David T. McLaughlin ' 55 served as the president of Dartmouth College , and Robert Witt ' 65 as the president of the University of Alabama . Alumni in other fields include screenwriter and director Kamran Pasha ' 00 , U.S. Representative Herman T. Schneebeli ' 31 , and former XFL football player Kyle Schroeder ' 07 . Alumni of Tuck 's Executive Training program include The New York Times Company president and CEO Janet L. Robinson ' 96 and graphic designer David R. Brown .
= = = Faculty = = =
As of the 2007 @-@ 2008 school year , the Tuck School employs 46 full @-@ time faculty members and currently maintains a student @-@ faculty ration of 9 : 1 . Among Tuck 's notable professors and instructors are Professor of Economics Andrew Bernard , Professor of Marketing Kevin Lane Keller , Professor of Finance Kenneth French , Professor of International Economics Matthew J. Slaughter , Professor of International Business Vijay Govindarajan , Professor of Strategic Management Richard D 'Aveni , and Professor of Operations Management M. Eric Johnson . Former faculty include industrial efficiency pioneer Frederick Winslow Taylor , marketing professor Brian Wansink , and Michael Jensen , who taught as a visiting scholar .
= Black Stone =
The Black Stone ( or Hajarul Aswad , Arabic : الحجر الأسود al @-@ Ḥajar al @-@ Aswad ) is the eastern cornerstone of the Kaaba , the ancient stone building located in the center of the Grand Mosque in Mecca , Saudi Arabia . It is revered by Muslims as an Islamic relic which , according to Muslim tradition , dates back to the time of Adam and Eve .
The stone was venerated at the Kaaba in pre @-@ Islamic pagan times . According to Islamic tradition , it was set intact into the Kaaba 's wall by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the year 605 A.D. , five years before his first revelation . Since then it has been broken into a number of fragments and is now cemented into a silver frame in the side of the Kaaba . Its physical appearance is that of a fragmented dark rock , polished smooth by the hands of pilgrims . Islamic tradition holds that it fell from the heaven as a guide for Adam and Eve to build an altar , although it has often been described as a meteorite , a hypothesis which is now uncertain .
Muslim pilgrims circle the Kaaba as a part of the tawaf ritual during the hajj and many try to stop and kiss the Black Stone , emulating the kiss that Islamic tradition records that it received from Muhammad .
= = Physical description = =
The Black Stone consists of a number of fragments held together by a silver frame , which is fastened by silver nails to the Kaaba . The smaller fragments have been cemented together to form the seven or eight fragments visible today . The Stone 's exposed face measures about 20 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) by 16 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) . Its original size is unclear and the recorded dimensions have changed considerably over time , as the stone has been remodelled on several occasions .
In the 10th century , an observer described it as being one cubit ( 46 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 ft ) long ) . By the early 17th century , it was recorded as measuring 1 @.@ 4 metres ( 1 @.@ 5 yd ) by 1 @.@ 22 metres ( 1 @.@ 33 yd ) . According to Ali Bey in the 18th century , it was described as 110 centimetres ( 43 in ) high , and Muhammad Ali Pasha reported it as being 76 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 49 ft ) long by 46 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 51 ft ) wide .
The Black Stone was first mentioned in Western literature in the 19th and early 20th centuries by European travellers to Arabia , who visited the Kaaba disguised as pilgrims . Swiss traveler Johann Ludwig Burckhardt visited Mecca in 1814 , and provided a detailed description in his 1829 book Travels in Arabia :
It is an irregular oval , about seven inches in diameter , with an undulated surface , composed of about a dozen smaller stones of different sizes and shapes , well joined together with a small quantity of cement , and perfectly well smoothed ; it looks as if the whole had been broken into as many pieces by a violent blow , and then united again . It is very difficult to determine accurately the quality of this stone which has been worn to its present surface by the millions of touches and kisses it has received . It appeared to me like a lava , containing several small extraneous particles of a whitish and of a yellow substance . Its colour is now a deep reddish brown approaching to black . It is surrounded on all sides by a border composed of a substance which I took to be a close cement of pitch and gravel of a similar , but not quite the same , brownish colour . This border serves to support its detached pieces ; it is two or three inches in breadth , and rises a little above the surface of the stone . Both the border and the stone itself are encircled by a silver band , broader below than above , and on the two sides , with a considerable swelling below , as if a part of the stone were hidden under it . The lower part of the border is studded with silver nails .
Visiting the Kaaba in 1853 , Richard Francis Burton also noted that :
The colour appeared to me black and metallic , and the centre of the stone was sunk about two inches below the metallic circle . Round the sides was a reddish brown cement , almost level with the metal , and sloping down to the middle of the stone . The band is now a massive arch of gold or silver gilt . I found the aperture in which the stone is , one span and three fingers broad .
Ritter von Laurin , the Austrian consul @-@ general in Egypt , was able to inspect a fragment of the Stone removed by Muhammad Ali in 1817 and reported that it had a pitch @-@ black exterior and a silver @-@ grey , fine @-@ grained interior in which tiny cubes of a bottle @-@ green material were embedded . There are reportedly a few white or yellow spots on the face of the Stone , and it is officially described as being white with the exception of the face .
The frame around the Black Stone and the black kiswah or cloth enveloping the Kaaba were for centuries maintained by the Ottoman Sultans in their role as Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques . The frames wore out over time due to the constant handling by pilgrims and were periodically replaced . Worn @-@ out frames were brought back to Istanbul , where they are still kept as part of the sacred relics in the Topkapı Palace .
= = History and tradition = =
The Black Stone was held in reverence well before the preaching of Islam by Muhammad . By the time of Muhammad , it was already associated with the Kaaba , a pre @-@ Islamic shrine , that was a sacred sanctuary and a site of pilgrimage of Nabateans who visited the shrine once a year to perform their pilgrimage . The Kaaba held 360 idols of the Meccan gods . The Semitic cultures of the Middle East had a tradition of using unusual stones to mark places of worship , a phenomenon which is reflected in the Hebrew Bible as well as the Qur 'an , although bowing to or kissing such sacred objects is repeatedly described in the Tanakh as idolatrous and was the subject of prophetic rebuke . Some writers remark on the apparent similarity of the Black Stone and its frame to the external female genitalia , and ascribe this to its earlier association with fertility rites of Arabia .
A " red stone " was associated with the deity of the south Arabian city of Ghaiman , and there was a " white stone " in the Kaaba of al @-@ Abalat ( near the city of Tabala , south of Mecca ) . Worship at that time period was often associated with stone reverence , mountains , special rock formations , or distinctive trees . The Kaaba marked the location where the sacred world intersected with the profane , and the embedded Black Stone was a further symbol of this as an object as a link between heaven and earth .
= = = Muhammad = = =
According to Islamic belief Muhammad is credited with setting the Black Stone in the current place in the wall of the Kaaba . A story found in Ibn Ishaq 's Sirah Rasul Allah tells how the clans of Mecca renovated the Kaaba following a major fire which had partly destroyed the structure . The Black Stone had been temporarily removed to facilitate the rebuilding work . The clans could not agree on which one of them should have the honour of setting the Black Stone back in its place .
They decided to wait for the next man to come through the gate and ask him to make the decision . That individual happened to be the 35 @-@ year @-@ old Muhammad , five years before his prophethood . He asked the elders of the clans to bring him a cloth and put the Black Stone in its centre . Each of the clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and carried the Black Stone to the right spot . Then , Muhammad himself set the stone in place , satisfying the honour of all of the clans .
The Stone has suffered desecrations and significant damage over the course of time . It is said to have been struck and smashed to pieces by a stone fired from a catapult during the Umayyad siege of Mecca in 683 . The fragments were rejoined by Abd Allah ibn Zubayr using a silver ligament . In January 930 , it was stolen by the Qarmatians , who carried the Black Stone away to their base in Hajar ( modern Bahrain ) . According to Ottoman historian Qutb al @-@ Din , writing in 1857 , Qarmatian leader Abu Tahir al @-@ Qarmati set the Black Stone up in his own mosque , the Masjid al @-@ Dirar , with the intention of redirecting the hajj away from Mecca . However , this failed , and pilgrims continued to venerate the spot where the Black Stone had been .
According to historian Al @-@ Juwayni , the Stone was returned twenty @-@ three years later , in 952 . The Qarmatians held the Black Stone for ransom , and forced the Abbasids to pay a huge sum for its return . It was wrapped in a sack and thrown into the Friday Mosque of Kufa , accompanied by a note saying " By command we took it , and by command we have brought it back . " Its abduction and removal caused further damage , breaking the stone into seven pieces . Its abductor , Abu Tahir , is said to have met a terrible fate ; according to Qutb al @-@ Din , " the filthy Abu Tahir was afflicted with a gangrenous sore , his flesh was eaten away by worms , and he died a most terrible death . "
In the 11th century , a man allegedly sent by the Fatimid Caliph Al @-@ Hakim bi @-@ Amr Allah attempted to smash the Black Stone , but was killed on the spot , having caused only slight damage . In 1674 , according to Johann Ludwig Burckhardt , someone smeared the Black Stone with excrement so that " every one who kissed it retired with a sullied beard " . The Shi 'ite Persians were suspected of being responsible and were the target of curses from other Muslims for centuries afterwards , though explorer Sir Richard Francis Burton doubted that they were the culprits ; he attributed the act to " some Jew or Greek , who risked his life to gratify a furious bigotry . "
= = Ritual role = =
The Black Stone plays an important role in the central ritual of the hajj , when pilgrims must walk seven times around the Kaaba in a counterclockwise direction . They attempt to kiss the Black Stone seven times , once for each circumambulation of the Kaaba , emulating the actions of Muhammad . In modern times , large crowds make it practically impossible for everyone to kiss the stone , so it is currently acceptable to point in the direction of the Stone on each of their seven circuits around the structure .
Some even say that the Stone is best considered simply as a marker , useful in keeping count of the ritual circumambulations ( tawaf ) that one has performed . Its black colour is deemed to symbolize the essential spiritual virtue of detachment and poverty for God ( faqr ) and the extinction of ego required to progress towards God ( qalb ) .
Writing in Dawn in Madinah : A Pilgrim 's Progress , Muzaffar Iqbal described his experience of venerating the Black Stone during a pilgrimage to Mecca :
At the end of the second [ circumabulation of the Kaaba ] , I was granted one of those extraordinary moments which sometimes occur around the Black Stone . As I approached the Corner the large crowd was suddenly pushed back by a strong man who had just kissed the Black Stone . This push generated a backward current , creating a momentary opening around the Black Stone as I came to it ; I swiftly accepted the opportunity reciting , Bismillahi Allahu akbar wa lillahi @-@ hamd [ " In the name of God , God is great , all praise to God " ] , put my hands on the Black Stone and kissed it . Thousands of silver lines sparkled , the Stone glistened , and something stirred deep inside me . A few seconds passed . Then I was pushed away by the guard .
= = Meaning and symbolism = =
Islamic tradition holds that the Black Stone fell from Jannah to show Adam and Eve where to build an altar , which became the first temple on Earth . Muslims believe that the stone was originally pure and dazzling white , but has since turned black because of the sins of the people who touch it . According to a prophetic tradition , " Touching them both ( the Black Stone and al @-@ Rukn al @-@ Yamani ) is an expiation for sins . " Adam 's altar and the stone were said to have been lost during Noah 's Flood and forgotten . Ibrahim was said to have later found the Black Stone at the original site of Adam 's altar when the angel Jibrail revealed it to him . Ibrahim ordered his son Ismael — who in Muslim belief is an ancestor of Muhammad — to build a new temple , the Kaaba , into which the Stone was to be embedded .
A hadith records that , when the second Caliph Umar ibn al @-@ Khattab ( 580 – 644 ) came to kiss the Stone , he said in front of all assembled : " No doubt , I know that you are a stone and can neither harm anyone nor benefit anyone . Had I not seen Allah 's Messenger [ Muhammad ] kissing you , I would not have kissed you . " However , in the hadith collection Kanz al @-@ Ummal , it is recorded that Ali responded to Umar , saying , " This stone ( Hajar Aswad ) can indeed benefit and harm .... Allah ( swt ) says in Quran that he created human beings from the progeny of Adam ( as ) and made them witness over themselves and asked them , ' Am I not your creator ? ' Upon this , all of them confirmed it . Thus Allah wrote this confirmation . And this stone has a pair of eyes , ears and a tongue and it opened its mouth upon the order of Allah ( swt ) , who put that confirmation in it and ordered to witness it to all those worshippers who come for Hajj . "
Muhammad Labib al @-@ Batanuni , writing in 1911 , commented on the practice that the pre @-@ Islamic practice of venerating stones ( including the Black Stone ) arose not because such stones are " sacred for their own sake , but because of their relation to something holy and respected . " The Indian Islamic scholar Muhammad Hamidullah summed up the meaning of the Black Stone :
[ T ] he Prophet has named the ( Black Stone ) the ' right hand of God ' ( yamin @-@ Allah ) , and for purpose . In fact one poses there one 's hand to conclude the pact , and God obtains there our pact of allegiance and submission . In the qur 'anic terminology , God is the king , and … in ( his ) realm there is a metropolis ( Umm al @-@ Qurra ) and in the metropolis naturally a palace ( Bait @-@ Allah , home of God ) . If a subject wants to testify to his loyalty , he has to go to the royal palace and conclude personally the pact of allegiance . The right hand of the invisible God must be visible symbolically . And that is the al @-@ Hajar al @-@ Aswad , the Black Stone in the Ka 'bah .
In recent years , however , several literalist views of the Black Stone have emerged . A small minority accepts as literally true an allegorical hadith which asserts that " the Stone will appear on the Day of Judgement ( Qiyamah ) with eyes to see and a tongue to speak , and give evidence in favor of all who kissed it in true devotion , but speak out against whoever indulged in gossip or profane conversations during his circumambulation of the Kaaba " .
Carl Jung notes in Memories , Dreams , Reflections that biblical symbol of stones are numerous , as in this sense the stone symbolizes what is perhaps the deepest experience - the experience of something that is eternal that man can have in those moments when he feels immortal and unalterable . He adds holiest sanctuary of the Islamic world is the Ka 'aba , the black stone of Mecca to which all pious Moslems hope to make their pilgrimage at least once in their life .
= = Scientific origins = =
The nature of the Black Stone has been much debated . It has been described variously as basalt stone , an agate , a piece of natural glass or — most popularly — a stony meteorite . Paul Partsch , the curator of the Austro @-@ Hungarian imperial collection of minerals , published the first comprehensive history of the Black Stone in 1857 in which he favoured a meteoritic origin for the Stone . Robert Dietz and John McHone proposed in 1974 that the Black Stone was actually an agate , judging from its physical attributes and a report by an Arab geologist that the Stone contained clearly discernible diffusion banding characteristic of agates .
A significant clue to its nature is provided by an account of the Stone 's recovery in 951 AD after it had been stolen 21 years earlier ; according to a chronicler , the Stone was identified by its ability to float in water . If this account is accurate , it would rule out the Black Stone being an agate , a basalt lava or a stony meteorite , though it would be compatible with it being glass or pumice .
Elsebeth Thomsen of the University of Copenhagen proposed a different hypothesis in 1980 . She suggested that the Black Stone may be a glass fragment or impactite from the impact of a fragmented meteorite that fell some 6 @,@ 000 years ago at Wabar , a site in the Rub ' al Khali desert 1 @,@ 100 km east of Mecca . The craters at Wabar are notable for the presence of blocks of silica glass , fused by the heat of the impact and impregnated with beads of a nickel @-@ iron alloy from the meteorite ( most of which was destroyed in the impact ) . Some of the glass blocks are made of shiny black glass , with a white or yellow interior and gas @-@ filled hollows , which allow them to float on water . Although scientists did not become aware of the Wabar craters until 1932 , they were located near a caravan route from Oman and were very likely known to the inhabitants of the desert . The wider area was certainly well @-@ known ; in ancient Arabic poetry , Wabar or Ubar ( also known as " Iram of the Pillars " ) was the site of a fabulous city that was destroyed by fire from the heavens because of the wickedness of its king . If the estimated age of the crater is accurate , it would have been well within the period of human habitation in Arabia and the impact itself may have been witnessed . A recent ( 2004 ) scientific analysis of the Wabar site suggests that the impact event happened much more recently than first thought and might have occurred only within the last 200 – 300 years .
The meteoritic hypothesis is now viewed by geologists as doubtful . The British Natural History Museum suggests that it may be a pseudometeorite , in other words a terrestrial rock mistakenly attributed to a meteoritic origin .
= One Thing ( One Direction song ) =
" One Thing " is a song by English @-@ Irish boy band One Direction from their debut studio album , Up All Night ( 2011 ) . It was released in various countries by Syco Music on 6 January 2012 , as their second single , and as their third single in the UK on 13 February 2012 . Additionally , Columbia Records sent it to contemporary hit radio playlists on 22 May 2012 as their second single in the United States . Written by Savan Kotecha and its producers , Carl Falk and Rami Yacoub , initially , the upbeat pop rock number was written as two different songs . As both tracks had elusive attributes , the trio decided to merge the two into one song . The lyrical content regards the protagonist 's infatuation with a significant other .
" One Thing " garnered mostly positive reviews from music critics , who generally commended the track 's catchiness . The single reached the top ten in Australia , Ireland and the United Kingdom , while attaining top @-@ forty positions in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Canada , New Zealand , and the United States . The number has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of one million copies . Directed by Declan Whitebloom , the accompanying music video depicts One Direction performing in and around London . The group performed " One Thing " on televised programmes and four major concert tours : Up All Night Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) , Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) , Where We Are Tour ( 2014 ) and On the Road Again Tour ( 2015 ) . This song is the eleventh track on Now 43 .
= = Background and release = =
After being formed and finishing third in the seventh series of The X Factor in 2010 , One Direction were signed to Syco Music . Recording for their debut studio album , Up All Night , began in January 2011 . In February 2011 , the boy band and other contestants from the series participated in the X Factor Live Tour . After the tour concluded in April 2011 , the group continued working on their debut album . Carl Falk and Rami Yacoub produced three songs on the album : " What Makes You Beautiful , " " One Thing " and " I Wish , " all of which were co @-@ written by Falk , Yacoub and Savan Kotecha . Initially , " One Thing " was written as two different songs : " One had a really , really good verse " and the other track " had a really , really good chorus " , as noted by Falk in a 2012 interview with Examiner.com. Falk quipped that when they merged the two songs , " everything fell into place " . Additionally , Falk deemed it the perfect accompaniment to " What Makes You Beautiful " and selected it as his favourite " out of the three tracks [ that I have on the Up All Night album ] " .
It premiered on BBC Radio 1 on 21 November 2011 . One Direction confirmed that " One Thing " would be released as the third single from their debut studio album , Up All Night , on 22 November 2011 . Syco Music described the song as an " epic pop smash @-@ in @-@ waiting , featuring soaring vocal harmonies , powerhouse guitar riffs and an anthemic chorus that refuses to leave your head . " The track was released digitally in various European countries on 6 January 2012 . " I Should Have Kissed You " , the B @-@ side to " One Thing " , was confirmed on 25 January 2012 . CD singles , containing " One Thing " and " I Should Have Kissed You " , were released on 13 February 2012 in the United Kingdom . In addition , " One Thing " was released as second US single from Up All Night ; Columbia Records sent it to contemporary hit radio ( CHR ) playlists on 22 May 2012 .
= = Composition = =
" One Thing " is an upbeat , uptempo pop rock number which runs for three minutes and ten seconds . Its instrumentation includes piano lines , vocals , and guitar strings . The lyrical content regards the protagonist 's infatuation with a significant other , while the lead vocals are predominantly sung by members Harry Styles and Liam Payne . According to the digital sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , One Direction 's vocal range in the span from the note of B3 to D5 . Written in the key of D major , the song set in the time signature of common time at a fast @-@ paced tempo of 128 beats per minute . The track incorporates rock music influences and a simplistic guitar riff . The chorus of the song is predominantly featured alongside the bridge and is backed by wordless chants . The song has been noted as musically similar to the Backstreet Boys song " I Want It That Way " and to the group 's debut single , " What Makes You Beautiful " .
= = Critical reception = =
Due to its resemblance to the aforementioned Backstreet Boys number , PopMatters 's Zachary Houle suggested that there could occur " a pretty compelling case to launch a plagiarism lawsuit " , concluding : " Homage or theft ? You decide " . Brian Mansfield from USA Today felt the song 's Backstreet Boys @-@ references " may or may not be intentional , " but noted that the attribute " is the same . " Lewis Corner from Digital Spy awarded the song four out five stars , complimented the song 's guitar riff , its " forceful " chorus , and the melody as memorable , and summarised it as an " arena @-@ ready hit " . A Newsround reviewer gave the song four and half stars out five stars , praising the group 's vocal performance and its sonic palette . Billboard correspondent Jason Lipshutz hailed " One Thing " as " perfectly executed pop rock " and opined that it " could own radio for months " . Cosmopolitan 's Sophie Goddard lauded " One Thing " as an " upbeat , catchy , hit @-@ in @-@ waiting , " and Entertainment Weekly writer Adam Markovitz commended it as " irresistibly bouncy " .
= = Commercial performance = =
" One Thing " peaked at number six on the Irish Singles Chart in the week ending 16 February 2012 , becoming the band 's third top ten appearance in Ireland . The single bowed at number 28 on the UK Singles Chart dated 22 January 2012 . Buoyed by weekly sales of 31 @,@ 602 copies in the week of 19 February 2012 , it peaked at number nine in the United Kingdom and marked the group 's third consecutive top ten hit . " One Thing " was One Direction 's second best @-@ selling song in the UK by August 2012 , denoting sales of 154 @,@ 000 copies . Due to strong digital downloads from its parent album , " One Thing " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 90 on 21 March 2012 , and had sold 300 @,@ 000 copies in the US by 21 May 2012 . After being serviced to radio formats on 22 May 2012 , " One Thing " peaked at number 39 for the week ending 20 June 2012 . On 21 September 2012 , " One Thing " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and as of November 2013 , the song had sold 1 @,@ 486 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
It peaked at number 17 on the Canadian Hot 100 and was certified platinum by Music Canada on 10 July 2012 , denoting sales of 80 @,@ 000 copies . The song debuted at number 34 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on 23 January 2012 . After fifteen weeks of fluctuation around the top forty , " One Thing " rose from number 28 to 16 , signifying its peak position . " One Thing " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for sales of 7 @,@ 500 units . The single bowed at number 32 on the Australian Singles Chart of 12 February 2012 . " One Thing " peaked at number three in its tenth charting week , becoming One Direction 's highest peaking single in the country at the time and their second top ten hit . One Direction became the second act of 2012 to have two singles simultaneously occupying the chart 's top ten when " One Thing " was at number six and " What Makes You Beautiful " at number ten for the chart week ending 22 April 2012 . The single has been certified quadruple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , indicating shipments of 280 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video was directed by Declan Whitebloom in London on 28 November 2011 . Whitebloom approached shooting the clip with a " what you get , is what you get " sentiment , which , as he noted , " can create some real magic . " In regard to its concept , Whiteboom characterised the clip as " kind of Monkees or Beatles @-@ esque " , elaborating that it revolves around " five lads go [ ing ] crazy in London , it 's like a big day out in London . " In a December interview with Capital FM , member Harry Styles reflected that the shoot was a fun , careless romp . Premiering on YouTube on 13 January 2012 , the music video depicts the band performing in and around London . As of April 2016 , the music video has garnered more than 460 million YouTube views . One Direction surged 35 @-@ 10 from the previous week on Billboard 's Social 50 chart . Alex Hughes of The Huffington Post commented that the music video has an effortless element of happiness , proclaiming : " if you fail to crack a smile , there is a 100 percent chance that you are the devil . "
= = Live performances = =
One Direction performed " One Thing " live for the first time at Capital FM 's Jingle Bell Ball on 4 December 2011 , at the The O2 Arena . The group performed " One Thing " and " What Makes You Beautiful " on Dancing on Ice on 5 February 2012 . In the United States , One Direction performed the song along with " More than This " and " What Makes You Beautiful " for the first time on The Today Show at the Rockefeller Center on 12 March 2012 . An estimated 15 @,@ 000 fans descended on the plaza . On 7 April 2012 , One Direction performed " What Makes You Beautiful " and " One Thing " and appeared in a comedy sketch with Sofia Vergara on comedy television show Saturday Night Live . The group played " What Makes You Beautiful " and " One Thing " and presented an award for " Most Popular New Female Talent " at the 54th Logie Awards on 15 April 2012 . On 6 September 2012 , One Direction performed " One Thing " at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards . It was included on the set list of the group 's headlining sold @-@ out show at Madison Square Garden on 3 December 2012 . Additionally , One Direction performed the song on two of their major concert tours : Up All Night Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) and Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Track listing = =
UK CD single
" One Thing " – 3 : 19
" I Should Have Kissed You " – 3 : 34
Digital download
" One Thing " – 3 : 19
" I Should Have Kissed You " – 3 : 34
" One Thing " ( acoustic ) – 3 : 04
" One Thing " ( acoustic ; music video ) – 3 : 08
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= You 're Not the One =
" You 're Not the One " is a song by American recording artist Sky Ferreira from her debut studio album Night Time , My Time ( 2013 ) . Released on September 24 , 2013 by Capitol Records , it served as the album 's lead single . The song was written and produced by Ariel Rechtshaid and Justin Raisen , with additional songwriting provided by Ferreira and Daniel Nigro . It is styled in indie rock and electropop , while its lyrics portray a relationship in which there is not enough mutual interest .
Contemporary music critics provided positive reviews for " You 're Not the One " , selecting it as a standout from its parent album and highlighting its overall sound . Grant Singer directed a music video for the track , which was released in September 2013 . It follows the relationship between Ferreira and a possible love interest , interspersed with shots of her dancing in front of lasers . The song has been performed by Ferreira on several live events , some of which were television shows .
= = Background = =
" You 're Not the One " was written in 2012 , at a time when — according to Ferreira — she " was in a different headspace " . " I had been dating someone for three years , since I was 17 , and that person guarded me from everything " , she said . Ferreira explained that her life was essentially limited to modelling , crafting songs and " watch [ ing ] TV " , which resulted in her not having a " chance to discover [ her ] self . "
The track was recorded in 2013 by Ariel Rechtshaid , at the Heavy Duty Studios in Los Angeles . Rechtshaid and Justin Raisen produced the track , contributed towards its instrumentation and provided background vocals for the song . The two played the keyboard while they were accompanied by Daniel Nigro when playing the electric guitar ; Rechtshaid played the bass and Garrett Ray helmed the drums . During post @-@ production , David Schiffman mixed the song and Emily Lazar mastered it .
During a July 2013 interview with Glamour , Ferreira announced that the track would serve as the lead single from an upcoming extended play — which ultimately became her debut album Night Time , My Time . The single cover for " You 're Not the One " was revealed on September 9 , 2013 , and the song itself was released 15 days later , on September 24 . An official remix of the track by producer Cid Rim was released online in March 2014 ; a commercial release of that remix , packaged with three others in a digital EP format , followed in June . The Blood Diamonds Remix version of the song was featured in Jimmy Choo 's commercial for Illicit fragrance .
= = Composition = =
" You 're Not the One " displays a fusion of pop and indie rock styles while incorporating electropop as well . Ferreira stated that she conceptualized the track as a " super @-@ poppy version " of David Bowie 's eleventh studio album Low ( 1977 ) ; she was told that the song itself resembles the works of singer @-@ songwriter Siouxsie Sioux . Its instrumentation is marked by the mixture of pounding , " crude " percussion and electric guitar riffs , accompanied with " tinny six @-@ stringer scrapes " . Annie Zaleski of The A.V. Club described its sonority as having " gothic overtones " and being a " homage " to the " late @-@ 80s " works of band The Cure .
The songs ' lyrics were written by Ferreira , Rechtshaid , Raisen and Nigro ; they depict a relationship in which two love partners do not express sufficient mutual interest , due to the fact that they do not pursue each other . The Washington Post 's Lavanya Ramanathan dubbed the song a " breakup tune " and wrote that in it , Ferreira embodies a teenager with " guy problems " . For CMJ , Brooke Segarra billed the track as a " sexually assertive " number and interpreted the song 's lyrical theme as listing the " mistakes and shortcomings " that come " with sex " . Elias Leight of the PopMatters website wrote that a recurring theme in the album — also represented in " You 're Not the One " — is Ferreira 's " rejection of the opposite sex " .
The song 's official remix , produced by Cid Rim , removes the " pop rock " edge of the song in favor of an electronica and hip hop @-@ influenced sound . In this version , the verses display handclaps underneath Ferreira 's vocals , which are more pitched than in the original and " cut up " as well . Carl Williott of Idolator billed it as " an intriguing listen " .
= = Critical reception = =
" You 're Not the One " received positive feedback from contemporary music critics . Heather Phares of AllMusic selected the song as one of Night Time , My Time 's stronger tracks , as did Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner ; the latter elaborated that it " continues the premise that [ Ferreira ] has finally emerged as an artist who knows what she wants " . Bryant Kitching from Consequence of Sound deemed it a musical highlight from the album . Comparing the song 's guitar @-@ led opening to " Johnny Marr on a sugar rush " , he also called it the album 's " most rewarding moment " . Writing for magazine Spin , Marc Hogan echoed praise for the song — he described it as " impressively catchy and emotionally communicative " and also said it was " the type of track that might inspire a label to green @-@ light — finally — her debut album " . musicOMH 's Nina Bertok highlighted the song 's mixture of genres and catchiness , and also praised the " killer " chorus . The staff of The Guardian listed " You 're Not the One " as the eighteenth best track of 2013 , whereas Melissa Locker of Time , who made a similar list , included the song as the nineteenth best of that year .
= = Music video = =
The official music video for " You 're Not the One " was directed by Grant Singer , and written and co @-@ produced by V magazine senior editor Patrik Sandberg . Ferreira announced plans to shoot a visual for the track in July 2013 , and stated that Singer would direct it . According to Singer , the video took nine months to craft ; it was originally supposed to be filmed in Berlin so it had a " Christiane F. vibe " , however this did not occur due to unknown reasons . Sandberg suggested the twist ending and the use of an ice pick , which he thought should be used as a " narrative tool " instead of just a prop . Singer described the overall video as " sinister and pop " . The video was filmed at The Lash , a nightclub in Los Angeles , where Ferreira is seen dancing in front of multicolored lasers .
The video begins with Ferreira walking towards a blue projector screen , wearing black sunglasses , a black jacket and a transparent , fishnet @-@ pattern top . Ferreira stops and removes the jacket slowly as a group of voyeurs observes her . During her act , she continuously looks towards a man with shades and long hair , who sips a drink while watching Ferreira . Outside the nightclub , she is seen again with that man — her apparent love interest — as they kiss each other and involve themselves physically . They reencounter in a black room where Ferreira sticks an ice pick on his face ; in response , he slaps her , to which she smiles and they start kissing again . After they reenter the nightclub , another man kisses her , while her love interest looks surprised . The latter walks away and finds a woman with whom he starts dancing and kissing , much to Ferreira 's sadness . The next morning , she wakes up in a grass field with red marks on her face while holding the ice pick , which is now covered in blood . In a different setting , the man , who is lying on a bed , sees his stomach cut with the word " not " , dripping blood as well . Spin 's Marc Hogan found the video too " focused on Ferreira 's model " abilities to " complement the song effectively " .
= = Live performances = =
Ferreira had already been performing " You 're Not the One " before its formal release — at her concert on the last day of the 2013 Pitchfork Music Festival , she sung it as the ninth track of her setlist . After the song 's digital release , she promoted it on television shows and radio lounges . On November 26 , 2013 she sung the track during an appearance on The Late Show with David Letterman , where she wore " opaque black sunglasses " and a black blazer over a " sheer top " . Ferreira , who opened the American leg of Miley Cyrus ' Bangerz Tour , included the song in her setlist for those concerts . On February 27 , 2014 — as she was on an interruption from the tour — Ferreira performed the song on Jimmy Kimmel Live . Dressed in a leather jacket , shades and with her hair wet , she was praised by Ben Kaye from Consequence of Sound for her " dazzling rendition " of the song . " You 're Not the One " was later performed on March 12 of that year on a BBC Radio 1 session .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" You 're Not the One " — 3 : 55
Remixes EP
" You 're Not the One " ( Little Daylight Remix ) — 3 : 38
" You 're Not the One " ( Cid Rim Remix ) — 4 : 06
" You 're Not the One " ( Blood Diamonds Remix ) — 3 : 29
" You 're Not the One " ( Benny Cassette Mix ) — 3 : 23
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Night Time , My Time .
Recording
Recorded at Heavy Duty Studios ( Los Angeles )
Personnel
Daniel Nigro – songwriting , additional vocals , guitar
Justin Raisen – songwriting , additional vocals , keyboard , guitar
Ariel Rechtshaid – songwriting , additional vocals , keyboard , guitar , bass
Garrett Ray – drums
Nick Rowe – editing
= = Release history = =
= Diamond Trust of London =
Diamond Trust of London is a turn @-@ based strategy video game by Jason Rohrer , with music by Tom Bailey . Following a crowdfunding campaign on Kickstarter the game was published by indiePub and released for the Nintendo DS on August 28 , 2012 . The game has been placed in the public domain and is hosted on SourceForge .
Inspired by German @-@ style board games , Diamond Trust of London is played between two players , each controlling a diamond trading company . The game is set in 2000 , before the implementation of the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme to curb the blood diamond trade , and the player 's aim is to extract diamonds from Angola over the nine turns which comprise a game . To extract the most diamonds and win , players resort to a combination of bribery and deception .
First pitched in 2009 , Diamond Trust of London went through a protracted development process , going through two publishers and taking over three years to reach the market . To raise capital for the game 's manufacture , Rohrer launched a Kickstarter campaign , where it became the first successfully crowdfunded Nintendo DS game . Critics had reservations about the amount of content on offer and the game 's user interface , but were appreciative of the psychological gameplay and the themes explored .
= = Gameplay = =
Players control one of two diamond trading companies : the eponymous Diamond Trust of London or an unnamed Antwerp @-@ based competitor . The game is set in 2000 and the aim is to extract diamonds from Angola before the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme is put in place . The winner is the one who finishes the game with the most diamonds after nine turns . Each turn , players decide where to send their three agents . They can be sent to six different Angolan regions to extract diamonds , or recalled to the player 's headquarters to deposit extracted diamonds . Players make decisions in secret , and both sets of decisions are resolved on the game board simultaneously .
The competitors must decide how much to pay each agent , and how much to pay the local guide in that region . If there are competing offers for the same guide in a particular region , the highest offer receives all of that region 's diamonds in an all @-@ pay auction . Competing agents can be bribed to reveal inside information regarding the competitor 's decisions . Complicating matters further is the UN inspector , who moves at random between regions on each turn . The inspector blocks all diamond extraction from the region in which he is present , and can confiscate diamonds from agents within that region . Like other agents though , the inspector can be bribed and directed to regions of a player 's choice .
In single @-@ player mode , the player competes against an AI opponent available at various difficulty levels . Multiplayer gameplay includes support for DS Download Play , allowing an entire group of players to play from only one game card .
= = Development = =
Jason Rohrer was inspired by German @-@ style board games to build a turn @-@ based strategy game . He wanted to harness the unique qualities that a video game could bring to a board game , and so focused on their ability to deliver different views of the board to each player . He wanted to create a game which explored " knowledge chains " , where the player must not only be aware of his knowledge and movements on the board , but also how much of that has been exposed to the opponent . In March 2009 , he was invited by publisher Majesco to pitch an idea for a Nintendo DS game , and keeping these mechanics in mind , he pitched a game called Deception . In Deception , two players would play one half of a married couple , with the aim to gather as much damaging evidence regarding their spouse 's infidelities as ammunition for a forthcoming divorce case . Majesco rejected this concept as being " too sensitive a subject for the DS market " .
Rohrer later transferred the themes of Deception onto a framework around corporate espionage and the blood diamond trade . Though not particularly concerned about blood diamonds , and wary of the game being perceived as a finger @-@ wagging exercise , he felt that the setting would give an " extra oomph to the game 's seedy mechanics " . Instead of being an overt protest against the blood diamond trade , the game would explore the psychology of the industry through its game mechanics , causing players to reflect after a game on their decisions made within it . Majesco greenlit this , and in July 2009 , a publishing contract was signed . Rohrer began work on Diamond Trust of London as a pen and paper prototype to iron out the design before committing to code . By December , the game was in a fully playable state , lacking only the soundtrack and tutorial . Majesco , however , decided to back away from a physical cartridge release , and pushed instead for a DSiWare download version . Rohrer disagreed , believing that the smaller DSiWare market would limit the game 's audience ; Majesco , on the other hand , was not willing to invest in the manufacturing of cartridges without strong pre @-@ order numbers . The company made the game available to GameStop to gauge pre @-@ order interest , stating that 3 @,@ 000 pre @-@ orders would be necessary for a cartridge release . Diamond Trust generated only 23 pre @-@ orders , and in 2010 , the Majesco agreement was terminated .
Lacking a publisher for Diamond Trust of London , Rohrer moved onto other projects such as Inside a Star @-@ Filled Sky and Sleep is Death . He also took on work at Gun , a video games consultancy firm , and there he made contact with Mark Seremet , CEO of Zoo Publishing . Zoo was interested in pursuing Diamond Trust of London as a limited physical release on their indiePub label , and so work on the game resumed . To provide the game 's soundtrack , Rohrer approached his friend and former band @-@ mate , Tom Bailey . This was the first time that Rohrer had collaborated with others on his games . He cited this collaboration as helping to " restore [ his ] creative momentum " for the project . To avoid hearing exactly the same music every time the game is played , Rohrer developed a music generation engine which would arrange Bailey @-@ composed loops procedurally depending on the game 's state . If the lid of the Nintendo DS is closed with headphones plugged in while the game is still running , it will act as a random music generator . Rohrer 's previous project , Inside a Star Filled Sky , had used entirely computer generated music , but he felt that the thematic demands of Diamond Trust of London required Bailey 's handcrafted compositions and musicianship .
By July 2011 , Rohrer had submitted a beta version of the game for Nintendo approval . This was followed up with the master version in October . An issue raised during the approval process was Rohrer 's desire to credit Bailey on the game 's cover , which Nintendo rejected . He got around this by officially naming the game Jason Rohrer with Music by Tom Bailey : Diamond Trust of London . In May 2012 , the game was ready for manufacturing . However , due to changing market conditions , Zoo Publishing was no longer able to afford the manufacturing of cartridges given the large minimum order of 6 @,@ 000 units that Nintendo required , and so , Rohrer turned to the crowdfunding platform Kickstarter .
Rohrer launched the Kickstarter campaign on May 9 , 2012 , looking to raise $ 78 @,@ 715 ; the campaign closed on May 26 , 2012 , after raising $ 90 @,@ 118 from 1 @,@ 305 backers . This allowed manufacturing to proceed , and Diamond Trust of London became the first successfully crowdfunded Nintendo DS game . By mid @-@ July , the 6 @,@ 000 cartridges had been manufactured by Nintendo in Japan , and in August , they arrived at Rohrer 's home in California . As he was packaging the cartridges personally , it allowed him to release a special signed and numbered limited edition of 1000 copies , bundled with mystery bonuses . The game was released on August 28 , 2012 , and as customers received their copies , they revealed the contents of the limited edition . Jason Cipriano at MTV Multiplayer received , alongside his limited edition , postage stamps and a coin from countries featured in the game , and four actual diamonds .
= = Reception = =
Diamond Trust of London received few reviews , and they were generally mixed . Critics enjoyed the gameplay , but found that the game required a human opponent for it to shine , with the single @-@ player element acting merely as a practice mode . Nintendo Gamer found the game " mind @-@ bending " , likening its cycle of bluffs and double @-@ bluffs to the Ouroboros . GamesTM enjoyed the experience of " trying to outwit and deceive a friend " , but found achieving victory over @-@ reliant on control of the UN inspector . Paste praised the support for DS Download Play functionality as generous , and described games of Diamond Trust of London as " fabulous palate cleansers " in between board game sessions . They also observed that during these games , much of a player 's personality would be expressed through the moves they made .
Commenting on a preview build , Nintendo World Report highlighted the game 's music , describing it as a " wonderfully eclectic mix " , and " a constantly evolving ambient soundscape " . MTV Multiplayer , while finding the music " a little out of place " , still found it " really good " , and believed that players would find themselves " zoning out , enjoying the music without even realizing it " as they waited for their next turn .
GamesTM felt that the game did not have sufficient content to justify a full @-@ price retail release , being more suited instead to a budget @-@ priced app . The publication described Diamond Trust of London as " a fantastic iOS strategy game . On the DS . " Similarly , Nintendo Gamer called it a " worthwhile , if insubstantial game " . The user interface was described as confusing by Nintendo Gamer , and while Edge felt that the interface was " simple to the point of crudity " , it could also be " opaque and cluttered , making a reasonably complex game seem even more so " . Edge concluded that if the player can get through these issues , there is " an acute psychological game to be played " .
Molleindustria named Diamond Trust of London as one of their top games of 2012 , describing it as Rohrer 's " most elegantly designed game to date " . They highlighted how it critiques the blood diamond trade by using game mechanics that present " the world from the cynical , detached perspective of the Homo economicus " , rather than by lecturing the player . Paste echoed these thoughts , stating that the game offered " no overt judgments " on the diamond trade , but had mechanics that paint it as " one that encourages and maybe even requires misdeeds " . Reflecting on the game 's unlikely journey in becoming a physical product , Paste declared Diamond Trust of London to be " not just a success in design , but also one of creation " .
= Xá Lợi Pagoda raids =
The Xá Lợi Pagoda raids were a series of synchronized attacks on various Buddhist pagodas in the major cities of South Vietnam shortly after midnight on 21 August 1963 . The raids were executed by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces under Colonel Lê Quang Tung , and combat police , both of which took their orders directly from Ngô Đình Nhu , younger brother of the Roman Catholic President Ngô Đình Diệm . Xá Lợi Pagoda , the largest pagoda in the South Vietnamese capital , Saigon , was the most prominent of the raided temples . Over 1 @,@ 400 Buddhists were arrested , and estimates of the death toll and missing ranged up to the hundreds . In response to the Huế Vesak shootings and a ban on the Buddhist flag in early May , South Vietnam 's Buddhist majority rose in widespread civil disobedience and protest against the religious bias and discrimination of the Catholic @-@ dominated Diệm government . Buddhist temples in major cities , most prominently the Xá Lợi pagoda , became focal points for protesters and assembly points for Buddhist monks from rural areas .
In August , several Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) generals proposed the imposition of martial law , ostensibly to break up the demonstrations , but in reality to prepare for a military coup . However , Nhu , already looking to arrest Buddhist leaders and crush the protest movement , used the opportunity to preempt the generals and embarrass them . He disguised Tung 's Special Forces in army uniforms and used them to attack the Buddhists , thereby causing the general public and South Vietnam 's U.S. allies to blame the army , diminishing the generals ' reputations and ability to act as future national leaders .
Soon after midnight on 21 August , Nhu 's men attacked the pagodas using automatic firearms , grenades , battering rams and explosives , causing widespread damage . Some religious objects were destroyed , including a statue of Gautama Buddha in the Từ Đàm Pagoda in Huế , which was partially leveled by explosives . Temples were looted and vandalized , with the remains of venerated monks confiscated . In Huế , violent street battles erupted between government forces and rioting pro @-@ Buddhist , anti @-@ government civilians .
Initially , the Ngô family claimed that the army had carried out the raids , something their U.S. allies initially believed . However , this was later debunked , and the incident prompted the United States to turn against the regime and begin exploring alternative leadership options , eventually leading to Diệm 's overthrow in a coup . In South Vietnam itself , the raids stoked widespread anger . Several high @-@ ranking public servants resigned , and university and high school students boycotted classes and staged riotous demonstrations , resulting in further mass incarcerations . As most of the students were from middle @-@ class public service and military families , the arrests caused further upset among the Ngô family 's power base .
= = Background = =
In South Vietnam , where the Buddhist majority was estimated to comprise between 70 and 90 percent of the population in 1963 , President Ngô Đình Diệm 's pro @-@ Catholic policies antagonized many Buddhists . A member of the Catholic minority , his government was biased towards Catholics in public service and military promotions , as well as in the allocation of land , business favors and tax concessions . Diệm once told a high @-@ ranking officer , forgetting the man was from a Buddhist background , " Put your Catholic officers in sensitive places . They can be trusted . " Many officers in the ARVN had converted to Catholicism in the belief that their career prospects depended on it , and many were refused promotion if they did not do so . Additionally , the distribution of firearms to village self @-@ defense militias intended to repel Việt Cộng guerrillas was done so that weapons were only given to Catholics . Some Catholic priests ran private armies , and in some areas forced conversions ; looting , shelling and demolition of pagodas occurred . Some Buddhist villages converted en masse to receive aid or avoid being forcibly resettled by Diem 's regime .
A rarely enforced 1958 law — known as Decree Number 10 — was invoked in May 1963 to prohibit the display of religious flags . This disallowed the flying of the Buddhist flag on Vesak , the birthday of Gautama Buddha . The application of the law caused indignation among Buddhists on the eve of the most important religious festival of the year , as a week earlier Catholics had been encouraged to display Vatican flags at a government @-@ sponsored celebration for Diem 's brother , Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục , the most senior Catholic cleric in the country . On 8 May in Huế , a crowd of Buddhists protested against the ban on the Buddhist flag . The police and army broke up the demonstration by firing guns at and throwing grenades into the gathering , leaving nine people dead .
Diệm 's denial of governmental responsibility for the incident — he instead blamed the Việt Cộng — added to the anger and discontent of the Buddhist majority . The incident spurred a protest movement against the religious discrimination of the Roman Catholic – dominated Diệm regime , resulting in widespread large @-@ scale civil disobedience among the South Vietnamese public , persisting throughout May and June . This period of political instability was known as the " Buddhist crisis " . The objectives of the protests was to have Decree Number 10 repealed and to force to implement religious equality .
On 11 June , a Buddhist monk , Thích Quảng Đức , self @-@ immolated in downtown Saigon . Images were shown by news outlets across the world , embarrassing Diệm 's government and bringing negative global attention . A few days later , under mounting American pressure , Diệm signed the Joint Communique with senior Buddhist leaders , making various concessions to the Buddhists , who in turn agreed to stop the civil unrest and return to normal life .
Neither the Ngô family nor the Buddhists were happy with the agreement , however , and it failed to solve the dispute . Both sides accused the other of failing to uphold their obligations ; the government accused the Buddhists of continuing to vilify them in demonstrations , while the Buddhists accused Diệm of stalling and not acting on his commitments to religious reform , and continuing to detain arrested Buddhist dissidents . The demonstrations and tension continued throughout July and August , with more self @-@ immolations and an altercation ( known as the Double Seven Day scuffle ) between secret police and American journalists reporting on a Buddhist protest .
= = Xá Lợi = =
The hub of Buddhist activism in Saigon was the Xá Lợi Pagoda . Built in the late 1950s , it was the largest Buddhist temple in the capital and was located in the city center . Many monks from outside Saigon — including prominent Buddhist leaders — had congregated at Xá Lợi since the dispute began and it was used as a venue for press conferences , media interviews , publication of pamphlets and to plan and organize mass demonstrations .
At the time , Ngô Đình Nhu was known to favor an even harder line against the Buddhists . Nhu was the younger brother of President Diệm and his main confidant , and was regarded as the real power behind the Ngô family 's rule . Nhu had made statements calling for the suppression of the protests through his English @-@ language newspaper , the Times of Vietnam . There were persistent reports that Nhu was seeking to usurp power from his elder brother and to attack the Buddhists . Nick Turner of Reuters approached Nhu and interviewed him about these rumors . Nhu said that if the Buddhist crisis were not resolved , he would stage a coup , demolish Xá Lợi in two hours , and head a new anti @-@ Buddhist government . The news was promptly published , which the American embassy largely disregarded , purportedly unconvinced as to Nhu 's seriousness .
In the meantime , Nhu prepared the Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces commanded by Colonel Lê Quang Tung — who took his orders directly from Nhu and not the senior generals — for the raids . An American @-@ trained outfit created to fight the Việt Cộng , the Special Forces were better @-@ equipped , better @-@ trained and better @-@ paid than the regular army , but were used by the Ngô family as a private army for repressing dissidents and protecting their rule , rather than fighting for the national interest . As such , they spent the majority of their time in Saigon warding off coup attempts . Tung brought more Special Forces into Saigon , bringing the total from two to four battalions in the capital .
On Sunday , 18 August , the Buddhists staged a mass protest at Xá Lợi , attracting around 15 @,@ 000 people , undeterred by rain . The attendance was approximately three times higher than that at the previous Sunday 's rally . The event lasted for several hours , as speeches by the monks interspersed religious ceremonies . A Vietnamese journalist said that it was the only emotional public gathering in South Vietnam since Diệm 's rise to power almost a decade earlier . David Halberstam of The New York Times speculated that by not exploiting the large crowd by staging a protest march towards Gia Long Palace or other government buildings , the Buddhists were saving their biggest demonstration for the scheduled arrival of new U.S. ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge , Jr. the following week . As a government attack on Xá Lợi was anticipated , Halberstam concluded that the Buddhists were playing " a fast and dangerous game " . He wrote that " the Buddhists themselves appeared to be at least as much aware of all the developments , and their protest seemed to have a mounting intensity " .
= = Planning = =
On the evening of 18 August , ten senior ARVN generals met to discuss the situation regarding the Buddhist unrest and decided martial law was needed . They wanted to disperse the monks who had gathered in Saigon and other regional cities and return them to their original pagodas in the rural areas .
Nhu summoned 7 of the 10 generals to Gia Long Palace on August 20 for consultations . They presented their request for martial law and discussed how to disband the groups of monks and their supporters from the temples in Saigon . Nhu sent the generals to see Diem . The president listened to the group of seven , led by General Trần Văn Đôn . The group also included Army Chief General Trần Thiện Khiêm and General Nguyễn Khánh , commander of the II Corps in the Central Highlands . Khiêm and Khánh were two of the officers who were responsible for helping to put down the attempted coup against Diệm in 1960 . Also present was Đôn 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , General Đỗ Cao Trí , commander of I Corps , which oversaw the northernmost region around Huế , and General Lê Văn Kim , head of the military academy . Trí and Kim were favorites of the Diệm regime . General Tôn Thất Đính , a brash paratrooper , who was also South Vietnam 's youngest @-@ ever general , commanded the III Corps surrounding Saigon . General Huỳnh Văn Cao was the commander of the IV Corps in the Mekong Delta and the only one of the septet who would prove not to have been involved in the later plotting against Diệm . Đính and Cao controlled the two corps regions closest to Saigon and therefore the two areas most crucial in the success or failure of a coup . Cao had used the Seventh Division of his IV Corps to storm the capital in 1960 to save Diệm .
Trần Văn Đôn claimed communists had infiltrated the monks at Xá Lợi and warned that ARVN morale was deteriorating because of the civil unrest and consequent disruption of the war effort . He claimed it was possible that the Buddhists could assemble a crowd to march on Gia Long Palace . Hearing this , Diệm agreed to declare martial law effective on the next day , without consulting his cabinet , and troops were ordered into Saigon to occupy strategic points . Don was appointed as the acting Chief of the Armed Forces in place of General Lê Văn Tỵ , who was terminally ill with cancer and receiving medical treatment abroad . Đôn claimed Diệm was concerned for the welfare of the monks , allegedly telling the generals that he did not want any of them hurt . The martial law orders were then signed and authorized by Đôn .
The real purpose of Đôn asking for martial law was to maneuver troops in readiness for a coup , and he had no concrete plans to send the regular army into the pagodas . Nhu sidestepped him and took the opportunity to discredit the army by using Tung 's Special Forces and the combat police to attack the pagodas . Đính , the officer most trusted by the Ngô family , was the only general who was given advance notice of the raids .
With the approval of Diệm , Nhu used the declaration of martial law to order armed men into the Buddhist pagodas . Nhu chose a time when he knew the American Embassy was leaderless . Frederick Nolting had returned to the United States and his successor Lodge was yet to arrive . As the high command of the ARVN worked closely with American military advisers deployed in the country , Nhu used the combat police and Tung 's Special Forces , who took their orders directly from him . The men were dressed in standard army uniforms , such as paratroop attire , to frame the regulars for the raids . Nhu 's motive was to avoid responsibility for a violent operation — which would anger the Vietnamese public and the American leadership . In falsely implicating the army in the attacks , Nhu intended to dent the confidence of the Vietnamese populace and the Americans in the senior officers who were plotting against him . Nhu evidently hoped the Buddhist majority and the Americans would blame the army for the raids and become less inclined to support a coup by the generals . In the past , Nhu 's tactics in playing the generals against one another had kept conspirators off @-@ balance and thwarted coup attempts . The raids were not unexpected , as the Buddhists had prepared themselves for the attacks , as had journalists , who were watching military installations for signs of movement .
= = Raids = =
= = = Saigon = = =
The Buddhists in Saigon were aware that a raid on the pagodas was imminent . Buddhist relatives of Special Forces and combat police personnel had tipped off the monks , and Buddhists who lived near pagodas had observed them move into the region in the lead @-@ up . American journalists were tipped off and traveled through Saigon to visit the pagodas ahead of the raids . The pagodas had been locked by the monks in preparation for the attacks and the doors were barricaded with furniture and reinforced by nailing wooden planks across them . The monks told members of the U.S. press corps in Saigon that the raids were coming , allowing them to be more prepared for the event than the U.S. embassy .
In the afternoon before the raids , trucks filled with soldiers headed past the offices of media outlets — from where the journalists saw them — destined for the Ấn Quang Pagoda . More troops were seen congregating at police headquarters , ready to board trucks moving towards Xá Lợi . The American @-@ made trucks had been provided as part of the U.S. military aid program for South Vietnam . Late at night , the convoys arrived and surrounded Xá Lợi from several sides , causing a traffic jam in the city center . Several thousand personnel were estimated to have been present . Journalists were informed as soon as the attacks began , even as Nhu 's men cut communications lines , and rushed to Xá Lợi .
Squads of Special Forces and combat police flattened the gates and smashed their way into the pagoda at around 00 : 20 on 21 August as Xá Lợi 's brass gong was struck to signal the attack . Nhu 's men were armed with pistols , submachine guns , carbines , shotguns , grenades and tear gas . The red @-@ bereted Special Forces were joined by truckloads of steel @-@ helmeted combat police in army camouflage uniforms . Two of Nhu 's senior aides were seen outside Xá Lợi directing the operation , while Nhu and his wife , Madame Nhu , watched the action from a nearby tank . Monks and nuns who barricaded themselves behind wooden shields were attacked with rifle butts and bayonets . The sound of the pagoda 's gong was largely masked by that of automatic weapons fire , exploding grenades , battering rams , shattering glass and human screaming . The military personnel shouted as they attacked , as did the occupants , in fear .
Tung 's men charged forward in a V @-@ shaped riot formation . According to Halberstam , " they pranced into the pagoda , looking something like a smart football team coming up to the line of scrimmage " . In the end , it took around two hours to complete the raids because many of the occupants had entrenched themselves inside the various rooms in anticipation of the attacks and doors had to be unhinged to reach them . According to journalist Neil Sheehan , who was at the scene , " The raid on Xá Lợi , like those on the pagodas elsewhere in South Vietnam , was flawlessly executed . It reminded me of a scene from a movie of the French Resistance — the scene when the Gestapo arrive at the Resistance hideout in Paris . " William Prochnau said that " Using the elite guard against the Buddhists was analogous to using Green Berets to put down Negro protests at home . It was outrageous . "
One monk was thrown from a balcony down to the courtyard six meters below . Nhu 's men vandalized the main altar and confiscated the intact charred heart of Thích Quảng Đức , which had failed to burn during his re @-@ cremation . However , some of the Buddhists were able to flee the pagoda with a receptacle containing his ashes . Two monks jumped the back wall of Xá Lợi to enter the grounds of the adjoining United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) mission , where they were given asylum , despite the presence of troops behind the pagoda walls who opened fire with automatic weapons on any monks who tried to flee by jumping the fence .
Thích Tịnh Khiết , the 80 @-@ year @-@ old Buddhist patriarch , was seized and taken to a military hospital on the outskirts of Saigon . As commander of the III Corps , General Đính soon announced military control over Saigon , canceling all commercial flights into the city and instituting press censorship . Later , Thích Quảng Độ , one of the leading arrested monks , who later would become a leader of the Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam , explained the protest strategy . After being released following the deposal of Diệm , he was asked why the Buddhist leaders had not fled to avoid arrest . He said that " We had done nothing wrong ; therefore we could not flee . If we had , it would have been an admission that we were guilty . "
= = = Huế = = =
The violence was worse in Huế , where the approach of government forces was met by the beating of Buddhist drums and cymbals to alert the populace . The townsfolk left their homes in the middle of the night in an attempt to defend the city 's pagodas . At Từ Đàm , the temple of Buddhist protest leader Thích Trí Quang , monks attempted to burn the coffin of a monk who had self @-@ immolated recently . Government soldiers , firing M1 rifles , overran the pagoda and confiscated the coffin . They demolished a statue of Gautama Buddha and looted and vandalized the pagoda . They then set off an explosion , leveling much of the pagoda . Many Buddhists were shot , beheaded , confiscated , and clubbed to death .
The most determined resistance to the Diệm regime occurred outside the Diệu Đế Pagoda . As troops attempted to stretch a barbed wire barricade across a bridge leading to the pagoda , the crowd tore it down with their bare hands . The protesters fought the heavily armed military personnel with rocks , sticks and their bare fists , throwing back the tear gas grenades that were fired at them . After a five @-@ hour battle , the military finally won control of the bridge by driving armored cars through the angry crowd at sunrise . The defense of the bridge and Diệu Đế left an estimated 30 dead and 200 wounded .
Ten truckloads of bridge defenders were taken to jail and an estimated 500 people were arrested in the city . Seventeen of the 47 professors at Huế University , who had resigned earlier in the week in protest against the dismissal of the rector Cao Văn Luân , a Catholic priest and opponent of Archbishop Thục ( elder brother of Diệm and Nhu ) were also arrested . The raids were repeated in cities and towns across the country . The total number of dead and disappeared was never confirmed , but estimates range up to several hundred . At least 1 @,@ 400 were arrested .
= = U.S. reaction and sanctuary for monks = =
The United States became immediately embroiled in the attacks following the escape of the two monks over the back wall of the Xá Lợi pagoda into the adjacent USAID compound . Saigon 's police chief , disguised as a member of Nhu 's Republican Youth , cordoned off the building . He ordered all Vietnamese inside to leave the area and threatened to storm the building when the Americans denied him entry . Foreign Minister Vũ Văn Mẫu rushed to the scene to stop any physical confrontation , but demanded the Americans turn over the monks . William Trueheart , the deputy of the recently relieved U.S. Ambassador Nolting , arrived at the building . As the leading American diplomat in Vietnam in the transition period between ambassadors , Trueheart refused to take action until he received instructions from Washington , but warned Mẫu against violating the diplomatic immunity of the USAID offices . Trueheart knew that handing over the monks would imply American approval of the regime 's action . The confrontation soon died down , and the U.S. State Department ordered Trueheart not to release the two monks and to regard the USAID building as being equivalent to the embassy . More monks went on to find sanctuary in the U.S. embassy , which became known as the " Buddhist Hilton " .
Lodge was in Honolulu for last minute briefings with Nolting when news filtered through of the pagoda raids . He was given directions to proceed directly to Saigon , and arrived after sunset on 22 August . In the meantime , the State Department denounced the raids as a " direct violation by the Vietnamese government of assurances that it was pursuing a policy of reconciliation with the Buddhists " . On 23 August , Lodge 's first full day in Saigon , he visited the two monks who had taken refuge in the USAID building , and ordered that vegetarian food be made available for them . The meeting was a means of showing where American government policy stood on the attacks against the Buddhists .
= = Diệm reaction = =
At 06 : 00 on 21 August 1963 , President Diệm broadcast a statement on Radio Saigon in which he said : " under Article 44 of the constitution , I declare a state of siege throughout the national territory . I confer upon the Army of the Republic of Vietnam the responsibility to restore security and public order so that the state may be protected , Communism defeated , freedom secured , and democracy achieved . " Under martial law , the army was given blanket search @-@ and @-@ arrest powers and was empowered to ban all public gatherings , enforce a curfew , restrict press freedom and stop the circulation of all " printed material and other documents harmful to public order and security " . The military were given orders to shoot anybody who violated the curfew on sight , and the secret police used the increased powers to raid and vandalize the premises of anyone thought to be unfriendly to the regime .
Government sources claimed that in Xá Lợi , Ấn Quang , and various Theravada pagodas , soldiers had found machine guns , ammunition , plastic explosives , homemade mines , daggers , and Việt Cộng documents . It was later discovered that they had been planted there by Nhu 's men . A few days later , Madame Nhu , a Catholic convert from Buddhism , said in an interview that the raids were " the happiest day in my life since we crushed the Binh Xuyên in 1955 " , and assailed the Buddhists as " communists " . On 29 August , General Đính held a press conference in which he accused the Americans of trying to launch a coup in South Vietnam and took credit for the raids , despite Tung having been the chief military officer in charge .
= = Confusion over culpability and army denials = =
The driving force behind the government assault on the Buddhists appeared to have come from senior military commanders acting without consulting the civilian government . Immediately after the attacks , posters were erected across Saigon under the aegis of ARVN , but the language was recognized as that of Nhu .
The Secretary of State Nguyễn Đính Thuan and Interior Minister Bùi Văn Lương were caught off guard by the attacks . The initial perception was that the military establishment had suddenly cracked down on the Buddhists because they were deemed to be a threat to the war effort . The government propagated a theory which held that the military felt compelled to take action after pro @-@ Buddhist student unrest on 17 – 18 August . In Huế , student protestors had turned on an ARVN officer after he fired in their direction . The attacks were preceded by a large rally at Xá Lợi during which some monks had called for the overthrow of the Diệm regime and denounced the anti @-@ Buddhist statements of the de facto first lady Madame Nhu . However , observers dismissed government claims that the raids were spontaneous .
Diệm had long distrusted his generals and frequently played them against each other in a divide and conquer strategy to weaken any chance of a coup attempt . The army also contained substantial numbers of soldiers of Buddhist backgrounds , thus heightening skepticism that they would have attacked the pagodas and monks in such a violent manner . The synchronized military operations throughout the country , the speed at which banners were erected declaring the ARVN resolve to defeat communism , and doctored propaganda photos purporting to show Việt Cộng infiltration of the Buddhists suggested that the actions were long premeditated . In an attempt to maintain secrecy , special printing presses had produced propaganda materials only hours before the raids .
The initial government line was that the regular army had taken the actions . ARVN radio broadcasts bore the influence of Nhu 's abrasive tone in directing the Republican Youth to cooperate with the government . Nhu accused the Buddhists of turning their pagodas into headquarters for plotting anti @-@ government insurrections . He claimed the Buddhist Intersect Committee operated under the control of " political speculators who exploited religion and terrorism " . Lodge believed Diệm remained in control but that Nhu 's influence had risen to unprecedented levels . He thought that Nhu 's divide and conquer tactics had split the military into three factions , respectively led by Generals Đôn and Đính , and Colonel Tung . Đôn was believed not to have the allegiance of Đính and Tung , who took their orders directly from Gia Long Palace . The two loyalists had support from various pro @-@ Diệm elements . Lodge predicted that if the army deposed Diệm , fighting could break out within the ARVN .
Initially , the American embassy believed the Ngô family 's claims that the regular army was responsible for the raids . The Voice of America , which was widely listened to in South Vietnam as the only non @-@ Diệmist news source , initially aired Nhu 's version of events , much to the dismay of the generals . The American media thought otherwise and began to debunk this theory , pointing out that the Ngô family constantly sought to undermine the army , and that Madame Nhu 's joy over the events suggested the family had neither ceded power nor had their hands forced by the military . Furthermore , they identified Nhu 's aides at the site , his idiosyncratic style in the announcements supposedly made by the ARVN , and the fact that the army had little motive to attack the Buddhists .
The New York Times printed two versions of the raids on its front page , one by David Halberstam implicating Nhu for the attacks , and another with the official government version . Sheehan of United Press International also claimed Nhu was responsible for the attacks , and foreign journalists had to smuggle their stories out by asking people leaving the country at the airport to carry documents for them . At the time , Sheehan and Halberstam were on a Ngô family hit list along with political dissidents because of their exposes of the regime 's human rights abuses , and following the raids , they slept at the home of John Mecklin , a U.S. official . They also received information that the Ngos were going to plant bombs in their offices and blame the deaths on the communists .
The Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) went on to report that ARVN officers resolutely denied any involvement in the pagoda raids . They held that Tung 's Special Forces had disguised themselves in ARVN uniforms before attacking the pagodas . Further unsubstantiated rumors had spread within the army that the Americans , who trained the Special Forces , had helped to plan the attack . The ARVN leaders were unsure of how to proceed and Don called a staff meeting on the morning of 23 August to discuss impending demonstrations against the raids by university students and the anger of junior ARVN officers about the pagoda attacks . General Dương Văn Minh noted that the ongoing presence of armed military personnel had alienated society by creating an " aura of suppression " .
Later in the day , Đôn privately met with CIA agent Lucien Conein and reiterated that the Americans were mistaken in believing that the ARVN was responsible . Đôn insisted that Diem remained in control although Nhu had to approve all of the generals ' meetings with Diệm . Đôn insisted Nhu had orchestrated the raids , fearing that the generals had too much power . He asserted that Nhu used the cover of martial law to discredit the generals by dressing the Special Forces in ARVN uniforms . Đôn insisted that he was unaware of the plans and was at Joint General Staff headquarters with Khiêm when he received a radio message informing him of the assaults . Police Commissioner Trần Văn Tu , supported by Tung 's men , were in charge of the operation at ground level , and by the time Don arrived , the mission had been completed .
Khiêm had his own meeting with Rufus Phillips at the U.S. Embassy . He bitterly confided that Nhu had tricked the army into imposing martial law and becoming his " puppet " . Khiêm asserted that Đính , Đôn and the other generals were not aware of the raids in advance and revealed that the arms and explosives that Nhu claimed were found in the pagodas had been planted . As a result , the Vietnamese people expressed anger at the army and their U.S. backers , strengthening Nhu 's position .
= = Martial law and riots = =
Following the raids , tensions were high in the streets of the cities . Police were ordered to shoot those who defied the 21 : 00 to 05 : 00 curfew , and troops in full camouflage battle dress guarded every major intersection and bridge with automatic weapons bearing fixed bayonets . The empty pagodas were ringed by troops and armored cars . All outgoing news was censored , forcing reporters to smuggle their copy out with travelers flying to foreign countries . The telephone lines in the homes and offices of all U.S. military and embassy staff were disconnected . The head of the USAID mission , Joe Brant , was stopped and searched while commuting to work , and other American officials had their meetings with Vietnamese officials and applications for permits to travel after the curfew hours delayed . The 14 @,@ 000 U.S. military advisers in the country were given orders to stay in their homes , and all leave was canceled .
The pagoda raids provoked widespread disquiet among the Saigonese . At midnight on 22 August , Generals Đôn , Đính and Khiêm informed Nhu that student demonstrations were planned for three consecutive days . They recommended that schools be closed , but when Nhu took them to see Diệm , the president refused to close the educational institutions . Diệm decided the students , not usually known for political activism , should be allowed to voice their opinions . Students at Saigon University boycotted classes and rioted , which was met with arrests , imprisonment , and the closure of the campus . These events were repeated at Huế University , which was likewise shut down .
When high school students followed the lead of their elders and demonstrated , Diệm had them arrested as well . Two of the detained students were paraded at a press conference in which they falsely admitted to being communists who had brainwashed their entire school , having been tortured to force their confession . At Trung Vuong , an elite girls ' high school , the students hung up banners attacking Diệm and the Nhus , while students from the corresponding boys ' schools became violent , smashing school windows and erecting banners that insulted Madame Nhu in explicit language . More than 1000 students from Saigon 's leading high school , most of them children of public servants and military officers , were sent to re @-@ education camps . The result was that many army officers and senior civil servants had to lobby to have their children or younger siblings released from jail , causing a further drop in morale among government and military officials . In more extreme cases , brawls broke out between police officers arresting students , and the students ' parents , many of whom were military officers and / or public servants .
Foreign Minister Vũ Văn Mẫu resigned , shaving his head like a Buddhist monk in protest . Mẫu had decided to leave the country for a religious pilgrimage to India and the diplomatic and press corps assembled at the airport to see him off . He never arrived , as the Ngô family had him arrested . General Đính softened the punishment at the behest of a fellow officer , and put the former diplomat under house arrest instead of placing him in jail .
Trần Văn Chương , the ambassador to the United States and father of the de facto first lady Madame Nhu , resigned in protest , along with all but one of the staff members at the embassy . Chương charged Diệm with having " copied the tactics of totalitarian regimes " , and said that as long as Diệm and the Nhus were in power , there was " not once chance in a hundred for victory " against the communists . Madame Chương — who was South Vietnam 's observer at the United Nations — resigned and spoke of mass executions and a reign of terror under Diệm and Nhu . She predicted that if Diệm and the Nhus did not leave Vietnam then they would be killed in some sort of uprising .
Voice of America announced that Chương had resigned in protest against the Ngô family 's policies , but this was denied by the Saigon government , which asserted the Chươngs had been sacked . Diệm bureaucrats claimed Chương 's last telegram had been so critical of the regime that it was determined to be " inadmissible in form and substance " and that after years of privately complaining about his ambassador , Diệm dismissed him . In the meantime , the brothers made selective payments to some generals , hoping to cause resentment and division within the army . Vietnamese civil servants also became more reluctant to do their jobs , especially in conjunction with American advisers . They reasoned that as the Americans were funding Tung 's men , they must have been involved in the attacks .
= = Change in U.S. policy = =
Once the U.S. government realized the truth about who was behind the raids , they reacted with disapproval towards the Diệm regime . The Americans had pursued a policy of quietly and privately advising the Ngôs to reconcile with the Buddhists while publicly supporting the partnership , but following the attacks , this route was regarded as untenable . Furthermore , the attacks were carried out by American @-@ trained Special Forces personnel funded by the CIA , and presented Lodge with a fait accompli . One Western ambassador thought that the raids signaled " the end of the gallant American effort here " . The U.S. State Department issued a statement declaring that the raids were a " direct violation " of the promise to pursue " a policy of reconciliation " .
On 24 August , the Kennedy administration sent Cable 243
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oring Thomas and others . Stanford was also making an impression in his capacity as organist of Trinity , raising musical standards and composing what his biographer Jeremy Dibble calls " some highly distinctive church music " including a Service in B ♭ ( 1879 ) , the anthem " The Lord is my shepherd " ( 1886 ) and the motet Justorum animae ( 1888 ) .
In the first half of the 1880s , Stanford collaborated with the author Gilbert à Beckett on two operas , Savonarola , and The Canterbury Pilgrims . The former was well received at its premiere in Hamburg in April 1884 , but received a critical savaging when staged at Covent Garden in July of the same year . Parry commented privately , " It seems very badly constructed for the stage , poorly conceived and the music , though clean and well @-@ managed , is not striking or dramatic . " The most severe public criticism was in The Theatre , whose reviewer wrote , " The book of Savonarola is dull , stilted , and , from a dramatic point of view , weak . It is not , however , so crushingly tiresome as the music fitted to it . Savonarola has gone far to convince me that opera is quite out of [ Stanford 's ] line and that the sooner he abandons the stage for the cathedral , the better for his musical reputation . " The Canterbury Pilgrims had been premiered in London in April 1884 , three months before Savonarola was presented at Covent Garden . It had a better reception than the latter , though reviews pointed out Stanford 's debt to Die Meistersinger , and complained of a lack of emotion in the love music . George Grove agreed with the critics , writing to Parry , " Charlie 's music contains everything but sentiment . Love not at all – that I heard not a grain of . ... And I do think that there might be more tune . Melody is not a thing to be avoided surely . " In 1896 a critic wrote that the opera had " just such a ' book ' as would have suited the late Alfred Cellier . He would probably have made of it a charming light English opera . But Dr. Stanford has chosen to use it for the exemplification of those advanced theories which we know him to hold , and he has given us music which would incline us to think that Die Meistersinger had been his model . The effect of the combination is not happy . "
= = = Professor = = =
In 1883 , the Royal College of Music was set up to replace the short @-@ lived and unsuccessful National Training School for Music ( NTSM ) . Neither the NTSM nor the longer @-@ established Royal Academy of Music had provided adequate musical training for professional orchestral players , and the founder @-@ director of the college , George Grove , was determined that the new institution should succeed in doing so . His two principal allies in this undertaking were the violinist Henry Holmes and Stanford . In a study of the founding of the college , David Wright notes that Stanford had two main reasons for supporting Grove 's aim . The first was his belief that a capable college orchestra was essential to give students of composition the chance to experience the sound of their music . His second reason was the severe contrast between the competence of German orchestras and the performance of their British counterparts . He accepted Grove 's offer of the posts of professor of composition and ( with Holmes ) conductor of the college orchestra . He held the professorship for the rest of his life ; among the best known of his many pupils were Samuel Coleridge @-@ Taylor , Gustav Holst , Ralph Vaughan Williams , John Ireland , Frank Bridge and Arthur Bliss .
Stanford was never an easy @-@ going teacher . He insisted on one @-@ to @-@ one tutorials , and worked his pupils hard . One of them , Herbert Howells , recalled , " Corner any Stanford pupil you like , and ask him to confess the sins he most hated being discovered in by his master . He will tell you ' slovenliness ' and ' vulgarity . ' When these went into the teacher 's room they came out , badly damaged . Against compromise with dubious material or workmanship Stanford stubbornly set his face . " Another pupil , Edgar Bainton , recalled :
Stanford 's teaching seemed to be without method or plan . His criticism consisted for the most part of " I like it , my boy , " or " It 's damned ugly , my boy " ( the latter in most cases ) . In this , perhaps , lay its value . For in spite of his conservatism , and he was intensely and passionately conservative in music as in politics , his amazingly comprehensive knowledge of musical literature of all nations and ages made one feel that his opinions , however irritating , had weight .
To Stanford 's regret , many of his pupils who achieved eminence as composers broke away from his classical , Brahmsian precepts , as he had himself rebelled against Reinecke 's conservatism . The composer George Dyson wrote , " In a certain sense the very rebellion he fought was the most obvious fruit of his methods . And in view of what some of these rebels have since achieved , one is tempted to wonder whether there is really anything better a teacher can do for his pupils than drive them into various forms of revolution . " The works of some of Stanford 's pupils , including Holst and Vaughan Williams , entered the general repertory in Britain , and to some extent elsewhere , as Stanford 's never did . For many years after his death it seemed that Stanford 's greatest fame would be as a teacher . Among his achievements at the RCM was the establishment of an opera class , with at least one operatic production every year . From 1885 to 1915 there were 32 productions , all of them conducted by Stanford .
In 1887 Stanford was appointed professor of music at Cambridge in succession to Sir George Macfarren who died in October of that year . Up to this time , the university had awarded music degrees to candidates who had not been undergraduates at Cambridge ; all that was required was to pass the university 's music examinations . Stanford was determined to end the practice , and after six years he persuaded the university authorities to agree . Three years ' study at the university became a prerequisite for sitting the bachelor of music examinations .
= = = Conductor and composer = = =
During the last decades of the 19th century , Stanford 's academic duties did not prevent him from composing or performing . He was appointed conductor of the Bach Choir , London , in 1885 , succeeding its founding conductor Otto Goldschmidt . He held the post until 1902 . Hans von Bülow conducted the German premiere of Stanford 's Irish Symphony in Hamburg in January 1888 , and was sufficiently impressed by the work to programme it in Berlin shortly afterwards . Richter conducted it in Vienna , and Mahler later conducted it in New York . For the Theatre Royal , Cambridge , Stanford composed incidental music for productions of Aeschylus 's The Eumenides ( 1885 ) , and Sophocles ' Oedipus Tyrannos ( 1887 ) . The Times said of the former , " Mr. Stanford 's music is dramatically significant , as well as beautiful in itself . It has , moreover , that quality so rare among modern composers – style . " In both sets of music Stanford made extensive use of leitmotifs , in the manner of Wagner ; the critic of The Times noted the Wagnerian character of the prelude to Oedipus .
In the 1890s , Bernard Shaw writing as " Corno di Bassetto " , music critic of The World , voiced mixed feelings about Stanford . In Shaw 's view , the best of Stanford 's works displayed an uninhibited , Irish , character . The critic was dismissive of the composer 's solemn Victorian choral music . In July 1891 , Shaw 's column was full of praise for Stanford 's capacity for spirited tunes , declaring that Richard D 'Oyly Carte should engage him to succeed Sullivan as the composer of Savoy operas . In October of the same year , Shaw attacked Stanford 's oratorio Eden , bracketing the composer with Parry and Mackenzie as a mutual admiration society , purveying " sham classics " :
[ W ] ho am I that I should be believed , to the disparagement of eminent musicians ? If you doubt that Eden is a masterpiece , ask Dr Parry and Dr Mackenzie , and they will applaud it to the skies . Surely Dr Mackenzie 's opinion is conclusive ; for is he not the composer of Veni Creator , guaranteed as excellent music by Professor Stanford and Dr Parry ? You want to know who Parry is ? Why , the composer of Blest Pair of Sirens , as to the merits of which you only have to consult Dr Mackenzie and Professor Stanford .
To Fuller Maitland , the trio of composers lampooned by Shaw were the leaders of an English musical renaissance ( although neither Stanford nor Mackenzie was English ) . This view persisted in some academic circles for many years .
Stanford returned to opera in 1893 , with an extensively revised and shortened version of The Veiled Prophet . It had its British premiere at Covent Garden in July . His friend Fuller Maitland was by this time the chief music critic of The Times , and the paper 's review of the opera was laudatory . According to Fuller Maitland The Veiled Prophet was the best novelty of an opera season that had also included Leoncavallo 's Pagliacci , Bizet 's Djamileh and Mascagni 's I Rantzau . Stanford 's next opera was Shamus O 'Brien ( 1896 ) , a comic opera to a libretto by George H. Jessop . The conductor was the young Henry Wood , who recalled in his memoirs that the producer , Sir Augustus Harris , managed to quell the dictatorial composer and prevent him from interfering with the staging . Stanford attempted to give Wood lessons in conducting , but the young man was unimpressed . The opera was successful , running for 82 consecutive performances . The work was given in German translation in Breslau in 1907 ; Thomas Beecham thought it " a colourful , racy work " , and revived it in his 1910 opéra comique season at His Majesty 's Theatre , London .
At the end of 1894 , Grove retired from the Royal College of Music . Parry was chosen to succeed him , and although Stanford wholeheartedly congratulated his friend on his appointment , their relations soon deteriorated . Stanford was known as a hot @-@ tempered and quarrelsome man . Grove had written of a board meeting at the Royal College " where somehow the spirit of the d----l himself had been working in Stanford all the time – as it sometimes does , making him so nasty and quarrelsome and contradictious as no one but he can be ! He is a most remarkably clever and able fellow , full of resource and power – no doubt of that – but one has to purchase it often at a very dear price . " Parry suffered worse at Stanford 's hands with frequent rows , deeply upsetting to the highly strung Parry . Some of their rows were caused by Stanford 's reluctance to accept the authority of his old friend and protégé , but on other occasions Parry seriously provoked Stanford , notably in 1895 when he reduced the funding for Stanford 's orchestral classes .
In 1898 , Sullivan , ageing and unwell , resigned as conductor of the Leeds triennial music festival , a post which he had held since 1880 . He believed that Stanford 's motive for accepting the conductorship of the Leeds Philharmonic Society the previous year was to position himself to take over the festival . Stanford later felt obliged to write to The Times , denying that he had been party to a conspiracy to oust Sullivan . Sullivan was by then thought to be a dull conductor of other composers ' music , and although Stanford 's work as a conductor was not without its critics , he was appointed in Sullivan 's place . He remained in charge until 1910 . His compositions for the festival included Songs of the Sea ( 1904 ) , Stabat Mater ( 1907 ) and Songs of the Fleet ( 1910 ) . New works by other composers presented at Leeds during Stanford 's years in charge included pieces by Parry , Mackenzie , and seven of Stanford 's former pupils . The best @-@ known new work from Stanford 's time is probably Vaughan Williams 's A Sea Symphony , premiered in 1910 .
= = = 20th century = = =
In 1901 Stanford returned once again to opera , with a version of Much Ado About Nothing , to a libretto by Julian Sturgis that was exceptionally faithful to Shakespeare 's original . The Manchester Guardian commented , " Not even in the Falstaff of Arrigo Boito and Giuseppe Verdi have the characteristic charm , the ripe and pungent individuality of the original comedy been more sedulously preserved . "
Despite good notices for the opera , Stanford 's star was waning . In the first decade of the century , his music became eclipsed by that of a younger composer , Edward Elgar . In the words of the music scholar Robert Anderson , Stanford " had his innings with continental reputation in the latter decades of the nineteenth century , but then Elgar bowled him out . " When Elgar was struggling for recognition in the 1890s , Stanford had been supportive of his younger colleague , conducting his music , putting him forward for a Cambridge doctorate , and proposing him for membership of the exclusive London club , the Athenaeum . He was , however , put out when Elgar 's success at home and abroad eclipsed his own , with Richard Strauss ( whom Stanford detested ) praising Elgar as the first progressive English composer . When Elgar was appointed professor of music at Birmingham University in 1904 , Stanford wrote him a letter that the recipient found " odious " . Elgar retaliated in his inaugural lecture with remarks about composers of rhapsodies , widely seen as denigrating Stanford . Stanford later counter @-@ attacked in his book A History of Music , writing of Elgar , " Cut off from his contemporaries by his religion and his want of regular academic training , he was lucky enough to enter the field and find the preliminary ploughing done . "
Though bitter about being sidelined , Stanford continued to compose . Between the turn of the century and the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 his new works included a violin concerto ( 1901 ) , a clarinet concerto ( 1902 ) , a sixth and a seventh ( and last ) symphony ( 1906 and 1911 ) , and his second piano concerto ( 1911 ) . In 1916 he wrote his penultimate opera , The Critic . It was a setting of Sheridan 's comedy of the same name , with the original text left mostly intact by the librettist , Lewis Cairns James . The work was well received at the premiere at the Shaftesbury Theatre , London , and was taken up later in the year by Beecham , who staged it in Manchester and London .
= = = Last years = = =
The First World War had a severe effect on Stanford . He was frightened by air @-@ raids , and had to move from London to Windsor to avoid them . Many of his former pupils were casualties of the fighting , including Arthur Bliss , injured , Ivor Gurney , gassed , and George Butterworth , killed . The annual RCM operatic production , which Stanford had supervised and conducted every year since 1885 , had to be cancelled . His income declined , as the fall in student numbers at the college reduced the demand for his services . After a serious disagreement at the end of 1916 , his relationship with Parry deteriorated to the point of hostility . Stanford 's magnanimity , however , came to the fore when Parry died two years later and Stanford successfully lobbied for him to be buried in St Paul 's Cathedral .
After the war , Stanford handed over much of the direction of the RCM 's orchestra to Adrian Boult , but continued to teach at the college . He gave occasional public lectures , including one on " Some Recent Tendencies in Composition " , in January 1921 which was belligerently hostile to most of the music of the generation after his own . His last public appearance was on 5 March 1921 conducting Frederick Ranalow and the Royal Choral Society in his new cantata , At the Abbey Gate . Reviews were polite but unenthusiastic . The Times said , " we could not feel that the music had enough emotion behind it " , The Observer thought it " quite appealing even though one feels it to be more facile than powerful . "
In September 1922 , Stanford completed the sixth Irish Rhapsody , his final work . Two weeks later he celebrated his 70th birthday ; thereafter his health declined . On 17 March 1924 he suffered a stroke and on 29 March he died at his home in London , survived by his wife and children . He was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 2 April and his ashes were buried in Westminster Abbey the following day . The orchestra of the Royal College of Music , conducted by Boult , played music by Stanford , ending the service with a funeral march that he had written for Tennyson 's Becket in 1893 . The grave is in the north choir aisle of the Abbey , near the graves of Henry Purcell , John Blow and William Sterndale Bennett . The Times said , " the conjunction of the music of Stanford with that of his great predecessors showed how thoroughly as composer he belonged to their line . "
Stanford 's last opera , The Travelling Companion , composed during the war , was premiered by amateur performers at the David Lewis Theatre , Liverpool in 1925 with a reduced orchestra . The work was given complete at Bristol in 1928 and at Sadler 's Wells Theatre , London , in 1935 .
= = = Honours = = =
Stanford received many honours , including honorary doctorates from Oxford ( 1883 ) , Cambridge ( 1888 ) , Durham ( 1894 ) , Leeds ( 1904 ) , and Trinity College , Dublin ( 1921 ) . He was knighted in 1902 and in 1904 was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Arts , Berlin .
= = Works = =
Stanford composed about 200 works , including seven symphonies , about 40 choral works , nine operas , 11 concertos and 28 chamber works , as well as songs , piano pieces , incidental music , and organ works . He suppressed most of his earliest compositions ; the earliest of works that he chose to include in his catalogue date from 1875 .
Throughout his career as a composer , Stanford 's technical mastery was rarely in doubt . The composer Edgar Bainton said of him , " Whatever opinions may be held upon Stanford 's music , and they are many and various , it is , I think , always recognised that he was a master of means . Everything he turned his hand to always ' comes off . ' " On the day of Stanford 's death , one former pupil , Gustav Holst , said to another , Herbert Howells , " The one man who could get any one of us out of a technical mess is now gone from us . "
After Stanford 's death most of his music was quickly forgotten , with the exception of his works for church performance . His Stabat Mater and Requiem held their place in the choral repertoire , the latter championed by Sir Thomas Beecham . Stanford 's two sets of sea songs and the song " The Blue Bird " were still performed from time to time , but even his most popular opera , Shamus O 'Brien came to seem old fashioned with its " stage @-@ Irish " vocabulary . However , in his 2002 study of Stanford , Dibble writes that the music , increasingly available on disc if not in live performance , still has the power to surprise . In Dibble 's view , the frequent charge that Stanford is " Brahms and water " was disproved once the symphonies , concertos , much of the chamber music and many of the songs became available for reappraisal when recorded for compact disc . In 2002 , Rodmell 's study of Stanford included a discography running to 16 pages .
The criticism most often made of Stanford 's music by writers from Shaw onwards is that his music lacks passion . Shaw praised " Stanford the Celt " and abominated " Stanford the Professor " , who reined in the emotions of the Celt . In Stanford 's church music , the critic Nicholas Temperley finds " a thoroughly satisfying artistic experience , but one that is perhaps lacking in deeply felt religious impulse . " In his operas and elsewhere , Grove , Parry and later commentators found music that ought to convey love and romance failing to do so . Like Parry , Stanford strove for seriousness , and his competitive streak led him to emulate Sullivan not in comic opera , for which Stanford had a real gift , but in oratorio in what Rodmell calls grand statements that " only occasionally matched worthiness with power or profundity . "
= = = Orchestral = = =
The commentator Richard Whitehouse writes that Stanford 's seven symphonies embody both the strengths and limitations of his music , displaying " a compositional rigour and expertise matched only by his older contemporary ... Parry , while seeming content to remain well within the stylistic ambit of Mendelssohn , Schumann and Brahms . " Whitehouse comments that although Stanford 's symphonic construction is conventional , " an often subtle approach to movement forms and resourceful orchestration make his symphonies worth exploring . "
Stanford 's first two symphonies ( 1876 and 1879 ) were not published and were excluded from his catalogue of works . The Third Symphony in F minor , known as the Irish , was first performed in 1887 . It was the most popular of Stanford 's symphonies during his lifetime . In his study of Stanford 's works , John Porte refers to it as " full of the spirit and tunes of his country ... with its contrasting expressions of jollity and sad beauty . " In this , as in many of his works , Stanford incorporated genuine Irish folk tunes . Like Parry and Mackenzie , but unlike Sullivan and Elgar , Stanford liked and respected folk songs . He generally avoided programmatic music , but his Sixth Symphony , composed in memoriam G F Watts , was , Stanford acknowledged , inspired by Watts 's sculptures and paintings .
Of Stanford 's other orchestral works , his six Irish Rhapsodies all date from the 20th century , the first from 1901 and the last from the year before his death . Two of the set feature solo instruments along with the orchestra : the third ( cello ) and the sixth ( violin ) . In Dibble 's view some of the concertante works such as the First Piano Concerto ( 1894 ) and the Violin Concerto ( 1899 ) are in their orchestration and their lyricism as much in the tradition of Mendelssohn as of Brahms , with whom Stanford 's music is often compared .
= = = Chamber works = = =
Stanford 's chamber music , which as Dibble notes even Shaw praised , has not entered the general repertoire , but is well crafted . Dibble singles out the Three Intermezzi for clarinet and piano ( 1879 ) , the Serenade nonet ( 1905 ) , and the Clarinet Sonata ( 1911 ) with its touching lament . Writing of the First String Quintet , Porte calls it a sonorous and warm @-@ hearted sort of work , constructed on fairly classical lines , and notes that the character and construction are typical of the composer . Porte comments similarly on other chamber works , including the Second Piano Trio : " This is a typical Stanfordian work . It is sonorously scored , classical in outlook , and contains many passages of an expressive and somewhat poetical freshness . There are no very special features to note , but the work is one that makes a useful and interesting item . "
= = = Church music = = =
The general neglect of Stanford 's music in the years after his death did not extend to his ecclesiastical works . In Music in Britain , one of the few books to deal with Stanford 's music in detail , Nicholas Temperley writes that it is due to Stanford that settings of the Anglican church services regained their " full place beside the anthem as a worthy object of artistic invention . " Vaughan Williams ranked the Stabat Mater as one of Stanford 's works of " imperishable beauty " . In Temperley 's view , Stanford 's services in A ( 1880 ) , F ( 1889 ) and C ( 1909 ) are the most important and enduring additions from those years to the cathedral repertory . As with his concert works , Stanford 's music is dominated by melody . The bass line , in Rodmell 's view , is always important yet secondary and anything in between was regarded as " filling . "
= = = Operas = = =
In a 1981 survey of Stanford 's operas , the critic Nigel Burton writes that Shamus O 'Brien lacks good tunes , and that the only memorable melody in it is not by Stanford but is an English folk song , " The Glory of the West . " Burton is more dismissive of The Critic , which he describes as " a poor man 's Ariadne auf Naxos . " Dibble rates The Critic much higher , considering it to be one of Stanford 's two best operas . In 1921 , Porte wrote that it contains music that is " remarkably fresh , melodious and thoroughly individual in character and outlook . The vocal and instrumental writing is done with consummate skill . " Burton praises Much Ado About Nothing , judging it to contain some of Stanford 's best operatic music . He rates the last of the composer 's operas , The Travelling Companion as his finest operatic achievement , though Burton credits much of its power to the brilliant story adapted by Henry Newbolt from Hans Andersen . Porte writes that the music is often solemn and romantic , and curiously impressive .
= = Recordings = =
Although much of Stanford 's music is neglected in the concert hall , a considerable amount has been recorded . Complete cycles of the symphonies have been recorded for the Chandos and Naxos labels , under the conductors Vernon Handley and David Lloyd @-@ Jones . Other orchestral works recorded for CD include the six Irish Rhapsodies , the Clarinet Concerto , the Second Piano Concerto and the Second Violin Concerto .
Stanford 's church music is well represented on disc . In his 2002 discography , Rodmell lists 14 versions of the Service in B ♭ , alongside multiple recordings of the Services in A , F and C , the three motets Op. 38 and the composer 's setting of " The Lord is my Shepherd . " Secular songs recorded by several artists include " La Belle Dame Sans Merci " , performed by Janet Baker among others , " An Irish Idyll " , whose interpreters have included Kathleen Ferrier , and Songs of the Sea in recordings by such singers as Thomas Allen . Among the chamber works that have received several recordings are the Three Intermezzi for Clarinet and Piano and the Clarinet Sonata . Rodmell 's discography lists none of Stanford 's operas .
= New York State Route 28N =
New York State Route 28N ( NY 28N ) is an east – west state highway in the North Country of New York in the United States . It extends for 50 @.@ 95 miles ( 82 @.@ 00 km ) through the Adirondack Mountains from Blue Mountain Lake to North Creek . The route is a northerly alternate route to NY 28 between both locations ; as such , it passes through several communities that NY 28 bypasses to the south . The westernmost 10 miles ( 16 km ) of NY 28N overlap with NY 30 through the town of Long Lake . NY 28N and NY 30 split in the hamlet of Long Lake , from where NY 30 heads to the north and NY 28N proceeds eastward through mountainous regions of Adirondack Park .
The 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) section of NY 28N not concurrent with NY 30 is designated as the Roosevelt – Marcy Trail , a scenic byway named for Theodore Roosevelt , who was then the Vice President of the United States . The byway marks the path Roosevelt took in 1901 to reach North Creek from Mount Marcy after learning that President William McKinley had been assassinated . The route has a rather scant history before its designations . The road originated as an old highway stretching from Warren County to Long Lake . It was used for transportation in the iron ore industry in Newcomb , and for the lumber industry in Minerva . New York State gained control of the road in 1909 . The NY 28N designation was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , incorporating part of pre @-@ 1930 NY 10 .
= = Route description = =
NY 28N begins at the intersection with NY 28 and NY 30 near the hamlet of Blue Mountain Lake within the town of Indian Lake . The highway , concurrent with Route 30 , heads north through the hamlet nestled at the base of Blue Mountain , one of the highest peaks in Adirondack Park standing , 3 @,@ 795 feet ( 1 @,@ 157 m ) above sea level . Routes 28N and 30 track north , gaining elevation after leaving Blue Mountain Lake . Nestled between Blue Mountain and Peaked Mountain , Routes 28N and 30 turn northeast . After intersecting Salmon Pond Road , the highways wind through the mountains and hills of the Adirondacks . Mud Pond and South Pond are on the west , and East Inlet Mountain is on the east . After paralleling Long Lake and the base of East Inlet Mountain , the highways enter the hamlet of Long Lake , where they split . Route 30 heads northwest , while NY 28N turns eastward towards Newcomb .
Beyond Long Lake , NY 28N partially remains in a mountainous region ; Pinnacle Mountain , a 2 @,@ 159 @-@ foot ( 658 m ) peak , rises to the north , while lowlands lie to the south . The highway progresses eastward , passing Windfall Mountain and proceeding through the center of the park . NY 28N crosses into Essex County , where it becomes the Roosevelt – Marcy Trail , one of 13 scenic byways in the Adirondack Park . The highway , first turning southeast for a short distance , turns east again , passing south of Rich Lake . The two @-@ lane highway passes Baldwin Mountain to the north , and subsequently enters Newcomb , an isolated town between Long Lake and North Creek . The highway exits Newcomb as it approaches the shores of Harris Lake . After crossing one of those creeks , the highway turns to the southeast and into Winebrook Hills .
NY 28N passes through Winebrook Hills , and intersects with its first signed roads since Long Lake , County Route 75 ( CR 75 , named Eaton Lane ) and CR 84 ( Blue Ridge Road ) . The latter is a former alignment of NY 73 . Nearby is Vanderwhacker Mountain , a 3 @,@ 386 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 032 m ) high peak and part of the Vanderwhacker Mountain Wild Forest , which the highway passes through . CR 84 eventually parallels the highway to the north of NY 28N , but this slowly begins to change as the main highway begins to progress southward . NY 28N heads south into the hamlet of Aiden Lair and continues south towards Warren County . The highway crosses Boreas Creek , which flows southwest in the park , and eventually passes a series of lakes . NY 28N enters Minerva , where it intersects several county routes , including County Route 29 , which heads towards the Warren County border and Interstate 87 ( I @-@ 87 ) .
The road , after leaving Minerva , passes Moxham Mountain , a 2 @,@ 200 @-@ foot ( 670 m ) peak , and eventually crosses the Hudson River . The route ends just after entering North Creek in Warren County , at the intersection with NY 28 , its parent route .
NY 28N is classified as a rural major collector road , with the exception of the section that is overlapped with Route 30 , which is classified as a rural minor arterial road . As of 2006 , the Route 30 overlap had an annual average daily traffic of 1 @,@ 781 vehicles . Traffic volumes are reduced to 1 @,@ 231 vehicles per day from the end of the Route 30 overlap to the intersection with Blue Ridge Road ( CR 84 ) . South of this intersection , traffic is reduced further to 350 until the hamlet of Minerva , rising to 751 south of Minerva until near the Warren county line . Traffic increases back up to 1 @,@ 248 vehicles per day from there to Route 28 in North Creek .
= = History = =
= = = Early history : Newcomb and Minerva = = =
Many of the earliest roads in the area crossed through Minerva . The first known road that reached the settlement was established in 1804 , when land along a highway from St. Lawrence County to the town of Chester in Warren County was populated by the West family . Minerva was mainly limited to the vicinity of the old highway , but as more people settled along the road , the town began to grow . For a time , the town boasted several water @-@ powered sawmills , and the highway was used to transport lumber . However , the lumber industry began to fail , and by 1840 , the logging and lumber system had been replaced by crops . The town initiated river drives , which continued until 1950 .
On March 15 , 1828 , part of Minerva and nearby Moriah was split into the town of Newcomb . Settlers began to arrive in this area in 1816 . Settlement began along the shores of Lake Harris and Newcomb Lake , mainly along the old highway from Warren County to nearby Long Lake . Eventually , highways helped the town grow , and it reached a population of 300 by the 1880 census . The iron ore industry contributed to population growth via 30 @-@ mile ( 48 km ) to 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) roads to Lake Champlain that were meant for hauling ore . The highway from Warren County to Long Lake became part of the state system as early as 1909 . After 1845 , Newcomb 's iron ore industry began to decline and the town evolved into somewhat of a sportsmen 's resort . As a result , a road was built connecting Newcomb with nearby Minerva and Long Lake .
The 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) section of 28N between Long Lake and North Creek is a scenic byway named the Roosevelt – Marcy Trail . This was the route traveled on September 10 , 1901 by Theodore Roosevelt , then Vice President of the United States . The vice president had hiked to the summit of nearby Mount Marcy earlier , while there , learned that President William McKinley , having been shot four days earlier by anarchist Leon Czolgosz in Buffalo , was near death . Roosevelt took an overnight wagon ride to North Creek . From the train station there , he traveled to Buffalo , where , after McKinley died , he was sworn in as president on September 14 .
= = = Designation and bridge rehabilitation = = =
The routing of NY 28N was originally designated , but not signed , as part of legislative Route 25 in 1908 . In 1924 , the portion of Route 25 from Long Lake to North Creek was designated as part of the signed NY 10 . The segment of former Route 25 between Blue Mountain Lake and Long Lake became part of NY 10A in the late 1920s . In the 1930 renumbering , the NY 10A designation was eliminated , and NY 10 was rerouted south of Long Lake to follow the modern routing of NY 30 south to Speculator . The former routing of NY 10 between Long Lake and North Creek was then administratively redesignated as NY 28N , which continued southward from Long Lake to Blue Mountain Lake by way of an overlap with NY 10 .
The New York State Department of Transportation has scheduled for NY 28N to undergo construction in spring 2013 , to rehabilitate the bridge over the Upper Hudson River Railroad . The $ 5 @.@ 9 million project is projected to be complete in fall of 2015 , and is to be supported by state and federal funds . New York State Department of Transportation has also planned for NY 28N 's bridge over Stillwater Brook in Minerva to be replaced with a stronger structure . The development of the project is expected to take place 2014 , with bids and construction starting in 2016 . The project has been set to end in 2017 , and is predicted to cost $ 1 @.@ 1 million of federal and state funds .
= = Major intersections = =
= Tropical Storm Julio ( 2002 ) =
Tropical Storm Julio in 2002 was a weak and short @-@ lived tropical storm that made landfall along the southern Mexican coast . An area of convection organized into a tropical depression on September 25 . Initially forecast to stay offshore , the depression headed northward and strengthened into a tropical storm that same day . Julio turned to the northwest and peaked as a minimal tropical storm just before landfall near Lázaro Cárdenas , on September 26 . The storm soon weakened into a tropical depression and later on September 26 , it rapidly dissipated over Mexico .
Prior to making landfall , tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued for a portion of the Pacific coast of Mexico . After making landfall , three fatalities and 18 injuries were reported from Julio when a bus flipped over . Around 100 houses in Acapulco and Zihuatanejo were damaged or washed away by flash flooding . In the latter city , many trees were brought down and numerous streets were flooded . The highest rainfall reported was 16 @.@ 10 in ( 409 mm ) at Zihuatanejo and La Unión , resulting in devastation . In all , about 2 @,@ 000 homes were flooded while 100 families were evacuated . About a month after Julio , Hurricane Kenna affected some of the same locations as Julio .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Julio were from a persistent monsoon @-@ like area of convection ( possibly related to Hurricane Isidore ) that was situated off the west coast of Central America on September 21 . Convective activity generally increased over the next two days , and it is estimated that a poorly defined surface circulation developed late on September 23 . The low gradually became better organized and at 0000 UTC on September 25 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) reported that the disturbance had developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E about 100 mi ( 160 km ) southwest of Acapulco .
Initially , the storm was expected to pass very close to the Mexican coast and attain a peak intensity of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Shortly thereafter , the NHC upgraded the depression into Tropical Storm Julio based on intensity estimates from the Dvorak technique . By this time , Julio was now expected to move onshore the Mexican coast and meander . At 0000 UTC on September 26 , Tropical Storm Julio attained its peak intensity of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) while also reaching its minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mb ( 30 inHg ) . At peak , the storm was centered just west @-@ northwest of Lázaro Cárdenas . After turning northwest , Julio made landfall along the coast of Southwestern Mexico . After landfall , Julio rapidly deteriorated over the mountainous terrain . At 1200 UTC September 26 , the storm was downgraded into a tropical depression . Even though the storm was initially expected to enter the extreme southern Gulf of California and regain tropical storm strength , Julio dissipated near Manzanillo later that day instead .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued for portions of the Pacific coast of Mexico ; a tropical storm warning was issued from Zihuatanejo to Punta San Telma while a tropical storm watch was in effect from Punta San Telma to Manzanillo . On September 26 , once the storm had weakened into a depression over land , all the watches and warnings were dropped . While making landfall , Zihuatanejo reported 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds , with gusts up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) at 2042 UTC September 25 . In addition , a peak pressure of 1 @,@ 002 @.@ 3 mb ( 29 @.@ 60 inHg ) was reported . The highest rainfall reported was 16 @.@ 10 inches ( 409 mm ) at Zihuatanejo and La Unión , Guerrero . Record rainfall was reported in Guerrero .
Tropical Storm Julio was responsible for heavy rains to Zihuatanejo , where 100 homes were damaged or destroyed . Across the city , numerous roofs were damaged and many trees fell . Many houses and streets were flooded as well . Meanwhile , in Acapulco , heavy rains triggered flash flooding that damaged another 100 houses . Throughout Colima , many rivers overflowed its banks . Furthermore , 2 @,@ 000 homes were flooded . Roughly 100 families were evacuated to shelters in Michoacán .
In addition , many small shacks lost their roof due to the storm 's high winds . On the outskirts of the Taxco , situated 95 mi ( 155 km ) inland , a school bus carrying 40 kids flipped over , killing three and injuring 18 others . An estimated 2700 acres ( 700 ha ) of crops were lost because of the storm . Parts of Guerrero were later declared a disaster area . However , the city of Zihuaranejo was quickly cleaned up proceeding the storm . About a month after Julio , Hurricane Kenna affected some of the same locations that Julio impacted .
= Daughters ( Nas song ) =
" Daughters " is a song by American rapper Nas , released on July 17 , 2012 , by Def Jam Recordings as the third single from his 2012 album Life Is Good . He wrote it as a reflection on the growth of his daughter Destiny Jones . It was produced by No I.D. and was one of the first songs recorded for the album .
" Daughters " features lyrics about raising a daughter and vignettes about fatherhood . Nas ' lyrics address his daughter 's behavioral problems and are self @-@ critical of his parenting skills . No I.D. ' s soul @-@ influenced production incorporates samples of Cloud One 's 1979 song " Dust to Dust " and Wayne McGhie and the Sounds of Joy 's 1970 song " Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye " .
" Daughters " was released to positive reviews from music critics while charting at number 78 on Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . It also earned Nas two Grammy Award nominations , one for Best Rap Performance and another for Best Rap Song .
= = Writing and recording = =
With " Daughters " , Nas wanted to write a song that expressed him observing the growth of his daughter Destiny Jones , who was 17 years old at the time . Nas said in an interview with XXL :
" She 's so important to me and she always has been . They grow so fast and time flies man . Before you know it , you ’ re looking at a little lady . She 's my first kid , my first time watching a child become a teen and a little adult before my eyes . That 's one of the most important things in my life . She is . I can ’ t get away from talking about it . "
" Daughters " was one of the first tracks Nas recorded for his 2012 album Life Is Good . Recording sessions for the song took place at 4220 Studios , Conway Recording Studios , and EastWest Studio in Hollywood , and at Record One in Sherman Oaks , California . It was produced by No I.D. , who incorporated live instrumentation , including guitar by Steve Wyreman and keyboards by James Poyser and Kevin Randolph . Kaye Fox sung additional vocals on the song .
Destiny Jones was in the studio when they were recording " Daughters " . " We were in a big studio so Destiny was doing other things " , Nas later told Vibe . " She walked into the room where I was recording it and heard a few words and said , ‘ What ’ s going on ? ’ The whole room just started laughing and she kind of smiled and walked backwards out of the room . She didn ’ t know what it was about and she didn ’ t want to listen to it , but later on she heard the song . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Daughters " uses samples of Wayne McGhie and the Sounds of Joy 's 1970 song " Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye " and Cloud One 's 1979 song " Dust to Dust " . According to Artistdirect critic Rick Florino , the song draws on " shimmering " soul music and personal vignettes about fatherhood by Nas , who dedicates the song to " my brothers with daughters . "
According to Ken Capobianco of The Boston Globe , " Daughters " is " an emotionally complex paean to raising a girl " by a father who " struggles to let her find her way " . Pitchfork Media 's Jayson Greene said the song " finds him examining the responsibilities of fatherhood with fond bewilderment . " New York Times critic Jon Caramanica remarked that Nas sounded conflicted " between forgiving his daughter her occasional transgressions and indicting himself for not being a stern enough parent " . In the opinion of Billboard 's Erika Ramirez , he drew on an allegory of fatherhood that seemed universal .
Nas made reference to finding his daughter 's letter to a man in jail and the controversy that ensued when she posted a photo of a box of condoms on Instagram . According to Kyle Ellison from Drowned in Sound , Nas also commented on gender expectations in his rap , citing the line " when he date , he straight , chip off his old papa / when she date , we wait behind the door with a sawed off / ' cause we think no one is good enough for our daughters . "
= = Release and reception = =
" Daughters " was premiered on DJ Prostyle 's radio show on Power 105 @.@ 1 on April 26 , 2012 . Chris Robinson directed a music video for the song , which premiered on May 27 and was " visualized through the eyes of [ Destiny Jones ] — from her third birthday party to her high school years to getting into trouble with boys " , Rap @-@ Up reported . On July 17 , Def Jam Recordings released " Daugheters " as a single , the third from Life Is Good . It was performed by Nas on the Late Show with David Letterman that same day . Nas also wanted to record a remix of the song with Eminem , who turned the offer down , explaining that he had spoken enough on the subject of fatherhood in his own music . He also reached out to Jay @-@ Z , but their busy schedules did not permit them to record together .
" Daughters " peaked at number 78 on the U.S. Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , on which it charted for nine weeks . It was received positively by critics , including AllMusic editor David Jeffries , who found it " well written " , and Robert Christgau , who named it a highlight on Life Is Good . Greene deemed it a " sweetly reflective response " by Nas to his daughter 's behavior , while Amidon found his level of honesty on the song " intense " and " probably the most honest we ’ re ever going to hear Nas " . Alex Macpherson of Fact called it " a song that 's as likely to make fathers everywhere misty @-@ eyed as it is to make teenage girls cringe in horror " . Respect. magazine deemed it a worthy example of when hip hop transcends its entertainment value in " an effort to celebrate and share the complexities of raising a daughter in the hip @-@ hop community " . " Daughters " was nominated for two Grammy Awards , one in the category of Best Rap Performance and another for Best Rap Song . Complex ranked it number 39 on its list of 2012 's 50 best songs .
Carmen Bryan , Nas ' ex @-@ wife , was critical of the song , calling it a " disappointment " while claiming via Twitter , " He had nothing positive to say about our daughter and his depiction of her is false ! " In response , American rapper Common defended Nas for his personal songwriting and likened " Daughters " to his own 1997 song " Retrospect for Life " , which he wrote about his girlfriend 's abortion . " I 've had people come to me because of those type of songs and say it changed their life " , Common told XXL . " Or somebody be like , ' Man , that song made me decide to have my child instead of having an abortion . ' Something that Nas said in that song may inspire somebody to be a better father so I think it ’ s worth it . " In an interview for Vibe , Nas said of his daughter 's reaction to the song :
" I think she understands where I was coming from . She can hear me saying that I wasn ’ t always around and I wasn ’ t always the best dad , but I care . And there are a lot of fathers like me . To me , ‘ Daughters ’ lets all those fathers out there know , ‘ Hey , don ’ t end up like me in terms of not being there all the time . ’ You should really pay attention to the most precious thing in the world . Destiny and I hang out all the time . She never beefs with me about it . "
= = Track listing = =
Digital single
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes for Life Is Good .
Kaye Fox – additional vocals
Rob Kinelski – mixing , recording engineer
Nas – composer , performer
No I.D. – composer , producer
James Poyser – keyboards
Kevin Randolph – keyboards
Brian Sumner – recording engineer
Anna Ugarte – assistant engineer , mixing assistant
Steve Wyreman – guitar
= Clara Ng =
Clara Ng ( born 28 July 1973 ; née Clara Regina Juana , last name pronounced [ ŋ ̍ ] ) is an Indonesian writer who is known for both adult fiction and children 's literature .
During her childhood in Jakarta , Ng enjoyed reading and read at an advanced rate . After finishing her primary and secondary education in Indonesia , during which time she took up writing , Ng went to the United States to study at Ohio State University . After her graduation in 1997 , she worked in the US for a year before returning to Indonesia to work at a shipping company . After three years working there , in which time she married and had two miscarriages , Ng quit to become a professional writer . Her first novel , Tujuh Musim Setahun ( Seven Seasons in a Year ; 2002 ) , sold poorly , but her subsequent trilogy Indiana Chronicle was better received . Since then , she has released several novels , as well as numerous short stories ( including one anthology ) and twenty @-@ one children 's books , and some collections of fairytales .
Ng , who is a stay at home mother , writes in her spare time at home . Her topics are different depending on the genre she is writing in ; her adult @-@ oriented works often deal with minority groups , while her children 's books are meant to teach empathy . Her children 's works have won three Adhikarya Awards from the Indonesian Publishers Association , and LGBT groups have praised her novel Gerhana Kembar ( Twin Eclipse ; 2007 ) for avoiding stereotyping the group . However , some educators have protested the lack of an explicit moral message in her children 's books .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Ng was born in Jakarta on 28 July 1973 with the name Clara Regina Juana and raised in the Kemayoran sub @-@ district . She took up reading at a young age , reportedly capable of reading translations of The Adventures of Tintin by kindergarten . She also enjoyed Hans Christian Andersen 's fairytale The Snow Queen , which influenced her writing . By age 11 she was reading adult @-@ oriented works by Mira W. Ng attended Budi Mulia Elementary School from 1979 until 1986 , then attended Van Lith Middle School until 1989 ; it was while in middle school that she taught herself creative writing and began creating works . She completed her high school education at Bunda Hati Kudus , graduating in 1992 . While in high school , she became interested in social issues , including discrimination faced by ethnic Chinese , LGBT , and women .
After high school , Ng went to the United States and began studying at Ohio Dominican University in Columbus , Ohio , but later transferred to Ohio State University ; she graduated with a bachelour 's degree in interpersonal communications in 1997 . While in the US , she read numerous children 's books ; these later influenced her own writings . After graduating , she spent a year working in the US before returning to Indonesia in 1998 . Upon her return to Indonesia , she spent three years working in the human resources department of Hanjin Shipping but left after she had two miscarriages , the first when she was seven months pregnant and the second at seven weeks . While staying at home , she took up writing .
= = = Writing career = = =
Ng made her debut as a novelist with Tujuh Musim Setahun ( Seven Seasons A Year ) in 2002 , which sold poorly . She gained recognition with her Indiana Chronicle trilogy , which consists of Blues ( 2004 ) , Lipstick ( 2005 ) and Bridesmaid ( 2005 ) . These works were classified as pop literature , but readers identified with the main characters — urban working women . Tempo magazine notes that the trilogy pioneered the metropop genre in Indonesia . Between Lipstik and Bridesmaid , another novel , The ( Un ) Reality Show , was released in 2005 .
In 2006 , Ng 's short story " Rahasia Bulan " ( " The Moon 's Secret " ) was included in a lesbian and gay themed short story collection of the same name . The work also included stories by Alberthiene Endah , Djenar Maesa Ayu , and Indra Herlambang . That year , she published two novels : Dimsum Terakhir ( The Last Dim Sum ) and Utukki : Sayap Para Dewa ( Utukki : Wings of the Gods ) . The following year Ng published another two novels , Tiga Venus ( Three Venuses ) and Gerhana Kembar ( Twin Eclipse ) . The latter , which was initially run as a serial in the newspaper Kompas and later picked up by Gramedia , was about lesbianism . The title was a result of Ng combining the Sun ( commonly representative of men ) and the Moon ( commonly representative of women ) to create a united symbol to represent homosexuality . Ng launched a short story collection , Malaikat Jatuh ( Fallen Angel ) in 2008 . The collection dealt mainly with death . The collection was followed in 2009 by the novel Tea For Two , which was first published as a serial in Kompas .
Ng 's short story " Barbie " was adapted as a film by actor @-@ cum @-@ presenter Raffi Ahmad in 2010 , with Yuni Shara in the titular role . Barbie followed the story of a night @-@ club singer and her lover , a security guard at the club . The film premiered at the LA Lights Indie movie festival . That same year she released two other books , Dongeng Tujuh Menit ( The Seven @-@ Minute Fairytale ) and Jampi @-@ jampi Varaiya ( Varaiya 's Incantations ) . Another one of her short stories , " Mata Indah " , was included in the lesbian @-@ themed anthology Un Soir du Paris ( An Evening in Paris ) ; other writers in the anthology included Seno Gumira Ajidarma , Ucu Agustin , and Noor .
In 2010 , Ng , Agus Noor , and Eka Kurniawan established the Fiksimini community on Facebook as a way to critique each other 's work , later branching out to Twitter . As of 2011 the community , with approximately 70 @,@ 000 followers , allows writers , both professional and aspiring , to tweet an idea within the 140 @-@ character technical limitations of the software which could make the reader think . On 1 July 2011 , Ng published Ramuan Drama Cinta ( Love Potion Drama ) , and in November she released Dongeng Sekolah Tebing ( Fairytales from the School on the Cliff ) , a collection of 53 stories about children who attend a school on a cliff .
Aside from writing novels and short stories , she also writes children 's books , a genre which she entered due to a lack of Indonesian @-@ language works . As of 2008 , Ng has written 21 such books in three series : Berbagi Cerita Berbagi Cinta ( Sharing Stories , Sharing Love ; started in 2006 and numbering seven books ) , Sejuta Warna Pelangi ( A Million Colours of the Rainbow ; started in 2007 and numbering nine books ) , and Bagai Bumi Berhenti Berputar ( As If the Earth Stopped Rotating ; started in 2008 and numbering five books ) .
= = Style = =
Ng 's main characters are generally female . These characters generally do not hold the same employment ; some occupations held by her characters include office worker , animal nursery employee , and automotive repair shop owner . Her children 's stories are written simply , illustrated , and deal with children 's feelings ; they are intended to give children more empathy . The characters ' names are chosen to be easy to remember .
= = Reception = =
Ng has received several awards . Her 2006 children 's story Rambut Pascal ( Pascal 's Hair , from the Berbagi Cerita series ) won an Adhikarya Award for Best Children 's Book from the Indonesian Publishers Association ( Ikatan Penerbit Indonesia , or IKAPI ) . The following year she won the same award for Sejuta Warna Pelangi . Another followed suit in 2008 for Jangan Bilang Siapa @-@ Siapa ( Don 't Tell Anybody ) .
A. Junaidi , writing for The Jakarta Post , notes that Gerhana Kembar was well received by Indonesia 's LGBT community as it did not link homosexuality to negative issues like drug use .
Ng notes that her children 's stories have been generally well received . However , some educators disagree with the lack of an explicit moral message ; Ng argues that her books have multiple interpretations : those by children and those by adults .
= = Personal life = =
As of 2010 , Ng is married to Nicholas Ng , a Malaysian citizen whom she met while working at Hanjin Shipping ; the couple married in 2000 . Together they have two children . She lives in Tanjung Duren , West Jakarta . According to an interview with Kompas , Ng is a stay @-@ at @-@ home mother and writes in an office in her house . She writes in her spare time , usually in the morning , as in the afternoon she must pick up her children .
= Burning of Norfolk =
The Burning of Norfolk was an incident that occurred on January 1 , 1776 , during the American Revolutionary War . British Royal Navy ships in the harbor of Norfolk , Virginia began shelling the town , and landing parties came ashore to burn specific properties . The town , whose significantly Tory ( Loyalist ) population had fled , was occupied by Whig ( Revolutionary ) forces from Virginia and North Carolina . Although these forces worked to drive off the landing parties , they did nothing to impede the progress of the flames , and began burning and looting Tory properties .
After three days , most of the town had been destroyed , principally by the action of the Whig forces . The destruction was completed by Whig forces in early February to deny use of even the remnants to the British . Norfolk was the last significant foothold of British authority in Virginia ; after raiding Virginia 's coastal areas for a time , its last Royal Governor , Lord Dunmore , left for good in August 1776 .
= = Background = =
Tensions in the British Colony of Virginia were raised in April 1775 at roughly the same time that the hostilities of the American Revolutionary War broke out in the Province of Massachusetts Bay with the Battles of Lexington and Concord . Rebellious Whigs ( also known as Patriots ) in control of the provincial assembly had begun recruiting troops in March 1775 , leading to a struggle for control of the colony 's military supplies . Under orders from John Murray , 4th Earl of Dunmore , the royal Governor of Virginia , British marines removed gunpowder from the colonial storehouse in Williamsburg to a Royal Navy ship , alarming members of the colonial legislature and prompting a militia uprising . Although the incident was resolved without violence , Dunmore , fearing for his personal safety , left Williamsburg in June 1775 and placed his family on board a Royal Navy ship . A small British fleet then took shape at Norfolk , a port town whose merchants had significant Loyalist ( Tory ) tendencies . Although the town did have some Whig support , the threat posed by the British fleet may have played a role in minimizing their activity in the town .
Confrontations and minor skirmishes continued in Virginia between Whigs on one side and Tories on the other until October , when Dunmore had acquired enough military support to begin organized operations against the rebellious Whigs . General Thomas Gage , the British commander @-@ in @-@ chief for North America , had ordered a small detachment of the 14th Regiment of Foot to Virginia in response to pleas by Dunmore for military help . These troops began raiding surrounding counties for rebel military supplies on October 12 . This activity continued through the end of October , when a small British ship ran aground and was captured by Whigs during a skirmish near Hampton . Navy boats sent to punish the townspeople were repulsed by Continental Army troops and militia in a brief gunfight that resulted in the killing and capture of several sailors . Dunmore reacted to this event by issuing a proclamation on November 7 in which he declared martial law , and offered to emancipate Whig @-@ held slaves in Virginia willing to serve in the British Army . The proclamation alarmed Tory and Whig slaveholders alike , concerned by the idea of armed former slaves and the potential loss of their property . Nevertheless , Dunmore was able to recruit enough slaves to form the Ethiopian Regiment , as well as raising a company of Tories he called the Queen 's Own Loyal Virginia Regiment . These local forces supplemented the two companies of the 14th Foot that were the sole British military presence in the colony . This successful recruiting drive prompted Dunmore to write on November 30 , 1775 that he would soon be able to " reduce this colony to a proper sense of their duty . "
Virginia 's assembly had sent companies of militia to Hampton under the command of William Woodford , the colonel of the 2nd Virginia Regiment in October , and further militia continued to arrive at Williamsburg . Woodford , his force swollen to 700 men , advanced toward Great Bridge in early December . Some of Dunmore 's troops had fortified the north side of the bridge , so Woodford began entrenching the position on his side of the bridge , while more and more militia companies arrived from the surrounding counties and North Carolina . On December 9 , British troops attempted to disperse Woodford 's force , and were decisively repulsed . Following the battle , the British retreated back into Norfolk , and shortly after , Dunmore and his entire force withdrew to Royal Navy ships anchored in Norfolk 's harbor , along with most of the remaining Tory population of the town . Woodford 's force continued to grow with the arrival of Colonel Robert Howe and North Carolina regulars the day after the battle .
= = Continental Army occupation of Norfolk = =
On December 14 , with the Whig forces having grown by further militia arrivals to about 1 @,@ 200 , Howe and Woodford moved into Norfolk . Since Colonel Howe held a senior Continental Army commission , he outranked Woodford , and assumed command of the occupying forces . He adopted a hard line in dealings with Dunmore and the Royal Navy captains , denying the delivery of supplies to the overcrowded ships , and insisting on parity in the exchange of prisoners .
Howe and Woodford were also concerned about the possibility of a British attack , and at first appealed for additional troops . However , on further consideration they realized that the British fleet could easily maneuver around the town and isolate the garrison . They consequently recommended to the Virginia assembly that the town be abandoned and rendered useless to their enemy .
On December 21 the Liverpool arrived , accompanied by a store ship loaded with supplies and munitions . Dunmore positioned four ships , the Dunmore , the Liverpool , the Otter , and the Kingfisher in a threatening line along the town 's waterfront , setting off an exodus of people and possessions from the town . On Christmas Eve , Liverpool 's captain , Henry Bellew , sent what amounted to an ultimatum into the town , stating that he preferred to purchase provisions instead of taking them by force . Howe rejected the ultimatum , and prepared for a bombardment . On December 30 , Bellew demanded that the Whig forces cease parading and changing the guard on the waterfront because he found it offensive , and suggested that it would " not be imprudent " for women and children to leave the town . Howe refused to withdraw his men , telling Bellew " I am too much an Officer [ ... ] to recede from any point which I conceive to be my duty . "
= = Burning and looting = =
On New Year 's Day 1776 , Howe 's guards paraded as they had before . Between 3 : 00 and 4 : 00 pm , the four ships of the British fleet opened fire on the town . Mounting more than 100 guns , they cannonaded the town well into the evening hours . Landing parties were sent ashore , some to retrieve provisions , others to set fire to buildings that Whig snipers had been using as posts from which to fire on the fleet . Although the British movements were not particularly well coordinated , they succeeded in setting most of the waterfront ablaze .
The Whig militia resisted the landing parties , but did little to stop the flames , which were spread by advantageous winds . Some Loyalist properties were targeted for burning and looting by the Whigs shortly after the bombardment began , including a local distillery . Although the British ended their operations that day , the fires continued to rage ; the next morning Colonel Howe reported that " the whole town will I doubt not be consum 'd in a day or two . " The burning and looting by the occupying Whigs continued for three days . By the time order was restored , much of the town had been destroyed .
= = Aftermath = =
Damage to the town by the Whig forces significantly exceeded that done by the British , destroying 863 buildings valued at £ 120 @,@ 000 ( an estimated £ 14 @.@ 6 million in modern pound sterling ) . In comparison , the British bombardment destroyed only 19 properties worth £ 3 @,@ 000 ( £ 360 @,@ 000 ) ; this was in addition to £ 2 @,@ 000 ( £ 240 @,@ 000 ) in damages done by Lord Dunmore during the British occupation of Norfolk .
Colonel Howe 's report to the Virginia Convention omitted the role of the Whig forces in the burning , and repeated the recommendation that the town be destroyed . A newspaper account published by Lord Rawdon prompted some questions in Whig circles about the event , but many assumed that British forces were responsible for most of the damage , and no inquiries were made in the immediate aftermath . The convention approved Howe 's plan , and by February 6 the remaining 416 structures had been destroyed . It was not until 1777 that the full extent of Whig participation in the burning was acknowledged .
Whig forces withdrew from the ruins of the town after completing its destruction , and took up posts in other nearby towns . They were further organized in March , when General Charles Lee arrived to take command of the Continental Army 's Southern Department . He mobilized the militia to evict Dunmore from a camp he had established near Portsmouth ; Dunmore finally abandoned Virginia for good in August 1776 .
While the lands at an already established Fort Nelson and what would later become Fort Norfolk had been fortified , these defensive positions were too weak to prevent the British Royal Navy from bombarding Norfolk . As a result , following the war , the U.S. Federal Government bought the fortified land in Norfolk and established Fort Norfolk . Both fortifications were reinforced and used to prevent any further naval assaults on the cities which lie on the Elizabeth River .
There is a marker at St. Paul 's Boulevard and City Hall Avenue in Norfolk commemorating the action .
= Music of Chrono Trigger =
The Chrono series is a video game franchise developed and published by Square Enix ( formerly Square ) . It began in 1995 with the time travel role @-@ playing video game Chrono Trigger , which spawned two continuations , Radical Dreamers and Chrono Cross . The music of Chrono Trigger was mainly composed by Yasunori Mitsuda , with a few tracks composed by regular Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu . The Chrono Trigger soundtrack has inspired four official album releases by Square Enix : a soundtrack album in released by NTT Publishing in 1995 and re @-@ released in 2004 , a greatest hits album published by DigiCube in 1999 , published in abbreviated form by Tokyopop in 2001 , and republished by Square Enix in 2005 , an acid jazz arrangement album published and republished by NTT Publishing in 1995 and 2004 , and a 2008 orchestral arranged album by Square Enix . Corresponding with the Nintendo DS release of the game , a reissued soundtrack was released in 2009 . An arranged album for Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross , entitled To Far Away Times , was released in 2015 to commemorate the 20 year anniversary of Chrono Trigger .
The original soundtrack has been hailed as one of the best video game soundtracks ever made , and the Original Sound Version album met with similar applause . The reception for the other albums has been mixed , with the releases finding both fans and detractors among reviewers . Songs from the soundtrack have been played at various orchestral concerts , such as the personal arrangements by Mitsuda for the Play ! A Video Game Symphony concert series . Chrono Cross music has also been extensively remixed by fans , and such remixes have been included in both official and unofficial albums .
= = Creation and development = =
Chrono Trigger was scored primarily by Yasunori Mitsuda , with assistance by veteran Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu . A sound programmer at the time , Mitsuda was unhappy with his pay and threatened to leave Square if he could not compose music . Final Fantasy developer Hironobu Sakaguchi , one of the three designers for the upcoming Chrono Trigger , suggested he score the game , remarking , " maybe your salary will go up . " Mitsuda reflected , " I wanted to create music that wouldn 't fit into any established genre ... music of an imaginary world . The game 's director , Masato Kato , was my close friend , and so I 'd always talk with him about the setting and the scene before going into writing . " Mitsuda has said that he was unsure of how to start , saying that he " must 've tried to start writing the music 4 times " and that it took " a month and a half " before he knew how to compose the music for Chrono Trigger .
Mitsuda slept in his studio several nights , and attributed certain songs , such as " To Far Away Times " , to inspiring dreams . He later attributed this song to an idea he was developing before Chrono Trigger , reflecting that the song was made in dedication to " a certain person with whom I wanted to share a generation . " Mitsuda tried to use leitmotifs of the Chrono Trigger main theme to create a sense of consistency in the soundtrack . He also suffered a hard drive crash that lost around forty in @-@ progress tracks . After Mitsuda contracted stomach ulcers , regular Final Fantasy series composer Nobuo Uematsu joined the project to compose ten songs and finish the score . Mitsuda returned to watch the ending with the staff before the game 's release , crying upon seeing the finished scene . Mitsuda considers Chrono Trigger a landmark title which helped mature his talent . While Mitsuda later held that the title piece was " rough around the edges , " he maintains that it had " significant influence on my life as a composer . " At the time of the game 's release , the number of tracks and sound effects was unprecedented , causing the soundtrack to span three discs in its 1995 commercial pressing .
= = Albums = =
= = = Chrono Trigger Original Sound Version = = =
Chrono Trigger Original Sound Version is a soundtrack of the music from Chrono Trigger , produced by Yasunori Mitsuda and Mitsunobu Nakamura . The soundtrack spans three discs and 64 tracks , covering a duration of 2 : 39 : 52 . It was published by NTT Publishing on March 25 , 1995 and re @-@ published on October 1 , 2004 .
The majority of the tracks were composed by Yasunori Mitsuda , while ten tracks were contributed by Nobuo Uematsu after Mitsuda contracted stomach ulcers . Noriko Matsueda composed one track , " Boss Battle 1 " , which was arranged by Uematsu . The soundtrack tunes have been described as covering a wide variety of moods , from " simple , light @-@ hearted tunes " like " Spekkio " to " sad themes " like " At The Bottom of Night " and " darker themes " like " Ocean Palace " .
The album was well received by reviewers such as Liz Maas of RPGFan , who termed it " well worth its price " and noted that the tracks were very memorable and " always fit the mood in the game " . IGN termed it " one of the best videogame soundtracks ever produced " and said that the music was a large part of the game 's ability to " capture the emotions of the player " . It furthermore called the soundtrack " some of the most memorable tunes in RPG history " . The game itself won the " Best Music in a Cartridge @-@ Based Game " award in Electronic Gaming Monthly 's 1995 video game awards .
The original CDs for both releases were only published in Japan and include only Japanese track names . The official English track names were later released on CHRONO TRIGGER Official Soundtrack : Music from FINAL FANTASY CHRONICLES and Chrono Trigger Original Soundtrack [ DS Version ] .
Track listing
All music composed by Yasunori Mitsuda , except where noted .
= = = Chrono Trigger Arranged Version : The Brink of Time = = =
The Chrono Trigger Arranged Version : The Brink of Time is an album of acid jazz rearrangements of the music from Chrono Trigger , arranged and performed by GUIDO ( Hiroshi Hata and Hidenobu Ootsuki ) . The soundtrack spans one disc and 10 tracks , covering a duration of 52 : 47 . It was published by NTT Publishing on June 25 , 1995 , and reprinted on October 1 , 2004 .
The Brink of Time came about because Mitsuda wanted to do something that no one else was doing , and he noted that acid jazz and its related genres were uncommon in the Japanese market . It was the first album for which Mitsuda had to work with live recordings . The cover art of the album depicts a plate of fried eggs between a fork , knife and glass , while the inside booklet depicts a rooster which was specifically brought into the studio for the photo shooting . Several eggs had to be fried before the designers could settle on the correct shape . Mitsuda has stated that Ootsuki 's arrangement technique left a strong impact on him and notably influenced his next score , the soundtrack to Front Mission Series : Gun Hazard .
The album received mixed reviews from critics . Freddie W. of RPGFan , while calling the album " pretty good " overall , said that several of the tracks including " Zeal Palace " and " Warlock Battle " were " absolutely horrible " due to the " disgustingly bad " distorted guitars . He cited the overuse of guitars as the worst part of the album . Simon of Square Enix Music Online had a different reaction ; he enjoyed the guitars in the songs and said that the album had " skill , class , and a feel that 's relatively original " . He concluded , however , that he could not seem to " connect " with the album , and that the CD was " very much down to personal taste — a love or hate arrangement " .
= = = Chrono Trigger Original Soundtrack = = =
Chrono Trigger Original Soundtrack , also referred to as " Chrono Trigger ' 99 " or " Chrono Trigger PSX OST " , is a greatest hits album featuring 21 tracks from Chrono Trigger Original Sound Version and nine arranged tracks from the release of Chrono Trigger for the PlayStation . The arranged tracks come from the cutscenes added to the game , while Tsuyoshi Sekito composed four new pieces for the game 's bonus features which weren 't included on the soundtrack . The album was released by DigiCube on December 18 , 1999 to coincide with the PlayStation release and re @-@ released by Square Enix on February 23 , 2005 . The album is 1 : 14 : 12 long and spans 30 tracks .
A version of the album was re @-@ published by Tokyopop in North America as Chrono Trigger Official Soundtrack : Music From Final Fantasy Chronicles on August 21 , 2001 , to coincide with the release of the Final Fantasy Chronicles collection of Final Fantasy IV and Chrono Trigger . The first 21 tracks of the album out of 25 were identical to Chrono Trigger Original Soundtrack , while the next three tracks corresponded to tracks 22 , 23 , and 29 of the Original Soundtrack and the final track was the same as the first track of Brink of Time . This version of the album is 1 : 13 : 03 long .
Original Soundtrack received mixed reviews by critics . Ryan Mattich of RPGFan termed it " an excellent selection of music " , primarily due to the arranged tracks , saying that the Original Sound Version album 's tracks were better than this version 's as they were looped and thus played longer . Patrick Gann was disparaging of the North American version of the CD , however , saying that its shortened tracklist destroyed the main reason to buy the album . Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online was dismissive of the Original Soundtrack album , saying that while the Original Sound Version tracks truly represented the " best of " the game 's soundtrack , the arranged tracks were " either too short , too much like the original , or lifeless compared to the original " , giving no incentive to purchase the album over the Original Sound Version .
= = = Chrono Trigger Orchestra Extra Soundtrack = = =
Chrono Trigger Orchestra Extra Soundtrack is an album of orchestral arrangements of Chrono Trigger songs , arranged by Natsumi Kameoka . Published by Square Enix on November 20 , 2008 exclusively as a pre @-@ order bonus of the Nintendo DS port of Chrono Trigger , this soundtrack consists of two tracks , " Chrono Trigger ~ Orchestra Version ~ " and " Chrono Trigger Medley ~ Orchestra Version ~ " , the latter spanning the songs " A Premonition " , " Guardia 's Millennial Fair " , " Yearnings of the Wind " , " Frog 's Theme " , " Battle with Magus " , " Epilogue ~ To Good Friends ~ " , and " To Far Away Times " . Mitsuda expressed difficulty in selecting the songs for the orchestral medley , eventually picking a song from each era and certain character themes . While both tracks involve a full orchestra , " Chrono Trigger " is more heavily horn @-@ based , while " Medley " relies more on stringed instruments . The CD itself came in a single sleeve with a short note from primary composer Yasunori Mitsuda . The album as a whole has a length of 6 : 18 , with " Chrono Trigger " lasting 2 : 07 and " Medley " having a length of 4 : 11 .
The album has been described as showing that Mitsuda was " well ahead of the curve " when he composed the Chrono Trigger soundtrack . IGN described " Chrono Trigger ~ Orchestra Version ~ " as having a heavy 1970 's influence and as being " a testament to Mitsuda 's compositional skills " , while calling " Chrono Trigger Medley ~ Orchestra Version ~ " " playfully romantic " with " a fairy tale element " in the beginning of the song that later transforms into " an entirely more grandiose arena " . Patrick Gann described the soundtrack as " awesome " and said that " Kameoka is really good at orchestral arrangement " . His primary complaint was the length of the album , as he wished it had been a full album instead of a " mini @-@ album " of only two tracks .
= = = Chrono Trigger Original Soundtrack ( 2009 release ) = = =
Chrono Trigger Original Soundtrack is a Square @-@ Enix re @-@ release of the Chrono Trigger Original Sound Version soundtrack that was made available for purchase on July 29 , 2009 . This was reprinted for the Nintendo DS version of the game ( that came out in 2008 ) , however the music and synth is almost identical to the original Super NES version . This 3 disc soundtrack contains additional tracks that were not included on the original release , as well as a bonus DVD .
The track lengths for a number of tracks on all three discs are different than the Original Sound Version release . On the first disc , tracks 24 @-@ 27 are new arranged version tracks that were included as the music from those tracks corresponded to the video animated sequences that were added originally on the PlayStation version . The same applied to tracks 25 @-@ 27 on the second disc and tracks 18 @-@ 24 on the third disc .
The Bonus DVD included a special Mitsuda interview and two music videos for the tracks that were on the Orchestra Extra album : " Chrono Trigger ~ Orchestra Version ~ " and " Chrono Trigger Medley ~ Orchestra Version ~ " .
The asterisk indicates the additional tracks that were not in the original Original Sound Version .
Track listing
All music composed by Yasunori Mitsuda , except where noted .
= = = To Far Away Times : Chrono Trigger & Chrono Cross Arrangement Album = = =
On a live performance at the Tokyo Dome in July 2015 commemorating the 20 year anniversary of Chrono Trigger , Mitsuda announced that the long requested Chrono series arrangement album , entitled To Far Away Times : Chrono Trigger & Chrono Cross Arrangement Album would be released . This was eventually released by Square Enix Music on October 14 , 2015 .
= = Covers and adaptations = =
Music from Chrono Trigger Original Sound Version has been arranged for the piano and published as sheet music by DOREMI Music Publishing . Chrono Trigger 's soundtrack has been heavily remixed by fans , sparking several albums . These include the officially licensed Time & Space - A Tribute to Yasunori Mitsuda , released by OneUp Studios on October 7 , 2001 and containing 18 remixes over a span of 1 : 00 : 58 , with a second version of the album released on June 17 , 2003 . In 2009 , another album , " Chronotorious " , was released by the same band under the name " Bad Dudes " . Another album release was Chrono Symphonic , an unofficial download @-@ only album release by the remix website OverClocked ReMix on January 3 , 2006 containing 25 remixes over 2 " discs " . Selections of remixes also appear on Japanese remix albums , called Dōjin , and on English remixing websites such as OverClocked Remix . In 2013 , Video game composer Blake Robinson officially licensed the compositions and released his new arrangements as " The Chrono Trigger Symphony " . Volume 1 , 2 and 3 are available for paid download from iTunes and Loudr .
= = Live performances = =
The main theme of Chrono Trigger was played at the fifth of the Orchestral Game Music Concerts in 1996 , and released on an accompanying album . Mitsuda has arranged versions of music from Chrono Trigger for Play ! A Video Game Symphony video game music concerts in 2006 , presenting the main theme , Frog 's Theme , and To Far Away Times . Music from the game has also been performed in other video game concert tours such as the Video Games Live concert series and in concerts by the Eminence Orchestra . Music from Chrono Trigger and Cross made up one fourth of the music in the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in Cologne in September 2009 which were produced by the creators of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series and conducted by Arnie Roth . The concerts featured a suite of music from both games interspersed together with the songs from Trigger comprising " A Premonition " , " Battle with Magus " , " Chrono Trigger " , " Peaceful Days " , " Outskirts of Time " , " Frog 's Theme " , and " To Far Away Times " , as well as a boss battle suite that featured " Lavos ’ Theme " . " Crono 's Theme " was performed at the Press Start -Symphony of Games- 2007 concerts in Yokohama and Osaka , Japan , and a suite comprising music from Chrono Trigger and Cross was performed at the Press Start -Symphony of Games- 2008 concerts the following year in Tokyo and Shanghai . An arrangement of " Light of Silence " was performed on July 9 , 2011 at the Symphonic Odysseys concert , which commemorated the music of Uematsu .
For the 20th anniversary in 2015 , Mitsuda , along with his performing group Millennial Fair , performed songs from the game at the Tokyo Globe in Tokyo , Japan on July 25 and 26 . The event , titled " The Brink of Time " , included Mitsuda performing on the piano , guitar , and Irish bouzouki .
= Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument =
The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument ( originally named the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument ) is a World Heritage listed , U.S. National Monument encompassing 140 @,@ 000 square miles ( 360 @,@ 000 km2 ) ( an area larger than the nation of Germany ) of ocean waters , including ten islands and atolls of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands , internationally recognized for both its cultural and natural values as follows :
" The area has deep cosmological and traditional significance for living Native Hawaiian culture , as an ancestral environment , as an embodiment of the Hawaiian concept of kinship between people and the natural world , and as the place where it is believed that life originates and to where the spirits return after death . On two of the islands , Nihoa and Makumanamana , there are archaeological remains relating to pre @-@ European settlement and use . Much of the monument is made up of pelagic and deepwater habitats , with notable features such as seamounts and submerged banks , extensive coral reefs and lagoons . It is one of the largest marine protected areas ( MPAs ) in the world . "
= = Description = =
The area was proclaimed the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument by U.S. President George W. Bush on June 15 , 2006 ; it was renamed Papahānaumokuākea in 2007 , and inscribed on the World Heritage list as Papahānaumokuākea on 30 July 2010 , at the 34th Session of the World Heritage Committee , Brasilia .
The area is managed in partnership with the Department of Commerce , the Department of the Interior , and the State of Hawaii . The name for the area was inspired by the names of the Hawaiian creator goddess Papahānaumoku and her husband Wakea .
Although it is not a sanctuary , the ocean area is part of a system of 13 National Marine Sanctuaries administered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . The Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge , with an area of 254 @,@ 418 @.@ 1 acres ( 397 @.@ 53 sq mi ; 1 @,@ 029 @.@ 6 km2 ) in the monument , is administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( FWS ) .
The monument supports 7 @,@ 000 species , one quarter of which are endemic . Prominent species include the threatened green sea turtle and the endangered Hawaiian monk seal , the Laysan and Nihoa finches , the Nihoa millerbird , Laysan duck , seabirds such as the Laysan albatross , numerous species of plants including Pritchardia palms , and many species of arthropods . According to the Pew Charitable Trusts , populations of lobster have not recovered from extensive harvesting in the 1980s and 1990s , which is now banned ; the remaining fisheries are overfished .
The National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) reports that many species populations have not yet fully recovered from a large @-@ scale shift in the oceanographic ecosystem regime that affected the North Pacific during the late 1980s and early 1990s . This shift reduced populations of some important species such as spiny lobster , seabirds and Hawaiian monk seals ; the proclamation calls for a commercial fishing phase @-@ out by 2011 . The monument will receive strict conservation protection , with exceptions for traditional Native Hawaiian uses and limited tourism .
= = Area and administration = =
As the 96th National Monument of the United States , it preserves much of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands ( NWHI ) under the Department of the Interior 's Fish and Wildlife Service ( FWS ) , the Department of Commerce 's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) .
The monument covers roughly 140 @,@ 000 square miles ( 363 @,@ 000 km2 ) of reefs , atolls and shallow and deep sea ( out to 50 miles ( 80 km ) offshore ) in the Pacific Ocean – larger than all of America 's National Parks combined . It contains approximately 10 percent of the tropical shallow water coral reef habitat ( i.e. , 0 to 100 fathoms ) in U.S. territory . It is slightly larger than Australia 's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , approximately the size of the country of Germany , and just slightly smaller than Montana .
About 132 @,@ 000 square miles ( 340 @,@ 000 km2 ) of the monument were already part of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve , which was designated in 2000 . The monument also includes the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge ( 590 @,@ 991 @.@ 50 acres ( 2 @,@ 391 @.@ 7 km2 ) ) and Battle of Midway National Memorial , the Hawaii State Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll , the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands State Marine Refuge , and the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge . NOAA is responsible for most oceanic areas of the new monument ; the FWS continues to manage the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge . An emergency landing strip on Midway Atoll for trans @-@ Pacific flights remains open .
The islands included in the monument are all part of the State of Hawaii , except Midway Atoll , which is part of The United States Minor Outlying Islands insular area .
= = History and establishment = =
The genesis of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands ( NWHI ) as a protected area began on February 3 , 1909 , when U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt created the Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation through Executive Order 1019 , as a response to the over @-@ harvesting of seabirds , and in recognition of the importance of the NWHI as seabird nesting sites . Its status was later upgraded to the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge in 1940 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt . A series of incremental protections for the NWHI followed , leading to the establishment of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge in 1988 , Kure Atoll State Wildlife Sanctuary in 1993 , and the NWHI Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve in 2000 .
President Bill Clinton established the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve on December 4 , 2000 , with Executive Order 13178 . Clinton 's executive order initiated a process to designate the waters of the NWHI as a National Marine Sanctuary . A public comment period began in 2002 . In 2005 , Governor of Hawaii Linda Lingle declared parts of the monument a state marine refuge .
In April 2006 , President Bush and his wife viewed a screening of the documentary film Voyage to Kure at the White House along with its director , Jean @-@ Michel Cousteau ( son of documentary film maker Jacques @-@ Yves Cousteau ) . Compelled by the film 's portrayal of the flora and fauna of the region , Bush moved quickly to protect the area .
On June 15 , 2006 , President George W. Bush signed Proclamation 8031 , designating the waters of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands a national monument under the 1906 Antiquities Act . Using the Antiquities Act bypassed the normal year of consultations and halted the public input process on the eve of the dissemination of the draft environmental impact statement for the proposed Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Marine Sanctuary . This was the second use by Bush of the Antiquities Act , following the declaration of the African Burial Ground National Monument on Manhattan in February 2006 . The legislated process for stakeholder involvement in the planning and management of a marine protected area had already taken five years of effort , but the abrupt establishment of the NWHI as a National Monument , rather than a Sanctuary , provided immediate and more resilient protection , revocable only by an act of the United States Congress .
After the signing of the proclamation , Joshua Reichert explained the importance of the timely designation in an interview on the News Hour with Jim Lehrer :
Monument status is quicker ; it 's more comprehensive ; and it 's more permanent . Only an act of Congress can undo a monument designation . The sanctuary process , it takes longer ; it involves more congressional input , more public debate , more hearings and meetings . And he [ George W. Bush ] obviously made a decision today to , actually , take a bold step and create something which is going to be immediate , that the law applies immediately to this place now .
The NWHI accounted for approximately half of the locally landed bottomfish in Hawaii , and these fish are highly valued by local chefs and consumers . The NWHI bottomfish fishery is a limited entry fishery , with eight active vessels , which are restricted to 60 feet ( 18 m ) in length . Frank McCoy , chair of the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council , said :
We are pleased the President recognizes the near pristine condition of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands waters . We believe the abundance and biodiversity of the area attests to the successful management of the NWHI fisheries by the Council the past 30 years and indicates that properly regulated fisheries can operate in the NWHI without impacting the ecosystem . The small NWHI bottomfish fishery has not and would not jeopardize the protection of the NWHI that President Bush is pursuing by designating the area a national monument .
The National Marine Fisheries Service has published reports attesting to the health of the NWHI bottomfish stocks . Commercial bottomfish and pelagic fishing as well as recreational catch @-@ and @-@ keep and catch @-@ and @-@ release fishing were also deemed compatible to the goals and objectives of the proposed NWHI National Marine Sanctuary .
On February 27 , 2007 , President Bush amended Proclamation 8031 , giving the monument the Native Hawaiian name , " Papahānaumokuākea " . On March 1 , first lady Laura Bush visited Midway Atoll , and on March 2 , a renaming ceremony was held at Washington Place in Honolulu , Hawaii . At the ceremony , Laura Bush and Secretary of the Interior Dirk Kempthorne announced the new Hawaiian name and helped raise public awareness about the monument . On May 15 , 2007 , President Bush announced his intention to submit the monument for Particularly Sensitive Sea Area ( PSSA ) status , which would " alert mariners to exercise caution in the ecologically important , sensitive , and hazardous area they are entering . " In October 2007 , the Marine Environmental Protection Committee of the International Maritime Organization adopted the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument as a PSSA .
The designation of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument as a particularly sensitive sea area ( PSSA ) received committed support from the US delegation to the International Martitime Organization . Particular note is made of the contribution of Ms. Lindy S Johnson , author of " Coastal State Regulation of International Shipping . ” Ms. Johnson worked passionately for the PSSA designation for the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument as well as for other land- and sea @-@ based sources of marine pollution , environment and navigation , marine protected areas , ship strikes of right whales , noise and marine mammals as well as protecting coral .
= = World Heritage Site status = =
On January 30 , 2008 , the U.S. Department of Interior added Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument to a tentative list of 14 proposed sites for consideration on the UNESCO World Heritage List . The Federal Interagency Panel for World Heritage officially accepted the recommendation in November 2008 . As a mixed site with natural and cultural resources , the International Union for the Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) commented on the natural features of the monument , and the International Council on Monuments and Sites ( ICOMOS ) assessed its cultural aspects .
The national monument was inscribed on the World Heritage List in July 2010 as simply " Papahānaumokuākea " .
= = Mokupāpapa Discovery Center - A Window into the Monument = =
In May 2003 , the Mokupāpapa Discovery Center originally opened in the restored S. Hata building . [ 20 ] In 2013 , The Discovery Center moved down the street a few blocks into the legendary and historical Koehnen Building , reopening in March 2014 . It displays both static and interactive educational exhibits all focused on the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands , which are protected along with their surrounding waters , as the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument . [ 21 ] The name comes from Mokupāpapa in the Hawaiian language which means " flat / low reef island " . This name was used in chants of Ancient Hawaii , perhaps referring to the area now known as French Frigate Shoals , or the northwestern islands in general . [ 22 ] The Northwestern islands stretch for hundreds of miles northwest of the main Hawaiian islands ; the discovery center is on the southeastern @-@ most island in the chain , Hawai 'i Island , which is the youngest and farthest away from the much older kūpuna islands in the Monument . [ 22 ] A 3 @,@ 500 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 13 @,@ 000 l ) salt @-@ water aquarium displays some of the fish found on Hawaiian reefs . One entire wall is covered by a large mural painted by local artist Layne Luna depicting the coral reef ecosystems found in the leeward islands . Layne Luna also created several life @-@ sized models of life sized sharks , fish and manta ray that hang from the ceiling . Another exhibit plays a recording of the creation chant of Hawaiian mythology known as Kumulipo . Signs are in the Hawaiian language and English . Admission to the new center is still FREE although donations are accepted to support all of the National Marine Sanctuaries . It is open Tuesday through Saturday 9AM to 4PM , closed on Federal holidays . [ 20 ]
= = Ongoing research = =
Federal researchers continue to study the monument 's marine resources . A 2010 expedition reached the Kure atoll and its divers reached 250 feet ( 76 m ) revealing new species of coral and other animals . The Waikiki aquarium is attempting to culture the new corals and present them in an 2011 exhibit dedicated to the monument .
On 3 August 2015 divers found the wreck of the USNS Mission San Miguel ( T @-@ AO @-@ 129 ) within the Monument . She had sunk there on October 8 , 1957 when she ran aground on Maro Reef while running at full speed and in ballast . Researchers will map and study the wreck in situ .
= = Gallery = =
Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument on Wikimedia Commons .
= The Survivor ( Star Trek : The Animated Series ) =
" The Survivor " is the sixth episode of the first season of the American animated science fiction television series Star Trek : The Animated Series . It first aired on NBC on October 13 , 1973 , and was written by James Schmerer and was directed by Hal Sutherland . Schmerer pitched an idea for an episode to producer D.C. Fontana called " The Chameleon " , and together with the series creator Gene Roddenberry , it was developed into the final script .
Set in the 23rd century , the series follows the adventures of Captain James T. Kirk ( voiced by William Shatner ) and the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise . In this episode , the crew rescue a shapeshifting alien called the Vendorian from a damaged spacecraft who has disguised himself as a missing philanthropist . Once on board the vessel , he transforms himself into Captain Kirk and tries to take the ship into a Romulan trap . But after falling in love with Lieutenant Anne Nored ( voiced by Nichelle Nichols ) , the Vendorian saves the Enterprise and Kirk agrees to take his actions into account .
Schmerer and Roddenberry disagreed over some of the changes to the script , as the writer wanted to avoid repeating things that had previously been seen in Star Trek : The Original Series . Critics felt that the episode was similar to those of The Original Series , and was considered one of the best episodes seen in The Animated Series by Chris Cummins of the website Topless Robot . " The Survivor " was adapted into a novelization by Alan Dean Foster and was released on several different home media formats .
= = Plot = =
On stardate 5143 @.@ 3 , while patrolling near the Romulan Neutral Zone , the Federation starship Enterprise finds a small private ship manned by a Vendorian , an alien species that can transform its shape at will . The alien dupes the crew on board the Enterprise into thinking that it is actually Carter Winston ( voiced by Ted Knight ) , a Federation citizen and philanthropist who has been missing for five years .
Once aboard , the Vendorian renders Captain James T. Kirk ( voiced by William Shatner ) unconscious , takes his form and orders the helmsman , Lt. Hikaru Sulu ( voiced by George Takei ) to steer the Enterprise into the Neutral Zone , where Romulan warbirds lie in wait . When the real Kirk eventually regains consciousness , he orders the Enterprise to get out of the Neutral Zone at Warp 8 . The Vendorian who has been shapeshifting himself into other members of the Enterprise 's crew eventually reveals itself to Lieutenant Anne Nored ( voiced by Nichelle Nichols ) , Carter Winston 's fiancee who serves as a security officer aboard the Enterprise ; the alien further states that the real Winston is dead but , because it has absorbed Carter 's feelings for her , it can love her .
Around this time , the Romulans attack the Enterprise , and the Vendorian — realizing that his actions have placed the ship in danger — decides to betray his Romulan masters for love . He takes the form of the Enterprise 's main deflector shield and the Romulans retreat . The Vendorian is arrested and would face trial but Kirk informs him that his actions to protect the Enterprise would be taken into consideration . Nored informs the Vendorian that it is very similar to Winston in personality and she offers to return to Earth with the alien . When Chief Medical Officer Leonard McCoy ( voiced by DeForest Kelley ) jokes that if the Vendorian had turned himself into a second Spock " it would have been too much to take " , Spock ( voiced by Leonard Nimoy ) quickly replies that " two Dr. McCoys just might bring the level of medical efficiency on this ship to acceptable levels . "
= = Production = =
" The Survivor " is writer James Schmerer 's only credit in the Star Trek franchise , whose other genre work consisted of two episodes of the television series Wonder Woman as well as a single episode of Buck Rodgers . He was better known for his work on soap operas such as General Hospital and Another World . He pitched stories for Star Trek : The Animated Series on the basis that the show targeted an adult audience similar to Star Trek : The Original Series and not children . He knew it was going to be broadcast on Saturday mornings , but would be unhampered by restrictions on live @-@ action television . He later said " that was one of the reasons why I took it , because I 'm not an animated writer ... I had written a couple of animated shows through the years , and it was like pulling teeth . " He explained that he wrote the script for " The Survivor " as if it was a live @-@ action story ; it was originally known as " The Chameleon " . The title was eventually changed in order to preserve the plot point as a surprise for the viewer .
He had known producer D.C. Fontana for several years , and pitched his story directly to her . In turn , she relayed it to the franchise creator Gene Roddenberry , who called Schmerer back for a meeting . Together they re @-@ wrote the story during the meeting to make it fit within the 30 minute long animated episode . Schmerer explained that Roddenberry appreciated the idea of an alien pretending to be other characters , and that the animated series could easily show the shapeshifter undergo the various changes in the episode . The design of the Vendorian had been described by Schmerer in the script , but was changed to the squid @-@ like design by the animators , a change that Schmerer described as " neat " and " clever " . In the original outline , the Vendorian didn 't assume the role of Kirk . Added by Roddenberry , Schmerer did not agree with the change . Roddenberry and Schemerer argued about the point , with Roddenberry saying that Kirk was the star of the series while Schmerer wanted it to be different as he was concerned that its plot would appear too similar to the events of " Whom Gods Destroy " where Garth of Izar changes his appearance to become Kirk .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" The Survivor " was first broadcast on NBC on October 13 , 1973 . Edward Gross , the senior editor of Cinescape Magazine , rates " The Survivor " as " an above @-@ average episode " that " definitely has the feeling of a live @-@ action [ Star Trek ] show . " Marc Altman compared it to other similarly @-@ themed episodes such as " The Man Trap " , which featured a shape @-@ changing alien and a lost love , and said " the shape @-@ changing alien is a familiar genre ( and Trekkian trope ) , the romantic twist in which the Vendorian spy betrays his Romulan masters for love is a nice surprise . "
Michelle Erica Green , in her review for TrekNation , found that the voice work was distracting due to the similarity between William Shatner 's and Ted Knight 's voices ; as well as having Nichelle Nichols voice a different character . She also thought that the alien looked silly , and felt that the plot had been reused from " The Man Trap " . In 2012 , Chris Cummins listed the eight best episodes of The Animated Series for website Topless Robot . He praised the writing of Schmerer , saying that the episode felt like an episode of The Original Series , and placed it as the third best episode of the series . The episode was given four out of five stars in Star Trek : The Complete Manual by SciFiNow magazine .
Alan Dean Foster expanded the episode into a novelization , adding such scenes as a Christmas party . It was released as part of Star Trek Log Two , published in September 1974 . The other episodes adapted in the same work were " The Lorelei Signal " and " The Infinite Vulcan " . " The Survivor " was released on LaserDisc as part of the series set . The first release of Star Trek : The Animated Series on DVD was through fan @-@ made productions . The official DVD release was on November 21 , 2006 in the United States , a single release containing all episodes from both seasons of the television show .
= Mary 's Club =
Mary 's Club is the oldest strip club in Portland , Oregon , in the United States . In 1954 , Roy Keller bought the business from Mary Duerst Hemming , who owned and operated Mary 's as a piano bar beginning in the 1930s . Keller initially hired go @-@ go dancers as entertainment during the piano player 's breaks , then quickly hired them full @-@ time due to their popularity . Topless dancers wearing pasties were introduced in 1955 . The club also featured comics , musicians , singers and other acts . All @-@ nude dancing began immediately following a judge 's 1985 ruling against City of Portland ordinances that forbid it in places that served alcohol .
Former strippers include Courtney Love and Christine Jorgensen , though the club is known for featuring long @-@ term dancers who are loyal to the family business . Since Keller 's death in 2006 , Mary 's Club is owned and operated by his daughter Vicki . Mary 's has become a Portland institution , having been included in several " best of " lists for strip clubs , and its neon sign is considered a landmark . The club has appeared in several films , including Bongwater ( 1997 ) and Brainsmasher ... A Love Story ( 1993 ) , and has been included in walking tours of the city .
= = History = =
Mary 's Club , known as " Portland 's first topless " , is the oldest strip club in Portland , Oregon . Roy Keller , who had been a foreman at a Portland shipyard , bought the club in 1954 for around $ 25 @,@ 000 . The former owner was Mary Duerst Hemming , who won the piano bar in a divorce settlement and operated the business " for more than 20 years " beginning in the 1930s . The bar had been popular with sailors . According to The Seattle Times , Keller initially hired go @-@ go dancers to keep the crowd entertained during the piano player 's breaks . Due to their popularity , Keller laid off the musician and employed the dancers full @-@ time . He introduced " pasties @-@ clad topless dancers " in 1955 . In that same year , two city council members advised Keller against installing pinball machines at the club . Portland then had an anti @-@ pinball ordinance that was being contested in court . A Mary 's Club team played in the Multnomah League of the Portland Basketball Association during the 1955 – 56 season . Teams included Interstate Hauling , Kent 's Keg , Il Trovatore , Frolic Inn , Portland Air Base , and several others .
Singers , comics , and piano players performed at the club . A newspaper advertisement in 1958 announced the opening act of Tiny Watson , " 200 pounds of mirth and merriment " , comparing her to Sophie Tucker . Closing at the club was George James , " king of the keyboards " . In 1965 , an Oregonian article focused partly on a topless dancer , Bambi Darling , performing at Mary 's Club . She was said to excel in discothèque , " shaking and undulating " to the Mashed Potato , the Monkey , the Shotgun , and other dances popular at the time . Keller , said to resemble " a church deacon " , praised his dancers and described his customer base as " more refined " than in the club 's pre @-@ 1954 era . By March 1966 , Darling 's " 16 torrid acts " shared the billing with reptile wrestler Bobby Vale and with Gigi La France , promoted as the club 's answer to James Bond . Tom Waits reputedly sang about the club in the song " Pasties and a G @-@ String " , from his album Small Change ( 1976 ) . In 2012 , one author wrote that the club featured " tattooed contortionist entertainers " .
All @-@ nude dancing at the club began in 1985 after a judge ruled against City of Portland ordinances forbidding it in places that served alcohol . A lawsuit over pasties and G @-@ strings arose after Portland annexed land formerly regulated by Multnomah County , which allowed tavern dancers to perform without clothing . A tavern forced by annexation to eliminate its nude dancing sued the City and won . " As soon as we got the word [ about the ruling ] , we went nude , " said a Mary 's Club employee quoted in a news story in The Oregonian .
Courtney Love , whose signed picture hangs on the wall of the club , was among past strippers at the venue , according to Willamette Week . Love wrote on the photograph that she " bought my very first guitar here showing my teeny little titties " . Christine Jorgensen was also once featured at the club . However , dancers at the club have tended to be long @-@ term employees , loyal to the family @-@ run business . Keller died in 2006 , aged 90 ; the club is now run by his daughter , Vicki Keller , who has recalled that she first worked for the business at age seven , serving as a waitress . Vicki had managed the business for the twenty @-@ five years prior to her father 's death ; her daughters also worked at the club during that period .
According to a 2013 profile by Portland Monthly , the club includes a full cocktail bar , more than two dozen varieties of beer and wine , and a menu with mostly Mexican cuisine . Mary 's has a one @-@ drink minimum and a $ 2 cover charge on Friday and Saturday evenings .
= = Murals and marquee = =
Between 1956 and 1958 , Keller hired La Monte Montyne to paint murals throughout the club 's interior . The fluorescent murals depict scenes that Roy thought patrons would appreciate . Several of them feature women in exotic locales , such as the Orient and the Pyramids . One depicts an " island beauty " watching sailors load bananas into a ship , and another shows merchant seaman working in front of a ship docked in a " Portland @-@ like " harbor . The mural with pyramids depicts a lounging Cleopatra @-@ esque woman , while another features an " exotic priestess " performing a sacrifice and a volcano . According to Mary 's , the murals receive " almost as much attention as the girls do ! " Mary 's " retro " neon marquee has been called a " landmark for locals and tourists alike " . In 2014 , one Willamette Week contributor said of the signage : " The marquee , blue and star @-@ spangled and coyly advertising an evening of ' Dine and Dance , ' is as iconic as the neon on the ' Made in Oregon ' sign and the line outside Voodoo " . Its cocktail waitress logo is featured on clothing . The marquee also includes an epitaph to Keller .
= = Reception = =
Mary 's Club has been called a " downtown institution " and a " Portland nightlife landmark " . In 2001 , The Portland Mercury said Mary 's was " a must @-@ visit for any true strip club connoisseur " for offering both " friendliness and sexiness " . One reporter found the interior to be " cozy " , with conversational dancers who seemingly enjoyed interacting with guests . Following Keller 's death , Willamette Week said the club " has cemented its place in history far beyond the city limits " , both for once featuring Love and Jorgensen , and for offering nudity to a loyal customer base . The newspaper 's Mary Christmas wrote that Keller had achieved status of " regional celebrity " and could be credited for starting a local industry . In 2011 , one contributor to Portland State University 's student newspaper , the Daily Vanguard , included Mary 's in his list of the city 's top five strip clubs , writing : " if you visit only one dance club in this town it should probably be Mary ’ s . The inside is stuffy and sleazy , but embodies that red @-@ light district feel that fits right in with rowdy environment . " In the same year , Willamette Week described the club as " the undisputed grande dame of West Coast strips " and " a stubbornly degenerate landmark " . The publication 's Matthew Korfhage quipped that entertainment came in the form of " Girls / ladies , friendly also brassy , oddly classy , with sterling taste on the juke , who let you see all of their piercings and tattoos . Also , video poker . " In 2013 , Portland Monthly named the club an " editor 's pick " for its dancers and all @-@ female staff , and for having a " welcoming and relaxed " environment . Thrillist.com included Mary 's in its " definitive guide " to Portland 's best strip clubs . The website complimented its " glorious flashing sign that welcomes you to Downtown " and called the club " a part of Portland 's past we should all cherish " . Men 's Fitness included Mary 's in its list of the " Top 10 Best Strip Clubs in America " , calling it a " neon landmark " with blacklight murals and a " relaxed , hole @-@ in @-@ the @-@ wall vibe " .
Thomas Lauderdale , known for his work with the Portland @-@ based band Pink Martini , has shared his affinity for the club and considers it one of his favorite places in the city . Portland Monthly published a video of Lauderdale giving a tour of the club . Lauderdale interviews Vicki Keller and shows the interior murals . He wears a Pink Martini bomber @-@ style jacket inspired by one sold by the business in the 1950s . Films that include scenes shot at Mary 's include Bongwater ( 1997 ) , Brainsmasher ... A Love Story ( 1993 ) and Dangerous Pursuit ( 1990 ) . Mary 's has also been included in walking tours of Portland , including one by Lonely Planet called " Underground Portland " . In 2013 , the club was the last stop on the " Seedy , Seamy and Sinful Portland " history tour , which takes adult visitors to sites in Old Town to examine the city 's " darker elements " . Led by a historian , the tour otherwise includes saloons , opium dens , gambling halls , and bordellos that operated in Portland in the past . This was repeated in the same historian 's 2014 tour called " Shanghaiers , Saloons and Skullduggery : A Walking Tour of Portland ’ s Sinful Past " .
= Thallium =
Thallium is a chemical element with symbol Tl and atomic number 81 . This soft gray post @-@ transition metal is not found free in nature . When isolated , it resembles tin , but discolors when exposed to air . Chemists William Crookes and Claude @-@ Auguste Lamy discovered thallium independently in 1861 , in residues of sulfuric
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acid production . Both used the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy , in which thallium produces a notable green spectral line . Thallium , from Greek θαλλός , thallos , meaning " a green shoot or twig , " was named by Crookes . It was isolated by both Lamy and Crookes in 1862 ; Lamy by electrolysis and Crookes by precipitation and melting of the resultant powder . Crookes exhibited it as a powder precipitated by Zinc at the International exhibition which opened on the first of May , that year .
Thallium tends to oxidize to the + 3 and + 1 oxidation states as ionic salts . The + 3 state resembles that of the other elements in group 13 ( boron , aluminum , gallium , indium ) . However , the + 1 state , which is far more prominent in thallium than the elements above it , recalls the chemistry of alkali metals , and thallium ( I ) ions are found geologically mostly in potassium @-@ based ores , and ( when ingested ) are handled in many ways like potassium ions ( K + ) by ion pumps in living cells .
Commercially , however , thallium is produced not from potassium ores , but as a byproduct from refining of heavy metal sulfide ores . Approximately 60 – 70 % of thallium production is used in the electronics industry , and the remainder is used in the pharmaceutical industry and in glass manufacturing . It is also used in infrared detectors . The radioisotope thallium @-@ 201 ( as the soluble chloride TlCl ) is used in small , nontoxic amounts as an agent in a nuclear medicine scan , during one type of nuclear cardiac stress test .
Soluble thallium salts ( many of which are nearly tasteless ) are highly toxic in quantity , and were historically used in rat poisons and insecticides . Use of these compounds has been restricted or banned in many countries , because of their nonselective toxicity . Notably , thallium poisoning results in hair loss . Because of its historic popularity as a murder weapon , thallium has gained notoriety as " the poisoner 's poison " and " inheritance powder " ( alongside arsenic ) .
= = Characteristics = =
A thallium atom has 81 electrons , arranged in the electron configuration [ Xe ] 4f145d106s26p1 ; of these , the three outermost electrons in the sixth shell are valence electrons . However , due to the inert pair effect , the 6s electron pair is relativistically stabilised and it is more difficult to get them involved in chemical bonding than for the heavier elements . Thus , very few electrons are available for metallic bonding , similar to the neighboring elements mercury and lead , and hence thallium , like its congeners , is a soft , highly electrically conducting metal with a low melting point of 304 ° C.
A number of standard electrode potentials , depending on the reaction under study , are reported for thallium , reflecting the greatly decreased stability of the + 3 oxidation state :
Indeed , thallium is the first element in group 13 where the reduction of the + 3 oxidation state to the + 1 oxidation state is spontaneous . Since bond energies decrease down the group , by thallium , the energy released in forming two additional bonds and attaining the + 3 state is not always enough to outweigh the energy needed to involve the 6s @-@ electrons . Accordingly , thallium ( I ) oxide and hydroxide are more basic and thallium ( III ) oxide and hydroxide are more acidic , showing that thallium conforms to the general rule of elements being more electropositive in their lower oxidation states .
Thallium is malleable and sectile enough to be cut with a knife at room temperature . It has a metallic luster that , when exposed to air , quickly tarnishes to a bluish @-@ gray tinge , resembling lead . It may be preserved by immersion in oil . A heavy layer of oxide builds up on thallium if left in air . In the presence of water , thallium hydroxide is formed . Sulfuric and nitric acid dissolve thallium rapidly to make the sulfate and nitrate salts , while hydrochloric acid forms an insoluble thallium ( I ) chloride layer .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Thallium has 25 isotopes which have atomic masses that range from 184 to 210 . 203Tl and 205Tl are the only stable isotopes and make up nearly all of natural thallium . 204Tl is the most stable radioisotope , with a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 78 years . It is made by the neutron activation of stable thallium in a nuclear reactor . The most useful radioisotope , 201Tl ( half @-@ life 73 hours ) , decays by electron capture , emitting Hg X @-@ rays ( ~ 70 – 80 keV ) , and photons of 135 and 167 keV in 10 % total abundance ; therefore it has good imaging characteristics without excessive patient radiation dose . It is the most popular isotope used for thallium nuclear cardiac stress tests .
= = Compounds = =
= = = Thallium ( III ) = = =
Thallium ( III ) compounds resemble the corresponding aluminium ( III ) compounds . They are moderately strong oxidizing agents and are usually unstable , as illustrated by the positive reduction potential for the Tl3 + / Tl couple . Some mixed @-@ valence compounds are also known , such as Tl4O3 and TlCl2 , which contain both thallium ( I ) and thallium ( III ) . Thallium ( III ) oxide , Tl2O3 , is a black solid which decomposes above 800 ° C , forming the thallium ( I ) oxide and oxygen .
The simplest possible thallium compound , thallane ( TlH3 ) , is too unstable to exist in bulk , both due to the instability of the + 3 oxidation state as well as poor overlap of the valence orbitals of thallium with the 1s orbital of hydrogen . The trihalides are more stable , although they are chemically distinct from those of the lighter group 13 elements and are still the least stable in the whole group . For instance , thallium ( III ) fluoride , TlF3 , has the β @-@ BiF3 structure rather than that of the lighter group 13 trifluorides , and does not form the TlF −
4 complex anion in aqueous solution . The trichloride and tribromide disproportionate just above room temperature to give the monohalides , and thallium triiodide contains the linear triiodide anion ( I −
3 ) and is actually a thallium ( I ) compound . Thallium ( III ) sesquichalcogenides do not exist .
= = = Thallium ( I ) = = =
The thallium ( I ) halides are stable . In keeping with the large size of the Tl + cation , the chloride and bromide have the caesium chloride structure , while the fluoride and iodide have distorted sodium chloride structures . Like the analogous silver compounds , TlCl , TlBr , and TlI are photosensitive . The stability of thallium ( I ) compounds demonstrates its differences from the rest of the group : a stable oxide , hydroxide , and carbonate are known , as are many chalcogenides .
= = = Organothallium compounds = = =
Organothallium compounds tend to be thermally unstable , in concordance with the trend of decreasing thermal stability down group 13 . The chemical reactivity of the Tl – C bond is also the lowest in the group , especially for ionic compounds of the type R2TlX . Thallium forms the stable [ Tl ( CH3 ) 2 ] + ion in aqueous solution : like the isoelectronic Hg ( CH3 ) 2 and [ Pb ( CH3 ) 2 ] 2 + , it is linear . Trimethylthallium and triethylthallium are , like the corresponding gallium and indium compounds , flammable liquids with low melting points . Like indium , thallium cyclopentadienyl compounds contain thallium ( I ) , in contrast to gallium ( III ) .
= = History = =
Thallium ( Greek θαλλός , thallos , meaning " a green shoot or twig " ) was discovered by flame spectroscopy in 1861 . The name comes from thallium 's bright green spectral emission lines .
After the publication of the improved method of flame spectroscopy by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff and the discovery of caesium and rubidium in the years 1859 to 1860 , flame spectroscopy became an approved method to determine the composition of minerals and chemical products . William Crookes and Claude @-@ Auguste Lamy both started to use the new method . William Crookes used it to make spectroscopic determinations for tellurium on selenium compounds deposited in the lead chamber of a sulfuric acid production plant near Tilkerode in the Harz mountains . He had obtained the samples for his research on selenium cyanide from August Hofmann years earlier . By 1862 , Crookes was able to isolate small quantities of the new element and determine the properties of a few compounds . Claude @-@ Auguste Lamy used a spectrometer that was similar to Crookes ' to determine the composition of a selenium @-@ containing substance which was deposited during the production of sulfuric acid from pyrite . He also noticed the new green line in the spectra and concluded that a new element was present . Lamy had received this material from the sulfuric acid plant of his friend Fréd Kuhlmann and this by @-@ product was available in large quantities . Lamy started to isolate the new element from that source . The fact that Lamy was able to work ample quantities of thallium enabled him to determine the properties of several compounds and in addition he prepared a small ingot of metallic thallium which he prepared by remelting thallium he had obtained by electrolysis of thallium salts .
As both scientists discovered thallium independently and a large part of the work , especially the isolation of the metallic thallium was done by Lamy , Crookes tried to secure his priority on the work . Lamy was awarded a medal at the International Exhibition in London 1862 : For the discovery of a new and abundant source of thallium and after heavy protest Crookes also received a medal : thallium , for the discovery of the new element . The controversy between both scientists continued through 1862 and 1863 . Most of the discussion ended after Crookes was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1863 .
The dominant use of thallium was the use as poison for rodents . After several accidents the use as poison was banned in the United States by the Presidential Executive Order 11643 in February 1972 . In the subsequent years several other countries also banned the use .
= = Occurrence and production = =
Although thallium is a modestly abundant element in the Earth 's crust , with a concentration estimated to be about 0 @.@ 7 mg / kg , mostly in association with potassium @-@ based minerals in clays , soils , and granites , thallium is not generally economically recoverable from these sources . The major source of thallium for practical purposes is the trace amount that is found in copper , lead , zinc , and other heavy @-@ metal @-@ sulfide ores .
Thallium is found in the minerals crookesite TlCu7Se4 , hutchinsonite TlPbAs5S9 , and lorándite TlAsS2 . Thallium also occurs as a trace element in iron pyrite , and thallium is extracted as a by @-@ product of roasting this mineral for the production of sulfuric acid .
Thallium can also be obtained from the smelting of lead and zinc ores . Manganese nodules found on the ocean floor also contain some thallium , but the collection of these nodules has been and continues to be prohibitively expensive . There is also the potential for damaging the environment of the oceans . In addition , several other thallium minerals , containing 16 % to 60 % thallium , occur in nature as complexes of sulfides or selenides that primarily contain antimony , arsenic , copper , lead , and / or silver . However , these minerals are rare , and they have had no commercial importance as sources of thallium . The Allchar deposit in southern Macedonia was the only area where thallium was ever actively mined . This deposit still contains a loosely estimated 500 tonnes of thallium , and it is a source for several rare thallium minerals , for example lorándite .
The United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) estimates that the annual worldwide production of thallium is about 10 metric tonnes as a by @-@ product from the smelting of copper , zinc , and lead ores . Thallium is either extracted from the dusts from the smelter flues or from residues such as slag that are collected at the end of the smelting process . The raw materials used for thallium production contain large amounts of other materials and therefore a purification is the first step . The thallium is leached either by the use of a base or sulfuric acid from the material . The thallium is several times precipitated from the solution and to remove further impurities . At the end it is converted to thallium sulfate and the thallium is extracted by electrolysis on platinum or stainless steel plates . The production of thallium decreased by about 33 % in the period from 1995 to 2009 – from about 15 metric tonnes to about 10 tonnes . Since there are several small deposits or ores with relatively high thallium content , it would be possible to increase the production of it if a new application , such as a hypothetical thallium @-@ containing high @-@ temperature superconductor , becomes practical for widespread use outside of the laboratory .
= = Applications = =
= = = Historic uses = = =
The odorless and tasteless thallium sulfate was once widely used as rat poison and ant killer . Since 1972 this use has been prohibited in the United States due to safety concerns . Many other countries followed this example in the following years . Thallium salts were used in the treatment of ringworm , other skin infections and to reduce the night sweating of tuberculosis patients . However this use has been limited due to their narrow therapeutic index , and the development of more advanced medicines for these conditions .
= = = Optics = = =
Thallium ( I ) bromide and thallium ( I ) iodide crystals have been used as infrared optical materials , because they are harder than other common infrared optics , and because they have transmission at significantly longer wavelengths . The trade name KRS @-@ 5 refers to this material . Thallium ( I ) oxide has been used to manufacture glasses that have a high index of refraction . Combined with sulfur or selenium and arsenic , thallium has been used in the production of high @-@ density glasses that have low melting points in the range of 125 and 150 ° C. These glasses have room temperature properties that are similar to ordinary glasses and are durable , insoluble in water and have unique refractive indices .
= = = Electronics = = =
Thallium ( I ) sulfide 's electrical conductivity changes with exposure to infrared light therefore making this compound useful in photoresistors . Thallium selenide has been used in a bolometer for infrared detection . Doping selenium semiconductors with thallium improves their performance , and therefore it is used in trace amounts in selenium rectifiers . Another application of thallium doping is the sodium iodide crystals in gamma radiation detection devices . In these , the sodium iodide crystals are doped with a small amount of thallium to improve their efficiency as scintillation generators . Some of the electrodes in dissolved oxygen analyzers contain thallium .
= = = High @-@ temperature superconductivity = = =
Research activity with thallium is ongoing to develop high @-@ temperature superconducting materials for such applications as magnetic resonance imaging , storage of magnetic energy , magnetic propulsion , and electric power generation and transmission . The research in applications started after the discovery of the first thallium barium calcium copper oxide superconductor in 1988 . Thallium cuprate superconductors have been discovered that have transition temperatures above 120 K. Some mercury @-@ doped thallium @-@ cuprate superconductors have transition temperatures above 130 K at ambient pressure , nearly as high as the world @-@ record @-@ holding mercury cuprates .
= = = Medical = = =
Before the widespread application of technetium @-@ 99m in nuclear medicine , the radioactive isotope thallium @-@ 201 , with a half @-@ life of 73 hours , was the main substance for nuclear cardiography . The nuclide is still used for stress tests for risk stratification in patients with coronary artery disease ( CAD ) . This isotope of thallium can be generated using a transportable generator which is similar to the technetium @-@ 99m generator . The generator contains lead @-@ 201 ( half @-@ life 9 @.@ 33 hours ) which decays by electron capture to the thallium @-@ 201 . The lead @-@ 201 can be produced in a cyclotron by the bombardment of thallium with protons or deuterons by the ( p , 3n ) and ( d , 4n ) reactions .
= = = = Thallium stress test = = = =
A thallium stress test is a form of scintigraphy , where the amount of thallium in tissues correlates with tissue blood supply . Viable cardiac cells have normal Na + / K + ion exchange pumps . The Tl + cation binds the K + pumps and is transported into the cells . Exercise or dipyridamole induces widening ( vasodilation ) of normal coronary arteries . This produces coronary steal from areas where arteries are maximally dilated . Areas of infarct or ischemic tissue will remain " cold " . Pre- and post @-@ stress thallium may indicate areas which will benefit from myocardial revascularization . Redistribution indicates the existence of coronary steal and the presence of ischemic coronary artery disease .
= = = Other uses = = =
A mercury – thallium alloy , which forms a eutectic at 8 @.@ 5 % thallium , is reported to freeze at − 60 ° C , some 20 ° C below the freezing point of mercury . This alloy is used in thermometers and low @-@ temperature switches . In organic synthesis , thallium ( III ) salts , as thallium trinitrate or triacetate , are useful reagents performing different transformations in aromatics , ketones , olefins , among others . Thallium is a constituent of the alloy in the anode plates in magnesium seawater batteries . Soluble thallium salts are added to gold plating baths to increase the speed of plating and to reduce grain size within the gold layer .
The saturated solution of equal parts of thallium ( I ) formate ( Tl ( CHO2 ) ) and thallium ( I ) malonate ( Tl ( C3H3O4 ) ) in water is known as Clerici solution . It is a mobile odorless liquid whose color changes from yellowish to clear upon reducing the concentration of the thallium salts . With the density of 4 @.@ 25 g / cm3 at 20 ° C , Clerici solution is one of the heaviest aqueous solutions known . It was used in the 20th century for measuring density of minerals by the flotation method , but the use is discontinued due to the high toxicity and corrosiveness of the solution .
Thallium iodide is used as an additive to metal halide lamps , often together with one @-@ two halides of other metals . It allows to optimize the lamp temperature and color rendering , and shift the spectral output to the green region , which is useful for underwater lighting .
= = Toxicity = =
Thallium and its compounds are extremely toxic , and should be handled with great care . There are numerous recorded cases of fatal thallium poisoning . People can be exposed to thallium in the workplace by breathing it in , skin absorption , swallowing it , or eye contact . The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has set the legal limit ( Permissible exposure limit ) for thallium exposure in the workplace as 0 @.@ 1 mg / m3 skin exposure over an 8 @-@ hour workday . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) also set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 0 @.@ 1 mg / m3 skin exposure over an 8 @-@ hour workday . At levels of 15 mg / m3 , thallium is immediately dangerous to life and health .
Contact with skin is dangerous , and adequate ventilation should be provided when melting this metal . Thallium ( I ) compounds have a high aqueous solubility and are readily absorbed through the skin . Exposure by inhalation should not exceed 0 @.@ 1 mg per cubic metre in an 8 @-@ hour time @-@ weighted average ( 40 @-@ hour work week ) . Thallium will readily absorb through the skin and care should be taken to avoid this route of exposure as cutaneous absorption can exceed the absorbed dose received by inhalation at the PEL . Thallium is a suspected human carcinogen . For a long time thallium compounds were readily available as rat poison . This fact and that it is water @-@ soluble and nearly tasteless led to frequent intoxication caused by accident or criminal intent .
One of the main methods of removing thallium ( both radioactive and normal ) from humans is to use Prussian blue , a material which absorbs thallium . Up to 20 g per day of Prussian blue is fed by mouth to the person , and it passes through their digestive system and comes out in the stool . Hemodialysis and hemoperfusion are also used to remove thallium from the blood serum . At later stage of the treatment additional potassium is used to mobilize thallium from the tissue .
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , man @-@ made sources of thallium pollution include gaseous emission of cement factories , coal burning power plants , and metal sewers . The main source of elevated thallium concentrations in water is the leaching of thallium from ore processing operations .
= Texas Recreational Road 2 =
Recreational Road 2 ( RE 2 ) is a Recreational Road located in Val Verde County in the southwestern portion of the U.S. state of Texas . The highway is approximately 7 @.@ 2 miles ( 11 @.@ 6 km ) in length , and connects the Rough Canyon Colonia portion of the Amistad National Recreation Area to U.S. Highway 277 ( US 227 ) and US 377 . The roadway travels through mainly rural areas . A road first appeared in the location of RE 2 around 1940 . RE 2 was officially designated in June 1970 , and was just the second Recreational Road formed at the time .
= = Route description = =
RE 2 begins at the Rough Canyon boat @-@ launch ramp on the Amistad Reservoir in the Rough Canyon Colonia region of the Amistad National Recreation Area . From this terminus , the highway proceeds as a two @-@ lane , paved road , which travels through a small parking lot and turns northeastward . The road continues northeast as it passes the Rough Canyon Marina and the Rough Canyon Colonia camping area on the eastern edge of the park , as well as several houses and independent camp sites . The highway intersects Cam Real Road , which leads to the Devils Shores community and the surrounding area . The route bends eastward , passing the Rough Canyon Inn and a small parking lot and intersecting a small road before it continues into rural areas again . Proceeding along a small ridge , the highway bends northeastward and travels over a small unnamed wash before reaching its eastern terminus with US 277 / US 377 .
The Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) publishes yearly reports of the highway 's annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , with counts usually taken near intersections . In 2011 , the route 's AADT was 310 vehicles , taken from a point to the west of the US 277 / US 377 intersection . This count was exactly the same as the one taken in 2010 , which in turn was a decrease from the count taken in 2009 , when RE 2 's AADT count was 440 vehicles . No portion of the highway is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
A road first appeared in the location of RE 2 around 1940 . This road was an unimproved dirt route with a primitive bridge over a small creek near the middle of it . The road led to a small community made up of three residential buildings . By 1951 , the highway 's bridge had been converted to a small concrete dip which allowed the creek to flow through it . By 1956 , this road had been improved to a graded , drained gravel surface . By 1961 , it had been improved to a metal surface , and had been straightened along the eastern portion . Two additional concrete dips had been constructed , over two small creeks connecting to Devils River . In addition , the community which the road served had expanded to five residential buildings and a gate was built at the western end of the highway .
The first serious interest in the road came in mid @-@ 1969 , when the National Park Service approved a plan to develop the facilities with Amistad . The Rough Canyon and Diablo East portions of the park were given particular focus , since they were the only two that were in existence at the time . Large boat ramps were constructed at both areas , in an attempt to increase tourism .
In early August 1971 , several consecutive days of heavy rainfall led to flooding throughout the area . Several highways in the area were damaged , including RE 2 . Portions of the highway were completely washed out , which took about two weeks to repair .
On April 1 , 1970 , RE 2 was officially designated by TxDOT . RE 2 , along with Recreational Road 255 , became the first routes designated as " recreational roads " by the Texas State Highway Department . However , both highways still had to be approved by the Highway Department 's Administration Circle ; RE 255 was approved on April 15 , 1970 , making it the first official highway . RE 2 was approved by the Administration Circle on June 1 , 1970 , making it the second route officially designated as a recreational road . Since RE 2 's designation , each recreational road has been numbered sequentially . Between 1970 and 1972 , the highway was paved , and the concrete dips replaced with drainage pipes . One of the route 's bends was straightened , shortening it from 7 @.@ 4 miles ( 11 @.@ 9 km ) to about 7 @.@ 2 miles ( 11 @.@ 6 km ) in length . The highway has not undergone any major rerouting or redesignation since .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Val Verde County .
= DC Comics Graphic Novel Collection =
DC Comics Graphic Novel Collection is a fortnightly partwork magazine published by Eaglemoss and DC Comics . The series is a collection of special edition hardback graphic novels , collecting significant DC Comics superhero story @-@ arcs as well as bonus origin stories for the characters within .
The collection started in countries like Brazil but with a different order and contents . A small local test run was also run in select parts of the UK , similar to what happens with most partworks . The debut issue , Batman : Hush Part 1 , was released in the UK on 19 August 2015 at the special price of £ 2 @.@ 99 , before gradually rising to £ 9 @.@ 99 per issue . 60 issues of the partwork are planned with the possibility of an extension .
The collection was likely inspired by the Hachette partwork The Official Marvel Graphic Novel Collection which began in 2012 , collecting acclaimed Marvel Comics stories , which in @-@ turn inspired another Hachette partworks collection from the 2000 AD series Judge Dredd : The Mega Collection .
= = List of books = =
Below is a working list of the books which will be released as part of the collection . They may change and are different to the line ups of other countries who share the collection . The information is sourced from an email to their customer services department .
= = = Special Issues = = =
The following ' special ' books are due to be released as part of the collection with a UK retail price of £ 19 @.@ 99 . Subscribers get the Special issues at a discounted price of £ 18 @.@ 99 .
= = = Subscriber Exclusive Issues = = =
= Cyclone Fay =
Cyclone Fay was an intense , late @-@ season tropical cyclone which struck Western Australia during the 2003 @-@ 04 Australian region cyclone season . Forming from an area of low pressure on 12 March , Fay was the only Category 5 cyclone during the season . The system had a minimum pressure of 910 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 87 inHg ) and maximum sustained winds of 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) . Moving towards the southwest and eventually towards the south , Fay gradually strengthened as it paralleled the northwestern coast of Australia , and made landfall on the Pilbara coast on the morning of 27 March as a Category 4 cyclone .
While no fatalities were reported , the cyclone brought record @-@ breaking rainfall to Australia , which led to a sharp decrease in the country 's gold output . The cyclone also caused minor damage in the Pilbara region of Western Australia . In the spring of 2005 , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology retired the name Fay from use , and it will never be used again as a cyclone name .
= = Meteorological history = =
The low pressure system that later developed into Fay formed in the Gulf of Carpentaria on 12 March 2004 . Through 15 March satellite imagery indicated increasing convection and organisation of the system , as well as decreasing wind sheer aloft , adding to the favourable conditions for strengthening . On 16 March , the system was designated Tropical Cyclone 18S by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , with winds of 30 km / h ( 20 mph ) . The system then crossed Melville and Bathurst Islands and moved into the Timor Sea , where it intensified , and was given the name Fay by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology . Fay began to turn southward on 17 March ; simultaneously , the cyclone continued to intensify due to a weakening of vertical wind shear , and well @-@ defined outflow became apparent on satellite imagery . The following day , a steering ridge to the south of the system strengthened and pushed the cyclone away from the coast and to the northwest . At the same time , the system continued to intensify due to the favourable environment in the upper atmosphere . However , hot , dry air flowing into the system from the south , combined with vertical wind sheer , kept the storm from strengthening as much at its maximum potential rate .
By 19 March Fay 's track had turned to the west @-@ southwest , and over the next day it continued to strengthen in due to favourable upper level outflow and weak vertical sheer . On 21 March , Fay became a Category 5 cyclone on the Australian Region Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale . A mid @-@ latitude trough caused the steering ridge to weaken , and subsequently , Fay to turn to the south . Over the next two days , the environmental shear around the cyclone decreased , which would normally have led to intensification ; however , as the shear decreased , the cyclone also moved over an area of dry air , weakening the system . By 23 March , Fay had moved in a loop , and the system weakened to a Category 2 . Over the next day , favourable outflow counteracted the dry air that had weakened the system , and a banding eye feature was observed on satellite imagery . Fay then encountered moister air as it moved southward , leading it to re @-@ intensify on 25 March . A weak eye of 10 nm was observed on 26 March which grew to 15 nm as the day went on . Strengthening into a Category 4 system early on 27 March , Fay made landfall on the Pilbara coast between 8 am and 9 am AWST ( 0000 and 0100 UTC ) with winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) , weakening below cyclone strength somewhere between the towns of Nullagine and Telfer .
= = Preparations , Impact , and aftermath = =
Evacuation centres were set up in the Kimberley region of Western Australia . Schools and businesses were also closed , and flights in and out of the area were cancelled . Shelters were set up for people who could not take shelter in their own homes . Residents of the Bidyadanga Aboriginal community were warned of particularly dangerous storm tide as the centre of the cyclone passed to their west . The communities of Sandfire and Pardoo were also warned of dangerous storm tide . Cyclone warnings were issued for areas threatened by the system , and communities in the path of the system were warned of expected high rainfall , as amounts greater than 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) were expected .
Minor damage to buildings and limited tree damage were reported in the vicinity of Port Hedland . In the town of Nullagine , 120 residents were evacuated to the town 's police station , as heavy rain caused flooding . Flooding of the De Grey and Oakover Rivers led to the town being segmented into 4 sections . As the system passed near the Yarrie mine 200 workers were forced to go under lockdown for 8 hours . The cyclone overturned accommodation units , " shredded " water tanks , cut power lines , and damaged the rail line connecting the mine to Port Hedland .
Heavy rainfall was reported along the track of the cyclone , with a two @-@ day total of 701 mm ( 27 @.@ 6 in ) reported at the Nifty Copper Mine and 359 mm ( 14 @.@ 1 in ) reported in Telfer . The rain from the cyclone delayed the construction of a gas pipeline at the mine for over 7 months , while the pipeline company waited for the floodwaters to dissipate . According to Newcrest Mining , the rainfall amounts at Telfer exceeded the records going back at least 100 years . The heavy rainfall from both Cyclone Monty in February and Cyclone Fay caused gold output in Australia for the quarter to be the lowest in 10 years .
A survey performed by the Australian Institute of Marine Science discovered that the Scott Reef suffered " severe damage , " and many coral colonies were uprooted or damaged . Because of the record @-@ breaking rainfall produced across northwestern Australia , the Bureau of Meteorology retired the name Fay after its usage .
= Cyclone Alessia =
Tropical Cyclone Alessia was the first tropical cyclone to affect the Northern Territory of Australia in November since Cyclone Joan in 1975 . The storm was first identified as a tropical low on 20 November 2013 well to the northwest of Australia . Tracking generally west to west @-@ southwest , the small system steadily organized into a tropical cyclone by 22 November . Maintaining a small central dense overcast , Alessia brushed the Kimberley region before making landfall in the Top End region with winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) on 23 and 24 November respectively . Some weakening took place as the system moved over land ; however , reorganization occurred as it neared the Gulf of Carpentaria . After moving over water on 26 November , it redeveloped gale @-@ force winds . Alessia reached its peak intensity on 27 November with winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 991 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 26 inHg ) and subsequently made its final landfall near Wollogorang . Weakening ensued once more as the storm traveled over land ; though , Alessia 's remnants looped eastward back over water before doubling back to the west . The system was last noted moving inland again over the Northern Territory on 1 December .
Throughout Alessia 's existence , it caused only minimal damage . Several areas experienced gale @-@ force winds , with gusts measured up to 109 km / h ( 68 mph ) on Centre Island . Moderate to heavy rains accompanied the system as well , with a storm maxima of 290 @.@ 4 mm ( 11 @.@ 43 in ) also occurring on Centre Island .
= = Meteorological history = =
On 20 November 2013 , an area of low pressure , accompanied by persistent deep convection , developed over the southern Indian Ocean , roughly 1 @,@ 465 km ( 910 mi ) north of RAAF Learmonth in Western Australia . At the mid @-@ levels , the circulation appeared more broad in nature , with notable rainbands wrapping into the low . Environmental conditions favored tropical cyclogenesis , with moderate wind shear , high sea surface temperatures , and prominent outflow that extended into the mid @-@ latitude westerlies . By this time , the Bureau of Meteorology ( BOM ) noted this system as a tropical low just outside their area of responsibility . Owing to increasing organization over the following day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert for the system late on 21 November . Subsequently , the JTWC began issuing advisories on the system under the identifier Tropical Cyclone 02S on 22 November , estimating it to have attained gale @-@ force winds . Situated along the edge of a near @-@ equatorial ridge , the storm tracked generally east and was forecast to maintain this movement for much of its existence . Later on 21 November , the BOM classified the system as a Category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian cyclone intensity scale and assigned it the name Alessia , at which time it was located 390 km ( 240 mi ) north of Broome . A smaller @-@ than @-@ average cyclone , Alessia featured a core of deep convection but no notable banding features , making Dvorak satellite intensity estimates difficult .
The storm , having a maximum diameter of no more than 335 km ( 210 mi ) with gale @-@ force winds covering less than half that distance , maintained a very small central dense overcast as it approached the Kimberley region . Around 0600 UTC on 23 November , the JTWC estimated Alessia to have attained one @-@ minute sustained winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Throughout 23 November , a slight northerly component took place in the track , with Alessia remaining offshore as it brushed the Kimberley region . However , dry air from over Australia was drawn into the system , causing a dramatic decrease in convection . At this time , Alessia became the first storm since Tropical Cyclone Anika in 2008 to affect Western Australia during November . Later that day , the storm passed over Troughton Island where gale @-@ force winds were measured . Moving over the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf at the southern end of the Timor Sea early on 24 November , a burst in convection over Alessia 's center indicated it was maintaining its intensity as a minimal tropical cyclone . Continued reorganization of the cyclone 's structure took place as it accelerated east toward the Top End region , with defined banding apparent on satellite imagary and a tight circulation center seen on local radar . Alessia made landfall at 0930 UTC on 24 November near the Daly River Mouth , south of Darwin , Northern Territory , before rapidly weakening to a tropical low . Alessia 's movement onshore marked the first time since Cyclone Joan in 1975 that a tropical cyclone affected the Northern Territory during November . In light of the system moving overland , the JTWC issues their final advisory on the cyclone . Moving steadily eastward across Top End , Alessia remained weak but its proximity to water allowed significant bursts of convection to develop during this time .
Early on 26 November , the former cyclone emerged over the Gulf of Carpentaria near Blue Mud Bay . Once offshore , a break in the upper @-@ level ridge previously steering the storm eastward caused a southward shift in the track , bringing it directly over Groote Eylandt for several hours . Gale @-@ force winds soon redeveloped over the southeastern quadrant of Alessia ; however , it was not re @-@ designated as a tropical cyclone until 27 November when the winds extended halfway around the circulation . As Alessia re @-@ intensified over the southwestern Gulf , its movement became more southeasterly , taking the circulation parallel to the coast . With an anticyclone over the Northern Territory providing modest outflow for the cyclone , it continued to intensify ; the JTWC also re @-@ initiated advisories on the storm by 0600 UTC on 27 November . Hours later , Alessia reached its peak strength with winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) and a barometric pressure estimated at 991 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 27 inHg ) . Simultaneously , it moved ashore near Wollogorang , roughly 130 km ( 80 mi ) east of Borroloola . Increasing shear and land interaction caused the low- and mid @-@ level circulations to separate , with the later continuing eastward over water . The storm soon weakened to a tropical low and its movement became erratic . Its remnants persisted for several days in the same general region , executing a clockwise loop before moving back over the Gulf of Carpentaria on 28 November . While environmental conditions favored redevelopment once again and deep convection had formed over the system , its low @-@ level circulation remained poorly organized . Failing to regenerate , Alessia moved eastward before doubling back to the west , passing near the Sir Edward Pellew Group of Islands on 30 November . It was last noted on 1 December over the Top End region .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Kimberley and Top End = = =
On 21 November , a cyclone watch was raised for coastal and nearby inland areas of Western Australia between Wyndham and Beagle Bay . This watch was soon expanded to encompass areas east to the Western Australia – Northern Territory border and west to the Mitchell Plateau . Additionally , areas from Mitchell Plateau to Cockatoo Island were placed under a cyclone warning . The following day , watches extended to Cape Hotham Light in the Northern Territory , including the city of Darwin and the Tiwi Islands . As the cyclone intensified , warnings gradually spread eastward . Warnings reached as far east as Point Stuart prior to Alessia 's landfall . All watches and warnings were dropped on 24 November as Alessia moved inland and degraded to a tropical low .
Though impact from the storm was expected to be fairly minimal , residents were still advised to stock up on emergency supplies and be prepared . Northern Territory Police Commissioner , John McRoberts , urged residents to heed warnings despite the generally non @-@ threatening nature of the storm , " complacency can often be your worst enemy in these types of events . " Many stores across Darwin reported a sharp increase in the sales of bottled water due to the storm . Despite the approaching storm , regional airports , schools , and businesses remained open . Ferry service to the Tiwi Islands , however , was suspended for 24 November .
On 23 November , Cyclone Alessia brushed the Kimberley coastline of Western Australia as a low @-@ end Category 1 . The strongest winds were measured on Troughton Island at 69 km / h ( 43 mph ) with gusts to 94 km / h ( 58 mph ) . The storm 's brisk forward motion limited rainfall , however , with only 24 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) falling on the island . Farther west , Kalumburu received 37 @.@ 8 mm ( 1 @.@ 49 in ) of rain . Effects across the Top End region were similar to Kimberly , some reports of gale @-@ force winds with generally light to moderate rain , peaking at 126 mm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) along the Upper Wickham River . Owing to previously dry conditions , the rains proved mostly beneficial to the region . Flash flooding along the Goomadeer River in Arnhem Land caught at least seven people off @-@ guard , including one infant , as their two vehicles were overcome with water . Six people safely made it out while another was swept downstream . He was rescued two days later by local police . In Darwin , strong winds downed a few trees in the Northern Suburbs and Howard Springs while localised flooding occurred in Palmerston . Additionally , one power line was downed in the city . Local authorities reported no serious traffic accidents in relation to the storm nor injuries . In Milne , a few residents seeking shelter at a local fire station found themselves locked out despite officials advising people to seek shelter if necessary .
= = = Gulf of Carpentaria = = =
Following Alessia 's reorganization over the Gulf of Carpentaria early on 27 November , a cyclone warning was raised for areas between Port Roper , Northern Territory to Karumba , Queensland , including Mornington Island . Once the storm moved onshore in the Northern Territory , all watches and warnings were dropped later that same day . On Centre Island , daily rainfall peaked at 162 @.@ 8 mm ( 6 @.@ 41 in ) on 27 November , with an additional 127 @.@ 6 mm ( 5 @.@ 02 in ) falling over the subsequent three days as Alessia moved erratically in the southwestern Gulf of Carpentaria . Sustained winds of 87 km / h ( 54 mph ) and gusts to 109 km / h ( 68 mph ) affected the island during the storm 's passage . The McArthur River zinc mine received 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) of rain on 27 November . Heavy rains extended eastward into Queensland with 164 @.@ 4 mm ( 6 @.@ 47 in ) falling on Mornington Island over a five @-@ day period .
= Pilot ( House ) =
" Pilot " , also known as " Everybody Lies " , is the first episode of the U.S. television series House . The episode premiered on the Fox network on November 16 , 2004 . It introduces the character of Dr. Gregory House ( played by Hugh Laurie ) — a maverick antisocial doctor — and his team of diagnosticians at the fictional Princeton @-@ Plainsboro Teaching Hospital in New Jersey . The episode features House 's attempts to diagnose a kindergarten teacher after she collapses in class .
House was created by David Shore , who got the idea for the misanthropic title character from a doctor 's visit . Initially , producer Bryan Singer wanted an American to play House , but British actor Hugh Laurie 's audition convinced him that a foreign actor could play the role . Shore wrote House as a character with parallels to Sherlock Holmes — both are drug users , blunt , and close to being friendless . The show 's producers wanted House handicapped in some way and gave the character a damaged leg arising from an improper diagnosis .
The episode received generally positive reviews ; the character of House was widely noted as a unique aspect of the episode and series , though some reviewers believed that such a cruel character would not be tolerated in real life . Other complaints with the episode included stereotyped supporting characters and an implausible premise . The initial broadcast of " Pilot " was watched by approximately seven million viewers , making it the 62nd @-@ most @-@ watched show of the week .
= = Plot = =
Shortly after the start of class , kindergarten teacher Rebecca Adler ( Robin Tunney ) becomes dysphasic , falls to the floor , and experiences seizures . Dr. James Wilson ( Robert Sean Leonard ) attempts to convince the curmudgeonly Gregory House to treat Adler , but House initially dismisses him , believing that the case would be boring . Hospital administrator Dr. Lisa Cuddy ( Lisa Edelstein ) approaches House in the elevator and attempts to persuade him to fulfill his duties at the hospital 's walk @-@ in clinic , a task House loathes because the cases are usually simplistic . House refuses , claiming that Cuddy cannot fire him due to tenure , and hurriedly leaves . When House 's team attempts to perform an MRI on Adler , they discover that House 's authorization for diagnostics has been revoked ; Cuddy restores his authorization in exchange for his working at the clinic .
Adler 's throat closes up during the MRI due to an allergic reaction to gadolinium , prompting two members of House 's team , Dr. Robert Chase ( Jesse Spencer ) and Dr. Allison Cameron ( Jennifer Morrison ) , to perform a tracheotomy . Working in the hospital 's clinic , House 's first patient is a man who is orange because of an over @-@ consumption of carrots and mega @-@ dose vitamins ( niacin ) . House also treats a ten @-@ year @-@ old boy whose mother allows him to use his asthmatic inhaler only intermittently instead of daily as prescribed . House criticises the mother for making such a drastic medical decision without first learning more about asthma . During his monologue , House stumbles on an idea and leaves quickly to treat Adler ; he diagnoses her with cerebral vasculitis , despite having no proof . House treats Adler with steroids , which improves her condition greatly for a time , until she starts seizing and has heart failure . The team brings her back with a defibrillator .
On House 's insistence , neurologist Dr. Eric Foreman ( Omar Epps ) and Cameron break into Adler 's house to find anything that might account for Adler 's symptoms . They find an opened package of non @-@ kosher ham in Adler 's kitchen . House concludes that Adler is suffering from cysticercosis due to eating undercooked pork ; when the tapeworm inside of her reproduced , its larvae were absorbed into her blood stream , infesting her brain . Adler , wishing to die with dignity , refuses to accept more treatments unless there is evidence that the diagnosis is correct , but House attempts to persuade her otherwise . During the conversation , Adler asks for the cause of the limp in House 's right leg . House reveals he had an infarction in his thigh muscles that led to muscle death , which could have been avoided if his doctor had made the correct diagnosis . House is ready to dismiss the case when Chase provides an idea for noninvasive evidence of Adler 's tapeworm infection ; by taking an X @-@ ray of her leg , House proves that Adler is infested with tapeworms and her condition is treatable . After seeing the evidence , Adler agrees to take her medication to kill the tapeworms . A couple of days later , Adler is visited by all 16 of her kindergarten children and their other teacher , whom she welcomes with open arms .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and filming = = =
Series creator David Shore traced the concept for House to his background as a patient at a teaching hospital . Shore recalled that " I knew , as soon as I left the room , they would be mocking me relentlessly [ for my cluelessness ... ] and I thought that it would be interesting to see a character who actually did that before they left the room . " In 2004 , Shore and executive producers Katie Jacobs and Paul Attanasio pitched House to Fox as a medical detective show — a hospital whodunit where the doctors would be the sleuths looking for the source of symptoms . The ideas behind House 's character were added after Fox bought the show . Shore wrote the pilot with a vivid memory of a doctor 's visit : he once had to wait two weeks to get a doctor 's appointment for a sore hip , by which point his pain had disappeared . Nevertheless , Shore stated that the doctors were " incredibly polite " . Shore later stated that , as he wrote the pilot , he fell in love with a character who , as a doctor , would actually ask the question " Why am I wasting your time ? " .
A central part of the show 's premise was that the main character would be handicapped . The initial idea was for House to use a wheelchair , but Fox turned down this interpretation ( for which the crew was later grateful ) . The wheelchair idea turned into a scar on House 's face , which later turned into a bad leg necessitating use of a cane . The original script called for House to be 34 years old ; however , Shore later explained that he did not want the character to be that young .
The episode was written by the series creator David Shore , and was shot in Canada ; later episodes would be shot on soundstages in California . Shore said that the writings of Berton Roueché , a The New Yorker staff writer who chronicled intriguing medical cases , inspired the plots for " Pilot " and other early episodes .
= = = Casting = = =
Producer Bryan Singer originally demanded that an American actor play the role of House ; according to Singer , the more foreign actors he watched audition for the part , the more sure he was that an American was needed . At the time of casting , Hugh Laurie was filming the movie Flight of the Phoenix . He put together an audition tape in a Namibian hotel bathroom , the only place with enough light , and apologized for its appearance ( which Singer compared to a " bin Laden video " ) . Laurie improvised by using an umbrella for a cane . Singer was impressed by Laurie 's performance and commented on how well the " American actor " grasped the character , not realizing Laurie was British .
Laurie initially believed that House was merely the " sidekick " of Wilson , because the script referred to Wilson as a doctor with " boyish " looks . Laurie did not realize that House was the protagonist until he read the full teleplay . According to Shore , " it 's easy to make an asshole character unlikable . What 's tricky is to make them watchable . And Hugh came in and brought everything that was there to the part , the nastiness , the not politically correct stuff . And yet you wanted to watch him , you wanted to spend time with him . "
Similarities between House and the famous fictional detective Sherlock Holmes appear in the pilot ; Shore explained that he was always a fan of Holmes , and found the character 's traits of indifference to his clients unique . House and Holmes have only one real friend ( Wilson and Watson , respectively ) who connects the cerebral hero to human concerns . This Holmes and Watson dynamic was something the producers were looking for in the characters of House and Wilson , especially in terms of chemistry .
Robert Sean Leonard ( Dr. James Wilson ) read the pilot scripts to Numb3rs and was planning to audition for the part , but was drawn to auditioning for House because he enjoyed the role of being " the guy [ the protagonist ] counts on " , as well as the similarities to Sherlock Holmes . Leonard felt he did not audition well , and thought his long friendship with Singer helped land him the role . When asked in an interview why his character would ever be friends with House , Leonard replied :
I think Wilson puts up with House for the same reason that millions of people watch him every week . I think he ’ s really dynamic and fun and audacious and self @-@ deprecating . All those things that I think make people really appealing , and he tells it like it is . The money things , he doesn ’ t tend to pay you back , but I have a lot of friends like that . So I don ’ t find it that much of a mystery . I think House is a very attractive character . I think most people would want to be friends with him .
Australian actor Jesse Spencer 's agent suggested that Spencer audition for the role of Chase , but he was hesitant , fearing the show might be similar to General Hospital . Once the actor saw the scripts , he changed his mind ; Spencer then persuaded the producers to change his character into an Australian . Omar Epps , who plays Foreman , found influence from his work as a troubled intern on the TV show ER . Epps and co @-@ star Jennifer Morrison read the scripts and believed that the show would be either a hit or miss .
= = Reception = =
House 's premiere episode was generally well received . Critics reacted positively to the character of House ; Tom Shales of The Washington Post called him " the most electrifying character to hit television in years " . The New York Magazine called the series " medical TV at its most satisfying and basic " , and stated that the cast consisted of " [ professional ] actors playing doctors who come to care about their patients " , while The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert appreciated that the episode did not sugarcoat the flaws of the characters to assuage viewers ' fears about " HMO factories " . Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times said that though the characters might be a turn @-@ off to some viewers , the gore and " derivative gall " of the show were positives to fans of procedural dramas ; TV Guide 's Matt Roush stated House was an " uncommon cure for the common medical drama " . Critics of The A.V. Club called House the " nastiest " black comedy from Fox since the 1996 's short @-@ lived television series Profit . Critics considered the series to be a bright spot among Fox 's otherwise reality television @-@ based broadcast schedule .
The episode 's format was compared to a rival television series , Medical Investigation . USA Today favorably stated House as more character @-@ driven than Investigation 's " plot @-@ driven procedural " , and the San Francisco Chronicle felt that House was the better show due to the title character . Variety 's Brian Lowry , meanwhile , stated that the two shows were too similar and House was mismatched among Fox 's other programs . Other complaints included perceived stereotypes of young , attractive doctors . Sherwin Nuland of Slate gave the first episodes of the series a highly negative review , stating that " Of all the medical errata in this series ( and there are some whoppers ) , the greatest is surely the conceit that a physician so remote , so neglectful of duty , so sadistic , so downright cruel as Gregory House would be tolerated in any hospital . " Kay McFadden of The Seattle Times felt that Laurie 's portrayal of House humanized the character , but also revealed the show 's deepest flaw : " a reliance on shallow cuteness for comic relief " . Other complaints included a lack of characterization for the supporting characters in the first few episodes .
The premiere attracted approximately seven million viewers in the United States , making it the 62nd @-@ most @-@ watched show for the week of November 15 – 21 , 2004 . The United Kingdom terrestrial premiere was broadcast on June 9 , 2005 , by Five and garnered a ten percent share ( 1 @.@ 8 million viewers ) . Christopher Hoag , who composed the music for " Pilot " and the first season of House , was nominated in the 2005 Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Music Composition for the episode . Shore received a Humanitas Prize nomination for writing the episode , but lost out to John Wells , who wrote the episode of the The West Wing entitled " NSF Thurmont " .
= SMS Oldenburg =
SMS Oldenburg was the fourth vessel of the Helgoland class of battleships of the Imperial German Navy . Oldenburg 's keel was laid in October 1908 at the Kaiserliche Werft dockyard in Wilhelmshaven . She was launched on 30 September 1909 and was commissioned into the fleet on 1 May 1912 . The ship was equipped with twelve 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in six twin turrets , and had a top speed of 21 @.@ 2 knots ( 39 @.@ 3 km / h ; 24 @.@ 4 mph ) . Oldenburg was assigned to the I Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career , including World War I.
Along with her three sister ships , Helgoland , Ostfriesland , and Thüringen , Oldenburg participated in all of the major fleet operations of World War I in the North Sea against the British Grand Fleet , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 , the largest naval battle of the war . The ship also saw action in the Baltic Sea against the Imperial Russian Navy . She was present during the unsuccessful first incursion into the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 , though she saw no combat during the operation .
After the German collapse in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet was interned and then scuttled in Scapa Flow during the peace negotiations . The four Helgoland @-@ class ships were allowed to remain in Germany but eventually ceded to the victorious Allied powers as war reparations ; Oldenburg was given to Japan , which sold the vessel to a British ship @-@ breaking firm in 1920 . She was broken up for scrap in Dordrecht in 1921 .
= = Construction = =
Oldenburg was ordered by the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) under the provisional name Ersatz Frithjof , as a replacement for the old coastal defense ship Frithjof . The contract for the ship was awarded to the Schichau @-@ Werke shipyard in Danzig under construction number 828 . Her three sisters had been ordered for 1908 , but because of budget constraints , Oldenburg 's order was delayed to 1909 . Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , the State Secretary of the Navy , gave the contract to Schichau before the 1909 budget had been approved , and the shipbuilder began stockpiling materials to build the ship . This gave the impression that Germany was building more battleships than publicly admitted , which prompted a naval scare in Britain . The British public demanded " we want eight [ new battleships ] and we won 't wait " , and in the span of a year eight new battleships had been laid down in Britain , a major escalation in the international naval arms race . Work began on 1 March 1909 with the laying of her keel , and the ship was launched a little more than a year later on 30 June 1910 . Duchess Sophia Charlotte of Oldenburg christened her , and Friedrich August , the Grand Duke of Oldenburg , gave the speech . After launching , the incomplete ship was transferred to Kiel for fitting @-@ out , including completion of the superstructure and the installation of armament , until August 1911 . Named for the Duchy of Oldenburg in northern Germany , the ship was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 May 1912 , just over three years after work commenced , at a cost of 45 @.@ 801 million gold marks .
The ship was 167 @.@ 2 m ( 548 ft 7 in ) long , had a beam of 28 @.@ 5 m ( 93 ft 6 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 94 m ( 29 ft 4 in ) , and displaced 24 @,@ 700 metric tons ( 24 @,@ 310 long tons ) at full load . She was powered by three vertical triple expansion steam engines and fifteen water @-@ tube boilers . The engines were rated at 28 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 27 @,@ 617 ihp ; 20 @,@ 594 kW ) and were capable of producing a top speed of 20 @.@ 8 knots ( 38 @.@ 5 km / h ; 23 @.@ 9 mph ) . Oldenburg stored up to 3 @,@ 200 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 100 long tons ) of coal , allowing her to steam for 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . After 1915 the boilers were modified to burn oil , which would be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate ; the ship could carry up to 197 metric tons ( 194 long tons ) . Oldenburg had a crew of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 027 enlisted men .
Oldenburg was armed with a main battery of twelve 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns in six twin gun turrets , with one turret fore , one aft , and two on each flank of the ship . The ship 's secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns and fourteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns . After 1914 , two of the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed and replaced by 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns ; later , an additional two 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were replaced with anti @-@ aircraft guns . This brought the total number of 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 guns to ten , and the number of 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns to four . Oldenburg was also armed with six 50 cm ( 20 in ) submerged torpedo tubes ; one was in the bow , one in the stern , and two on each broadside . She was protected a main belt that was 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick , with the same thickness of armor on her main battery turrets . She had a deck that was 63 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 50 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning on 1 May 1912 , Oldenburg conducted sea trials in the Baltic . On 17 July , she was assigned to the I Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet , alongside her sisters . After individual ship training exercises , she joined I Squadron maneuvers and then fleet maneuvers in November . The annual summer cruise in July and August , which typically went to Norway , was interrupted by the Agadir Crisis . As a result , the cruise only went into the Baltic , in order to keep the fleet closer to Germany . Oldenburg and the rest of the fleet then fell into a pattern of individual ship , squadron , and full fleet exercises over the next two years of peace @-@ time training .
The annual summer cruise to Norway began on 14 July 1914 , despite the rising international tensions following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria . During the last peacetime cruise of the Imperial Navy , the fleet conducted drills in the Skagerrak before proceeding to the Norwegian fjords on 25 July . The following day the fleet began to steam back to Germany due to Austria @-@ Hungary 's ultimatum to Serbia . On 27 July , the entire fleet assembled off Cape Skudenes before returning to port , where they remained at a heightened state of readiness . War between Austria @-@ Hungary and Serbia broke out on the 28th , and in the span of a week all of the major European powers had joined the conflict . By 29 July Oldenburg and the rest of I Squadron were back in Wilhelmshaven .
= = = World War I = = =
Oldenburg was present during the first sortie by German fleet into the North Sea , which took place on 2 – 3 November 1914 . No British forces were encountered during the operation . A second operation followed on 15 – 16 December . This sortie was the initiation of a strategy adopted by Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet . Admiral von Ingenohl intended to use the battlecruisers of Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group to raid British coastal towns in order to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet where they could be destroyed by the High Seas Fleet . Early on 15 December the fleet left port to raid the towns of Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby . That evening , the German battle fleet of eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts and twelve dreadnoughts , including Oldenburg and her three sisters , came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . Skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced von Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet , so von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battle fleet back toward Germany , under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily .
The Battle of Dogger Bank , in which Vice Admiral David Beatty 's 1st and 2nd Battlecruiser Squadrons ambushed the I Scouting Group battlecruisers , occurred on 24 January 1915 . Oldenburg and the rest of I Squadron were sortied to reinforce the outnumbered German battlecruisers ; I Squadron left port at 12 : 33 CET , along with the pre @-@ dreadnoughts of II Squadron . They were too late , however , and they failed to locate any British forces . By 19 : 05 , the fleet had returned to the Schillig Roads outside Wilhelmshaven . In the meantime , the armored cruiser Blücher had been overwhelmed by concentrated British fire and sunk , while the battlecruiser Seydlitz was severely damaged by an ammunition fire . As a result , Kaiser Wilhelm II removed von Ingenohl from his post and replaced him with Admiral Hugo von Pohl on 2 February .
From 22 February to 13 March 1915 , I Squadron was in the Baltic for unit training . Following their return to the North Sea , the ships participated in a series of uneventful fleet sorties on 29 – 30 March , 17 – 18 April , 21 – 22 April , 17 – 18 May , and 29 – 30 May . The fleet was largely inactive until 4 August , when I Squadron returned to the Baltic for another round of training maneuvers . From there , the squadron was attached to the naval force that attempted to sweep the Gulf of Riga of Russian naval forces in August 1915 . The assault force included the eight I Squadron battleships , the battlecruisers Von der Tann , Moltke , and Seydlitz , several light cruisers , 32 destroyers and 13 minesweepers . The plan called for channels in Russian minefields to be swept so that the Russian naval presence , which included the pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Slava , could be eliminated . The Germans would then lay minefields of their own to prevent Russian ships from returning to the Gulf . Oldenburg and the majority of the other big ships of the High Seas Fleet remained outside the Gulf for the entirety of the operation , to prevent possible intervention by the Russian fleet outside the Gulf . The dreadnoughts Nassau and Posen were detached on 16 August to escort the minesweepers and to destroy Slava , though they failed to sink the old battleship . After three days , the Russian minefields had been cleared , and the flotilla entered the Gulf on 19 August , but reports of Allied submarines in the area prompted a German withdrawal from the Gulf the following day . By 26 August , I Squadron had returned to Wilhelmshaven .
On 23 – 24 October , the High Seas Fleet undertook its last major offensive operation under the command of Admiral von Pohl , though it ended without contact with British forces . Weakened by hepatic cancer and unable to carry out his duties , he was replaced by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer in January . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . Scheer 's first operation was a sweep into the North Sea on 5 – 7 March , followed by two more on 21 – 22 March and 25 – 26 March . During his next operation , Oldenburg supported a raid on the English coast on 24 April 1916 conducted by the German battlecruiser force . The battlecruisers left the Jade Estuary at 10 : 55 and the rest of the High Seas Fleet followed at 13 : 40 . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of Lowestoft unopposed , but during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short gun duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
Oldenburg was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . During the operation , Oldenburg was the fourth ship in the I Division of I Squadron and the twelfth ship in the line , directly astern of her sister ship Helgoland and ahead of Posen . At the center of the German line was I Squadron , behind the eight König- and Kaiser @-@ class battleships of III Squadron . The six elderly pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the III and IV Divisions , II Battle Squadron , formed the rear of the formation .
Shortly before 16 : 00 , the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , the crew of the leading German battleship , König , spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .
At first , Oldenburg was too far away to effectively engage any British ships . Shortly before 18 : 30 , the German line came across the British destroyers Nestor and Nomad , which had been disabled earlier in the engagement . Naval historian John Campbell states that " Thüringen and Helgoland , and possibly Oldenburg and Posen , fired turret guns " , as well as secondary weapons , at Nestor . The ship was destroyed by several large explosions and sank at 18 : 35 ; most of her crew was rescued by German torpedo boats . Shortly after 19 : 15 , the British dreadnought Warspite came into range ; she was the first major warship Oldenburg could engage . She fired her 30 @.@ 5 cm guns briefly during the 180 @-@ degree turn ordered by Scheer to disengage from the British fleet . Oldenburg claimed to have straddled Warspite once , though her gunners had difficulty discerning the British battleship in the growing haze .
At around 23 : 30 , the German fleet reorganized into the night cruising formation . Oldenburg was now the fifth ship , stationed toward the front of the 24 @-@ ship line . At around 01 : 10 , the German line encountered the six destroyers of the British 4th Destroyer Flotilla . Oldenburg fired on several of the destroyers at close range , including Fortune and Porpoise . Fortune scored a single hit on Oldenburg with her 4 @-@ inch guns . The shell struck a forward searchlight above the bridge and caused serious casualties . The officer responsible for directing the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns was killed , along with three other officers on the bridge . The helmsman was incapacitated and the ship 's commander , Captain Höpfner , was wounded . Oldenburg was briefly steaming unsteered , and was in danger of ramming Posen and Helgoland until Captain Höpfner managed to reach the wheel and take control of the ship . Oldenburg and several other battleships then took Ardent under fire ; the destroyer was reduced to a flaming wreck . In the darkness , Fortune and Ardent were sunk and the remaining four ships were scattered .
Despite the ferocity of the night fighting , the High Seas Fleet punched through the British destroyer forces and reached Horns Reef by 4 : 00 on 1 June . A few hours later , the fleet arrived in the Jade ; Thüringen , Helgoland , Nassau , and Westfalen took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead and Kaiser , Kaiserin , Prinzregent Luitpold , and Kronprinz anchored just outside the entrance locks to Wilhelmshaven . Oldenburg and the other seven remaining dreadnoughts entered port , where those that were still in fighting condition restocked ammunition and fuel . In the course of the battle , Oldenburg fired fifty @-@ three 30 @.@ 5 cm , eighty @-@ eight 15 cm , and thirty 8 @.@ 8 cm shells . The hit from Fortune was the only damage the ship incurred from enemy action , though a misfire occurred in the Number 4 port @-@ side 15 cm gun . In total , Oldenburg 's crew suffered eight men killed and fourteen wounded .
= = = = Subsequent operations = = = =
After Jutland , Oldenburg was assigned to guard duties in the German Bight . The damage incurred at Jutland was quickly repaired in Wilhelmshaven from 30 June to 15 July . On 18 August , Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the 31 May operation . Moltke and Von der Tann , the two serviceable German battlecruisers , were supported by three dreadnoughts in a mission to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . The rest of the fleet , including Oldenburg , would trail behind and provide cover . On the approach to the English coast , Scheer turned north and aborted the bombardment after receiving a false report from a zeppelin about a British unit in the area . By 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and so turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
On 25 – 26 September , Oldenburg and the rest of I Squadron covered an advance conducted by the II Führer der Torpedoboote ( Leader of Torpedo Boats ) to the Terschelling Bank . Scheer conducted another fleet operation on 18 – 20 October in the direction of the Dogger Bank , though again they failed to find British forces . For the majority of 1917 , Oldenburg was assigned to guard duty in the German Bight . During Operation Albion , the amphibious assault on the Russian @-@ held islands in the Gulf of Riga , Oldenburg and her three sisters were moved to the Danish straits to block any possible British attempt to intervene . On 28 October the four ships arrived in Putzig Wiek , and from there steamed to Arensburg on 29 October . On 2 November the operation was completed and Oldenburg and her sisters began the voyage back to the North Sea . A final abortive fleet sortie took place on 23 – 24 April 1918 . Scheer had intended to intercept a British convoy to Norway and destroy the escorting battleships . During the operation , the battlecruiser Moltke suffered mechanical problems and had to be towed back to port . Oldenburg took the ship in tow , and the main body of the fleet turned back to Germany while Hipper searched in vain for the convoy . German intelligence had incorrectly placed the date for the scheduled convoy on 24 April , and after several hours of fruitless steaming , Hipper turned for port as well . By 18 : 37 , the fleet was outside the Jade and Moltke had been repaired enough to allow her to enter port under her own power .
= = = Fate = = =
Oldenburg and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet . Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , to improve Germany 's bargaining position , despite the expected casualties . But many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt that the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated " I no longer have a navy " .
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , the most modern capital ships of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow , but Oldenburg , commanded by Hermann Bauer , and the rest of I Squadron remained in Germany . On the morning of 21 June 1919 , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and in their absence Reuter ordered the crews to scuttle the ten battleships and five battlecruisers interned at Scapa Flow . Oldenburg was stricken from the naval register on 5 November 1919 and placed out of commission . The fate of the eight remaining German battleships was determined in the Treaty of Versailles , which stated that the ships were to be disarmed and surrendered to the governments of the principal Allied powers . She was surrendered to Japan as " M " on 13 May 1920 . The Japanese Navy had no need for the ship ; she was sold to a British ship @-@ breaking firm in June 1920 and broken up for scrap the following year in Dordrecht .
= Flow ( video game ) =
Flow ( stylized as flOw ) is an indie video game created by Jenova Chen and Nicholas Clark . Originally released as a free Flash game in 2006 to accompany Chen 's master 's thesis , it was reworked into a 2007 PlayStation 3 game by his development studio , thatgamecompany . SuperVillain Studios released a PlayStation Portable version of the game in 2008 , and PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita versions in 2013 . In Flow , the player navigates a series of two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) planes with an aquatic microorganism that evolves by consuming other microorganisms . The game 's design is based on Chen 's research into dynamic difficulty adjustment at the University of Southern California 's Interactive Media Division , and on psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi 's theoretical concept of mental immersion or flow .
The Flash version of Flow received 100 @,@ 000 downloads within its first two weeks of release , and had been played over 3 @.@ 5 million times by 2008 . Its PlayStation 3 re @-@ release was the most downloaded game on the PlayStation Network in 2007 , and won the Best Downloadable Game award at the 2008 Game Developers Choice Awards . It was nominated for awards by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences and the British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) . Reviewers praised Flow 's visual and audio appeal , but noted the simplicity of its gameplay ; several considered it to be more of an art piece than a game .
= = Gameplay = =
In Flow , the player guides a small , multi @-@ segmented worm- or snake @-@ like creature through an aquatic environment . There are no menus or guidelines ; the game begins immediately . The game world , which is viewed from a top @-@ down perspective , consists of two @-@ dimensional planes stacked vertically upon each other . A blurred version of the layer below appears in the background of each plane . Planes contain organisms of varying sizes ; the player 's creature automatically attempts to consume them when they are nearby . The majority of these creatures are non @-@ confrontational , and are composed of cells that increase the number of segments in the player 's creature when eaten . All planes , except for the highest and lowest , contain two specially colored organisms that move the player 's creature up or down one plane when touched .
Certain planes feature aggressive , multi @-@ segmented creatures that perish when all of their segments are eaten by the player 's creature ; however , they can eat segments of the player 's creature to regrow their own . These creatures release many cells upon death , which can restore the health of the player 's creature , temporarily increase the size of its mouth , or cause it to sprout decorative protrusions . Players are not required to eat these or any other organisms ; they may travel to higher or lower planes at any time . Being defeated by aggressive creatures does not result in death , but causes the player 's creature to float to a higher plane . In the Flash version , the player can replay the game with a jellyfish @-@ like organism by defeating an aggressive creature on the bottom plane . If the player reaches the bottom again , the creature there is their original worm @-@ like creature , and defeating it starts the game over as that organism .
= = = PlayStation versions = = =
The PlayStation 3 version of Flow features enhanced visuals and three additional playable organisms : one that can move with a short burst of speed , one that can paralyze other creatures , and one that lunges toward its prey 's weak point . The worm creature from the original game was given the ability to move faster , while the jellyfish may now create a vortex to attract small creatures . These special moves are activated by hitting any button on the controller . When the player reaches the bottom plane with each creature , the next creature type is unlocked and becomes selectable at the beginning of the game . The PlayStation 3 version features a multiplayer mode for up to four players ; a game in progress can be joined at any time , players may play different creatures if they desire so . The PlayStation Portable version contains all of the features introduced by PlayStation 3 version , but reduces the size of each plane . On November 20 , 2007 , the PlayStation 3 version received an add @-@ on pack that allows players joining a multiplayer game to select their creatures . The pack also includes new enemies , food types , and a playable creature with a shield ability .
= = Development = =
Flow was originally developed as part of Jenova Chen 's master 's thesis for the Interactive Media Program at the University of Southern California 's School of Cinematic Arts . His thesis was on the concept of dynamic difficulty adjustment ( DDA ) , wherein a game adjusts its reactions to a player based on the past and present actions of that player . He illustrated his ideas with Flow , which he created in collaboration with Nicholas Clark . Chen implemented DDA by causing the player to change the game 's difficulty subconsciously ; he allowed players to dive between planes at will , and provided the option of eating or not eating any creature . Players may decide to rush downwards , or to grow stronger before attacking powerful opponents . Chen described Flow as " a simple game . It 's the simplest test of active DDA . " Another influence on the game was psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi 's work on flow , wherein a person fully immerses themselves in an activity and gains a feeling of energized focus . To achieve this state , the person or player must have control over the activity ; Chen believed that his DDA theory gave players the control necessary to achieve flow while playing .
The game was released in March 2006 , after two months of development — during which Chen and Clark taught themselves Flash programming . The game 's source code was later released in 2009 . The game 's score was composed by Austin Wintory . A PlayStation 3 version was announced for the PlayStation Store in May of that year , and was released in February 2007 . Chen had graduated by that point , and had founded Thatgamecompany , which handled the conversion to the PlayStation 3 ; Nicholas Clark was one of the employees and served as the game version 's designer . Impressed by Flow , Sony provided Thatgamecompany with finances , supplies , and additional staff , and offered them a three @-@ game contract ; the PlayStation 3 version of Flow was the first of these . Chen originally believed that the conversion could be completed in four months , and that it would be ready for the November 2006 launch of the PlayStation Network . However , when it was finally released in February 2007 , it did not include " half of the original design " .
A version for the PlayStation Portable , developed by SuperVillain Studios , was released in March 2008 . The company coded it from scratch , as the PlayStation 3 version 's code and art were too platform @-@ specific to reuse . The add @-@ on pack for the PlayStation 3 version was also developed by SuperVillain . Thatgamecompany was not involved in the development of either project beyond a design influence and art direction role , as they were creating their next title , Flower . Sony Santa Monica created ports of the PlayStation 3 game for the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita , which were published in November 2013 to correspond with the release of the PlayStation 4 . Although no album of music specifically for Flow has been released , in 2012 Austin Wintory released Journey Bonus Bundle as a download @-@ only album on Bandcamp , containing variations on themes from Flow and Journey , a 2012 PlayStation 3 game by Thatgamecompany .
= = Reception = =
The Flash version of Flow received 100 @,@ 000 downloads within its first two weeks of release . By July 2006 , it had been downloaded over 650 @,@ 000 times ; by February 2008 , it had been played over 3 @.@ 5 million times . Its PlayStation 3 re @-@ release was the most downloaded game on the PlayStation Network in 2007 . Flow received the 2008 Game Developers Choice Awards nominations for the Innovation Award and Best Debut , and was presented with Best Downloadable Game . The game was nominated for the Best Downloadable Game of the Year award at the 2008 Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Interactive Achievement Awards , and for the Best Innovation award at the 2007 British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) awards . Its music garnered nominations for Best Interactive Score and Most Innovative Use of Audio from the Game Audio Network Guild , and won composer Austin Wintory the Rookie of the Year award . Flow was a finalist at the 2007 Slamdance Guerrilla Games Competition , but withdrew along with several other finalists after Super Columbine Massacre RPG ! was removed from the competition . In 2011 it was chosen through a public vote out of an initial selection of 240 to be one of 80 games showcased in a 2012 exhibit at the Smithsonian American Art Museum titled " The Art of Video Games " .
Flow received mixed reviews from critics , who focused on the game 's PlayStation versions . The visuals and presentation were among its most praised elements , with IGN 's Chris Roper calling them " one of Flow 's greatest strengths " . Alex Navarro of GameSpot agreed , saying that it was " hard to argue with those aesthetics " ; he lauded the use of color , the designs of the creatures , and the dynamic soundtrack . Will Freeman of VideoGamer.com called it " attractive and stylish " , which made the game " immensely satisfying to toy with " . Richard Leadbetter of Eurogamer claimed that the game 's main purpose was to " look pretty " and " sound cool " .
Reviewers were mixed in their opinions on the gameplay ; Roper said that " simply see [ ing ] what 's next " was enjoyable , but acknowledged that the game 's activities were limited beyond this aspect . Leadbetter went further , saying that Flow " feels like a tech demo in many ways " , and that its small amount of gameplay existed primarily " to act as a tour guide " through the visuals and audio . Freeman said that " it would not be unfair to describe Flow as empty and without substance . " Navarro concluded that Flow was enjoyable for the few hours needed to complete it , but that it lacked " a lasting gameplay experience " ; he attributed this to the game 's " heavy emphasis on aesthetics over gameplay " . Luke Mitchell of PALGN , however , felt that " anything more complicated would take away from the friendly nature of an experience of this type . "
Reviewers found the game to be largely unchallenging . Roper stated that " there really isn 't any sort of a challenge here " , particularly due to the player character 's inability to die ; Leadbetter summed up the game 's difficulty as " negligible " . However , when reviewing the PlayStation Portable version of the game , Justin Calvart of GameSpot took the view that " the game 's difficulty masterfully scales to match your skill level " , so that it does not become overly " frantic or frustrating " . Reviewers were universally dismissive of the multiplayer mode , with Calvart saying that " whatever it is , it 's not good " . Leadbetter called the PlayStation 3 version 's multiplayer " little more than an afterthought " , while Navarro said that it " doesn 't add a lick of depth to the experience " .
Overall , reviewers saw Flow as being more akin to an art piece than a game . Navarro called it an " arty piece of gaming " , and complimentarily said that it had the " vibe of an art @-@ school project " . Leadbetter believed that it was more of an experiment than a traditional game , and described it as a " trippy ornament " . Freeman called it the PlayStation 3 's " first art @-@ house title " . Roper summarized Flow as " not so much a game as it is an experience " , and Mitchell claimed that it " tries to do something entirely unique and experimental , and on that level , it succeeds " .
= Blotchy swellshark =
The blotchy swellshark , or Japanese swellshark , ( Cephaloscyllium umbratile ) is a common species of catshark , belonging to the family Scyliorhinidae . The Blotchy swellshark is found at depths of 90 – 200 m ( 300 – 660 ft ) in the northwestern Pacific Ocean , from Japan to Taiwan . It is benthic in nature and favors rocky reefs . Reaching 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) in length , this thick @-@ bodied shark has a broad head , large mouth , and two unequally @-@ sized dorsal fins positioned far back past the pelvic fins . It can be identified by its dorsal coloration , consisting of seven brown " saddles " and extensive darker mottling on a light tan background . This species has often been confounded with the draughtsboard shark ( C. isabellum ) and the Sarawak pygmy swellshark ( C. sarawakensis ) in scientific literature .
Voracious and opportunistic in feeding habits , the blotchy swellshark is known to consume numerous types of fishes and invertebrates , including an unusually high diversity of cartilaginous fishes . Like other Cephaloscyllium species , it is capable of rapidly inflating its body as a defense against predators . This species is oviparous , with females laying encapsulated eggs two at a time . There is no well @-@ defined breeding season and reproduction occurs year @-@ round . The eggs hatch after approximately one year . The blotchy swellshark is harmless and fares well in captivity . It is caught as bycatch in commercial bottom trawls , though its population does not seem to have suffered from fishing activity . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) presently lacks sufficient information to assess its conservation status .
= = Taxonomy = =
American ichthyologists David Starr Jordan and Henry Weed Fowler described the blotchy swellshark in a 1903 volume of Proceedings of the United States National Museum , based on a 98 cm ( 39 in ) long stuffed dry skin originally obtained from Nagasaki , Japan . They gave it the specific epithet umbratile ( from the Latin umbratilis , meaning " shaded " ) and assigned it to the genus Cephaloscyllium .
The taxonomy of the blotchy swellshark has a history of confusion . The holotype dried skin could not be located when shark expert Stewart Springer prepared his 1979 review of the catsharks , and in its absence he synonymized C. umbratile with C. isabellum on the basis of " inconclusive morphometric differences " . Some authors followed Springer 's judgment while others , particularly in Japan , preferred to keep referring to C. umbratile . The taxonomy of this species was further muddled by the application of the name C. umbratile to a similar but smaller species sharing part of its range . This second species , once referred to as " pseudo @-@ umbratile " by Leonard Compagno , has since been identified as C. sarawakensis . Recently , the holotype was found again , and in 2008 Cephaloscyllium umbratile was re @-@ described as distinct from C. isabellum by Jayna Schaaf @-@ Da Silva and David Ebert .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The blotchy swellshark is known to inhabit the northwestern Pacific Ocean from Hokkaido , Japan southward to Taiwan , including the Yellow Sea . Its range may extend as far as New Guinea . This abundant species is a bottom @-@ dweller that inhabits rocky reefs on the continental shelf , at depths of 90 – 200 m ( 300 – 660 ft ) .
= = Description = =
The maximum reported length of the blotchy swellshark is 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) . It has a firm , stout body with a soft , distensible abdomen , and a short , broad , flattened head . The snout is proportionately long and rounded , with large nostrils divided by short , triangular flaps of skin in front . The small , horizontally oval eyes are placed high on the head and equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . A tiny spiracle lies closely behind each eye . Behind the spiracle are five pairs of gill slits , which are short and become progressively smaller posteriorly . The capacious mouth forms a broad arch , and lacks furrows at the corners . The small teeth have a central cusp flanked by a smaller cusplet on both sides . There are around 59 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 62 tooth rows in the lower jaw .
The pectoral fins are moderately large and wide , with rounded tips . The dorsal fins have rounded apexes and are placed well back on the body , the first originating behind the midpoints of the small pelvic fins . The first dorsal fin is about twice as high as the second . The anal fin is nearly as large as the first dorsal fin and placed slightly ahead of the second dorsal fin . The caudal fin is large and broad , with the upper lobe longer than the lower and bearing a prominent ventral notch near the tip . The skin is thick and sparsely covered by large , well @-@ calcified dermal denticles ; each denticle has a diamond @-@ shaped crown with three horizontal ridges . This shark is cream @-@ colored with dark brownish to grayish mottling on the back and sides , and seven dark brown dorsal " saddles " on the body and tail . The mottling intensifies with age , while the saddles fade and may become obscured . Older sharks may also have a dark blotch on either side between the pectoral and pelvic fins . The underside is pale , with scant darker marks .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Like other members of its genus , when threatened the blotchy swellshark is capable of rapidly inflating its stomach with water or air . This allows the shark to wedge itself inside a rocky crevice , becoming extremely difficult to remove . This species is an opportunistic , highly voracious predator ; one recorded female 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long had 10 fish about 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) long and 15 squid about 1
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5 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long in her stomach . Predominantly piscivorous , this species is known to prey upon hagfish and at least 50 species of bony fishes , including fast @-@ swimming types that inhabit open water ; significant prey species include the mackerel Scomber japonicus , the sardine Sardinops melanostictus , the filefish Thamnaconus modestus , and the hakeling Physiculus japonicus . Unusually for such a small shark , it also feeds on at least 10 species of cartilaginous fishes , including lantern sharks , catsharks ( particularly the cloudy catshark , Scyliorhinus torazame , and its eggs ) , the electric ray Narke japonica , and skates ( including their eggs ) . It also cannibalizes smaller members of its own species . Cephalopods , mostly the squid Doryteuthis bleekeri and the cuttlefish Sepia spp . , are also frequently taken , while crabs , shrimp , and isopods are occasionally consumed . The dietary composition of juveniles varies notably from place to place .
The blotchy swellshark is oviparous , and reproduction proceeds throughout the year with no obvious seasonal cycling . Adult females have a single functional ovary , on the right , and two functional oviducts . The species is thought to be relatively prolific , as the ovary contains numerous ova at various stages of development . Pairs of eggs are laid at a time , one per oviduct . Females have been documented producing eggs even after years without male contact , suggesting that they may be able to store sperm . The purse @-@ shaped egg capsules are relatively large and thick , measuring around 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long and 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) across . The capsule surface is smooth with lengthwise striations , and opaque cream in color with yellow margins . Long , coiled tendrils extend from the four corners of the capsule . When the embryo is 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) long , the external gills have been lost , the dermal denticles have begun to develop , and light brown saddles are present . The eggs take roughly one year to hatch ; newly emerged sharks measure 16 – 22 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 – 8 @.@ 7 in ) long . From a series of captive rearing experiments , Sho Tanaka reported that hatchling sharks grew in length by up to 0 @.@ 77 mm ( 0 @.@ 03 in ) per day . Males and females attain sexual maturity at the size of 86 – 96 cm ( 34 – 38 in ) and 92 – 104 cm ( 36 – 41 in ) respectively ; the growth rate after maturity is very low . Known parasites of this species include the nematode Porrocaecum cephaloscyllii , and the leech Stibarobdella macrothela .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans , the blotchy swellshark adapts readily to captivity and has reproduced in public aquariums . This species is caught incidentally by Japanese and Taiwanese bottom trawlers and brought to market . Intensive commercial fishing within its range do not yet appear to have impacted its numbers , but until more data are available the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it under Data Deficient .
= Ashley Massaro =
Ashley Marie Massaro ( born May 26 , 1979 ) is an American former professional wrestler , valet , former WWE Diva and current general manager signed to World Independent Ladies Division Wrestling . She is best known for her time with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) under the ring name Ashley ( Massaro ) and for her appearance on Survivor : China .
Massaro made her debut in WWE after winning the WWE Diva Search in 2005 . Following an initial rivalry with Vince 's Devils – an alliance of female villains – she became the valet for the WWE Tag Team Champions Paul London and Brian Kendrick . Her most high profile matches were a WWE Women 's Championship match against Melina at WrestleMania 23 and a Playboy Bunnymania Lumberjill match at WrestleMania XXIV . She left WWE in mid @-@ 2008 . During her tenure in the company , she appeared on the covers of several magazines , including the April 2007 issue of Playboy . She has also made guest appearances on several television shows and performed in music videos .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Diva Search ( 2005 ) = = = =
Massaro initially found out about World Wrestling Entertainment 's ( WWE ) 2005 Raw Diva Search when she met a WWE casting director during a swimsuit pageant . After beating the seven other chosen finalists , Massaro was declared the winner on the August 15 , 2005 edition of Raw . Her winnings included $ 250 @,@ 000 and a one @-@ year contract with WWE .
= = = = Feud with Vince 's Devils and Mickie James ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = =
A week later on Raw , Candice Michelle and Torrie Wilson attacked Massaro after pretending to welcome her to Raw . Massaro 's storyline feud with Wilson and Michelle continued over the next couple weeks , as the duo , along with their enforcer Victoria ( dubbed as the " Skankateers " by commentator Jim Ross ) , made things difficult for Massaro . Massaro made her in @-@ ring debut on the August 29 episode of Raw , in losing effort to Victoria . On the September 5 episode of Raw , Massaro was defeated by the evil Wilson due to interference from Victoria and Candice . Massaro evened the score on the September 12 , 2005 episode of Raw when she brought out the returning Trish Stratus , and the duo proceeded to attack the villains . On the September 18 episode of Raw , The pair defeated the trio — who became known as the Ladies in Pink ( and later Vince 's Devils ) . This led to a tag team match at Unforgiven , where the team of Stratus and Massaro defeated Wilson and Victoria . The following night on Raw , Massaro accompanied Trish where she defeated Wilson . After the match , The duo were attacked by The Vince Devils . The feud continued into WWE Homecoming , where Stratus and Massaro defeated Wilson , Candice , and Victoria in the first ever three on two Bra and Panties match by stripping all three of their opponents . Massaro continued to wrestle matches through the rest of 2005 and was involved in the annual Fulfill Your Fantasy Diva Battle Royal at Taboo Tuesday for her first shot at the WWE Women 's Championship . Massaro eliminated Candice Michelle before being eliminated by Victoria . At New Year 's Revolution in January , Massaro won the first ever Bra and Panties Gauntlet match by being the final Diva left still wearing her clothes . Following WWE tradition , to please the fans , she removed them herself before making her exit .
Through the early part of 2006 , Massaro became the victim of a series of attacks from Mickie James . At the Royal Rumble , James defeated Massaro with then Women 's Champion , Trish Stratus , as the special guest referee . Massaro got her revenge one week later by pinning James in the rematch on Raw . During the February 20 , 2006 edition of Raw , however , Massaro suffered a fractured left fibula while being eliminated from the Women 's Battle Royal , and her feud with James was cut short . She underwent surgery to insert a five @-@ inch metal plate and eight screws into her leg . During her recovery , Massaro still occasionally appeared on Raw as part of the Stratus / James feud , albeit in a non @-@ active role . Massaro returned on the March 20 , 2006 episode of Raw , being kidnapped by James to lure Stratus in to saving her but James was successful and attacked Stratus .
= = = = SmackDown ! ( 2006 @-@ 2007 ) = = = =
She returned to television on June 2 , now on SmackDown ! , as a special guest commentator during the Kristal Marshall versus Jillian Hall match . On the June 9 edition of SmackDown ! , Ashley defeated Kristal , Jillian Hall and Michelle McCool in a Bikini contest . Massaro later aligned herself with Hall , and they feuded with Michelle McCool and Marshall . Massaro won her SmackDown ! debut match on July 21 , when she teamed up with Hall to defeat McCool and Marshall . At The Great American Bash , Massaro won the Fatal Four @-@ Way Bra and Panties match by removing all of her opponents clothing . On the August 4 edition of SmackDown ! , Massaro broke her knuckle in a match against Marshall .
Massaro , Paul London , and Brian Kendrick defeated Idol Stevens , K.C. James and Michelle McCool in a Six @-@ Person Mixed Tag Team match . Following the victory , Massaro became the valet for London and Kendrick , accompanying them to the ring for their matches on SmackDown ! and pay @-@ per @-@ views . On the October 27 episode of SmackDown ! , Ashley participated in a Diva ’ s “ Trick or Treat Battle Royal which was won by Kristal . On the December 19 edition of SmackDown ! , Ashley teamed up with Layla in a winning effort defeating Jillian Hall and Kristal in a divas @-@ tag @-@ team match . On the January 2 edition of SmackDown ! , Ashley competed against Hall in a winning effort . On the January 26 episode of SmackDown ! , Ashley teamed up with London and Kendrick in a losing effort to the MNM ( Mercury & Nitro & Melina ) in a six @-@ person mixed @-@ tag @-@ team match . During the February 16 , 2007 edition of SmackDown ! , Massaro unveiled her Playboy cover . Surrounding the release of the magazine , Massaro engaged in a feud with Jillian Hall , who was jealous over the attention Massaro received due to the Playboy cover . At No Way Out , Massaro won the first ever Diva Invitational by removing her top to reveal her breasts which were covered with Playboy bunny pasties .
Massaro also began a feud with then WWE Women 's Champion , Raw 's Melina , who was angry over the publicity Massaro had been receiving because of the cover . On the March 9 episode of SmackDown ! , the rivalry was taken to the next level when a catfight broke out between the Divas on the inaugural edition of Miz TV . On the March 16 episode of SmackDown ! , Ashley teamed up with London and Kendrick in a losing effort to the MNM ( Mercury & Nitro & Melina ) in a six @-@ person mixed @-@ tag @-@ team match . On the March 23 episode of SmackDown ! , Ashley would get a catfight after Melina attempted to make an interference during Kendrix and Paul 's match with MNM . On the March 26 episode of Raw , Ashley teamed up with Torrie Wilson and Candice Michelle in a winning effort defeating Melina , Hall and Victoria . At WrestleMania 23 , Massaro unsuccessfully challenged Melina for the WWE Women 's Championship in a LumberJill match to retain her title .
After WrestleMania , Massaro continued as a valet for WWE Tag Team Champions Paul London and Brian Kendrick . In storyline , on the April 13 episode of SmackDown ! , Massaro was attacked by Jillian Hall . In reality , Massaro had loosened a screw in her ankle , which had been inserted the previous year after she legitimately fractured her tibia and fibula while in a battle royal . Massaro returned on the June 1 , 2007 episode of SmackDown ! , helping McCool defeat Hall after she distracted her . This return was short lived when on the June 8 edition of SmackDown ! , Massaro was suspended indefinitely after accidentally spilling Mr. McMahon 's coffee on him . In reality , Massaro was taking time off to participate on the show Survivor .
= = = = Various storylines and departure ( 2008 ) = = = =
Massaro returned on January 7 , 2008 to the Raw brand , winning a Divas Lingerie Pillow Fight against Maria , Jillian Hall , Melina , and Mickie James . On the January 14 episode of Raw , Ashley teamed up with Mickie James and Maria in a losing effort to the team of Beth Phoenix , Jillian Hall , and Melina in a 6 person @-@ tag @-@ team match .
Ashley began a storyline with Maria and Santino Marella at the January 21 , 2008 episode of Raw , attempting to convince Maria to pose for Playboy but was interrupted by Marella . At the Royal Rumble pay @-@ per @-@ view , Ashley again attempted to convince Maria by telling her that Hugh Heffner wanted her to pose for Playboy before Maria could answer Marella interrupted and objected to the proposal . Ashley would then beat down Marella 's surprise Big Dick Johnson when he attempted to perform a strip tease . At the No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ view , Ashley would appear with Maria in a segment at the Playboy Manison . On the March 24 , 2008 episode of Raw , Ashley interfered in the match between Maria and Melina . After the match , Santino Marella came down to the ring so Jerry “ The King ” Lawler ( whom was tired of Marella 's actions over previous weeks ) knocked Santino out of the ring . Which set up the six person mixed @-@ tag @-@ team match , in which they lost to Marella , Melina and Phoenix . Massaro replaced Candice Michelle , who was out with an injury , in the Playboy Bunnymania Lumberjack match at WrestleMania XXIV teaming up with Maria , losing to Beth Phoenix and Melina after the interference from Marella .
On the April 14 episode of Raw , Ashley teamed up with Maria in a losing effort to the team of Melina and Hall in a tag @-@ team match . Massaro also participated in a 12 Diva Tag Team match at Backlash , where Phoenix pinned her to get the win for her team . On the April 28 episode of Raw , Ashley competed in her last match by teaming up with Michelle McCool , Cherry , Kelly Kelly , Maria and James in a winning effort defeating Layla , Melina , Phoenix , Natalya , Hall and Victoria . Massaro was released from her WWE contract on July 9 , 2008 . A week prior to her release , she announced that she had asked to be let go from her contract due to her daughter being sick .
= = Other media = =
= = = Survivor = = =
Massaro was a contestant on CBS 's Survivor : China in 2007 . Massaro approached the WWE with the idea of doing the show , and after going through the casting process , she found out she made the show ten days before she had to leave for China to film . Prior to the experience , Massaro had never been camping before , so to train for the show she had to get used to being outside . She was assigned to the Zhan Hu tribe in the first episode and quickly began quarreling with fellow contestant Dave Cruser . In the second episode , Massaro was voted off after six days with a 6 – 1 vote .
= = = Modeling and acting = = =
She has competed in Miss Hawaiian Tropic pageants and was crowned Miss Hawaiian Tropic USA in 2002 and Miss Hawaiian Tropic Canada in August 2004 . She has appeared in FHM , Stuff , Maxim , and on the cover of Playboy after joining WWE , though she had previously posed for Playboy in 2003 and 2004 . Massaro tried out for Playboy scouts when they were searching for models for the 50th Anniversary Playmate Hunt . She appeared in the accompanying pictorial in the December 2003 . In addition , she has appeared in both Femme Fatales and Flex magazines . Massaro has also hosted several E ! channel Wild On ! episodes and appeared on Breaking Bonaduce as Danny Bonaduce 's personal trainer . Massaro has guest starred on an episode of Extreme Makeover : Home Edition alongside WWE Superstars John Cena and Batista . In addition , she has appeared in campaign ads for both Hawaiian Tropic and Yamaha .
In February 2007 , Massaro and Glenn " Kane " Jacobs filmed an episode of the CW 's Smallville that aired on March 22 , 2007 . In April 2007 , Massaro also appeared as a guest on Fuse TV 's show The Sauce . On April 20 , 2007 , Massaro and several other Divas filmed Timbaland 's video , " Throw It on Me " featuring The Hives . In 2008 , she appeared in Rev Theory 's video for " Hell Yeah . "
= = = Filmography = = =
= = Personal life = =
Massaro grew up in Babylon , New York , where her brother and father competed in amateur wrestling . She received her Bachelor of Science degree in Communication with a minor in Business from the State University of New York .
Massaro previously dated fellow wrestler Matt Hardy . Afterward , she dated wrestler Paul London . Massaro also had a relationship with Chuck Comeau of the band Simple Plan .
Massaro has one daughter , Alexa " Lexi " Massaro ( born July 23 , 2000 ) . When her daughter became sick in mid @-@ 2008 , Massaro asked for an early release from WWE to care for her .
She has several tattoos , including a black and pink nautical star on the back of both of her elbows ; a pink and red dragon surrounding kanji lettering that translates to ' Trust No One ' going down the right side of her torso ; symbols on the small of her lower back ; and a butterfly on her right hip . She also has several piercings , including a ' Monroe ' ( a piercing near the upper lip that resembles a beauty mark ) and ' Snakebites ' ( a piercing on each side of the lower lip ) .
Massaro is a Christian .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Diving crossbody – 2005 – 2006
Hurricanrana – 2005 – 2008
Spear – 2005 – 2008
Starstruck ( Diving elbow drop , with theatrics ) – 2006 – 2008
Signature moves
Diving clothesline
Facebuster
Headscissors takedown
Hair @-@ pull whip
Monkey flip
Multiple pinning variations
Crucifix
La magistral
Roll @-@ up , sometimes from out of the corner
Wrestlers managed
Trish Stratus
Mickie James
Paul London and Brian Kendrick
Entrance themes
" Be Yourself " by Audioslave ( 2005 @-@ 2007 )
" Light A Fire " by Jim Johnston ( 2007 @-@ 2008 )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Diva Search ( 2005 )
= Claverton Pumping Station =
Claverton Pumping Station in the village of Claverton , in the English county of Somerset , pumps water from the River Avon to the Kennet and Avon Canal using power from the flow of the River Avon . It is a grade II listed building .
The pumping station was built by John Rennie between 1809 and 1813 to overcome water supply problems on the canal . It uses a 24 @-@ foot ( 7 m ) wide wooden breastshot water wheel to drive two Boulton and Watt 18 @-@ foot ( 5 m ) long cast iron rocking beams , which power lift pumps to raise water 48 feet ( 15 m ) up to the canal . The pumping station has undergone several modifications since its initial construction , including revising the wheel into two sections each 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide separated by a 9 @-@ inch ( 23 cm ) gap . The station 's operational life ended in 1952 , by which time its maintenance and repair had become uneconomical in the light of falling traffic on the canal .
In the 1960s and 1970s restoration was carried out by students from the University of Bath and the Kennet and Avon Canal Trust , who replaced and repaired the buildings and equipment and returned the pumping station to a functional state by 1978 . It is now operated by volunteers from the Trust , open to the public as an industrial heritage museum .
= = Description = =
At Claverton , the Kennet and Avon Canal is cut into the side of the Avon valley 48 feet ( 15 m ) above the River Avon . The pumping station is located in a pump house built of Bath Stone , located at river level and separated from the canal by the Wessex Main Line . It was designed by John Rennie and built by Fox of Bristol . The pump house has a slate hipped roof . The wheelhouse projects to the west of the pump house and has weatherboard sides . The east gable wall has three doors allowing access to the wheel itself .
Water is diverted from the river by Warleigh Weir , about 200 yards ( 183 m ) upstream . The water flows to the pumping station down a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide leat , which is crossed by a single segmental arch bridge with a central keystone . The water passes over depressing sluices which can be raised or lowered by hand cranking , and then powers a breastshot water wheel . The 24 @-@ foot ( 7 m ) wide wheel is in two sections each 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide and 17 feet ( 5 m ) in diameter with a 9 @-@ inch ( 23 cm ) gap between them . The wheel has 48 wooden " starts " , supporting 96 float boards each of which is 13 inches ( 33 cm ) by 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) by 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) and made of Iroko . The breastshot wheel is vertically mounted , and falling water strikes the blades . Breastshot wheels are less efficient than overshot wheels , more efficient than undershot wheels , and are not backshot .
At full power the wheel uses 2 tons ( 2 tonnes ) of water per second and rotates five times a minute . The water wheel drives a flexible coupling to a pit wheel with a diameter of 16 feet 3 inches ( 4 @.@ 95 m ) , which has 408 hand @-@ fitted wooden teeth that mesh with a 5 feet 1 inch ( 1 @.@ 55 m ) cast iron gear , increasing the speed to 16 rpm . From there , cranks drive vertical connecting rods that transfer the energy to two 18 @-@ foot ( 5 m ) long cast iron rocking beams made by Boulton and Watt . Each rocking beam drives an 18 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) diameter lift pump , which also takes its supply from the mill leat . Each pump stroke raises 50 imperial gallons ( 230 litres ) of water to the canal via 150 feet ( 46 m ) of 19 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 48 m ) diameter cast iron pipe .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
The idea of an east to west waterway link across southern England was first mentioned in Elizabethan times , between 1558 and 1603 , to take advantage of the proximity of the rivers Avon and Thames , only 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) apart at their closest . Plans for a waterway were shelved until the early 18th century . In 1723 the Kennet Navigation through Reading opened . The Avon navigation from Bristol to Bath was opened in 1727 . In 1788 the so @-@ called " Western Canal " was proposed to improve trade and communication links to towns such as Hungerford , Marlborough , Wiltshire , Calne , Chippenham and Melksham . The following year the engineers Barns , Simcock and Weston submitted a proposed route for this canal , although there were doubts about the adequacy of the water supply . The name was changed from Western Canal to Kennet and Avon Canal to avoid confusion with the Grand Western Canal , which was being proposed at the same time .
In 1793 a further survey was conducted by John Rennie , and the route of the canal was altered to take a more southerly course through Great Bedwyn , Devizes , Trowbridge and Newbury . The proposed route was accepted by the Kennet and Avon Canal Company . In July 1793 Rennie suggested further alterations to the route , including the construction of the Bruce Tunnel in the Savernake Forest . On 17 April 1794 the Kennet and Avon Canal Act received the Royal Assent and construction began .
The new route added several locks to the canal , making water supply problems more severe . Because of the way the system of locks work , water is lost from the upper part of a canal each time a vessel passes through . This is a particular issue for the pound between Bradford Lock at Bradford on Avon and the Bath Locks , where a series of locks need to be opened each time the gates are opened . Most lock gates are not watertight , therefore some water leaks from the higher levels of the canal to those lower down . The water has to be replaced , or eventually the upper levels of the canal would not hold enough water to be navigable . Canals are usually fed by diverting water from streams and rivers into the upper parts of the canal , but if no suitable source is available or sufficient , a pumping station , such as the one at Claverton , can be used to maintain the water level . Crofton Pumping Station was built to supply water to the summit pound of the canal , opening in 1810 but , unlike Claverton , was powered by steam .
Protracted negotiations over water rights with the owners of Saltford Brass Mill and around 30 other mills on the river between Bath and Bristol , delayed construction until 1809 ; the wheel was installed in March 1810 . Further delays relating to obtaining specific items of machinery meant that the pumping station did not open until early 1813 , and until then boats were prohibited from using Bath Locks during periods of low rainfall .
= = = Operation and decline = = =
The pumping station operated continuously , providing water for the increasing traffic on the canal . Problems with the size of the water wheel , which was supported at either end , meant that the middle of the wheel sagged , putting strain on the bearings and stays . In the 1840s the trussing was changed from stays to tension rods to strengthen and lighten the wheel , along with improvements to the pumps . The changes to the wheel were unsuccessful , and in the 1850s a central bearing was added dividing the wheel in two .
The opening of the Great Western Railway in 1841 led to a significant decline in the canal 's traffic , even though the canal company lowered tariffs . In 1852 the railway company took over the canal 's operation . In 1877 the canal recorded a deficit of £ 1 @,@ 920 and never subsequently made any profit . The Somerset Coal Canal and Wilts and Berks Canal , which each supplied some of the trade to the Kennet and Avon , including freight from the Somerset coalfield , closed in 1904 and 1906 respectively . At Claverton various minor repairs were needed to the wheel and pump , and the wheel had to be levelled at regular intervals during the later part of the 19th and early 20th centuries . The 408 " green oak " teeth on the pitwheel also had to be replaced several times .
In 1926 , following a loss of £ 18 @,@ 041 the previous year , the Great Western Railway sought to close the canal by obtaining a Ministry of Transport Order , but the move was resisted and the company charged with improving its maintenance of the canal . After the Second World War the Transport Act of 1947 meant that control of the canal passed to the British Transport Commission , but by the 1950s large sections had been closed because of poor lock maintenance following a breach in the bank west of the Avoncliff Aqueduct . Claverton Pumping Station ceased operation in 1952 , after the failure of a number of the pitwheel 's oak teeth . The British Transport Commission installed a 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) centrifugal pump to maintain the statutory minimum water level .
= = = Restoration = = =
After its closure the pumping station lay derelict until the late 1960s , when the Kennet and Avon Canal Trust proposed to the British Waterways Board that students from the University of Bath conduct a survey and report on the viability of returning the pumping station to working order . Work started in 1969 with engineering students from Bath providing the labour under the supervision of John Butt , and the Trust providing the funding . Within the building rotten woodwork was replaced and electric lighting installed . To work on the sluices and the waterwheel the leat was dammed . Specialist wood and metal work was undertaken by apprentices from the British Aircraft Corporation in Filton . By 1972 some progress had been made ; John Butt retired and Derrick Dudden took over as restoration manager , with more volunteers from the Canal Trust helping to provide the labour . Silt was removed from the pond , hatches replaced and the waterwheel restored . The 408 oak teeth on the pitwheel were replaced and the pumps overhauled with new rope packing . By February 1976 all the machinery was working and water could be pumped from the river to the canal . The pumping station was formally re @-@ opened in 1978 .
In 1981 , British Waterways installed two 75 @-@ horsepower ( 56 kW ) electric pumps and presented the old diesel pump to the Kennet and Avon Canal Trust for preservation . Wessex Water Authority agreed to the extraction of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 l ) per day from the Avon at Claverton to be pumped east ; the costs of the pumps was £ 175 @,@ 000 .
The pumping station is maintained by volunteers from the Trust and is open to the public every Wednesday , Saturday , Sunday and Bank Holiday except during the winter maintenance period , when opening is only on Saturdays . There is a working model of the pumping station at the Kennet & Avon Canal Museum at Devizes . The restoration work received an Engineering Heritage Award from the Institution of Mechanical Engineers .
= The Slim Shady LP =
The Slim Shady LP is the second and major @-@ label debut studio album by American rapper Eminem . It was released on February 23 , 1999 , under Interscope Records and Dr. Dre 's Aftermath Entertainment . Recorded in Ferndale , Michigan following Eminem 's recruitment by Dr. Dre and Jimmy Iovine , the album features production from Dr. Dre , the Bass Brothers , and Eminem himself . The majority of the record 's lyrical content is written from the perspective of the rapper 's alter ego Slim Shady , whom the rapper created on Slim Shady EP ( 1997 ) . The lyrics are noted for their over @-@ the @-@ top depictions of violence and heavy use of profanity .
The album was met with both critical and commercial success ; critics praised Eminem for his unique lyrical style , and the record debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart behind TLC 's FanMail with 283 @,@ 000 copies sold in its opening week . The first official single , " Just Don 't Give a Fuck " , did not enter the " Billboard " Hot 100 but at least did enter the " Bubbling Under " Hot 100 , peaking at number 14 , which is equivalent to 114 . The second official single , " My Name Is " , peaked at number 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming his first entry on that chart . The Slim Shady LP went on to be certified quadruple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The record won a Grammy Award for Best Rap Album , and in 2012 , the album was ranked number 275 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
The Slim Shady LP turned Eminem from an underground rapper into a high @-@ profile celebrity . Interscope Records awarded him with his own record label , Shady Records , and he embarked on an extensive touring schedule to promote the album . In the summer of 1999 , the rapper frequently performed on the Vans Warped Tour and in hip @-@ hop clubs . He also became a highly controversial figure due to his lyrical content , which some perceived to be misogynistic and a negative influence on American youth .
= = Background = =
Eminem , born Marshall Bruce Mathers III , began rapping at age fourteen . In 1996 , his debut album Infinite , which was recorded at the Bassmint , a recording studio owned by the Bass Brothers , was released under their independent label Web Entertainment . Infinite achieved very little commercial success and was largely ignored by Detroit radio stations . The disappointment from this experience greatly influenced his lyrical style : " After that record , every rhyme I wrote got angrier and angrier . A lot of it was because of the feedback I got . Motherfuckers was like , ' You 're a white boy , what the fuck are you rapping for ? Why don 't you go into rock & roll ? ' All that type of shit started pissing me off . " After the release of Infinite , Eminem 's personal struggles and abuse of drugs and alcohol culminated in a suicide attempt .
The disappointment of Infinite inspired Eminem to create the alter ego Slim Shady : " Boom , the name hit me , and right away I thought of all these words to rhyme with it . " Slim Shady served as Eminem 's vent for his frustrations , and in the spring of 1997 , he recorded the eight @-@ song extended play the Slim Shady EP . During this time , Eminem and his girlfriend Kim Scott lived in a high @-@ crime neighborhood with their newborn daughter Hailie , where their house was burglarized numerous times . After being evicted from his home , Eminem traveled to Los Angeles to participate in the Rap Olympics , an annual nationwide rap battle competition . He placed second , and the staff at Interscope Records who attended the Rap Olympics sent a copy of The Slim Shady EP to company CEO Jimmy Iovine . Iovine played the tape for record producer Dr. Dre , founder of Aftermath Entertainment . Dr. Dre recalled , " In my entire career in the music industry , I have never found anything from a demo tape or a CD . When Jimmy played this , I said , ' Find him . Now . ' " Eminem and Dr. Dre subsequently began work on Eminem 's major label debut album .
= = Recording = =
The Slim Shady LP was recorded at Studio 8 at 430 8 Mile Road in Ferndale , Michigan . Eminem , who had idolized Dr. Dre since listening to his group N.W.A as a teenager , was nervous to work with him on the album : " I didn 't want to be starstruck or kiss his ass too much ... I 'm just a little white boy from Detroit . I had never seen stars , let alone Dr. Dre . " However , Eminem became more comfortable working with Dr. Dre after a series of highly productive recording sessions . The recording process generally began with Dr. Dre creating a beat and Eminem using the tracks as a template for his freestyle raps ; " Every beat he would make , I had a rhyme for " , Eminem recalled . He later said : " Every time I sat down with a pen , everything was just like : fuck you , fuck this , fuck them , fuck that , fuck the world , fuck what everybody thinks . Fuck them . " " On the first day of recording , Eminem and Dr. Dre finished " My Name Is " in an hour . Three other songs , including " Role Model " , were also recorded that day .
" ' 97 Bonnie & Clyde " , which was formerly featured on the Slim Shady EP as " Just the Two of Us " , was rerecorded for The Slim Shady LP to feature his daughter Hailie 's vocals . Because the song focuses on disposing of his girlfriend 's corpse , Eminem was not comfortable with explaining the situation to Kim , and instead told her that he would be taking Hailie to Chuck E. Cheese 's . However , he really took her to the recording studio . He explained , " When she found out I used our daughter to write a song about killing her , she fucking blew . We had just got back together for a couple of weeks . Then I played her the song and she bugged the fuck out . " Eminem also said , " When she ( Hailie ) gets old enough , I 'm going to explain it to her . I 'll let her know that Mommy and Daddy weren 't getting along at the time . None of it was to be taken too literally , although at the time I wanted to fucking do it . " The song " Guilty Conscience " contains a humorous reference to an occasion in which Dr. Dre assaulted rapper Dee Barnes . Having only known Dr. Dre for a few days , Eminem was anxious about how he would react to such a line , and to his relief , Dr. Dre " fell out of his chair laughing " upon hearing the lyric . " Ken Kaniff " , a skit involving a prank call to Eminem , featured fellow Detroit rapper Aristotle . After a falling out between the two in the wake of Eminem 's breakthrough success , Eminem instead played Ken Kaniff on skits on future albums .
= = Music = =
= = = Lyrics = = =
Many of the songs from The Slim Shady LP are written from the perspective of Eminem 's alter ego , Slim Shady , and contain cartoonish and over @-@ the @-@ top depictions of violence , which he refers to as " made @-@ up tales of trailer @-@ park stuff " . The rapper explained that this subject matter is intended for entertainment value , likening his music to the horror film genre : " Why can 't people see that records can be like movies ? The only difference between some of my raps and movies is that they aren 't on a screen . " Some of the lyrics have also been considered to be misogynistic by critics and commentators . Eminem acknowledged the accusations , and clarified , " I have a fairly salty relationship with women ... But most of the time , when I 'm saying shit about women , when I 'm saying ' bitches ' and ' hoes ' , its so ridiculous that I 'm taking the stereotypical rapper to the extreme . I don 't hate women in general . They just make me mad sometimes . ' " Despite the record 's explicit nature , Eminem refused to say the word " nigga " on the album , with the rapper noting , " It 's not in my vocabulary . " The Slim Shady LP begins with a " Public Service Announcement " introduction performed by producer Jeff Bass of the Bass Brothers , and serves as a sarcastic disclaimer discussing the album 's explicit lyrical content . Later in the album , a skit entitled " Paul " features a phone call from Paul Rosenberg to Eminem telling him to " tone down " his lyrics .
" Guilty Conscience " is a concept song featuring Dr. Dre . The song focuses on a series of characters who are faced with various situations , while Dr. Dre and Eminem serve as the " angel " and " devil " sides of the characters ' conscience , respectively . The song draws inspiration from a scene in the 1978 comedy film National Lampoon 's Animal House , in which a man takes advice from an angel and devil on his shoulder while considering raping an unconscious girl at a party . In the film , he ends up deciding not to go through with the rape , but in " Guilty Conscience " , the outcome is unclear . On " My Fault " , Eminem tells the story of a girl who overdoses on psychedelic mushrooms at a rave . " ' 97 Bonnie & Clyde " features Eminem convincing his infant daughter to assist him in disposing of his wife 's corpse . It is an epilogue to the song " Kim " , although " ' 97 Bonnie & Clyde " was released first . Eminem wrote the song at a time in which he felt that Kim was stopping him from seeing his daughter . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic explained that " There have been more violent songs in rap , but few more disturbing , and it 's not because of what it describes , it 's how he describes it -- how the perfectly modulated phrasing enhances the horror and black humor of his words . " On the song " Brain Damage " , Eminem discusses his childhood experiences with bullies at school .
Although many of the lyrics on the album are intended to be humorous , several songs depict Eminem 's frustrations with living in poverty . When discussing The Slim Shady LP , Anthony Bozza of Rolling Stone described Eminem as " probably the only MC in 1999 who boasts low self @-@ esteem . His rhymes are jaw @-@ droppingly perverse , bespeaking a minimum @-@ wage life devoid of hope , flushed with rage and weaned on sci @-@ fi and slasher flicks . " Eminem was inspired to write " Rock Bottom " after being fired from his cooking job at a restaurant days before his daughter 's birthday . The song bemoans human dependency on money , discussing its ability to brainwash an individual . He illustrates his struggles to provide for his daughter , describing himself as " discouraged , hungry , and malnourished . " " If I Had " follows a similar theme , as he describes living on minimum wage and remarks that he is " tired of jobs starting off at $ 5 @.@ 50 an hour " . In the song , he expresses his irritation with fitting the " white trash " stereotype .
= = = Production = = =
The album 's production was handled primarily by the Bass Brothers , Dr. Dre , and Eminem . The beats have been compared to West Coast hip hop and G @-@ funk musical styles . Kyle Anderson of MTV wrote that " The beats are full of bass @-@ heavy hallucinations and create huge , scary sandboxes that allow Em to play . " According to the staff at IGN , " ' 97 Bonnie & Clyde " is backed by the " lulling serenity of a super silky groove " . " Cum on Everybody " ; which features guest vocals from American singer Dina Rae contains an upbeat dance rhythm , while " My Name Is " , which is built around a piano sample from British musician Labi Siffre 's " I Got The " , features a prominent bassline and psychedelic @-@ style keyboards . " I 'm Shady " was originally written over a Sade track , but after hearing a sample of Curtis Mayfield 's " Pusherman " in Ice @-@ T 's song " I 'm Your Pusher " , Eminem decided it would be more fitting to use " Pusherman " .
Eminem 's vocal inflection on the record has been described as a " nasal whine " ; Jon Pareles of The New York Times likened his " calmly sarcastic delivery " to " the early Beastie Boys turned cynical " . Writing for the Chicago Tribune , columnist Greg Kot compared the rapper 's vocals to " Pee @-@ wee Herman with a nasal Midwestern accent " . A skit entitled " Lounge " appears before " My Fault " featuring Eminem and the Bass Brothers imitating rat pack crooners . Jeff Bass came up with the line " I never meant to give you mushrooms " for the skit , which in turn inspired Eminem to write " My Fault " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial response = = =
In the album 's first week of release , The Slim Shady LP sold 283 @,@ 000 copies , debuting at number two on the Billboard 200 chart behind TLC 's FanMail . The record remained on the Billboard 200 for 100 weeks . It also reached number one on the R & B / Hip Hop Albums chart , staying on the chart for 92 weeks . On April 5 , 1999 , The Slim Shady LP was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over one million copies . On November 15 , 2000 , the album was certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA . " My Name Is " , the album 's lead single , peaked at number 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 , remaining on the chart for ten weeks . The single additionally peaked at number 18 on the magazine 's R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , 29 on the Pop Songs chart , and 37 on the Alternative Songs chart . " Guilty Conscience " reached number 56 on the Billboard R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , while " Just Don 't Give a Fuck " peaked at number 62 on the chart . By November , 2013 , the album sold 5 @,@ 437 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
Outside of the United States , The Slim Shady LP reached number nine on the weekly Canadian Albums Chart and remained on the chart for twelve weeks . Additionally , the album was certified double platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for shipments of over 200 @,@ 000 units . The record was also certified double platinum in the United Kingdom , where it peaked at number ten on the UK Albums chart and remained on the chart for a total of 114 weeks . In Australia , the album peaked at number 49 on the ARIA Chart , and was eventually certified platinum in the country . The album was also certified gold in the Netherlands and New Zealand , where it peaked at the number 20 and 23 chart positions , respectively .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The album was met with generally positive reviews . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album five stars out of five , praising the rapper 's " expansive vocabulary and vivid imagination " , adding that " Years later , as the shock has faded , it 's those lyrical skills and the subtle mastery of the music that still resonate , and they 're what make The Slim Shady LP one of the great debuts in both hip @-@ hop and modern pop music . " David Browne of Entertainment Weekly described the album 's " unapologetic outrageousness " as a reaction to the " soul positivity " of conscious hip hop , noting that " The Slim Shady LP marks the return of irreverent , wiseass attitude to the genre , heard throughout the album in its nonstop barrage of crudely funny rhymes ... Even pop fans deadened to graphic lyrics are likely to flinch . " Soren Baker of the Los Angeles Times gave the album three and a half stars out of four and stated that " He isn 't afraid to say anything ; his lyrics are so clever that he makes murder sound as if it 's a funny act he may indulge in simply to pass the time " but lamented the " sometimes flat production that takes away from the power of Eminem 's verbal mayhem . "
Many reviewers commented on the album 's lyrical content . Gilbert Rodman of Popular Communications states , " Eminem 's music contains more than its fair share of misogynistic and homo @-@ phobic lyrics , but simply to reduce it to these ( as many critics do ) doesn 't help to explain Eminem . It merely invokes a platitude or a sound bite to explain him away . " Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone enjoyed the record 's comedic nature , writing " Simply put : Eminem will crack you up " , but also felt that the misogynistic lyrics grow tiresome , noting that " the wife @-@ killing jokes of " 97 Bonnie and Clyde ' aren 't any funnier than Garth Brooks ' , and ' My Fault ' belongs on some sorry @-@ ass Bloodhound Gang record . " Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club felt that although the album is " sophomoric and uninspired " at times , Eminem 's " surreal , ultraviolent , trailer @-@ trash / post @-@ gangsta @-@ rap extremism is at least a breath of fresh air in a rap world that 's despairingly low on new ideas . " Mike Rubin of Spin noted that " his scenarios are so far @-@ fetched the songs almost never sound as ugly as they actually are . " Chris Dafoe of The Globe and Mail opined that " Abused by fellow students and teachers , cheated on by his girlfriend , despised by society , Shady goes over the top now and then - or rather way over the top - but Dre 's lean production , full of strange voice and comic interjections , hold things together . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Rolling Stone Magazine ranked The Slim Shady LP number 273 on its list of " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " and 33 on its list of the " 100 Best Albums of the ' 90s " . At the 42nd Grammy Awards in 2000 , the record won Best Rap Album , while " My Name Is " won Best Rap Solo Performance . " Ken Kaniff " was listed as number 15 on Complex 's " 50 Greatest Hip @-@ Hop Skits " list , while the " Public Service Announcement " introduction to the album , along with the " Public Service Announcement 2000 " introduction from The Marshall Mathers LP , was listed as number 50 on the list . It also won Outstanding National Album at the 2000 Detroit Music Awards . In 2015 , it was ranked at number 76 by About.com in their list of " 100 best hip @-@ hop albums of all time " .
= = Aftermath = =
After the success of The Slim Shady LP , Eminem went from an underground rapper into a high @-@ profile celebrity . Interscope Records awarded him with his own record label , Shady Records ; the first artist Eminem signed was rapper and his best friend Proof . Eminem , who had previously struggled to provide for his daughter , noted a drastic change in his lifestyle : " This last Christmas , there were so many fucking presents under the tree ... My daughter wasn 't born with a silver spoon in her mouth . But she 's got one now . I can 't stop myself from spoiling her . "
To promote The Slim Shady LP , Eminem embarked on an extensive tour schedule . He joined the Vans Warped Tour as a last @-@ minute replacement for Cypress Hill , a schedule that included 31 North American dates from June 25 to July 31 , beginning in San Antonio and ending in Miami . He often played a show in the afternoon on the Warped Tour , and then drove to another location to perform at a hip hop club at night . During a performance in Hartford , Connecticut near the end of the Warped Tour , Eminem slipped on a puddle of liquid and fell ten feet down off the stage , cracking several ribs . He recalled that the stress of his newfound fame led him to drink excessively , and reflected , " I knew I had to slow it down . The fall was like a reminder . " However , after receiving medical attention , he was well enough to travel to New York the following day for a performance on Total Request Live .
Eminem also became a highly controversial figure due to his lyrical content . He was labeled as " misogynist , a nihilist and an advocate of domestic violence " , and in an editorial by Billboard editor in chief Timothy White , the writer accused Eminem of " making money by exploiting the world 's misery . " During a radio appearance in San Francisco , Eminem reportedly angered local DJ Sista Tamu due to a freestyle about " slapping a pregnant bitch " to the extent that she broke a copy of The Slim Shady LP on @-@ air . The rapper defended himself by saying , " My album isn 't for younger kids to hear . It has an advisory sticker , and you must be eighteen to get it . That doesn 't mean younger kids won 't get it , but I 'm not responsible for every kid out there . I 'm not a role model , and I don 't claim to be . "
= = Lawsuits = =
On September 17 , 1999 , Eminem 's mother , Deborah Nelson , filed a $ 10 million lawsuit against him for slander based on his claim that she uses drugs in the line " I just found out my mom does more dope than I do " from " My Name Is " . After a two @-@ year @-@ long trial , she was awarded $ 25 @,@ 000 , of which she received $ 1 @,@ 600 after legal fees . Eminem was not surprised that his mother had filed the lawsuit against him , referring to her as a " lawsuit queen " , and alleging that " That 's how she makes money . When I was five , she had a job on the cash register at a store that sold chips and soda . Other than that , I don 't remember her working a day in her life . " She later filed another lawsuit against him for emotional damages suffered during the first trial , which was later dismissed .
In December 2001 , DeAngelo Bailey , a janitor living in Roseville , Michigan who was made the subject of the song " Brain Damage " in which he is portrayed as a school bully , filed a $ 1 million lawsuit against Eminem for slander and invasion of privacy . Bailey 's attorney stated " Eminem is a Caucasian male who faced criticism within the music industry that he had not suffered through difficult circumstances growing up and he was therefore a ' pretender ' in the industry ... Eminem used Bailey , his African @-@ American childhood schoolmate , as a pawn in his effort to stem the tide of criticism . " In 1982 , Eminem 's mother unsuccessfully sued the Roseville school district for not protecting her son , as she claimed that attacks from bullies caused him headaches , nausea , and antisocial behavior . Additionally , Bailey had previously admitted to bullying Eminem in the April 1999 issue of Rolling Stone . The lawsuit was later dismissed by a judge in 2003 , who rapped in her explanation that the lyrics — which include the school principal collaborating with Bailey , and Eminem 's entire brain falling out of his head — were too exaggerated for a listener to believe that they were recalling an actual event . The verdict was upheld in 2005 , and Bailey 's lawyer ruled out any further appeals .
In September 2003 , 70 @-@ year @-@ old widow Harlene Stein filed suit against Eminem and Dr. Dre on the grounds that " Guilty Conscience " contains an unauthorized sample of " Go Home Pigs " composed for the film Getting Straight by her husband , Ronald Stein , who died in 1988 . Although the album 's liner notes state that the song contains an " interpolation " of " Go Home Pigs " , Stein is not credited as a composer and his wife was not paid royalties for use of the song . The lawsuit requested for 5 percent of the retail list price of 90 percent of the all copies of the record sold in America , and 2 @.@ 5 percent of the retail price of 90 percent of the copies of the album sold internationally .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
" Bitch " , " Cum On Everybody " , " Just Don 't Give a Fuck " and " Still Don 't Give a Fuck " are retitled " Zoe " , " Come on Everybody " , " Just Don 't Give " and " Still Don 't Give " on the clean version of the album .
" If I Had " loosely references the melody to the chorus of " If I Had $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 " by Barenaked Ladies
" ' 97 Bonnie & Clyde " is a merged version of Slim Shady EP 's " Mommy ( skit ) " and " Just the Two of Us " , albeit with a different backing track for the latter
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Anna Howard Shaw Day =
" Anna Howard Shaw Day " is the thirteenth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 71st episode of the series overall . It was written by supervising producer Matt Hubbard and directed by Ken Whittingham . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on February 11 , 2010 . Elizabeth Banks , Jon Hamm , Shinnerrie Jackson , Douglas Rees , Horatio Sanz , Jason Sudeikis , and Dean Winters guest star in this episode , and there is a cameo appearance by musician Jon Bon Jovi .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) schedules a dentist appointment on Valentine 's Day to avoid feeling lonely on the holiday . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) meets a successful and attractive CNBC host ( Banks ) . Elsewhere , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) is frustrated when her stalker ( Sanz ) finally loses interest .
" Anna Howard Shaw Day " was generally , though not universally , well received among television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 6 @.@ 004 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 8 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . For his work in this episode , Matt Hubbard received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
TGS with Tracy Jordan head writer Liz Lemon is due for a root canal . To avoid feeling lonely on Valentine 's Day , she schedules her surgery for that day , but soon realizes she will need someone to escort her home from the dentist 's office due to the aftereffects of anesthesia . She asks her colleagues at the 30 Rock building for a ride home , but all of them have Valentine 's Day plans and cannot help . When Liz calls the dentist 's office to say she does not have anyone to pick her up , the receptionist ( Shinnerrie Jackson ) informs her that after her procedure she can only leave alone if she signs a liability waiver . Liz initially intends to sign the document , but is dissuaded at a party by Jon Bon Jovi , and instead decides to claim to the receptionist that she has a ride home after all .
Jack Donaghy , who is Vice President of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming for General Electric , makes an appearance on the fictional CNBC show The Hot Box . During the appearance , Jack interacts with the show 's host , Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) , with the two flirting during the broadcast . Avery and Jack share Republican viewpoints , and she asks him out for a drink after the show , which he accepts . They eventually embark on a number of both successful and unsuccessful dates . During one of those dates , Jack invites her to a TGS VIP party he has hastily staged , whereupon he enlists the help of musician Jon Bon Jovi — at the time NBC 's real @-@ life Artist in Residence — to come over and talk to them , in an effort to impress the successful Avery . When Bon Jovi approaches them , though , Jack disregards him due to his own intriguing conversation with Avery , which impresses her even more . After the TGS party , the two go back to Jack 's apartment and end up sleeping together .
Elsewhere Jenna begins to worry that her stalker , Maynard Roger Hoynes ( Horatio Sanz ) , has lost interest in her . Jenna tracks down Maynard and her suspicions are confirmed , after he tells her that his therapist encouraged him to stop his obsession with her and move forward . Later , in the 30 Rock building , NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) finds Jenna upset in her dressing room . She tells him why she is in that state and shows him letters that Maynard sent to her in the past . Kenneth , however , is confused as to why Jenna misses her stalker , leading her to reveal that Maynard has been the longest relationship she has ever had . The next day , Jenna enters her dressing room and sees that her picture is inscribed with the words " I want to eat your boogers . " Jenna is touched to find that Kenneth is responsible for the graffito , and thanks him for his thoughtfulness .
On Valentine 's Day , Liz goes to her dentist appointment and tells the receptionist that she did not sign the waiver . After her surgery , Liz reassures the dental staff that the anesthesia is having no effect on her and can take herself home . In the lobby , Liz sees her former boyfriends Drew Baird ( Jon Hamm ) , Dennis Duffy ( Dean Winters ) , and Floyd DeBarber ( Jason Sudeikis ) , and is moved that they came back so that she not be alone on Valentine 's Day . Liz is hallucinating , however , and the people she sees as Drew , Dennis , and Floyd are actually the three Jamaican women who are dental assistants at the oral surgeon 's office . One of them calls Jack , Liz 's boss , asking if he could come pick up Liz and take her home . Jack had just spent the night with Avery , who thinks that the phone call was made up by Jack as an excuse to end the date , but when he invites her to come along , she is impressed by his kindness to Liz .
= = Production = =
" Anna Howard Shaw Day " was written by 30 Rock supervising producer Matt Hubbard and directed by Ken Whittingham . This episode was Hubbard 's ninth writing credit , and the second episode for Whittingham who had directed the March 12 , 2009 , season three episode " The Funcooker " . " Anna Howard Shaw Day " originally aired in the United States on February 11 , 2010 , on NBC as the thirteenth episode of the show 's fourth season and the 71st overall episode of the series . This episode was filmed on December 9 , 2009 , and January 27 , 2010 .
In December 2009 , it was confirmed that actress Elizabeth Banks would guest star on the show , and in this episode , she played right @-@ wing CNBC anchor Avery Jessup , and love interest to Alec Baldwin 's Jack Donaghy . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly 's Michael Ausiello , Banks revealed that she approached the show 's staff about making an appearance on the show . " I definitely put feelers out , like , ' I would love to be on your show . ' And they did it . They made it happen ! I 'm a huge fan , so this is a dream come true . " She said that on her first day on set she " begged " producers if she could use a teleprompter — in which she is first introduced in the episode on the set of her show The Hot Box , with her interviewing Jack and another guest ( Douglas Rees ) — so that she could deliver her lines quickly , explaining that her fast delivery would help " sell " the comedy and her 30 Rock character . They agreed to it , though , a problem ensued when they could not figure the prompter out , which resulted in Banks " throwing fastballs at [ Baldwin ] and him battling them back as fast as possible and hoping they could cut it together faster than we were doing it . " Banks revealed to Ausiello that she had no intention on becoming a series regular , explaining that she has been having " too much fun " making movies to commit to a television show full @-@ time . According to a February 2010 report in the New York Post , after the airing of this episode , the Avery character was based on CNBC news anchor Melissa Francis , and it was Francis who " pitched " the character to a 30 Rock producer . Banks , however , denied this report , calling it " false " .
In October 2009 , it was reported that musician Jon Bon Jovi would serve as the first artist in NBC 's brand new " artist in residence " program . In a November 25 , 2009 , appearance on NBC 's The Today Show , Jon Bon Jovi explained that his band ( Bon Jovi ) had released a new album , The Circle , and that for two months the group would be making appearances on a wide range of NBC broadcast and cable channels to promote it . On 30 Rock , Jon Bon Jovi played himself and his title as artist in residence was referenced , in which he appears as a contestant on the Bravo cooking reality television series Top Chef , and is later shown strumming the NBC Nightly News theme .
Actors Jon Hamm , Jason Sudeikis , and Dean Winters reprised their roles , respectively , as Drew Baird , Floyd DeBarber , and Dennis Duffy ; former boyfriends of Liz Lemon ( Fey ) . In the final scene of " Anna Howard Shaw Day " , in which she is still under the after effects of anesthesia , Liz " sees " Drew , Floyd , and Dennis speak in Jamaican accents , however , the three men are really three Jamaican dental assistants . In regards to the accent , Hamm said in an interview " That was given to me literally the day before we shot it . They were like , ' We wrote some more stuff , so we 'll see you tomorrow . ' I was like , ' Okay , how much more can it be ? Oh great , it 's a completely different take , awesome . ' "
Comedic actor Jason Sudeikis , who appeared in this episode as Floyd DeBarber , was at the time a main cast member of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) . Additionally in this episode , Horatio Sanz , who played Maynard Roger Hoynes — Jenna Maroney 's stalker — has also appeared in the main cast of SNL . Fey was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 .
= = Cultural references = =
The name of " Anna Howard Shaw Day " is based on Liz 's hatred of Valentine 's Day , for which she substitutes " Anna Howard Shaw Day " , a fictional holiday celebrating the real February 14 birthday of Woman 's Civil Rights leader Anna Howard Shaw . Liz tells Jack that she does not watch CNBC , a business news channel , but that she gets all her money advice from a fictitious cartoon character , Foxy Moneybags , on PBS . While confronting him , Jenna asks Maynard if the dog who gives him his orders has died , a reference to the Son of Sam killer allegedly being commanded to kill by a neighbour 's possessed dog . As he does not stalk her anymore , Jenna asks Maynard if he is stalking " one of those kids from Glee " , the latter being a Fox program that focuses on a high school show choir . During his appearance on The Hot Box , Avery asks Jack what his favorite movie is with him responding that it is a tie with The Fountainhead ( 1949 ) and Uncle Buck ( 1989 ) . During her hallucination , in which she sees Drew , Dennis , and Floyd , Liz confesses to Dennis that watching the period drama The Color Purple with him drunk " was one of the funnest nights of my life . "
The character Astronaut Mike Dexter was referenced in this episode , in which Liz tells the dental receptionist that she did not sign the liability waiver as her " boyfriend " Mike Dexter would come and take her home . Liz considers the character to be her imaginary perfect husband . The character was first introduced in " Sun Tea " , in which " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) pretended to be Mike Dexter , Liz 's " crazy black boyfriend " , after she planned to get her roommate out of his apartment with Dot Com 's help , but her plan backfired . In " Dealbreakers Talk Show " , Liz 's imagination of Mike Dexter was played by actor John Anderson , in a scene where Liz fantasizes about what her life would be like following the success of her talk show , and is then notified by Mike Dexter that he has to go back to outer space . Astronaut Mike Dexter would be mentioned further in the season , but near its end Liz decides her infatuation with him is pathetic and " breaks up " with him in a dream ; along with her S4 finale meeting of a pilot played by Matt Damon and her brusque breakup with and dismissal of an annoying anti @-@ love interest played by Michael Sheen ; this sets the stage for Liz Lemon to be portrayed as much less of a loser from Season 5 through the series finale .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Anna Howard Shaw Day " was seen by 6 @.@ 004 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings . The show claimed a 2 @.@ 8 rating / 7 share among viewers aged 18 to 49 , meaning that 2 @.@ 8 percent of all people in that group , and 7 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was an increase from the previous episode , " Verna " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 93 million American viewers . Matt Hubbard received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards , but lost it to Modern Family 's Steven Levitan and Christopher Lloyd for their work on the pilot episode . In December 2010 , Hubbard received a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for " Anna Howard Shaw Day " . In reviewing the best television programs of 2010 , The A.V. Club named 30 Rock number 18 and cited this episode as amongst the best of the year .
The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin enjoyed Elizabeth Banks ' appearance , writing that she played her character " perfectly " and hoped she returned to the series . Rabin was " delighted " to see the show " get back some of its blinding speed " , regarding some episodes of the show 's fourth season not getting well @-@ received reception , as it was Jack and Avery 's courtship here that " was a refreshing reminder of just how fucking sharp 30 Rock can be . " Sean Gandert of Paste was appreciative towards Banks ' role , noted that Jon Bon Jovi 's appearance was " completely unnecessary but pretty awesome nonetheless " , and concluded that Liz and Jack 's plotlines were " particularly strong " and that despite not anything " new " occurring here " it was largely just some fun , top @-@ form 30 Rock . " Meredith Blake , a contributor of the Los Angeles Times , opined that the three plots featured were " equally strong " , and added that Jenna 's stalker plot " could easily have fallen flat " but it turned out to be very funny . In conclusion , Blake deemed this a " stellar episode , and it was especially enjoyable " than last week 's episode , " Verna " . Adam Mersel of TV Guide reported that the Valentine 's Day theme in the episode was " hilarious " , as it was " full of the usual belly @-@ laughs and spit @-@ takes . " Entertainment Weekly contributor Margaret Lyons commented that it was " one of the loopiest , silliest episodes in a while , but it worked . " Lyons enjoyed Tina Fey 's performance here , writing that it provided Fey with her " most interesting acting showcase all season " .
IGN contributor Robert Canning said that this episode of 30 Rock " wasn 't as fun and funny as it could have been " , explaining that it had some great laughs , but that as a whole it " felt a bit flat and joyless . " He wrote that the cameos by Jon Hamm , Jason Sudeikis , and Dean Winters " did little in the body of the episode " , nonetheless , the " real payoff " came in the end when the three portrayed the dental assistants . " It was a gag mostly unrelated to the rest of the episode , and it was the best part of the half hour . " In conclusion , Canning gave it a 7 @.@ 7 out of 10 rating . Television columnist Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that the episode was a " pretty lifeless outing " , reasoning it had the " usual laughs in the margin " but overall " there were a lot of long , flat , deadly stretches , and entire subplots like Jenna with her stalker that just lay there . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad enjoyed Liz 's story here , but noted that he disliked Jenna 's stalker story , concluding " ... there were a few really funny lines ... but overall I found her missing @-@ her @-@ stalker @-@ on @-@ Valentine 's @-@ Day plot to be rather ... icky [ ... ] Honestly , I want to see more of the human , normal side of Jenna " . Nick Catucci of New York magazine felt that Liz 's plot here was " one of the worst story lines in recent memory " .
= Hurricane Fausto ( 2002 ) =
Hurricane Fausto was a long @-@ lived tropical cyclone that formed during the 2002 Pacific hurricane season . The eighth tropical cyclone and fifth named storm of the season , Fausto developed on August 21 from a tropical wave that had crossed the Atlantic , and entered the Pacific on August 17 . Becoming a tropical depression , the system intensified , and quickly became Tropical Storm Fausto early on August 22 . Fausto rapidly intensified , and was already a hurricane on that same day as becoming a tropical storm . Rapid intensification continued , and the tropical cyclone ultimately peaked as a strong Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . At that time , the winds 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) . Fausto began to gradually weaken after attaining peak intensity on August 24 , and was eventually downgraded to a tropical storm two days later . Weakening continued , and Fausto degenerated into a remnant low on August 28 while well northeast of Hawaii .
Passing north of the Hawaiian Islands , the remnants of the hurricane later began to revive , and had re @-@ developed into a tropical depression on August 30 . Additional re @-@ intensification was not significant , although Fausto managed to become a tropical storm again on September 1 . Remaining a minimal tropical storm , no further intensification occurred , and by September 3 , Fausto was absorbed by a frontal system .
= = Origins = =
The origins of Hurricane Fausto were from a tropical wave that emerged into the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on August 11 . It crossed the Atlantic and Caribbean Sea uneventfully
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eta and Pedro . The advantageous marriage allowed Honório Hermeto to become a slave owner , assume his uncle 's business , which included domestic slave trading , and later , in the 1830s , purchase a coffee farm in the province of Rio de Janeiro . Coffee was quickly becoming Brazil 's most important export commodity and was a highly lucrative crop .
Honório Hermeto pursued a typical course open to 19th century Brazilians who became affluent through family connections and patronage : a judicial career , with expectations of entering politics . On 14 October 1826 , he was named to a three @-@ year term as juiz de fora ( external judge ) with jurisdiction over the three villages in the province of São Paulo . On 25 August 1828 , Honório Hermeto left São Paulo upon being promoted to the post of auditor da marinha ( admiralty judge ) in Rio de Janeiro , the imperial capital located in the province of same name . His tenure in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro helped expand his connections . Emperor Dom Pedro I appointed him ouvidor ( superior judge ) in late 1828 and desembargador ( regional appeal judge ) in 1829 , an office Honório Hermeto held until his retirement in 1848 .
Well established in the imperial capital , Honório Hermeto campaigned in 1829 to become a general deputy ( member of the Chamber of Deputies , the national lower house ) as a representative for his native Minas Gerais . He was elected to a seat in the legislature for the term beginning April 1830 . He became a member of the Liberal Party , which stood in opposition to Pedro I and his policies . As a general deputy , Honório Hermeto had an unobtrusive role for the first couple of years , having been overshadowed by Bernardo Pereira de Vasconcelos , the leader of the deputies representing Minas Gerais . Short , slim and with a speech impediment , the dark @-@ haired Honório Hermeto appeared an unimpressive figure at first glance . Like his father , he was headstrong , opinionated and often scathing . However , he had self @-@ confidence and a powerful charisma , and was energetic , intelligent , perspicacious and a natural born leader .
= = = Political crises = = =
Due to the weakening of his political position and his own concomitant motives , Pedro I abdicated on 7 April 1831 and departed for Europe . Without a common cause in the person of the former Emperor , the radical wing of the Liberal Party seceded . Honório Hermeto remained in the Liberal Party , which changed its name to Moderate Party to differentiate itself from its estranged radicals . Meanwhile , as the new emperor , Dom Pedro II , was only a child of five , a regency — with little effective authority — was created . This resulted in nine years of chaos , during which the country was plagued by rebellions and coup attempts initiated by unruly political factions .
On 19 July 1831 , radicals and insubordinate military officers presented the Chamber of Deputies with a list of 89 Brazilians , including senators , whom they demanded be deported . Honório Hermeto gave a speech in which he said that " neither a senator nor the most humble citizen belonging to the lowest class may be deported without having been prosecuted and convicted ... Even when a citizen is an evildoer , his rights must be respected ... " All the deputies but one agreed with him , and the incident was settled , with several battalions being disbanded . As an adult , Pedro II would later remember that his " style of speaking was inelegant , and he had a stutter ; but it vanished when he was aroused and at all times his arguments were tight knit , and somebody wittily remarked that [ Honório Hermeto , ] the marquis of Paraná , when he stuttered , stuttered arguments . "
A second crisis arose on 30 July 1832 . A constitutional amendment effecting greater reforms was voted on and approved in the Chamber of Deputies , but still faced major opposition in the Senate . Diogo Antônio Feijó and Aureliano Coutinho , both Moderates , planned a coup d 'état . Feijó would assume dictatorial powers and immediately enact the constitutional amendment , thus bypassing the Senate entirely . Honório Hermeto called on his fellow deputies to uphold the Constitution : " We need not hurt the legal order and [ constitutional ] principles : we can make fair laws ... and in the respected Constitution we have safe and legal ways of giving the nation what it wants ... let us not violate it [ the Constitution ] , as it is our only safeguard . " He rallied the deputies to his view , and in defeating the unconstitutional proposal , the coup attempt was crushed .
= = Path to conservatism = =
= = = Genesis of the Conservative Party = = =
Honório Hermeto , by then a leading politician , was appointed Minister of Justice on 13 September 1832 , effectively becoming the head of the cabinet . He resigned after eight months to avoid becoming entangled in the aftermath of an uprising in Minas Gerais , in which one of his relatives had been involved . Vasconcelos mounted a challenge to Honório Hermeto 's position among his constituency , and by circulating rumors that the latter had links to the uprising , undercut his reputation at home and in the Chamber of Deputies . Honório Hermeto relinquished his post on 14 May 1833 to concentrate on shoring up his position in Minas Gerais , and won another term as general deputy .
The constitutional amendment known as the Additional Act , which effected greater reforms that served as the catalyst for the 1832 coup attempt , was promulgated on 12 August 1834 . The Act had unpredicted and catastrophic results . Local self @-@ government opened new avenues of conflict between political parties . The party that dominated the provinces would gain control over the electoral and political system . Parties that lost by ballot , unwilling to be shut out , rebelled and tried to take power by force . Honório Hermeto and several other Moderates voted against the Additional Act , as they believed that its far @-@ reaching reforms would cause far more harm than good . Honório Hermeto led the conservative Moderate dissidents to secede from the party when Feijó successfully ran for the position of sole regent in early 1835 . Honório Hermeto was eager to forestall what he described as the " triumph of the same traitor who made 30 July [ 1832 coup attempt ] to ignominiously tear down the Regency which had appointed him . "
The conservative Moderate opposition to Feijó had close links to coffee and sugar cane planter families and merchants in the Brazilian southeast and northeast . These groups wielded great political , social and economic influence . They began to see their interests more in alignment with men like Honório Hermeto , who were planters like themselves — people who supported the slave trade with Africa and desired a centralized state able to impose order . The often strongheaded Honório Hermeto , swallowing his pride , set aside his enmity toward Vasconcelos in pursuit of an alliance . Dubbed the Reactionary Party by Feijó and his allies in 1837 , the conservative Moderate opposition born in late 1834 was the genesis of what would evolve into the Party of Order ( c . 1843 ) and finally into the Conservative Party ( c . 1853 ) .
= = = Party leader in the Chamber of Deputies = = =
Feijó 's administration was unable to suppress the uprisings in both the north and south . By 1837 , his government 's credibility and support had vanished . Feijó resigned in August 1837 and Pedro de Araújo Lima ( later the Marquis of Olinda ) , a Reactionary from Pernambuco Province , became interim regent and was elected to the office the next year . He appointed his colleagues to ministry portfolios . Honório Hermeto , who had been reelected to another term as general deputy until 1841 , remained in the Chamber as the party 's leader to bolster the new Reactionary cabinet . The ever @-@ weak Moderate Party collapsed , and Feijo 's Moderates allied with other groups with which they shared no common principles or ideology . During the late 1830s and early 1840s , this alliance evolved into the second Liberal Party .
The Reactionary Party ( the former dissident conservative elements within the Moderate Party ) began by passing the Interpretation of the Additional Act , which was followed by the reform of the Code of Criminal Procedure . Both laws , built upon the 1834 Additional Act , would allow the national government to reassert its control over provincial police and courts . They would provide the means to deal effectively with provincial rebellions and inevitably grant the national government greater sway over the provincial governments . In turn , the party in power would gain greater ascendancy in national politics through patronage and office appointments . Fearful that their adversaries would stay in power indefinitely , the Liberals began to call for Pedro II to attain majority at a younger age . They hoped to regain their influence by doing away with the regency and dealing directly with a pliable young emperor . Towards that end , the Liberals allied themselves with the Facção Áulica ( Courtier Faction ) , led by Aureliano Coutinho ( Feijó 's ally in the 1832 coup attempt ) .
Honório Hermeto saw this new majority movement as an " attempt ... equal to that of 30 July [ 1832 coup ] . " As he had in 1832 , Honório Hermeto took up a defence based on the Constitution against this threat to the political system . In May 1840 , he proposed a constitutional amendment that would allow the monarch to attain majority , and assume full powers , at an earlier age . The slow process of passing a constitutional amendment ensured that the Reactionary Party would control the government at least until 1842 , when Araújo Lima 's term as regent would end . Facing fierce resistance from Liberals — the Chamber sessions had become embroiled in heated , often chaotic , debates — Honório Hermeto withdrew his proposal . Political and popular pressure , and even physical threats , led to the unconstitutional declaration of Pedro II 's majority at age 14 on 23 July 1840 .
= = Rise to power and fall = =
= = = Liberal rebellions of 1842 = = =
The Liberal @-@ Courtier coalition 's cabinet , formed upon Pedro II 's assumption of full powers , convoked national elections for seats in the legislature convene in 1842 . The voting was accompanied by so much violence and fraud that it became known as Elections of the club ( or Elections of the truncheon ) . For Honório Hermeto , this meant the loss of his seat as general deputy after his bid for reelection failed . The Liberal @-@ Courtier cabinet did not survive long , however , and its ministers presented their resignations in turn . On 23 March 1841 , a new cabinet was nominated that included Aureliano Coutinho from the Courtier Faction and other ministers drawn from the Reactionary Party .
Following the return of the Reactionary Party to the government , Honório Hermeto was appointed by Pedro II to the prestigious Council of State . Under advice from the Council of State , Pedro II in May 1842 dissolved the new Chamber of Deputies , elected in the fraudulent 1840 elections , before it could be convened . Instead of attempting to get reelected , Honório Hermeto ran for a Senate seat , and being among the three candidates with the most votes , in late 1842 he was selected by the Emperor as the senator representing Minas Gerais . On 2 January 1843 , he took his seat next to his rival , Aureliano Coutinho , who had been elected senator for the province of Alagoas . Having already secured two lifetime positions ( councillor and senator ) , on 4 October 1841 Honório Hermeto received an appointment as president ( governor ) of the province of Rio de Janeiro , and assumed this office on 1 December .
The Liberals did not take their loss of power gracefully . In May and June 1842 , three uprisings broke out , in the provinces of São Paulo , Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro . The rebels went so far as to arrest and hold hostage both Honório Hermeto 's elderly father and uncle ( who was also his father @-@ in @-@ law ) . As president , he commanded the provincial National Guard , and traveled through the province to organize a response . On 1 July , he advanced with troops towards Ouro Preto , where , after defeating the rebels , he freed his father and uncle . He joined forces there with Luís Alves de Lima e Silva ( then @-@ Baron and later Duke of Caxias ) , who commanded the National Guard of São Paulo and Minas Gerais and was also married to one of Honório Hermeto 's distant cousins . The remaining rebels were easily defeated , and by late August , the uprisings had been quelled . Among the rebel leaders was the former regent , Feijó , who was arrested . He died shortly afterwards in 1843 . As Honório Hermeto returned from Minas Gerais to Rio de Janeiro , he was welcomed with celebrations and demonstrations of joy by the authorities and populace of the districts he traversed .
= = = First presidency of the Council of Ministers = = =
Sometime around 1843 ( and certainly by 1844 ) , the Reactionary Party was renamed to the Party of Order to distinguish itself from what the Reactionaries perceived as the " unruly " Liberals . Members of the Party of Order became known as saquaremas . The new name also reflected the maturation of principles the party had long advocated : liberalism , exceptionalism , preserving the authority of the state and a representative parliamentary monarchy . On 20 January 1843 , Pedro II appointed Honório Hermeto to head a new cabinet . By personally selecting the cabinet members , Honório Hermeto became Brazil 's de facto first prime minister . Prior to this time , the Emperor himself or the regents had always designated the cabinet ministers . Four years later , following Honório Hermeto 's precedent , the office of prime minister would be formally instituted under the title of " president ( prime minister ) of the Council of Ministers " .
A year later , in January 1844 , Honório Hermeto requested that Pedro II dismiss the inspector of the Rio de Janeiro customs house , Saturnino de Sousa e Oliveira Coutinho , a younger brother of Aureliano Coutinho . Honório Hermeto had been in the same university class as Aureliano Coutinho and Saturnino Coutinho in Coimbra during the 1820s . However , his strained relationship with Aureliano Coutinho was not entirely the result of political rivalry between two ambitious men . Honório Hermeto nursed a sheer hatred toward him because of the role he had played both in the July 1832 coup and in the Majority movement . Honório Hermeto again pressed to have Saturnino Coutinho fired in late January , and when rebuffed yet again , said , " A boy does not have the right to mock men worn out in the service of the Nation , even if this boy is the Emperor . " Pedro II was offended and steadfastly refused to dismiss Saturnino Coutinho .
Instead of accepting the Emperor 's decision , Honório Hermeto offered his resignation , along with those of his colleagues . Astonished by his behavior , the Emperor would say years later when recalling the incident : " Paraná não se curvava ! " ( " [ Honório Hermeto , the Marquis of ] Paraná did not bow down ! " ) Pedro II asked the Liberals to form a new cabinet . For most of the next five years , Honório Hermeto and his Party of Order stood in opposition to the Liberals and the Courtier Faction . For the saquaremas , it meant enduring " new elections , fixed results , partisan reprisals and policy shifts " . Only a few saquaremas managed to get themselves elected to the Chamber during this period . All the blame for this disaster fell upon Honório Hermeto . He lost much of his influence within the party , even though Vasconcelos alone in the Party of Order possessed the qualifications to challenge Honório Hermeto as the party 's elder statesman .
= = Special missions abroad = =
= = = Praieira = = =
The Courtier @-@ Liberal alliance held near absolute sway over Brazilian politics for several years . By 1847 , however , Pedro II had carefully removed members of the Courtier Faction from key positions . Aureliano Coutinho 's influence was destroyed after the Emperor implicitly banned him from participation in political decision making . The monarch then moved against the Liberals . From 1844 through 1848 , the country saw several successive Liberal cabinets , all plagued by internal divisions . Pedro II called upon the Party of Order to form a new cabinet in September 1848 .
The rise of the saquaremas ensured a purge of Liberals who had been appointed to executive and judicial posts at the national , provincial and local levels , as was normal when a new party was tapped to form a government . The most radical Liberal faction in the province of Pernambuco , known as the Partido da Praia ( Party of the Beach ) , made open preparations to revolt and retake power by force . The rebellion was limited in extent and was crushed by February 1849 . Honório Hermeto was appointed president of the province , from 2 July 1849 until 8 May 1850 , with the purpose of pacification by restraining acts of revenge and throwing his support behind fair trials for all rebels . He had observed the effect that ostracism , by both Pedro II and other saquarema party leaders , had had on the career of Vasconcelos . Honório Hermeto accepted the office , eager " to regain the favor of his Emperor and to strengthen his position among his party colleagues . "
He was disheartened with what he saw in Pernambuco , a province far away from the imperial capital , but one of the most important in the country . Local political bosses were aligned with the Party of Order or the Liberal Party , but these were mostly nominal affiliations . Local oligarchs had vied among themselves for centuries over power . To them , political principles , such as those preached by the national leaders of the Party of Order , meant little or nothing . Their political ambitions focused on patronage and the annihilation of their local rivals . Honório Hermeto found himself embroiled in an ongoing power struggle between the aristocratic planters , who sought to exercise control over provincial affairs .
= = = Platine War = = =
By mid @-@ 1850 , Honório Hermeto was back in Rio de Janeiro . He had found the months in Pernambuco excruciating . Being named provincial president would have been considered a great achievement for a young politician , but it added no luster to the reputation of a seasoned politician and a founding member of his party . Instead of being at the center of power , he was put in the humiliating position of having to submit to a cabinet composed of men with less political experience , such as Joaquim Rodrigues Torres , Paulino Soares de Sousa ( Honório Hermeto 's colleague along with Rodrigues Torres in Coimbra ) and Eusébio de Queirós . It was particularly grating being subordinated to Paulino Soares and Eusébio de Queirós , protégés whom Honório Hermeto had advanced during the 1830s . While in Pernambuco , Honório Hermeto 's actions were frequently reviewed and overturned by the cabinet , often with Eusébio de Queirós leading the criticism .
As Brazil had been pacified after the end of the last rebellion ( the Praieira revolt ) , Brazil 's government turned its attention to the growing tensions with its neighbor to the south , the Argentine Confederation . Paulino Soares , who served as Minister of Foreign Affairs , decided to forge alliances with Uruguay and Paraguay , nations which also saw a threat in the ambitions of Juan Manuel de Rosas , dictator of the Argentine Confederation . An army commanded by Caxias crossed into Uruguay in September 1851 . More than a year had passed since Honório Hermeto returned from Pernambuco , when he was named by Paulino Soares as special minister plenipotentiary in the Plata region . On 12 October 1851 , Honório Hermeto and an Uruguayan envoy signed a treaty in Rio de Janeiro setting the international border between Brazil and Uruguay . The agreement required Uruguay to abandon some claims to disputed areas in exchange for Brazilian aid in the war against Argentina .
Honório Hermeto departed for Montevideo , the capital of Uruguay , on 23 October . He chose José Maria da Silva Paranhos ( later Viscount of Rio Branco ) to assist him . Paranhos was a brilliant young man who had once been a Liberal Party member and protégé of the disgraced Aureliano Coutinho . This surprising choice was a clear signal from Honório Hermeto to his colleagues in the cabinet of his independence . On 21 November , Honório Hermeto signed a treaty of alliance with Uruguay and the rebel Argentine provinces of Entre Ríos and Corrientes . On 3 February 1852 , the allies defeated Rosas , who fled to the United Kingdom . As a reward for his role , the Emperor granted Honório Hermeto the title of Visconde de Paraná ( Viscount of Paraná ) in July 1852 . The title was derived from the Paraná River , a tributary of the Río de la Plata , upon which free passage rights for Brazilian shipping was secured after Rosas ' downfall .
= = Conciliation cabinet = =
= = = Second presidency of the Council of Ministers = = =
After years of frustration , Honório Hermeto ( or Paraná as he became known ) had largely recouped the prestige he had formerly possessed among his peers . He had liquidated his uncle 's domestic slave trading business and used the proceeds to become a coffee plantation owner in 1836 . The land he acquired was located in the hills between Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais . Although Paraná staunchly opposed the abolition of the transatlantic African slave trade , the importation of slaves was abolished in 1850 by the Eusébio de Queirós Law . The ban on slave imports seems to have had no impact over Paraná 's private affairs ; by 1852 , he had become a very wealthy man . He also married his son Honório to a niece of Rodrigues Torres , thus establishing a link between his family and the province of Rio de Janeiro 's planter aristocracy .
Around 1853 ( certainly by 1855 ) , the old Party of Order had become widely known as the Conservative Party . On 6 September 1853 , Pedro II called Paraná to the Imperial Palace in São Cristóvão and asked him to organize a new cabinet . After nearly ten years , the two men had made peace with one another . The Emperor wished to advance his own ambitious program : the conciliação ( conciliation ) and melhoramentos ( material developments ) . Pedro II 's reforms aimed to promote less political partisanhip , and forward infrastructure and economic development . Rather than ushering in a government led by the Conservative Party , the Emperor had appointed the leading Conservative " to lead a non @-@ partisan reform administration to realize material developments " .
Paraná appointed politicians who had few , or no , links to the saquaremas to fill the new cabinet 's ministry portfolios . These men were either more loyal to the Emperor than to the party , too new to the Conservative Party to have formed close ties with the older saquarema establishment or former Liberals who had defected to the Conservatives following the Praieira revolt in the late 1840s . Two former Liberals found seats in the cabinet , including Paranhos , for whom Paraná secured a seat in the Chamber of Deputies . Other nominations went to saquaremas whose personal fealty to Pedro II was paramount . Among these was Caxias , with whom Paraná had developed a working relationship and then a close friendship . The resulting " Conciliation cabinet " owed its chief loyalties to Pedro II and Paraná , rather than to the Conservative Party . The cabinet thus represented a break with the Reactionary views of the old Party of Order , albeit under a party banner which still included members of the old guard .
= = = Struggle over electoral reform = = =
Formed in late 1853 , the Conciliation cabinet faced the Parliament only when it gathered in May 1854 . Paraná presented a bill to reform the Code of Criminal Procedure , which had already been reformed in 1841 . In search of support , Paraná went as far as to aid Liberal candidates in the 1854 provincial elections . The opposition by most saquaremas to this judicial reform was so fierce that a year later , Paraná ( who had been raised from Viscount to Marquis in late 1854 ) backed down and implicitly withdrew the bill .
Almost concurrently , he presented a project of electoral reform that was also vehemently opposed by the saquaremas . Historian Jeffrey D. Needell states that the saquaremas " had seen him , one of their own chieftains , pick a cabinet of relatively weak men , men he could dominate . They saw an explicit attack on party government and party deals , using patronage alone to secure support . They saw that the loyalty of the ministers was principally toward Paraná , the Emperor , and a non @-@ partisan approach to patronage ( which ipso facto , undercut their party and strengthened the cabinet ) . " Saquaremas found it harder to accept the cabinet 's aid being diverted — in an attempt to secure more support for cabinet initiatives — from themselves to Liberal candidates in provincial and general elections .
During his time in Pernambuco ( 1849 – 1850 ) , Paraná had experienced first @-@ hand how the party 's principles were seen as irrelevant and ignored at local and provincial levels . A cabinet could gain the backing of local bosses for its national candidates using patronage alone . Paraná did not need the support of the saquaremas , he could find it elsewhere . Throughout his life , Paraná managed to set aside past grievances when doing so could further opportune alliances . As Eusébio de Queirós said of Paraná , " like all men of strong temperament , he tends more to exaggerate his generosity towards his conquered enemies than in accommodations to conquering friends . "
= = = Apogee and unexpected death = = =
In the end , both the Senate and the Chamber passed the electoral reform — which became known as Lei dos Círculos ( Law of the Circles ) — by a bare margin . The majority of the saquaremas voted against the bill . Paraná succeeded because , as founder and leader of the Conservative Party , he " had enormous charisma and a broad personal clientele in the Chamber " and " could ( and did ) dispense power , prestige , and patronage . " Some saquaremas voted in favor of the reform out of fear , believing that , should the cabinet fall , the Emperor might turn to the Liberals to form a new cabinet , resulting in reprisals and loss of offices throughout the country . On the other hand , the Liberals supported the reform as a means to further weaken the divided Conservative Party .
The electoral reform had given Paraná unassailable dominance over the cabinet and in parliament . By September 1855 , with the sole exception of the Emperor , Paraná had become the most prominent figure in the empire . He was nicknamed El Rei Honório ( Honório the King ) by his foes . However , he would not live long to enjoy his supremacy . At the end of August 1856 , enraged by an offensive speech by Pedro de Araújo Lima , Marquis of Olinda ( former regent in the late 1830s ) in the Senate , Paraná rose to respond . As he spoke , Paraná fell to the ground in pain . Days passed and his condition worsened . On 3 September 1856 , at 07 : 15 in the morning , he died . In a fever @-@ induced delirium , Paraná believed himself to be still delivering a speech to Olinda . His last words were , " Skepticism ... the noble senator ... fatherland ... freedom . " The exact cause of Paraná 's death was never established . Doctors could not agree whether the illness was a consequence of hepatitis , pneumonia , disease in the liver , lungs , intestines or something else .
Pedro II lamented the death of Paraná , saying , " I can see no one else possessed of the energy with which the late Marquis was endowed , and joined to it uncommon talents , even if they were unpolished . " His death had a profound impact on the government and the Brazilian people . He was honored with a grand funeral procession attended by a huge crowd , then a rare event in Brazil . His remains were interred in the Cemitério São João Batista ( Cemetery of Saint John the Baptist ) in Rio de Janeiro city .
= = Legacy = =
By the early 1850s , Paraná had seen both his main foes – Aureliano Coutinho and Feijó – and their political factions fall into oblivion , while he rose to power . Eusébio de Queirós , his main rival within the Conservative Party , had attempted to rally the saquaremas against his project , and failed . Eusébio de Queirós and Paraná carried on their power struggle during debates in the Senate , and in the end , Paraná emerged victorious . His success came at the expense of his weakened and deeply divided party . Just as serious were the consequences of the Law of the Circles . In theory , Paraná 's initiatives for judicial and electoral reform would have ensured fairer elections , since they attempted to curtail the corrupting influence of political parties on elections . In practice , however , the opposite happened ; tampering by parties was merely replaced by greater interference by the cabinet . Paraná probably knew that the reform , as enacted , had the potential to do more harm than good , as it gave him unprecedented control over national politics . According to Needell , " Paraná might well have seen the cabinet and its victory as his personal vindication before the party rivals and his monarch , his political triumph after the dismissal of 1844 and the second @-@ rank status and saquarema disrespect of 1850 . "
Since his death , Paraná has been widely praised by historians and others for his political achievements , although the detrimental consequences of the electoral reform in his Conciliation cabinet were generally ignored by historians until recently . This oversight can be seen in the writings of many renowned writers and historians since the 19th @-@ century cabinet . Conservative politician and writer José de Alencar called Paraná a " distinguished statesman " . Writer Joaquim Manuel de Macedo said that " the marquis of Paraná was a politician well suited to the great State crises , and to a time of most difficult and contentious political strife . " Joaquim Nabuco , who viewed him a statesman , summarized his character as that of a man " made not only to dominate , but also to lead . " José Paranhos , Baron of Rio Branco regarded him an " illustrious statesman " . Euclides da Cunha , who also called him a statesman , labeled him a " great man " who " demarcates a decisive stretch in our [ Brazilian ] Constitutional History " .
Many historians praised Paraná . Maurílio de Gouveia regarded him as a statesman who revealed " himself to posterity as an example of tenacity , energy , patriotism and honor " . To Heitor Lira , Paraná " was one of the pillars responsible for the political stability of Pedro II 's reign . His policy of conciliation ended a period of rebellions , and led to the appearance of a new generation of monarchist politicians raised " in the school of tolerance , mutual respect and public interest " ; which produced " the constitutional environment where the two great [ political ] parties of the Monarchy would take turns [ in power ] without excluding each other . " Fernando da Cruz Gouvêa called him an " authentic statesman " . Aldo Janotti considered Paraná , alongside Vasconcelos , responsible for the maintenance of Brazilian unity and preventing its territorial dismemberment . According to Hermes Vieira , he was a " great statesman " . " Of all politicians of imperial Brazil , it is without a doubt , " said historian Hélio Viana , " Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão , Marquis of Paraná , the one who deserves to be called statesman " . Ronaldo Vainfas considered him one of the greatest statesmen in Brazilian imperial history .
= = Titles and honors = =
= = = Nobility = = =
Viscount of Paraná ( Grandee ) on 26 June 1852 .
Marquis of Paraná on 2 December 1854 .
= = = Other = = =
Member of the Brazilian Council of State .
Member of the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute .
Provedor ( steward ) of the Santa Casa de Misericórdia ( Holy House of Mercy ) in Rio de Janeiro city ( 1854 – 1856 ) .
= = = Honors = = =
Grand Cross of the Brazilian Order of Christ awarded on 18 March 1851 .
Grand Cross of the Portuguese Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa awarded on 26 January 1856 .
Grand Cross of the Russian Order of the White Eagle .
Officer of the Brazilian Order of the Southern Cross awarded on 10 August 1841 .
Officer of the Brazilian Order of the Rose .
= = Endnotes = =
= Underwire bra =
An underwire bra ( also under wire bra , under @-@ wire bra , or underwired bra ) is a brassiere that utilizes a thin , semi @-@ circular strip of rigid material fitted inside the brassiere fabric . The wire may be made of metal , plastic , or resin . It is sewn into the bra fabric and under each cup , from the center gore to under the wearer 's armpit . The wire helps to lift , separate , shape , and support a woman 's breasts . Many different brassiere designs incorporate an underwire , including shelf bras , demi bras , nursing bras , and bras built into other articles of clothing , such as tank tops , dresses and swimsuits .
The concept of an underwire can be traced to an 1893 patent that describes a breast supporting device using a rigid plate under the breasts for stability . The modern underwire bra was designed in the 1930s , and gained widespread popularity by the 1950s . As of 2005 , underwire bras were the largest and fastest growing segment of the bra market . A bra without an underwire is a softcup bra .
Underwire bras are occasionally linked to health conditions including breast pain , mastitis , and metal allergies . Women wearing an underwire bra have in a few rare instances been subjected to extra scrutiny when their bra set off metal detectors at security checkpoints in airports or prisons . There have been a few recorded incidents where the underwire deflected a bullet or other weapon that struck the woman 's chest .
= = History = =
The precursor to the underwire bra can be traced back to at least 1893 , when New Yorker Marie Tucek was granted a patent for a " breast supporter " . The breast supporter was described as a modification of the corset , and was very similar to a modern push @-@ up bra designed to support the breasts . It consisted of a plate made of metal , cardboard , or other stiff material , shaped to fit against the torso under the breasts , following the contour of the breasts . It was covered with silk , canvas , or other cloth , which extended above the plate to form a pocket for each breast . The plate curved around the torso and ended near the armpits , held in place and adjusted to a snug fit by shoulder straps that crossed the back , forming an X @-@ shape . It was secured with hook @-@ and @-@ eye closures .
The underwire bra design emerged and took hold in the United States starting in the 1930s . Helene Pons received a patent in 1931 for a brassiere design that incorporated an " open @-@ ended wire loop " that laid flat against the chest , encircling the bottom and sides of each breast . A 1932 patent describes a U @-@ shaped piece of wire used between the cups to keep the breasts separated . A patent issued in 1938 to Pauline Boris describes a " breast support " which used pieces of wire to entirely encircle each breast . In 1940 , Walter Emmett Williams was issued a patent which described a wire framework , shaped like a spiderweb , that encircles and covers each breast to provide support . Although development of the underwire bra started in the 1930s , it did not gain widespread popularity until the 1950s , when the end of World War II freed metal for domestic use .
In the 1940s , Howard Hughes had an underwire push @-@ up bra designed for Jane Russell to emphasize her breasts in The Outlaw . According to Russell , the " ridiculous " contraption was painful and she secretly wore her own bra during the movie . The brassiere is now in a Hollywood museum .
With the popularity and widespread use of the underwire bra that started during the 1950s , the underwire was incorporated into many bra designs , and underwire bras were built into other articles of clothing . By 1990 , Norma Kamali had incorporated underwire bras into both one- and two @-@ piece ( bikini ) swimsuits . Scott Lucretia was granted a patent for a camisole with an integrated underwire bra in 1989 .
Underwire bras accounted for 60 % of the United Kingdom bra market in 2000 and 70 % in 2005 . In 2001 , 500 million bras were sold in the United States , of which approximately 70 % ( 350 million ) were underwire bras . As of 2005 , underwire bras were the fastest growing segment of the market .
= = Underwire construction = =
Underwire bras are built with a semi @-@ circular " underwire " , " bra wire " , or " wire " embedded in the wire channel that circles the bottom and sides of each cup . One end , or head element , of the underwire is close to the front and center of the bra , and the other close to the armhole . The underwire can be made of metal or molded plastic ; most are metallic . Plastic underwire has a very small share of the market because it does not provide the same support and rigidity offered by metal underwire . A metallic underwire is a thin strip of metal , usually with a nylon coating at both ends . Metals used include steel and nickel titanium , a shape memory alloy . According to underwire manufacturer S & S Industries of New York , which supplies underwire for bra makers such as Bali , Playtex , Vanity Fair , Victoria 's Secret , Warner 's , and other bra labels , about 70 percent of women who wear bras wear steel underwire bras .
When the underwire breaks through the bra fabric , it can cause tremendous discomfort . Celebrity chef , television personality , and businesswoman Clarissa Dickson Wright only wears a bra on special occasions . At her 50th birthday party , she was dancing when she suddenly felt a " terrifying pain in my chest . " She initially thought she was having a heart attack . " The pain got more and more intense . I staggered off and discovered I 'd broken my underwired bra . "
Because underwire can tear through cloth , most women hand @-@ wash underwire bras or machine @-@ wash them on a delicate cycle . Bra wash bags , usually zippered mesh pouches , can also be used to protect bras and prevent the underwire from separating from the bra during machine washing .
= = = Recent patents = = =
In 2002 , S & S Industries obtained a patent for an underwire design that includes a spring @-@ loaded plastic cushion tip on one or both ends . The spring is designed to keep the wire from poking through the bra . In 2008 , Scott Dutton of Wales invented the " Bra Angel " , a simple device to repair a bra when the underwire pops out of its channel . It is a barbed plastic cap that fits onto the end of the underwire , which is then inserted back into the bra and held in place by the barbs .
= = Health = =
Underwire bras can rub and pinch the breast , causing skin irritation and breast pain , and the wire of a worn bra can protrude from the fabric and scrape or cut the skin . When the fabric of worn bra exposes an underwire , skin contact with nickel and other metals may cause contact dermatitis in a few women .
= = = Effect on lactation = = =
Underwire bras , like other constrictive garments , may contribute to clogged milk ducts in lactating women . Fluctuating breast size during pregnancy poses another problem . Because underwire bras are rigid , they do not easily accommodate changes in breast size , and an ill @-@ fitting bra that does not support the breasts correctly can cause discomfort and pain . For several days after a mastectomy , or as long as the breast is tender , a woman is advised not to use an underwire bra .
= = = Defibrillator use = = =
Use of an automated external defibrillator on a patient in a metal underwire bra can cause burns , and the bra should be removed by the first responder before the AED is applied . In their 2007 season , the television program MythBusters tested the possibility of burns resulting from using a defibrillator on a patient who is using an underwire bra , and concluded that while it is possible , it is not likely unless the metal underwire is exposed and paddles of the defibrillator are very close to it .
= = = Tropical disease = = =
A medical report documented that wearing an underwire bra in the Tropics , specifically East Africa , can lead to severe furuncular myiasis of the breast caused by the Tumbu fly . The eggs and larvae from this fly are deposited in clothing , especially along the length of the metal wires of an underwire bra , and can only be killed by applying heat through ironing . It is almost impossible when ironing a traditional underwire bra to achieve the required heat to kill the larvae deposited along the underwire .
= = Legal issues = =
The United States Transportation Security Administration recommends that women do not wear underwire bras because they can set off metal detectors . Though most women travelers wear them without any problem , it can depend on the material of the underwire .
= = = Transportation security = = =
On Sunday , 24 August 2008 , film maker Nancy Kates set off a metal detector during security screening . She objected when the agent attempted to pat @-@ down her breasts . She said she told the agent , " ' You can 't treat me as a criminal for wearing a bra . " A TSA supervisor told her she had to either submit to the pat @-@ down search in a private room or not fly . Kates offered to take off her bra , which the TSA accepted . She went to the restroom , removed her bra , and walked through the airport and security screening braless . She said that a supervisor told her that underwire bras were the leading cause of metal detector false alarms .
In August 2010 , cancer survivor Cathy Bossi , an on @-@ duty flight attendant for U.S. Airways , was passing through security screening at Charlotte Douglas International Airport on the way to her next flight . Due to the radiation involved , she reluctantly passed through a full @-@ body scanner . " The T.S.A. Agent told me to put my I.D. on my back , " she said . " When I got out of there the agent said because my I.D. was on my back , I had to go to a personal screening area . " During what she described as an " aggressive " pat @-@ down search , security screening personnel forced her to remove and show her prosthetic breast . Their action violated TSA guidelines , which state that agents do not need to touch or inspect a mastectomy prosthetic .
In October , 2010 , CNN employee Rosemary Fitzpatrick was subject to a personal search after her underwire bra set off a metal detector . The TSA security official applied an invasive " hand @-@ sliding inspection " during which she " ran her hands around her breasts , over her stomach , buttocks and her inner thighs , and even touched her most private areas . " Fitzpatrick said that she cried during the experience . " I felt helpless , I felt violated , and I felt humiliated . "
In response , Triumph International , a Swiss company , launched what it called a " Frequent Flyer Bra " in late 2001 . The bra uses metal @-@ free clasps and underwires made of resin instead of metal that are guaranteed to not set off metal detectors . The bras were not available in the United States , and in 2004 a Canadian spokeswoman did not know whether they were still manufactured .
= = = Correctional facility rules = = =
Some correctional facilities , like San Quentin State Prison , require visitors to either cut their bras and remove the underwire , or temporarily use a soft cup bra provided by the institution before being granted entry . The result can be embarrassment and consternation for unsuspecting visitors . Other facilities require women to remove their underwire bras in a bathroom , pass through the metal detector , and return to the bathroom to put their bras back on .
In June 2010 , attorney Britney Horstman was barred from visiting her client in the Federal Detention Center at Miami , Florida when her underwire bra set off the metal detector . Although she reminded guards of a detention center memo that permitted female attorneys visiting clients to wear an underwire bra , the guard refused her entry . That memo existed as a result of an agreement negotiated by the Federal Public Defender 's Office , which represents inmates held at the institution before trial . That agreement allows female lawyers entry if her underwire bra is detected by a metal @-@ detecting wand . Horstman removed her bra in a bathroom and returned to the security checkpoint braless , but was then turned away because she did not meet the facility 's dress code . Horstman had previously worn an underwire bra into the facility without problems . Warden Linda McGrew later promised the incident would not happen again .
= = Accidents and attacks = =
There have been several cases where the underwire from a bra has helped deflect bullets or other objects , saving the wearer 's life . In 1996 , the underwire of a girl 's bra helped save her life when she was impaled on a railing and , according to hospital personnel , the underwire from her bra probably helped deflect the spike from her heart . There have been multiple incidents where bullets were deflected by the underwire of a woman 's bra , either keeping her entirely from harm , or directing the bullet away from the heart to another part of the body . One such incident occurred in 2004 when a stray bullet shot by a member of the Ghetto Boys hit the narrow metal wire in Helen Kelly 's bra and was deflected away from her heart . In 2008 , a robbery victim was saved from being stabbed in the chest when the attacker 's knife was caught and deflected by the underwire of her bra .
= Clement of Dunblane =
Clement ( died 1258 ) was a 13th @-@ century Dominican friar who was the first member of the Dominican Order in Britain and Ireland to become a bishop . In 1233 , he was selected to lead the ailing diocese of Dunblane in Scotland , and faced a struggle to bring the bishopric of Dunblane ( or " bishopric of Strathearn " ) to financial viability . This involved many negotiations with the powerful religious institutions and secular authorities which had acquired control of the revenue that would normally have been the entitlement of Clement 's bishopric . The negotiations proved difficult , forcing Clement to visit the papal court in Rome . While not achieving all of his aims , Clement succeeded in saving the bishopric from relocation to Inchaffray Abbey . He also regained enough revenue to begin work on the new Dunblane Cathedral .
He faced a similar challenge with the impoverished bishopric of Argyll in the 1240s . He was given the job of restoring the viability of the diocese and installing a new bishop ; this involved forming a close relationship with King Alexander II of Scotland . Clement was with the king during his campaign in Argyll in 1249 and was at his side when he died during this campaign . In 1250 Clement had been able to install a new bishop in Argyll and had become one of the Guardians appointed to govern Scotland during the minority of King Alexander III . By 1250 he had established a reputation as one of the most active Dominican reformers in Britain . Clement helped to elevate Edmund of Abingdon and Queen Margaret to sainthood . After his death , he received veneration as a saint himself , although he was never formally canonised .
= = Early years and background = =
The Analecta Ordinis Fratrum Praedicatorum claims that he was " a Scot by birth " , and that he was admitted into the Dominican Order of Paris in 1219 . The latter source , however , is often highly unreliable , and cannot be fully trusted . The historian Archie Duncan was cautious about a date as firm and early as 1221 , and wrote that Clement " had entered the Dominican order by the later 1220s " . Although " Clement " is neither a Scottish nor an English name , the large number of French @-@ speakers in both Scotland and England during this period means that this consideration carries limited weight ; indeed " Clement " need not even have been his birth @-@ name . The diocese of Dunblane was entirely Gaelic @-@ speaking in Clement 's day , and in this era it was often frowned upon for a bishop to be ignorant of the language of his diocese . If this had been a consideration in Clement 's later appointment , then this would strongly suggest that Clement was in fact a Scot . It is worth adding that Clement was later noted for his skill in languages . Clement received his university education at either the University of Oxford or the University of Paris , perhaps at both of these institutions . There is a possibility that he can be identified more fully as " Clement Rocha " . A " Father Clement Rocha " was the owner of a manuscript from the period now held in Edinburgh . This , however , says nothing more about his background .
The Dominican Order had its origins in the reformist ideology of Dominic de Guzmán , later Saint Dominic . By 1219 , Dominic had established houses as far apart as Paris , Bologna , Madrid and Segovia ; at his death in 1221 , there were 21 houses . Expansion of the order continued into England as houses were established at Oxford in 1221 and London in 1224 . There were five houses in England by 1230 , by which time the Order was poised to enter Scotland . Later tradition had it that the Dominican Order entered Scotland in 1230 , encouraged by King Alexander II and William de Malveisin , Bishop of St Andrews . However , the earliest certain date for the foundation of a Dominican house in Scotland is 1234 .
These details form the context for Clement 's appearance in Scotland and his selection as the new Bishop of Dunblane . Three years had passed since the death of the last bishop , Osbert . Since there was no electoral college for the diocese , Pope Gregory IX charged the bishops of St Andrews , Brechin and Dunkeld , to find and nominate a suitable replacement . There can only be informed speculation regarding the choice of Clement . Importantly , perhaps , King Alexander was later noted for " his concern for building churches for the Friars Preacher [ Fratrum precipue Predicatorum ] " . The status of the Dominicans at the cutting edge of religious reform , together with Clement 's background , may have been the decisive factors . At any rate , Clement was consecrated as bishop at Wedale on 4 September 1233 , by William de Malveisin , Bishop of St Andrews . His consecration meant that he was the first Dominican in the British Isles to obtain a bishopric . This has prompted the historian Archie Duncan to comment that " the choice of the first friar @-@ bishop ... can only be called daring " .
= = Bishopric of Dunblane = =
The bishopric of Dunblane was a small diocese , essentially confined to the earldoms of Strathearn and Menteith . Size was a problem for providing the bishopric with adequate income , a problem compounded by the fact that Gille Brígte , Mormaer of Strathearn , had established Inchaffray Priory in 1200 ( promoted to Abbey in 1221 ) . In the 1440s , Bower wrote that Gille Brígte :
Divided his earldom into three equal portions . One he gave to the church and bishop of Dunblane , the second to St John the Evangelist and the canons of Inchaffray , the third he kept for himself and his own needs .
If this were not enough , much of the income not granted to Inchaffray had since been given to other religious institutions ; some revenue was even controlled by the Bishop of Dunkeld . Dunblane had its origins in an older Gaelic monastic establishment , that is , in an institution with an abbot @-@ bishop heading a relatively informal establishment of smaller cells with little geographical compactness . Dunblane emerged as a bishopric in 1155 , probably , like bishoprics with a similar history ( e.g. Brechin ) , having changed in little more than name . There was a community of Céli Dé at Muthill until at least the end of the 13th century , and the base for the archdeaconry of the diocese appears to have varied between there and Dunblane until the time of Bishop Clement . The bishopric itself appears to have been without a single base , although it was probably associated with both locations . Clement visited the papal court to present his difficult situation . In spring 1237 , the Pope wrote to the Bishop of Dunkeld that :
Bishop Clement ... found the Church so desolated that there was no place in the Cathedral Church where he could lay his head ; it had no college of clergy ; the divine offices were celebrated in a roofless church and by a rural chaplain only ; and the episcopal revenues were so slender , and had been alienated to such a degree , that they scarcely sufficed to support him for half a year .
In response to Clement 's visit , moreover , the Pope had empowered the Bishops of Dunkeld , Brechin and St Andrews to take action to rescue the bishopric . He told these bishops that ,
Since the continual care of all the churches is our daily burden , we grant to the said Church [ Dunblane ] , so far as we personally can , and authorise you , if you find the situation to be as described , to assign to the said Bishop , if it can be done without scandal , a quarter of the teinds of all the parish churches of the Diocese of Dunblane , so that under your guidance and that of upright men , he may set aside a suitable portion of them for his own maintenance , and thereafter assign revenues for a dean and canons whom we wish and authorise you to institute there .
Failing this , the Pope wrote ,
The quarter teinds of all the churches of the Diocese assigned to the Bishop , which are held by laymen , you shall transfer with the episcopal seat to the Canons Regular of St. John in the Diocese [ i.e. to Inchaffray Abbey ] , who shall have power to elect a Bishop in any vacancy .
So the Pope 's help was two @-@ sided . It made Clement 's task vis @-@ à @-@ vis these institutions easier , but on the other hand the possibility had emerged that Dunblane could disappear as an episcopal centre .
= = Recovery and rebuilding = =
In the three or four years after his visit to the papacy , agreements were made with the various institutions who were drawing income from Clement 's diocese – namely Coupar Angus Abbey , Lindores Abbey , Cambuskenneth Abbey , Arbroath Abbey , the nunnery of North Berwick and the Hospital of Brackley , Northamptonshire . These agreements did not constitute complete success . Clement was able to recover some revenue , but in fixed payments liable to real decline by way of inflation . Moreover , he had to concede permanent canonries to several of the abbots , concessions which would give them a role in the election of his successors . Another partial set @-@ back took place . Walter Comyn , Earl of Menteith , had decided to found a monastery in his earldom and take up the income of Menteith 's churches to do it ; the whole of Menteith constituted nearly half of the diocese . Despite the Pope 's previously helpful behaviour towards Clement 's cause , he granted the earl permission to found the new monastery . The earl established Inchmahome Priory in the Lake of Menteith in 1238 . Walter and Clement came to conflict over the new priory 's rights , but in the same year an agreement was drawn up in a meeting of churchmen at Perth . The agreement placed most of Menteith 's churches under the control of the earl ; however , Clement obtained several concessions , including the right to receive episcopal dues from the new priory . Overall , Clement 's successes were considerable considering the opposition which he faced , but even after his death , only 12 of the 26 parish churches in the diocese were under the bishop 's direct control .
Although his successor Robert de Prebenda claimed that the income of the see was still inadequate , it was nevertheless enough for Clement to begin building a new cathedral . This was despite the virtual hostility of the earl of Menteith and what Cynthia Neville has noted as the lack of interest by the earls of Strathearn , evidenced by their reluctance to bestow patronage on the bishopric . Neville 's explanation for this is that " the bishops ' ambition represented a challenge to their proprietary interests " . It has been suggested that Clement dismantled the small church building which had served Dunblane previously , before beginning work . The cathedral was constructed in the Gothic manner , beginning with the " Lady Chapel " ; the Lady Chapel was used while the rest of the cathedral was being built . It is possible that the cathedral of Dunblane was completed during Clement 's episcopate , and it is almost certain that most of it was .
= = On the wider stage = =
Clement 's position as Bishop of Dunblane provided the opportunity to participate on the larger national and international stage . In 1241 , the Cistercian general chapter began postulating the Pope about the saintliness of Edmund of Abingdon , formerly Archbishop of Canterbury . In the following year , various clerics wrote pieces and compiled evidence supporting this Edmund 's claim to sainthood . Clement was one of these clerics . Edmund 's saintliness was endorsed by Pope Innocent IV in 1246 . Clement took part in a similar campaign in 1249 . He was part of the movement to canonise Queen Margaret , one of the ancestors of the contemporary Scottish kings . Clement was appointed to investigate her saintliness , and in the following year Margaret too was canonised . Meanwhile , in 1247 , Pope Innocent IV gave Clement the more onerous and demanding appointment of papal tax collector . Clement was charged with collecting one twentieth of all ecclesiastical revenues within the Kingdom of the Scots . The purpose was to finance a new crusade , and Clement 's appointment was part of a money @-@ raising initiative carried out throughout Western Christendom .
Perhaps Clement 's most significant activities were , however , in relation to the bishopric of Argyll . In 1241 , Argyll 's last bishop , William , had been drowned while at sea . Argyll was the poorest bishopric in Scotland , and the area lacked strong royal authority , and hence good royal protection . In the following six years , no one had taken up the vacant bishopric . From at least 1247 , then , Clement was given charge of the diocese . He was essentially being asked to do for Argyll what he had previously done for Strathearn . The sources are quite thin on this ground , but by 1249 he had brought at least one more church into the control of the bishopric . On 23 December 1248 , he was also authorised by the Pope to appoint , with the agreement of the Bishop of Glasgow , a new bishop for Argyll . In January 1249 , Clement was given permission to move the cathedral of Argyll , based on Lismore , to the mainland . Clement 's problem seems to have been with the ruler of Argyll , Eóghan . The lack of royal authority in Argyll made it difficult for the national and international church to exercise control in the province ; at the same time , establishing a strong bishopric in the area was vital to integrating the area fully into the kingdom , an aim cherished by the contemporary king , Alexander II . Thus Alexander 's goal and Clement 's goal were essentially one and the same . It is impossible to be more specific , but in 1249 , King Alexander II launched an expedition against Eóghan . The king was attempting to force Eóghan , whose lands lay within both the overlordship of the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of Norway , to renounce his allegiance to the King of Norway . Eóghan told Alexander that he was unable to do this . The contemporary historian Matthew Paris wrote that :
The king therefore declared Eóghan unfaithful and pursued him hostilely by ship near Argyll ; urged , as is said , by the vehement promptings of a certain indiscreet bishop of Strathearn , a friar to wit of the order of the Preachers .
This " indiscreet bishop ... friar " was , of course , Clement . Alexander died from ill @-@ health on this expedition , with Clement by his side at his deathbed . Alexander 's last act was to make a grant to the bishopric of Argyll . Despite the king 's death , the expedition was a success for Clement . There was a new Bishop of Argyll by 27 September 1250 ; in the longer term , the see continued to be ruled by bishops with no long vacancies until the Reformation . Moreover , by 1255 Eóghan had given his full allegiance to the Scottish crown , albeit because of lack of favour given to him by the King of Norway . Clement 's close association with the late King Alexander II and his reputation as a successful bishop made him a key political figure during the minority of Alexander III . Clement was on the Council of Guardians , the small group of nobles and clerics who were to " govern " Scotland until the end of Alexander III 's boyhood . The governing Council broke down around two rival factions , one centred on Walter Comyn and the other around Alan Durward . There is little evidence about Clement 's activities in regard to the Council , but he was associated with the Comyn faction , who enjoyed the ascendency after Walter gained control of government in 1251 . In 1255 , the Durwards staged a coup at Roxburgh and ousted the " Comyn faction " from effective power . Unfortunately for Alan Durward , Comyn 's supporter Gamelin , who had been placed in the bishopric of St Andrews and excluded from his diocese by Durward , had fled to the papal court and convinced the Pope to excommunicate Alan . The sentence was delivered by Bishop Clement and the abbots of Melrose and Jedburgh . This is Clement 's last known act .
= = Death and legacy = =
The Chronicle of Melrose reports Clement 's death under the year 1258 . Clement 's legacy was to be remembered as the restorer of the diocese of Dunblane and the builder of its cathedral . Thus for future generations , Clement became the father @-@ figure of the see . Clement was later commemorated as a saint , though there is no record of formal canonisation . He was commemorated on 19 March , meaning that was almost certainly believed to have been the date of his death . Clement 's death was also noted by Walter Bower , a Lowland Scottish historian writing in the 1440s , who included the following obituary :
Clement bishop of Dunblane died , that outstanding member of the Order of Preachers , a man most eloquent in translating various tongues , powerful in speech and action in the sight of God and of men . He found the cathedral church of his diocese reduced by the neglect of his predecessors to such a state of decay that the divine offices were celebrated in it scarcely three times a week , as if it were some rural chapel . He built it up to be a hallowed sanctuary , enriched it with lands and possessions , and increased its prestige by adding prebends and canonries .
Such flattering sentiments had even been expressed during Clement 's lifetime . In 1250 , the General Chapter of the Dominican Order met in London , and decreed that :
we grant to Friar Clement of our Order , a bishop of Scotland , after his death , one mass throughout the Order by every friar whomsoever is a priest .
Although there survives a sermon almost certainly written by him , Clement was also credited with being a prolific translator and writing four books ( including a hagiography of St Dominic ) , all of which are now lost .
Some historians have been ambiguous about Clement 's episcopate . For instance , Cynthia Neville , despite acknowledging that " the successful reform of the see was , in fact , accomplished almost exclusively as a consequence of the efforts of Clement and his successors " , nevertheless expresses some scepticism about his achievements and notices his failure to gain the patronage of the native rulers of Strathearn . Others have been more enthusiastic . The ecclesiastical historian and former minister of Dunblane Cathedral , James Hutchison Cockburn , agreed with Bower 's eulogy and declared that the " title " of sainthood " would have been worthily bestowed " . Archie Duncan , more recently , stated that Clement " clearly enjoyed a reputation far wider than his domestic accomplishments alone would explain " and concluded that Clement " represents the occasional triumph of the ideal of reform of church life over the careerism which generally motivated thirteenth @-@ century clergy " .
= Aeneas Mackintosh =
Aeneas Lionel Acton Mackintosh ( 1 July 1879 – 8 May 1916 ) was a British Merchant Navy officer and Antarctic explorer , who commanded the Ross Sea party as part of Sir Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , 1914 – 17 . The Ross Sea party 's mission was to support Shackleton 's proposed transcontinental march by laying supply depots along the latter stages of the march 's intended route . In the face of persistent setbacks and practical difficulties , Mackintosh 's party fulfilled its task , although he and two others died in the course of their duties .
Mackintosh 's first Antarctic experience was as second officer on Shackleton 's Nimrod Expedition , 1907 – 09 . Shortly after his arrival in the Antarctic , a shipboard accident destroyed his right eye , and he was sent back to New Zealand . He returned in 1909 to participate in the later stages of the expedition ; his will and determination in adversity impressed Shackleton , and led to his Ross Sea party appointment in 1914 .
Having brought his party to the Antarctic , Mackintosh was faced with numerous difficulties . Confused and vague orders meant he was uncertain of the timing of Shackleton 's proposed march . His problems were compounded when the party 's ship , SY Aurora , was swept from its winter moorings during a gale and was unable to return , causing the loss of vital equipment and supplies . In carrying out the party 's depot @-@ laying task , one man died ; Mackintosh barely survived , owing his life to the actions of his comrades who brought him to safety . Restored to health , he and a companion disappeared while attempting to return to the expedition 's base camp by crossing the unstable sea ice .
Mackintosh 's competence and leadership skills have been questioned by polar historians . Shackleton commended the work of the party , and equated the sacrifice of their lives to those given in the trenches of the First World War , but was critical of Mackintosh 's organising skills . Years later , Shackleton 's son , Lord Shackleton , identified Mackintosh as one of the expedition 's heroes , alongside Ernest Joyce and Dick Richards .
= = Early life = =
Mackintosh was born in Tirhut , India , on 1 July 1879 , one of six children ( five sons and a daughter ) of a Scottish indigo planter , Alexander Mackintosh , a descendant from the chieftains of Clan Chattan . Aeneas would in due course be named as an heir to the chieftainship , and to the ancient seat at Inverness that went with it . When Aeneas was still a young child , his mother , Annie Mackintosh , suddenly returned to Britain , bringing the children with her . The reasons for the family rift are unknown , but it was evidently permanent . At home in Bedfordshire , Aeneas attended Bedford Modern School . He then followed the same path as had Ernest Shackleton five years earlier , leaving school at the age of 16 to go to sea . After serving a tough Merchant Officer 's apprenticeship , he joined the P and O Line , and remained with this company until he was recruited by Shackleton 's Nimrod Expedition , which sailed for Antarctica in 1907 . Before the expedition 's departure Mackintosh was commissioned Sub @-@ Lieutenant in the Royal Naval Reserve .
= = Nimrod Expedition = =
The Nimrod Expedition , 1907 – 1909 , was the first of three Antarctic expeditions led by Ernest Shackleton . Its objective , as stated by Shackleton , was to " proceed to the Ross Quadrant of the Antarctic with a view to reaching the Geographical South Pole and the South Magnetic Pole " . Mackintosh was recommended to Shackleton as a suitable officer by the P & O Line , and soon earned Shackleton 's confidence while impressing his fellow @-@ officers with his will and determination . While the expedition was in New Zealand , Shackleton added Mackintosh to the shore party , as a likely candidate for the polar march .
= = = Accident = = =
On 31 January 1908 , not long after Nimrod 's arrival at McMurdo Sound in the Antarctic , Mackintosh was assisting in the transfer of sledging gear aboard ship when a hook swung across the deck and struck his right eye , virtually destroying it . He was immediately taken to the captain 's cabin where , later that day , expedition doctor Eric Marshall operated to remove the eye , using partly improvised surgical equipment . Marshall was deeply impressed by Mackintosh 's fortitude , observing that " no man could have taken it better . " The accident cost Mackintosh his place on the shore party , and required his return to New Zealand for further treatment . He took no part in the main events of the expedition , but returned south with Nimrod in January 1909 , to participate in the closing stages . Shackleton , who had earlier fallen out with the ship 's master , Rupert England , had wanted Mackintosh to captain Nimrod on this voyage , but the eye injury had not healed sufficiently to make this appointment possible .
= = = Lost on the ice = = =
On 1 January 1909 , on its return to Antarctica , Nimrod was stopped by the ice , still 25 miles ( 40 km ) from the expedition 's shore base at Cape Royds . Mackintosh decided that he would cross this stretch of ice on foot . Historian Beau Riffenburgh describes the journey that followed as " one of the most ill @-@ considered parts of the entire expedition " .
Mackintosh 's party , which left the ship on the morning of 3 January , consisted of Mackintosh and three sailors , with a sledge containing supplies and a large mailbag . Two sailors quickly returned to the ship , while Mackintosh and one companion went forward . They camped on the ice that evening , only to find next day that the whole area around them had broken up . After a desperate dash over the moving floes , they managed to reach a small glacier tongue . They camped there , and waited for several days for their snow @-@ blindness to subside . When their vision returned , they found that Cape Royds was in sight but inaccessible , as the sea @-@ ice leading to it had gone , leaving a stretch of open water . They had little choice but to make for the hut by land , a dangerous undertaking without appropriate equipment and experience .
On 11 January they set out . For the next 48 hours they struggled over hostile terrain , through regions of deep crevasses and treacherous snowfields . They soon parted company with all their equipment and supplies . At one point , to proceed , they had to ascend to 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) and then slide to the foot of a snow @-@ slope . Eventually , after stumbling around in the fog for hours , they fortunately encountered Bernard Day , a member of the shore party , a short distance from the hut . The ship later recovered the abandoned equipment . John King Davis , then serving as Nimrod 's chief officer , remarked that " Mackintosh was always the man to take the hundredth chance . This time he got away with it . "
Mackintosh later joined Ernest Joyce and others on a journey across the Great Ice Barrier to Minna Bluff , to lay a depot for Shackleton 's polar party , whose return from their southern march was awaited . On 3 March , while keeping watch on the deck of Nimrod , Mackintosh observed a flare , which signalled the safe return of Shackleton and his party . They had fallen just short of their South Pole objective , having reached a Farthest South of 88 ° 23 ' S.
= = Between expeditions = =
Mackintosh returned to England in June 1909 . On reporting to the P & O , he was informed that due to his impaired sight he was discharged . Without immediate prospects of employment , he agreed , early in 1910 , to accompany Douglas Mawson ( who had served as a geologist on the Nimrod Expedition and was later to lead the Australasian Antarctic Expedition ) on a trip to Hungary , to survey a potential goldfield which Shackleton was hoping would form the basis of a lucrative business venture . Despite a promising report from Mawson , nothing came of this . Mackintosh later launched his own treasure @-@ hunting expedition to Cocos Island off the Panama Pacific coast , but again returned home empty @-@ handed .
In February 1912 , Mackintosh married Gladys Campbell , and settled into an office job as assistant secretary to the Imperial Merchant Service Guild in Liverpool . The safe , routine work did not satisfy him : " I am still existing at this job , stuck in a dirty office , " he wrote to a former Nimrod shipmate . " I always feel I never completed my first initiation — so would like to have one final wallow , for good or bad ! " He was therefore delighted , early in 1914 , to receive an invitation from Shackleton to join the latter 's Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , which was to attempt the first crossing of the Antarctic continent .
= = Ross Sea party = =
= = = Early difficulties = = =
Shackleton 's expedition contained two separate components . The main party would establish a base in the Weddell Sea , from which a group of six led by Shackleton was to march across the continent , via the South Pole . A supporting Ross Sea party , based on the opposite side of the continent in McMurdo Sound , would lay supply depots across the Great Ice Barrier , to assist the transcontinental party on the final stage of its journey . Mackintosh was originally to have been a member of Shackleton 's transcontinental party , but difficulties arose over the appointment of a commander for the Ross Sea party . Eric Marshall , the surgeon from the Nimrod expedition , turned the assignment down , as did John King Davis ; Shackleton 's efforts to obtain from the Admiralty a naval crew for this part of the enterprise were rejected . The post of Ross Sea party leader was finally offered to , and accepted by , Mackintosh . His ship would be the Aurora , lately used by Mawson 's Australasian Antarctic Expedition and presently lying in Australia . Shackleton considered the Ross Sea party 's assignment routine , and saw no special difficulties in its execution .
Mackintosh arrived in Australia in October 1914 to take up his duties , and was immediately faced with major difficulties . Without warning or notification , Shackleton had cut the Ross Sea party 's allocated funds in half , from £ 2 @,@ 000 to £ 1 @,@ 000 . Mackintosh was instructed to make up the difference by soliciting free gifts , and to mortgage the expedition 's ship to raise further money . It then emerged that the purchase of Aurora had not been legally completed , which delayed Mackintosh 's attempts to mortgage it . Also , Aurora was unfit for Antarctic work without an extensive overhaul , which required co @-@ operation from an exasperated Australian Government . The task of dealing with these difficulties within a very restricted timescale caused Mackintosh great anxiety , and the various muddles created a negative image of the expedition in the eyes of the Australian public . Some members of the party resigned , others were dismissed ; recruiting a full complement of crew and scientific staff involved some last @-@ minute appointments which left the party noticeably short of Antarctic experience .
Shackleton had given Mackintosh the impression that he would if possible attempt his crossing during the coming 1914 – 15 Antarctic season . Before departing for the Weddell Sea , he changed his mind about the feasibility of this timescale . Mackintosh was not informed of this change of plan ; this misunderstanding led to the underprepared and near @-@ chaotic depot @-@ laying journeys of January – March 1915 .
= = = Depot @-@ laying , first season = = =
Aurora finally left Hobart , Tasmania , on 24 December 1914 . On 16 January 1915 the shore party landed at McMurdo Sound , where Mackintosh established a base camp at Captain Scott 's old headquarters at Cape Evans . Believing that Shackleton might have already begun his march from the Weddell Sea , he was determined to begin depot @-@ laying at once . Joyce , the expedition 's most seasoned Antarctic traveller — he had been with Scott 's Discovery Expedition in 1901 – 04 , and with the Nimrod Expedition — protested that the party needed time for acclimatisation and training , but was overruled . Joyce was shocked by the rebuff ; he had expected that Mackintosh would defer to him on sledging matters : " If I had Shacks here I would make him see my way of arguing " , he wrote in his diary . The depot @-@ laying journey which followed began with a series of mishaps . A blizzard delayed their start , a motor sledge broke down after a few miles , and Mackintosh and his group lost their way on the sea ice between Cape Evans and Hut Point . Conditions on the Barrier were harsh for the untrained and inexperienced men . Many of the stores taken on to the Barrier were dumped on the ice to reduce loads and did not reach the depots . After Mackintosh insisted , over Joyce 's urgent protests , on taking the dogs all the way to 80 ° S , all died on the journey . The men , frostbitten and exhausted , returned to the old Discovery expedition hut at Hut Point on 24 March , but were cut off from the ship and from their Cape Evans base by unsafe sea ice and had to wait , idle , for nearly three months . After this experience , confidence in Mackintosh 's leadership was low , and bickering rife .
= = = Loss of Aurora = = =
When Mackintosh and the depot @-@ laying party finally reached Cape Evans in mid @-@ June , they learned that Aurora , with 18 men on board and carrying most of the shore party 's supplies and equipment , had broken loose from its winter mooring during a gale . Ice conditions in McMurdo Sound made it impossible for the ship to return ; the shore party of ten was effectively marooned , with drastically depleted resources . However , most of the stores required for the depots had been landed . Mackintosh therefore resolved that the following season 's work would be carried out to the full : depots would be laid across the Great ice Barrier all the way to the Beardmore Glacier . The party would seek to make up its lack of supplies and equipment by salvaging the stores left by earlier expeditions , particularly from Captain Scott 's recent sojourn at Cape Evans . The entire party pledged its support to this effort , though it would require , wrote Mackintosh , a record @-@ breaking feat of polar travel to accomplish it . However , the long months of preparation were difficult for Mackintosh . The only officer in the party , he found it hard to form close relationships with his companions . His position became increasingly isolated , and subject to the frequent vocal criticisms of Joyce in particular .
= = = March to Mount Hope = = =
On 1 September 1915 , nine men in teams of three began the task of hauling approximately 5 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 300 kg ) of stores from the Cape Evans base on to the Barrier — the scientist Alexander Stevens remained at base camp , alone . This operation was the first stage in the process of laying down depots at intervals of one @-@ degree latitude ( 60 nautical miles / 110 km / 69 statute miles ) , down to Mount Hope at the foot of the Beardmore Glacier . A large forward base was then established at the Bluff depot , just north of 79 ° , from which the final journeys to Mount Hope would be launched early in 1916 . During these early stages , Mackintosh clashed repeatedly with Joyce over methods . In a showdown on 28 November , confronted with incontrovertible evidence of the greater effectiveness of Joyce 's methods over his own , Mackintosh was forced to back down and accept a revised plan drafted by Joyce and Richards . Joyce 's private comment was " I never in my experience came across such an idiot in charge of men . "
The main march southward from the Bluff depot began on 1 January 1916 . Within a few days , one team of three was forced to return to base , following the failure of their Primus stove . The other six carried on : Mackintosh , Joyce , Ernest Wild , Dick Richards , Arnold Spencer @-@ Smith and Victor Hayward . The 80 ° depot laid the previous season was reinforced , and new depots were built at 81 ° and 82 ° . As the party moved on towards the vicinity of Mount Hope , both Mackintosh and Spencer @-@ Smith , the expedition 's photographer , were hobbling . Shortly after the 83 ° mark was passed , Spencer @-@ Smith collapsed and was left in a tent while the others struggled on the remaining few miles . Mackintosh rejected the suggestion that he should remain with the invalid , insisting that it was his duty to ensure that every depot was laid . On 26 January , Mount Hope was attained and the final depot put in place .
On the homeward march , Spencer @-@ Smith had to be drawn on the sledge . Mackintosh 's condition was deteriorating rapidly ; unable to pull , he staggered along , crippled by the growing effects of scurvy . As his condition worsened , Mackintosh was forced at intervals to join Spencer @-@ Smith as a passenger on the sledge . Even the fitter members of the group were handicapped by frostbite , snow @-@ blindness and scurvy , as the journey became a desperate struggle for survival . On 8 March , Mackintosh volunteered to remain in the tent while the others tried to get Spencer @-@ Smith to the relative safety of Hut Point . Spencer @-@ Smith died the next day . Richards , Wild and Joyce struggled on to Hut Point with the now stricken Hayward , before returning to rescue Mackintosh . By 18 March , all five survivors were recuperating at Hut Point , having completed what Shackleton 's biographers Marjory and James Fisher describe as " one of the most remarkable , and apparently impossible , feats of endurance in the history of polar travel . "
= = = Disappearance and death = = =
With the help of fresh seal meat which halted the ravages of scurvy , the survivors slowly recovered at Hut Point . The unstable condition of the sea ice in McMurdo Sound prevented them from completing the journey to the Cape Evans base . Conditions at Hut Point were gloomy and depressing , with an unrelieved diet and no normal comforts ; Mackintosh in particular found the squalor of the hut intolerable , and dreaded the possibility that , caught at Hut Point , they might miss the return of the ship . On 8 May 1916 , after carrying out reconnaissance on the state of the sea ice , Mackintosh announced that he and Hayward were prepared to risk the walk to Cape Evans . Against the urgent advice of their comrades , they set off , carrying only light supplies .
Shortly after they had moved out of sight of Hut Point , a severe blizzard developed which lasted for two days . When it had subsided , Joyce and Richards followed the still visible footmarks on the ice up to a large crack , where the tracks stopped . Neither Mackintosh nor Hayward arrived at Cape Evans and no trace of either was ever found , despite extensive searches carried out by Joyce after he , Richards and Wild finally managed to reach Cape Evans in June .
After Aurora finally returned to Cape Evans in January 1917 , there were further searches , equally fruitless . All the indications were that Mackintosh and Hayward had either fallen through the ice , or that the ice on which they had been walking had been blown out to sea during the blizzard .
A memorial to Mackintosh exists on the grave of his mother Annie in the grave yard of St. Johns church in Burgess Hill in West Sussex . The memorial also mentions two of Mackintosh 's brothers who died prematurely in Thailand and Southern Rhodesia and a sister who lived into old age and died in 1962 .
= = Assessment = =
Mackintosh 's own expedition diaries , which cover the period up to 30 September 1915 , have not been published ; they are held by the Scott Polar Research Institute . The two main accounts available to general readers are Joyce 's diaries , published in 1929 as The South Polar Trail , and the account of Dick Richards : The Ross Sea Shore Party 1914 – 17 . Mackintosh 's reputation is not well @-@ served by either , particularly Joyce 's partisan record which is described by one commentator as a " self @-@ aggrandizing epic " . Joyce is generally scathing about Mackintosh 's leadership ; Richards 's account is much shorter and more straightforward , although decades later , when he was the only member of the expedition still alive ( he died in 1985 , aged 91 ) , he spoke out , claiming that Mackintosh on the depot @-@ laying march was " tremendously pathetic " , had " lost his nerve completely " , and that the fatal ice walk was " suicide " .
The circumstances of Mackintosh 's death have led commentators to emphasise his impetuousness and incompetence . This generally negative view of him was not , however , unanimous among his comrades . Stevens , the party 's scientist , found Mackintosh " steadfast and reliable " , and believed that the Ross Sea party would have achieved much less but for Mackintosh 's unwearying drive . John King Davis , too , admired Mackintosh 's dedication and called the depot @-@ laying journey a " magnificent achievement " . Shackleton was equivocal . In South he acknowledges that Mackintosh and his men achieved their object , praises the party 's qualities of endurance and self @-@ sacrifice , and asserts that Mackintosh died for his country . On the other hand , in a letter home , he is highly critical : " Mackintosh seemed to have no idea of discipline or organisation ... " . Shackleton did , however , donate part of the proceeds from a short New Zealand lecture tour to assist the Mackintosh family . His son , Lord Shackleton , in a much later assessment of the expedition , wrote : " Three men in particular emerge as heroes : Captain Aeneas Mackintosh , ... Dick Richards , and Ernest Joyce . "
Mackintosh had two daughters , the second born while he was in Australia awaiting the Aurora 's departure . On the return Barrier journey in February 1916 , expecting to die , he wrote a farewell message , with echoes of Captain Scott . The message concludes : " If it is God 's will that we should have given up our lives then we do so in the British manner as our tradition holds us in honour bound to do . Goodbye , friends . I feel sure that my dear wife and children will not be neglected . " In 1923 , Gladys Mackintosh married Joseph Stenhouse , Aurora 's first officer and later captain .
Mackintosh , who had received a silver Polar Medal for his work during the Nimrod Expedition , is commemorated by Mt . Mackintosh at 74 ° 20 ′ S 162 ° 15 ′ E.
= Music of the American Civil War =
During the American Civil War , music played a prominent role on both sides of the conflict : Union and Confederate . On the American Civil War battlefield , different instruments including bugles , drums , and fifes were played to issue marching orders or sometimes simply to boost the morale of one 's fellow soldiers . Singing was also employed as a recreational activity , but as a release from the inevitable tensions that come with fighting in a war , particularly a war in which the issue of freedom of a race is to be decided . In camp , music was a diversion away from the bloodshed , helping the soldiers deal with homesickness and boredom . Soldiers of both sides often engaged in recreation with musical instruments , and when the opposing armies were near each other , sometimes the bands from both sides of the conflict played against each other on the night before a battle .
Each side had its particular favorite tunes , while some music was enjoyed by Northerners and Southerners alike , as exemplified by United States President Abraham Lincoln 's love of Dixie , the unofficial anthem of the Confederacy . To this day , many of the songs are sung when a patriotic piece is required . The war 's music also inspired music artists such as Lynyrd Skynyrd and Elvis Presley .
= = Development of American music = =
The Civil War was an important period in the development of American music . During the Civil War , when soldiers from across the country commingled , the multifarious strands of American music began to crossfertilize each other , a process that was aided by the burgeoning railroad industry and other technological developments that made travel and communication easier . Army units included individuals from across the country , and they rapidly traded tunes , instruments and techniques . The songs that arose from this fusion were " the first American folk music with discernible features that can be considered unique to America " . The war was an impetus for the creation of many songs that became and remained wildly popular ; the songs were aroused by " all the varied passions ( that the Civil War inspired ) " and " echoed and re @-@ echoed " every aspect of the war . John Tasker Howard has claimed that the songs from this era " could be arranged in proper sequence to form an actual history of the conflicts ; its events , its principal characters , and the ideals and principles of the opposing sides " .
In addition to , and in conjunction with , popular songs with patriotic fervor , the Civil War era also produced a great body of brass band pieces , from both the North and the South , as well as other military musical traditions like the bugle call " Taps " .
= = Regulations = =
In May 1861 the United States War Department officially approved that every regiment of infantry and artillery could have a brass band with 24 members , while a cavalry regiment could have one of sixteen members . The Confederate army would also have brass bands . This was followed by a Union army regulation of July 1861 requiring every infantry , artillery , or cavalry company to have two musicians and for there to be a twenty @-@ four man band for every regiment . The July 1861 requirement was ignored as the war dragged on , as riflemen were more needed than musicians . In July 1862 the brass bands of the Union were disassembled by the adjutant general , although the soldiers that comprised them were sometimes reenlisted and assigned to musician roles . A survey in October 1861 found that 75 % of Union regiments had a band . By December 1861 the Union army had 28 @,@ 000 musicians in 618 bands ; a ratio of one soldier out of 41 who served the army was a musician , and the Confederate army was believed to have a similar ratio . Musicians were often given special privileges . Union general Phillip Sheridan gave his cavalry bands the best horses and special uniforms , believing " Music has done its share , and more than its share , in winning this war " .
Musicians on the battlefield were drummers and buglers , with an occasional fifer . Buglers had to learn forty @-@ nine separate calls just for infantry , with more needed for cavalry . These ranged from battle commands to calls for meal time . Some of these required musicians were drummer boys not even in their teens , which allowed an adult man to instead be a foot soldier . The most notable of these under aged musicians was John Clem , also known as " Johnny Shiloh " . Union drummers wore white straps to support their drums . The drum and band majors wore baldrics to indicate their status ; after the war , this style would be emulated in civilian bands . Drummers would march to the right of a marching column . Similar to buglers , drummers had to learn 39 different beats : fourteen for general use , and 24 for marching cadence . However , buglers were given greater importance than drummers .
= = On the battlefield = =
Whole songs were sometimes played during battles . The survivors of the disastrous Pickett 's Charge returned under the tune Nearer My God to Thee . At the Battle of Five Forks , Union musicians under orders from Sheridan played Stephen Foster 's minstrel song Nelly Bly while being shot at on the front lines . Samuel P. Heintzelman , the commander of the III Corps , saw many of his musicians standing at the back lines at the Battle of Williamsburg , and ordered them to play anything . Their music rallied the Union forces , forcing the Confederate to withdraw . It was said that music was the equivalent of " a thousand men " on one 's side . Robert E. Lee himself said , " I don 't think we could have an army without music . "
Sometimes , musicians were ordered to leave the battlefront and assist the surgeons . One notable time was the 20th Maine 's musicians at Little Round Top . As the rest of the regiment were driving back wave after wave of Confederates , the musicians of the regiment were not just performing amputations , but doing it in a very quick manner .
= = In camp = =
Many soldiers brought musical instruments from home to pass the time at camp . Banjos , fiddles , and guitars were particularly popular . Aside from drums , the instruments Confederates played were either acquired before the war , or imported , due to the lack of brass and the industry to make such instruments .
Musical duels between the two sides were common , as they heard each other as the music traveled across the countryside . The night before the Battle of Stones River , bands from both sides dueled with separate songs , until both sides started playing Home ! Sweet Home ! , at which time soldiers on both sides started singing together as one . A similar situation occurred in Fredericksburg , Virginia in the winter of 1862 – 3 . On a cold afternoon a Union band started playing Northern patriotic tunes ; a Southern band responded by playing Southern patriotic tunes . This back and forth continued into the night , until at the end both sides played Home ! Sweet Home ! simultaneously , to the cheers of both sides ' forces . In a third instance , in the spring of 1863 , the opposing armies were on the opposite sides of the Rappahannock River in Virginia , when the different sides played their patriotic tunes , and at taps one side played Home ! Sweet Home ! , and the other joined in , creating " cheers " from both sides that echoed throughout the hilly countryside .
Both sides sang Maryland , My Maryland , although the lyrics were slightly different . Another popular song for both was Lorena . When Johnny Comes Marching Home was written in 1863 by Patrick Gilmore , an immigrant from Ireland , and was also enjoyed by both sides .
= = Homefront = =
The first song written for the war , The First Gun is Fired , was first published and distributed three days after the Battle of Fort Sumter . George F. Root , who wrote it , is said to have produced the most songs of anyone about the war , over thirty in total . Lincoln once wrote a letter to Root , saying , " You have done more than a hundred generals and a thousand orators " .
The southern states had long lagged behind northern states in producing common literature . With the advent of war , Southern publishers were in demand . These publishers , based largely in five cities ( Charleston , South Carolina ; Macon , Georgia ; Mobile , Alabama ; Nashville , Tennessee ' and New Orleans , Louisiana ) , produced five times more printed music than they did literature .
In the Confederate States of America , God Save the South was the official national anthem . However , Dixie was the most popular . United States President Abraham Lincoln said he loved Dixie and wanted to hear it played , saying " as we had captured the rebel army , we had also captured the rebel tune " . At an April 9 , 1865 rally , the band director was surprised when Lincoln requested that the band play Dixie . Lincoln said , " That tune is now Federal property ... good to show the rebels that , with us in power , they will be free to hear it again " . The other prominent tune was The Bonnie Blue Flag , and like Dixie was written in 1861 , unlike Union popular tunes which were written throughout the war .
The United States did not have a national anthem at this time ( Star Spangled Banner would not be recognized as such until the twentieth century ) . Union soldiers frequently sang the Battle Cry of Freedom , and the Battle Hymn of the Republic was considered the north 's most popular song .
= = Different versions = =
Although certain songs were identified with one particular side of the war , sometimes the other would adapt the song for their use . A Southern revision of the Star Spangled Banner was used , entitled " The Southern Cross " . In an example of the different lyrics , where the Banner had " O say does that Star Spangled Banner yet wave " , the Cross had " ' Tis the Cross of the South , which shall ever remain " . Another Confederate version of the Star Spangled Banner , called The Flag of Secession , replaced the same verse with " and the flag of secession in triumph doth wave " . Even a song from the American Revolutionary War was adapted , as the tune Yankee Doodle was changed to " Dixie Doodle " , and started with " Dixie whipped old Yankee Doodle early in the morning " . The Union 's Battle Cry of Freedom was also altered , with the original lines of " The Union forever ! Hurrah , boys , hurrah ! Down with the traitor , up with the star " being changed to " Our Dixie forever ! She 's never at a loss ! Down with the eagle and up with the cross ! "
The Union also adapted Southern Songs . In a Union variation of Dixie , instead of the line " I wish I was in the land of cotton , old times there are not forgotten , Look away , look away , look away , Dixie Land " , it was changed to " Away down South in the land of traitors , Rattlesnakes and alligators , Right away , come away , right away , come away " . John Brown 's Body ( originally titled John Brown ) was originally written for a soldier at Fort Warren in Boston in 1861 . It was sung to the tune of Glory , Hallelujah and was later used by Julia Ward Howe for her famous poem , Battle Hymn of the Republic .
= = Legacy = =
The music derived from this war was of greater quantity and variety than from any other war involving America . Songs came from a variety of sources . Battle Hymn of the Republic borrowed its tune from a song sung at Methodist revivals . Dixie was a minstrel song that Daniel Emmett adapted from two Ohio black singers named Snowden . American soldiers would continue to sing Battle Hymn of the Republic in the Spanish – American War , World War I , and World War II .
The Southern rock style of music has often used the Confederate Battle Flag as a symbol of the musical style . Sweet Home Alabama by Lynyrd Skynyrd was described as a " vivid example of a lingering Confederate mythology in Southern culture " .
A ballad from the war , Aura Lee , would become the basis of the song Love Me Tender by Elvis Presley . Presley also sang An American Trilogy , which was described as " smoothing " out All My Trials , the Battle Hymn of the Republic , and Dixie of its divisions , although Dixie still dominated the piece .
In 2013 , a compilation album by current popular musicians , like Jorma Kaukonen , Ricky Skaggs , and Karen Elson , was released with the title , Divided & United : The Songs of the Civil War .
= = Songs published per year = =
w .
= Words by
m . =
Music by
= = = 1861 = = =
The First Gun is Fired , w.m. George F. Root
The Bonnie Blue Flag , w . Mrs Annie Chamber @-@ Ketchum m . Harry MacCarthy
Dixie , w . Dan Emmett a . C. S. Grafully
John Brown 's Body , w. anonymous m . William Steffe ( came to be the unofficial theme song of black soldiers . )
Maryland , My Maryland , w . James Ryder Randall m . Walter de Mapers ( Music " Mini est Propositum " 12th century )
The Vacant Chair , w . Henry S. Washburne m . George Frederick Root
= = = 1862 = = =
Here 's Your Mule , - C. D. Benson
Battle Cry of Freedom , - George F. Root
The Battle Hymn of the Republic , - Julia Ward Howe
= = = 1863 = = =
All Quiet Along the Potomac Tonight , w.m. John Hill Hewitt
Just Before the Battle , Mother , by George F. Root
Mother Would Comfort Me , w.m. Charles C. Sawyer
Tenting on the Old Camp Ground , w.m. Walter Kittredge
Weeping Sad And Lonely , w . Charles Carroll Sawyer m . Henry Tucker
When Johnny Comes Marching Home Again , by Louis Lambert & Patrick Gilmore
You Are Going to the Wars , Willie Boy ! , w.m. John Hill Hewitt
The Young Volunteer , w.m. John Hill Hewitt
= = = 1864 = = =
Tramp ! Tramp ! Tramp ! ( The Boys Are Marching ) , w.m. George F. Root
Pray , Maiden , Pray ! , w . A. W. Kercheval m . A. J. Turner .
= = = 1865 = = =
Jeff in Pettycoats , w.m. Henry Tucker
Marching Through Georgia , w.m. Henry Clay Work
Good Bye , Old Glory , w . L. J. Bates , m . George Frederick Root
= = Media = =
= Edward Norton =
Edward Harrison Norton ( born August 18 , 1969 ) is an American actor , filmmaker and activist . He has been nominated for three Academy Awards for his work in the films Primal Fear ( 1996 ) , American History X ( 1998 ) and Birdman ( 2014 ) . He also starred in other roles , such as Everyone Says I Love You ( 1996 ) , The People vs. Larry Flynt ( 1996 ) , Fight Club ( 1999 ) , Red Dragon ( 2002 ) , 25th Hour ( 2002 ) , Kingdom of Heaven ( 2005 ) , The Illusionist ( 2006 ) , Moonrise Kingdom ( 2012 ) and The Grand Budapest Hotel ( 2014 ) . He has also directed and co @-@ written films , including his directorial debut , Keeping the Faith ( 2000 ) . He has done uncredited work on the scripts for The Score ( 2001 ) , Frida ( 2002 ) and The Incredible Hulk ( 2008 ) .
Alongside his work in cinema , Norton is an environmental and social activist , and is a member of the board of trustees of Enterprise Community Partners , a non @-@ profit organization for developing affordable housing founded by his grandfather James Rouse . Norton is president of the American branch of the Maasai Wilderness Conservation Trust . He ran in the 2009 New York City Marathon to raise money for the Trust . He also raises money for charity through Crowdrise , a social networking community for volunteers and a micro @-@ donations fundraising platform . In July 2010 , Norton was designated as the United Nations Goodwill Ambassador for Biodiversity by UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon . On July 2 , 2014 , Norton was elected Chairman of the Board of Trustee to Signature Theatre , a not @-@ for @-@ profit theater Company in New York . Norton has been on Signature 's board since 1996 and served as the co @-@ Chair of the Capital Campaign during the building of the Pershing Square Signature Center .
= = Early life = =
Norton was born on August 18 , 1969 in Boston , Massachusetts and raised in Columbia , Maryland . His father , Edward Mower Norton Jr . , served in Vietnam as a Marine lieutenant and was later an environmental lawyer and conservation advocate working in Asia , as well as a former federal prosecutor in the Carter administration . His mother , Lydia Robinson " Robin " ( née Rouse ) , a teacher of English , died of a brain tumor in 1997 . His maternal grandfather , James Rouse , was the founder of The Rouse Company , who developed the city of Columbia , Maryland ( where Norton grew up ) , helped develop Baltimore 's Inner Harbor , Norfolk 's Waterside Festival Marketplace and Boston 's Quincy Market , as well as co @-@ founded Enterprise Community Partners with Norton 's maternal step @-@ grandmother , Patty Rouse . Norton has two younger siblings , Molly and Jim , with whom he has professionally collaborated .
From 1981 to 1985 , along with his brother , Norton attended Camp Pasquaney on the shores of Newfound Lake in Bristol , New Hampshire , where he won the acting cup in 1984 ; he returned to the camp 's council for two years by directing theater , and maintains close connections with the camp . Norton was raised Episcopalian . He graduated in 1987 from Columbia 's Wilde Lake High School , where his classmates included New York City Council member Mark Levine and best @-@ selling author Robert Kolker . He attended Yale University , where he was a competitive rower and acted in university productions alongside Ron Livingston and Paul Giamatti , graduating in 1991 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in History . After graduation , Norton worked in Osaka , Japan , consulting for his grandfather 's company , Enterprise Community Partners , and speaks some Japanese . He appeared in an EFL textbook , Only in America , used by Nova , a formerly major English language school in Japan . He moved to New York City to star in the Off @-@ Broadway theater , breaking through with his 1993 involvement in Edward Albee 's Fragments , at the Signature Theatre Company .
= = Career = =
In his film debut Primal Fear , Norton played Aaron Stampler , an altar boy charged with the murder of a Roman Catholic Archbishop who is defended by Martin Vail ( Richard Gere ) . The film is an adaptation of William Diehl 's novel . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly wrote : " Norton gives a performance that 's fully the equal of Gere 's – he 's as slyly self @-@ effacing as Gere is slyly ostentatious . " Alison Macor of The Austin Chronicle , in review of the film , wrote , " Norton 's performance and the well @-@ paced tension preceding the movie 's climactic sequence provide an entertaining if slightly predictable thriller . " Despite the mixed reviews , Norton won a Golden Globe Award and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . That same year , Norton played lawyer Alan Isaacman in The People vs. Larry Flynt . In 1998 , he played Derek Vinyard , a reformed neo @-@ Nazi , in the film American History X , David Denby of The New Yorker noted that he gives Derek " ambiguous erotic allure ; he 's almost appealing " . The film received positive reviews and grossed over $ 23 million worldwide at the box office . His performance earned him an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor . Later , Norton starred with Matt Damon in Rounders , that follows two friends who need to quickly earn enough cash playing poker to pay off a huge debt . In David Fincher 's 1999 film Fight Club , Norton played an unreliable narrator who feels trapped with his white @-@ collar position in society . It is based on Chuck Palahniuk 's novel of the same name . To prepare for the role , Norton took lessons in boxing , taekwondo and grappling . Fight Club premiered at the 1999 Venice International Film Festival . During promotion for the film , he said , " I feel that Fight Club really , in a way ... probed into the despair and paralysis that people feel in the face of having inherited this value system out of advertising . " The film failed to meet expectations at the box office , and received polarized reactions from film critics . However , it became a cult classic after its DVD release .
In 2002 , Norton starred in Brett Ratner 's Red Dragon as FBI profiler Will Graham and in Spike Lee 's 25th Hour . While Red Dragon received mixed reviews , it was commercially successful . 25th Hour was about post @-@ 9 / 11 New York City . In 2003 , Norton was forced by Paramount Studios , under threat of lawsuit having signed a three @-@ film contract when he signed up for Primal Fear , to appear in The Italian Job ( 2003 ) , for which he accordingly refused to promote upon its release . Norton won critical praise for his role as Baldwin IV , the leper king of Jerusalem , in Kingdom of Heaven . Norton portrayed Marvel Comics character Bruce Banner / The Hulk in the Marvel Studios film The Incredible Hulk , released in 2008 . Norton 's failed attempt to rewrite the film along lines of his own choosing resulted in his refusal to promote the film . He was expected to reprise his role in the 2012 film The Avengers , but was replaced by Mark Ruffalo .
In 2006 , Norton starred in three films : Down in the Valley , as a dangerous drifter affecting to be a cowpoke , The Illusionist , which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and later became a sleeper hit when it went into general release , and The Painted Veil , for each of which he won an award . In 2010 , Norton appeared in two films again : in Leaves of Grass , as estranged identical twins ( one a small @-@ time drug dealer and the other a Harvard professor ) ; and in Stone , which reunited Norton with his The Score cast @-@ mate Robert De Niro , and in which Norton plays a convict trying to con his parole officer ( De Niro ) into an early release . In 2008 , Norton starred in New Line Cinema 's Pride and Glory , as an honest detective assigned to investigate the precinct run by his older brother . The film was not well received by critics , not strongly supported by the studio , and despite also starring Colin Farrell and Jon Voight , its worldwide grosses totaled only $ 31 @.@ 1 million , against a production budget of $ 30 million . Norton played himself in a cameo role in the experimental comedy show Stella , and made another comedic television appearance on the Emmy award @-@ winning ABC show Modern Family in 2010 , playing a fictional member of real life ' 80s new wave band Spandau Ballet . In The Bourne Legacy , he played the antagonist Eric Byer . Norton has also done uncredited script work on some of the films he appeared in specifically The Score and Frida . In 2000 , Norton made his directorial debut , Keeping the Faith . He had a reputation of being a perfectionist and managed to receive final cut of American History X , clashed with the director while shooting Red Dragon , and ( with the director ) clashed with the studio during the shooting of The Incredible Hulk ( and refused to do promotion for it ) . In 2013 , Norton starred in The Lonely Island 's music video , " Spring Break Anthem , " alongside Andy Samberg , Zach Galifinakis , James Franco , Akiva Schaffer and Jorma Taccone . The video premiered on Funny or Die 's Between Two Ferns during a segment between Galifinakis and Franco . In 2014 , Norton played Mike Shiner , a prickly Broadway actor in the black comedy film Birdman and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the role . On February 20 , 2014 , it was announced that Norton was directing Motherless Brooklyn . In June 2014 , Norton 's Class 5 Films and RatPac Entertainment acquired the film rights to the non @-@ fiction article American Hippopotamus , by Jon Mooallem , about the meat shortage in the U.S. in 1910 and the attempts made by Major Frederick Russell Burnham , Captain Fritz Joubert Duquesne and Congressman Robert Broussard to import hippopotamuses into the Louisiana bayous and to convince Americans to eat them . The film will highlight the Burnham - Duquesne rivalry , two famous spies who had previous been under orders to assassinate each other . Norton , William Migliore and Brett Ratner will produce this feature film .
= = Personal life = =
After six years of dating , Norton proposed to Canadian film producer Shauna Robertson in 2011 and they married in 2012 . They have one son , Atlas ( born March 18 , 2013 ) .
Norton is generally known for his reluctance to embrace his celebrity status and says , " If I ever have to stop taking the subway , I 'm gonna have a heart attack . "
Norton has stated in interviews that he is a fan of the Baltimore Orioles , and was involved in many of Cal Ripken Jr . ' s retirement activities in 2001 when he was asked to be a part of Ripken 's biography for Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He attended Ripken 's ceremony at the Hall of Fame in July 2007 .
Norton has a private pilot license and discussed his flight training when interviewed on episodes of the Late Show with David Letterman and Inside the Actor 's Studio . One of his personal aircraft was a Cessna 206 substantially modified by the AOPA .
Norton was a strong supporter of former New York State Governor Eliot Spitzer . Norton is a member of the board of trustees of Enterprise Community Partners , a non @-@ profit developer of affordable housing based in his hometown . He is also well known for his support for environmental causes and renewable energy projects , such as Enterprise 's Green Communities Initiative and BP 's Solar Neighbors program . He also put time and money toward social activist causes , including improving the quality of living in low @-@ income communities .
Norton 's work with the HBO documentary By the People : The Election of Barack Obama led to a soundtrack , with proceeds going to Enterprise Community Partners and United Way . Norton also participated in a 2008 Fast Company story about Enterprise 's green affordable housing . Norton is the president of the American branch of the Maasai Wilderness Conservation Trust . To raise money for the trust , Norton fielded a team of thirty runners in the New York City Marathon on November 1 , 2009 . The team included Alanis Morissette and David Blaine . Norton finished the event first among celebrities with a time of 3 hours , 48 minutes . Norton and his team raised over $ 1 million for the Trust .
In addition to his involvement with the Maasai Wilderness Conservation Trust , Norton supports African Wildlife Foundation , appearing in a public awareness ad about the dangers of buying elephant ivory as part of the " Say No " campaign . He is also a United Nations Goodwill Ambassador , as well as a spokesperson for the Convention on Biological Diversity . In May 2010 , Norton launched a website called Crowdrise , which uses a social networking platform to help raise funds for charity . In May 2012 , Norton played football for an ' England vs. The Rest of the World ' match the charity event Soccer Aid , along with James McAvoy and Woody Harrelson . The event eventually raised over £ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 for UNICEF UK .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Actor = = =
= = = Producer = = =
2009 : By the People : The Election of Barack Obama
2012 : Thanks for Sharing
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Givors canal =
The Givors canal ( French : Canal de Givors ) was built between 1761 and 1781 to carry coal , other goods and passengers from Rive @-@ de @-@ Gier to Givors on the Rhone , running beside the Gier river .
The canal was approved in 1760 and after many problems opened in 1780 . The canal was originally 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) long . Goods were loaded on flat barges that could carry several tons . It took about 18 hours for two or three men to pull a barge through the canal . The Givors canal played an important role in the early industrialization of Givors and the Gier valley , and became highly profitable . At its peak , in 1827 , the canal transported 332 @,@ 000 tons .
The canal became obsolete when the Saint @-@ Étienne – Lyon railway , the first passenger railway in France , was built in 1828 – 33 along the same route . In an attempt to compete , in 1839 the canal was extended to 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) long , with 42 locks to raise or lower boats moving between the sections of level water . Despite the extension , traffic volumes slumped , although the canal was kept open until the start of the 20th century . Little now remains of the canal , which has mostly been covered by the A47 autoroute between Givors and Saint @-@ Étienne .
= = Plans = =
The original plan conceived by Alléon de Valcourt in 1749 was to build a canal that would link the upper Loire to the Rhone . The route would run through the Gier basin from Givors on the Rhone most of the way to Saint @-@ Étienne , then through the Saint @-@ Étienne basin to Saint @-@ Just on the Loire . It was sometimes called the Canal des Deux @-@ Mers ( Two @-@ Seas Canal ) since it would link the Atlantic and the Mediterranean .
A more immediate need for a canal covering the section between Givors and Rive @-@ de @-@ Gier emerged in the 1750s , when a cheaper method than pack mules was needed to carry coal to heat houses in Lyon and to fuel the glass works that had been opened in Givors in 1749 . In 1751 , there were 1 @,@ 200 mules engaged in carrying the coal from Rive @-@ de @-@ Gier to Givors , from where it was taken by water north to Lyon and south to the towns of the Midi . Lyon was consuming 36 @,@ 000 tons annually . The coal sold for 5 francs a ton at the mine head and 21 @.@ 70 francs per ton at the Lyon docks .
The watchmaker and engineer François Zacharie proposed to connect the Loire to the Rhone by a navigable canal 56 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 34 @.@ 9 mi ) long that would mount the Gier and its tributary the Janon , cross the watershed at Saint @-@ Etienne and descend the Furan to exit on the Loire near Andrézieux . He filed his proposal early in 1758 , and had to wait in Paris until 28 July 1760 for a favorable report from the Conseil du Roi .
Letters patent were issued to François and Guillaume Zacharie on 6 September 1761 giving them the right to build and then use the canal for forty years , after which it would revert to the crown . They would be responsible for building bridges for the roads cut by the canal and for paying for the lands taken . The letters @-@ patent were not registered in Parliament until 6 June 1768 . Zacharie was only authorized to open the channel from Givors as far as Rive @-@ de @-@ Gier , a rise of 80 metres ( 260 ft ) .
= = Construction = =
Work began on the canal in 1763 . When water was let into the first section of the canal in 1764 the side walls of a lock chamber collapsed . Zacharie had to borrow money to continue . In 1766 , to satisfy his creditors , he prematurely opened the canal . The water broke the banks and the participants in the ceremony had to scramble to escape . Work was halted with the canal reaching only to Saint @-@ Romain @-@ en @-@ Gier . In 1768 , Zacharie died penniless of a heart attack .
Zacharie 's death threatened to disrupt the project , but King Louis XVI of France was personally interested , and Zacharie 's oldest son , Guillaume , was allowed to resume the work . On 14 December 1771 , new letters patent were given to Guillaume and his partners , replacing the earlier ones . Under the new terms , all the land needed could be expropriated including two toises , or 3 @.@ 6 metres ( 12 ft ) , of land on either side for tow paths . The builder could take materials wherever they could be found .
The king appointed an engineer to oversee construction , and an inspector of roads and bridges , to be paid by the concessionary . The concessionary and his heirs , successors and assigns would enjoy the canal for sixty years before transferring it to the king . He could deploy as many boats as he chose , being paid defined fees for the weight and distance of goods carried , and for passage of empty boats through each lock . Passenger fees were also defined . He could deploy armed guards to enforce regulations .
The project continued to run into difficulties with malfunctions , financial problems and threats of work stoppages . New letters patent were issued on 12 August 1779 that doubled the rates and extended the term to ninety @-@ nine years . The concessionary could now also expropriate land for shops , warehouses and housing for employees . The work was complete in May 1780 and was finally opened for navigation from Givors to Rive @-@ de @-@ Gier the following December . The concessionaries reported that they had spent six million francs , but the canal probably cost much more .
The canal from Givors to Rive @-@ de @-@ Gier had nine aqueducts and 16 bridges . At Tartaras a tunnel 100 metres ( 330 ft ) long and 5 metres ( 16 ft ) wide had been broken through solid rock . The canal was 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) in length , and had 26 locks , several of them double . It was 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) deep , and could accommodate vessels 2 @.@ 8 metres ( 9 ft 2 in ) high . The maximum length of vessels was 22 @.@ 5 metres ( 74 ft ) and maximum width 4 @.@ 65 metres ( 15 @.@ 3 ft ) .
= = Operation = =
The canal had to contend with initial opposition from the carters , who used force to prevent coal being taken from the pits to the loading points . However , the canal provided a greatly superior method of transporting coal and was an immediate success . In 1782 it earned 114 @,@ 000 livres . The Compagnie du canal de Givors was established in December 1788 to take over operations . In letters @-@ patent of December 1788 , registered on 5 September 1789 , the concession was declared to be permanent .
Goods were carried on sicelandes , flat wooden boats about 20 to 22 metres ( 66 to 72 ft ) long that could carry several tons . They were hauled by two or three margoulins , men who walked on the towpaths pulling the barge with a harness over their shoulder . It took about 18 hours to pull a barge through the canal . A marinier stood on the front of the barge steering it with a wooden pole . Lock @-@ keepers operated the locks and helped manoeuver the barges using a boat hook . Porters loaded and unloaded the barges . They were called crocheteurs after the iron hooks that they used to move bales of goods .
The combination of the glass works and the canal transformed the sleepy rural village of Givors into an industrial town . The canal and the river both helped Givors distribute its manufactures . By the time the French Revolution began in 1789 Givors had 2 @,@ 800 inhabitants . Its nodal position , later reinforced by construction of various railways , explains the development of the glass works and later of iron and steel manufacture .
In December 1788 , King Louis XVI approved construction of a reservoir to supply water to the canal in dry periods . François Zacharie had proposed a site for the reservoir high up near Saint @-@ Etienne , but the chosen site was low down on the Couzon river near to Rive @-@ de @-@ Gier . This short @-@ sighted decision ruled out the plan to continue the canal up to Saint @-@ Etienne and then down to the Loire . The French Revolution ( 1789 – 1799 ) delayed the work , but the Barrage de Couzon ( Couzon Dam ) was completed in 1809 , capable of containing 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 35 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of water . It was modeled on the dam built at Saint @-@ Ferriol for the Midi canal .
In 1821 , revenue was 816 @,@ 444 francs , and the company paid a dividend of 555 @,@ 500 francs . The company was able to raise its rates without reducing traffic . In 1822 , the canal earned almost a million francs from carrying 243 @,@ 200 tons of coal and 96 @,@ 000 tons of other merchandise . The concession holders had repaid most of the debts they had incurred to build the canal , including many improvements since it was opened , and were able to pay healthy dividends . By 1824 , the canal was giving annual revenues of 850 @,@ 000 francs . An 1824 account described a superb water station at Givors on the right bank of the Rhone , an excellent basin at Rive @-@ de @-@ Gier for loading , fine buildings for administration of the canal and spacious shops and warehouses .
In 1827 , at its peak , the canal transported 332 @,@ 000 tons . The main purpose of the canal was still to transport coal to Givors , from where it could be taken to other towns on the river Rhone . On the return trip , boats carried some of the merchandise of the Midi including iron , oak wood and other things needed by the factories of the Loire department . By 1831 , the population of Givors had risen to 9 @,@ 210 . There were many factories making window panes , bottles and glasses , and the port had a busy trade in coal shipment . Ten large glass works had been established at Rive @-@ de @-@ Gier that also transported their products by the canal .
= = Railway competition = =
The canal 's high tariffs and excellent profits attracted interest in building a competing railway . This was a bold venture . Planning for the Saint @-@ Etienne railway preceded the Liverpool and Manchester Railway , opened in 1830 , which was used as the prototype by other pioneering railways , so many new technical problems had to be solved . In fact the steep section from Rive @-@ de @-@ Gier to Saint @-@ Etienne was beyond the power of steam traction engines of the day .
Construction of the Saint @-@ Étienne – Lyon railway began in September 1826 under the direction of Marc Seguin . The section between Givors and Rive @-@ de @-@ Gier was open for freight traffic on 28 June 1830 . The wagons were drawn up the slope by horses . One horse could pull five or six empty wagons at about 3 kilometres per hour ( 1 @.@ 9 mph ) . On the downhill return journey , the horses were placed in wagons , and the 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) distance could be covered in an hour . In early 1831 the steam locomotive Seguin came into operation , able to tow seven cars loaded with 21 tons or up to 28 empty cars from Givors to Rive @-@ de @-@ Gier in an hour and a half . The full line from Saint @-@ Étienne to Lyon was open for goods and passengers on 4 April 1833 .
The population was hostile to the railway since it threatened many trades . Trains were derailed and wagons set on fire . In 1835 the poet Guillaume Roquille published his Franco @-@ Provençal language collection Ballon d ’ essai d ’ un jeune poète forézien ( Trial balloon of a young Forézien poet ) . He violently attacked the arrival of the Saint @-@ Étienne – Lyon railway , which would ruin the canal on which his father worked as a porter . The canal company responded to competition by lowering rates but still lost business . They had steam boats built in England that could tow barges from Givors to Lyon , avoided the expense of transferring the coal to river boats . On 3 December 1831 a royal ordinance allowed the company to extend the canal west to La Grand @-@ Croix . Work began at once and was completed in 1839 . The 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) extension brought the length to 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) and the number of locks to 42 .
However , economics were on the side of the railway . An 1836 report noted that coal had never been carried directly from Saint Etienne to Lyon using the canal . It would first have to be carried by land for 18 to 20 kilometres ( 11 to 12 mi ) , then for 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) by the canal , and then up the Rhone for 20 to 22 kilometres ( 12 to 14 mi ) . With the opening of the railway , all the coal could be carried non @-@ stop by the much cheaper land route . Only the mines of Rive @-@ de @-@ Gier had use for the canal , and for those mines the charges were excessive .
= = Obsolescence = =
The canal was leased to the Compagnie des Mines de la Loire on 1 January 1846 . Tonnage had fallen from 246 @,@ 000 tons in 1830 to 172 @,@ 000 tons in 1840 . It rose to 238 @,@ 000 tons in 1850 , then resumed its decline : 146 @,@ 000 tons in 1860 , 82 @,@ 000 tons in 1870 and 24 @,@ 000 tons in 1878 . Until the end of the 19th century the municipality of Givors held that the canal was essential to development of the town , and that barge traffic was still a viable industry , fighting against closure of the canal and demanding that it remain navigable for its entire length despite mounting evidence that it was obsolete . However , by 1881 , it was clear that the canal was in poor shape . The natural shores were eroded and the sides of locks 1 – 32 needed to be completely rebuilt . From locks 32 to 35 the canal was mostly silted up and in some places had disappeared completely , taken over by vegetable gardens .
The industrial development of the Gier valley had its negative aspects . An 1884 writer described the region of Échalas and Saint @-@ Romain @-@ en @-@ Gier , where the country was furrowed by the river , the canal , the railway and the national road . He described the people as the most miserable in the canton of Givors . He said that everything showed this misery : agriculture , roads , houses , church . Work in the mines was the only choice for the poor villagers . An 1885 travel guide mentions the station of Givors @-@ canal on the railway south from Lyon , where the Nîmes line separated from the line to Saint Etienne . The canal then was mainly used by coal barges . The route from Givors @-@ Canal to St. Etienne passed coal mines , large smelting works and iron foundries .
The canal company went bankrupt and was bought by the state in 1886 . This briefly gave it a new lease of life , but the canal had an obsolete gauge . By the start of the 20th century it was almost abandoned . The canal was neglected and parts were filled in . In the 1970s the A47 autoroute between Givors and Saint @-@ Étienne covered almost all the sections that remained , apart from the site at Tartaras where the double lock and tunnel have been preserved as a heritage site .
= Bruton Dovecote =
The Bruton Dovecote is a limestone tower that was built between the 15th and 17th century in Bruton in the English county of Somerset . The structure was once used as a dovecote , and may have been a watchtower or prospect tower prior to this . It is a Grade II * listed building and scheduled monument .
It has been associated with Bruton Abbey and the Berkley family who owned the estate after the dissolution . It is known that the conversion to house pigeons and doves took place around 1780 . It was acquired by the National Trust in 1915 and they have managed the site since then undertaking restoration work .
= = History = =
Though the Bruton Dovecote 's date of construction is not known precisely , the structure was built some time between the 15th and 17th century . Architectural historian Lydia Greeves suggests that the building was once within the deerpark of Bruton Abbey and was adapted by the monks from a gabled Tudor tower . However , John and Pamela McCann , authors of The Dovecotes of Historical Somerset , claim that the structure was not built until after the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 1530s . The authors claim that the Berkley family , who acquired the lands of the Abbey , constructed the building as a prospect tower . Dendrochronological dating commissioned by the National Trust found that timber in the door and window frames came from trees felled between 1554 and 1586 .
The conversion to be a dovecote took place around 1780 . Pigeons and doves were an important food source historically kept for their eggs , flesh , and dung . Although it is now a roofless ruin with some of the windows blocked up , it previously had a chimney and the fireplace can still be seen . The National Trust acquired the freehold from Sir Henry Hugh Arthur Hoare of the Hoare baronets , whose family seat was at Stourhead , in 1915 . The tower was subsequently designated as a scheduled monument in 1953 and a listed building ( Grade II * ) in 1961 .
In the 1980s the dovecote was inspected as part of an investigation into an outbreak of psittacosis ( also known as parrot disease or parrot fever ) , a zoonotic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Chlamydophila psittaci , at the adjoining King 's School . No cause was found for the infection . In 2010 restoration work was undertaken including repairs to the tops of the walls ; these are exposed as the building no longer has a roof . Wall ties were used on the south west corner where the masonry was bulging . In addition , car parking and educational signage was provided . This was partially funded by South Somerset council , Bruton Town Council and the Heritage Lottery Fund to a total of £ 105 @,@ 000 .
= = Location = =
The dovecote stands on Lusty Hill to the south of Bruton overlooking the town . It is approximately 370 metres ( 1 @,@ 210 ft ) south of the Church of St Mary , and 230 metres ( 750 ft ) south of King 's School . It is on the Leland Trail .
= = Architecture = =
The square tower was built of local coursed oolitic limestone with Doulting stone dressings . The walls are 2 feet 8 inches ( 0 @.@ 81 m ) thick at the base , and the tower is 6 square metres ( 65 sq ft ) in plan . The doorway has an ovolo moulded arch which is 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) high . This suggests a construction date in the late 16th or early 17th century . Another entrance was made for cattle to enter at a later date but this has been blocked up . Several of the windows have also been filled with stone . On the north @-@ east face there were two @-@ light chamfered mullioned windows on each floor while on the north @-@ west wall they were one- and two @-@ light windows .
It has over 200 pigeon holes , which were installed after the original construction , possibly before 1780 . Six tiers of nest boxes remain ; however there were previously several more , possibly as many as 850 . They are made of regular blocks of tufa each around 8 inches ( 200 mm ) square and 16 inches ( 410 mm ) deep .
= DecembeRadio =
DecembeRadio was an American Christian rock band formed in 2003 and composed of bassist and lead vocalist Josh Reedy , lead guitarist Brian Bunn , rhythm guitarist Eric Miker and drummer Boone Daughdrill .
Reedy , Bunn and Miker first ventured out on their own as DecembeRadio after a stint as touring band for evangelist Billy Wayne Arrington . After a year of gigging , DecembeRadio released two independent albums in early 2005 . Following their signing with Slanted Records and the addition of Daughdrill on drums , the band released DecembeRadio in June 2006 . The album was nominated for " Best Rock Or Rap Gospel Album " at the 49th Grammy Awards , and won the 2007 Dove Award for " Rock Album of the Year " . A follow @-@ up , Satisfied , was released in August 2008 . DecembeRadio dissolved in 2012 , and the members moved on to other musical projects .
Musically , DecembeRadio is heavily influenced by hard rock and blues @-@ rock from the 1970s , owing to early exposure to family members ' record collections . Their sound has been compared to that of Aerosmith , Led Zeppelin , The Black Crowes and Lenny Kravitz , among others .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The members of DecembeRadio all began playing music in their teens . Josh Reedy and Brian Bunn attended the same schools , and the former 's rendition of " Johnny B. Goode " on guitar at a middle school talent show convinced Bunn to take up guitar , as well . " Our first year of high school , we started a Top 40 band . We played Hootie & the Blowfish covers and that sort of thing . Then shortly thereafter , we realized that God had given us these gifts , and we wanted to utilize them for him , " recalled Bunn . The pair decided to pursue music full @-@ time upon graduation from Auburn High School in Riner , Virginia .
After a performance opening for evangelist Billy Wayne Arrington in Dublin , Virginia , Arrington invited Bunn and Reedy to join his touring band . Bunn credits Arrington with helping to alter the band 's focus : " We were playing music for God , but we didn 't really know why we were doing it . It was more so to be ' rock stars ' , per se , and just use God as a way to get there . And so he really helped us flip @-@ flop that and get it the way it should be . "
Eric Miker started playing guitar at the age of sixteen when his father taught him a few chords . After two years at West Virginia University , Miker felt a calling to go into Christian ministry . He met Bunn and Reedy at a youth event in West Virginia , where he impressed the pair with the " Sweet Child o ' Mine " guitar lick that he added to a worship song . Shortly thereafter , Miker joined the band full @-@ time , playing with Arrington for a few months before the trio ventured out on their own . The band came up with its name after Miker photographed an old radio with a calendar on top of it open to the month of December .
= = = 2004 – 2005 = = =
DecembeRadio played scattered dates for churches and youth groups in 2004 with Bunn as the lead singer . However , Bunn contracted a virus that paralyzed
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three @-@ quarters of his vocal cords , and Reedy took over as lead singer . ( Bunn regained most of his voice after therapy . ) The band also found time to record two albums that were released independently in early 2005 . Noise was a self @-@ produced album of praise and worship covers on which each band member contributed at least two lead vocals , and Dangerous contained nine original songs and a cover of " Are You Gonna Go My Way " by Lenny Kravitz . Dangerous was produced with Scotty Wilbanks , whom the band met through Arrington .
Mississippi native Boone Daughdrill joined the band in late 2005 ; he had previously toured with Kimberly Perry , Jump5 and ZOEgirl . " We got Boone 's phone number from [ Wilbanks ] about a year ago . We called him up and were like , ' We need a drummer for this stint of dates . ' We met him at the airport and as soon as he walked off of the plane and gave us a big hug it was like we 'd known him forever and we decided to keep him ! " said Bunn . Wilbanks also arranged a showcase performance for DecembeRadio in front of record company executives , leading to the band ’ s signing with Slanted Records in December 2005 .
= = = DecembeRadio = = =
The band ’ s first album for Slanted was recorded at Southern Tracks Recording in Atlanta , Georgia , in early 2006 with Wilbanks in the producer ’ s chair . The self @-@ titled album was released on June 27 , with lead single " Love Found Me ( Love ’ s Got a Hold ) " released to radio two months prior . Second single " Drifter " was released in August and slowly climbed the charts , finally peaking at number 5 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart on December 30 . Tour dates in 2006 were split between residencies at youth camps , one @-@ off gigs at churches and schools , and the occasional festival date . In December , the band was nominated for a Grammy Award for " Best Rock Or Rap Gospel Album " . They were hanging out in a guitar shop when they received the call from the president of their label ; " We were kind of shocked but honored to have our first album be nominated for a Grammy , " Miker said . The band lost to Jonny Lang at the awards ceremony a few months later .
DecembeRadio continued playing gigs and releasing singles from DecembeRadio to radio in early 2007 , and then joined Superchick ’ s Generation Rising Tour for a string of dates in April and May . More accolades came the band 's way with their nomination for four Dove Awards ( " New Artist of the Year " , " Rock Album of the Year " , " Dangerous " for " Rock Recorded Song of the Year " , and " Drifter " for " Song of the Year " ) , though their only win was for " Rock Album of the Year " .
= = = Satisfied = = =
Recording for DecembeRadio 's fourth album began in September 2007 , again at Southern Tracks Recording . The band took a break in October and November to headline their own Drifter Tour , which also featured Nevertheless , Superhero and Bread of Stone . Near the end of the tour , Slanted Records released an expanded edition of DecembeRadio , which included a new track recorded during the aforementioned recording session . The song , " Find You Waiting " , performed similarly to " Drifter " , climbing slowly and not reaching its peak position of No. 5 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart until April 5 , 2008 .
Recording of the band 's fourth album continued in early 2008 , but the sessions were again interrupted for a major tour , this time in support of Third Day in March and April . Soon after the tour ended , DecembeRadio finished recording the album , which was titled Satisfied and released on August 26 . " It 's got a real southern feeling , definitely ' Crowes @-@ ish ' and swampy , " said Reedy of the album . Satisfied debuted at its peak positions of number 116 and 3 on the Billboard 200 and Top Christian Albums charts , respectively . Following a two @-@ month break , DecembeRadio embarked on a month @-@ long headlining tour in support of Satisfied with guests Ruth , Sevenglory and Billy Wayne . A digital @-@ only EP entitled Comfort & Joy was released on November 25 , 2008 . The EP contains covers of three Christmas songs : " God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen " , Chuck Berry 's arrangement of " Run Run Rudolph " and an instrumental version of " Away in a Manger " .
DecembeRadio began a two @-@ month North American tour in support of Newsboys in February 2009 . The following year , the band released a live album on both CD and DVD in March , and Daughdrill left DecembeRadio in September to join The Band Perry . A five @-@ song EP , Southern Attic Sessions , was released on March 15 , 2011 .
= = = Dissolution = = =
DecembeRadio played its last concert on November 8 , 2012 . No announcement of the band 's dissolution was ever made , but in 2013 the three remaining members formed a secular country music trio called JEBtown , which played at least one show in Nashville and filmed a music video for a studio track . By 2014 , the band members had moved on to other projects . Josh Reedy toured as a bass player with Chris Cagle , then joined Thomas Rhett 's band as a keyboardist and guitarist . Brian Bunn had a stint as a touring guitarist with Third Day , then joined Reedy in Rhett 's band . Eric Miker became a youth pastor and worship band musician at Jewel City Church in Shinnston , West Virginia .
= = Musical style and influences = =
DecembeRadio 's music is strongly influenced by hard rock and blues @-@ rock from the 1970s , be it directly through artists like Aerosmith and The Rolling Stones , or through later interpreters such as The Black Crowes and Lenny Kravitz . The band 's label , Slanted Records , also notes the influence of Porcupine Tree , Audioslave and other contemporary rock bands . In addition , their music has been compared to U2 , Stone Temple Pilots and King 's X. " We feel like God has called us to a musical style that is not represented as much as , say , more modern , harder edged bands . We are bringing the old school to the new school , " says Josh Reedy .
The band members credit family members with introducing them to rock music through old collections of vinyl records . Boone Daughdrill cites " When the Levee Breaks " as his biggest influence . " When I heard that drum fill come in the intro ... oh ! I was a little kid and my uncle had all of the Zeppelin records . He was a drummer too and he would always be like , ' Man , check these guys out . ' I was only three or four and I didn ’ t know what music was , but I knew that I loved that . "
Brian Bunn and Eric Miker credit Eric Clapton and Keith Richards , respectively , with their interest in taking up guitar . Bassist Reedy started out on guitar , as well , stating that his inspiration was either " Crossfire " or " The House Is Rockin ' " by Stevie Ray Vaughan . " I was really into blues before anything else , " said Reedy .
= = Members = =
Brian Bunn – lead guitar , vocals ( 2003 – 12 )
Eric Miker – guitar , vocals ( 2003 – 12 )
Josh Reedy – lead vocals , bass guitar ( 2003 – 12 )
Boone Daughdrill – drums , percussion ( 2005 – 10 )
= = Discography = =
Dangerous ( January 2005 , independent )
Noise ( January 2005 , independent )
DecembeRadio ( June 2006 , Slanted )
Satisfied ( August 2008 , Slanted )
Live ( March 2010 , Slanted )
Southern Attic Sessions ( EP ) ( August 2011 , Slanted )
= = Awards = =
= = = GMA Dove Awards = = =
= Pac @-@ Man ( 1982 video game ) =
In 1982 , Atari Inc. released a port of Namco 's hit arcade game Pac @-@ Man for its Atari 2600 video game console . Like the original arcade version , the player controls the title character with a joystick . The object is to traverse a maze , consuming all the wafers within while avoiding four ghosts .
The game was programmed by Tod Frye , who was given a very limited time frame by Atari to complete the project . The technical differences between the Atari 2600 console and the original 's arcade hardware — particularly the amount of available memory — presented several challenges to Frye . Given the popularity of the property , Atari produced approximately 12 million units ( which was more than the estimated number of Atari 2600 consoles sold at the time ) , anticipating a high number of sales .
While the port is the best selling Atari 2600 game of all time , selling an estimated 7 million copies , and was the best @-@ selling home video game of all time when it was released , critics focused on the gameplay and audio @-@ visual differences from the arcade version . Initially , the port boosted the video game industry 's presence in retail . It was followed by Atari 2600 ports of Pac @-@ Man 's arcade sequels .
= = Gameplay = =
Pac @-@ Man is a version of the original arcade game , which Namco released in 1980 , and features similar gameplay .
The maze has a landscape orientation . The warp tunnel is located at the top and bottom as opposed to the sides . The screen consists of 126 dashes ( called wafers ) . The ghost box is square with the door on the right side . The four ghosts start in the box one on top of the other . The point values of items are much lower . The prize at the bottom of the ghost box is a square called a vitamin worth 100 points . It behaves like a regular fruit . However , if Pac @-@ Man loses a life when the vitamin is shown , the vitamin may not be necessarily forfeited .
The player uses a joystick to navigate the round , yellow title character , which starts each game at the center of a maze . The goal is to eat wafers scattered throughout the maze by moving Pac @-@ Man over them while avoiding four ghosts ( enemies ) . Each time Pac @-@ Man comes into contact with a ghost , he dies , losing a life and reappearing at the center of the maze . When Pac @-@ Man runs out of lives , the game ends . The game starts with four lives and a bonus life is earned at each cleared maze .
The ghosts are avoided when they are white . The power pills temporarily make the character invulnerable to the ghosts , and make a distinctive sound effect . During this time , the ghosts turn a purplish blue color and Pac @-@ Man can eat the ghosts for additional points , after which the ghosts return to the center box as eyes and respawn . When the eyes reach the box , they stay there until the power pill elapses . After the power pill elapses , the eyes respawn and the ghosts exit the box . If another power pill is eaten when there are eyes in the box , the eyes stay in the box until that pill elapses . Before the power pill elapses , the sound effect stops and the ghosts ( and any eyes if ghosts are eaten ) turn pink .
The ghosts are known to flicker and have closed and animated eyes compared to the arcade version where the direction of the eyes determine the direction of the ghost 's travel . A ghost in " eyes " after being eaten blue is shown as two squares that look like eyes . The four ghosts are divided into two pairs with one pair slightly faster than the other pair . It is possible two ghosts can overlap each other and appear as one ghost on the screen .
The game has eight variations offering two different starting speeds for Pac @-@ Man and four different starting speeds for the ghosts . The ghosts get slightly faster each subsequent round , but Pac @-@ Man stays at the same speed . The A @-@ B difficulty switch can be used : in the A position , the power pills ' effects do not last as long .
= = Development = =
In the late 1970s , Atari acquired the rights to produce home versions of Namco 's arcade games . After Pac @-@ Man proved to be a success in the United States , Atari decided to produce a home port for its Atari 2600 console . The company believed the conversion would be simple because the arcade 's success was attributed to the gameplay rather than impressive visuals . Development took around four months ; the process started in May 1981 and finished in September . At the time , Atari projected 10 million consoles were still actively used by video game enthusiasts . Atari decided to produce 12 million game cartridges , anticipating every Atari 2600 owner would purchase the game , while two million new customers would purchase the system to play it ; management predicted sales would reach at least US $ 500 million .
Programming was handled by Tod Frye . The game uses a 4KB ROM cartridge , chosen for its lower manufacturing costs compared to 8KB cartridges , which had just become available at the time . After Atari acquired the rights to produce the game , Frye began work on a prototype version . The company wanted to release the prototype to capitalize on the 1981 holiday season . Development was hindered by the technical differences between the original Pac @-@ Man 's hardware and that of the Atari 2600 . The original 's arcade boards stored four times as much read @-@ only memory ( ROM ) in addition to 2KB of both video and general random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) . The memory types are used to store and switch between graphical sprites . By contrast , the Atari 2600 had only 128B ( 1 / 16 of the arcade board ) of general RAM and none dedicated to video . In addition , the Zilog Z80 CPU microprocessor used by the Namco Pac @-@ Man arcade system was three times faster than the MOS 6507 CPU used by the Atari 2600 .
With limited memory , Frye simplified the shape of the maze with block corners as opposed to rounded ones and a less intricate pattern of corridors . The round , white pellets in the original were changed to rectangular , brown ones on the Atari 2600 . This change was to consolidate resources by using the same sprite used to create the walls . To achieve the visual effect of wafers disappearing after Pac @-@ Man eats them , the console redraws the entire maze and wafers , excluding those that had been eaten . To accommodate technical limitations the sprites were animated differently . The Pac @-@ Man character sprite as well as the maze and wafers sprites are drawn every frame , while the four ghosts are drawn at intervals . The four different ghosts take turns displaying on the screen and only one ghost is present at any given time , which creates a flickering effect . This effect takes advantage of the slow phosphorescent fade of CRT monitors and the concept of persistence of vision , resulting in the image appearing on screen longer than once every four frames .
After seeing the game , Coin Division marketing manager Frank Ballouz informed Ray Kassar , Atari 's president and CEO , that he felt enthusiasts would not want to play it . His opinion , however , was dismissed . The company ran newspaper ads and promoted the product in catalogs , describing it as differing " slightly from the original " . To help sales , Atari promoted and protected its exclusive licensing of Pac @-@ Man . It took legal action against companies that released clones similar to Pac @-@ Man . Atari sued Philips for its 1981 Magnavox Odyssey ² game Munchkin and obtained a preliminary injunction against the company to prevent the sale of Munchkin cartridges , but failed to stop other games , such as On @-@ Line Systems ' Jawbreaker and Gobbler . Several retailers assisted Atari with the release of the game . J. C. Penney was the first retailer to launch a nationwide advertising campaign on television for a software title . Continuing a long @-@ standing relationship between it and Sears , Atari also produced Pac @-@ Man cartridges under the department store 's label .
= = Reception = =
Anticipation for the game was high . Atari stated in 1981 that it had preorders for " three or four million " copies of the Atari 2600 version . Goldman Sachs analyst Richard Simon predicted the sale of 9 million units during 1982 , which would yield a profit of $ 200 million . Pac @-@ Man met with initial commercial success , selling 7 million copies and eventually becoming the best @-@ selling Atari 2600 title ; Frye reportedly received $ 0 @.@ 10 in royalties per copy . More than one million of those cartridges had been shipped in less than one month , helped by Atari 's $ 1 @.@ 5 million publicity campaign . However , purchases soon slowed and , by summer 1982 , unsold copies were still in large quantities . Many buyers returned the games for refunds , and Atari was left with 5 million excess copies in addition to the returns . By 2004 , the cartridges were still very common among collectors and enthusiasts — though the Sears versions were rarer — and priced lower .
Critics negatively compared the port to its original arcade form , panning the audio @-@ visuals and gameplay . In 1983 , Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games reviewer Danny Goodman commented that the game fails as a replica of its arcade form . Conversely , he stated that such criticism was unfair because the hardware could not properly emulate the arcade game . Goodman further said that the port is a challenging maze game in its own right , and it would have been a success if fans had not expected to play a game closer to the original . That year Phil Wiswell of Video Games criticized the game 's poor graphics , mockingly referring to it as " Flickerman " , while Softline questioned why Atari opposed Pac @-@ Man clones when the 2600 version was " less like Midway 's original than any of the pack of imitators " . In 1998 , Next Generation magazine editors called it the " worst coin @-@ op conversion of all time " , and attributed the mass dissatisfaction to its poor quality . In 2006 , IGN 's Craig Harris echoed similar statements and listed it as the worst arcade conversion , citing poor audio @-@ visuals that did not resemble the original . Another IGN editor , Levi Buchanan , described it as a " disastrous port " , citing the color scheme and flickering ghosts . Skyler Miller of AllGame said that although the game was only a passing resemblance to the original , it was charming despite its many differences and faults .
Ed Logg , a former lead designer at Atari , considered the development a rushed , " lousy " effort . Frye did not express regret over his part in Pac @-@ Man 's port and felt he made the best decisions he could at the time . However , Frye stated that he would have done things differently with a larger capacity ROM . Video game industry researchers Nick Montfort and Ian Bogost attribute the poor reception to the technical differences between the 1977 Atari 2600 console and the 1980 arcade hardware used in Pac @-@ Man cabinets . They further stated that the conversion is a lesson in maintaining the social and cultural context of the original source . Montfort and Bogost commented that players were disappointed with the flickering visual effect , which made the ghosts difficult to track and tired the players ' eyes . The two further said that the effect diminishes the ghosts ' personalities present in the arcade version . Chris Kohler of Wired commented that the game was poorly received upon its release and in contemporary times because of the poor quality . However , he further described the game as an impressive technical achievement given its console 's limitations .
= = Impact and legacy = =
Initially , the excitement generated by Pac @-@ Man 's home release prompted retail stores to expand their inventory to sell video games . Drugstores began stocking video game cartridges , and toy retailers vied for new releases . Kmart and J. C. Penney competed against Sears to become the largest vendor of video games . The game 's release also led to an increase in sales of the Atari 2600 console .
In retrospect , however , critics often cite Atari 's Pac @-@ Man as a major factor in the drop of consumer confidence in the company , which led to the North American video game crash of 1983 . Bill Loguidice and Matt Barton of Gamasutra stated that the game 's poor quality damaged the company 's reputation . Buchanan commented that it disappointed millions of fans and diminished confidence in Atari 's games . Former Next Generation editor @-@ in @-@ chief Neil West attributes his longtime skepticism of Atari 's quality to the disappointment he had from buying the game as a child . Calling the game the top video game disaster , Buchanan credits Pac @-@ Man as a factor to the downfall of Atari and the industry in the 1980s . Author Steven Kent also blames the game , along with Atari 's E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial , for severely damaging the company 's reputation and profitability . Montfort and Bogost stated that the game 's negative reception seeded mistrust in retailers , which was reinforced by later factors that culminated in the crash .
Poor critical reception made this game one of many decisions that led to Atari 's report of a $ 536 million loss in 1983 and the division and sale of the company 's Consumer Division in 1984 . On December 7 , 1982 , Kassar announced that Atari 's revenue forecasts for 1982 were cut from a 50 percent increase over 1981 to a 15 percent increase . Immediately following the announcement , Warner Communications ' stock value dropped by around 35 percent — from $ 54 to $ 35 — amounting to a loss of $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in the company 's market valuation . Atari attempted to regain its market share by licensing popular arcade games for its consoles . The revenue from selling these console games did not reverse Atari 's decline and the company went further into debt . In 1983 , the company decreased its workforce by 30 percent and lost $ 356 million .
In late 1982 , Atari ported Pac @-@ Man to its new console , the Atari 5200 . This version was a more accurate conversion of the original arcade game and was a launch title for the console , along with eleven other games . The port was also followed by conversions of Pac @-@ Man 's arcade sequels , Ms. Pac @-@ Man and Jr . Pac @-@ Man , for the Atari 2600 . Both were better received than Atari 's first Pac @-@ Man title . Ms. Pac @-@ Man , for example , features a larger ROM cartridge and addressed many critics ' complaints of Pac @-@ Man .
= Jean Balukas =
Jean Balukas ( born June 28 , 1959 ) is an American pool player from Brooklyn , New York , and ranks among the stellar players in the history of the sport . At least through the 1990s , when Allison Fisher began her ascendancy , Balukas was widely acknowledged as the sole candidate for greatest female player ever . Described as a " trailblazer , a child prodigy , a loner who rebelled against dress codes for women — the pool equivalent of Billie Jean King " , she is a five @-@ time Billiards Congress of America ( BCA ) Player of the Year , was the youngest inductee into the BCA Hall of Fame and the second woman given the honor , and was ranked fifteenth on Billiard Digest 's Fifty Greatest Players of the [ 20th ] Century .
Balukas was considered a prodigy , coming to the public 's attention first at 6 years of age at a pool exhibition held at New York City 's Grand Central Terminal and thereafter appearing on television , including on CBS 's primetime television show , I 've Got a Secret . At just 9 years old she placed 5th in the 1969 U.S. Open straight pool championship , and placed 4th and 3rd respectively in the following two U.S. Opens . From that early start , Balukas completely dominated women 's professional pool during the 1970s and 1980s .
Balukas won the U.S. Open seven years in a row from 1972 through 1978 , accumulating six world championship titles , had well over 100 professional competition first @-@ place finishes with 38 majors to her name , had a streak of 16 first @-@ place finishes in women 's professional tournaments , and was the only woman to compete on equal footing with men in professional play in her era . She quit the sport amidst controversy in 1988 while at the height of her ability , due to a dispute over her conduct in a match at the World Open Nine @-@ ball Championship of that year .
= = Young prodigy = =
Jean 's father , Albert Balukas , along with his partner , professional player Frank McGown , was the proprietor of a forty @-@ eight @-@ table pool hall called the Ovington Lounge in the Bay Ridge section of Brooklyn , New York . Balukas 's introduction to play was at 4 years of age , not on one of her father 's tables but on a 4 @-@ 1 ⁄ 2 by 9 foot pool table in the cellar of her childhood home , purchased by her parents to keep her four billiards @-@ playing brothers out of local pool rooms . In later years Balukas explained that she " almost never went to the pool hall and if I did go , I didn 't play . I felt uncomfortable , and besides , girls didn 't go in those days . "
Wielding an ivory @-@ detailed cue made especially for her in 1965 by renowned cuemaker George Balabushka , at 5 and 6 years of age she would practice straight pool to 50 points after family dinners with her father 's encouragement but not participation . Many have assumed that she had been tutored in the game . However , Balukas states , " when they find out that my father doesn 't play , many people think I must have learned the game from Frank McGown . That isn 't true . I taught myself to play pool . "
In 1966 , McGown staged a billiards exhibition at New York City 's Grand Central Terminal . With her parents ' permission , he brought along the 6 @-@ year @-@ old Balukas , where she participated in the spectacle . The attention this generated , coupled with her prodigious talent , landed her a guest appearance in 1966 on WNEW @-@ TV 's Wonderama . Later that year , Balukas , along with her younger sister Laura , appeared on CBS 's popular show I 've Got a Secret . None of the panelists were successful in guessing that the 7- and 5 @-@ year @-@ old sisters were pool enthusiasts .
The following year Balukas appeared in an exhibition match at the bygone Carom Club , then located at 1697 Broadway in Manhattan . A second @-@ grader at the time , according to her mother , Peggy , she did her homework and took a nap before appearing at the scheduled match . In advertisements for the match , Balukas was billed as " the Little Princess of Pocket Billiards . " She was described by a reporter present as " a little girl with honey @-@ blond hair ... wearing a short yellow dress and green leotards ... who resembles a young Shirley Temple . " To great applause she edged out her opponent , Roland DeMarco , a pool enthusiast and the President of Finch College . The final score was 50 to 42 .
In 1969 , at 9 years of age , Balukas competed in her first Billiard Congress of America U.S. Open straight pool championship , taking 5th place among a field of adults . In the next two U.S. Opens , in 1970 and 1971 , she placed 4th and 3rd , respectively . By that time she was already fairly well known , having had additional television appearances alongside such billiard stars and celebrities as Willie Mosconi , Sammy Davis Jr . , Peter Falk , Hugh Downs and Sonny Fox . She would later appear on television many more times , in addition to broadcasts of pool matches , including an interview on The Mike Douglas Show airing on January 11 , 1977 with Bernadette Peters and David Niven .
= = U.S. Open Straight Pool Champion = =
On August 18 , 1972 at 13 years of age Balukas won the women 's division of the U.S. Open Straight Pool Championship , along the way defeating five @-@ time champion Dorothy Wise and taking home a prize of $ 1 @,@ 500 . Balukas was the U.S Open 's youngest winner ever and by a large margin . She roundly defeated her opponent in the finals , Madelyn Whitlow of Detroit , Michigan , with a score of 75 – 32 in 44 innings . Reporting on the competition , The New York Times stated : " Miss Balukas showed signs of strong title contention throughout the tournament play as she defeated six opponents with precision shooting and near flawless strategy . "
In 1973 , at 14 , Balukas successfully defended her straight pool U.S. Open title , defeating runner @-@ up Donna Ries , a psychologist from Kansas City , Missouri , with a final score of 75 – 72 in 42 innings and a high run of 26 , earning her a $ 2 @,@ 000 purse . Earlier in the tournament she trounced Mieko Harada , a housewife from Kyoto , Japan , 75 @-@ 1 in 20 innings and with a 25 @-@ ball high run . In the 1974 U.S. Open held at the Sheraton Hotel in Chicago , Balukas defended her title , again beating out Harada but by a much closer , nailbiting 100 @-@ 99 final score . This was Balukas ' third straight U.S. Open title at the age of 15 . The close finale echoed the results seen in the men 's division , where Joe Balsis defeated Jim Rempe 200 @-@ 199 for the men 's crown .
In 1975 Balukas defeated Ries again in the U.S. Open semi @-@ finals with a score of 75 – 15 in 15 innings , dispatched Ames , Iowa native Gail Breedlove 75 @-@ 19 , and then again faced and defeated Harada in the finals , claiming the $ 3 @,@ 000 purse with a score of 100 – 63 in 39 innings and posting a high run of 23 . In 1976 , then 17 , Balukas took her fifth consecutive U.S. Open title , beating Gloria Walker of Cheyney , Pennsylvania 75 – 46 in 39 innings , winning a $ 1 @,@ 700 purse . Balukas went on to win the next two U.S. Open straight pool championships for a total of seven back @-@ to @-@ back wins , her streak foreclosed after 1978 by the discontinuance of the competition itself .
Balukas was not just talented at pool but was an all @-@ around good athlete . Starting at age 16 , and for two other years , she was invited to participate in ABC @-@ TV 's Superstars . Held in Rotonda , Florida , the event pitted championship athletes from one sport competing in sports other than their own specialties , vying for cash prizes totaling $ 69 @,@ 000 . In her first appearance in 1976 , while a junior in high school , she finished second taking titles in tennis and bowling where she won with 192 points . The winner that year was speed skater Anne Henning . Other competitors included , diver Micki King , tennis and golf pro Althea Gibson , Skier Kiki Cutter , sprinter Wyomia Tyus , and Tennis champ Martina Navratilova . The second place win was bittersweet for Balukas , because based on the award of prize money for placing at Superstars ( $ 13 @,@ 100 ) , she lost amateur standing and was thereafter banned from competing in high school sports , also becoming no longer eligible for a college athletic scholarship .
Balukas has won numerous other titles including a string of six wins at the World Open Pocket Billiard Championships . Upon her first win in that tournament held at a convention hall in Asbury Park , New Jersey on August 14 , 1977 , she was described as " the 18 @-@ year @-@ old prodigy from Brooklyn . " There she again outplayed Walker ( then of Ithaca , New York ) , with a score of 100 – 57 , and earned a $ 1 @,@ 001 prize . Balukas has more U.S. Open wins than any other player , male or female , the runner up for the men being Steve Mizerak with four . Her ball average over the seven U.S. Opens was in a different class than her opponents . Balukas averaged 3 @.@ 44 in 1972 with the next best , Gloria Walker , having an average of 2 @.@ 37 . In 1975 she averaged 4 @.@ 05 , while no other player averaged even 3 .
= = Playing with men = =
As early as the late 1960s , Balukas was performing exhibition matches with some of the top male players of the era , including Willie Mosconi and Irving Crane , who were together considered between 1941 and 1956 the " best in the world , flat out " . In 1975 , she again played the legendary Willie Mosconi on CBS ' " Challenge of the Sexes " in both eight @-@ ball and nine @-@ ball competition . At 62 Mosconi was well past his prime , but a handicap was nevertheless given to the eagle @-@ eyed youngster , allowing her all the breaks and the first shot regardless of whether she had made a ball or not on the break . Mosconi lost at both disciplines . She later would play televised " Battle of the Sexes " matches with Rudolph Wanderone a / k / a Minnesota Fats in 1977 , Ray Martin in 1979 and with Steve Mizerak in 1986 .
According to a 1987 interview with reporter Roger Starr of The New York Times , she learned much about pool through such activities but " she also learned that , even in fun , pool stars did not like losing in public , especially not to children , and less , even , to girl children . She also discovered that young men , including her brothers , shared the feeling of shame over losing to girls . She recalls , ' Whenever my brother Paul , the youngest of my four brothers , beat me at pool on the table downstairs at home , he would run through the house shouting ' I won , I beat her ' . I guess that was one reason I worked all the harder at my game . ' "
On August 6 , 1978 Balukas became the first woman to qualify to play in the men 's division of the World Open Pocket Billiards Championship ; a tournament with a 100 @-@ year history . This meant that she would be competing in both the women 's and men 's divisions of the tournament to be held on August 12 of that year at the Biltmore Hotel located at 43rd Street and Madison Avenue in New York City .
Balukas played against the men in a number of competitions , including at least one televised match aired on March 25 , 1979 , between her and men 's champion Ray Martin . The match was billed on the television schedule as part of a " Challenge of the Sexes , " alongside similar male @-@ female matchups between golfers Nancy Lopez and Andy North and coed participants in a skateboarding challenge match . During 1980 , Balukas again competed in the Men 's division , in the World Open Pocket Billiards championship hosted at New York City 's Roosevelt Hotel . She was defeated in the second round at the hands of Steve Mizerak with a score of 150 – 93 . Her final standing in the tournament overall was 22nd , with 42 men trailing her in the rankings . She also competed in the women 's division of that tournament and was the victor , defeating Billie Billings , also of Brooklyn , with a score of 100 – 75 . According to The New York Times , " Miss Balukas 's triumph ... was not only expected but routine . She was a defending champion and , in fact , has lost only two games to women in the past eight years . "
Balukas was initially entered in both the men 's and women 's divisions of the 1987 B.C. Classic , a nine @-@ ball competition . After notable controversy ( detailed below ) , she competed only on the men 's side . Along the way she trounced Keith McCready 11 – 3 ( at the time the 17th @-@ ranked male player by money list , and who guest @-@ starred as obnoxious hustler " Grady Seasons " in the 1986 film The Color of Money ) . Balukas finished in a tie for 9th place among many of the best players in the world .
= = Dress code controversy = =
In August 1987 , at the annual B.C. Open hosted at a Holiday Inn in Binghamton , New York , Balukas was slated for competition in both divisions . After arriving , she discovered that for evening @-@ scheduled matches she would be required to wear formal attire that she did not have with her . The men 's division , by contrast , had no similar dress code . Balukas took a stand that the women should not be treated differently from the men , and accordingly refused to procure garments that would meet the unequal mandate .
The women held a vote as to whether Balukas should be allowed to play . She later explained that " what hurt at Binghamton was that while I was trying to stand up for us being treated the same as men , the other girls held the tournament draw without me . By one vote , they kept me out . And some of the girls who are my best friends voted against me . " She did not agree at the time with the speculation of others that her professional rivals had their own self @-@ interest at heart , knowing that with her out of the competition they would have a much better chance at the $ 5 @,@ 000 first place prize award . Despite the women 's snub and perceived chauvinistic terms , she nevertheless competed on the men 's side , tying for ninth place . Not long afterward , she indicated to a reporter that she was " thinking of dropping out of women 's competition altogether . "
Soon after the dress code dust @-@ up made headlines , a letter was sent to The New York Times by the Women 's Professional Billiard Association ( WPBA ) , by its president Belinda Bearden , disputing the facts as reported . According to the WPBA , the dress code was self @-@ imposed by the players in an attempt to improve the image of women 's pool and to attract more spectators and press to the sport , and that Balukas was the only participant at Binghamton unwilling to comply . They further explained that Balukas first withdrew from the women 's division but later returned and asked to play after player assignments had been completed . A vote to allow her to play resulted in a tally of 8 – 7 in her favor , but after they moved to consult a player who was not present for the vote , Balukas again withdrew from the competition , and that was where the matter had ended .
= = Break with the sport = =
In 1988 , Balukas was playing against professional Robin Bell in a televised match of the Brunswick @-@ sponsored World Open Nine @-@ ball Championship held at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas , Nevada . Bell , who was Balukas ' best friend on the women 's tour , had never beaten Balukas but had been playing very strongly in the tournament . With the score 2 games to 3 in favor of Bell in a race to nine games , Bell made the 9 ball on the snap two games in a row , making the score 5 to 2 in very short order .
All television match players wore small microphones so that their words and the sounds of play could be heard by the audience . After Bell 's second 9 ball break , Balukas reportedly muttered within the range of the microphone words to the effect that Bell was having a string of inordinately lucky shots . She was cautioned by the referee and play continued , with Balukas the ultimate victor with a final score of 9 – 5 . According to an interview with Balukas appearing in New York Woman magazine in 1991 , Balukas 's exact words were " Some world championship ... beat me with skill , not luck . " Despite their off @-@ the @-@ table friendship , following the match Bell made a formal complaint to the WPBA about the incident . The WPBA 's board of directors thereafter sanctioned Balukas $ 200 for unsportsmanlike conduct .
Balukas was greatly incensed over the sanction and refused to pay on principle , turning away offers by others to pay the fine in her stead . Balukas explains that " It wasn ’ t the $ 200 ... [ Women ] pool players , who were ranked three and six and five , were the ones who decided I should be fined . I felt it should have been done by an outside panel , not by my competitors . " The sides were at an impasse . Balukas refused to relent and the WPBA refused to lift the sanction and would not allow Balukas to play again until she paid the fine . " Just because she was our premier player doesn 't mean she was above the rules , " said Vicki Paski in 1992 , then president of the WPBA . Professional Loree Jon Jones in the same interview expressed mixed sentiments : " Her not playing is , I guess , sad , " but she reflected that in Balukas 's absence , " we 've all learned how to win . "
Balukas had also felt some heat from her solo venture into the men 's arena . She had heard taunts from the men upon finding out she was going to play in their division , such as " I ’ m gonna put on a dress and go play with the women . " In early 1988 , Balukas gave in to complaints from the men upon her entry to a Chicago based tournament that it wasn 't fair she should have the opportunity to play in both divisions when the men only had the opportunity to play in one , and withdrew from the men 's side . Balukas states that after she arrived in Chicago " I found out that the first- and second @-@ place winners in the women ’ s event were going to be invited to play in the men ’ s event . I was stabbed in the back . "
There were other factors at play . Balukas admits to having been under great pressure , much of it self @-@ imposed . After she reached the pinnacle of her profession , " That ’ s when I started getting nervous ... that ’ s when I started putting a lot of pressure on myself . " " Playing against the men , I learned to lose , ... but [ losing ] hurt with the women because I was expected to win all the time . " Ultimately Balukas states that her break with the sport " ... was a buildup of everything , ... A little burnout , a little frustration . It just got to a point where I had so much animosity toward the pool world . And that was my out . You know , you 're going to fine me ? Well , see you later . That was my excuse to finally say I need a break . "
For Balukas 's part , she returned to Bay Ridge , took over management of her family 's pool hall , Hall of Fame Billiards on Ovington Avenue in Brooklyn , and states that " I 'm enjoying my life immensely ... I have moved on . " In summing up these events in a 1992 article , The New York Times stated , " So America 's greatest woman pool player competes only for the odd soda . If you 're feeling lucky , drop by her poolroom ... If you 're thirsty ... go elsewhere . "
= = Honors = =
In 1975 , when she was 15 years old , Balukas was already described as the " best female pool player in the world " . By 1987 , Balukas 's dominance of women 's professional pool was so complete that it was described as " breathtaking " in its scope by The New York Times . Announcers had long since stopped calling Balukas " the Little Princess , " but presented her as " the Queen " . By that time she had won the World Straight Pool Championship women 's division eight of the prior nine years , and over the same time period , every single women 's professional tournament in which she competed — 16 in all . She had been honored as BCA Player of the Year five times . In 1985 became the second woman ( after Dorothy Wise ) to be inducted into the BCA Hall of Fame , with the additional honor of being its youngest inductee , at just under 27 years of age . In 1999 , Balukas was ranked number fifteen on Billiard Digest 's Fifty Greatest Players of the Century .
= Chincoteague Pony =
The Chincoteague Pony , also known as the Assateague horse , is a breed of pony that developed and lives in a feral condition on Assateague Island in the United States states of Virginia and Maryland . The breed was made famous by the Misty of Chincoteague series written by Marguerite Henry starting in 1947 . While phenotypically horse @-@ like , they are commonly called " ponies " . This is due in part to their smaller stature , created by the poor habitat on Assateague Island . Variation is found in their physical characteristics due to blood from different breeds being introduced at various points in their history . They can be any solid color , and are often found in pinto patterns , which are a favorite with breed enthusiasts . Island Chincoteagues live on a diet of salt marsh plants and brush . This poor @-@ quality and often scarce food combined with uncontrolled inbreeding created a propensity for conformation faults in the Chincoteague before outside blood was added beginning in the early 20th century .
Several legends are told regarding the origins of the Chincoteague , the most popular holds that they descend from survivors of wrecked Spanish galleons off the Virginia coast . It is more likely that they descend from stock released on the island by 17th @-@ century colonists looking to escape livestock laws and taxes on the mainland . In 1835 , the practice of pony penning began , with settlers rounding up ponies and removing some of them to the mainland . In 1924 the first official " Pony Penning Day " was held by the Chincoteague Volunteer Fire Company , where ponies were auctioned as a way to raise money for fire equipment . The annual event has continued in the same fashion almost uninterrupted to the present day .
Although popularly known as Chincoteague ponies , the feral ponies actually live on Assateague Island . Although the entire Island is owned by the federal government , Assateague is split by a fence at the Maryland / Virginia state line , with a herd of around 150 ponies living on each side of the fence . The herds live on land managed by two different federal agencies with very different management strategies . Ponies from the Maryland herd , referred to in literature of the National Park Service as Assateague horses , live within Assateague Island National Seashore . They are generally treated as wild animals , given no more or less assistance than other species on the island , other than to be treated with contraceptives to prevent overpopulation . Conversely , the Virginia herd , referred to as Chincoteague ponies , lives within the Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge but is owned by the Chincoteague Volunteer Fire Company . The Virginia ponies are treated to twice yearly veterinary inspections , which prepare them for life among the general equine population if they are sold at auction . While only around 300 ponies live on Assateague Island , around 1 @,@ 000 more live off @-@ island , having been purchased or bred by private breeders .
= = Characteristics = =
While phenotypically horses , the Chincoteague is most often referred to as a pony breed . Chincoteagues average around 13 @.@ 2 hands ( 54 inches , 137 cm ) in their feral state , but grow to at least 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 58 inches , 147 cm ) when domesticated and provided better nutrition . They generally weigh around 850 pounds ( 390 kg ) . All solid colors are found in the breed , as are pinto patterns . Horses with pinto coloration tend to sell for the most money at the annual auction . Due to outside bloodlines being added to the Chincoteague herd , there is some variation in physical characteristics . In general , the breed tends to have a straight or slightly concave facial profile with a broad forehead and refined throatlatch and neck . The shoulders are well angled , the ribs well sprung , the chest broad and the back short with broad loins . The croup is rounded , with a thick , low @-@ set tail . The breed 's legs tend to be straight , with good , dense bone that makes them sound and sturdy . Domesticated Chincoteagues are considered intelligent and willing to please . They are viewed as easy to train , and are used as hunter , driving and trail ponies . In terms of health , they are generally hardy and easy keepers . In the late 19th century , one author praised their " good manners and gentle disposition " while reporting the story of one pony who was ridden a distance of around 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) in 34 days by a man with equipment , a load that weighed around 160 pounds ( 73 kg ) — the pony weighed approximately 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) .
= = History = =
Legend states that Chincoteague ponies descend from Spanish horses shipwrecked off the Virginia coast on their way to Peru in the 16th century . Another story holds that they descend from horses left on the island by pirates . Both of these theories are unlikely , as no documentation has been found to show horses inhabiting the island this early , and no mention of horses already existing on the island was made by colonists on either the mainland or the island in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1600s . Evidence points , however , to their ancestors actually being horses brought to the islands in the 17th century by mainland farmers . Livestock on the islands were not subject to taxes or fencing laws , and so many animals , including hogs , sheep , cattle and horses , were brought to the islands . While the National Park Service holds to the theory that the horses were brought to the island in the 17th century , the Chincoteague Volunteer Fire Company , which owns the ponies on the Virginia side of Assateague , argues that the Spanish shipwreck theory is correct . They argue that horses were too valuable in the 17th century to have been left to run wild on the island , and claim that there are two sunken Spanish galleons off the Virginia coast in support of their theory . The National Chincoteague Pony Association also promotes the shipwreck theory . In the early 1900s , they were described as having been on the islands since well before the American Revolution , and were described at that time as " very diminutive , but many of them are of perfect symmetry and extraordinary powers of action and endurance . " In the early 1800s , Virginia governor Henry A. Wise released what one author called the " earliest printed testimony " on the Chincoteague .
During the 1920s , before the herds were managed by various agencies , many conformation faults were found — the effects of uncontrolled inbreeding . Misshapen legs , narrow chests , poor bone and a lack of substance plagued the breed , with many stunted animals not growing above 12 hands ( 48 inches , 122 cm ) . This was partially due to the limited and poor @-@ quality feed found on the islands , although this harsh habitat also allowed only the hardiest and most adaptable ponies to survive . Welsh and Shetland pony blood was added to upgrade the stock , and horses with pinto coloring were introduced to give the herd its common distinctive patterns and contribute to the more horse @-@ like phenotype of the breed . Twenty Mustangs owned by the Bureau of Land Management were introduced in 1939 . Arabian blood was added in the hopes of adding refinement and height to the breed , as well as increasing the length of their legs . Arabian stallions were used at two different points within the breed history : one was released with the herd , but did not survive , while another was bred to mares that had been removed from the island for breeding and then returned once in foal . The Chincoteague pony has a similar history to the Shackleford Banker Horse , which comes from the Shackleford Banks off the coast of North Carolina . However , the Shackleford is a more isolated population , with no outside blood added to the island herd .
The Island itself has also undergone change . At one time , the island was connected to the lowest point of Fenwick Island . In August 1933 , a hurricane created an inlet south of Ocean City , Maryland , separating the two landforms . After the storm , between 1933 and 1935 , a permanent system of artificial jetties was built to preserve the inlet as a navigation channel . As a result of the jetties disrupting sand movement in the area , the island has drifted considerably westward , and the two landmasses are now over 1 kilometer ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) apart .
= = = Pony penning = = =
In 1835 , the first written description of " pony penning " appeared , though the practice of rounding up livestock on the island existed for many years before that . Initially , unclaimed animals were marked for ownership by groups of settlers . By 1885 , the event had become a festival day , and two days of horse and sheep roundups were held on Assateague and Chincoteague Islands . While the sheep population diminished over time , the pony population grew . In 1909 , the last Wednesday and Thursday of July were designated as the annual days for pony penning , still taking place on both Assateague and Chincoteague Islands . However , in the early 1920s , much of Assateague Island was purchased by a wealthy farmer , forcing many settlers to move to Chincoteague Island and necessitating a change in the pony penning format . By 1923 , all parts of pony penning except for the actual roundup had moved to Chincoteague Island , with the ponies being transported by truck for the first two years before the annual swim was begun . By the early 1900s , Chincoteague Island had been established as a tourism and sport haven , and in 1922 , a causeway was completed that connected the island to the Virginia mainland . After a pair of fires ravaged Chincoteague Island that same year , the Chincoteague Volunteer Fire Company was established . In 1924 , the first official Pony Penning Day was held , where ponies were auctioned at $ 25 – 50 each to raise money for fire equipment . Pony Penning Day has been held annually ever since , with the exception of 1942 and 1943 .
Currently as many as 50 @,@ 000 visitors gather on the last Wednesday in July to watch mounted riders bring the Virginia herd from Assateague and swim them across the channel to Chincoteague Island . The swim takes five @-@ ten minutes , with both the rider and the observers on hand to assist horses , especially foals , who may have a hard time with the crossing . Before the swim , the herd is evaluated and mares in the late stages of pregnancy and those with very young foals are removed from the herd to be trailered between the islands . During the swim , some lactating mares become affected with hypocalcemia , which is treated by on @-@ site veterinarians . Larger foals are auctioned the next day and the majority of the herd , including any young foals , are returned to Assateague on Friday . As of 2015 , the highest price paid for a pony was $ 25 @,@ 000 and the lowest price was $ 500 . Some ponies are purchased under " buy back " conditions , where the bidder donates the money to the fire department but allows the pony to be released back onto Assateague Island. http : / / www.chincoteague.com / pony _ swim _ guide.html
= = = Breed registry and preservation = = =
The National Chincoteague Pony Association was founded in 1985 , and the Chincoteague Pony Association in 1994 . The latter is open only to horses purchased from the annual auction , while the former maintains a breed registry and studbook that registers all ponies , including those from private breeders . Many ponies are registered with both associations . There are almost 1 @,@ 000 Chincoteague ponies owned by private individuals off Chincoteague Island , spread throughout the US and Canada .
= = Management = =
All of Chincoteague Island lies within Virginia state lines , while Assateague Island is split between two states — a smaller northern portion in Maryland and the larger southern section within Virginia . Two separate herds of ponies live on Assateague Island , separated by a fence that runs along the Maryland @-@ Virginia state border . Though descended from the same original stock , the Maryland feral ponies are called " Assateague horses " and are maintained by the National Park Service . The Virginia feral ponies are called " Chincoteague ponies " and are owned by Chincoteague Volunteer Fire Department . In 1943 , the entire island was purchased by the federal government and divided into two protected areas , Assateague Island National Seashore in Maryland and Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge in Virginia . The two herds lie under the jurisdiction of different governmental agencies , and different management strategies have been applied to each herd . The Maryland section of Assateague also contains Assateague State Park , state @-@ owned land where the ponies are allowed to roam , although the state plays little or no part in their management .
The feral ponies in both herds separate themselves into small bands , with most consisting of a stallion , several mares and their foals . Ponies on Assateague have a diet that consists mainly of cordgrass , a coarse grass that grows in salt marshes , which makes up around 80 percent of their food . This diet is supplemented by other vegetation such as rose hips , bayberry , greenbriar , American beach grass , seaweed and poison ivy . Chincoteague ponies require up to twice as much water as most horses require due to the saltiness of their diet . The increased amount of water that they drink contributes to many ponies appearing to be bloated or fat .
= = = Maryland herd = = =
The Maryland herd , often called the Assateague herd , is owned and managed by the National Park Service . The Maryland herd is one of very few free @-@ ranging wild horse populations left in the United States . This , combined with its presence on a relatively small and naturally confined area , has made it ideal for scientific study . Since the late 1970s , scientists have used the herd to conduct studies on feral horse behavior , social structure , ecology , remote contraceptive delivery and pregnancy testing , and the effects of human intervention on other wild animal populations . There are few other wildlife populations of any species worldwide that have been studied in as much detail over as long a period as the Maryland herd of Chincoteague ponies .
Herd numbers grew from 28 to over 165 between 1968 and 1997 and overgrazing negatively impacted their living environment . To manage population numbers , long @-@ term , non @-@ hormonal contraceptives have been employed , proving 95 percent effective over a seven @-@ year field trial . The contraceptive , which began to be used at a management level in 1995 although it was used in smaller amounts as early as 1989 , has also proven effective at improving the health and increasing the life expectancy of older mares through the removal of pregnancy and lactation @-@ related stress . Since 1990 , general herd health has improved , early mortality has decreased and older ponies are now found , with many over the age of 20 and some even over 25 . No horse has ever been injured during the dart @-@ administered treatments , although there is a 0 @.@ 2 percent rate of abscess at the injection site , which normally heals within two weeks . Each mare between two and four years old is given contraceptives , and treatment is then withdrawn until she produces a foal . Once she has produced enough foals to be well represented genetically within the herd , she is placed on a yearly treatment plan until her death . After the introduction of the contraceptive , herd numbers continued to rise to a high of 175 in 2001 to 2005 , but then dropped significantly to around 130 in 2009 . In 2009 , a study determined that mitochondrial DNA diversity in the herd was quite low , most likely due to their isolation , but that their nuclear genetic diversity remained at a level similar to that of breeds from the mainland .
Other than the contraceptive and treatment in emergencies , ponies from the Maryland herd are treated much like other wildlife , with no extra attention paid to them by Park Service employees . It is thought likely that the Maryland herd carries equine infectious anemia ( EIA ) ; they are effectively quarantined , however , by allowing no riding or camping with privately owned horses along the mainland shore during the insect season which stretches from mid @-@ May to October . Due to their treatment as wild animals , ponies from the Maryland herd can be aggressive , and there have been reports of them tearing down tents and biting , kicking and knocking down visitors . In 2010 , after an increase in biting incidents , the National Park Service implemented new measures for educating visitors about the ponies . These measures included new safety information in brochures and recommended viewing distances between the visitors and the ponies . There is also some danger to the ponies from the visitors : ponies have become ill from being fed inappropriate human foods , and on average one Maryland pony a year is killed by a car . Since 1991 there has been a " Pony Patrol " , where volunteers on bikes patrol the island , educating visitors about the ponies .
= = = Virginia herd = = =
The Virginia herd , often called the Chincoteague herd , is owned and managed by the Chincoteague Volunteer Fire Company . The US Fish and Wildlife Service ( FWS ) allows the ponies to live on Assateague under a special use grazing permit , allowing approximately 150 adult ponies in the Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge .
Thirty to 45 foals are born into the Chincoteague herd each year . The annual Pony Pennings are used to maintain the herd size at around 150 animals . Since 1943 , the FWS has been working on the island to protect and increase the wildfowl population , and their efforts have sometimes endangered the Chincoteague herd . Due to the placement of fences by the FWS , a reduced amount of land is available for grazing by the ponies . The fencing also prevents them from reaching the sea , where they often went to escape biting insects , including mosquitos . In 1962 , several ponies were trapped in an enclosure by high water and died when they were carried out to sea during a storm . Unlike the Maryland herd , ponies on the Virginia side of the island are fenced off from roadways to prevent auto accidents and to discourage visitors from feeding the ponies .
In the late 20th century , some ponies previously sold at auction were returned to Assateague Island when population numbers threatened to drop below the targeted numbers due to large numbers of deaths from storms or other issues . Since 1990 , the ponies from the Virginia herd have been rounded up biannually for veterinary treatment , including deworming and vaccinations for diseases such as rabies , tetanus and Eastern and Western encephalitis , although they make the swim to Chincoteague only once per year . In addition , continual monitoring and basic first aid for any minor injuries is performed by a committee from the fire department . Such intervention is needed because many of the ponies will be brought into the general horse population through the auction and purchase by private buyers . During the veterinary visits , they are also tested for EIA .
= = Books = =
In 1947 , Marguerite Henry released the children 's book Misty of Chincoteague , the first in a series of novels that made the Chincoteague breed internationally famous . The real Misty was foaled on Chincoteague Island in 1946 , and was purchased as a weanling by Henry . In 1961 , the publicity was increased even more when the film Misty was made , based on the book . The publicity generated by the books assisted the Chincoteague Fire Department and the breed in remaining viable into the 21st century . While fictionalized , the books were based on a real horse and ranch on Chincoteague Island , and the Misty of Chincoteague Foundation was established in 1990 , to preserve the Beebe Ranch and establish a museum with memorabilia from the series . Model horse company Breyer Animal Creations has created models of Misty and five of her descendants . As of 2001 , there were around 40 surviving descendants of Misty worldwide .
= Empires : Dawn of the Modern World =
Empires : Dawn of the Modern World is a 2003 real @-@ time strategy video game developed by Stainless Steel Studios and published by Activision . Set in a world @-@ historical period that extends from the Middle Ages to World War II , the game tasks players with guiding one of nine rival great civilizations to victory . Customer surveys from Stainless Steel 's previous game , Empire Earth , were used as a starting point for Empires : these inspired the team to take a more minimalist design approach , and to include civilizations without overlapping styles of play . Empires was positively received by critics , who enjoyed its multiplayer component . However , certain reviewers disliked its single @-@ player mode , and opinion clashed on the game 's level of uniqueness compared to competitors such as Rise of Nations . The sales of Empires , when combined with those of Empire Earth , totaled 2 @.@ 5 million units by 2004 .
= = Gameplay = =
Empires : Dawn of the Modern World is a real @-@ time strategy ( RTS ) game in which the player guides a civilization through five historical periods , from the Middle Ages to World War II . As in many RTS titles , the player collects natural resources , erects buildings and trains and maintains a military . Players use a mouse cursor interface ( or hotkeys ) to direct their units , which range from crossbowmen to King Tiger tanks . A three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) camera system allows the player to view the action from any perspective , including isometric and first @-@ person angles . A mini @-@ map is included as well .
Each of the nine civilizations features a unique style of play : for example , the French and English have powerful defensive capabilities , while Chinese structures are mobile . During a match , the player must gather resources to progress their civilization to a new historical era , after which more advanced technologies and units ( land- , sea- and airborne ) become available . Four civilizations are playable from the medieval to the Imperial age ; at the beginning of World War I , the player transitions their civilization to one of the remaining five . For example , a player of the premodern Franks must transition to modern Germany or France . The player wins a match by destroying all opponents ' means of production , or by constructing and successfully defending a " Wonder " , such as the Notre Dame de Paris or Brandenburg Gate .
Empires allows up to eight players ( or artificially intelligent opponents ) to compete in two modes : the shorter , battle @-@ oriented Action mode or the longer , defense @-@ oriented Empire Builder mode . In addition , the game contains three single @-@ player storylines called " campaigns " , each of which depicts major events in a civilization 's history . These follow Richard the Lionheart 's medieval wars in France ; Admiral Yi Sun @-@ Sin 's defense of Korea against Japanese invasion in the early modern period ; and General George S. Patton 's exploits during World War II . The editor used to create Empires is packaged with the game , which allows the player to create original levels and campaign scenarios .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception = = =
Stainless Steel Studios started work on Empires in 2002 . The project was led by company head Rick Goodman , designer of Ensemble Studios ' Age of Empires and Stainless Steel 's earlier Empire Earth . The Empires team began by studying their previous game for features that could be reused or improved . In addition , they mined history books for interesting " events , battle tactics , weapons , technologies and economic factors " , according to Goodman . A list was drafted of 100 historical elements that excited the team , and it formed the basis of the project . Although a heavy focus was placed on historical accuracy , designer Richard Bishop explained that " fun always comes first . " As it had with Empire Earth , Stainless Steel delegated separate teams to the multiplayer and single @-@ player modes of Empires .
Further inspiration came from surveys of Empire Earth players , conducted during 2002 . For example , the team found that Empire Earth 's medieval and World War II periods were the most popular , while its futuristic and prehistoric periods were the least . In response , the team reduced the span of Empires to 1 @,@ 000 years , from the Middle Ages until World War II . Goodman believed that this could make the game many times deeper than Empire Earth . Also requested by players were fully unique civilizations , without overlapping units or styles of play — a feature that Goodman claimed to be a first for a history @-@ based RTS game . The team discovered that those who favored the single @-@ player mode in Empire Earth preferred slower , more management @-@ based gameplay . However , multiplayer users were split , with half in favor of shorter matches filled with combat . To please both audiences , the Empire Builder and Action modes were included to offer " a rush @-@ oriented game for the pro gamers and a more defensive game for the casual gamer " , in Goodman 's words .
= = = Production = = =
In December 2002 , publisher Activision signed Stainless Steel to a multi @-@ game contract , the first title of which was revealed to be Empires in February 2003 . By April , the team estimated the game to be 60 – 70 % finished . The engine used to create Empire Earth — later released under the name Titan 2 @.@ 0 — was retained and upgraded for Empires . Significantly more detail was added to the units ' 3D models than had appeared in Empire Earth . Further additions included reflection mapping , environmental bump mapping and a new physics engine . According to Goodman , reusing the game engine enabled the team to place its full concentration on gameplay , without worrying about technological development . Another priority was storytelling , an element of the RTS game Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos ( 2002 ) particularly enjoyed by the Empires team .
Empires was designed primarily for multiplayer gameplay : the multiplayer development team created and fine @-@ tuned each civilization , which the single @-@ player team then used in campaign levels . Because the civilizations do not overlap , Bishop considered game balance to be the most difficult aspect of the project . Previously , Stainless Steel had balanced its games in a microcosmic fashion : the " individual components " of each civilization — for example , the economic power of Germany versus that of England — were balanced against one another . Balance on this scale led to overarching balance . However , this technique hinged on a broad similarity between civilizations that is not present in Empires . Consequently , the company had to abandon its earlier practice and " develop an entirely new methodology " , Goodman explained . The result was a macrocosmic system of balance , in which civilizations are inherently unbalanced but equally powerful overall .
As with Empire Earth , each new build of Empires was given to " strike teams " of playtesters . By April , between six and eight months of playtesting had been performed by a group of six professional RTS players . GameSpy 's Allen Rausch wrote that the process allows a game to be " consistently tested , evaluated , balanced , and tweaked " at every stage of development , which enables complex forms of balance . This let the Empires team create a looser version of the rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors system typical of RTS games , wherein one type of unit is either very strong or very weak against other types . In Empires , each unit 's strengths and weaknesses were made subtle enough to curb " hopeless mismatches " and reward skillful micromanagement , according to Bishop . The duration of the average battle was increased to provide more opportunities to micromanage units . Empires went gold on October 7 , 2003 , and it was released on the 22nd of that month .
= = Reception = =
Empires was received positively by critics , according to review aggregators Metacritic and GameRankings . The game 's sales , when combined with those of Empire Earth , surpassed 2 @.@ 5 million units by May 2004 . Game Informer 's Adam Biessener called Empires " a good knockoff " of WarCraft III and Age of Mythology , worthwhile for fans of the RTS genre . He praised its Empire Builder and Action modes , and the uniqueness of its multiplayer mode ; but he found its single @-@ player campaigns to be lackluster . Jonah Jackson of X @-@ Play , Ron Dulin of Computer Gaming World and Stephen Poole of PC Gamer US were similarly unimpressed by the game 's single @-@ player mode : the last critic highlighted its " stupendously loquacious cut @-@ scenes and terrible voice @-@ acting " . However , Poole dubbed Empires a strong , streamlined and fully featured multiplayer game , which he recommended despite its flaws and lack of innovation . Jackson lauded the multiplayer component as well , and he believed that , while the game at first seems unoriginal , Empires is " the most mature and well @-@ balanced of Goodman 's titles " .
Regarding the single @-@ player campaigns , PC Zone 's writers noted strong level design and " voice acting of the highest calibre " ; and they praised the multiplayer mode 's " balance and diversity " . However , they criticized the pathfinding , interface , unoriginality and inconsistent graphical quality of Empires , and they named it the inferior of Medieval : Total War and Rise of Nations . Conversely , Dulin agreed with Jackson that Empires is a deceptively conventional RTS , which introduces " great , if initially unapparent , changes to the standard formula . " He summarized it as a well @-@ made competitor to historical RTS titles like Rise of Nations , Age of Empires and Empire Earth . Writing for GameSpot , Sam Parker argued that Empires separated itself from rivals Age of Empires II : The Age of Kings and Age of Mythology , and he commented , " While it may not have the breadth of Rise of Nations ' real @-@ time empire building , the tight scope deals out dividends when it comes to fast @-@ paced battles . "
Steve Butts of IGN , along with GameSpy 's Rausch , called Empires a major improvement on the foundation of Empire Earth , thanks to its smaller scope and deeper gameplay . Like the staff of PC Zone , both writers enjoyed the single @-@ player mode , although Rausch noted its middling writing and voice acting . Rausch considered the multiplayer mode to be Empires ' best feature : he felt that its Empire Builder and Action modes were both balanced , and that each civilization " offers players a completely different experience " . He noted the game 's audiovisual presentation as a low point . Butts found fault with the game 's camera system , but he summarized Empires as a unique RTS and " a good direction for the genre " .
= No Meals on Wheels =
" No Meals on Wheels " is the 14th episode of the fifth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on March 25 , 2007 . The episode features the Griffin family opening a restaurant , and eventually become overwhelmed by Joe Swanson and his wheelchair friends . With this , Peter decides to ban wheelchairs from their establishment , because they are " uncool " . This causes Joe , along with his wheelchair @-@ using friends to attempt to take back the restaurant , and prevent Peter from discriminating against them .
The episode was written by Mike Henry and directed by Greg Colton . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 97 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Barclay DeVeau , Keith Ferguson , Arnold McCuller and Patrick Stewart , along with several guest voice actors for the series . " No Meals on Wheels " was released on DVD along with four other episodes from the season on October 21 , 2008 .
= = Plot = =
Peter is annoyed by his friend Mort Goldman constantly borrowing his personal belongings , and eventually decides to create a " Scare @-@ Jew " , using his suit , which depicts Adolf Hitler in an attempt to keep Mort away from his house , which works later on . Frustrated , Lois takes him to a clothing store to get a new suit , where Peter finds some flannel pajamas . While wearing them , he suddenly notices that he can shock people with static electricity by rubbing his feet on the carpet . Annoyed by this , Lois asks Quagmire to completely remove the carpet , which leads the family to find an antique 18th century Rhode Island ship token , hidden under the carpet , which the family sells for $ 50 @,@ 000 . With the money , Peter and Lois decide to live their dream of owning a restaurant , naming it " Big Pete 's House of Munch " .
The Griffins ' business has a shaky start and loses money until Joe promises to bring his friends to the restaurant . Peter is at first excited at the thought of his restaurant becoming the hangout for police officers , but eventually finds that Joe is actually bringing in fellow paraplegics . The restaurant becomes a huge success among handicapped customers , but Peter is disappointed that what was supposed to be a cool restaurant has become a " cafeteria at the veterans hospital , " and did not want to take the profits for granted . Angered , Peter bans them from entering with a " no shirt , no shoes , no legs , no service " policy . Joe is perplexed why Peter would turn away loyal paying customers , much less a good friend like Joe , but Peter stubbornly refuses to allow handicapped customers . In response , the handicapped unite into a giant robot known as " CrippleTron " , which begins attacking the restaurant while Peter , Chris and Stewie are on the roof . Stewie eventually takes matters into his own hands and defeats CrippleTron , which falls on Peter , breaking one of his legs . After being taken to the hospital , Peter needs to use a wheelchair for two weeks while his broken leg heals . Peter apologizes to Joe , who accepts his apology on the basis that he is glad to see Peter understand the difficulties of being disabled and that he does not want to continue holding a grudge against Peter . The two make amends , and things go back to the way they were and Peter closes down the restaurant .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by main cast member Mike Henry , who provides the voice for the Family Guy character Cleveland Brown , among others , and it was directed by series regular Greg Colton . In animating the Cripple @-@ Tron sequence , Colton largely utilized computer technology to create the sequence , in addition to traditional animation and computer @-@ generated imagery .
" No Meals on Wheels " , along with the four other episodes from Family Guy 's fifth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on October 21 , 2008 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Seth MacFarlane and various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " 100th Episode Special " , and a mini @-@ feature entitled Family Guy Live .
In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Barclay DeVeau , voice actor Keith Ferguson , singer Arnold McCuller and actor Patrick Stewart guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Lori Alan , Johnny Brennan , writer Steve Callaghan , voice actor Chris Cox , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener also made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode opens with the Griffin family watching an episode of America 's Next Top Model . The show 's host , Tyra Banks , is also shown , becoming furious at a contestant , and a giant iguana emerges from her mouth . After Mort attempts to borrow something from the Griffin family , Peter states that Mort is more burdensome than the Mexican Super Friends . Deciding to scare him away , Peter then goes on to build a scarecrow that resembles former Nazi leader Adolf Hitler . This causes Mort to be scared from the family 's home , and implores other Jews to protect Jon Stewart , being that he is their " most important Jew . "
Annoyed by Peter 's constant shocking , Brian professes his discomfort by referencing his anger after O. J. Simpson was acquitted of charges in the O. J. Simpson murder case . After Lois expresses her hope for the restaurant to be successful , Stewie sarcastically states that it will be just as successful as Liza Minnelli 's Playboy photoshoot . Returning home from the restaurant , Peter and Lois decide to watch an episode of Maude , but the length of the opening theme song causes Peter to become fatigued by the show . Once the restaurant begins hemorrhaging money , Peter decides to shoot a commercial parodying M. Night Shyamalan 's 1999 film The Sixth Sense . After Joe 's handicapped friends take over the restaurant , Peter expresses his discomfort about the restaurant 's coolness to Lois by retrieving a picture of American actor Mark Harmon and showing it to Lois in an attempt to make her understand his concern .
Once Peter becomes handicapped , a montage of his difficulties as a paraplegic is shown , with Elton John 's " I Guess That 's Why They Call It the Blues " playing in the background . In the final scene of the episode , Peter decides to apologize to Joe for attempting to discriminate him for being handicapped . Accepting his apology , Joe invites Peter to join him and Bonnie while they watch the ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy .
= = Reception = =
In a slight decrease from the previous week , the episode was viewed in 7 @.@ 97 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings , in the United States . The episode also acquired a 2 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , slightly edging out The Simpsons , in addition to significantly winning over series creator Seth MacFarlane 's second show on Fox , American Dad ! , in both rating and total viewership . It was the 35th most @-@ watched episode of the week .
Reviews of the episode were mostly mixed , stating that the episode had " its moments , [ ... ] but as a whole , it was somewhat lacking . " Ahsan Haque of IGN found it to be " one of the most bizarre and tasteless episodes of the season . " Furthermore , Haque noted , " as with almost every episode of Family Guy , the plot takes many strange twists and turns . That often this leads to a muddled story with no sense of direction . " Haque also stated , that he was " amused by Peter 's static shocking escapade " and " liked the restaurant themed story angle , " saying that it was well executed . Overall , Haque finally noted that the episode managed to recapture some of the show 's " so @-@ offensive @-@ you @-@ have @-@ to @-@ groan " feel that was prevalent during the first few seasons . The fight with the Cripple @-@ Tron ranked tenth position on IGN 's Top 10 Fights in the show . Brett Love of TV Squad found the cultural references to be a " mixed bag , " but noted his enjoyment of the restaurant scenes , as well as Quagmire 's brief appearance . In closing his review , Love stated , " Overall , this one just didn 't work for me . It 's worth a look for a couple of the bits , but not an episode I 'll watch when it gets repeated . [ ... ] They can 't all be gems . "
The Parents Television Council , which has frequently criticized the series , named the episode the " Worst TV Show of the Week " for the week ending April 6 , 2007 , for its insensitivity toward the disabled , as well as its gag depicting Adolf Hitler as a scarecrow , or " Scare @-@ Jew , " as it was referred to in the episode .
= Linx ( railway company ) =
Linx AB was a railway company which operated inter @-@ Scandinavian passenger trains between 2001 and 2004 . Established as a joint venture between the Norwegian
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Sweden was more automated .
In July 2003 , Linx reduced the number of daily services from Gothenburg to Copenhagen from ten to four . The company stated that this was because of insufficient ridership . Linx had offered tickets with a lower price than Scandinavian Airlines , who operated the airline service between Oslo Airport , Gardermoen and Stockholm @-@ Arlanda Airport . Ryanair also provided an airline service , but with fewer departures and with the same center @-@ to @-@ center transport time because it flew from the secondary Sandefjord Airport , Torp and Stockholm @-@ Skavsta Airport . From 1 September 2003 , Norwegian Air Shuttle started services from Gardermoen to Arlanda , and became a more direct competitor to Linx . From 27 October , Nordic Airlink ( later FlyNordic ) also started a flight between the same airports . With shorter travel time from center to center and comparable fares , Norwegian and Nordic started taking market shares away from Linx .
Starting on December 15 , NSB took over three of the daily services from Oslo to Gothenburg , by extending three of the InterCity services along the Østfold Line onwards from Halden Station to Gothenburg . On 24 January 2004 , a Linx train derailed at Vestby Station on the Østfold Line . None of the 50 passengers were hurt in the incident .
On 11 June 2004 , NSB and SJ stated that they would discontinue Linx , and would operate the last train on 31 December 2004 . The company had never made a profit , and the new low @-@ cost airlines had reduced ridership by up to 40 % . The only part of the service which was profitable was the service from Stockholm to Karlstad , which SJ intended to continue . NSB stated that if a new Oslo – Stockholm service was to be introduced , it would require state grants . In September , SJ 's CEO Jan Forsberg stated that the problems lay with the infrastructure in Norway . While the speeds were high enough to operate with a profit in Sweden and to Copenhagen , the slow lines in Norway made services to Norway unprofitable . Linx had by then transported 1 @.@ 3 million passengers , and Forsberg stated that had the company transported 1 @.@ 7 million people , it would have been profitable .
The closing was criticized by two engineers , who stated that the company actually made a profit , but ended up paying 24 % of their revenue in ticket commission to SJ and NSB . In 2003 , the company had a revenue of SEK 426 @.@ 8 million , of which SEK 411 million was from ticket sales . The company had a deficit of SEK 33 @.@ 8 million , of which NSB covered SEK 8 @.@ 1 million and SJ SEK 25 @.@ 6 million . However , NSB took a commission of SEK 10 @.@ 8 million and SJ SEK 58 @.@ 5 million . This gave a profit , before provisions , of SEK 35 @.@ 5 million . In comparison , Narvesen took a commission of 2 @.@ 7 % for tickets sold by NSB .
The closing of the Oslo – Stockholm service was the first time there was not a train service between the capitals since 1871 , when the line opened . In addition , the service cut occurred at the same time as the centennial of the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden . On 4 November , SJ and NSB stated that they would continue the service , but only on weekends . They stated that an increased service would either require financial grants from the states , or introduction of duty @-@ free sales on board .
= = Service = =
Travel time from Oslo to Stockholm was 4 hours and 30 minutes , with stops at Oslo Central Station , Lillestrøm Station , Kongsvinger Station , Karlstad Central Station , and Stockholm Central Station . When the service was launched , a ticket from Oslo to Stockholm cost NOK 563 , or NOK 326 if bought at least seven days before departure . Two people under the age of 16 could travel for free when accompanying an adult . Later , minimum prices of NOK 280 were launched , while maximum price for business class was NOK 1300 . Tickets were slightly cheaper to purchase in Sweden than in Norway . About 185 @,@ 000 passengers took the train from Oslo to Stockholm each year .
Travel time from Gothenburg to Copenhagen was 3 hours and 30 minutes . The X2 trains had a speed of up to 200 kilometres per hour ( 120 mph ) on the West Coast Line from Gothenburg Central Station to Malmö Central Station , and then ran along the Oresund Line via Copenhagen Airport , Kastrup Station to Copenhagen Central Station . A ticket from Gothenburg to Copenhagen cost NOK 1119 in business class , NOK 803 in second class , and with reduced prices down to NOK 342 if bought in advance or for weekend travel .
Travel time from Oslo to Gothenburg was slightly more than four hours . Prices varied from NOK 633 for a business class ticket , NOK 355 for a second class ticket to NOK 187 for pre @-@ booked tickets . X2 trains were never introduced on the section from Oslo to Gothenburg . Instead , conventional Swedish trains from the 1960s hauled by Rc locomotives were used . Passengers traveling from Oslo to Copenhagen had to change train in Gothenburg .
= = Rolling stock = =
On the sections Oslo – Stockholm and Gothenburg – Copenhagen , Linx operated X2 electric multiple units owned by SJ . Forty @-@ three units were delivered to SJ by Kalmar Verkstad between 1990 and 1997 . The trains are standard gauge , have a power output of 3 @,@ 260 kilowatts ( 4 @,@ 370 hp ) and a maximum speed of 200 kilometres per hour ( 120 mph ) . Each train consists of a locomotive , a number of middle cars and an end car . The trains use 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC power supply in Sweden and Norway , and 25 kV 50 Hz AC in Denmark . Linx had two classes : business and second . On business class , a warm meal and drink was included , while in second class , a restaurant car was provided . Seats had a power outlet for laptops , and free wireless Internet .
= Annika Sörenstam =
Annika Sörenstam ( pronounced [ ˈan.niː.ka ˌsøː.rɛn.ˈstam ] ; listen ; born 9 October 1970 ) is a retired Swedish professional golfer , one of the most successful female golfers in history . Before stepping away from competitive golf at the end of the 2008 season , she had won 90 international tournaments as a professional , making her the female golfer with the most wins to her name . She has won 72 official LPGA tournaments including ten majors and 18 other tournaments internationally , and she tops the LPGA 's career money list with earnings of over $ 22 million — over $ 3 million ahead of her nearest rival . Since 2006 , Sörenstam has held dual American and Swedish citizenship .
The winner of a record eight Player of the Year awards , and six Vare Trophies given to the LPGA player with the lowest seasonal scoring average , she is the only female golfer to shoot a 59 in competition . She holds various all @-@ time scoring records including the lowest season scoring average : 68 @.@ 6969 in 2004 .
Representing Europe in the Solheim Cup on eight occasions between 1994 and 2007 , Sörenstam was the event 's all @-@ time leading points earner until her record was surpassed by England 's Laura Davies during the 2011 Solheim Cup .
In 2003 , Sörenstam made history at the Bank of America Colonial tournament as the first woman to play in a PGA Tour event since 1945 .
= = Childhood and amateur career = =
Born in Bro near Stockholm , Sweden , Sörenstam 's father Tom is a retired IBM executive and her mother Gunilla worked in a bank . Her younger sister Charlotta is a professional golfer who coaches at her sister 's academy . Annika and Charlotta Sörenstam are the only two sisters to have both won $ 1 million on the LPGA .
As a child , Sörenstam was a talented all @-@ round sportsgirl . She was a nationally @-@ ranked junior tennis player , played football ( soccer ) in her hometown team Bro IK , and was such a good skier that the coach of the Swedish national ski team suggested the family move to northern Sweden to improve her skiing year round .
= = = Junior golf = = =
At the age of 12 , she switched to golf , sharing her first set of golf clubs with her sister — Annika got the odd numbered clubs and Charlotta the even — and earned her first handicap of 54 . She was so shy as a junior she used to deliberately three @-@ putt at the end of a tournament to avoid giving the victory speech . The coaches noticed and at the next tournament both the winner and the runner @-@ up had to give a speech . Sörenstam decided that if she were going to have to face the crowd anyway she might as well win and the deliberate misses stopped .
= = = Swedish national team = = =
Her successful amateur career included a win in the St. Rule Trophy played at St. Andrews and a runner @-@ up finish in the Swedish national mother / daughter golf tournament . As a member of the Swedish National Team from 1987 to 1992 , she played in the 1990 and 1992 Espirito Santo Trophy World Amateur Golf Team Championships , becoming World Amateur champion in 1992 . While waiting to start college in Sweden , Sörenstam worked as a personal assistant at the Swedish PGA and played on the Swedish Ladies Telia Tour , winning three tournaments during 1990 / 1991 .
= = = University of Arizona = = =
After a coach spotted Sörenstam playing in a collegiate event in Tokyo , she moved to the U.S. to play college golf at the University of Arizona in Tucson . She won seven collegiate titles and in 1991 , became the first non @-@ American and first freshman to win the individual NCAA Division I Championship . Sörenstam was 1991 NCAA Co @-@ Player of the Year with Kelly Robbins , runner @-@ up in the 1992 NCAA championship , 1992 Pac @-@ 10 champion and a 1991 – 92 NCAA All @-@ American . She qualified for the U.S. Women 's Open at Oakmont in July , made the cut , and tied for 63rd . A few weeks later at the U.S. Women 's Amateur at Kemper Lakes near Chicago , she was the runner @-@ up to Vicki Goetze , bogeying the last hole in the 36 @-@ hole final .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 1990s = = =
Sörenstam turned professional in 1992 , but missed her LPGA Tour card at the final qualifying tournament by one shot , and began her professional career on the Ladies European Tour ( LET ) , formerly known as the WPGET . She was invited to play in three LPGA Tour events in 1993 , where she finished T38th , 4th , and T9th , earning more than $ 47 @,@ 000 . She finished second four times on the Ladies European Tour and was 1993 Ladies European Tour Rookie of the Year . By tying for 28th at the LPGA Final Qualifying Tournament she earned non @-@ exempt status for the 1994 season . Sörenstam 's first professional win came at the 1994 Holden Women 's Australian Open on the ALPG Tour .
In the United States , Sörenstam was LPGA Rookie of the Year , had three top @-@ 10 finishes including a tie for second at the Women 's British Open and made her Solheim Cup debut . Her breakout year was 1995 , when she won her first LPGA Tour title at the U.S. Women 's Open . She finished at the top of the Money List and was the first non @-@ American winner of the Vare Trophy . She became the second player ever to be Player of the Year and Vare Trophy winner the year after being Rookie of the Year . A win at the 1995 Australian Ladies Masters and two other wins on the Ladies European Tour put her top of the LET Order of Merit and made her the first player to top both the European and LPGA Tour money lists in the same season . Her success worldwide resulted in her winning the Jerringpriset award in Sweden , the country 's most prestigious award in sports as well as being awarded the Svenska Dagbladet Gold Medal .
1996 saw Sörenstam win her home LET tournament , the Trygg Hansa Ladies ' Open in Sweden and three LPGA tournaments including the U.S. Women 's Open . In defending her title , she became the first non @-@ American to win back to back U.S. Women 's Open titles , passed the $ 1 million mark in LPGA career earnings , and won her second consecutive Vare Trophy .
She won six tour events in 1997 , regaining the money list and player of the year titles . Internationally , she won on the JLPGA and defended her home LET title at the renamed Compaq Open . She became the first player in LPGA history to finish a season with a sub @-@ 70 scoring average of 69 @.@ 99 en route to retaining the 1998 Player of the Year and Money List titles as well as winning the LET Swedish tour stop for the third time running . September 1999 saw Sörenstam change her on @-@ course team replacing her caddie of six years , Colin Cann , with Terry McNamara .
= = = 2000s = = =
At this point in her career , Sörenstam says she lost focus having reached her biggest goals . Karrie Webb became the best LPGA Tour player but Sörenstam still managed to win more LPGA tournaments than any other LPGA Tour player during the 1990s . She qualified for the World Golf Hall of Fame when she won the 2000 Welch 's / Circle K Championship , but was not eligible for induction until finishing her tenth year on the LPGA tour in October 2003 . Sörenstam was the first international player to be inducted into the Hall of Fame through the LPGA criteria .
Having lost her preeminent position , Sörenstam embarked on a new five @-@ day @-@ a @-@ week exercise program including weight @-@ lifting and balance work which by 2003 added over 20 yards ( 18 m ) to her driving distance . During the 2001 season , she had eight LPGA wins , became the only female golfer to shoot a 59 in competition and the first LPGA player to cross the $ 2 million mark in single @-@ season earnings . She set or tied a total of 30 LPGA records en route to regaining the Vare Trophy and winning her fourth Player of the Year and Money List titles in 2001 . In a made @-@ for @-@ TV alternate shot competition between the two best male and female players in the world , Sörenstam and Tiger Woods beat Karrie Webb and David Duval .
At the end of that season Karrie Webb said she " would eat her hat " if Sörenstam repeated her eight wins in 2002 . Sörenstam accomplished that feat , joining Mickey Wright as the only players to win 11 LPGA tournaments in one season , earning her fifth Player of the Year title and fifth Vare Trophy . She successfully defended the Kraft Nabisco Championship , her fourth major victory , and also won the ANZ Ladies Masters in Australia and Compaq Open in Sweden on the Ladies European Tour giving her 13 wins in 25 starts worldwide in 2002 .
Amid notable controversy , Sörenstam was invited to play in the PGA Tour 's Bank of America Colonial golf tournament in Fort Worth , Texas , in May 2003 , making her the first woman to play in a PGA Tour event since Babe Zaharias , who qualified for the 1945 Los Angeles Open . Vijay Singh , fourth in the world rankings at the time , was particularly critical of her presence ; he was quoted saying she had no business playing and he hoped she missed the cut , although this statement was later proven to be misquoted and he later apologized . Cheered through each hole , she shot five over par , tying for 96th out of the 111 who finished the first two rounds , missing the cut . After shooting 1 @-@ over @-@ par 71 in the first round , finishing in 73rd and on pace to challenge for a weekend spot , Sörenstam said she was nervous all day but pleased by her performance . Through the first round she led the field in driving accuracy , was in the top 20 in greens in regulation , and was 84th out of 111 in driving distance . Unfortunately , poor putting ( last in the field , averaging over a two @-@ putt ) cost her a spot on the first page of the first round leaderboard and ultimately caused her to miss the cut .
Later in the 2003 season , she won the LPGA Championship and the Women 's British Open , becoming only the sixth player to complete the LPGA Career Grand Slam . She had five other victories worldwide , set or tied a total of 22 LPGA records and earned her sixth Player of the Year award . She competed against Fred Couples , Phil Mickelson and Mark O 'Meara in the 2003 Skins Game , finishing second with five skins worth $ 225 @,@ 000 ; Sörenstam holed a 39 @-@ yard ( 36 m ) bunker shot on the ninth hole — the eighth eagle in Skins Game history . In September , she was part of the winning European Solheim Cup team in her native Sweden . She was awarded her second Jerringpriset award in Sweden plus the 2003 Golf Writers ' Trophy by the Association of Golf Writers .
Sörenstam 's dominance continued in 2004 with her seventh LPGA Player of the Year award tying Kathy Whitworth for the most in LPGA history . She posted 16 top @-@ 10 finishes in 18 LPGA starts , including eight wins , had two additional international wins , became the first player to reach $ 15 million in LPGA career earnings and took her own LPGA single @-@ season scoring average record to 68 @.@ 69696 , but played too few rounds to win the Vare Trophy . The Women 's Sports Foundation gave her the 2004 Sportswoman of the Year Award , and the Laureus World Sports Academy named her World Sportswoman of the Year . She also released a combination autobiography and golf instructional book , Golf Annika 's Way .
Sörenstam 's life both on and off the golf course changed in 2005 . In February , she announced that she had filed for divorce from David Esch , her husband of eight years , and this was finalised in August but it did not adversely affect her golf . Her achievements included being the first player in LPGA history to win a major three consecutive years at the LPGA Championship and the first golfer in LPGA or PGA history to win the same event five consecutive years at the Mizuno Classic . 11 wins in 21 tournaments entered worldwide included victory in the Scandinavian TPC hosted by Annika where she presented herself the trophy , giving her an eighth Money List title , tying the LPGA record , an eighth Rolex Player of the Year ( POY ) award ( a record ) and a sixth Vare Trophy . She is the only LPGA player ever to win Money List , POY award and Vare trophy in the same year in five different years . Team competition saw her make her seventh consecutive Solheim Cup appearance , her 4 points making her total 21 , the event 's all @-@ time leading points earner , and the inaugural Lexus Cup was played with Sörenstam as the Captain of the victorious International Team .
These events resulted in her receiving numerous awards . The Golf Writers Association of America named Sörenstam Female Player of the Year for the eighth time ( 1995 @,@ 1997 , 2000 – 2005 ) , Associated Press voted her Female Athlete of the Year for the third consecutive year and she became the first woman to win the Golf Writers ' Trophy twice in the 55 @-@ year history of European golf 's most prestigious award . Having previously won six Best Female Golfer ESPY Awards ( 1996 , 1998 – 99 , 2002 – 04 ) , Sörenstam also received the 2005 ESPY Award as Best Female Athlete
When the first @-@ ever official Women 's World Golf Rankings were unveiled in February 2006 , Sörenstam was confirmed as the number @-@ one player in women 's golf , a position she relinquished to Lorena Ochoa on 22 April 2007 . In partnership with Liselotte Neumann in team Sweden , she won the Women 's World Cup of Golf , opened her LPGA season with a defence of her title in the MasterCard Classic . She then went winless in eight starts , causing some to talk of a slump . Her winning drought ended at the U.S. Women 's Open , where she won an 18 @-@ hole playoff over Pat Hurst for her tenth major championship title , tying her for third on the list of players with most major championship titles . She totalled 3 wins on the LPGA and two on the Ladies European Tour , the inaugural Dubai Ladies Masters and the Swedish tournament she hosts , which she defended in her home town at the course where she learned to play . Her International team lost the second Lexus Cup competition to Team Asia .
Sörenstam started 2007 by losing a playoff while defending of her MasterCard Classic title . At the Kraft Nabisco Championship she shot her highest 72 @-@ hole score in a major in nine years , a result explained by her subsequent diagnosis with ruptured and bulging discs in her neck , the first major injury in Sörenstam 's 13 @-@ year LPGA career . After a two @-@ month injury rehabilitation break , Sörenstam returned as the Ginn Tribute tournament hostess where she admitted to being at only 85 % fitness and finished tied for 36th place . She was still not fully fit in her next two tournaments , the LPGA Championship where she finished tied for 15th place , and the US Women 's Open , where , as defending champion , she finished tied for 32nd .
After an early round defeat at the World Matchplay Championship , Sörenstam finished sixth at the Evian Masters , 16th at the Women 's British Open and ninth in the Swedish tournament she hosts on the Ladies European Tour . On her return to the US , Sörenstam had three top ten finishes but missed the weekend at the season closing ADT Playoffs for the second year running . However , Sörenstam did win a worldwide title at the Dubai Ladies Masters on the Ladies European Tour in November 2007 .
Declaring herself recovered from injury and ready to return to a complete season of competitive golf in 2008 , Sörenstam opened the year at the SBS Open at Turtle Bay where she captured her 70th LPGA Tour victory and first since September 2006 . She won next at the Stanford International Pro @-@ Am in April then following a week off , won again at the Michelob ULTRA Open at Kingsmill in a tournament record score , giving her three wins and over $ 1 million in earnings by mid @-@ May . It was her 72nd and final ever win on the LPGA Tour .
In 2008 , Sörenstam was highly critical of other female golfers who tried to play in the PGA Tour – her comments to Michelle Wie for playing on the men 's tour : " I really don 't know why Michelle continues to do this . We have a major this week and , if you can 't qualify for a major , I don 't see any reason why you should play with the men . "
= = = Retirement = = =
On 13 May 2008 , Sörenstam announced at a press conference at the Sybase Classic that she would " step away " from competitive golf at the conclusion of the 2008 season . That night , she threw out the first pitch of the Washington Nationals / New York Mets baseball game at Shea Stadium in New York and the following day read the Top Ten on the Late Show with David Letterman . Her last tournament victory came in a playoff at the Suzhou Taihu Ladies Open , an event co @-@ sanctioned by the Ladies European Tour and the Ladies Asian Golf tour . Her last scheduled tournament on the LPGA Tour was the season @-@ ending ADT Championship in November , where she failed to make the weekend play in the event 's unique playoff structure . Her final sanctioned LPGA appearance was as the winning captain of Team International at the 2008 Lexus Cup in Singapore . Her last professional tournament was the Dubai Ladies Masters on the Ladies European Tour in December 2008 , where she finished tied for 7th .
= = Business career = =
Sörenstam began the transition from professional golfer to entrepreneur during the later years of her career , attempting to combine golf , fitness and charitable works into various businesses under the ANNIKA brand with the brand statement " Share my Passion " . They are all promoted by her website on which there is a blog to which she and her staff regularly contribute .
= = = Golf course design = = =
Sörenstam has undertaken a number of golf course design projects . Her first , the Annika Course , was completed at Mission Hills Golf Club in Shenzen , China , in 2003 ; the second was officially launched in January 2006 and opened in 2008 at Euphoria Golf Estate & Hydro in South Africa . She recently announced a new project at Mines Golf City , near Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia . Projects closer to home include a redesign of the Patriots Point Links Course near Charleston , South Carolina and a course at Red Mountain Resort , British Columbia . She and Jack Nicklaus lost out on their bid to build the Olympic golf course in Rio to Gil Hanse and his consultant Amy Alcott . In 2010 , a golf course at Golden Bay Resort was opened in South Korea . She designed this golf course , and Hanhwa Hotels & Resorts Corporation developed . This was the first project for her after @-@ retirement golf course design .
= = = The ANNIKA Academy = = =
The ANNIKA Academy at Ginn Reunion Resort in Reunion , Florida began construction in 2006 and opened in April 2007 with Sörenstam 's longtime coach Henri Reis serving as head instructor , her sister Charlotta an instructor and club fitter , her personal trainer Kai Fusser focusing on overall fitness training , and with Sorenstam available for coaching on certain golfing packages . The opening ceremony included a Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation golf clinic conducted by Sörenstam who is a United States ambassador for the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation and it also hosted clinics for junior golfers during The Annika Invitational , an American Junior Golf Association invitation @-@ only event featuring the top 60 girls from around the world hosted by The ANNIKA Foundation .
= = = Other business ventures = = =
Other branches of the ANNIKA business include a clothing line with Cutter & Buck , a limited label wine produced in partnership with Wente Vineyards , and a signature fragrance developed by SA Fragrances . Sörenstam also hosted the Ginn Tribute Hosted by Annika , an event on the LPGA Tour in 2007 and 2008 , and the Scandinavian TPC hosted by Annika on the Ladies European Tour during its last four years from 2005 through 2008 . She won the latter tournament in 2005 and 2006 . Both tournaments had their last event in 2008 .
One of Sörenstam 's hobbies is cooking . She has participated in cooking demonstrations during LPGA tournaments and has talked about enrolling in cooking school . Before the 2003 season Sörenstam took the opportunity to improve her culinary skills by working eight @-@ hour shifts in the kitchens of the Lake Nona Country Club . Sörenstam has had a serious interest in investments , real estate and the stock market since she earned her first LPGA check and in August 2006 was invited to ring the closing bell at the New York Stock Exchange .
= = Personal life = =
Sörenstam has been described as an atheist . She met her first husband David Esch in 1994 on the driving range at Moon Valley Country Club , Phoenix , Arizona , where she was an LPGA rookie practicing for a tournament and he worked for club manufacturer Ping . They were engaged at the 1995 Evian Masters , married in Lake Tahoe on 4 January 1997 , and were divorced in 2005 . In August 2007 she married Mike McGee , the managing director for the ANNIKA brand of businesses and son of former PGA Tour and Champions Tour player Jerry McGee , at Lake Nona Golf & Country Club in Orlando , Florida on 10 January 2009 .
Their daughter Ava Madelyn McGee was born 1 September 2009 . On 21 March 2011 , Sörenstam gave birth to a son , William Nicholas McGee , several weeks prematurely .
= = Professional wins ( 93 ) = =
= = = LPGA Tour ( 72 ) = = =
LPGA Tour playoff record ( 16 – 6 )
LPGA majors are shown in bold .
= = = Ladies European Tour ( 17 ) = = =
1995 ( 2 ) OVB Damen Open Austria , Hennessy Cup
1996 ( 1 ) Trygg Hansa Ladies ' Open
1997 ( 1 ) Compaq Open
1998 ( 1 ) Compaq Open
2000 ( 1 ) Evian Masters
2002 ( 3 ) ANZ Ladies Masters ( co @-@ sanctioned by ALPG Tour ) , Evian Masters , Compaq Open
2003 ( 1 ) Women 's British Open
2004 ( 2 ) ANZ Ladies Masters ( co @-@ sanctioned by ALPG Tour ) , HP Open
2005 ( 1 ) Scandinavian TPC hosted by Annika
2006 ( 2 ) Scandinavian TPC hosted by Annika , Dubai Ladies Masters
2007 ( 1 ) Dubai Ladies Masters
2008 ( 1 ) Suzhou Taihu Ladies Open
Ladies European Tour Majors are shown in bold . The Evian Masters is classified as a major by the LET but not the LPGA Tour , and along with the Women 's British Open is co @-@ sanctioned by the LPGA Tour , with wins counting for both tours .
= = = ALPG Tour ( 4 ) = = =
1994 ( 1 ) Holden Women 's Australian Open
1995 ( 1 ) Australian Ladies Masters
2002 ( 1 ) ANZ Ladies Masters ( co @-@ sanctioned by LET )
2004 ( 1 ) ANZ Ladies Masters ( co @-@ sanctioned by LET )
= = = LPGA of Japan Tour ( 2 ) = = =
1997 ( 1 ) Hisako Higuchi Kibun Classic
2003 ( 1 ) Nichirei Cup
= = = Other ( 3 ) = = =
1997 ( 1 ) JCPenney / LPGA Skins Game
2001 ( 1 ) Wendy 's 3 @-@ Tour Challenge ( with Dottie Pepper and Karrie Webb )
2006 ( 1 ) Women 's World Cup of Golf ( team event with Liselotte Neumann ; endorsed by all the main women 's tours , but not an official money event )
= = Major championships = =
= = = Wins ( 10 ) = = =
1 Defeated Grace Park with par on first extra hole2 Defeated Hurst in 18 @-@ hole playoff : Sörenstam ( 70 ) , Hurst ( 74 )
= = = Results timeline = = =
^ The Women 's British Open replaced the du Maurier Classic as an LPGA major in 2001
DNP
= did not play
CUT =
missed the half @-@ way cut
" T " = tied for place
Green background for wins . Yellow background for top @-@ 10 .
= = = Summary = = =
Most consecutive cuts made – 24 ( 2003 Kraft Nabisco − 2008 British Open )
Longest streak of top @-@ 10s – 4 ( 4 times )
= = LPGA Tour record = =
* Includes matchplay and other events without a cut .
= = World ranking = =
Position in Women 's World Golf Rankings at the end of each calendar year .
On 12 January 2009 , Sörenstam , who was ranked third the previous week despite having announced her retirement effective at the end of the 2008 season , was removed from the rankings . No official explanation was given for her removal . Sörenstam later posted in her personal blog that she asked to be removed .
= = Team appearances = =
Amateur
Espirito Santo Trophy ( representing Sweden ) : 1990 , 1992
Professional
Solheim Cup ( representing Europe ) : 1994 , 1996 , 1998 , 2000 ( winners ) , 2002 , 2003 ( winners ) , 2005 , 2007
Lexus Cup ( representing International team ) : 2005 ( winners ) , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 ( winners )
World Cup ( representing Sweden ) : 2006 ( winners )
= = = Solheim Cup record = = =
= = Awards and honors = =
= Chana School =
Chana School is a Registered Historic Place in the Ogle County , Illinois , in the county seat of Oregon , Illinois . One of six Oregon sites listed on the Register , the school is an oddly shaped , two @-@ room schoolhouse which has been moved from its original location . Chana School joined the Register in 2005 as an education museum .
The schoolhouse was built in 1883 , in the village of Chana , Illinois . Due to the elimination of the Chana School District , the school was abandoned by the 1960s . A restoration effort was undertaken in the late 1990s , ending with a move and refurbishment in 2002 and 2003 . The building now stands in a public park along the Rock River in Oregon , Illinois . Its interior also features architectural elements which set it apart from the typical 19th @-@ century schoolhouse . From a distance , the building is dominated by its bell tower .
= = History = =
The Chana Pine Rock School was founded in 1883 . It operated until 1953 , when the school was retired . It was the only wooden , two @-@ room schoolhouse built in the area . One of the two classrooms was used by students in lower grades , the other by older students , up to eighth grade . Through the late early 1950s , one classroom was still used and the additional space used for storage .
= = = Early years = = =
The village of Chana was founded in 1871 , half a mile northwest of White Oak School , which was built in 1869 . Chana 's early settlers sent their children to White Oak School up to eighth grade , but White Oak was abandoned in 1883 when Chana School was built in a park in Chana . The White Oak building was used as a storage barn for hay until a fire destroyed it in 1886 . In 1893 , a second classroom was added to the existing structure of Chana School .
Chana 's first teacher was D.C. Sears , an Oregon , Illinois resident . The late 19th century saw at least ten individuals teach at Chana School at different times . By 1888 , Pine Rock Township was ready to address the question of whether or not to build a high school ; Chana students attended high school in Oregon . The question was brought to a vote but failed and Chana students continued to go to Oregon schools after eighth grade .
= = = After closing = = =
After the school closed in 1953 , the larger , original room was converted into a bus garage by the Chana School District . A large garage door was cut into the building and the floor completely removed . The smaller , 1893 room became a storage area . In 1962 , the Chana School District ran out of room and used the building as an overflow classroom . By the mid @-@ 1960s , the Chana District folded and was absorbed by the Oregon School District . Residents were allowed to remove any items from the school after the district shut down .
= = = Restoration = = =
In 1997 , the property was sold and the Chana School was nearly demolished . Citizens formed the Chana School Foundation to save the building . It was relocated to City Park East in Oregon , Illinois and volunteers began the process of refurbishing the building in August 1998 . Five years later , in September 2003 , the school had its grand opening . Since then , it has operated as a museum to help illustrate 1880s education in the United States .
The moving and restoration of the Chana School was facilitated , in part , by a US $ 15 @,@ 000 grant from the Illinois Department of Natural Resources . The grant was intended to help restore the building to its original state , restore a sand hill prairie on the site , develop museum exhibit space , and establish learning links to other museums in support of " the rural education focus " as part of the curriculum .
= = Architecture = =
Chana School is , on one hand , typical of rural schoolhouses , with a gabled roof and trademark bell tower . On the other hand , the building is unique among 19th @-@ century schoolhouses . It does have some stylistic elements , mostly of the Italianate style . Examples include pedimented window crows and pronounced hoods over the belfry openings . However , Chana School 's architectural difference lies in its design and , thus , its floor plan .
= = = Exterior = = =
The building is designed in the Italianate style , with the specialty leanings demanded by a schoolhouse . The front facade , which faces southwest today , is adorned with three doorways — left , right , and center — which span a front porch beneath the bell tower . When the school was open , the use of the doors was restricted . The left and right doors were used by boys in first through eighth grades while the middle door was earmarked as an entry for girls of all ages . Each of the doors feature transoms topped with cornices .
The bell tower rises 43 feet ( 13 m ) , and halfway up its length is a large round sign . The sign denotes the school district , Pine Rock , and the year of the school 's foundation . Originally , the sign graced the front exterior wall of the larger of the two rooms . The tower rises above the roof by about fifteen feet and at its top are four arches , one on each side . Wooden construction is found throughout the tower , its arches , and the rest of the schoolhouse , save the limestone and cement foundation . At the bottom of each of the four arches are balustrades decorated with spindles . Inside the tower is the school bell . The bell house is topped with a multi @-@ gabled roof . The roof of the overall schoolhouse is covered with cedar shingles and features chimneys rising from each of the classrooms .
The building 's southern facade , that of the original 1883 room , features three windows . The same room has two rear windows of the same style . The windows are all double hung and of four @-@ over @-@ four design .
= = = Interior = = =
The south entrance to the larger room is Chana School 's most original portion . A pinewood floor , original closet , built @-@ in water stand , and pressed tin on the ceiling are among the original features found in this portion of the building . The interior of the bell tower is adorned with shelving , coat hooks , and two exits ; one into the smaller classroom and the other , between the semi @-@ circular walls , to the coat room . The bell rope hangs 14 @.@ 5 feet ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) from the ceiling .
The interior of the 1883 room has been restored to its original appearance . The red oak floor is trimmed by nine inches of mop board and quarter @-@ round , decoratively accented . The two curved and semi @-@ circular front walls mark the two coat rooms in the original , one @-@ room building . The rounded walls hold a chair rail and are wainscoted below the blackboards . Blackboards cover available space on the north , east , and south walls . Pressed tin extends over the ceiling and is used as a crown molding around the room on the walls from the ceiling to the top of the blackboards .
The second , newer room has also been fully restored as a schoolroom and is currently being used as a museum . The rectangular room features a half chimney , partial original oak floors , and original blackboards which are set lower for smaller children .
= = = Unique features = = =
This building , at least among schoolhouses from the time period ( 1880s ) , is architecturally unique in two ways . One feature that sets this structure apart from most rural schoolhouses of the day is the building 's design . Chana School started off as a simple , run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill , one @-@ room schoolhouse . Ten years later , however , an addition to the building attached a second , smaller classroom , perpendicular to the original . The bell tower was then constructed to connect the two rooms . The result was a unique layout resembling an " L " with its corner shaved off . Inside the building is another unique feature for schoolhouses of the time — the coat rooms are surrounded by two semi @-@ circular front walls in the original wing of the building .
= = Outbuildings = =
The only other buildings on the site are two outhouses , located to the rear of the school building . Both are non @-@ functional , display models . One outhouse is an original 1870s structure , transported to the site and reassembled . The other outhouse is a copy , built from salvaged materials during the school restoration . Neither outhouse is historically associated with Chana School and both are considered non @-@ contributing factors in the schoolhouse 's National Register of Historic Places listing .
= = Significance = =
Chana School was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 6 , 2005 . On its original nomination form to the National Register , Chana School was cited as being significant for inclusion in the Register under criteria C , which states a property : " embod ( ies ) the distinctive characteristics of a type , period , or method of construction , or that represent the work of a master , or that possess high artistic values , or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction . " In addition , the school was subject to considerations by the Register which allowed its inclusion despite the general policy which does not encourage the nomination of properties that have been moved from their original location .
= Genesis of the Daleks =
Genesis of the Daleks is the fourth serial of the twelfth season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It was written by Terry Nation and directed by David Maloney , and originally broadcast in six weekly parts from 8 March to 12 April 1975 on BBC1 .
In the serial , the Fourth Doctor ( Tom Baker ) and his companions Sarah Jane Smith ( Elisabeth Sladen ) and Harry Sullivan ( Ian Marter ) are sent by members of the Doctor 's race , the Time Lords , to the time of the Daleks ' creation , to avert their future terrorisation of other species . The Doctor faces the dilemma of whether he has the right to do so .
Genesis of the Daleks was originally commissioned under producer Barry Letts and script editor Terrance Dicks , who felt that the outline submitted by Nation was too similar to his previous Dalek adventures , and encouraged him to explore the origin of the Daleks . The story introduces the Daleks ' creator Davros ( played by Michael Wisher ) , who had a unique visual design . The script was handed to Letts and Dicks ' successors , producer Philip Hinchcliffe and script editor Robert Holmes , who made changes to the original script which gave it a darker tone . Nation , having intentionally modelled the Daleks on the Nazis , further explored the theme in Genesis . It also addresses the moral issues that come with time travelling and genocide . The story was filmed over January and February 1975 , with some location filming done in a quarry in Betchworth .
Genesis of the Daleks premiered with 10 @.@ 7 million viewers and concluded five weeks later with 9 @.@ 1 million , with the least @-@ watched episode being Part Three with 8 @.@ 5 million viewers . Since its broadcast it has been widely praised as one of the series ' best . The story was novelised in 1976 by Dicks , and released as a condensed LP in 1979 , before being released on VHS in 1991 and DVD in 2006 .
= = Plot = =
The Doctor is intercepted while travelling from Earth to the Ark by the Time Lords for a mission to interfere in the creation of the Daleks to avert a future time when Daleks would dominate the universe . The Doctor is given a Time Ring to use to return to the TARDIS when the task is complete . The Doctor finds that he is already on the planet Skaro and joins his companions Sarah Jane Smith and Harry Sullivan . They find that Skaro is a war @-@ torn planet ; a generations @-@ long war of attrition between the Thals and the Kaleds for dominance of the planet has laid waste to its surface and ecology . In the midst of a poison gas attack by the Thals , the Doctor and Harry are dragged inside the Kaled dome , while Sarah is left outside . She runs into the Mutos , exiled descendants of those mutated by chemical weapons early in the war but they are captured by the Thals . Sarah and the Mutos are forced to load radioactive components into a missile , that is to be launched at the Kaled dome . Sarah attempts to lead an escape by climbing out of the rocket silo but fails .
The Doctor and Harry are brought before the Kaled elite : General Ravon , the leader of the Kaled army and Security Commander Nyder . The Doctor attempts to explain that they are aliens but Nyder dismisses this as their greatest scientist , Davros , has stated there is no life outside Skaro . The Doctor and Harry 's possessions , including the Time Ring , are taken but another scientist , Ronson , discovers that they really are alien . Davros enters and demonstrates his new " Mark III travel machine " , which he later dubs as the next stage of their evolution : a " Dalek " . Ronson subsequently confides in the Doctor that he and other scientists believe Davros ' research has become immoral , because he using unethical mutations to create the Daleks . The Doctor promises to tell the Kaled leaders about Davros and the Daleks if Ronson helps them to escape . The Doctor meets Mogran and other Kaled Councillors , who agree to halt Davros ' experiments . When Davros discovers this through Nyder 's spies , he prepares twenty Daleks under computer control and covertly provides the Thal leaders with a chemical to weaken the Kaled dome in order that their rocket will penetrate it .
The Doctor and Harry rescue Sarah from the Thal dome but in doing so , the Doctor is captured . He watches helplessly as the Thals launch their rocket and destroy the Kaled dome . At the Kaled bunker , Davros declares the Kaled race is dead , giving birth to the Daleks ; he claims Ronson provided the chemical secret to the Thals and has him executed . He instructs the next scientist , Gharman , to remove compassion and pity from the new Dalek mutations and sends them to the Thal dome to exterminate everyone . In the confusion , the Doctor , Sarah and Harry rejoin the few Thal and Mutos survivors and return to the Kaled bunker . The Doctor instructs the Thals and Mutos to try to destroy the bunker , while he and his companions go inside . They are captured by Davros , who becomes aware of the Doctor 's knowledge of the Daleks ' future . The Doctor is forced to describe all future defeats of the Daleks which Davros records , to ensure that they will never occur , later having a private audience with Davros in a failed attempt to reason with him , before being placed in a cell .
The Doctor and his companions are freed by another scientist , while Gharman is making his move to stop Davros ; the group using the opportunity to rig explosives in the Dalek incubation room but the Doctor finds himself unable to detonate it , asking " Have I the right ? " . The Doctor is able to avoid the choice when one of Gharman 's followers reveals that Davros appears to have succumbed to their demands and will stop his research , on the condition of a vote among the councillors . While Davros pleads his case the Doctor recovers their possessions , before he and his companions force Nyder to give him the recording of the Dalek defeats , so they can destroy it . At that time , once the remaining Kaled elite are split between him and Gharman , Davros reveals the voting was a ploy to give the Daleks time to arrive and kill the opposing group . The Doctor and his friends learn that the Thals and Mutos have prepared to detonate explosives to seal the Daleks inside the bunker and there is little time to escape . While Sarah and Harry get out , the Doctor returns to destroy the Dalek incubation chamber with a Dalek inadvertently completing the circuit and destroying the room . The Doctor then escapes before the Thal explosives detonate .
Acting on their will and impulses , the Daleks start a production line against Davros ' wishes , while mercilessly killing his supporters . Davros attempts to activate the bunker 's self @-@ destruct but is shot by a Dalek . Though the Daleks know they are trapped , they are confident they will eventually emerge as the superior race and dominate the universe . The Doctor , Sarah and Harry say goodbye to the surviving Thals and Mutos . While the Doctor did not stop the Daleks , he does believe he has hindered their development for perhaps a thousand years and was thus successful in his mission . The three use the Time Ring to return to their own time .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
When planning stories for season 12 , producer Barry Letts and script editor Terrance Dicks felt that it was time for Terry Nation to return to the series and write another Dalek adventure . Letts and Dicks enjoyed the script Nation sent in , but found it too " reminiscent " of many of his previous Dalek stories . The two suggested that Nation instead write an origin story for the Daleks , originally titled Daleks — Genesis of Terror . The serial was commissioned on 1 April 1974 , and the scripts accepted on 22 July . The stories lined up for the season were handed over to Letts and Dicks ' successors , producer Philip Hinchcliffe and script editor Robert Holmes , with whom Genesis of the Daleks gained a darker tone . Holmes was not a fan of frequent appearances by the Daleks , and only allowed the story because it explored their origins . In an aim to make the series more adult , Hinchcliffe wanted the story to be " pacy " and make the Daleks appear more powerful . In a 2006 interview , Dicks said that he does not believe the story would have been much different if he and Letts were in charge , though he remarked he would have added some lighter moments to soften the " grim " tone . Director David Maloney stated that the images of war at the beginning of the serial were intended to create atmosphere , and he had no intention of losing the younger audience .
The production of Genesis of the Daleks saw several changes from the script . Maloney altered the opening scene to show the soldiers gunned down by machine guns in slow motion . Nation was displeased with the change , and Maloney later felt that the violent addition was " a bit much " . Hinchcliffe and Maloney were not keen on the Doctor 's original meeting with the Time Lord , which took place in a lush garden , and changed it to the Skaro war @-@ zone which they felt more appropriate . The Thal soldiers were originally supposed to be boys aged 15 or 16 to illustrate the youth of those fighting in the war , but this was later changed to make them appear more mature . In the Genesis of Terror script , Sarah Jane becomes ill in the third episode from radiation poisoning , and Bettan was a male who was introduced in the fourth episode . Part Five originally had more action in the Dalek incubator room and ended with the Doctor 's question of whether he had the right to destroy them .
= = = Casting and costumes = = =
Maloney cast John Franklyn @-@ Robbins as the Time Lord because he had worked with him before and intended his character to resemble Death in The Seventh Seal . Hilary Minster , who played a Thal soldier , had also played a Thal in Planet of the Daleks ( 1973 ) . Minster had been considered for the role of Mogran . Peter Miles previously played Dr. Lawrence in Doctor Who and the Silurians ( 1970 ) and Professor Whitaker in Invasion of the Dinosaurs ( 1974 ) . Stephen Yardley , who played the Muto Sevrin , later appeared in Vengeance on Varos ( 1985 ) . During filming of Genesis , Yardley walked into the casting department on his lunch break in costume and asked for a job ; because of his costume , they assumed he was a tramp from the street . Dennis Chinnery , who played Gharman , had previously been seen in The Chase ( 1965 ) and would later appear in The Twin Dilemma ( 1984 ) .
The character of Davros was designed by Nation to have created the Daleks in his image , and to also be a " spokesperson " for the Daleks as he felt it was " boring " listening to Daleks giving speeches . The design was inspired by the Mekon , a comic book character with no body but a " green , dome @-@ like head " which Hinchcliffe remembered from his childhood . Davros attracted the attention of BBC prosthetics designer John Friedlander who agreed to come off another show to make Davros ' mask . The latex mask was moulded to Michael Wisher 's face by make @-@ up artist Sylvia James . Wisher could even eat while wearing the mask . Regular latex instead of the more mouldable foam latex was used because the latter was too expensive . The cast and crew regarded Davros ' effects as a great technical achievement considering the budget and time period they worked in . Two children visiting Baker at the BBC studios were scared by Wisher in costume ; they thought he was a statue at first . When sitting in Davros ' Dalek @-@ like base , Wisher wore knee pads and a kilt because trousers were too uncomfortable . To prepare during rehearsals , Wisher acted in a wheelchair with a paper bag over his head that only had slits cut out for his eyes so he would be used to the " disorienting " situation and be able to express himself without using his whole face . Wisher , a heavy smoker , put two holes in the top of the bag so he could smoke underneath it in rehearsals . Wisher also provided some of the voices for the Daleks with Roy Skelton ; in some scenes , he was acting to his own pre @-@ recorded dialogue .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
Genesis of the Daleks was the last serial of the twelfth season to be filmed , after Revenge of the Cybermen . As Sarah Jane had been filmed in Revenge wearing a combat costume , it was added into Genesis that the Doctor would hand her the outfit , to which she changes into by the next scene . The story was mainly filmed in January 1975 , with some studio recording carried into February . Location filming for the serial took place at Betchworth quarry in Surrey , which represented the landscape of Skaro . Having had trouble with the Daleks on location in Planet of the Daleks ( 1973 ) , Maloney scheduled shooting so that they only appeared in studio scenes . The three active Dalek props used in the serial were originals from the 1960s , and their wear was covered by new paint . Five " dummy " Daleks which could not be operated were also used . Hinchcliffe wanted the Daleks to appear more powerful , and intended to achieve this through low angles and lighting . Duncan Brown , who was responsible for studio lighting , used colours and dark lighting to make the Daleks seem as if they were " emerging from the shadows " and to suggest rather than show the world created to viewers .
The same model was used for both the Kaled and the Thal domes . The gas attack in Part One was achieved through dry ice and green lighting . Some of the Thal guns were re @-@ used props from the First Doctor ( William Hartnell ) serial Galaxy 4 ( 1965 ) . The electric trolley used by the Kaleds in Part One worked in tests , but collapsed when Baker and Marter boarded it . The creature Harry and the Doctor glimpse at the end of Part Two was mainly a reused Ice Warrior costume , while the Thal rocket ship was a reused model from The Ambassadors of Death ( 1970 ) . During the filming of Part Two , Miles and Chinnery had trouble fitting the gun on the Dalek . As a result , the scene had to be filmed in two takes , bridged with a reaction shot of the Doctor . Part Two is unusual in that it is one of the very few episodes not to begin with a reprise , and also the first to end in a freeze frame . A stunt double for Elisabeth Sladen was hired for Sarah 's fall from the scaffolding , but Maloney discovered that she would be falling eight feet , while Sladen had fallen ten feet in rehearsals . Maloney ultimately decided to conclude the episode with a freeze frame ending . Maloney would use the freeze frame technique again , most notably with The Deadly Assassin . The third episode overran its 25 @-@ minute limit and rather than cut material out the cliffhanger was changed from Davros ' speech to the Doctor being electrocuted . The music for the serial was recorded on 3 March 1975 and the dubbing finished the day before Part One aired .
= = Themes and analysis = =
Nation , who grew up during World War II , intentionally based the Daleks on the Nazis , and this episode contains many deliberate parallels . The Kaleds dress in uniforms reminiscent of the Nazis and display " fascist salutes " . The Kaleds look to " keep [ their ] race pure " by banishing the Thals and Mutos . Cast and crew members described it as a " warning to the world " about the danger of allowing authoritarianism take over . Physical comparisons have been drawn between the appearance of Nyder and Heinrich Himmler ; aside from the resemblance , both wear insignias and spectacles . As production of the third episode began , the producers decided to downplay some of the Nazi symbolism , and took away Nyder 's Iron Cross .
Ed Webb and Mark Wardecker , in a paper in Doctor Who and Philosophy , interpreted the Dalek history shown in Genesis of the Daleks as a warning that " scientists will be the one to bring about the ultimate destruction , the ultimate evil , and deliberately so " . They also commented that the serial showed that the Daleks were evil by design , rather than evolution . Davros represents a mad scientist who creates a monster that then consumes him . Sarah Honeychurch and Niall Burr , in the same book , wrote that the corruption of the Daleks showed that creatures should not be created with " such limited moral reasoning , " and that in our world we cannot " impose our own personal human standards on everybody else " .
Genesis of the Daleks also displays a battle between good and evil . Letts enjoyed the fact that the story did not have clear heroes and villains , but rather a conflict of principle . The discussion between the Doctor and Davros about the hypothetical viral weapon demonstrates this . Hinchcliffe described it as the " hero meets antihero " moment , with the two engaged in " intellectual grappling " . The episode also presents the " moral dilemma " of whether the Doctor should destroy the Daleks , resulting in the famous " Have I the right ? " scene . The Doctor 's comparison to knowingly killing a child who would grow up to be a dictator shows how the Doctor 's ethics are influenced by his non @-@ linear experience of time . ( The Twelfth Doctor would again revisit this theme in the 2015 episodes " The Magician 's Apprentice " and " The Witch 's Familiar " . ) He considers the good things that may come out of the Daleks , such as that " many future worlds would become allies " . The Doctor 's conclusion that he does not have the right is an example of utilitarian reasoning , and a " duty @-@ based ethical " position . Sladen recalled that Baker took the scene very seriously , almost " agonising " over the dialogue .
Comparisons to other stories have been drawn . The Time Lord who appears at the story 's beginning is intentionally costumed to resemble Death in Ingmar Bergman 's film The Seventh Seal . Gareth Roberts has compared this character to the ghost of Hamlet 's father , setting the protagonist ( the Doctor ) on a violent mission with which he has moral qualms . Martin Wiggins , senior lecturer and fellow at the Shakespeare Institute at Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , suggests that the Doctor 's indecision about destroying the Dalek embryos in the " have I the right ? " scene is derived from The Brothers Karamazov .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
Genesis of the Daleks was first broadcast in six weekly parts from 8 March to 12 April 1975 . Viewership varied from 8 to 10 million ; Parts One and Two were watched by audiences of 10 @.@ 7 and 10 @.@ 5 million , Parts Three and Four were watched by audiences of 8 @.@ 5 and 8 @.@ 8 million , and Parts Five and Six were watched by audiences of 9 @.@ 8 and 9 @.@ 1 million . Audience Appreciation Indexes were taken for the second , fourth , fifth , and sixth episodes , scoring 57 , 58 , 57 , and 56 respectively .
At the time of broadcast , there were some complaints about the level of violence portrayed . Mary Whitehouse , of the National Viewers ' and Listeners ' Association , complained that Genesis contained " tea @-@ time brutality for tots " . Scenes objected to included the depictions of war and Nyder hitting the Doctor . However , David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker , in their Doctor Who : The Television Companion ( 1998 ) , recorded a positive reaction from fans in regards to creativity and Davros , though one writer noted the ending did not satisfyingly close the story . The BBC 's Audience Research Report concluded , " A little more complex than some Doctor Who adventures , perhaps , and with underlying questions of conscience , the serial had been ' different ' it was occasionally felt and , although dismissed in some quarters as far @-@ fetched , long drawn @-@ out , confused and / or predictable , had provided acceptable escapist entertainment for the majority . " Howe and Walker themselves described the serial as " well @-@ written and full of new ideas , while still remaining true to the Daleks ' roots by effectively equating them with the Nazis " , and particularly praised the production values , pacing , and moral dilemma . However , they noted a few minor flaws , namely Harry being attacked by a giant clam , dull cliffhangers , and " many of the scientist characters serve no other purpose than to act as Dalek @-@ fodder " .
In 2010 , Mark Braxton of Radio Times hailed the serial as " Terry Nation 's finest hour for the series " , especially praising the creation of Davros . He was also positive towards Dudley Simpson 's score and Davros 's allies who were " impeccably written and played " from Nyder to Gharman . However , he was disappointed that Harry did not have much to do . The A.V. Club reviewer Christopher Bahn noted that it contradicted some aspects of The Daleks but that it " [ hit ] the emotional target dead @-@ on " . He particularly praised Davros and Skaro . However , Bahn felt the " major problem " with the portrayal of the Daleks was that " we 're not given any choice but to view them as psychopathic murderers " , and the Doctor came across as a " catastrophically incompetent secret agent " . DVD Talk 's Stuart Galbraith gave Genesis of the Daleks four out of five stars , calling it as a " real fan @-@ pleaser " and writing that Wisher was " superb " as Davros . While noting that the story " is mostly concerned with action and suspense , which it does rather well " , he felt it " isn 't especially original " as it dealt with common time @-@ travel issues , despite doing it in " intelligent ways " . In 2009 , SFX listed the scene where the Daleks receive their first blaster as the thirteenth scariest moment of Doctor Who . The magazine also named the scene where Harry is attacked by a giant clam as one of the silliest Doctor Who moments , noting " even the best Doctor Who stories have the occasional dropped stitch " . Charlie Jane Anders of io9 , in a 2010 article , listed the cliffhanger of Episode Four — in which the Doctor is forced to tell Davros how the Daleks will be defeated in the future — as one of the greatest Doctor Who cliffhangers .
= = = Legacy = = =
Genesis of the Daleks was one of the most widely known serials of the original run as it was repeated often . It was edited into an 85 @-@ minute omnibus version and broadcast on BBC1 at 3 : 00 pm on 27 December 1975 , attracting 7 @.@ 6 million viewers , and also was repeated in two edited 45 @-@ minute episodes as part of the " Doctor Who and the Monsters " on 26 July and 2 August 1982 , which attracted audiences of 4 @.@ 9 and 5 million . It was then repeated in its original serial form on BBC Two in 1993 ( averaging 2 @.@ 2 million viewers ) and 2000 ( averaging 1 to 1 @.@ 5 million ) . In a 1998 poll of readers of Doctor Who Magazine , over 2500 voters placed Genesis at the top of a poll to find the greatest Doctor Who stories of all time . In the magazine 's 2009 " Mighty 200 " poll , asking readers to rank all of the then @-@ made 200 stories , Genesis came in third place , behind The Caves of Androzani ( 1984 ) and " Blink " ( 2007 ) . In a 2014 poll , the magazine 's readers again placed the episode in third place . In 2008 , The Daily Telegraph named Genesis of the Daleks one of the ten greatest episodes of Doctor Who .
Genesis of the Daleks is the first example in the history of Doctor Who of " outright revisionism " ; the creation story of the Daleks is very different from that established in The Daleks ( 1963 ) , where it was said they evolved from creatures known as Dals , who were once similar to the Thals . Here , the Dals from the original story are changed to Kaleds . Russell T Davies , who revived Doctor Who in 2005 , suggested that the origins of the Time War , a conflict between the Time Lords and the Daleks which contributed to the storyline of the new series , began with the Time Lords ' attempted genocide of the Daleks in Genesis .
Davros is resurrected in Destiny of the Daleks ( 1979 ) , played by David Gooderson , and appears in the remaining three Dalek stories of the classic series played by Terry Molloy . He also appears in revived series since " The Stolen Earth " / " Journey 's End " ( 2008 ) , played by Julian Bleach . In The Magician 's Apprentice ( 2015 ) , footage from the episode is used with its plot based on the Fourth Doctor 's moral issue if one has the right to kill a child if they knew " that child would grow up totally evil . " Davros ' early life is additionally covered in the 2006 Big Finish four @-@ part audio series I , Davros , which sees Miles reprising his role as Nyder in fourth episode , Guilt .
= = Commercial releases = =
= = = In print = = =
The Target novelisation of this serial , written by Terrance Dicks , was published by Tandem in 1976 . It was re @-@ released by Virgin Publishing in 1991 , bearing its designated number of 27 in the novilisation range . The Genesis of the Daleks novelisation has the largest print run of any of the original series , selling over 100 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Home media = = =
In 1979 , the BBC released a condensed audio version of the serial as an LP . In 1988 , this recording was reissued on cassette by BBC Audio alongside a later radio play , Slipback . It was subsequently released on CD in a revised and expanded version by BBC Audio paired with Exploration Earth : The Time Machine in 2001 . In February 2011 , Audio Go reissued the one @-@ hour condensed audio version of the LP as part of their " Vintage Beeb " range .
Genesis of the Daleks was released on VHS by BBC Enterprises in 1991 with The Sontaran Experiment , and again as part of a box set of stories featuring Davros in 2001 . It was released on DVD as a two @-@ disc special edition in the United Kingdom by BBC Worldwide on 10 April 2006 and in the United States by Warner Home Video on 6 June 2006 . This DVD is also available as part of the limited edition 2007 release of The Complete Davros Collection box set along with Destiny of the Daleks , Resurrection of the Daleks , Revelation of the Daleks and Remembrance of the Daleks .
= = = Reviews = = =
Genesis of the Daleks reviews at Outpost Gallifrey
Genesis of the Daleks reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= = = Target novelisation = = =
Doctor Who and the Genesis of the Daleks reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
On Target — Doctor Who and the Genesis of the Daleks
= New Jersey Route 34 =
Route 34 is a state highway in the central part of the U.S. state of New Jersey . The route runs 26 @.@ 79 mi ( 43 @.@ 11 km ) from an intersection with Route 35 and Route 70 ( the former Brielle Circle ) in Wall Township , Monmouth County north to an intersection with U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) in Old Bridge Township , Middlesex County . The route is a four @-@ lane divided highway between its southern terminus and the north end of the Route 33 concurrency in Howell Township ; along this stretch , the route intersects the Garden State Parkway and Interstate 195 ( I @-@ 195 ) / Route 138 within a short distance of each other . North of Route 33 , Route 34 is an undivided two- to four @-@ lane road that intersects Route 18 in Colts Neck Township and Route 79 in Matawan . Route 34 passes through mostly suburban areas along its route .
The route was legislated in 1927 to run from Route 35 ( present Route 88 ) in Laurelton north to Route 4 ( present Route 79 ) in Matawan . The current alignment of Route 34 north of Matawan was a part of Route 4 ( and later US 9 ) until it became a part of Route 4A following a realignment of US 9 and Route 4 . In 1953 , Route 34 was extended north along Route 4A to end at US 9 in Old Bridge Township . Meanwhile , the southern terminus was cut back to its current location with the route south of that point becoming a part of Route 70 . Since 1953 , the southern portion of the route was widened into a divided highway and the Brielle Circle was replaced .
= = Route description = =
Route 34 begins at an intersection with Route 35 and Route 70 in Wall Township , Monmouth County at the former Brielle Circle , heading to the northwest on a six @-@ lane undivided road . A short distance past this intersection , the route becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway that passes through suburban development with some woods . It interchanges with County Route 524 Spur ( CR 524 Spur ) before reaching the Allenwood Circle , where Route 34 intersects CR 524 . Past the Allenwood Circle , the road continues northwest to a partial interchange with the Garden State Parkway . This interchange has access to the northbound Garden State Parkway from northbound Route 34 , to the southbound Garden State Parkway from southbound Route 34 , and to both directions of Route 34 from the southbound Garden State Parkway . Immediately past this interchange , the road intersects CR 30 before coming to a cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 195 and Route 138 . Route 34 provides the missing movements between the southbound Garden State Parkway and I @-@ 195 / Route 138 . From here , the road passes through woodland before heading into commercial and industrial areas , where it passes by the Monmouth Executive Airport . The route enters wooded residential and business areas where it intersects Belmar Boulevard and Megill Road , which are both distinct segments of CR 18 . Route 34 continues north before it intersects Route 33 and CR 547 at the Collingwood Circle .
At the traffic circle , Route 34 turns northwest to form a concurrency with Route 33 on a four @-@ lane divided highway that passes businesses , crossing into Howell Township . The two routes eventually split , with Route 34 heading north on a two @-@ lane undivided road . It passes through wooded areas of Naval Weapons Station Earle and enters Colts Neck Township . Upon leaving the grounds of Naval Weapons Station Earle , the route widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway again and comes to a cloverleaf interchange with the Route 18 freeway . Past this interchange , Route 34 becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road that passes development and Delicious Orchards before crossing CR 537 . From here , the road heads past suburban neighborhoods and farmland , intersecting CR 54 before meeting CR 4 . Route 34 forms a brief concurrency with CR 4 until the county route heads northeast on South Street . The route continues into wooded areas of homes , crossing into Holmdel Township , where it has a junction with CR 520 .
After this intersection , the road continues past homes and farms before turning northwest and entering Marlboro Township . Here , the road heads through wooded residential and commercial areas , briefly becoming a four @-@ lane road , before it crosses into Aberdeen Township . In Aberdeen , Route 34 heads into business areas as it crosses CR 3 . The road becomes a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane , forming the border of Matawan to the west and Aberdeen Township to the east . At the crossing of an abandoned railroad line that is now the Henry Hudson Trail , the route entirely enters Matawan , continuing northwest as four @-@ lane Middlesex Street . Here , Route 34 intersects CR 516 and Route 79 and CR 516 Spur . Following these intersection , the road heads into residential and business areas , crossing over Lake Lefferts .
Route 34 crosses into Old Bridge Township , Middlesex County , where it becomes a two @-@ lane road , continuing through commercial areas . The route intersects CR 689 , where it turns to the west and passes through areas of residences and businesses and reaches the CR 687 intersection . At the intersection with CR 699 , Route 34 turns to the north and intersects another segment of CR 699 known as Spring Hill Road . The road continues north and ends at an intersection with US 9 .
= = History = =
In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 34 was legislated to run from an intersection with Route 35 ( now Route 88 in Laurelton , Ocean County north to Route 4 ( now Route 79 ) in Matawan , with the portion of current Route 34 north of that intersection legislated as part of Route 4 . By the 1940s , US 9 was also designated along the present @-@ day portion of Route 34 that was then a part of Route 4 , this would later become Route 4A after US 9 and Route 4 were moved to a new alignment between Freehold and Cheesequake . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 34 was extended north along the alignment of Route 4A to end at US 9 in Cheesequake while the southern terminus was cut back to the Brielle Circle intersection with Route 35 and Route 70 , the latter having replaced Route 34 south of this point . By 1969 , Route 34 was widened into a divided highway as far north as Route 33 . The Brielle Circle at the southern terminus of the route was converted into at @-@ grade intersections with traffic lights in 2001 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Merle Hay Mall =
Merle Hay Mall is an enclosed super @-@ regional shopping mall in Des Moines , Iowa , in the United States . Opened in 1959 , it is the oldest regional shopping center in Iowa , and was the largest mall in Iowa in terms of gross leasable area before the 2004 opening of Jordan Creek Town Center in neighboring West Des Moines . It was also the site of the deadliest fire in Des Moines ' history , which killed ten people in 1978 .
Sears , Younkers , Kohl 's , and Target are the mall 's anchor stores , while Applebee 's , IHOP , and Starbucks operate on the outparcels of the mall . Other prominent stores in the mall include Ulta , Old Navy , and Staples . Most of the mall is in the northwest part of Des Moines , but the wing that contains Younkers , Kohl 's , and the food court is inside the city limits of neighboring Urbandale .
Merle Hay Mall is independently owned by the Merle Hay Mall Limited Partnership , and the family of one of its original developers continues to manage the mall . A Chicago @-@ based company , Urban Retail Properties , handles the mall 's leasing duties .
= = History = =
The site of Merle Hay Mall was originally home to St. Gabriel 's Monastery from 1921 until its demolition in 1958 . In 1956 , the Passionist monks who resided there sold the monastery site to Chicago @-@ based developers Joseph Abbell and Bernard Greenbaum . Abbell , in a 1994 interview , stated that the developers chose Des Moines for their mall because of the city 's " reputation as a model urban area in middle America . " The mall was known as Northland Shopping Center early in its planning stages until Younkers executives suggested that it be named for Merle Hay , the first Iowan killed in World War I and namesake of the road in front of the mall , instead . Merle Hay Plaza was originally planned as a strip mall before it was redesigned as an open @-@ air plaza with two department stores and four buildings around a common area shortly before construction began in early 1958 .
Merle Hay Plaza opened on August 17 , 1959 . It had 31 stores at the time of its opening , including its first anchor ( Younkers ) , as well as a bowling alley that is still in operation today . A second anchor store opened later in 1959 , as Sears moved from downtown Des Moines to Merle Hay Plaza . Other early tenants included a Safeway supermarket ( whose space later became part of Sears ) , Kresge , Bishop 's Buffet ( which closed in 1995 ) , and Walgreens ( which was replaced by an Old Navy in 1999 ) . A movie theater and six @-@ story office building were added in 1965 .
= = = Enclosure = = =
Merle Hay Plaza was enclosed in 1972 and became Merle Hay Mall . Two years later , as Valley West Mall and Southridge Mall were under construction , Merle Hay Mall completed a major westward expansion that doubled the size of the mall . Two additional anchors , Montgomery Ward ( which also moved from downtown ) and Younkers Store for Homes , were added to the mall as part of that expansion . By 2000 , Merle Hay Mall attracted an average of 35 @,@ 000 shoppers per day .
In a 1994 interview with The Des Moines Register , Iowa State University economist Kenneth Stone stated that Merle Hay Mall successfully adapted to the changing lifestyles of the 1960s and 1970s by offering longer shopping hours during a time when downtown Des Moines merchants began restricting their hours . Author and Des Moines native Bill Bryson commented on how Merle Hay Mall 's opening changed Des Moines in his 2006 memoir The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid : " My father never shopped anywhere else after that . Neither did most people . By the early 1960s , people exchanged boasts about how long it had been since they had been downtown . They had found a new kind of happiness at the malls . " In 1989 's The Lost Continent , Bryson wrote that " Jack Kerouac , of all people , thought that Iowa women were the prettiest in the country , but I don 't think he ever went to Merle Hay Mall on a Saturday " when he commented on the obesity of Iowa women .
= = = Younkers fire = = =
The original Younkers store at Merle Hay Mall was destroyed by a fire that broke out on the morning of November 5 , 1978 . The fire caused an estimated $ 20 million in damage , and killed ten store employees . The store was closed for nearly a year in order to rebuild .
In early 1979 , Des Moines fire officials announced that a hydrogen buildup caused by alkaline water leaking from the store 's heating and cooling system caused the fire . Court documents filed by prosecuting attorneys in 1981 stated that an electrical malfunction caused wires that were covered in polyvinyl chloride to overheat , giving off hydrochloric acid . Lawyers representing Younkers and the families of the ten victims sued more than 20 companies that manufactured or were associated with polyvinyl chloride , including Monsanto Company and Underwriters Laboratories . Most of those lawsuits were settled out of court in 1984 , while the last suit against B.F. Goodrich was dismissed by a Polk County district judge in April 1986 .
= = = Anchor changes = = =
Merle Hay Mall lost its first anchor in 1991 when the Younkers Store for Homes closed after Younkers decided to stop selling furniture and appliances in order to focus on its more profitable fashion business . Kohl 's replaced it in 1993 .
In 1998 , during the chain 's first round of Chapter 11 bankruptcy , Montgomery Ward faced eviction from the mall after an analysis by Kenneth Stone showed that Ward was operating a discount store instead of the " first class , full line department store " that its lease required . Montgomery Ward responded by closing in early 1999 , and Famous @-@ Barr opened a new store in that space in August 2000 , while the rest of the mall underwent a $ 20 million renovation that year . Younkers moved into the former Famous @-@ Barr space on July 18 , 2004 , one month after Famous @-@ Barr left the Des Moines market , and the old Younkers was demolished shortly afterwards to make room for a new Target store that opened July 19 , 2005 . Target 's opening ended a period of declining sales at the mall , as sales had decreased by 8 to 10 percent during the first year that Jordan Creek Town Center was open .
= = = Present @-@ day redevelopment = = =
As of 2009 , the mall is anchored by Sears ( 223 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , Kohl 's ( 73 @,@ 799 sq ft ) , Younkers ( 165 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , and Target ( 126 @,@ 483 sq ft ) , with approximately 95 inline tenants , as well as a food court and a single @-@ screen movie theater with the largest movie screen in Des Moines . It is managed by Abbell Credit Corporation , the same company that has held a majority ownership interest in the mall since 1959 . It has undergone several renovations over time to remain a viable shopping center . According to Elizabeth Holland , the CEO of Abbell Credit Corporation , the Des Moines area is large enough to support only two shopping malls , and the goal of the Merle Hay Mall redevelopment is to make it " become one of the two surviving shopping malls . "
On March 10 , 2008 , the Des Moines city council agreed to rezone the area around Merle Hay Mall into a tax increment financing district in order to help the mall 's owners pay for future renovations . The move came as the mall 's assessed property value had declined by over $ 13 million since 2005 . Merle Hay Mall 's owners constructed a new main entrance to the mall and relocate some retailers to other areas of the mall in order to create space for new " junior " anchor stores with exterior entrances . The former Sam Goody , former Waldenbooks and GameStop ( now next to Foot Locker ) were renovated to include Staples and Old Navy moved to a smaller store across from their former location to make way for Shoe Carnival and Ulta . As a result of the redevelopment , Old Navy has relocated to a smaller space within the mall . In 2013 , Dunham 's Sports moved out of the mall , with MC Sports replacing it . The upper level has now become a Flix Brewhouse movie theater since mid @-@ 2014 .
= Abuwtiyuw =
The Egyptian dog Abuwtiyuw , ( IPA : ʔ @-@ bwit @-@ ʔew ) also transcribed as Abutiu ( died before 2280 BC ) , was one of the earliest documented domestic animals whose name is known . He is believed to have been a royal guard dog who lived in the Sixth Dynasty ( 2345 – 2181 BC ) , and received an elaborate ceremonial burial in the Giza Necropolis at the behest of a pharaoh whose name is unknown .
An inscribed stone listing the gifts donated by the pharaoh for Abuwtiyuw 's funeral was discovered by Egyptologist George A. Reisner in October 1935 . It was apparently part of the spoil material incorporated into the structure of a Sixth Dynasty mastaba ( pharaonic @-@ era tomb ) after the demolition of the funerary chapel belonging to Abuwtiyuw 's owner , where the stone likely had originally been installed . The white limestone tablet measures 54 @.@ 2 × 28 @.@ 2 × 23 @.@ 2 cm ( 21 @.@ 3 × 11 @.@ 1 × 9 @.@ 1 in ) . The inscription is composed of ten vertical rows of hieroglyphs , separated by vertical lines .
Abuwtiyuw appears to have been a sighthound , a lightly built hunting dog similar to a greyhound , with erect ears and a curly tail . The tomb in which his tablet was discovered is in Cemetery G 2100 in Giza West Field , close to the western side of the Great Pyramid of Giza ( Pyramid of Khufu / Kheops ) .
= = Background = =
Herodotus documents that in ancient Persia dogs were protected animals , held in the highest esteem during their lifetime . According to the ancient Greeks , dogs in ancient Egypt were treated with the same respect as they were in Persia , and were commonly mummified after death before being buried in family tombs . The ancient Egyptians and others of the Near East believed that dogs were spiritual beings , similar to humans , and they were " often associated with particular deities and the powers they wield " . A number of the early dynastic royal burial grounds contain the graves of dogs , along with women and servants of the royal household . Ashkelon cemetery in the South District of Israel is perhaps the best @-@ documented dog cemetery in the ancient world , but dog mummies have been unearthed en masse in sites across Egypt including Rhoda in Upper Egypt , Thebes , Abydos , and near Maghagha .
The ancient Egyptians mummified many animal species , from cats and gazelles to crocodiles , baboons , and birds . Typically , many animal species were consumed as meat after death , but it is highly unlikely that dogs would have been eaten . Radiographs of exhumed dogs in the ancient world have revealed that the mummification process involved wrapping the embalmed bones together with bandages and placing them within a wooden statue of Anubis , the jackal @-@ headed deity associated with mummification and the afterlife in ancient Egyptian religion .
= = Discovery = =
The only source from which Abuwtiyuw is known is a stone inscription tablet that may have come from the funerary chapel of the dog 's owner . The tablet was apparently among spolia used to build another grave in approximately 2280 BC , a sixth @-@ Dynasty mastaba , after the chapel 's demolition . It was discovered on 13 October 1935 by Egyptologist George A. Reisner during a joint Harvard University @-@ Boston Museum of Fine Arts expedition , and removed from the site four days later .
The find was recorded by the main expedition photographer , Mohammedani Ibrahim , who took more than 9 @,@ 321 large @-@ format glass @-@ plate images on Reisner 's expeditions . The tablet is now held by the Egyptian Museum in Cairo ( inventory number JE 67573 ) .
Neither the dog 's grave nor mummy have been recovered . The tomb in which the tablet was unearthed is in Cemetery G 2100 in Giza West Field , close to the western side of the Great Pyramid of Giza ( Pyramid of Khufu / Kheops ) . The white limestone tablet measures 54 @.@ 2 × 28 @.@ 2 × 23 @.@ 2 cm ( 21 @.@ 3 × 11 @.@ 1 × 9 @.@ 1 in ) and is inscribed with ten vertical rows of hieroglyphs , separated from each other by vertical lines . Part of a leash is visible on the upper @-@ right corner , suggesting that the tablet displayed an image of Abuwtiyuw with his owner .
The text of the inscription translated by Reisner describes the gifts offered by the pharaoh in tribute at Abuwtiyuw 's funeral :
The dog which was the guard of His Majesty , Abuwtiyuw is his name . His Majesty ordered that he be buried ( ceremonially ) , that he be given a coffin from the royal treasury , fine linen in great quantity , ( and ) incense . His Majesty ( also ) gave perfumed ointment , and ( ordered ) that a tomb be built for him by the gangs of masons . His Majesty did this for him in order that he ( the dog ) might be Honoured ( before the great god , Anubis ) .
= = Interpretation = =
Although it was common to bury dogs in ancient Egypt , the funeral of Abuwtiyuw was unusually elaborate , an honour normally reserved for upper @-@ class humans . The pharaoh 's gifts suggest that the corpse was mummified , as was commonly done with humans at the time , in the belief that the Ka of the dead would enter into its afterlife through the ceremonial burial .
Although no images of Abuwtiyuw have been found , the text characterizes him as Ṯsm ( Tesem ) , a lightly built hunting dog similar to a greyhound , with erect ears and a curly tail . The Tesem dog features in predynastic depictions , making it one of the oldest known breeds of dog , and images of it are common throughout Ancient Egyptian history . According to Reisner , the name " Abuwtiyuw " is not fully translatable , but he surmised that bw ( " bu " ) is an onomatopoeic representation of a dog 's bark , as this component often is found in Ancient Egyptian dog names . Edward C. Martin Jr. claims that the name , or its variant transliteration of Abutiu , means " With Pointed Ears " , which would fit the description of the Tesem .
= Effects of Hurricane Katrina in Florida =
The effects of Hurricane Katrina in Florida were in both in the southern portion of the state and in the panhandle . After developing on August 23 , Katrina made landfall near the border of Broward and Miami @-@ Dade counties with 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) winds on August 25 . While it was crossing the state , the hurricane 's convection was asymmetrical , primarily located to the south and east of the center . As a result , high rainfall totals occurred in the Miami area , peaking at 16 @.@ 43 in ( 417 mm ) in Perrine . The rains caused flooding , and the combination of rains and winds downed trees and power lines , leaving 1 @.@ 45 million people without power . Damage in South Florida was estimated at $ 523 million ( 2005 USD ) , mostly as a result of crop damage . Further south , the hurricane spawned a tornado in the Florida Keys . In the island chain , Katrina dropped heavy rainfall and gusty winds .
After emerging from the state , Katrina intensified into one of the strongest Atlantic hurricanes , becoming a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . It moved ashore in Louisiana and Mississippi , although the hurricane 's outer periphery produced a 5 @.@ 37 ft ( 1 @.@ 64 m ) storm surge in Pensacola along the panhandle . High waves caused beach erosion and closed nearby roadways . There were five tornadoes in northwestern Florida . Damage was estimated along the panhandle at $ 100 million . Throughout the state , the hurricane killed 14 people , of which 6 were directly related to the storm 's effects . Due to damage from Katrina , 11 Florida counties were declared federal disaster areas .
= = Background = =
Hurricane Katrina developed as Tropical Depression Twelve over the Bahamas on August 23 , partially from the remains of Tropical Depression Ten . As it moved slowly northwestward , it developed organized convection , or thunderstorms , and it intensified into a tropical storm on August 24 . A building ridge turned Katrina to the west , bringing it over the Gulf Stream . With warm waters and favorable outflow , the storm continued strengthening . At around 2100 UTC on August 25 , Katrina attained hurricane status , based on observations from the Hurricane Hunters . Intensification of the ridge to its north caused the hurricane to turn to the west @-@ southwest , and as it approached the Florida coastline Katrina developed a well @-@ defined eye . At 2230 UTC on August 25 , Katrina made landfall near the border of Miami @-@ Dade and Broward counties with winds of around 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The hurricane moved southwestward and crossed Florida in about six hours , during which its eye became better defined . During its passage , northerly wind shear shifted the deepest convection to the south and east of the center , and Katrina briefly weakened to a tropical storm before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico early on August 26 . After emerging from the state , Katrina intensified into one of the strongest Atlantic hurricanes , becoming a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Katrina ultimately moved ashore in southeastern Louisiana on August 29 , where it caused severe storm surge flooding and catastrophic damage ; it dissipated the following day .
In the preceding 2004 season , Florida was affected by four hurricanes , including hurricanes Frances and Jeanne which hit Martin County and caused billions in damage .
= = Preparations = =
About nine hours after the system developed on August 24 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) issued a tropical storm watch from the Seven Mile Bridge to Vero Beach . Later that day , the watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning and hurricane watch from Florida City to Vero Beach after the storm 's intensification became apparent . About 25 hours before Katrina made landfall , the tropical storm watch was extended northward to Titusville , and a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch was issued for Lake Okeechobee . Early on August 25 , a hurricane warning was issued from Florida City to Vero Beach and for Lake Okeechobee . In southeastern Florida , the lead time for the hurricane watch and warning occurred 31 @.@ 5 and 19 @.@ 5 hours before landfall , respectively ; both were 16 @.@ 5 hours less than the desired lead time . A tropical storm warning was also issued from Florida Key , southward through the Florida Keys to the Dry Tortugas , and northward along the western coast to Longboat Key . The warning in the Florida Keys occurred only nine hours before the onset of tropical storm force winds .
On August 25 , Florida 's Emergency Operations Center was activated in Tallahassee to monitor the progress of the hurricane . Before Katrina moved ashore , schools and businesses were closed in the Miami area . Cruise ships altered their paths due to seaports in southeastern Florida closing . Officials in Miami @-@ Dade County advised residents in mobile homes or with special needs to evacuate . To the north in Broward County , residents east of the Intracoastal Waterway or in mobile homes were advised to leave their homes . Evacuation orders were issued for offshore islands in Palm Beach County , and for residents in mobile homes south of Lantana Road . Shelters were opened across the region . Officials closed the Miami International Airport , Fort Lauderdale – Hollywood International Airport , Key West International Airport , and Florida Keys Marathon Airport due to the storm . In Monroe and Collier counties , schools were closed , and a shelter was opened in Immokalee .
While Katrina was intensifying as a major hurricane on August 28 , the NHC issued a tropical storm warning and hurricane watch from the Alabama border to Destin along the panhandle . The warning was later extended to Indian Pass . Officials issued a mandatory evacuation for portions of Walton , Gulf , Franklin , and Wakulla counties .
= = Impact = =
Overall , Hurricane Katrina killed 14 people in the state , of which 6 were directly related to the storm . Six of the indirect deaths were in South Florida , of which three were from carbon monoxide poisoning caused by generators , one was due to a vehicle accident , one occurred during debris cleanup , and one was associated with a lack of electricity . At least five people were injured due to carbon monoxide poisoning . Overall damage totaled $ 623 million ( 2005 USD ) .
= = = Miami area = = =
While moving across Florida , Katrina had an asymmetric area of thunderstorms , which placed the strongest winds and rainfall over Miami @-@ Dade County . The highest precipitation total related to hurricane in the United States was 16 @.@ 43 in ( 417 mm ) in Perrine , or about halfway between Miami and Homestead . Of the total , 15 @.@ 10 in ( 384 mm ) fell in 24 hours . During its passage , the eye of the hurricane moved directly over the office of the National Hurricane Center , which reported a wind gust of 87 mph ( 140 km / h ) . The strongest sustained winds in Florida was a report of 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) on the roof of the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science in Virginia Key . The same station recorded a gust of 94 mph ( 151 km / h ) . Unofficially , wind gusts reached 97 mph ( 156 km / h ) at Homestead General Aviation Airport . The hurricane 's accompanying storm surge was small , estimated at around 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) . Consequentially , there was minor beach erosion and isolated coastal flooding .
The heavy rainfall flooded neighborhoods in the area , damaging over 100 houses . The storm left about 1 @.@ 4 million people without power in Palm Beach , Broward , and Miami @-@ Dade counties . In Broward County north of Katrina 's first landfall , the hurricane dropped light rainfall , ranging from 2 to 4 in ( 51 to 102 mm ) . Downed trees killed three people in the county . Train and bus service was disrupted in the Miami area . Property damage was estimated at $ 100 million . Widespread flooding affected crop nurseries and greenhouses , and crop damage totaled $ 423 million . Three people drowned in Miami @-@ Dade County , two of whom on boats .
= = = Florida Keys and Monroe County = = =
Katrina weakened into a tropical storm while moving across Monroe County . Tides reached 3 to 5 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 52 m ) in mainland Monroe County , which flooded several houses and vehicles in Flamingo in Everglades National Park . Most of the Florida Keys reported tropical storm @-@ force winds . A station on Key West reported sustained winds of 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) , with gusts to 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) . While the storm passed to its north , the city reported a storm surge of about 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) . The storm 's outer rainbands spawned an F2 tornado in Marathon on August 26 , which damaged an airport hangar and several homes . This was one of only six F2 tornadoes in the Florida Keys since 1950 . Similar to the Miami area , Katrina dropped heavy rainfall in the Florida Keys , reaching 10 @.@ 05 in ( 255 mm ) in Key West . In the area , the storm left about 5 @,@ 000 people without power . After Katrina re @-@ intensified into a hurricane , a station on the Dry Tortugas reported sustained winds of 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) , with gusts to 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) .
= = = Elsewhere in Florida = = =
Light rains and winds spread into the Melbourne National Weather Service region . Kennedy Space Center reported wind gusts to 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) , although there was no damage or erosion in the area . In southwestern Florida , the storm produced a storm surge of 1 @.@ 13 ft ( 0 @.@ 34 m ) in St. Petersburg . In the central portion of the state , some areas for pasture were flooded due to outer rainbands .
= = = Florida panhandle = = =
After striking southeastern Louisiana , Hurricane Katrina made its final landfall in Mississippi , during which it produced a storm surge of about 5 @.@ 37 ft ( 1 @.@ 64 m ) in Pensacola . The hurricane struck months after Hurricane Dennis affected the same area . In St. Marks , the surge flooded several businesses , and in Walton County , high tides flooded several roads , including portions of U.S. Highways 98 and 331 . The storm caused moderate to severe beach erosion along the gulf coast , and washed sand onto many coastal roads . Winds along the Florida panhandle peaked at 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) in Pensacola , with gusts to 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) . High winds briefly closed the Interstate 10 bridge over Escambia Bay in Pensacola . The outer rainbands of the hurricane spawned five tornadoes , all of them weak and not very damaging . Rainfall along the panhandle reached 7 @.@ 80 in ( 198 mm ) in Philpot , which caused flooding .
The winds caused damage to some trees and structures and there was some minor flooding in the panhandle . There were two indirect fatalities from Katrina in Walton County as a result of a traffic accident . Along the Florida panhandle , 77 @,@ 000 customers lost power . Damage along the panhandle was estimated at $ 100 million .
= = Aftermath = =
On August 28 , or about three days after Katrina struck the state , President George W. Bush declared a disaster area for Miami @-@ Dade and Broward counties , which allocated federal funding for debris removal and other emergency services . Three days later , Monroe County was also declared a disaster areas , and on the same day the three counties were designated to receive funding for public assistance ; this included aid to repair roads and bridges , water control facilities , public buildings , and recreation areas . The declaration was determined after the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) sent 20 State Emergency Response Teams to determine the extent of damage . After Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast , President Bush declared a disaster area for seven counties along the Florida panhandle on September 6 ; the counties were Bay , Escambia , Franklin , Gulf , Okaloosa , Santa Rosa , and Walton . In addition , Collier County in southwestern Florida was added to the list of disaster areas .
In the two months after Katrina struck south Florida , Hurricane Rita brushed the region in late September with tropical storm @-@ force winds and flooding rains . In late October , Hurricane Wilma struck southwestern Florida as a major hurricane , affecting the Miami area with hurricane @-@ force winds that left 98 % of south Florida without power . Including Hurricane Dennis in July , FEMA provided $ 1 billion in public assistance to Florida residents in association with the four hurricanes in 2005 .
= Seiken Densetsu 3 =
Seiken Densetsu 3 ( 聖剣伝説3 , lit . " Legend of the Sacred Sword 3 " ) is a 1995 action role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) for the Super Famicom . It is the sequel to the 1993 game Seiken Densetsu 2 ( released as Secret of Mana outside Japan ) , and is the third installment in the Mana series . Set in a high fantasy world , the game follows three heroes as they attempt to claim the legendary Mana Sword and prevent the God Beasts from being unleashed and destroying the world . It features three lengthy main plotlines and six different possible main characters , each with their own storylines , and allows two players to play simultaneously . Seiken Densetsu 3 builds on the gameplay of its predecessor with multiple enhancements , including the use of a time progression system with transitions from day to night and weekday to weekday in game time , and a wide range of character classes to choose from , which provides each character with an exclusive set of skills and status progression .
The game was designed by series creator Koichi Ishii , directed by veteran Square designer Hiromichi Tanaka , and produced by Tetsuhisa Tsuruzono . Artwork was produced by manga and anime artist Nobuteru Yūki , while the music was composed by Secret of Mana composer Hiroki Kikuta . Although the game was only published in Japan , English @-@ speaking players have been able to play Seiken Densetsu 3 due to an unofficial English fan translation , first released in 2000 . Seiken Densetsu 3 received considerable acclaim from reviewers , who praised the graphics as among the best ever made for the Super Famicom and the gameplay as an improved version of its predecessor 's . The plot received mixed reviews by critics , who found the overlapping stories to be interesting and to enhance replayability , but the characters and plotlines themselves to be flat and clichéd . Overall , the game is considered by some critics to be a Super Famicom classic and one of the best role @-@ playing games of the 16 @-@ bit era .
= = Gameplay = =
Seiken Densetsu 3 has similar gameplay to its predecessor , Secret of Mana . Like many other role @-@ playing games of the 16 @-@ bit era , the game displays a top @-@ down perspective , in which the three player characters navigate the terrain and fight off hostile creatures . Control may be passed between each of the characters at any time ; the companions not currently selected are controlled by artificial intelligence . The game may be played simultaneously by two players , as opposed to the three of Secret of Mana . There are six possible player characters . At the beginning of the game , the player chooses which three of them will be playable and which one they will start with ; the other two playable characters will join the party when met . The remaining three characters act as non @-@ playable characters ( NPCs ) when encountered .
Each character can use one type of weapon , in addition to magical spells . The effectiveness of spells depends on the magical ability of the character and the element of the spell in relation to the enemy . When in battle mode , attacking monsters fills a gauge that allows the player to use character @-@ specific special attacks . Upon collecting enough experience points in battle , each character can increase in level to gain improved character statistics such as strength and evasion . Options such as changing equipment , casting spells , or checking status are performed by cycling through the game 's Ring Commands — a circular menu which hovers over the controlled party member . The game is paused whenever the Ring Command menu is activated . Within the Ring , the player has nine slots for storing items ; additional items can be placed into item storage , which is inaccessible in combat .
Character level progression is coordinated by the player , as a choice is given as to which statistic to raise by a point at every level up . A " class " system is also present . Once a character reaches level 18 , the player can visit one of several Mana Stones located throughout the game and choose to upgrade them to one of two classes for each character — either a class aligned to " Light " or a class aligned to " Dark " — which provides a different set of skills and different improvements to character statistics . A second class change may be optionally performed at level 38 , again split between a light and a dark choice , if the player has obtained a required rare item for the target class . The class changes do not affect the plot of the game , only gameplay .
Seiken Densetsu 3 also employs a calendar function into its gameplay . A week cycles much more quickly than an actual one , with a day passing in a matter of minutes . Each day of the week is represented by a different elemental spirit . On that spirit 's day , magic of that element will be slightly stronger . An in @-@ game day is also divided into day and night . Certain events only happen during certain times of day , such as a nighttime @-@ only black market selling particularly rare items . Enemies encountered in the field also change during certain time periods , and some may be sleeping if the characters approach them at night . In addition , the character Kevin transforms into a werewolf when he fights at night , greatly increasing his attack power . Using an inn 's services allows the player to " skip " the game 's clock to that day 's evening , or the following morning .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The story takes place in a fictional world where Mana represents an ethereal , but finite , energy source . Some time in the past , the Mana Goddess created the game 's world by forging the powerful Sword of Mana and defeating eight " God Beasts " with it , sealing them within eight Mana Stones , before turning herself into the Mana Tree and falling asleep . The game is set at a time when Mana starts to fade and peace has ended , as several people plot to unleash the God Beasts from the stones so as to gain ultimate power . The game is not a direct sequel to the events in Secret of Mana ; according to series creator Koichi Ishii in 2006 , the Mana games do not take place in exactly the same world , and characters or elements who appear in different games are best considered alternate versions of each other . Instead , the connections between each title are more abstract than story @-@ based . Despite this statement , the 2007 game Heroes of Mana is a direct prequel to Seiken Densetsu 3 , taking place 19 years before the latter 's story .
= = = Characters = = =
The characters ( and their individual stories ) are grouped into three main sub @-@ plots . Angela and Duran oppose the Dragon Emperor , Hawk and Lise oppose the Dark Prince , and Kevin and Carlie oppose the Masked Mage . The main storyline is determined by the first character chosen , though there is significantly more character interaction and dialogue if the other member of the pair is also in the party .
Angela ( アンジェラ , Anjera ) is the princess of the ice @-@ covered Magic Kingdom of Altena . Her mother uses her magic to keep the citadel in Altena in a perpetual Spring , but the spell weakens as Mana starts to fade . To power the spell , she and her assistant wizard Koren decide to invade other nations to claim their Mana Stones , though the spell to use the Stone is fatal to the caster . When the Queen tries to force Angela to use it , she flees from Altena . Her paired character is Duran ( デュラン , Dyuran ) , an orphaned mercenary swordsman of the Grasslands Kingdom of Valsena . His father Loki was lost in battle with the Dragon Emperor . One night , Duran is on guard duty at the castle of Vals
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ena when Koren attacks the castle . Duran is left for dead after confronting him , and after recovering he vows to become the best swordsman in the world and to exact his revenge upon Koren .
Hawk ( ホークアイ , Hōkuai , lit . " Hawkeye " ) is a member of a guild of noble thieves based in the desert Sand Fortress of Navarre . The guild 's leader , Lord Flamekhan , suddenly and uncharacteristically declares Navarre to be a kingdom . Hawk decides to confront Flamekhan about it , only to discover he is being controlled by the witch Isabella . Isabella kills Eagle , Flamekhan 's son and Hawk 's friend , framing Hawk for his death and forcing him to flee . His paired character is Lise ( リース , Rīsu ) , the princess of the mountainous Wind Kingdom of Rolante and captain of its Amazon army . Two mysterious ninjas from Navarre trick her younger brother Elliott into turning off Rolante 's protective winds and kidnap him . With the winds gone , Navarre attacks Rolante with a cloud of sleep powder and kills its king . Devastated , Lise makes her escape .
Kevin ( ケヴィン , Kevin ) is the prince of the Beast Kingdom . He is the son of the Beast King , who is sick of the treatment of his people by " normal " humans . His desired revenge is made possible by the appearance of Deathjester . He shows the king his abilities by forcing Kevin to awaken his werewolf abilities by killing Kevin 's best friend . When Kevin confronts the Beast King on this act and the King 's plans to invade the human Holy City Wendel , Kevin is thrown out of the kingdom and swears revenge . His paired character is Carlie ( シャルロット , Sharurotto , lit . " Charlotte " ) , the half @-@ elf granddaughter of the Priest of Light in Wendell . An orphan , she is looked after by a fellow cleric , Heath . Feeling an evil influence in nearby Jadd , the Priest of Light sends Heath to investigate , but Charlotte follows to witness Deathjester abduct Heath . She decides to journey to save him .
= = = Story = = =
The story begins in a different place for each playable character . With the exception of Carlie , the main character is soon told ( or otherwise decides ) to seek the advice of the Priest of Light in the Holy City Wendel . They arrive at the city of Jadd soon after the Beastmen have invaded . Due to the Beastmen 's werewolf powers , they are able to make an escape by night . The main character — now including Carlie — on the way to Wendel stays overnight in Astoria where they are woken by a bright light . Following it , it reveals itself to be a Faerie from the Mana Sanctuary , exhausted by her journey . Out of desperation , the Faerie chooses the main character to be her host , and tells them to get to Wendel . There , while they explain their grievances to the Priest of Light , the Faerie interrupts and explains that the Mana Tree is dying and that the Sanctuary is in danger . The Priest explains that if the Tree dies , the God Beasts will reawaken and destroy the world . He goes on to explain further that , because the Faerie has chosen the main character as its host , they must travel to the Sanctuary to draw the Sword of Mana from the foot of the Mana Tree . They can then restore peace to the world , and have their wishes granted by the Mana Goddess if the sword is drawn before the Tree dies . A great deal of power is needed to open the gate to the Sanctuary . The Faerie does not have the strength to do it , and the ancient spell which would do so by unlocking the power in the Mana Stones also takes the caster 's life . The Stones ' guarding elemental spirits , however , will to be able to open the gate if their powers are combined .
After journeying across the world to get the spirits , meeting the other two members of the party , thwarting the invasion attempts of Navarre and Altena , discovering the powers of the Fire and Water Mana Stones , and learning the disappearance of the Mana Stone of Darkness along the way , the main character tries to open the gate to the Mana Sanctuary with the spirits ' assistance . The first attempt fails , but the second succeeds ; the Faerie realizes that it was opened because someone else released the power from all the Mana Stones . The characters travel into the Sanctuary and the main character claims the Mana Sword . It is then discovered that the main character 's adversaries — Koren and the Darkshine Knight for Angela and Duran ; Jagan and Isabella for Lise and Hawk ; or the Deathjester and a mind @-@ controlled Heath , for Kevin and Charlotte — have defeated the other two sets of primary enemies . The remaining adversaries capture the Faerie and will only release her in exchange for the Mana Sword . The trade is made , and once the enemy receives the Sword , the Mana Stones shatter and the God Beasts are released .
The characters must then defeat the God Beasts before they can gather and destroy the world . However , after doing this they realize killing the God Beasts has given more power to their main enemy , who their personal enemies were working for — the Dragon Emperor for Duran and Angela , the Dark Prince for Hawk and Lise , and the Masked Mage for Kevin and Carlie . The already powerful villain absorbs the power of the Sword of Mana and the God Beasts in order to become a god , but is halted by the Mana Goddess blocking some of its power . After defeating the villain 's minions , the characters go and defeat their main enemy , but are unable to stop him from destroying the Mana Tree and eliminating all Mana from the world . The Faerie then fuses with what is left of the Mana Tree ; she will be reborn as the Mana Goddess in a thousand years , but until then Mana will not exist in the world . As the game ends , the characters go back to their homelands .
= = Development = =
Seiken Densetsu 3 was designed by series creator Koichi Ishii . The game was directed by Hiromichi Tanaka and produced by Tetsuhisa Tsuruzono . Tanaka had previously worked on several titles for Square , including as a designer on the first three Final Fantasy titles . Manga and anime artist Nobuteru Yūki was responsible for the character concept artwork , based on designs by Ishii . Yūki 's artwork for the game can be found in the Nobuteru Yuki Seiken Densetsu Illustration Book .
During the game 's development and after its release in Japan on September 30 , 1995 , Seiken Densetsu 3 became known abroad as Secret of Mana 2 , though a preview in Next Generation in August 1995 called it by its correct name , despite still stating it to be a sequel to Secret of Mana . The preview noted the six characters , calendar system , and a game world " three to four times " the size of the previous game , though it also reported that the game would be playable by three players , not two . Square stated in a 1995 issue of its North American newsletter that they planned to release the game during the second half of the year . A second preview in Next Generation in February 1996 , calling the game Secret of Mana 2 , stated that the game 's North American release had been delayed by Square 's American branch due to programming bugs but still listed the release date as Spring .
Seiken Densetsu 3 was never released outside Japan . Retro Gamer stated in 2011 that localizing the game for North America or Europe " would have cost a fortune " , and that the rise of the competing PlayStation and Sega Saturn consoles diminished the benefits of spending so much on a Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) game . Nintendo Power , a few months after Seiken Densetsu 3 was released in Japan , said that the probability of a North American release for the game was low due to issues of " a technical nature " and that it would have been far too costly to produce at the time . This is further supported by Brian Fehdrau , lead programmer for Square 's contemporary game Secret of Evermore , who mentioned that Seiken Densetsu 3 had some software bugs , hindering its likelihood of being certified for release by Nintendo of America without extensive work .
There was an apparent misconception among video game fans that the SNES title Secret of Evermore was released in lieu of an English language version of Seiken Densetsu 3 in 1995 . Secret of Evermore was developed by a new team at Square 's office in Redmond , Washington called Square Soft . According to Fehdrau , no one who worked on the Evermore project would have been involved in a translation of Seiken Densetsu 3 ; the Redmond team was specifically hired to create Evermore . In 2000 , a fan translation project for Seiken Densetsu 3 led by Neill Corlett was successfully completed and made available on the internet as an unofficial patch , which could be applied to ROMs of the game when played with an emulator or played on a Super NES console with a development kit or backup device .
= = = Music = = =
The score for Seiken Densetsu 3 was composed by Hiroki Kikuta , who had previously composed the music for Secret of Mana as his first video game score . Kikuta performed the sound selection , editing , effect design , and data encoding himself . Just as he did for Secret of Mana , Kikuta spent nearly 24 hours a day in his office , alternating between composing and editing to create a soundtrack that would be , according to him , " immersive " and " three @-@ dimensional " . Similarly , rather than use premade MIDI samples of instruments like most game music composers of the time , Kikuta made his own MIDI samples that matched the hardware capabilities of the Super Famicom so that he would know exactly how the pieces would sound on the system 's hardware instead of having to deal with audio hardware differences between the original MIDI sampler and the SNES . The soundtrack 's music has been described by Freddie W. of RPGFan as " bouncy , energetic , flowing , and serene " , and is noted for its use of piano and drums . He further called it a " more refined and matured " version of the Secret of Mana soundtrack .
The 1995 soundtrack album Seiken Densetsu 3 Original Sound Version collects 60 tracks of music from Seiken Densetsu 3 . It was published by NTT Publishing , and republished by Square Enix in 2004 . The main theme from Secret of Mana , " Angel 's Fear " , is also featured in Seiken Densetsu 3 as a part of " Where Angels Fear to Tread " . In addition to the original soundtrack album , an arranged album of music from Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 was produced in 1993 as Secret of Mana + . The music in the album was all composed and arranged by Kikuta . Secret of Mana + contains a single track , titled " Secret of Mana " , that incorporates themes from the music of both Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 , which was still under development at the time . The style of the album has been described by critics as " experimental " , using " strange sounds " such as waterfalls , bird calls , cell phone sounds , and " typing " sounds . Secret of Mana + was originally published by NTT Publishing / Square , and was reprinted by NTT Publishing in 1995 and 2004 .
The track " Meridian Child " from the original soundtrack was performed by the Tokyo Symphony Orchestra for the fifth Orchestral Game Concert in 1996 . " Meridian Child " was again performed on February 6 , 2011 , when the Eminence Symphony Orchestra played a concert in Tokyo as part of the Game Music Laboratory concert series as a tribute to the music of Kenji Ito and Hiroki Kikuta . One of the companion books of sheet music for the Mana series , the first edition of Seiken Densetsu Best Collection Piano Solo Sheet Music , included pieces from Seiken Densetsu 3 , rewritten by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos , though intended to sound like the originals .
= = Reception = =
Due to its Japanese exclusivity , most of the English @-@ language reviews for Seiken Densetsu 3 were published years after the initial release . One contemporary English @-@ language review was in 1995 in GameFan , which covered import games , and rated the game highly . The Japanese Famitsu review also rated the game highly , though slightly lower than Secret of Mana . Critics have also rated the game highly in retrospective reviews , published mostly after the release of the fan translation patch in 2000 . The graphics were praised ; a review from 1UP.com called the game " absolutely gorgeous " , which they attributed to its position towards the end of the era of 2D SNES games , but before developers tried to start working with prerendered 3D graphics . A review by Chris Parsons of RPGamer agreed , terming the graphics " awesome " and positively comparing some of the effects to PlayStation RPGs , which the Cubed3 review by Adam Riley did as well . A preview by Next Generation written after the release of the game in Japan stated that the detailed graphics " puts just about every other recent 32 @-@ bit RPG to shame " , while the review by Corbie Dillard of Nintendo Life also noted the game as one of the best graphically on the SNES and called out the unique visual styles of each area in the game as of particular note . The game 's music was also generally praised ; Nintendo Life 's Dillard called it " spectacular from start to finish " , while Cubed3 's Riley said it was " one of the most sonically pleasing out of the whole SNES lifetime " and RPGamer 's Parsons said that " a wonderful job was done in the composition of the music " . The Next Generation preview praised both the quality of the soundtrack and the musical continuity from the Secret of Mana soundtrack .
The gameplay was highly rated by most reviewers , though the combat system had detractors . Dillard of Nintendo Life felt that the gameplay was as good as that of Secret of Mana and it had " a much more strategic feel to it " . The 1UP.com and Cubed3 reviews also brought up the day and time system as interesting additions , though the 1UP.com reviewer felt that the combat was not " quite as tight " as in Secret of Mana . The Next Generation preview , while acknowledging that several flaws in the Secret of Mana combat system had been corrected and praising the boss battles , felt that the computer @-@ controlled characters showed no sense of tactics , resulting in a free @-@ for @-@ all . A review by JeuxVideo.com also noted several improvements in the combat system over the prior game , but felt that battles could turn into a chaotic mass of attacks and numbers . Parsons of RPGamer also called out the Ring system as being flawed , as he found it frustrating that the menu could not be brought up while a character was performing an action , making boss battles hectic and difficult . The JeuxVideo.com reviewer also took issue with this restriction .
The plot received mixed reviews ; while several reviewers praised the system of choosing different main characters , especially its effect on replayability , Cubed3 's Riley felt that it meant that the story " can be quite confusing " . Parsons noted that the interactions with the characters that were not chosen often left plot holes , as their motivations were not explained . The Famitsu review praised the replayability of the branching narrative . The Next Generation preview , while praising the multiple storylines as an innovation in the genre , felt that it had been attached to a " magic @-@ and @-@ monsters fantasy @-@ formula " plot . The 1UP.com reviewer agreed , saying that the plot was not " too terribly engaging " , suffering from clichés and flat characters .
Overall , the game is regarded by many as a SNES classic ; Nintendo Life 's Dillard stated that it was " easily one of the best RPGs to come out of the 16 @-@ bit era " , while the 1UP.com reviewer said that if it had been officially translated into English it " very likely would have become a fondly remembered classic " .
= Red Dead Redemption =
Red Dead Redemption is an open world , western action @-@ adventure video game developed by Rockstar San Diego and published by Rockstar Games . It was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles in May 2010 . It is the second title in the Red Dead franchise , after 2004 's Red Dead Revolver . The game , set during the decline of the American Frontier in the year 1911 , follows John Marston , a former outlaw whose wife and son are taken hostage by the government in ransom for his services as a hired gun . Having no other choice , Marston sets out to bring the three members of his former gang to justice .
Red Dead Redemption is played from a third @-@ person perspective in an open world environment , allowing the player to interact with the game world at their leisure . The player can travel the virtual world , a fictionalized version of the Western United States and Mexico , primarily by horseback and on foot . Gunfights emphasize a gunslinger gameplay mechanic called " Dead Eye " that allows players to mark multiple shooting targets on enemies in slow motion . The game makes use of a morality system , by which the player 's actions in the game affect their character 's levels of honor and fame and how other characters respond to the player . An online multiplayer mode is included with the game , allowing up to 16 players to engage in both co @-@ operative and competitive gameplay in a recreation of the single @-@ player setting .
Upon its release , Red Dead Redemption was acclaimed by many reviewers , with praise directed at the game 's visuals , dynamically @-@ generated music , voice acting , gameplay , and story . Widely acclaimed by various video game publications , the game has shipped over 14 million copies . It won year @-@ end accolades , including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications . It is widely considered one of the greatest video games of all time . After the game 's release , several downloadable content additions were released ; Red Dead Redemption : Undead Nightmare , later released as a standalone game , added a new single @-@ player experience in which Marston searches for a cure for an infectious zombie plague that has swept across the Old West . A Game of the Year Edition containing all additional content was released in October 2011 .
= = Gameplay = =
Red Dead Redemption is a third @-@ person , open world , western , action @-@ adventure game , in which players control John Marston . Players interact with the environment and engage in combat with enemies , using various firearms . Different breeds of horses are the main forms of transportation , each with different attributes . These horses must be tamed in order to use them . Marston can utilize trains to get from place to place quickly , but he can also stop the train by threatening or killing the passengers or driver . The game 's undeveloped land makes up the largest portion of the game world , featuring various rugged and vast landscapes with occasional travelers , bandits , and wildlife . Urban settlements range from isolated farmhouses to crowded towns . Besides the American West , the player can also traverse a fictional Mexican state bordering the United States .
In addition to following the main storyline , the player character will witness and can take part in random events they encounter as they explore the game world . These include public hangings , ambushes , pleas for assistance , encounters with strangers , ride @-@ by shootings , and dangerous animal attacks . For example , if a group of people ride into town firing guns in the air , Marston can kill them , and will receive a bonus of honor and fame for protecting the town . The player character can also take part in optional side activities , most of which give the player money . These side activities include dueling , in which the player character must be a faster draw than their opponent ; bounty hunting , where Marston can hunt down bounties on wanted posters ; herb collecting , which involves gathering exotic plants from around the game map for town medics ; gambling , where people can be found playing games such as poker and Five Finger Fillet ; and hunting , in which the player can kill wild animals and skin their hides .
Red Dead Redemption makes use of a morality system where players have the ability to gain positive or negative honor . Honor can be gained by making morally positive choices , such as taking in an outlaw alive , or saving a woman from a kidnapping . The player character 's overall honor standard is lowered for committing crimes or other negative choices . This works in conjunction with another system , fame , which affects how people react based on Marston 's honor status . If Marston has little honor , non @-@ player characters feel insecure around him . If he has a high amount of honor , other characters will usually greet him and feel safe around him . He will also receive discounts in some stores , more pay for jobs and other bonuses . A very low honor rating can result in a town 's establishments closing their doors when Marston arrives . To combat this he can disguise himself by wearing a bandana when performing criminal acts ; alternatively , a very negative or criminal reputation warrants the player a large amount of respect and steep discounts from bandits and fencers at criminal hideouts , such as Thieves ' Landing .
= = = Combat = = =
Gunfights are a major gameplay mechanic in Red Dead Redemption . The player can take cover , target a specific person or animal , blindfire , and free aim . Individual body parts can also be targeted , in order to take targets down non @-@ lethally . When the player shoots an enemy , the game engine uniquely creates the AI reactions and movements depending on where they were hit . The player character can choose from period @-@ accurate weapons including revolvers , pistols , lever or bolt @-@ action rifles , shotguns , sniper rifles , knives , explosives , lassos , mounted Gatling guns , and cannons . Duels utilize a gunslinger gameplay mechanic known as Dead Eye . Dead Eye is a targeting system that is used in a bullet time @-@ like manner , allowing the player to slow down time to place a precise shot or paint in multiple shots . When the targeting sequence ends , Marston automatically fires to all marked locations in extremely quick succession .
Adopted from the Grand Theft Auto series , Red Dead Redemption has a modified wanted system . When the player commits a crime such as killing people near witnesses , some will run to the nearest police station . The player can bribe them or kill them before they reach the station . If a crime is committed near a police officer , the wanted meter immediately appears along with a bounty count which increases with each crime committed . If Marston 's bounty becomes high enough he will be pursued by either the U.S. Marshals or by the Mexican Army depending on his locations . To evade law enforcement in pursuit , John Marston must escape a circular zone until the wanted meter disappears . Alternatively , the player character can kill all lawmen in a town to have the wanted meter disappear . Despite the chase being aborted , a bounty is placed upon John which will cause bounty hunters to come after him in the wilderness . It is impossible to surrender to these bounty hunters by putting away Marston 's weapon and standing still as they will kill him regardless . Only law enforcement in towns and a posse will accept surrenders . The law will continue to chase Marston unless he pays his bounty at a telegraph station or presents a pardon letter . When arrested , Marston pays off his bounty and is then released . If the player does not have enough money to pay back the bounty , the law will assign bounty hunting activities .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Red Dead Redemption includes online multiplayer with a maximum of 16 players per session . Every multiplayer game , both free @-@ for @-@ all and team based , will begin with a Mexican standoff . Survivors of the standoff will be able to move to any part of the battlefield in preparation for respawning enemies . Crates in the environment contain extra weapons , ammo , and other powerups . Players can level up and complete weapon challenges which earn them rewards such as new character models , golden weapon skins , new titles , and new breeds of animal mounts . Additional multiplayer modes were added via downloadable content ( DLC ) . Stronghold is an attack or defend scenario , with teams switching roles as the round ends . It is included in the Liars and Cheats pack . The Undead Nightmare pack included two new games modes : Undead overrun mode , and Land Grab . It also included eight new zombie characters .
The free @-@ for @-@ all and team versions of Shootout mode both follow a traditional deathmatch scenario where players or teams must accumulate the most kills . Many capture the flag variants are also available . Hold Your Own is a traditional mode where each team has to defend their bag of gold to from the enemy team whilst capturing the other . Grab The Bag has both teams attacking one bag placed in a section of the map . Gold Rush is a free @-@ for @-@ all variant , trying to grab and keep as many bags as possible . The multiplayer portion Red Dead Redemption also features open world gameplay . All players in the server can form or join a group of other players , known as a posse , of up to eight players and take part in activities such as hunting or attacking computer @-@ controlled gang hideouts or another player 's posse .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Red Dead Redemption spans two fictitious United States counties and a fictitious Mexican state : New Austin , West Elizabeth , and Nuevo Paraiso . New Austin and West Elizabeth are adjacent to each other and share a southern border with Mexico . Nuevo Paraiso is a Mexican state , separated from U.S. territory by the San Luis river . The game takes place primarily in the year 1911 , featuring the final decade of the American Frontier and the cowboy and outlaw archetypes that shaped it . The landscape of the Wild West is beginning to fade and modern technologies like automobiles , machine guns , and oil drilling projects are beginning to appear .
= = = Plot = = =
The game begins in 1911 , where John Marston ( Rob Wiethoff ) , a former outlaw , is taken from his family by the Bureau of Investigation . They state Marston will be granted amnesty if he brings the remaining members of his old gang to justice . Marston agrees and sets off to track down Bill Williamson ( Steve J. Palmer ) , who now runs his own gang . Marston confronts Williamson at his stronghold , Fort Mercer , only to be shot and left for dead . A local rancher , Bonnie MacFarlane ( Kimberly Irion ) , finds him critically wounded and takes him to her ranch for recovery . Several days later , Marston begins repaying the MacFarlanes for their help in the form of odd @-@ jobs around the ranch . During this time he works with a U.S. Marshal , Leigh Johnson ( Anthony De Longis ) and his deputies , the dim @-@ witted Jonah and sarcastic Eli ; Nigel West Dickens ( Don Creech ) , a con artist selling patent medicines ; Seth Briars ( Kevin Glikmann ) , a treasure hunter and grave robber who prefers the company of the dead to that of the living ; and an unreliable alcoholic arms dealer known only as Irish ( K. Harrison Sweeney ) . Marston performs various tasks and favours in exchange for their help with organizing an attack on Fort Mercer . Marston and his group then breach the fort and defeat Williamson 's gang only to find that Williamson had already fled to Mexico to seek help from Javier Escuella ( Antonio Jaramillo ) , another member of Marston 's former gang .
In Mexico , Marston initially sides with Mexican Army Colonel Agustín Allende ( Gary Carlos Cervantes ) and his right @-@ hand man Captain Vincente de Santa ( Hector Luis Bustamante ) , to help put down a rebellion in return for Allende delivering Escuella and Williamson to him . However , Allende betrays Marston , who is then forced to side with the rebels . With the initial help of elderly gunslinger Landon Ricketts ( Ross Hagen ) , Marston , along with rebel leader Abraham Reyes ( Josh Segarra ) , and Luisa ( Francesca Galeas ) , one of Reyes ' many lovers , eventually turns the tide in favour of the rebels , killing de Santa and launching an assault on the El Presidio fortress , where they find Escuella , who attempts to bargain for his life by revealing that Williamson has been under Allende 's protection . Escuella manages to escape , with Marston giving chase , who is then given the option to either kill or capture Escuella alive and turn him over to the Bureau . Either way , agents Edgar Ross ( Jim Bentley ) and Archer Fordham ( David Wilson Barnes ) , who meet with Marston at the USA / Mexico border , refuse to let Marston return to his family , stating that after killing Williamson , he must meet with them again in Blackwater and assist in hunting down Dutch van der Linde ( Benjamin Byron Davis ) , the leader of Marston 's former gang . Marston and Reyes then take the fight to Allende , where Luisa is killed during the attack . As Allende 's palace is stormed by the rebels , both he and Williamson flee , who are then apprehended and executed after being chased a short distance . Reyes then takes charge of the local government and plans to advance on the capital , while Marston leaves to meet with the Bureau in Blackwater .
Once there , Marston learns that Dutch has been forming his own gang with sympathisers from the local Indian reservation , and joins Ross , Fordham and a group of U.S. soldiers in an attack on Dutch 's hideout . During the assault , Marston chases Dutch up to a cliff overlooking the river and mountains . Dutch ultimately chooses to commit suicide , backing off the cliff and falling to his death , but not before warning Marston that the Bureau will ' just find another monster ' to justify their pay . Marston is then released from his deal with Ross and goes back to his ranch where his wife Abigail ( Sophie Marzocchi ) and his son Jack ( Josh Blaylock ) are waiting . Marston devotes his time afterward tending to the ranch , having sworn to keep himself and his family away from the outlaw lifestyle forever . He is then suddenly forced to repel a surprise attack from a combined force of soldiers , lawmen and government agents led by Ross . Marston is able to fend off several waves of attackers and get his family to safety but stays behind to hold back the rest . Despite a valiant last stand , he dies after being shot numerous times by Ross and his men . He is then buried by his grieving family on the hill overlooking the ranch .
The game then moves three years ahead to 1914 , where Marston 's son Jack stands over the graves of both his father and his now deceased mother . He leaves home to search for Ross , who retired the year before , and eventually finds the former agent hunting on a riverbank in Mexico . The two duel , with Jack emerging the victor . The fate of John Marston 's companions are later summarized : Marshal Leigh Johnson retired from Armadillo to be replaced by Jonah , and then moved as far as possible from the town ; Abraham Reyes , though promising to lead Mexico into an age of freedom , was consumed by power and became a tyrant ; Bonnie MacFarlane eventually married ; Irish shot himself dead in an outhouse when his gun accidentally discharged ; Seth Briars eventually found the treasure he was looking for and became rich ; and finally , Landon Ricketts died quietly in his sleep .
= = Development = =
Rockstar San Diego began to develop Red Dead Redemption in 2005 . Development was conducted by a team of more than 800 people , including Rockstar San Diego 's core team and staff from parent company Rockstar Games 's studios around the world . The game runs on the proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine ( RAGE ) , which was improved for the game to improve its draw distance rendering capabilities . The Euphoria and Bullet software handle additional animation and rendering tasks . Having exhausted the use of previous hardware on previous projects , Rockstar felt inspired after realising the potential power of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . Analyst estimations place the game 's combined development and marketing budget between US $ 80 million and US $ 100 million , which would make it one of the most expensive video games ever made .
The open world was created to represent iconic features of the American frontier . Key members of the game world product team took research trips to Washington and the Library of Congress in their extensive research on the American frontier . They also captured a multitude of photographs , and analyzed various classic Western films . The team considered creating the open world one of the most technically demanding aspect of the game 's production , in terms of filling the world with enough content to interest players . The team chose 1911 as the game 's setting as they felt that exploring the transformation from " the old West " into a modern world was intriguing . The team viewed Red Dead Redemption as a spiritual successor to Red Dead Revolver , and designed it to improve upon the gameplay mechanics . They sought to maintain the shooting mechanic and expand on other game features , attempting to achieve realism with every feature of the game . In particular , the team faced a challenge in creating realistic movement for the horse , resulting in the engagement of a stunt horse to simulate movement for the designers .
After an audition process , Rob Wiethoff was selected to portray John Marston . The cast 's performances were mostly recorded using motion capture technology , with additional dialogue and sound effects recorded in a studio . Red Dead Redemption also features an original score , which was composed by Bill Elm and Woody Jackson , collaborating with each other over fifteen months . Rockstar also consulted musicians who played traditional Western instruments , such as harmonica player Tommy Morgan .
Though a technology demonstration was shown in 2005 , Red Dead Redemption was first formally announced by Rockstar Games on February 3 , 2009 . They released its debut trailer on December 1 , 2009 , introducing the game 's protagonist . The game missed its original projected April 2010 release date , pushed back to May 18 , 2010 to allow for further polishing . To spur pre @-@ order game sales , Rockstar collaborated with several retail outlets to provide pre @-@ order bonuses . These included exclusive in @-@ game outfits , weapons and horses , as well as the game 's official soundtrack .
= = = Additional content = = =
Post @-@ release content was added to Red Dead Redemption as downloadable content ( DLC ) packs . Outlaws to the End , released on June 22 , 2010 , added six new cooperative side missions for the game 's multiplayer . The Legends and Killers pack was released on August 10 , 2010 ; it added eight multiplayer characters from Red Dead Revolver , nine map locations , and a Tomahawk weapon . The Liars and Cheats pack was released on September 21 , 2010 ; it added competitive multiplayer modes and mini @-@ games , additional characters from the single @-@ player game and the Explosive Rifle weapon . The Hunting and Trading pack was released on October 12 , 2010 ; it added a jackalope to the game 's world , and some additional outfits . Undead Nightmare , released on October 26 , 2010 , added a new single @-@ player campaign with ghost towns and cemeteries full of zombies ; in the game 's story , players continue to assume control of Marston as he searches for a cure to the zombie outbreak . The Myths and Mavericks pack , released for free on September 13 , 2011 , added additional characters from the single @-@ player campaign .
A Game of the Year Edition containing all downloadable content was released for both PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , on 11 October 2011 in North America and on 14 October 2011 internationally . Additionally , Microsoft added the game to its backwards compatibility list for Xbox One platforms in July 2016 .
= = Reception = =
Red Dead Redemption was released to critical acclaim . Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating in the 0 – 100 range , calculated an average score of 95 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 73 reviews for the PlayStation 3 version and 96 reviews for the Xbox 360 version . Commercially , the game has also been very successful . By August 2011 , the game had shipped over 11 million copies , 2 million of which were retail units of Undead Nightmare . As of August 2015 , Red Dead Redemption has shipped over 14 million units .
Many critics praised the landscape , environment and graphics of Red Dead Redemption . Erik Brudvig of IGN lauded the environmental details , noting the player can even scare a flock of birds from the bushes as they ride past . He also noted that the game 's dynamic events , weather and ambient sounds provide a rich experience for players . He summarized by stating " you can also expect a fantastic game that offers the Western experience we 've all been waiting for . " Game Informer called the scenery " breathtaking " , and the cinematic cutscenes " vastly improved " over Grand Theft Auto IV , and named it the " best @-@ looking Rockstar game to date " .
The music , sound and voice acting in the game was also widely praised and spoken about . It won the Best Original Music and Best Voice Acting awards from GameSpot . When talking about the sound design of Red Dead Redemption , Game Informer said " From pitch @-@ perfect gunshots to the daunting rumble of prairie thunderstorms , the remarkable attention to audio detail brings the world to life " .
Critics and reviewers spoke about the successful use of the game engine , and made similarities of the controls and physics to the Grand Theft Auto series . Game Informer said that Rockstar " [ transposed ] the Grand Theft Auto gameplay template onto a Wild West setting " . Good Game reviewer Stephanie " Hex " Bendixsen said that " [ Rockstar ] really looked at what people liked and didn 't like in their game design from [ Grand Theft Auto IV ] , and included it here " . Eurogamer 's Simon Parkin felt Red Dead Redemption successfully " re @-@ clothes " the Grand Theft Auto framework in an " exciting , distinct and expertly realised scenario " .
The multiplayer aspect of Red Dead Redemption received mixed commentary from critics . GamePro 's Will Herring praised the variety of multiplayer modes and the open gameplay , but noted that it put more responsibility on the players for keeping the game interesting . Justin Calvert of GameSpot also gave high marks for the game 's variety of multiplayer modes , but felt that there was a lack in customization options for players . In a more critical view of multiplayer , Scott Sharkey of 1UP.com noted that games can suffer from griefing due to the open nature of multiplayer gameplay . He also criticized the leveling and unlocking aspects , noting that " The first few minutes spent as a toothless miner riding a balky mule can be pretty humiliating " . G4TV 's Jake Gaskill echoed this sentiment . He noted that the game often respawns players in a similar location to their death , which allows the killing player to repeatedly grief the other player . Rockstar has since added a feature which allows for players being griefed to transport to another area upon respawn .
= = = Awards = = =
Since its release , the game has received a large number of awards . It won several Game of the Year awards from media outlets such as GameSpy , GameSpot , Good Game , Computer and Video Games , and Machinima , among others . The game 's music also received awards for its original score from GameSpot , Machinima.com , and Spike TV . José González also received an award from Spike for his original song " Far Away " . The graphics received honors at the Korean Games Conference , and from the television program Good Game . Red Dead Redemption : Undead Nightmare also received Best Downloadable content awards from Spike TV , G4 TV and Game Revolution . At the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards , Red Dead Redemption won the Game of the Year , Best Song in a Game ( " Far Away " by José González ) , Best Original Score and Best DLC ( Undead Nightmare ) awards . Red Dead Redemption was not nominated for any of the jury based awards at the BAFTA Video Game Awards due to Rockstar 's refusal to submit the title for consideration ; BAFTA cannot enter games without permission from the developers and publishers .
= = Legacy = =
Critics concurred that Red Dead Redemption was one of the best games of the seventh generation era of video game consoles . Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer wrote that he hoped the eighth generation of consoles would offer " similarly powerful experiences " . IGN ranked the game third on its 2011 list of the top modern video games , and seventh on its 2014 list of the best games of the generation . GamesRadar listed Red Dead Redemption at second on its list of the best games of all time , in February 2013 , and sixth on its list of the best video game stories , in July 2013 . In September 2013 , the game was ranked the thirteenth best PlayStation 3 game , and the seventh best Xbox 360 game , by IGN . In November 2013 , the game was ranked at fourth and eighth place on Eurogamer and Hardcore Gamer 's list of the best games of the generation , respectively . In January 2014 , Computer and Video Games ranked the game at number fifteen on its list of the best games of the generation . In June 2014 , the game placed at number five on IGN 's list of the " Games of a Generation : Your Top 100 " as voted by readers of the site . In August 2014 , the game placed seventh on Good Game 's Top 100 list . In July 2015 , the game placed 10th on USgamer 's The 15 Best Games Since 2000 list .
In March 2013 , Karl Slatoff , chief operating officer of Take @-@ Two Interactive , revealed that the company has an " extensive pipeline of unannounced titles in development " and mentioned that the Red Dead franchise was important to the company . Concept art for a future game in the series was reportedly leaked online in April 2016 .
= 2012 Paris – Nice =
The 2012 Paris – Nice was the 70th running of the Paris – Nice cycling stage race , often known as the Race to the Sun . It started on 4 March in Dampierre @-@ en @-@ Yvelines and ended on 11 March in Nice and consisted of eight stages , including two time trials that bookended the race . It was the second race of the 2012 UCI World Tour season .
The race was won by Great Britain 's Bradley Wiggins of Team Sky , who took the lead on the second stage of the race and held the race leader 's yellow jersey to the finish , becoming the first British rider to win the race since Tom Simpson in 1967 . Wiggins also took home the green jersey for amassing the highest number of points during stages at intermediate sprints and stage finishes . Wiggins won the general classification by eight seconds over runner @-@ up Lieuwe Westra ( Vacansoleil – DCM ) , who was winner of the race 's queen stage to Mende . Movistar Team 's Alejandro Valverde completed the podium , 62 seconds behind Westra and 70 seconds down on Wiggins .
In the race 's other classifications , Tejay van Garderen of BMC Racing Team won the white jersey for the highest placed rider born in 1987 or later by placing fifth overall in the general classification , while Vacansoleil – DCM rider Frederik Veuchelen won the King of the Mountains classification . Vacansoleil – DCM also finished at the head of the teams classification at the end of a fruitful week for the team , in which their riders also claimed three stage victories .
= = Teams competing = =
As Paris – Nice was a UCI World Tour event , all 18 UCI ProTeams were invited automatically and obligated to send a squad . Four other squads were given wildcard places into the race , and as such , formed the event 's 22 @-@ team peloton .
The 22 teams that competed in the race were :
= = Stages = =
= = = Stage 1 = = =
4 March 2012 — Dampierre @-@ en @-@ Yvelines to Saint @-@ Rémy @-@ lès @-@ Chevreuse , 9 @.@ 4 km ( 5 @.@ 8 mi ) individual time trial ( ITT )
The race began in the Vallée de Chevreuse for the first time , as it reverted to an opening individual time trial stage after race organisers elected to run a road stage first in 2011 . Apart from the third @-@ category climb of the Côte des Dix @-@ sept Tournants – the hill of seventeen turns – the stage was relatively flat , dropping only 9 metres ( 30 ft ) in altitude from the start , to the end . With rain expected to disrupt the stage , teams decided to spread their time trial specialists across the field in order to maximise their potential of winning the stage . For the first rider to depart the start in Dampierre @-@ en @-@ Yvelines , Project 1t4i 's Alexandre Geniez , weather conditions were cloudy and grey , with slightly damp roads due to overnight rains . He ultimately recorded a time of 12 ' 10 " for the stage .
Geniez held the lead for all of a few minutes as Denis Menchov ( Team Katusha ) improved upon his time by eight seconds , before Garmin – Barracuda rider Thomas Dekker was the first rider to set a time below twelve minutes , recording a time of 11 ' 56 " ; a six @-@ second improvement on Menchov 's time . Michael Mørkøv ( Team Saxo Bank ) , and later Maarten Wynants ( Rabobank ) both improved upon Dekker 's time , but by the end of the first wave of riders to depart , it was Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step and Sylvain Chavanel that held the lead , recording a time of 11 ' 31 " . Following a quick start to the stage , Vacansoleil – DCM 's Thomas De Gendt was the next rider to hold the provisional best time on the stage , besting Chavanel 's time by less than a second . De Gendt , who won the opening stage of the race in 2011 , ultimately picked up the polka @-@ dot jersey for the lead in the mountains classification , as he held the quickest time to the intermediate timing point , at the summit of the Côte des Dix @-@ sept Tournants . De Gendt 's time held for a while , as riders struggled to match the pace that he had set , with only Markel Irizar of RadioShack – Nissan coming within touching distance of his time , finishing one second down .
It was not until De Gendt 's Vacansoleil – DCM team @-@ mate Gustav Larsson – the Swedish national champion in the discipline – that his time was beaten ; Larsson , although six seconds slower than De Gendt to the intermediate checkpoint , put in a better second element to the race , eventually crossing the finish line in an eventual stage @-@ winning time of 11 ' 19 " . Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step also deployed Levi Leipheimer in the first half of riders to complete the course , and did so in a time four seconds slower than Larsson . The weather closed in for the last batch of riders , providing a tougher test for those riders in wanting to position themselves highly in the stage classification . BMC Racing Team 's Tejay van Garderen and Team Sky 's Bradley Wiggins both attacked the course late on , and were rewarded with finishes inside the top five , as van Garderen finished nine seconds down on Larsson , while Wiggins – a winner of the time trial stage in February 's Volta ao Algarve – fell short by just one second , but ensured he had an advantage of 24 seconds on defending race @-@ winner and world time trial champion Tony Martin ( Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step ) , who could only finish 28th .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
5 March 2012 — Mantes @-@ la @-@ Jolie to Orléans , 185 @.@ 5 km ( 115 @.@ 3 mi )
Following his crash in the opening day time trial , Team Saxo Bank 's Nick Nuyens became the race 's first abandonment ; he attempted to ride through the pain barrier , but had to withdraw within the neutralised zone prior to the real start of the stage . The peloton itself remained together for the first third of the race , as strong headwinds counteracted against the field and did not allow for any breakaways to be formed efficiently . As such , Olivier Kaisen was the first to make a move for Lotto – Belisol , attacking as the field moved through the commune of Rambouillet . Kaisen managed to extend his advantage out by almost three minutes when he reached the summit of the day 's only categorised climb , in Les Granges @-@ le @-@ Roi . Mountains classification leader Thomas De Gendt ( Vacansoleil – DCM ) placed second , with Sylvain Chavanel third for Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step .
As the field reached the midway point of the stage , the windy conditions that had earlier plagued any potential breakaway from forming returned , and the crosswinds provided a large split in the field and echelons forming within it . By the time that the race had been finished , around thirty riders had made it in the lead group on the road , including overall contenders Bradley Wiggins of Team Sky , Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step 's Levi Leipheimer and BMC Racing Team rider Tejay van Garderen . The group was later reduced to 21 riders out front after several small crashes eliminated a handful of riders from contention . Wiggins put more time into his rivals by taking the intermediate sprint , and with it , three bonus seconds on offer that gave him the virtual race lead , without even considering the fact that the overnight leader Gustav Larsson ( Vacansoleil – DCM ) failed to make the split . The gap from the lead pack to the first group of pursuers remained between two and two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes for the rest of stage with many teams electing not to bridge the gap , mainly due to the rain that had commenced within the closing 25 km ( 15 @.@ 5 mi ) .
Larsson 's team @-@ mate Lieuwe Westra attacked with around 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) remaining , but his effort was quickly neutralised by Chavanel , one of a number of Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step riders in the group hoping to help Tom Boonen in a sprint finish lead @-@ out . Following another failed attack from Garmin – Barracuda rider Andreas Klier , it was left to the sprinters to battle it out for the stage honours . Project 1t4i 's John Degenkolb – who had recovered to the group after a puncture with 30 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi ) remaining – was the first to make an attempt for the line , closely followed by José Joaquín Rojas ( Movistar Team ) , but both were out @-@ sprinted by Boonen , who went to the inside of Degenkolb and took out the victory , for the 100th individual victory of his career , and his team 's first at UCI World Tour level . Rojas just beat Degenkolb for second place on the line with Sep Vanmarcke and Francesco Gavazzi rounding out the top five for Garmin – Barracuda and Astana respectively . Following his finish in the lead group , Wiggins assumed the overall lead from Larsson , with Boonen taking the points classification lead while moving into third place overall behind team @-@ mate Leipheimer , thanks to the bonus seconds on offer at the finish .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
6 March 2012 — Vierzon to Lac de Vassivière , 194 km ( 120 @.@ 5 mi )
A trio of riders – Project 1t4i 's Roy Curvers , Saur – Sojasun rider Jimmy Engoulvent and Michael Mørkøv of Team Saxo Bank – made the early breakaway from the field , and managed to extend their advantage to the main field to over four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes at one point during the stage , before eventually stabilising at the 4 ' 30 " mark for the majority of the stage . Team Sky and Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step riders occupied the front portion of the peloton , protecting their respective lead riders Bradley Wiggins and Levi Leipheimer in order to not lose time before the final climb at Lac de Vassivière . The pack , now fronted by the Movistar Team , steadily cut into the lead for the three escapees , who reached the categorised climb of the Côte de Bourganeuf with an advantage of less than three minutes . Curvers crested the summit first , but posed no threat to the mountains classification leader Thomas De Gendt ( Vacansoleil – DCM ) , who kept a hold of the polka @-@ dot jersey .
After the climb , the peloton lifted the pace and cut into the leaders ' advantage , trimming off two minutes within the space of 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . Engoulvent left his two breakaway companions behind with 14 km ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) remaining , as Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step hit the front of the peloton , this time with points classification leader Tom Boonen doing some of the legwork . Engoulvent held his slim lead through the intermediate sprint at Peyrat @-@ le @-@ Château , before being engulfed by the field with 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) to go . Vacansoleil – DCM rider Sergey Lagutin attacked with 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to go – just as team @-@ mate Lieuwe Westra did the previous day – but was unsuccessful , and was eventually caught just before the final kilometre of the stage . Westra attacked but was covered off immediately , setting up the uphill sprint to the line .
French pair Blel Kadri ( Ag2r – La Mondiale ) and Jérémie Galland ( Saur – Sojasun ) both launched their attacks in the closing stages , but were overhauled by a bunch of riders from which Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) looked to have the legs on the rest of the field , sprinting from 300 m ( 980 ft ) out . Valverde was briefly troubled by the sprint of Australian road race champion Simon Gerrans ( GreenEDGE ) , with Valverde ultimately prevailing at the line – just as was the case at the Tour Down Under in a two @-@ up sprint – by half a wheel length , with Lotto – Belisol 's Gianni Meersman rounding out the podium ahead of Rabobank 's Luis León Sánchez and Team Katusha 's Xavier Florencio ; both of whom had launched their own attacks in the closing metres . Valverde 's victory – his fourth of the season since returning from a doping ban – was enough to move him into the lead of the points classification , while the bonus seconds awarded on the line moved him into sixth place overall , 20 seconds down on race leader Wiggins .
= = = Stage 4 = = =
7 March 2012 — Brive @-@ la @-@ Gaillarde to Rodez , 178 km ( 110 @.@ 6 mi )
A quintet of riders – Ag2r – La Mondiale 's Jean @-@ Christophe Péraud , FDJ – BigMat rider Pierrick Fédrigo , Leigh Howard of GreenEDGE , Lotto – Belisol 's Bart De Clercq and Cofidis rider Luis Ángel Maté – made the early breakaway from the field , and managed to extend their advantage over the main field to in excess of five minutes at one point during the stage . As such , the riders between them managed to take all sub @-@ classification points on offer during the stage , at the single intermediate sprint – coming after 142 km ( 88 @.@ 2 mi ) at Saint @-@ Cyprien @-@ sur @-@ Dourdou – and the first three of the five categorised climbs during the stage . Their advantage out front dwindled quickly as the peloton – led by Rabobank and Lampre – ISD – gathered pace , leaving the breakaway with just 90 seconds of a lead out front with around 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) to go . 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) later , Maté sat up with cramping in his knee – stemming from a crash in Stage 2 – having already wrested the lead of the mountains classification away from Thomas De Gendt ( Vacansoleil – DCM ) . The peloton picked up the pace again , with Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step on the front , and the remaining members of the breakaway were caught a short time later .
De Gendt himself attacked on the penultimate climb , the Côte d 'Aubert le Crès , to limit the points gap between himself and Maté , picking up the four points on offer for reaching the summit first and reducing his gap to Maté to eight points . After a short period off the front of the field , De Gendt was caught by a small gruppetto of riders and ultimately the rest of the field moments later , with the Movistar Team and Team Sky squads making moves in order to get their respective classification leaders Alejandro Valverde and Bradley Wiggins in safe positions for the run to Rodez . Andreas Klöden tried to go clear inside the final 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) for RadioShack – Nissan , taking top points at the final climb , but was caught with around 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) to go . The easing gradient into Rodez set up a sprint to the line with Lampre – ISD 's Grega Bole launching early , but was eventually passed by Lotto – Belisol rider Gianni Meersman , who was third the previous day . Meersman held on to win ahead of Bole and Vacansoleil – DCM 's Lieuwe Westra , whose bonus seconds on the line enabled him to surpass Valverde for sixth place in the general classification . Other than Maté assuming the mountains lead from De Gendt , none of the other jerseys changed hands as Wiggins , Valverde and Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) all finished safely in the pack .
= = = Stage 5 = = =
8 March 2012 — Onet @-@ le @-@ Château to Mende , 178 @.@ 5 km ( 110 @.@ 9 mi )
The race 's queen stage consisted of six categorised climbs over the 178 @.@ 5 km ( 110 @.@ 9 mi ) parcours , including three first @-@ category climbs ; the Côte de la Malène , the Côte de l 'Estrade and the final climb to Mende , the Côte de la Croix @-@ Neuve – Montée Laurent Jalabert – a 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) climb at an average gradient of 10 @.@ 1 % , named in honour of the three @-@ time Paris – Nice winner Laurent Jalabert – which had featured twice before as a summit finish in 2007 and 2010 , won on both occasions by Alberto Contador . Many riders and teams believed that the stage suited Movistar Team 's Alejandro Valverde , who had finished second on the Mende stage in 2010 before the result was expunged due to his doping suspension later in the year . Four riders – Vacansoleil – DCM 's Frederik Veuchelen , GreenEDGE rider Simon Clarke , David Lelay of Saur – Sojasun and Team Europcar 's Yukiya Arashiro – advanced clear of the main field after just 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of the stage , and managed to extend their advantage to a maximum of around seven minutes at one point during the stage .
Veuchelen earned the majority of points on offer for the mountains classification , summiting the stage 's first three climbs , cresting them all ahead of Lelay and Arashiro . Movistar Team riders began to step up the pace on the front of the peloton , looking to set up the basis for an eventual attack at Mende by Valverde . With around 50 km ( 31 @.@ 1 mi ) to go , Ag2r – La Mondiale 's Blel Kadri exited the race , after breaking his left scapula in a crash . On the Côte de l 'Estrade , Astana 's Kevin Seeldraeyers and Rabobank 's Laurens ten Dam attacked off the front of the main field , and set off in chase of the lead quartet . As Veuchelen continued to rack up points towards a mountains classification lead , Seeldraeyers and ten Dam continued to close on the lead group , and with around 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining , they latched on to the group as they were on the outskirts of Mende . The peloton caught all bar Veuchelen a short time later , with Veuchelen relenting to the foot of the final climb of the Côte de la Croix @-@ Neuve – Montée Laurent Jalabert , before he too was engulfed by the main field through the advancing pace of several teams on the front of the pack .
Team Sky then took up the reins through recent Volta ao Algarve winner Richie Porte , protecting their overall leader Bradley Wiggins ; such was Porte 's high tempo that less than twenty riders remained in the lead group as the race reached the final kilometre . Arnold Jeannesson attacked from the group for FDJ – BigMat , gaining several bike lengths before Wiggins upped his pace , putting youth classification leader Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) into difficulty . As Wiggins bridged up to Jeannesson , Lieuwe Westra , sixth place in the general classification overnight , attacked for Vacansoleil – DCM ; pulling clear and earned the stage victory , six seconds ahead of a small group consisting of Valverde , Wiggins , Levi Leipheimer ( Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step ) and Simon Špilak for Team Katusha . Westra moved into second place in the general classification after reducing his deficit to Wiggins , to six seconds , while Valverde and Špilak both moved ahead of van Garderen , into the top five . Jeannesson 's late @-@ stage attack was also beneficial to his overall position , as he also moved inside the top ten , into seventh position .
= = = Stage 6 = = =
9 March 2012 — Suze @-@ la @-@ Rousse to Sisteron , 178 @.@ 5 km ( 110 @.@ 9 mi )
Just as what occurred on the second stage of the race , crosswinds caused an early fracture in the main field ; inside the first 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) , a group of around thirty riders – including all the overall general classification contenders , with the exception of Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) and Maxime Monfort ( RadioShack – Nissan ) – got clear just as the race moved into the commune of Tulette . A second group of another thirty riders also formed out of the main bunch , but were quickly caught by the peloton , mainly through the acceleration of the Movistar Team , helping Valverde to get back into the stage equation . The main field reformed on the day 's second categorised climb , the Côte du Pas de Ventoux , but seven riders – mountains classification leader Frederik Veuchelen ( Vacansoleil – DCM ) , RadioShack – Nissan 's Jens Voigt , Project 1t4i rider Simon Geschke , Luis León Sánchez of Rabobank , Mickaël Cherel ( Ag2r – La Mondiale ) , FDJ – BigMat 's Anthony Geslin and Daniel Navarro of Team Saxo Bank – went clear to form the day 's primary breakaway .
By the time the breakaway reached the third climb of the day , the Côte d 'Aurel , the gap to the main field was just under four minutes , and with Sánchez – the 2009 race @-@ winner – less than four minutes behind overall leader Bradley Wiggins , Team Sky put their men on the front of the field in order to limit any potential gains that Sánchez could have made . The gap to the breakaway was reduced to two minutes inside the final 25 km ( 15 @.@ 5 mi ) of the stage , and as the leaders made their way through Sisteron before a 19 km ( 11 @.@ 8 mi ) finishing circuit , their lead was almost halved to 1 ' 10 " . Sánchez , Voigt and Cherel went clear of their four other companions as they crested the final climb of the day , the Côte des Marquises with around 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) left in the stage . Cherel was dropped several minutes later , and with the main bunch not closing quickly enough to force a field sprint for the honours , it was left to Sánchez and Voigt to do battle themselves . Voigt launched first but Sánchez held enough in reserve to out @-@ sprint his rival , by a wheel length , for his fourth career Paris – Nice stage victory . Garmin – Barracuda 's Heinrich Haussler led home the main field in third place , fourteen seconds in arrears of Sánchez and Voigt , while the overall contenders finished safely in the pack , causing no changes to the top ten placings .
= = = Stage 7 = = =
10 March 2012 — Sisteron to Nice , 219 @.@ 5 km ( 136 @.@ 4 mi )
Mini @-@ attacks set the course for the stage as the field remained as one , for much of the first hour of racing . It was not until after 48 km ( 29 @.@ 8 mi ) that the stage 's primary breakaway had been formed . Two riders – Thomas De Gendt of Vacansoleil – DCM and Cofidis 's Rein Taaramäe – originally managed to breach the confines of the field , and set off in a bid to extend a substantial advantage of the main field , as both riders featured a long way down the general classification . Taaramäe 's presence in the breakaway came just 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) after he had suffered an accident in the main field ; he was looking to reduce some of his 31 @-@ minute deficit to race leader Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) , while De Gendt was half that margin behind Wiggins , trailing by 15 ' 44 " .
By the time that De Gendt and Taaramäe had reached the stage 's opening climb of the day , the Col des Leques , the duo held an advantage of over eight minutes to the main field , before later extending that gap out to twelve minutes around 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) later . Astana 's Evgeni Petrov gave chase on his own for around 30 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi ) , but was eventually recaptured by the peloton , still twelve minutes in arrears of De Gendt and Taaramäe . The lead duo were in the process of attacking one another on the Col de Vence , with De Gendt eventually breaking Taaramäe 's resistance , and ultimately soloed the remaining 60 km ( 37 @.@ 3 mi ) of the stage to take his team 's third victory of the race , after prior victories for Gustav Larsson and Lieuwe Westra . Taaramäe also remained clear of the main field , finishing second , but over six minutes down on De Gendt .
A further three minutes passed before the main field crossed the finish line on the Promenade des Anglais , led over the line by Project 1t4i rider John Degenkolb , Greg Henderson of Lotto – Belisol and BMC Racing Team 's Thor Hushovd . Wiggins maintained his six @-@ second lead over Westra in the overall classification , as both riders finished safely in the pack , however this was not the case for Levi Leipheimer , who had been lying in third place overnight for Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step . In the second half of the stage alone , Leipheimer crashed on three separate occasions , and thus finished over seven minutes behind his rivals for overall victory , thereby ending his chances of winning the race and the chances of becoming the first American since Floyd Landis , in 2006 , to win the race .
= = = Stage 8 = = =
11 March 2012 — Nice to Col d 'Èze , 9 @.@ 6 km ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) individual time trial ( ITT )
For the final time trial stage , the race returned to the Col d 'Èze for a mountain time trial for the first time since 2001 – although the first time since 1995 in its once traditional place as the final stage of the race – when Dario Frigo of the Fassa Bortolo team triumphed by almost half a minute from his nearest rivals . As was customary of time trial stages , cyclists set off in reverse order from where they were ranked in the general classification at the end of the previous stage . Thus , Jarosław Marycz of Team Saxo Bank , who , in 145th place , trailed overall leader Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) by one hour , eighteen minutes and fifty @-@ three seconds , was the first rider to set off on the final stage . Marycz set a time of 23 ' 32 " for the 4 @.@ 7 % average gradient climb .
Liquigas – Cannondale rider Tiziano Dall 'Antonia was the first to break 23 minutes for the climb , but his stay at the top of the standings was short as Wiggins ' team @-@ mate Danny Pate , a former world time trial champion at under @-@ 23 level , went substantially quicker than Dall 'Antonia , setting a benchmark of 21 ' 29 " for the climb . Wiggins shadowed his team @-@ mate 's run , in a car following him up the hill , to gather information about what lay ahead before his start time . Pate 's time held for almost 20 minutes until Lotto – Belisol 's Bart De Clercq bettered his time , breaking the 21 @-@ minute barrier . French riders then lowered the benchmark yet further ; David Moncoutié , who finished fourth in the race 's last time trial at the Col d 'Èze , recorded a time of 20 ' 11 " for Cofidis , but Jean @-@ Christophe Péraud usurped that with the first sub 20 @-@ minute time . The Ag2r – La Mondiale rider , the 2009 national time trial champion , recorded a time of 19 ' 45 " ; a time that left his team manager Vincent Lavenu elated , with Péraud later expressing his surprise at such a quick time .
Péraud 's time remained untouched until the final group of riders set off , and with Team Katusha 's Simon Špilak coming closest to Péraud in a time of 19 ' 59 " , having faded from a similar time at the intermediate point of the Col des Quatre Chemins , the stage battle ultimately came down to the two riders in contention for the overall honours ; Wiggins and Vacansoleil – DCM 's Lieuwe Westra . Westra set off two minutes before Wiggins , and although noted as proficient in the time trial discipline , he left everything on the hill as he set the fastest time to the intermediate checkpoint ; recording a time of 11 ' 29 " , taking around three seconds per kilometre out of Péraud 's time of 11 ' 47 " . Two minutes later , Wiggins passed the same point two seconds slower than Westra , but a stronger second half to the stage sealed the victory for Wiggins ; as the hill flattened , Wiggins ' time @-@ trial experience proved pivotal as he overhauled the deficit to Westra , and finished the stage with a two @-@ second advantage over Westra , taking the stage win , overall victory and the points classification in one fell swoop . Movistar Team 's Alejandro Valverde , who had held the lead of the points classification prior to the stage , could only muster sixth on the stage , but this result was good enough for him to claim the final remaining place on the podium .
= = Classification leadership progress = =
In the 2012 Paris – Nice , four different jerseys were awarded . For the general classification , calculated by adding each cyclist 's finishing times on each stage , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages , the leader received a yellow jersey . This classification was considered the most important of the 2012 Paris – Nice , and the winner of the classification was considered the winner of the race .
Additionally , there was a points classification , which awarded a green jersey . In the points classification , cyclists got points for finishing in the top 20 in a stage . Unlike in the better known points classification in the Tour de France , the type of stage had no effect on what points were on offer – each stage had the same points available on the same scale . The win earned 25 points , second place earned 22 points , third 20 , fourth 18 , fifth 16 , and one point fewer per place down to a single point for 20th . In addition , points could be won in intermediate sprints ; three points for crossing the sprint line first , two points for second place , and one for third .
There was also a mountains classification , the leadership of which was marked by a red and white polka @-@ dot jersey . In the mountains classification , points were won by reaching the top of a climb before other cyclists . Each climb was categorised as either first , second , or third @-@ category , with more points available for the higher @-@ categorised climbs . For first @-@ category climbs , points were awarded on a scale of 10 points for first across the climb , second place earned 8 points , third 6 , fourth 4 , and one point fewer per place down to a single point for seventh . Second @-@ category climbs awarded points on a scale of 7 points for first place , second place earned 5 points , third 3 , and one point fewer per place down to a single point for fifth . Third @-@ category climbs awarded points to the top three riders only ; 4 points for first across the climb , second place earned 2 points , third place earned 1 point .
The fourth jersey represented the young rider classification , marked by a white jersey . This was decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1987 were eligible to be ranked in the classification .
There was also a classification for teams , in which the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added together ; the leading team at the end of the race was the team with the lowest total time .
= Guilty Gear X2 =
Guilty Gear X2 , also known as Guilty Gear XX ( Japanese : ギルティギア イグゼクス , Hepburn : Giruti Gia Iguzekusu ) and subtitled The Midnight Carnival in Japan , is a fighting game developed by Arc System Works and published by Sammy Studios . The third main installment ( 5th overall ) of the Guilty Gear series , Guilty Gear X2 furthered the plot of the series , as well as introduced new characters and gameplay mechanics . A sequel to Guilty Gear X , it was first announced in January 2002 , and was released on May 23 , 2002 , for the arcades , in Japan . It was later ported to the PlayStation 2 and published in North America and Europe .
The PlayStation 2 version of Guilty Gear X2 has sold well in Japan ; over 140 @,@ 000 copies were sold between 2002 and 2004 . In addition to the public reception , the game has been praised by video game critics . Several aspects were commended , the most noticeable being its gameplay , visuals , music , and new additions from Guilty Gear X , the second game in the series . It was found to be the best title of the series , as well as one of the best titles of the year , on the console , and on the genre by some reviewers . Since its release , it has received five updated versions , each offering additional features over previous versions .
= = Gameplay = =
The fighting system works around a four main attack button configuration , consisting of punch , kick , slash , and heavy slash . Additional buttons allow the player to perform taunts , and throw enemies in the air . When a character causes damage or moves toward its adversary , a tension gauge charges . However , when a character moves backwards or uses defensive moves often , its tension gauge is reduced . Once a character 's gauge is filled , Super Mode can be engaged . When a character is in this state , super moves called Overdrive Attacks , or a variety of special techniques — " Instant Kill " , " Faultless Defense , " " Dead Angle Attacks " or " Roman Cancels " — can be performed .
Guilty Gear X2 adds a new feature to the series : a burst gauge , which is fulfilled as the player causes or receives damage . By pressing buttons in combination , the player character jump and unleash a blast of energy — a Psyche Burst . It allows the player to break combinations and super moves in the middle of the opponent 's offensive . Also , if the blast hit the adversary , the tension gauge is filled to its maximum capacity immediately .
Guilty Gear X2 offers eight modes : Arcade , Survival , M.O.M. ( an acronym for Medal of Millionaires ) , Mission , Story , Trainning , Versus 2P and Versus CPU . The Arcade Mode allows the player to fight against several enemies until reach the final fight against the boss . On the Survival Mode , the player continuously battle against enemies until reach the 500th and final level or die , whichever comes first . Medal of Millionaires is a variation in which the player earn medals by performing combos . In the Mission Mode , there are 50 challenges , in which the player fight with and against a predetermined character ; the player character have handicaps such as being prevented from jumping , poisoned or start a fight with half of health .
The Story Mode , reveals the game 's plot through battles interleaved with conversations between the player character and its enemies . It vary depending on the player 's choice and performance in the battles ; there is a total of 60 possible endings . The Training Mode allows the player to learn attacks by fighting a customizable CPU enemy . Two players can play in the Versus 2P , and on the Versus CPU the player fight against a AI @-@ controlled character . In addition to those modes , there is a gallery with artworks , character endings , and cut scenes that are unlocked by playing Arcade , Mission and Story Mode .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Plot = = =
Guilty Gear X2 continues the overall plot of the series . Previously , the world has just recovered from a 100 @-@ year @-@ war against man @-@ made bio @-@ organic weapons called " Gears " . A few months later , there are rumors about a new type of Gear that the government have started to chase . It is discovered that this Gear is Dizzy , a girl who does not wish to harm anyone . As she joins the Jellyfish Air Pirates , the authorities find that the threat has disappeared , and stop chasing her .
The game picks up the story approximately two weeks after the events of Guilty Gear X. A new organization called Post @-@ War Administration Bureau is looking for and destroying Gears , descendants of Japanese , and those who are able to use qi energy in combat . To achieve their goals the organization has created several copies of Ky Kiske , the Robo @-@ Kys . In addition , I @-@ No sparks conflict as she wants to destroy all she perceived threats to her master , " That Man " , the creator of the Gears . Each character provides a different ending to Guilty Gear X2 .
= = = Characters = = =
Guilty Gear X2 features twenty @-@ three playable characters ; twenty of them are available from outset , with Justice , Kliff Undersn , and Robo @-@ Ky as unlockable secret characters . In addition to the return of all Guilty Gear X 's roster — Sol Badguy , Ky Kiske , Johnny , May , Chipp Zanuff , Potemkin , Baiken , Axl Low , Faust , Anji Mito , Jam Kuradoberi , Dizzy , Testament , Zato @-@ 1 , Millia Rage , Venom — , there are four new characters : Bridget , Zappa , Slayer , and the aforementioned I @-@ No .
= = Development and release = =
In January 2002 , Sammy Studios had announced that a Guilty Gear X spin @-@ off , titled Guilty Gear XX , would be released in Japanese arcades on the Sega NAOMI system in the spring of that year ; it was released on May 23 , 2002 . Its porting to the PlayStation 2 was speculated in late August , with release date set to autumn in Japan , which was later confirmed by Sammy in the same month . In the following month it was shown at Tokyo Game Show , and it was published on December 12 , 2002 in Japan . In October , the game North American release was set to happen in the first quarter of 2003 ; it was retitled Guilty Gear X2 . An announcement in November confirmed its release date as February 4 , 2003 ; in January 2003 , Sammy created a website to promote its release . The European branch of Sammy released the game on March 7 , 2003 . On February 26 , 2004 , it was rereleased in Japan under the label " PlayStation2 the Best " .
= = = Updated versions = = =
Guilty Gear X2 was followed by five updated versions of it .
Guilty Gear X2 # Reload , first released on March 26 , 2003 in the Japanese arcades , was later ported to Xbox , Windows , and PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) in 2004 and 2005 . It was published in North America in 2004 , while released for PS2 , Xbox , and Windows in Europe .
Guilty Gear XX Slash , first released on September 28 , 2005 for the arcades in Japan , was also released for the PS2 in the following year .
Guilty Gear XX Accent Core , first released to Japanese arcades on December 20 , 2006 , was published for the PS2 and Wii in 2007 . While in North America both the PS2 and Wii versions were released , in Europe and Australasia only the Wii version was available .
Guilty Gear XX Accent Core Plus , first released in Japan on March 27 , 2008 for the PS2 , was followed by a PSP version . In North America and Europe , both PS2 and PSP versions were released , and also a Wii port . An Xbox Live Arcade and a PlayStation Network were also released ; the former worldwide , while the latter in Japan and North America .
Guilty Gear XX Accent Core Plus R , first released on September 20 , 2012 to the arcades , was ported to PlayStation Vita in 2013 , getting releases in Japan , Europe and North America .
= = Reception = =
Guilty Gear X2 was the 117th best @-@ selling title in Japan in 2002 , with 112 @,@ 520 copies sold as of December 31 , 2002 . In 2003 , it sold 34 @,@ 294 more copies , amounting a total of 146 @,@ 814 copies sold since its release on PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) . Reviews were generally positive , with aggregate scores of 86 @.@ 14 % from GameRankings , and 87 / 100 from Metacritic . On release , Famitsu magazine scored the PS2 version of the game a 33 out of 40 . The game received the maximum score from Cincinnati Enquirer , G4 TV , and Gaming Age .
Jeremy Dunham of IGN , GameZone 's Michael Knutson and 1UP.com staff praised the multitude of moves ; Knutson , however , said that it was difficult performing special moves , and 1UP.com affirmed " The real improvement , though , is the addition of more life @-@ destroying options , like the hyper @-@ addictive Challenge mode . " Dunham accuse the fighting engine of being " too advanced for the casual fighting fan " , also criticizing its " sucker " control scheme . Conversely , GamePro thought it " can be enjoyed by novices and veterans alike " , and Matt Keil of G4 said it " is surprisingly accessible " to all gamers . Dunham cited how the " two @-@ player mode allows for near @-@ infinite possibilities and all the extra options are just icing on the cake . " In contrast Kasavin criticized the other modes for not being as engaging as the two @-@ player mode .
Dunham stated it has " incredibly attractive backgrounds , super slick animations , and the best character design on PlayStation 2 . " An Electronic Gaming Monthly ( EGM ) reviewer stated it has " cooler character designs on a PS2 fighter " whilst another said , " some of the coolest 2D game artwork ever . " Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine deemed it as " the best @-@ looking 2D graphics ever seen in a fighter . " 1UP.com said , " the ultrasharp , hi @-@ res character art and fluid animation keep XX at the cutting 2D edge . " Dunham , Knutson , Keil , and GamePro commended its similarity with Japanese animated series . The reviewer for GamePro stated it " becomes an art form in its own right . " Greg Kasavin of GameSpot , however , said " many of the moves in the game are animated so strangely that it can be difficult to see exactly what 's going on . "
Kasavin commented that its " cohesive musical style ... further helps set this game apart . " Dunham deemed it as having " One of the best soundtracks to come along for quite some time " , and praised Sammy for keeping the original voice actors , as did Knutson , which felt it " gives it a ' cooler aura ' . " Keil and Knutson found the sound effects to be " excellent " and " really great " respectively . On the other hand , GamePro described the sound design as the game 's " major flaw . " EGM remarked " Depending on your tastes , GGX2 's pervasive heavy @-@ metal cheesiness might negatively influence your opinion of the game . "
Other features praised include its short loading time , the variety of game modes and characters , the balance between characters ' abilities , the response of the controls , its replay value , and variety of features . Dunham even declared it " reads like the bible of fighting game options . Taking a page from every other title out there , there doesn 't seem to be a single feature on the horizon that 's been left out of GGX2 for fear of the Completists . " In spite of the praise , other criticisms vary from its general difficulty to the lack of an online play mode , position of move list in training mode , and the difficulty to perform moves in Dual Shock .
D. F. Smith from IGN elected Guilty Gear X2 the best game of 2002 . It ranked fifth in the " GameSpy 's 2003 PlayStation 2 Games of the Year " with the staff
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saying " Guilty Gear X2 is easily one of the best fighting games to come out in the last couple years " . In 2004 IGN 's editors selected it as the ninth best " Hidden Gems " — fun video games with poor sales in America . Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine included the game on its 2005 list of the " Eleven Essential Fighting Games " . In 2007 UGO Networks placed it ninth in their " Top 11 Fighting Games " , with its staff qualifying it as the best game of the series . IGN cited X2 had all of the qualities previous games , but " in bigger quantities than we had ever seen " , including it in the 28th place of its 2010 " Top 100 PlayStation 2 Games " list . In the same year , UGO also placed it 12th among the " Top 25 Fighting Games of All Time " . Likewise , About.com placed it eighth on their " Top 10 PlayStation 2 Fighting Games of All Time " , while Complex ranked it tenth among " The 50 Best Fighting Games of All Time " , and included it in the fifth place in " The 25 Best 2D Fighting Games of All Time " . Furthermore , The Escapist 's John Funk called it " the best fighting game of the last generation . "
= = Other media = =
= = = Music = = =
Guilty Gear XX Original Soundtrack ( ギルティギア XX オリジナルサウンドトラック , Giruti Gia Iguzekusu Orijinaru Saundotorakku ) , composed by Daisuke Ishiwatari and Koichi Seiyama , and arranged by Seiyama , was released on CD by Scitron Digital Contents on July 24 , 2002 .
The album was well received by critics . Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online rated it 9 out of 10 , and said it is " a well executed album and it captures the spirit of the game amazingly . " Writing for the same site , a reviewer dubbed GoldfishX gave it a perfect score , and declared it " is no doubt a masterpiece " . Comparing it to Guilty Gear X 's music , IGN stated there was a " substantial improvement in the sequel 's music " , and said it " finally lends the tunes a little credibility " with better production , musicians and a live drummer .
Two live albums containing some of the Guilty Gear XX Original Soundtrack 's tracks were released by Team Entertainment . The first one , Guilty Gear XX In L.A. Vocal Edition ( ギルティギア イグゼクス in L.A ボーカルエディション , Giruti Gia Iguzekusu in L.A Bōkaru Edishon ) , performed by A.S.H. and produced by Jay Gordon of the metal band Orgy , was released on May 19 , 2004 . In that same year , Guilty Gear XX In N.Y. Vocal Edition ( ギルティギアイグゼクス in N.Y ボーカルエディション , Giruti Gia Iguzekusu in N.Y Bōkaru Edishon ) , performed by Jason C. Miller , was released on September 23 .
Guilty Gear X2 # Reload featured a Korean exclusive album titled Guilty Gear XX # Reload Korean Version Original Soundtrack . Composed by Shin Hae Chul , and performed by his band , N.EX.T , it was released by Team Entertainment on November 6 , 2006 .
Reviewing the album for Square Enix Music Online , GoldfishX wrote " Guilty Gear XX # Reload Korean Version lacks the raw power of the Ishiwatari @-@ composed Guilty Gear scores , but more than makes up for it with character and creativity " , and gave it a score 9 out of 10 .
= = = Other = = =
For Guilty Gear X2 and each updated version released , some strategy guides were released . Entrebrain released two encyclopedias for the original game , on June 22 , and December 19 , 2002 . A Complete Guide ( コンプリートガイド , Konpurīto Gaido ) was released by SoftBank Creative on February 5 , 2003 . SoftBank Creative also released guidebooks for # Reload , Slash , and Accent Core on September 10 , 2003 , May 29 , 2005 , and July 27 , 2007 , respectively . Enterbrain released on November 16 , 2005 , February 28 , 2007 , and October 30 , 2012 , guidebooks for Slash , Accent Core , and Accent Core Plus R , respectively .
Ichijinsha released three manga adaptations under its DNA Media Comics line . The three volumes of a Guilty Gear X2 @-@ based yonkoma series were released on August 24 , 2002 , December 25 , 2002 , and July 25 , 2003 , respectively . Based on Guilty Gear XX Slash , a two @-@ part anthology series was released on December 24 , 2005 , and June 24 , 2006 , and a single @-@ volume yonkoma series was released on January 25 , 2006 . Enterbrain also published an anthology series based on Guilty Gear X2 ; it was released in two parts published on January 25 , 2003 , and March 24 , 2003 , respectively .
A compilation DVD entitled The New Saint Glory with the highlights of a Guilty Gear X2 arcade national championship was released by Enterbrain on December 19 , 2002 . Enterbrain also released Guilty Gear XX : The Midnight Carnival Artworks , a trading card game series based on Guilty Gear X2 on September 26 , 2002 . In addition to the musical CDs , audio drama CDs containing original plots were released by Team Entertainment . Two CDs — Red and Black — were published on July 16 , and August 20 , 2003 , while a second series , Night of Knives , had its three volumes released on October 20 , November 17 , and December 22 , 2004 .
= Money ( The Office ) =
" Money " is the seventh and eighth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's sixtieth and sixty @-@ first episode overall . It first aired on October 18 , 2007 , on NBC , and was the last of four consecutive hour @-@ long episodes that opened the fourth season . The episode was written and directed by Paul Lieberstein , who also acts on the show as Human Resources Representative Toby Flenderson . " Money " marked Lieberstein 's directorial debut .
In the episode , Jan , now living with Michael , forces costly changes in Michael 's life . This causes Michael to worry about his financial situation . To remedy the problem , Michael leaves work early for a late night job as a telemarketer until 1 a.m. When Ryan finds out , he forces Michael to quit , who then fears that there is no way in which he can support Jan and himself . He hops a train to run away , but Jan meets him and tells him that they can work together to find a way to live . Meanwhile , Dwight pines over Angela , who is later asked out by Andy . After a pep @-@ talk by Jim , Dwight returns as his normal annoying self , to Jim 's pleasure . Pam and Jim visit Dwight 's family farm , which he has fashioned into a bed and breakfast .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) and Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) discuss her plans to renovate their condo . Not only are the plans costly , but Jan has forced several other changes at Michael ’ s expense , such as trading in both cars to buy her a Porsche Boxster . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) discover that Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) is running Schrute Farm as an " agritourism " bed and breakfast . They spend the night there , taking part in table @-@ making demonstrations , beet wine @-@ making , distributing manure and having Dwight read an excerpt from Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows to them . That night , however , after a series of strange noises , Jim finds Dwight moaning in depression over Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) , while Pam discovers Dwight 's Amish cousin Mose ( Michael Schur ) outside using an outhouse , to which she reacts " What century is this ? "
Michael begins leaving the office early , refusing to explain himself to his employees and lying to Jan of his whereabouts . In reality , Michael has been combating heavy debt by working as a telemarketer until 1 a.m. At the office the next day , Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) arrives to find Michael unprepared for a presentation due to his moonlighting , and orders Michael to quit his night job or be fired from Dunder Mifflin . At the same time , Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) flaunts the fact that she is now dating Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) in an attempt to make Ryan jealous . They get into a fight later where Kelly says to the documentary crew , " Darryl Philbin is the most complicated man I have ever met . I mean , who says exactly what they 're thinking ? What kind of game is that ? " After quitting his telemarketing job , Michael desperately attempts to come up with money .
Kelly and Darryl ’ s continuing relationship proves to be dysfunctional , as she cannot comprehend his candor , and he finds her to be attractive yet " crazy . " Creed Bratton ( played by the real @-@ life Creed Bratton ) advises Michael to declare bankruptcy , which Michael does literally by walking into the office and shouting " I declare bankruptcy ! " , thinking this was all he needed to do . Upon reviewing Michael 's financial situation , Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) finds that Michael spends a large amount on useless items like magic kits and bass fishing equipment . Meanwhile , Jim and Pam feel sorry for Dwight and attempt to cheer him up by posting a positive review of his bed & breakfast on TripAdvisor.com , which pleases him . However , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) gains Angela 's approval to ask her out on a date by giving her the cat ( named Garbage ) that Dwight had tried to give Angela earlier , sending Dwight spiraling into crushing depression . Dwight retreats to the stairwell to moan . Jim joins him and recounts his days pining for Pam and how miserable it made him feel , saying he would not wish it on his worst enemy , Dwight included , to experience it , and Dwight realizes that he is not without friends . Having re @-@ opened his old memories , Jim re @-@ enters the office , goes right to Pam and kisses her passionately , and indirectly confesses in an interview that he loves her . Jim is quietly pleased when Dwight returns to his desk along with his annoying and overbearing personality . Jan learns of Michael 's dismal finances by phone , and immediately harangues Michael about being irresponsible . He panics and attempts to hop a nearby train . However , the train is slowing down and comes to a complete halt , upon which he is seen sitting on the train singing to himself . Jan speeds to the office and Oscar tells her in which direction Michael ran . She then runs to the train yard . She tells him that she will stand by him as he did when she was fired . Eventually , they leave the train yard hand in hand .
= = Production = =
The episode was both written and directed by Paul Lieberstein , who also plays the part of Toby Flenderson on the show . In the episode , Jim refers to a TripAdvisor page for Dwight 's bed and breakfast . This can be found by searching for Schrute Farms . Jim and Pam ( " JandP2 " ) post a review , which can be seen on the actual reviews page . It reads : " The architecture reminds one of a quaint Tuscan beet farm , and the natural aroma of the beets drifts into the bedrooms and makes you dream of simpler times . You will never want to leave your room . The informative lecture will satisfy all your beet curiosity , and the dawn goose walk will tug at your heart strings . Table making never seemed so possible . Great story to tell your friends . Plenty of parking ! The staff ’ s attention to detail and devotion to cleanliness was limitless . From their enthusiastic welcome to the last wave good @-@ bye , Schrute Farms delivers . "
= = Reception = =
Some reviewers complained about the episode 's length . A Buzzsugar.com review stated that " there was something off about this week 's episode . It 's never really a good thing when I 'm checking the clock and feeling antsy at the 20 @-@ minute mark of an hour @-@ long episode . " An IGN review said " while there 's some really funny moments in this episode , overall I really started to feel that hour running time . Of course , as always , that doesn 't make this a bad episode , just not one of their best . "
The episode 's length was not a problem for the staff and readers of IGN , with the former giving it an 8 out of 10 rating , and the latter giving it an average rating of 8 @.@ 4 . " Money " received a 4 @.@ 9 Nielsen Rating and a 7 % share . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 50 million viewers and achieved a 4 @.@ 4 / 11 in the adults 18 – 49 demographic . For his work as director on the episode Paul Lieberstein received an Emmy nomination ; his was one of two of the season 's episodes receiving nominations for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy ( with the fourth season finale " Goodbye , Toby " receiving the other nomination ) .
= Interstate 225 =
Interstate 225 ( I @-@ 225 ) is a connector spur route of Interstate 25 in Colorado . It is the only auxiliary route of Interstate 25 , and one of two auxiliary Interstate highways in the state of Colorado . I @-@ 225 traverses Aurora and small portions of Denver and Greenwood Village . It runs north from Interstate 25 to Interstate 70 . It intersects with Interstate 70 Business / U.S. Highway 40 / U.S. Highway 287 , known locally as Colfax Avenue . Construction on the freeway began in 1964 and continued progressively through many years until final completion in 1976 .
= = Route description = =
The southern end of I @-@ 225 begins at an interchange with Interstate 25 , as a typical two lane interstate with a 65 mph speed limit . The road heads northeastward through southern Denver , and after exits with DTC Boulevard and Yosemite Street in Greenwood Village , the road becomes three lanes with a fourth auxiliary lane traversing the Denver / Greenwood Village city limits . With Cherry Creek State Park and Cherry Creek Reservoir on its east side , the highway interchanges with State Highway 83 at the northern boundary of the park . Following the exit at SH 83 , the freeway enters Aurora , where it turns northward , maintaining three through lanes , auxiliary lanes at each exit , and a 65 mph speed limit to its northern terminus at I @-@ 70 , and has upgraded exits at Iliff Avenue , Mississippi Avenue , Alameda Avenue , and 6th Avenue ( also signed as State Highway 30 ) . After crossing Sand Creek , the freeway interchanges with Colfax Avenue ( also signed as U.S. Highway 40 , U.S. Highway 287 and Interstate 70 Business ) , and then with 17th Place ( serving the Anschutz Medical Campus ) . After the exit , I @-@ 225 enters Adams County , continuing through the city of Aurora . The route then crosses a railroad and continues north , where it interchanges with Interstate 70 . The northbound ramp to westbound I @-@ 70 reenters Denver , and the eastbound I @-@ 70 to southbound I @-@ 225 ramp originates in Denver but enters Aurora as it passes under the westbound I @-@ 70 to southbound I @-@ 225 ramp .
= = History = =
Construction on I @-@ 225 began in May 1964 at Interstate 70 . A section from Colfax Avenue to Sixth Avenue was opened in 1966 . Five years later , a segment between Mississippi Avenue and Parker Road was opened , and construction began on another segment south of Parker Road , completed in May 1975 . The rest of the route between Yosemite Street and Interstate 25 was completed in May 1976 . Since completion of construction , the road has retained its original designation from I @-@ 25 to I @-@ 70 . The highway was widened between Mississippi Avenue and Parker Road to three lanes , as part of a project to widen the entire freeway from I @-@ 25 to I @-@ 70 ; construction on this portion took place between May 2012 and November 2014 .
= = Exit list = =
= Dean Witter Reynolds =
Dean Witter Reynolds was an American stock brokerage and securities firm catering to retail clients . Prior to its acquisition , it was among the largest retail firms in the securities industry with over 9 @,@ 000 account executives ( ranking third in the US in 1996 ) and was among the largest members of the New York Stock Exchange . The company served over 3 @.@ 2 million clients primarily in the U.S. Dean Witter provided debt and equity underwriting and brokerage as well as mutual funds and other saving and investment products for individual investors . The company 's asset management arm , Dean Witter InterCapital , with total assets of $ 90 @.@ 0 billion prior to acquisition , was one of the largest asset management operations in the U.S.
In 1997 , Dean Witter 's parent company Dean Witter , Discover , Inc . , which also owned Discover Card , merged with investment banking house Morgan Stanley to form Morgan Stanley Dean Witter . The combined firm later dropped the Dean Witter name . In 2009 , the Dean Witter retail operations were transferred to Morgan Stanley Smith Barney , a joint venture with Citigroup .
For many years , the company used the corporate slogan , " We measure success one investor at a time , " which was later adopted by Morgan Stanley .
= = Business overview = =
Prior to its merger with Morgan Stanley , Dean Witter Reynolds was a diversified financial services organization that provided a broad range of investment and consumer credit and investment products and services . Dean Witter operated in two lines of business : securities ( including investment banking ) and credit services and its operations were primarily focused on the U.S.
The following is a summary of the financial results of Dean Witter prior to its merger with Morgan Stanley :
= = = Securities business = = =
Dean Witter 's traditional business was as a full @-@ service securities brokerage . The company maintained a network of over 9 @,@ 000 account executives . DWR was among the largest members of the New York Stock Exchange and was a member of other major securities , futures and options exchanges . Dean Witter offered a broad range of securities and savings products that were supported by the firm 's underwriting and research activities as well as order execution . Closely related to its securities business , Dean Witter provided investment consulting services to individual investors . The firm managed approximately $ 10 @.@ 4 billion of assets in its consulting business as of the end of 1996 . Within its securities business , Dean Witter focused on three segments :
Equity Securities - Dean Witter provided order execution , stock trading and equity research services primarily to individual investors but also to institutional clients . In many equity securities , Dean Witter acted as a market maker and as a specialist on various exchanges . Dean Witter 's research department provided economic analysis and commentary , market and quantitative research , as well as making recommendations with regard to broad individual companies and industry sectors .
Fixed Income Securities - Dean Witter provided trading and order execution services for a broad range of fixed income securities , including U.S. Treasury bonds , mortgage @-@ backed securities , corporate bonds , municipal bonds and certificates of deposit . The Company was a primary dealer in U.S. Treasury bonds . The firm largely eschewed proprietary trading focusing its trading activity on establishing and maintaining inventory of various securities .
Futures - Dean Witter also provided order execution and clearing services for the trading of futures contracts .
= = = Investment banking = = =
Dean Witter also operated as an investment banking firm , even before its merger with Morgan Stanley . Like many of its peers , Dean Witter provides a range of advisory services to corporate clients including mergers and acquisitions , divestitures , leveraged buyouts , restructurings and recapitalizations . The Company generally does not commit capital to merchant banking transactions .
However , the firm always maintained a strong connection between its investment banking business and its core business focused on individual investors . As a result , the investment banking division was involved in the research , development and origination of investment products focused on individual investors including limited partnerships and other retail @-@ oriented products .
The Company 's InterCapital subsidiary , with $ 90 @.@ 0 billion of assets under management as of December 31 , 1996 , was one of the largest investment management businesses in the U.S.
= = = Credit cards ( Discover Card and Novus ) = = =
Dean Witter was also active in the issuance of credit cards through its Discover Card business . Discover Card , which today operates is the Company 's most widely held proprietary general purpose credit card and generated a majority of Credit Services ' revenues and net income in 1996 . Prior to its merger , Dean Witter 's credit cards business accounted for 52 % and 47 % of the company 's net income in 1995 and 1996 , respectively .
In addition to the Discover Card , the company operated the NOVUS Network . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the NOVUS Network was the third largest domestic credit card network and consisted of merchant and cash locations that accept card brands that carry the NOVUS logo . In addition to the Discover Card , this the NOVUS network included Private Issue Card , the BRAVO Card and the National Alliance For Species Survival SM Card .
= = History = =
Dean Witter Reynolds traced its origins to two firms : Dean Witter & Co. founded in 1924 and Reynolds & Co . ( later Reynolds Securities ) founded in 1931 .
= = = Dean Witter & Co . ( 1924 @-@ 1978 ) = = =
Dean Witter & Company was founded by Dean G. Witter as a retail brokerage firm in 1924 . With its original offices at 45 Montgomery Street in San Francisco , California , Dean Witter would be among the largest West Coast brokerage firms in the U.S. Among Witter 's original partners were his brother Guy and their cousins Jean C. Witter and Ed Witter as well as Fritz Janney . Prior to founding his own firm , Witter partnered with Charles R. Blyth to found Blyth , Witter & Co . , another San Francisco based brokerage in 1914 . After Witter 's departure , Blyth would continue on his own ( ultimately acquired by Paine Webber in 1979 ) and the two firms would remain competitors for decades .
Witter 's family had moved to Northern California from Wausau , Wisconsin , settling in San Carlos , California in 1891 . Before founding his own firms , Dean Witter had worked as a salesman for Louis Sloss & Company from his graduation from the University of California , Berkeley in 1909 until 1914 . Dean Witter would lead his company until his death in 1969 .
In its early years , Dean Witter focused on dealing in municipal and corporate bonds . The company was highly successful in its first five years , purchasing a seat on the San Francisco Stock Exchange in 1928 and then opening an office in New York and purchasing a seat on the New York Stock Exchange in 1929 . Although a relatively young company , Dean Witter survived Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression , posting profits every year during the 1930s and into the 1940s .
The company grew rapidly during the 1950s and 1960s , establishing itself as a major U.S. brokerage house and developing a reputation for innovation in the securities industry . In 1938 , Dean Witter established its national research department , and in 1945 , became the first retail securities firm to offer a formal training for account executives . In 1953 , the firm entered into an agreement to merge with Harris , Hall & Co . , a Chicago investment banking and securities firm spun out of Harris Bank after passage of the Glass Steagall Act . In the early 1950s , Harris , Hall was one of the 17 U.S. investment banking and securities firms named in the Justice Department 's antitrust investigation of Wall Street commonly known as the Investment bankers case . In 1962 , Dean Witter became the first firm to use electronic data processing — a feat that paved the way for securities handling on Wall Street .
Following Witter 's death in 1969 , and the retirement of Guy Witter the following year , Jean Witter 's son , William M. Witter , became CEO of Dean Witter & Co . After numerous brokerage firm acquisitions , Dean Witter went public in 1972 . Dean Witter 's initial public offering ( shortly after the IPO of Reynolds Securities ) was part of a rush of Wall Street firms to sell an interest in their privately held businesses to public investors , following Merrill Lynch 's initial public offering in early 1971 .
= = = Reynolds Securities ( 1931 @-@ 1978 ) = = =
Reynolds & Co. was founded in 1931 in New York City by Richard S. Reynolds , Jr . , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old tobacco heir . Reynolds ' father Richard S. Reynolds , Sr. founded U.S. Foil Company , later Reynolds Metals ( Reynolds wrap ) , and his great uncle was the founder of R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company ( RJR ) . Among Reynolds ' partners were Thomas F. Staley ( Staley was Reynolds ’ cousin , the grandson of Major D. Reynolds , an older brother of R.J. Reynolds ) , Charles H. Babcock and John D. Baker .
Like Dean Witter , the company survived the Depression , generating a profit each year . In 1934 , Reynolds acquired F.A. Willard & Co . With the acquisition , Reynolds tripled its sales and shifted its emphasis toward underwritings .
In 1958 , Reynolds passed its leadership to the next generation with Thomas F. Staley departing and naming Robert M. Gardiner to head the firm . Under Gardiner , Reynolds embarks on major expansion , acquiring 26 offices from A.M. Kidder & Co . Reynolds acquired another three offices and opened nine firms in new regions in the U.S. in the early 1960s .
Reynolds was incorporated in 1971 as Reynolds Securities in advance of an initial public offering . By early 1971 , there was speculation that Merrill Lynch would sell shares to the public . Reynolds initial public offering ( and shortly thereafter Dean Witter 's IPO ) was part of a rush of Wall Street firms to sell an interest in their privately held businesses to public investors , following Merrill Lynch 's initial public offering . In 1976 , Reynolds implements REYCOM , the most sophisticated high @-@ speed wire system in the industry . Meanwhile , the firm was continuing its expansion , acquiring its first international offices in Lugano and Lausanne , Switzerland . A year later , Reynolds acquired Baker Weeks & Co. whose strength was securities research .
At the time of its merger with Dean Witter in 1978 , Reynolds Securities had over 3 @,@ 100 employees in 72 offices producing gross revenues of nearly $ 120 million .
= = = The Dean Witter Reynolds merger and the Sears acquisition ( 1978 @-@ 1993 ) = = =
In 1978 Dean Witter and Reynolds merged to form Dean Witter Reynolds Organization Inc . ( DWRO ) in what was then the largest securities industry merger in U.S. history . The resultant company , Dean Witter Reynolds , was the fifth largest broker in the U.S. One year later Dean Witter Reynolds became the first securities firm to have offices in all 50 U.S. states and Washington , D.C. After completion of the merger , Dean Witter Reynolds generated revenue of more than $ 520 million .
In 1981 , Dean Witter Reynolds was acquired by Sears , Roebuck and Company in a $ 600 million transaction . Sears ' core retail business was facing several challenges , and the company decided to diversify into new businesses , including financial services . Sears , which was already in the financial services business through its ownership of the Allstate Insurance Company announced a major acquisition initiative in financial services . In addition to the acquisition of Dean Witter , Sears also acquired Coldwell Banker , the real estate brokerage company in 1981 . Sears intended for Dean Witter to form the foundation for a larger Sears Financial Services Network that would be available to customers through the company 's retail stores .
Sears named Philip J. Purcell , a strategic planner at the Sears Chicago headquarters and former McKinsey & Co. consultant , to head Dean Witter . Purcell moved to New York to run the operation from Dean Witter 's office . At the time of the Sears acquisition , Dean Witter Reynolds had a retail broker force of over 4 @,@ 500 account executives in over 300 locations with over 11 @,@ 500 employees in total . For the year ended 1980 , Dean Witter Reynolds generated over $ 700 million of revenue .
Under Sears ownership , in 1986 , the firm launched the Discover Card , a new brand of credit card outside the well established Visa , MasterCard and American Express networks . Unlike other attempts at creating a credit card to rival MasterCard and VISA , such as Citibank 's Choice card , the Discover Card quickly gained a large national consumer base . It carried no annual fee , which was uncommon at the time , and offered a typically higher credit limit than similar cards . Cardholders could earn a " Cashback Bonus , " in which a percentage of the amount spent would be refunded to the account ( originally 2 % , now as high as 5 % ) , depending on how much the card was used . Discover offered merchant fees significantly lower than those of other widely accepted credit cards . Eventually Discover grew to become one of the largest credit card issuers in the U.S.
= = = Dean Witter Discover ( 1993 @-@ 1997 ) = = =
Sears ' financial services initiative proved highly successful as Discover grew through the late 1980s and early 1990s . Furthermore , the substantial investment in the Discover business also began to pay off , with the business becoming highly profitable . The early 1990s were also a period of rapid growth for Dean Witter Reynolds as its strategy of focusing on the distribution of proprietary mutual funds through its extensive retail brokerage network began to bear fruit .
Dean Witter 's core securities business and its Discover business generated combined revenue of $ 59 billion in 1992 and Sears announced that it would seek to monetize its investment through a public offering . In 1993 , 20 % of the company was spun off from Sears to shareholders , and the company was subsequently renamed Dean Witter , Discover & Co . , with two primary operating subsidiaries : Dean Witter Reynolds and Discover Card . Later that year , the remaining 80 % of shares were distributed to Sears ' shareholders , giving Dean Witter complete independence from Sears .
Dean Witter 's corporate headquarters were located in New York City 's 2 World Trade Center ( i.e. South Tower ) , where the firm had occupied over 864 @,@ 000 square feet ( 80 @,@ 300 m2 ) since 1985 . Dean Witter was one of many tenants whose offices were evacuated as a result of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing , which took place during the firm 's spinoff from Sears . Following , the firm 's merger with Morgan Stanley , the firm 's headquarters would be moved to 1585 Broadway on the edge of New York 's Time Square . Morgan Stanley Dean Witter would still have a large presence at the World Trade Center on September 11 , 2001 .
Dean Witter was the first big brokerage company to get into the online trading business when it bought a small San Francisco @-@ based outfit called Lombard Brokerage in 1996 .
= = = Merger with Morgan Stanley ( 1997 @-@ 2009 ) = = =
In 1997 , Morgan Stanley Group , Inc. and Dean Witter Discover merged to form one of the largest global financial services firms : Morgan Stanley Dean Witter .
Although Morgan Stanley was the more prominent partner , Dean Witter 's focus on retail investors , mutual funds and credit cards which were seen by the stock market as generating more stable cash flows than Morgan Stanley 's investment banking business , had by the time of the merger made it the more valuable partner in terms of market capitalization . Dean Witter 's CEO , Philip Purcell , the main architect of the merger , became chairman and Chief Executive Officer of the merged group . The merger marked the pairing of a storied investment banking firm with a retail brokerage ( that had been owned by a retailer ) that was often termed " white shoes and white socks " . In order to avoid tension during the integration of the two firms , Purcell and Morgan Stanley 's CEO John Mack decided not to choose between the two brand names . Instead , they combined the names of the two firms and put the Morgan Stanley Dean Witter brand on almost all of its operations .
Eventually , to foster brand recognition and marketing , the Dean Witter name was dropped from the retail services division in 2001 , leaving the current name Morgan Stanley . In 2009 , the Dean Witter retail operations were transferred to Morgan Stanley Smith Barney , a joint venture with Citigroup .
= = = Acquisition history = = =
The following is an illustration of the company 's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors :
= = Notable alumni = =
Garo H. Armen
Lauren Bessette , sister @-@ in @-@ law of John F. Kennedy , Jr .
Jean Chatzky , research analyst
George Davidsohn
Chris Gardner , whose autobiography was turned into the 2006 feature film The Pursuit of Happyness , interned at Dean Witter Reynolds
Thomas J. Healey
Catherine Meyer
John Moore , Baron Moore of Lower Marsh , stockbroker
Gretchen Morgenson
Rick Rescorla
Ronald P. Spogli , investment banker
Thomas J. Wilson
= New York State Route 268 ( 1934 – 1974 ) =
New York State Route 268 ( NY 268 ) was a state highway in northeastern Erie County , New York , in the United States . It served as a connector between NY 5 in the town of Clarence and NY 78 at the Clarence – Amherst town line . The route passed through rural areas of the town of Clarence and did not serve any areas of significant development . The northern portion of NY 268 followed the southern bank of Tonawanda Creek .
The route was assigned c . 1934 as a connector between NY 78 and Tonawanda Creek Road , then part of NY 263 . In between the two routes , NY 268 followed Wolcott and Goodrich Roads . NY 268 was moved onto Tonawanda Creek and Salt Roads c . 1938 and remained on those two roads until it was replaced by a reextended NY 263 c . 1974 . NY 263 was truncated back to its current northern terminus within three years time , and ownership and maintenance of all of NY 268 's former routing was transferred to Erie County by April 1980 . Tonawanda Creek Road became County Route 559 ( CR 559 ) while Salt Road was redesignated as County Route 560 .
= = Route description = =
NY 268 began at an intersection with NY 5 in the hamlet of Clarence in the town of the same name . It headed north , following Salt Road out of the hamlet and into a mostly rural area of northeastern Erie County . Here , the route intersected with several east – west highways of local importance and passed by Beeman Creek Park before meeting Tonawanda Creek Road at a junction on the southern bank of Tonawanda Creek . The highway turned west at this junction , following Tonawanda Creek Road along the edge of the creek to the Clarence – Amherst town line , where NY 268 ended at a junction with NY 78 in the hamlet of Millersport .
= = History = =
The origins of NY 268 date as far back as 1926 , by which time the state of New York had assumed maintenance of several highways in the town of Clarence . The farthest north of these was Tonawanda Creek Road , which was state @-@ maintained from Transit Road ( NY 78 ) in Millersport to Salt Road . From here , state maintenance continued south on Salt Road to a junction with Main Street ( what is now NY 5 ) . Also state @-@ maintained by this time was Goodrich Road , a north – south road connecting Tonawanda Creek Road to Main Street ( modern NY 5 ) , and Wolcott Road , an east – west highway linking Goodrich Road to Transit Road ( what is now NY 78 ) .
NY 263 was assigned c . 1931 to an alignment extending from Getzville to Akron via Millersport . Even though Tonawanda Creek Road was state @-@ maintained from NY 78 to Goodrich Road , NY 263 initially followed a more circuitous route via Wolcottsburg on NY 78 , Wolcott Road , and Goodrich Road . East of Goodrich Road , the route proceeded generally southeastward along Tonawanda Creek and Salt Roads to a junction with Hunts Corners – Akron Road 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) north of NY 5 . At this point , NY 263 turned east to follow Hunts Corners – Akron Road toward Akron . The remainder of Salt Road between NY 263 and NY 5 was designated as NY 267 .
NY 263 was gradually realigned to use all of Tonawanda Creek and Salt Roads between NY 5 and NY 78 . The first change came c . 1934 when it was realigned to head due east from Millersport on Tonawanda Creek Road . The former routing of NY 263 on Wolcott and Goodrich Roads by way of Wolcottsburg was redesignated as NY 268 . By the following year , NY 263 was realigned south of Hunts Corners – Akron Road to use Salt Road , supplanting NY 267 . NY 263 was realigned c . 1938 to follow NY 78 north from Middleport instead while NY 268 was shifted onto NY 263 's former routing along Tonawanda Creek and Salt Roads .
The routing of NY 268 remained unchanged until c . 1974 , when NY 268 was supplanted by a reextended NY 263 . The extension was short @-@ lived , however , as NY 263 was pulled back to its junction with NY 78 by 1977 . Ownership and maintenance of NY 268 's former routing north of Greiner Road was transferred from the state of New York to Erie County at some point prior to 1980 . The remainder was given to Erie County on April 1 , 1980 , as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The Tonawanda Creek Road portion of old NY 268 was redesignated as CR 559 while the Salt Road portion was redesignated as CR 560 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Erie County .
= King of the Ring ( 1994 ) =
King of the Ring ( 1994 ) was the second annual King of the Ring professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . It took place on June 19 , 1994 , at the Baltimore Arena , now known as Royal Farms Arena , in Baltimore . " King of the Ring " is also the name of the tournament that was the focus of this pay @-@ per @-@ view event . The tournament to determine which wrestler would be crowned King of the Ring actually began the month before the pay @-@ per @-@ view , as the wrestlers gained entry in the tournament by participating in qualifying matches . These matches were held throughout May 1994 on WWF television programs , although the WWF did not explain how wrestlers were selected to compete in the qualifying matches . The second , third and fourth rounds of the tournament were televised on the pay @-@ per @-@ view broadcast on June 19 .
Owen Hart won the tournament by defeating Tatanka , the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid and Razor Ramon over the course of the evening . He used his coronation ceremony to criticize his brother Bret , with whom he was feuding . The Hart brothers ' feud led to a Steel Cage match for Bret 's WWF World Heavyweight Championship . Although Owen lost the title match , the feud carried on as more family members got involved .
In addition to the tournament , several other matches were held at the event . In a grudge match between two semi @-@ retired wrestlers , " Rowdy " Roddy Piper defeated Jerry Lawler . Bret Hart defended his WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Diesel . Diesel won the match when Hart 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Jim Neidhart interfered . As a result , Hart retained the title . The other match was for the WWF Tag Team Championship , in which The Headshrinkers successfully defended the belts against the team of Yokozuna and Crush .
= = Background = =
Participants in the tournament qualified in matches televised during WWF programs in the weeks prior to the event . The first qualifying match took place on May 7 , 1994 . Irwin R. Schyster ( I.R.S. ) defeated Scott Steiner in a match televised on WWF Superstars . The next qualifying match took place on the May 9 , 1994 episode of Monday Night Raw , when Razor Ramon defeated Kwang with a Razor 's Edge in a qualifying match to enter the tournament . In a match televised on May 14 , 1994 , Mabel ( of Men on a Mission ) defeated Pierre ( of The Quebecers ) to qualify for the tournament . Two days later , the May 16 , 1994 edition of Monday Night RAW , Bam Bam Bigelow qualified for the tournament by defeating Thurman " Sparky " Plugg .
The remaining qualifying matches built up to the tournament and developed storylines that played out on the pay @-@ per @-@ view . Lex Luger faced Jeff Jarrett in a qualifying match on May 21 , 1994 . During the match , Crush came to the ring and fought with Luger . Jarrett won the match by countout and advanced to the tournament . Owen Hart was scheduled to wrestle Earthquake on May 23 , 1994 for a spot in the tournament , but the plan was changed after Earthquake left the WWF . To explain Earthquake 's absence , the WWF showed footage of Yokozuna wrestling Earthquake and claimed that Earthquake had sustained an injury . Doink the Clown took Earthquake 's place , but Owen Hart won the match to qualify for the tournament . Next , on May 28 , 1994 , a qualifying match between the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid and Adam Bomb was televised on WWF Superstars . The Kid won after Kwang attempted to interfere on Bomb 's behalf . Kwang accidentally spat green mist in Bomb 's face , allowing the Kid to get the victory . In the final qualifying match , Jimmy Del Ray was originally scheduled to face Tatanka in a match televised on Monday Night Raw on May 30 , 1994 , but Crush took Del Ray 's place . The kayfabe reason given was that Crush 's manager , Mr. Fuji , made a deal with Jim Cornette , Del Ray 's manager , to allow Crush to compete . The match ended in a double countout , after Fuji and Chief Jay Strongbow , who was seconding Tatanka , got involved . This led to a Lumberjack match on Monday Night Raw the following week . Tatanka won the match and the spot in the tournament , after Lex Luger gained revenge for Crush 's interference in his match by attacking Crush .
The Headshrinkers had recently become faces after signing Captain Lou Albano as their manager . They received an immediate push and won the World Tag Team Championship by defeating The Quebecers on the May 2 , 1994 edition of Monday Night Raw . Meanwhile , Yokozuna was being buried by the WWF after losing the WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania X and being defeated by Earthquake in a Sumo match . He teamed with Crush , who was also managed by Mr. Fuji , to challenge The Headshrinkers for the tag team title at King of the Ring .
After beating Razor Ramon for the WWF Intercontinental Championship in April 1994 , Diesel was in the midst of a major push . He was considered the top contender to Bret Hart 's WWF World Heavyweight Championship , and a match was booked for King of the Ring in which only Hart 's title would be on the line . The feud intensified on the May 30 , 1994 , episode of Monday Night Raw during Jerry Lawler 's interview segment , The King 's Court . During an interview with Hart , Lawler invited Diesel and his friend Shawn Michaels to confront Hart . After a verbal confrontation , Diesel performed his Jacknife Powerbomb on Hart , after which Diesel , Michaels and Lawler attacked Hart . The following week on Monday Night Raw , Bret announced that he would have a family member , whose identity would be a secret until the pay @-@ per @-@ view , in his corner to help prevent Michaels from interfering on Diesel 's behalf .
The buildup to the main event match began at WrestleMania X. " Rowdy " Roddy Piper had served as the guest referee during the main event match between Bret Hart and Yokozuna , and Jerry Lawler was a commentator . Following WrestleMania , Lawler used his interview segment , The King 's Court , to insult Piper . After a match was signed between the two , Lawler insulted Piper further by introducing a scrawny fan dressed as Piper on The King 's Court . He claimed that this impersonator was Piper himself , and he made the fan kiss Lawler 's feet .
= = Event = =
King of the Ring 1994 was held at the Baltimore Arena in Baltimore on June 19 , 1994 . Before the pay @-@ per @-@ view broadcast began , Thurman " Sparky " Plugg beat Kwang in a dark match . As the event began , it was revealed that retired football player Art Donovan would be one of the commentators for the evening . Donovan 's appearance would become infamous among wrestling fans for being seemingly uninformed about the product as well as generally befuddled behavior such as repeatedly asking how much certain wrestlers weighed . He was joined by Gorilla Monsoon on play @-@ by @-@ play , who inadvertently referred to Donovan several times as " Art O 'Donnell " , and Randy Savage . Monsoon , who had not called a pay @-@ per @-@ view since 1993 's Royal Rumble after being phased out in favor of Jim Ross and later Vince McMahon , served as McMahon 's replacement due to McMahon 's preparation for his upcoming trial for steroid distribution . To cover up his absence , it was announced that McMahon could not appear because he was recovering from neck surgery .
In the first match of the tournament , Bam Bam Bigelow got the early advantage by attacking Razor Ramon from behind . Ramon gained momentum after Bigelow missed a diving headbutt , but Bigelow used his strength and got Ramon in a torture rack . As Bigelow climbed the ropes , however , Ramon threw him back into the ring and scored the pinfall .
The following match saw Irwin R. Schyster face Mabel . When Schyster charged at Mabel before the bell , Mabel used his strength to block Schyster and to then powerslam him . Schyster was not able to use much offense due to the size of his opponent . He scored the win , however , when he shook the ropes as Mabel was about to attempt a maneuver from the top rope . Mabel fell to the mat , allowing I.R.S. to pin him .
At the beginning of the next match , Tatanka attacked Owen Hart before the bell . The match soon moved into the ringside area , where Hart gained the advantage . After a sleeper hold by Hart and a DDT by Tatanka , Hart reversed Tatanka 's sunset flip attempt and pinned him to advance to the next round .
Jarrett used his strength against the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid in the following match . The Kid fought back with a spinning heel kick , but Jarrett regained control . Toward the end of the match , The Kid sustained a kayfabe injury to his knee . Jarrett tried to use this to his advantage by using the Figure Four leglock , but The Kid blocked the hold by using a small package to pin Jarrett for the victory . Upset at being eliminated from the tournament , Jarrett responded by performing three piledrivers on The Kid after the match .
The WWF World Heavyweight Championship match between Bret Hart and Diesel came next . Diesel was accompanied by Shawn Michaels , and Hart was joined by brother @-@ in @-@ law and former tag @-@ team partner Jim Neidhart . Diesel used his size against Hart , but Hart managed to perform a Figure Four leglock on Diesel . After this was broken , the wrestlers fought outside the ring . Michaels got involved and attacked Hart . Back inside the ring , the Hart and Diesel fought as Michaels removed the turnbuckle pad . Hart reversed Diesel 's attack , however , and slammed Diesel 's head into the turnbuckle . Hart put Diesel in the Sharpshooter , but Diesel easily reached the ropes to break the hold . Michaels attacked Hart while the referee 's back was turned , which allowed Diesel to perform the Jackknife powerbomb . Before he could pin Hart , however , Neidhart interfered to cause the disqualification and allow Hart to retain his title . After the match , Diesel and Michaels attacked Hart , but Neidhart left the ring .
Following the WWF World Heavyweight Championship match , the second round of the tournament began . Razor Ramon attacked his opponent , I.R.S. , in the aisle before the match . The two brawled outside the ring . Afterwards , while using the ropes for leverage , I.R.S. gained the advantage inside the ring by applying a chinlock . Ramon escaped the hold , kicked Schyster and performed the Razor 's Edge for the win .
In the other semifinal match , Owen Hart attacked the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid before the bell . Hart used his momentum to wear The Kid down with aerial maneuvers . Although The Kid briefly gained the advantage , Hart performed a powerbomb on him and then used the Sharpshooter to make The Kid submit .
The next match was the World Tag Team Championship match . The Headshrinkers gained the early advantage , but Mr. Fuji helped his team by hitting Fatu with the Japanese flag . Yokozuna performed a leg drop on Fatu , but Samu was able to tag in . All four wrestlers fought in the ring before the brawl moved to the arena floor . Crush performed a superplex on Samu , but Lex Luger came to ringside and distracted Crush . This allowed Samu to attempt a roll @-@ up . Crush recovered , but Fatu tagged in and pinned Crush to retain the belts .
Razor Ramon began the final match of the tournament by bodyslamming Owen Hart . Hart used a spinning heel kick and an abdominal stretch to gain the advantage . Ramon performed a back suplex on Hart from the top rope and attempted to use the Razor 's Edge . Hart threw him onto the arena floor , however , where Neidhart attacked Ramon . Hart pinned Ramon and proclaimed himself the " King of Harts " during his coronation ceremony .
Prior to the main event match , Piper revealed that the fan humiliated by Lawler in the King 's Court segment would be in Piper 's corner during the match . Piper started the match by throwing his kilt in Lawler 's face and attacking him . The match consisted mainly of brawling , and Lawler was frequently distracted by the fan who was standing in Piper 's corner . Lawler gained the advantage by performing a sleeper hold and a piledriver on Piper . He attacked Piper with a foreign object , which knocked Piper to the mat . Then , while trying to pin Piper , Jerry Lawler placed his feet on the ropes for leverage . The fan at ringside pushed Lawler 's feet off , however , which allowed Piper to perform a back suplex and get the victory .
= = Aftermath = =
Owen Hart 's victory intensified his feud with his brother Bret . Having defeated him at WrestleMania X and replicated Bret 's victory in the 1993 King of the Ring tournament , Owen set his sights on Bret 's WWF Championship . The two met at SummerSlam 1994 in a Steel Cage match for the title . Jim Neidhart was in the audience to support Owen . Davey Boy Smith , another brother @-@ in @-@ law of the Hart brothers , got involved with the feud by siding with Bret after Neidhart attacked Smith after the cage match .
Because the pay @-@ per @-@ view focused on the tournament , few major feuds were highlighted . Aside from Owen Hart , the tournament did not figure prominently into the future storylines of any of the other participants . The qualifying match between the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid and Adam Bomb did , however , help advance a storyline . Bomb and Kwang , both managed by Harvey Wippleman , began feuding shortly after King of the Ring when Wippleman and Kwang turned on Bomb . Bomb began wrestling as a face as a result . Their feud did not end with a major blow off match , however . Instead , it was quietly resolved in a dark match prior to the SummerSlam 1994 broadcast .
Roddy Piper did not reappear on WWF programming again until 1995 , and Lawler returned to doing commentary as well as feuding with Bret Hart .
Despite failing to capture the WWF Championship at King of the Ring , Diesel continued to enjoy an unprecedented push . In 1994 , he became the first wrestler in WWF history to win the WWF 's Triple Crown in one calendar year . The Headshrinkers dropped the tag team title to Diesel and Michaels one day before SummerSlam 1994 . Diesel followed this up by winning the WWF Championship on November 26 , 1994 .
= = Results = =
= = = Tournament brackets = = =
The tournament took place between April 13 and June 19 , 1994 . The tournament brackets were :
^ In a May 30 , 1994 , King of the Ring Qualifying match , Crush ( replacing the originally announced Jimmy Del Ray ) and Tatanka wrestled to a Double Count @-@ Out on Monday Night Raw . The two wrestled again the next week on Raw in a Lumberjack match for the final slot in the King of the Ring .
= Cyclone Gwenda =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Gwenda was tied for the most intense Australian tropical cyclone on record , with a barometric pressure of 900 hPa ( mbar ) and was the most intense storm worldwide in 1999 . Forming out of a tropical disturbance over the Arafura Sea on 2 April 1999 , the precursor to Gwenda tracked slowly westward and gradually became more organised . On 4 April , the system developed into a Category 1 cyclone and was named Gwenda . It began to undergo explosive intensification the following day , and in a 30 @-@ hour span ending early on 7 April , the storm 's maximum 10 @-@ minute sustained wind speed increased from 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) to 225 km / h ( 140 mph ) and its barometric pressure decreased to 900 hPa ( mbar ) . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center reported that the storm had peaked as a high @-@ end Category 4 equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale .
Increasing wind shear and an acceleration in forward speed caused Gwenda to quickly weaken . Less than 18 hours after peaking , the storm made landfall roughly 45 km ( 28 mi ) east of Port Hedland , Western Australia with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . After moving ashore , Gwenda abruptly stalled before dissipating on 8 April . Although it was once an extremely intense cyclone , the factors that caused its deterioration also prevented significant damage . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 205 mm ( 8 @.@ 1 in ) . Minor structural damage was reported , and only localised flooding was recorded . Following its usage , the name Gwenda was retired at the end of the season .
= = Meteorological history = =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Gwenda originated from a weak tropical disturbance that formed on 1 April over the Arafura Sea . Drifting westward , the system gradually became better organised , and early on 2 April , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology classified it as a tropical low . Over the following two days , the low continued to mature ; on 4 April , the Bureau of Meteorology upgraded it to a Category 1 cyclone and named it Gwenda . Around the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert as deep convection became concentrated around the centre of circulation and the system 's outflow significantly improved . Located within an environment of low to moderate wind shear , the storm was expected to intensify .
By 5 April , the JTWC began issuing advisories on Gwenda , classifying it as a weak tropical storm and designating it as Cyclone 32S . Tracking southwest in response to a subtropical ridge to the south , Gwenda began to rapidly intensify . Its forward motion significantly decreased as it turned due south before curving towards the southeast , and in a 30 @-@ hour span , maximum winds around the centre of the storm increased from 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) to 225 km / h ( 140 mph ) . The barometric pressure decreased by 90 hPa ( mbar ) , making Gwenda one of the fastest intensifying storms on record . At the end of the intensification phase on 7 April , the Bureau of Meteorology classified the storm as a Category 5 cyclone , the third of the season , with a pressure of 900 hPa ( mbar ) . The JTWC also reported a substantial increase in intensity , classifying Gwenda as a high @-@ end Category 4 equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale with 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) .
Upon attaining peak intensity , Gwenda displayed a well @-@ defined 30 km ( 19 mi ) eye surrounded by deep convection . At this time , some monitoring satellites estimated that it had attained winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 5 hurricane . While Gwenda was active , the Bureau of Meteorology stated that its intensity peaked with winds of 215 km / h ( 125 mph ) and a pressure of 915 hPa ( mbar ) . Hours after attaining this intensity , increasing wind shear began to impact the cyclone , causing convection to become elongated and the eye less defined . Rapid weakening commenced as Gwenda turned southeastward towards the Pilbara coastline .
The cyclone continued to deteriorate as it approached Western Australia , with convection displaced ahead of its centre . In addition to the wind shear , Gwenda 's forward speed suddenly increased , leading to further disorganisation . Late on 7 April , the centre of Gwenda made landfall as a Category 2 cyclone roughly 45 km ( 28 mi ) east of Port Hedland with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . The JTWC estimated the storm to have been slightly stronger at landfall , with winds near 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Shortly after moving inland , the JTWC issued their final advisory on the weakening storm . The Bureau of Meteorology continued to monitor Gwenda as it abruptly stalled just onshore . However , convection associated with Gwenda continued to stream southeastward due to high wind shear . The storm 's remnants persisted for several hours before dissipating early on 8 April .
The Australian Bureau of Meteorology uses 10 @-@ minute sustained winds , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses one @-@ minute sustained winds . The Bureau of Meteorology 's peak intensity for Gwenda was 225 km / h ( 140 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained . The JTWC 's peak intensity for Gwenda was 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained , or 220 km / h ( 130 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained .
= = Preparations , impact and records = =
Already suffering from the effects of Cyclone Vance two weeks earlier , which had destroyed or severely damaged 40 % of the homes in Exmouth , residents in Western Australia heeded warnings of the impending cyclone . By 6 April , the Bureau of Meteorology had issued storm warnings for areas between Port Hedland and Exmouth . State Emergency Services throughout the threatened areas were put on high alert . Several offshore oil platforms were shut down and evacuated on 6 April and did not reopen until 15 April . Hours before the storm made landfall , the State Emergency Services stated that " Gwenda potentially had the destructive power of Cyclone Vance " , and urged residents to seek appropriate shelter . Shortly before the storm struck , Len Broadbridge , director of the Western Australia Bureau of Meteorology declared , " Port Hedland is now in grave danger . "
Despite the cyclone 's strength , its effects were relatively minor . Winds up to 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) were recorded in Port Hedland , leading to minor structural damage . The police in Port Hedland reported severe damage to one house , but no deaths or injuries . Emergency crews were sent to the northwest coast of Australia to assist in cleaning up damages , but found no " major incidents " or significant damage as a result of the storm . A group of five people on a camping trip in the Outback were stranded by the storm , when heavy rains swept away their vehicle . The group " would have perished " , but one of its members hiked non @-@ stop for twenty four hours to a manganese mine where he contacted rescuers .
In a 12 @-@ hour span , Port Hedland recorded 86 mm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) of rain , well @-@ above the average April precipitation total of 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) . Towns in the Pilbara region of Australia received heavy rainfall , amounting to 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) in some places . Carlindi picked up the greatest rainfall total of 205 mm ( 8 @.@ 1 in ) . This rain caused localised flooding , especially in Nullagine where the river traversing the town broke its banks . The rainfall contributed to a long @-@ term cooling effect in northern Western Australia , leading to below @-@ average temperatures for much of April .
At its peak Gwenda was the strongest storm on record to form near Australia , surpassing Cyclone Orson in 1989 . Gwenda held this record until 2003 , when its maximum winds were eclipsed by Cyclone Inigo . Despite the minimal damage , the name was retired from the circulating lists of tropical cyclone names for the Australian Region .
= Movin ' Out ( Brian 's Song ) =
" Movin ' Out ( Brian 's Song ) " is the second episode of the sixth season and the 100th overall of the animated series Family Guy . The episode originally aired on Fox in the United States on September 30 , 2007 . It was written by John Viener and directed by Cyndi Tang . In the episode , Peter convinces Brian to move in with his girlfriend Jillian and Stewie tags along to help pay the rent . Meanwhile , Meg and Chris get jobs at the convenience store where Chris befriends the manager , prompting Meg to do all the hard work .
The episode title is a reference to the Billy Joel song " Movin ' Out ( Anthony 's Song ) " and the film Brian 's Song . This episode marks the end of Brian and Jillian 's relationship , which started in season five .
" Movin ' Out ( Brian 's Song ) " was met with generally positive reviews from critics , who praised it for having a continuous storyline . Critics also praised Drew Barrymore 's performance as Jillian and considered it sorrowful that her character was written out of the series . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 95 million viewers in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . " Movin ' Out ( Brian 's Song ) " was released onto DVD along with five other episodes from the season on October 21 , 2008 .
= = Plot = =
Brian turns down a chance to see Disney on Ice with Jillian , so she decides to give his ticket to Peter . After Peter and Jillian spend the entire day together and greatly enjoy each other 's company , Peter convinces Jillian to either force Brian to let her move in with him or leave him . An angry Brian agrees to get an apartment with Jillian . Much to his surprise , Brian has a good time living with Jillian , but he comes to the realization that there is no way he can pay the rent by himself and he decides to allow Stewie to move in with them , who now makes money with his own paper route . When Brian does not tell Jillian that Stewie is helping with the rent , Stewie quickly gets in the way of Brian and Jillian 's happiness living together . After arguing with Brian one night while he is having sex with Jillian , Stewie reveals that he is paying half the rent , prompting Brian to admit he never wanted to move in with Jillian at all . Heartbroken , Jillian leaves Brian , who blames Stewie for ruining the relationship until Stewie tells him it 's himself that ruined the relationship . After many failed attempts to lift a saddened Brian 's spirits , Stewie convinces Brian to try to get Jillian back . Brian goes to her apartment , only to find that she has now moved in with Mayor West . As the two go their separate ways , Brian moves back in with the Griffins , where he manages to move on with his life .
Meanwhile , Meg is given a job at a local convenience store . Meg is extremely happy with her job and she decides to help Chris get a job there , too . Chris immediately becomes friends with the store owner , Carl , and he is given a large promotion which Carl originally promised to Meg . When Meg takes issue with this , she is fired . Lois , to whom Meg has told of her plight , explains the situation to Chris and tells him to stand up for Meg by getting her job back . Chris is able to do this after bribing Carl by withholding his opinions of movies he and Carl normally discuss until Carl re @-@ hires her . Meg , in turn , rejects working at the store again , as she only had Chris get her job back to see if he would stand up for her .
= = Production = =
" Movin ' Out ( Brian 's Song ) " was written by series regular John Viener and directed by series regular Cyndi Tang . Brian 's girlfriend Jillian was introduced in season five and this episode marked the end of what the staff called " the Jillian arc " . Executive producer David A. Goodman praised Drew Barrymore 's voice work as Jillian , saying that " she did such an amazing job with the voice " , and was sorry that this was her final episode . The episode was at the time the only Family Guy episode to list the executive producer credits at the end of the episode , because MacFarlane wanted " to wrap it up in kind of a sad way and do it the old @-@ fashioned way . " In the original draft of the episode , Jillian had moved in with Quagmire at the end . It was later changed to Jesus , and then to Mayor West , which was kept for the episode .
The episode includes a gag in which Quagmire rapes Marge Simpson , and the two later end up in the Simpson family 's house , where Quagmire kills the family by shooting them . The network executives believed the joke was " personal " and told MacFarlane that he could not do a gag with The Simpsons . MacFarlane responded , saying that they had made fun of Family Guy several times , to which the executives replied that they wanted to " end the feud " . MacFarlane , however , claimed that there was no feud and told them : " You are afraid of [ Simpsons executive producer ] James L. Brooks . [ ... ] And that 's why we can 't do it . " Fox eventually cut the gag , which left the episode without a joke at the end of the first act . Brooks and Al Jean were reportedly very upset with the gag , and because of it , Fox told both the Family Guy and The Simpsons staff that they could no longer make fun of one another . However , the gag was included on the DVD set and broadcasts on Adult Swim . It also aired on Global in Canada .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast on September 30 , 2007 , " Movin ' Out ( Brian 's Song ) " was viewed by 7 @.@ 95 million viewers and dropped in 26 % from the season premiere , " Blue Harvest " . The episode acquired a 4 @.@ 2 Nielsen rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . It was the second most watched episode on Fox that night , only behind The Simpsons episode " Homer of Seville " . " Movin ' Out ( Brian 's Song ) " finished fourth in its timeslot in total viewership , behind ABC 's Desperate Housewives , CBS 's Cold Case and NBC 's Sunday Night Football .
In a simultaneous review of the shows in Fox 's Animation Domination block , Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club praised the episode for having " some actual plot and continuity " . She concluded her review , writing : " Jillian has been a pretty good addition to the Family Guy universe , and I think I 'm actually sad to see her and Brian break up . " She graded the episode B + , the second highest grade of the night . Ahsan Haque of IGN wrote that the episode " managed to rise about the generic plotline and deliver a pretty solid half @-@ hour of entertainment that told a cohesive ( and somewhat sad ) main story , with just enough gags to fill in the rest of the time . " Haque graded the episode 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 , and wrote that it was " definitely sad to see the end of the Brian and Jillian relationship , especially considering the great performance put on by Drew Barrymore . " Brad Trechak of TV Squad called it " a fairly pedestrian episode with a few cute gags " .
= = Home release = =
" Movin ' Out ( Brian 's Song ) " , along with the five other episodes from Family Guy 's sixth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on October 21 , 2008 . The set included brief audio commentaries by the staff for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , the 100th episode special and animatics . It also included several featurettes , such as the making of the 100th episode , " I 'm Huge ( and The Babes Go Wild ) " music video and the staff 's favorite scenes .
= Sacrament ( Millennium ) =
" ' Sacrament " is the fifteenth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on February 21 , 1997 . The episode was written by Frank Spotnitz , and directed by Michael W. Watkins . " Sacrament " featured guest appearances by Philip Anglim , Dylan Haggerty and Brian Markinson .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) faces difficulty when his sister @-@ in @-@ law is abducted after her son 's baptism . Meanwhile , Black 's daughter Jordan begins to show signs of experiencing the same seemingly @-@ psychic visions that have plagued him .
Spotnitz 's script for " Sacrament " , which he has called his favourite of those written for Millennium , draws inspiration from real life serial killers John Wayne Gacy and Dennis Nilsen . The episode has received mostly positive reviews from critics , and was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 81 million households during its original broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Millennium Group member Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) joins his brother Tom ( Philip Anglim ) and sister @-@ in @-@ law Helen ( Liz Bryson ) for their newborn son 's christening . After the child is baptized , Black joins his daughter Jordan ( Brittany Tiplady ) , finding her in hysterics . She claims to have seen a man hurting Helen ; when Black and his brother rush outside , they find the baby in the back of Tom 's car , but Helen is gone .
Black 's contact in the Seattle Police Department , Bob Bletcher ( Bill Smitrovich ) , insists that Black should not get involved in the case as he is too close to the victims . However , Black insists he can be of assistance , and reviews security footage of a stranger investigating Tom 's luggage after their flight . Bletcher reports that a stolen car has been found abandoned , with Helen 's blood inside . Fellow Millennium Group member Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) helps Black identify the kidnapper from a set pictures of sex offenders in the Seattle area — Black recognizes Richard Green ( Dylan Haggerty ) as the man from the airport footage .
Tom later searches Black 's office , stealing his gun and finding Green 's name and address . Tom confronts Green at his home , demanding to know where his wife is . The police , who have been watching Green 's house , intervene and take Tom home before anyone is harmed . Black apologizes for keeping information from Tom , but warns him that his outburst is exactly why he did so . Watts has meanwhile tracked forensic evidence from the abandoned car to a cabin in the woods ; blood found there matches both Green and Helen , and a ring is discovered which is identified as Helen 's wedding ring .
Meanwhile , a mysteriously ill Jordan continues to ask about Helen 's whereabouts , and her remarks about Helen 's conditions lead Black to believe she is starting to experience the seemingly @-@ psychic visions he is capable of seeing , which allow him to see the evil people are capable of . Elsewhere , Green is arrested . His property is searched but Helen is nowhere to be found — although another corpse is dug up in the garden , evidently killed nine years before . Black deduces that Green could not have killed Helen at the cabin as his house was already being watched by the police . He sees a set of tools in Green 's home which he realizes were not used for murder or torture , but to immure Helen in the basement . Black and the police dismantle a newly finished plaster wall , finding Helen injured but alive ; it is at this point that Black realizes Green was simply a pawn , used by his father to lure victims to the house .
= = Production = =
" Sacrament " was written by Frank Spotnitz and directed by Michael W. Watkins . Spotnitz had previously written " Weeds " earlier in the first season , as well as penning " TEOTWAWKI " , " Antipas " and " Seven and One " in the series ' third season . Spotnitz was a prolific writer for Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files , receiving his first writing credit for that series for the episode " End Game " . Spotnitz has described " Sacrament " as his favourite script for the series , finding the character of Richard Green to be " creepy " and believing that " the solution to the mystery [ was ] sufficiently unexpected " .
" Sacrament " is the only episode of Millennium to have been directed by Watkins . Watkins ' work on the episode led to him becoming a director and executive producer for The X @-@ Files when that series moved production to Los Angeles . The episode features the last appearance in the series by Brian Markinson as Seattle police officer Teeple ; Markinson had previously portrayed the character in the earlier first season episodes " The Judge " and " Blood Relatives " .
The treatment of the two victims seen in " Sacrament " — the immurement of Helen Black and the burial in the garden of the unidentified second victim — appear to have been based on the methods used by real life serial killers John Wayne Gacy , Dennis Nilsen and Dorothea Puente to dispose of their victims . Both Gacy and Nilsen habitually murdered men they had taken home as lovers , with Gacy storing bodies in the crawl space of his home , and Nilsen keeping corpses in wardrobes and under the floorboards . Puente would kill her tenants for their money and bury their bodies in the gardens of the properties they were renting .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Sacrament " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on February 21 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 4 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 4 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 6 @.@ 81 million households , and left the episode the seventy @-@ seventh most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode an A − , noting that it " subvert [ s ] our expectations " when dealing with the fallibility of a protagonist . Handlen felt that the episode 's plot was somewhat inevitable following the introduction of Black 's family , but that it was handled well ; he also felt positively about the episode 's symbolism of the vulnerability of innocence . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 5 out of 5 , calling it " Millennium at its best " . Gibron felt that " Sacrament " was " a taut , well @-@ executed thriller " whose events " unfold with logic and authenticity " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Sacrament " three stars out of five . Shearman felt that the plot was " a bit humdrum " , finding that some emotional development was simply treated as " padding " ; however , he praised guest star Philip Anglim for his performance .
= 2010 Ford 400 =
The 2010 Ford 400 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock car race that was held on November 21 , 2010 at Homestead Miami Speedway in Homestead , Florida . The 267 lap race was the thirty @-@ sixth in the 2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series , as well as the final race in the ten @-@ race Chase for the Sprint Cup , which ends the season . The race was won by Carl Edwards for the Roush Fenway Racing team . Jimmie Johnson finished second , and Kevin Harvick clinched third .
Pole position driver Kasey Kahne maintained his lead on the first lap of the race . Edwards started in the second position on the grid , and became the leader of the race on the fourth lap . Shortly after a restart on lap 22 , championship leader Denny Hamlin spun sideways , resulting with damage to his splitter . Martin Truex , Jr. took the lead on lap 73 , but after the final pit stops Edwards was first . He maintained the lead to win the race , having led it for 192 laps .
A total of 67 @,@ 000 people attended the race , while 5 @.@ 605 million watched it on television . There were ten cautions in the race , as well as twenty @-@ five lead changes among nine different drivers . Edwards ' victory was his second win in the 2010 season , with the first coming the previous week at the Kobalt Tools 500 . Jimmie Johnson won the Drivers ' Championship , 39 points ahead of Denny Hamlin . Johnson 's team owner Rick Hendrick won the Owners ' Championship . Chevrolet won the Manufacturer Championship with 261 points , 44 points ahead of Toyota .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Homestead Miami Speedway is one of ten intermediate tracks to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Atlanta Motor Speedway , Kansas Speedway , Chicagoland Speedway , Darlington Raceway , Texas Motor Speedway , New Hampshire Motor Speedway , Kentucky Speedway , Las Vegas Motor Speedway , and Charlotte Motor Speedway . The race was held on the standard track at Homestead Miami Speedway ; a four @-@ turn oval track that is 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked from 18 to 20 degrees , while the front stretch , the location of the finish line , is banked at three degrees . The back stretch , opposite of the front , also has a three degree banking . The racetrack has seats for 65 @,@ 000 spectators .
Heading into the final race of the season , Toyota driver Denny Hamlin was leading the Drivers ' Championship with 6 @,@ 462 points ; Chevrolet driver Jimmie Johnson was second with 6 @,@ 447 points , 15 points behind Hamlin . A maximum of 195 points were available for the final race . Behind Hamlin and Johnson in the Drivers ' Championship , Kevin Harvick was third with 6 @,@ 416 points in a Chevrolet , and Carl Edwards was fourth with 6 @,@ 198 points . Chevrolet had already secured the Manufacturer 's Championship , and entered the race on 255 points , 42 points ahead of Toyota on 213 points , with a maximum of nine points available at the Ford 400 . Hamlin was the race 's defending winner , after his victory at the 2009 race .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the race ; the first on Friday , which lasted 90 minutes . The second and third were both on Saturday afternoon . The first Saturday practice lasted 45 minutes , while the second lasted 60 . Edwards was quickest with a time of 30 @.@ 710 seconds in the first session , 0 @.@ 134 seconds faster than Kyle Busch . Johnson was just off Busch 's pace , followed by Matt Kenseth , Jamie McMurray , and Jeff Gordon . Kasey Kahne was seventh , still within a second of Edwards 's time .
Forty @-@ five cars were entered for qualifying , but only forty @-@ three could qualify for the race because of NASCAR 's qualifying procedure . Kahne clinched the 20th pole position of his career , with a time of 30 @.@ 525 seconds . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Edwards . McMurray qualified third , Bill Elliott took fourth , and A. J. Allmendinger started fifth . Johnson , David Reutimann , Mark Martin , David Ragan and Regan Smith rounded out the top ten . Hamlin only managed 37th , having getting close to the wall . The two drivers that failed to qualify for the race were Patrick Carpentier , and Michael McDowell . Once the qualifying session completed , Kahne commented , " That was the best qualifying run by far since I joined Red Bull . I look forward to Sunday ’ s race . It ’ s going to be exciting being up front now , being in the mix with Denny [ Hamlin ] , Kevin [ Harvick ] and Jimmie [ Johnson ] . They ’ re all going to be fast throughout the race . I ’ m just glad we are so far . Hopefully we can stick with it tomorrow , have a good practice and be competitive in the mix on Sunday . "
In the second practice session , Busch was fastest with a time of 31 @.@ 425 seconds , less than five @-@ hundredths of a second quicker than second @-@ placed Jeff Burton . Gordon took third place , ahead of Greg Biffle , Martin and Hamlin . Johnson only managed 11th place .
Harvick was only quick enough for 19th position . In the third and final practice , Burton was quickest with a time of 31 @.@ 850 seconds . Kahne followed in second , ahead of Martin Truex , Jr. and Hamlin . Jamie McMurray was fifth quickest , with a time of 31 @.@ 916 seconds . Edwards , Gordon , Ragan , Biffle , and Aric Almirola rounded out the first ten positions . Johnson , who was eleventh in the second session , could only manage 22nd . Following the third practice session , Harvick stated , " We didn 't put up a fast lap but it never slows down . I 'm really excited . " Afterward , Johnson commented " We struggled a little bit maybe in the first practice . But I found a good direction and started making some good gains there at the end . I feel really good about our car . It 's very comfortable . I can run the top , run the bottom . I think we 're in good shape . " " I think we 've got the balance real close , " Johnson continued . " My motor 's running great . Maybe some overall grip but I think there I 'm one of 43 guys that are saying that . This hot sun out here [ is making ] the track awful slick . "
= = = Race = = =
The race , the last in the season , began at 1 : 00 p.m. EST and was televised live in the United States on ESPN . The conditions on the grid were dry before the race , the air temperature at 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) ; overcast skies were expected . Tim Griffin began pre @-@ race ceremonies , by giving the invocation . Next , Bret Michaels performed the national anthem , and gave the command for drivers to start their engines . During the pace laps , Sam Hornish had to move to the rear of the grid because of changing to his backup car .
Kasey Kahne retained his pole position lead into the first corner , followed by Carl Edwards , who started second . On the following two laps , Jimmie Johnson took over the fourth position . On the fourth lap , Edwards passed Kahne for the first position . After starting from 37th , Denny Hamlin had moved to 27th by lap six . Eleventh @-@ placed qualifier Jeff Gordon joined team @-@ mate Johnson in the top ten four laps later . Johnson passed A. J. Allmendinger on lap 12 to claim the third position , as David Reutimann and Kurt Busch collided into the wall . Five laps later , the first caution was given after Reutimann collided into the wall again . Most of the front runners made pit stops , except for J. J. Yeley , who didn 't pit until the following lap . At the lap 22 restart , Edwards was first , ahead of Kahne , Allmendinger , and Johnson . Hamlin turned sideways and drove through the grass in the infield , prompting the second caution on the following lap . Hamlin only sustained minor damage to his splitter . Edwards remained the leader during the restart , while Allmendinger took over second from Kahne .
After starting 28th , Kevin Harvick had advanced to the tenth position by lap 28 . Two laps later , Greg Biffle said on his team radio that he could smell smoke in his race car , which his team responded that it was probably a tire rubbing against the car . During lap 34 , Martin Truex , Jr. moved to seventh , having started 25th on the grid . Four laps later , Hamlin had moved to the 22nd position after his earlier accident . On the 41st lap , Truex , Jr. moved past Johnson to claim the fourth position , while Hamlin continued to move toward the front runners . Edwards had over a one @-@ second lead over the second position by lap 46 . On the following lap , Hamlin took over the 18th position . After 50 laps , only 38 cars remained on the same lap as the leader . Edwards continued to expand his lead from 1 @.@ 33 to 1 @.@ 6 seconds in only five laps . On lap 54 , Edwards was the leader , ahead of Allmendinger , Kahne , Truex , and Johnson .
Matt Kenseth took over the tenth position on lap 58 . On lap 66 , Hamlin made a pit stop , and Allmendinger did likewise two laps later . Juan Pablo Montoya and Kahne made their pit stops during the 69th lap . Edwards made a pit stop the following lap , giving the first position to Johnson . In turn , he made a pit stop on lap 71 , handing the lead to Truex , Jr . On the following lap , Harvick moved to ninth , as Hamlin took over 16th . By lap 77 , Truex , Jr. had a 1 @.@ 2 second lead over Kahne . Seven laps later , Aric Almirola moved into the fifth position , Harvick was moving toward Johnson in seventh . By the 93rd lap , Truex , Jr. increased his lead to 1 @.@ 5 seconds . Five laps later , the third caution was given because of debris . Most of the front runners made pit stops during the caution , as Hamlin 's team worked to repair his splitter . At the lap 102 restart , Truex , Jr. was first , ahead of Edwards and Kahne in second and third . During the pit stops Johnson fell to 10th .
With assistance from Kyle Busch , Harvick took over fifth place on the following lap . Afterward , Edwards became the leader , after passing Truex , Jr . On lap 105 , Jamie McMurray passed Truex , Jr. to move into second . David Ragan passed Kahne for the tenth position eleven laps later . Having led 86 of the first 124 laps , Edwards was finally passed on lap 125 . Truex , Jr. moved into first position , and by the same lap Almirola had slipped to tenth . Marcos Ambrose spun sideways on lap 135 , causing the fourth caution of the race . The front runners subsequently made pit stops . At the lap 139 restart , Truex , Jr. was the leader , ahead of Edwards , Harvick , and Johnson . One lap later , Montoya and Joey Logano collided , which resulted in Logano spinning sideways and sustaining major damage . At the lap 143 restart , Edwards was leader , after passing Truex , Jr. before the previous caution . On the following lap , Johnson fell to fifth , as Harvick moved to third . During lap 145 , Kyle Busch took third away from Harvick . Two laps later , Truex , Jr. reclaimed the lead from Edwards .
On lap 152 , Johnson fell to seventh , after McMurray passed him . On the following lap , Ryan Newman moved to the sixth position , as McMurray moved to fifth . By the 158th lap , Truex , Jr. had a 1 @.@ 2 second lead over Edwards . Six laps later , Kevin Conway spun sideways , prompting the sixth caution to be given . Most of the front runners made pit stop during the caution . At the lap 168 restart , Edwards was first , ahead of Kyle Busch , Harvick , and Truex , Jr . Two laps later , Hamlin moved to ninth , after passing Almirola . On lap 175 , Tony Stewart moved to sixth , after starting the race in 31st . Five laps later , Harvick moved into the third position , as Truex , Jr. was moving toward Edwards . During the 183rd lap , Jeff Burton collided into the wall . On the following lap , Hamlin moved into sixth . On lap 186 , the seventh caution was given because of debris . Most of the front runners made pit stops during the caution . Harvick became the leader under the caution , but was given a pit road speeding penalty , resulting in him starting in the rear of the grid . Truex , Jr. led to the restart , as Edwards was second . The eighth caution was given two laps later because Dave Blaney collided into the wall . Harvick made pit stops during the caution , while the front runners stayed on the track . On lap 198 , Edwards was first , ahead of Kenseth , Truex , Jr. and Stewart .
Gordon 's engine blew up on the 200th lap , prompting the ninth caution of the race . Edwards remained the leader on the restart , ahead of Kenseth , Kyle Busch , and Stewart . Harvick passed Hamlin for ninth place on lap 207 , as Johnson and Kyle Busch were competing for the third position . Five laps later , Kyle Busch claimed third , as Johnson remained behind him . Johnson re @-@ took the position on lap 213 , after getting assistance from Stewart . Ten laps after the restart , Edwards had increased his lead to 1 @.@ 29 seconds over second , as Brad Keselowski took the eighth position from Hamlin . During the 219th lap , Johnson moved into second , 2 @.@ 58 seconds behind Edwards . Two laps later , Almirola and Biffle passed Hamlin , as Harvick moved to sixth . By the 230th lap , Edwards had over a two @-@ second lead over Johnson . Nine laps later , Hamlin , Harvick , and Johnson made pit stops . During lap 240 , Martin became the leader . On the following lap , Martin made a pit stop , giving the lead to Kahne .
The tenth caution was given on lap 243 when Harvick and Kyle Busch collided , resulting in Busch spinning sideways and colliding into the wall . His car was engulfed in flames
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, reorientating to the south or southeast once in Africa , although Scandinavian migrants may head south through the Alps and across the Mediterranean Sea . S. b. woodwardi reaches Africa by a more easterly route , many birds passing through the Arabian Peninsula . When garden warblers cross the Sahara , they fly at night , resting motionless and without feeding in suitable shade during the day . During their journey , they can metabolise not only body fat but also up to 19 % of their breast and leg muscles and 39 % of their digestive tract . Many birds pause for a few days to feed after the desert crossing before continuing further south .
The nominate subspecies occurs in the western and central parts of the winter range , although some birds occur as far east as Kenya . S. b. woodwardi winters in eastern and southern Africa . Movements in Africa are poorly known , although at least some birds return to the same location in subsequent years . There are only a handful of records of birds recorded in Europe in winter , from Corsica , the UK and Ireland . Spring migration routes are poorly known , but appear to lie more directly across the Mediterranean . This warbler has occurred as a vagrant in Afghanistan , Djibouti , Iceland , São Tomé and Príncipe , Somalia , Yemen , Svalbard , Jan Mayen and Madeira .
The breeding habitat of the garden warbler is open areas with dense bushes , including thickets and woodland edges . Shady areas and a bushy or herbaceous undergrowth are preferred , as are woods adjacent to rivers or reed beds . A tolerance of willow , alder and birch allows it to breed farther north and at higher altitudes than any other European Sylvia warbler . Mature conifers and dense plantations are avoided , although young conifer plantations with thick undergrowth are suitable for nesting . Despite its name , it is not a bird of gardens . In Africa , a wide range of habitats with trees are used , although closed forests and arid areas are again avoided . This warbler occurs at altitudes of up to 2 @,@ 600 m ( 8 @,@ 500 ft ) in suitable mountain woodland , although in East Africa it is usually found at a lower altitude than the blackcap , and in moister areas than the common whitethroat .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Garden warblers first breed when they are one year old , and are mainly monogamous , although the male at least may sometimes deviate from this . When males return to their breeding areas , they establish a territory . Sylvia warblers are unusual in that they vigorously defend their territories against other species in their genus as well as conspecifics . Blackcaps and garden warblers use identical habits in the same woods , yet aggressive interactions mean that their territories never overlap . Similar songs are a feature of the Sylvia warblers as a group , and it has been suggested that this promotes interspecific competition and helps to segregate territories between related species . However , it appears more likely from later studies that segregation of sympatric species , other than the blackcap and garden warbler , is due to subtle differences in habitat preferences rather than interspecies aggression . There are typically 3 – 9 territories per hectare ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 6 per acre ) , but in prime habitat , such as moist willow or birch woodland or young deciduous regrowth , there may be more than 10 pairs per hectare ( 4 per acre ) . Individual territories are similar in size to those of blackcaps at 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 76 ha ( 0 @.@ 49 – 1 @.@ 88 acres ) .
A male attracts a female to his territory through song and a display which involves rapid wing beating while perched . He will also build a number of simple nests ( cock 's nests ) to show to his mate , although only rarely will she complete the structure , usually starting afresh . The nest is concealed in vegetation , the nature of which depends on local availability . Rubus species are commonly used in temperate regions , with willow predominating in alpine valleys . Sometimes , particularly in stinging nettles , the nest may be built around a number of vertical stems , in the manner of a reed warbler . The nest is normally between 0 @.@ 3 and 1 @.@ 2 m ( 0 @.@ 98 and 3 @.@ 94 ft ) above the ground , and very rarely higher than 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . The nest is a cup of dry grass , moss and twigs , with a soft lining of finer plant material or hair . It is larger and heavier than a blackcap 's nest , averaging 8 @.@ 3 cm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) high and 11 @.@ 2 cm ( 4 @.@ 4 in ) wide with a cup 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) deep and 6 @.@ 3 cm ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) wide .
The first eggs are laid in late April in southern Germany , early May in northwest Europe , and late May in Finland . The season is prolonged with some birds nesting as late as July . The clutch is typically four or five eggs ( range two to six ) , which are usually whitish or buff with grey , purple and brown blotches . The average size of the egg is 20 mm × 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in × 0 @.@ 59 in ) , and it weighs 2 @.@ 2 g ( 0 @.@ 078 oz ) , of which 6 % is shell . The eggs are incubated for 11 – 12 days by both adults , although only the female stays on the nest at night . The chicks are altricial , hatching naked and with closed eyes , and are fed by both parents . They fledge about 10 days after hatching ( range 9 – 12 ) , leaving the nest shortly before they are able to fly . They are assisted with feeding for a further two weeks , and the family may stay together for a few days after that . The short incubation and fledging times may be a result of predation pressure , the rapid development of the chicks enabling them to leave the vulnerable nest as early as possible , even while still flightless . This avoids the possible loss of an entire brood , but means that the adults must provide food to the young for a significant period until they can fend for themselves . One brood per year is normal , although a few second broods are known .
The southward migration starts in mid @-@ July , with larger numbers departing in August and peaking in early September . Most adults have gone by mid @-@ September , although juveniles may linger for another month .
On average , just over 50 % of breeding pairs are successful in producing at least one fledged young from a nest , with early breeding and low population density being factors increasing success . In the UK , more than 50 % of the failures are due to predation and about 30 % result from food shortages in bad weather . The annual survival rate is about 50 % for adults and 26 % for juveniles in their first year . The typical lifespan is two years , but a bird in Sweden lived to ten years and two months Much greater ages , up to 24 years , have been recorded in captive garden warblers .
= = = Feeding = = =
The garden warbler feeds mainly on insects in the breeding season , although other small invertebrates such as spiders are also eaten . It picks its prey off leaves and twigs , sometimes hovering to do so . It normally forages at less than 6 m ( 20 ft ) above the ground . After nesting , there is a genetically controlled switch to a fruit diet , although insects are still consumed while the birds fatten prior to migration ; birds gain weight more rapidly from a diet containing both fruit and insects than either alone . Berries and other soft fruit are preferred , and figs are particularly important for birds preparing to migrate . This predilection gives rise to the Italian beccafico ( fig pecker ) and Portuguese felosa @-@ das @-@ figueiras ( fig @-@ tree warbler ) as names for this species . On this diet a bird can gain weight quickly and the liver increases the rate at which it produces fatty acids for storage in adipose tissue .
In Africa , the warbler eats insects as well as berries , and the fruits of the introduced Spanish flag is a favourite where present . An increase in body mass occurs again before the northward migration , birds fattening even more rapidly than prior to their southward journey . Most internal organs ( including the liver , spleen , intestines , kidneys and heart ) and the flight muscles lose weight during the journey over the Sahara , although the testes quadruple in mass in preparation for the breeding season . Unlike drier @-@ habitat species like the common whitethroat , they leave from savanna rather than the treeless Sahel further north .
Fruit is normally picked by a perched bird , although there is a record of a mulberry fruit being taken in flight . Garden warblers often feed with conspecifics and other fruit @-@ eating passerines . Over 35 plant species have been recorded as food for this warbler just in central Europe , with many additional species being consumed in the Mediterranean region and on the African wintering grounds .
= = Predators and parasites = =
The main predators of the garden warbler are Eurasian sparrowhawks and domestic cats . Some falcons will also take adults , and the Eleonora 's falcon hunts the garden warbler and many other small passerines as they migrate across the Mediterranean . Eurasian jays and Eurasian magpies take the eggs and young of warblers , as do mammals such as stoats , weasels and squirrels . The garden warbler is a host of the common cuckoo , a brood parasite . The blackcap has a much lower level of parasitism than its relative because the cuckoo 's eggs are often rejected .
External parasites of the garden warbler include the fleas Ceratophyllus gallinae and Dasypsyllus gallinulae and the mite Syringophilosis borini , named after its host . Two species of protozoan parasites in the genus Isospora occur in garden warblers , I. sylvianthina and I. sylviae . Samples from two sites showed infection levels above 74 % and 28 % respectively for the two species . The extent of infection does not impact on the bird 's body mass or the amount of body fat . Three strains of another protozoan , Haemoproteus parabelopolskyi are found only in the garden warbler , and form a monophyletic group . Seventeen further members of that group are found only in the blackcap , and another three occur in the African hill babbler , supporting the shared ancestry of the three bird species .
= = Status = =
The garden warbler has a very large range of 9 @,@ 650 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 mi2 ) , and its population in Europe is estimated at 17 – 31 million breeding pairs . Allowing for birds breeding in Asia , the total population is between 54 – 124 million individuals . There is no evidence of any serious decline in numbers , so it is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern .
There has been a slight decline in numbers in Europe since 1980 , although the Scandinavian population is growing . Climate change appears to be affecting the migration pattern of the garden warbler and blackcap . Both are arriving in Europe earlier than previously , and blackcaps and juvenile ( but not adult ) garden warblers are departing nearly two weeks later than in the 1980s . Birds of both species are longer @-@ winged and lighter than in the past , suggesting a longer migration as the breeding range expands northwards .
= = In culture = =
In his History of Animals , Aristotle considered that the garden warbler eventually metamorphosed into a blackcap . The composer Olivier Messiaen used the song of the garden warbler as the basis for his 1971 solo piano piece La fauvette des jardins , the title being the French name of the species . His Turangalîla @-@ Symphonie , a major work inspired by the legend of Tristan and Iseult , has a summer garden scene as its sixth movement . This features the song of the warbler , along with the those of the nightingale and blackbird .
The garden warbler is prized as a gastronomic delicacy in Mediterranean countries . French epicure Jean Anthelme Brillat @-@ Savarin said of the warbler when cooked like ortolan bunting " if it were the size of a pheasant , it would be worth an acre of land " . An Italian stuffed sardine dish sarde a beccafico derives its name from its supposed resemblance to the cooked birds , known in that country as beccafico , fig @-@ pecker .
Old names for the garden warbler , such as strawsmear , small straw and haychat , are often derived from its choice of nesting material , although the commonest of the English folk names was " pettychaps " . These names were often shared with other warblers including the blackcap , common whitethroat and common chiffchaff .
= Whopper =
The Whopper is the signature hamburger product sold by the international fast @-@ food restaurant chain Burger King and its Australian franchise Hungry Jack 's . Introduced in 1957 , it has undergone several reformulations including resizing and bread changes . The burger is one of the best known products in the fast food industry ; it is so well known that Burger King bills itself as the Home of the Whopper in its advertising and signage . Additionally , the company uses the name in its high @-@ end concept , the BK Whopper Bar . Due to its place in the marketplace , the Whopper has prompted Burger King 's competitors , mainly McDonald 's and Wendy 's , to try to develop similar products designed to compete with it .
The company markets several variants of the burger as well as other variants that are specifically tailored to meet local taste preferences or customs of the various regions and countries in which it does business . To promote continuing interest in the product , Burger King occasionally releases limited @-@ time variants on the Whopper . As the signature product of the company , it is often at the center of advertising promotions , product tie @-@ ins , and even corporate practical jokes and hoaxes . Some of the early twenty @-@ first century advertising programs , particularly in Europe , have drawn criticism for cultural insensitivity or misogyny . Additionally , as the signature product in the company 's portfolio , Burger King has registered many global trademarks to protect its investment in the product .
= = History = =
The Whopper was created in 1957 by Burger King co @-@ founder James McLamore and originally sold for 37 ¢ ( US $ 3 @.@ 27 in 2014 ) . McLamore created the burger after he noticed that a rival restaurant was having success selling a larger burger . Believing that the success of the rival product was its size , he devised the Whopper . The name was chosen because he felt that it conveyed " imagery of something big " . Major fast food chains did not release a similar product until the McDonald 's Big Mac was introduced in 1967 , followed by the Burger Chef Big Shef in the early 1970s .
Initially the sandwich was made with a plain bun , however , that changed when the company switched to a sesame @-@ seeded bun around 1970 . In 1985 , the weight of the Whopper was increased to 4 @.@ 2 oz ( 120 g ) , while the bun was replaced by a Kaiser roll . This was part of a program to improve the product and featured a US $ 30 million ( approx US $ 66 million in 2014 ) advertising campaign featuring various celebrities such as Mr. T and Loretta Swit . The goal of the program was to help differentiate the company and its products from those of its competitors . The Whopper reverted to its previous size in 1987 when a new management team took over the company and reverted many of the changes initiated prior to 1985 . The Whopper sandwich 's Kaiser roll was changed back into a sesame seed bun in 1994 , eliminating the last trace of the sandwich 's 1985 reconfiguration .
The packaging has undergone many changes since its inception . Unlike McDonald 's , the company never used the clamshell style box made of Styrofoam , so when the environmental concerns over Styrofoam came to a head in the late 1980s , the company was able to tout its use of paperboard boxes for its sandwiches . To cut back on the amount of paper that the company used , the paperboard box was fully eliminated in 1991 and was replaced with waxed paper . For a short time in 2002 , the company used a gold @-@ toned , aluminum foil wrapping for the sandwich as part of the 45th anniversary of the sandwich . The packaging was changed again in 2012 when the company moved to half wrapped sandwich packaged in a paper board box .
The Whopper Jr was created , by accident , in 1963 by Luis Arenas @-@ Pérez ( aka Luis Arenas ) , the only Latino in the Burger King Hall of Fame and president and CEO of Burger King in Puerto Rico . Upon the opening of the first Burger King restaurant in Carolina , Puerto Rico , the molds for the ( standard ) Whopper buns had not yet arrived to Puerto Rico from the United States mainland and thus there were no buns to make and sell the company 's flagship Whopper offering . Arenas opted for honoring the advertised opening date but using the much smaller regular hamburger buns locally available . The result was such a success that Burger King adopted it worldwide and called it the Whopper Jr .
= = = Competitive products = = =
Because of the wide popularity of the Whopper in the public marketplace , competitors such as McDonald 's and Wendy 's have attempted to create a corresponding Whopper @-@ style burger , often nicknamed a Whopper Stopper during the development phase . Wendy 's created the Big Classic with similar toppings but served on a bulkie roll , while McDonald 's has created at least six different versions , including the McDLT , the Arch Deluxe , and the Big N ' Tasty .
= = Product description = =
The Whopper is a hamburger , consisting of a flame grilled quarter @-@ pound ( 113 @.@ 4 g ) beef patty , sesame seed bun , mayonnaise , lettuce , tomato , pickles , ketchup , and sliced onion . Optional ingredients such as American cheese , bacon , mustard , guacamole or jalapeño peppers may be added upon request . Regional and international condiments include BBQ sauce and salsa . Burger King will also add any condiment it sells upon request based on its long standing slogan " Have It Your Way " . It is available with one , two or three beef patties and in a smaller version called the Whopper Jr , or without meat in a version called the Veggie Whopper . The Australian franchise of Burger King , Hungry Jack 's , sells its veggie burger sandwich as the Veggie Whopper . Additionally , Burger King has sold several different promotional varieties throughout the years as limited time offerings ( LTO ) . With the addition of hot dogs to the company 's menu in February 2016 , Burger King began testing its first major variant called the Whopper Dog in May of the same year across various regions within the United States . The new dog featured a grilled Oscar Mayer hot dog with all of the ingredients featured on the Whopper sandwich .
There are localized versions of the Whopper in several of its international operations , such as the teriyaki Whopper in Japan or the LTO Canadian Whopper . With the company 's expansion into India , the chain introduced two new variants on the Whopper while reintroducing the chicken version of the sandwich . To accommodate practitioners of Islam and Hinduism , who make up the majority of the Indian population , the chain has eliminated beef and pork from its menu . In their place , the chain is using a combination of chicken , vegetarian patties and mutton in place of beef . While the new Mutton , Chicken , and Vegetarian Whopper sandwiches are designed to appeal to that market , there is a segment of younger consumers that were disappointed that there will be no beef @-@ based products on the menu .
= = = Notable variants = = =
The Windows 7 Whopper was sold in Japan for the promotion of Microsoft 's Windows 7 operating system . The hamburger contained seven stacked beef patties and measured 5 in ( 13 cm ) high , weighed almost 2 @.@ 2 lb ( 1 @.@ 00 kg ) , and had more than 1 @,@ 000 kcal ( 4 @,@ 200 kJ ) . It was originally planned to be available for only seven days starting on 22 October 2009 . Due to its success in selling 6 @,@ 000 sandwiches within the first four days , Burger King decided to extend the promotion period an extra nine days , ending on 6 November .
The campaign was met with unexpected popularity in Japan , sparking multiple YouTube videos and blog posts about the burger . However , the promotional effort received strong criticism from business and tech journalists . Computerworld blogger Preston Gralla claimed that it " could be one of Microsoft 's worst promotional ideas ever . "
The Pizza Burger is a burger sold exclusively at the BK Whopper Bar location in Times Square , New York City that was introduced in September 2010 . It consists of four Whopper patties on a 9 @.@ 5 inch sesame bun , sliced into six pieces and topped with pepperoni , mozzarella , Tuscan pesto and marinara sauce . The whole burger contains more than the recommended daily allowance of calories for men at 2 @,@ 520 calories , with 144 grams of fat , 59g of which is saturated , and 3 @,@ 780 mg of sodium , more than double the recommended daily allowance for adults . However , according to Burger King 's Vice President of global marketing , John Schaufelberger , the burger is not intended to feed just one person . Each slice has 420 calories , 24 g fat ( 10 g saturated ) , and 630 mg sodium .
The Angry Whopper has jalapeños , " Angry Sauce " and " Angry Onions " , pepper jack cheese and bacon . The sandwich , originally released in Europe , made its way to the United States in 2008 . A variation called the Angriest Whopper debuted in 2016 . The new variant added a red bun with hot pepper sauce baked into the roll . The Angriest Whopper followed a similar sandwich , the A1 Halloween Whopper released for Halloween 2015 , which was prepared with black @-@ colored , smoke @-@ flavored buns . The Angry Whopper was released with a viral marketing push created by Burger King 's advertising agency at the time , Crispin Porter + Bogusky . The two tiered program , designed to create a word @-@ of @-@ mouth marketing push , featured a webpage that allowed consumers to create an " Angry @-@ gram " that could be emailed to other individuals . The form letter format page would send an insulting email to a recipient of choice from the sender . The second part consisted of a Facebook @-@ oriented program where the company would issue a coupon for a free sandwich if the consumer would de @-@ friend 10 people on their Facebook page . The Angriest Whopper was pitched using advertising similar to trailers for movie sequels , with a movie trailer @-@ style opening screen , shots of lava , a helicopter and flames . The tag line for the ad was " The only way to handle the heat is to embrace it . "
The BK 1 / 4 lb Burger was a direct competitor to the Quarter Pounder sandwich from McDonald 's . It consisted of a Whopper with only ketchup , mustard , pickle and onions .
= = = Discontinued variants = = =
As part of the 45th anniversary of the Whopper sandwich in 2002 , Burger King introduced a grilled chicken version of the sandwich called the Chicken Whopper and added a smaller Chicken Whopper Jr. sandwich along with a new Caesar salad sandwich topped with a Chicken Whopper patty . The introduction of the Chicken Whopper represented the company 's first move to extend the Whopper brand name beyond beef based sandwiches since the original Whopper 's introduction in the 1950s . The sandwiches featured a whole chicken breast filet , weighing either 4 @.@ 7 oz ( 130 g ) for the larger sandwich or a 3 @.@ 1 oz ( 88 g ) for the Jr . , mayonnaise , lettuce , and tomato on a sesame seed roll . A newly reformulated low fat mayonnaise was introduced in conjunction with the new sandwiches . Along with the company 's new BK Veggie sandwich , The Chicken Whopper Jr. version of the sandwich was lauded by the Center for Science in the Public Interest ( CSPI ) as being one of the best nutritionally sound products sold by a fast food chain . Conversely , the CSPI decried the rest of the Burger King menu as being vastly unhealthy .
Development of the sandwich began in 2001 in response to several major factors . After an overall sales decline of 17 % coupled with a profit decline of 29 % , Burger King held a series of consumer tests that showed the company 's customer base was looking for a wider variety of options when making purchases . Additional survey results revealed that a lack of newer products was discouraging consumers from visiting the chain . Furthermore , the company was seeking to counter the threat to its sales by newer fast casual restaurants that had begun to bite into sales . By July 2002 , the chain had sold nearly fifty million of the sandwiches , eventually displacing the BK Broiler 's initial launch figures as the company 's best selling product introduction . The successful introduction of the Chicken Whopper was one of the few noted positive highlights of the company during negotiations for the sale of Burger King by its then owner Diageo to a group of investors led by the TPG Capital ; Chicago @-@ based consulting firm Technomic Inc . President Ron Paul was quoted that he was encouraged by recent product changes at Burger King such as the new Chicken Whopper , but he said it was too early to tell whether the changes have been successful . Despite the Chicken Whopper 's initial success , just over a year after the its introduction , enthusiasm for the product was waning ; Burger King 's largest franchisee , Carrols Corporation , was complaining that the product line was a failure , describing the sandwich as a pedestrian product with a great name .
= = Advertising = =
One of the original slogans of the Whopper advertised by Burger King was There are 1024 ways to have a Whopper ; the claim is based on an exponential function of whether the sandwich has the ingredient or not , represented by a binary number of 0 or 1 , raised to the power of number of possible ingredients at the time , ten , thus 210 = 1 @,@ 024 . This claim was later expanded to There are 221 @,@ 184 possible ways for a customer to order a Whopper sandwich . Other slogans include It takes two hands to handle the Whopper and Burger King : Home of the Whopper . [ Notes 3 ]
Where 's Herb ? was an advertising campaign for the sandwich from 1985 – 1986 designed by J. Walter Thompson . The television commercials featured a fictional character named Herb , who was described as a nerd who had never eaten a Burger King burger in his life . They called on fans to visit their local Burger King in the hope of finding Herb and winning a prize . The campaign also included an " I 'm not Herb " promotion , in which customers could get a discounted Whopper by including the phrase in their order . At first , people were confused because they did not know what Herb looked like . The promotion was poorly received by both franchises and the public , and its failure prompted Burger King to drop JWT in 1987 .
The Whopper has been at the center of several hoaxes and pranks from the company . In a 1998 April Fool 's Day prank , Burger King took out a full page advertisement in several national publications such as USA Today advertising a new version of the sandwich called the " Left @-@ Handed Whopper " . The advertisement claimed that the condiments were all rotated 180 ° to accommodate southpaws . Another prank from 2013 claimed that the company was introducing a " hands @-@ free Whopper holder " to allow people to eat the sandwich while doing other activities . The unit , similar to a harmonica holder , was supposed to be introduced in Puerto Rico to celebrate the company 's 50th anniversary . It was later revealed to be a joke . A 2007 advertising campaign celebrating the golden anniversary of the Whopper showed real customers in Las Vegas reacting to the false news the Whopper has been discontinued . While it was not permanently discontinued , the ad claims it was discontinued for one day . Later versions of the ads had customers receiving a Big Mac or Wendy 's Single and their reactions to the sandwich . In @-@ store ads , such as posters and tray @-@ liners , attack the size and quality of the Big Mac . The campaign won the 2009 Effie Award as one of the best restaurant advertising promotions for 2007 – 2008 .
Crispin , Porter + Bogusky , Burger King 's advertising company of record from 2003 @-@ 2011 , produced several notable ads for the Whopper . In December 2008 , Burger King purchased the rights to an advertising campaign that centered on a taste @-@ test marketing campaign , dubbed " Whopper Virgins " . The test claimed to target participants who were unaware of the existence of Burger King or McDonald 's , and had never eaten a hamburger . Three remote areas of the world — Baan Khun Chang Kiean , Thailand ; Kulusuk , Greenland ; and Budeşti , Romania — were targeted . In the test , the " virgins " were asked to try both the McDonald 's Big Mac and the Burger King Whopper , and give their preference , if any . According to the advertisements and accompanying mini @-@ documentary , the Whopper was the most popular sandwich among the test subjects . A social media based promotion from Crispin Porter + Bogusky in 2009 gave a free Whopper coupon for every 10 friends on Facebook a user would drop . The advertising program dubbed " Whopper Sacrifice " , was stopped after a week when Facebook canceled the Whopper Sacrifice account as a violation of its user privacy policy . This was despite the fact that the Burger King application was downloaded 60 @,@ 000 times and 200 @,@ 000 people were defriended . The company 's final advertising campaign for the company was its " Whopper Lust " commercial which was a cross promotion with DirectTV . The promotion had an image of a Whopper on channel 111 , and for every 5 minutes the image remained on the TV a free Whopper coupon would be sent to the subscriber . By the end of the promotion , over 50 @,@ 000 coupons were distributed .
After parting ways with Crispin Porter + Bogusky in 2011 , the company hired the firm of McGarryBowen to handle its advertising . McGarry Bowen changed the direction of the advertisements so that they centered on the ingredients of the products instead of humor . One of the new advertisements produced by them featured the new California Whopper , made with guacamole , Swiss cheese and bacon . The new television spot had no words , only images of the ingredients for the sandwich being prepared and used to assemble the new sandwich accompanied by a pulsating soundtrack .
= = = Controversies = = =
Several of CP + B 's advertising programs for Burger King , including ones for the Whopper , drew criticism from groups for perceived cultural insensitivity or misogynistic themes within them . In May 2006 , in an American promotion of the Texas Double Whopper , Burger King released a campaign called the " Manthem " which parodies Helen Reddy 's " I Am Woman " . It depicts a man and his girlfriend at a fancy restaurant . Disappointed by the meager portions he is served , the man bursts into song , expressing his desire for a Texas Double Whopper , in place of what he deems " chick food . " As he walks out of the restaurant , he is joined by a chorus of men who rebel by not only eating Texas Double Whoppers , but also go commando , lift a minivan over the side of an overpass , and unfurl a banner which says " Eat This Meat . " This has been the source of some controversy , as the commercial has been described as demeaning to male vegetarians / vegans , as well as misogynistic .
Another problematic CP + B advertising program was for the 2009 Texican Whopper that featured commercial known as " The Little Mexican " . The Texican Whopper was an LTO version of the Whopper sold in Europe and was advertised with an ad that featured a pair of actors dressed as a cowboy and a lucha libre wrestler . The problem arose when the Mexican Ambassador to Spain complained that the commercial featured demeaning stereotypes of Mexicans . Additionally , the print version of the advertisement featured the wrestler wearing a cape that appeared to be a Mexican flag , a violation of Mexican laws governing the usage of its national banner . Burger King eventually pulled the ad and issued an apology to the Mexican government . Conversely , the Mexican newspaper Excelsior issued a parody of the ad featuring American president Barack Obama as the cowboy and Mexican President Felipe Calderon as the wrestler as a commentary on the relationship between the two countries .
A 2013 Russian advertising campaign that possibly insinuated that the Whopper was better than heroin was pulled after the Russian television networks TNT , CTC , Rossia 2 and NTV objected to its content . The ad stated " This is a poppy . It was popular once , but now its time has passed " and featured a field of red poppies , the source of heroin . The Russian word for poppy is " mak " ( мак ) , a homophone for Mac — a major nickname for McDonald 's in Russia . The company refused to comment of the veracity of the networks ' claims , and instead posted the advertisement on its YouTube channel , eventually pulling it from that service as well .
= = = Tie @-@ ins = = =
The 2008 movie releases of Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull saw a promotional tie @-@ in with the new Indy Whopper featuring bacon , spicy mayo , and pepper jack cheese and the The Incredible Hulk with the Angry Whopper . A pair of European advertisements for the Dark Whopper , made with pepper @-@ jack cheese , black @-@ pepper ketchup , and " a darkly delicious sauce " , featured two product tie @-@ ins with both the 2007 Spider @-@ Man sequel Spider @-@ Man 3 and the 2008 Batman sequel The Dark Knight . Iron Man 2 was linked to Burger King 's Whiplash Whopper in 2010 .
= = BK Whopper Bar = =
The BK Whopper Bar is limited service concept created by Burger King in 2009 . Whopper Bars are smaller footprint , specialized stores with a menu limited to the company 's Whopper , TenderCrisp and TenderGrill sandwiches ; drinks ; and desserts . The menu features higher @-@ end ingredients and variants not sold in the normal Burger King locations . The concept is similar to the McCafe concept from rival McDonald 's , and like the McCafe locations they are designed to go into airports , casinos , and other areas with limited amounts of space .
The menu at the Whopper features as many as 10 variants on the Whopper , including the Western Whopper , the Texas Double Whopper and the Angry Whopper . Additionally , a customization section allows the customer to have a personalized Whopper made with ingredients such as jalapeño peppers , steak sauce or blue cheese . The open station differs from the company 's usual kitchen model in that it is in plain sight of the customer instead of being located in the back @-@ end of the store . The intent of the design is to add a sense of showmanship to the concept .
Additionally , the company sells beer at the Whopper Bar locations , including Budweiser , Bud Light , and Miller Lite in aluminum bottles designed to maintain temperature . The move , designed to target the important 30 @-@ and @-@ under demographic , has been called risky by industry analysts because the company is known as a fast food purveyor and not as an alcoholic beverages seller . Other industry consultants have disagreed with the assessment , believing that the move is timely because the company is growing with its aging customer base .
= = Nutritional comparison = =
The Whopper at 670 kcal ( 2 @,@ 803 kJ ) per sandwich has more calories than McDonald 's Big Mac at 540 kcal ( 2 @,@ 259 kJ ) per sandwich , but is larger – 290 g ( 10 oz ) vs. 214 g ( 7 @.@ 5 oz ) . Therefore , the Whopper contains fewer calories per gram than the Big Mac . The Whopper contains 231 kcal ( 967 kJ ) per 100 g ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) and the Big Mac contains 252 kcal ( 1 @,@ 054 kJ ) kcal per 100 g ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) . Cheese comes standard on the Big Mac , but is optional on the Whopper .
= = Naming and trademarks = =
The name " Whopper " is a registered trademark of Burger King Holdings and is displayed with the " circle @-@ R " ( ® ) symbol in all markets it is sold . [ Notes 1 ] The name Whopper Jr. is a registered trademark in the US , Canada and Europe . [ Notes 2 ] Other Whopper @-@ related trademarks owned by Burger King include " Home of the Whopper " , " It takes two hands to hold a Whopper " , " Whopper Bar " , " Whoppertime " and " Angry Whopper " . [ Notes 3 ]
When Burger King expanded into the San Antonio area , it was prevented from utilizing the name Whopper in its local advertising and stores due to a prior state registered service mark owned by a local chain known as Whopper Burger . The chain , owned by Frank and Barbara Bates , prevented the company from using the name in Bexar County for several years until Mrs. Bates , who became the CEO of Whopper Burger after the death of her husband in 1983 , retired and sold the chain with its related trademarks to then @-@ corporate parent Pillsbury in the mid @-@ 1980s .
= 392nd ( Croatian ) Infantry Division ( Wehrmacht ) =
The 392nd ( Croatian ) Infantry Division ( German : 392 . ( Kroatische ) Infanterie @-@ Division , Croatian : 392 . ( hrvatska ) pješačka divizija ) was a so @-@ called " legionnaire " division of the German Army during World War II . It was formed in August 1943 using Croatian Home Guard soldiers with a German cadre . The division was commanded by Germans down to battalion and even company level in nearly all cases . Originally formed with the intention of service on the Eastern Front , this did not eventuate , and the division was used in anti @-@ Partisan operations in the territory of the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) until the end of the war . It was commonly known as the Blue Division .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
After the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 , Ante Pavelić , the leader of the newly created Axis puppet state the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) , offered Adolf Hitler volunteers to serve on the Eastern Front . This offer soon resulted in the formation and deployment of army , air force and naval detachments which , after being trained and equipped by Germany , were committed to fighting the Red Army . The largest element was the 369th Croatian Reinforced Infantry Regiment , which was part of the 100th Jäger Division , but was decimated at Stalingrad in January 1943 . The Croatian forces performed creditably on the Eastern Front , and the Germans continued to support the development of NDH forces with the aim of raising several divisions to serve there . Due to the lack of trained leaders and staff , these divisions were raised using a German cadre .
Commencing on 17 August 1943 , the 392nd ( Croatian ) Infantry Division was assembled and trained in Austria as the third and last Croatian division raised for service in the Wehrmacht , following its sister divisions the 369th ( Croatian ) Infantry Division and 373rd ( Croatian ) Infantry Division . One infantry regiment and the divisional artillery regiment were formed in Döllersheim , the other infantry regiment in Zwettl , the signals battalion in Stockerau and the pioneer battalion in Krems . It was built around 3 @,@ 500 German cadre troops , and 8 @,@ 500 soldiers of the Croatian Home Guard , the regular army of the NDH . It was formed under the command of Generalmajor Johann Mickl who remained its commander until the last weeks of the war . Mickl was an Austrian who had served under Erwin Rommel in France and North Africa , where he had been awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross . He had also commanded the 11th Panzer Division on the Eastern Front , where he had received the Oak Leaves to his Knight 's Cross . The division wore Wehrmacht uniform with the coat @-@ of @-@ arms of the NDH on the right sleeve . Although originally intended for use on the Eastern Front , not long after its formation the Germans decided that the division would not be utilised outside the NDH . The division was deployed to the NDH in January 1944 to combat the Partisans in the territory of the puppet state . It was known as the " Blue Division " ( German : Blaue Division , Croatian : Plava divizija ) .
= = = Anti @-@ Partisan operations = = =
= = = = Initial deployment = = = =
The first task of the division after its arrival in the western part of the NDH was to secure the Adriatic coastline along the Croatian Littoral between Rijeka and Karlobag ( including all islands except Krk ) and about 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) inland , and was a critical task due to German fears of an Anglo @-@ American landing on the Adriatic coast . This operation included securing the crucial supply route between Karlovac and Senj . These areas had been largely dominated by the Partisans since the Italian capitulation in autumn 1943 , in particular the port of Senj . The division was placed under the command of the XV Mountain Corps as part of the 2nd Panzer Army , and was initially headquartered in Karlovac . The division also took over responsibility for the security of the Zagreb @-@ Karlovac railway line from the 1st Cossack Division . The division was engaged by the Partisans from the first night in their garrison areas . Before the division had completed its initial deployment , it was called upon to relieve the NDH garrison of Ogulin . This involved a drive southwest from Karlovac between 13 and 16 January 1944 initially led by the 847th Infantry Regiment . In the first engagements with Partisan units , the Croatian soldiers panicked and their German leaders were quickly wounded or killed . When the bodies of those that had been killed were recovered , they were often found stripped of equipment and some were even found naked . On 16 January , Ogulin was relieved , but the advance was continued south to Skradnik , and villages in that area were also secured .
= = = = Operational history = = = =
This was followed by Operation Drežnica , a push through to the coast , forcing passes through the Velika Kapela mountain range , part of the Dinaric Alps . Both passes were more than 750 metres ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) above sea level and the snow was often knee or thigh @-@ deep . Delayed by mines and roadblocks , the division captured the Kapela and Vratnik passes with minimal casualties . This was followed by a series of engagements along the road to the coast , and after some close quarter fighting with the Partisan 13th Assault Division , they captured and destroyed most of that division 's supply dump northwest of Lokve and secured Senj . The 847th Infantry Regiment was then allocated the task of securing the coastline and the 846th Infantry Regiment was directed to secure the divisional main supply route from Senj to Generalski Stol . They started improved bases along the road , including Italian forts that had been established in the Kapela and Vratnik passes . The 847th Infantry Regiment spread out along the coastline between Karlobag and Crikvenica , and supported by elements of the divisional artillery and pioneers they began building fortifications against a feared Allied invasion . The troops in Karlobag linked up with the 264th Infantry Division who were responsible for the coast further to the southeast . The supply situation quickly became difficult due to Partisan interdiction of the route from Karlovac and Allied bombing of coastal shipping and Senj harbour . In late February or early March the 847th Regiment , supported by an Ustaše battalion , advanced on Plaški ( south of Ogulin ) when they were stopped by deep snow . Partisans then attacked their supply lines , killing 30 soldiers . Some of the bodies of the dead soldiers were looted or mutilated . After Plaški was captured , the Ustaše battalion independently pursued the Partisans and returned to Plaški with many of the looted items .
In March , the 847th Regiment occupied the Adriatic islands of Rab and Pag without encountering any Partisan resistance . In the same month , the 846th Regiment conducted an operation in the Gacka river valley around Otočac , and assisted the Croatian Home Guard in enforcing conscription orders on their own population in the divisional area . Through the spring of 1944 , the 846th Regiment used jadgkommandos , lightly armed and mobile " hunter teams " of company or battalion strength , to conduct follow @-@ up of sightings of Partisans , and transport moving through the Kapela Pass had to travel in convoy for security . The division was able to restore a land connection with the NDH garrison of Gospić which had been reliant on supply from the sea since the Italian surrender , and drove three Partisan battalions out of the outskirts of Otočac . One of the difficulties faced by the division in fighting in the mountains was the lack of mountain artillery which could accompany the battalions in the field . The divisional artillery was equipped with field howitzers with a range of 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) which seriously limited the artillery cover that could be provided during mobile operations .
In April 1944 , Mickl was promoted to Generalleutnant . The Germans identified that the Partisan 13th Assault Division was using the Drežnica valley as a huge armoury , hiding captured Italian arms and ammunition in villages , basements , and even in fake graves in cemeteries . This was of major concern if the feared Allied landing eventuated . In mid @-@ April , Mickl ordered Operation Keulenschlag ( Mace Blow ) to clear the area , using the 846th Infantry Regiment and parts of the 847th Infantry Regiment , supported by the divisional artillery and flak battalion . Over the next two weeks , the division pushed the 13th Assault Division north to the area of Mrkopalj and Delnice , and captured sufficient material to equip two divisions , including 30 tonnes ( 30 long tons ; 33 short tons ) of small arms ammunition and 15 tonnes ( 15 long tons ; 17 short tons ) of artillery ammunition .
On 5 May , the Partisan 35th Lika Division attacked from the Plitvice Lakes area and captured the village of Ramljane . Partisans also interdicted the Otočac @-@ Gospić road . In response , Mickl planned Operation Morgenstern ( Morning Star ) to clear Partisan forces from the Krbavsko Polje region around Udbina . From 7 to 16 May 1944 , along with elements of the 373rd ( Croatian ) Infantry Division , the 92nd Motorised Regiment , a battalion of the 1st Regiment of the Brandenburg Division , and Ustaše units , were involved in Operation Morgenstern . According to German sources , Operation Morgenstern resulted in significant Partisan losses , including 438 killed , 56 captured , and 18 defectors , as well as capturing weapons , ammunition , vehicles , animals and large amounts of equipment . Also in May , the division received 500 German reinforcements , and formed a field replacement battalion . The division saw action against the Partisans until the end of the war , often fighting alongside a grouping of Ustaše units that numbered up to 12 @,@ 000 troops .
= = = = Final months = = = =
During the last few months of the war , the division was engaged in the defence of the northern Adriatic coast and Lika . Mickl was shot in the head by Partisans near Senj on 9 April 1945 , and died in hospital in Rijeka the following day . The task of the division was to fight the 4th Partisan Army advancing from the south @-@ east , and to support the XCVII Corps , consisting of the 188th Mountain Division and 237th Infantry Divisions , which were in danger of being enveloped near Rijeka . The division arrived in the area of Rijeka in mid @-@ April 1945 . However , by April 1945 the Croatian manpower of the division had been significantly reduced due to desertions or release . Around this time , about 3 @,@ 000 Croats were released , leaving a small number of Croats remaining with the division .
Some of the released Croats apparently succeeded in travelling to the Slovene Littoral in the closing days of the war . They were then organised as a separate unit of the largely illusory remnant of the Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia under the command of General Matija Parac , which was formally part of General Draža Mihailović 's Chetniks . The unit was under the direct command of General Miodrag Damjanović . Later the unit retreated to British @-@ occupied northern Italy .
The division , including its few remaining Croats were ordered to move north towards Klagenfurt in Austria . Some of the remaining Croat members of the division were killed while the XCVII Army Corps attempted to push through , but the formation lacked the strength to achieve its objective . As a result , on 5 May 1945 , Generaloberst Alexander Löhr , Commander @-@ in @-@ chief Southeast Europe , authorised the XCVII Army Corps , including the 392nd Division , to surrender . The Partisans accepted the German surrender on 7 May in the area between Rijeka and Ilirska Bistrica , at which time all the remaining Croats and some Italian fascist troops still fighting alongside the Germans within the Corps were released . For several days the disarmed German troops of the Corps were allowed to travel towards Germany , but on 12 May the Partisans decided to make them prisoners of war .
= = Order of battle = =
The division included the following principal units :
846th Infantry Regiment ( I , II , III battalions )
847th Infantry Regiment ( I , II , III battalions )
392nd Reconnaissance Battalion
392nd Panzerjäger ( Anti @-@ tank ) Battalion
392nd Artillery Regiment ( I , II battalions )
392nd Pioneer Battalion
392nd Signals Battalion
= = Postscript = =
On 3 April 2009 , the Croatian Helsinki Committee for Human Rights announced that mass graves containing the remains of approximately 4 @,@ 500 members of the division had been discovered near Zaprešić . Locals indicated that the Partisan 21st Serbian Division was responsible for the massacre .
= Shadowrun ( 1993 video game ) =
Shadowrun is a cyberpunk @-@ fantasy action role @-@ playing video game for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) , adapted from the tabletop role @-@ playing game Shadowrun by FASA . The video game was developed by Australian company Beam Software and first released in 1993 by Data East .
The game is loosely based on the novel Never Deal with a Dragon by Shadowrun co @-@ creator Robert N. Charrette and set in the year 2050 . The player takes on the role of Jake Armitage , a man suffering from amnesia after having been critically wounded by assassins . The plot then follows Jake as he attempts to uncover his own identity and the identity of the mysterious figure who wants him dead , and eventually complete his mission . Harebrained Schemes ' 2013 Shadowrun Returns links the stories of this game and of Shadowrun for the Sega Genesis .
A project to adapt Shadowrun for the SNES had a turbulent history between 1989 and 1993 , including having been halted in mid @-@ development before being resumed in late 1992 under a tight deadline . Its eventual lead designer was Paul Kidd , creator of Beam Software 's 1992 Nightshade , elements and a feel of which he then carried on to Shadowrun . The game was a critical success , winning a number of industry awards , but was a commercial failure nevertheless . It was retrospectively acclaimed by several publications as an " ahead of its time " milestone in the history of the role @-@ playing genre for the consoles and credited for having pioneered film noir style in video games .
= = Gameplay = =
Shadowrun is an action role @-@ playing game ( RPG ) that combines the statistical factor of the original tabletop game ( with minor changes ) with real @-@ time gameplay . The player is given direct control over the protagonist Jake and moves him around using the directional pad within the game 's isometrically displayed world . A cursor system allows the player to scroll a pointer across the screen and perform various actions that include opening doors and passageways , examining and picking up objects , engaging in conversation with non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) , and utilizing firearms and magic commands while in combat .
In interacting with other characters , Shadowrun allows the player to gain information using a bank of terms . Whenever Jake hears a new and unusual term , this word is highlighted and is then added to the bank that he can use ; from that point on , when speaking with NPCs , Jake is able to ask them about this new word ; only in this manner can a player progress with the game . As the title of the game implies , Jake is described as a " shadowrunner " , a mercenary type of character common within the Shadowrun world . The player is given the option to hire other shadowrunners as henchmen with " nuyen " , the game 's currency that can also be used to purchase guns and certain key items scattered throughout various locations .
Combat within Shadowrun often require sharp reflexes , as practically every screen contains hidden assassins who , from random locations , open fire on Jake ; the player may retreat or must otherwise immediately find the source of the attack and respond . Enemies typically drop nuyen , while at the same time , Jake builds up " karma " . If the player retires to a bed to restore health and save one 's progress , karma can be allocated into different attributes , skills , and magical powers .
At certain points in the game , Shadowrun allows the player to enter cyberspace . Using an item called a " cyberdeck " , Jake is able to hack into computers to retrieve information , as well as gain more nuyen . During such scenes , the gameplay switches to a top @-@ down perspective while an icon of Jake moves through cyberspace , fights intrusion programs , and retrieves data . If Jake dies in cyberspace , he dies in the outside world as well .
While the setting and a lot of gameplay elements are taken from the original pen and paper variant , certain gameplay elements have been modified . One example is that the " Condition Monitor " has been replaced with a more traditional hit points system , and the removal of the " Essence " mechanic , which decreases when cyberware is installed . This would reduce a character 's ability to use magic as the installation of cyberware is making one less alive , thus less in tune with magic .
= = Plot = =
Shadowrun is an adaptation of the FASA tabletop role @-@ playing game of the same name . The storyline of the video game is loosely based on the first Shadowrun novel , Never Deal with a Dragon , written by Robert N. Charrette . The narrative opens in Seattle , Washington in the year 2050 , where the protagonist Jake Armitage is shown being gunned down in the street . A shapeshifting lupine figure rushes to his side and is seen casting a spell over Jake before leaving hastily as the medics arrive on the scene . Jake awakens in a morgue with a complete memory loss . Soon , he is approached by the " Dog " , a shamanistic totem who gives him a warning before vanishing .
The rest of the story is spent investigating the events leading to Jake 's shooting , learning the identity of the shapeshifter who saved him , as well the person who ordered his assassination , a mysterious crime lord named " Drake " . Most of the information is found by piecing together snippets of data found by hacking various protected computer systems . Along the way , he has encounters with gangs , criminals , and magically awakened creatures while under constant threat of attack from contract killers . Jake also discovers and develops his own latent magical abilities . Apart from his totem spirit , his only allies are the hired services of shadowrunners . It is eventually revealed that Jake is a data courier who was carrying a program in a computer built inside his brain . The program was designed to destroy a malevolent artificial intelligence , which the Aneki Corporation is trying to protect . The company is being aided by Drake , who turns out to be a dragon and the mastermind behind the plot .
= = Development = =
The work to develop an adaptation of Shadowrun for the SNES by the Australian developer Beam Software began when Adam Lanceman , part of the company 's management team , acquired the license for FASA 's 1989 tabletop RPG . The project was initially headed by Gregg Barnett until he abruptly left Beam midway through the game 's development to start Perfect Entertainment in the United Kingdom . The game 's production was halted by Beam , but eventually resumed before its set deadline .
Having been hired by Beam 's parent company Melbourne House , fantasy and sci @-@ fi writer Paul Kidd quickly took Barnett 's place as lead designer . According to Kidd , the given timeframe for finishing Shadowrun for publisher Data East was very short , forcing the team to complete production in a tumultuous five and a half to six months . An avid role @-@ player , Kidd was already familiar with the Shadowrun license , but had to utilize the storyline that his predecessor had already gotten approved . Aspects of Beam 's earlier action @-@ adventure game Nightshade , of which Kidd was the writer , director and lead designer , were used as a basis for Shadowrun ; specific film noir components such as " dark cityscapes , dialogue @-@ heavy exchanges , and touches of humor " were adapted directly from the former to the latter . To coincide with the last of these qualities , Kidd and programmer Jeff Kamenek altered the original " serious " tone of Shadowrun by replacing portions of the script and artwork with more comedic elements . According to Kidd , " we made improvements and changes , but the basic concepts were pretty much the same [ as in Nightshade ] . "
The ROM image of the first version of Shadowrun contains a much more crude script , with more sexual suggestive and violent phrases . For example , one line is changed from " morgue guys " to " chop shop guys " . The game 's distributor favored the less serious version for retail release , sparking indignation and conflict among Kidd and other members of Beam 's staff . Kidd recalled : " Beam Software was a madhouse , a cesspit of bad karma and evil vibes . The war was reaching shooting level ; old school creators who just wanted to make good games were being crushed down by a wave of managerial bull . It was no longer a ' creative partnership ' in any way ; it was ' us ' and ' them ' . People were feeling creatively and emotionally divorced from their projects . " Shadowrun was ultimately completed by its deadline . Kidd credits this to the staffers abstaining from company meetings and workshops , and continually keeping management away from the designers .
Shadowrun was released in North America and Japan by Data East . In PAL regions , it was self @-@ published by Beam Software as Laser Beam Entertainment . The 1994 Japanese version has a significantly longer introduction sequence than the English version of the game and also has a vertically uncompressed Shadowrun logo on the title screen . Other than that , it uses the same script as the North American and PAL editions , just with Japanese subtitles .
= = Reception = =
The game was met with a positive critical reception and good reviews . Shadowrun was given a number of awards from various publications , including the title of the Best RPG of the Year by VideoGames , Electronic Games , and Game Informer , and was a runner @-@ up for it in GamePro ( behind Secret of Mana ) . The game was given the second place Nintendo Power Award in the category " Most Innovative ( Super NES ) " ( it was also nominated in the category " For Challenge " ) , Nintendo Power describing it as " one of the best sci @-@ fi games ever " . However , the game sold poorly , partly because of low shipping numbers .
Shadowrun has been positively recounted in many restrospective lists and articles . It was listed it as the 34th best SNES game by Super Play in 1996 , as well as the 48th best game on any Nintendo platform by Nintendo Power in 1997 . Ranking it as the 77th top SNES game in 2011 , IGN commented that while Shadowrun " didn 't quite get away from all the common RPG stereotypes " it was still " a milestone for the introduction of film noir style into the gaming industry , though , so we can forgive the game for only being 90 % groundbreaking . " The game was also cited as an important milestone in the use of film noir style in video games by Game Informer , according to which " Shadowrun 's moody music and dark streets set the somber tone for this RPG 's prying conversations and self @-@ reflective narrative . " Game Informer also ranked Shadowrun as 125th place on their list of best video games of all time in 2009 . IGN Australia listed Shadowrun among their favourite Australian video games in 2010 , writing it was " without question , one of the best underexposed classics of the SNES era " because it presented players with " a mature narrative , strong characters and a dystopian backdrop " blended with traditional RPG elements in an " irresistible " way . That same year , 1UP.com included Shadowrun on their list of 15 games " ahead of their time " for its use of a keyword dialogue system , common to PC games but foreign to console games of the time .
In 2002 , GameSpot included it on the list of video games that should be remade and compared this " groundbreaking RPG " that was " truly ahead of its time " to the more recent Planescape : Torment . A remake of the game was also requested by Sam Bandah of X360 , who called it a " rather excellent " , " little @-@ known classic " and " a cyberpunk RPG classic begging to return " , and stated : " Shadowrun would be a perfect game to remake as a Mass Effect @-@ style RPG – perhaps with the conversation system of the sadly much @-@ maligned Alpha Protocol . " In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked this " one incredibly unique , noir @-@ style story " as the third top " cult @-@ classic franchise " that should be rebooted similar to how X @-@ COM was .
= = Legacy = =
Two co @-@ licensed role @-@ playing video games of the same name were released around the same time by different developers and publishers : the 1994 North America @-@ exclusive Sega Genesis title by BlueSky Software and Sega , and the 1995 Japan @-@ exclusive Sega Mega @-@ CD title by Group SNE and Compile . The storyline and gameplay of the SNES Shadowrun are completely different from these two games . In 2007 , FASA Studio and Microsoft Studios released a multiplayer first @-@ person shooter adaptation of the franchise for the Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows .
In 2012 , Harebrained Schemes announced that it would be producing a new Shadowrun role @-@ playing video game , Shadowrun Returns , to be funded through Kickstarter . As a result of the Kickstarter appeal reaching a 1 @.@ 5 million dollar target , Shadowrun 's original creator and FASA Corporation 's founder Jordan Weisman announced that the game would now feature an additional storyline tying in the new game with both the SNES game and the Sega Genesis game . This extra content was initially made available only to backers , becoming generally available some time after release . The protagonist of the SNES game , Jake Armitage , is featured in Shadowrun Returns as both part of the game 's main plotline and as an NPC that the player can hire to accompany them on various missions .
= All My People =
" All My People " is a song recorded by Romanian recording artist Alexandra Stan for her Japan @-@ only reissue album , Cliché ( Hush Hush ) ( 2013 ) . Written and produced by Marcel Prodan and Andrei Nemirschi , the track features vocal collaboration from Prodan 's fictional character , Manilla Maniacs . His vocals were particularly praised by music critics as being " low @-@ pitched " and " distorted " . Musically , " All My People " is a club @-@ friendly electro dance song and draws influences from Stan 's single " Mr. Saxobeat " ( 2010 ) .
Upon release , the track garnered mostly positive reviews from music critics , who called it " catchy " and found the recording to be unconventional when compared to her previous material . Stand uploaded a music video for the song on YouTube on 3 May 2013 — filmed at a heating power plant in Sofia , Bulgaria — the video was directed by Ilarionov Borisov . Critics pointed out Stan 's erotic appearance ; the singer is seen lying on a bed sporting lingerie and surrounded by surveillance cameras . Her choreography drew comparisons to work done by American entertainer Michael Jackson , while the singer wore Madonna @-@ esque outfits . " All My People " peaked within the top fifty on music charts in Romania and Japan , while the single peaked at number fifty @-@ five in Italy .
= = Background = =
The song was written and produced by Marcel Prodan and Andrei Nemirschi , her longtime collaborators , and recorded at their recording studio , Maan Studios , located in Constanța , Romania . Stan made the release of new material public through her Facebook account ; she later released an audio version of a new track , " All My People " , on Soundcloud . The track portrays a featuring with Prodan 's ficitional character , Manilla Mancias , who provides low @-@ pitched and distorted vocals for the refrain . Musically , the single is of the electro dance genre , featuring an alert rhythm and minimal lyrics . Upon the release of the single , Romanian website Urban.ro pointed out the evolution of Stan 's artistry , with them confessing that the instrumentation of " All My People " was club @-@ friendly , unlike her 2012 single , " Lemonade " , which featured " sweet beats " . When interviewed , Stan commented that the song was influenced by her 2010 release , " Mr. Saxobeat " .
= = Critical reception = =
Kevin Apaza , writing for Direct Lyrics , called the single very " catchy " , saying that it was different from the material she had released before ; he said that he " just [ doesn 't ] see [ the track ] as a European monster hit " and confessed that its lyrics and the video concept didn 't " make much sense " . To close his review , Apaza praised Maniacs 's vocal contribution to the song , calling his voice " cool " . Frederica de Martino , a writer for the Italian music website Canzoni Web , noted the commercial success of the recording , commenting that " it will be for sure as successful as her previous hits " . MTV Romania expected the track to become a " hit " .
= = Promotion and music video = =
To promote the song , Stan embarked on a European tour , where she performed in Italy , United Kingdom , Turkey and Russia . Upon its release , Italian radio stations began playing the track on heavy rotation , thus making the song entering the top five of the iTunes Charts there after four days . An official music video for the song was first previewed with a teaser on 2 May 2016 , following which it was released onto YouTube on 3 May 2016 . Shot in Sofia , Bulgaria , at a heating power plant by Bulgarian director Ilarionov Borisov , Stan confessed about their collaboration that " [ she ] knew [ him ] for a long time and [ they ] wanted to collaborate already from [ her ] first music video . " Furthermore , she described the filming process as being " difficult " , as " the crew didn 't speak English or Romanian " .
The clip commences with a police car arriving at the heating power plant , followed by Stan lying on a bed surrounded by surveillance cameras , sporting black lingerie . She is then introduced wearing a black hat and white shirt with a tie , while a crowd of male and female dancers perform a synchronized choreography . Following this , Stan makes an appearance wearing a white dress , and a police car is shown arriving . Subsequently , two policemen get out of the car in order to search for Stan . However , they do not find her in the bed and the video ends with Stan leaving the building and the men watching material recorded by the surveillance cameras .
Alexandra Necula , writing for Romanian music website Info Music , said that the clip " exploited the sexuality and sensuality of the artist " , with her explaining that Stan 's appearance in the video portrayed a woman with pornographic tents . She said that Stan 's moves were " lascive " , and compared one of her outfits throughout the video to Madonna . Urban.ro compared the choreography of the clip to Michael Jackson 's 1980s works . Los 40 Principales cited the video for " All My People " as one of Stan 's best clips ever .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" All My People " - 3 : 19
Digital remixes EP
" All My People " ( Fedo Mora & Oki Doro Remix Edit ) - 2 : 48
" All My People " ( Fedo Mora & Oki Doro Remix ) - 4 : 50
" All My People " ( Rudeejay Remix Edit ) - 2 : 55
" All My People " ( Rudeejay Remix ) - 5 : 24
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Zdenko Blažeković =
Zdenko Blažeković ( 23 September 1915 – 12 January 1947 ) was a Croatian fascist official who held several posts in the World War II Ustaše regime in the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) . He was the student commissar at the Ustaše University Centre ( USS ) , leader of the male Ustaše Youth organisation and a sports commissioner in the NDH .
Born in the town of Bihać , he graduated from high school in Osijek before applying to join a polytechnic college in Zagreb with the intention of becoming a builder . He was a member of various Croatian cultural and athletic organizations during his youth , and even played as goalkeeper for Hajduk Osijek and HAŠK football clubs .
Briefly a member of the conservative Croatian Peasant Party ( HSS ) , Blažeković was imprisoned several times by the Yugoslav authorities because of his involvement with various Croatian youth organizations which saw him often involved in clashes with left @-@ wing students . He joined the far @-@ right Ustaše in 1939 , and following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia and the establishment of the Ustaše @-@ led NDH in April 1941 , went on to be appointed to the newly formed Ustaše supervisory committee by Slavko Kvaternik . That same month he also became the leader of the Ustaše University Headquarters and the Ustaše Youth , charged with organizing student bodies at the University of Zagreb and promoting Ustaše 's policy of preventing all non @-@ Croats from attending universities in the country .
In 1942 he was involved in the formation of the 13th Ustaše Assault Company and by 1943 had attained a seat in the Croatian Parliament . Between 1942 and 1943 he was involved in recruiting students to join Ante Pavelić 's personal bodyguard and was promoted to the rank of major . He held the position of head of the Ustaše University Headquarters and Ustaše Youth until January 1945 , when he was appointed Commissioner for Physical Education and Sport . Blažeković fled Zagreb from the advancing Yugoslav Partisans in May 1945 and ended up in a refugee camp in Salzburg , Austria . In August , he was arrested by American forces who extradited him to Yugoslavia on 12 February 1946 . He was tried in Zagreb on 12 January 1947 , sentenced to death , and executed the same day .
= = Early life and family = =
Zdenko Blažeković was born on 23 September 1915 in the town of Bihać , the son of local politician Emilijan " Milan " Blažeković . Ethnically Croat , the Blažeković family was descended from 15th century tribesmen in the town of Livno .
Blažeković finished high school in Osijek and later applied to join a polytechnic college in Zagreb with the intention of becoming a builder . In 1935 , he became a member of the " Croatian Academic Society August Šenoa " ( Croatian : Hrvatsko akademsko društvo August Šenoa , HADAŠ ) and by 1936 he became its vice @-@ president . A versatile athlete , he played as goalkeeper for the football clubs Hajduk in Osijek and HAŠK in Zagreb . He also played tennis and was one of the founders of the Drava rowing club in Osijek . For a short period of time , Blažeković was a member of the Croatian Peasant Party ( Croatian : Hrvatska seljačka stranka , HSS ) . After leaving the party , he became involved in various Croatian youth organizations and was imprisoned several times in Zagreb and Osijek as a result . During this time , he was also involved in numerous violent confrontations with Communist students .
After attending a public celebration of HSS leader Vladko Maček 's birthday on 20 June 1935 , Blažeković was imprisoned by Yugoslav authorities and tortured for twelve days in a prison on the island of Korčula . He was subsequently taken to Dubrovnik and charged with conspiring against the Yugoslav state , but was not convicted . In 1939 , he joined the Ustaše , a Croatian fascist organization which advocated armed struggle in achieving Croatia 's independence from the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . During this period , he came into contact with the fascist leader Slavko Kvaternik . From late 1940 to early 1941 , Blažeković was pursued by Yugoslav authorities because of his association with the Ustaše and hid in Zagreb to avoid capture .
= = World War II = =
= = = Invasion of Yugoslavia = = =
On 6 April 1941 Axis forces invaded Yugoslavia . Poorly equipped and poorly trained , the Royal Yugoslav Army was quickly defeated . The country was then dismembered by the occupying forces and the extreme nationalist and fascist Croat leader of the Ustaše Ante Pavelić – who had been in exile in Benito Mussolini 's Italy – was appointed Poglavnik ( leader ) of a newly established Ustaše @-@ led Croatian state , the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska or NDH ) . The NDH combined almost all of present @-@ day countries of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina , as well as parts of Serbia , into what was described as an " Italian @-@ German quasi @-@ protectorate " . Under the Ustaše regime , genocidal policies were implemented and directed against the Serb , Jewish and Romani populations living within the country .
= = = Command of the Ustaše University Centre and Ustaše Youth = = =
On 11 April , Kvaternik named Blažeković to the newly formed Ustaše supervisory committee . On 23 April , Blažeković led a crowd of more than 1 @,@ 100 Croatian students as they gathered in the courtyard of the University of Zagreb before going to St. Mark 's Square in central Zagreb to watch Pavelić give a speech . Here , Blažeković and the students swore loyalty to the Poglavnik and the NDH . In a speech of his own , Blažeković told Pavelić that he and the students were ready to follow him " in life and death " . When the Ustaše supervisory committee was disbanded on 9 May , Blažeković was named a commissioner in the main headquarters of the NDH . That same month , he was named the commander of the Ustaše University Headquarters ( Croatian : Ustaški sveučilišni stožer , USS ) . Although this organization technically required all students in the NDH to become members , most kept away from membership . Increasingly , the USS became a wing of the NDH 's student elite with strict rules of membership and privileges , with members attending rallies at which Pavelić spoke and wearing Ustaše uniform .
In an interview with Novi list , Blažeković stated that all work at the University of Zagreb would be " in harmony with the new Ustaša spirit ... with which youth had been imbued for years in the decades when the university was the " battleground " of the Croatian struggle for liberation . " He went on to say that the first priority of the USS was to be the social welfare of students and the expansion of student dining rooms and residential halls . He declared that the structure of the university would change to conform with Ustaše principles – each faculty would have its own camp , consisting of a camp leader and seven adjutants responsible for military training , socio @-@ economic welfare , contacts , sports , professional training , education and journals . Blažeković explained that for the first year of academic study , the university would employ " veteran warriors " as teachers who were to be replaced by fully trained " younger forces " who had spent the previous year preparing for their new roles . Furthermore , he stated that student volunteers would collaborate in the creation and popularization of the USS and other Ustaše organizations , which , once they had established themselves in university life , were to establish a professional , non @-@ ideological student organization meant to incorporate all Croatian students . When asked if Serbs and Jews were to be permitted to attend universities in the NDH , Blažeković replied : " In the coming academic year , the university will be swept clean of foreigners hostile to Croatians and the Ustaše movement , and in this way our endeavours at the university will be made easier . " Later , while dining with the wife of a Swedish diplomat , Blažeković boasted of the large number of Serbs he had killed , claiming that he placed the ears of murdered Serbs on a necklace worn over his smoking jacket .
At the same time that he was appointed leader of the USS , Blažeković was also named commander of the male Ustaše Youth organisation . In its first months , many young Croats joined the movement , with recruitment being fuelled mostly by extreme Croatian nationalism . In addition , many were motivated to join because the Youth provided athletic , intellectual and artistic training for " the next generation of Ustaše leaders . " For others , membership gave " a sense of meaning to their lives " and was appealing because it represented " a youthful rebellion against the Yugoslav state . " By May , some Ustaše Youth camps publicly announced their refusal to accept new members as they lacked the capacity to do so . Although it is unclear how many young Croats joined the movement , Blažeković claimed a figure of half a million members . He defined the Ustaše Youth as a " secular movement " meant to promote " brotherly cooperation and mutual life " of peasant , working @-@ class and intellectual youths in the NDH .
In late 1941 Blažeković 's father was appointed mayor of Osijek , holding this position until 1942 . That year , the younger Blažeković became involved in the formation of the 13th Ustaše Assault Company , using his position as commander of the Ustaše Youth to convince many young Croats to join . In February 1942 , he became a member of the Croatian Parliament . Between 1942 and 1943 he participated in recruiting many students for Ante Pavelić 's personal bodyguards ( Poglavnikov Tjelesni Zdrug , PTZ ) He was later promoted to the rank of army major . In 1944 , he wrote a book titled The Youth and the State ( Croatian : Mladež i država ) .
= = = Commissioner for Physical Education and Sport = = =
Blažeković held the post of commander of the USS and commander of the Ustaše Youth until January 1945 , when he was named Commissioner at the State Directorate for Physical Education and Sports ( Croatian : Državno vodstvo za tjelesni odgoj i šport , DVTOŠ ) in the NDH . Upon taking this position , he introduced strict new sports laws that emphasized discipline during football matches and criminalised monetary and material
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the route to the east adjacent to the Grosvenor – Strathmore Metro station before the intersection with MD 547 ( Strathmore Avenue ) .
The route heads through some residential neighborhoods before entering a commercial area with strip malls and some high @-@ rise buildings where White Flint Mall , once one of the D.C. metropolitan area 's largest shopping malls , was located on the east side of the road . The road comes to another intersection with MD 187 ( Old Georgetown Road ) as well as a newly grade @-@ separated interchange at Montrose Parkway . The Metro Red Line draws farther east from MD 355 before it crosses into Rockville , the county seat of Montgomery County . In Rockville , the road passes more commercial development with a railroad line paralleling the road a short distance to the east . The route intersects MD 911 ( First Street ) and the Wootton Parkway . MD 355 intersects MD 660 ( Dodge Street ) , which is a short connector to MD 28 ( Veirs Mill Road ) that the route intersects a short distance later .
Past this intersection , MD 355 continues into downtown Rockville , where it becomes Hungerford Drive . The road passes by the Rockville train station , which is used by the Metro ’ s Red line , MARC ’ s Brunswick Line , and Amtrak ’ s Capitol Limited . MD 355 heads into more commercial areas and passes the Rockville campus of Montgomery College before intersecting Gude Drive . Past this intersection , MD 355 becomes Frederick Road and heads northwest into a mix of commercial and residential areas in Derwood , drawing further away from the railroad tracks . The route leaves Rockville and intersects Shady Grove Road . Past Shady Grove Road , MD 355 interchanges with I @-@ 370 and crosses into Gaithersburg . Here , the road heads through more commercial areas before heading into residential neighborhoods . It heads into business areas again as it approaches downtown Gaithersburg , where the route interchanges with MD 117 ( Diamond Avenue ) and continues northwest past more businesses . MD 355 passes the Lakeforest Mall before intersecting MD 124 ( Montgomery Village Avenue ) . MD 355 passes more strip malls past this intersection before crossing over Great Seneca Creek and leaving Gaithersburg . The route continues northwest into Germantown through residential areas before passing businesses again and intersecting Middlebrook Road . It passes through residential developments , with the road narrowing to four lanes before it reaches an intersection with MD 118 ( Germantown Road ) . From here , the road passes more homes and a shopping center prior to crossing MD 27 ( Ridge Road ) .
Past MD 27 , the road passes more suburban developments before narrowing to a two @-@ lane undivided road and heading through some woodland . It continues northwest through a mix of rural woodland and suburban development in Clarksburg , where MD 355 intersects MD 121 ( Clarksburg Road ) . Past this intersection , the route passes Little Bennett Regional Park on the east and businesses on the west , running closely parallel to I @-@ 270 located to the west . The route eventually draws farther east of I @-@ 270 and heads through residential neighborhoods and woodland before reaching Hyattstown . In Hyattstown , MD 355 intersects MD 109 ( Old Hundred Road ) .
= = = Frederick County = = =
After passing through Hyattstown , MD 355 crosses into Frederick County , where it becomes Urbana Pike . Here , it passes some businesses before intersecting MD 75 ( Green Valley Road ) . Past this intersection , the road continues into a more rural setting consisting of farmland , woods , and some residential areas and businesses . The route reaches Urbana , where it heads onto a four lane divided bypass called Worthington Boulevard to the east of the community , while the former alignment of MD 355 continues through Urbana as MD 355 Bus . MD 355 intersects MD 80 ( Fingerboard Road ) and passes through residential areas in the Villages of Urbana subdivision , encountering two roundabouts . Upon leaving Urbana , the route intersects MD 355 Bus. again and returns to its original alignment on two @-@ lane undivided Urbana Pike as it continues north through areas of woods and farms with some rural residences . The road passes Monocacy National Battlefield , the site of the Battle of Monocacy Junction in the American Civil War fought on July 9 , 1864 . Past the battlefield , the road crosses the Monocacy River and a CSX railroad line .
In a short distance , MD 355 heads from rural areas into a commercial district on the outskirts of Frederick . The road widens to four lanes as it passes by the Francis Scott Key Mall and several other businesses . It intersects MD 85 ( Buckeystown Pike ) , which provides access to and from I @-@ 70 and US 40 . MD 355 passes over I @-@ 70 / US 40 and ends just north of the overpass , with the road continuing north into Frederick as locally maintained Market Street .
= = History = =
The Rockville Pike portion of MD 355 dates back to colonial times and was used as an escape route from Washington during the War of 1812 as well as a route for settlers to travel from Montgomery County to developing areas north and west . In 1911 , a small portion of state highway leading northwest out of Rockville was completed , with the remainder between Rockville and Gaithersburg under contract . A state highway was proposed between Gaithersburg and Germantown . The state road between Gaithersburg and Germantown was finished by 1915 . By 1921 , the portions of state highway between the Washington , D.C. border and Rockville , to the northwest of Germantown , and between northwest of Urbana and Frederick were completed . At this time , a state highway was proposed between northwest of Germantown and northwest of Urbana . The state road was completed between Germantown and Clarksburg and through Urbana to a point southeast of the community by 1923 . The entire length of the state road connecting Washington , D.C. and Frederick was completed by 1927 . In the approved plan for the U.S. Highway System in 1926 , US 240 was planned to run from Washington , D.C. to Harrisburg , Pennsylvania via Frederick . In 1927 , US 240 was designated along the proposed 1926 route south of US 15 / US 40 in Frederick with the US 15 designation given to the road north of Frederick . In 1950 , US 240 was widened into a divided highway between the Washington , D.C. border and Bethesda .
In 1947 , plans were made to construct a freeway , the Washington National Pike ( now I @-@ 270 ) , parallel to US 240 . In 1953 , the US 240 freeway was completed between MD 121 in Clarksburg and US 15 ( now MD 85 ) in Frederick . The former alignment of US 240 between Clarksburg and Frederick was designated as US 240 Alt . A year later , the freeway was extended down to MD 118 in Germantown . At this time , the original alignment between Germantown and Frederick was designated MD 355 , replacing what was US 240 between Germantown and Clarksburg and the entire length of US 240 Alt. between Clarksburg and Frederick . The US 240 freeway was extended south to MD 28 in Rockville in 1956 , and MD 355 was subsequently extended south along the former alignment to the MD 28 intersection in Rockville . Also , the US 240 freeway was completed from US 15 north to US 40 . In 1957 , US 240 was upgraded to a divided highway between Bethesda and Rockville . The US 240 freeway was extended south to Montrose Road in 1958 , resulting in MD 355 being extended south along the former alignment to Montrose Road . I @-@ 70S was designated onto the US 240 freeway in 1959 . In addition , MD 355 was extended north to US 15 north of Frederick , passing through the city on Market Street , the one @-@ way pair of Market Street northbound and Bentz Street southbound in the downtown , and Market Street to the north of downtown . The route replaced US 15 / US 240 south of downtown Fredrick and US 15 north of downtown Frederick , with US 15 shifted to a bypass west of the city . In 1960 , I @-@ 70S / US 240 was extended south to the Capital Beltway , and MD 355 was extended south along former US 240 between Montrose Road and the Capital Beltway .
In 1972 , the American Association of State Highway Officials approved for the US 240 designation to be removed . As a result , MD 355 was extended south along the former US 240 alignment to the Washington , D.C. border . MD 355 was widened into a divided highway between Rockville and Gaithersburg in 1977 . The divided highway was extended north from Gaithersburg to Germantown by 1997 . In 2006 , the northern terminus of MD 355 at the interchange with US 15 in Frederick was truncated to a dead end a short distance south of that route . In 2009 , the portion of MD 355 north of the I @-@ 70 overpass was transferred to the city of Frederick , with the MD 355 designation officially being removed from this stretch . In 2010 , an interchange was completed at Montrose Parkway .
A four @-@ lane divided bypass of Urbana was constructed for MD 355 in the 2000s . The primary reason for constructing the bypass was to relieve traffic heading through the community brought on by the construction of numerous shopping centers in the area , and the costs for constructing the bypass were entirely paid for by the developers of an area shopping center . The proposal for the bypass called for two roundabouts to control traffic . The first portion of the road opened in late 2005 from MD 355 south to a roundabout at Sugarloaf Parkway . On October 30 , 2008 , construction began to build the connection of the bypass to MD 355 south of MD 80 . The bypass was completed by January 2009 , at which point MD 355 was realigned onto it and the former alignment became MD 355 Bus . In 2013 , maintenance of the bypass of MD 355 around Urbana was transferred from the developers to the state .
= = Junction list = =
= = Related routes = =
= = = MD 355 Business = = =
Maryland Route 355 Business ( MD 355 Bus . ) is the designation of a 1 @.@ 06 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 71 km ) business route of MD 355 in Urbana that runs along Urbana Pike . The route begins at MD 355 south of Urbana , heading west as a two @-@ lane undivided road and coming to an intersection with MD 80 . Past this intersection , the road continues northwest through residential areas . The business route reaches its terminus at another intersection with MD 355 . The entire length of MD 355 Bus. originally followed MD 355C . In 2014 , all of MD 355C except for a 0 @.@ 376 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 605 km ) portion between a point south of Urbana Church Road and Sprigg Street was turned over to county maintenance .
Junction list
The entire route is in Urbana , Frederick County .
= = = Auxiliary routes = = =
MD 355A runs along an unnamed road from MD 355 north to a cul @-@ de @-@ sac in Frederick , Frederick County . The route is 0 @.@ 05 mi ( 0 @.@ 080 km ) long .
MD 355B ran along an unnamed road from MD 355 Business east to a dead end in Urbana , Frederick County . The route was 0 @.@ 12 mi ( 0 @.@ 19 km ) long . MD 355B was turned over to county maintenance in 2014 .
= The City of Her Dreams =
The City of Her Dreams is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on Ella Brown , who is sent to live with her aunt who living in a boarding house when her father heads to Alaska to prospect for gold . Ella 's life at her aunt 's home is miserable and she dreams of going to New York City . She dreams that she is in the city and has all money to buy anything which she fancies . Then she receives word that her father has returned from Alaska with a fortune and wants to give her everything she wants . The cast and staff credits are unknown , but the film includes scenes of New York City . The film was released on November 18 , 1910 and saw a wide national release . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from November 19 , 1910 . It states : " Ella Brown is the only child of a poor widower . Their home is in a small town in the Middle West , and Ella has never seen New York ( City ) , although she has always wanted to go there . Her father , finding times hard , decides to take a chance in the gold fields of Alaska , and when the play opens , is about to start there . He leaves Ella in the care of an aunt , a sour old person who runs a boarding house , who promptly makes a drudge out of the girl . As she has no other relatives , there is nothing for her to do except submit . Sitting in her room one evening , tired after a day 's hard work , she looks at her two treasured magazines , one showing views of her pet city and the other giving the latest fashion . The girl is filled with a longing to travel and wear pretty clothes , and falls asleep . In her dream she is transported to New York , where she finds enough money to enable her to buy all the pretty things she admires . Ella greatly enjoys her visit , and is extremely unhappy when she wakes up . But she finds that her dream will become reality before long , for her father has returned from the gold fields with a fortune and a desire to fulfill all the wishes of his pretty daughter . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory , and Alfred H. Moses , Jr. though none are specifically credited . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters .
The plot of the film focuses on the father who leaves during the Alaska gold rush , possibly referring to the Klondike Gold Rush or the Nome Gold Rush , both of which had concluded by the time the film was produced . The dreams of Ella were shot in New York City . Bowers states , " It is evident that Edwin Thanhouser loved New York City , for over the years he used it as a background for numerous films in scenarios which often played upon its faults , but which on balance depicted the city as the ultimate destination for those seeking culture and entertainment . Indeed , Edwin himself was to spend the final years of his life there - in an apartment on Fifth Avenue . By using a scenic background such as New York City - or Coney Island , or Niagara Falls - Thanhouser created films which had two appeals , that of a travelogue in addition to whatever merits the plot might have had . "
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on November 18 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release , with advertising theaters known in Kansas , North Carolina , Oklahoma , Nebraska , Arizona , Missouri , Texas , and Pennsylvania . The only known trade publication review is by The Moving Picture World and it is a positive one . The reviewer states , " A clear presentation of the visions of a child who wanted to go to the city . The vision is , perhaps , a bit more beatific than the actual city , but it unquestionably represents the imagined city of those who have never seen it . The awakening was rude , but happily the vision becomes real when the father appears with sufficient money to take the dreamer to the city for which she has longed . The acting and mechanical work on this picture are both of excellent quality . " Another minor review of theater productions in the Arkansas City Daily Traveler said it was a good production .
= East Worldham =
East Worldham is a village in the East Hampshire district of Hampshire , England . It is 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) east of Alton ; and 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) south @-@ west of Wyck . Hartley Mauditt and West Worldham are nearby , which , along with East Worldham , form the Parish of Worldham . The village is just east of the A31 road and contains St Mary 's Church and the Three Horse Shoes pub , amongst other buildings . Worldham Golf Course located just to west and Dean Farm Golf Course just to the east . For centuries the village and surrounding parish were owned by Winchester College .
= = History = =
Archaeological findings in the fields between West and East Worldham reveal that the area has been visited and inhabited since at least the Palaeolithic era . An Iron Age Hillfort , dated to around 100 BC , lay on the summit of King John 's Hill , to the east of East Worldham . The Romans built a road from Chichester to Silchester which passed below the hill over what is now Green Street and Pookles Lane .
The village is believed to have been part of " Werildeham " , mentioned in the Domesday Book . There have been multiple spellings of the name , including Werildeham ; Wardham , 11th century ; Wirldham , 12th century ; Verildham , 13th century ; Verilham and YV 'erlham , 14th century ; and Wardelham , 16th century .
For several centuries , the manor of East Worldham was held by the Venuz ( or Venuiz ) family , associated with marshall service , a sergeantry connected with the custody of the forests of Woolmer and Alice Holt . According to Samuel Tymms , " Robert de Venuz held the manors of East Worldham , in Hants , and Draycote , in Wilts , by the sergeantry of performing the office of Marshal . These manors , by the Domesday Survey , are said to be held by Geoffrey le Marshal . From the proximity of the period there appears little doubt but that this Geffrey left two daughters and coheiresses , married to Robert de Venuz and Gilbert le Marshal , which latter seems to have acquired the office indicated by his name , not however without a dispute from his co @-@ inheritor , whose lands being held by virtue of serving the office , would entitle their holder to fill it . " A dispute arose concerning the inheritance of the manor in the early part of the 14th century . The Patent Rolls noted that , as the result of a trial in 1329 , it passed , on the death of Margery , widow of John Venuiz , to the Burghersh family . There is also a recorded release by Thomas , son and heir of John de Venuz , to Sir John de Burghersh , knight , of all his right in East Worldham manor . Thomas Chaucer married Matilda , daughter and coheiress of Sir John Burghersh , nephew of Henry Burghersh , Bishop of Lincoln , becoming the owner of the manor .
Documents indicate the Gurdons or Gordons occupied the village from at least the 13th century when Sir Adam de Gurdon held property . In 1472 the Gurdon holding was purchased by Winchester College who would increasingly grow to dominate the parish over the next 500 years . The Sandals holding later merged with the Gurdons and documents exist indicating the existence of the Sandals in 1255 and another in 1329 , witnessed by a John de Sandale . For centuries , village life centred on the old farm holdings of the Manor ; the Shelleys , Freres , Sandals and Gurdons ( now merged into Old House Farm ) , and the Heathers , Clays , Porters , Park , Smiths and some descendants of these families continue to live in the village today and many old farm buildings still exist . The naturalist and ornithologist Gilbert White immortalised the localities of the region , including East Worldham , in his The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne ( 1789 ) .
By at least the mid @-@ 19th century , East Worldham and most of the parish of Worldham was owned by both Winchester College and the Dutton Estate . From the early 1860s when Dr. Fell became vicar in the village , East Worldham underwent dramatic change , which the renovation of the church and additions of hop kilns to the local farms and the building of new cottages , most of which form the urban landscape of the village today . In 1892 Mr Hall of Alton , financed the " lowering of the gradients of Worldham Hill by smoothing out four sections " , a steep hill which had caused many problems to the local inhabitants as it lay along the main road to the village . The first Parish Council meeting took place in 1894 in the schoolroom .
In May 1944 , a Junkers JU188 was shot down by a Mosquito nearby and its debris was scattered across the nearby village of West Worldham , including the church wall . Later , the inhabitants had to be evacuated when a bomb fell into the field opposite Manor Farm , and had to be defused and removed by the Royal Engineers . In 1962 , the Dutton Estate holdings were sold to seven tenant farmers who retained the land they farmed but sold the remaining woodlands and properties .
= = Geography = =
East Worldham is located in the eastern central part of Hampshire , in the south @-@ east of England , 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) south @-@ east of Alton . It is situated at 500 feet ( 150 m ) above sea level . The landscape is dominated by farmland and several woods such as Warner 's Wood , Pheasant Wood to the south and Furzefield Copse , Rookery Copse , Great Wood , Tanner 's Copse , Pondfield Copse , Monk Wood and New Copse to the north are in the vicinity as is the small hamlet of Wyck . Situated on the edge of a rock terrace , the chalk of Alton is on the west . The village slopes down abruptly to the gault adjoining Kingsley on the east . Oakhanger Stream adjoins the River Wey from East Worldham to Kinglsey . Lodge Hill , or King John 's Hill , is the site of a hunting lodge of John , King of England ; it is situated on an isolated eminence to the south @-@ east of the parish by Woolmer Forest . Chloritic Marl , characterised as a narrow band at the base of the Chalk Marl , is seen in the lane leading from Alton to West and East Worldham , and also north @-@ west of Selbourne . Blanket Street connects the village to West Worldham a mile to the south @-@ west and Hartley Mauditt just beyond that . At East Worldham this road meets the B3004 road ( Caker 's Lane / Green Street ) near The Three Horseshoes and is the main road passing through the village from the A31 road , leading to the A325 road in the east . The nearest railway station is Alton , 2 @.@ 1 miles ( 3 @.@ 4 km ) north @-@ west of the village .
= = Economy = =
In 2001 East Worldham contained roughly two @-@ thirds of the population of 336 people who lived in the whole Parish of Worldham . Most houses in the area date to the pre @-@ 20th century ; however in recent times numerous farm buildings have been converted to housing and for industrial purposes . According to the parish website , there are now " two significant industrial developments within the parish " . The local economy is based around agriculture , particularly cattle farming . Beef cattle , sheep , grain crops , and hops are the main sources of income , Farmers from the area Worldham traded in Southampton and Alton throughout its history . Most inhabitants are either retired or commute to nearby towns to work . Golf is also important to the local economy , with Worldham Golf Course located just to west and Dean Farm Golf Course just to the east . The Jalsa Salana , an annual convention held at Oaklands Farm nearby , attracts numerous people from surrounding areas . Red Bug Productions are based in the parish cottages along the main road .
= = Notable landmarks = =
East Worldham contains 10 Grade II listed buildings . St Mary 's Church is of Transitional Norman architecture and is a Grade II * listed building . Notable features include triple lancet windows , a small pointed tower , three bells , and stained glass by Hardman & Co .. The chancel was restored in 1864 , and in 1865 , the nave was rebuilt . During the late restoration , a stone monument , like a coffin , was found under the floor of the church , which contained the figure of a 13th @-@ century lady . Magdalen College , Oxford is patron of the vicarage . A church school was built in 1864 upon a site donated by James Dutton , 3rd Baron Sherborne .
East Worldham House , a Grade II listed building , dates to the late 18th and early 19th century . The two @-@ storey house is made with ashlar walls , flat arches and stone cills . The entrance is located on the west side and features a Tuscan porch in the centre , with 5 windows , one of them large . The interior of the house contains Regency features , with a staircase , panelled doors in architraves , and several fireplaces . The coach house , 5 metres to the north of the house is also a listed building , dated to the early 19th century . It is made of malmstone ashlar , with the upper wall of the centre boarded with a hay loft door and has a hipped slate roof . Today this building functions as a garage and workshop .
The Old House Farmhouse on Shelleys Lane is believed by the parish authorities to have originally been the oldest building in the village , but the current building dates to only the 17th and early and late 19th century . The walls are made of coursed malmstone with brick dressings , rendered with a plinth . The roof is apparently unusual with the " northern half being of steeper pitch , both sections half @-@ hipped , with a slate roof above the wing . " It became a Grade II listed building on 1 May 1983 . The Manor Farmhouse building , also a Grade II listed building , dates to the early 17th century , with alterations in the mid @-@ 19th century , containing Victorian window sashes .
The Sandals farm contains three cottages dated to the 17th century . Heather Cottage is another 17th @-@ century cottage , with 20th @-@ century additions to the rear , on Worldham Hill , noted for its thatched roof . It is believed to be named after William Heather , a resident mentioned in the 1665 Hearth Tax returns . It became a listed building on 18 July 1986 . The Three Horseshoes Public House was first licensed in 1834 and is one of the main features of the village . It was rebuilt some 50 years later by Henry Newman . Also of note is the Rectory House on Wyck Lane , and the Oast House , just to the west of the rectory .
= = Notable people = =
Alexander Charles Garrett , curate of East Worldham
John Wallis , Arabic scholar and vicar of East Worldham
= To the Last Man ( Torchwood ) =
" To the Last Man " is the third episode of the second series of the British science fiction television series Torchwood , which was first broadcast on BBC Two on 30 January 2008 . The episode was written by returning series guest writer Helen Raynor , directed by Andy Goddard and produced by Richard Stokes . As with every episode of Torchwood 's first two series , " To the Last Man " featured the five initial series regulars John Barrowman , Eve Myles , Burn Gorman , Naoko Mori and Gareth David Lloyd , with Mori 's character Toshiko Sato given the main focus .
The narrative centres on the intersection of Toshiko 's romance with Tommy Brockless ( Anthony Lewis ) , a ' cryogenically ' frozen soldier from World War I , and a number of hazardous time slips from 1918 . As the impending crisis becomes more severe , Toshiko must choose between the man she has fallen in love with and the world at stake . Tommy eventually elects to sacrifice himself and returns to 1918 , where Toshiko knows he will be executed because of his shellshock , in order to save the world .
" To the Last Man " was filmed as part of the first production block of Torchwood 's second series . Helen Raynor was inspired to write the episode to explore the issue of soldiers executed for cowardice during the First World War . The episode was watched by an aggregated total of 4 @.@ 97 million viewers across its first three showings . Critics were divided on the nature of the episode . The characterisation was largely praised , in addition to the romance between Tosh and Tommy , the atmosphere and the criticism of war . However , the storylining of the episode and the reliance on plot devices to advance the narrative was heavily criticised by some reviewers .
= = Plot = =
Tommy Brockless ( Anthony Lewis ) is a young World War I soldier , shell @-@ shocked from his experiences in the trenches . In 1918 , Torchwood agents Gerald Carter and Harriet Derbyshire ( Roderic Culver and Siobhan Hewlett ) take Tommy from the St Teilo 's military hospital in Cardiff to be kept in cryonic storage . They leave instructions for future Torchwood members that Tommy will one day be key to saving the world . In the present day it is revealed that Torchwood have kept Tommy in storage for almost a century , releasing him one day a year for a medical check @-@ up .
Whilst Tommy is under day @-@ release , Toshiko ( Naoko Mori ) elects to keep him company . Whilst Toshiko spends time with Tommy , Jack ( John Barrowman ) and Gwen ( Eve Myles ) discover that the abandoned Cardiff hospital is showing signs of time distortion , with elements of the 1918 hospital appearing in the present . Meanwhile , Toshiko and Tommy grow closer ; after an afternoon in the pub , he kisses her romantically . Later , Toshiko 's colleague Owen ( Burn Gorman ) realises that Toshiko has developed feelings for Tommy and warns her to be careful as he does not want her to get hurt . Upon their return , Jack realizes that the present year is when Tommy will be needed : he will have to travel back to 1918 and activate a Rift Key to close the connection between 1918 and the present and prevent disaster . As Tommy is due to be executed for cowardice three weeks after his return to 1918 , Tosh initially refuses to let him go back . Jack persuades her of the necessity of Tommy 's return .
After spending the night together , Tosh and Tommy return to the hospital as the disruptions intensify , accompanied by Jack . During one disruption , the three witness the 1918 Torchwood team ; Jack relays instructions through Tommy for them to take the 1918 version of Tommy into their custody before the older Tommy arrives . Tommy and Tosh share a goodbye , and Jack briefs Tommy on using the Rift Key before he steps back to 1918 during the next disruption . However , when back in the past , Tommy becomes shell @-@ shocked , and is led back to his bed by nurses ; he is unable to operate the Rift Key in his state . At Torchwood 's headquarters , Jack and Tosh use the Cardiff Rift to project an image of Tosh into Tommy 's mind . Tommy senses some familiarity with Tosh but otherwise does not recognise her . Despite this , Tosh is able to instruct Tommy to activate the Rift Key , and the distortions at the hospital soon dissipate . Recovering from events , Tosh brushes off Owen 's sympathy and takes a moment to consider her short time with Tommy .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Helen Raynor , the writer of the episode , expressed an interest in writing a Toshiko @-@ centric episode at the first script meeting for the second series of Torchwood . She wanted to write a story centred on Toshiko because she " absolutely [ loves ] Tosh as a character " and wanted " to take her on another step " . Inspiration for the story came from a short fictional document written by James Goss for the in @-@ universe Torchwood Institute website created by BBC Online for the first series . The document detailed a man whom Torchwood would defrost " once a year , give him a day out , and then pop him back in the freezer " . Series creator Russell T Davies described the episode as a " love story " but felt it inevitable that the story would end in tears . In creating the character of Tommy Brockless , Raynor felt that he was " the perfect boyfriend " for Toshiko . However , she stated that their brief relationship was not a " mature relationship " but " a pretend relationship " as Toshiko only " gets him out of the box once a year " . She added that what Tosh has to learn is that Tommy can 't be " treated like a toy " . In regards to the conclusion of the episode , she stated that " it 's a hugely painful goodbye for both of them " .
Raynor was also inspired by the issue of World War I soldiers who were executed for cowardice when they were suffering from shellshock . One of the episode 's working titles was " Soldier 's Heart " , an American Civil War term for shellshock . The final title recalls an infamous order from Field Marshal Douglas Haig on 11 April 1918 , in response to the German Spring Offensive , which included the phrase : " Every position must be held to the last man : there must be no retirement " . This policy led shell @-@ shocked soldiers , like the fictional Tommy , to be sent back to war after a very short recuperation period . Director Andy Goddard felt that a scene in which Tommy watches footage of the Iraq War was key to the episode ; this experience tells Tommy that that the human condition has not changed since 1918 and that humanity still makes the same mistakes . During the episode , Jack suggests that the British army executed " more than 300 " shell @-@ shocked soldiers for cowardice during the First World War . Executions for all offences numbered 346 , of which 40 were for murder or mutiny . The remaining 306 were for desertion ( 266 ) , cowardice ( 18 ) , and other offences ( 22 ) . While some of these can now be attributed to shell shock , most cannot , although all 306 were posthumously pardoned in 2006 . Early drafts of the episode included Tommy asking for Suzie Costello , a member of the Torchwood Institute who had committed suicide in the series ' 2006 premiere episode . In regards to the sensitive material in the episode , actress Naoko Mori stated that whilst reading the script she " kind of forgot it was Torchwood and [ that ] it was science @-@ fiction " . She found the climax of the episode " heartbreaking " .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
" To The Last Man " was filmed alongside " Adam " as part of Block 1 of production . It was originally intended to be the fourth episode transmitted . The scenes featuring Toshiko and Tommy on the Penarth Pier were recorded , in between heavy rainfall , on 9 May 2007 and marked the first significant location shoot for the second series . Scenes set in Toshiko 's flat were also filmed this day at a house in Palace Road , Cardiff . The episode 's final scene , showing Toshiko and Owen looking out over Cardiff Bay was recorded 10 May . Cardiff Royal Infirmary provided the interior locations for scenes set in the fictional St Teilo 's military hospital which were filmed between 12 and 18 May . The pub where Toshiko and Tommy play pool was the Eli Jenkins on Bute Street , Cardiff . The Red Cross emblem is used throughout the episode ; the closing credits include the attribution : " Thanks to the British Red Cross for permission to use the Red Cross emblem . "
An important sequence within the episode was the time @-@ shift which ends in Tommy returning to 1918 . Goddard noted that the time @-@ shift " essentially happened off @-@ screen " and that what the audience sees is " great big wind machines and camera lights " . Anthony Lewis described the wind machine used as " the biggest wind machine I 've ever seen in my life " . He comments that the intensity of the wind machine and the lighting enabled an " instant @-@ made reaction " from himself and Mori . Goddard added that his first assistant director was " instrumental in gearing up all the extras into a frenzy " . The episode 's soundtrack included the song " One of These Mornings " by Moby , which featured the vocals of Patti Labelle , from his 2002 album , 18 . The track heard in the pub scene is " She 's Got You High " from Mumm @-@ Ra 's 2007 debut album These Things Move in Threes .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" To the Last Man " was first broadcast on BBC Two on 30 January 2008 at 9 : 00 pm . The episode was later repeated on the digital channel BBC Three on 30 January at 11 : 00 pm , with an edited pre @-@ watershed repeat airing the next day , 31 January 2008 , at 7 : 00 pm . Stephen James Walker , a writer who publishes on the subject of Doctor Who and its spin @-@ offs , noted that the pre @-@ watershed edition of " To the Last Man " had fewer cuts than any other . According to consolidated figures the episode was viewed by 3 @.@ 51 million viewers on BBC Two , 0 @.@ 31 million viewers for its first BBC Three repeat and 1 @.@ 15 million viewers for the pre @-@ watershed repeat , amounting to an aggregated 4 @.@ 97 million viewers across its three initial showings .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy gave the episode a four star review , stating that it provided " another example of a resoundingly triumphant ending that conveys so much via [ a ] simple image " . He praised the characterisation of Toshiko — stating that both Mori and Raynor " deserve a great deal of credit for reaching such dramatic heights " — and also the " refreshingly non @-@ mawkish glimpse at the brutality of war and humanity " . Ian Berriman of SFX was more mixed , giving the episode three stars and comparing it to a re @-@ written version of the series one episode " Captain Jack Harkness " . He felt that though the episode provided a " likeably girlish side of Torchwood ’ s blandest character " the characterisation did not add enough depth . Berriman acknowledged the " sweet , surprisingly subdued , almost coy " tone as an indicator of the programme 's flexibility , but added that he " [ prefers ] the show when it ’ s full @-@ blooded and outrageous . " Charlie Jane Anders of io9 gave a critical review , feeling that Toshiko and Tommy had " no chemistry " and that the episode seemed to convey that " men die for women 's wiles " . She felt that despite the flaws of the romance plot , the episode provided some " powerful stuff " and that Tommy 's plight was a strong concept if poorly resolved .
Travis Fickett of IGN gave the episode 7 @.@ 9 out of ten , enjoying the time overlaps , the relationship between Toshiko and Tommy and the appearance of previous Torchwood employees . However , he felt that some of the episode 's plot elements strained the " credibility of the mythology " . Joan O 'Connell Herdman of Slant Magazine enjoyed the characterisation and British historical perspective the episode afforded , though stated that " characters make this episode , plot devices nearly destroy it . " She felt the main strength of the episode was the use of a science fiction crisis " to frame a story about love and sacrifice , the horrors of war and the burdens of command " . Alan Stanley Blair of Airlock Alpha felt that the episode succeeded in the atmosphere it created , opining that " 1918 is a fantastic setting for a ghost story " and that like " Kiss Kiss Bang Bang " and " Sleeper " , the episode showed that " all the [ wrinkles ] from the first season have been completely ironed out " .
Den of Geek 's Andrew Mickel also enjoyed the episode , contrary to his expectations , having not been impressed by either Torchwood 's earlier stories nor Helen Raynor 's Doctor Who scripts . He appreciated that the episode centred on Toshiko , rather than Gwen whom he felt to be " a personal figure of hate " , and felt that Tommy was " endearing in a burkish kind of way " . Mickel felt that Raynor " pulled off the characterisation that was so sorely missing from [ " Sleeper " ] " whilst also treating Tommy 's wartime origin with subtlety . Jason Hughes of AOL TV singled out the juxtaposition of Toshiko and Tommy 's romance and the military hospital ghost hauntings for praise . He compared the episode to a " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode of The X @-@ Files in that it " doesn 't do much to push the overall mythology of the series forward but still manages to capture what day @-@ to @-@ day life in Torchwood would be like " .
= Ko Olina Station and Center =
Ko Olina Station and Ko Olina Center make up a lifestyle center in the resort town of Ko Olina , a neighborhood in Kapolei , Hawaii . The shopping mall opened in 2009 and consists of two centers located across a street from each other . Ko Olina Station debuted in 2009 , while the more recent Ko Olina Center finished construction in 2010 . The centers contain a total of approximately 31 retail tenants , with the majority of them being native Hawaiian businesses , such as ABC Stores and Peter Merriman 's MonkeyPod Kitchen .
The center was modeled after a " rural " Hawaiian community , with its grocery store modeled after a " country store " . It is located directly north along the old Oahu Railway and Land Company tracks , and includes a mix of dining and retail options .
= = History = =
Ko Olina Station and Ko Olina Center were built to cater to those staying at any of the four Ko Olina resorts : Aulani , Four Seasons ' Ihilani Resort , Ko Olina Beach Villas , and Marriott 's Ko Olina Beach Club . The shopping mall was built in the center of the Ko Olina Golf Club , which hosts the Lotte Championship for golf every spring since 2012 . The lifestyle center was developed by Honu Group , with its first phase , Ko Olina Station , opening in 2009 . Ko Olina Center opened in 2010 , and unlike Station , featured a second floor for office space . Located directly across from Aulani , the center 's purpose is to " offer office space , speciality stores , restaurants , amenities and other services " to Ko Olina . Together , they consist of 56 @,@ 000 square feet ( 5 @,@ 200 m2 ) of retail and office space , with Station consisting of sixteen tenants and Center consisting of fourteen .
In 2014 , the center added several new retailers to their lineup , including Wyland Galleries , Island Sole , and Honolua Surf Co .. After this announcement followed the expansion of Pineapple Boutique , a luxury apparel retailer , that stated the opening of a second location within the mall . However , when the JW Marriott Ihilani , a former resort in Ko Olina , announced its closure , the center 's tenants became worried about their businesses ; Frank Mento , the owner of Pizza Corner , a local pizzeria , joked that his pizza parlor would " lose a slice of its sales " . As of June 2016 , the lifestyle center is approaching full capacity , with only 3 vacant retail tenants and 5 vacant office tenants .
= = Design = =
Many of the stores and tenants that are located in Ko Olina Station and Center were designed to resemble rural Hawaii . Island Country Market , the center 's grocery store owned by ABC Stores , is modeled after a Hawaiian " rural country store " . Jessica Goolsby of MidWeek described the store as a " fresh @-@ market concept " with " high @-@ quality foods " that contributes to a " one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind shopping experience " . The mall is located next to the old Oahu Railway and Land Company tracks , which originally hauled freight and passengers to the North Shore of Oahu ; this location influenced the overall design of the center , incorporating the " historic " feel of the railroads .
= The Bread @-@ Winners =
The Bread @-@ Winners : A Social Study is an 1883 novel by John Hay , former secretary to Abraham Lincoln who in 1898 became Secretary of State . The book takes an anti @-@ organized labor stance , and when published anonymously sold well and provoked considerable public interest in determining who the author was .
The plot of the book revolves around former army captain Arthur Farnham , a wealthy resident of Buffland ( an analog of Cleveland ) . He organizes Civil War veterans to keep the peace when the Bread @-@ winners , a group of lazy and malcontented workers , call a violent general strike . He is sought in marriage by the ambitious Maud Matchin , daughter of a carpenter , but instead takes a woman of his own class .
Hay wrote his only novel as a reaction to several strikes that affected him and his business interests in the 1870s and early 1880s . Originally published in installments in The Century Magazine , the book attracted wide interest . Hay had left hints as to his identity in the novel , and some guessed right , but he never acknowledged the book as his , and it did not appear with his name on it until after his death in 1905 . Hay 's hostile view of organized labor was soon seen as outdated , and the book is best remembered for its onetime popularity and controversial nature .
= = Plot = =
One of the wealthiest and most cultured residents of the famed Algonquin Avenue in Buffland ( a city intended to be Cleveland ) , Captain Arthur Farnham is a Civil War veteran and widower — his wife died of illness while accompanying him at a remote frontier post . Since he left the army , he has sought to involve himself in municipal affairs , but fails though political naiveté . The victorious party has allowed him the position of chairman of the library board . In that capacity , he is approached by Maud Matchin , daughter of carpenter Saul Matchin , a man content with his lot . His daughter is not , and seeks employment at the library as a means of bettering herself . Farnham agrees to put her case , but is defeated by a majority on the board , who have their own candidate . She finds herself attracted to Farnham , who is more interested in Alice Belding , daughter of his wealthy widow neighbor .
Saul Matchin had hoped that his daughter would become a house servant , but having attended high school , she feels herself too good for that . She is admired by Saul 's assistant Sam Sleeny , who lives with the Matchins , a match favored by her father . Sleeny is busy repairing Farnham 's outbuildings , and is made jealous by interactions between the captain and Maud . Seeing Sleeny 's discontent , Andrew Jackson Offitt ( true name Ananias ) , a locksmith and " professional reformer " , tries to get him to join the Bread @-@ winners , a labor organization . Sleeny is happy with his employment , " Old Saul Matchin and me come to an agreement about time and pay , and both of us was suited . Ef he 's got his heel into me , I don 't feel it , " but due to his unhappiness over Maud , is easy game for Offitt , who gets him to join , and to pay the dues that are Offitt 's visible means of support .
Maud has become convinced that she is in love with Farnham , and declares it to him . It is not reciprocated , and the scene is witnessed both by Mrs. Belding and by Sleeny . The widow believes Farnham when he states he had given Maud no encouragement , but her daughter , when her mother incautiously tells her of the incident , does not . When Farnham seeks to marry Alice , she turns him down and asks him never to renew the subject .
Offitt 's membership has tired of endless talk , and plans a general strike , a fact of which Farnham is informed by Mr. Temple , a salty @-@ talking vice president of a rolling mill . An element among the strikers also plans to loot houses along Algonquin Avenue , including Farnham 's . The strike begins , paralyzing Buffland 's commerce , though it is initially nonviolent . Neither the mayor nor the chief of police , when approached by Farnham , are willing to guard Algonquin Avenue . Farnham proceeds to organize Civil War veterans , and purchases weapons to arm them . After Farnham 's force rescues the mayor from being attacked , he deputizes them as special police — on condition there is no expense to the city .
Meanwhile , Maud tells her father she will never marry Sleeny . She is wooed by Bott , who is a spiritualist and a Bread @-@ winner , and also by Offitt . Neither meets success , though Offitt dexterously prevents her from actually saying no , and through flattery and stories of his alleged past piques her interest .
By the end of the second day of the strike , which has spread to Buffland 's rival city of Clearfield [ in the serialization , " Clevealo " ] , the mood among the laborers has turned ugly . Temple warns that the attacks on Algonquin Avenue are imminent , and aids Farnham 's force in turning back assaults on the captain 's house and on the Belding residence . Bott and Sleeny are captured by the force ; the former is sent to prison but Farnham has pity on Sleeny as a good workman , and the carpenter serves only a few days . The settlement of the strike in Clearfield takes the wind out of the Buffland action , and soon most are back at work , though some agitators are dismissed .
Offitt , despite being one of the leaders of the assault on the Belding house , has escaped blame and befriends the sullen Sleeny on his release . Upon learning that some workers pay their landlord , Farnham , in the evening of the rent day at his home , Offitt comes up with a scheme — rob and murder Farnham and let Sleeny take the blame as Offitt elopes with Maud . Accordingly , Offitt sneaks into Farnham 's house with Sleeny 's hammer , but just as he is striking the fatal blow , Alice Belding , who can see what is going on from her house through an opera glass , screams , distracting Offitt enough so that Farnham is hurt by the blow , but not killed . Offitt hurries away with the money , and proceeds to frame Sleeny . After realizing Offitt 's treachery , Sleeny escapes jail and kills him . The stolen money is found on Offitt 's body , clearing Sleeny in the assault on Farnham , but the carpenter must still stand trial for the killing of Offitt , in which he is aided by partisan testimony from Maud . A sympathetic jury ignores the law to find him not guilty . Sleeny wins Maud 's hand in marriage , and Farnham and Alice Belding are to be wed .
= = Background = =
= = = John Hay = = =
John Hay was born in Indiana in 1838 , and grew up in frontier Illinois . During his apprenticeship to become a lawyer in his uncle 's office in Springfield , he came to know Abraham Lincoln , and worked for his presidential campaign in 1860 . He was made Lincoln 's assistant personal secretary , and spent the years of the American Civil War working for him ; the two men forged a close relationship .
After the war , Hay worked for several years in diplomatic posts abroad , then in 1870 became a writer for Horace Greeley 's New @-@ York Tribune , continuing there under Whitelaw Reid after Greeley 's death in 1872 . Hay was a gifted writer for the Tribune , but also achieved success with literary works . In 1871 , he published Pike County Ballads , a group of poems written in the dialect of frontier Pike County , Illinois , where Hay had attended school . The same year , he published Castilian Days , a collection of essays on Spain , some of which had been written while Hay was posted as a diplomat in Madrid .
In 1873 , Hay began to woo Clara Stone , daughter of wealthy Cleveland industrialist Amasa Stone , and wed her in 1874 . The marriage made Hay wealthy . Hay and his wife moved to Cleveland , where Hay managed Amasa Stone 's investments . In December 1876 , a train of Stone 's Lake Shore Railway was crossing a bridge when the structure collapsed . The Ashtabula River Railroad Disaster , including the subsequent fire , killed 92 people , the worst rail disaster in American history to that point . Stone held the patent for the design of the bridge and was widely blamed ; he left Hay in charge of his businesses in mid @-@ 1877 as he went to travel in Europe .
Hay biographer Robert Gale recorded that between the publication of the last of Hay 's short fiction in 1871 and that of his only novel in 1883 , " Hay married money , entered into a lucrative business arrangement in Cleveland with his conservative father @-@ in @-@ law [ and ] joined the right wing of the Ohio Republican Party ... The Bread @-@ Winners was written by a person made essentially different as a result of these experiences . "
= = = Postwar labor troubles and literary reaction = = =
Although the American Civil War did not itself transform the United States from a largely agrarian to an urban society , it gave great impetus to a change already under way , especially in the North . The challenges of feeding , clothing , and equipping the Union Army caused the building or expansion of many factories and other establishments . This made many wealthy , and led to an industrialized America .
This transformation did not stop when the war ended ; industrial production in the United States increased by 75 % from 1865 to 1873 , making the U.S. second only to Britain in manufacturing output . Railroad construction made practical the exploitation of the trans @-@ Mississippi West . Although the railroads helped fuel an economic boom , they proved a two @-@ edged sword in the 1870s . The 1872 Crédit Mobilier scandal , over graft in the construction of the First Transcontinental Railroad , shook the Grant administration to its highest levels . Railroad bankruptcies in the Panic of 1873 led to loss of jobs , wage cuts , and business failures . These disturbances culminated in the Railroad Strikes of 1877 , when workers struck over cut wages and loss of jobs . The action originally started on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad , but spread to other lines , including the Lake Shore , much to Hay 's outrage . Federal troops were sent by President Rutherford B. Hayes to quash the strikes , at the cost of over 100 civilian lives . The Lake Shore dispute , unlike those elsewhere , was settled without violence . Hay remained angry , and blamed foreign agitators for the dispute . He condemned the " unarmed rebellion of foreign workingmen , mostly Irish " and informed Stone by letter , " the very devil seems to have entered into the lower classes of working men and there are plenty of scoundrels to encourage them to all lengths . "
Public opinion was generally against the strikes in the 1877 disputes and called for them to be ended by force to preserve property and stability . The strike and its suppression featured in many books of the period , such as Thomas Stewart Denison 's An Iron Crown : A Tale of the Great Republic ( 1885 ) , with novelists often sympathizing with the demands of the strikers , though decrying their violence . Another labor dispute that likely affected Hay 's writing of The Bread @-@ Winners was the Cleveland Rolling Mills strike of June 1882 , which occurred just before Hay first submitted his manuscript . During the dispute , union members violently attempted to prevent strikebreakers from entering the mills . A third strike that may have affected the final form of The Bread @-@ Winners was that against Western Union in 1883 — Hay was then a director of that corporation .
Gale noted that The Bread @-@ Winners has sometimes been characterized as the first anti @-@ labor novel , but it was preceded by Thomas Bailey Aldrich 's The Stillwater Tragedy ( 1880 ) . Aldrich had little knowledge of workers , and his book was not successful . Nevertheless , The Stillwater Tragedy was one of a very few novels to deal with labor unions at all , prior to Hay 's book .
= = Themes = =
Scott Dalrymple , in his journal article on The Bread @-@ Winners , argues , " the brunt of Hay 's ire seems aimed less toward these working men themselves than toward troublesome union organizers . Left to their own devices , Hay believes , most laborers are reasonable creatures " . Hay biographers Howard L. Kushner and Anne H. Sherrill agree , writing that the author was attempting " to expose the way in which this class , due to its ignorance , fell prey to the villainies of false social reformers " . To Hay , unions were dangerous as they manipulate the uneducated worker ; it was better for laborers to work out their pay and conditions individually with their employer , as Sleeny does with Matchin . In his journal article , Frederic Jaher notes that Offitt , a self @-@ described reformer , " is arrogant , tyrannical and self @-@ righteous . Hay 's message is clear : the established system needs no basic change ; eliminate the agitator and harmony returns . "
Offitt , at birth , was given the forenames Andrew Jackson , which according to Hay shows that the bearer " is the son of illiterate parents , with no family pride or affections , but filled with a bitter and savage partisanship which found its expression in a servile worship of the most injurious personality in American history " . Hay despised President Jackson and Jacksonian democracy , which he deemed corrupt and responsible for the continuation of the slave system that Hay saw overthrown at huge cost in the American Civil War . He feared a return to values he deemed anticapitalist , and made the Bread @-@ winners " the laziest and most incapable workmen in town " , whose ideals are pre @-@ industrialist and foreign in origin . Hay saw no excuse for violence ; as the will of the people could be expressed through the ballot , the remedy for any grievances was the next election . According to Gale , Hay " never loses an opportunity to demean the Irish " — they are depicted as talkative and easily led ( Offitt writes for the Irish Harp ) , and the reader is told that " there was not an Irish laborer in the city but knew his way to his ward club as well as to mass " .
Jaher noted that Hay 's view of what a worker should be is summed up in the character of Saul Matchin . Although a successful craftsman , he remains within the working class , not seeking to rise above his station , and is content with his lot . His children are not willing to remain within that class , however : the sons run away and the daughters seek to marry well , symbolizing the change being wrought by industrialization . Robert Dunne points out that the working classes are not depicted favorably in Hay 's novel , but as " stupid and ill @-@ bred , at the best loyal servants to the gentry and at the worst overly ambitious and a threat to the welfare of Buffland " . Sloane considers unfavorable depictions of the working classes inevitable given the plot , and less noticeable than skewed portrayals of the wealthy in other books of the time .
Farnham and Alice Belding are the two characters in the novel who were never part of the working class , but who are scions of wealth , and they are presented favorably . Other , self @-@ made members of the elite are depicted as more vulgar : Mrs. Belding 's indulgence in gossip endangers the budding romance between her daughter and Farnham , while Mr. Temple , though brave and steadfast , can only discuss a few topics , such as horse racing , and his speech is described as peppered with profanities . The rest of Buffland 's society , as displayed at a party at Temple 's house , is composed of " a group of gossipy matrons , vacuous town belles , and silly swains " .
= = Writing = =
Hay wrote The Bread @-@ Winners sometime during the winter or spring of 1881 – 82 . At the time , he was busy with his part of the massive Lincoln biography he was compiling with John Nicolay , Abraham Lincoln : A History . His work on the Lincoln project had been delayed by diphtheria and attendant medical treatment , and was further delayed by The Bread @-@ Winners , as once Hay began work on his only novel , he found himself unable to put it aside . The manuscript was completed by June 1882 , when he sent it to Richard Watson Gilder , editor of The Century Magazine , though whether he was submitting it for publication or advice is unclear . Gilder called it " a powerful book " , but did not immediately offer to publish it in his magazine .
Aside from his family and Gilder , likely the only person who knew that Hay was writing a novel was his friend Henry Adams . In 1880 , Adams had published Democracy : An American Novel , anonymously , and when Hay arrived in Britain in July 1882 , he found speculation as to its authorship to be a popular pursuit . He sent Adams a copy of a cheap British edition , writing " I think of writing a novel in a hurry and printing it as by the author of Democracy . "
During the summer of 1882 , Hay showed the manuscript to his friend , author William Dean Howells . Howells urged Aldrich , editor of the Atlantic Monthly , to publish it . Aldrich agreed , sight unseen , on condition that Hay allow his name to be used as author . Hay was not willing to permit this , and resubmitted the manuscript to Gilder , who agreed to Hay 's condition that it be published anonymously . In an anonymous letter to The Century Magazine after the book was published , Hay alleged that he chose not to reveal his name because he was engaged in business where his stature would be diminished if it were known he had written a novel . According to Dalrymple , the likely real reason was that if it were published under Hay 's name , it would harm his ambitions for office , for " to attack labor overtly , in print , would not have been politically prudent . " Tyler Dennett , in his Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning biography , speculated that Hay , in his later career , would not have been confirmed either as ambassador to Great Britain ( 1897 ) or as Secretary of State ( 1898 ) had senators associated him with The Bread @-@ Winners .
Although The Bread @-@ Winners was published anonymously , Hay left clues to his identity throughout the novel . Farnham leads the library board , as did Hay 's father . Hay 's brother Leonard served on the frontier , like Farnham ; another brother grew exotic flowers , as does Farnham . Algonquin Avenue , analog of Cleveland 's Euclid Avenue ( where Hay lived ) , is home to the novel 's protagonist . In the opening chapter , Farnham 's study is described in detail and closely resembles Hay 's .
= = Serialization = =
In March 1883 , the Century Company circulated a postcard , with copies likely going to newspapers and potential subscribers . Under the heading " Literary Note from The Century Co . " , and giving some information about the plot , it announced that an anonymous novel , " unusual in scene and subject , and powerful in treatment " would soon be serialized in the pages of the Century . The serial was originally supposed to begin in April or May , but was postponed because Frances Hodgson Burnett 's novel Through One Administration ran long . On July 20 , the date of release of the August number , the company placed newspaper advertisements for The Bread @-@ Winners , and stated that " the story ... abounds in local description and social studies , which heighten the interest and continually pique curiosity as to its authorship " . The Bread @-@ Winners appeared in the Century from August 1883 to January 1884 , when it was issued as a book by Harper and Brothers .
By July 25 , 1883 , Cleveland newspapers were taking note of the literary mystery , with initial guesses that the author was some former Clevelander who had moved east . In early August , the New @-@ York Tribune reported that the author was the late Leonard Case , a Cleveland industrialist and philanthropist — the manuscript had supposedly been found among his papers . Few believed the chronically ill and introverted bachelor could have created the vivid portrait of the shapely Maud Matchin . With Case dismissed , speculation turned to other Ohioans , including Cleveland Superintendent of Schools Burke Aaron Hinsdale , former congressman Albert Gallatin Riddle ( author of twelve books ) , and John Hay . The Boston Evening Transcript on August 18 stated , " we have an idea that none of these guesses are correct " . Others suggested that the anonymous author of Democracy ( Henry Adams 's authorship was not yet known ) had penned a second controversial work .
The furor fueled sales , with the Century later reporting that it gained 20 @,@ 000 new subscribers because of the serial . The August issue of the Century , in which the first four chapters were serialized , sold out . The September issue also sold out , but went to a second printing . The Century loudly proclaimed these facts in promotional advertisements , and that it was coining money as a result . As the second installment was read , and the character of Alice Belding became prominent , there was speculation in the press that a female hand had written the novel , with suspicion falling on Constance Fenimore Cooper ( great @-@ niece of James Fenimore Cooper ) , whose novels were set in eastern Ohio . On September 18 , the Washington correspondent for the Evening Transcript noted the resemblance of Farnham 's study to Hay 's . Other candidates for the authorship were Howells ( though he quickly denied it ) and Hay 's friend Clarence King , a writer and explorer .
On October 23 , 1883 , an interview with Hay , who had just returned from a trip to Colorado , appeared in the pages of the Cleveland Leader . Hay stated that such a novel would be beyond his powers , and that inaccuracies in the depiction of the local scene suggested to him that it was not written by a Clevelander . He offered no candidates who might have written it . Nevertheless , in November , the Leader ran a column speculating that Hay was the author , based on phrases used both in The Bread @-@ Winners and in Hay 's earlier book , Castilian Days , and by the fact that one character in the novel was from Salem , Indiana , Hay 's birthplace . Further textual analyses led a number of newspapers in early 1884 ( when the novel appeared in book form ) to state it had been written by Hay .
Tiring of the guessing game , some newspapers descended to satire . The New Orleans Daily Picayune surveyed the lengthy list of candidates and announced that " the authors of The Bread Winners [ sic ] will all meet at Chautauqua next summer " . Another columnist suggested that a statistic be put in the next census for the number of people named as the author . The appearance of President Arthur 's annual message to Congress in December 1883 caused the Rochester Herald to opine that he had written The Bread @-@ Winners " because a careful comparison of his message with the story shows many words common to both " . Another Upstate New York paper , the Troy Times , evoked Parson Weems 's tales of George Washington : " We cannot tell a lie . We wrote The Bread winners [ sic ] with our own little hatchet . If any one doubts it , we can show him the hatchet . " This admission , the Buffalo Express felt , should put an end to the discussion .
= = Reaction = =
= = = Critical = = =
The Bread @-@ Winners received some favorable reviews , such as that by GP Lathrop in Atlantic Monthly in May 1884 . Lathrop applauded the author 's portrayal of the characters , and suggested that Maud Matchin was a notable addition to the " gallery of national types " in American literature . The Century reviewed the book the same month , in an article written by Howells , though he signed it only " W " . He saw Maud as " the great discovery of the book " and applauded it as a treatment of an area of American life not previously written about . Similarly , a reviewer for Harper 's Magazine liked the parts of the novel set among the lower classes .
According to David E. E. Sloane , " most American critics found it harder to overlook the coarseness of the book and its treatment of the labor problem . " A reviewer for Literary World in January 1884 called The Bread @-@ Winners a " greasy , slangy , malodorous book ... repulsive from the very first step " . The Dial , the following month , praised the author 's use of language but deemed the book " a preposterous tissue of incidents " populated by two sets of " exaggerated types " , one vicious , the other absurd . Continent , also in February 1884 , suggested that " the criticisms as a whole are severe , and justly so , the book being , with all its brilliancy , faithless and hopeless . " The Springfield Republic suggested that the author had " no sympathies beyond the circles of wealth and refinement " , from which " the workingman is either a murderous ruffian , or a senseless dupe , or a stolid , well @-@ meaning drudge , while the man of wealth is , necessarily , a refined , cultivated hero , handsome , stylish , fascinating " . A letter in The Century Magazine deemed the novel " a piece of snobbishness imported from England ... It is simply untruthful ... to continue the assertion that trade unions are mainly controlled and strikes originated by agitators , interested only for what they make out of them " .
British critics were generally more favorable toward the book than Americans . In a column in the Pall Mall Gazette , The Bread @-@ Winners was seen as " eminently clever and readable , a worthy contribution to that American novel @-@ literature which is at the present day , on the whole , ahead of our own , " a statement which Harper 's used in advertisements . A reviewer for London 's Saturday Review described the book as " one of the strongest and most striking stories of the last ten years " .
= = = Responses = = =
Hay 's novel provoked several works in response . Ohio Congressman Martin Foran announced in March 1884 that he would write a book rebutting the author 's view of labor , and published it in 1886 under the title The Other Side . Harriet Boomer Barber ( writing under the pen name Faith Templeton ) kept a number of Hay 's characters , while " turning the American industrial world into a sort of Christian utopia " in her Drafted In ( 1888 ) . Stephen Crane 's 1895 short story , " A Christmas Dinner Won in Battle " satirizes The Bread @-@ Winners .
The most successful response was The Money @-@ Makers ( 1885 ) , published anonymously by Henry Francis Keenan , a former colleague of Hay 's at the New @-@ York Tribune . Keenan 's work left little doubt that he had fixed on Hay as author of The Bread @-@ Winners , as it contains characters clearly evoking Hay , his family , and associates . Aaron Grimestone parallels Amasa Stone , Hay 's father @-@ in @-@ law . When the Academy Opera House collapses , taking hundreds of lives , Grimestone is deemed responsible for its faulty construction — as Stone was for the deaths in the Ashtabula railway disaster . Grimestone eventually commits suicide by shooting himself in his bathroom , as did Stone in 1883 . His daughter Eleanor parallels Clara Stone Hay , and Keenan 's descriptions of Eleanor make it clear she is , like Clara , heavyset . The character Archibald Hilliard is modeled after Hay , and the description of his appearance is that of Hay even to the mustache . Hilliard was a secretary to a high official in Washington , and later a diplomat and editor , entering journalism in the same year as Hay . Hilliard becomes a brilliant writer at the Atlas , a reforming New York paper like the Tribune , under the editorship of Horatio Blackdaw , that is , Tribune editor Whitelaw Reid . Although she is not physically attractive to him , Hilliard woos Eleanor , convincing himself he is not merely a fortune seeker .
When Hay received a copy of The Money @-@ Makers , according to later accounts , he is said to have hurried to New York to buy up as many copies as he could . He wrote the publisher , William Henry Appleton , complaining about the " savage libel " against Amasa Stone . Appleton agreed to several changes , including the manner of suicide , and undertook not to advertise the book further . Later in 1885 , a laudatory biographical sketch of Stone , written by " J.H. " , appeared in the Magazine of Western History , attributing Stone 's suicide to insomnia . According to Clifford A. Bender in his journal article on the Keenan book , " the principal reason The Money @-@ Makers has remained in obscurity seems to be that John Hay suppressed it , " and though he deemed it superior to The Bread @-@ Winners , Dalrymple suggests that Keenan 's book " seems more the product of a personal vendetta than an ideological disagreement " .
= = Publication and aftermath = =
By the standards of the day , The Bread @-@ Winners was a modest bestseller , with 25 @,@ 000 copies sold in the United States by mid @-@ 1885 . Two editions were published in Britain and a pirated edition in Canada , along with a reported sale of 3 @,@ 000 in the Australian colonies . Translations were published in French , German , and Swedish . By comparison , Adams 's Democracy sold only 14 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S. , and took four years to do so . Nevertheless , The Bread @-@ Winners did not compare with the leading bestsellers of the 1880s , such as Lew Wallace 's Ben Hur : A Tale of the Christ ( 1880 ) , which sold 290 @,@ 000 copies by 1888 , and Edward Bellamy 's story of the future , Looking Backward ( 1887 ) , which sold nearly 1 million copies in its first decade .
John Hay never acknowledged the book , nor was it attributed to him in his lifetime ; as Gilder put it , " guessing right isn 't finding out " . Hay and Adams amused themselves by suggesting that the other might have written it , with Hay writing to his friend , " if you have been guilty of this ... libel upon Cleveland , there is no condonement possible in this or any subsequent worlds " . At Hay 's death in 1905 , obituarists were uncertain whether to assign the novel to him , an exception being The New York Times , which used handwriting analysis to link the book to him , and published it in its entirety over six Sundays later that year . In 1907 , with the permission of Clara Hay , the book was officially acknowledged as his , and in 1916 it was republished in John Hay 's name , with an introduction by his son , Clarence .
= = Historical view = =
Jaher opined that the book became antiquated as America evolved an understanding of industrial problems , and found Hay 's view of labor superficial . Accordingly , the book had little lasting influence , and is remembered only for its onetime popularity and controversy . According to Dalrymple , " the anti @-@ labor novels fail to hold up particularly well . None is a masterpiece of language , plotting , or characterization . Ideologically all seem quite heavy @-@ handed , choosing to make their points with a nearly complete lack of subtlety . "
Because of his prominence as a statesman , Hay has had a number of biographers in the century since his death . Sloane suggested that early biographers , aware of the nature of the novel 's themes , were defensive in their treatment of it . Lorenzo Sears , for example , who wrote of Hay in 1915 , called The Bread @-@ Winners one of several " waifs and strays " of Hay 's literary career . Dennett , writing in 1933 , deemed the book Hay 's honest effort to set forth a problem he could not solve . Other historians were more hostile : Vernon L. Parrington in 1930 called it a " dishonest book " and " a grotesque fabric smeared with unctuous morality " . More recently , Gale ( writing in 1978 ) described it as " a timely , popular and controversial novel that still rewards the sympathetic reader " , while Hay 's most recent biographer , John Taliaferro ( 2013 ) deemed it " certainly no love letter to [ Cleveland ] " .
= Mantis =
Mantises are an order ( Mantodea ) of insects that contains over 2 @,@ 400 species and about 430 genera in 15 families . The largest family is the Mantidae ( " mantids " ) . Mantises are distributed worldwide in temperate and tropical habitats . They have triangular heads with bulging eyes supported on flexible necks . Their elongated bodies may or may not have wings , but all Mantodea have fore legs that are greatly enlarged and adapted for catching and gripping prey ; their upright posture , while remaining stationary with fore arms folded , has led to the common name praying mantis .
They are mostly ambush predators , but a few ground @-@ dwelling species are found actively pursuing their prey . They normally live for about a year . In cooler climates , the adults lay eggs in autumn then die . The eggs are protected by their hard capsules and hatch in the spring . Females sometimes practice sexual cannibalism , eating their mates after copulation . Occasionally , the females decapitate the males just before or during mating .
The closest relatives of mantises are the termites and cockroaches ( Blattodea ) , which are all within the superorder Dictyoptera . Mantises are sometimes confused with stick insects ( Phasmatodea ) , other elongated insects such as grasshoppers ( Orthoptera ) , or other insects with raptorial fore legs such as mantisflies ( Mantispidae ) .
Mantises were considered to have supernatural powers by early civilizations , including Ancient Greece , Ancient Egypt , and Assyria . A cultural trope popular in cartoons imagines the female mantis as a femme fatale . Mantises are among the insects most commonly kept as pets .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
Over 2 @,@ 400 species of mantis in about 430 genera are recognized . They are predominantly found in tropical regions , but some live in temperate areas . The systematics of mantises have long been disputed . Mantises , along with stick insects ( Phasmatodea ) , were once placed in the order Orthoptera with the cockroaches ( now Blattodea ) and rock crawlers ( now Grylloblattodea ) . Kristensen ( 1991 ) combined the Mantodea with the cockroaches and termites into the order Dictyoptera , suborder Mantodea . The name mantodea is formed from the Ancient Greek words μάντις ( mantis ) meaning " prophet " , and εἶδος ( eidos ) meaning " form " or " type " . It was coined in 1838 by the German entomologist Hermann Burmeister . The order is occasionally called the mantes , using a Latinized plural of Greek mantis . The name mantid properly refers only to members of the family Mantidae , which was , historically , the only family in the order . The other common name , praying mantis , applied to any species in the order , but in Europe mainly to Mantis religiosa , comes from the typical " prayer @-@ like " posture with folded fore limbs .
The classification most commonly adopted is that proposed by Beier in 1968 . He divided the order into eight families . Klass , in 1997 , studied the external male genitalia and postulated that the families Chaeteessidae and Metallyticidae diverged from the other families at an early date . However , the Mantidae and Thespidae are both polyphyletic , so the Mantodea will have to be revised .
The earliest mantis fossils are about 135 million years old , from Siberia . Fossils of the group are rare : by 2007 , only about 25 fossil species were known . Fossil mantises , including one from Japan with spines on the front legs as in modern mantises , have been found in Cretaceous amber . Most fossils in amber are nymphs ; compression fossils ( in rock ) include adults . Fossil mantises from the Crato Formation in Brazil include the 10 @-@ mm @-@ long Santanmantis axelrodi , described in 2003 ; as in modern mantises , the front legs were adapted for catching prey . Well @-@ preserved specimens yield details as small as 5 μm through X @-@ ray computed tomography .
Because of the similar raptorial fore legs , mantidflies may be confused with mantises . This similarity is an example of convergent evolution ; mantidflies do not have the leathery forewings of mantises .
= = Biology = =
= = = Anatomy = = =
Mantises have large , triangular heads with a beak @-@ like snout and mandibles . They have two bulbous compound eyes , three small simple eyes , and a pair of antennae . The articulation of the neck is also remarkably flexible ; some species of mantis can rotate their heads nearly 180 ° . The mantis thorax consists of a prothorax , a mesothorax , and a metathorax . In all species apart from the genus Mantoida , the prothorax , which bears the head and fore legs , is much longer than the other two thoracic segments . The prothorax is also flexibly articulated , allowing for a wide range of movements of the head and fore limbs while the remainder of the body remains more or less immobile .
Mantises have two spiked , grasping fore legs ( " raptorial legs " ) in which prey items are caught and held securely . In most insect legs , including the posterior four legs of a mantis , the coxa and trochanter combine as an inconspicuous base of the leg ; in the raptorial legs , however , the coxa and trochanter combine to form a segment about as long as the femur , which is a spiky part of the grasping apparatus ( see illustration ) . Located at the base of the femur is a set of discoidal spines , usually four in number , but ranging from none to as many as five depending on the species . These spines are preceded by a number of tooth @-@ like tubercles , which , along with a similar series of tubercles along the tibia and the apical claw near its tip , give the fore leg of the mantis its grasp on its prey . The fore leg ends in a delicate tarsus used as a walking appendage , made of four or five segments and ending in a two @-@ toed claw with no arolium .
Mantises can be loosely categorized as being macropterous ( long @-@ winged ) , brachypterous ( short @-@ winged ) , micropterous ( vestigial @-@ winged ) , or apterous ( wingless ) . If not wingless , a mantis has two sets of wings : the outer wings , or tegmina , are usually narrow and leathery . They function as camouflage and as a shield for the hind wings , which are clearer and more delicate . The abdomen of all mantises consists of 10 tergites , with a corresponding set of nine sternites visible in males and seven visible in females . The abdomen tends to be slimmer in males than females , but ends in a pair of cerci in both sexes .
= = = Vision = = =
Mantises have stereo vision . They locate their prey by sight ; their compound eyes contain up to 10 @,@ 000 ommatidia . A small area at the front called the fovea has greater visual acuity than the rest of the eye , and can produce the high resolution necessary to examine potential prey . The peripheral ommatidia are concerned with perceiving motion ; when a moving object is noticed , the head is rapidly rotated to bring the object into the visual field of the fovea . Further motions of the prey are then tracked by movements of the mantis 's head so as to keep the image centered on the fovea . The eyes are widely spaced and laterally situated , affording a wide binocular field of vision and precise stereoscopic vision at close range . The dark spot on each eye that moves as it rotates its head is a pseudopupil . This occurs because the ommatidia that are viewed " head @-@ on " absorb the incident light , while those to the side reflect it .
As their hunting relies heavily on vision , mantises are primarily diurnal . Many species , however , fly at night , and then may be attracted to artificial lights . Nocturnal flight is especially important to males in locating less @-@ mobile females by detecting their pheromones . Flying at night exposes mantises to fewer bird predators than diurnal flight would . Many mantises also have an auditory thoracic organ that helps them avoid bats by detecting their echolocation calls and responding evasively .
= = = Diet and predation = = =
Mantises are generalist predators of arthropods . The majority of mantises are ambush predators that only feed upon live prey within their reach . They either camouflage themselves and remain stationary , waiting for prey to approach , or stalk their prey with slow , stealthy movements . Larger mantises sometimes eat smaller individuals of their own species , as well as small vertebrates such as lizards and frogs .
Most mantises chase tempting prey if it strays close enough , and will go further when they are especially hungry . Once within reach , mantises strike rapidly to grasp the prey with their spiked raptorial fore legs . Some ground and bark species pursue their prey in a more active way . For example , members of a few genera such as the ground mantises , Entella , Ligaria , and Ligariella run over dry ground seeking prey , much as tiger beetles do .
The fore gut of some species extends the whole length of the insect and can be used to store prey for digestion later . This may be advantageous in an insect that feeds intermittently . Chinese mantises live longer , grow faster , and produce more young when they are able to eat pollen .
= = = Antipredator adaptations = = =
Mantises are preyed on by vertebrates such as frogs , lizards , and birds , and by invertebrates such as spiders and ants . Generally , mantises protect themselves by camouflage , most species being cryptically colored to resemble foliage or other backgrounds , both to avoid predators and to better snare their prey . Those that live on uniformly colored surfaces such as bare earth or tree bark are dorsoventrally flattened so as to eliminate shadows that might reveal their presence . The species from different families called flower mantises are aggressive mimics : They resemble flowers convincingly enough to attract prey that come to collect pollen and nectar . Some species in Africa and Australia are able to turn black after a molt towards the end of the dry season ; at this time of year , bush fires occur and this coloration enables them to blend in with the fire @-@ ravaged landscape ( fire melanism ) .
When directly threatened , many mantis species stand tall and spread their fore legs , with their wings fanning out wide . The fanning of the wings makes the mantis seem larger and more threatening , with some species enhancing this effect with bright colors and patterns on their hind wings and inner surfaces of their front legs . If harassment persists , a mantis may strike with its fore legs and attempt to pinch or bite . As part of the bluffing ( deimatic ) threat display , some species may also produce a hissing sound by expelling air from the abdominal spiracles . Mantises lack chemical protection , so their displays are largely bluff . When flying at night , at least some mantises are able to detect the echolocation sounds produced by bats ; when the frequency begins to increase rapidly , indicating an approaching bat , they stop flying horizontally and begin a descending spiral toward the safety of the ground , often preceded by an aerial loop or spin . If caught , they may slash captors with their raptorial legs .
Mantises , like stick insects , show rocking behavior in which the insect makes rhythmic , repetitive side @-@ to @-@ side movements . Functions proposed for this behavior include the enhancement of crypsis by means of the resemblance to vegetation moving in the wind . However , the repetitive swaying movements may be most important in allowing the insects to discriminate objects from the background by their relative movement , a visual mechanism typical of animals with simpler sight systems . Rocking movements by these generally sedentary insects may replace flying or running as a source of relative motion of objects in the visual field . As ants may be predators of mantises , genera such as Loxomantis , Orthodera , and Statilia , like many other arthropods , avoid attacking them . Exploiting this behavior , a variety of arthropods , including some early @-@ instar mantises , mimic ants to evade their predators .
= = = Reproduction and life history = = =
The mating season in temperate climates typically takes place in autumn , while in tropical areas , mating can occur at any time of the year . To mate following courtship , the male usually leaps onto the female 's back , clasping her thorax and wing bases with his fore legs . He then arches his abdomen to deposit and store sperm in a special chamber near the tip of the female 's abdomen . The female lays between 10 and 400 eggs , depending on the species . Eggs are typically deposited in a frothy mass @-@ produced by glands in the abdomen . This froth hardens , creating a protective capsule , which together with the egg mass is called an ootheca . Depending on the species , the ootheca can be attached to a flat surface , wrapped around a plant , or even deposited in the ground . Despite the versatility and durability of the eggs , they are often preyed on , especially by several species of parasitoid wasps . In a few species , mostly ground and bark mantises in the family Tarachodidae , the mother guards the eggs . The cryptic Tarachodes maurus positions herself on bark with her abdomen covering her egg capsule , ambushing passing prey and moving very little until the eggs hatch . A unique reproductive strategy is adopted by Brunner 's stick mantis from the southern United States . No males have ever been found in this species , and the females breed parthenogenetically . In temperate climates , adults do not survive the winter and the eggs undergo a diapause , hatching in the spring .
As in closely related insect groups in the superorder Dictyoptera , mantises go through three life stages : egg , nymph , and adult ( mantises are among the hemimetabolous insects ) . For smaller species , the eggs may hatch in 3 – 4 weeks as opposed to 4 – 6 weeks for larger species . The nymphs may be colored differently from the adult , and the early stages are often mimics of ants . A mantis nymph grows bigger as it molts its exoskeleton . Molting can happen five to 10 times before the adult stage is reached , depending on the species . After the final molt , most species have wings , though some species remain wingless or brachypterous ( " short @-@ winged " ) , particularly in the female sex . The lifespan of a mantis depends on the species ; smaller ones may live 4 – 8 weeks , while larger species may live 4 – 6 months .
= = = Sexual cannibalism = = =
Sexual cannibalism is common among most predatory species of mantises in captivity . It has sometimes been observed in natural populations , where about a quarter of male @-@ female encounters results in the males being eaten by the female . Around 90 % of the predatory species of mantises participate in sexual cannibalism . Adult males typically outnumber females at first , but their numbers may be fairly equivalent later in the adult stage , possibly because females selectively eat the smaller males . In Tenodera sinensis , 83 % of males escape cannibalism after an encounter with a female , but since multiple matings occur , the probability of a male 's being eaten increases cumulatively .
The female may begin feeding by biting off the male 's head ( as they do with regular prey ) , and if mating has begun , the male 's movements may become even more vigorous in its delivery of sperm . Early researchers thought that because copulatory movement is controlled by a ganglion in the abdomen , not the head , removal of the male 's head was a reproductive strategy by females to enhance fertilization while obtaining sustenance . Later , this behavior appeared to be an artifact of intrusive laboratory observation . Whether the behavior is natural in the field or also the result of distractions caused by the human observer remains controversial . Mantises are highly visual organisms and notice any disturbance in the laboratory or field , such as bright lights or moving scientists . Chinese mantises that had been fed ad libitum ( so that they were not hungry ) actually displayed elaborate courtship behavior when left undisturbed . The male engages the female in a courtship dance , to change her interest from feeding to mating . Under such circumstances , the female has been known to respond with a defensive deimatic display by flashing the colored eyespots on the inside of her front legs .
The reason for sexual cannibalism has been debated ; experiments show that females on low quality diets have a higher chance to engage in sexual cannibalism compared to females on high quality diets . Some consider that submissive males gain a selective advantage by producing offspring . This theory is supported by a quantifiable increase in the duration of copulation among males which are cannibalized , in some cases doubling both the duration and the chance of fertilization . This is contrasted by a study where males were seen to approach hungry females with more caution , and were shown to remain mounted on hungry females for a longer time , indicating that males that actively avoid cannibalism may mate with multiple females . The same study also found that hungry females generally attracted fewer males than those that were well fed . The act of dismounting after copulation is dangerous for males , for at this time , females most frequently cannibalize their mates . An increase in mounting duration appears to indicate that males wait for an opportune time to dismount a hungry female , who would be likely to cannibalize her mate .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = In literature and art = = =
One of the earliest mantis references is in the ancient Chinese dictionary Erya , which gives its attributes in poetry , where it represents courage and fearlessness , and a brief description . A later text , the Jingshi Zhenglei Daguan Bencao ( " Great History of Medical Material Annotated and Arranged by Types , Based upon the Classics and Historical Works " ) from 1108 , gives accurate details of the construction of the egg packages , the development cycle , anatomy , and the function of the antennae . Although mantises are rarely mentioned in Ancient Greek sources , a female mantis in threat posture is accurately illustrated on a series of fifth @-@ century BC silver coins , including didrachms , from Metapontum in Sicily . In the 10th century AD , Byzantine era Adages , Suidas describes an insect resembling a slow @-@ moving green locust with long front legs . He translates Zenobius 2 @.@ 94 with the words seriphos ( maybe a mantis ) and graus , an old woman , implying a thin , dried @-@ up stick of a body .
Western descriptions of the biology and morphology of the mantises became more accurate in the 18th century . Roesel von Rosenhof illustrated and described mantises and their cannibalistic behavior in the Insekten @-@ Belustigungen ( Insect Entertainments ) .
Aldous Huxley made philosophical observations about the nature of death while two mantises mated in the sight of two characters in his 1962 novel Island ( the species was Gongylus gongylodes ) . The naturalist Gerald Durrell 's humorously autobiographical 1956 book My Family and Other Animals includes a four @-@ page account of an almost evenly matched battle between a mantis and a gecko . Shortly before the fatal dénouement , Durrell narrates :
he [ Geronimo the gecko ] crashed into the mantis and made her reel , and grabbed the underside of her thorax in his jaws . Cicely [ the mantis ] retaliated by snapping both her front legs shut on Geronimo 's hind legs . They rustled and staggered across the ceiling and down the wall , each seeking to gain some advantage .
M. C. Escher 's woodcut Dream depicts a human @-@ sized mantis standing on a sleeping bishop . The 1957 film The Deadly Mantis features a mantis as a giant monster .
A cultural trope imagines the female mantis as a femme fatale . The idea is propagated in cartoons by Cable , Guy and Rodd , LeLievre , T. McCracken , and Mark Parisi , among others . It ends Isabella Rossellini 's short film about the life of a praying mantis in her 2008 Green Porno season for the Sundance Channel .
= = = Martial arts = = =
Two martial arts separately developed in China have movements and fighting strategies based on those of the mantis . As one of these arts was developed in northern China , and the other in southern parts of the country , the arts are nowadays referred to ( both in English and Chinese ) as ' Northern Praying Mantis ' and ' Southern Praying Mantis ' . Both are very popular in China , and have also been exported to the West in recent decades .
= = = In mythology and religion = = =
The mantis was considered a god in southern African Khoi and San tradition for its praying posture ; the word for the mantis in Afrikaans is Hottentotsgot ( " god of the Khoi " ) . Several ancient civilizations considered the insect to have supernatural powers ; for the Greeks , it had the ability to show lost travelers the way home ; in the Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead the " bird @-@ fly " is a minor god that leads the souls of the dead to the underworld ; in a list of 9th @-@ century BC Nineveh grasshoppers ( buru ) , the mantis is named necromancer ( buru @-@ enmeli ) and soothsayer ( buru @-@ enmeli @-@ ashaga ) .
= = = As pets = = =
Mantises are among the insects most widely kept as pets . Because the lifespan of a mantis is only about a year , people who want to keep mantises often breed them . At least 31 species are kept and bred in the United Kingdom , the Netherlands , and the United States . The Independent described the " giant Asian praying mantis " as " part stick insect with a touch of Buddhist monk " , and stated that they needed a vivarium around 30 cm ( 12 in ) on each side . The Daily Mail recorded that a pet " budwing mantis " in Arizona " lifted a dead goldfish " out of its bowl and ate it . The Daily South argued that a pet insect was no weirder than a pet rat or ferret , and that while a pet mantis was unusual , it would not " bark , shed , [ or ] need shots or a litter box " .
= = = For pest control = = =
Gardeners who prefer to avoid pesticides may encourage mantises in the hope of controlling insect pests . However , mantises do not have key attributes of biological pest control agents ; they do not specialize in a single pest insect , and do not multiply rapidly in response to an increase in such a prey species , but are general predators . They eat whatever they can catch , including both harmful and beneficial insects . They therefore have " negligible value " in biological control .
Two species , the Chinese mantis and the European mantis , were deliberately introduced to North America in the hope that they would serve as pest controls for agriculture ; they have spread widely in both the United States and Canada .
= = = Mantis @-@ like robot = = =
A prototype robot inspired by the fore legs of the praying mantis has front legs that allow the robot to walk , climb steps , and grasp objects . The multi @-@ jointed leg provides dexterity via a rotatable joint . Future models may include a more spiked fore leg to improve the grip and ability to support more weight .
= Speakers ' Corner , Singapore =
In Singapore , Speakers ' Corner is an area located within Hong Lim Park where citizens and permanent residents of Singapore may demonstrate , hold exhibitions and performances , and speak freely on most topics after prior registration on a government website . Such activities are heavily restricted in other parts of Singapore .
It was launched on 1 September 2000 as a " free speech area " where speaking events could be held without the need to apply for a licence under the Public Entertainments Act ( Cap . 257 , 1985 Rev. Ed . ) , now the Public Entertainments and Meetings Act ( Cap . 257 , 2001 Rev. Ed . ) ( " PEMA " ) . However , it was necessary for people to register their intention to speak at the venue with a police officer at the Kreta Ayer Neighbourhood Police Post any time within 30 days before the event , though there was no requirement for the police to be informed of the topic of the proposed speech . Other conditions imposed were that speeches had to take place between 7 : 00 a.m. and 7 : 00 p.m. , and the use of sound amplification devices was prohibited . In 2002 , exhibitions and performances were permitted to be held at Speakers ' Corner . Conditions for the use of Speakers ' Corner were further liberalized in 2008 . Responsibility for registering people wishing to speak or stage an exhibition or performance was taken over by the Commissioner of Parks and Recreation , and online registration was introduced . It became possible to hold demonstrations provided they are organized by Singapore citizens and the participants are only citizens and permanent residents . Events can now be held around the clock , and self @-@ powered amplification devices like loudhailers may be used between 9 : 00 a.m. and 10 : 30 p.m.
At present , Speakers ' Corner is concurrently regulated by the Parks and Trees Regulations ( Cap . 216 , Rg . 1 , 2006 Rev. Ed . ) , the Public Entertainments and Meetings ( Speakers ' Corner ) ( Exemption ) ( No. 2 ) Order 2011 ( S 493 / 2011 ) ( issued under the PEMA ) and the Public Order ( Unrestricted Area ) ( No. 2 ) Order 2011 ( S 494 / 2011 ) ( issued under the Public Order Act 2009 ( No. 15 of 2009 ) ( " POA " ) ) . The applicable conditions have remained essentially unchanged . Speakers and demonstration organizers must be Singapore citizens , while participants at demonstrations must be either citizens or permanent residents . Banners , films , flags , photographs , placards , posters , signs , writing or other visible representations or paraphernalia containing violent , lewd or obscene material must not be displayed or exhibited . Persons making speeches must use any of the four official languages of Singapore ( English , Malay , Mandarin and Tamil ) or related dialects , and organizers of demonstrations must be present throughout the event . Events must not deal with any matter that relates directly or indirectly to any religious belief or to religion generally , or which may cause feelings of enmity , hatred , ill @-@ will or hostility between different racial or religious groups in Singapore . Events adhering to the regulations are not immune from other existing laws such as those relating to defamation and sedition .
Articles 14 ( 1 ) ( a ) and ( b ) of the Constitution of Singapore respectively guarantee freedom of speech and expression and freedom of assembly to Singapore citizens . However , the PEMA and POA , which require permits to be obtained before public meetings and assemblies can be held , were enacted pursuant to exceptions to these rights . Article 14 ( 2 ) ( a ) provides that Parliament may by law restrict the right to free speech to protect , among other things , Singapore 's security and public order , and to prevent incitement to any criminal offence . Under Article 14 ( 2 ) ( b ) , the right of assembly may also be limited for public order reasons . As Speakers ' Corner was intended to increase avenues available for the exercise of free speech , the pieces of subsidiary legislation regulating the venue were issued to provide that public speaking and demonstrations there are not subject to the PEMA and POA if the conditions specified in the subsidiary legislation are complied with . Speakers ' Corner has been criticized as a token gesture , though others have pointed to its use by civil society activists as evidence that it has widened the political space in Singapore .
= = Background and establishment = =
Singapore 's political model has been described as a representative democracy , and Singaporeans have constitutional rights to freedom of speech and assembly under Articles 14 ( 1 ) ( a ) and ( b ) of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore . The constitutional rights to free speech and assembly extend only to Singapore citizens . Hence , the Singapore Court of Appeal has held that non @-@ citizens enjoy only common law free speech . Articles 14 ( 1 ) ( a ) and ( b ) are then subject to Articles 14 ( 2 ) ( a ) and ( b ) which allow Parliament to impose , by law , restrictions on the rights to freedom of speech and assembly . The grounds for restrictions are , for freedom of speech , Singapore 's security , friendly relations with other states , public order , public morality , protecting parliamentary privilege , defamation , contempt of court and incitement to any criminal offence ; and for freedom of assembly , public order only . These restrictions made it a lengthy and difficult process to obtain the licence required to address a public gathering .
In response to these free speech concerns , Speakers ' Corner was created as local adaptation of the Speakers ' Corner in Hyde Park , London , in 2000 . In a 1999 interview with New York Times columnist William Safire , the Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong said the idea had first been suggested by the Senior Minister Lee Kuan Yew , but Goh felt that it was not yet the right time to set it up . The following year , the Government decided to go ahead despite its fear of potential public disorder , as the idea enjoyed widespread support from the public and civil society groups . During a Parliamentary debate on the issue on 25 April 2000 , opposition Member of Parliament Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam asked the Minister for Home Affairs Wong Kan Seng whether this was a " mere show " or whether the Government was serious about promoting free speech in Singapore . If the latter , he asked if the Minister would agree to an open debate with the Workers ' Party of Singapore outside Parliament . In response , Wong said there was nothing to prevent Jeyaretnam from making a speech at Speakers ' Corner , but that the public forum for a proper policy debate was in Parliament :
It is not just a question of symbolism . Of course , we have a place to show . It is symbolism in the sense that , yes , if you want a place , there is a place . But for free speech , I think we must not delude ourselves . He [ Jeyaretnam ] can do so on the Internet . He can do so with the press . He can do so in any place he wants , subject to the rules of the land . And he can do so right here . So , what is the worry about having free speech ? There is free speech all the time . It is a question of whether he is prepared to have it or not . Do not run away from it . When we give him an answer , stay here to listen .
Speakers ' Corner was launched on 1 September 2000 at Hong Lim Park , a historical venue for political speeches and rallies . The park 's proximity to the Kreta Ayer Neighbourhood Police Post ( NPP ) also made it convenient for people to register to speak at the venue . In the first nine months , more than a thousand speeches were made .
= = Regulations governing usage = =
= = = Previous regulations = = =
Speakers ' Corner was established by the issuance of the Public Entertainments ( Speakers ' Corner ) ( Exemption ) Order 2000 , which exempted people wishing to speak in Hong Lim Park from the need to apply for a licence under the Public Entertainments Act . Speakers had to be Singapore citizens , as the Government was concerned that the venue should not be used by foreigners " to pursue their own agenda whether in respect of their own domestic issues , or those of other countries , including Singapore 's " . They also had to register their intention to speak with a police officer at the Kreta Ayer NPP any time within 30 days before the public speaking , although there was no need to inform the police of the topic of the proposed speech . However , speakers were not permitted to deal with any matter which related either directly or indirectly to any religious belief or to religion generally , or which might cause feelings of enmity , hatred , ill @-@ will or hostility between different racial or religious groups in Singapore .
On 15 February 2002 , while at Speakers ' Corner , Singapore Democratic Party chief Chee Soon Juan attacked the Government 's decision to suspend four Muslim girls for wearing the tudung ( Islamic headscarf ) to public schools . Contrary to police advice , he chose not to apply for a public entertainment licence , arguing he did not need one . Chee 's speech sparked heated exchanges involving the Sikh practice of wearing turbans . In July , Chee was convicted and fined S $ 3 @,@ 000 for speaking without the required licence . In his judgment , District Judge Kow Keng Siong emphasized the twin considerations of public order and national security in multi @-@ racial and multi @-@ religious Singapore , finding that Chee 's speech had bred social unrest . Under the Constitution of Singapore , a person who has been fined at least $ 2 @,@ 000 cannot stand for election to Parliament for five years . As a result of the incident , Chee was barred from contesting the 2006 general elections .
Other conditions imposed on a speech at Speakers ' Corner were that it had to take place only between 7 : 00 a.m. and 7 : 00 p.m. on the date notified by the person to the police , had to be in any of Singapore 's four official languages ( English , Malay , Mandarin or Tamil ) or any related dialects , and the use of sound amplification devices was prohibited . The latter restriction was justified on the grounds that it would reduce noise pollution and prevent one speaker from drowning out another one , and that it also applied to Speakers ' Corner in London .
In 2002 , exhibitions and performances were also permitted to be held at Speakers ' Corner . The conditions that organizers and participants had to adhere to were broadly similar to those applying to speeches . In addition , the organizer or an authorized agent had to be present at all times during the exhibition or performance , the event could not contain violent , lewd or obscene messages , no banners or placards could be carried by participants , and the event could not be an assembly or procession for which a permit was required under the Miscellaneous Offences ( Public Order and Nuisance ) ( Assemblies and Processions ) Rules .
= = = Current regulations = = =
With effect from 1 September 2008 , under the Public Entertainments and Meetings ( Speakers ' Corner ) ( Exemption ) Order 2008 ( " 2008 PEMA Order " ) , responsibility for registering people wishing to speak or stage an exhibition or performance at Speakers ' Corner was taken over from the police by the Commissioner of Parks and Recreation by way of an amendment to the Parks and Trees Regulations . To provide greater convenience , the National Parks Board made it possible for people to register online at its website . In addition , it became possible to hold demonstrations provided that they are organized by Singapore citizens and the participants are only citizens and permanent residents . As the time period restriction was lifted , events can now be held around the clock . In addition , rules on voice amplification were revised to allow the use of self @-@ powered amplification devices like loudhailers from 9 : 00 a.m. to 10 : 30 p.m. This relaxation of the rules potentially allows for speakers ' messages to be heard by larger audiences . A minor change was also introduced to the conditions for the use of Speakers ' Corner – no banner , film , photograph , placard or poster containing any violent , lewd or obscene material may be displayed or exhibited whether before , during or after the event .
In the first month after public demonstrations were permitted at Speakers ' Corner , 11 out of the 31 applications received were indicated as being public protests . Hearers of Cries , a group concerned with the plight of abused maids , became the first group to hold a public outdoor demonstration at Speakers ' Corner .
The Public Order Act , intended to regulate public assemblies and processions and to introduce new powers for the preservation of public order , came into force on 9 October 2009 . On the same day , the Public Order ( Unrestricted Area ) Order 2009 ( " 2009 POA Order " ) made pursuant to the Act declared that Speakers ' Corner was an unrestricted area in which assemblies and processions could be held without the need for a police permit . Thus , at present , Speakers ' Corner is concurrently regulated by the Parks and Trees Regulations , and by exemption orders issued under the PEMA and POA . The conditions under which addresses , debates , demonstrations , discussions , lectures and talks ( whether or not together with any exhibition , performance , play @-@ reading or recital ) , must be held have remained essentially unchanged . Speakers and demonstration organizers must be Singapore citizens , while participants in demonstrations must be either citizens or permanent residents . Banners , films , flags , photographs , placards , posters , signs , writing or other visible representations or paraphernalia containing violent , lewd or obscene material must not be displayed or exhibited . Persons making speeches must use any of the four official languages of Singapore or related dialects , and organizers of demonstrations must be present throughout the event . In January 2008 , the Complaints Choir , a vocal group participating in the M1 Singapore Fringe Festival 2008 , was denied the chance to perform at Speakers ' Corner and other outdoor venues unless the six foreigners in the group of 50 did not participate in the performance . As the choir did not wish to be split up in any way , it decided not to go ahead with the performance . Queried on the matter in Parliament , the Minister for Communication , Information and the Arts Dr. Lee Boon Yang stated that the Government did not think it " desirable or good precedent " for " foreigners [ to come ] here to organise and to lead Singaporeans to complain about our domestic issues " .
Crucially , events held at Speakers ' Corner must not deal with any matter that relates directly or indirectly to any religious belief or to religion generally , or which may cause feelings of enmity , hatred , ill @-@ will or hostility between different racial or religious groups in Singapore . On 19 September 2008 , Thamiselvan Karuppaya , an Indian real estate agent who wished to speak at Speakers ' Corner about the use of Tamil on public signs , had to change his plans after being informed by the police that he required a permit as the topic of his speech was racially sensitive . A subsequent application for a permit was turned down .
A contravention of the regulations renders speakers and organizers of demonstrations liable to fines of up to $ 10 @,@ 000 , or incarceration of up to six months . The penalty for displaying anything violent , lewd or obscene at a demonstration is a fine not exceeding $ 3 @,@ 000 or , on a subsequent conviction , $ 5 @,@ 000 . Events which adhere to the regulations are also not immune from other existing laws such as those relating to defamation and sedition .
In 2011 , the regulations creating Speakers ' Corner were suspended and then restored twice : first for the purpose of the campaigning period during the general election , and subsequently for the presidential election .
= = Relation to the rights to free speech and assembly = =
In his 2008 National Day Rally speech , Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong indicated that the purpose behind various government policies , including the creation of Speakers ' Corner , was to " liberalise our society , to widen the space for expression and participation " . Its reception was mixed , however , and there have been a wide range of views and perspectives on the impact of Speakers ' Corner in increasing the space for free speech and the freedom to assemble . It has been called an " exercise in tokenism " for the purpose of preserving a literal " space " for engaging in free speech while also " cornering " it in that space . This is reflected in the relative lack of progress towards liberalization in other areas such as awards of high damages in libel lawsuits brought by politicians which has been said to have a chilling effect on political speech in Singapore . Former Workers ' Party member James Gomez has also expressed concerns about the effectiveness of the Speakers ' Corner as a site of vibrant political debate , citing the lack of a " culture of speaking " amongst Singaporeans . The ban on racially or religiously sensitive speech has been criticized as possibly curtailing free speech on genuine political matters and limiting the scope of constitutionally entrenched fundamental liberties .
Despite such criticisms , some social activist groups remain optimistic that Speakers ' Corner represents a step towards political liberalization and the promise of a wider political space . Although Dr. Kenneth Paul Tan , Assistant Dean of the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy , has noted that initial cynicism was inevitable as Speakers ' Corner was a top @-@ down initiative , he recognizes that civil society activists have since actively occupied and made use of Speakers ' Corner to generate public interest in various social and political issues . This view is shared by Professor Bilveer Singh , a political science analyst at the National University of Singapore , who has pointed to large turnouts at events organized at Speakers ' Corner as evidence that Singaporeans are " not fearful and not politically apathetic . "
The government has also shown itself to be sensitive to calls for greater liberalisation on the ground , with Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong acknowledging incremental changes to the rules and regulations at Speakers ' Corner to be necessary for " more citizens to engage in debate " and to " progressively open up our system even more " .
= = Developments = =
In 2008 , Speakers ' Corner was the scene for meetings held over several weeks by Tan Kin Lian , former chief executive of insurance company NTUC Income , to advise people of their legal recourse after structured products they had purchased became virtually valueless upon the collapse of Lehman Brothers . On 23 January 2009 during an event at Speakers ' Corner , the National Solidarity Party gave its views on the national budget one day after it was announced , criticizing the Government for not doing enough to assist unemployed breadwinners during the recession . The Party 's secretary @-@ general , Ken Sunn , said the event was to let Singaporeans " participate , speak and hear various views and opinions on the Singapore Government 's 2009 Budget statement , and discuss ways to improve our Singapore Economy " . The first public rally by the lesbian , gay , bisexual and transgender ( LGBT ) community in Singapore , called Pink Dot SG , was held on 16 May 2009 . Estimates of the number of people who attended ranged from 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 500 people . Held every year since , the event was attended by 28 @,@ 000 people in 2015 . On 31 May 2009 , more than a hundred people attended a demonstration at Speakers ' Corner organized by human rights advocacy group Maruah to call for Myanmar 's military junta to release Aung San Suu Kyi . Participants from Myanmar were requested to remain outside a cordoned @-@ off area since only Singaporeans and permanent residents may attend demonstrations at Speakers ' Corner .
In July 2009 , the police installed closed circuit television ( CCTV ) cameras for " safety and security " . The police said that the cameras complemented the presence of their officers on the ground and did not record audio inputs . The move drew some negative reactions from the public . Former Nominated Member of Parliament Siew Kum Hong felt that the installation of CCTV cameras was " pretty ridiculous " , and wondered if the move might feed the perception in some quarters that Singapore is a police state , since Speakers ' Corner is " the one place in Singapore " where people can demonstrate . Nevertheless , the cameras have not affected various events from being held . With effect from 1 December 2009 , the size of Speakers ' Corner was reduced so that it only occupies the half of Hong Lim Park nearer New Bridge Road . From 1 March 2012 , Speakers ' Corner was expanded to include an area behind Kreta Ayer NPP , near the junction of North Canal Road and South Bridge Road .
A commemorative birthday memorial was organized for J.B. Jeyaretnam , the late leader of the opposition Reform Party , at Speakers ' Corner on 5 January 2010 . At the event , several opposition politicians shared with the public their experiences with Jeyaretnam .
In September 2010 , Today newspaper reported that statistics from the National Parks Board indicated that the number of groups registering to stage events at Speakers ' Corner had fallen from 39 between September 2008 and August 2009 , to nine between September 2009 and August 2010 . The number of individuals registering dropped from 102 to 57 during the same periods . Senior Minister Goh Chok Tong , who was Prime Minister when Speakers ' Corner was set up , expressed the view that its use had declined because there were now other avenues for people to express themselves such as the Internet ( including the Government 's online feedback portal Reach ) , newspapers , and radio and television channels . Also , people might feel that the venue is not always the best place " to meaningfully and constructively press their views on issues " . He saw Speakers ' Corner as " playing the same role as envisaged – mostly dormant but good to have " .
= = = Legislation = = =
Public Entertainments and Meetings Act ( Cap . 257 , 2001 Rev. Ed . ) ( " PEMA " ) .
Public Entertainments ( Speakers ' Corner ) ( Exemption ) Order 2000 ( S 364 / 2000 ) ( " 2000 PEA Order " ) .
Public Entertainments and Meetings ( Speakers ' Corner ) ( Exemption ) Order ( Cap . 257 , O 3 , 2002 Rev. Ed . ) , archived from the original on 27 September 2010 ( " 2002 PEMA Order " ) .
Public Entertainments and Meetings ( Speakers ' Corner ) ( Exemption ) Order 2008 ( S 426 / 2008 ) ( " 2008 PEMA Order " ) .
Public Order Act 2009 ( No. 15 of 2009 ) ( " POA " ) .
Public Order ( Unrestricted Area ) Order 2009 ( S 491 / 2009 ) ( " 2009 POA Order " ) .
= = = Other works = = =
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2003 ) , " Singapore : Regulating Political Speech and the Commitment ' to Build a Democratic Society ' " , International Journal of Constitutional Law 1 ( 3 ) : 516 – 524 , doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / icon / 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 516 .
Wong , Kan Seng ( Minister for Home Affairs ) , " Speakers ' Corner " , Singapore Parliamentary Debates , Official Report ( 25 April 2000 ) , vol . 72 , cols . 20 – 30 .
= = = Articles = = =
Goh , Ivy ( 27 March 2001 ) , Speakers ' Corner , Singapore Infopedia , National Library Board , archived from the original on 27 September 2010 , retrieved 27 September 2010 .
Kurlantzick , Joshua ( Winter 2000 – 2001 ) , " Love My Nanny : Singapore 's Tongue @-@ Tied Populace " , World Policy Journal 17 ( 4 ) : 69 – 74 , JSTOR 40209720 .
Lee , Terence ( March 2002 ) , " The Politics of Civil Society in Singapore " , Asian Studies Review 26 ( 1 ) : 97 – 117 , doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / 1467 @-@ 8403 @.@ 00122 .
Singapore : Asia 's Gilded Cage [ HRF / 55 / 02 ] , Human Rights Features , South Asia Human Rights Documentation Centre , Asia @-@ Pacific Human Rights Network , 17 April 2002 , archived from the original on 2 June 2008 , retrieved 27 September 2010 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2002 ) , " Recent Constitutional Developments : Of Shadows and Whips , Race , Rifts and Rights , Terror and Tudungs , Women and Wrongs " , Singapore Journal of Legal Studies : 328 – 373 at 339 – 340 , SSRN 426950 .
William , Ramesh ( 8 January 2009 ) , " Speak or ( and ? ) be damned " , I @-@ S , archived from the original on 15 September 2010 , retrieved 15 September 2010 .
Wong , Theresa ; Wainwright , Joel ( September 2009 ) , " Offshoring Dissent " , Critical Asian Studies 41 ( 3 ) : 403 – 428 , doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 14672710903119776 .
= = = Books = = =
Lee , Terence ( 2010 ) , The Media , Cultural Control and Government in Singapore , Abingdon , Oxford ; New York , N.Y. : Routledge , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 41330 @-@ 5 .
Wong , Samuel ( 2000 ) , Speak ! or Forever Hold Thy Peace ! : Speaker 's Corner [ sic ] and Free Speech in Singapore [ unpublished academic exercise ] , Singapore : Department of Sociology , Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences , National University of Singapore .
= = = News reports = = =
Mydans , Seth ( 3 September 2000 ) , " ' Tom , Dick and Harry ' of Singapore tasting freedom of Speakers ' Corner " , Chicago Tribune , archived from the original on 27 September 2010 .
Berger , Sebastien ( 28 August 2004 ) , " Worldwide : Few dare to raise their voices at the Singapore Speakers ' Corner " , The Daily Telegraph ( London ) , archived from the original on 27 September 2010 .
Oei , Andre ( 2 February 2009 ) , " A spot for Speakers ' Corner despite growing blogosphere " , The Straits Times ( reproduced on the AsiaOne website ) .
= = = Websites = = =
Complaints Choir of Singapore – Live on YouTube
Our Hope for Singapore @ Speakers Corner ( Part 1 ) on YouTube
Our Hope For Singapore @ Speakers Corner ( Part 2 ) on YouTube
Pink Dot Loves Singapore ! on YouTube
Singapore Iranian Student Protest at Speakers Corner on 11 Feb ( Musical ) on YouTube
Speakers Corner : People , Protests , Freedom on YouTube
Speakers Cornered Teaser on YouTube
= York City F.C. =
York City Football Club is a professional association football club based in the city of York , North Yorkshire , England . The team compete in the National League , the fifth tier of league football in England , as of the 2016 – 17 season .
First founded in 1908 , the club played seven seasons in non @-@ League football before folding in 1917 . A new club was formed in 1922 , and played in the Midland League for seven years before joining the Football League . They played in the third tier until 1959 , when they were promoted for the first time . York achieved their best run in the FA Cup in 1954 – 55 , when they met Newcastle United in the semi @-@ final . They fluctuated between the Third and Fourth Divisions , before spending two seasons in the Second Division in the 1970s . York first played at Wembley Stadium in 1993 , when they won the Third Division play @-@ off final . At the end of 2003 – 04 , they lost their Football League status after being relegated from the Third Division . The 2011 – 12 FA Trophy was the first national knockout competition won by York , and they returned into the Football League that season .
York are nicknamed " the Minstermen " , after York Minster , and the team traditionally play in red kits . They played at Fulfordgate from 1922 to 1932 , when they moved to their current ground , Bootham Crescent . The ground has been subject to numerous improvements over the years , but the club lost ownership of it when it was transferred to a holding company in 1999 . York bought it back five years later , but the terms of the loan used to do so necessitated they move to a new ground . They are due to move into the York Community Stadium in 2018 . York have had rivalries with numerous clubs , but their traditional rivals are Hull City and Scarborough . The club 's record appearance holder is Barry Jackson , who made 539 appearances , while their leading scorer is Norman Wilkinson , with 143 goals .
= = History = =
= = = 1908 – 46 : Original club , refoundation and establishment in Football League = = =
York City Football Club was founded in 1908 as an amateur club , and joined the Northern League and acquired a ground in Holgate Road . They left the Northern League after two seasons when joining the Yorkshire Combination to reduce travelling . The club turned professional in 1912 and purchased a new ground at Field View . York joined the Midland League , where they played for three seasons , rising as high as 10th @-@ place in 1912 – 13 . They played their final season in 1914 – 15 , after which the competition was suspended due to the First World War . The club into liquidation through the bankruptcy court in August 1917 after a creditor pressed for payment for the ground 's stand .
The club was re @-@ founded as York City Association Football and Athletic Club Limited on 6 May 1922 and gained admission into the Midland League , after an unsuccessful application to join the Football League . York ranked in 19th @-@ place in 1922 – 23 and 1923 – 24 , and entered the FA Cup for the first time in the latter . York played in the Midland League for seven seasons , achieving a highest finish of sixth , in 1924 – 25 and 1926 – 27 . They surpassed the qualifying rounds of the FA Cup for the first time in 1926 – 27 , when they were beaten 2 – 1 by Second Division club Grimsby Town in the second round . The club made its first serious attempt for election into the Football League in May 1937 , but this was unsuccessful as Barrow and Accrington Stanley were re @-@ elected . However , the club was successful two years later , being elected into the Football League in June 1929 to replace Ashington in the Third Division North .
York won 2 – 0 against Wigan Borough in their first match in the Football League , and finished 1929 – 30 sixth in the Third Division North . Three years later , York only avoided having to seek re @-@ election after winning the last match of 1932 – 33 . In the 1937 – 38 FA Cup , they eliminated First Division sides West Bromwich Albion and Middlesbrough , and drew 0 – 0 at home to Huddersfield Town in the sixth round , before losing the replay 2 – 1 at Leeds Road . York had been challenging for promotion in 1937 – 38 before faltering in the closing weeks , and in the following season only avoided having to apply for re @-@ election with victory in the penultimate match . They participated in the regional competitions organised by the Football League upon the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 . York played in wartime competitions for seven seasons , and in 1942 won the Combined Counties Cup .
= = = 1946 – 81 : FA Cup run , promotion and relegations = = =
Peacetime football resumed in 1946 – 47 and York finished the next three seasons in midtable . However , they were forced to apply for re @-@ election for the first time after finishing bottom of the Third Division North in 1949 – 50 . York pursued promotion in 1952 – 53 , before finishing fourth with 53 points , which were new club records in the Football League . The club 's longest cup run came when they reached the semi @-@ final of the 1954 – 55 FA Cup , a campaign in which Arthur Bottom scored eight goals . In the semi @-@ final , York drew 1 – 1 with Newcastle United at Hillsborough , before being beaten 2 – 0 at Roker Park in the replay . This meant York had become the first third @-@ tier club to play in an FA Cup semi @-@ final replay . With a 13th @-@ place finish in 1957 – 58 , York became founder members of the Fourth Division , while the clubs finishing in the top half of the North and South sections formed the new Third Division .
York only missed out on the runners @-@ up spot in 1958 – 59 on goal average , and were promoted for the first time in third place . However , they were relegated from the Third Division after just one season in 1959 – 60 . York 's best run in the League Cup came in 1961 – 62 , the competition 's second season , after reaching the fifth round . They were beaten 2 – 1 by divisional rivals Rochdale . York had to apply for re @-@ election for the second time after finishing 22nd in 1963 – 64 , but achieved a second promotion the next season , again in third place in the Fourth Division . York were again relegated after one season , finishing bottom of the Third Division in 1965 – 66 . The club was forced to apply for re @-@ election in three successive seasons , from 1966 – 67 to 1968 – 69 , after finishing in the bottom four of the Fourth Division in each of those season . York 's record of earning promotion every six years was maintained in 1970 – 71 , with a fourth @-@ place finish in the Fourth Division .
York avoided relegation from the Third Division in 1971 – 72 and 1972 – 73 , albeit only on goal average in both seasons . After these two seasons they hit form in 1973 – 74 , when " three up , three down " was introduced to the top three divisions . After being among the leaders most of the season , York were promoted into the Second Division for the first time in third place . The club 's highest @-@ ever league placing was achieved in mid October 1974 when York were fifth in the Second Division , and they finished 1974 – 75 in 15th @-@ place . York finished in 21st @-@ place the following season , and were relegated back into the Third Division . York dropped further still , being relegated in 1976 – 77 after finishing bottom of the Third Division . The 1977 – 78 season culminated in the club being forced to apply for re @-@ election for the sixth time , after ranking third from bottom in the Fourth Division . Two midtable finishes followed before York made their seventh application for re @-@ election , after they finished bottom of the Fourth Division in 1980 – 81 .
= = = 1981 – 2004 : Further promotions and relegation from Football League = = =
In 1981 – 82 , York endured a club @-@ record run of 12 home matches without victory , but only missed out on promotion in 1982 – 83 due to their poor away form in the second half of the season . York won the Fourth Division championship with 101 points in 1983 – 84 , becoming the first Football League team to achieve a three @-@ figure points total in a season . In January 1985 , York recorded a 1 – 0 home victory over First Division Arsenal in the fourth round of the 1984 – 85 FA Cup , courtesy of an 89th @-@ minute penalty scored by Keith Houchen . They proceeded to draw 1 – 1 at home with European Cup holders Liverpool in February 1985 , but lost 7 – 0 in the replay at Anfield ; York 's record cup defeat . The teams met again in the following season 's FA Cup , and after another 1 – 1 home draw , Liverpool won 3 – 1 in the replay after extra time at Anfield . Their finish of seventh in the Third Division in 1985 – 86 marked the fifth consecutive season York had improved their end @-@ of @-@ season league ranking .
York only avoid relegation with a draw in the last match of 1986 – 87 , but did go down the following season after finishing second from bottom in the Third Division . In 1992 – 93 , York ended a five @-@ year spell in the Third Division by gaining promotion into the Second Division via the play @-@ offs . Crewe Alexandra were beaten in the play @-@ off final at Wembley Stadium , with a 5 – 3 penalty shoot @-@ out victory following a 1 – 1 extra time draw . York reached the Second Division play @-@ offs at the first attempt , but lost 1 – 0 on aggregate to Stockport County in the semi @-@ final . York recorded a 4 – 3 aggregate victory in the 1995 – 96 League Cup second round over the eventual FA Premier League and FA Cup double winners Manchester United . This included a 3 – 0 win in the first leg at Old Trafford against strong United that included some younger players , and a more experienced United team was unable to overcome the deficit in the second leg , York losing 3 – 1 . They then beat Everton in the second round of the following season 's League Cup ; they drew the first leg 1 – 1 at Goodison Park , but won the second leg 3 – 2 at home .
York were relegated from the Second Division in 1998 – 99 , after dropping into 21st @-@ place on the last day of the season . In December 2001 , long @-@ serving chairman Douglas Craig put the club and its ground up for sale for £ 4 @.@ 5 million , before announcing that the club would resign from the Football League if a buyer was not found . Motor racing driver John Batchelor took over the club in March 2002 , and by December the club had gone into administration . The Supporters ' Trust ( ST ) bought the club in March 2003 after an offer of £ 100 @,@ 000 as payment for £ 160 @,@ 000 owed in tax was accepted by the Inland Revenue . Batchelor left having diverted almost all of the £ 400 @,@ 000 received from a sponsorship deal with Persimmon to his racing team , and having failed to deliver on his promise of having ST members on the board . York failed to win any of their final 20 league fixtures in 2003 – 04 and finished bottom of the Third Division . This meant the club was relegated into the Football Conference , ending 75 years of Football League membership .
= = = 2004 – present : Return into and relegation from Football League = = =
York only avoided relegation late into their first Conference National season in 2004 – 05 , before reaching the play @-@ off semi @-@ final in 2006 – 07 , when they were beaten 2 – 1 on aggregate by Morecambe . Having only escaped relegation towards the end of 2008 – 09 , York participated in the 2009 FA Trophy Final , and were defeated 2 – 0 by Stevenage Borough at Wembley Stadium . They reached the 2010 play @-@ off final at Wembley , but were beaten 3 – 1 by Oxford United . Two years later York won their first national knockout competition , after they beat Newport County 2 – 0 in the 2012 FA Trophy Final at Wembley . A week later they earned promotion
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, and in 1983 this was updated into a coloured version .
When Batchelor took over the club in 2002 , the crest was replaced by one signifying the club 's new name of " York City Soccer Club " and held a chequered flag motif . After Batchelor 's one @-@ year period at the club , the name reverted to " York City Football Club " and a new logo was introduced . It was selected following a supporters ' vote held by the club , and the successful design was made by Michael Elgie . The badge features five lions , four of which are navy blue and are placed on a white " Y " shaped background . The rest of the background is red with the fifth lion in white , placed between the top part of the " Y " .
Tables of kit suppliers and shirt sponsors appear below :
= = Grounds = =
= = = Fulfordgate = = =
York 's first ground was Fulfordgate , which was located on Heslington Lane , Fulford in the south @-@ east of York . With the ground not ready , York played their first two home matches at Mille Crux , Haxby Road , before they took to the field at Fulfordgate for a 4 – 1 win over Mansfield Town on 20 September 1922 . Fulfordgate was gradually improved ; terracing was replaced banking behind one of the goals , the covered Popular Stand was extended to house 1 @,@ 000 supporters , and a small seated stand was erected . By the time of York 's election into the Football League in 1929 , the ground was estimated to hold a capacity of 17 @,@ 000 . However , attendances declined in York 's second and third Football League seasons , and the directors blamed this on the ground 's location . In April 1932 , York 's shareholders voted to move to Bootham Crescent , which had been vacated by York Cricket Club , on a 21 @-@ year lease . This site was located near the city centre , and had a significantly higher population living nearby than Fulfordgate .
= = = Bootham Crescent = = =
Bootham Crescent was renovated over the summer of 1932 ; the Main and Popular Stands were built and terraces were banked up behind the goals . The ground was officially opened on 31 August 1932 , for York 's 2 – 2 draw with Stockport County in the Third Division North . It was played before 8 @,@ 106 supporters , and York 's Tom Mitchell scored the first goal at the ground . There were teething problems in Bootham Crescent 's early years : attendances were not higher than at Fulfordgate in its first four seasons , and there were questions over the quality of the pitch . In March 1938 the ground 's record attendance was set when 28 @,@ 123 people watched York play Huddersfield Town in the FA Cup . The ground endured slight damage during the Second World War , when bombs were dropped on houses along the Shipton Street End . Improvements were made shortly after the war ended , including the concreting of the banking at the Grosvenor Road End being completed .
With the club 's finances in a strong position , York purchased Bootham Crescent for £ 4 @,@ 075 in September 1948 . Over the late 1940s and early 1950s , concreting was completed on the terracing in the Popular Stand and the Shipton Street End . The Main Stand was extended towards Shipton Street over the summer of 1955 , and a year later a concrete wall was built at the Grosvenor Road End , as a safety precaution and as a support for additional banking and terracing . The ground was fitted with floodlights in 1959 , which were officially switched on for a friendly against Newcastle United . The floodlights were updated and improved in 1980 , and were officially switched on for a friendly with Grimsby Town . A gymnasium was built at the Grosvenor Road End in 1981 , and two years later new offices for the manager , secretary , matchday and lottery manager were built , along with a vice @-@ presidents ' lounge .
During the early 1980s , the rear of the Grosvenor Road End was cordoned off as cracks had appeared in the rear wall , and this section of the ground was later segregated and allocated to away supporters . Extensive improvements were made over the mid 1980s , including new turnstiles , refurbished dressing rooms , new referees ' changing room and physiotherapist 's treatment room being readied , hospitality boxes being built to the Main Stand and crash barriers being strengthened . The David Longhurst Stand was constructed over the summer of 1991 , and was named after the York player who collapsed and died from heart failure in a match a year earlier . It provided covered accommodation for supporters in what was previously the Shipton Street End , and was officially opened for a friendly match against Leeds United . In June 1995 , new floodlights were installed , which were twice as powerful as the original floodlights .
In July 1999 , York ceased ownership of Bootham Crescent when their real property assets were transferred to a holding company called Bootham Crescent Holdings . Craig announced the ground would close by 30 June 2002 , and under Batchelor York 's lease was replaced with one expiring in June 2003 . In March 2003 , York extended the lease to May 2004 , and proceeded with plans to move to Huntington Stadium under the ownership of the Supporters ' Trust . The club instead bought Bootham Crescent in February 2004 , using a £ 2 million loan from the Football Stadia Improvement Fund ( FSIF ) .
The ground was renamed KitKat Crescent in January 2005 , as part of a sponsorship deal in which Nestlé made a donation to the club , although the ground was still commonly referred to as Bootham Crescent . In January 2010 the deal expired , when Nestlé ended all their sponsorship arrangements with the club . There has not been any major investment in the ground since the 1990s , and it has faced problems with holes in the Main Stand roof , crumbling in the Grosvenor Road End , drainage problems and toilet conditions . Bootham Crescent holds a capacity of 8 @,@ 256 , with seating for 3 @,@ 409 .
= = = York Community Stadium = = =
Per the terms of the FSIF loan , the club was required to have identified a site for a new stadium by 2007 , and have detailed planning permission by 2009 , to avoid financial penalties . York failed to formally identify a site by the end of 2007 , and by March 2008 plans had ground to a halt . In May 2008 , City of York Council announced its commitment to building a community stadium , for use by York and the city 's rugby league club , York City Knights . In July 2010 , the option of building a 6 @,@ 000 all @-@ seater stadium at Monks Cross in Huntington , on the site of Huntington Stadium , was chosen by the council . In August 2014 , the council named Greenwich Leisure Ltd as the preferred bidder to deliver an 8 @,@ 000 all @-@ seater stadium , a leisure complex and a community hub . Construction is to start in the summer of 2016 , for completion in early 2018 .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
York was the 16th @-@ best supported League Two club in 2014 – 15 , with an average home attendance of 3 @,@ 555 . The club has a number of domestic supporters ' groups , including the East Riding Minstermen , Harrogate Minstermen , York Minstermen , York City South and the Supporters ' Trust . The now @-@ disbanded group Jorvik Reds , who were primarily inspired by the continental ultras movement , were known for staging pre @-@ match displays . The York Nomad Society is the hooligan firm associated with the club .
For home games , the club produces a 60 @-@ page official match programme , entitled The Citizen . York have been the subject of a number of independent supporters ' fanzines , including Terrace Talk , In The City , New Frontiers , Johnny Ward 's Eyes , Ginner 's Left Foot and RaBTaT . The club mascot is a lion named Yorkie the Lion and he is known for performing comic antics before matches . John Sentamu , the Archbishop of York , became the club patron for 2007 – 08 , having become a regular spectator at home matches as a season ticket holder .
The 2003 Football Fans Census revealed that no other team 's supporters considered York to be among their club 's main rivals . Traditionally , York 's two main rivalries have been with Hull City and Scarborough . While York fans saw Hull as their main rival , this was not reciprocated by the East Yorkshire club , who saw Leeds United as their main rival . York also had a rivalry with Halifax Town and they were the team most local to York when the two played in the Conference . A rivalry with Luton Town developed during the club 's final years in the Conference as both clubs met regularly in crucial matches , accompanied by a series of contentious incidents involving crowd trouble , contentious transfers and complaints about the behaviour of directors .
= = Records and statistics = =
The record for the most appearances for York is held by Barry Jackson , who played 539 matches in all competitions . Jackson also holds the record for the most league appearances for the club , with 428 . Norman Wilkinson is the club 's top goalscorer with 143 goals in all competitions , which includes 127 in the league and 16 in the FA Cup . Six players , Keith Walwyn , Billy Fenton , Alf Patrick , Paul Aimson , Arthur Bottom and Tom Fenoughty , have also scored more than 100 goals for the club .
The first player to be capped at international level while playing for York was Eamon Dunphy , when he made his debut for the Republic of Ireland against Spain on 10 November 1965 . The most capped player is Peter Scott , who earned seven caps for Northern Ireland while at the club . The first York player to score in an international match was Anthony Straker , who scored for Grenada against Haiti on 4 September 2015 .
York 's largest victory was a 9 – 1 win over Southport in the Third Division North in 1957 , while the heaviest loss was 12 – 0 to Chester City in 1936 in the same division . Their widest victory margin in the FA Cup is by six goals , which was achieved five times . These were 7 – 1 wins over Horsforth in 1924 , Stockton Malleable in 1927 and Stockton in 1928 , and 6 – 0 wins over South Shields in 1968 and Rushall Olympic in 2007 . York 's record defeat in the FA Cup was 7 – 0 to Liverpool in 1985 .
The club 's highest attendance at their former Fulfordgate ground was 12 @,@ 721 against Sheffield United in the FA Cup on 14 January 1931 , while the lowest was 1 @,@ 500 against Maltby Main on 23 September 1925 in the same competition . Their highest attendance at Bootham Crescent was 28 @,@ 123 , for an FA Cup match against Huddersfield Town on 5 March 1938 ; the lowest was 608 against Mansfield Town in the Conference League Cup on 4 November 2008 .
The highest transfer fee received for a York player is £ 950 @,@ 000 from Sheffield Wednesday for Richard Cresswell on 25 March 1999 , while the most expensive player bought is Adrian Randall , who cost £ 140 @,@ 000 from Burnley on 28 December 1995 . The youngest player to play for the club is Reg Stockill , who was aged 15 years and 281 days on his debut against Wigan Borough in the Third Division North on 29 August 1929 . The oldest player is Paul Musselwhite , who played his last match aged 43 years and 127 days against Forest Green Rovers in the Conference on 28 April 2012 .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
Where a player has not declared an international allegiance , nation is determined by place of birth . Squad correct as of 26 July 2016 .
= = = Former players = = =
= = = Clubmen of the Year = = =
= = Club officials = =
Owner : JM Packaging
Board of directors
As of 6 May 2016
Chairman : Jason McGill
Stadium Development Director : Ian McAndrew
Financial Management Consultant : Peter Rookes
Coaching staff
As of 19 July 2016
Manager : Jackie McNamara
Assistant manager : Simon Donnelly
Goalkeeping coach : Craig Hinchcliffe
Academy manager : Vacant
Youth team manager : Steve Torpey
= = = Former managers = = =
= = Honours = =
York City 's honours include the following :
Third Division ( level 3 )
Promoted : 1973 – 74
Fourth Division / Third Division ( level 4 )
Winners : 1983 – 84
Promoted : 1958 – 59 , 1964 – 65 , 1970 – 71
Play @-@ off winners : 1992 – 93
Conference Premier ( level 5 )
Play @-@ off winners : 2011 – 12
FA Trophy
Winners : 2011 – 12
Runners @-@ up : 2008 – 09
= Tabula Rasa ( Lost ) =
" Tabula Rasa " ( Latin for blank slate ) is the third episode of the first season of Lost . It was directed by Jack Bender and written by Damon Lindelof . It first aired on October 6 , 2004 , on ABC .
The character of Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) is featured in the episode 's flashbacks , showing how she got captured in Australia by the US Marshal Edward Mars ( Fredric Lane ) . In the present day events , Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) and Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) learn that Kate is a convict and fugitive while Jack is trying to save the marshal from the injuries he sustained during the Oceanic Flight 815 plane crash .
The episode was watched by 16 @.@ 54 million Americans and received mixed reviews from critics . It is the first episode to feature a ' Previously on Lost ' segment , a clip shown at the beginning of each episode summarizing the recent events of the show . The episode receives its name from the philosophical idea of tabula rasa , meaning blank slate , a concept which is brought in one of the episode 's final lines , when Jack tells Kate that all of the Flight 815 survivors should be allowed to restart with a new life .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
Kate ( Evangeline Lilly ) is awakened by an Australian farmer , Ray Mullen ( Nick Tate ) , as she sleeps in his barn . She introduces herself as Annie , a backpacking graduate , and Mullen offers her a job on the farm . When she later leaves the farm , Ray offers to give her a ride to the train station . On the way Kate notices a black car following them , and Ray reveals he learned Kate was a fugitive , and decided to deliver her to the authorities for the reward money . As soon as they are approached by the tailgating car , driven by US Marshal Edward Mars ( Fredric Lane ) , Kate jerks the wheel and causes Ray 's vehicle to crash off the road . As Kate is pulling Ray from the burning vehicle , Marshall Mars captures her at gunpoint .
= = = On the Island = = =
Kate , Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) , James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) , Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) and Shannon Rutherford ( Maggie Grace ) are returning from the mountains and make camp as soon as it gets dark . They decide not to tell the other survivors about the French transmission received on the transceiver , fearing that the message will cause panic among the other survivors . When a fight breaks out over who should keep the gun brought by Sawyer , the group agrees to give it to Kate . Meanwhile , at the beach , Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) sees Kate 's mugshot which Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) retrieved from the wounded marshall .
The next day , the hiking party returns , Kate secretly tells Jack about the distress signal , and the marshall 's condition worsens . As Jack searches the fuselage for antibiotics , Kate visits the marshall on the makeshift medical tent . He awakens and grabs her by the throat , being stopped by a returning Jack before going into shock . Kate later asks Jack to euthanize the marshal , but Jack refuses , saying that he saw her mug shot and that he " is not a murderer . " Elsewhere , Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) gets bothered by his son Walt Lloyd ( Malcolm David Kelley ) talking with the mysterious John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , and instructs his son to stay away from Locke .
The marshall 's moans of pain get worse , disturbing the other survivors . Eventually he asks to see Kate alone , and when she enters the tent , the marshal asks what Kate wanted to ask him before he was knocked unconscious during the crash . Kate tells him she wants to make sure Ray gets his reward . The marshal laughs , telling Kate that she is one of a kind , and then asks if he is going to die . Kate nods , and he asks if she is going to do it . As Kate leaves , Sawyer enters with the gun , and a gunshot is heard . Jack becomes angry but Sawyer claims that the marshal asked to be killed . Muffled coughs are then heard , and it is revealed that Sawyer 's shot missed the marshal 's heart and pierced his lung , causing him more pain . Jack then euthanizes the marshal , presumably by suffocating him .
The next day , Locke finds Walt 's lost dog Vincent ( Madison ) using a makeshift dog whistle , and gives him to Michael , saying that he thinks Walt 's father should be the one to return the dog . Kate offers to tell Jack what her crime was . However , he declines , stating that their past lives are not important right now and all of the survivors should be allowed to start , again .
= = Production = =
During production of the pilot episode of Lost , creators J.J. Abrams and Damon Lindelof got along with a team of four writers - Javier Grillo @-@ Marxuach , Paul Dini , Jennifer M. Johnson and Christian Taylor - to elaborate ideas on how the show could continue . The resulting " Writer 's Guide " plus a positive reaction to the pilot made ABC pick up the show . The season one writing begun on May 2004 , with the first episode being centered on Kate and following the guidelines of a self @-@ contained script grounded in reality . The script , credited to Lindelof , was finished by June . It was the first episode directed by Jack Bender , who came to the show following an invitation by Abrams . The episode is named " Tabula Rasa " after the Latin term meaning " blank slate " , a concept attributed to the philosopher John Locke regarding how he believed humans are born without built @-@ in mental content , then filled through their life experiences . Said concept is echoed by the final line of the episode , where Jack suggests the crash made the survivors into blank slates that could restart .
Both Joe Purdy 's " Wash Away ( Reprise ) " and Patsy Cline 's " Leavin ' on Your Mind " are featured in this episode . Josh Holloway , who portrays Sawyer , asked showrunner Carlton Cuse how Sawyer could have possibly missed in his attempt to euthanize the Marshal . Cuse notes that the writers thought this to be unlikely as well and discussed the concept of making Sawyer hyperopic , leading to him receiving a pair of glasses in " Deus Ex Machina " . This is the first episode of Lost to feature a ' Previously on Lost ' introduction , which is a short recap of the most recent episodes to refresh the viewer 's memory . The voice of the introduction was provided by Lloyd Braun , the ABC president who created the Lost pitch and had been fired during the pilot 's production .
= = Reception = =
16 @.@ 54 million American viewers tuned into this episode , ranking Lost as the ninth highest rating of the week .
Chris Carabott of IGN gave the episode a 7 @.@ 7 , praising the performances by the actors and how well characters were contrasted . The TV Critic gave the episode a rating of 63 / 100 , saying that its " good intrigue from the writers because we want to know more about Kate and what she did " , while also stating that the " lack of action may affect some who are hooked on 24 's style of relentless developments and tension . " Josh Wolk rated " Tabula Rasa " a B + , saying that " Kate 's story is intriguing , though she 's still not quite believable as a fugitive badass . "
Robert Dougherty , author of Lost Episode Guide for Others : An Unofficial Anthology , said that the episode is " important in establishing Kate 's past life " , but that " it isn 't that important in the grand scheme of the Lost design . " Ryan Mcgee of Zap2it called the episode a " slight letdown in comparison to the pilot episode " , but arguing that " most episodes fall short of the pilot 's brilliance " and that the use of flashbacks " demonstrated [ Lost ] would be a character @-@ based drama , a move that solidified its audience and let [ its viewers ] gradually know the many people that crash landed on the Island . " Dan Kawa of Television Without Pity gave the episode a C + .
= 1973 UEFA Cup Final =
The 1973 UEFA Cup Final was an association football match played over two @-@ legs between Liverpool of England and Borussia Mönchengladbach of West Germany . The first leg was played at Anfield , Liverpool on 10 May 1973 and the second leg was played on 23 May 1973 at the Bökelbergstadion , Mönchengladbach . It was the final of the 1972 – 73 season of Europe 's secondary cup competition , the UEFA Cup . Liverpool and Mönchengladbach were both appearing in their first final , although Liverpool had previously reached the final of the European Cup Winners ' Cup losing 2 – 1 to Borussia Dortmund .
Each club needed to progress through four rounds to reach the final . Matches were contested over two legs , with a match at each team 's home ground . The majority of Liverpool 's ties were won by at least two goals , the exception was the semi @-@ final against Tottenham Hotspur , which Liverpool won on the away goals rule . Borussia Mönchengladbach 's ties were predominantly one @-@ sided . The West German team won by at least four goals in all four of their ties , a 9 – 2 aggregate victory over Kaiserslautern represented their biggest margin of victory .
Watched by a crowd of 41 @,@ 169 at Anfield , Liverpool took the lead in the first leg when Kevin Keegan scored in the 21st minute . Another goal by Keegan in the first half , extended Liverpool 's lead and a further goal by Larry Lloyd meant Liverpool won the first leg 3 – 0 . Therefore , in the second leg at the Bökelbergstadion , Liverpool had to avoid losing by three clear goals to win the competition . A crowd of 34 @,@ 905 watched Borussia take the lead in the 29th minute courtesy of a Jupp Heynckes goal , he scored again 11 minutes later to double Borussia 's lead . Borussia were unable to find the third goal they needed to take the match into extra @-@ time and won the second leg 2 – 0 . Thus , Liverpool won the final 3 – 2 on aggregate to win their first European trophy .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool qualified for the UEFA Cup as a result of finishing third in the First Division during the 1971 – 72 season . Their opponents in the first round were West German team Eintracht Frankfurt . Liverpool won the first leg at their home ground , Anfield , 2 – 0 . The second leg at Frankfurt 's home ground the Waldstadion ended in a 0 – 0 draw , which meant Liverpool progressed to the second round with a 2 – 0 aggregate victory . Greek team AEK Athens were the opposition . Liverpool won the first leg at Anfield 3 – 0 , a 3 – 1 victory at AEK 's home ground the Nikos Goumas Stadium ensured Liverpool won the tie 6 – 1 on aggregate .
The opposition in the third round were Dynamo Berlin of East Germany . The first leg at Dynamo 's home ground the Sportforum ended in a 0 – 0 draw . The second leg at Anfield was more eventful Liverpool took the lead through Phil Boersma in the first minute and Dynamo equalised six minutes later . Two further goals for Liverpool secured a 3 – 1 victory in the match and on aggregate . In the quarter @-@ finals Liverpool again faced East German opposition , their opponents were Dynamo Dresden . Liverpool won the first leg 2 – 0 at Anfield , and they won the second leg 1 – 0 in East Germany , to beat Dresden 3 – 0 on aggregate .
Reigning champions Tottenham Hotspur were the opposition in the semi @-@ final . Liverpool won an attacking match at Anfield 1 – 0 . The second leg at White Hart Lane was equally eventful . Tottenham took the lead in the second half when Martin Peters scored to give Spurs the lead . Seven minutes Liverpool equalised when Steve Heighway scored this levelled the match and gave Liverpool a 2 – 1 lead on aggregate . Tottenham went 2 – 1 up when Peters scored again , this levelled the aggregate score at 2 – 2 , but Liverpool had scored an away goal , and would therefore progress to the next round as a result .
= = = Borussia Mönchengladbach = = =
Borussia qualified for the UEFA Cup courtesy of a third @-@ place finish in the 1971 – 72 Fußball @-@ Bundesliga . The opposition in the first round were Scottish side Aberdeen . The first leg was held at Aberdeen 's home ground Pittodrie , with Borussia winning 3 – 2 . The second leg at Borussia 's home ground the Bökelbergstadion was won 6 – 3 by the West German side , this meant they qualified for the second round courtesy of a 9 – 5 aggregate victory . Danish side Hvidovre were the opposition in the second round . A 3 – 0 victory in West Germany was followed by a 3 – 1 victory in Denmark to secure a 6 – 1 aggregate victory for Borussia .
Fellow West German side FC Köln were the opposition in the third round . The first leg at Köln 's home ground the Müngersdorfer Stadion ended in a 0 – 0 draw . Borussia easily won the second leg at their home ground 5 – 0 to win the tie by the same score on aggregate . They were again drawn against West German opposition in the quarter @-@ finals , the team in this instance was Kaiserslautern . The first leg held at Kaiserlautern 's home ground the Fritz @-@ Walter @-@ Stadion was won 2 – 1 by Borussia and a 7 – 1 victory in the second leg at their home ground ensured they progressed to the semi @-@ finals courtesy of a 9 – 2 aggregate victory .
Dutch team Twente were Borussia 's opposition in the semi @-@ finals . The first leg was held in West Germany and Borussia won 3 – 0 to put themselves in a good position to reach the final going into the second leg in the Netherlands . Borussia won the second leg 2 – 1 to win the tie 5 – 1 on aggregate and progress to their first European final .
= = Background = =
Liverpool were appearing in their second European final . They had previously lost 2 – 1 in the final of the 1965 – 66 European Cup Winners ' Cup against West German team Borussia Dortmund . Borussia Mönchengladbach were appearing in their first European final , they had appeared in European competition but the furthest they had progressed was the second round of the 1970 – 71 European Cup and 1971 – 72 European Cup when they were beat by English team Everton and Internazionale of Italy respectively .
Liverpool had won the 1972 – 73 Football League , a 2 – 0 victory over Leeds United ensured they became champions . Their league success meant that whatever the result they would be competing in the European Cup the following season . As a result of their league success , Liverpool were looking to become the first English team to win a European trophy in the same year as winning the league . Borussia Mönchengladbach had finished fifth in the 1972 – 73 Fußball @-@ Bundesliga , however they won the 1972 – 73 DFB @-@ Pokal , the German domestic cup competition . This meant they would be participating in the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup in the following season .
= = First leg = =
There had been heavy rain in Liverpool in the week before the first leg , nevertheless , Austrian referee Erich Linemayr decided that the first leg on 9 May would still go ahead . Minutes into the match it was apparent that the conditions were unplayable , the rain had intensified following the kick @-@ off and the players were unable to pass the ball to each other . The referee took the decision to abandon the game after 27 minutes with the match to be played the next day .
= = = Summary = = =
The 27 minutes that had been played the previous day had given Liverpool manager Bill Shankly an insight into how to beat Borussia . He noted that defender Günter Netzer was suspect in the air , to exploit this he decided to omit Brian Hall in place of John Toshack , whom Shankly believed would exploit this weakness . The inclusion of Toshack had the desired effect . In the 21st minute his header across the penalty area from a Chris Lawler pass , set up the first goal for Kevin Keegan , who dived forward to head the ball into the far corner of the goal .
Keegan nearly extended Liverpool 's lead four minutes later when they were awarded a penalty for handball . Alec Lindsay put a high pass into the penalty area ; Borussia defender Rainer Bonhof , under pressure from Toshack , handled the ball and Liverpool were awarded a penalty . However , Keegan 's penalty was saved by Borussia goalkeeper Wolfgang Kleff who pushed the effort round the post . Borussia nearly made Keegan pay for his penalty miss a few minutes later , but Dietmar Danner 's shot hit the post . Keegan made amends in the 33rd minute when he scored again . Emlyn Hughes headed the ball into the Borussia penalty area , Toshack who was facing away from the Borussia goal headed the ball back to Keegan , who volleyed the ball into the goal from ten yards to give Liverpool a 2 – 0 lead .
Liverpool extended their lead in the 60th minute when defender Larry Lloyd scored . Toshack won Liverpool a corner and with Borussia defender Netzer focusing on the striker , Lloyd was left unmarked to head in Keegan 's corner and extend the English club 's lead to 3 – 0 . Despite Liverpool 's goals Borussia were presented with an opportunity to get back into the tie when they were awarded a penalty in the 65th minute . Steve Heighway 's tackle on Henning Jensen was judged to be a foul by Austrian referee Linemayr . Jupp Heynckes took the penalty for the West German team hitting it to Liverpool goalkeeper Ray Clemence 's right , but Clemence dived the right way and saved the penalty , preventing Borussia from scoring an away goal . No further goals were scored and the referee blew for full @-@ time with the final score 3 – 0 to Liverpool .
Shankly was equivocal in his praise of the players after the match stating : " It was an international @-@ class game . Really tremendous . I am not making predictions about the second @-@ leg , but we have a distinct advantage because we did not give away a goal . " Shankly had Clemence to thank for Liverpool not conceding an away goal and the goalkeeper revealed that he had done his homework on the penalty taker Heynckes : " I watched Heynckes take a penalty in the semi @-@ final on television and decided to dive the same way . The save was a reward for my homework . "
= = = Details = = =
= = Second leg = =
= = = Summary = = =
Liverpool 's 3 – 0 victory in the first leg meant that Borussia needed to score three goals to force the tie into extra @-@ time . Liverpool employed a " holding action " against the " attacking Germans " in order to protect their three @-@ goal lead . Another bout of torrential rain affected the second leg , as a result the pitch was slippery , and with the onus on Borussia to attack this caused problems for the Liverpool defence .
Knowing the task in hand Borussia bombarded Liverpool in the first half , the architect was midfielder Günter Netzer whose passing was instrumental to Borussia 's play . Borussia 's attacking brought their first goal in the 30th minute . Jupp Heynckes who had missed the penalty for Borussia in the first leg , scored from six yards after Bernd Rupp passed to him from the right hand side of the pitch . Heynckes extended the West German side 's lead in the 39th minute when he curled the ball into the Liverpool goal from left of the Liverpool penalty area .
Borussia needed one more goal to level the tie and take it into extra @-@ time . However , despite an initial spell of dominance following the start of the second half they were unable to match the intensity that they had shown in the first half , Liverpool gained confidence from this and saw out the second half , losing the match 2 – 0 , but they won their first European trophy as a result of a 3 – 2 aggregate victory . Liverpool 's victory meant that they became the first English team to win a European trophy and league championship in the same season .
= = = Details = = =
= Ranch Road 1 =
Ranch Road 1 ( RR 1 ) is a Ranch Road located in Gillespie and Blanco counties , in the central region of the U.S. state of Texas . The highway is approximately 6 @.@ 6 miles ( 10 @.@ 6 km ) , and begins at U.S. Route 290 ( US 290 ) in Stonewall , running along the Pedernales River through Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park , the late President Lyndon Johnson 's former ranch , and through Lyndon B. Johnson State Park and Historic Site , before terminating at US 290 near Hye . The road , designated in 1963 , is the only road in the state that TxDOT has designated as a " Ranch Road " . In the earliest days of the state highway system , the route was a part of State Highway 20 , and was later part of US 290 before that highway was relocated to the south .
= = Route description = =
Ranch Road 1 begins at US 290 on the west side of Stonewall , as a two @-@ lane , paved road . The highway follows along the south bank of the Pedernales River around the town 's north side and intersects RM 1623 on the town 's east side . The route continues along the river briefly passing through a narrow southwestern portion of Lyndon B. Johnson National Historic Park , before entering Lyndon B Johnson State Park and Historic Site . The route crosses the length of the state park at its northern edge along the riverbank and exits the park before intersecting PR 49 , which crosses the river accessing the national historic site . After crossing into Blanco County , the route turns away from the riverbank to the southeast returning to US 290 west of Hye . Although the road is located in the Texas Hill Country , the road only encounters gentle grades within the channel of the Pedernales River .
= = = Classification = = =
Ranch Road 1 is classified by the Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) as a Ranch Road , and is the only highway in the state to be currently categorized as so . The route is not officially part of the state 's Farm and Ranch to Market Road System , although it is considered similar to the Farm to Market Road system . RR 1 is signed with a shield similar to a Ranch to Market Road . The highway fits almost perfectly with the Recreational Road classification , but is not considered part of the system .
= = History = =
Ranch Road 1 was designated on December 19 , 1963 , 27 days after Lyndon Johnson was sworn in as president , from its current western terminus at US 290 near Stonewall to a point 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) west of the county line between Gillespie and Blanco counties . The following year , the road was extended 2 @.@ 1 mi ( 3 @.@ 4 km ) eastward to its present terminus near Hye . The route was originally part of SH 20 . In 1935 , US 290 was routed over the road , and the SH 20 designation was dropped in the 1939 general redescription of the state highway system . US 290 was rerouted south to its current location sometime between 1941 and 1961 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Italian cruiser Pisa =
The Italian cruiser Pisa was the name ship of her class of two armored cruisers built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the first decade of the 20th century . The ship participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , during which she supported the occupations of Tobruk , Libya and several islands in the Dodecanese and bombarded the fortifications defending the entrance to the Dardanelles . During World War I , Pisa 's activities were limited by the threat of Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines , although the ship did participate in the bombardment of Durazzo , Albania in late 1918 . After the war she became a training ship and was stricken from the Navy List in 1937 before being scrapped .
= = Design and description = =
Pisa had a length between perpendiculars of 130 meters ( 426 ft 6 in ) and an overall length of 140 @.@ 5 meters ( 460 ft 11 in ) . She had a beam of 21 meters ( 68 ft 11 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 1 meters ( 23 ft 4 in ) . The ship displaced 9 @,@ 832 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 677 long tons ) at normal load , and 10 @,@ 600 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 400 long tons ) at deep load . The Pisa @-@ class ships had a complement of 32 officers and 652 to 655 enlisted men .
The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft using steam supplied by 22 Belleville boilers . Designed for a maximum output of 20 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 15 @,@ 000 kW ) and a speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) , Pisa handily exceeded this , reaching a speed of 23 @.@ 47 knots ( 43 @.@ 47 km / h ; 27 @.@ 01 mph ) during her sea trials from 20 @,@ 808 ihp ( 15 @,@ 517 kW ) . She had a cruising range of about 2 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 600 km ; 2 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
The main armament of the Pisa @-@ class ships consisted of four Cannone da 254 / 45 V Modello 1906 guns in twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The ships mounted eight Cannone da 190 / 45 V Modello 1906 in four twin @-@ gun turrets , two in each side amidships , as their secondary armament . For defense against torpedo boats , the ships carried 16 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) Cannone da 76 / 40 V Modello 1908 guns and eight QF Cannone da 47 / 40 V Modello 1908 guns . They were also equipped with three submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . During World War I , her 76 and 47 mm guns were replaced by twenty 76 / 40 guns ; six of these were anti @-@ aircraft guns .
Pisa was protected by an armored belt that was 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) at the bow and stern . The armored deck was 51 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The conning tower armor was 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The 254 mm gun turrets were protected by 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of armour while the 190 mm turrets had 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) .
= = Construction and career = =
Pisa , named after the eponymous city , was laid down on 20 February 1905 at the Orlando shipyard in Livorno . The ship was launched on 15 September 1907 and completed on 1 September 1909 .
When the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 began on 29 September 1911 , Pisa was the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Ernesto Presbitero , commander of the 2nd Division of the 1st Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet . Pisa and her sister ship , Amalfi , were among the ships selected for the initial blockade of Tripoli . On 2 October , the Training Division relieved the 1st Squadron in blockade duty , allowing them to join the main Italian fleet .
After a fruitless search for the main Ottoman fleet and the peaceful occupation of Tobruk , Pisa , Amalfi , and the battleship Napoli were joined by the recently commissioned armored cruiser San Marco , three destroyers , and two torpedo boats . The group escorted several Italian transports that arrived off Derna on 15 October . After negotiations for a surrender of the town fell apart , Pisa shelled the barracks and a fort . There was no return fire from Derna , so a boat with offers of a truce was sent in . When it was greeted by a volley of rifle fire , Pisa and the other armored cruisers opened fire on the town with their 190 mm guns and , according to a contemporary account , " completely destroyed " the town in 30 minutes time . A landing party was unable to reach the shore because of rough seas and gunfire from the shore . Pisa and her consorts then shelled the beach for two hours . Weather conditions prevented a landing until the 18th , when 1 @,@ 500 men took possession of Derna .
Pisa remained in North African waters until mid @-@ December when most of the 1st Squadron returned to Italy . Pisa later escorted several troop transports from Augusta , Sicily in an attempt to seize the port of Zuara shortly before Christmas that was foiled by bad weather . In mid @-@ April 1912 the Italian fleet sortied into the eastern Aegean Sea with Pisa and Amalfi leading in an attempt to lure out the Ottoman fleet . When that failed , the Italians bombarded the fortifications defending the Dardanelles to little effect before the main body departed for Italy on the 19th . Pisa , Amalfi , and an assortment of smaller craft were left behind , however , to continue destroying telegraph and radio stations and cutting underwater cables . Sailors from the two cruisers captured the island of Astropalia on 28 April to allow Italian forces to use it as supply base . A week later , the ship supported the occupation of Rhodes on 4 May . Pisa returned to Italy in September , but after the war ended she spent the first half of 1913 in Constantinople and the Aegean before returning to Taranto on 24 June .
The ship was based at Brindisi when Italy declared war on the Central Powers on 23 May 1915 . That night , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy bombarded the Italian coast in an attempt to disrupt the Italian mobilization . Of the many targets , Ancona was hardest hit , with disruptions to the town 's gas , electric , and telephone service ; the city 's stockpiles of coal and oil were left in flames . All of the Austrian ships safely returned to port , putting pressure on the Regia Marina to stop the attacks . When the Austrians resumed bombardments on the Italian coast in mid @-@ June , Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel responded by sending Pisa and the other armored cruisers at Brindisi — the navy 's newest — to Venice to supplement the older ships already there . Shortly after their arrival at Venice , Amalfi was sunk by a submarine on 7 July and her loss severely restricted the activities of the other ships based at Venice . Pisa was transferred to Vlore , Albania in April 1916 and participated in the bombardment of Durazzo on 2 October 1918 which sank one merchantman and damaged two others .
On 1 July 1921 , Pisa was reclassified from a second @-@ class battleship to a coastal battleship and became a training ship . In 1925 she was modified to operate a Macchi M.7 flying boat . From 1925 to 1930 , the ship was used to train naval cadets and lieutenants . Pisa was stricken on 28 April 1937 and subsequently broken up .
= Illinois Route 22 =
Illinois Route 22 , also known as Half Day Road for part of its length , is an east – west state highway in northeastern Illinois . It runs from U.S. Route 14 ( Northwest Highway ) in Fox River Grove to U.S. Route 41 ( Skokie Highway ) in Highland Park . It travels a distance of 19 @.@ 7 miles ( 31 @.@ 7 km ) and is one of the few roads that runs almost entirely across southern Lake County while also providing access to southeastern McHenry County . Throughout its length , it shifts between two and four lanes as it passes through a frequently changing setting of scenic forestry and smaller populations , as well as busy intersections and larger developments .
It originally started as a massive loop around the Chicago area , however it has retained its current , much shorter route ever since 1937 . During the 1990s , it became the subject of much concern for local residents regarding expansion which slowed down any progress for capacity improvement . By the late 2000s , the delays have come and gone and it has emerged as a state route that has been largely modernized to deal with heavy traffic .
= = Route description = =
Beginning at its western terminus at a commercially developed intersection with U.S. Route 14 ( Northwest Highway ) , Illinois 22 starts out as a two lane road in Fox River Grove , just inside the McHenry County line . It quickly becomes much more rural as it enters the city of Lake Barrington and Lake County about a half mile east . The Advocate Good Shepherd Hospital and Stonehenge Golf Club on the north side are all that lie in this wooded area of sporadic residential development . Heading into North Barrington , the road continues its journey as it crosses paths with Illinois Route 59 ( Hough Street ) until soon after , when it nears the more densely populated area of Lake Zurich .
It becomes a four lane road as it approaches commercial development and the busy intersection of U.S. Route 12 ( Rand Road ) . Shortly after , it proceeds to briefly take a northeast direction while it bypasses the narrow , downtown area of Lake Zurich , including a grade separation at the Elgin , Joliet and Eastern Railway ( EJ & E ) . Returning due east , the road travels through a mix of light industrial and commercial developments to the north , and residential to the south before intersecting with Quentin Road . This is where , for a short distance , Illinois 22 runs past the southern edge of Forest Lake on the north side and heads into Kildeer which is largely on the south side . This all takes place while it narrows back down to two lanes near two housing developments and returns to a rural setting with light forestry . The road then passes by the Kemper Lakes Business Center , Kemper Lakes Golf Club , and the Egret Marsh and then enters Long Grove . Soon after passing a mixed @-@ use development on the northwest corner at an intersection with Old McHenry Road , it briefly enters a denser forest area before widening back to four lanes while again passing by residential developments .
After a major intersection with Illinois Route 83 , the route takes on the name Half Day Road and enters Buffalo Grove . It passes by more neighborhoods , a shopping plaza on the northeast corner of Buffalo Grove Road , the Arboretum Club , and the Prairie View Metra Station next to the at @-@ grade North Central Service tracks . The road then enters Lincolnshire and heads nearby the Stevenson High School and an office complex before intersecting with Illinois Route 21 / U.S. Route 45 ( Milwaukee Avenue ) , with northwest corner containing a gas station , the northeast a grocery store , and the other two being undeveloped . It then travels by Crane 's Landing Golf Course , near the Half Day and Wright Woods Forest Preserves , and goes over the Des Plaines River as it once again encounters a wooded area which surrounds nearby homes . Soon the road intersects and forms a diamond interchange with Interstate 94 ( Tri @-@ State Tollway ) ; many office complexes and corporate buildings , such as Hewitt Associates , are located nearby .
On the east side of the interchange , Illinois 22 enters Bannockburn as it passes near Trinity International University as well as some upper class real estate areas . The road next approaches the at @-@ grade Milwaukee District / North Line tracks and major junction with Illinois Route 43 ( Waukegan Road ) while passing a shopping area on the southeast corner of that intersection . It then arrives in the last city on its journey , Highland Park , where it heads near the Prairie Wolf Slough Forest Preserve . Shortly after , it nears its end as it goes under the grade separated Union Pacific / North Line tracks and a pedestrian crossing before terminating at the well traveled , at @-@ grade intersection of U.S. Route 41 ( Skokie Highway ) ; Half Day Road continues east without a state route designation .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
In 1918 , State Bond Issue ( SBI ) Route 22 started off as an outer beltway around the Chicago area , similar to the shape of Interstate 294 . It was even referred to in Illinois road maps , as early as 1931 , as the " 22 Loop " . In those days , it traveled in a " C " formation from the city of Lake Forest to Crystal Lake to Aurora to Joliet , and then east to the border near Indiana . If it took the same path today , it would travel the routes of U.S. 41 , modern Illinois 22 , U.S. 14 , Illinois 31 , and U.S. 30 . By 1935 it had largely been changed to its current route , except for a small section extending east of U.S. 41 .
The name Half Day Road is erroneously thought to derive from the tall @-@ tale that prior to the 1900s , it supposedly , and incorrectly took a half day to travel from the Lincolnshire area to Chicago . It actually came from the name of a friendly Potawatamie Indian chief named Aptakisic whose name meant " sun at the meridian . " An early cartographer spelled it as " Half Day " and the name has been used ever since .
Although , one should note that the term " half day " refers to daylight hours . For example , sunrise to sunset is one day . Ergo , a horse leaving at sunrise from Lincolnshire would arrive in Chicago by noon .
= = = Recent history = = =
Until the early 2000s and despite heavy traffic , Illinois 22 generally remained a two lane road . The only sections that were four lanes were the intersections of Illinois 83 , Buffalo Grove Road , Milwaukee Avenue , Interstate 94 , Illinois 43 , and U.S. 41 . The lengthy two lane gaps in between those intersections , as well as the rest of Illinois 22 were heavily discussed for expansion starting in the early 1990s . These discussions included plans that called for additional lanes on its entire length from U.S. 14 to U.S. 41 , including widening a section from U.S. 12 to Milwaukee Avenue to six lanes . Also mentioned was a bypass around the narrow , downtown area of Lake Zurich .
It became apparent that a major hold up with these projects was the citizens and local officials of Lincolnshire . Going back to 1971 , the section of road from Illinois 83 to Interstate 94 had been known to be opposed for widening by the residents of Lincolnshire . The dispute continued even after funding was secured for the project . This continued until 2002 when an agreement was finally reached between Lincolnshire and the Illinois Department of Transportation ( IDOT ) that led the way for expansion to proceed . Notice was also given around then that plans to widen Illinois 22 west of U.S. 12 , through North Barrington and Lake Barrington had been dropped . In December 2003 , the $ 12 @.@ 5 million of roadwork which consisted of approximately 1 @.@ 5 miles of widened concrete lanes from west of Interstate 94 to east of Milwaukee Avenue was officially over and the lanes were opened to traffic .
There was still a large section of Illinois 22 , from Lake Zurich to Buffalo Grove , that was in need of improvement . In 1994 , the Lake Zurich Village Board approved a bypass around its narrow downtown . This project followed a similar time frame as the Lincolnshire work , however , it was met with a much less intense opposition . The entire process of planning through securing funding was complete by 2003 when state budget cutbacks delayed construction by a year . Construction was completed by 2006 , and on October 20 , 2006 , Illinois 22 was rerouted from Main Street onto the four lane $ 27 million bypass around Lake Zurich . Several homes and business had to be removed for the new roadway , which now featured a grade separation at the Elgin , Joliet and Eastern Railway . By the end of 2006 , all surrounding major roadwork had been completed ; with landscaping continuing into 2007 . After years of delay , the entire project was complete , with four concrete lanes from west of U.S. 12 to east of Quentin Road . This included intersection upgrades along the way , highlighted by the five lane approaches with dual left turn lanes in both directions at Quentin Road .
An additional three @-@ mile section of Illinois 22 from Illinois 83 to Milwaukee Avenue , primarily located in Buffalo Grove , was another closely related project that was once again met with similar delays and concerns . Long Grove got on board in May 2005 and approved any widening between its eastern city limits and Illinois 83 . Roadwork began in the fall on the two @-@ year project , and in September 2007 it was finished ; complete with four concrete lanes and a center grassy median . Again , intersection improvements were also made , this time adding dual left turn lanes to both east – west approaches at Illinois 83 and Buffalo Grove Road .
There was one final widening project that was worked on in 2005 , this time located mostly in Bannockburn . East of Illinois 43 for about a half mile , Illinois 22 was widened to four lanes while in the process a nearby bridge was replaced .
Beginning in 2008 , a bridge replacement and expansion project got underway on Illinois 22 at the interchange with Interstate 94 . This was necessary for the tollway which travels underneath to be widened to eight lanes . The old bridge , which was five lanes wide , was rebuilt with one that is eight lanes and includes full length dual left turn lanes in both directions . Other benefits are the improved entrances and exits to and from the interstate , modernized traffic signals , and the use of concrete pavement . The bulk of the work was completed by December 2009 , however both sets of dual left turn lanes were not in operation until the following spring .
In August 2009 , construction began on an intersection expansion project at Milwaukee Avenue in Lincolnshire . Its outdated design was a gap in the stretch of recently completed roadwork in the surrounding area . The improvements on Illinois 22 have widened the east – west approaches at this major intersection to five lanes , with the new additions being dual left turn lanes as well as right turn lanes . The new lanes were opened for the first time on October 15 , 2010 .
In 2011 , a 2 @.@ 1 mile , $ 13 @.@ 2 million project in Bannockburn and Highland Park got underway . It extended from east of I @-@ 94 to west of US @-@ 41 , with the exception of the small section that was previously worked on in 2005 . IL @-@ 22 was reconstructed and widened to four lanes with other smaller improvements along the way , including concrete pavement and dual left turn lanes at IL @-@ 43 . The new lanes were initially opened by the end of 2012 , with landscaping and finishing work carrying into 2013 .
= = Future = =
Most of Illinois 22 has been expanded to four lanes , but there are several gaps remaining which need to be addressed . As of 2002 , plans for the section west of U.S. 12 have been put on hold indefinitely . Finally , the remaining section located primarily in Long Grove from east of Quentin Road to west of Illinois 83 is also in the works for the near future at an estimated cost of $ 38 @.@ 5 million . This project , which is now supported by Long Grove , has suffered similarly mentioned delays , but is also closely related to yet another long delayed project ; the Illinois Route 53 extension . If the extension , which is a limited @-@ access expressway and currently terminates three miles south at Lake @-@ Cook Road , were ever built , it would pass through this area , where there would likely be an interchange . The project has been long delayed over the decades so it appears that this section of Illinois 22 may get widened as part of a separate project .
= = Major intersections = =
= Number 1 's ( Mariah Carey album ) =
# 1 's is the first compilation album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , released by Columbia Records on November 17 , 1998 . The album contained Carey 's then thirteen number one singles on the Billboard Hot 100 , as well as four new songs . In Japan , # 1 's also included her popular single " All I Want for Christmas Is You " , which remained Carey 's biggest selling single there . Though showing the characteristics of a regular greatest hits album , Carey expressed a dislike for the track listing , which she called a large collection of her most commercial singles . Carey felt that if # 1 's was a traditional greatest hits album , then it would include other songs that did not reach number one , but were far more important in her career . She has regularly voiced her frustration with the song choices on the album , expressing her disappointment with the omission of her " favorite songs " .
Upon release , reviews for the album were mixed , with criticism directed towards both the new material and the decision to include only Carey 's number one hits in the United States . While receiving tepid reviews from music critics , the album became a large commercial success throughout the world . It debuted at number four on Billboard 200 , number one in Japan , and in the top @-@ ten throughout almost every major music market around the globe . # 1 's was certified five @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of five million copies throughout the United States . Aside from the US , the album experienced its strongest sales in Japan , where the album sold 3 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 copies in the first three months after its release . The album was certified the triple @-@ million award , and currently remains the best @-@ selling album of all @-@ time in Japan by a non @-@ Asian artist . In Europe , # 1 's was certified double @-@ platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting shipments of two million copies throughout the continent .
Three singles were released from the album . Serving as the album 's lead single was " Sweetheart " featuring Jermaine Dupri . The song performed weakly on the charts , peaking within the top @-@ twenty only in Germany and Switzerland . The follow @-@ up single , " When You Believe " , a duet with Whitney Houston , charted well throughout the world . In the US , the song performed moderately , peaking at number fifteen . In Europe however , the song reached the top @-@ two in Norway , Spain , Sweden and Switzerland and the top @-@ five in Belgium , France , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . " When You Believe " was featured in the The Prince of Egypt soundtrack , and received the Academy Award for Best Original Song . Sales of # 1 's were much higher than expected . On May 15 , 2015 , Carey released # 1 to Infinity , an updated version of # 1 's with all 18 number @-@ ones , which coincides with her residency show in Las Vegas , Mariah Carey Number 1 's .
= = Background and album title = =
During mid @-@ 1998 , after the release of her seventh studio album , Butterfly ( 1997 ) , the previous September , Carey was in the midst of developing a film and soundtrack project titled All That Glitters . Midway through the project , All That Glitters fell into developmental hell , causing Carey to pause the entire production . During this period , Carey considered embarking on a tour to support Butterfly , which was continuing to sell strongly . However , executives at Sony Music , the parent company of Carey 's label Columbia , wanted her to prepare a greatest hits collection in time for the commercially favorable holiday season . Carey , not having time to record a studio album , agreed . However , they disagreed as to what content and singles should constitute the album . Sony wanted to release an album that featured her US number one singles , void of any new material . Carey on the other hand , felt that a greatest hits album should reflect on her most personal and favorite songs , not her most commercial . To accompany her thirteen number ones , Carey recorded four new songs . She felt that not including any new material would result in cheating her fans , therefore including some new material as well . While compromised , Carey often expressed distaste towards the album 's song selection , expressing her disappointment in the omission of her " favorite songs " .
For this reason , Sony titled the album # 1 's , as Carey felt the need to express the album 's true content , a collection of her number one hits . Carey has frequently cited " Underneath the Stars " ( 1996 ) and " Breakdown " ( 1998 ) as examples of songs she was unsuccessful in releasing . In the album 's liner notes , Carey wrote that she was releasing a collection of her number one singles as a " thank you " and a tribute to her fans , and explained that someday she would release a true greatest hits album containing songs that were not released as singles , as well as singles that did not reach number one . In December 2001 , Columbia released the album Greatest Hits , which featured Carey 's number one singles alongside songs she said " needed to be really heard " , such as " Underneath the Stars " and " Forever " . In an interview with MTV , Carey made the following statement regarding the album : " There 's a lot of songs that I 'm happy are gonna see the light of day . I think people are going to like this Greatest Hits because there are songs on it that were not necessarily singles . "
= = Writing and composition = =
The first of Carey 's number ones to be featured on the album was " Vision of Love " . It was Carey 's first single and was the song that propelled her into the music scene . The song received acclaim , and was credited with influencing and popularizing the use of melisma throughout the 1990s . Three other songs were included from her self @-@ titled debut album , of them were " Love Takes Time " , " Someday " and " I Don 't Wanna Cry " . The fifth single featured on the album was " Emotions " , the lead single from the album of the same name . Because of the album 's strict array of chart topping singles , none of the other singles on Emotions made the track listing . Another song that was featured on # 1 's was Carey 's version of The Jackson 5 classic , " I 'll Be There " , which was the lead single from her live album , MTV Unplugged . The singles from Carey 's 1993 release Music Box , made an appearance on the album as well . " Dreamlover " , the seventh number one from the album , was the lead single from Music Box . The song topped the Billboard Hot 100 for eight weeks and was described as a " slight piece of pop fluff " , representing a more commercial side to Carey than the " more ambitious " , " Vision of Love " . The song was the start of a vocal maturity for Carey , and was considered a notable song in her career . The second single from Music Box , " Hero " , also made the album 's final cut . According to author Chris Nickson , Hero was one of Carey 's " most inspirational ballads " . The album 's third single , Carey 's cover of Harry Nielsen 's " Without You " failed to make the US album version , however , due to the song 's popularity in Europe , it was included in the album 's international edition .
" All I Want for Christmas Is You " , the lead single from Carey 's holiday album Merry Christmas also made the international track listing . The song became one of the best @-@ selling singles by a non – Asian female , and the best @-@ selling Japanese single of 1994 , selling 1 @.@ 1 million copies . Additionally , " All I Want for Christmas Is You " was called " one of the essential musical hallmarks of the holiday season " , and is the only holiday song and ringtone to reach multi @-@ platinum status in the US . Occupying three of the thirteen number ones on the album were the singles from Carey 's 1995 release , Daydream . The album 's lead single " Fantasy " , was featured on # 1 's . However , it was the song 's official remix , which featured rap verses from Ol ' Dirty Bastard , which made the album cut . This was a personal decision made by Carey , as it was of her preference . The second song from Daydream to be featured on the album was " One Sweet Day " , Carey 's duet with Boyz II Men . The song topped the Hot 100 for an unprecedented sixteen weeks , and holds the record for longest running number one song in Hot 100 history . The third and final song from the album , " Always Be My Baby " , spent two weeks atop the charts in the US , therefore earning a place on the album as well .
Carey 's most recent studio effort at the time , Butterfly , also yielded two number one songs . The album 's lead single , " Honey " , was a career @-@ transitional song for Carey , which introduced her as an hip hop soul artist , as well as featured extended rap verses throughout the song . While very different than anything Carey had ever recorded , the track was described as " street Hip @-@ Hop music , with a booming bass . " The second song from Butterfly , " My All " , spent one week atop the charts . Carey described the song as " [ having ] a lush sound and intense styling . " Solely written by Carey and Walter Afanasieff , " My All " featured guitar arpeggios , which were synthetically created with the clever use of sampling and playing keyboard notes . As a result , the song was well @-@ received , being called a " slinky , slow jam R & B sound , that fit Mariah like a glove . "
= = = New material = = =
Since Carey intended # 1 's to serve as a sign of gratitude to her fans , the album contained four new songs not previously included on her albums . The first was a cover of Rainy Davis ' " Sweetheart " ( 1987 ) performed as a duet with co @-@ producer and rapper Jermaine Dupri . Dupri had worked with Carey in the past , contributing to her album Daydream , and co @-@ produced several hip @-@ hop remixes of her songs . Carey said of the inspiration for its recording , " I was thinking of the old songs I used to listen to when I was in school . It 's a really cute record . Young girls 'll like it the way I liked it when I was growing up . " Another new song featured on # 1 's was " When You Believe " , which Carey said was included because she felt it was " a miracle " that she and Houston collaborated on a record . During the development of All That Glitters , Carey had been introduced to DreamWorks producer Jeffrey Katzenberg , who asked her if she would record the song " When You Believe " for the soundtrack to the animated film The Prince of Egypt . Carey and Houston were shown the film separately , and both became very enthusiastic about participating in the project . In an interview with MTV , Carey made the following statement regarding " When You Believe " and working with Whitney Houston :
" It 's sort of a message song . It 's what ' Prince of Egypt ' is about , Moses . If we were ever going to come together on any kind of record , this is definitely the right one , and really the coolest thing to me is that after all of the drama and everybody making it like we had a rivalry , she was just really cool and we had a really good time in the studio . We had fun . And so , if nothing else , it was a good experience ... and diva @-@ ism , whatever . "
The song was co @-@ written by Stephen Schwartz and Babyface , who also produced the song . Carey had previously collaborated with Babyface on her albums , Music Box ( 1993 ) and Daydream ( 1995 ) . Babyface expressed how he went through more than one version of the song and described its production as a beautiful movie ballad , something different than he , Carey or Houston ever recorded . In an interview with Vibe , Carey said that she " liked [ the song ] the way it was . " She had characterised it as " a very big ballad but in an inspirational way " and denied speculation that there had been past rivalry or animosity between her and Houston prior to its recording : " I never even really talked to her until this . We never had any issues between us . The media and everybody made it an issue . "
Carey co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced the song " Whenever You Call " with longtime collaborator Walter Afanasieff for her album , Butterfly . However , in order to change the song 's tempo and format , Carey decided to re @-@ do the song as a duet with Brian McKnight , because she felt it was one of the best songs on Butterfly . Carey had also expressed how McKnight 's vocals added a great deal to the song , describing the project as " perfecting the song " . McKnight shared similar sentiments , saying , " It was amazing to go into the studio with someone who 's so successful , and has that kind of track record . Mariah is someone who could ask anyone in the world to sing with her , and they called me . The album contains a duet with Whitney Houston ... it 's just been great company to be in . "
One of the songs Carey recorded specifically for # 1 's was a cover of Brenda K. Starr 's " I Still Believe " ( 1988 ) co @-@ produced by Stevie J and Mike Mason . During the late 1980s Starr helped Carey secure a record contract while she worked as Starr 's backup singer . In the album 's liner notes , Carey wrote that the purpose of the song was solely paying tribute to her . According to Carey , the song " reminds me of the fact that not long ago I was a teenage girl with nothing to my name but a demo tape , my voice , and my ability to write songs . Brenda K. Starr treated me like a ' star ' and gave me a shot . " Another song Carey and Stevie J co @-@ produced was a cover of , " Theme from Mahogany ( Do You Know Where You 're Going To ) " ( 1975 ) by Diana Ross . The latter song was the third non @-@ original song on the album , and experienced a limited release throughout few countries in Europe . During a press release for the album , it was reported that an exclusive live version of " Hero " would be included . However , the idea fell through and was never released .
= = Critical reception = =
The album received generally mixed reviews from music critics . # 1 's was awarded four and a half out of five stars from Heather Phares of Allmusic . Phares complimented the album 's content , feeling the song selection was too commercial , but very strong . Additionally , Phares wrote " Her career has been an extraordinary succession of number ones and record @-@ breaking firsts in the music world , her entire album catalog has achieved RIAA multi @-@ platinum status . " Phares also commented on the accompanying DVD , writing , " Interviews and interactive menus make # 1s a better @-@ than @-@ average DVD video collection and one that will doubtlessly please Carey 's legions of fans . " Mark Bautz , an editor from Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B- . Bautz felt that Carey 's primary limitation was " wan , homogeneous songs " and that " hearing them months apart on the radio makes them passable , but strung together on # 1s they 're like a mile @-@ long elevator ride . " While criticizing the album for its song selection and content , he complimented the songs " My All " and the remix for " Fantasy " , writing , " that said , though , Fantasy ( with O.D.B. ) and My All stand up as two of the best pop tunes of the ' 90s . " The album received a scathing review from Britain 's NME magazine , with its critic writing :
" I fear Mariah Carey . Superficially , she might seem like a purveyor of saccharine bilge like ' Hero ' ... But that 's bullshit . You don 't sell 90 million records unless you reserve that fluffybunny stuff for your sucker fans ... you gotta be cold @-@ eyed , hard @-@ boiled and have balls of steel ... She 'll do whatever it takes . And her most fiendish weapon is the duet . If the MOR market needs servicing , she 'll duet with Luther or Whitney ... If her contemporary edge needs sharpening , she 'll hang with the Wu @-@ Tang Clan ... If you 're big in the R & B charts , like Brian McKnight , she 'll be in there ... like a heat @-@ seeking parasite . She don 't give a fuck . She destroys competition by sucking them dry and spitting them out . "
In a review for Carey 's 2001 album , Greatest Hits , Sal Cinquemani of Slant felt the album was solely a string of Carey 's most commercial and popular hits , however , not her best . Cinquemani complimented Greatest Hits and wrote , " It seems like only yesterday that we were served with the self @-@ congratulatory # 1s , a collection of Carey 's record @-@ breaking string of chart @-@ toppers , but the 27 @-@ track Greatest Hits is the singer 's first proper hits compilation . " In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , critic Robert Christgau gave the album a " choice cut " rating , indicating " a good song on an album that isn 't worth your time or money ; Some ( choice cut ) s are arbitrarily personal , others inescapably social . "
= = Chart performance = =
As executives at Columbia had done during the album 's development , Eric Boehlert of Rolling Stone noted the importance of the release date of # 1 's and other albums on sale during the same period : " Artists who make a habit of hitting it big during the holiday shopping season are wise indeed , as sales traditionally skyrocket . This year is no exception . " Journalist and author Marc Shapiro , in his biography of Carey , attributed the album 's high sales to the presence of new songs , writing :
" The consensus among the music press was that Mariah 's insistence on including the new material made all the difference in increasing sales figures more than expected . Including some new with the old in a greatest @-@ hits package had been tried from time to time by other artists with varying degrees of success , but with the triumph of # 1 's , it would become a regular element in nearly all future greatest @-@ hits albums . As such packages go , # 1 's was a solid retrospective of Mariah 's chart hits , but because these songs were oversaturating the radio , including a favorite nonhit album track or two might have made a nice change . The new songs were a definite bones even though none ever really rose to the spectacular level of her best ... they added up to a nice touch but little more . "
# 1 's was released in the same week as several other albums by high @-@ profile musicians such as Garth Brooks , Jewel , Method Man , Ice Cube and Whitney Houston . MTV News called November 17 " what is shaping up to be the music industry 's Super Tuesday ... most onlookers know that first week sales aren 't everything , but they will also tell you that they are pretty darn important . " # 1 's entered the U.S. Billboard 200 at number four , with 221 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . In its sixth week of release ( ending January 2 ) the album 's weekly sales peaked at 360 @,@ 000 copies . It remained in the top twenty for thirteen weeks and on the chart for sixty @-@ two weeks ( making two re @-@ entries ) . In Canada , # 1 's was certified triple @-@ platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) , denoting shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies .
In Europe , the album experienced success , peaking within the top @-@ ten in almost every major music market . By 2003 , the album received a double @-@ platinum certification by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting shipments of two million copies throughout Europe , until that year . In France , # 1 's was certified double @-@ platinum , with estimated sales of 800 @,@ 000 copies . In Italy was certified triple @-@ platinum , whit 300 @,@ 000 copies . The album received a platinum certification in Belgium , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom , where it shipped 800 @,@ 000 copies . # 1 's received a gold certification in Germany , the Netherlands and Norway . Aside from its success in Europe , the album experienced its highest sales in Japan ( after the US ) , where it sold 3 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 copies in the first three months after its release . In Japan , # 1 's remains the best @-@ selling album in Japan by a non @-@ Asian artist and is certified the triple @-@ Million award and was certified six @-@ time platinum in Brazil , whit 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 copies . The album was certified five @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of five million copies throughout the United States . Worldwide # 1 's has sold 20 million copies .
= = Singles = =
" Sweetheart " was released as the album 's lead single . In the US , due to the song 's low radio airplay , " Sweetheart " only reached number twenty @-@ five on Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles . Internationally , the song performed better , peaking within the top twenty in Germany and Switzerland . " When You Believe " , the album 's second single , was promoted as the first single from both The Prince of Egypt : Original Soundtrack and Houston 's My Love Is Your Love . It was given a wider release than " Sweetheart " and achieved worldwide success . The song peaked within the top two in Norway , Spain , Sweden and Switzerland , and in the top five in Belgium , the Netherlands , France and the United Kingdom . In the UK , " When You Believe " became one of Carey 's biggest successes , selling 260 @,@ 000 units . Despite reaching high positions around the globe , " When You Believe " performed moderately in the US , where it peaked at number fifteen . Serving as the album 's third single , " I Still Believe " performed stronger in the US than the album 's previous singles , peaking at number four . The song was certified platinum in the United States , however performing weakly in other territories . " I Still Believe " performed well in Spain , where it peaked at number seven , and in Canada , where the song reached the top @-@ ten .
" Whenever You Call " was considered for release as a single in mid @-@ 1999 , but its promotion was cancelled due to the impending release of " Heartbreaker " , the lead single from Carey 's following album Rainbow . " Do You Know Where You 're Going To " was issued as a promotional single in Brazil and some parts of Europe during June . The song performed weakly around the world , not charting in any major music market . In December 1999 , Columbia released the video / DVD # 1 's , which contained music videos and recordings of live performances for the number one singles featured on # 1 's , as well as " Heartbreaker " , which had gone to number one during that time .
= = Awards and accolades = =
In 1998 , Carey received the World Music Awards for becoming the " World 's Best Selling Recording Artist of the 1990s " as well as the award for " World 's Best Selling R & B Artist " . Carey received the 1998 Billboard Music Award for Artist of the Decade . At the 1999 BMI Music Awards , Carey took home the coveted Songwriter of the Year award . " When You Believe " was nominated at the 2000 Grammy Awards for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals and won an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Duo or Group . Additionally , the song won the award for Best Original Song at the 71st annual Academy Awards . After the album 's release , Carey won a Blockbuster Entertainment Award in the category of Favorite Female Artist , and Entertainer of the Year at the Soul Train Music Awards . # 1 's won a 1999 Japan Gold Disc Award for International Pop Album of the Year .
= = Track listing = =
= = Album credits = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Slavery by Another Name =
Slavery by Another Name : The Re @-@ Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II is a book by American writer Douglas A. Blackmon , published by Anchor Books in 2008 . It explores the forced labor of imprisoned black men and women , through the convict lease system used by states , local governments , white farmers , and corporations after the American Civil War until World War II in the southern United States . Blackmon argues slavery in the United States did not end with the Civil War , but instead persisted well into the 20th century . It depicts the subjugation of Convict Leasing , Sharecropping and Peonage and tells the fate of the former but not of the latter two .
Slavery by Another Name began as an article Blackmon wrote for The Wall Street Journal detailing the use of black forced labor by U.S. Steel Corporation . Seeing the popular response to the article , he began research for a more comprehensive look at the topic . The resulting book was well received by critics and became a New York Times Best Seller . In 2009 , it was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for General Non @-@ Fiction , and in 2012 , was adapted into a documentary film for PBS also titled Slavery by Another Name .
= = Background = =
Douglas Blackmon , the book 's author , is a Wall Street Journal reporter . He grew up in Washington County , Mississippi , where as a seventh grader he was encouraged by his teacher and his mother to research a local racist incident , despite the opposition of some citizens . The experience began a lifelong interest in the history of American race relations .
In 2003 , Blackmon wrote a story on the use of black convict labor in the coal mines of U.S. Steel . The story generated a large response , and was later anthologized in Best Business Stories . Blackmon began to research the subject more widely , visiting various county courthouses to obtain records on arrest , conviction , and sentences .
He later stated :
" ... as I began to research , even I , as someone who had been paying attention to some of these sorts of things for a long time and was open to alternative explanations , even I was fairly astonished when I put it together , basically by going county by county and finding the criminal arrest records and the jail records in county after county after county from this period of time and seeing that if there had been crime waves , there had to have been records of crimes and people being arrested for crimes . And in reality , it 's just not there .
" There 's no evidence that that ever happened . In fact , it 's the opposite . The crime waves that occurred by and large were the aftermath of the war and whites coming back from fighting in the Civil War and settling scores with people and all sorts of renegade activity that didn 't involve black people at all , but they were blamed for it , and that was then used as a kind of ruse for why these incredibly brutal new legal measures then began to be put in place . "
The resulting book , Slavery by Another Name , was published by Anchor Books in 2008 .
= = Contents = =
In the introduction to Slavery by Another Name , Blackmon describes his experience as a reporter for the Wall Street Journal " asking a provocative question : What would be revealed if American corporations were examined through the same sharp lens of historical confrontation as the one then being trained on German corporations that relied on Jewish slave labor during World War II and the Swiss banks that robbed victims of the Holocaust of their fortunes ? " His story describing corporate use of black forced labor in the post @-@ Civil War South generated more response than any other piece he had written , and inspired him to pursue a book @-@ length study of the subject ( see Reconstruction Era ) .
Blackmon structures his narrative around a young African American man named Green Cottenham ; though the records of Cottenham 's life are incomplete , Blackmon states that " the absence of his voice rests at the center of this book . " Cottenham , who was born in the 1880s to two former slaves , was arrested in 1908 for vagrancy , a common pretext to detain blacks without a white patron . The state of Alabama rented him to a coal mine owned by U.S. Steel Corporation , where he died .
As context for Cottenham 's story , Slavery by Another Name also details the beginnings of " industrial slavery " , in which convict laborers were put to work in factories or mines rather than cotton fields . Though slaves were formally emancipated by the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution following the Civil War , Southern states subsequently passed Black Codes , " an array of interlocking laws essentially intended to criminalize black life " , to restrict the economic independence of blacks and provide pretexts for jail terms . These convicts were then rented to plantations , lumber camps , and mines to be used for forced labor . Though federal prosecutors such as Eugene Reese attempted to prosecute responsible parties in the early 20th century under federal laws against debt peonage , the efforts received little support locally or nationally . The system finally comes to an end only with the advent of World War II , which focuses renewed attention on racial issues and the need for national unity .
In the book 's epilogue , Blackmon argues for the importance of acknowledging this history of forced labor :
the evidence moldering in county courthouses and the National Archives compels us to confront this extinguished past , to recognize the terrible contours of the record , to teach our children the truth of a terror that pervaded much of American life , to celebrate its end , to lift any shame on those who could not evade it . This book is not a call for financial reparations . Instead , I hope it is a formidable plea for a resurrection and fundamental reinterpretation of a tortured chapter in the collective American past .
= = Reception = =
The book was a New York Times Best Seller and met a positive reception from critics . Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that it " eviscerates a basic assumption : that slavery in America ended with the Civil War . " She praised the book 's evidence as " relentless and fascinating " , though she stated that the conceit of reconstructing Cottenham 's life gives the book " a shaky start " . Leonard Pitts , a columnist for the Miami Herald , wrote that " Slavery by Another Name is an astonishing book . It will challenge and change your understanding of what we were as Americans - and of what we are . I cannot recommend it to you highly enough . " W. Fitzhugh Brundage wrote in The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education that " Blackmon deserves high praise for this deeply moving and troubling history . He especially deserves praise for teasing out the largest implications of his research . He aptly , and carefully , draws parallels between the corporate responsibility of companies that exploited slave labor in Nazi Germany and that of southerners who bought convict labor . " In the Sunday Gazette @-@ Mail , Chris Vognar called the book " chilling , doggedly reported and researched " . A review in the Rocky Mountain News stated of the book , " Displaying meticulous research , and personalizing the larger story through individual experiences , Blackmon 's book opens the eyes and wrenches the gut . "
African American Studies scholar James Smethurst was more critical , writing in The Boston Globe that " this catalogue of the nadir is one of the book 's weaknesses , since it sometimes departs from its account of peonage without much transition . Paying more attention to the considerable presence of involuntary servitude in African- American literature and intellectual history , reaching back to Charles Chesnutt and Paul Laurence Dunbar , would have helped " . However , he concludes that " the book vividly and engagingly recalls the horror and sheer magnitude of such neo @-@ slavery and reminds us how long after emancipation such practices persisted . "
Slavery by Another Name was awarded the 2009 Pulitzer Prize for General Non @-@ Fiction . The award committee called it " a precise and eloquent work that examines a deliberate system of racial suppression and that rescues a multitude of atrocities from virtual obscurity . "
In 2011 , Mark Melvin , an inmate at the Kilby Correctional Facility , was banned from reading the book by Alabama Department of Corrections officials who deemed it " an attempt to incite violence based on race , religion , sex , creed or nationality " . Melvin filed a lawsuit stating that his First Amendment rights had been violated . Blackmon stated of the officials ' actions that " The idea that a book like mine is somehow incendiary or a call to violence is so absurd " .
= = Film = =
Slavery by Another Name was adapted into a 90 @-@ minute documentary film , which premiered on PBS in February 2012 . The film was executive produced by Catherine Allan of Twin Cities Public Television , co @-@ executive produced by Blackmon , directed by Sam Pollard , written by Sheila Curran Bernard , and narrated by Laurence Fishburne . Slavery by Another Name premiered in competition at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2012 .
Neil Genzliger of The New York Times wrote of the film that " by filling in an overlooked part of black history , this sobering film enhances our understanding of why race issues have proved so intractable . " Daniel Fienberg of Hitfix , viewing the film at Sundance , wrote that " Slavery By Another Name is sturdy and well @-@ researched stuff and it will play well when it airs on PBS next month and it should play well in the future in classrooms , but as a film festival entry , it isn 't nearly confident enough in its artistry . There 's no harm in a dry history lesson , but Pollard may have hoped to achieve more than that . "
= Don 't Cry for Me Argentina =
" Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " is a song recorded by Julie Covington for the 1976 concept album , Evita , and was later included in the 1978 musical of the same name . The song was written and composed by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice while they were researching the life of Argentinian leader Eva Perón . It appeared at the opening and near the end of the show , initially as the spirit of the dead Eva exhorting the people of Argentina not to mourn her , and finally during Eva 's speech from the balcony of Casa Rosada . Covington was signed by the songwriters for the track , based on her previous work in musicals .
The Evita album had taken 3 – 4 months to record , since Rice was not satisfied with the intensity of the initial recordings . It had a number of different titles before " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " was decided as the final one . The song shares its melody with " Oh What a Circus " from the same show and lyrically consists of platitudes where Eva tries to win the favour of the people of Argentina . It was released in the United Kingdom on 12 November 1976 as the first single from the album , accompanied by national and trade advertising , full @-@ colour posters , display sleeves as well as radio interviews .
The song reached number @-@ one on the UK Singles Chart and earned a gold certification from the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , with over a million copies sold . It also reached the top of the charts in Australia , Belgium , Ireland , New Zealand and the Netherlands . " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " was critically appreciated , with Rice and Lloyd Webber winning the 1977 Ivor Novello award in the category of Best Song Musically and Lyrically . When Evita moved to a London theatre , Covington — who had become disenchanted with the whole project — refused to reprise the part of Eva and the role went to Elaine Paige . " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " has been covered by multiple artists , including The Carpenters , Olivia Newton @-@ John , Sinéad O 'Connor as well as the TV series Glee actors Lea Michele and Chris Colfer .
In 1996 , American singer Madonna starred in the film adaptation of the musical in the title role . Her version of " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " was released as the second single from the film soundtrack on 4 February 1997 . A separate version called the " Miami Mix " , which included re @-@ recorded vocals in English and Spanish and an Argentinean bandoneon in the song 's intro , was promoted to radio . Madonna 's vocals received positive critical response and the song went on to reach the top of the charts across Europe , Spain and the remix reached number @-@ one on US Dance Club Songs charts . The song also reached the top @-@ ten of the charts a number of nations , including the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , and received gold certifications from five of them .
= = Background and development = =
" Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " was written by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice while they were developing Evita for Broadway in 1976 . Both were extremely intrigued by the stories surrounding the life of Eva Perón while researching about her during the mid @-@ 1970s . Evita was initially produced as an album , before being adapted for the stage , following a formula that Lloyd Webber and Rice had employed during the production of Jesus Christ Superstar , their previous musical . The duo had written the songs for a female singer with good vocals .
Rice and Webber 's research showed that Eva had not in reality delivered any major oration on the day of her husband Juan Perón 's inauguration ceremony , but not long after becoming Argentina 's new First Lady she started making highly emotional speeches , the intensity of which they wanted to capture with " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " . The song was composed to appear at the opening and near the end of the show , initially as the spirit of the dead Eva exhorting the people of Argentina not to mourn her , and finally during Eva 's speech from the balcony of Casa Rosada . Its melody is similar to the opening song of the musical , " Oh What a Circus " , and puts emphasis on Eva 's funeral . As " Oh What a Circus " ended with the character Che 's sarcastic questioning of the mourning behind Eva 's death , " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " started with only few lines being sung , while the rest of the song was reserved for the finale .
After the song was composed , Lloyd Webber and Rice were struggling to find a suitable musical actress for the songs and the titular role , since the only one they knew , Yvonne Elliman , had moved to United States . One day they were watching the British musical television show , Rock Follies , where they noticed actress and singer Julie Covington , who played an aspiring rock musician . Covington had played in London musicals like Godspell , and her acting abilities in Rock Follies convinced Rice and Lloyd Webber to sign her for Evita .
Covington was extremely intrigued by their proposal , considering Eva Perón to be a non @-@ commercial idea for a musical . Nevertheless , she thought that the songs were great compositions and signed on for recording them . Lloyd Webber and Rice immediately started recording and the first demos were those of " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " , " I 'd Be Surprisingly Good for You " and " Buenos Aires " , with just piano as an accompaniment . They moved on to sign a deal with MCA Records , to release an album based on the songs , however with extremely poor royalty rates since the record company executives did not expect the album to be a success . In the meantime , singers for all the other roles of the musical were also signed , and the cast moved to Olympic Studios in 1975 to start recording .
= = Recording and composition = =
Personnel working on the Evita album included recording engineer David Hamilton @-@ Smith , Simon Philips on drums , Mo Foster on bass , Joe Moretti and Ray Russell on guitars and Anne Odell on keyboards . David Snell played the harp while Anthony Bowles conducted the London Philharmonic Orchestra , while another choir called the London Boy Singles was directed by Alan Doggett . Members of The Grease Band , including bassist Alan Spenner and rhythm guitarist Neil Hubbard also played on the album . It took a total of 3 – 4 months to finish the recording .
The intensity which Rice looked for in the track was not immediately achieved during recording , because of the lyrical content and the song being a sentimental ballad composition . As the delivery date of the recording approached , they got more tense since most of the album was put together . Only this song was left as they could not decide on the final title , and Rice tried out names which did not make sense within the political and dramatic atmosphere of the story . They had initially tried out various lyrics as the main hook and title of the song including " It 's Only Your Lover Returning " and " All Through My Crazy and Wild Days " amid fears that mentioning Argentina would reduce the commercial appeal . Rice recalled , " What a crass decision ! It was probably the only time ( honest ) that I had made the mistake of caring more abort a lyric 's potential outside the show than its importance within it , and as a result both song and show suffered . " Covington had already recorded the phrase " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " for using it in the beginning of the show . Shortly before the album was finally mixed , Lloyd Webber suggested to Rice that the line also worked as the title of Eva 's speech . As soon as Covington recorded with the new name , the song fit " perfectly " in the mood of the sequence and was included in the album .
The title of the song comes from an epitaph on a plaque at Eva Peron 's grave in the La Recoleta Cemetery in Buenos Aires . The plaque was presented by the city 's taxi drivers ' union and roughly translates as : " Don 't cry for me Argentina , I remain quite near to you . " Lyrically , the song is called a " string of meaningless platitudes " by Rice , adding that it worked as a speech by a " megalomaniac woman " like Eva , trying to win the favor of the people of Argentina , with low on content and high intensity on emotional display . The lyrics go like , " And as for fortune , and as for fame / I never invited them in / Though it seemed to the world they were all desired / They are illusions " .
Webber 's orchestral accompaniment added a different level to the track , with its composition consisting of pizzicato strings , and its flowing tempo introducing Covington 's opening vocals . The song jumps from being light to heavy and extravagant , with one section of it being hummed by choral voices . As the final lyrics goes , " But all you have to do is look at me to know / That every word is true " is sung , the London Philharmonic Orchestra comes into play with a huge climax and ends . According to the sheet music published by Music Sales Group , the song starts with a sequence of G / D – A7 / D – D – Bm / D , changes to E – E / D – A / C ♯ – E7 – A – D , with the chorus featuring a chord progression of A – Bm – Dmaj7 – Gmaj7 – G – F ♯ m7 . The song is composed in the key of C major with Covington 's vocals spanning from the nodes of E3 to G ♯ 5 .
= = Release and reception = =
Following the completion of the recording of the album , the Evita team switched on to full promotion of the release , with photographer Tony Snowdon shooting the promotional pictures . The single version of " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " was released in the United Kingdom on 12 November 1976 , accompanied by national and trade advertising , full @-@ colour posters , display sleeves as well as radio interviews . Another song from the musical , " Rainbow High " , was listed as its B @-@ side . MCA marketing manager Stuart Watson explained to Billboard that their chief goal was to " get an explanation of the story of Eva Perón over to the public " . The song received critical appreciation , with The Sunday Times calling it a " masterpiece " . However , Rice and Lloyd Webber felt that they needed more promotion to reach the general audience who would buy the record . They had initially decided for a number of television show appearances and performances , but Covington was disinterested in the project altogether and refused to promote it further . Her reasons included wanting to perform the song with the same studio orchestra and accompaniments , and she was also against a single release from the album .
The song was never performed live on British music show , Top of the Pops , since Covington refused and whenever it was featured on the show , a montage of images of the real Eva was shown in the backdrops . However , during the week it was number one , she appeared in the audience . Rice and Lloyd Webber then targeted BBC Radio 1 , which although was in its infancy , but still popular among the general crowd . They had a fairly tight selection of songs they aired on their channels , and Radio 1 completely refused to add " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " in their playlists . Rice and Lloyd Webber panicked and were almost on the verge of releasing another track from Evita called " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " , recorded by Barbara Dickson , as the second single . But Radio 1 finally relented and started playing the song due to positive response from audiences .
" Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " debuted at number 37 on the UK Singles Chart on the week ending 25 December 1976 . It started climbing up the chart but for 3 weeks it was kept from reaching the top spot by David Soul 's " Don 't Give Up on Us " . On the week ending 12 February 1977 , the song reached the top of the charts . It was first certified silver in January 1977 , and then certified gold a month later by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , selling almost one million physical copies in the United Kingdom . Together with digital sales since it has sold about 1 @.@ 01 million copies according to the Official Charts Company . The single also reached the top of the charts in Australia , Belgium , Ireland , New Zealand and Netherlands ; in the latter country it sold around 100 @,@ 000 copies . Seeing the success of the single , Rice and Lloyd Webber proceeded with promoting the song in the United States . However , the personnel at MCA Records ' US office were not able to come to terms regarding how to promote the adult contemporary oriented track ; it was ultimately never sent to Top 40 / CHR radio , and did not appear on any US charts .
= = Aftermath and impact = =
When the cast of the London musical version of Evita was being decided , Rice and Lloyd Webber naturally approached Covington to play the titular role . However she chose not to reprise the role . Producer Hal Prince wanted to cast a relatively unknown actress to play Eva , and thus Elaine Paige was signed for the part . In 1977 , Rice and Lloyd Webber received the Ivor Novello award in the category of Best Song Musically and Lyrically . During the 1982 Falklands War between the United Kingdom and Argentina , the song was sometimes played sarcastically by British regimental bands as they deployed to the Falklands . They changed the lyrics , singing it as " You don 't frighten me Argentina / The truth is we will defeat you / We 'll sink your carrier , with our Sea Harrier / And with our Sea Kings subs 'll be sinking " . At the same time the Covington recording was banned from play on the BBC . The song was also banned in the Philippines during the dictatorship ( 1972 – 86 ) of President Ferdinand Marcos . The life of former First Lady Imelda Marcos , Marcos ' wife , is similar to that of Evita Peron . The presentation of the musical Evita was repressed . In the United States , the song is also closely linked with Patti LuPone , who performed the role of Eva in the original Broadway production of the show .
= = Track listing and formats = =
7 " single
" Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " – 5 : 24
" Rainbow High " – 2 : 31
7 " Double hit single
" Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " – 5 : 23
" I Don 't Know How to Love Him " ( Performed by Yvonne Elliman ) – 3 : 55
7 " Old Gold single
" Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " – 5 : 24
" Another Suitcase in Another Hall " ( Performed by Barbara Dickson ) – 3 : 00
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the 7 " single liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Cover versions = =
Since its release , " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " has been covered by numerous artists . One of the earliest covers of the song was by The Carpenters in 1977 , who recorded the track for their album , Passage . It was coupled with another song from Evita , " On the Balcony of the Casa Rosada " . The same year , Olivia Newton @-@ John released the song as a single from her tenth studio album , Making a Good Thing Better . In 1978 , Shirley Bassey recorded a slower version of the track for her album , The Magic Is You ; she re @-@ recorded it in 1993 on her album Sings the Songs of Andrew Lloyd Webber . Simon Gage from the Daily Express praised the rendition , saying that Bassey " more than covers the ground " with it . Singer Tom Jones ' interpretation of the song on his 1979 album , Rescue Me , received negative reviews , with biographer Lucy Ellis describing it as " the most ludicrous massacre on the LP " . Paloma San Basilio performed the song when she played the titular role on the Spanish adaptation of the musical in 1980 . Nacha Guevara , who also starred in the musical in 1986 , has performed the song live several times .
Marti Webb covered the song on her album Won 't Change Places ( 1981 ) and also included it in 1995 on the album , Music and Songs from Evita . AllMusic 's Joe Francis complimented the recording . Singer Sinéad O 'Connor recorded " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " on her album Am I Not Your Girl ( 1992 ) . Her version received mixed response , with Joy Press from Spin who described the rendition as " a melodramatic , sweeping ' Je ne regrette rien ' — style apologia . O ’ Connor had a calling . Obsessed with purity and truth , she pitched herself somewhere between Christ and the Virgin Mary , as an asexual visionary whose suffering was Inextricably Intertwined with the pain of Ireland and of the world . " Released as a CD maxi single , the song reached number 31 in Belgium Flanders and number 44 in Netherlands . A punk rock version was recorded by alternative band Me First and the Gimme Gimmes in 1999 for their second studio album , Are a Drag . Angus Cargill , author of Hang the DJ : An alternative book of music lists was shocked by the complete revamp of the song as punk rock , saying that " there 's a dark appeal in here , like the thought of taking a cattle prod to your grandma 's " .
Webber 's younger brother and cello player Julian on the 2001 album , Lloyd Webber Plays Lloyd Webber . Another version was recorded in 2010 by TV series Glee 's actors Lea Michele and Chris Colfer , as the characters Rachel Berry and Kurt Hummel respectively . It was sung as a duet with each singer taking a different stanza and performing before a different audience in a split @-@ scene . Their solo versions were also in Glee : The Music , The Complete Season Two and reached number 67 in the United Kingdom and number 97 in US . Multinational quartet Il Divo recorded it on their 2011 album , Wicked Game , and performed it live on tours . The group 's voice was considered suitable for musical numbers like " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " , by Ben Walsh from The Independent . Nicole Scherzinger performed the song live at the Andrew Lloyd Webber : 40 Musical Years tribute show . Louis Virtel from The Backlot complimented her vocals , saying that the performance " has to be seen to be believed , as Scherzinger ’ s crystal @-@ clear vocal soars like a glittery javelin " .
= = Madonna version = =
= = = Background = = =
In 1996 , Madonna starred in the film Evita , playing the titular role . For a long time , Madonna had desired to play Eva and even wrote a letter to director Alan Parker , explaining how she would be perfect for the part . After securing the role , she underwent vocal training with coach Joan Layder since Evita required the actors to sing their own parts . Layder noted that the singer " had to use her voice in a way she 's never used it before . Evita is real musical theater — its operatic , in a sense . Madonna developed an upper register that she didn 't know she had . " From the moment she was signed in the film , Madonna had expressed interest in recording a dance version of " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " . According to her publicist Liz Rosenberg , " since she didn 't write the music and lyrics , she wanted her signature on that song ... I think on her mind , the best way to do it was go in the studio and work up a remix " .
For this , in August 1996 , while still mixing the film 's soundtrack , Madonna hired remixers Pablo Flores and Javier Garza . According to Flores , the singer wanted something that " would be dance but faithful to the movie and to Argentina with a latin feel " . Madonna herself said she wanted the remix to have a " Latin flavor and elements of Tango music " . The mix was completed in two weeks at Miami and Los Angeles . Madonna had to re @-@ record the vocals of the track in English and Spanish , while an Argentinean bandoneon was added to the song 's intro . Named the " Miami Mix " , it was sent to radio stations and DJs on late December 1996 and was officially released as the soundtrack 's second single on 4 February 1997 . Barney Kilpatrick , VP of promotion for Warner Bros. Records , said that " the only reason this mix is being done was to accommodate Top 40 radio [ ... ] since we have a two @-@ disc soundtrack , we 're interested in selling albums , not singles " . Warner Bros wanted to create buzz for the film with the song , not the single remix . There were also talks of releasing an Evita EP , containing remixed versions of " Buenos Aires " , " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " and " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " , but plans fell through .
= = = Recording and composition = = =
Recording sessions for the film 's songs and soundtrack began on September 1995 , and took place at the CTS Studios in London with Madonna accompanied by co @-@ actors Antonio Banderas and Jonathan Pryce . However , trouble arose as Madonna was not completely comfortable with laying down a " guide vocal " simultaneously with an 84 piece orchestra inside the studio . She was used to singing over a pre @-@ recorded track and not have musicians listen to her . Also , unlike her previous soundtrack releases , she had little to no control over the project ; " I 'm used to writing my own songs and I go into a studio , choose the musicians and say what sounds good or doesn 't [ ... ] To work on 46 songs with everyone involved and not have a big say was a big adjustment " , she recalled . An emergency meeting was held between Parker , Lloyd Webber and Madonna where it was decided that the singer would record her part in a more contemporary studio while the orchestration would take place somewhere else . She also had alternate days off from the recording .
According to the singer , she was very nervous during the first day of recording . She allegedly found herself " petrified " when it came to
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doing the song ; " I had to sing ' Don 't Cry For Me Argentina ' in front of Andrew Lloyd Webber [ ... ] I was a complete mess and was sobbing afterward . I thought I had done a terrible job " , she recalled . The final version recorded had much similarities to the original version by Covington , although had a much faster pace and was created as an orchestral pop to cater to the contemporary music scene . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , Madonna 's version of the song is set in common time , with a slow groove tempo of 90 beats per minute . Madonna 's vocals on the song span from G3 to C5 . The song follows a basic sequence of C – F ♭ – C when Madonna sings " It won 't be easy , you 'll think it strange " , and changes to G7 – C on the second verse .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Upon release , the song received generally positive feedback . J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , wrote that " As Evita Perón [ ... ] she is supple and strong , and doesn 't sound at all out of place " . Author Lucy O 'Brien wrote in the book , Madonna : Like an Icon , that although Madonna 's vocals lacked emotional complexity in the tune , she nevertheless created a " compelling " version , " right up to its grand orchestral finale " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented : " Easily one of Madonna 's greatest vocal performance to date , the singer 's dramatic interpretation of Evita 's unofficial theme song was both loyal and bizarrely autobiographical " . Writing for Los Angeles Times , David Gritten opined that " show @-@ stoppers like ' Don 't Cry for Me Argentina ' , which need to be belted out , sound comfortable for her " . George Hatza from The Reading Eagle , said that " [ Madonna ] sings ' Don 't Cry For Me Argentina ' in a beautiful , soaring , goosebump @-@ inducing contralto " . J. D. Considine , from The Baltimore Sun , said it was one of the " big songs " from the soundtrack . In her review of Evita , Janet Maslin from The New York Times commented that the track was " tinglingly sung " . Peter Travers from Rolling Stone , wrote : " Madonna , to her credit , puts on quite a show . She sings . She tangos [ ... ] She even belts out ' Don 't Cry for Me Argentina ' to prove she 's just folks " . Peter Keough , from the Boston Phoenix , praised Madonna 's " stunning delivery " of the track . He wrote : " [ Madonna ] sings a softly lush soprano that captures Evita 's quiet vulnerability . Her full @-@ lipped , precise notes stride across the song 's grandiose orchestrations . Webber 's songs allows her all the room she needs to be many things ; she succeeds at them all " . A very positive review came from the Hartford Courant 's Greg Morago , who called the song " a calculated , theatrical triumph of shameless pandering and steely determination that parallels the pop diva 's own rise to the top . Madonna makes this song her own ; she was born to play the chignon @-@ coiffed , diamond @-@ studded Santa Evita " .
The Huffington Post 's Matthew Jacobs placed it at number 26 of his list " The Definitive Ranking Of Madonna Singles " . Calling it one of Madonna 's most important songs , Jacobs considered the track a " stand @-@ in for the transition from Sexy Madonna to Adult Madonna " . Similarly , Spin 's Annie Zaleski wrote that the " nuanced but proud " rendition of the song " marked the start of Madonna ’ s Serious Phase , one where she balanced youthful coquettishness with a more mature , introspective outlook " . AllMusic 's Jose F. Promis praised the " Miami Mix " version of the song ; " [ ' Don 't Cry For Me Argentina ' ] was transformed into a passionate , flowing dance number " , highlighting Madonna 's " truly impassioned performance which infuriated musical purists but delighted her fans and public alike " . In his review of Madonna 's second greatest hits album , GHV2 ( 2001 ) , Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave a more critical reception , as he felt the track was out of place among other Madonna songs ; " the very presence of ' Don 't Cry for Me Argentina ' [ ... ] simply does not feel comfortable next to the rest of the savvy , modern music " . A negative review came from NME 's Alex Needham , who wrote ; " by 1996 Madonna was fast turning into the pop equivalent of Sunset Boulevard 's Norma Desmond , croaking , ' I 'm still big ! It 's just the Top 40 that got small ! " , and that " ' Don 't Cry For Me Argentina ' stank then , stinks now " . Also negative was music critic Robert Christgau , who called it a " dismal track " and criticized its mixing .
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , the popularity of the " Miami Mix " version of the song enabled it to become the song with the most radio adds , and jumped to number 18 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart . Demand for the song continued to increase forcing Warner Bros. to release the CD single , and the song becoming eligible to chart . It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 17 the week of 22 February 1997 . The single ultimately peaked at number 8 the week of 1 March 1997 . " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " reached number 1 on the European Hot 100 Singles , the week of 8 February 1997 . The track also ranked within the top 20 of Billboard 's Adult Contemporary and Adult Top 40 charts while the " Miami Mix " reached the top of the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . It ranked at number 87 on the year end chart for 1997 . In Canada , the song debuted on the RPM Top Singles chart at number 34 , the week of 10 March 1997 . It ultimately reached a peak of number 11 , the week of 7 April 1997 . In the United Kingdom , the song reached number 3 on the week of 28 December 1996 , and was present on the top 100 for a total of 13 weeks . It was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on 1 January 1997 for shipments of 400 @,@ 000 copies . In Italy , it reached the second position of the FIMI Singles Chart . On the year @-@ end Italian charts , it was ranked at number 21 . In Australia , " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " peaked at number 9 on the ARIA Singles Chart , staying on this position for one week and a total of 13 weeks on the chart . On the year @-@ end ARIA charts , the song ranked at number 56 . In France , it topped the SNEP Singles Chart for one month . In Ireland , the song peaked at number 8 , the week of 19 December 1996 . The single also proved to be a commercial success in other countries such as Belgium , Germany , Spain and the Netherlands , where it managed to have top 5 placement .
= = = Promotion and live performances = = =
No official video was shot for the song . Instead , the scene from the movie , where Eva performs the song at the balcony of the Casa Rosada , was used . In 1993 ( 2 years before being cast in Evita ) , Madonna performed an impromptu version of the song during her first visit to Argentina , as part of her Girlie Show World Tour . Eight years later , on her 2001 Drowned World Tour , an instrumental version of the song was used as an interlude , featuring several dancers doing a Tango number . The performance on 26 August 2001 , at The Palace of Auburn Hills , outside of Madonna 's hometown of Detroit was recorded and released in the live video album , Drowned World Tour 2001 . On the Buenos Aires stop of her Sticky & Sweet Tour , on December 2008 , after performing " You Must Love Me " , Madonna also performed " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " as scenes from Evita played on the backdrop screens . The performances of both songs in the city were recorded in the live CD @-@ DVD titled , Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2010 ) . The singer once again performed the song in Argentina during The MDNA Tour , in 2012 . For the performance , she had the word " Eva " painted across her back . Madonna also did a " passionate rendition " of " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " , during the Miami stop of her Rebel Heart Tour on 23 January 2016 . For the performance , she was accompanied by an acoustic guitar player .
= = = Track listings = = =
= = = Credits and personnel = = =
Madonna – vocals , mixing
Tim Rice – writer
Andrew Lloyd Webber – writer , producer
Alan Parker – producer
Nigel Wright – producer , mixing
David Reitzas – mixing
John Mauceri – conductor
David Caddick and Mike Dixon – additional conductors
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Charts and certifications = = =
= Raid at Ožbalt =
The Raid at Ožbalt was an operation on 31 August 1944 in which 105 Allied prisoners of war ( POWs ) were rescued by Slovene Partisans . The majority were liberated from a work site at the village of Ožbalt ( German : St. Oswald an der Drau ) about 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) west of Maribor on the railway line to Dravograd in the German Reichsgau Steiermark ( Styria ) , now part of modern @-@ day northern Slovenia . Six of the liberated POWs were separated from the group during an engagement with the Germans a few days after their liberation , but following a 14 @-@ day trek across 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) they were flown out of a Partisan airfield at Semič to Bari , Italy . The successful escapees consisted of eight Frenchmen , nine New Zealanders , 12 Australians , and 70 British POWs .
= = Background = =
Allied POWs were used in working camps for various purposes beneficial to the German side . By June 1944 there were several working camps administered by Stalag XVIII @-@ D which was located in Maribor , Slovenia ( German : Marburg an der Drau ) . Prisoners held in one of the work camps were used for maintenance of the railway between Maribor and Dravograd ( German : Unterdrauburg ) which continued through the Drava valley and into Austria . This work camp is believed to have been Work Camp 1046 / GW . At this time , railways in Slovenia were being regularly sabotaged by Slovene Partisans , who also rescued Allied personnel including aircrew and POWs who had escaped from the Germans . A work party , consisting of about a hundred mostly British POWs were transported from their camp to Ožbalt each morning to do railway maintenance work , and returned to the camp in the evening . There were several other work camps in the vicinity of Ožbalt , mostly doing agricultural work . By late August 1944 , the Partisan 14th Slovenia Division , including the 2nd Slovenia Brigade " Ljubo Šercer " , was deployed in strength in the Pohorje mountains south of the Drava river between Maribor and Dravograd .
= = Escape = =
The raid was preceded by the escape of seven POWs on 30 August 1944 . The organisers of the escape were Private Ralph Frederick Churches , an Australian Army infantry soldier of the 2 / 48th Battalion who had been on temporary duty with Headquarters ANZAC Corps when he was captured during the Allied withdrawal from Greece in April – May 1941 , and Driver Leslie Arthur Laws , a British Army soldier of the 127th ( Dorset ) Electrical and Mechanical Engineers , Royal Engineers . By August 1944 , Churches had already attempted to escape on two occasions and had learned about the surroundings from those experiences . He realised that he had to escape while the prisoners were in an environment hostile to the Germans . Churches had learned to speak passable German during his captivity , and had been the camp leader of the work camp for eighteen months when he resigned the role so he could be involved in the escape .
Through a Slovene family who provided water and some food to the prisoners working on the railway , Laws managed to make contact with an agent of the 2nd Slovene Brigade " Ljubo Šercer " , and after discussing this with Churches , they agreed to include all the members of their 8 @-@ man accommodation hut at the work camp in their escape plans . In the mid @-@ afternoon of 30 August 1944 , seven of the eight POWs walked away from the work site under various pretexts , and met the Partisan agent , who led the group to a village , Lovrenc na Pohorju , which had been temporarily liberated from German control . The remaining member of their hut was unable to get away from his work crew to join them . The escapees comprised three British , two Australian , and two New Zealand soldiers .
= = Raid = =
Churches managed to convince the commander of the brigade to conduct an operation to free the rest of the work party the following day , by giving him crucial information regarding the work site and the guards . Next morning Churches and Laws returned with some hundred Partisans to await the arrival of the work party by the usual train . As soon as work had begun the Partisans disarmed the eight guards and captured the four civilian overseers . In a short time the POWs , guards , and civilian overseers were being escorted south along a different route than that used by the first seven escapees the previous afternoon .
Altogether , 79 more POWs from the working camp were freed . On the same morning ten French and nine additional British POWs were freed by the Partisan brigade from two smaller working camps closer to Maribor . Churches had provided the details of one of the working camps , at a farm with a single guard , and the Partisans had freed the French POWs when they raided a different camp in error . They then corrected their error and released the British POWs from the camp Churches had mentioned . All the groups of POWs , along with their Partisan liberators , assembled in the hills of Pohorje . Altogether , including Churches and Laws and their original group of escapees , a total of 105 POWs were liberated by the Partisans during the escape and subsequent raids .
= = Trek to Semič and aftermath = =
Progress along the evacuation route south was difficult , as German patrols were very active . A night ambush by one such patrol caused the loss of six prisoners , two of them French . Eventually , after marching approximately 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) over 14 days and being ferried across the Sava by boat , they reached Semič in White Carniola , which was a Partisan base with an airfield used for communication with the Allies . After a few days delay waiting for aircraft to be available and weather conditions to be suitable , they were flown across to Bari in Italy on 21 September 1944 .
Both Ralph Churches and Les Laws were decorated for their actions in escaping and assisting the Partisans in planning the raid . Laws was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal , and Churches , the British Empire Medal . Churches was repatriated to Australia in November 1944 , where after three months leave he was posted to the staff of a prisoner of war camp in Murchison , Victoria as an interpreter . He was subsequently promoted to sergeant and was discharged in November 1945 . Laws ' movements after arrival in Italy are unknown . Churches returned to the site of the raid in 1972 and 1977 , and was accompanied by Laws on a further visit in 1985 . During these visits Churches and Laws were reunited with several of the Partisans that had escorted them to Semič .
= = Conflicting accounts of events = =
There are two known primary sources regarding the details of the raid , and several secondary sources which drew largely on the accounts of Churches and / or Laws . There is one passing mention of the raid in the " Prisoner of War " volume of the Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War , which varies significantly from the other sources .
The first primary source is the book written by Churches , who was decorated for his involvement in the planning and conduct of the escape and raid . Churches ' book , titled A Hundred Miles as the Crow Flies , was written after he was relieved of his obligation to secrecy by Australian Army . The book details the events prior to the escape and the course of escape and evacuation . His book is also translated in Slovenian as Vranov let v svobodo ( Crow 's Flight into Freedom ) . Churches was known by the nickname " Crow " as he was the only soldier from the Australian state of South Australia in the camp , and South Australians are colloquially known in Australia as " crow eaters " . Churches ' version of events has been published , in part , by several secondary sources , including Australian television programs aired in 1985 and 2003 , and newspaper articles in 1944 , 2009 and 2011 .
An Australian POW that was freed in the raid , Private Walter Gossner of the 2 / 15th Battalion , provided an extremely detailed account of his experiences about being part of a group of 87 POWs freed by Partisans from a location near Ožbalt . He gives the date of the raid as 27 September 1944 , four weeks after the date given by Churches . His account has been posted on the internet by his family . Gossner states that he arrived at Semič 21 days after the raid , and his account varies significantly from that of Churches . It is not known why Gossner 's dates and other details of his account differ so markedly from Churches ' account .
The Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War states that the raid occurred at St Lorenzen ( the German name of Lovrenc na Pohorju ) , and that the raid was planned by two British officers . This varies significantly from all of the other sources , and it is unknown why this is the case .
= Against the Giants =
Against the Giants is an adventure module written by Gary Gygax and published by TSR in 1981 for the Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role @-@ playing game . It combines the G series of modules previously published in 1978 : Steading of the Hill Giant Chief , Glacial Rift of the Frost Giant Jarl , and Hall of the Fire Giant King . All three were produced for use with the 1st edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rules . In 1999 , to recognize the 25th anniversary of TSR , the company released an updated version , Against the Giants : The Liberation of Geoff . Later in 1999 , Wizards of the Coast published a novelization of Against the Giants by Ru Emerson .
The plot of each of the three original modules focuses on a particular type of evil giant . Each can be played as a standalone adventure , or as a series . In Steading of the Hill Giant Chief , a tribe of hill giants have been raiding lands occupied by humans , and the humans hire the player characters to defeat them . Glacial Rift of the Frost Giant Jarl pits the player characters against the evil Jarl of the frost giants . Hall of the Fire Giant King concludes the series , this time against a group of fire giants . The first two modules disclose the existence of a secret force behind the giants , which in the third module is revealed to be evil drow elves . The plot involving the drow continues in four additional modules printed between 1978 and 1980 .
The modules were well received by contemporary critics . In 1978 , they earned a 9 / 10 overall rating from a White Dwarf magazine reviewer , who was impressed that Gygax found time to write them while also working on the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) rulebooks . White Dwarf also reviewed the re @-@ released G module series in 1982 , giving it a 10 out of 10 . The Queen of the Spiders supermodule , which consisted of the three modules combined with the subsequent modules in the " D " series and Q1 Queen of the Demonweb Pits , was voted the single greatest adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine in 2004 , on the 30th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game .
= = Plot summary = =
Each of the original three modules is a dungeon crawl . The player characters focus on battling hill giants , frost giants , and fire giants , three of the original evil giant types used in Dungeons & Dragons .
= = = G1 Steading of the Hill Giant Chief = = =
The module begins with a prologue explaining that giants of different types have been raiding lands occupied by humans . Angered by this , the human rulers hire a group of adventurers ( the player characters ) to " punish the miscreant giants . " The players ' party is informed that they must defeat the giants , or have their heads placed on the chopping block . The human nobles equip the party with weapons and horses , along with a guide and a map that shows the location of the hill giants . The players are informed that the hill giants are led by Nosnra , a sly hill giant chieftain who loves to set up ambushes ; there is an unknown force binding together different giant groups . The player characters are informed that they may keep any spoils they find , but must return at once if they determine what " sinister hand " is behind the alliance .
The bulk of the adventure takes place in two locations : the upper level fortress of the hill giants ' lair , and the dungeon level beneath it . In the upper level there are halls , barracks and common rooms . These rooms house Chief Nosnra and other hill giants , ogres , and servants . The dungeon level consists of slave quarters , torture chambers , and caverns . These house troglodytes , bugbears , and carrion crawlers . The majority of the treasure can be found by searching the dungeons . The chief 's treasure room contains a map of the glacial rift from Glacial Rift of the Frost Giant Jarl , and a magic chain that automatically transports the party there .
= = = G2 Glacial Rift of the Frost Giant Jarl = = =
This module starts in one of two ways . If the players have finished Steading of the Hill Giant Chief , they have been transported to the glacial rift via the magic chain . They will know that they are searching for some force behind the giant alliance . If the players are starting with Glacial Rift of the Frost Giant Jarl , then they have been hired by nobles to destroy the frost giants . Either way , a safe , hidden cave is easily found for a base of operations .
As in Steading of the Hill Giant Chief , the bulk of this adventure takes place in two locations : an upper area consisting of caves and the rift floor , and a lower area consisting of natural caverns . In the upper area there are ice caves , barracks , and a dome of ice . These are inhabited by yeti , frost giants , ogres , and winter wolves . The dome of ice houses a remorhaz . In the lower area there are caverns that house the servants , serve as a prison , and contain the Jarl Grugnur and emissaries who have come to meet with him . The main inhabitants are frost giants and ogres . The prison contains an attractive storm giantess . There are also polar bears ; pets of the jarl . After defeating the jarl , the adventurers have a chance to pull an iron lever which will transport them near to Snurre 's hall from Hall of the Fire Giant King .
= = = G3 Hall of the Fire Giant King = = =
If it is played as a continuation of the first two modules , the players know that they are searching for the force behind the giants ' alliance ; otherwise , they have been hired by nobles to destroy the fire giants . This module is twice as long as the previous two : sixteen pages instead of eight . Unlike the two previous modules where the giant 's complex consists of two levels , the fire giant hall contains three levels . The giants live in a hot , smoky barren area made of rock ; as in the previous module , the party is able to find a safe location for forays against the giants . The leader of the fire giants is King Snurre Iron Belly , and his hall is made of obsidian and natural caverns .
The first ( top ) level includes the queen 's rooms , barracks , and kennels . Creatures encountered here include fire giants , gnolls , and in the kennels , hell hounds . The second level is also made of obsidian rocks and natural caverns . It houses chambers of spiritual interest to the fire giants . There is a hall that houses the dead fire giant kings , and rooms for worship . There are also rooms that contain drow clerics . This is where the party learns that the drow are behind the giant alliance , led by Eclavdra , a high level drow fighter / cleric . The third level consists of natural caverns and contains a great treasure guarded by a red dragon . There are also more fire giants and drow ; to exterminate the fire giants , the adventurers must penetrate deep into the active volcano where they live . If the DM wishes , there is a tunnel that leads deep into the earth ; to the home of the drow . This allows the adventure to be continued in Descent into the Depths of the Earth .
= = Publication history = =
Steading of the Hill Giant Chief , Glacial Rift of the Frost Giant Jarl , and Hall of the Fire Giant King were written by Gary Gygax . In 1978 , Steading of the Hill Giant Chief became the first adventure module published by TSR . Gygax wrote them to take a break between writing the original Monster Manual ( 1977 ) and Player 's Handbook ( 1978 ) . The covers for Steading and Hall featured drawings by David C. Sutherland III . David A. Trampier drew the Glacial Rift cover . Against the Giants 's cover features a painting by Bill Willingham . Interior art was provided by David A. Trampier , Jeff Dee , David S. LaForce and Erol Otus .
The " Giant " modules were set in the Greyhawk campaign setting , and formed the lead @-@ in to an overall campaign that then continued on an odyssey into the Underdark . These adventures included the " Drow " series of modules , Descent into the Depths of the Earth , Shrine of the Kuo @-@ Toa , and Vault of the Drow . The campaign finally culminated with module Queen of the Demonweb Pits . Steading and Glacial Rift were eight pages long , while Hall was 16 pages in length , and each featured an outer folder . The omnibus collection combination module Against the Giants was 32 pages long , and featured two outer folders . Against the Giants was revised and reprinted in the 128 @-@ page supermodule Queen of the Spiders in 1986 in combination with the three " Drow " series modules , and Queen of the Demonweb Pits . Hall of the Fire Giant King marked the first time that Dungeons & Dragons players encountered the drow ; game statistics for the drow first appear in the module , although drow are mentioned in the 1977 edition of the Monster Manual . At the time these modules were released , each Dungeons & Dragons module was marked with an alphanumeric code indicating the series to which it belonged . The earlier modules have module codes G1 , G2 , and G3 respectively , and the combined module 's code is G1 – 3 . The " G " in the module code represents the first letter in the word " giant " . Released in 1999 to commemorate the 25th anniversary of TSR , Against the Giants : The Liberation of Geoff provided a set of adventuring materials that expanded on the original three modules . 1999 also featured a reprinting of the three modules made available in the Dungeons & Dragons Silver Anniversary Collector 's Edition boxed set , with slight modifications to make it distinguishable from the original ( for collecting purposes ) .
The concepts and characters from Against the Giants have made appearances in other media . It was made into a novel of the same name by Ru Emerson for the Greyhawk Classics series . In May 2006 , Wizards of the Coast 's website released new versions of the maps for the Hill Giant Stronghold . In July 2006 , they released new maps for the Fire Giant Hall . In 2004 , Wizards of the Coast released a miniature figure of the eponymous King Snurre from Hall of the Fire Giant King , and in 2007 , they released a large Frost Giant Jarl miniature inspired by Glacial Rift of the Frost Giant Jarl . In 2009 , Wizards released the super @-@ adventure Revenge of the Giants , an homage to Against the Giants , for the game 's fourth edition .
= = Reception = =
When combined as a single adventure with the rest of GDQ series , this module was voted the single greatest adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine in 2004 , on the 30th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game . According to Dungeon 's editors , the drow remain popular villains in part because of their " exciting introduction " in the module . Judge Andy Collins felt the " hack @-@ and @-@ slash " classic was " packed with action " and has run the module more than any other . Judge John Rateliff said that Against the Giants was the module that showed gamers how to create a themed adventure with a mystery and clues that are periodically provided .
Kurt Butterfield reviewed Hall of the Fire Giant King for The Space Gamer , commenting that " the scenario is well thought out and nicely detailed , " and includes " some intriguing special instructions given for deviously playing several of the intelligent inhabitants of the dungeon " . Butterfield felt that the dungeon was not an easy challenge , especially with the strong and numerous monsters ( such as the roughly eighty trolls on one level ) . In conclusion , he stated , " I advise all DMs who are looking for an exciting , worthwhile adventure for their players to pick this one up . You won 't be disappointed . "
Don Turnbull of White Dwarf magazine gave the three separate modules comprising the G @-@ series 9 / 10 overall . Turnbull was impressed that Gygax was able to find time to write them while also creating AD & D 's rules , saying " Things are really buzzing at TSR . " He felt the presentation of the modules was done well , with easily read maps , although he preferred the black and white maps of the first module to the blue and white maps of the later two . Turnbull found the module 's level of detail to be an improvement over previous Dungeons & Dragons scenarios which gave the Dungeon Master ( DM ) too little information . The review declared the modules " very tough " , stating that " the notes suggest nine characters or so , each of ninth level or better and each with two or three relevant magic items . "
Turnbull commented on several points that he felt went unnoticed by the module 's proofreader . The maps did not contain a scale , which he assumed was 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) per square . It is unclear what triggers one of the traps in the first module . In the second module , an exit from map level one does not have an entrance marked on the second level map . Ultimately he found the errors minor , and easily fixed . Turnbull 's most major criticism was that the adventure was aimed at parties of too high a level . Summing up , he said " No DM should be without them , for even if he never gets a chance to run them , they are a source of much excellent design quality . "
Jim Bambra reviewed the re @-@ released G module series very positively in issue 35 of White Dwarf magazine , awarding 10 out of 10 . Bambra liked the reprinting of the modules , stating that " their printing under one cover has reduced the price at no detriment to the quality . " He noted that the original tournament characters are included , although they were not included in the original three separate modules , and that not all of them conform to the rules in the Players Handbook . Two spells were also added , which had been absent from the original modules . Bambra says that he " would suggest not playing these unless you have been playing for a few years , success depends more on player skill than on high character levels and DMing adventures of this level can be a nightmare unless you have had plenty of experience . "
Anders Swenson also reviewed dungeon module G @-@ 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 , for Chaosium 's Different Worlds magazine . Swenson notes that the lower level of the hill giant steading " is a conventional underground dungeon , populated with slaves , guards , and the odd monsters " , but that the relatively small space occupied by the revolting slaves seems unrealistic . Swenson also calls the well @-@ constructed dungeon complex of the fire giants " a tough nut for the adventurers " as the giants are in a place constructed for defense ; Swenson did feel that the scale of the map was too small . Swenson comments that the reprinting shows the progress TSR has made since these adventures were first published , such as how single products had become longer . Swenson does note that the individual room descriptions were lacking a consistent format , and that important monsters can become lost in the middle of a room 's description . Swenson felt that , although the lower levels can degenerate into a random monster mix , the strong points of these adventures outweigh their flaws . Swenson concludes by stating that " Against the Giants is a solid adventure , " and that " this would be a worthwhile purchase " .
Dungeon Master for Dummies lists Steading of the Hill Giant Chief as one of the ten best classic adventures . Stephen Colbert , who played Dungeons & Dragons as a child , reminisced about these modules : " Those old " Giants " modules , those were tremendous . Those are some of my favorite memories : working my way through fire giant , frost giant , and storm giant castles . " Ken Denmead of Wired said the first module is a " pretty easy crash @-@ and @-@ grab , " the second contains " some really excellent treasure , " but the third is " the end @-@ all , be @-@ all of hack @-@ fests " . According to Denmead , the hill giant adventure does not prepare players for the later adventures . Describing the difficulty of battling the fire giants he said , " remember Bambi Versus Godzilla ? You 're Bambi " .
= Marasmius funalis =
Marasmius funalis is a species of Marasmiaceae fungus known only from Japan . The species produces small mushrooms with reddish @-@ brown caps up to 6 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) in diameter and dark @-@ brown , threadlike stems of up to 50 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) in length . The species has a number of distinctive microscopic features , including very long cystidia on the stem , visible as bristles . Described in 2002 by Haruki Takahashi , the species grows on dead wood . The closest relative of M. funalis is M. liquidambari , known from Mexico and Papua New Guinea , and it is also similar in appearance to M. hudonii and Setulipes funaliformis , the latter of which was named after M. funalis .
= = Taxonomy = =
Marasmius funalis was first described and named in a 2002 article in Mycoscience by Haruki Takahashi , based on specimens collected in 2000 . The specific name , funalis , is Latin for " rope @-@ like " , and is in reference to the shape and character of the stem . Within the genus Marasmius , the species has traits that suggest that it belongs in the section Androsacei , and , within the section , it seems most closely related to M. liquidambari . The Japanese common name for the species is Kenawatake ( 毛縄茸 ) .
= = Description = =
Marasmius funalis produces fruit bodies in the form of mushrooms . Each mushroom has a convex ( sometimes completely hemispherical ) cap of between 2 and 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 and 0 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter . Unlike the caps of other mushrooms , it does not change shape to a flatter convex with age . The cap is fairly smooth , but can have small , parallel furrows towards the edge , which are arranged radially . The colour differs slightly , depending on the age of the mushroom . While younger specimens sport reddish @-@ brown caps , they are a paler brown in older mushrooms . The cap 's surface is dry and dull , and free from hair . The threadlike stem attaches centrally to the cap , measures from 20 to 50 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 2 in ) long by 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 008 to 0 @.@ 02 in ) thick . It is cylindrical , but may taper slightly , and is covered in short , white hairs . The base of the stem enters the substrate , and there are no rhizomorphs visible . The majority of the stem is blackish @-@ brown , but it is a lighter brown at the very top .
The white gills can be adnate or adnexed ; that is , they can be attached to the stem by their whole depth , or only part of it . The individual gills are distantly spaced , with between 8 and 12 reaching the stem . Each gill is up to 0 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 in ) thick , and the edges are even . There are sometimes lamellulae ( short gills that do not reach the cap ) . There is a thin layer , up to 0 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 01 in ) thick , of whitish flesh in the cap . It is tough , but it can be bent without breaking . The flesh has no smell or taste .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Marasmius funalis mushrooms leave a white spore print . The individual basidiospores are ellipsoidal , and measure 6 @.@ 5 to 8 by 4 to 5 micrometres ( μm ) . They have thin cell walls , and they are smooth and colourless . The spores are inamyloid , meaning that they do not stain when they come into contact with iodine from Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's solution . The spores are borne on club @-@ shaped basidia measuring 20 to 25 by 4 @.@ 5 to 7 μm , with two spores per basidium . There are also club @-@ shaped basidioles ( under @-@ developed basidia ) .
The edge of the gill is sterile , made up of a mass of cystidia ( cheilocystidia ) . The club @-@ shaped cheilocystidia measure from 10 to 25 by 7 to 12 μm , and sport multiple cylindrical appendages on their tips , measuring 1 to 7 by 1 to 1 @.@ 5 μm . The cheilocystidia are colourless , with cell walls of variable thickness , and are inamyloid . There are no pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the face of the gills ) . The caulocystidia ( cystidia in the stem ) measure 60 to 200 by 4 to 7 µm . They are cylindrical and erect , forming the visible bristles . The tip is either pointed or rounded , and the cell walls are smooth and colourless , up to 2 µm thick . They are dextrinoid , meaning they stain a reddish @-@ brown when they come into contact with iodine from Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's solution .
The pileipellis , the top layer of hyphae in the cap , is a cutis . The cutis is made up of cylindrical hyphae between 2 and 5 µm thick . The inamyloid and thin @-@ walled hyphae are covered in brown granules . The flesh in the cap is made up of cylindrical hyphae from 4 to 7 µm wide with thin cell walls . They are all generative hyphae , and run parallel to one another . They can be either inamyloid or only weakly dextrinoid . The flesh in the gills is basically the same as the flesh in the cap , but for the fact that it is completely inamyloid . The hyphae of the stipitipellis , the uppermost layer in the stem , also form a cutis . The cylindrical hyphae making up the cutis run parallel to one another , and measure from 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 µm in width , with walls up to 1 µm thick . They are encrusted with a brown pigment , and are dextrinoid . The flesh of the stem is made up of generative hyphae running lengthways ( that is , up and down the stem ) . The cells are 5 to 8 µm wide , and are smooth and colourless ; the cell walls up to 1 µm thick . They are dextrinoid . All M. funalis hyphae lack clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Marasmius funalis differs from its closest relative , M. liquidambari , due to the presence of cheilocystidia , the lack of clamp connections and the fact that the caulocystidia of M. liquidambari do not form bristles ; instead , they are club shaped to cylindrical . The species is known from Mexico and Papua New Guinea . M. hudonii , known from Europe , is similar in appearance to M. funalis . However , the former has a cap covered in hairs or bristles , and differs microscopically ; for instance , the hyphae feature clamp connections . The Malagasy species Setulipes funaliformis was named after M. funalis due to the morphological similarities between the two . The species can be differentiated by the fact that the basidiospores of S. funalformis are slightly larger and narrower , measuring from 7 to 10 by 3 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 μm , and the caulocystidia of M. funalis are significantly longer .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Marasmius funalis is known only from Kawasaki , Kanagawa and Machida , Tokyo , Japan . Mushrooms grow in groups on dead plant matter , and have been recorded on Japanese cedar ( Cryptomeria japonica ) wood and leaf litter in woodland mostly made up of Chonowski 's hornbeam ( Carpinus tschonoskii ) and bamboo @-@ leaf oak ( Quercus myrsinifolia ) . The mushrooms can be encountered from May to July .
= HMS Renown ( 1916 ) =
HMS Renown was the lead ship of her class of battlecruisers of the Royal Navy built during the First World War . She was originally laid down as an improved version of the Revenge @-@ class battleships . Her construction was suspended on the outbreak of war on the grounds she would not be ready in a timely manner . Admiral Lord Fisher , upon becoming First Sea Lord , gained approval to restart her construction as a battlecruiser that could be built and enter service quickly . The Director of Naval Construction ( DNC ) , Eustace Tennyson @-@ D 'Eyncourt , quickly produced an entirely new design to meet Admiral Lord Fisher 's requirements and the builders agreed to deliver the ships in 15 months . They did not quite meet that ambitious goal , but the ship was delivered a few months after the Battle of Jutland in 1916 . Renown , and her sister HMS Repulse , were the world 's fastest capital ships upon completion .
Renown did not see combat during the war and was reconstructed twice between the wars ; the 1920s reconstruction increased her armour protection and made other more minor improvements , while the 1930s reconstruction was much more thorough . The ship frequently conveyed royalty on their foreign tours and served as flagship of the Battlecruiser Squadron when Hood was refitting .
During the Second World War , Renown was involved in the search for the Admiral Graf Spee in 1939 , participated in the Norwegian Campaign of April – June 1940 and the search for the German battleship Bismarck in 1941 . She spent much of 1940 and 1941 assigned to Force H at Gibraltar , escorting convoys and she participated in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento . Renown was briefly assigned to the Home Fleet and provided cover to several Arctic convoys in early 1942 . The ship was transferred back to Force H for Operation Torch and spent much of 1943 refitting or transporting Winston Churchill and his staff to and from various conferences with various Allied leaders . In early 1944 , Renown was transferred to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean where she supported numerous attacks on Japanese @-@ occupied facilities in Indonesia and various island groups in the Indian Ocean . The ship returned to the Home Fleet in early 1945 and was refitted before being placed in reserve after the end of the war . Renown was sold for scrap in 1948 .
= = Design and description = =
Admiral Lord Fisher first presented his requirements for the new ships to the Director of Naval Construction ( DNC ) on 18 December 1914 , before the ships had even been approved . He wanted a long , high , flared bow , like that on the pre @-@ dreadnought HMS Renown , but higher , four 15 @-@ inch guns in two twin turrets , an anti @-@ torpedo boat armament of twenty 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns mounted high up and protected by gun shields only , speed of 32 knots using oil fuel , and armour on the scale of the battlecruiser Indefatigable . Within a few days , however , Fisher increased the number of guns to six and added two torpedo tubes . Minor revisions in the initial estimate were made until 26 December and a preliminary design was completed on 30 December .
During the following week the DNC 's department examined the material delivered for the two battleships and decided what could be used in the new design . The usable material was transferred to the builders , who had received enough information from the DNC 's department to lay the keels of both ships on 25 January 1915 , well before the altered contracts were completed on 10 March !
Renown had an overall length of 794 feet 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 242 @.@ 0 m ) , a beam of 90 feet 1 @.@ 75 inches ( 27 @.@ 5 m ) , and a maximum draught of 30 feet 2 inches ( 9 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced 27 @,@ 320 long tons ( 27 @,@ 760 t ) at normal load and 32 @,@ 220 long tons ( 32 @,@ 740 t ) at deep load . Her Brown @-@ Curtis direct @-@ drive steam turbines were designed to produce 112 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 84 @,@ 000 kW ) , which would propel the ship at 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . However , during trials in 1916 , Renown 's turbines provided 126 @,@ 000 shp ( 94 @,@ 000 kW ) , allowing her to reach a speed of 32 @.@ 58 knots ( 60 @.@ 34 km / h ; 37 @.@ 49 mph ) . The ship normally carried 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 016 t ) of fuel oil , but had a maximum capacity of 4 @,@ 289 long tons ( 4 @,@ 358 t ) . At full capacity , she could steam at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) for 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 410 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) .
The ship mounted six 42 @-@ calibre BL 15 @-@ inch Mk I guns in three twin hydraulically powered turrets , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . Her secondary armament consisted of 17 BL 4 @-@ inch Mark IX guns , fitted in five triple and two single mounts . Renown mounted a pair of QF 3 inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted on the shelter deck abreast the rear funnel . She mounted two submerged tubes for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes , one on each side forward of ' A ' barbette .
Renown 's waterline belt of Krupp cemented armour measured 6 inches ( 152 mm ) thick amidships . Her gun turrets were 7 – 9 inches ( 178 – 229 mm ) thick with roofs were 4 @.@ 25 inches ( 108 mm ) thick . As designed the high @-@ tensile @-@ steel decks ranged from 0 @.@ 75 to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 19 to 38 mm ) in thickness . After the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , while the ship was still completing , an extra inch of high @-@ tensile steel was added on the main deck over the magazines . Renown was fitted with a shallow anti @-@ torpedo bulge integral to the hull which was intended to explode the torpedo before it hit the hull proper and vent the underwater explosion to the surface rather than into the ship .
Despite these additions , the ship was still felt to be too vulnerable to plunging fire and Renown was refitted in Rosyth between 1 February and mid @-@ April 1917 with additional horizontal armour , weighing approximately 504 long tons ( 512 t ) , added to the decks over the magazines and over the steering gear . Flying @-@ off platforms were fitted on ' B ' and ' X ' turrets in early 1918 . One fighter and a reconnaissance aircraft were carried .
= = 1916 – 1939 = =
Renown was laid down by Fairfield at Govan , Glasgow , Scotland on 25 January 1915 . The ship was launched on 4 March 1916 and completed on 20 September 1916 , after the Battle of Jutland at the cost of £ 3 @,@ 117 @,@ 204 . She served with the Grand Fleet in the North Sea during the remaining two years of the First World War . Renown was assigned to the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron for the duration of the war , but never fired a shot in anger during the war . On 12 December 1917 Renown put to sea with other elements of the fleet in an unsuccessful attempt to intercept the German 3rd Half @-@ Flotilla of destroyers that had destroyed a Scandinavian convoy and most of its escorts off the coast of Norway . For the rest of the war the ships patrolled the North Sea uneventfully . Both Renown and Repulse were present at the surrender of the High Seas Fleet at Scapa Flow on 21 November 1918 .
When the Grand Fleet was disbanded in April 1919 , Renown was assigned to the Battlecruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet . In June she was refitted in preparation for a tour of Canada , Newfoundland and the United States by Edward , the Prince of Wales , and both flying @-@ off platforms were removed . A 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) rangefinder replaced the 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) model in ' Y ' turret and a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) rangefinder was added to the armoured hood over the conning tower . From January to March 1920 Renown was refitted more extensively as a " royal yacht " . Her aft 4 @-@ inch mounting and both 3 @-@ inch AA guns were removed so that extra accommodation and a promenade deck could be built . A large deck house was built on the shelter deck between the funnels . The port side housed a squash court while the starboard side was a cinema . The ship sailed in March for Australia and New Zealand with the Prince of Wales and his entourage aboard and made many stops en route . She returned to Portsmouth in October and was placed in reserve in November .
Renown was recommissioned in September 1921 for a tour of India and Japan by the Prince of Wales and sailed from Portsmouth in October . The ship arrived back in Portsmouth in June 1922 and she was placed in reserve the following month . The ship began a reconstruction that same month along the lines of her sister , although changes were made based on the experiences with Repulse . Renown 's main armour belt was removed and a new 9 @-@ inch belt was installed , using up the remaining plates made surplus by the conversion of the battleship Almirante Cochrane ( originally ordered by Chile and purchased after the war began ) to the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle as well as new armour , but installed about 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) higher than on Repulse to offset any increase in draught . A strake of tapered armour was fitted underneath the main belt to deflect any shell that dived beneath the water 's surface ; it was 9 @-@ inches thick at top and thinned to 2 inches ( 51 mm ) at the bottom . The ship 's deck armour was heavily reinforced adjacent to its machinery spaces and magazines . Two longitudinal bulkheads were added between the upper and main decks that ran from the base of the conning tower to the end of the boiler rooms . The bulges were reworked and based on those used in the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships although crushing tubes were only used abreast the magazines . The rear triple 4 @-@ inch gun mount was replaced . The flying @-@ off platform on ' B ' turret was reinstated and a high @-@ angle control position ( HACP ) was added to the fore @-@ top . The pair of 3 @-@ inch AA guns and her two single four @-@ inch gun mounts were replaced with four QF four @-@ inch Mark V anti @-@ aircraft guns . They had a maximum depression of -5 ° and a maximum elevation of 80 ° . They fired a 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) high explosive shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 387 ft / s ( 728 m / s ) at a rate of ten to fifteen rounds per minute . The guns had a maximum ceiling of 31 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 400 m ) , but an effective range of much less . The reconstruction only added 3 @,@ 500 long tons ( 3 @,@ 600 t ) to the ship 's displacement and three inches to her draught . This reconstruction cost £ 979 @,@ 927 .
Renown finished her reconstruction in September 1926 and she was assigned to the Battlecruiser Squadron until the ship was detached to convey Prince Albert of York to Australia between January and July 1927 . Upon her return she rejoined the Atlantic Fleet . Renown became the flagship of the BCS when Hood was refitting between 1929 and 1931 . Hood resumed the role as flagship after she was recommissioned and Renown was paid off for a refit of her own . A High @-@ Angle Control System Mark I was fitted with a director on the roof of the fore @-@ top that replaced the high @-@ angle rangefinder and the conning tower platform was enlarged to accommodate a pair of Mark V octuple mounts for the 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mark VIII gun The Mark V mounts could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of 80 ° . The Mark VIII 2 @-@ pounder gun fired a 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) 2 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 91 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 040 ft / s ( 620 m / s ) to a distance of 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) . The gun 's rate of fire was approximately 96 – 98 rounds per minute . Only one mount was initially available , however , and it , along with its director , was fitted on the starboard side . Renown had her midships triple 4 @-@ inch mount removed to make room for an aircraft catapult that was not fitted until 1933 . The port Mark V 2 @-@ pounder mount was finally fitted , albeit without its director , that same year . The ship now carried a Fairey III floatplane for reconnaissance purposes . The flying @-@ off platform was also removed .
Renown collided with Hood on 23 January 1935 while on exercises off the coast of Spain . The damage to her bow was temporarily repaired at Gibraltar and the ship sailed to Portsmouth for permanent repairs between February and May . The captains of both ships were court @-@ martialled , as was the squadron commander , Rear Admiral Sidney Bailey . Bailey and Hood 's Captain Tower were acquitted , but Renown 's Captain Sawbridge was relieved of command . The Admiralty dissented from the verdict , reinstated Sawbridge , and criticised Bailey for ambiguous signals during the manoeuvre .
The ship participated in King George V 's Silver Jublilee Fleet Review at Spithead on 16 July . Together with Hood , Renown was sent to Gibraltar to reinforce the Mediterranean Fleet during the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War of 1935 – 36 and transferred to Alexandria in January 1936 where she was assigned to the 1st Battle Squadron . She returned home in May and rejoined Home Fleet .
Renown began a much more thorough reconstruction in September 1936 , based on that of the battleship HMS Warspite . Her superstructure and funnels were razed to the level of the upper deck , her masts taken out and the ship 's main and secondary armament was removed . A large splinter @-@ proof tower superstructure was built , topped with a director @-@ control tower for the main armament and two HACS Mark IV directors . The armoured hood formerly mounted above the conning tower was reinstalled on the rear superstructure . The ship 's engines and boilers were replaced by Parsons geared turbines and eight Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers operating at 400 psi ( 2 @,@ 758 kPa ; 28 kgf / cm2 ) . This saved some 2 @,@ 800 long tons ( 2 @,@ 800 t ) of weight and allowed the two forward boiler rooms to be converted to 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) magazines and other uses . Renown 's deck protection was somewhat upgraded by adding non @-@ cemented armour where it had not been added earlier and protecting the new 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch magazines . As in Repulse hangars were built abreast her rear funnel and a catapult was fitted between the rear funnel and the aft superstructure .
The ship 's 15 @-@ inch gun turrets were modified to the Mark I ( N ) standard with their elevation increased to 30 ° . Twenty dual @-@ purpose QF 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mark III guns in twin BD Mark II mountings replaced all of the 4 @-@ inch guns . Six of the gun turrets , three on each side , were abreast the forward funnel while the remaining four were mounted abreast the main mast . The BD Mark II mounts had elevation limits of − 5 ° to + 80 ° . The Mark III gun fired a 55 @-@ pound ( 25 kg ) high explosive shell at a new gun muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 457 ft / s ( 749 m / s ) . Its rate of fire was 12 rounds per minute . They had a maximum effective ceiling of 41 @,@ 000 ft ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . The guns were controlled by four dual @-@ purpose Mark IV directors , two mounted on the rear of the bridge structure and the remaining two on the aft superstructure . They fed tracking data to a HACS Mark IV analog computer for high @-@ angle targets and an Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mark VII for low @-@ angle targets . Each gun was provided with 400 rounds of ammunition . Three octuple Mark VI 2 @-@ pounder mounts were fitted , two on a platform between the funnels and the third at the rear of the aft superstructure . Each was provided with a Mark III * director . Four quadruple Vickers .50 @-@ calibre Mark III mounts were also added , two each on the forward and rear superstructures . The submerged torpedo tubes were removed and eight above @-@ water torpedo tubes added . This reconstruction , at £ 3 @,@ 088 @,@ 008 , was more than three times as expensive as her earlier reconstruction .
= = Second World War = =
Renown was recommissioned on 28 August 1939 as part of the Home Fleet . Much like her sister , she spent September patrolling in the North Sea , but was transferred to Force K in the South Atlantic in October to help search for the " pocket battleship " Admiral Graf Spee . The ship joined Force H at the Cape of Good Hope in November to prevent Admiral Graf Spee from breaking into the South Atlantic . She was unsuccessful in this , but sank the blockade runner SS Watussi on 2 December . She remained in the South Atlantic even after Admiral Graf Spee was scuttled on 13 December and did not return to the Home Fleet until March 1940 . The ship became flagship of the Battlecruiser Squadron when Hood was paid off to refit that month . Renown supported British forces during the Norwegian Campaign and briefly engaged the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau on 9 April . Renown spotted the Germans ships and fired first , but she was hit first by two 28 @-@ centimetre ( 11 in ) shells that only slightly damaged her . A few minutes later she hit Gneisenau with one 15 @-@ inch and two 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells that knocked out the ship 's main fire @-@ control director and damaged the rangefinder on ' A ' turret . The German ships were faster than Renown in the heavy weather and were able to disengage after about 10 minutes . The ship was under repair from 20 April to 18 May and provided cover during the evacuation from Norway in early June . Renown was transferred to Force H at Gibraltar in August and relieved Hood as flagship .
In November 1940 Force H covered the small aircraft carrier HMS Argus as she flew off Hurricane fighters bound for Malta from a position south of Sardinia . Later that month Force H participated in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento . Renown bombarded Genoa on 9 February 1941 with little effect . Force H escorted convoys both inside and outside the Mediterranean in March – May 1941 before being summoned into the Atlantic to search for the German battleship Bismarck . The ship intercepted the German supply ship Gonzenheim , which had been intended to resupply Bismarck , on 4 June . Renown and Force H escorted another convoy to Malta in July and the ship returned home for repairs to her starboard bulge the next month . While the exact dates are not known , the ship received a variety of radars in 1941 , possibly during this refit . These included Type 284 radar for surface gunnery control , Type 285 anti @-@ aircraft gunnery radar , Type 281 air warning radar and a Type 271 surface search radar . Two quadruple " pom @-@ pom " mounts were also fitted on top of ' B ' turret . Renown was transferred to the Home Fleet in November when her repairs were complete and became deputy fleet flagship when Duke of York was detached to take Winston Churchill to the Arcadia Conference in Washington , D.C. on 9 December . She provided cover for the inbound and outbound convoys to the Soviet Union in early March 1942 . Renown was relieved as flagship by Duke of York on 3 April , but became flagship of Force W which was formed to escort carriers carrying fighters to be flown @-@ off for Malta in April – May . Renown rejoined Home Fleet once those missions were completed , but was transferred to Force H in October 1942 to participate in Operation Torch . She covered the invasion and follow @-@ up convoys against interference by the French or Italian Fleets .
Renown returned to Britain to refit from February to June 1943 ; her catapult and aircraft were removed while the hangar was converted to a laundry and a cinema . Furthermore , she received a total of 72 Oerlikon 20 mm light AA guns in 23 twin mounts and 26 single mounts fitted between July 1942 and August 1943 . In January 1944 a quadruple " pom @-@ pom " mounting was placed on the roof of ' B ' turret and the 20mm guns there were re @-@ sited elsewhere . Additional light AA directors with Type 282 radars were also fitted during this time . The ship brought Winston Churchill and his staff back from the Quebec Conference in September and conveyed them to the Cairo Conference in November . She rejoined the Home Fleet in December , just in time to be transferred to the Eastern Fleet a few weeks later . Renown arrived in Colombo at the end of January 1944 where she became flagship of the 1st Battle Squadron . In April she participated in Operation Cockpit , an air strike against port and oil facilities on Sabang , off the island of Sumatra . The ship bombarded Japanese @-@ occupied facilities on Car Nicobar in the Nicobar Islands and Port Blair in the Andaman Islands on 30 April – 1 May . Renown supported the air strike against Surabaya , Java ( Operation Transom ) on 17 May as well as the follow @-@ on attack against Port Blair on 21 June . After another air strike on 25 July on Sabang the ship bombarded the city . She bombarded facilities in the Nicobar Islands from 17 – 19 October . On 22 November Renown was replaced as flagship by HMS Queen Elizabeth and the ship began a refit at Durban from December to February 1945 . She was recalled in March lest the remaining German heavy ships make a final sortie and reached Rosyth on 15 April . She was given a brief refit when this concern proved illusory and was placed in reserve in May 1945 . Renown was partially disarmed in July when six of her 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch turrets were removed as well as all of her light guns . The ship hosted a meeting between King George VI and President Truman on 3 August when the latter was en route home aboard the heavy cruiser USS Augusta . The decision to dispose of the ship was announced on 21 January 1948 and she was towed to Faslane for scrapping on 3 August . She was the last of Admiral Jackie Fisher 's battlecruisers to see the scrapyard , outlasting Furious by days .
= HMS Brilliant ( H84 ) =
HMS Brilliant was a B @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy ( RN ) around 1930 . Initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , she was transferred to the Home Fleet in 1936 . The ship then patrolled Spanish waters enforcing the arms blockade during the first year of the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 . She spent most of World War II on convoy escort duties in the English Channel , and the North Atlantic , based at Dover , Gibraltar , and Freetown , Sierra Leone . During the war , Brilliant never destroyed a submarine , but did sink a Vichy French minesweeper during Operation Torch . She also intercepted two German supply ships and rescued survivors of two troopships that had been torpedoed by submarines . The ship became a target ship at the end of the war and was scrapped in 1948 .
= = Description = =
Brilliant displaced 1 @,@ 360 long tons ( 1 @,@ 380 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 790 long tons ( 1 @,@ 820 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 32 feet 3 inches ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Brilliant carried a maximum of 390 long tons ( 400 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 134 officers and enlisted men , although it increased to 142 during wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Brilliant had two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on a platform between her funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . The ship was fitted with a Type 119 ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water .
During a refit in March 1941 , Brilliant 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was reinforced when the rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ( 12 @-@ pounder ) AA gun and two 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon autocannon were added . In addition , her depth charge stowage was increased to 60 . ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional weight and two more Oerlikons were added during a refit in April 1942 . When the ship was converted into an escort destroyer beginning in January 1943 , a split Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar was installed on each side of ' A ' gun , the 3 @-@ inch AA gun was removed and the rear torpedo tubes reinstalled , and stowage was increased to 125 depth charges . By this time , the 2 @-@ pounders had been replaced by two additional Oerlikons , for a total of six .
= = Construction and career = =
The ship was ordered on 22 March 1929 from Swan Hunter , under the 1928 Naval Programme . She was laid down on 8 July 1929 , and launched on 9 October 1930 , as the seventh RN ship to carry this name . Brilliant was completed on 21 February 1931 at a cost of £ 221 @,@ 638 , excluding items supplied by the Admiralty such as guns , ammunition and communications equipment . After her commissioning , she was assigned to the 4th Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet until September 1936 when it was transferred to Home Fleet . On 31 December 1935 , the Imperial Airways Short Calcutta flying boat City of Kharthoum crashed just outside the port of Alexandria , Egypt . Brilliant rescued the sole survivor , the aircraft 's pilot , with the remaining three crew members and nine passengers killed . Brilliant was assigned as guard ship at Málaga when the Spanish Civil War began in July 1936 . During the following winter , the ship enforced the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides by patrolling the Spanish ports on the Bay of Biscay .
At the outbreak of war in September 1939 , Brilliant was assigned to the 19th Destroyer Flotilla at Dover and spent the time before the Battle of France escorting convoys and minelaying operations . She collided with the breakwater at Dover on 12 September and required six weeks for repairs . On 12 May 1940 , the ship took part in Operation XD , the destruction of Dutch port facilities and returned with 100 evacuees aboard . On 15 May Brilliant collided with her sister ship Boreas en route for the Hook of Holland and was under repair at Sheerness Dockyard until 17 June . She was then transferred to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla at Dover , as the heavy losses suffered during the Dunkirk evacuation forced the disbandment of the 19th Flotilla . On 25 July , the ship engaged German E @-@ boats off Dover Harbour together with Boreas and was badly damaged by German Junkers Ju 87 " Stuka " dive bombers after she was ordered to withdraw . Brilliant was attacked by eight " Stuka " s and the ship was hit by two bombs that passed through the hull without exploding . No one was injured , but the steering gear was disabled and she stopped and flooded by the stern . The ship was lightened by jettisoning her aft guns and depth charges and was towed back to Dover . Brilliant was under repair at Chatham Dockyard until mid @-@ October .
Upon their completion , the ship was assigned to Home Fleet until February 1941 and was then refitted at Southampton in March . At this time she was fitted with a Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar . On 12 May , Brilliant was sailed for Freetown , Sierra Leone where she served as a local escort and searched for German blockade runners and supply ships until returning home in April 1942 for a refit at Chatham . On 4 and 5 June , the ship , together with the light cruiser London , intercepted the oil tankers SS Esso Hamburg and SS Egerland , respectively . Both ships scuttled themselves to prevent their capture . Brilliant became leader of the 18th Destroyer Flotilla in August .
After the refit , the ship escorted a convoy to Durban , South Africa in May 1942 before returning to Freetown in August . On 9 October 1942 , she rescued 321 survivors from the troopship HMT Oronsay which was torpedoed by the Italian submarine Archimede . The following month , Brilliant was transferred to Force H during Operation Torch , the invasion of French North Africa , in November . She was tasked to provide naval gunfire support during the landings at Oran , Algeria . When the Vichy French minesweeper Surprise sortied to oppose the landing , Brilliant sank her and then rescued 21 survivors . The ship was transferred to the Gibraltar @-@ based Escort Group 61 and remained with them until January 1943 when she returned home to begin her conversion into an escort destroyer . In addition to the armament changes , a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge that replaced her director @-@ control tower and rangefinder during the conversion .
After working up , Brilliant was assigned to the 13th Destroyer Flotilla in Gibraltar in July 1943 and remained with them until September 1944 when she began a refit at Portsmouth . The ship was reassigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the English Channel in November . On 24 December 1944 , Brilliant was escorting the troopship Leopoldville when the ship was struck by a torpedo from U @-@ 486 , 5 ½ nautical miles off Cherbourg . Brilliant was able to rescue about 500 survivors from the damaged troopship , but due to various communication failures , no other vessels reached her before she sank and 764 died . The ship collided with the Canadian corvette Lindsay in dense fog on 21 January 1945 off the Isle of Wight . Brilliant 's bow was badly damaged and she was transferred to Antwerp , the Netherlands , for permanent repairs after emergency repairs were made at Portsmouth . They were not completed until 23 April and the ship returned to Portsmouth for conversion to a submarine target and escort vessel . This was completed on 26 May and Brilliant escorted the light cruiser Jamaica with King George VI aboard as he visited the Channel Islands on 7 June . From 13 June , based at Holy Loch , Scotland , she escorted surrendered U @-@ boats as part of Operation Deadlight before being paid off into reserve in November 1945 . Her radar and communications equipment was removed before the ship was reduced to Category C reserve at Holy Loch on 29 April 1946 . Brilliant was allocated to the Target Trials Committee on 11 September and was used evaluate the shock effects of a 1 @,@ 090 @-@ pound ( 490 kg ) underwater explosion in April 1947 . The ship was turned over to the British Iron and Steel Company for scrapping on 21 February 1948 . She was broken up beginning in April at Troon by the West of Scotland Shipbreaking Co .
= Einhänder =
Einhänder ( アインハンダー ) is a scrolling shooter developed by Square for the PlayStation console . It was released in Japan on November 20 , 1997 and in North America on May 5 , 1998 . It was also re @-@ released for the Japanese PlayStation Network on June 25 , 2008 . The name Einhänder is German and denotes a type of sword that is wielded with one hand , here used to refer to the single manipulator arm possessed by the player 's spacecraft .
The game is based on the story of Endymion and Selene and set in a fictional future during a war between the Earth and the Moon . The player is part of the Moon 's forces and must invade enemy territories to gather reconnaissance and enemy weapons . The music of the game was composed in electro / techno style by Kenichiro Fukui and was published in Japan as a soundtrack album . The game received positive reviews from critics , who praised its gameplay and graphics , but felt the game 's short duration and lack of two @-@ player mode were minor flaws .
= = Gameplay = =
Einhänder is a shoot ' em up game of the scrolling shooter subgenre in the tradition of games like Gradius , in which the player controls a fighter spacecraft that must destroy enemy craft in side @-@ scrolling levels . The game 's graphics are in " 2.5D " ; that is in 3D with occasional shifting of camera angles , but with player 's movement restricted to a two @-@ dimensional plane . Pre @-@ rendered full motion videos are used to illustrate pivotal scenes between stages .
The player can choose between multiple difficulty settings and three different models of " Einhänder " fighter , in addition to two secret ones . The Japanese version also features a difficulty setting called " Free " , which grants unlimited continues but disables the score . The player 's fighter can move at different speeds and is equipped with a default machine gun as well as a manipulator arm , which is used to collect gunpods left by destroyed enemies . Gunpods have varying amounts of power , ammunition and range , and include cannons , guided missile launchers , aircraft @-@ sized lightsabers and other types of weapons . Gunpods depleted of ammunition are discarded . They can be switched between an overhead and below @-@ the @-@ belly position , causing them to fire at different angles or directions . Most stages have a middle boss and an end boss , which often possess a main core and individual parts that can be destroyed .
The game 's score system is based on a multiplier bar and a hit gauge counter . As the player destroys enemy cores , the hit counter increases . Points awarded for destroyed cores are multiplied by the value of the hit counter . The counter decreases when the player stops destroying cores . However , if the multiplier reaches a certain amount it will begin to flash , awarding large point bonuses for any cores destroyed during this short period of time .
= = Plot = =
Einhänder takes place in a fictional future , during a war between the Earth colony , Sodom ( or Gesetz in the North American release ) and the Moon colony , Selene from space . According to the backstory of the game , the " First Moon War " resulted in the destruction of most of the Earth 's surface and the creation of a totalitarian regime on the planet . The game recounts the events of the Second Moon War , in which the Moon attacks the Earth again for natural resources . Selene 's tactic consists in sending one @-@ man fighter spacecraft called " Einhänder " on kamikaze missions , to cause as much damage as possible on the planet before being destroyed by the enemies . The player takes on the role of one of these pilots attacking the Earth capital city .
As the player progresses through the game , they are relayed command orders and objectives dispatched by the Selene military satellite , Hyperion . The orders are synthesized by the on @-@ board central computer EOS , which also records and relays the player 's flight and battle record data back to Hyperion . After completion of the last objective , the player is informed by Hyperion that the battle pattern of the latest EOS unmanned fighter has been completed according to the data from their battle record . The player is given the honor of being the target of the last EOS test as reward for their heroic efforts and that upon the player 's death , they shall advance two classes and be awarded the Sirius decoration . After surviving the intense barrage of artillery fire of the EOS test , the pilot wonders why they must be terminated by their ally and questions their military leaders ' rationale for the war .
The game 's narrative then skips to one month later , when the pilot re @-@ emerges in space flying an armed Einhänder spacecraft . A message from Hyperion communicates that the player is committing an act of treason and must remove their armament and surrender . Nevertheless , the player fights their way through Selene fighters and faces the Hyperion , the game 's final boss . The ending sequence depicts the player 's spacecraft damaged and drifting in space . The pilot engages its thrusters and dives into an army of Selene spacecraft with
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the Moon in the background . An epilogue follows which states that the actions of the lone Einhänder pilot effectively ended the war by destroying the armies of both sides , leading to an eventual peace ; however , the pilot 's name and deeds were stricken from the records , and they are remembered only by veterans of the war . After the end credits , a lone Einhänder spacecraft is shown powering up .
= = Development = =
Einhänder was the first 3D shooter developed by Square , a company otherwise mostly known for their role @-@ playing video games . The developers used German terms extensively for naming things in the game , in addition to a number of references from Greek mythology and the Bible . According to the gaming website IGN , a lot of the effects Square learned from creating Final Fantasy VII were also put in use in Einhänder . The game was showcased at the Tokyo Game Show in September 1997 and was initially planned for a Japanese release on October 16 , 1997 , but was eventually released five weeks later on November 20 . Square released an unrelated game the following month , Chocobo no Fushigina Dungeon , which came with a bonus " Mysterious Data Disc " featuring memory card data for various Square games including Einhänder .
The American publisher Working Designs was interested in publishing the game in North America for its Spaz brand of shoot ' em ups , but could not as Sony Computer Entertainment used their priority over Square titles to publish the game themselves . For the North American version , the speed of the arm switching was increased and some power @-@ ups were altered ; the game mode called " Free " was removed ; and the Gallery was given a modified interface and different pictures than those from the Japanese version . The game was not released in Europe . On June 25 , 2008 , Square Enix re @-@ released the game as a digital download on the Japanese PlayStation Network .
= = = Music = = =
The music of Einhänder was composed , arranged , and produced by Kenichiro Fukui . Several tracks make use of genres of electronic music , such as progressive house , or other genres like hip hop , piano @-@ based music or opera . The soundtrack of the game was published in Japan by DigiCube , a subsidiary of Square , on December 21 , 1997 , and was reissued by Square Enix on July 18 , 2007 , after DigiCube 's bankruptcy . The final track , titled " Beginning " , was also featured on Square Enix Music Compilation 2 , a compilation album published on May 1 , 2008 for members of the Japanese Square Enix website .
= = Merchandise = =
A 111 @-@ page official strategy guide , titled Einhänder Kōshiki Guidebook ( aka Einhänder der offizielle Führer ) , was published in Japan by ASCII in December 1997 . Its content includes stage maps , information on the spacecraft and data tables .
= = Reception = =
In Japan , Einhänder had sold 50 @,@ 000 copies three days after its release , and sold 100 @,@ 000 copies as of February 1999 . The game received positive reviews from American gaming publications , which stated that the game was especially notable for a shoot ' em up as it had no strong competitor on the PlayStation at the time of its release . The website Allgame referred to the game as the best side scrolling shooter " to come out in the post 16 @-@ bit era of video gaming " , while Eurogamer called it " the most successful of Square 's expeditions into non @-@ RPG territory " . Pat , from The Best Friends Zaibatsu , praised it highly , saying " This game is SO awesome ! " . In 2007 , IGN ranked it first in a top ten of the best 2D space shooters .
The gameplay was praised by critics . Allgame lauded the game 's intense action and diversity of spacecraft , the gun pod system and the fact that bosses are composed of different destructible parts . GamePro noted that while the gameplay scheme is common to other shoot ' em ups , the title 's " thumb @-@ busting " action and variety of weaponry made for an enjoyable experience . The site called diversity " one of the game 's biggest assets " . GameSpot further called the game 's play mechanics " finely tuned " and featuring a " fascinating " plot , while IGN felt the tilting camera angles were one of the features that make the game " so exciting " .
Concerning the graphics , GameSpot , Allgame and Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine appreciated the level of details and effects used in the different stages , as well as the large size of the bosses . IGN noted that the game 's 3D graphics made it " substantially better " than most of the other , sprite @-@ based shoot ' em up games of the time .
The soundtrack of the game was praised by reviewers such as Eurogamer , IGN , Soundtrack Central and PlayStation Magazine . GamePro noted that the techno music and sound effects fit the stages " perfectly " . However , GameSpot felt that the quality of the music and sound effects were " good " but globally not on par with that of the graphics . The game 's short duration and lack of a two @-@ player mode were noted as the game 's only flaws by Allgame and GamePro . GameSpot estimated that the game demands " just over an hour " to complete .
= Stockton and Darlington Railway =
The Stockton and Darlington Railway ( S & DR ) was a railway company that operated in north @-@ east England from 1825 to 1863 . The world 's first public railway to use steam locomotives , its first line connected collieries near Shildon with Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees and Darlington , and was officially opened on 27 September 1825 . The movement of coal to ships rapidly became a lucrative business , and the line was soon extended to a new port and town at Middlesbrough . While coal waggons were hauled by steam locomotives from the start , passengers were carried in coaches drawn by horses until carriages hauled by steam locomotives were introduced in 1833 .
The S & DR was involved in the building of the East Coast Main Line between York and Darlington , but its main expansion was at Middlesbrough Docks and west into Weardale and east to Redcar . It suffered severe financial difficulties at the end of the 1840s and was nearly taken over by the York , Newcastle and Berwick Railway , before the discovery of iron ore in Cleveland and the subsequent increase in revenue meant it could pay its debts . At the beginning of the 1860 it took over railways that had crossed the Pennines to join the West Coast Main Line at Tebay and Clifton , near Penrith .
The company was taken over by the North Eastern Railway in 1863 , transferring 200 route miles ( 320 route kilometres ) of line and about 160 locomotives , but continued to operate independently as the Darlington Section until 1876 . The opening of the S & DR was seen as proof of the effectiveness of steam railways and its anniversary was celebrated in 1875 , 1925 and 1975 . Much of the original route is now served by the Tees Valley Line , operated by Northern Rail .
= = Genesis = =
= = = Origins = = =
Coal from the inland mines in County Durham was taken away on packhorses , and then horse and carts as the roads were improved . A canal was proposed by George Dixon in 1767 and again by John Rennie in 1815 , but both schemes failed . A few years later a canal was proposed on a route that bypassed Darlington and Yarm , and a meeting was held in Yarm to oppose the route . The Welsh engineer George Overton was consulted , and he advised building a tramroad . Overton carried out a survey and planned a route from the Etherley and Witton Collieries to Shildon , and then passing to the north of Darlington to reach Stockton . The Scottish engineer Robert Stevenson was said to favour the railway , and the Quaker Edward Pease supported it at a public meeting in Darlington on 13 November 1818 , promising a five per cent return on investment . Approximately two @-@ thirds of the shares were sold locally , and the rest were bought by Quakers nationally . A private bill was presented to Parliament in March 1819 , but as the route passed through Earl of Eldon 's estate and one of the Earl of Darlington 's fox coverts , it was opposed and defeated by 13 votes .
Overton surveyed a new line that avoided Darlington 's estate and agreement was reached with Eldon , but another application was deferred early in 1820 , as the death of King George III had made it unlikely a bill would pass that parliamentary year . The promoters lodged a bill on 30 September 1820 , the route having changed again as agreement had not been reached with Viscount Barrington about the line passing over his land . The railway was unopposed this time , but the bill nearly failed to enter the committee stage as the required four @-@ fifths of shares had not been sold . Pease subscribed £ 7 @,@ 000 ; from that time he had considerable influence over the railway and it became known as " the Quaker line " . The Act that received royal assent on 19 April 1821 allowed for a railway that could be used by anyone with suitably built vehicles on payment of a toll , that was closed at night , and with which land owners within 5 miles ( 8 km ) could build branches and make junctions ; no mention was made of steam locomotives . This new railway initiated the construction of more railway lines , causing significant developments in railway mapping and cartography , iron and steel manufacturing , as well as in any industries requiring more efficient transportation .
= = = George Stephenson = = =
Concerned about Overton 's competence , Pease asked George Stephenson , an experienced enginewright of the collieries of Killingworth , to meet him in Darlington . On 12 May 1821 the shareholders appointed Thomas Meynell as Chairman and Jonathan Backhouse as treasurer ; a majority of the managing committee , which included Thomas Richardson , Edward Pease and his son Joseph Pease , were Quakers . The committee designed a seal , showing waggons being pulled by a horse , and adopted the Latin motto Periculum privatum utilitas publica ( " At private risk for public service " ) . By 23 July 1821 it had decided that the line would be a railway with edge rails , rather than a plateway , and appointed Stephenson to make a fresh survey of the line . Stephenson recommended using malleable iron rails , even though he owned a share of the patent for the alternative cast iron rails , and both types were used . Stephenson was assisted by his 18 @-@ year @-@ old son Robert during the survey , and by the end of 1821 had reported that a usable line could be built within the bounds of the Act , but another route would be shorter by 3 miles ( 5 km ) and avoid deep cuttings and tunnels . Overton had kept himself available , but had no further involvement and the shareholders elected Stephenson Engineer on 22 January 1822 , with a salary of £ 660 per year . On 23 May 1822 a ceremony at Stockton celebrated the laying of the first track , the rails 4 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 42 m ) apart , the same gauge used by Stephenson on his Killingworth Railway .
Stephenson advocated the use of steam locomotives on the line . Pease visited Killingworth in mid @-@ 1822 and the directors visited Hetton colliery railway , on which Stephenson had introduced steam locomotives . A new bill was presented , requesting Stephenson 's deviations from the original route and the use of " loco @-@ motives or moveable engines " , and this received assent on 23 May 1823 . The line included embankments up to 48 feet ( 15 m ) high , and Stephenson designed an iron truss bridge to cross the River Gaunless . The stone bridge over the River Skerne was designed by the Durham architect Ignatius Bonomi .
In 1823 Stephenson and Pease opened Robert Stephenson and Company , a locomotive works at Forth Street , Newcastle , from which the following year the S & DR ordered two steam locomotives and two stationary engines . On 16 September 1825 , with the stationary engines in place , the first locomotive , Locomotion No. 1 , left the works , and the following day it was advertised that the railway would open on 27 September 1825 .
= = = Opening = = =
The cost of building the railway had greatly exceeded the estimates . By September 1825 the company had borrowed £ 60 @,@ 000 in short @-@ term loans and needed to earn some income . A railway coach , named Experiment , arrived the evening of 26 September 1825 , was attached to Locomotion No. 1 , and Pease , Stephenson and other members of the committee made an experimental journey between Shildon and Darlington , with James Stephenson , George 's elder brother , at the controls . On 27 September , between 7 am and 8 am , 12 waggons of coal were drawn up Etherley North Bank by a rope attached to the stationary engine at the top , and then let down the South Bank to St Helen 's Auckland . A waggon of flour bags was attached and horses hauled the train to the bottom of Brusselton West Bank , where thousands watched the second stationary engine draw the train up the incline . The train was let down the East Bank to Shildon Lane End , where Locomotion No. 1 , Experiment and 21 new coal waggons fitted with seats were waiting .
The directors had allowed room for 300 passengers , but the train left carrying between 450 and 600 people , most travelling in empty waggons but some on top of waggons full of coal . Brakesmen were placed between the waggons , and the train set off , led by a man on horseback with a flag . It picked up speed on the gentle downward slope and reached 10 to 12 miles per hour ( 16 to 19 km / h ) , leaving behind men on field hunters ( horses ) who had tried to keep up with the procession . The train stopped when the waggon carrying the company surveyors and engineers lost a wheel ; the waggon was left behind and the train continued . The train stopped again , this time for 35 minutes to repair the locomotive and the train set off again , reaching 15 mph ( 24 km / h ) before it was welcomed by an estimated 10 @,@ 000 people as it came to a stop at the Darlington branch junction . Eight and a half miles ( 14 km ) had been covered in two hours , and subtracting the 55 minutes accounted by the two stops , it had travelled at an average speed of 8 mph ( 13 km / h ) . Six waggons of coal were distributed to the poor , workers stopped for refreshments and many of the passengers from Brusselton alighted at Darlington , to be replaced by others .
Two waggons for the Yarm Band were attached , and at 12 : 30 pm the locomotive started for Stockton , now hauling 31 vehicles with 550 passengers . On the 5 miles ( 8 km ) of nearly level track east of Darlington the train struggled to reach more than 4 mph ( 6 @.@ 4 km / h ) . Crowds waited for the train to cross the Stockton to Yarm turnpike . Approaching Stockton it gained speed and reached 15 mph ( 24 km / h ) again , before a man clinging to the outside of a waggon fell off and his foot was crushed by the following vehicle . The train arrived 3 hours , 7 minutes after leaving Darlington . The opening ceremony was considered a success and that evening 102 people sat down to a celebratory dinner at the Town Hall .
= = = Early operations = = =
The railway that opened in September 1825 was 25 miles ( 40 km ) long and ran from Phoenix Pit , Old Etherley Colliery , to Cottage Row , Stockton ; there was also a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) branch to the depot at Darlington , 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) of the Hagger Leases branch , and a 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) branch to Yarm . Most of the track used 28 pounds per yard ( 14 kg / m ) malleable iron rails , and 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of 57 1 ⁄ 2 lb / yd ( 28 @.@ 5 kg / m ) cast iron rails were used for junctions . The line was single track with four passing loops each mile ; square sleepers supported each rail separately so that horses could walk between them . Stone was used for the sleepers to the west of Darlington and oak to the east ; Stephenson would have preferred all of them to have been stone , but the transport cost was too high as they were quarried in the Auckland area . The railway opened with the company owing money and unable to raise further loans ; Pease advanced money twice early in 1826 so the workers could be paid . By August 1827 the company had paid its debts and was able to raise more money ; that month the Black Boy branch opened and construction began on the Croft and Hagger Leases branches . During 1827 shares rose from £ 120 at the start to £ 160 at the end .
Initially the line was used to carry coal to Darlington and Stockton , carrying 10 @,@ 000 tons in the first three months and earning nearly £ 2 @,@ 000 . In Stockton the price of coal dropped from 18 to 12 shillings , and by the beginning of 1827 was 8 shillings 6 pence ( 8s 6d ) . Initially the drivers had been paid a daily wage , but after February 1826 they were paid 1 ⁄ 4d per ton per mile ; from this they had to pay assistants and fireman and to buy coal for the locomotive . The 1821 Act had received opposition from the owners of collieries on the River Wear who supplied London and feared competition , and it had been necessary to restrict the rate for transporting coal destined for ships to 1 ⁄ 2d per ton per mile , which had been assumed would make the business uneconomic . There was interest from London for 100 @,@ 000 tons a year , so the company began investigations in September 1825 . In January 1826 the first staith opened at Stockton , designed so waggons over a ship 's hold could discharge coal from the bottom . A little over 18 @,@ 500 tons of coal was transported to ships in the year ending June 1827 and this increased to over 52 @,@ 000 tons the following year , 44 1 ⁄ 2 per cent of the total carried .
The locomotives were unreliable at first . Soon after opening , Locomotion No. 1 broke a wheel , and it was not ready for traffic until 12 or 13 October ; Hope , the second locomotive , arrived in November 1825 but needed a week to ready it for the line – the cast @-@ iron wheels were a source of trouble . Two more locomotives of a similar design arrived in 1826 ; that August 16s 9d was spent on ale to motivate the men maintaining the engines . By the end of 1827 the company had also bought Chittaprat from Robert Wilson and Experiment from Stephenson . Timothy Hackworth , locomotive superintendent , used the boiler from the unsuccessful Chittaprat to build the Royal George in the works at Shildon ; it started work at the end of November . John Wesley Hackworth later published an account stating that locomotives would have been abandoned were it not for the fact that Pease and Thomas Richardson were partners with Stephenson in the Newcastle works , and that when Timothy Hackworth was commissioned to rebuild Chittaprat it was " as a last experiment " to " make an engine in his own way " . Both Tomlinson and Rolt state this claim was unfounded and the company had shown earlier that locomotives were superior to horses , Tomlinson showing that coal was being moved using locomotives at half the cost of horses . Robert Young states that the company was unsure as to the real costs as they reported to shareholders in 1828 that the saving using locomotives was 30 per cent . Young also showed that Pease and Richardson were both concerned about their investment in the Newcastle works and Pease unsuccessfully tried to sell his share to George Stephenson .
New locomotives were ordered from Stephenson 's , but the first was too heavy when it arrived in February 1828 . It was rebuilt with six wheels and hailed as a great improvement , Hackworth being told to convert the remaining locomotives as soon as possible . In 1828 two locomotive boilers exploded within four months , both killing the driver and both due to the safety valves being left fixed down while the engine was stationary . Horses were also used on the line , and they could haul up to four waggons . The dandy cart was introduced in mid @-@ 1828 : a small cart at the end of the train , this carried the horse downhill , allowing it to rest and the train to run at higher speed . The S & DR made their use compulsory from November 1828 .
Passenger traffic started on 10 October 1825 , after the required licence was purchased , using the Experiment coach hauled by a horse . The coach was initially timetabled to travel from Stockton to Darlington in two hours , with a fare of 1s , and made a return journey four days a week and a one @-@ way journey on Tuesdays and Saturdays . In April 1826 the operation of the coach was contracted for £ 200 a year ; by then the timetabled journey time had been reduced to 1 1 ⁄ 4 hours and passengers were allowed to travel on the outside for 9d . A more comfortable coach , Express , started the same month and charged 1s 6d for travel inside . Innkeepers began running coaches , two to Shildon from July , and the Union , which served the Yarm branch from 16 October . There were no stations : in Darlington the coaches picked up passengers near the north road crossing , whereas in Stockton they picked up at different places on the quay . Between 30 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 passengers were carried between July 1826 and June 1827 .
= = Founding of Middlesbrough = =
The export of coal had become the railway 's main business , but the staiths at Stockton had inadequate storage and the size of ships was limited by the depth of the Tees . A branch from Stockton to Haverton , on the north bank of the Tees , was proposed in 1826 , and the engineer Thomas Storey proposed a shorter and cheaper line to Middlesbrough , south of the Tees in July 1827 . Later approved by George Stephenson , this plan was ratified by the shareholders on 26 October . The Tees Navigation Company was about to improve the river and proposed that the railway delay application to Parliament , but , despite opposition , at a meeting in January 1828 it was decided to proceed . A more direct northerly route from Auckland to the Tees had been considered since 1819 , and the Tees & Weardale Railway had applied unsuccessfully to Parliament for permission for such a line in 1823 , 1824 and 1825 . This now became a 11 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) line linking Simpasture on the S & DR 's line near today 's Newton Aycliffe station with Haverton and Stockton , via a route that was 6 miles ( 10 km ) shorter than via the route of the S & DR , and named the Clarence Railway in honour of the Duke of Clarence , later King William IV . Meetings held in Stockton in early 1828 supported the Tees Navigation and the Clarence Railway , but the S & DR received permission for its branch on 23 May 1828 after promising to complete the Hagger Leases Branch and to build a bridge across the Tees at least 72 feet ( 22 m ) wide and 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) above low water , so as not to affect shipping . Two members of the management committee resigned , as they felt that Stockton would be adversely affected by the line , and Meynell , the S & DR chairman , stepped down from leadership . The Clarence Railway was approved a few days later , with the same gauge as the S & DR. The route of the Clarence Railway was afterwards amended to reach Samphire Batts , later known as Port Clarence , and traffic started in August 1833 ; by the middle of 1834 Port Clarence had opened and 28 miles ( 45 km ) of line was in use . The S & DR charged the 2 1 ⁄ 4d per ton per mile landsale rate for coal it carried the 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the collieries to Simpasture for forwarding to Port Clarence , rather than the lower shipping rate . By July 1834 , the Exchequer Loan Commissioners had taken control of the Clarence Railway .
The Croft branch opened in October 1829 . Construction of the suspension bridge across the Tees started in July 1829 , but was suspended in October after the Tees Navigation Company pointed out the S & DR had no permission to cross the Old Channel of the Tees . The S & DR prepared to return to Parliament but withdrew after a design for a drawbridge was agreed with the Navigation Company . The line to Middlesbrough was laid with malleable iron rails weighing 33 lb / yd ( 16 kg / m ) , resting on oak blocks . The suspension bridge had been designed to carry 150 tons , but the cast iron retaining plates split when it was tested with just 66 tons and loaded trains had to cross with the waggons split into groups of four linked by a 9 yards ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) long chain . For the opening ceremony on 27 December 1830 , " Globe " , a new locomotive designed by Hackworth for passenger trains , hauled people in carriages and waggons fitted with seats across the bridge to the staiths at Port Darlington , which had berths for six ships . Stockton continued to be served by a station on the line to the quay until 1848 , when it was replaced by a station on the Middlesbrough line on the other side of the Tees . Before May 1829 Thomas Richardson had bought about 500 acres ( 200 ha ) near Port Darlington , and with Joseph and Edward Pease and others he formed the Owners of the Middlesbrough Estate to develop it . Middlesbrough had only a few houses before the coming of the railway , but a year later had a population of over 2 @,@ 000 and at the 2011 census had over 138 @,@ 000 people .
= = Railway improvements = =
In 1830 the company opened new offices at the corner of Northgate and Union Street in Darlington . Between 1831 and 1832 a second track was laid between Stockton and the foot of Brusselton Bank . Workshops were built at Shildon for the maintenance and construction of locomotives . In 1830 approximately 50 horses shared the traffic with 19 locomotives , but travelled at different speeds , so to help regulate traffic horse @-@ drawn trains were required to operate in groups of four or five . This had led to horses , startled by a passing locomotive and coming off their dandy cart , being run down by the following train . On one occasion a driver fell asleep in the dandy cart of the preceding train and his horse , no longer being led , came to a stop and was run down by a locomotive . The rule book stated that locomotive @-@ hauled trains had precedence over horse @-@ drawn trains , but some horse drivers refused to give way and on one occasion a locomotive had to follow a horse @-@ drawn train for over 2 miles ( 3 km ) . The committee decided in 1828 to replace horses with locomotives on the main line , starting with the coal trains , but there was resistance from some colliery owners . After the S & DR bought out the coach companies in August 1832 , a mixed passenger and small goods service began between Stockton and Darlington on 7 September 1833 , travelling at 12 – 14 miles per hour ( 19 – 23 km / h ) ; locomotive @-@ hauled services began to Shildon in December 1833 and to Middlesbrough on 7 April 1834 . The company had returned the five per cent dividend that had been promised by Edward Pease , and this had increased to eight per cent by the time he retired in 1832 . When the treasurer Jonathan Backhouse retired in 1833 to become a Quaker minister he was replaced by Joseph Pease .
= = The way north = =
= = = Great North of England Railway = = =
On 13 October 1835 the York & North Midland Railway ( Y & NMR ) was formed to connect York to London by a line to a junction with the planned North Midland Railway . Representatives of the Y & NMR and S & DR met two weeks later and formed the Great North of England Railway ( GNER ) , a line from York to Newcastle that used the route of the 1 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) Croft branch at Darlington . The railway was to be built in sections , and to allow both to open at the same time permission for the more difficult line through the hills from Darlington to Newcastle was to be sought in 1836 and a bill for the easier line south of Darlington to York presented the following year . Pease specified a formation wide enough for four tracks , so freight could be carried at 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) and passengers at 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , and George Stephenson had drawn up detailed plans by November . The Act for the 34 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 55 @.@ 5 km ) from Newcastle to Darlington was given royal assent on 4 July 1836 , but little work had been done by the time the 43 miles ( 69 km ) from Croft to York received permission on 12 July the following year . In August a general meeting decided to start work on the southern section , but construction was delayed , and after several bridges collapsed the engineer Thomas Storey was replaced by Robert Stephenson . The S & DR sold its Croft branch to the GNER , and the railway opened for coal traffic on 4 January 1841 using S & DR locomotives . The railway opened to passengers with its own locomotives on 30 March .
Between November 1841 and February 1842 the S & DR introduced a service between Darlington and Coxhoe , on the Clarence Railway , where an omnibus took passengers the 3 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) to the Durham & Sunderland Railway at Shincliffe . Early in 1842 the nominally independent Shildon Tunnel Company opened its 1 @,@ 225 @-@ yard ( 1 @,@ 120 m ) tunnel through the hills at Shildon to the Wear basin and after laying 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of track to South Church station , south of Bishop Auckland , opened in May 1842 . The SD & R provided a 3 1 ⁄ 4 hour service between Darlington and Newcastle , with a four @-@ horse omnibus from South Church to Rainton Meadows on the Durham Junction Railway , from where trains ran to Gateshead , on the south side of the River Tyne near Newcastle .
= = = Railway operations in the 1830s = = =
By 1839 the track had been upgraded with rails weighing 64 lb / yd ( 32 kg / m ) . The railway had about 30 steam locomotives , most of them six coupled , that ran with four @-@ wheeled tenders with two water butts , each capable of holding 600 imperial gallons ( 2 @,@ 700 l ; 720 US gal ) of water . The line descended from Shildon to Stockton , assisting the trains that carried coal to the docks at a maximum speed of 6 mph ( 9 @.@ 7 km / h ) ; the drivers were fined if caught travelling faster than 8 mph ( 13 km / h ) , and one was dismissed for completing the forty @-@ mile return journey in 4 1 ⁄ 2 hours . On average there were about 40 coal trains a day , hauling 28 waggons with a weight of 116 tons . There were about 5000 privately owned waggons , and at any one time about 1000 stood at Shildon depot .
The railway had modern passenger locomotives , some with four wheels There were passenger stations at Stockton , Middlesbrough , Darlington , Shildon and West Auckland , and trains also stopped at Middlesbrough Junction , Yarm Junction , Fighting Cocks and Heighington . Some of the modified road coaches were still in use , but there were also modern railway carriages , some first class with three compartments each seating eight passengers , and second class carriages that seated up to 40 . Luggage and sometimes the guard travelled on the carriage roof ; a passenger travelling third class suffered serious injuries after falling from the roof in 1840 . Passenger trains averaged 22 – 25 mph ( 35 – 40 km / h ) , and a speed of 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) was recorded . Over 200 @,@ 000 passengers were carried in the year to 1 October 1838 , and in 1839 there were twelve trains each day between Middlesbrough and Stockton , six trains between Stockton and Darlington , and three between Darlington and Shildon , where a carriage was fitted with Rankine 's self @-@ acting brake , taken over the Brussleton Inclines , and then drawn by a horse to St Helens Auckland . The Bradshaw 's railway guide for March 1843 , after South Church opened , shows five services a day between Darlington and South Church via Shildon , with three between Shildon and St Helens . Also listed were six trains between Stockton and Hartlepool via Seaton over the Clarence Railway and the Stockton and Hartlepool Railway that had opened in 1841 .
By this time Port Darlington had become overwhelmed by the volume of imports and exports and work started in 1839 on Middlesbrough Dock , which had been laid out by William Cubitt , capable of holding 150 ships , and built by resident civil engineer George Turnbull . The suspension bridge across the Tees was replaced by a cast iron bridge on masonry piers in 1841 . After three years and an expenditure of £ 122 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 9.65m at 2011 prices ) , the formal opening of the new dock took place on 12 May 1842 . The S & DR provided most of the finance , and the dock was absorbed by the company in 1849 .
= = = Newcastle and Darlington Junction Railway = = =
The GNER had authority for a railway from York to Newcastle ; it opened to Darlington in 1841 having spent all of its authorised capital and could not start work on the extension to Newcastle . At the time Parliament was considering the route of a railway between England and Scotland and favoured a railway via the west coast . Railway financier George Hudson chaired a meeting of representatives of north @-@ eastern railways that wished a railway to be built via the east coast . In the 1830s a number of railways had opened in the area between Darlington and Newcastle , and Robert Stephenson was engaged to select a route using these railways as much as possible . The Newcastle and Darlington Junction Railway ( N & DJR ) differed slightly from the GNER route in the southern section before joining the Durham Junction Railway at Rainton and using the Pontop & South Shields Railway from Washington to Brockley Whins , where a new curve onto the Brandling Junction Railway allowed direct access to Gateshead . This required the construction of 25 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 41 @.@ 0 km ) of new line , 9 miles ( 14 km ) less than the GNER route , but trains would need to travel 7 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) further .
This route ran parallel to S & DR lines for 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) and Pease argued that it should run over these as it would add only 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) . The bill was presented unchanged to Parliament in 1842 , and was opposed by the S & DR. Despite this , the Newcastle and Darlington Junction Railway Act received royal assent on 18 June 1842 , and a second Act the following year secured the deviations from the GNER route in the south recommended by Stephenson . After the opening celebration on 18 June 1844 , through services ran from London to Gateshead the following day .
The N & DJR made an offer to lease the GNER and buy it within five years , and GNER shares increased in value by 44 per cent as the N & DJR took over on 1 July 1845 ; the N & DJR became part of the larger York , Newcastle & Berwick Railway ( YN & BR ) in 1847 .
= = Wear Valley Railway = =
The Bishop Auckland & Weardale Railway ( BA & WR ) received permission in July 1837 to build a 8 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 13 @.@ 3 km ) line from South Church to Crook . The line opened on 8 November 1843 with a station at Bishop Auckland .
The Stanhope and Tyne Railway , a 33 3 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 54 @.@ 3 km ) line between South Shields and Stanhope had opened in 1834 . Steam locomotives worked the section east of Annfield , and in the western section inclines were worked by stationary engines or gravity , with horses hauling waggons over level track . The lime kilns and the line between Stanhope and Carrhouse closed in 1840 , and with the Stanhope to Annfield section losing money , the insolvent railway company was dissolved on 5 February 1841 . The northern section became the Pontop and South Shields Railway and the southern section from Stanhope to Carrhouse was bought by the newly formed Derwent Iron Company at Consett , renamed the Wear & Derwent Railway , and used to transport limestone from quarries in the Stanhope area to its works at Consett . The Weardale Extension Railway ran from Waskerley on the Wear & Derwent to Crook on the BA & WR and included the Sunniside Incline worked by a stationary engine . Sponsored by the Derwent Iron Company , the 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) line was built by the S & DR and opened on 16 May 1845 . A passenger service started to Hownes Gill and Stanhope ( Crawley ) on 1 September 1845 ; the Stanhope service was withdrawn at the end of 1846 . Travelling north from Crook the carriages and waggons were drawn up the Sunniside Incline , a locomotive hauled the mixed train to Waskerley Park Junction , then they were let down Nanny Mayor 's Incline and a locomotive took them forward . When returning , regulations required that the carriages run loose down the Sunniside Incline and they were let to run into Crook station , controlled by the guard using the carriage brakes . Later , a 730 feet ( 220 m ) viaduct replaced the two inclines at Hownes Gill ravine on 1 July 1858 . A deviation replacing Nanny 's Mayor 's Incline and a curve that allowed trains from Crook direct access to Rowley opened for freight on 23 May 1859 and for passenger traffic on 4 July 1859 .
The Middlesbrough & Redcar Railway , a short extension to Redcar , received permission on 21 July 1845 . The line branched off before the Middlesbrough terminus , which was closed and a new through station opened with the line on 4 June 1846 . Also authorised in July 1845 was the Wear Valley Railway , a 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) line from the Bishop Auckland & Weardale line to Frosterley . The line opened on 3 August 1847 , and the Act also gave the S & DR permission for the Bishopley branch , over which 500 @,@ 000 tons of limestone travelled in 1868 . The line was extended in 1862 from Frosterley to Stanhope .
Just before the line opened on 22 July 1847 , the Wear Valley Railway absorbed the Shildon Tunnel , Bishop Auckland & Weardale Railway , Weardale Extension Railway and Wear & Derwent Railway and then the S & DR leased the Wear Valley Railway and Middlesbrough & Redcar Railways for 999 years . This required a payment of £ 47 @,@ 000 each year , exceeding the SD & R 's net revenue ; traffic from the Derwent Iron Company was reduced during a period of financial difficulty and the Black Boy colliery switched to sending its coal to Hartlepool . No dividend was paid in 1848 and the next few years ; lease payments were made out of reserves . The S & DR announced a bill in November 1848 to permit a lease by and amalgamation with the YN & BR , but this was withdrawn after the YN & BR share price crashed and its chairman Hudson resigned after questions were raised about his share dealings . In 1850 the S & DR had share capital of £ 250 @,@ 000 but owed £ 650 @,@ 000 , most of this without the authority of Parliament until 1849 ; the debt was converted into shares in 1851 .
= = Cleveland iron ore = =
In mid @-@ 1850 Henry Bolckow and John Vaughan discovered a seam of iron ore at Eston . They opened a mine , laid a branch line to the Middlesbrough & Redcar Railway and started hauling ironstone over the S & DR to their blast furnaces west of Bishop Auckland . By 1851 Derwent Iron had opened a mine in the area and began moving ironstone 54 miles ( 87 km ) to Consett , and the S & DR had paid the arrears on its debt and was able to pay a dividend the following year , albeit only 4 per cent ; between 1849 and 1853 the traffic more than doubled .
In 1852 the Leeds Northern Railway ( LNR ) built a line from Northallerton to a junction with the Stockton to Hartlepool line and a section of the route ran parallel to the S & DR alongside the Yarm to Stockton Road . The S & DR was originally on the east side of the road , but the LNR built its line with four tracks on the other side of the road , leasing two to the S & DR for a rental of 1s a year . On 25 January 1853 the LNR and SD & R opened a joint station at Eaglescliffe with an island platform between the tracks , and one side was used by S & DR trains and the other by the LNR . Rather than allow trains to approach the platform line from either direction , the Board of Trade inspecting officer ruled that trains approaching on a line without a platform must first pass through and then reverse into the platform line .
The Middlesbrough & Guisborough Railway , with two branches into the iron @-@ rich hills , was approved by Parliament on 17 June 1852 ; Pease had to guarantee dividends to raise the finance needed . The 9 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 15 @.@ 3 km ) single @-@ track railway was worked by the S & DR , and opened to minerals on 11 November 1853 and passengers on 25 February 1854 . With electric telegraph installed between stations , passenger trains were not permitted to leave a station until confirmation had been received that the line was clear .
By 1857 a blast furnace had opened close to the Durham coalfield on the north side of the Tees . Backed by the rival West Hartlepool Harbour & Railway , the Durham & Cleveland Union Railway proposed a line from the mines in Skinningrove and Staithes , via Guisborough and a bridge over the Middlesbrough & Redcar Railway to a jetty at Cargo Fleet , from where a ferry would carry the ore across the Tees to the blast furnaces . When the proposal was before Parliament the S & DR suggested that their Middlesbrough & Redcar could be extended to Saltburn , and the Tees crossed by a swing bridge . The Cleveland Railway received permission for a line from Skinningrove as far as Guisborough , and the S & DR permission for an extension to Saltburn and a branch to a mine at Skelton . This 1858 S & DR Act also authorised the merger of the S & DR with the railways it held on lease .
An application to Parliament for a jetty in the following year was unsuccessful , but in 1860 the Upsall , Normanby & Ormesby Railway received permission for a line with access to the river , the S & DR claim of exclusive rights to the foreshore having been rejected . The jetty was also opposed by the Tees Conservancy Commissioners and they moored barges along the foreshore to obstruct construction . In what became known as the Battle of the Tees , a fight broke out when a steam tug sent by the Commissioners interrupted men moving the barges . The barges were successfully moved , but a more serious fight developed the following night when three of the Commissioners ' steam tugs arrived . The police then kept watch on the works until they were finished .
Henry Pease , a S & DR director and Quaker , visited his brother Joseph in mid @-@ 1859 at his house by the sea at Marske @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea . Returning late for dinner , he explained he had walked to Saltburn , then a group of fisherman 's cottages , where he had had a " sort of prophetic vision " of a town with gardens . With other S & DR directors he planned the town , with gardens and Zetland Hotel by the station , and bought a house at 5 Britannia Terrace , where he stayed for a few weeks every summer . The extension opened in 1861 , a station on the through line replacing the terminus at Redcar .
= = Over Stainmore = =
A railway to serve Barnard Castle , from the S & DR at a junction near North Road station and along the River Tees , was proposed in 1852 ; this route bypassed as far as possible the Duke of Cleveland 's estate , as he had opposed an earlier railway . An application that year failed , but the Darlington & Barnard Castle Railway Act was given royal assent on 3 July 1854 and the 15 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 24 @.@ 5 km ) railway opened on 8 July 1856 .
Cleveland iron ore is high in phosphorus and needs to be mixed with purer ores , such as those on the west coast in Cumberland and Lancashire . In the early 1850s this ore was travelling the long way round over the Newcastle & Carlisle Railway to the Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness area , and Durham coke was returning . Both the South Durham & Lancashire Union Railway ( SD & LUR ) and the Eden Valley Railway ( EVR ) companies were formed on 20 September 1856 . Taking advantage of the new railway at Barnard Castle , the SD & LUR crossed the Pennines via Kirkby Stephen to meet the West Coast Main Line ( WCML ) at Tebay , on the section then controlled by the Lancaster & Carlisle Railway , and also linked Barnard Castle with West Auckland . The EVR was a branch from Kirkby Stephen to the WCML near Penrith via Appleby . The routes were surveyed by Thomas Bouch and SD & LUR received permission on 13 July 1857 . The EVR route followed the east bank of the River Eden , a mile longer than a more expensive route on the west bank , and its Act received royal assent on 21 May 1858 .
Bouch had laid out an economical route that followed the contours and avoided tunnels , but there were formidable gradients up to the 1 @,@ 370 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 420 m ) Stainmore summit . Land for two tracks was purchased , and a single track line was laid ; valleys were crossed by viaducts , three made from wrought iron , including the Belah Viaduct , 1 @,@ 040 feet ( 320 m ) long and 196 feet ( 60 m ) high . A new station was built to replace the terminus at Barnard Castle . A mineral train ran between Barnard Castle and Barras on 26 March 1861 , and mineral traffic worked through to Tebay from 4 July 1861 . There was an opening ceremony on 7 August 1861 and the SD & LUR west of Barnard Castle opened to passengers the following day . Two 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 locomotives with enclosed cabs had been built for the line in 1860 by Stephenson and Co , and the S & DR worked traffic from the start : two return services a day were provided for passengers . The EVR opened to mineral traffic on 8 April 1862 and passengers on 9 June 1862 , to the south @-@ facing junction at Clifton ( later Clifton & Lowther ) . The S & DR had presented a bill in 1861 to provide better connections for passengers on the WCML by extending the line up to Penrith , and to link up with the Cockermouth , Keswick & Penrith Railway to provide access for mineral traffic to Cumberland . The L & CR agreed to allow the S & DR running rights over its line and services were extended to Penrith from 1 August 1863 .
= = Progress and amalgamation = =
In 1854 there were five or six trains a day between Darlington and Redcar and three a day between Darlington and Frosterly . Travelling at average speeds of 19 – 24 miles per hour ( 31 – 39 km / h ) , passengers were charged from 1d per mile for third class to 2.2d per mile for first . Horses were still used on trains in the mid @-@ 1850s : a horse @-@ drawn coach was still independently operated between Middlesbrough and Stockton in 1854 on Sundays , as the only S & DR services that run on that day were the mail trains , and locomotives replaced horses on passenger trains to West Auckland in 1856 . The S & DR opened a carriage works south of Darlington North Road station in 1853 and later it built a locomotive works nearby to replace its works at Shildon . Designed by William Bouch , who had taken over from Hackworth as Locomotive Supervisor in 1840 , it completed its first locomotive in 1864 . In 1858 the Brusselton Inclines were bypassed by a line from the north end of Shildon Tunnel ; the same year a passenger service started on the Hagger Leases branch and a mineral line opened from Crook via two inclines to Waterhouse . The section of the SD & LUR between West Auckland and Barnard Castle opened for minerals in July 1863 and passengers on 1 August 1863 , together with a direct line from Bishop Auckland to West Auckland . Stations at Evenwood and Cockfield replaced stations on the Hagger Leases branch .
In 1859 a company had been formed to link the Newcastle & Carlisle Railway with the SD & R via the Derwent Valley ; by 1860 this had grown into the Newcastle , Derwent & Weardale Railway , which now bypassed the SD & R and linked with the SD & LUR , and the North British and London & North Western ( LNWR ) railways were providing two thirds of the capital . The LNWR proposed to build warehouses in Hartlepool and buy shares in the West Hartlepool Harbour & Railway . The North Eastern Railway ( NER ) , formed in 1854 by amalgamation , at the time was the largest railway company in the country and controlled the East Coast Main Line from Knottingley , south of York , through Darlington to Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed . When they approached the S & DR with a proposal to merge , the directors deciding they preferred a merger with the NER than eventually becoming part of the LNWR , entered negotiations . Opposed by the NER , the Newcastle , Derwent & Weardale Railway bill was approved by the House of Commons in 1861 , but the line was eventually rejected by the House of Lords . The SD & LUR and EVR were absorbed by the S & DR on 30 June 1862 .
With 200 route miles ( 320 km ) of line and about 160 locomotives , the Stockton & Darlington Railway became part of the North Eastern Railway on 13 July 1863 . Due to a clause in the Act the railway was managed as the independent Darlington Section until 1876 , when the lines became the NER 's Central Division . After the restoration of the dividend in 1851 , by the end of 1854 payments had recovered to 8 per cent and then had not dropped below 7 1 ⁄ 2 per cent .
= = Later history = =
The NER had built a branch in the late 1850s from Durham to Bishop Auckland , but used a separate station in the town until December 1867 , when all services began to use the S & DR station . The Sunniside Incline was replaced by a deviation , albeit with gradients of 1 in 51 and 1 in 52 , which opened for mineral traffic on 10 April 1867 and for passengers on 2 March 1868 ; after 1868 trains on this line were extended to serve Benfieldside station ( later known as Blackhill and then Consett ) . In Cleveland , a branch from Nunthrope to Battersby opened on 1 June 1864 ; passengers were carried from 1 April 1868 . A branch from Barnard Castle to Middleton @-@ in @-@ Teesdale opened on 12 May 1868 .
The locomotive works at Darlington operated independently under Bouch until 1875 , the locomotives having been renumbered by the NER a couple of years earlier . There was a varied range of locomotives , but the most common type was used on the mineral trains and had a wheel arrangement of 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 ; the later engines were of the Stephenson long boilered type . Most passenger locomotives had four driven wheels in the form 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 ; some were 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 2 . Bouch had designed two bogie 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 locomotives for the line over Stainmore in 1860 , and another fourteen with this wheel arrangement had been built by 1874 . S & DR services and those on the ECML called at different stations in Darlington until 1887 , when S & DR trains were diverted through a rebuilt Darlington Bank Top station , rejoining the route to Stockton from a junction south of Darlington and a new line to Oak Tree Junction . An extension from Stanhope to Wearhead opened in 1895 , and the line over Stainmore to Tebay was doubled by the end of the century .
From 1913 former S & DR lines were electrified with 1 @,@ 500 Vdc overhead lines and electric locomotives hauled coal trains between Shildon and Erimus marshalling yard , which had opened in 1908 between Middlesbrough and Thornaby . The trains took the former S & DR line from Shildon to Simpasture Junction , joining the former Clarence Railway line to Carlton , where a later line allowed access to the Stockton to Middlesbrough extension . The locomotives operated for 20 years , but then coal traffic had reduced , which made it uneconomical to maintain the electrification system .
As a result of the Railways Act 1921 , on 1 January 1923 the North Eastern Railway became the North Eastern area of the London and North Eastern Railway ( LNER ) . The passenger service was withdrawn north of Tow Law on 1 May 1939 . Britain 's railways were nationalised on 1 January 1948 and the lines were placed under the control of British Railways . In the early 1950s control was split between the North Eastern and London Midland regions with Kirkby Stephen as the boundary . Local passenger trains were withdrawn between Kirkby Stephen and Tebay on 1 December 1952 . The service along Weardale was withdrawn on 29 June 1953 and services north of Crook on 11 June 1956 .
The 1955 Modernisation Plan , known formally as the " Modernisation and Re @-@ Equipment of the British Railways " , was published in December 1954 . With the aim of increasing speed and reliability steam trains were replaced with electric and diesel traction . From 1954 Diesel Multiple Units took over passenger services in the north east except those on the ECML , and were introduced to the line over Stainmore in February 1958 . The passenger service was withdrawn between Barnard Castle and Penrith on 20 January 1962 , and between Bishop Auckland and Barnard Castle on 12 June 1962 .
In 1963 Richard Beeching published his report The Reshaping of British Railways , which recommended closing the network 's least used stations and lines . This included the remaining former SD & R lines except for the line between Darlington and Saltburn via Stockton and Middlesbrough . Passenger service between Nunthrope and Guisborough was withdrawn in 1964 ; the service between Middlesbrough and Nunthrope was retained . The line between Darlington and Barnard Castle and the branch to Middleton @-@ in @-@ Teesdale were closed to passengers on 30 November 1964 . Trains were withdrawn north of Bishop Auckland on 8 March 1965 , but the passenger service to Bishop Auckland was saved because of regional development concerns .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 19 March 1828 , the boiler of locomotive No. 5 exploded at Simpasture Junction . One of the two firemen was killed , the other severely scalded . The driver ( George Stephenson 's older brother ) was unharmed .
On 1 July 1828 , the boiler of Locomotion No. 1 exploded at Aycliffe Lane station , killing the driver .
= = Anniversary celebrations = =
The Stockton and Darlington was not the first railway and a train had previously carried passengers , but its opening in 1825 was seen as proof of the effectiveness of steam railways as a means of public transport . A jubilee was held on 27 and 28 September 1875 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the opening of the world 's first steam operated public railway : the Darlington North Road workshops housed a locomotive exhibition , a statue of Joseph Pease was unveiled in Darlington , his portrait presented to the Darlington Corporation and a banquet held . Fifty years later centenary celebrations were held in July to allow foreign men visiting the International Railway Congress to take part . An exhibition of rolling stock at the new Faverdale Wagon Works in Darlington was opened by the Duke and Duchess of York ( later King George VI and the Queen Mother ) . The following day the royal couple watched as procession of locomotives passed between Stockton and Oak Tree Junction , starting with a Hetton Colliery locomotive that had been built in 1822 and finishing with a replica train of ten chaldron waggons and " the company 's coach " hauled by Locomotive No.1 propelled by a petrol engine in a specially built tender . A festival was held in Belle Vue , Manchester on 27 September 1925 , a Sunday to allow railwaymen to attend , where a pageant showed how transport had changed through time , beginning with a group of ancient Britons dragging a log with their belongings on top and ending with Stephenson 's Rocket ; another procession included Locomotion No.1 , propelled by its tender , and more modern locomotives . On 31 August 1975 , to celebrate the 150th anniversary , a cavalcade was held between Shildon and Heighington , where a replica of Locomotion headed a procession of locomotives , which was completed by the prototype high @-@ speed train . In the same year the National Railway Museum opened in York that combined exhibits from a Museum in York , which had opened after the 1875 festivities , and the National Transport Museum at Clapham .
= = Legacy = =
The current Tees Valley Line uses the most of the former Stockton & Darlington Railway between Bishop Auckland and Saltburn . From Bishop Auckland the non @-@ electrified line is single track to Shildon , double track to Heighington , and single track to the junction with the East Coast Main Line north of Darlington . This section is a Community Rail service called the Bishop line , and is sometimes known as the Heritage Line because of its links with the S & DR. South of Darlington , trains take the 1887 line before joining the original 1825 route to Stockton at the site of Oak Tree Junction . The line is 8 miles ( 13 km ) to Eaglescliffe South Junction , where the 1853 Leeds Northern route is taken through Eaglescliffe station to Stockton Cut Junction . The non @-@ electrified line then follows the S & DR route for 19 miles ( 31 km ) to Saltburn , except for later deviations at Thornaby ( 1908 ) and Redcar ( 1978 ) . The former Middlesbrough & Guisborough Railway line is open between Guisborough Junction and Nunthorpe as part of the Community Rail Esk Valley Line to Whitby .
On 14 June 2007 , during excavations for road building , some of the original stone sleepers used by the railway in 1825 were discovered intact near Lingfield Point . The stones each weigh about 75 pounds ( 34 kg ) and have bolt holes for the chairs that secured the rail . Officials involved in the road project hope to preserve the stones along a new bicycle path .
As of September 2015 a two train per hour off @-@ peak service is provided by Northern Rail between Saltburn and Darlington , and ten trains a day continue to Bishops Auckland . One train per hour leaves Middlesbrough going south to Manchester Airport via Yarm and another travels north to Newcastle via Sunderland . There are eighteen trains a day between Middlesbrough and Nunthorpe , and four of these continue to Whitby . Tees Valley Unlimited , the local enterprise partnership , published in December 2013 its ambition to improve passenger services , with the priority of an all day two trains an hour service over the Darlington to Saltburn and Nunthorpe to Hartlepool routes using new trains ; additional platforms are needed at Darlington station to allow this service frequency . A station serving James Cook University Hospital opened in May 2014 . A Hitachi train plant opened in September 2015 at Newton Aycliffe to build trains for the Intercity Express Programme .
At North Road railway station the station buildings and goods shed are Grade II * listed . The station building is now the Head of Steam – Darlington Railway Museum , which has particular reference to the Stockton & Darlington Railway and houses Locomotion No. 1 . Nearby , the former carriage works are now used as workshops for steam locomotives . At Shildon is " Locomotion " or National Railway Museum Shildon , part of the National Railway Museum , which contains heritage railway vehicles . The site includes Timothy Hackworth 's house , the Soho Workshop and a former coal drops , which are listed buildings . The heritage Weardale Railway runs special services over its line from Bishop Auckland to Eastgate @-@ in @-@ Weardale .
= Rumours ( Glee ) =
" Rumours " is the nineteenth episode of the second season of the American musical television series Glee , and the forty @-@ first overall . The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy , directed by Tim Hunter , first aired on May 3 , 2011 on Fox in the United States , and it features the return of guest star Kristin Chenoweth . In " Rumours " , the glee club is swept by rumors that strain the friendships and relationships of the members , so director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) has them perform songs from Fleetwood Mac 's 1977 album Rumours . The episode is a tribute to that album , and all the songs covered in the episode are from it . This generated strong interest in the album : Rumours reentered the Billboard 200 chart at number eleven the week after the show was aired in the US , and the Australian album charts at number two five days after the show was aired in that country .
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times wrote that " the episode had its moments that made lovin ' Glee fun " , but called the Sue Sylvester subplot " tired " . Many critics were impressed with how well the album 's music was incorporated into the episode including Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone , who wrote " the songs of Rumours fit the New Directions ' drama in an organic way . " The " Fondue for Two " segments were a favorite of reviewers , and were developed from an idea by one of the show 's fans .
The musical performances received mostly praise , especially " Never Going Back Again " and " Go Your Own Way " . Five of the six Rumours cover versions debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 , and four of these were featured on the subsequent Glee : The Music , Volume 6 soundtrack album . Upon its initial airing , the " Rumours " episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 85 million American viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 7 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership and ratings for this episode was up slightly from the previous episode , " Born This Way " .
= = Plot = =
Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) revives the student newspaper The Muckraker . She wants to publish libel about the McKinley High glee club to cause conflict between the club 's members and destroy it from within . Brittany 's ( Heather Morris ) new internet talk show — " Fondue for Two " — gives the newspaper some grist when she seems to out Santana ( Naya Rivera ) on it . Santana berates Brittany for her ill @-@ chosen words , and Finn ( Cory Monteith ) nearly comes to blows with Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) over another item that pairs Sam and Finn 's girlfriend Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) . Although Quinn and Sam both deny dating , Finn plans a stakeout with Rachel 's help to see if it is true . Their surveillance of a shabby motel instead finds Sam and Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) leaving a room , after which Sam goes back inside alone .
April Rhodes ( Kristin Chenoweth ) visits Will to ask for his help with her new Broadway project : a one @-@ woman show entitled CrossRhodes . He tells her about the current glee club tensions , which she likens to Fleetwood Mac when they made their Rumours album . Will and April sing " Dreams " to the club , and he assigns them to perform songs from the album , to focus them back on music .
Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) confronts Brittany : he becomes upset that Brittany cannot recognize that she is cheating on him with Santana , and calls her stupid . Brittany walks away in tears , and he sings " Never Going Back Again " . Santana further opens up to Brittany about her true feelings by singing " Songbird " to her . She agrees to go on Brittany 's online talk show to let Brittany ask her to the prom , but she backs out at the last minute . Brittany later overhears Santana claim in an interview for The Muckraker that she is in love with Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) , her running mate for prom king and queen .
Most of New Directions , minus Kurt and Sam , meet for coffee and speculate about the absent pair . Quinn maintains that Kurt would never cheat on his boyfriend Blaine ( Darren Criss ) , and states that Sam is not gay . When Finn and Rachel resume their stakeout that night , they see Quinn leaving the same motel room , and Sam giving her a hug before going back inside .
The next day , the newspaper has an item about Finn and Rachel , who were spotted on their stakeout . Quinn is furious with Finn , and Finn is already mad about seeing Quinn with Sam . They confront each other , then sing a barbed version of the duet " I Don 't Want to Know " as their glee club assignment . Quinn then gives an ultimatum : if Finn wants their relationship to continue , he cannot sing any more duets with Rachel . Rachel has other ideas , and later sings " Go Your Own Way " to Finn , who accompanies her on the drums . The subsequent recriminations end in the revelation that Sam was at the motel because his parents are unemployed and his family lives there now that their house has been foreclosed on — Kurt was bringing Sam some clothes , and Quinn was helping Sam babysit his younger brother and sister . Sam storms out . When the club discovers from Quinn that Sam has pawned his guitar , they buy it back for him and offer their support . Sam brings his siblings to a glee club rehearsal , and everyone sings " Don 't Stop " .
= = Production = =
The show 's co @-@ creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan had long " wanted to do an episode " that would be a tribute to a single album rather than to a " musical act " . Glee had covered " Landslide " by Stevie Nicks several weeks earlier in the episode " Sexy " ; Nicks had visited the set to watch the song being filmed , and stayed for six hours . This relationship helped them obtain the rights to cover the songs on the 1977 Fleetwood Mac studio album from which the episode is named .
The idea for Brittany 's " Fondue for Two " segments in the episode came from a Glee fan . Teresa Musumeci went to the 2010 Glee Live ! In Concert ! show at Radio City Music Hall in New York , and she had a letter delivered to Cory Monteith that mentioned she was writing her own internet program : " More like a Youtube show called ' Fondue for Two . ' " According to wsvn.com , " Heather Morris who plays Brittany admits the idea came from a letter " , and the show later sent Musumeci an autographed copy of the script and an autographed cast picture in thanks .
Chenoweth 's reappearance marks her third time on the series as April . She last appeared in the season one episode " Home " . Murphy explained the reason for her return as the failure of her attempt at an all @-@ white musical production of The Wiz . Other recurring guest stars in the episode include glee club members Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) , and Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) , school bully Azimio ( James Earl ) , school reporter Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) , and cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) . Additional guests include Sam 's sister Stacey and brother Stevie , played by Ava Chelsea Ingram and Cody Hamilton respectively , a barista played by Cathy Doe , and a coffee shop patron played by Connie Ventress .
All six songs from Rumours covered in the episode were released as singles , available for digital download . Chenoweth and Morrison were featured on " Dreams " , McHale sang " Never Going Back Again " , Rivera covered " Songbird " , Monteith and Agron duetted on " I Don 't Want to Know " , Michele sang " Go Your Own Way " , and the glee club combined on " Don 't Stop
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" , and called her rendition of the song a " heartbreaking performance " , but while Semigran called it " sweet enough " , she also wrote " Rivera 's voice doesn 't pack quite the punch the tune requires " . Kubicek , however , said it was " easily the best song from the episode " .
Many reviewers appreciated the pointed " I Don 't Want to Know " performance . Kubicek called it " quite entertaining " , Gonzalez felt the " angry singing " was " hot " and gave it an " A − " , the same grade as Benigno , who said the song had " a bit more oomph than the original " , though he added that Finn " sings with the subtlety of an artillery barrage " and he was happy with Quinn 's " strong foundation in the back " . Futterman wrote that it was " better than Quinn and Sam 's ' Lucky ' " , but Berk gave the song only two stars out of five , the same grade he gave to " Go Your Own Way " . Although both Kubicek and Gonzalez criticized Rachel 's motivations in singing the song , the latter still gave it an " A " and noted " if I had to listen to someone cover this song , it 'd be her " . Semigran called it " one of Lea Michele 's strongest outings all season " , while Benigno said " this is one of those rare times her balls @-@ to @-@ the @-@ walls delivery works with the arrangement instead of distracting from it " and gave it an " A " . Hankinson was " particularly fond " of the song , and added that it had " great energy " .
The group finale of " Don 't Stop " received good grades — " A " from Gonzales and " B + " from Benigno , and four of five stars from Berk . Kubicek found a bright spot in that Sam got to sing a solo . The performance received encomiums such as " pretty great " from Semigran and " inspired " from Futterman . The portion of an original song for the April Rhodes musical sung by April and Will , " Nice to Meet You , Have I Slept with You ? " , received little commentary , though Flandez made specific mention of " her operatic range , and their charismatic stage presence " .
= = = Chart history = = =
Five of the six Rumours cover versions debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 : " Go Your Own Way " debuted at number forty @-@ five , " Songbird " at number sixty @-@ eight , " Don 't Stop " at number seventy @-@ nine , " Never Going Back Again " at number eighty @-@ one , and " Dreams " at number ninety @-@ two . The sixth , " I Don 't Want to Know " , did not chart . The first four Glee songs on the Hot 100 also charted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 : " Go Your Own Way " debuted at number thirty @-@ one , " Don 't Stop " at number sixty @-@ five , " Songbird " at number seventy , and " Never Going Back Again " at number eighty . The peak positions attained by " Songbird " and " Go Your Own Way " were fifty @-@ four and thirty , in the UK and Australia respectively . Out of the six songs from Rumours that were featured in the episode , four were also featured on the eighth soundtrack album of the series , Glee : The Music , Volume 6 : " Songbird " , " Don 't Stop " , " Go Your Own Way " , and " Dreams " .
The episode also sparked renewed interest in Fleetwood Mac and its most commercially successful album , and Rumours reentered the Billboard 200 chart at number twelve , the same week that Nicks ' new solo album In Your Dreams debuted at number six . The two recordings sold a little less than 30 @,@ 000 and 52 @,@ 000 units , respectively . Music downloads accounted for ninety @-@ one percent of the Rumours sales . The spike in sales for Rumours represented an uptick of 1 @,@ 951 % , and it had the highest US chart entry by a previously issued album since The Rolling Stones ' reissue of Exile on Main St. entered the chart at number two on June 5 , 2010 . In Australia , the interest had an even more profound effect : five days after the episode aired , the Rumours album entered the Australian charts at number two , and was at number three the following week . Most sales came from digital downloads . In all , the album was in the top forty for nine consecutive weeks . Rumours received its 13 × Platinum certification in Australia at the end of May 2011 .
= Bad Blood ( 2004 ) =
Bad Blood ( 2004 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and presented by Subway , which took place on June 13 , 2004 , at the Nationwide Arena in Columbus , Ohio . It was the third and final annual Bad Blood event .
The main event was a Hell in a Cell match , in which Triple H defeated Shawn Michaels in a ring surrounded by a steel structure of metal . Two bouts were featured on the undercard . In respective singles matches , World Heavyweight Champion Chris Benoit defeated Kane to retain his title and WWE Intercontinental Champion Randy Orton defeated Shelton Benjamin to retain his title .
The event marked the third time the Hell in a Cell format was used by WWE in a Bad Blood event ; the first was at In Your House : Badd Blood in 1997 . Bad Blood grossed over $ 494 @,@ 000 ticket sales from an attendance of 9 @,@ 000 and received 264 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , and was instrumental in helping WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 4 @.@ 7 million compared to the previous year . When the event was released on DVD , it reached a peak position of third on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart .
= = Background = =
Seven professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event 's card beforehand , which were planned with predetermined outcomes by WWE 's script writers . The buildup to these matches and scenarios that took place before , during and after the event were also planned by the script writers . The event featured wrestlers and other talent from Raw 's brand – a storyline expansion in which WWE assigned its employees . Wrestlers portrayed either a villainous or fan favorite gimmick , as they followed a series of events which generally built tension , leading to a wrestling match .
The main event scripted into Bad Blood was fought in a Hell in a Cell match between Triple H and Shawn Michaels , a match where the ring is surrounded by a structure of metal . The buildup to the match began after Backlash , WWE 's previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event , where the main event was a rematch of the main event of WrestleMania XX where Michaels and Triple H took on Chris Benoit in a Triple Threat Match for the World Heavyweight Championship , which saw Benoit retain by forcing Michaels to submit . On the May 3 episode of Raw , one of WWE 's primary television programs , General Manager Eric Bischoff signed a title defense between Benoit and Michaels . The title match saw Benoit successfully retain the title after interference by Triple H. On the May 10 episode of Raw , at the start of the program , a singles match between Triple H and Shelton Benjamin resulted in a no contest after Michaels attacked Triple H ; this resulted in a storyline suspension of Michaels from WWE by Bischoff . The following week on Raw , a number one contender 's battle royal was contested , with the winner facing Benoit for the World Heavyweight title at Bad Blood . During the match , Michaels interfered and eliminated Triple H. On the May 24 episode of Raw , Bischoff scheduled Michaels and Triple H in a Hell in a Cell match at the Bad Blood event .
One of the featured matches was contested for the World Heavyweight Championship pitting Benoit against the winner of the aforementioned battle royal , which turned out to be Kane . The following week , Kane held a promotional interview , in which he revealed that he envied Benoit for having the World Heavyweight Championship and concluded that he would win the championship . On the May 31 episode of Raw , Kane was scheduled in a match against Eugene . The match ended in a disqualification , after Kane hit Eugene with a folding chair . After the match ended , Kane chokeslammed Eugene and began to assault him . Benoit , however , came down to the ring to Eugene 's aid . The following week , Benoit and Edge faced off against La Résistance ( Sylvain Grenier and Robért Conway ) and Kane in a handicap tag team match . The match saw Kane perform a chokeslam and pin Benoit for the win .
The other featured preliminary match was Randy Orton versus Shelton Benjamin in a singles match for Orton 's Intercontinental Championship . On the May 17 episode of Raw , Randy Orton , who was a villain , was giving a speech . Shelton Benjamin interrupted Orton 's speech and challenged Orton to an Intercontinental Championship match . The challenge , however , was denied by Orton , in which prompted Benjamin to attack Orton . The following week , an all @-@ out brawl ensued between Orton and Chris Jericho . The brawl brought out fellow Evolution member , a group of wrestlers , Batista , to Orton 's aid . Benjamin also made his way to the ring and evened the sides . As a result of the brawl , Bischoff announced a tag team match , in which Benjamin and Jericho defeated Orton and Batista . On the May 31 episode of Raw , it was announced that Orton would defend the Intercontinental Championship against Benjamin at Bad Blood .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Batista defeated Maven in a match taped for Heat , one of WWE 's secondary television programs .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
After Heat , the pay @-@ per @-@ view began with a tag team match for the World Tag Team Championship , where La Résistance ( Sylvain Grenier and Robért Conway ) defended the title against Chris Benoit and Edge . La Résistance gained the early advantage when Conway grabbed Edge and rammed him onto the security wall , back first . At one point , Benoit applied a crossface submission hold on Grenier . Kane 's pyrotechnics went off and made his way to the ring , as he entered the ring he hit Benoit with a big boot knocking him down , prompting the referee to end the match in a disqualification , thus La Résistance retaining the World Tag Team title .
The second match was Tyson Tomko , accompanied by Trish Stratus , versus Chris Jericho in a singles match . In the early stages both competitors wrestled inconclusively , reversed each other 's attacks , before Tyson backed Jericho into the ring corner and hit him numerous times with his elbows . Afterwards , Jericho attempted to springboard of the middle rope to perform a backflip , but Tomko rolled out of the way , sending Jericho to crash down to the mat . The match concluded as Jericho kicked Tyson in the back of the head to perform an enzuigiri and pinning Tomko for the win .
The next match was for the WWE Intercontinental Championship , in which Randy Orton defended the championship against Shelton Benjamin . The match began with Benjamin performing a drop kick on Orton , which knocked him out to the outside of the ring . Benjamin proceeded to knock Orton over the security barricade into the crowd . Orton got the advantage , after Ric Flair made his way to the ring , distracting Benjamin in the process . The match came to an end when Benjamin went off the top rope and dove onto Orton , but Orton rolled through and hooked Benjamin 's tights to pin Benjamin for the three count and retaining the Intercontinental Championship .
The match that followed was a standard match involving four wrestlers for the WWE Women 's Championship , in which Victoria defended the title against Trish Stratus , Lita , and Gail Kim . The start of the match saw Victoria and Lita double team Stratus , however , Stratus avoided the assault , as she rolled out of the ring . Lita and Victoria went on to double team Kim , however , Stratus pulled Lita out of the ring , afterward Victoria performed a backflip and landed on Kim 's torso . Lita then drove Kim 's head into the mat . Stratus then went on to use a roll up on Lita to gain a pinfall victory , thus Stratus ' becoming Women 's champion for a fifth time .
The fifth match was between Eugene and Jonathan Coachman in a standard match . The match started with Eugene hitting an arm drag on Coachman and hitting numerous headbutts . An unknown woman in a bikini came out to the ringside area with some cookies , Coachman offered cookies to Eugene . The woman lured Eugene out of the ring and Eugene went over and grabbed some cookies . As Eugene went to grab more cookies , Coachman slammed Eugene 's head into the cookie tray . A spot in the match saw Garrison Cade come out to ringside with a stuffed animal , which prompted Cade to tore up toy animal . Cade tried to hold Eugene so Coachman could get the advantage , however , Eugene was able dodge the attack , as Coachman ended up hitting Cade instead . Eugene grabbed Coachman and lifted him by holding his back horizontally and slamming it down , termed as a side slam . Eugene pinned Coachman for the three count for the win .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The featured preliminary match was for the World Heavyweight Championship , in which Chris Benoit defended the championship against Kane . Benoit started the match by hitting Kane numerous times with slaps to the chest . Mid @-@ way in the match , Benoit charged towards Kane , but Kane hit a variation of the side slam and tossed him over the top rope to the arena floor , Kane then stepped out of the ring and grabbed Benoit , in which he wanted to launch Benoit into the ring post , but Benoit was able to reverse Kane 's attack and slammed him into the ring post . After blocking a crossface attempt , Kane chokeslammed Benoit for a two count . The match concluded with Kane headed to the top rope and coming off to attempt and hit Benoit with his forearm by jumping off the top rope but Benoit went for another crossface , but Kane fought out of it and Benoit rolled Kane up in a pin to get a three count , and thus retaining the World Heavyweight Championship .
The main event was the Hell in a Cell match between Shawn Michaels and Triple H. The match began with Michaels jumping and knocking Triple H over . This was followed with Michaels ' slamming Triple H 's head onto the steel cage , resulting in Triple H being scripted to bleed from the forehead , the blood loss results from a cut that the wrestler performs during the match called blading . Triple H got the advantage , as he was able to counter a Piledriver and performed a back body drop on Michaels . Another attack saw Triple H bring the steel steps and hit Michaels with them , which resulted in Michaels also being scripted to bleed from the forehead . A spot in the match saw Michaels lay Triple H on a table , as he climbed onto a ladder that he took out from under the ring , and performed a dive with his elbow cocked onto Triple H 's chest , thus breaking the table and enhancing the maneuver . Afterwards , Triple H gained the advantage and performed a Pedigree on Michaels . Triple H covered Michaels for the win via pinfall . After the match , Michaels staggered to his feet and was given a standing ovation by the audience .
= = Aftermath = =
Following Bad Blood , Raw commentator Jim Ross tried making amends between Shawn Michaels and Triple H by making them shake hands . Michaels and Triple H extended their hands to shake , however , Kane came out and attacked Michaels , which resulted in Kane , in storyline , crushing Michaels ' throat with a wedged chair . Michaels was then taken out in an ambulance for medical attention . Lita being pregnant was scripted into a storyline . On the June 21 episode of Raw , it appeared that Lita 's , boyfriend at that time , Matt Hardy was going to propose to Lita , who found out she was pregnant , but he was interrupted by Kane , who claimed to be the father of Lita 's child . Two months later , it was revealed that Kane was , indeed , the father . At SummerSlam , the staged rivalry between Kane and Hardy intensified , when they were booked in a " Till Death Do Us Part " match , with the stipulation that Lita would be obliged to marry Kane should Hardy lose . Kane won the match , leading to he and a reluctant Lita marrying one another on an episode of Raw . On the August 30 episode of Raw , Kane revealed that Eric Bischoff 's wedding gift to them was to name any match he wanted for at the September annual event , Unforgiven . Continuing with the scripted angle , Lita informed Kane that his opponent at the event was Shawn Michaels . At Unforgiven , Michaels defeated Kane in a no disqualification match , a match where neither wrestler can be disqualified , allowing for weapons and outside interference .
On the June 21 episode of Raw , a number one contender 's match between Eugene and Triple H was scheduled in which the winner would face Chris Benoit for the World Heavyweight Championship . The match , however , ended in a No Contest . On the June 28 episode of Raw , a rematch for the World Heavyweight Championship between Benoit and Kane took place . A stipulation was placed that Benoit had to win the match by submission , as Kane could 've won by pinfall , submission , disqualification or countout . Benoit won the match , after he made Kane submit to a crossface , and thus defending the World Heavyweight Championship at Vengeance against Triple H. At Vengeance , Benoit defeated Triple H to retain his Championship .
A heated confrontation between Randy Orton and Edge was seen . This angle led Edge to perform a shoulder block takedown on Orton , this is seen as an attack where the attacking wrestler charges towards the opponent and tackling , thus forcing the opponent down to the mat . The following week , it was announced that Orton would defend the Intercontinental Championship against Edge at Vengeance . Weeks leading to the event , both men took the upper hand over one another . At the scheduled event , Orton lost the Intercontinental Championship to Edge .
= = = Reception = = =
The Nationwide Arena usually can accommodate 19 @,@ 500 , but the capacity was reduced for the event . This event grossed over $ 494 @,@ 000 from an approximate attendance of 9 @,@ 000 which was the maximum allowed . It also received 264 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . Bad Blood helped WWE earn $ 21 @.@ 6 million in revenue from pay @-@ per @-@ view events versus $ 16 @.@ 9 million the previous year , which was later confirmed by Linda McMahon , the CEO of WWE , on September 7 , 2005 in a quarterly result . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the event a five out of 10 stars . The rating was higher than the Bad Blood event in 2003 , which rated a four out of 10 stars . The World Heavyweight Championship match between Chris Benoit and Kane was rated an eight out of 10 stars . Additionally , the match between Eugene and Jonathan Coachman was rated zero out of 10 stars .
The event was released on DVD on July 13 , 2004 . The DVD was distributed by the label , Sony Music Entertainment . The DVD reached third on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of August 28 , 2004 , although falling thereafter . It remained in the chart for two consecutive weeks , until the week of September 25 , 2004 , when it ranked 19th .
= = Results = =
= The Man @-@ Eating Myth =
The Man @-@ Eating Myth : Anthropology and Anthropophagy is an influential anthropological study of socially sanctioned cultural cannibalism across the world , which casts a critical perspective on the existence of such practices . It was authored by the American anthropologist William Arens of Stony Brook University , New York and first published by Oxford University Press in 1979 .
Arens ' primary hypothesis is that despite claims made by western explorers and anthropologists since the 15th century , there is no firm , substantiable evidence for the socially accepted practice of cannibalism anywhere in the world , at any time in history . Dismissing claims of cultural cannibalism made against the Carib and Aztec peoples by invading Spanish colonialists , he tackles 19th and 20th century claims regarding socially acceptable cannibalism in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa and New Guinea . Turning to prehistory , he critiques archaeological claims to have discovered evidence for such practices in Europe and North America . In the second half of the work , Arens puts forward his argument that an erroneous belief in " others " who commit socially sanctioned cannibalism is a global phenomenon . He proceeds to chastise the anthropological community for perpetuating the " Man @-@ Eating Myth " , suggesting reasons as to why they have done so .
The Man @-@ Eating Myth was widely reviewed in academic journals and also attracted attention from mainstream press . Views were mixed , with most reviewers highlighting the intentionally provocative nature of the work . Critics charged Arens with constructing straw man arguments and for exaggerating the methodological problems within anthropology . Although influential , in ensuing decades , increasing archaeological study of cannibalism led many to dismiss Arens ' hypothesis .
= = Background = =
William Arens undertook the research for his PhD in Tanzania , Eastern Africa . After beginning his fieldwork in a rural community there in 1968 , he discovered that the locals referred to him as mchinja @-@ chinja , a Swahili term meaning " blood @-@ sucker " . This was due to a widespread belief in the community that Europeans would collect the blood of Africans whom they killed , convert it into red pills , and consume it . He would note that by the time he left the community a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half later , most of the locals still continued to believe this myth .
In the preface to The Man @-@ Eating Myth , Arens notes that he was first inspired to begin a fuller investigation of cannibalism while teaching an introductory course on anthropology at Stony Brook University , New York . One student asked him why he focused his teaching on such topics as kinship , politics and economics rather than the more " exotic " subjects of witchcraft , fieldwork experiences and cannibalism . Arens concurred that these latter topics would interest his students to a greater extent than those which he was then lecturing on , and so undertook an investigation into the prior accounts of cannibalism in the anthropological record .
As he began to read up on the written accounts of cultural cannibalism , he was struck by inconsistencies and other problems in these tales . In search of reliable accounts from anthropologists who had witnessed the practice of cultural cannibalism first @-@ hand , he placed an advertisement in the newsletter of the American Anthropological Association , but again failed to come up with any first @-@ hand documented cases . Prior to its publication , rumors had circulated in the anthropological community that Arens was putting together a book that would challenge the concept of cultural cannibalism .
= = Synopsis = =
In chapter one , " The Nature of Anthropology and Anthropophagy " , Arens discusses the study of anthropophagy , or cannibalism , within the anthropological discipline . Noting that anthropologists have widely taken it for granted that there are societies who socially sanction cannibalism , he nevertheless states that there is no " adequate documentation " for such practices anywhere in the world . In the second part of the chapter , he explores several first @-@ hand accounts of cannibalism and highlights their implausible and inaccurate nature . Beginning with the German Hans Staden 's claims to have encountered socially sanctioned cannibalism among the Tupinambá people of South America in the 1550s , Arens illustrates a number of logical contradictions in Staden 's account , and highlights the dubious nature of the text . The anthropologist then moved on to the 19th @-@ century accounts of widespread socially approved cannibalism among the Polynesian people of Rarotonga in the Cook Islands provided by Ta 'unga , a Polynesian native who had been converted to Christianity and wrote for the London Missionary Society ; Arens again highlights a number of inconsistencies and logical impossibilities in Ta 'unga 's claims .
The second chapter , entitled " The Classic Man @-@ Eaters " , explores the accounts of cannibalism produced by European colonialists and travellers in the Americas during the Early Modern era . It begins by documenting the Spanish interaction with the Carib people of the Lesser Antilles , first begun by Christopher Columbus and his men in the 1490s . Columbus noted that the Caribs had been described as cannibals by the neighbouring Arawak people of the West Indies , but was initially sceptical about such claims himself . Arens highlights that it was only later , when Columbus began to oversee largescale colonization and pacification of Carib lands , that he began to assert that they were cannibals , in order to legitimize his cause . Arens then proceeds to note that the Spanish government only permitted the enslavement of cannibals in the Caribbean , leading European colonists to increasingly label the indigenous peoples as cannibalistic in order to increase their economic power . Following on from this , Arens goes on to critique the longstanding claims that the Aztec people of Mexico were cannibals ; noting that while the early Spanish accounts of the Aztecs include first @-@ hand descriptions of human sacrifice , he highlights that none of these Spanish observers actually witnessed cannibalism , despite the claims that were later made asserting the cannibalistic nature of Aztec religion . In contrast , Arens argues that the Aztecs found the idea of cannibalism – even in survival conditions – socially reprehensible , and believed that some of their neighbouring peoples were guilty of it .
Chapter three , " The Contemporary Man @-@ Eaters " explores the claims made for socially sanctioned cannibalism in the 20th century , with a particular focus on Sub @-@ Saharan Africa and New Guinea . Regarding the former , Arens discusses E. E. Evans @-@ Pritchard 's work in disproving that the Azande people were cannibalistic , before arguing that the stories of socially accepted cannibalism in the " Dark Continent " were based largely on misunderstandings and the sensationalist claims of European travellers like Henry Morton Stanley , and that there was no reputable first @-@ hand accounts of such a practice anywhere in Africa . Instead , he notes that many African societies found cannibalism to be a reprehensible anti @-@ social activity that was associated with witchcraft , drawing comparisons with the Early Modern European witch hunt . Moving on to look at claims for cannibalism in New Guinea made by anthropologists like Margaret Mead and Ronald Berndt , he notes that none of them ever actually came across any evidence of the practice themselves , before going on to critique claims that cannibalism was the cause of the kuru outbreak among the New Guinean Fore people in the mid 20th century .
In the fourth chapter , entitled " The Prehistoric World of Anthropophagy " , Arens deals with archaeological arguments for socially approved cannibalism in European and North American prehistory . He argues that many early archaeologists , in viewing prehistoric societies as " primitive " and " savage " , expected to find widespread evidence of cannibalism within the archaeological record , just as social anthropologists were claiming that the practice was widespread in recently documented " primitive " , " savage " societies . He critiques various claims that broken bones represent evidence of cannibalism , both in Iron Age Yorkshire and in the case of Peking Man , maintaining that these breakages could represent many different things rather than cannibalism . He then moves on to look at North American examples , including those from the Pueblo period in the Southwestern United States and among the Iroquois in the country 's northeast , in both instances critiquing an interpretation of socially sanctioned cannibalism .
The penultimate chapter , " The Mythical World of Anthropophagy " , consists of Arens ' argument that all human groups have been accused of socially accepted cannibalism at one point in time , and that these cannibals are often usually thought of as " others " , being outside of the accuser 's society , and are associated with certain animals because of their " non @-@ human " behaviour . From this , he deduces that the belief in cannibalism is a " universal phenomenon " , and questions why this should be so . He suggests that societies gain a sense of self @-@ meaning by conjuring the image of an opposite culture that breaks societal taboos . He also describes the manner in which many societies hold origin myths that involve them once being incestuous cannibals before they became civilised , in this way referencing the ideas expressed by the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud in his Totem and Taboo . He then proceeds to discuss a variety of other related issues , such as the connection between cannibalism and witchcraft , the role of gender and class in cannibal claims , and the role of the Eucharist .
In " The Mythical World of Anthropology " , Arens looks at the manner in which anthropologists have approached the idea of cultural cannibalism . Noting the widespread western idea that cannibals exist " beyond the pale of civilization " , in the land of savagery and primitivism , he argues that anthropologists have taken it upon themselves to explain and rationalize the cannibalism of such " primitives " without first proving that they were cannibalistic to start with . He connects this to the attitude held by many westerners both past and present that they are the bearers of civilization who have helped to put a stop to cannibalism . Challenging and criticizing the anthropological community 's long @-@ term advocacy of what he considers the " Man @-@ Eating Myth " , he draws comparisons with the belief in demonic witchcraft and cannibalism in Europe that led to the witch trials of the Early Modern period , ending his work on a quote from the historian Norman Cohn 's book Europe 's Inner Demons .
= = Main arguments = =
= = = The existence of cultural cannibalism = = =
In The Man @-@ Eating Myth , Arens notes that he was unable to find any form of " adequate documentation " for the existence of socially sanctioned cannibalism in any recorded society . As such , he remained " dubious " that cannibalism has ever existed as an approved social activity . He nevertheless refused to rule out the possibility that it had ever occurred , maintaining that the correct methodological stance was to hold an open mind on the issue , and that it would be impossible to conclusively state that no society throughout human history has ever culturally sanctioned cannibalism . From this definition of " cultural cannibalism " he excludes those instances where people have resorted to cannibalism under survival conditions , or where individuals have committed cannibalism as an anti @-@ social activity that is condemned by the rest of their community .
= = = The universal belief in cultural cannibalism = = =
Arens considers the belief in cannibalism to be a " universal phenomenon " that has been exhibited in all inhabited regions of the world . He expresses his view that " all cultures , subcultures , religions , sects , secret societies and every other possible human association have been labeled anthropophagic by someone . " He notes that accusations of socially sanctioned cannibalism in a society typically arise from an alternative society with whom they are often in conflict . As evidence , he notes that pagan Romans labelled the early Christians as cannibals , despite the lack of any evidence for this , and subsequently Christians in Medieval Europe labelled Jews as cannibals , again without any corroborating evidence .
He argues that across the world , cannibals are viewed as non @-@ human entities , committing acts that no human would ordinarily perpetrate . In this way they were akin to various non @-@ human species of animal , and Arens notes that in some societies , cannibals are believed to physically transform into different species in order to kill and consume humans .
Arens proceeds to ponder the question as to why societies across the world believe that other , exotic societies exhibit cannibalism . He notes that the development of a " collective prejudice " against a foreign entity provides meaning for the group by conjuring up an opposite who commit social taboos . He also suggests that one society 's belief that a foreign society is cannibalistic might arise from an inability to differentiate between the latter 's conceptions of the natural and the supernatural . As evidence , he asserts that rumors that the Indigenous Americans of Northeastern Canada were cannibals arose when foreign societies learned of their folkloric beliefs in man @-@ eating giants who lived in the wilderness and conflated this fantasy with reality .
= = = The anthropological approach to cultural cannibalism = = =
Arens ' third primary argument is that ever since the development of the discipline , the anthropological community have continually perpetuated the " Man @-@ Eating Myth " that cultural cannibalism was widespread across the world . In this way , he sees anthropologists as following in the path of Christian friars from the Early Modern period who asserted the existence of cannibalism " beyond the pale of civilization " , in societies that are either historically or geographically distinct to western culture . He furthermore argues that both Christian proselytizers and academic anthropologists have sought to accuse non @-@ western , non @-@ Christian peoples of cultural cannibalism in order to then explain and rationalize their " savage " ways ; in doing so , he argues , they continue to portray the Christian west as a civilizing influence on the world that suits their own socio @-@ political agendas . In this way , Arens feels that the " Man @-@ Eating Myth " furthers the " we @-@ they " dichotomy between westerners and non @-@ westerners , and has indirectly lent some justification for the western exploitation of " savage " non @-@ western peoples .
He does not believe that there was any conscious academic conspiracy to spread the claims of cultural cannibalism , instead believing that they have arisen as a result of poor methodologies that have been used in this area , namely a lack of properly scrutinizing sources . He furthermore suggests that anthropologists have failed to tackle this issue because – while novel ideas are certainly welcomed – they feared that by criticising long @-@ held core assumptions , they would be upsetting the established status quo within the discipline , and would ultimately tarnish the reputation of anthropology itself by suggesting that it had made major errors .
= = Reception = =
= = = Academic reviews = = =
The Man @-@ Eating Myth was reviewed by Ivan Brady for the American Anthropologist journal . He noted that the framework for Arens ' scepticism was not coherent and was never spelled out explicitly in the text , even if it could be deduced from reading the entirety of the work . Brady sees this framework as an " unsophisticated " version of positivism and naturalism , an approach that he laments was becoming increasingly popular in anthropology . Casting a critical eye over Arens ' scepticism , he admits to being perplexed as to why only " direct observation " will do as evidence , pondering whether Arens would accept anything short of affidavits by practicing cannibals as evidence for the practice . Brady notes that there are other activities in the world that surely go on – such as masturbation in monasteries and homosexual activity in the armed forces – but that these would be hidden by a veil of secrecy and therefore difficult to observe directly , suggesting that the same may be true for cannibalism . Moving on , Brady attacks Arens ' criticism of anthropology , believing that he has constructed a straw man argument by comparing the early accounts of travellers to the later , 20th @-@ century accounts of anthropologists , and lambasts him for portraying himself as an objective figure in the debate . He argues that in cases such as that of the Carib people , the evidence for cannibalism is " indeterminate " , rather than negative , as Arens believes . Concluding his review , Brady admits that he agrees with Arens ' premise that socially accepted cannibalism is not as globally widespread as some anthropologists have suggested , but disagreed that anthropologists have been as " reckless " in their claims as Arens charges them with , and furthermore disagrees with Arens ' suggestion that the cause can be blamed on poor observation standards .
The journal Man published a highly negative review by P. G. Rivière of the University of Oxford . Criticizing what he saw as the " chatty ' Holier @-@ than @-@ Thou ' tone " of the book , Rivière asserted that at only 160 pages of text , Arens had failed to give sufficient attention to the subject and evidence , instead devoting much of the space to constructing and demolishing straw men arguments . Coming to the defence of those who believe the account of Staden regarding cannibalism among the Tupinambá by arguing that it could indeed reflect the German explorer 's genuine experiences , Rivière notes that Arens has not tackled all of the claims which assert that this South American people committed anthropophagy . Furthermore , he expresses his opinion that Arens ' work has made him reassess the evidence for Tupinambá cannibalism , the existence of which he is now even more thoroughly convinced . Proclaiming it to be both a " bad " and a " dangerous " book , he finally expresses his fear that it might prove to be " the origin of a myth " . Similarly , Shirley Lindenbaum of the New School for Social Research published her highly negative review of Arens ' work in the journal Ethnohistory . Casting a critical eye on his claims , she notes that his use of source material was " selective and strangely blinkered " , which detracted from his ideas of " collective prejudice " which she considers valuable . Critiquing his discussion of the Fore people of New Guinea as being littered with inaccuracies , she draws comparisons between cannibalism and sexual activity , noting the latter is also not directly observed by anthropologists but nonetheless undoubtedly goes on . She furthermore expresses surprise that the work was ever designed for a scholarly audience because of its poor levels of accuracy .
James W. Springer of Northern Illinois University reviewed Arens ' book for Anthropological Quarterly . He hoped that the book would in part have a positive legacy , in that it might make anthropologists look more closely and critically at their source material , and praised its criticism of the claims regarding Aztec cannibalism . He nevertheless proclaimed that Arens was " almost certainly wrong " , making use of faulty evaluation methods and being excessively critical of any and all claims for cultural cannibalism , failing to prove dishonesty or prejudice on the behalf of Europeans who have claimed evidence for cultural cannibalism . He criticises both Arens ' treatment of Staden 's claims and his discussion of Iroquois cannibalism , claiming that Arens has neglected to mention many Native American first @-@ hand testaments as to the cannibalistic nature of these people . Ultimately , he dismissively asserted that The Man @-@ Eating Myth " does not advance our knowledge of cannibalism . " More favourably , R.E. Downs of the University of New Hampshire reviewed the work for American Ethnologist . Noting that the book was " provocative " in its thesis , he felt that it was bound to raise many " hackles " , and that it would lead future anthropologists to challenge other long @-@ standing beliefs about non @-@ western " primitive " societies , such as that of widespread incest and promiscuity . Ultimately , he remarked that while many anthropologists might dispute Arens ' ideas , never again could they claim that the existence of cultural cannibalism was an undisputed fact .
The geographer Thomas Krabacher of the University of California undertook a review of The Man @-@ Eating Myth for the journal Human Ecology . Believing that a critical study of cannibal claims has been long needed , he was nevertheless perturbed that Arens ' work failed to be either comprehensive or objective . Although concurring that reports of cannibalism have been all too readily accepted without being properly scrutinized , Krabacher nonetheless argues that he has used a " careless and selective " approach to the literary sources . He also sees problems in Arens ' approach to the nature of the evidence , stating that the anthropologist has not given sufficient thought to what would constitute reliable testimony in the case of cannibalism . Drawing comparisons with sexual behaviour , he notes that it would not always be possible for a western anthropologist to directly view cannibalism , which would likely be hidden from their view by many practitioners , and that as such , second @-@ hand accounts would have to do . He then critiques Arens ' writing style , believing it to be " contentious and possibly offensive " , and highlighting a number of typological errors .
Khalid Hasan 's review of The Man @-@ Eating Myth appeared in the Third World Quarterly journal . Considering it to be a " brilliant and well documented " tome , he praised Arens ' " admirable " work and expressed his hope that others would expand on his initial thesis . The German journal Anthropos published a largely positive review of Arens ' work by John W. Burton , in which he described it as an " extensive and meticulous " study which was the model of a " fair and reasoned argument " . Supporting Arens ' arguments , he proclaimed that the final chapter should be essential reading for all anthropologists . P. Van de Velve reviewed the book for the Dutch journal Anthropologica . Van de Velve felt that the book contained several weaknesses , for instance Arens did not , he notes , explain how the claim for cultural cannibalism can be successfully refuted . The Dutch scholar also noted that the argument that anthropology focused on examining " non @-@ bourgeoisie " cultures was not new . Ultimately however , Van de Velve considered it to be well written book that offered " good reading " , particularly for students .
= = = Subsequent academic reception = = =
= = = = In archaeology = = = =
Archaeologist Paola Villa , one of the primary excavators of Fontbrégoua Cave , a Neolithic site in Southeastern France where the team argued for the existence of cannibalism , made reference to Arens ' work in a 1992 paper of his published in the Evolutionary Anthropology journal . Villa noted that following the book 's publication , prehistorians always dealt with suspicions of cannibalism with " extreme reluctance and scepticism " .
The English archaeologist Timothy Taylor critically discussed Arens ' work in his book The Buried Soul : How Humans Invented Death ( 2002 ) . Proclaiming that " there is now overwhelming biological , anthropological and archaeological evidence that cannibalism was once all around us " , he attacked Arens for his blanket and " bizarre " accusations against the concept of cultural anthropophagy . He argued that The Man @-@ Eating Myth had become so influential upon publication because it was what a generation of anthropological and archaeological students wanted to hear , not because it represented a coherent argument , citing P.G. Rivière 's negative review in Man . Commenting on the situation in archaeology , he felt that following the publication of Arens ' work , archaeologists had ceased to cite cannibalism as an explanation , to the detriment of the discipline itself . Presenting evidence to counter Arens ' claims , Taylor cites the accounts of cannibalism among Pom and Passon , two chimpanzees of Gombe National Park whose anti @-@ social activities were recorded by Jane Goodall , and from this discusses the evolutionary benefits of cannibalism . Proceeding to defend various ethnographic accounts of cultural cannibalism , he argues that this thoroughly disproves the beliefs which " Arensite " anthropologists find it " comfortable or fashionable " to believe . Later in The Buried Soul , he proclaims that Arens ' book is pervayed by a " hollow certainty of viscerally insulated inexperience " , and he claims that such a flawed methodology has echoes in the anthropologist Jean La Fontaine 's Speak of the Devil : Tales of Satanic Abuse in Contemporary England ( 1998 ) ; Taylor himself suggests that multiple claims of the Satanic ritual abuse have been incorrectly dismissed for being considered " improbable " .
Arens ' book was also briefly mentioned by the Scottish archaeologist Ian Armit in his book , Headhunting and the Body in Iron Age Europe ( 2012 ) . Armit noted that though influential , most anthropologists would " probably " argue that Arens ' wholesale dismissals had gone " too far " . He also saw Arens ' work as symptomatic of a trend within anthropology to neglect the " undesirable " cultural practices of non @-@ western societies .
= = = Press attention = = =
Arens ' book gained attention from the popular press soon after its publication .
= Harlech Castle =
Harlech Castle , located in Harlech , Gwynedd , Wales , is a medieval fortification , constructed atop a spur of rock close to the Irish Sea . It was built by Edward I during his invasion of Wales between 1282 and 1289 at the substantial cost of £ 8 @,@ 190 . Over the next few centuries , the castle played an important part in several wars , withstanding the siege of Madog ap Llywelyn between 1294 – 95 , but falling to Owain Glyndŵr in 1404 . It then became Glyndŵr 's residence and military headquarters for the remainder of the uprising until being recaptured by English forces in 1409 . During the 15th century Wars of the Roses , Harlech was held by the Lancastrians for seven years , before Yorkist troops forced its surrender in 1468 , a siege memorialised in the song Men of Harlech . Following the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 , the castle was held by forces loyal to Charles I , holding out until 1647 when it became the last fortification to surrender to the Parliamentary armies . In the 21st century the ruined castle is managed by Cadw , the Welsh Government 's historic environment service , as a tourist attraction .
UNESCO considers Harlech to be one of " the finest examples of late 13th century and early 14th century military architecture in Europe " , and it is classed as a World Heritage site . The fortification is built of local stone and concentric in design , featuring a massive gatehouse that probably once provided high @-@ status accommodation for the castle constable and visiting dignitaries . The sea originally came much closer to Harlech than in modern times , and a water @-@ gate and a long flight of steps leads down from the castle to the former shore , which allowed the castle to be resupplied by sea during sieges . In keeping with Edward 's other castles in North Wales , the architecture of Harlech has close to links to that found in the County of Savoy during the same period , an influence probably derived from the Savoy origins of the main architect , James of Saint George .
= = History = =
= = = 13th – 14th centuries = = =
In local mythology , the site of Harlech Castle in North Wales is associated with the legend of Branwen , a Welsh princess , but there is no evidence for a native Welsh fortification having been built there . The kings of England and the Welsh princes had vied for control of North Wales since the 1070s and the conflict was renewed during the 13th century , leading to Edward I intervening in North Wales for the second time during his reign in 1282 . Edward invaded with a huge army , pushing north from Carmarthen and westwards from Montgomery and Chester . English forces advanced down the Conwy valley and through Dolwyddelan and Castell y Bere , onto Harlech , which Sir Otton de Grandson took with 560 infantry in May .
Edward ordered the construction of a castle at Harlech , one of seven built across North Wales in the wake of the 1282 campaign . Money to pay for the initial phase arrived in mid @-@ May and carpenters and 35 stonemasons were dispatched in June and July to commence work . By the winter of 1283 , the first 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) of the inner walls had been constructed , allowing the castle to be defended in the event of an attack , and a small , planned town had been founded alongside the castle . Sir John Bonvillars was appointed the constable of the castle in 1285 ; after his death in 1287 his wife , Agnes , took up the role until 1290 .
Construction continued under the overall direction of James of Saint George , a Savoy architect and military engineer . In 1286 , at the height of the construction , the workforce comprised 546 general labourers , 115 quarriers , 30 blacksmiths , 22 carpenters and 227 stonemasons , and the project was costing nearly £ 240 a month . The castle was essentially complete by the end of 1289 , having cost an estimated £ 8 @,@ 190 , around 10 percent of the £ 80 @,@ 000 that Edward spent on castle @-@ building in Wales between 1277 and 1304 .
Harlech was established with a garrison of 36 men : a constable , 30 men , including 10 crossbowmen , a chaplain , a smith , carpenter and stonemason , and Master James was rewarded by being made the constable of Harlech from 1290 – 93 . In 1294 , Madog ap Llywelyn began an uprising against English rule that spread quickly through Wales . Several English @-@ held towns were razed and Harlech , along with Criccieth Castle and Aberystwyth Castle , were besieged that winter . Fresh supplies were sent from Ireland by sea , arriving via Harlech 's water gate , and the uprising was quashed . In the aftermath of the revolt , additional defences were built around the route down to the sea . Further work was undertaken between 1323 – 24 , following the Despenser War ; Edward II was threatened in the region by the Mortimer Marcher Lord family , and ordered his sheriff , Sir Gruffuld Llywd , to extend the defences leading up to the gatehouse with additional towers .
= = = 15th – 17th centuries = = =
In 1400 a revolt broke out in North Wales against English rule , led by Owain Glyndŵr . By 1403 only a handful of castles , including Harlech , still stood against the rebels , but the castle was under @-@ equipped and under @-@ staffed to withstand a siege , the garrison having just three shields , eight helmets , six lances , ten pairs of gloves , and four guns . At the end of 1404 , the castle fell to Glyndŵr . Harlech became his residence , family home and military headquarters for four years ; he held his second parliament in Harlech in August 1405 . In 1408 English forces under the command of the future Henry V placed Harlech and its commander , Edmund Mortimer , under siege , conducting a bombardment with cannon , probably destroying the south and east parts of the outer walls . When this failed to take the castle , Henry left John Talbot in charge of the siege and moved on to deal with Aberystwyth Castle . Supplies finally ran short , Mortimer and many of his men died of exhaustion , and Harlech fell in February 1409 .
In the 15th century , Harlech was involved in the series of civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses that broke out between the rival factions of the House of Lancaster and York . In 1460 , following the Battle of Northampton , Queen Margaret of Anjou fled to the castle and between 1461 – 68 it was held by her Lancastrian supporters , under the command of Dafydd ap Ieuan , against the Yorkist Edward IV . Thanks to its natural defences and the supply route by sea , Harlech held out and as other fortresses fell , eventually became the last major stronghold still under Lancasterian control . The castle became a base for their operations across the region : there were planned operations in 1464 , Sir Richard Tunstall mounted attacks from Harlech in 1466 and Jasper Tudor landed there with French reinforcements in 1468 , before then raiding the town of Denbigh . Tudors ' arrival caused Edward IV to order William Herbert to mobilise an army , possibly up to 10 @,@ 000 strong , to finally seize the castle . After a month 's siege , the small garrison surrendered on 14 August . This siege is credited with inspiring the song Men of Harlech .
The English Civil War broke out in 1642 between the Royalist supporters of Charles I and the supporters of Parliament . Harlech had not apparently been repaired following the 1468 siege , and had become completely dilapidated , with the exception of the gatehouse , which was used for the local assizes . In 1644 Prince Rupert appointed a local Royalist , Colonel William Owen , as the castle 's constable , and Owen was entrusted with repairing the fortifications . A long siege ensued from June 1646 until 15 March 1647 , when the garrison of 44 men surrendered to Major @-@ General Thomas Mytton . The castle was the last mainland royal fortress to surrender in the war , and the date marked the end of the first phase of the war . The castle was no longer required for the security of North Wales and , to prevent any further use by the Royalists , Parliament ordered its slighting , or destruction . The orders were only partially carried out , however , and the gatehouse staircases were destroyed and the castle rendered generally unusable , but it was not totally demolished . Stone from the castle was reused to build houses in the local town .
= = = 18th – 21st centuries = = =
In the late @-@ 18th and 19th centuries , the picturesque ruins of Harlech began to attract visits from prominent artists , including John Cotman , Henry Gastineau , Paul Sandby , J. M. W. Turner and John Varley . In 1914 it was transferred from the Merioneth Crown Estate to the control of the Office of Works , who commenced a major restoration project after the end of World War I. In 1969 the castle was transferred to the Welsh Office and then to Cadw , who manage the property in the 21st century as a tourist attraction . Harlech was declared part of the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd World Heritage site in 1986 , UNESCO considering Harlech one of " the finest examples of late 13th century and early 14th century military architecture in Europe " .
= = Architecture = =
Harlech Castle rests upon part of the Harlech Dome , a spur of rock almost 200 feet ( 61 m ) high ; the land falls away sharply on the north and west , and a ditch cut into the rock protects the remaining approaches to the castle . The castle has a concentric design , with one line of defences enclosed by another , forming an inner and outer ward ; the outer wall was originally somewhat taller than today . Harlech is built from local grey @-@ green sandstone , with large , regular blocks used for the towers and irregular material , possibly taken from the ditch , used for the walls . A softer yellow sandstone is used for the decorative work in the castle , possibly quarried from around Egryn Abbey near Barmouth .
The main entrance to the castle would have involved crossing a stone bridge between the two easterly ditch bridge towers and the main gatehouse ; little remains of the bridge towers today and a timber entrance way to the gatehouse replaces the bridge . A water gate overlooks a protected stairway of 127 steps that runs down to the foot of the cliffs . In the 13th century , the sea came up close to the stairway , allowing resupply by sea , but today the sea has retreated significantly , making it more difficult to envisage the concept in its original setting .
The gatehouse follows the design , sometimes termed the Tonbridge @-@ style , that became popular during the 13th century , with two massive " D @-@ shaped " defensive towers flanking the entrance . The passage into the castle was guarded by three portcullises and at least two heavy doors . The gatehouse has two upper floors , broken up into various rooms . Each floor has three large windows overlooking the inner ward ; the second floor has two additional grand windows on the sides of the gatehouse ; the gatehouse was fitted with fireplaces and would originally have had prominent chimneys . The use of these rooms has been the subject of academic debate : historian Arnold Taylor argued that the first floor of the gatehouse was used by the constable as living accommodation , with the second floor used by senior visitors ; Jeremy Ashbee has since challenged this interpretation , suggesting the high status accommodation may instead have been located within the inner ward , and the gatehouse used for other purposes .
The inner ward is guarded by four large circular towers . Over time these acquired various names : in 1343 , clockwise from the north @-@ east , they were called Le Prisontour , Turris Ultra Gardinium , Le Wedercoktour and Le Chapeltour , but by 1564 they had been renamed the Debtors ' , Mortimer , Bronwen and Armourer 's Towers respectively . Le Prisontour incorporated a dungeon and the Le Chapeltour may have contained an artillery workshop in the 16th century . Several ranges of buildings were built around the inner ward , including a chapel , kitchen , service buildings , a granary and a great hall . The battlements may originally have been built with triple finials in a similar fashion to Conwy , although little remains of these in the modern era .
The architecture of Harlech has close links to that found in the kingdom of Savoy in the same period . These include semi @-@ circular door arches , window styles , corbelled towers and positioning of putlog holes , and are usually ascribed to the influence of the Savoy architect Master James . The links between the Harlech and Savoy are not straightforward , however , as in some cases the relevant Savoy structures were built after James had left the region . The similarity in architectural details may , therefore , be the result of the wider role played by Savoy craftsmen and engineers on the Harlech project .
= Arkham Asylum : A Serious House on Serious Earth =
Arkham Asylum : A Serious House on Serious Earth ( often shortened to Batman : Arkham Asylum ) is a Batman graphic novel written by Grant Morrison and illustrated by Dave McKean . It was originally published in the United States in both hardcover and softcover editions by DC Comics in 1989 . The subtitle is taken from Philip Larkin 's poem " Church Going " .
The graphic novel was the first Batman story to be written by Morrison before becoming a regular writer in future Batman titles . Inspired by previous works like The Dark Knight Returns , Morrison conceived the story to be his own different approach to the character , using heavy symbolical references and the deconstruction of many iconic Batman villains . The story follows the vigilante Batman , who is called upon to quell a maddening riot taking place in the infamous Arkham Asylum , a psychiatric hospital housing the most dangerous supervillains in Gotham City . Inside , Batman confronts many of his enduring rogues gallery , such as the Joker , Two @-@ Face , and Killer Croc , many of whom have changed since he last saw them . As Batman ventures deeper , he discovers the origin of how the asylum was established , the history of its builder Amadeus Arkham , and the supernatural and psychological mystery that has been haunting the area .
Upon its release , the graphic novel garnered commercial and critical acclaim , and is considered by many to be one of the greatest Batman stories of all time , and one of the best works of Grant Morrison 's career . The graphic novel would later become the definitive story of Arkham Asylum , a critical part of the Batman mythos . The critically acclaimed video game Batman : Arkham Asylum , the first game in the Batman : Arkham series , was based on the graphic novel .
= = Conception and influences = =
The graphic novel was writer Grant Morrison 's first work on Batman , making it the earliest installment in the Morrison 's Batman saga . Morrison would later note in the annotated script of how the graphic novel was to be the start of his own undertaking of the Batman comics . Line 55 of Philip Larkin 's poem " Church Going " was used as a subtitle . In his original script printed in both the 15th Anniversary ( 2005 ) and 25th Anniversary ( 2014 ) editions , Morrison remarks on several details behind the genesis of the work :
Len Wein ... had written a few short and evocative paragraphs on the history of Arkham Asylum [ in the DC Who 's Who series ] and it was here I learned of poor Amadeus Arkham , the hospital 's founder ... [ Arkham ] ' s themes were inspired by Lewis Carroll , quantum physics , Jung , and Crowley ; its visual style by surrealism , Eastern European creepiness , Cocteau , Artaud , Švankmajer , the Brothers Quay , etc . The intention was to create something that was more like a piece of music or an experimental film than a typical adventure comic book . I wanted to approach Batman from the point of view of the dreamlike , emotional and irrational hemisphere , as a response to the very literal , ' realistic ' , ' left brain ' treatment of superheroes which was in vogue at the time , in the wake of The Dark Knight Returns , Watchmen , and others .
An additional reference to the work as a " response " to trends of the time is made in a later note : " The repressed , armored , uncertain and sexually frozen [ Bat ] man in Arkham Asylum was intended as a critique of the ' 80s interpretation of Batman as violent , driven , and borderline psychopathic . " Morrison goes on to explain that his symbolic conception of the character is for this book alone , and that his other work involving Batman has cast him in a far different light . He explains ,
The construction of the story was influenced by the architecture of a house — the past and the tale of Amadeus Arkham forms the basement levels . Secret passages connect ideas and segments of the book . There are upper stories of unfolding symbol and metaphor . We were also referencing sacred geometry , and the plan of the Arkham House was based on the Glastonbury Abbey and Chartres Cathedral . The journey through the book is like moving through the floors of the house itself . The house and the head are one .
During an interview with Alex Carr , Morrison stated that Frank Miller 's The Dark Knight Returns was a huge influence during his development of the story . Morrison liked what Miller did with the Batman , creating a whole new different character who was a more driven and obsessed vigilante , and Morrison wanted to make his own " different " take on the Batman comics . Morrison also added that they tried to stay away from the original hardboiled pulp influence of the Batman and those seen in American cinema adaptations , but instead use more themes and style from European cinema .
Morrison admitted that he preferred Brian Bolland to have been the novel 's artist , complementing that McKean 's art doesn 't have " the most terrifying expressions of the real . " Morrison liked Bolland 's art in The Killing Joke , and initially wanted him to have drawn the comic , while criticizing McKean 's choice of making the novel more abstract , adding that it would have been better if it was more concrete . In Morrison 's assessment , his writing and McKean 's art styles clashed and competed with the novel 's symbolic systems , which he said to be its greatest weakness . In the 15th Anniversary and 25th Anniversary paperbacks , Grant Morrison recalls how an early version of the script was passed around for people to look at . Most of them thought the psychological horror and heavy symbolism was not only a failure , but the dumbest Batman story ever , many of whom laughed at the idea . After the release of the graphic novel and the paperbacks , Morrison ends up asking them " who 's laughing now , @ $ $ hole ? ? " Morrison would also add that the people " who don 't read comics regularly seemed to really enjoy the book . "
= = Story = =
Commissioner Gordon informs Batman that the patients of Arkham Asylum have taken over the facility , threatening to murder the staff unless Batman agrees to meet with them . Among the hostages are Dr. Charles Cavendish , Arkham 's administrator , and Dr. Ruth Adams , a therapist . The patients are led by the Joker , who kills a guard to spur Batman to obey his wishes . Meanwhile , Two @-@ Face 's mental condition has deteriorated as a result of Adams ' therapy ; she replaced Two @-@ Face 's trademark coin with a six @-@ sided die then a tarot deck , in each instance increasing the number of choices he has ( as opposed to two choices from his original coin ) in the hope that he will eventually not leave any of his choices up to chance . Instead , the treatment renders him incapable of even making simple decisions , such as going to the bathroom .
The Joker forces Batman into a game of hide and seek , giving him one hour to escape Arkham before his adversaries are sent to hunt him down . However , unbeknownst to Batman , the Joker shortens the time from one hour after being pressured by the other inmates . Batman subsequently encounters Clayface , Mad Hatter , and Maxie Zeus , among other villains . During a struggle with Killer Croc , Batman is thrown out of a window , grabbing onto the statue of the angel Michael . Clutching the statue 's bronze spear , Batman climbs back inside and impales Croc before throwing him out the window , sustaining a severe wound from the spear in the process .
Batman finally reaches a secret room high in the towers of the asylum . Inside , he discovers Cavendish dressed in a bridal gown and threatening Adams with a razor . It is revealed that he orchestrated the riots . When questioned by Batman , Cavendish has him read a passage from the diary of the asylum 's founder , Amadeus Arkham . In flashbacks , it is revealed that Arkham 's mentally ill mother , Elizabeth , suffered delusions of being tormented by a supernatural bat . After seeing the creature himself , Arkham cut his mother 's throat to end her suffering . He blocked out the memory , only to have it return after an inmate , Martin " Mad Dog " Hawkins , raped and murdered Arkham 's wife and daughter .
Traumatized , Arkham donned his mother 's wedding dress and razor , vowing to bind the evil spirit of " The Bat " with sorcery . He treats Hawkins for months before finally killing him by means of electrocution during a shock therapy session . Arkham continues his mission even after he is incarcerated in his own asylum ; using his fingernails , he scratches the words of a binding spell all over his cell until his death .
After discovering the diary , razor , and dress , Cavendish came to believe that he was destined to continue Arkham 's work . On April Fools Day — the date Arkham 's family was murdered — Cavendish released the patients and lured Batman to the asylum , believing him to be the bat Arkham spoke of . Cavendish accuses him of feeding the evil of the asylum by bringing it more insane souls . Batman and Cavendish proceed to struggle , which ends after Adams slashes Cavendish 's throat with the razor .
Seizing an axe , Batman hacks down the front door of the asylum , proclaiming that the inmates are now free . The Joker offers to put him out of his misery . Batman retrieves Two @-@ Face 's coin from Adams and returns it to him , stating that it should be up to Two @-@ Face to decide Batman 's fate . Two @-@ Face declares that they will kill Batman if the coin lands scratched side up , but let him go if the unscarred side appears . Two @-@ Face flips the coin and declares Batman free . The Joker bids Batman good @-@ bye , taunting him by saying that should life ever become too much for him in " the asylum " ( the outside world ) then he always has a place in Arkham . As Batman disappears into the night , Two @-@ Face stands looking at the coin and it is revealed that it landed scratched side up – he chose to let Batman go of his own free will . He then turns to the stack of tarot cards and recites a passage from Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland : " Who cares for you ? You 're nothing but a pack of cards . "
= = Themes and style = =
The story is influenced by many previous deconstructions of the superhero genre . Morrison himself wanted the novel to be his own re @-@ imagining of Batman . Morrison includes themes such as symbolism and psychological horror , while depicting how insanity works within the setting of Arkham Asylum . Morrison references Carl Jung , Aleister Crowley , and Alice in Wonderland , while also presenting psychologically different versions of several classic characters in the Batman universe . Examples include Maxie Zeus , an electrified , emaciated figure with messianic delusions obsessed with electric shocks and coprophagia ; Clayface , who is rapidly wasting away from lack of " feeding " ; the Mad Hatter , whose obsession with Alice in Wonderland has pedophilic overtones ; and Batman himself , who is driven close to the breaking point by the Asylum . Killer Croc was originally drawn as suffering deformities similar to those of Joseph Merrick , the " Elephant Man " , although his final incarnation is that of a humanoid crocodile . The Joker 's mental condition is described as " super sanity " : He re @-@ invents himself every day , to suit his circumstances . He may be a harmless prankster one moment , and a homicidal maniac the next .
The Joker is portrayed with a somewhat homosexual element , described as being indirectly " in love " with Batman . In the script , Morrison initially wanted the Joker to " wear make @-@ up and black lingerie in parody of Madonna . " DC 's editors , however , removed this , believing that readers might assume that Jack Nicholson 's portrayal of the character in the Batman film would be portrayed as a transvestite . Unlike traditional superhero comics , many forms of sexual references are seen , and many of the villains in the novel are heavily sexualized . The Mad Hatter is said to be a child molester ; Clayface is described as " AIDS with two legs " ; and Amadeus Arkham is seen cross dressing .
The setting of Arkham Asylum plays a large role in how the inmates perceive their own insanity . As said by the Mad Hatter , " [ S ] ometimes I think the asylum is the head . We 're inside a huge head that dreams us all into being . " He also described the asylum as being a " looking glass " that shows the subject their own twisted psyche . Morrison used hypostasis to push the story forward , saying that the psychoanalytic theory and Jungian archetypes was an influence .
= = = Artwork = = =
Dave McKean drew most of the principal art , as well as the cover art of the graphic novel . In illustrating the story , McKean blends paintings , drawings , photography , and mixed @-@ media collage to come up with striking page designs , and dense symbols . He has said that he was " trying to make the book despite the subject , rather than because of it . At the end of the day , if you really love to do Batman comics , then that 's probably the best thing to do . Not liking them , and then trying to make something out of them is just a waste of time . " He also came to think that " overpainted , lavish illustrations in every panel just didn 't work . It hampers the storytelling . " McKean liberally uses symbolism , imagery , and surrealism , and many scenes involve the use of symbols to denote a particular psychological device . For example , a Greek inscription can be seen scratched on the doorway of Maxie Zeus 's electroshock chamber , which translates into " Discover thyself . " Much of this symbolism was later explained and expanded upon by the release of the 15th Anniversary Edition containing Morrison 's annotated script .
Arkham Asylum has also been praised for Gaspar Saladino 's distinctive lettering work and giving characters their own fonts . The practice of giving characters customized lettering treatments has since become widespread , especially in DC 's Vertigo line and many Marvel comics . Different speech bubbles were used for many characters : Batman 's is black with white lettering , Maxie gets blue with a Greek font , while Joker 's speech is without a bubble at all ; the red , ink @-@ spattered script used for his dialogue is as ungovernable as the character itself .
= = Critical reaction and legacy = =
The graphic novel was published in October 1989 in the wake of Tim Burton 's film Batman . Upon its release , the graphic novel became a commercial success and catapulted Morrison and McKean 's name in the comic book industry . Editor Karen Berger revealed that it has sold " close to a half million copies " by 2004 , making it the best @-@ selling original graphic novel in American superhero comics . According to the Grant Morrison website , the series has already sold over 600 @,@ 000 copies worldwide .
Hilary Goldstein of IGN Comics praised the story and its " claustrophobic " portrayal of the asylum , saying that " Arkham Asylum is unlike any other Batman book you 've ever read [ and ] one of the finest superhero books to ever grace a bookshelf . " Goldstein also ranked Arkham Asylum # 4 on a list of the 25 greatest Batman graphic novels , behind The Killing Joke , The Dark Knight Returns , and Year One . Rolling Stone praised the book as being one of Grant Morrison 's best works , calling it " [ his ] first big commercial hit – and his first shot writing Batman , a character he would spend a great deal of time with over the course of his career – was this ground @-@ breaking graphic novel featuring the grim , twisted artwork of painter Dave McKean . In this darkly poetic , psychologically rich tale , Batman faces off against the Joker , Two @-@ Face , the Scarecrow and other villains inside Gotham City 's house for the criminally insane . " Joseph Szadkowski of The Washington Times called it as " one of the key sequential @-@ art stories of the Batman library . "
Keith Dooley of Comics Authority describes it as " psychologically and visually jarring book [ that ] brings the reader along with Amadeus Arkham and Batman on their journeys through their psyches in a world full of symbolism . " Adding also that " Batman , his foes , and all of humanity are greatly affected by the power of symbolism , with this story laying before the reader that these fictional characters ' stories are also , in many ways , our stories . " Lucas Siegel from Newsarama also praised the comic , describing the art as " striking , beautiful , and yes , today 's secret word : disturbing . "
Andy Shaw of Grovel on the other hand had a more negative response , praising the artwork of Dave McKean and calling it " brilliant " , but criticized Morrison 's story as claustrophobic and " has more ponderous psychology than action and , as a result , not enough room to fit any decent action in . " Shaw would later add that Morrison 's work " doesn 't stand up to his rivals , " and that " mixing the history of the asylum – famous dumping ground for Batman 's psychotic foes – with a typical Batman adventure is interesting enough , but Morrison throws too much at the hero in too small a space . This makes Batman 's journey through Arkham 's finest nutters appear too easy – more of a stroll through a fairground haunted house with a few old chums than a serious battle for his life . Coupled with an anti @-@ climatic ending , there 's little feeling of impending disaster – the chronicled event should probably appear in Batman 's casebook of over @-@ hyped walkovers . " Morrison himself admitted that the amount of symbolism made him " [ ending ] up being accused of doing the most pretentious Batman book ever .
In October 2005 , a 15th Anniversary edition was released . The new reprint contained Morrison and Karen Berger 's annotated script that breaks down and explains much of the symbolic references in the series , as well as principal art and step @-@ by @-@ step samples of the story .
= = In other media = =
In the film Batman Begins , Jonathan Crane 's entrance to the asylum 's cellar with Rachel Dawes mirrors the Joker 's own entrance with Batman in the novel .
The game Batman : Arkham Asylum is loosely based on the comic , which follows a similar premise and also shares the same name from the comic.Additionally , the new warden of Arkham , Quincy Sharp , believes himself to be the reincarnation of Amadeus Arkham , and makes frequent reference to the history outlined in the comic , including Amadeus 's mother 's dementia , the murder of his wife and daughter by Martin Hawkins , and Amadeus 's murder of Hawkins ;
Under this delusion , Sharp " haunts " the mansion and recreates several tableaux which appear in the comic , including the cell which Amadeus inscribed his name into the floor .
At one point in the game , Quincy Sharp calls the Joker " filthy degenerate " , just as Batman does in the graphic novel .
Additionally , in the beginning of the game , The Joker says to Batman that he is " always welcome " in Arkham .
= = = Other sources = = =
Callahan , Timothy ( 2007 ) Grant Morrison : The Early Years . Masters of the Medium . Sequart Research & Literacy Organization . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 615 @-@ 21215 @-@ 9
Khouri , Andy . " Grant Morrison : The Early Years - Part II : Arkham Asylum , " Comic Book Resources ( July 6 , 2007 ) .
Singer , Marc . ( 2011 ) Grant Morrison : Combining the Worlds of Contemporary Comics . University Press of Mississippi . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 61703 @-@ 136 @-@ 6 .
= Sea Mills railway station =
Sea Mills railway station is on the Severn Beach Line and serves the district of Sea Mills and nearby Westbury on Trym in Bristol , England . It is 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads , situated at the confluence of the River Avon and River Trym and near the A4 Bristol Portway . Its three letter station code is SML . The station has a single platform which serves trains in both directions . As of 2015 it is managed by Great Western Railway , which is the third franchise to be responsible for the station since privatisation in 1997 . They provide all train services at the station , mainly a train every forty minutes in each direction between Bristol Temple Meads and Avonmouth .
The station was opened in 1865 by the Bristol Port Railway and Pier , and had a single platform . It later became part of the Clifton Extension Railway , and had a second platform built . The station was expanded over the years , and at one point had four porters staffing it . However the Severn Beach Line declined over the latter half of the twentieth century and by the 1970s the station had no staff and only one platform . Services however have increased since 2000 .
= = Description = =
The station is located in the Sea Mills area of Bristol , and also serves residents of Stoke Bishop . The surrounding area is mostly residential , with allotments to the west and a small football ground to the north . The station is less than 100 metres ( 110 yd ) from the River Avon to the west , and directly south of a small harbour at the mouth of the River Trym , which the railway crosses on a bridge . The station has road access to the east from Sea Mills Lane , which runs parallel to the Trym , and can also be accessed via a footpath along the Avon to the west . The A4 Bristol Portway is less than 200 metres ( 220 yd ) east of the station , and crosses the railway south of the station . The station is on the Severn Beach Line from Bristol Temple Meads to Severn Beach , 6 miles 0 chains ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from Temple Meads and 7 miles 43 chains ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) from Severn Beach . It is the sixth station from Temple Meads . The next station towards Temple Meads is Clifton Down ; the next towards Severn Beach is Shirehampton .
The station is on an alignment of approximately 160 degrees , curving towards the south . There is a single 118 @-@ yard ( 108 m ) -long platform which serves trains in both directions , situated on the east side of the track . The station 's western platform was abandoned in 1970 and is overgrown . A user @-@ worked level crossing at the north end of the station allows vehicles and pedestrians to cross the railway , alternatively pedestrians may cross the line using a footpath which goes under the bridge over the River Trym .
Facilities at the station are minimal – there is a brick shelter and a few seats . Timetable information is provided ; help points show next train information and allow users to contact railway staff . There is no ticket office or other means for buying or collecting tickets , nor is there any car park or cycle storage facility . The nearest bus stops are 300 metres ( 330 yd ) away on the A4 Portway .
The line through Sea Mills has a speed limit of 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) for locomotive @-@ hauled trains and 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) for diesel multiple units . The line handles less than 5 million train tonnes per year , has a loading gauge of W6 and a route availability of 7 . In the 2012 / 13 financial year , approximately 58 @,@ 000 passengers used Sea Mills station , making it the 1,863rd busiest station in the country and the tenth busiest within the Bristol unitary authority area . This was an increase of almost 70 % from the 2002 @-@ 03 financial year , and reflected a general rise in usage of the Severn Beach Line .
= = Services = =
Services at Sea Mills are all operated by Great Western Railway , using mainly Class 150 Sprinter units . On Monday to Friday , three trains every two hours run from Bristol Temple Meads to Avonmouth , with one extended to St Andrew 's Road and Severn Beach , giving a service at Sea Mills of one train in each direction every 40 minutes . Most services start at Bristol , but one evening service to Avonmouth begins at Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . On Saturdays there is a similar level of service , but more trains continue to Severn Beach . Sunday sees a roughly hourly service to and from Bristol , with only two services extending to Severn Beach , except during the May – September timetable period when all services are extended . The first and last Sunday trains towards Bristol are extended to Taunton via Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and there are similar workings in the other direction .
As Clifton Down is the Severn Beach Line 's passing point , trains to Avonmouth usually arrive roughly ten minutes after trains to Bristol . Most trains call at all stations , but some services omit Lawrence Hill . The typical journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is roughly 25 minutes , and 10 minutes to Avonmouth . In 2012 , the single fare to Clifton Down or Severn Beach was £ 1 @.@ 50 , and £ 3 return for the whole line .
= = History = =
The station was opened on 6 March 1865 when services began on the Bristol Port Railway and Pier ( BPRP ) , a self @-@ contained railway which ran along the north bank of the River Avon to a deep water pier on the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth . The route was 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge single track , with Sea Mills initially the first station along the line , 2 miles 01 chain ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the southern terminus at Hotwells . A single 150 feet ( 46 m ) -long uncovered platform was provided on the north side of the line , with a wooden building containing the booking office and porter 's office . The station staff consisted of a stationmaster with a porter being brought in from Hotwells when needed . A south @-@ facing goods siding was provided , but the station mostly dealt with passengers and parcels . The initial service was six trains per day in each direction .
The BPRP ran in to trouble by 1871 when the terminal pier at Avonmouth became difficult to use due to a build @-@ up of silt . With no prospect of a proper dock being funded without a connection to the national rail network , the Clifton Extension Railway ( CER ) was approved . This was a joint venture by the BPRP , Great Western Railway and Midland Railway which ran from Sneyd Park Junction , 21 chains ( 420 m ) south of Sea Mills , via Clifton Down , to join up with the national network at Narroways Hill Junction . The link opened in 1877 , but only for goods trains : Colonel William Yolland , the chief inspector of British railways , considered the platforms at Sea Mills to be too short for passenger interchange , as they were 250 feet ( 76 m ) shorter than at any station on the CER . Rather than build a new interchange station at Sneyd Park Junction , the platforms at Sea Mills were extended to 300 feet ( 91 m ) at the expense of the BPRP . The goods siding was also removed at this time , as Yolland had expressed concern that the points were not interlocked . The route from Sneyd Park Junction to Clifton Down was subsequently cleared for passenger use on 3 August 1878 , but the Midland and Great Western Railways did not think the BPRP track was in a suitable condition and so refused to run any passenger trains beyond Clifton Down . Services along the BPRP however increased to eight trains per day in each direction from 1877 , and then to ten each way by 1887 . From 1 September 1885 , when passenger services along the link finally started , the Great Western offered six trains per day each direction between Avonmouth and Bristol Temple Meads . Fearing competition , the BPRP did not allow passengers to use GWR services between its stations . The Midland Railway did not run any passenger services beyond Clifton Down , apart from a one @-@ month trial service in September 1885 . Despite the increased traffic , the BPRP suffered financially , and was taken over by the CER in 1890 .
Following the takeover , a new stationmaster 's house was built at Sea Mills , at a cost of £ 240 . The stationmaster is recorded as having kept a variety of farm animals and sold eggs to passengers . Increased levels of traffic saw the line through Sea Mills doubled in the early 1900s , and the opportunity was taken to rebuild the station . A second platform opened on 6 January 1907 to the west of the tracks to serve northbound trains . The original platform now exclusively served southbound trains , and was lengthened to 330 feet ( 100 m ) , the same length as the new platform . A station building was constructed on the original platform in a domestic style , with an arched terracotta entrance , spar @-@ covered walls and a high @-@ pitched tiled roof . The building contained a booking hall , booking office , toilets and a ladies ' waiting room . A smaller building on the northbound platform contained a general waiting room . The subway under the bridge over the River Trym was also built at this time , with the porter 's job being expanded to include washing the rubbish out of the subway after high tide , for which the railway provided a hosepipe and Wellington boots . By 1910 there were 17 trains from Bristol to Avonmouth and 15 back , increasing to 21 and 19 respectively by 1920 , though not all stopped at Sea Mills . The station was completely closed on Sundays .
After the First World War , construction of the Bristol Portway along the Avon Gorge necessitated the closure of the line from Sneyd Park Junction to Hotwells , with trains along it ceasing on 3 July 1922 . By this point there were nine trains per day from Hotwells , and eight return . To compensate for the loss of service , the Great Western provided an additional four trains daily towards Bristol and six toward Avonmouth . In 1923 , grouping resulted in the Midland Railway being absorbed into the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) , and the line continued in a joint arrangement between the Great Western and the LMS . From 1928 many trains to Avonmouth were extended to Severn Beach . By 1947 , just before the railways were nationalised , there were 33 services each direction between Avonmouth and Temple Meads , with 18 on Sundays . Some trains made circular trips to and from Temple Meads via Clifton Down and Henbury or Pilning .
When the railways were nationalised in 1948 , services at Sea Mills came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways . Staffing by this point had increased to two porters and two lad porters , managed by the stationmaster at Shirehampton . By 1961 this was reduced to two porters , then to one in 1965 . Service levels had decreased slightly by 1955 to 28 towards Avonmouth and 29 towards Bristol , but the services were at regular intervals . Passenger numbers however dropped sharply in 1961 as the result of a fare increase , and so in 1962 a new reduced timetable was enacted , which lost more passengers . A year later in 1963 , the Beeching report suggested the complete withdrawal of services along the line , but ultimately only those beyond Severn Beach or via Henbury were withdrawn . From 17 July 1967 all staffing was withdrawn from stations along the line , including Sea Mills , with tickets issued by the train guard . The general reduction in passenger traffic , as well as the transfer of Avonmouth goods traffic to the Henbury Loop Line , allowed the removal of the second track from 19 October 1970 , with all services using the original , eastern platform . The station building was sold , and in 2005 was being used by an engineering firm . By 1974 , service had reduced to 19 trains per day in each direction .
British Rail was split into business @-@ led sectors in the 1980s , at which time operations at Sea Mills passed to Regional Railways . At this time , all trains ran to Severn Beach , but the service pattern was irregular . This changed in 1995 when an hourly timetable was introduced for peak times , but northbound services were terminated at Avonmouth . There was no Sunday service .
When the railway was privatised in 1997 , local services were franchised to Wales & West , which was succeeded by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express , in 2001 . Following action by Friends of Severn Beach Railway ( FOSBR ) and a string of protests , services had increased to 10 per day in each direction by 2005 , with Bristol City Council providing a subsidy to Wessex Trains . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , rebranded as Great Western Railway in 2015 . A minimum service requirement was written into the franchise agreement , ensuring an hourly service along the line , and this has since been increased to three trains every two hours ( 24 trains per day ) . Sunday services to Severn Beach were restored in 2010 .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise ( of which services at Sea Mills are a part ) beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 .
With the coming upgrade to the Great Western Main Line , the main line from London to Bristol is due to be electrified by 2016 . However , the electrification will not extend beyond the main lines , so Sea Mills will continue to be served by diesel trains , with the current " Sprinter " units expected to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units . Stephen Williams , MP for Bristol West ; and the group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification being extended to the Severn Beach Line .
Improved services at Sea Mills are called for as part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area . There is an aspiration for half @-@ hourly services , with trains towards Bristol terminating alternately at Portishead and Bath Spa , however due to the large sections of the Severn Beach Line which are single @-@ track and to the congested main line from Temple Meads , such frequency is not currently feasible . The enhancement scheme was given the go @-@ ahead in July 2012 as part of the City Deal , whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government . There are also calls for the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line , which could allow a direct service from Sea Mills to Bristol Parkway via Avonmouth . Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board , however Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion . There are also calls for the second platform at Sea Mills to be reinstated as a passing loop or as part of a restoration of the whole line to double track .
= Fensalir =
In Norse mythology , Fensalir ( Old Norse " Fen Halls " ) is a location where the goddess Frigg dwells . Fensalir is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . Scholars have proposed theories about the implications of the location , including that the location may have some connection to religious practices involving springs , bogs , or swamps in Norse paganism , and that it may be connected to the goddess Sága 's watery location Sökkvabekkr .
= = Attestations = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá , Frigg is described as weeping over her son Baldr 's death in Fensalir . This stanza is absent in the Hauksbók manuscript of the poem . The portion of the stanza mentioning Fensalir foretells that vengeance will come for the death of Baldr and that :
while Frigg wept
in Fen Halls
for Valhǫll 's woe .
In chapter 35 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , High tells Gangleri ( described as king Gylfi in disguise ) that Frigg is the highest among the ásynjur , and that " she has a dwelling called Fensalir and it is very splendid . " In chapter 49 , High says that when Loki witnessed that Baldr had gained invincibility due to the oath all things took not to harm him , Loki went to a Fensalir appearing as a woman . In his disguise , Loki there asked Frigg why Baldr was not harmed by the objects . Frigg revealed that it is due to the oath they have taken . The disguised Loki asks if nothing can hurt Baldr , and Frigg reveals that only mistletoe can , for it seemed to her too young to demand an oath from . After this , Loki immediately disappears , and subsequently engineers the death of Baldr with a mistletoe projectile .
In the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , Fensalir receives a third and final mention . In chapter 19 , ways to refer to Frigg are provided , including that Frigg may be referred to as " queen of Æsir and Asyniur , of Fulla and falcon form and Fensalir . "
= = Theories = =
In 1882 , the German scholar Anton Edzardi proposed that Fensalir may point to religious practices involving springs . John Lindow comments that " I have no idea why Frigg should live in a boggy place , despite the old argument that there is an association with a cult situated at a spring . " Rudolf Simek comments that Edzardi 's theory " must remain unanswered . " In addition , Edzardi theorized a connection between Fensalir and a belief in folklore that particular swamps act as an entrance to the realm of Holda , whom he connects with Frigg .
In a 19th @-@ century work , Paul Henri Mallet and Walter Scott write that the " fen " element of Fensalir " may also be made to sig [ nify ] the watery deep , or the sea . " This etymology has resulted in theories that the name Fensalir may mean " Sea Halls " rather than " Fen Halls . " In his 19th @-@ century translation of the Poetic Edda , Henry Adams Bellows comments that " some scholars have regarded [ Frigg ] as a solar myth , calling her the sun @-@ goddess , and pointing out that her home in Fensalir ( " the sea @-@ halls " ) symbolizes the daily setting of the sun beneath the ocean horizon . "
John Lindow says that due to similarity between the goddess Sága 's Sökkvabekkr and Fensalir , the open drinking between Sága and Odin , and the potential etymological basis for Sága being a seeress " have led most scholars to understand Sága as another name for Frigg . " Stephan Grundy states that Sága and Sökkvabekkr may be by @-@ forms of Frigg and Fensalir used for the purpose of composing alliterative verse .
Britt @-@ Mari Näsström theorizes that " Frigg 's role as a fertility goddess is revealed in the name of her abode , Fensalir [ ... ] " , that Frigg is the same as Sága , and that both the names Fensalir and Sökkvabekkr " imply a goddes [ sic ] living in the water and recall the fertility goddess Nerthus . "
= Cross Days =
Cross Days ( クロスデイズ , Kurosu Deizu ) is a Japanese erotic visual novel developed by 0verflow , released on March 19 , 2010 for Windows and later ported as a DVD game and for the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) . The story , a dramatic slice @-@ of @-@ life , follows the life of Yuuki Ashikaga , a high school student who becomes the ambivalent love @-@ interest of two girls during his second term , and the effects this has on himself and his relationships with other characters . Though the game requires little interaction from users , Cross Days engages the player through a nonlinear plot that they are given opportunities to change the course of during play . The game is the third installation of the School Days line of series , succeeding Summer Days .
0verflow announced work on Cross Days in December 2008 . From February 2009 to March 2010 , the game was postponed a total of six times , going on to perform marginally @-@ well upon release . In the weeks following this , after it was illegally found on peer @-@ to @-@ peer ( P2P ) networks , a trojan horse disguised as the game was released , publishing the personal information of unknowing users online for public access .
Following the game 's release , Cross Days made transitions into other media : a manga was serialized in the Kadokawa Shoten magazine Monthly Comp Ace from April 26 to August 10 , 2010 ; three light novels were published from September 15 to October 29 , as was a strategy guide ; a radio drama was broadcast during development ; and the game 's original soundtrack was also published by Lantis from April 24 to July 21 .
= = Gameplay = =
Cross Days is a visual novel . These are essentially played by watching and listening to episodic sequences of story and then selecting , or ignoring , clickable actions or responses when they are presented to the player . These choices are intricately linked to alternating routes of plot , moderately changing the direction of the story as each is made , ultimately leading to erotic scenes between characters and one of various endings . Unique to the game are yaoi routes , in which the protagonist crossdresses as a maid and engages in homosexual intercourse .
Like the games before it , Cross Days is presented with limited animation . The game is audibly stereophonic with lip @-@ synched voice acting , sound effects and background music .
= = Plot = =
Yuuki Ashikaga is a high school freshman in his second semester at the fictional Sakakino Academy , who from his regular visits to the library , grows enamored by Kotonoha Katsura , a classmate who also comes to read . Despite being in a relationship , she genuinely reciprocates his interest . However , things become complicated when his sister , Chie , introduces him to Roka Kitsuregawa , a friend of hers . In an attempt to make herself seem harder to get , Roka claims that she is equally interested in Makoto Itou , another schoolmate . Her lie is unsuccessful , as Yuuki , aware that Makoto is Kotonoha 's boyfriend , decides to ask her about the affair .
= = = Setting = = =
Unlike in Summer Days , the story in Cross Days is not rewritten as a spin @-@ off of the original story , but occurs during the events of it , making the game a parallel series to School Days . As such , the undisclosed location of the story remains the same with focus being around the school . All signature characters and their established relationships appear in the game , with six new cast members .
= = Characters = =
Cross Days follows Yuuki Ashikaga , a bespectacled young lad whose withdrawn school life goes awry when his affection for two girls begins to affect his relationships with his friends and peers . Though unaware of each other , the girls in question constitute the premise of the game : Kotonoha Katsura , a character well known throughout the franchise as the pivotal love @-@ interest of Makoto Itou , and Roka Kitsuregawa , a newcomer whose efforts to make Yuuki jealous only serve to further complicate her relationship with him . Chie Ashikaga , the mildly abusive older sister of Yuuki , and Kyouichi Kasannoin , Nanami Kanroji 's boyfriend , having only previously made cameo appearances in the School Days anime , return to make more prominent roles , as does Ai Yamagata , a character last seen from Summer Days . Rounding up the set of the cast are Ion Ishibashi and Kira Youka , a couple of friends who also make first appearances in the game .
= = Development = =
News of Cross Days first surfaced in the December 2008 issue of Tech Gian , a magazine published by Enterbrain , on October 21 , showing first ever screenshots , reporting on the story and characters , and mentioning that Cross Days would contain 3D animation with a meticulously reworked plot and male protagonist . Also in October , ASCII Media Works and Gakken published articles about the game in their respective issues of Dengeki G 's Magazine , Dengeki Hime and Megami Magazine .
Promotion began shortly after . Besides periodically keeping the public informed on development and characters , 0verflow consecutively released downloadable , non @-@ playable benchmarks of the game from November 1 , 2008 to May 4 , 2009 . Company staff attended Dream Party , an anime convention , in Osaka on November 16 , 2008 selling Cross Days telephone cards while stores took pre @-@ orders for the game , reportedly filling reservations in days . On December 5 , 0verflow announced that a set of USB teledildonics , collectively known as SOM , would be compatible with Cross Days , manufactured by Goods Land .
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